Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition: Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition [1 ed.] 1119528232, 9781119528234

Table of contents :
Cover
Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest
Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition
Copyright
Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Banana Production, Global Trade, Consumption Trends,
Postharvest Handling, and Processing
2 Biology and Postharvest Physiology of Banana
3 Banana Pathology and Diseases
4 Harvesting and Postharvest Technology of Banana
5 Packaging Technologies for Banana and Banana Products
6 Ripe Banana Processing, Products, and Nutrition
7 Processing of Dehydrated Banana Products
8 Green Banana Processing, Products and Functional Properties
9 Innovative Processing Technologies for Banana Products
10 Value-Added Processing and Utilization of Banana By-Products
11 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Profile of Raw
and Processed Banana Products
12 Banana (Musa spp.) as a Source of Bioactive Compounds
for Health Promotion
13
Index

Citation preview

Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition

Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition Editor Muhammad Siddiq Associate Editors Jasim Ahmed Maria Gloria Lobo

This edition first published 2020 © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/ permissions. The right of Muhammad Siddiq, Jasim Ahmed, and Maria Gloria Lobo to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law. Registered Offices John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Office The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Siddiq, Muhammad, 1957- editor. | Ahmed, Jasim, editor. | Lobo, Maria G. (Maria Gloria), editor. Title: Handbook of banana production, postharvest science, processing technology, and nutrition / edited by Muhammad Siddiq, Jasim Ahmed, and Maria Gloria Lobo. Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020012763 (print) | LCCN 2020012764 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119528234 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119528241 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119528272 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Banana trade. | Banana products. | Bananas–Breeding. | Bananas–Processing. | Bananas–Nutrition. Classification: LCC HD9259.B2 H36 2020 (print) | LCC HD9259.B2 (ebook) | DDC 338.1/74772–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020012763 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020012764 Cover Design: Wiley Cover Images: (top row) © underworld/Shutterstock, © EugeneEdge/Shutterstock, © barmalini/Shutterstock, (bottom row) © David Herraez Calzada/Shutterstock, © KPad/Shutterstock, © Shine Nucha/Shutterstock Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY 10

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Contents List of Contributors vii Preface ix 1

Banana Production, Global Trade, Consumption Trends, Postharvest Handling, and Processing 1 Edward A. Evans, Fredy H. Ballen, and Muhammad Siddiq

2

Biology and Postharvest Physiology of Banana 19 Maria Gloria Lobo and Francisco Javier Fernández Rojas

3

Banana Pathology and Diseases 45 Andressa de Souza-Pollo and Antonio de Goes

4

Harvesting and Postharvest Technology of Banana 61 Maria Gloria Lobo and Marta Montero-Calderón

5

Packaging Technologies for Banana and Banana Products Pattarin Leelaphiwat and Vanee Chonhenchob

6

Ripe Banana Processing, Products, and Nutrition 99 Neelima K. Shandilya and Muhammad Siddiq

7

Processing of Dehydrated Banana Products 117 Mark A. Uebersax and Muhammad Siddiq

8

Green Banana Processing, Products and Functional Properties 141 Jasim Ahmed

9

Innovative Processing Technologies for Banana Products 169 Jasim Ahmed

81

10 Value-Added Processing and Utilization of Banana By-Products 191 Dalbir Singh Sogi

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Contents

11 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Profile of Raw and Processed Banana Products 207 Jiwan S. Sidhu and Tasleem A. Zafar 12 Banana (Musa spp.) as a Source of Bioactive Compounds for Health Promotion 227 Susane Lopes, Cristine Vanz Borges, Sara Manso de Sousa Cardoso, Miguel Francisco de Almeida Pereira da Rocha, and Marcelo Maraschin 13 Microbiology of Fresh Bananas and Processed Banana Products 245 Anu Kalia Index 268

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List of Contributors Jasim Ahmed Environment & Life Sciences Research Center Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research Safat, Kuwait

Antonio de Goes Department of Plant Pathology São Paulo State University (UNESP) São Paulo, Brazil

Fredy H. Ballen Tropical Research and Education Center University of Florida Homestead, Florida, USA

Anu Kalia Electron Microscopy and Nanoscience Laboratory Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Cristine Vanz Borges Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry São Paulo State University (UNESP) São Paulo, Brazil

Pattarin Leelaphiwat Department of Packaging and Materials Technology Kasetsart University Bangkok, Thailand

Sara Manso de Sousa Cardoso School of Engineering Centre of Biological Engineering University of Minho Braga, Portugal

Maria Gloria Lobo Department of Crops Production in Tropical and Subtropical Areas Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias Valle de Guerra Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain

Vanee Chonhenchob Department of Packaging and Materials Technology Kasetsart University Bangkok, Thailand Edward A. Evans Tropical Research and Education Center University of Florida Homestead, Florida, USA

Susane Lopes Plant Morphogenesis and Biochemistry Laboratory Federal University of Santa Catarina Florianopolis, Brazil

viii

List of Contributors

Marcelo Maraschin Plant Morphogenesis and Biochemistry Laboratory Federal University of Santa Catarina Florianopolis, Brazil Marta Montero-Calderón Biosystems Engineering Department University of Costa Rica San José, Costa Rica Miguel Francisco de Almeida Pereira da Rocha School of Engineering Centre of Biological Engineering University of Minho Braga, Portugal Francisco Javier Fernández Rojas Postharvest Quality Department Cooperativa Platanera de Canarias (COPLACA) Santa Cruz de Tenerife Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain Neelima K. Shandilya Chew Innovation LLC Boston, Massachusetts, USA Muhammad Siddiq Department of Food Science & Human Nutrition Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan, USA

Jiwan S. Sidhu College of Life Sciences Kuwait University Safat, Kuwait Dalbir Singh Sogi Department of Food Science and Technology Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar, Punjab, India Andressa de Souza-Pollo Laboratory of Molecular Epidemiology São Paulo State University (UNESP) São Paulo, Brazil Mark A. Uebersax Department of Food Science & Human Nutrition Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan, USA Tasleem A. Zafar College of Life Sciences Kuwait University Safat, Kuwait

ix

Preface Banana is the second major fruit crop produced in the world, with about 1200 varieties of bananas known and classified worldwide. As a major tropical fruit, banana is cultivated in over 130 countries throughout the tropical and subtropical regions on five continents. Global production of the banana has increased by about 150% in the last three decades. The banana market and trade have grown considerably since 1990, with the two major import markets being the United States of America and European Union countries. The year-round availability of banana is attributed to several factors, including the fact that the fruit is grown under diverse climatic conditions, which allows harvesting throughout the year, and improvements in transportation, market access, pre-harvest production practices, and postharvest treatment allows the crop to be shipped long distances relatively free of any pests and diseases. As a major staple fruit, banana represents the eighth top-starchy source in the world and its per capita consumption is estimated at about 0.5 kg d−1 in Latin America and even more than 1 kg d−1 in Eastern Africa. Bananas are highly nutritious and a rich source of dietary fiber and a number of vitamins and minerals. In addition to being a major source of carbohydrates for over 500 million inhabitants of tropical countries, the banana is also of major importance as it forms a considerable portion of the annual income for the stakeholders. Along with the increased consumption of this nutrient-rich fruit, the processed banana market has also seen similar growth, especially banana flour as a food ingredient, juice and beverages, and shelf-stable dried products. This book provides a contemporary source of information that brings together current knowledge and practices in the value-chain of banana production, postharvest handling, value-added processing, and nutrition. This value-chain approach to the topic is the unique feature of this book, with an in-depth coverage on a wide variety of pertinent topics: production and global trade, biology and physiology, pathology and diseases, postharvest handling, packaging technologies, processing and processed products, innovative processing technologies, nutritional profile and health benefits, bioactive and phytochemical compounds, microbiology, and value-added utilization of banana by-products. An experienced team of over 25 contributors from Asia, North America, South America, and the European Union has contributed to this book. These contributors come from a field of diverse disciplines, including agricultural economics, horticulture, crop sciences, plant pathology, food chemistry, food biochemistry, food science and nutrition, food engineering, and molecular epidemiology.

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Preface

The editors acknowledge many individuals for their support from conception through to the final development of this book. We offer our sincere thanks and gratitude to all authors for their contributions and for bearing with us during the review and finalization process of their chapters. We are grateful to our family members for their understanding and support, enabling us to complete this work. We dedicate this work to the worthy contributions of the numerous researchers and students throughout the world, for their decades of devoted efforts to improve the quality and utilization of fresh bananas and of processed banana products. East Lansing, March 2020

Muhammad Siddiq Jasim Ahmed Maria Gloria Lobo

1

1 Banana Production, Global Trade, Consumption Trends, Postharvest Handling, and Processing Edward A. Evans 1 , Fredy H. Ballen 1 , and Muhammad Siddiq 2 1

Tropical Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Homestead, FL 33031, USA of Food Science & Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA

2 Department

Introduction Bananas are produced in more than 130 countries by small-scale and large-scale farmers alike. This fruit plays a very important role in contributing to food security and as a source of export revenue in some economies. The socioeconomic importance of banana production and trade should not be underestimated. About one-fifth of the global banana production is destined for international markets. Between 2008 and 2017, global banana production increased by 15.35%, reaching 113.92 million metric tons (MMT) in 2017. Factors driving the rise in banana production during this period were increases in yield and harvested area. Over the same period, banana exports grew by 26.67%, reaching 23.18 MMT in 2017. The top three banana exporters, Ecuador, Philippines, and Costa Rica, accounted for about 50% of global exports in 2017, while the top three banana importers, the United States, Germany, and Russia accounted for about 35% of the global import trade (FAO 2019a). Historically, the big multinational companies controlled banana production and trade, but due to a changing business landscape, particularly legal, labor, and environmental issues, these companies now focus more on the transportation and distribution segment of the fruit value chain. This situation led to the growth of national banana companies that have the option to sell the fruit to the big multinational companies or directly to retailers and supermarket chains. As the number of participants on the supply side has increased, the number of participants on the retail side has decreased as result of renewed interest in mergers and acquisitions in the food retail industry. Consequently, there are now more sellers and fewer buyers in the banana market. Unfortunately, this change has not necessarily resulted in better wages and prices in the export growing regions. Exports of conventional bananas to developed countries are plateauing, whereas exports of organic bananas to these countries continue to increase. Organic bananas in the US market command a significant premium price; on average, during the period 2013–2017, organic bananas at the US retail level commanded a premium of $0.29/lb over the price paid for conventional bananas (USDA-AMS 2018). Irregular weather patterns and fungal diseases are usually the main disruptors to the otherwise year-round supply of bananas. The biggest threat to global banana production is Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition, First Edition. Edited by Muhammad Siddiq, Jasim Ahmed, and Maria Gloria Lobo. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

1 Banana Production, Global Trade, Consumption Trends, Postharvest Handling, and Processing

Fusarium Wilt Tropical Race 4 (TR4), a fungal disease with the potential to disrupt banana production and trade as we know them. This chapter provides an overview of recent trends and developments in world banana production, exports and imports, consumption trends and prices in the US and European Union (EU) markets, and postharvest handling, processing, nutritional profile and health benefits of banana.

Banana Production, Trade, and Consumption Between 2008 and 2017, global banana production expanded by 15.35%, from 98.76 MMT in 2008 to 113.92 MMT in 2017 (Figure 1.1). Factors driving the gains in production during this period were increases in yield (5.76%) from 19.11 metric tons/hectare (MT/ha) in 2008 to 20.21 MT/ha in 2017, and harvested area (9.09%) from 5.17 million hectares (Mha) in 2008 to 5.64 Mha in 2017. Commercial banana production occurs under very diverse climatic conditions in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Asia is the leading banana production region, accounting for 54.18% of the total production in 2017, followed by the Americas and the Caribbean (26.33%), Africa (17.57%), Oceania (1.52%), and the EU (0.40%) (FAO 2019a). Banana fruit plays an important role for household food security, income generation as a cash crop, and as an export revenue source around the world. Although bananas are grown commercially in more than 130 countries, production is highly concentrated in the top 10 producing countries, accounting for 73.8% of the total production during the period 2015–2017 (Table 1.1). India is by far the largest producer, accounting for 26.8% of the total world production in 2017, followed by China (9.8%) and Indonesia (6.3%). Together, the top three countries accounted for about 43% of the global production. Other important banana producing countries, with their production share, World production 140 5.17

5.31

5.40

5.49

5.32

Harvested area 5.33

5.35

5.45

5.38

5.64

120

4 3

60

Million hectares

113.92

112.60

115.11

112.80

112.24

109.34

109.41

108.66

103.42

100 80

6 5

98.76

Million metric tons

2 40 1

Figure 1.1

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

0

2009

20

2008

2

0

Banana total world production and area harvested, 2008–2017. Source: FAO (2019a).

Banana Production, Trade, and Consumption

Table 1.1

World’s 10 major banana producers by quantity, 2008−2017 (million metric tons).

Country1

2008 2009

India

26.2

China

7.8

Indonesia Brazil

2014

2015

2016

2017

% Share, 2015–2017

2010

2011

2012

2013

26.5

29.8

28.5

26.5

27.6

29.7

29.2

29.1

30.5

26.0

8.8

9.6

10.4

11.6

12.1

11.8

12.5

13.1

11.2

10.8

6

6.4

5.8

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.9

9.5

7

7.2

6.9

7

6.8

7

7.3

6.9

6.9

7

6.8

6.8

6.7

5.9

Ecuador

6.7

7.6

7.9

7.4

7

6

6.8

7.2

6.5

6.4

5.8

Philippines

8.7

9

9.1

9.2

9.2

8.6

5.7

5.8

5.8

6.0

5.2

Angola

1.7

2

2

2.6

3

3.1

3.5

3.6

3.9

4.3

3.5

Guatemala

2.3

2.7

2.6

2.9

3

3.3

3.4

3.8

3.8

3.9

3.4

Colombia

2

2

2

2

3.5

3.8

3.3

3.7

3.7

3.8

3.3

Tanzania

2.4

3

3.2

3.1

2.5

2.7

3.2

3.6

3.6

3.5

3.1

Top-10, total 70.8

74.8

79

79.5

79.4

80.4

81.3

85.7

83.3

83.3

73.9

Others, total 28.0

28.6

29.7

29.9

29.9

31.8

31.5

29.4

29.3

30.6

26.1

World, total

98.8

103.4 108.7 109.4 109.3 112.2 112.8 115.1 112.6 113.9 100.0

1

Ranked by 2017 production. Source: FAO (2019a).

include Brazil (5.9%), Ecuador (5.5%), the Philippines (5.3%), Angola (3.8%), Guatemala (3.4%), Colombia (3.3%), and Tanzania (3.1%) (FAO 2019a). Disease continues to be the biggest threat to banana production, particularly Black Sigatoka and Fusarium Wilt (TR4). The economic impact of Black Sigatoka is significant for producers due to the cost of protection measures, such as regular fungicide applications, which may increase production costs by 25% or more (FAO 2013). The disease that constitutes the biggest threat to banana production is Fusarium Wilt (TR4), which has the potential to infect most banana varieties, including the widely cultivated Cavendish cultivar, and eliminate all banana plantations worldwide. It has already infested plantations in South East Asia, Pakistan, Jordan, Mozambique, and Australia. There is no viable and fully effective treatment; the only preventive measure is quarantine because the fungus spores may remain latent in the soil for decades (FAO 2019b). Only the cisgenic Cavendish-type banana with a gene taken from a wild banana has remained free of the disease so far, with additional research needed (Wageningen University 2017). The bulk of banana production is cultivated under conventional practices; despite premium prices in international markets, global organic banana production remains low. In terms of area, in 2012, land under organic banana reached 78,831 ha, or 1.5% of the global area harvested. Since 2012, organic banana area has decreased by 35%, reaching 58,407 ha in 2016 (FiBL 2018). One reason for this drop in area could be disease outbreak; for instance, organic banana growers in Guatemala and Honduras have lost their share of the US organic banana market since 2014 due to the need for fungicides to control Black Sigatoka (Fresh Plaza 2016).

3

4

1 Banana Production, Global Trade, Consumption Trends, Postharvest Handling, and Processing

In terms of market structure, the supply side of the banana market has changed noticeably from when it once was an oligopoly, where a few vertically integrated multinational companies controlled the trade. For instance, the top five multinational banana companies, Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole, Fyffes, and Noboa, went from controlling 65.3% of the global banana exports in 1980 to 44.4% by 2013 (FAO 2014). Several factors are responsible for the observable structural change; chief among them was the conscious decision on the part of the traditional multinational companies to reduce their level of risk exposure by moving from primary production to focusing their attention more on the transportation and distribution aspects of the value chain. This decision opened the door for the rise in the number of national companies better placed to minimize some of the production risks and to guarantee supply. Due to the way they operate, national companies sell the fruit to the big multinational companies or directly to supermarket chains and food retailers. As result of a changing business landscape, the big multinational banana companies have undergone significant changes. Once publicly traded companies, three of the biggest multinational banana companies have become private. Dole was privatized in 2013 in a transaction valued at $1.2 billion (Reuters 2013). By the end of 2014, Cutrale-Safra had acquired Chiquita in a transaction estimated at $1.3 billion (Reuters 2014). In December 2016, Sumitomo acquired Fyffes in a transaction valued at €751 million (Reuters 2016). Privatization will allow these companies a more efficient use of their resources to focus on competitive pressures as they plan for their long-term viability. While there has been an increase in the number of participants on the supply side of the banana market, the number of participants on the retail side, especially in the developed world, has decreased due to renewed interest in mergers and acquisitions in the food retail industry. As a result, market power in the banana market has shifted from the suppliers to major supermarket chains and food retailers, which now have more supply choices. Retailers may buy the fruit from small wholesalers or directly from producers, bypassing the traditional intermediaries. However, it remains uncertain how this change may have a positive impact on wages and prices in the export growing regions. Fairtrade bananas represent one successful effort to improve not just prices and wages in the growing regions. In 2016, certified banana producers received €28.50 million from the Fairtrade premium, an increase of 5% compared with the previous year. The premium received went for payments to small producers and hired labor organizations, and investments in services and infrastructure (Fairtrade 2018).

Global Trade Exports and Imports A considerable share of the total banana production goes to the export market, with about one-fifth of the global production sold in the international markets. In 2017, 20.35% of the global banana production (valued at $11.49 billion) went to the international markets. On average, about 18% of the total banana production was exported during the period 2008–2017 and exports showed a significant increase (26.7%) from 18.30 MMT in 2008 to 23.18 MMT in 2017. Exports value increased by 49.9%, from $7.67 billion in 2007 to $11.49 billion in 2016 (FAO 2019a). The top 10 banana exporters control more than 80% of

Global Trade Exports and Imports

Table 1.2

World’s 10 major fresh banana-exporting countries, 2008–2017 (million metric tons). % Share, 2015–2017

Country1

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Ecuador

5.3

5.7

5.2

5.8

5.2

5.4

5.7

6.1

6

6.4

29.1

Costa Rica

2.1

1.7

1.9

1.9

1.9

1.9

2.2

2

2.4

2.5

10.9

Guatemala

1.4

1.5

1.4

1.5

1.9

2

2.1

2.2

2.1

2.3

10.4

Colombia

1.7

1.8

1.7

1.8

1.7

1.5

1.7

1.6

1.8

1.9

8.3

Philippines

2.2

1.7

1.6

2

2.6

3.3

3.1

1.2

1.4

2.7

8.3

Belgium

1.3

1.2

1.2

1.3

1.2

1.2

1.3

1.1

1.1

1.3

5.4

Honduras

0.6

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.6

0.7

0.7

0.6

3.2

USA

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

2.8

Netherlands

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.7

2.6

Mexico

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.6

2.2

Top-10, total

15.3

14.9

14.3

15.7

16.1

17.2

18.0

16.4

17.1

19.6

83.2

Others, total

3.0

3.3

3.2

3.1

3.0

2.9

3.7

3.3

3.7

3.6

16.8

World, total

18.3

18.2

17.5

18.7

19.1

20.1

21.7

19.7

20.8

23.2

100.0

2016

2017

1

Ranked by 2017 exporters. Source: FAO (2019a).

the total exports (Table 1.2). Interestingly, none of the top three producers (India, China, and Indonesia) plays a major role in the international banana market. As was the case with production, banana exports are highly concentrated, with the top three exporters accounting for about 50% of the global exports of the fruit during the period 2015–2017. Ecuador is the leading exporter, accounting for 29.1% of the exports during the same period, followed by Costa Rica (10.9%) and Guatemala (10.4%). Countries in Central America, more specifically Guatemala, Ecuador, and Costa Rica, have significantly increased their participation in the international markets, with their exports growing by 64.3, 20.8, and 19.1%, respectively, during the period 2008–2017. One of the reasons behind the noticeable increase in exports is the close proximity to the US market, which is an advantage in terms of lower transportation costs and transit times. Interestingly, Belgium and the United States are included in the top 10 exporters; however, it is important to clarify that they are re-exporters, with Belgium shipping the fruit to the EU market and the United States shipping the fruit to the Canadian market (FAO 2019a). Banana import value has grown at an average annual rate of about 3.0%, from $11.74 billion in 2008 to $14.93 billion in 2017. Table 1.3 lists the top 10 banana importing countries, with world total import volume increasing by 26.1%, from 17.6 MMT in 2008 to 22.2 MMT in 2017. The United States is the leading banana importer, accounting for over 22.3% of the total imports during the period 2015–2017, followed by Germany (6.7%), Russia (6.6%), Belgium (6.2%), and the UK (5.3%). Together, these five countries accounted for about 47% of the imports during the period 2015–2017 (FAO 2019a).

5

6

1 Banana Production, Global Trade, Consumption Trends, Postharvest Handling, and Processing

Table 1.3

World’s 10 major importing countries, 2008–2017 (million metric tons).

Country1

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

% Share, 2015–2017

USA

4

3.6

4.1

4.1

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.6

4.6

4.8

22.3

Germany

1.4

1.4

1.2

1.3

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.4

1.4

1.4

6.7

Russia

1

1

1.1

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.2

1.4

1.5

6.6

Belgium

1.5

1.3

1.4

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.2

1.3

1.4

6.2

UK

1

0.9

1

1

1

1.1

1.1

1.1

1.1

1.1

5.3

China

0.4

0.5

0.7

0.8

0.6

0.5

1.1

1.1

0.9

1.0

4.8

Japan

1.1

1.3

1.1

1.1

1.1

1

0.9

1

1

1.0

4.7

Netherlands

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.7

0.8

0.9

3.8

Italy

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.6

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.8

3.4

France

0.6

0.5

0.5

0.6

0.5

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.7

3.0

Top-10, total

11.9

11.4

12.0

12.5

12.4

12.7

13.5

13.6

13.8

14.7

66.8

Others, total

5.7

5.8

5.9

6.2

5.9

7.0

6.7

6.8

6.5

7.5

33.2

World, total

17.6

17.2

17.9

18.7

18.3

19.7

20.1

20.4

20.3

22.2

100.0

1

Ranked by 2017 importers. Source: FAO (2019a).

US Production, Imports, and Consumption US Production Because of climatic requirements, most of the continental United States is not suitable for banana production; limited commercial production takes place only in Hawaii and Florida. In Hawaii, the top banana (Cavendish cultivar) producing state, the industry is contracting. The area harvested peaked at 445 ha in 2008, before declining to 242 ha in 2017. That same year, production was estimated at 3,024 MT (metric tons) valued at $6.02 million (USDA-NASS 2018). Yield has also trended downward, from 17.73 MT/ha in 2008 to 15.84 MT/ha in 2017, which is considerably less than the yield obtained in other commercial growing areas such as Costa Rica (59.48 MT/ha) or Ecuador (39.75 MT/ha) (FAO 2019a). Florida banana production occurs mainly in Miami-Dade County, which has a subtropical climate considered marginal for commercial banana production. Popular cultivars for this area include Thai-banana “Hawaiano,” “Goldfinger,” and “Monalisa” (Crane and Balerdi 2016). Florida banana production takes place on about 450 ha (USDA-NASS 2012). Because of the low production volumes, there is no official data on Florida’s banana production, yield, and farm gate value.

US Imports In 2017, total US fresh banana imports were valued at $2.1 billion; conventional bananas, comprising the bulk of imports, were valued at $1.87 billion, while organic banana imports

US Production, Imports, and Consumption

5

Conventional

Organic

Million metric tons

4 3 2

Figure 1.2

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

0

2008

1

US conventional and organic banana imports, 2008–2017. Source: USDA-FAS (2018).

were valued at $232 million. US fresh banana imports have grown at an annual rate of about 2.4%, from 3.97 MMT in 2008 to 4.81 MMT in 2017 (Figure 1.2). The growth in imports since 2012 has been minimal, with organic banana imports having modest growth and conventional banana imports reaching a plateau (USDA-FAS 2018). Guatemala is by far the dominant supplier of conventional bananas to the US market, with a market share of 41.8% during the period 2015–2017, followed by Costa Rica (18.5%) and Honduras (13.7%). Together, these three countries account for 74% of US banana imports. Other important conventional banana suppliers to the US market and their import share are Ecuador (13.5%), Mexico (6.5%), and Colombia (5.1%). US organic banana imports have not followed a consistent upward trend, fluctuating between 0.52 MMT in 2013 and 0.43 MMT in 2017. This is primarily due to the loss of organic certification by growers in Guatemala and Honduras from the use of fungicides to control Black Sigatoka (Fresh Plaza 2016). Ecuador is the main supplier of organic bananas to the US market, accounting for about half of the total supply of the fruit during the period 2015–2017, followed by Peru (17.25%) and Colombia (15.57%). These three countries supplied over 80% of the total organic banana imports during 2015–2017 (USDA-FAS 2018). Table 1.4 illustrates import prices for selected exporters of conventional and organic bananas during the period 2013–2017 in US dollars per kilogram (kg). Over this period, the average import price of conventional bananas ranged from a low of $0.48/kg in 2013 to a high of $0.52/kg in 2017, while import prices of organic bananas ranged from a low of $0.61/kg in 2013 to a high of $0.68/kg in 2015. Honduras is the lowest-cost supplier of both conventional and organic bananas to the US market.

US Consumption Figure 1.3 illustrates US per capita consumption of selected fruits for the period 2008–2017. Fresh banana consumption has increased at an annual rate of 1.36%, while orange consumption has decreased by 7.72%, and apple consumption has remained unchanged

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1 Banana Production, Global Trade, Consumption Trends, Postharvest Handling, and Processing

Table 1.4 Average annual conventional and organic banana import prices from selected suppliers, 2013–2017 (US $/kg). 2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

Partner country

Conv.

Org.

Conv.

Org.

Conv.

Org.

Conv.

Org.

Conv.

Org.

Guatemala

0.50

—

0.51

—

0.51

—

0.52

—

0.52

—

Ecuador

0.50

0.60

0.49

0.60

0.49

0.62

0.53

0.57

0.50

0.61

Colombia

0.50

0.66

0.52

0.84

0.53

0.84

0.54

0.82

0.56

0.81

Peru

—

0.76

—

0.75

—

0.75

—

0.74

—

0.69

Honduras

0.45

0.43

0.47

0.48

0.47

0.49

0.47

0.49

0.48

0.50

Average

0.48

0.61

0.49

0.67

0.49

0.68

0.51

0.66

0.52

0.65

Source: USDA-FAS (2018).

Apples

Bananas

Pineapples

Oranges

30

Consumption (lb/year)

25 20 15 10 5

Figure 1.3

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

0 2008

8

US per capita consumption of selected fruits, 2008–2017. Source: USDA-ERS (2018).

(USDA-ERS 2018). Bananas continue to be one of the most affordable fruits on the market, which is important given the wide availability of fruits in the US market. Different banana cultivars are sold in the US market; in terms of volume, “Cavendish” is by far the predominant cultivar, with other important cultivars being “Baby,” “Red,” “Manzano,” “Burro,” and “Saba.” Figure 1.4 illustrates US average retail prices for both conventional and organic bananas from 2013 to 2017. Retail prices for conventional bananas fluctuated from a low of $0.43/lb in January 2016 to a high of $0.54/lb in December of the same year. The average retail price for conventional bananas during the period 2013–2017 was around $0.47/lb. Retail prices for organic bananas fluctuated from a high of $0.85/lb in June 2013 to a low of $0.69/lb in May 2017. The average price for organic bananas during the period 2013–2017 was $0.76/lb. On average, the premium price commanded by organic bananas was $0.29/lb, which is 62.1% more than the average price of conventional bananas. During the period 2013–2017,

European Union Market

1.00 Conventional

Organic

0.90

US $/pound

0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40

0.20

Jan-13 Mar-13 May-13 Jul-13 Sep-13 Nov-13 Jan-14 Mar-14 May-14 Jul-14 Sep-14 Nov-14 Jan-15 Mar-15 May-15 Jul-15 Sep-15 Nov-15 Jan-16 Mar-16 May-16 Jul-16 Sep-16 Nov-16 Jan-17 Mar-17 May-17 Jul-17 Sep-17 Nov-17

0.30

Figure 1.4 US average retail prices for conventional and organic bananas, 2013–2017. Source: USDA-AMS (2018).

the premium price for organic bananas decreased slightly by 6%, from $0.31/lb in January 2013 to $0.29/lb in December 2017 (USDA-AMS 2018).

European Union Market Banana production destined for markets in the EU occurs in Greece, Spain, France (Martinique and Guadeloupe) Chypre, and Portugal. EU market banana production has grown at an annual rate of 0.9%, from 567,560 MT in 2008 to 613,730 MT in 2017 (Figure 1.5). Domestic banana production accounted for 11.3% of the total supply during the period 2008–2017, Spain is the main banana producer, accounting for 65.3% of the total production in 2017, followed by France (30.4%) and Portugal (3.2%) (European Commission 2018). The increase in domestic banana production has been mainly the result of sustained production gains from Spain. In 2006, the EU established an import regime to keep a balance between the non-EU suppliers and the domestic EU banana producers. Latin American banana imports were subject to a Most Favored Nations tariff of €176/MT, while the African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries were subject to a duty free access quota of 775,000 MT. Later, the EU agreed to cut the tariff in eight steps, from €176/MT in 2009 to €114/MT by 2017 or 2019 (European Commission 2013). Over a 10-year period (2008–2017), EU banana imports increased by 17.4%, from 4.94 MMT in 2008 to 5.80 MMT in 2017. EU banana imports from Latin American countries accounted for 71.2% of the total supply and the ACP countries accounted for 18.5% during the period 2008–2017.

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1 Banana Production, Global Trade, Consumption Trends, Postharvest Handling, and Processing

5.0 Latin America

4.5

ACP countries

EU

4.0 Million metric tons

3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

0.0 2008

10

Figure 1.5 EU total banana supply by source, 2008–2017 (ACP = African, Caribbean, and Pacific). Source: European Commission (2018).

Ecuador, Colombia, and Costa Rica are the main banana exporters from Latin America. These three countries supplied more than 85% of the fruit volume from that region. The Dominican Republic, Cameroon and Ivory coast are the main suppliers from the ACP countries, contributing more than half of the fruit from that group. Figure 1.6 illustrates banana prices for the EU market at the first unloading port for the period 2008–2017. Latin America is the lowest cost supplier of bananas to the EU market; on average the fruit prices from that region were close to €0.60/kg during the period considered. Prices for domestic bananas in the EU market commanded a higher price for most of the period considered; average price for EU produced bananas was €0.72/kg. While banana prices from Latin America and EU sources remained stable during the period, banana prices from the ACP countries increased from €0.61/kg in 2011 to €0.77/kg in 2017.

Market Outlook During the period 2008–2017, global banana production and trade increased significantly; however, there are signs that demand for conventional bananas in developed countries, particularly the United States, is decelerating. Because banana production is not seasonal, prices in international markets remain fairly stable. Occasional disruptions in supply will continue to be the result of logistic constraints, complex weather patterns, (e.g., El Niño and La Niña), as well as disease outbreaks in the major export growing regions. Compared with Central America, South America will continue to be the more reliable banana supplier to international markets given its relatively low incidence of adverse weather events, and its well established supply and distribution network.

Postharvest Handling and Storage

Short-term increases in organic banana production may come from higher yields as harvested area has trended downward. Price incentives will likely drive long-term increases in organic banana production due to the market premium for organic bananas and the additional conversion of conventional banana areas to organic production. It is unclear how the shift in market power from suppliers to retailers may result in better market terms for workers and growers in the producing regions. Even though there has been some progress to improve this situation, the debate about fair prices and wages continues to be relevant. For example, Fairtrade represents a success in improving social and economic conditions for small banana growers and workers. The biggest threat to global banana production is Fusarium Wilt, more specifically TR4, which is a very aggressive disease that has the potential to eliminate all banana plantations. The search for a viable disease treatment is still a work in progress. The arrival of the TR4 disease to the main export growing regions disrupts production and trade, and risks the livelihood of millions of workers. Recent advances in the development of cultivars tolerant/resistant to TR4 show promise for commercial production, but more research is necessary.

Postharvest Handling and Storage Bananas are harvested at full-mature (green) stage and harvested bunches are hung in a shaded and cool place, which favors flavor development 7−14 days after the harvest (Arvanitoyannis and Mavromatis 2009). Bananas undergo ripening in four distinct phases: (i) pre-climacteric or “green life” stage; (ii) climacteric stage; (iii) ripe stage; and finally (iv) senescence. In order to identify the ripening stage of bananas, standard color charts are used commercially, e.g., Stage-1, dark green; Stage-2, light green; Stage-3, more green than yellow; Stage-4, more yellow than green; Stage-5, yellow with green tips; Stage-6,

EU

0.80

ACP countries

Latin America 0.77

0.77

0.75

Price (Euro/kg)

0.75

0.72

0.71

0.70

0.72

0.71 0.68

0.70

0.73 0.75 0.67

0.73 0.71

0.65

0.65

0.63

0.63

0.63

0.64 0.61

0.60 0.60

0.60

0.60

2010

2011

0.59

2009

0.55

0.64 0.62 0.60

0.61 0.59

0.60

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2008

0.50

Figure 1.6 EU banana prices at first unloading port by origin, 2008–2017. Source: European Commission (2018).

11

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1 Banana Production, Global Trade, Consumption Trends, Postharvest Handling, and Processing

yellow; and Stage-7, yellow with brown freckles. During ripening, different physiological, biochemical, and organoleptic changes lead to a soft and edible ripe fruit during the ripening process. After storage and natural ripening, bananas are then shipped to markets at their optimal ripening stage or at full mature green stage depending on variety and final use (Bello-Pérez et al. 2012). Postharvest losses are common if harvested fruit is not stored and transported at optimum temperature conditions. Zhang et al. (2005) indicated that about 20% of all bananas harvested may become culls and thus unmarketable. Kader (2005) reported that estimates of fruits and vegetables postharvest losses in developing countries are generally much higher than those in the US, and can be up to 50% for some fresh fruits. These losses may be due to sorting of bananas too small for shipping and damaged, injured or spoiled fruits that could induce microbial contamination of the full bunch in the collection stations (Bello-Pérez et al. 2012). Arvanitoyannis and Mavromatis (2009) suggested that shelf life of bananas could be extended by applying inhibitors that limit respiration and/or ethylene production or by using modified atmosphere packaging (MAP). Kader (2003) recommended maintaining cold-chain throughout the fruit marketing channels to minimize losses and ensure fruit quality (Figure 1.7). HARVEST Protect the product from the hot sun Transport quickly to the packing house COOLING Minimize delays before cooling Cool the product as soon as possible TEMPORARY STORAGE Store the product at its optimum temperature Practice “first-in-first-out” rotation Ship to market as soon as possible TRANSPORT TO MARKET Use refrigerated loading area Cool truck before loading Put insulating plastic strips inside door or reefer if the truck makes multiple stops

HANDLING AT DESTINATION Use a refrigerated unloading area Measure product temperature Move product quickly to proper storage area Display at proper temperature range Avoid delays during transport

HANDLING AT FOODSERVICE OUTLETS Store product at proper temperature Monitor product temperature during storage Use the product as soon as possible

Figure 1.7 Maintaining cold chain for the perishable commodities. Source: Adapted from Kader (2003).

Processed Products

Low-temperature storage is one of the most important factors that can control the respiration rate of banana, however, it also induces chilling injury that results in brown peel spots. Mohapatra et al. (2010) reported that at a ripening temperature of 20 ∘ C using ethylene, a better flavor develops with less astringency and sweetness. High relative humidity (95%) prevents browning spots but induces finger dropping off. Banana stored under low relative humidity will favor ethylene production and respiration prior to climacteric stage (Bello-Pérez et al. 2012). However, low humidity greatly increases water loss in banana by 3–4 times higher than the fruit stored at high humidity. The use of appropriate packaging to reduce damage is important and cushioning is used occasionally, especially when bananas are sold at high-end markets. Banana shipping containers should preferably be stackable to avoid compression force, which can induce bruising and soften fruit texture. Venting of shipping containers is also recommended to allow efficient cooling to maintain the best quality of the fruit. For bulk packaging, container liners are used. Typically, liners are made of plastic films, such as polyethylene (PE) or polypropylene (PP), mainly to minimize water loss of banana during storage and distribution (Chonhenchob et al. 2017).

Processed Products Figure 1.8 shows typical steps for preparing various processed products from both green and ripe bananas. The most common products prepared from green bananas include boiled/steamed banana, dried or fried chips, flour, and starch. Ripe bananas are processed into far more diverse products of commercial significance, e.g., pulp/puree, clarified juice, baby foods, dried and fried chips, fruit bars, and flour (Mohapatra et al. 2011). Banana flour has a potential to be used as a healthy ingredient in other prepared products, e.g., as a partial meat and wheat flour replacer in patties and snacks, respectively. In addition to commercial processing, bananas are also used in a variety of culinary applications in foodservice as well as home baked products. Preparation of processed fruit products requires various preliminary unit operations. During preparatory operations and subsequent processing, polyphenol oxidase (PPO) GREEN/PLANTAIN BANANA

RIPE/DESSERT BANANA

▼

▼

Peeling

Peeling

▼

▼

▼

▼

Cutting/ Slicing

Cutting/ Slicing

Cutting/ Slicing

Pulping

▼

▼

Cooked Drying (Boiled, or Steamed) Frying ▼

▼

▼

▼

▼

Pulping Pulping Slicing ▼

▼

▼

▼

Slicing ▼

▼

▼

Slicing Slicing ▼

▼

Drying Frying

▼

Puree

Puree

Puree

Drying

Drying

▼

▼

▼

▼

▼

▼

▼

▼

Baby Foods

Clarified Juice

Jam

Fruit Bar

Grinding

Dried Chips

Fried Chips

Grinding ▼

Drying

▼

Flour

Dried or Flour and Fried Starch Chips

Figure 1.8 Green and ripe banana processing and products. Source: Adapted from Mohapatra et al. (2011).

13

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1 Banana Production, Global Trade, Consumption Trends, Postharvest Handling, and Processing

and peroxidase (POD) induced enzymatic browning in banana, like most other fruits, can produce undesirable quality changes (Bello-Pérez et al. 2012). Vámos-Vigyázó (1981) reported that PPO impairs not only the sensory properties, and hence the marketability of a product, but it often lowers its nutritive value as well. The use of anti-browning agents (e.g., ascorbic acid, citric acid) and/or heat treatment (blanching) are commonly used to ensure color quality of banana pulp/puree, prior to heat processing or freezing preservation. Garcia et al. (1985) reported using mild heat treatment with added citric acid and potassium sorbate for preservation of banana puree. Banana at a firmer texture stage can also be exploited for the fresh-cut fruit market. Bello-Pérez et al. (2012) reported that fresh-cut banana has not been researched and developed to a scale similar to that of melons or some other fruits marketed in this form. Most applications of fresh-cut bananas are in the foodservice sector, mainly in selected fruit salads or as a garnish on desserts. In recent years, a number of innovative technologies have been explored for banana processing, such as high pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric field (PEF), microwave (MW) heating and drying, ionization radiation, ultraviolet (UV) light, and ozone treatment (Ahmed and Ozadali 2012; Xu et al. 2016; Yan et al. 2016; Pu et al. 2018). While these novel technologies offer a number of quality benefits over traditional thermal processing, their application on a commercial scale has not gained a wider acceptance due to cost, process or equipment limitations. However, HPP and MW do offer a greater potential for commercial applications in banana processing.

By-products from Banana Fruit and Plant During its life span, a banana plant bears one bunch of fruit thereby producing about 200 MMT of agricultural waste worldwide (Kamdem et al. 2013). Banana waste varies in composition but invariably contains cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, starch, sugars, protein, and minerals. The commercial processing of banana to obtain diverse products produces large quantities of peels. Banana peel is about 40% of the total fruit weight and can present a huge environmental problem. The peel, being rich in hemicelluloses and pectin polysaccharides, could be used to produce a variety of by-products, e.g., fiber-rich powder, which can be added to different bakery and pasta products (Emaga et al. 2007; Bello-Pérez et al. 2012). Pectin, as a value-added ingredient, has been extracted from banana peel by different methods (Emaga et al. 2008; Oliveira et al. 2016). Emaga et al. (2008) reported that dessert banana peel had higher galacturonic acid and higher degree of methylation than the plantain subgroup. Banana peel, due to its energy-rich carbohydrates, is a good substrate for single-cell protein production for food and feed applications. Another potential use of banana peel includes the production of biogas in an anaerobic digester (Bello-Pérez et al. 2012). Besides the peel, there are a number of banana plant wastes, namely, pseudostem, petioles, leaf blade, floral stalk, leaf sheaths, and rachis. The use of these parts of banana plant has been reported for producing value-added by-products. In addition to their use in animal feed, a variety of products has been processed from these banana plant wastes, such as starch, enzymes, paper and paperboard, nan-fibers, and fuel briquettes (Mohapatra et al. 2010).

References

Nutritional Profile and Health Benefits Bananas are one of the world’s leading staple crops, after rice, wheat, and maize. A major portion of production (about 90%) is consumed mainly in the banana producing areas, especially in most of the countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Banana fruit is a rich source of carbohydrates, several minerals, and vitamins. Potassium content in bananas is among the highest compared with all other fruits. In many developing countries, mashed/pureed banana is the first solid food given to infants (Aurore et al. 2009). According to Forster et al. (2002), there are differences in the chemical composition among banana varieties from Europe (e.g., Tenerife) and South America (e.g., Ecuador). The European banana had higher protein, ash, ascorbic acid, glucose, fructose, and total sugars content than those from South America. The chemical and nutritional composition of banana varies significantly at different stages of ripeness, especially, with respect to starch and sugars content. At the green stage, bananas have very high starch content and a low amount of sugars, which changes dramatically to high sugars and low starch at the full-ripe stage. Lii et al. (1982) showed that from green to full-ripe stage, starch content decreased from 58.6% to 2.6%, while sucrose and reducing sugars increased from 6.0% and 1.3% to 53.2% and 33.6%, respectively. The changes in carbohydrates are important, as these contribute to the development of desirable sensory attributes of sweet flavor and smooth texture or mouthfeel in ripe bananas. Aurore et al. (2009) reported higher protein and carbohydrate content in the unripe fruit than in its ripe state, with higher carbohydrate level in plantain than in the sweet banana (dessert or table bananas). Green bananas are rich in resistant starch (RS), the portion of dietary starch which does not undergo rapid digestion and absorption, and instead enters the large intestine where it is fermented partially or wholly (Sajilata et al. 2006). The slow release of glucose induces a relatively small increase in blood glucose, as it is metabolized 5–7 hours after consumption versus normally cooked starch that is digested immediately, which makes banana a low glycemic index food (Thakorlal et al. 2010; Hamad et al. 2018). Banana fruit pulp and powder have been used for developing various functional foods based on cereals, milk, and meat (Segundo et al. 2017). The significantly high potassium and low sodium content in banana are optimum for people suffering from hypertension and on a low-sodium diet (Appel et al. 1997). Banana is also considered as one of the most important antioxidant-rich staple foods among the relatively affordable fruits. The fruit is a rich source of phytosterols, biogenic amines, and many bioactive compounds having antioxidant properties, such as phenolics, carotenoids, and ascorbic acid. Various pharmacological studies on the health benefits of banana and plantain have attributed these to the presence of antioxidant compounds (Appel et al. 1997; Sajilata et al. 2006; Sidhu and Zafar 2018).

References Ahmed, J. and Ozadali, F. (2012). Novel processing technologies for fruits. In: Tropical and Subtropical Fruits: Postharvest Physiology, Processing and Packaging (ed. M. Siddiq), pp. 71–96. Ames, IA: John Wiley & Sons.

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Appel, L., Moore, J., and Obarzanek, T.J. (1997). A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. New England Journal of Medicine 336: 1117–1124. Arvanitoyannis, I.S. and Mavromatis, A. (2009). Banana cultivars, cultivation practices, and physicochemical properties. Critical Reviews in Food Science & Nutrition 42: 113–135. Aurore, G., Parfait, B., and Fahrasmane, L. (2009). Bananas, raw materials for making processed food products. Trends in Food Science & Technology 20: 78–91. Bello-Pérez, L.A., Agama-Acevedo, E., Gibert, O., and Dufour, D. (2012). Banana. In: Tropical and Subtropical Fruits: Postharvest Physiology, Processing and Packaging (ed. M. Siddiq), pp. 137–157. Ames, IA: John Wiley & Sons. Chonhenchob, V., Singh, P., and Singh, J. (2017). Packaging and Distribution of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables. Lancaster, PA: DEStech Publications Inc. Crane, J.H. and Balerdi, C.F. (2016). Banana Growing in the Florida Home Landscape. Available at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/MG/MG04000.pdf (accessed 12 January 2019). Emaga, T.H., Andrianaivo, R.H., Wathelet, B., Tchango, J.T., and Paquot, M. (2007). Effects of the stage of maturation and varieties on the chemical composition of banana and plantain peels. Food Chemistry 103: 590–600. Emaga, T.H., Ronkart, S.N., Robert, C., Wathelet, B., and Paquot, M. (2008). Characterisation of pectins extracted from banana peels (Musa AAA) under different conditions using an experimental design. Food Chemistry 108: 463–471. European Commission (2013). Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development. Available at https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/bananas/fact-sheet_en .pdf (accessed 10 January 2019). European Commission (2018). Fruit and Vegetable Regime. Bananas: Market Reports. Available at https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/fruit-and-vegetables/product-reports/ bananas_en (accessed 12 January 2019). Fairtrade (2018). Monitoring the Scope and Benefits of Fairtrade. Available at www.fairtrade .org.uk/~/media/FairtradeUK/What%20is%20Fairtrade/Documents/Policy%20and %20Research%20documents/Monitoring%20reports/Fairtrade%20Monitoring%20Report_ 9thEdition%202016.pdf (accessed 18 January 2019). FAO (2013). Issue Brief: Battling Black Sigatoka Disease in the Banana Industry. Available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-as087e.pdf (accessed 20 December 2018). FAO (2014). The Changing Role of Multinational Companies in the Global Banana Trade. Available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3746e/i3746e.pdf (accessed15 January 2019). FAO (2019a). Crops Production and Trade Statistics. Available at http://www.fao.org/faostat/ en/#data (accessed 10 December 2019). FAO (2019b). World Banana Forum: Fusarium Wilt Tropical Race 4. Available at http://www .fao.org/world-banana-forum/projects/fusarium-tr4/disease/en (accessed 10 February 2019). FiBL (2018). Organic World: Global Organic Farming Trade Statistics and News. Available at https://www.organic-world.net/yearbook.html (accessed 25 January 2019). Forster, M.P., Rodriguez, E.R., and Díaz, C.R. (2002). Differential characteristics in the chemical composition of bananas from Tenerife (Canary Islands) and Ecuador. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 50: 7586–7592. Fresh Plaza (2016). Drop in Imports Reduced Organic Banana Consumption. Available at https://www.freshplaza.com/article/2165794/drop-in-imports-reduced-organic-bananaconsumption (accessed 25 November 2019).

References

Garcia, R., de Arriola, M.C., Porres, E.D., and Rolz, C. (1985). Process for banana puree preservation at rural level. LWT – Food Science & Technology 18: 323–327. Hamad, S., Zafar, T.A., and Sidhu, J.S. (2018). Parboiled rice metabolism differs in healthy and diabetic individuals with similar improvement in glycemic response. Nutrition 47: 43–49. Kader, A.A. (2003). A perspective on postharvest horticulture (1978–2003). HortScience 38: 1004–1008. Kader, A.A. (2005). Increasing food availability by reducing postharvest losses of fresh produce. Acta Horticulturae 682: 2169–2175. Kamdem, I., Hiligsmann, S., Vanderghem, C., Bilik, I., Paquot, M., and Thonart, P. (2013). Comparative biochemical analysis during the anaerobic digestion of lignocellulosic biomass from six morphological parts of Williams Cavendish banana (Triploid Musa AAA group) plants. World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnolology 29: 2259–2270. Lii, C.Y., Chang, S.M., and Young, Y.L. (1982). Investigation of the physical and chemical properties of banana starches. Journal of Food Science 47: 493–1497. Mohapatra, D., Mishra, S., and Sutar, N. (2010). Banana postharvest practices: current status and future prospects - a review. Agricultural Reviews 31: 56–62. Mohapatra, D., Mishra, S., Singh, C.B., and Jayas, D.S. (2011). Postharvest processing of banana: opportunities and challenges. Food and Bioprocess Technology 4: 327–339. Oliveira, T.Í.S., Rosa, M.F., Cavalcante, F.L., Pereira, P.H.F., Moates, G.K., Wellner, N., Mazzetto, S.E., Waldron, K.W., and Azeredo, H.M. (2016). Optimization of pectin extraction from banana peels with citric acid by using response surface methodology. Food Chemistry 198: 113–118. Pu, Y.Y., Zhao, M., O’Donnell, C., and Sun, D.W. (2018). Non-destructive quality evaluation of banana slices during microwave vacuum drying using spectral and imaging techniques. Drying Technology 36: 1542–1553. Reuters (2013). Dole’s 90-year-old CEO seals deal to take company private. Available at https:// www.reuters.com/article/us-dolefoods-takeover-ceo/doles-90-year-old-ceo-seals-deal-totake-company-private-idUSBRE97B0GX20130812 (accessed 4 November 2018). Reuters (2014). Cutrale-Safra to acquire Chiquita in deal valued at $1.3 billion. https://www .reuters.com/article/chiquita-brands-ma-cutrale-safra-idUSASB090ZJ20141027 (accessed 5 November 2018). Reuters (2016). UPDATE4-Sumitomo to buy Irish banana company Fyffes for $800 million. Available at https://www.reuters.com/article/fyffes-ma-sumitomo-corp-idUSL5N1E413B (accessed 5 November 2018). Sajilata, M.G., Singhal, R.S., and Kulkarni, P.K. (2006). Resistant starch a review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 5: 1–17. Segundo, C., Roman, L., Lobo, M., Martinez, M.M., and Gomez, M. (2017). Ripe banana flour as a source of antioxidants in layer and sponge cakes. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 72: 365–371. Sidhu, J.S. and Zafar, T.A. (2018). Bioactive compounds in banana fruits and their health benefits. Food Quality and Safety 2: 183–188. Thakorlal, J., Perera, C.O., Smith, B., Englberger, L., and Lorens, A. (2010). Resistant starch in Micronesian banana cultivars offers health benefits. Pacific Health Dialog 16: 49–60. USDA-AMS (Agricultural Marketing Service) (2018). Fruit and Vegetable Market News. Custom Reports: Retail. Available at https://www.marketnews.usda.gov/mnp/fv-reportretail?category=retail&portal=fv&startIndex=1&class=ALL®ion=NATIONAL&

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organic=ALL&commodity=ALL&reportConfig=true&dr=1&repType=wiz&step2=true& run=Run&type=retail&commodityClass=allcommodity (accessed 25 October 2018). USDA-ERS (Economic Research Service) (2018). Fruit and Tree Nut Yearbook Tables: Supply and Utilization. Available at https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/fruit-and-tree-nutdata/fruit-and-tree-nut-yearbook-tables (accessed 11 January 2019). USDA-FAS (Foreign Agricultural Service) (2018). Global Agricultural Trade System (GATS). Available at https://www.fas.usda.gov/databases/global-agricultural-trade-system-gats (accessed 17 December 2018). USDA-NASS (National Agricultural Statistics Service) (2012). Census of Agriculture: Florida. Available at https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Full_Report/ Volume_1,_Chapter_1_State_Level/Florida (accessed 23 November 2018). USDA-NASS (National Agricultural Statistics Service) (2018). Statistics by State: Hawaii. Available at https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Hawaii/Publications/Annual_ Statistical_Bulletin/2017/2017HawaiiTop20Commodities.pdf (accessed 24 November 2018). Vámos-Vigyázó, L. (1981). Polyphenol oxidases and peroxidases in fruits and vegetables. Critical Reviews in Food Science & Nutrition 15: 49–127. Wageningen University (2017). World-first Panama disease-resistant Cavendish bananas. Press release. Available at https://www.wur.nl/en/newsarticle/World-first-Panama-diseaseresistant-Cavendish-bananas.htm (accessed 14 November 2018). Xu, Z., Wang, Y., Ren, P., Ni, Y., and Liao, X. (2016). Quality of banana puree during storage: a comparison of high pressure processing and thermal pasteurization methods. Food and Bioprocess Technology 9: 407–420. Yan, L., Fernando, W.M., Brennan, M., Brennan, C.S., Jayasena, V., and Coorey, R. (2016). Effect of extraction method and ripening stage on banana peel pigments. International Journal of Food Science & Technology 51: 1449–1456. Zhang, P., Whistler, R.L., BeMiller, J.N., and Hamaker, B.R. (2005). Banana starch: production, physicochemical properties and digestibility – a review. Carbohydrate Polymers 59: 443–458.

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2 Biology and Postharvest Physiology of Banana Maria Gloria Lobo 1 and Francisco Javier Fernández Rojas 2 1 Department of Crops Production in Tropical and Subtropical Areas, Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias, 38270 Valle de Guerra, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain 2 Postharvest Quality Department, Cooperativa Platanera de Canarias (COPLACA), 38001 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain

Introduction Bananas, grown in more than 150 countries, are the second most produced (153 MMT [million metric tons]) and consumed fruit after tomatoes (182 MMT) (FAO 2017). Bananas are healthy, easily portable and eatable, suitable for anyone of any age (from babies to the elderly), and inexpensive when compared with other fruits. In addition to being eaten raw, bananas are processed into a variety of products, such as puree, juice, and dried products. Similarly, this fruit offers a range of culinary applications in various food formulations, especially baked products. Bananas are cultivated in the tropics and also in the subtropics, where they are highly influenced by climate, contributing significantly to the economy of many countries and also being a staple fruit in many of them. This chapter provides an overview of banana biology and physiology, including plant and fruit growth, factors affecting plant and fruit development, fruit ripening, nutritional and phytochemical profile, harvesting, and fruit quality disorders.

Botanical Description Banana is a high-demand fruit because it is very nutritious, and it has good flavor, aroma and texture. Botanically it is classified as follows: Kingdom:

Plantae – Plants

Subkingdom:

Tracheobionta – Vascular plants

Superdivision:

Spermatophyta – Seed plants

Division:

Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants

Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition, First Edition. Edited by Muhammad Siddiq, Jasim Ahmed, and Maria Gloria Lobo. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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Class:

Liliopsida – Monocotyledons

Subclass:

Zingiberidae

Order:

Zingiberales

Family:

Musaceae – Banana family

Genus:

Musa L. – banana

Almost all cultivated varieties of edible banana and plantains are hybrids and polyploids of two wild, seeded banana species, Musa acuminata Colla (genome A) and Musa balbisiana Colla (genome B). They are classified in different groups according to the number of chromosomes: whether the plant is diploid, triploid, or tetraploid, and a genome-based system introduced by Simmonds and Shepherd (1955) using 15 discriminating characters. The groups and subgroups of bananas are: ●

●

●

●

●

AA genome group: all the cultivars have two sets of chromosomes inherited from Musa acuminata. AA cultivars are called edible diploids, and are very sweet, but they have been displaced by the triploids that are more productive. “Sucrier,” also known as “Pisang Mas” or “Bocadillo,” produce small sweet fruits with thin golden skin and are resistant to Panamá disease or Fusarium wilt. AB genome group: this includes all the cultivars that have two sets of chromosomes, one donated by M. acuminata and the other by M. balbisiana. AAA genome group: this includes all the cultivars that have three sets of chromosomes inherited from Musa acuminata. Triploidy is the last stage in the process of domestication, and although they are essentially sterile, the reproduction is vegetative through suckers, breeders have been able to take advantage of cultivars’ residual fertility to produce improved hybrids. – Cavendish subgroup: this is the most edible banana grown for international trade (cultivars “Grande Naine” [GN], “Williams,” and “Valery”) because it has the organoleptic characteristics demanded by consumers and is resistant to the Race 1 strains of the fungus that produce Panama disease or Fusarium wilt but it is susceptible to Tropical Race 4. – East African highland banana subgroup: this is a starchy cooking and beer banana. – Gros Michel subgroup: this is susceptible to Fusarium wilt and the main cultivar is “Gros Michel” that is known as Bogoya in Uganda and Kampala in Kenya. AAB genome group: this group has two sets of chromosomes one donated by M. acuminata and the other by M. balbisiana. – Iholena subgroup: these are cooking bananas. – Maoli-Popoulu subgroup: these are cooking bananas. – Mysore subgroup: this is the most produced in India and is resistant to Fusarium wilt. – Plantain subgroup: these are cooking bananas. – Pome subgroup: this has a sub-acid and apple-like taste (cultivar “Prata”), leading them to be confused with Silk bananas which are the more widely recognized apple bananas. – Silk subgroup: this is a sweet dessert consumed raw, normally referred to as apple bananas. ABB genome group: this group has one set of chromosomes donated by M. acuminata and two by M. balbisiana and is a vigorous plant resistant to drought.

Plant and Fruit Growth and Development

●

●

– Bluggoe subgroup: this comprises starchy cultivars used primarily for cooking but that can also be eaten raw. In Venezuela, it is known as “Topocho.” Fei bananas: these are easily recognized by their erect bunch. – Asupina: a group of domesticated bananas with orange pulp with high provitamin A (α and β carotene) content. AAAB, AABB, ABBB groups: natural tetraploid hybrids are not common but breeding programs have led to varieties that are resistant or tolerant to Fusarium wilt and black Sigatoka, and adapt well to different climatic and edaphic conditions. – Dessert types similar to “Gros Michel” (AAAB): FHIA-17, FHIA-23, and SH-3436. – Dessert types similar to “Pome” (AAAB): FHIA-01 or “Goldfinger,” FHIA-28, and SH-3640. – Cooking types similar to “Bluggoe” (AAAB): FHIA-20 and FHIA-21. – Special bananas: SH-4001, a plantain with high β-carotene content.

Plant and Fruit Growth and Development Two phases are clearly marked during banana plant development: a vegetative phase characterized by leaves emission; and a reproductive phase easily identified by the bunch emission. However, during the vegetative phase, there is a dependent sucker phase since its growth coincides with the development of the mother plant. Until the shoot does not emit the F10 leaf (10 cm wide), it does not enter the independent vegetative phase. Moreover, during flowering of the mother plant, the sucker is in the vegetative phase.

Banana Plant Banana plants are large perennial monocotyledon herbs, 2–9 m tall and 20–50 cm in diameter depending on the variety but wild varieties such as Musa ingens can reach 15 m and 80 cm in diameter (INIBAP 2000). There is an underground true stem, tuberous rhizome or corm, with roots 50–100 cm in length. The root system, like that of all monocotyledons, is adventitious spreading out laterally as far as 5.5 m and forming a dense mat mainly in the top 15 cm of the soil. The corm produces aerial shoots that arise from the lateral buds which develop into eyes and later suckers. It is an important storage organ that allows the growth of the bunch and the growing shoots. The perennial status of bananas is due to the continuous vegetative growth of suckers that perpetuates the corm’s life. They arise from the rhizome at roughly six-month intervals and the number produced varies with the type of cultivar (Figure 2.1). Two types of suckers can be differentiated morphologically: sword suckers, characterized by narrow leaves and a large rhizome, with a strong connection to the mother plant coming from the deep axillary buds located in the mother rhizome; and water suckers, which have broad leaves and a small rhizome due to the weak connection to the mother plant as they come from buds located closer to the surface. In old crops, there is a greater proportion of water suckers. The sucker selected to replace the mother plant after fruiting is called the follower or ratoon and is the one that grows vigorously at the furthest position from the mother plant since it is the first to emerge and its growth is faster too. This will allow

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youngest leaf

leaves leaf stalk or petiole oldest leaf

banana bunch pseudostem

suckers

female flower

male flower

underground stem (corm)

roots cross section vertical section of the false of the corm stem and leaf bases

Figure 2.1

Various parts of a banana plant. Source: FAO (2019).

the alignment of the crop to be maintained. Figure 2.2A shows three generations in a banana plantation: grandmother (1), mother (2), and sucker (3). The above ground “trunk” is a false stem called a pseudostem and consists of large overlapping leaf bases tightly rolled in an anticlockwise spiral manner (Barker and Steward 1962) forming a cylindrical structure (Figure 2.1). The leaves are composed of a “stalk” (petiole) and a blade (lamina). Most banana plants produce 30–40 leaves in their growth cycle (3–3.5 m length and 65 cm width), but as older leaves are pushed outwards they eventually die leaving 5–15 fully functional leaves on a mature plant. A minimum of 8–10 functional leaves are required to allow proper maturation of a bunch of fruit. Banana leaves can unfurl at the rate of one per week in summer but only one per month may be produced in the subtropics in winter (Morton 1987). The leaf takes between six and eight days to open completely since it emerges from the foliar crown. The length, disposition, and coloration of the pseudostem depend on the cultivar and the cultivation conditions. Thus, sweet bananas are predominantly green to dark green with black blotches while those of plantains are yellowish-green with brown blotches (Pillay and Tripathi 2007). The meristem of the apical bud which initially gives rise to the leaves then elongates up through the pseudostem and 6–9 months after planting in the tropics or 8–10 months in the subtropics (Table 2.1), at about the time when the eleventh-last leaf has been produced, emerges a great terminal inflorescence (only one for each pseudostem) (Figure 2.2B). The inflorescence is a compound spike of female (pistillate, on the base), hermaphrodite or neutral (in some cultivars in the middle) and male (staminate, at the tip) flowers arranged in groups of two rows of flowers, closely appressed to each other and covered

Plant and Fruit Growth and Development

(C) 2

3 1

(A)

(B)

(D)

(E)

(F)

Figure 2.2 Banana plant and fruit: (A) 1, grandmother; 2, mother; 3, sucker; (B) flower emergence; (C) clusters; (D) flower opening; (E) bunch; and (F) fruit from mature green to yellow (left to right). Table 2.1

Expected time to reach bunch emergence and harvest.

Stage

Tropics (mo)

Subtropics (mo)

Planting to bunch emergence

6–9

8–10

Bunch emergence to harvest

2–3

4–8

Planting to harvest

8–12

12–18

by large purple-red bracts or modified leaves (Figure 2.2C−E). In cultivated bananas, the ovary develops into a seedless fruit by parthenocarpy (without being pollinated), while the male flowers produce pollen that is more or less fertile, and the hermaphrodite or neutral flowers do not develop into fruit and their stamens do not produce pollen. The bracts open

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in sequence (one per day) from base to tip and bend backward before being shed. As the hands of fruits start to develop from the female flowers, the male flowers are usually shed leaving the peduncle bare except for the very tip, which consists of a “male bud” (also referred to as the “bell”) containing the last-formed of the male bracts and flowers. In some cultivars, this male part is shed quickly, and this may be a useful distinguishing characteristic. The female flowers develop into fingers or individual fruits that constitute the bunch (Figure 2.2E). The number of hands in the bunch depends on the number of female clusters in the inflorescence and varies from 4 to 30 depending on the genotype, crop cycle, environmental conditions, and agronomic management of the crop. Thus, the weight of a Cavendish AAA bunch can vary from 15 to 70 kg depending on the number of fingers/hand (10–30), while a Williams AAA, with an average of 12 hands and 22 fingers/hand, is around 40 kg (Robinson and Galán Saúco 2012). Average annual banana yields are 10–25 t/ha but yields of more than 60 t/ha are obtained in commercial plantations of Latin America and elsewhere. Fortescue and Turner (2004) reported that M. acuminata and M. balbisiana had three times more viable pollen than the edible tetraploids (AAAB), and that the tetraploids contained three times more viable pollen than the edible triploids AAA, AAB, and ABB. The genome A or B did not affect pollen viability within the triploid cultivars examined. Pollen viability rates were 71% for M. acuminata and 98% for M. balbisiana, while among the triploid studied, the highest percentage was found in the “Gros Michel” (13%). Most cultivated bananas are triploid and are characterized by high male and female sterility (Nyine and Pillay 2007) that give rise to seedless fruit with just minute vestiges of ovules that usually shrivel within 9–14 days of anthesis, visible as brown specks in the slightly hollow or faintly pithy center, especially when the fruit is overripe (Robinson and Galán Saúco 2012). Thus, Cavendish AAA subgroup cultivars are highly female sterile and cannot normally be pollinated successfully, while “Gros Michel” AAA gives one or two seeds per bunch if pollinated with diploids and although it is not completely sterile, it is regarded commercially sterile in the absence of pollen. The ABB cultivar “Pisang Awak” has a high degree of female fertility and can produce edible, seedless fruits if it is unpollinated, but can bear 10 or more seeds if pollinated by wild or garden pollen-bearing diploids. Wild types may be nearly filled with black, hard, rounded or angled seeds (3–16 mm wide) and have scant flesh. The seeds have linear embryos, large amounts of endosperm, and a thick hard testa. In the tropics, the banana bunch is harvested two to three months after the inflorescence emerges while in the subtropics four to eight months are necessary (Table 2.1).

Banana Fruit Each fruit is a berry and is known as a “finger.” The skin or peel, is a fusion of the hypanthium (floral receptacle) and outer layer (exocarp) of the pericarp (fruit wall derived from the ovary wall) and is easily removed from the fleshy pulp that originates mainly from the endocarp (innermost layer of the pericarp). During the development of the fruit from the ovary, the tepals, style, and staminodes abscise leaving a characteristic calloused scar at the tip of the fruit. The fruit apex can be tapered, rounded, or blunt and can be used to distinguish between varieties.

Factors Affecting Plant and Fruit Development

Color, size, shape, texture, and flavor of common Musa bananas depends on the cultivar. They are generally elongate-cylindrical (3–40 cm long and 2–8 cm in diameter), straight to curved. The skin which varies in thickness is fibrous and can be green, yellow, or red. The flesh, white to cream, yellow, or yellow-orange to orange, is starchy to sweet.

Factors Affecting Plant and Fruit Development Banana is a tropical/subtropical plant commercially grown from the equator to latitudes of 30∘ or more, in warm climates with at least 100 mm precipitation or supplied by irrigation.

Temperature Temperature is the most significant climatic factor in the growth, development and flowering of banana being the optimum between 21 ∘ C and 33 ∘ C. Cool temperatures retard growth although susceptibility to the cold varies among cultivars. Thus, temperatures below 13 ∘ C cease rot growth, below 6 ∘ C leaf chlorophyll is destroyed, and frost temperatures (0 ∘ C or below) kill the plant. The bud may not emerge from the stem (Choke Throat condition) if temperatures are low during flowering. Temperatures lower than 6 ∘ C at the time of bunch initiation results in abnormal flowers, a reduction of hands of fruit, and irregular sized, twisted fruit. Over 38 ∘ C the growing stops, the stomata close and the leaf temperature can reach 45 ∘ C, resulting in death.

Relative Humidity and Rainfall A humidity of at least 60% or more is preferable. In general, banana is successfully cultivated in areas where annual rainfall ranges from 2000 to 2500 mm. For a successful crop, the annual distribution of rainfall is important. In the dry tropics and subtropics where rainfall is less, supplementary irrigation is necessary for commercial production.

Water Crop growth and yields are adversely affected if the banana has not an ample and frequent supply of water. The establishment period and the early phase of the vegetative period determine the potential for growth and fruiting and an adequate water and sufficient nutrient supply is essential during these periods. A reduced leaf area caused by deficit of water will reduce the rate of fruit filling; this leads, at harvest time, to bunches being older than they appear to be and consequently the fruits are liable to premature ripening during storage. Regular water supply under irrigation during the total growing season produces taller plants, with greater leaf area, and results in earlier shooting and higher yields than those rain-fed with seasonal differences in water supply. In general, 100% of the water is obtained from the first 0.5–0.8 m soil depth with 60% from the first 0.3 m. The irrigation interval may vary from 3 days under high evaporative conditions and light soils up to 15 days under low evaporative conditions and high water-retaining soils. When

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rainfall and irrigation water is limited, it is advantageous to reduce the depth of each water application rather than to extend the irrigation interval (FAO 2019). Commercial plantations usually use overhead sprinkler systems with few applications but at frequent intervals. Surface irrigation methods include the basin, furrow, or trench (which also serves as a drain during the rainy periods). When drip irrigation is used under conditions of high evaporation, low rainfall and particularly if the water contains a small amount of salt, the boundary of wet and dry soil accumulate salts being necessary since banana plants are highly salt-sensitive.

Soil Bananas can be grown on a wide range of soils, but they have to be fertile and well-drained. The best soils are deep, well-drained loams with a high water-holding capacity and humus content, and an optimum pH of 5–7. It is important to keep the optimum pH because higher or lower values lead to deficiencies in mineral absorption. Stagnant water will cause diseases such as Panama disease or Fusarium wilt.

Mineral Nutrition Fruit quality is the result of the action of several factors, in particular the individual and combined effect of mineral nutrients (Aular and Natale 2013). Since the early stages of growth are critical for later development, nutrients must be ample at the time of planting and at the start of a ratoon crop. Macronutrients required by banana plants include nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. The demands for nitrogen and especially potash are high. A lack of potassium can result in reduced buoyancy, which can interfere with postharvest production line processes as the fruit sinks when dipped for washing or for hot water treatment against certain diseases. Short intervals between fertilizer applications, especially nitrogen, are recommended. Fertilizer requirements are 200–400 kg/ha N, 45–60 kg/ha P, and 240–480 kg/ha K per year. Other micronutrients required by bananas include iron, manganese, copper, zinc, chlorine, molybdenum, cobalt, and boron. Deficiencies in these elements can lead to morphological malformation of the leaves, reduced growth and yield, and poor fruit quality (Nelson et al. 2006). Boron deficiency can result in fruit that does not “fill” (Broadley et al. 2004).

Light Musa species grow best in the open sun when moisture or the presence of pests or diseases are not limiting factors. A maximum of 50% shade is recommended because plants in deep shaded areas result in a thinner pseudostem, lower production of leaves and suckers, smaller bunches, and delayed fruiting. Shading and insect-proof screens are widely used in agriculture for passive microclimate control and for insect exclusion. The use of screens reduces solar radiation and air velocity by about 15–39% and 50–87%, respectively; increases air relative humidity (RH) by 2–21%; and decreases air temperature and evapotranspiration by 2.3–2.5 ∘ C and 17.4–50%, respectively (Mahmood et al. 2018).

Factors Affecting Plant and Fruit Development

Wind Bananas are also susceptible to strong winds (40–72 km/h), which can twist and distort the crown, shred leaves, and even topple plants especially after heavy rains. In areas prone to windy conditions, dwarf varieties are often grown. However, some leaf tearing is believed to be beneficial as it effectively causes the leaf to be split into many smaller segments that leads to a more favorable photosynthesis to transpiration ratio during times of environmental stress (Taylor and Sexton 1972). Winds, even moderate, cause scratch marks on the fruit when the bunch is not bagged in the plantation, making them unacceptable for marketing.

Growth Regulators and Other Treatments Many growth regulators are used in micropropagation. Cytokinins (CKs) induce both axiliary and adventitious shoot formation from meristematic explants in banana increasing the number of shoots. Benzylaminopurine (BAP), 2-isopentenyl adenine (2-iP), kinetin (Kin), zeatin (ZEA), and derivatives of diphenyl urea such as thidiazuron (TDZ) are the most used. Auxins and other growth regulators such as gibberellins play important roles in the growth and differentiation of cultured cells and tissues. Auxins such as naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) have been reported to promote plant rooting in vitro. Bhaya and Al-Razzaq Salim (2019) recommend using BAP at a concentration of 5 mg/l or TDZ 0.2 mg/l plus 1.5 mg/l NAA in nutrient medium of the multiplication and the use of LEDs (red:blue) at 2:18. Yadlod and Kadam (2008) found that the spray application (on both sides of leaves) of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA, 80 ppm), gibberellic acid (GA3, 80 ppm) and two sprays of micronutrients 1% were effective for increasing plant growth, size and weight of finger. Nevertheless, under some cultivation conditions, excessive growth of the pseudostem of banana plants can be considered a limiting factor, and thus, the use of growth regulators can constitute a valid alternative. Paclobutrazol (PBZ) is a plant growth retardant and acts by inhibiting gibberellin biosynthesis. El-Otmani et al. (1992) applied this substance either as granular soil or liquid foliar application at a rate of 1 g of active ingredient/plant, two months prior to flowering and observed a significant reduction of the plant height, leaf size and fruit bunch length and an increase of fruit grade and weight. Nevertheless, no effect was appreciated on pseudostem circumference, leaf number, sucker production, yield, or fruit composition. Ethephon or ethrel is used in many fields such as a plant growth regulator to release ethylene that causes defoliation, reduces postharvest losses, and improves the color development of fruit. It is also used in fruit ripening to accelerate the process. Nevertheless, its use is not allowed in all countries. Banana is a climacteric fruit that has high rate of deterioration which contributes to high postharvest losses. GA3 is able to delay the climacteric peak of “Berangan” bananas, to retard the peel color changes and fruit softening, and to extend its shelf life up to 16 days (Huang and Jiang 2012). Postharvest dipping of “Grand Nain” bananas in 150 mg GA3, 50 mg 6-benzylaminopurine, or 2% CaCl2 retarded ripening and retained quality during their shelf life. Moreover, GA3 was more effective in reducing peel browning and retaining green color than the other treatments including control (Al-Qurashi and Awad 2019).

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Natural Ecosystems Natural ecosystems near to agricultural landscapes can provide richer environments for growing crops by enhancing the natural control of pests and diseases (Tomas et al. 2009), nutrient cycling, erosion control, and carbon sequestration (Jarvis et al. 2007). Thus, organic crop farming and agro-environmental management within and around production areas could increase crop resilience and reinforce food security against climate change and resource scarcity (Frison et al. 2011). Castelan et al. (2018) observed that a natural ecosystem (natural forest, NF) surrounding a conventional banana crop improves plant health and fruit quality. Fruits near NF showed higher green-life and a more homogeneous profile during ripening when compared with those harvested from distant NF due to lower IAA and higher abscisic acid (ABA) levels which are associated with accelerated physiological processing of fruit leading to a faster ripening and senescence. Moreover, plants from near NF showed a lower severity index of black leaf streak disease (BLSD) and higher levels of phenolic compounds in leaves compared with plants from distant NF.

Fruit Ripening After inflorescence emergence, bunch fingers develop and accumulate starch in the pulp. Fingers continue growing longitudinally 80–90 days after flowering and from this moment ripening begins and the fingers start to thicken. Harvest should be carried out until 3/4 caliper width to avoid peel fruit splitting during postharvest. As a climacteric fruit, bananas are harvested at physiological maturity and then generally ripen in ripening rooms, although in some regions they are naturally ripened.

Physiology and Biochemistry of Banana Ripening Ripening is an irreversible process that can be divided into four distinct phases: preclimacteric or “green life,” climacteric, ripening, and, finally, senescence. There are commercial standard color charts to identify the ripening stage of bananas (1, dark green; 2, light green; 3, more green than yellow; 4, more yellow than green; 5, yellow with green tips; 6, yellow; 7, yellow with brown freckles) (Figure 2.2F). During ripening different physiological, biochemical and organoleptic changes lead to a soft and edible ripe fruit. Pre-Climacteric Phase

This phase ranges from harvest at physiological maturity to the visible respiratory climacteric state. During this period the metabolic activity is low being the main commercial objective to enlarge it as much as possible either by improving the pre-harvest practices, harvesting before 3/4 caliper width, decreasing storage/transport temperature but never below 13 ∘ C to avoid chilling injury, and applying treatments that block ethylene receptors, i.e., potassium permanganate (KMnO4 ) and 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) (Jiang et al. 2004; Kumar et al. 2017), or decreasing metabolic activity (controlled atmospheres, growth regulators [auxins, gibberellins, CKs, polyamines, and jasmonates]) (Rademacher 2015), and coatings (polyethylene wax emulsion, bee wax, carnuba wax, chitosan, and paraffin) (Suseno et al. 2014).

Fruit Ripening

In this phase bananas changes from stage 1 (dark green) to stage 2 (more green than yellow). Starch, total soluble solids, and water content do not change significantly while mechanical fruit resistance increases (Robinson and Galán Saúco 2012). The great strength of green fruit is due to the protopectin or water insoluble pectin which is partially esterified with polygalacturonic acid. Malic and citric acids are responsible for tartness in the unripe banana while oxalic acid contributes to the astringent taste of the fruit (Seymour et al. 1987). Astringency is caused by the tannins present in the peel and pulp that diminish with ripening. Climacteric Phase

Metabolic activity increases and the climacteric ethylene peak that precedes the climacteric respiration peak occurs. The production of endogenous ethylene is mediated by two enzymes: 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase, and the ethylene forming enzyme (EFE) (Figure 2.3). In this phase, peel color changes from stage 3 (more green than yellow) to stage 4 (more yellow than green). Total soluble solids content increases due to the conversion of starch into sugars, chlorophyll degrades, water content increases, and peel and pulp start to soften. Patil and Magar (1975) reported that pectin methylesterase (PME) activity, implicated in fruit softening, is highest at color stage 4 and fell sharply in the advanced stages of ripening. Ripening Phase

Several evident changes take place simultaneously during the ripening process from stages 4 to 6. Tissue softening continues and at the end of ripening almost all the starch has been degraded to sugars in both the pulp and peel. The peel of the fruit turns completely yellow as chlorophyll is broken down, while pulp becomes softer and sweeter as the ratio of sugars 2-keto-4-methylthiobutyrate (KMB)

5-methylthioribose (MTR)

Methionine Yang Cycle SAM synthetase

S-adenosyl-methionine (SAM)

5′-methylthioadenosine (MTA)

ACC synthase 1-amiocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) ACC oxidase or EFE enzyme Ethylene

Figure 2.3

Ethylene biosynthesis.

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to starch increases, and a characteristic aroma is produced. The water content increases considerably in the pulp (10% more) due to the degradation of starch caused by respiration and the osmotic movement of water from the peel to the pulp. Peel water content diminishes owing to transpiration. Various enzyme systems are involved in all the changes. Senescence

After stage 6, the peel becomes spotted brown and then completely brown, and the pulp loses its firm, white texture to become brown and gelatinous.

Role of Ethylene and Other Hormones Briefly, ethylene is synthesized from methionine. First methionine is converted to S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) which is catalyzed by SAM synthetase. Then SAM is converted to ACC. This conversion is catalyzed by the enzyme ACC synthase and then ACC is converted to ethylene catalyzed by ACC oxidase, also called EFE enzyme. Methionine is regenerated from SAM through the Yang cycle (Figure 2.3). The ABA facilitates initiation and progress in the sequence of ethylene-mediated ripening events, possibly by enhancing the sensitivity to ethylene (Jiang et al. 2000). Moreover, Aghofack-Nguemezi and Kanmegne (2008) reported that the role of ethylene in the regulation of the ripening process may be modulated by the endogenous concentration of auxin. Application of gibberellic acid (GA3) at a concentration between 50 mg/l and 250 mg/l in the Cavendish variety increased the green life of banana by 3–4 days (Vargas and Lopez 2011). Several studies suggest that jasmonates might be positive regulators of fruit ripening through induced expression of ethylene synthesis pathway genes. Salicylic acid (SA) levels have not been determined during ripening, however application of exogenous SA to different fruits including banana, reduced respiration and ethylene production and decreased cell wall deterioration. Finally, CKs are usually associated with delayed senescence, cell death and fruit ripening (Yakir et al. 2018).

Compositional Changes During Fruit Growth and Maturity Changes involve several biochemical pathways such as degradation of starch to sugar, modifications in the peel and pulp color, cell wall, volatiles and acids concentration, and astringency reduction. During the ripening process, starch (20–25% of fresh weight in unripe bananas) is converted into simple sugars through an enzymatic browning process (from 1−2% in green pulp fruit to 15–20% at ripeness) (Maduwanthi and Marapana 2017). The soluble sugars detected in ripened banana are mainly sucrose, glucose, and fructose. According to Adão and Glória (2005), starch content was reduced from 15.7 to 3.40 g/100 g in “Prata” banana during ripening, while total soluble sugar content was increased from 1.26 to 14.3 g/100 g. Adewale (2013) reported that unripe bananas have high amylase activity (3900 units/mg protein) that decreased rapidly to a very low value (100 units/mg protein) when the bananas are fully ripened.

Proximate/Nutritional and Phytochemical Composition

The peel color changes from green to yellow during ripening. Chlorophyll content decreases and chlorophyll is absent in ripe fruit. The level of total carotenoids decreased to half the level at the color break and subsequently again reached a level similar to that in green fruit. According to Gross et al. (1976), the major components (percentage of total carotenoids) of pulp carotenoids are α-carotene (31%), ß-carotene (28%), and lutein (33%). Banana peel contained 3–4 μg/g carotenoids content as lutein equivalent and the components were lutein, ß-carotene, and α-carotene.

Proximate/Nutritional and Phytochemical Composition Proximate/Nutritional Composition The composition and nutritional profile of raw bananas, based on USDA data, is shown in Table 2.2 (USDA 2019). Varietal differences, climatic and soil conditions, agricultural practices and postharvest handling may contribute to variations in the composition and nutritional profile. About 93% of the calories come from carbohydrates, 3% from fats, and 4% from proteins of a high quality due to their amino acids profile. One hundred grams of edible banana provide a very good source of vitamin B6 (18% of the daily value [DV]), vitamin C (15% DV), dietary fiber (10% DV), potassium (10% DV), and manganese (13% DV). It is very low in saturated fat (0% DV), cholesterol (0% DV), and sodium (0% DV). The glycemic load of banana, which is related to how glucose levels rise in blood when a meal is ingested, is low (8 g per 100 g serving), but higher than other fruits (apple 3, orange 6, or pineapple 6).

Phytochemicals and Antioxidants Banana fruit as well as other parts of the fruit and plant (peel, pseudostem, leaves, and flower) are important sources of bioactive compounds with potential health-promoting activity. Banana fruit is rich in carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolics, amines, and vitamins C and E that provide health benefits (Singh et al. 2016). Among the carotenoids present in banana fruit (peel and pulp), α-carotene, β-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin have provitamin-A activity, but others such as lycopene and lutein have a strong antioxidant capacity. Their antioxidant effect is related to their capacity to remove reactive oxygen species (ROS), as vitamin C does, protecting the human body against diseases associated with oxidative stress. Moreover, carotenoids affect gene expression regulation which partly explains the association between higher carotenoids intake and lower risk of certain diseases (cardiovascular, some types of cancer, osteoporosis, infectious, cataract, etc.). Yellowand orange-fleshed banana cultivars are known to be richer in trans-β-carotene content. Among the flavonoids detected in banana, quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol, and cyanidin provide health benefits mainly because they act as free radicals, ROS, and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) scavengers (Kevers et al. 2007). Most of these phenolics are also known to exhibit antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antiallergenic, antithrombotic and vasodilatory activities. Leucocyanidin is a predominant flavonoid present in unripe banana pulp that showed significant anti-ulcerogenic activity (Lewis et al. 1999). Banana

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Table 2.2

Composition and nutritional profile of banana fruit (per 100 g).

Nutrient

Units

Raw

% Daily value

Water

g

74.91

—

Energy

kcal/kJ

89/371

4

Protein

g

1.09

2

Total lipid (fat)

g

0.33

—

Ash

g

0.82

—

Carbohydrate, by difference

g

22.84

8

Proximate, sugars, and energy

Fiber, total dietary

g

2.6

10

Sugars, total

g

12.23

—

Sucrose

g

2.39

—

Glucose (dextrose)

g

4.98

—

Fructose

g

4.85

—

Starch

g

5.38

—

Minerals Calcium

mg

5

1

Iron

mg

0.26

1

Magnesium

mg

27

7

Phosphorus

mg

22

2

Potassium

mg

358

10

Sodium

mg

1

0

Zinc

mg

0.15

1

Manganese

mg

0.27

13

Selenium

μg

1

1

Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid

mg

8.7

15

Thiamin

mg

0.03

2

Riboflavin

mg

0.07

4

Niacin

mg

0.67

3

Pantothenic acid

mg

0.33

3

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)

mg

0.37

18

Folate, total

μg

20

5

Choline, total

mg

9.8

—

Vitamin A, RAE

μg

3

—

Vitamins

α-Carotene

μg

26

—

ß-Carotene

μg

25

—

Vitamin A, IU

IU

64

1

Lutein + zeaxanthin

μg

22

—

Vitamin E (α-tocopherol)

mg

0.1

1

Source: USDA (2019).

Harvesting

peel is rich in many high-value health-promoting antioxidant phytochemicals, such as anthocyanins, delphinidin, and cyanidins (Shidhu and Zafar 2018). Various phenolics have been identified not only in banana fruit but also in the rhizome and pseudostem: gallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, tannins, anthocyanins, ferulic, sinapic, salicylic, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, syringic, gentisic and p-coumaric acids. The content of phenolics is usually higher in the peel than in the pulp of the fruit. Banana peel and pulp are good sources of certain biogenic amines (catecholamines: dopamine, serotonin, epinephrine, and norepinephrine). Dopamine is a neurotransmitter having a strong influence on mood and emotional stability. Tryptophan, a precursor for the synthesis of dopamine, is an amino acid that exists in banana peel. Pharmaceutical formulations using this by-product of the food processing industry can be used to prevent neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease. Serotonin creates a feeling of well-being and happiness, while epinephrine and norepinephrine act as both neurotransmitters and hormones in the body. The lipophilic extract of ripe banana pulp from several cultivars of the M. acuminata and M. balbisiana species has been found to be a source of ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids, phytosterols, long-chain aliphatic alcohols, and α-tocopherol, thus offering well-established nutritional and health benefits (Vilela et al. 2014). Health professionals recommend the consumption of a plant sterol-rich diet to lower the low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) cholesterol in patients who do not tolerate cholesterol lowering statin drugs. Various phytosterols have been reported in the banana pulp and peel (stigmasterol, ß-sitosterol, campesterol, 24-methylene cycloartenol, cycloeucalenol, and cycloartenol). Bananas are rich in pectin and, when unripe, contain resistant starch moderating blood sugar levels after meals and slowing the emptying of the stomach and thus reducing the appetite. Moreover, resistant starch improves insulin sensitivity to those patients with metabolic syndrome (a combination of diabetes, high blood pressure, and obesity). Potassium and magnesium are important minerals for heart health – especially, for blood pressure control. The health benefits of eating different parts of the banana plant and fruit are: boosts energy levels, anti-diarrheal (green banana), help circulation, lower blood pressure, reduce risk of stroke, fight infections, anti-ulcer, anti-diabetic, protect skin against damage from UV light, fights depression and anxiety, suppressed oxalate kidney stones (stem extract), prevent age-related macular degeneration, etc.

Harvesting Harvesting Indices Selection of the right stage of maturity for harvest is an important aspect which has considerable influence on storage life and quality, and therefore, final acceptance by the consumer. The banana plant typically produces fruit 8–12 months after planting in the tropics, while in the subtropics needs 12–18 months (Table 2.1). Harvesting depends on the variety and the distance of the market where the banana is going to be commercialized, but as a climacteric fruit has to be when physiological maturity has been reached. After the flower has opened, the fingers start to grow and get fatter but stay green. Bagging bunches results

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in a cultural practice which is very convenient to avoid fruit defects caused by thrips, anthracnose, and even by hard winds or high temperature differences between night and day. Fernandes et al. (2019) observed that bagging bunches at emission reduces incidence and severity of anthracnose by up to 67% and did not interfere in the physical and chemical characteristics of the fruit. Maturity measurements must be simple, readily performed in the field (if possible), and should require relatively inexpensive equipment. They should be preferably objective and non-destructive. Although maturity of the fruit is assessed largely by the producers’ experience of the visual appearance of the fingers (angularity, diameter, length, and color), new objective and non-destructive techniques are being developed (image processing or visible/near-infrared [VIS/NIR] spectroscopy). Based on these maturity indices, the banana bunches can be classified into three categories: un-mature, mature, and over-mature fruit (Muchui et al. 2010). Age Bunch Control

Lack of age control may result in the harvesting of under-filled or under-mature (immature) bunches with fruits off-flavor and off-color, or over-mature bunches predisposing banana to ripe, cracked, or rot in transit to the final destination. Under-mature fruits could not produce characteristic flavor and color whereas over-mature fruits cause splitting and spoilage. Age control is important in the proper assessment of green life as well as scheduling harvesting and marketing operations efficiently (Dadzie and Orchard 1997). Colored ribbons or the tagging of the plants in the field immediately after flower emergence are used to provide information regarding bunch age. Calculating the number of days from anthesis to harvest provides one of the best indicators of maturity of banana, cooking banana or plantain although variations in development will be noted among cultivars/hybrids, or field conditions. As bunches advance in age fruit changes in size, shape, length, volume (circumference), and color. In most Musa cultivars/hybrids, during the early stages of development, individual fingers are angular, however as growth progresses, the fingers lose angularity and become more rounded and full in shape (as fruit advance in age). The final degree of roundness is cultivar dependent. Fruit diameter (or caliper grade of fruit) and fruit length may be used as criteria to determine when to harvest. On most banana plantations, fruits destined for distant markets are harvested at a stage known as “three quarters full,” when the fingers are still clearly angular, while for local markets fruits are often harvested when fingers are full or rounded. Length is also used to assess the maturity of the bunch before harvest and it is determined by measuring the middle finger on the outer whorl of the second hand. Finger color also changes from dark green to green, and finally to yellow with fruit age. There is both a linear relationship and a strong correlation between pulp to peel ratio and bunch age. Regardless of the fruit growth rate, the physiological age of banana fruits is closely correlated with the mean daily temperature sum accumulated by the fruit during its development. Thus, 900 degree-days (at the 14 ∘ C threshold) from the shooting stage are needed by Cavendish bunches to have a green life duration sufficient to support exportation (Ganry and Chillet 2008). Green life is calculated as the period (in days) between harvest and commencement of ripening.

Fruit Quality Disorders

Image Processing

Image processing is an innovative field of science where the acquired image is transformed into useful information. Prabha and Kumar (2015) found that the mean color intensity and area features were more significant among the different maturity stages than other features such as perimeter, major axis length, and minor axis length. Mean color intensity algorithm was more accurate (99.1%) for differentiating under-mature, mature, and over-mature, than area algorithm (85%) which is useful for differentiating under-mature banana, but not to distinguish between mature and over-mature. Since both the color and size value are a reliable index to determine the right time to harvest, the mean color intensity algorithms in conjunction with area algorithms developed in this study could be employed commercially to develop a field-based completely automatic detection system for banana growers to decide the right time to harvest. VIS/NIR Spectroscopy

Non-destructive prediction of banana fruit quality using VIS/NIR spectroscopy has been done based on determining fruit chlorophyll and sugar contents (Zude-Sasse 2003). Nevertheless, no studies in predicting bunch age or maturity have been developed.

Harvest Harvesting must be done manually, carefully, and using appropriate tools to avoid bruises and bumps. In very hot weather, bananas should be harvested during the coolest part of the day. During cultivation in order to avoid the plant falling due to the weight of the bunch, some forks are used on which it rests, and/or a cable system that then facilitates its removal. Bananas are always harvested by hand using a two-person team. One person cuts the bunch and the other carries it away. A cut with a sharp knife is made on the facing bunch stem, while the receiver is placed under the bunch with his or her shoulder covered with a blanket. The bunch stem begins to bend because of the weight, and it is lowered to the receiver’s shoulder padding and finally the bunch stem is cut with a saw. The method of harvesting will depend on the height of the plant. Low-growing varieties can be harvested by cutting through the bunch stalk about 30–35 cm above the top hand, while in taller varieties, the stem of the plant will be partly cut through to bring the bunch to within the harvester’s reach, and then the bunch stalk can be cut through. Harvested bunches are best carried wrapped in foam protective blankets and positioned vertically in padded trailers to minimize friction during transport from the field to the packing house. At the packing house, banana bunches are hung, the covers removed, washed or not, and de-handed. The hands or cluster are washed and finally packed into boxes. Bananas should be carefully handled at all stages of the harvesting and packing process. Rough handling can result in damage that does not become evident until the carton is opened at the markets after the ripening process.

Fruit Quality Disorders Both banana quality and market value are affected by the development of many physiological disorders that occur in all growing regions of the world. They are not caused by either

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2 Biology and Postharvest Physiology of Banana

Peel splitting Maturity stain

Alligator skin

Kottai vazhai

Precocious ripening

Sunburn Sinking fruit

Figure 2.4

Point scars

Bruised peel

Full filled

Latex stain

Fused fingers

Finger drop

Disorders arising from transport, ripening and marketing practices

Fruit cracking

Disorders arising during harvest/packing house

Choke throat

Disorders arising during banana cultivation

36

CO2 injury

Chilling injury

O2 deficiency injury

Senescence High temperature

Mixed ripe

Physiological disorders of banana fruit.

invasion by pathogens (disease-causing organisms) or by mechanical damage; they develop largely in response to an adverse environment, especially temperature, or to a nutritional deficiency during growth and development (Wills et al. 1989). The major physiological disorders (Figure 2.4) that may occur in banana, cooking banana, and plantain are discussed in the following.

Disorders Arising During Banana Cultivation Choke Throat

This disorder results from low temperature conditions in the field. Low temperature causes yellowing of leaves and under severe conditions the leaves become necrotic. Low temperature, at the time of flowering, affects the bunch formation which cannot emerge from the pseudostem properly. Moreover, the maturity time of the bunch is extended from 3−4 months up to 5−6 months. This disorder is called choke throat because although the distal part of the inflorescence comes out of the pseudostem, the basal part is stuck up at the throat. The management of choke throat includes the use of varieties that tolerate low temperature and the use of Casuarina or Eucalyptus as a shelter belt to prevent the effect of cold winds in the orchard. Peel Fruit Splitting

Fruit cracking is a serious physiological disorder that has a negative effect on the fruit appearance, decreases its shelf-life, and is considered as a preferential entry site for fungal pathogens, thus rendering the fruit unmarketable. Split peel of green banana in the fields results from a too rapid filling of the fingers due to highly favorable growing conditions or if the harvest time is delayed. Peel split also occurs during transport, and when ripening. The peel of the fruit is split into bisects and consequently the pulp is exposed as the cracks

Fruit Quality Disorders

widen as a consequence of a high relative humidity of over 90% combined with temperatures over 21 ∘ C. When the finger is too full, this can be observed 3–6 days after ripening induction when stored in saturating humidity conditions. Cavendish cultivars (GN) are less susceptible to splitting than other varieties, e.g. “Gros Michel.” Brat et al. (2016) tentatively found that splitting intensity was associated with an inverse water flux at high relative humidity through an osmotic peel to pulp water flux resulting from the higher sugar content in the pulp than in the peel. Rheological properties were measured, and although the peel resistance and elasticity in cv. 925 (a hybrid produced by CIRAD’s plant breeding program, CIRAD925 [M. acuminata, AAA group, hereafter called 925]) were surprisingly higher than in cv. GN, saturating humidity conditions (100% RH) substantially reduced the peel resistance. However, the peel epicuticular wax in cv. 925 was clearly thinner than that in cv. GN, thus leading to limitation of peel hydration in cv. GN. Peel splitting in cv. 925 was also associated with a boost in respiration, an increase in oxidative stress markers (H2 O2 ), resulting in an increase in cellular damage markers (content of malonyldialdehyde, and peel electrolyte leakage). Overall, their results suggest that peel splitting at high relative humidity in cv. 925 was related to fast decrease peel water content and the induction of high oxidative stress damage. Management of this disorder is to avoid harvesting the fruit >3/4 caliper width and storing full fingers at high humidity. Sinking Fruit

The fruit sinks to the bottom of the wash tank hindering the packaging chain and negatively affecting the appearance of the hands and clusters when rubbing the peel with the bottom of the tank. It is due to a potassium deficiency and tends to occur in plump clusters, especially after heavy rain and warm weather. It is important to take care at fertilization during cultivation (potassium application should be from 400 to 800 kg/ha). Maturity Stain

Maturity bronzing can be an important economic problem in some banana-growing regions. Fruit affected by this disorder does not meet Number 1 grading standards, showing a reddish-brown or brown discoloration, developing a scabby, cracked peel, and making the fruit unacceptable for sale. They must be culled at the packing house during de-handing and before washing, drying, and boxing. Nevertheless, yield and eating quality of affected fruits are not compromised. Maturity bronzing appears on peels at or near harvest, at about the 3/4 caliper stage of fruit development. The symptoms become more severe as fruits fill beyond the 3/4 width. This disorder may be confused with damage caused by red rust thrips (Chaetanaphothrips signipennis). Although the cause of the maturity stain remains unclear, the symptoms appear to be a physiological disorder resulting from an undefined stress to the exterior layers of the banana peel, followed by rapid growth and expansion of the fruit. The condition has also been associated with water deficit at bunch emergence during periods of rapid fruit growth when air temperatures and relative humidity are high and in contrast with periods of heavy rain accompanied by high humidity and overcast conditions. It is important to irrigate at the early stages of bunch phenology to avoid moisture stress, and to harvest when the fruit attains 3/4 mature diameter.

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Leaf Rubbing Injury (Alligator Skin)

Bunch fruits present raised, cracked, brown areas with corky appearance that sometimes group together in large, separate masses on the peel. This disorder is often attributed to leaf rubbing injury during bunch development caused when peel cells are killed by the edges of leaf blades rubbing against immature fruits during wind events. Leaves near bunches should be removed weekly to prevent this disorder. Bumpy Finger

Banana peel show bumps due to swollen pulp that can be associated with poor soils, boron deficiency, or rapid filling of fruit pulp. Management practices are to maintain good plant nutrition and avoid boron deficiency (Nelson and Pethybridge 2019). Point Scars

The symptom is bruises on fruit peels associated with the position of the flower-end of proximal fingers. Rough handling of harvested bunches causes fingers from proximal hands to rub together and affect each other. Thus, it is important to avoid rough handling of bunches after harvest (Nelson and Pethybridge 2019). Sunburn/Sunscald

Sunburned fruits are yellow when unripe and sometimes even get black. Bunches formed on the west- or south-west-facing side of the pseudostem are most prone to sunburn. Those bunches that do not hang vertically are more susceptible. Defoliation due to BLSD can increase this disorder. Sunburn can be controlled by draping a lightweight cloth or a polythene sleeve over the bunch. Kottai Vazhai

It is a serious malady in some banana varieties, specifically in “Poovan” in which production losses can reach 10–25%. The symptoms are distinctly conical and ill-filled fruits with a prominent central core having many underdeveloped seedy structures making the fruit inedible. The pseudostem exhibits streaks, striations and blotches on the surface. Bunches are held at an angle above the horizontal position. Pollen grains are infertile, shriveled, shrunken, and broken while the pericarp is smaller and the locular cavity is bigger than normal. The absence or the occurrence of auxin, gibberellin and cell dividing factors at subepidermal levels affect the development of parthenocarpy fruits. Application of 2,4-D (25 ppm) and GA (100 ppm) after the opening of the last hand favors development of parthenocarpy fruit.

Potassium Deficiency The most characteristic potassium deficiency symptom is chlorosis that causes yellowing of older leaf tips followed by inward leaf curling and finally leaf death. Banana plants grow slowly and have a sturdy appearance due to the shortening of internodes, with short, slim and deformed bunches due to the poor fruit filling caused by reduced photosynthesis and sugar transportation. The crop requires adequate fertilization during cultivation to avoid this disorder.

Fruit Quality Disorders

Yellow Pulp

Excessive shading of plants, magnesium deficiency, or drought delay fruit filling shortening green life and diminishing fruit quality (pulp yellow pale and poor texture). The management of this disorder consists of removing excess shading (windbreaks), avoiding soils with poor aeration, low organic matter or high clay content, irrigating during periods of drought, and applying fertilizers to avoid magnesium deficiency and that of other nutrients. Precocious Ripening

Individual fingers ripen prematurely on hands before the bunch is harvested. Ethylene gas from leaves with Sigatoka disease favors premature fruit ripening. The management to control this disorder is to de-trash plants with Sigatoka disease weekly.

Disorders Arising During Harvest or at the Packing House Bruised Peel and Pulp

Rough handling of unripe fruits during harvest and packing produces blackish bruises in the peel with regions from gray to black and softened pulp beneath the bruised areas. Careful handling of bunches, hands, and clusters during and after harvest diminish this disorder. Latex (sap) Stain

Latex coming out of the hands or cluster crowns can stain the fruit surface when not removed from wash tanks. Washing fruits immediately after de-handing, using sharp knives to ensure smooth cuts, in water with products that agglutinate the latex such as aluminum sulfate can help prevent staining. Before bagging bunches in the field remove female flowers because when they become dry and brittle, this creates sap flow. Fused Fingers

The fusion of banana fingers is the result of a genetic mutation or defect, seen particularly in Cavendish varieties. Hands with fused fingers may not be marketable but are completely safe to eat. The affected plant and its suckers should be destroyed if found on a commercial farm.

Disorders Arising from Transport, Ripening, and Marketing Practices Finger Drop

Cooking banana, plantain and especially dessert banana are often marketed as hands or clusters conserving the crown attached. Finger drop is a physiological disorder which occurs as a result of the softening and weakening of the pedicel which causes individual fruit of a hand to separate or dislodge very easily from the crown during ripening (Semple and Thompson 1988). It is associated with inherent genomic susceptibility (A genomes > B genomes; tetraploids > triploids > diploids) (Putra et al. 2010), deficiency in soil nitrogen during the production period, advanced stages of fruit maturity, and rapid ripening precipitated by too high a temperature in the ripening room (Marriott 1980). Finger drop is further exacerbated by prevailing cultural and marketing practices (harvesting fruits at full size or maximum caliper width, and displaying bunches on hooks).

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Retailers and consumers do not want fingers falling easily from the crown during handling. Greater dropping resistance is related to higher accumulation of dry mass and starch in the pedicel, being the activity of polygalacturonase (the key enzyme in the solubilization of the cell wall that accompanies ripening) positively related to dropping susceptibility (Ruiz et al. 2016). Salazar and Serrano (2013) observed that the application at the pedicel-end portion of 200 ppm gibberellic acid (GA3), 4% calcium chloride (CaCl2 ), or 60% v/v ethanol (EtOH) were effective postharvest treatments against the disorder, with no finger drop occurrence in “Cuarenta días” bananas 15 days at ambient storage. Control of finger drop by any of these chemical treatments was associated with delayed peel color development and ripening events. Thus, it is important to control finger drop disorder by selecting varieties less prone to this disorder and treat the crown and fruit pedicels with substances that control the activity of enzymes related to cell wall degradation (polygalacturonase and pectylmethylesterase), and improve the stability of calcium bonds. Chilling Injury

Chilling injury incidence and severity depends on cultivar, maturity stage, and temperature and duration of exposure. Chilling injury occurs when a product is exposed to an injurious, low temperature for sufficient time to initiate irreversible injury. Chilling injury is one of the most important physiological disorders affecting bananas. Green fruit is slightly more susceptible to chilling injury than mature fruit. The chilling of banana results when the pre- or postharvest temperature falls below 14 ∘ C. The peel of banana becomes dark and the fruit reveals uneven ripening, watery dark patches, and dull yellow to smoky yellow color of the ripening fingers, brittleness, and fungal invasion. Brown streaks are also observed on the subepidermal layer of the vascular bundle. These result from enzymatic oxidation of dihydroxyphenylalanine. The main control strategy for chilling injury involves avoiding exposure to temperatures below 13–14 ∘ C for long periods. CO2 Injury

Exposure to CO2 concentrations greater than 5% in ripening rooms may cause fruit to soften while still green. The fruit has an undesirable texture and flavor. It is important to ventilate ripening rooms adequately. Oxygen Deficiency Injury

Oxygen concentrations below 2% causes dull yellow or brown skin, failure to ripen, and off-flavor. It is necessary to ventilate ripening rooms adequately to avoid anaerobic conditions. High Temperature Injury

Bananas ripened at a high temperature show dull gray green color, under-peel discoloration, and off-flavor development. Air temperatures over 30–35 ∘ C during transport can irreversibly inhibit ripening. It is very important to avoid exposing fruits to high temperatures. Withered Pedicels

Pedicels appear withered, wrinkled and desiccated when bananas are stored in areas of low relative humidity. To avoid this disorder ripening should be performed at 95% RH, and fruits then stored over 75% RH.

References

Mixed Ripe

Hands once in boxes ripen prematurely during shipment or ripen non-uniformly at any point before commercial ripening. More mature bananas ripen first and ripeners find it very difficult to ripen the banana pallets to reach the same maturity stage. It is important to label bunches in the field to harvest, pack and ripen those which are at the same stage of ripening. Senescent Spots

Brown spots less than 1 mm deep or flecks appears on the peel that do not enlarge, coalesce, or blacken. They are due to the banana fruit’s senescence or the death of small groups of cells in the outer peel after the banana is treated in a ripening room. The condition is associated with the forced ripening of overly mature banana fruits, so avoid ripening fruits >3/4 caliper width. Peel Abrasion

Mechanical injury during transport, ripening or marketing handling can make the fruit unmarketable due to the appearance of blackened areas on the peel. Avoid rubbing or abrading peels at the packing house. Transportation should be carefully done, as well as management in the wholesalers and retailers.

Conclusions Bananas are produced in tropical and subtropical regions having a highly significant economic importance, and are a staple fruit in many countries. The fruit is rich in nutraceuticals and due to its health benefits is recommended to be included in the daily diet. Maintenance of banana quality during the supply chain depends on many aspects including pre- and postharvest management: adequate orchard management practices, harvesting practices, packing operation, postharvest treatments, temperature management, transportation and storage conditions, and ripening at destination. Postharvest losses rise during the supply chain when fruit is harvested at improper maturity, mechanical damage has occurred, fruits develop physiological disorders, and/or disease and pest damage have not been controlled. Thus, management practices are indispensable to create suitable conditions or environments to retain the quality attributes, and nutritional and functional compounds of the banana, and to extend the storage life.

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3 Banana Pathology and Diseases Andressa de Souza-Pollo 1 and Antonio de Goes 2 1

Laboratory of Molecular Epidemiology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Paulo, 01049-010, Brazil of Plant Pathology, Laboratory of Phytopathology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Paulo, 01049-010, Brazil 2 Department

Introduction Diseases have been considered the main factor responsible for yield losses in banana plantations worldwide. Severe reduction in banana production can lead to a threat to global food security, as it is one of the most consumed fruits in the world (Blomme et al. 2017). Several pathogens, including fungi, bacteria, and virus, can impair banana production as emergent threats or established and widespread diseases (Table 3.1).

Sigatoka Disease Complex Sigatoka disease complex is caused by an ascomycete fungus belonging to the genus Pseudocercospora (sexual morph Mycosphaerella). The disease complex comprises black Sigatoka, yellow Sigatoka, and eumusae leaf spot diseases, caused by Pseudocercospora fijiensis, Pseudocercospora musae, and Pseudocercospora eumusae, respectively (Arzanlou et al. 2007). The pathogen causes large lesions in leaves which leads to decrease of photosynthetic area, causing a reduction in the quantity and quality of fruits and premature ripening of them (Marin et al. 2003). Pseudocercospora musae appeared first in Java, Southeast Asia, in 1902, and was found worldwide during the 1940s. Even though P. musae was first reported, P. fijiensis, discovered on the Fiji Islands in 1963, has become the dominant species spread in all continents (Marin et al. 2003; Arzanlou et al. 2010). P. fijiensis is able to infect a wide range of cultivars, including those resistant to P. musae, and in comparison, P. fijiensis can cause considerably more damage, with losses reaching up to 76% (Marin et al. 2003). The third species, P. eumusae, was reported occurring in diseased leaf samples collected from Nigeria in 1999, although analysis revealed that the pathogen has been present in that country since at least 1989 (Carlier et al. 2000). Up to now, P. eumusae appears to be restricted to parts of Asia and some parts of Africa, which confers any advantage to other parts of the world producing banana. P. eumusae can infect banana cultivars that are resistant to both P. musae and Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition, First Edition. Edited by Muhammad Siddiq, Jasim Ahmed, and Maria Gloria Lobo. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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Table 3.1

Major diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, and virus affecting banana plantations.

Banana diseases

Causal agent

Main symptoms

Management

References

Sigatoka complex Mycosphaerella fijiensis Black Sigatoka Mycosphaerella Yellow Sigatoka musae Eumusae Mycosphaerella leaf spot eumusae

Dark brown leaf streaks, yellow leaf streaks, faint brown leaf streaks

Systemic fungicides application; removal of plants heavily infected; resistant cultivars plantation

Ploetz et al. (1994), Carlier et al. (2000), Marin et al. (2003)

Fusarium wilt

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense

Vascular wilt; yellowing of the oldest leaves

Pathogen eradication; resistant genotypes plantation

Ploetz (2015)

Anthracnose

Colletotrichum musae

Sunken black lesions on fruits resulting in rot

Avoid any bruising or injuries on fruits; prune banana mats; use of copper fungicide; cool the bananas to 13–14 ∘ C in transportation and markets

Nelson (2008)

Crown rot

Fungi complex including Musicillium theobromae, Colletotrichum musae, Ceratocystis paradoxa, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Nigrospora sphaerica, Cladosporium sp., Acremonium sp., Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp., Fusarium spp., Verticillium, and Curvularia

Brown to black rot develops on the crown of the banana bunch; fungus can penetrate deeply into the crown, reach the fingers, and cause a dry black rot

Lassois et al. Postharvest fungicide (2010), treatment; preventive Nelson (2008) measures in packing stations; deflowering, water quality care and sanitation; Storage conditions: temperature controlled at 13–14 ∘ C, high relative humidity; hot water treatments; UV and gamma radiation treatment

Freckle

Phyllosticta maculate Phyllosticta musarum Phyllosticta cavendishii

Freckle-like spots on fruits and leaves

Bag the fruits; fungicide treatments

Wong et al. (2012)

Large, pale brown, oval necrotic lesions with a dark brown border surrounded by a bright yellow halo

Control of leaf diseases and nutritional deficiencies once the pathogen is secondary invader

Hernandez et al. (2015)

Fungi:

Cordana leaf spot Neocordana musae Neocordana johnstonii

(continued)

Sigatoka Disease Complex

Table 3.1

(Continued)

Banana diseases

Causal agent

Main symptoms

Moko disease

Ralstonia solanacearum

Vascular discoloration in the pseudostem, rhizome, and leaf sheaths; black, deformed and shriveled fruits

Banana Xanthomonas wilt

Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum

Pseudostem and rhizome rot

Dickeya paradisiaca

Pseudostem wet rot in bananas of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama, and Dominican Republic; slow plant growing, chlorotic, and flaccid leaves

Head rot or rhizome rot

Pectobacterium carotovorum

Soft rot of the rhizome in the humid tropics, slow and retarded growth of plants, and toppling over of mature plants and fruits

Management

Limitation of access to the infected fields; regular tool disinfection; killing and removing diseased plants/mats; build channels around the infected plants to limit the movement of Wilting of the male bud; fruits superficial water bacterial inoculum; elimination of turn yellow secondary host plants; prematurely; pulp of the fruits removal of male flowers (de-budding); early rotten; leaves turn yellow and bagging of fruit; crop rotation dry out

References

Tripathi et al. (2009), Blomme et al. (2017)

Virus: Banana bunchy top disease

Banana bunchy top virus

Clustered leaves on the top of plant; series of dark green dots and dashes on leaves; leaves short and narrow with chlorotic curled margins

Mosaic disease

Banana bract mosaic virus

Reddish-brown mosaic pattern on the bracts of the inflorescence

Control of the insect vectors; removal and destruction of infected plants; quarantine; use of healthy and certified planting materials; planting of disease-resistant cultivars when possible

Elayabalan et al. (2015), Tripathi et al. (2016)

(continued)

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Table 3.1

(Continued)

Banana diseases

Causal agent

Main symptoms

Streak virus disease

Banana streak virus

Discontinuous and/or continuous chlorotic dots or streaks that turn necrotic from the midrib to the leaf margin

Management

References

Streaks turn dark orange, brown, or black Infectious chlorosis disease

Cucumber mosaic virus

Chlorotic streaks on leaf lamina; necrosis of emerging leaves and internal tissues of pseudostem; mosaic symptoms on fruits

P. fijiensis and cause losses of up to 40% (Carlier et al. 2000; Chang et al. 2016). The fact is that there are more than 20 Pseudocercospora species on bananas, some of them co-existing on the same leaf or even in the same lesion, which contributes to the genetic material exchange (Arzanlou et al. 2008). Phylogenetic studies have demonstrated that the three main species associated to Sigatoka Disease Complex share a common ancestor (Arzanlou et al. 2010). Lesions caused by P. musae and P. fijiensis may look similar, one being distinguished from the other by molecular analysis and conidiophore structure. P. fijiensis produces conidiophores in small groups, its conidium and conidiophore present basal scars at their points of attachment, and it produces most conidia and spermagonia (male sexual spores) on the underside of the leaf. P. musae, in turn, produces conidiophores in large clusters and its conidia are predominantly produced on the upper side of the leaf (Ploetz et al. 1994; Bennett and Arneson 2003). The symptoms of black Sigatoka appear first on the abaxial surface of the third or fourth open leaf as chlorotic tiny spots that grow and become thin brown streaks. Characteristic of the disease type, the streaks become darker, visible on the top surface of the leaf and, according to their enlargement, they become fusiform or elliptical. Under high disease severity and conditions of high humidity, large areas of the leaf may become blackened and water-soaked (Figure 3.1). On the necrotic tissue, it is possible to observe several reproductive structures containing asci filled with ascospores that will emerge from the underside of the leaf and will be wind spread (Ploetz et al. 1994; Bennett and Arneson 2003). Regarding yellow Sigatoka, the first symptoms appear as small pale yellow spots or streaks parallel to

Sigatoka Disease Complex

(A)

(B)

(D)

(C)

(E)

Figure 3.1 Black Sigatoka symptoms: (A) initial symptoms appear as thin brown streaks that become (B) large and dark with chlorotic spots; (C, D, and E) streaks and spots coalesce resulting in large necrotic areas of the oldest leaves. Source: Reproduced with permission of Dr. Wilson da Silva Moraes (APTA, Regional Polo of Ribeira Valley, SP, Brazil).

the side vein of the leaf that become elongated and brown with light gray centers. Such spots enlarge, and the tissue around them becomes yellow and dies (Figure 3.2). Adjacent spots coalesce and form large lesions (Ploetz et al. 1994). The symptoms caused by P. eumusae are very similar to those described for the other leaf spot diseases. The initial lesions appear as faint brown streaks that in high density coalesce, and large areas of the leaf tissue become necrotic (Carlier et al. 2000). For Sigatoka disease complex control, it is important to know its epidemiology. The evolution of the disease depends on favorable climatic conditions and the infection starts only in young leaves including unfurled ones. Then, the disease evolves from the top to the bottom of the banana plant and fungicide applications should be aimed at the top of the plant to control new infections. Ascospores are produced in necrotic tissues, therefore, it is important to control the disease from the beginning, and heavily spotted leaves should be removed. Nonetheless, as ascospores are easily wind spread, it is essential that all banana producers of one region follow the same strategies for disease control. In tropical countries, bananas are grown both on a large scale in fields and in house gardens, therefore, once the disease has reached a region it will be quickly spread (De Lapeyre de Bellaire et al. 2010). Fungicide application is the only method to control the disease (Marin et al. 2003). Thus, strategies aimed at efficient elimination of infected banana plants and the neighboring bananas should be implemented to stop the spread of disease until its eradication (Henderson et al. 2006).

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(A)

(B)

Figure 3.2 Yellow Sigatoka symptoms: (A) elongated and brown streaks with light gray centers parallel to the side vein of the leaf; (B) adjacent spots coalesce and form large necrotic lesions. Source: Reproduced with permission of Dr. Wilson da Silva Moraes (APTA, Regional Polo of Ribeira Valley, SP, Brazil).

Contact and systemic fungicides can be used for disease control (Marin et al. 2003). Contact fungicides such as mancozeb and chlorothalonil have only a preventive effect and so they are generally applied weekly to protect all new unfurling banana leaves. These fungicides inhibit fungal germination by a multisite action and do not induce the development of resistant strains. Among systemic fungicides the following different chemicals have been used: (i) benzimidazoles that inhibit tubuline polymerization; (ii) triazoles that are inhibitors of ergosterol biosynthesis; (iii) amines, also inhibitors of ergosterol biosynthesis; (iv) strobilurins that bind to the cytochrome b complex and inhibit mitochondrial respiration; and (v) pyrimethanil, a supposed inhibitor of methionine biosynthesis. In areas with early disease detection and in those that a strong curative effect is required, application of systemic fungicides is essential. The curative effect is more pronounced on young streaks, lower on older lesions and has no effect in the necrotic stages. The fungicide treatments are usually more than 35% of the total production costs (Romero and Sutton 1997). Nonetheless, as systemic fungicides act on a single target, they provoke the emergence of resistant strains, mainly those fungicides belonging to the benzimidazoles class (De Lapeyre de Bellaire et al. 2010). In order to prevent numerous applications of fungicides, researchers have tested the efficiency of microbial fungicide based on Bacillus subtilis against black Sigatoka and found reductions of the disease comparable with those obtained with the protectant fungicides in combination with systemic fungicides (Gutierrez-Monsalve et al. 2015). Black Sigatoka affects the most popular dessert banana (AAA and some AAB genomes) and plantain (AAB genome) cultivars. The AAA banana cultivars belong to the Cavendish subgroup and are the genomic group typically grown in monoculture (Churchill 2011). Two types of resistance have been described for the disease. One is found in cultivars Yangambi km 5 (AAA, Ibota) and in different diploids used in breeding programs (Paka, AA), and it is characterized by high resistance and so can block the symptoms of the disease in the early stages. The other is partially resistant since the evolution of the symptoms occurs slower in

Fusarium Wilt Disease

comparison with susceptible varieties and is present in cultivars belonging to the subgroups Pisang Awak (ABB) and Mysore (AAB). However, there are reports that changes in the fungal population have led to an increase in its pathogenicity even in these resistant cultivars (De Lapeyre de Bellaire et al. 2010). Therefore, researchers are relying on the knowledge of the complete genome sequence of the pathogen to facilitate the development of resistant cultivars in banana breeding programs (Arango Isaza et al. 2016; Chang et al. 2016). Meanwhile, models to monitor the disease at field level and to predict potential changes in aggressive traits in fungal populations are essential to implement strategies for disease control (De Lapeyre de Bellaire et al. 2010).

Fusarium Wilt Disease The disease is caused by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc) and it is one of the most destructive diseases of banana worldwide. The pathogen was first described in Australia (Bancroft 1876), but it probably originated in Southeast Asia (Ploetz 2015). Until 1960, export trades were mainly based on the banana cultivar “Gros Michel” that presented high susceptibility to Foc race 1 (Ploetz 2005). This problem was temporarily solved by plantations of race 1-resistant Cavendish cultivars that expanded into large global monocultures, which evidently posed a threat, especially for black Sigatoka and Panama diseases (Zheng et al. 2018). However, in the early 1990s, Fusarium symptoms reappeared in new plantations of Cavendish in Southeast Asia. There had emerged a new genetic lineage of Foc (vegetative compatibility group [VCG] 01213), colloquially called Tropical Race 4 (Foc TR4). Since then, TR4 has been reported in Australia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Africa, (Ploetz 2015; Zheng et al. 2018). Fusarium causes in banana a vascular wilt disease. Even though the pathogen can infect roots of both susceptible and resistant banana cultivars, the fungus only invades the vascular tissue through the roots of susceptible genotypes. In response to infection, tyloses, gums, and gels are produced in the xylem resulting in blockage of the pseudostem. Affected xylem becomes reddish brown and obstructed which impedes water and nutrient transport. Thus, the first signs of the disease are usually wilting and yellowing of the oldest leaves around the margins. The yellow leaves may remain erect or collapse at the petiole. Yellowing of leaves is most common, although sometimes the leaves remain green, except for spots on the petiole. Eventually, younger leaves develop symptoms and the plant collapses (Ploetz 2015). The leaf symptoms of Fusarium wilt can be confused with those of the bacterial disease Xanthomonas wilt, however, in contrast to Fusarium disease, in plants affected by Xanthomonas, wilt symptoms can be present in any leaf and it tends to snap along the leaf lamina. Foc is disseminated mainly by infected suckers. Thus, after tissue-culture plantlets became available, it was possible to produce clean planting material (Ploetz 2015). Foc race 1 and TR4 can survive in the absence of its banana host in roots of grasses and other weed species. Chlamydospores can also remain in dead host material (Hennessy et al. 2005). Therefore, as Foc can be disseminated in soil, growing plantlets prior to field establishment is recommended (Buddenhagen 2009). Furthermore, contaminated water and farm equipment can facilitate Foc dissemination around a plantation (Ploetz 2015).

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There are few effective options to avoid Foc wilt owing to the epidemiology of the pathogen. Chemical treatment of a huge volume of soil is not plausible. The best alternative to avoid the disease is the plantation of resistant genotypes, as GCTCV somaclones and other resistant cultivars (Xu et al. 2011). Nonetheless, such resistant cultivars may not be productive and attractive to markets. Genetic transformation techniques and genetic improvement of Cavendish and other susceptible cultivars to Foc resistance are greatly needed, mainly in regions where a TR4 lineage has been established (Buddenhagen 2009; Ploetz 2015).

Anthracnose Anthracnose in bananas is a postharvest disease caused by Colletotrichum musae and can result in 30–40% losses of marketable fruits (Ranasinghe et al. 2003). Colletotrichum species are capable of causing lesions on fruits even without skin injury (Nelson 2008). Besides C. musae, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, a polyphagous species, has also been reported to cause anthracnose in bananas (Riera et al. 2019). The symptoms appear first as sunken black or brown spots of various sizes on the fruit (Figure 3.3). The lesions become large and appear more rapidly when the fruits are damaged and/or ripening, which can be accelerated by the infection (Nelson 2008). Colletotrichum species can colonize endophytically different parts of the plants which becomes a source of inoculum. In the case of banana plants, floral parts and bunch bracts are the main source of inoculum, so when these parts are removed at flowering, the severity of anthracnose disease can be considerably reduced (Bellaire et al. 2000). In addition to this procedure, integrated management practices to deter postharvest disease consist of carefully handling the fruits to avoid any bruising or injuries; prune banana mats to increase air

Figure 3.3 Anthracnose symptoms: sunken black spots of various sizes on fruits that become large. Reproductive structures of Colletotrichum are observed in the center of lesions. Source: Reproduced with permission of Dr. Wilson da Silva Moraes (APTA, Regional Polo of Ribeira Valley, SP, Brazil).

Moko, Bugtok, and Banana Blood Diseases

circulation and reduce relative humidity; weed control; use of copper fungicide on banana fruits after deflowering fingers and before bagging; harvest bunches when fruits are still green, measuring about 3/4 of the mature width of fruit in order to avoid bruising; use of clean and fresh water in packing houses; pack dried banana fruits within plastic boxes designed to maintain high humidity; and cool the bananas to 13–14 ∘ C in transportation and market storage (Nelson 2008).

Moko, Bugtok, and Banana Blood Diseases Moko disease refers to symptoms observed in “Cavendish” plantations and it is caused by Ralstonia solanacearum biovar 1, race 2: IIA-6, IIA-24, IIA-41, IIA-53, IIB-3, IIB-4, and IIB-25 (Blomme et al. 2017). This destructive bacterial wilt is currently found in countries on all continents: Mexico, Venezuela, Guyana, Colombia, Peru, Brazil, Grenada, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, the Philippines (AAA types), and Malaysia (Belalcazar et al. 2004). The SFR (small, fluidal, round) and A (Amazon basin) strains are known to be transmitted by insect whereas the B (banana) strain is mainly transmitted through root contact and contaminated planting equipment (Sequeira 1998; Blomme et al. 2017). Currently, four phylotypes of R. solanacearum complex are recognized: phylotype I strains are from Asia, phylotype II strains are from America, phylotype III strains are from Africa and the Indian Ocean, and phylotype IV includes strains are from Indonesia, Japan, and Australia (Fegan and Prior 2006; Albuquerque et al. 2014). When the bacterial infection initiates in roots and rhizomes it moves toward the pseudostem; oldest leaves turn yellow and wilt, fruits become black, deformed, and shrivel up. When fruits are almost mature, symptoms may not be apparent, but the inner pulp can be dry rot and the entire plant may die. Light to dark brown vascular discoloration can be observed in the pseudostem, rhizome and in sheaths of the leaves (Figure 3.4). Bacterial ooze may exude from the cut surface of vascular tissues. The disease can also be transmitted by insects visiting the male inflorescences. In this case, symptoms occur initially in the flower buds and peduncles, which become blackened and shriveled. The bacteria spread into the fruits, reach the stem, and move toward to the rhizome (Buddenhagen 2007). In the Philippines, R. solanacearum strain IIB-3 causes atypical symptoms on ABB balbisiana cooking banana cultivars; the disease is known as Bugtok. In this case, symptoms are restricted to the inflorescence, pulp of the fruit and vascular system at the loculus, pedicel and serial stem. Fruits become discolored grayish black to yellowish red and later become hard. Vascular discoloration rarely extends into the lower part of the pseudostem. The bacterial inoculation resulting in Bugtok disease occurs by insect vectors through the male flowers (Molina 2006; Blomme et al. 2017). The banana blood disease is caused by Ralstonia syzygii subsp. celebesensis (phylotype IV) and is currently spread in peninsular Malaysia (Teng et al. 2016). Symptoms of banana blood disease are similar to those of Moko, however, discoloration of vascular tissue, dry rot of the fruit pulp and bacterial ooze exuding from cut tissue present a reddish coloration. Older leaves become yellow followed by necrosis and collapse; younger leaves also become necrotic and dry. The pathogen colonizes the entire plant, and suckers also wilt and die (Blomme et al. 2017).

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(B)

(A)

(C)

Figure 3.4 Moko symptoms: (A) inner pulp of fruits become dry rot; (B) light to dark brown vascular discoloration can be observed in the pseudostem; (C) oldest leaves turn yellow and wilt. Source: Reproduced with permission of Josiane Takassaki Ferrari (Biological Institute, SP, Brazil).

A set of measures is required to prevent bacterial diseases of bananas and manage infected areas: (i) the practice of de-budding just after the formation of the last fruit hand prevents the transmission of bacteria by insect vectors, since the male inflorescence is their primary infection site. Moreover, this practice results in bigger and evenly filled fruits. (ii) Another strategy aiming to prevent bacterial transmission by insect vectors includes bagging the inflorescence shortly after emergence. Bags can be removed after establishment of the fruits followed by removal of the male inflorescence. (iii) Cleaning and sanitation of field tools with sodium hypochlorite or effective ammonia-based disinfectants before and after pruning or de-suckering can be carried out. (iv) Another measure is the continuous and timely destruction of all infected mats and those located within a 5–8 m radius around infected mats using injection of herbicides. (v) Culture rotation or fallow for 1–3 years can be implemented to reduce bacterial population. The pathogen can survive in the absence of the primary host; thus, crop rotation might be more effective in reducing bacterial inoculum. (vi) Chemical control, such as the use of Dazomet, a soil sterilizer, can provide good control of Moko and Bugtok diseases (Blomme et al. 2017).

Banana Xanthomonas Wilt

Characteristics of resistance to bacterial wilt are often polygenic, which restricts the transfer of all quantitative trait loci into commercial cultivars. Nevertheless, cultivars with persistent male bracts/flowers or bud-less mutants are available and offer a suitable solution to bacterial wilt. Despite difficulties in developing bacterial wilt resistant plants, researchers have sought to achieve this aim (Blomme et al. 2017). Hybrids of diploid (AA) banana genotype have showed resistance to Moko disease following artificial inoculation (Silva et al. 2000). Finally, until resistant cultivars are not commercially available, farmers and technicians should be trained on disease recognition, epidemiology and management practices aiming to support banana crops around the world (Blomme et al. 2017).

Banana Xanthomonas Wilt The banana Xanthomonas wilt (BXW) disease, caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum, was first reported occurring in bananas in 1974 (Yirgou and Bradbury 1974). Until 2001 the disease was restricted to Ethiopia, and since then it has been reported in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (Carter et al. 2010; Shimwela et al. 2017). BXW can affect almost all commonly grown banana cultivars, including the Cavendish subgroup. Fields infested with this bacterium cannot be replanted with banana for at least six months owing to carryover of soilborne inoculum (Tushemereirwe et al. 2004; Tripathi et al. 2009). Plants are infected in the flowering period by insect-transmitted bacteria. Generally, the initial symptoms are wilting and withering of the male bud, with a gradual shrinking along the rachis. As the infection progresses, the fruits start turning yellow prematurely, most often those nearer to the male bud (Tripathi et al. 2009). The fruits appear ready to reap, but inside the pulp is rotten and discolored. As the diesease progresses, leaves turn yellow, wilt, and eventually die. In the terminal stages of infection, all leaves dry out and stems die gradually from the top downward. Pale yellow ooze from cut surfaces in addition to the symptoms in the fruits can distinguish BXW from Panama disease (Tripathi et al. 2009). Before flowering, plants can be infected by contaminated tools and by roots in contact with contaminated soil (Mwangi et al. 2007). In this case, the initial symptom is the progressive yellowing of leaves from the leaf tip toward the petioles (Tripathi et al. 2009). The management of this disease in banana crops is a challenge; a combination of measures is required (such as exclusion, eradication, host resistance, and protection). In fields where disease incidence is below 50%, the removal of infected banana mats is necessary to decrease the inoculum source as well as removal of the male flowers and bunch of infected plants. Besides the insect vector of the disease, farm tools are an important source of inoculum, thus tools must be disinfected after use on each banana mat. When BXW occurs, the strategy to be followed is to cut down all infected plants, completely dig out the rhizomes, and make the field fallow or undergo a prolonged crop rotation regime (Tripathi et al. 2009). Transgenic banana lines over-expressing hrap and pflp genes, isolated from sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum), that can intensify the hypersensitive response, have been successfully obtained and shown to be effective at field level. The release of these cultivars is awaiting completion of legal formalities (Tripathi et al. 2014).

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Banana Bunchy Top Disease Banana bunchy top disease (BBTD) is caused by the banana bunchy top virus (BBTV), a nanovirus measuring 18–20 nm, whose genome consists of at least six circular single stranded DNA components encoding for six major proteins (Hu et al. 2007). BBTV is widely present in many banana growing regions of the world and is one of the most serious pathogens of banana in Asia, Australia, and the South Pacific. Fortunately, BBTV incidence is still absent in Latin America and the Caribbean (Elayabalan et al. 2015). BBTV is transmitted by the banana aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel and by vegetative propagation (Hu et al. 1996). The aphids can retain the virus for up to 20–23 days and may cover large distances, especially when aided by the wind. Species of the Musaceae family, including Cavendish, are susceptible to the virus and can be infected at any age. The symptoms become evident within 25 days after virus infection, depending on the age of the plants and the temperature (Elayabalan et al. 2015). The major characteristic of the disease refers to its name, a group of clustered leaves on the top of plants gives a bunchy appearance. Symptoms of BBTD include dark green, dot-dash flecks along leaf veins, midribs, petioles, and pseudostem (Tripathi et al. 2016). With progression of the disease, leaves at the top of the plant become short and narrow with chlorotic margins that tend to curl upward. Plants can produce small fruits and distorted male buds (Elayabalan et al. 2015). There are no banana varieties resistant to BBTV. Thus, the management of the disease consists mainly of the control of the aphid vectors and removal of infected plants followed by their complete destruction (Almeida et al. 2009). There are also strict quarantine restrictions to prevent movement of potentially infected plant materials.

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4 Harvesting and Postharvest Technology of Banana Maria Gloria Lobo 1 and Marta Montero-Calderón 2 1 Department of Crops Production in Tropical and Subtropical Areas, Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias, 38270 Valle de Guerra, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain 2 Biosystems Engineering Department, University of Costa Rica, San José, San Pedro, Costa Rica

Introduction Globally, 114 million tonnes of bananas were produced worldwide in 5.6 million hectares in 2017 (FAOSTAT 2019). Bananas are predominantly produced in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. The biggest producers were India with 30.5 MMT (million metric tons) and China with 11.2 MMT, but the production in both countries mostly serves the domestic market. Other large producers are Indonesia (7.20 MMT), Brazil (6.7 MMT), and Ecuador (6.3 MMT). Latin American countries are the main exporters to the USA and the EU. India is one of the major producers, but a major part goes to the domestic market (Mohapatra et al. 2010). The Cavendish subgroup is the most cultivated and demanded in the world. As a climacteric fruit, banana is harvested mature green and naturally or artificially ripened. Postharvest losses can largely vary, due to the level of technology and whether the final use is for domestic or more demanding markets (USA and EU). Nowadays, challenges in banana postharvest handling and commercialization include both knowledge of physiological and quality changes during production and handling of the fruit, and improvement of logistic and rapid transit of the product, to reach the market demands on quality and prices in very competitive markets. Although there are differences among postharvest handling processes around the world, the goal is to preserve the quality and safety of banana fruit all the way to the consumer with competitive prices, looking for ambient protection and sustainability. This chapter covers banana harvesting indices and practices, fruit grade and standards, postharvest handling and losses, postharvest operations, and storage technologies.

Harvesting Indices It is unquestionable that good production practices lead to quality fruit, and defining the proper maturity indices to harvest is one of the most important decisions in order to obtain Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition, First Edition. Edited by Muhammad Siddiq, Jasim Ahmed, and Maria Gloria Lobo. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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maximum productivity and fruit quality with minimum postharvest losses, in accordance with quality requirements of final markets. As a climacteric fruit, banana bunches are harvested green in color, but at physiological maturity, in order to assure proper ripening at the final market. Bananas must reach the market still green, with fresh appearance and good quality. Then, transit time and conditions have also to be taken into consideration to pick the right moment to harvest, so the “green life” or pre-climacteric phase of the fruit, keep the fruit green long enough to reach the final market (Turner 1997; Soto Ballestero 2015). During transportation, the fruit should stay green, and once it reaches the wholesaler, artificial ripening is induced so the fruit reaches an even consumption maturity at the retailers. Harvesting indices define the best time to cut the fruit, trying to maximize fruit growth and production yield before harvest, but assuring that the fruit is close to its physiological maturity but still has enough green life period for commercialization to distant markets (Soto Ballestero 2017). For the definition of the fruit grade to harvest, several factors influence the fruit response during transportation. For example, the distance to the final markets and the time required to reach them, the supply–demand relationship, the clone type that is used, the physiological state of the plants, nutrition, diseases, toxicity, and other stresses could affect both the size and premature maturation. Weather also affects fruit quality and postharvest behavior because of lack or excess water (drought, flood, rain, soil moisture) and temperature. Uniform fruit age is convenient, since it results in uniform fruit quality and avoids ripening differences throughout transport. Commercially, several indices are used, based on maximizing fruit production, the development of the fruit up to near physiological maturity, long “green life” along transportation and uniform ripening. Such indices include the following.

Fruit Diameter Fruit diameter at the middle of the central finger of the second hand of the bunch is an important criterion. It is measured with a caliper as grades (one grade equals 0.79375 mm or 1/32 in.), so a grade 40 corresponds to a fruit with 31.75 mm diameter. As a reference, for the subgroup Cavendish, bananas with 46–48 grades are harvested in Central America for the USA market, while bananas with 43–45 grades are harvested for the European market (Soto Ballestero 2017).

Banana Harvesting Grade Combined with the Age of the Bunches It is a two-factor index commonly used in the banana industry to decide the best time to harvest. Bunch age generally varies from 12 to 14 weeks in the tropics. When this index is used, the stage of maturity of the fruit is usually even, which is convenient in order to get uniform fruit which generally results in a uniform ripening. The combination of fruit grade with age of the bunches has been used in Costa Rica, Honduras, the Philippines, and Ecuador since the 1970s. The age of the bunches is controlled with the use of color ribbons in each bunch, which facilitates harvesting labor.

Harvesting Indices

Banana bunches are marked with color ribbons two weeks after the bunch opens. Those marks are used to determine the correct time of harvest, together with the measurement of the fruit size, which is measured with a caliper of the external central finger of the second hand from the top. Usually, for the Cavendish subgroup, harvest is done when the fruit reaches the physiological stage needed for a rather long green life but proper ripening at the end market, and that happens 10–13 weeks from the bunch set (Céspedes 2004). Small variations are common according to the time of the year, weather, final market, and other factors.

Fruit Weight, Finger Diameter, and Length Fruit weight, finger diameter and length parameters change along production in the field. At first, the finger’s transversal area is the shape of an irregular pentagon referred to as “light three-quarters,” and as it develops the finger fills with starch and the area becomes circular and the finger is a cylindrical shape referred to as “full green” (Figure 4.1). On most banana plantations, fruits destined for distant markets are harvested at a stage known as “full three-quarters,” when the fingers are still clearly angular while for local markets fruits are often harvested when fingers are “full green” or rounded. Weight gain was described by Lassoudière (1978) as a three-stage process. In the first stage, there is a rapid weight gain (up to day 28) which corresponds to cell division, followed by the second stage which is a low growing period (days 28–38) with predominant cell growth, and then a third stage which shows an exponential weight gain because of the filling of starch (from day 38 up to harvest). On the other hand, fruit size varies along the bunches; some of them can have 6–10 hands, and grade can vary from 2 to 4.9, respectively, along the bunches, at an average of 0.5 grade variation between hands next to each other; there are also differences between the internal and external fingers in each hand, with gaps between 2 and 4 grades (Soto Ballestero 2017). Thus, differences in fruit weight, associated with plantation productivity and normal variability of the diameter of the fingers along the bunch and even between hands, result in a variety of hands and finger sizes for packaging. Maturity Stages of Banana Fruits

Three-Quarters

Light Full Full Three-Quarters Three-Quarters

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Figure 4.1 Changes in angularity of banana finger as an index of maturity. Source: Postharvest Technology Center. Reproduced with permission of University of California, Davis.

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Growth Degree Days In some regions of the world, where temperature differences vary considerably during the year, the harvest age significantly changes. Ganry and Chillet (2008) recommended a methodology to forecast the harvest date of banana bunches, by measuring the temperature accumulation (above 14 ∘ C) by the bunches; this is 900 degree days of physiological age for Cavendish bunches. They pointed out that banana growth is highly dependent on temperature, and its physiological age is closely correlated with the mean daily temperature sum accumulated by the fruit during development. The harvest age could vary several weeks because of low temperatures. Amin et al. (2015) reported the optimum maturity stage for harvest of “BARI Kola 1” and “Sabri Kola” in Bangladesh as 130 and 110 days after emergence of flowering in the summer and winter season, respectively, which correspond to 1750 and 1620 degree days. However, they calculated these values using a minimum temperature of 10 ∘ C, which resulted in a much larger value of degree days than the bananas from the subgroup Cavendish.

Image Processing Image processing is an innovative field of science where the acquired image is transformed into useful information. Prabha and Kumar (2015) found that the mean color intensity algorithm was more accurate (99.1%) for differentiating under-mature, mature, and over-mature banana, than the area algorithm (85%) which is useful for differentiating under-mature banana, but not to distinguish between mature and over-mature fruit. Since both the color and size value are a reliable index to determine the right time to harvest, the mean color intensity algorithms in conjunction with the area algorithm developed in this study could be employed commercially to develop a field-based completely automatic detection system to determine the right time to harvest by the banana growers.

Harvest Practices Harvest planning is an important step which requires inspection of the banana bunches considering the time from setting and fruit growth and development, as well as requirements from the packing house or the buyers. Even though banana bunches are marked with color ribbons, climate, plant nutrition and other factors can affect the fruit characteristics, and the time needed to reach the desirable quality parameters, and that requires insight sampling to determine the physiological state of the fruit. Harvesting consists of cutting banana bunches and transporting them to the packing house. It is done with work crews of three or four members who are assigned to specific areas of the plantation. Generally, a day ahead of the harvest, a supervisor is assigned to check the bunches and ribbons and mark those ready to be harvested, and then the harvest crew looks for those marks and harvests marked bunches. Harvest tools include a long knife and a pole with calipers of the size of the requested caliper for the day. The crew also carries the implements needed for hanging the bunches on the cable at 1 m intervals. Harvest usually is done from 6 a.m. to 4 p.m. The crew starts

Harvest Practices

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Figure 4.2 Harvesting bananas employing one (A) or two (B) workers. Source: Images from Maria Gloria Lobo.

to harvest in an organized way throughout the assigned location. It takes two people, the harvester and the receiver; the harvester does a first cut in the pseudostem, at the height of the bunch and eliminates any leaves that may damage the banana bunch. This causes the bunch to move down slightly so that the receiver can grab the rachis or pinzote at the lower end of the bunch with one hand and guide the bunch to fall carefully on to his or her shoulder when the harvester cuts to detach the bunch from the plant (Figure 4.2). The receivers typically cover their shoulders with a pillow type cushion/foam as a protection for both the worker and the bunch. Another way to receive the harvested bunch used in several regions consists of tying the banana rachis before cutting to a rope previously attached to a pole. The pole is held by two members of the crew, so when the bunch is cut, it does not hit the receiver’s shoulder, but swings, and from there it is taken to the cableway (Soto Ballestero 2017). The cut made on bunches should be clean and straight, and it must be treated to reduce latex flow coming out from the cut. This is commonly achieved using a chemical product to seal the cut, such as aluminum hydroxide (DONVIC 500 Gel, astringent product for the control of latex exudation of the pinzote), and covering it with some absorbent fabric to avoid latex staining on the banana surface. The harvest crew should avoid touching the banana fingers directly while handling (Soto Ballestero 2017). Banana peel of the subgroup Cavendish is very susceptible to mechanical damage so careful handling is essential. In many growing areas, separators between hands are used to avoid damage due to movement as the fruit is transported to the packing house. Once the bunch is harvested, the receiver takes it to the cable transportation system, which passes through the banana plantations, in such a way that walking distances of the fruit carriers are minimized (Figure 4.3A–C). Fruit stays in the field until a train with 25

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Figure 4.3 Transportation from the field to the packing house. Source: (A) https://es.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Archivo:Cable_via_para_Banano.JPG (Costa Rica); (B) https://www.flickr.com/photos/clizbiz/ 8590250336 (Costa Rica); (C) http://www.centroaceros.com/cablevias/banano (Costa Rica); (D) https://www.flickr.com/photos/rod_waddington/8049495329 (Ethiopia); (E) https://www.flickr .com/photos/kayugee/14736635530 (Tanzania); (F) https://www.flickr.com/photos/usarmyafrica/ 5117954034 (Uganda); (G) image from Jose Manuel Torres (Canary Islands).

bunches is ready, and another member of the work crew pulls the load of bunches to the packing shed, which should be a relatively short distance (1.0–1.5 km or so). Mechanical devices can also be used to pull the train. The number of bunches in a train varies, 25 being the largest when carried out manually. In small plantations, such as those in the Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores, or developing countries such as Ethiopia, Uganda, and Kenya, the worker carries the bunch on his or her shoulder to the transportation system (bicycle, donkey, or truck) because there is not a cable transportation system (Figure 4.3D–G). The cultivation in the Macaronesian region is in terraces at half altitude (more than 400 m above sea level), due to the slope of the land

Fruit Grades and Standards

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Figure 4.4 Banana plantations in Costa Rica (A) and in the Canary Islands (B, C, D). Source: Images from Jesús Rodrigo.

(Figure 4.4). Owing to the subtropical conditions of the Canary Islands, 30% of the banana crop is grown under mesh or plastic greenhouses. At the time of harvest and subsequent fruit handling, care has to be taken to preserve the fruit quality, minimizing mechanical stresses, such as impacts between fruit or against other surfaces, compression stresses during handling because of excessive weight loads or overloading of boxes with fruit, and vibration, which can cause damage on the surface of the fruit because of stresses on the fruit caused by excessive speed of the trucks used for transportation, rough roads, or problems related to the suspension of the transport vehicles. Some production farms cut the hands of the banana bunches in the field for later transportation to the packing house. This is the case for small growers who do not have cableway systems for transportation, but it is also used as a means to reduce the postharvest operation costs (Jiménez Ruiz et al. 2016), as it is claimed that water consumption is greatly reduced, since de-sapping is done in the field and not in the packing house. Since the de-handing is done in the field, the produce handling capacity of the packing house increases because fewer operations are carried out there. The same authors reported a reduction in water consumption from about 100 l per packaged box of bananas to about 5 l per box, without problems of latex stain in the fruit at the final market, as well as a reduction in labor required at the packing house.

Fruit Grades and Standards The CODEX standard for bananas (CODEX STAN 205−1997, AMD 1−2005) applies to commercial varieties grown from Musa spp. (AAA) of the Musaceae family, in the green state, prepared and packaged for fresh consumption. Bananas intended for cooking only

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(plantains) or for industrial processing are excluded. The standard includes cultivars from the groups AA, AB, AAA, and AAB (CODEX 2005). According to the CODEX standard, bananas must be whole, clean, free from visible foreign matter, practically free of pests and damage caused by pests, free of external moisture, foreign smell or test, they must also be firm, free of low temperature damage, bruises, malformations or abnormal curvature. They must have the pistils removed. Moreover, clusters and hands must include a portion of the crown of normal coloring and free of fungal contamination. Using this standard, fruits are classified into three classes: ◾

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Extra class: Bananas must be characteristic of the variety and/or commercial type. Fingers must be free of defects with the exception of very slight superficial defects which may not affect the general appearance of the produce, the quality, the keeping quality and presentation in the package. Class I: Bananas in this class must be of good quality and characteristic of the variety. Only slight defect of fingers may be allowed such as slight defects in shape and color, slight skin defects due to rubbing and other surface defects which do not exceed 2 cm2 of the total surface area. The defects must not affect the general appearance of the produce, the quality, the keeping quality and presentation in the package, and, in any case, the flesh of the fruit. Class II: This class includes bananas which do not qualify for inclusion in higher classes but satisfy the minimum requirements pointed out above, but some defects may be allowed such as those in color and shape, skin defects due to scraping, scabs, rubbing, blemishes or other causes not exceeding 4 cm2 of the total surface area. The defects must not affect, in any case, the flesh of the fruit.

Provisions concerning size: The minimum length should not be less than 14.0 cm and the minimum grade not less than 2.7 cm (grade 34, i.e., 34/32 in.). Size tolerance for all classes is 10% by number or weight of bananas not satisfying the requirements. Provisions concerning presentation: The content of each package must be uniform and contain only bananas of the same origin, variety and quality, packed to protect the produce with new, clean and good quality, hygiene, ventilation and resistance characteristics, suitable for handling, shipping, and preserving the bananas. There are not banana grade standards in the USA, but the U.S. Department of Agriculture has a market inspection instruction for bananas (USDA 2004). These inspection instructions are specifically developed by the Fresh Products Branch to assist officially licensed inspectors in the examination and inspection of bananas. They are intended to provide useful information and guidelines to facilitate inspection and marketing of bananas.

Postharvest Handling Appropriate food safety has to be practiced while handling bananas in the field and the packing house. This involves Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) in the field and the packing house, which are common practices to avoid any type of contamination. Food safety includes caring for water quality and safety, proper preparation, handling and application of manure, care to restrict wildlife and pets in the fields and packing facility, worker sanitation

Postharvest Handling

at harvest and postharvest handling practices during washing, packaging, storage, transportation, and distribution of the produce. The packing facility should allow the product to move to a cleaner area during each step of processing, and implement Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). Light fixtures should be protected to avoid contact with the product if they break. All equipment in contact with the bananas should be cleaned and sanitized frequently.

Field and Packing House Sanitation Washing and cleaning procedures remove visible contaminants and may require soaps and water, proper rinsing and the use of potable water. Sanitizing refers to the reduction of pathogens to non-harmful levels. It is important to clean first and sanitize later on. In order to define efficient cleaning and sanitation procedures in the packing house, the process line should be studied, making sure to include how the produce is received as well as every operation it should pass through, looking for contamination risks. All walls, ceilings, and floors should be washable.

Postharvest Operations Figure 4.5 shows the postharvest handling operations of banana used traditionally, while in Figure 4.6 the de-handing is done in the field with no washing and no de-sapping treatments. Transportation to the Packing House

Bunches are transported to the reception area from every part of the fields by the cable system, which should be designed to minimize distances from different sections of the farm to the packing house. They are transported in groups of approximately 25 banana bunches, hanging from the pinzote. To protect the fruit against mechanical damage, it is necessary to keep a distance of 1 m between bunches, to use implements to hang the bunches, to reduce the impact and friction between fruit hands (pillows, foams or other materials are placed between hands), and to design a cable system with minimum level differences along Harvest (bunches)

Transportation to the packing house

Reception shade and quality control

De-handing

Packaging and labeling

Fungicide and crown sealer

Washing and desapping

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Transportation

Figure 4.5

Traditional postharvest handling of bananas for the export fresh market.

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Harvest (bunches)

De-handling

Transportation to the packing house

Reception shade and quality control

Storage

Packaging

Fungicide and crown sealer

Clusters cutting and classification

Transportation

Figure 4.6 Alternative postharvest handling of bananas with reduced water consumption and no washing or de-sapping treatments.

the path to the packing house. These actions minimize impact, compression and vibration stresses during transportation. As pointed out before, other transportation systems such as trucks, donkey carts, and bicycles are used depending on the size of the plantation, and the incomes of the farmers. Reception and Quality Control

The bunches after arrival at the packing house are weighed and detailed information of the harvest location of the bunch, including age and quality, are registered for proper traceability. Bunches are placed in the shade before entering the packaging process. This area should have enough room for harvested fruit, according to the packing plant program, so that no bunches are kept directly in sun light. Soto Ballestero (2015) suggested that the shade area should be able to keep two loads per harvest work crew (two trains with 25 bunches each), since every crew has two sets of implements, and it is common for all crews to gather at the packing house during the lunch period. When transportation is done with the cable system, the bunches are distributed as they arrive in parallel lines waiting for processing, leaving enough space between lines to reduce the risk of mechanical damage. If transportation is done in trucks or by other means, the shade area must have enough room to hang the bunches and wait for processing. The quality of the fruit is controlled in this area, and size, dimensions, weight and age are registered. The internal appearance of a sample of fruit is also evaluated. Hand Separation from the Bunch (De-handing), Quality Control, and Washing

The first operation in the processing line starts carrying the fruit to the de-handing area, where a quality control is undertaken, which consists in measuring the length and grade (caliber) of the fingers (second hand from top, middle finger). Required measurements are 15 cm length and 42 grade (42/32 in.) for that finger, but some variation can be allowed depending on the quality request of the buyers, the final market, local weather, etc. General quality and stage of maturity is also evaluated. In all cases, fruit should be free of mechanical damage of the necks (space between the crown and the fingers), fruit skin or finger tips, and free of insect damage, diseases and finger malformations (Umaña 2002).

Postharvest Handling

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Figure 4.7 Banana processing in Costa Rica, traditional line (A–E) or water saver line (F–K). Source: Images from Javier Fernández and Maria Gloria Lobo.

Figures 4.7 and 4.8 show the banana processes at the packing houses of Costa Rica and the Canary Islands. It is usual to wash the bunch before de-handing. This operation can be done manually or mechanically (Figures 4.7A and 4.8A,B). De-handing is done by three or four operators, who cut the whole hands in an upward direction with a sharp curved knife (Figures 4.7B and 4.8C), taking care to avoid any cuts to

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Figure 4.8 Banana processing in the Canary Islands, using tanks (A, B, C, D, G, I) or conveyor belts (A, B, C, E, F, H, J). Source: Images from Javier Fernández and Maria Gloria Lobo-Rodrigo.

Postharvest Handling

the fingers and necks of the fruit. The hands are dropped into a tank of running water. The purpose of this first wash is to prevent contact of the latex coming out from the cut with the fruit surface, which could stain it and reduce the appearance of the fruit (Figure 4.7C). This first wash helps to remove dirt and foreign matter. In some facilities in regions where water is not plentiful (Canary Islands), the water is maintained in the tanks for several days (Figure 4.8D), and in facilities using conveyor belts, where it is usual to wash the fruit by aspersion, the water is recirculated (Figure 4.8E,F). To avoid latex stain, it is recommended to add 1% aluminum sulfate in the water tanks or other chemicals, such as a surfactant solution (Bacterol) alone or combined with hydrogen peroxide (Super-Bacterol). Before washing, the floral part that still remains has to be removed. In the Canary Islands, the floral part is always removed before harvesting or at the time of harvesting so never arrives at the packing house. Fruits can also be de-handed in the field (Figure 4.7F), and then transported to the packing house using the cable system with special trays or beds where the fruit is immobilized or arranged to reduce the risk of mechanical damage during transportation. At the facility the fruit is washed, as shown in Figure 4.7G. Cluster Cutting and Fruit Selection

At the other side of the water tank, workers remove the hands from the water and cut the hands into clusters or the required size, and again check the fruit to remove fingers which might have some defects or malformations. Then, the clusters are transferred to the washing tanks according to their size. Fruit is classified at this point in many packing houses, while in others, classification is done at the end of the washing tank stage. Latex flows out from the cut in the fruit crowns, which can cause staining on the fruit skin. For this reason, in some packing houses, the cutting of hands and separation into clusters is done under water. Washing tanks in banana packing houses are usually long (about 9 m and 1 m depth), and the fruit movement forward can be favored by the use of water injectors or some other system to force the cluster to move forward, staying in the tanks for 20 minutes (Ortiz Vega et al. 2001). This reduces the temperature of the banana clusters. Chemical products are added to the washing tanks to control latex staining. This process consumes huge amounts of water, and effort has been made to reduce the amounts involved by reducing the volume of the washing tanks. Washing can also be done by aspersion. Clusters are placed into moving trays, which go under a cascade or aspersion washer. This method uses far less water and reduces the risk of contamination, since washing tanks can rapidly spread fungi or other microorganisms, and pass them into the fruit if the water quality is not properly checked. Fungicide and Crown Sealer

Crown rot largely affects banana quality and postharvest life. Banana fruit is very susceptible to microbial growth during transport or later ripening processes. To reduce this incidence, it is important to do clean cuts during the de-handling and cluster preparation. At the packing house different fungicides can be used depending on the producing country (thiabendazole, benzimidazole). It is very important to use authorized fungicides and at the appropriate doses to avoid exceeding the maximum residue level (MRL). Generally,

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0.5% alum is added to the fungicide or mixture of fungicides because of its healing ability. In Costa Rica, a solution of citric acid that reduces oxidation of crowns and the presence/appearance of marks or rubs is subsequently applied by spraying. Grapefruit extract (2–3 ml per liter of water), or alum (aluminum sulfate, 400 g per 20 liters of water) can be applied by immersion of the organic fruit (FAO 2019). Two species of epiphytes – Bacillus spp. strain DGA14 and Trichoderma spp. strain DGA02 – are both proven effective as microbial control agents (MCAs) in combating crown rot disease (International Tropical Fruits Network 2019). After washing, fruit is placed into special trays, with the 20 clusters or segments needed to pack a 18.45 kg box, organized by length and shape size of the fruit, including short, medium, and long fruits as well as flat or curved clusters. Trays are then placed in roller transportation bands to pass through the fungicide or the natural product and alum (aluminum sulfate) treatment (applied by aspersion or immersion), and finally drained and packed (Figure 4.7D). In the Canary Islands fungicide is applied by cascade or aspersion (Figure 4.8G and H, respectively). In Costa Rica some companies wrap the banana crowns with a tight plastic (ParaSeal or Plastidole) (Figure 4.7I) Packaging

When the fruit is already selected and placed into trays with the suggested fruit for a single box, packaging is quite simple. The worker just has to organize the fruit in the tray as instructed. If no trays are used, the packing worker has to select, weigh, and pack each package. Figures 4.7E,I–K and 4.8I,J show how packing is performed. Clusters are organized in three or four levels. At the bottom are the smaller fruit, followed by medium fruit in the middle, and the larger fruit on the top. This pattern allows better use of the internal volume of the boxes, maximizing the fruit quantity per box (about 18.45 kg). Nowadays, the tendency is to use biodegradable plastics both in boxes and in bagged clusters. Boxes are arranged and fixed on wooden pallets (48 boxes per pallet), and a total of 20 pallets can be loaded in a maritime container. Cooling and Transportation

It is very important to reduce banana temperature after packaging and during transportation to extend fruit shelf life. Nevertheless, temperature has to be above 12 ∘ C to avoid chilling injury. At this temperature, the respiration rate diminishes, and ripening is delayed. Artificial Ripening and Commercialization

Bananas for the local market or at the end of the transportation need to be artificially ripened in chambers in which it is very important to control the ethylene concentration and the time and temperature of exposure, the pulp temperature, the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration, and the relative humidity (RH) during the process. This treatment is necessary for uniform ripening of the fruit and to allow the fruit to acquire its characteristic flavor and texture. Pulp temperature should be around 14 ∘ C or higher to favor the interaction between the exogenous ethylene and the banana ethylene receptor. Once the ripening chamber is loaded and the pulp (internal) temperature is around 16 ∘ C (even higher if the banana has to ripen quickly), 100–500 ppm of gas mixture (ethylene in nitrogen) is sprayed and the treatment lasts 24–36 hours. The relative humidity should be kept at least at 90%. The fruits ripen within 3–7 days under normal conditions.

Postharvest Handling

Lobo et al. (2005) observed that fully ripened bananas exposed to ethylene at 15 or 20 ∘ C and stored either at 15 or 20 ∘ C were acceptable in terms of peel color and fruit flavor and texture. Nevertheless, those treated with ethylene at 12 ∘ C were considered to be of lower quality. Figure 4.9 shows the peel color evolution of the bananas at different exposure temperatures (20, 15, and 12 ∘ C), treated with different ethylene concentration (5, 50, 500, and 5000 ppm), and then stored at 20 or 15 ∘ C. (A) 130

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Figure 4.9 Peel color (Hue) evolution of bananas treated with different ethylene concentrations (5 μl/l [◾], 50 μl/l [▴], 500 μl/l [•], 5000 μl/l [⧫]) and stored at 20 ∘ C and with 5 μl/l (◽), 50 μl/l (Δ), 500 μl/l (○), and 5000 μl/l (◊) ethylene and stored at 15 ∘ C. (A) T Exposure : 20 ∘ C (SE 20 ∘ C = ±9.92, SE 15 ∘ C = ±9.66); (B) T Exposure : 15 ∘ C (SE 20 ∘ C = ±9.38, SE 15 ∘ C = ±9.95); (C) T Exposure : 12 ∘ C (SE 20 ∘ C = ±10.44, SE 15 ∘ C = ±10.22). Source: Lobo et al. (2005). Reproduced with permission of SAGE Publishing.

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Storage Technologies To ensure high quality of ripe banana, it is essential that green bananas during transportation to maturity chambers are maintained at optimum temperature, relative humidity, and air circulation. Immediately after harvest, fruits should be rapidly cooled to the storage temperature using cold air (room cooling, forced air cooling), cold water (hydro-cooling), or evaporating the water from the fruit (evaporative cooling, vacuum cooling). Plantain and banana are usually cooled with cold air to prevent temperatures becoming too low, which can cause chilling injury. High humidity reduces water loss and increases storage life. A relative humidity of 90% provides the best compromise for storing plantain and banana. Humidity can be raised in a container or room by spraying water in a fine mist. Nevertheless, excessive wetting leads to fruit splitting and reduces market quality. Air circulation is an effective method used to reduce temperature in storage rooms. However, ventilation also increases water loss from fruit by removing the saturated layer of air that surrounds the fruit. Plastic films have also been found to increase the shelf life of banana fruit. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), low in oxygen and/or high in carbon dioxide, influences the metabolism of the packed product or the activity of decay-causing organisms increasing storability and/or shelf life. In addition, MAP vastly improves moisture retention, which can have a great influence on preserving quality (Jayasheela et al. 2015). Furthermore, packaging isolates the product from the external environment and helps to ensure conditions that if not sterile at least reduce exposure to pathogens and contaminants thereby extending the shelf life of the produce (Hailu et al. 2013). El-Kashif et al. (2010) showed that preharvest bagging of banana bunches using cotton cloth or jute material reduced physical injury and sunscald, increased yield, increased green life, and improved fruit quality. They also found that postharvest packaging of banana fruit in cartons lined with polyethylene film increased green life and improved fruit quality. The marketability of bananas over long distances is limited due to their highly perishable nature and sensitivity to ethylene. Ripening in bananas can be delayed by using an ethylene scrubber. There are several compounds that can be used as inhibitors of ethylene, for example aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG), an inhibitor of ethylene synthesis; 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), an inhibitor of ethylene action; and potassium permanganate (KMnO4 ), an oxidizing agent. For banana, 1-MCP and KMnO4 are the most commonly used ethylene scrubbers (Sen et al. 2012). To increase the banana shelf life several edible coatings (ECs) can be used. Baez-Sañudo et al. (2009) stored bananas at ripeness stage 3 for eight days at 22 ∘ C, 85% RH treated with 1-MCP (SmartFreshSM) and a chitosan-based EC (FreshSeal ), applied alone or combined. After three days, control and EC-treated fruits were completely yellow, while 1-MCP-treated fruits alone and combined with EC were still showing some green colorations on tips and neck of fingers, being firmer than the other treatments. The combined treatment of EC + 1-MCP can be used to extend the commercial life of bananas for up to four more days. Hot water treatment delayed ripening and prolonged the green life of fruit (Alvindia 2012). Amin and Hossain (2012) found an increase in the shelf life of bananas and a

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Postharvest Economic Losses

reduction in postharvest losses when fruits were treated with hot water (53 ∘ C for 9 minutes or 55 ∘ C for 7 minutes). Hot water treatment at 50 ∘ C for 20 minutes can be used to control anthracnose (Colletotrichum musae) (Mirshekari et al. 2012).

Postharvest Economic Losses The major factors contributing to banana postharvest losses are unreliable transport, poor communication and coordination between producers and processors, lack of or inefficient temperature management, and poor sanitation. Over-ripening and mechanical damage caused by bruising and compression are the main causes of losses in banana supply chains. Cultivars of the AAA group, Cavendish subgroup are more susceptible to mechanical injuries during postharvest handling than other cultivars, requiring protection all the way from harvest to packaging and transportation, in order to avoid undesirable postharvest losses, which in some parts of the world (Taiwan, Brazil, Jamaica, Ecuador, and some countries in Africa) reach levels of up to 40–45% (Soto Ballestero 2015). In Ecuador, the main banana exporter, postharvest losses can reach 20% even for organic banana (VásquezCastillo et al. 2019). Postharvest loses in developing countries, up to 60–80%, are mainly due to the combination of poor infrastructure and logistics, poor agricultural practices, lack of knowledge about postharvest handling, and a convoluted marketing system. Postharvest losses can be minimized by adopting a certain preharvest strategy and postharvest management/technology. Proper harvesting tools and assessment of maturity improve the shelf life of the fruits and reduce the postharvest losses to a great extent. Bananas harvested at full maturity will develop good peel and pulp color, with full aroma and flavor at the ripe stage. Fruits harvested at an immature stage are of poor quality upon ripening. Harvesting at an advanced stage of maturity, on the other hand, may be unsuitable for long-distance shipment since ripening will occur during shipment and result in fruit having a shorter shelf life, and some fingers can even split. Farmers have to cover the bunches properly and on time to avoid the fruit being sunburnt and attacked by thrips. During the harvest, workers have to be very careful to avoid damaging the bunches by stacking, bumps, falls, etc. as the fruit will show black sunken areas on the skin after ripening. Harvesting during the warmest part of the day and exposure to unnecessary high temperatures should be avoided. At the packing house, transportation, retailers, and wholesalers, the fruit has to be handled carefully. Poor transport conditions, rough handling, unsuitable transport containers, and delays in transportation contribute to losses in banana supply chains. Air circulation in the stacks or piles of produce is of critical importance in preventing heat build-up. It is important not to overload the transport vehicle because heat build-up leads to a premature ripening during transit (Esguerra and Rolle 2018). Postharvest losses also occur by rough handling, the use of unsuitable packaging material or overfilling containers or boxes, in addition to lack of quality standards. Inadequate ventilation and high temperature during storage, or lack of uniformity and homogeneity of the produce and high temperatures during artificial ripening affects banana quality and may cause significant economic losses.

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The control of crown rot starts in the field with the regular removal of leaf trash. Proper field sanitation can greatly reduce the number of crown rot fungi spores present. The rotting fruits or plant waste materials have to be kept away from the packing house (Hailu et al. 2013). De-handing should be done carefully with a sharp knife so as to avoid leaving a ragged cut. Finally, postharvest treatment of fruits with an effective fungicide is essential (Gowen 1995; Dionisio 2012).

Nutritional and Quality Losses Banana fruits are in high demand as nutritious and economically important fruits, but they experience different marketing problems. The banana is a living entity that is still alive even after harvest and it is subject to continuous changes in appearance, flavor, texture, and nutritive value until it completely deteriorates. These postharvest changes cannot be stopped but can be slowed down within certain limits through the application of good postharvest management practice. Bananas have high water content, and when harvested they can no longer replace the water that is lost from the peel. If they are stored under conditions of low humidity, they shrivel and lose weight, which diminishes their quality and marketability. Bananas are an excellent source of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin B6, potassium, and fiber, and are low in fat and sodium, and are cholesterol-free. An average sized banana has about 95 cal. Stress conditions accelerate banana metabolism and changes in flavor, carbohydrate concentration, and vitamin C occur. Bagging the fruit in a wrong plastic can lead to anaerobic respiration of the fruit by consuming the oxygen inside the bag, with the consequent appearance of strange aromas, inadequate ripening, etc. High temperatures used during artificial ripening soften the pulp very quickly. The accumulation of carbon dioxide in the chambers due to poor aeration affects the ripening of the fruit and its homogeneity. Low relative humidity magnifies banana bruises when ripened. About 20–25% of the harvested banana fruits are decomposed by different fungi during postharvest handling because bananas contain high sugar levels and have low pH, making them particularly suitable for microbial growth. Everyday 1.6 million bananas are thrown away in developing countries (Idris et al. 2015).

Conclusions The reduction of postharvest food losses is a critical component of ensuring future global food security and banana cultivation sustainability. Postharvest losses can be minimized by adopting a certain preharvest strategy and postharvest management/technology. It is crucial to control each step from the field to the consumer. Therefore, adequate preharvest treatments, as well as the correct stage of harvesting, proper harvesting method, transportation, washing, cleaning, grading, packing, cold storage, ripening process, air and relative humidity during storage or in the ripening chambers, and efficient marketing are crucial phases to ameliorate postharvest losses.

References

References Alvindia, D.G. (2012). Revisiting hot water treatments in controlling crown rot of banana cv. Bungulan. Crop Protection 33: 59–64. Amin, N. and Hossain, M. (2012). Reduction of postharvest loss and prolong the shelf life of banana through hot water treatment. Journal of Chemical Engineering 27: 42–47. Amin, M.N., Hossain, M.N., Rahim, M.A., and Uddin, M.B. (2015). Determination of optimum maturity stage of banana. Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Research 40: 189–204. Baez-Sañudo, M., Siller-Cepeda, J., Muy-Rangel, D., and Heredia, J.B. (2009). Extending the shelf-life of bananas with 1-methylcyclopropene and a chitosan-based edible coating. Journal of the Science of Food & Agriculture 89: 2343–2349. Céspedes, C.M. (2004). Calidad de frutas en bananos de exportación: algunas implicaciones de manejo. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: Instituto Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales (IDIAF). CODEX (2005). CODEX Standard for Bananas (CODEX STAN 205-1997, AMD 1-2005). Available at https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trade/agr/meetings/ge.01/document/ Codex%20bananas%20E.pdf (accessed 15 December 2019). Dionisio, G.A. (2012). Revisiting hot water treatments in controlling crown rot of banana cv. Buñgulan. Crop Protection 33: 59–64. El-Kashif, M.E., Mohamed, H.A., and Elamin, O.M. (2010). Effect of pre- and post-harvest treatments on yield and fruit quality of selected banana cultivars. Gezira Journal of Agricultural Science 8: 63–75. Esguerra, E.B. and Rolle, R. (2018). Postharvest Management of Banana for Quality and Safety Assurance Guidance for Horticultural Supply Chain Stakeholders. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). FAO (2019). Producción de banano orgânico en Perú. Available at http://www.fao.org/3/ai6870s.pdf (accessed 23 December 2019). FAOSTAT (2019). Crops. Available at http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC (accessed 20 November 2019). Ganry, J. and Chillet, M. (2008). Methodology to forecast the harvest date of banana bunches. Fruits 63: 371–373. Gowen, S. (1995). Bananas and Plantains. London: Chapman and Hall. Hailu, M., Workneh, T.S., and Belew, D. (2013). Review on postharvest technology of banana fruit. African Journal of Biotechnology 12: 635–647. Idris, F.M., Ibrahim, A.M., and Forsido, S.F. (2015). Essential oils to control Colletotrichum musae in vitro and in vivo on banana fruits. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Science 15: 291–302. International Tropical Fruits Network (2019). Philippines: Organic solution effective against banana crown rot. Available at https://www.itfnet.org/v1/2016/09/philippines-organicsolution-effective-against-banana-crown-rot (accessed 23 December 2019). Jayasheela, D.S., Sreekala, G.S., and Prasanth, K. (2015). Value addition of banana: key roles to minimize post harvest losses. International Journal of Advanced Research 3: 833–835. Jiménez Ruiz, J.B., Solano Sánchez, D., Vargas Climent, F., and Vargas Pereira, C. (2016). Propuesta de mejora del sistema de control interno de los procesos de cosecha y producción

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del banano de exportación, apoyando la gestión y fortalecimiento en la toma de decisiones de la empresa Varcli Pinares S.A. Tesis de Licenciatura. Universidad de Costa Rica. Lassoudière, A. (1978). Quelques aspects de la croissance et du développement du bananier “Poyo” en Côte d’Ivoire. 2ème partie le système radical. Fruits 33: 314–338. Lobo, M.G., Gonzalez, M., Peña, A., and Marrero, A. (2005). Effects of ethylene exposure temperature on shelf life, composition and quality of artificially ripened bananas (Musa acuminata AAA, cv.‘Dwarf Cavendish’). Food Science & Technology International 11: 99–105. Mirshekari, A., Ding, P., Kadir, J., and Ghazali, H.M. (2012). Effect of hot water dip treatment on postharvest anthracnose of banana var. Berangan. African Journal of Agricultural Research 7: 6–10. Mohapatra, D., Mishra, S., and Sutar, N. (2010). Banana postharvest practices: current status and future prospects. A review. Agricultural Review 31: 56–62. Ortiz Vega, R.A., López Morales, A., Ponchner Geller, S., and Segura Monge, A. (2001). El cultivo del banano. San José, Costa Rica: Universidad Estatal a Distancia (UNED). Prabha, D.S. and Kumar, J.S. (2015). Assessment of banana fruit maturity by image processing technique. Journal of Food Science & Technology 52: 1316–1327. Sen, C., Mishra, H.N., and Srivastav, P.P. (2012). Modified atmosphere packaging and active packaging of banana (Musa spp.): a review on control of ripening and extension of shelf life. Journal of Stored Products and Postharvest Research 3: 122–132. Soto Ballestero, M. (2015). Bananos II. Tecnologías de Producción. Cartago: Editorial Tecnológica de Costa Rica. Soto Ballestero, M. (2017). Bananos III. Poscosecha y comercialización. Cartago: Editorial Tecnológica de Costa Rica. Turner, D.W. (1997). Bananas and plantains. In: Postharvest Physiology and Storage of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (ed. S.K. Mitra), 45–87. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. Umaña, G. (2002). Manual para el manejo en campo, cosecha y poscosecha de banano orgánico de exportación para pequeños agricultores de Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica. USDA (2004). Bananas. Market Inspection Instructions. Available at https://www.ams.usda .gov/sites/default/files/media/Bananas_Inspection_Instructions%5B1%5D.pdf (accessed 15 December 2019). Vásquez-Castillo, W., Racines-Oliva, M., Moncayo, P., Viera, W., and Seraquive, M. (2019). Calidad del fruto y pérdidas poscosecha de banano orgánico (Musa acuminata) en el Ecuador. Enfoque UTE 10 (4): 57–66.

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5 Packaging Technologies for Banana and Banana Products Pattarin Leelaphiwat and Vanee Chonhenchob Department of Packaging and Materials Technology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

Introduction The importance of packaging has well been recognized for centuries. It has become a significant part of the food value chain not only for containing and delivering products from farm to consumer but also protecting and preserving products. The role of packaging has evolved in communication and utility, which has become more and more important in business. Novel food packaging techniques have been extensively focused in the past two decades. Among these, active and intelligent packaging has received an immense amount of interest for research and applications (Wilson 2007; Dainelli et al. 2008; Shinde et al. 2018). Active packaging technologies have been aimed at extending shelf life or to enhance safety, whereas intelligent packaging provides an indication of the quality of products, as discussed in more detail in this chapter. Novel packaging technologies have emerged primarily to serve the consumers’ need. Novel food processing technologies such as high pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric field (PEF), ohmic heating, microwave heating, ozone, ultrasound, radio frequency (RF) and pulsed ultraviolet treatments have also emerged in recent years (Jermann et al. 2015; Ahmed et al. 2016). Packaging plays an important role when maintaining various aspects of food quality and safety using these technologies. For many food products such as drink/juice and canned and retorted products, packaging is essentially a part of food processing. As a result, packaging needs to be developed to serve the requirements of the specific processing technologies. Furthermore, packaging technologies have an effect on processing and preservation methods. Examples are the changes from frozen vegetables to chilled vegetables and from fresh fruits and vegetables to fresh-cut products with novel breathable packaging films. Material innovation has become one of the major challenges for the packaging industry. Innovative materials are among the leading-edge technologies for packaging. New packaging materials are constantly being developed to improve diverse properties for food applications including mechanical, barrier, optical and sealing properties. Efforts on developing and commercializing biodegradable plastics have taken great steps forward over recent decades. Nanomaterials have achieved a major place in the future market of food packaging Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition, First Edition. Edited by Muhammad Siddiq, Jasim Ahmed, and Maria Gloria Lobo. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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by playing a promising role in improving mechanical, barrier and heat-resistant properties (Silvestre et al. 2011; Bumbudsanpharoke et al. 2015; Wróblewska-Krepsztul et al. 2018). Different products need different packaging systems and technologies. Both fresh and processed bananas primarily require packaging to protect the products from mechanical damage along the value chains. However, while fresh bananas require packaging with high oxygen permeability, most processed banana products require packaging with limited oxygen permeability. Global concerns on food safety have increased the importance of food packaging in recent decades. As a result, packaging technologies have been explored for different ways of ensuring safety; for example in the use of intelligent packaging for the tracking and tracing and migration of substances into food packaged products. Bananas (Musa spp.) are one of the major food crops consumed worldwide. They are known to be an important source of bioactive compounds with potential health benefits such as phenolics, carotenoids, biogenic amines, and phytosterols (Singh et al. 2016). Banana fruit are eaten as both fresh and various processed products including dried/ dehydrated bananas, banana flour/powder, paste, syrup, jam, jelly, juice, candy, and frozen products. This chapter addresses various aspects of packaging for fresh banana and banana products. Packaging’s primary functions include containment, protection/preservation, communication, and utility. These functions make packaging an important part of every product. Current and innovative packaging technologies for fresh and major processed banana products in the markets are also covered in this chapter. Furthermore, packaging design/material selection is a significant criterion for positive and sustainable impact.

Packaging for Fresh Bananas Bananas are sold in different forms to meet various consumer demands, for example, in bunches, as a few or a single fruit with and without packaging. With the enhanced buying convenience and in response to growing health awareness, banana production and sales have increased in recent years. In addition, ripening stages are important criteria when selling bananas. Most convenience stores and shops carry ripe yellow bananas, which are ready for consumption. One of the major problems for damage and loss of bananas during marketing is mechanical injuries that occur during handling and distribution caused by shock, vibration, and compression. Bruising and skin abrasion are the most common mechanical injuries which cause unacceptable quality or low price of banana at the market. Browning in banana can occur both externally (skin) and internally (flesh). Bruising can accelerate browning due to enzymatic browning of the banana flesh without being visible on the banana skin. Cell breakage causes phenolic substances to come into contact with enzymes such as polyphenol oxidase (PPO), which in the presence of oxygen results in the formation of brown pigments. Cell breakage due to mechanical injuries can also accelerate respiration resulting in shortened shelf life of bananas. Abrasion can result in skin browning or blackening due to water loss, which can be minimized by storage under high relative humidity (>90% RH). Skin abrasion can be minimized by proper packaging and cushioning to avoid the impact between fruit or against the inner surfaces of packaging containers.

Packaging for Fresh Bananas

Bruising has been shown to have a negative impact on the banana fruit quality. Bugaud et al. (2014) studied the genotypic factors and post-climacteric storage conditions that affected bruise susceptibility of banana peel. Five cultivars of banana were stored either at 18 ∘ C throughout ripening or at 13 ∘ C between the 2nd and 6th day after ethylene induction. Indicators of bruise susceptibility, such as peel electrolyte leakage (PEL), total polyphenolic content, hardness, water content, and peel thickness were investigated. Bruise susceptibility was defined as the lowest impact energy required to produce visible bruising by an object dropped on post-climacteric banana fruit from a predetermined height, converted into impact energy (20–200 mJ with a 20 mJ increment). They reported that “Grande Naine” and hybrid “Flhorban925” bananas were not bruised even at the maximum impact energy (200 mJ) during ripening irrespective of the storage conditions. However, a gradient in bruise susceptibility was observed among the other cultivars, “French Corne” > “Fougamou” > hybrid “Flhorban916.” They also reported that bruise susceptibility enhanced during ripening particularly at 18 ∘ C. Banana stored at 13 ∘ C resulted in a two-day delay to fruit maturity as well as in bruise susceptibility. From the positive correlation of bruise susceptibility with PEL (R = 0.78) and negative correlation with peel hardness (R = −0.45) and no correlation with polyphenol content, they concluded that membrane permeability provided the first indicator to understanding bruise susceptibility. Banana fruit after harvest is more susceptible to mechanical damage. Kkaravessapong et al. (1992) investigated the effect of relative humidity (50%, 70%, and 90%) on mechanical damage susceptibility of banana cv. “Williams” (Cavendish subgroup AAA) from day 2 after harvesting to day 5 after ripening. The bruise resistance coefficient (ml damaged tissue per J of energy absorbed) was used to assess susceptibility to damage. They found that the susceptibility of the fruit to mechanical damage increased rapidly on the 2nd day by 4–8 times after ripening initiation. It was also found that relative humidity did not influence the bruise resistance coefficient, carbon dioxide or ethylene production, or starch or sugar content. However, low humidity greatly increased water loss by 3–4 times more than high humidity. It was concluded that humidity did not influence susceptibility to mechanical injury, but the tissues damaged at low humidity were dried to a black color while those damaged at high humidity remained light brown. Banks and Joseph (1991) investigated the factors affecting the resistance of banana fruit to bruise by estimating the minimum (threshold) compression forces and impact energies needed to produce bruises on banana. Both forces were applied through 8 mm diameter balls. Fruit harvested in early morning required 5.49 N of compression to cause bruises than late harvested (4.55 N) fruit due to high turgidity in early morning. When the fruit were left for 1–2 days at ambient temperature between harvest and application of bruising treatments, water loss reduced the threshold for compression bruising from 5.35 to 4.32 and 4.29 N, respectively. Fruit at 30 ∘ C had a lower compression bruising threshold (3.31 N) than those at 13.5, 19, and 24.5 ∘ C (4.52, 4.72, and 4.46 N, respectively). The impact bruising thresholds were affected by a delay after harvest and temperature with an increase from 93 to 120 μJ following a two-day delay after harvest and from 74 to 104 μJ as a result of elevating temperature from 19 to 30 ∘ C. An important function of fresh produce packaging is to protect the fruit from mechanical injuries. Bananas are harvested, loaded on a truck or packed in a variety of containers for transport to the packing houses, distribution centers, wholesale markets, export, or

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processing plants. At packing houses and distribution centers, bananas are cleaned, sorted, and graded into shipping containers for their destined markets and desired purposes. Loading banana without packaging can result in significant mechanical damage and losses. Precooling is an important postharvest step. Bananas are precooled in refrigerated containers or cold rooms to remove field heat as quickly as possible. Packaging used during precooling should be properly ventilated for efficient precooling Reducing damage by proper packaging and cushioning is important, especially when bananas are sold at high-end markets or as individual fruit at retailers and shops because of the high expectation of consumers concerning quality. Shipping containers should also be stackable to reduce the compression force applied to the fruit as well as to provide load stability during distribution and storage. In addition, shipping containers should be properly vented to allow efficient cooling to maintain the best quality of the fruit. Proper packaging and cushioning design were shown to reduce mechanical damage in several tropical fruits (Chonhenchob and Singh 2003, 2005; Chonhenchob et al. 2008). Major forms of bulk packaging for bananas are reusable plastic containers (RPCs) and paper containers including corrugated and solid fiberboard containers (Figure 5.1). Various cushioning and accessories help protect banana fruit from mechanical damage. RPCs are available in specific common footprint dimensions. Corrugated fiberboard containers (CFCs) and solid fiberboard containers can be specially designed to accommodate varying sizes and shapes of banana bundles with unique print for display and marketing purposes. CFCs are more commonly used for fresh produce packaging than solid fiberboard containers. The most common flute types used for fresh produce packaging are shown in Figure 5.1 (A) and (C), the latter (flute) is mainly used in the United States. There are many different corrugated box styles. The most common styles used for fresh produce applications are the regular slotted container (RSC), telescoping box, rigid or bliss container, and tray (Chonhenchob et al. 2017). Banana bunches are not in uniform or common shapes. Different packaging styles of bananas are used in various shipping containers (Figure 5.1). With the adoption of a common footprint standard which specifies container base dimensions and stacking features, both RPCs and corrugated containers from different manufacturers and suppliers can be stackable on the standardized pallets. The most commonly used pallet in the fresh produce industry in the United States is the Grocery Manufacturers’ Association (GMA) pallet (40 in. × 48 in.), which has similar dimensions to the 1200 mm × 800 mm Euro pallet. Two major sizes of containers used for fresh produce packaging are full-sized (“5-down,” 40.64 cm × 30.48 cm) and half-sized (“10-down,” 60.96 cm × 40.64 cm) containers, according to the Fiber Box Association (de la Fuente et al. 2018). The European Federation of Corrugated Board Manufacturers specifies the outside dimensions of fruit and vegetable trays as 597 mm × 398 mm, 398 mm × 298 mm, and 298 mm × 198 mm. Container liners may be used in the bulk packing of bananas. Liners are made of plastic films, usually polyethylene (PE) or polypropylene (PP), mainly to minimize water loss during storage and distribution. Moisture loss is related to weight loss which is an important criterion for selling fruit in the market. Sealed liners can be used to establish modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) for extending the shelf life of banana. MAP can be applied for long distance markets such as transportation via sea freight or long-term storage. MAP for fresh fruit including banana usually requires specific film permeability to allow proper gas exchange between the outside and inside environments that matches the fruit respiration rates. More details about MAP of bananas are discussed later in this chapter.

Packaging for Processed Banana Products

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

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Figure 5.1 Different bulk packaging systems for fresh bananas: (A) Chiquita new global banana box; (B) Dole Philippines’s banana box for US Shipment; (C) telescoping box style for bananas; and (D) fresh bananas in a liner bag placed in a corrugated box. Source: (A) https://www.freshplaza.com/ article/2167086/us-chiquita-r-launches-new-global-banana-box-for-new-year; (B) http://www .fruitnet.com/asiafruit/article/16480/dole-philippines-prepares-us-shipment; (C) https://www .multipack.in/products/banana-packaging-box-exports; and (D) https://www.ec21.com/productdetails/Fresh-Green-Cavendish-Banana--6857532.html.

The highly perishable nature and sensitivity to ethylene have limited the shelf life of bananas. Various techniques have been attempted to increase the shelf life, maintain the quality and enhance marketability of bananas. Major quality indices of fresh banana include color changes, softening, and weight loss. Color changes during ripening appear to be associated with the stage of ripeness of the banana. Softening of bananas during ripening is related to processes involving the breakdown of starch, cell walls, and cellulose. Various technologies have been reported to maintain the quality and prolong shelf life of fresh bananas; for example, edible films and coatings, MAP and ozone treatments.

Packaging for Processed Banana Products Bananas are processed into many different products, mainly to extend shelf life and to provide a wide variety of value-added products for consumers. Furthermore, banana products are convenient for consumption. Dried/dehydrated products including chip/snack and flour/powder are the most popular banana products in the world market. Bananas are also made into juice or drink alone or mixed with other fruits and packaged in a variety of materials and forms. Bananas are processed into a variety of milk-based beverages,

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(A)

(D)

(B)

(E)

(C)

(F)

Figure 5.2 Selected processed banana products in a variety of packaging materials and forms: (A) banana milk; (B) low-fat banana milk; (C) UHT banana milk: (D) steam-dried banana chips; (E) freeze-dried banana chips; and (F) banana-strawberry flavored yogurt. Source: (A) Banana Wave, USA (www.bananawave.love); (B) Saputo Produits Laitiers, Canada (www.saputo.com); (C) Fonterra Brands, New Zealand Limited (www.fonterra.com); (D) Natural Produces Co., Ltd., Thailand; (E) author’s own image (Vanee Chonhenchob); and (F) Upstate Niagara Cooperative, Inc., USA (https://www.upstateniagara.com).

banana-flavored yogurt, and dried slices; these products are packaged in a variety of packaging materials and forms as shown in Figure 5.2.

Dried and Dehydrated Bananas There are a wide variety of dried and dehydrated bananas, for example sun dried/dehydrated slices, powder, flakes, chips, and snack bars. These dried and dehydrated products provide a long shelf life because of the reduced moisture content and water activity. Therefore,

Packaging for Processed Banana Products

packaging requirements for these types of products are to protect the products from moisture, as moisture will significantly affect the product quality. For example, moisture absorption will cause banana powder to become soggy and cause caking as well as facilitate mold growth, and banana chips to lose crispness. Dried and dehydrated bananas tend to develop a brown color in the presence of oxygen and heat due to non-enzymatic browning reactions which mainly involve reducing sugars and amino acids in bananas. Banana chips become soft due to moisture absorption and also develop rancidity due to lipid oxidation; packaging for these products requires a high barrier to oxygen. Dried and dehydrated products are commonly packed in different forms of packaging including composite cans, aluminum foil pouches, metalized plastic-based pouches, and multilayer plastic pouches. Glass packaging ideally protects the products from both water vapor and oxygen and is inert to the products. However, it is breakable, difficult for handling, distribution and storage, and not cost-effective. Metal packaging provides an excellent barrier to water vapor and oxygen and protects the products from sunlight which accelerates many reactions. Paper packaging can be made into several forms including pouch, tray, and box. Paper easily absorbs water, hence is coated or combined with other materials to make suitable packaging. Plastic packaging is the most commonly used for food packaging applications. It offers a wide range of properties; it is light weight, can be made into various forms and shapes, and is cost-effective. The plastic packaging should be a high barrier to water vapor and oxygen to meet the requirements for dried and dehydrated banana products. In addition, packaging should provide mechanical strength, sealability, convenience, and utility as well as serve marketing functions and be cost-effective. Multilayer or composite materials are often used for food packaging to obtain the intended shelf life. For dried and dehydrated banana products, laminated aluminum foil with PE and multilayers containing high oxygen barrier layers such as ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH), nylon 6, and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are commonly used. However, EVOH, PVOH, and nylon 6 are sensitive to water vapor, hence they have to be buried within high water vapor barrier materials such as PE or PP in the multilayer structures. In recent decades, a stand up pouch has been a common form of packaging for dried and dehydrated fruits and vegetables as well as other snack products as it is attractive on a shelf display and reduces resource usage, storage and shelf spaces and cost compared with rigid packaging. Banana chips are a common type of dried and dehydrated product. Deep fat frying is a traditional method for making banana chips. Alternative frying techniques have been used to reduce the oil contents of chips such as vacuum frying and microwave frying. Banana chips are both moisture and oxygen sensitive, and hence require a high barrier to both moisture and oxygen. Moisture absorption results in crispness loss while the presence of oxygen results in rancidity due to lipid oxidation and hydrolytic oxidation.

Banana Juice Banana juice is extracted from banana pulp using different techniques. Typically, banana juice is blended with other fruit or vegetable juices to sell as mixed juices which are becoming increasingly popular. Banana juice is mostly aseptically processed as detailed in other chapters. Like most fruit juice processing, the packaging used for aseptic processing of

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Polyethylene

Figure 5.3 The sublayers in a composite material used for making brick-type packages. Source: Pascall and Siddiq (2018). Reproduced with permission of John Wiley and Sons.

Paperboard Aluminum foil Polyethylene Polyethylene

banana juice is in various forms, typically cartons and also cans, cups, and bottles. Traditional carton systems contain multilayer materials which provide different functions. The common structure of a “brick-pack” contains outer PE, paperboard, adhesive, aluminum foil, and inner PE layers (Figure 5.3). Aluminum foil offers protection against moisture, oxygen, and light for a longer shelf life. A high barrier material such as EVOH can be used to enhance shelf life of non-aluminum foil aseptic packaging. Banana juice is also packaged in PET bottles, which is another popular form of packaging for the beverage industry. Innovative juice processing and packaging technologies involve the development of machinery in various steps from receiving raw materials through filling and packaging of banana juices.

Frozen Bananas Freezing is another traditional preservation method to prolong the shelf life of fruit. Bananas are mostly frozen at the ripe stage, either peeled or unpeeled as well as sliced and whole fruit. These products are mostly sold in bulk for further cooking and processing, culinary applications, and food services, etc. Some frozen products are sold by retail markets but on a very limited scale and are not as popular as fresh bananas and other processed products. Temperature control throughout the storage period and the frozen supply chain is an important factor in maintaining the quality of frozen products. Intelligent packaging such as time–temperature indicators (TTIs) are used for tracing and managing the chains. Thermal insulation packaging materials, for example expanded polystyrene (PS), polyurethane (PU), corrugated fiberboard and other composite packaging, which can be combined with phase change materials such as gel packs, are used to transport frozen products in the cold chains to prevent heat loss or gain. The most common forms of thermal insulating packaging are boxes and bags. Retail packaging for frozen bananas should withstand the freeze–thaw temperature for consumer use. In addition, packaging with a high barrier to water vapor is required to prevent moisture loss from freezer burn as a result of sublimation of water vapor from the surface of the fruit.

Current and Innovative Technologies for Bananas Edible Films and Coatings Edible films and coatings for whole and fresh cut fruits have been extensively studied over the past decades. This field of study has received increased attention in recent years due

Current and Innovative Technologies for Bananas

to health and environmental consciousness. They are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and biodegradable. The major benefits of edible films and coatings include reducing moisture loss or gain and controlling gas exchange. In addition, they improve appearance by providing gloss and shine and can be used as carriers for active substances for extending shelf life and/or enhancing safety of the fruits (Chonhenchob et al. 2017). Different types of coating have been studied for fresh bananas. Thakur et al. (2019) studied the effects of rice starch edible coating (EC) blended with sucrose esters on Cavendish banana at 20 ∘ C and found that coating effectively delayed ethylene biosynthesis and chlorophyll degradation, reduced respiration rate and weight loss, retained firmness, and extended shelf life of bananas to 12 days as compared with the uncoated (control) bananas (6 days). The effects of chitosan EC and 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) alone or in combination (EC + 1-MCP) were evaluated on Cavendish banana by Baez-Sanudo et al. (2009) at 22 ∘ C for 8 days. The use of 1-MCP is common to inhibit the ethylene action of various climacteric fruits including bananas. After 3 days of storage, the tips and neck of banana fingers treated with 1-MCP alone and combined with EC were still green, while those coated with chitosan alone and untreated bananas were completely yellow. The 1-MCP treatment alone or its combination with chitosan was also effective in maintaining the fruit firmness and delaying the incidence of sugar spots with no adverse effects on the sensory results. Zewter et al. (2012) studied the effect of different postharvest treatments (KMnO4 and 1-MCP), packaging (perforated and non-perforated PE bags), and temperature (open air ambient and cold room) on selected physical and sensory quality attributes. Results of visual color scores are shown in Table 5.1. The 1-MCP + perforated PE bag storage was effective in maintaining good peel color (4.3) after 24 days, which corresponded with over 50% peel color change from full-green to partially yellow. Bananas with a peel color score of 6.0 were deemed unmarketable. The change in banana peel color, resulting from

Table 5.1 Effect of postharvest treatments and packaging on color changes of banana peel during storage (storage room temperature ranged from 13.6 to 18.4 ∘ C). Treatments

Control (open-air)

Storage period (d) 4

8

12

16

20

24

4.0a

5.0

6.0

7.0

—

—

Non-perforated PE

2.0

3.0

4.7

5.7

7.0

—

Perforated PE

2.0

3.0

4.7

5.7

6.7

—

Non-perforated PE + KMnO4

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.3

6.7

—

Perforated PE + KMnO4

2.0

2.7

4.0

5.3

5.7

7.0

1-MCP + non-perforated PE

1.0

2.0

2.7

3.7

5.0

6.0

1-MCP + perforated PE

1.0

1.0

2.0

2.7

3.7

4.3

1-MCP

1.3

2.0

3.0

4.0

4.7

5.7

PE, polyethylene; KMnO4 , potassium permanganate; 1-MCP, 1-methylcyclopropene. a Color stages: 1 (green), 2 (breaker), 3 (50% but Yellow

Figure 7.8 Changes in the carbohydrate fractions at selected stages of banana ripeness. Source: Adapted from Lii et al. (1982) and Zhang et al. (2005).

Katekawa and Silva (2007) reported the association of glass transition and product shrinkage during the drying of banana. Although this is a complex relationship, as made clear by the authors, the influence of temperature was significant with higher temperatures, above the glass transition temperature, inducing a higher extent of shrinkage.

Color (Browning) The color and appearance of banana products are a primary quality attribute readily discerned by consumers. Fresh bananas contain high levels of phenolic compounds and high activity of polyphenol oxidase. This classic enzymatic browning reaction results in very rapid browning of banana tissue during handling and preparation (Nguyen and Price 2007). Peeling and cutting operations will enable rapid onset of browning, if unchecked. Pretreatments have been used to mitigate this reaction (Chaisakdanugull et al. 2007). These include using steam or water blanching, frying in oil, or use of ascorbic acid dips and the application of sucrose on the exposed surface. High temperature drying conditions will also limit enzymatic browning. However, during dehydration, particularly in the later stages, Maillard browning will readily occur. This reaction produces both discoloration and distinctive flavor and aroma. Romano et al. (2010) monitored color changes of banana during drying using a laser backscattering (670 nm, 3 mW) technique. Pre-drying treatments are frequently employed to preserve fruit color and appearance. The experiments were conducted at drying air temperature of 63 ∘ C with selected pretreatments: (i) chilling; (ii) soaking in ascorbic/citric acid; and (iii) dipping in distilled water. An untreated sample was used as a control. The relative laser area was used as an indicator for light absorption into the tissue. Results established a linear relationship between relative laser area and moisture content. The pretreatments showed significant differences of lightness (L* values) during drying. Treatment with ascorbic acid gave the best prediction of the moisture content using this technique; however, color degradation did not negatively impact absorption at 670 nm wavelength.

Quality Attributes of Dehydrated Banana Products

Chua et al. (2001) observed that by the use of changing drying air temperature it was possible to significantly reduce the drying time of bananas and produce improved product color. Color and sorption characteristics of osmotically treated and air-dried banana were studied during air drying at 70 ∘ C. Osmotic pretreatment prevented color damage and resulted in a shift in sorption isotherm with decreased sorption capacity of dehydrated products (Krokida et al. 2000). The color parameters lightness, redness, and yellowness were studied, using a Hunter Lab color meter. A first-order kinetic model was fitted to the experimental data adequately for color parameters, while osmotic data for treated and air-dried products were fitted to the GAB model. Untreated banana showed an extensive browning, which was demonstrated as a significant drop in the lightness and an increase in redness and yellowness. Osmotically pretreated samples did not brown as much as the untreated samples and the lightness decreased only slightly while the redness and yellowness values increased slightly. Osmotic pretreatment resulted in a shift in sorption isotherm for both treatments. Osmotic dehydration prevented color damage and decreased the sorption capacity of dehydrated products.

Texture and Microstructure Textural characteristics of dehydrated banana chips are greatly impacted by preparation and processing procedures. The hardness and crispness attributes are highly associated with consumer acceptance. The microstructure of dehydrated banana tissue is influenced by the process used. Figure 7.9 illustrates the impact of IR radiation as a pretreatment prior to freeze-drying. Note an increase in porosity and apparent decrease in bulk density for the IR-treated sample. These changes dramatically influence the textural properties of the dehydrated banana slice. Generally, a high-quality chip is described as “firm and crispy” and, of course, possessing desirable color and flavor. Process variables each have direct impact on final product quality. Thus, product moisture content, thermal processes (blanching and frying) and dehydration methodology (particularly temperature and air flow which readily affect the rate of drying (a)

(b)

Surface

1 mm

Figure 7.9 Scanning electron micrograph of cross section of dried banana slices with no acid treatment under different drying methods: (a) regular freeze-dried; and (b) IR pre-dehydration, 20% weight reduction before freeze-drying. Source: Pan et al. (2008). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

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and final moisture level achieved) have been studied (Demirel and Turhan 2003; Fernandes et al. 2006; Katekawa and Silva 2006; Romano et al. 2010). Much research has been directed to understanding the interactions of these processes to yield optimized quality attributes. The structure of freeze-dried banana is compared in macro-photographic images of cross-cut slices and scanning electron micrographs (50× magnification) in Figure 7.10. The use of MWVD and MWMFD applied at selected energy levels (400, 700, or 1000 W) during the freeze-drying process are presented for both laboratory and commercial samples. Note the differential porosity of tissue among these treatments. Under the conditions of these processes, results demonstrated that it is feasible to create dried-and-crisp banana by applying successive cycles of heating and vacuum pulses in a microwave field. Production of dried-and-crisp banana slices using the MWMFD process was more effective than using MWVD. Clearly, microwave treatments were most efficient, given very short drying times, compared with freeze-drying times. FD-C

FD-L

FD-C

FD

FD-L

(1)

(2) MWMFD

MWVD

(2) MWMFD

400 W

MWVD

(1)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

700 W

(3)

1000 W

132

Figure 7.10 Photographs of dried bananas and scanning electron micrographs of fractures of dried bananas (magnification ×50): (1) FD-L; (2) FD-C; (3) MWVD-400 W; (4) MWMFD-400 W; (5) MWVD-700 W; (6) MWMFD-700 W; (7) MWVD-1000 W; and (8) MWMFD-1000 W. C, commercial; FD, freeze-drying; L, laboratory; MWMFD, microwave multi-flash drying; and MWVD, microwave vacuum drying. Source: Monteiro et al. (2016). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Quality Attributes of Dehydrated Banana Products

12 2 min

15 min

30 min

Crispiness (N-m force)

10 8 6 4 2 0 50 °C

60 °C

70 °C

80 °C

90 °C

100 °C

Figure 7.11 Effect of blanching temperature and time on the crispiness of dried banana chips. Source: Adapted from Jackson et al. (1996).

Jackson et al. (1996) blanched whole green bananas in water at different temperatures for 2, 15, and 30 minutes and demonstrated optimized blanch conditions using RSM to be 67 ∘ C for 22 minutes for enhanced crispness of fried and dehydrated slices (Figure 7.11). Raikham et al. (2013) reported the optimum conditions of fluidized bed puffing for producing crispy banana. High-temperature short-time processing conditions were employed. Puffing temperature and puffing time significantly affected the shrinkage, hardness, crispiness and color of the dried product. Higher puffing temperature and longer puffing time resulted in less shrinkage, better texture, and a darker brown color. Results indicated that an intermediate moisture content (26% db), puffing temperature of 163 ∘ C, and puffing time of one minute were effective to produce puffed banana products using a fluidized bed technique. Porciuncula et al. (2016) studied the potential of various processes designed to enhance the structure and texture of dehydrated banana. Emphasis was focused on the microstructure and texture of multi-flash drying of banana. Results showed that processing conditions clearly influence the porous structure of dehydrated banana. Product density, porosity, and shrinkage variation among various processes (conductive multi-flash drying process, conductive multi-flash drying combined with classical vacuum drying, convective drying in an oven, and vacuum drying) influenced textural properties.

Flavor Compounds The natural aromatic flavor compounds prevalent in bananas have been extensively studied (Boudhrioua et al. 2003; Facundo et al. 2013; Marriott and Palmer 1980). Flavor attributes of bananas vary widely by variety and fruit maturity; however, predominate compounds include isoamyl alcohol, isoamyl acetate, butyl acetate, and elemicin, a phenylpropene. Table 7.2 shows the major volatile compounds in dehydrated banana as a result of different drying methods.

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Table 7.2 Principal component analysis of major volatile compounds in banana dehydrated using different methods. Fraction (%) Compounds

3-Methylbutyl acetate Butanoic acid 3-methylbutyl ester

Freeze drying

7.32 0.59

Vacuum belt drying

3.12 0.31

Air drying

0.74 0.28

3-Methylbutanoic acid 3-methylbutyl ester

16.11

19.3

22.39

Isoamyl butyrate

14.75

15.83

13.69

Butanoic acid 1-methylhexyl ester

7.45

6.85

5.87

Hexyl isovalerate

3.23

3.29

3.2

2-Heptanol acetate

3.54

2.34

1.67

Isobutyl isoval ester

4.51

1.6

3.23

Eugenol

0.45

1.23

0.76

0.67

1.26

Elemicin

—

Source: Wang et al. (2007). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Boudhrioua et al. (2003) characterized the compounds associated with banana flavor and aroma. Further, they accessed changes in aromatic components of banana during ripening and air-drying. Fresh and dried bananas were extracted by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and analyzed by gas chromatography (GC). The aromatic changes of Cavendish banana were then studied during ripening and drying. The entraining of aromatic compounds by water vapor was the main mechanism of loss during the preliminary phases of drying. Some compounds strongly decreased during drying (particularly isoamyls). Data suggest that Maillard reaction products were subsequently developed during extended drying at 80 ∘ C. Process temperature and final moisture content of dehydrated slices dramatically impact compounds contributing to the final flavor and aroma profiles. Thus, final product flavor and aroma are clearly attributed to raw banana sources (banana type, maturity/ripeness, and handling/preparation stages) and to changes that occur during the dehydration process (losses and thermal synthesis of compounds). Saha et al. (2018) used headspace gas chromatography mass spectrometry to measure changes in selected volatile flavor compounds in fresh banana during low temperature heat pump drying. The mechanisms for flavor and aroma losses were viewed to be complex. Ester and aldehyde levels reduced quickly during the early stages of drying. High molecular weight compounds, such as elemicine and eugenol, were not significantly affected during drying. It was observed that selective diffusion and volatility affected the degree of flavor retention in banana. It was concluded that retention of the important and abundant isoamyl and isobutyl acetates depends on rapid surface drying (at higher air temperatures) to remove water and seal the surface and thus retain volatiles within the banana slices.

Summary

Packaging and Shelf Life Dehydrated banana slices must be properly handled and packaged to assure adequate high-quality shelf life. The generalized mode of quality deterioration is associated with sensory degradation of color and flavor, and the loss of characteristic crispness. Dehydrated products require packaging appropriate for the environmental conditions encountered during shipping and marketing. Environmental storage temperature and relative humidity are critical factors affecting shelf life. High quality shelf life of dehydrated banana slices is dramatically enhanced by maintaining reduced storage temperature (range 15–20 ∘ C) and low relative humidity (range 5–10%). Packaging materials must be selected to provide adequate barrier properties to assure minimum moisture vapor transmission (MVT) and low oxygen permeability. Lipid oxidation and the development of stale off-flavors will develop in the presence of excessive oxygen. This condition is highly acerbated in oil fried chips. Selected studies have been directed to assess effects of storage and packaging conditions on the quality degradation of dehydrated banana products, e.g., slices (Bellary et al. 2017) and powders (Mishra et al. 2016). Bellary et al. (2017) reported the effect of storage conditions and packaging materials on the quality of raw banana slices. A moisture sorption study was conducted for the developed products in selected packaging materials: (i) polypropylene (PP); (ii) polyethylene terephthalate (PET)/low-density polyethylene terephthalate (LDPE); and (iii) metallized PET/LDPE. Fruit was held under ambient and accelerated storage conditions for 90 days. Results indicated that physical, chemical, and sensory quality attributes required an effective MVT barrier to achieve suitable shelf life. Noor and Augustin (1984) studied the effectiveness of antioxidants on the storage stability of banana chips. Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) were compared for improving the stability of banana chips fried at 190 ∘ C and stored at 65 or 25 ∘ C with an untreated control. It was found that frying oil that contained either antioxidant resulted in more stable chips than chips fried without antioxidants. BHT was more effective than BHA in prolonging the shelf life of banana chips. Yan et al. (2008) reported quality stability of intermediate moisture content banana. Optimal environmental conditions and adequate packaging materials can be used to guarantee high quality products through shelf life. Storage condition factors considered were temperature, relative humidity, light level, and package atmosphere composition. Objective and sensory measures were conducted throughout storage. Results indicated that temperature and relative humidity were the most critical environmental factors for retention of color and acceptability.

Summary Dehydration processing provides a very economical and commercial value-added means to produce banana slices. Food safety, advanced quality control systems, and expanded efforts

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for extending the shelf life have been undertaken to position dehydrated banana slices in world-wide commerce. Differentiated high-quality banana products can be designed using processes that range from simple solar drying to highly advanced technologies. Direct sun and solar drying processes are very common in tropical areas suitable for banana production. A significant portion of the total world production is achieved using this appropriate technology. The standard forced air drying of banana is well documented and follows simple kinetic principles common to general food dehydration. Valuable efficiencies of scale and throughput are readily achieved in properly designed tunnel drying systems. Process conditions have been modified to yield improved consumer acceptance. Bright color and crisp texture are the primary attributes that influence consumer appeal for dehydrated banana slices. Efficiency of processes and the specification for end products can dictate the use of supplemental processes (e.g., ultrasound and microwave energy or IR radiation). Advances in the modification and selective application of osmotic technologies have resulted in numerous options for specialty banana slices. Although freeze-drying produces exceptionally high-quality product, it is very energy intensive and generally not required for most acceptable product applications. Packaging and handling systems are essential for safe and economical distribution of banana slices. The increased complexity of food industry supply chains requires advances in packaging films and package design to assure competitiveness. Further, work to optimize the primary dehydration methodologies that result in superior products that meet the specialty needs of ever increasingly sophisticated chefs, product developers and end users (consumers) is warranted. Selective modifications in banana composition through postharvest handling controls and pretreatments (e.g., enzymatic digests) should be sought to enhance digestibility. Also, assessing overall consumer acceptance of highly specialized forms of dehydrated banana slices should be considered. The need to appropriately inform end users of the many nutritional and functional values of bananas is warranted. The enlightened view that high quality banana slices are a vital ingredient and contribute to the flavor, texture, and consistency of many complex entrées provides an opportunity for the banana industry.

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Hadrich, B. and Kechaou, N. (2009). Mathematical modeling and simulation of shrunk cylindrical material’s drying kinetics – approximation and application to banana. Food and Bioproducts Processing 87: 96–101. Huerta-Vera, K., Flores-Andrade, E., Perez-Sato, J.A., Morales-Ramos, V., Pascual-Pineda, L.A., and Contreras-Oliva, A. (2017). Enrichment of banana with Lactobacillus rhamnosus using double emulsion and osmotic dehydration. Food and Bioprocess Technology 10: 1053–1062. Jackson, J.C., Bourne, M.C., and Barnard, J. (1996). Optimization of blanching for crispness of banana chips using response surface methodology. Journal of Food Science 61: 165–166. Jannot, Y., Talla, A., Nganhou, J., and Puiggali, J.R. (2004). Modeling of banana convective drying by the drying characteristic curve (DCC) method. Drying Technology 22: 949–968. Jeet, P., Immanuel, G., and Prakash, O. (2015). Effects of blanching on the dehydration characteristics of unripe banana slices dried at different temperature. Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal 17: 168–175. Jiang, H., Zhang, M., Mujumdar, A.S., and Lim, R.X. (2014). Changes of microwave structure/dielectric properties during microwave freeze-drying process banana chips. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 49: 1142–1148. Karel, M. (1975). Dehydration of food. In: Principles of Food Science (Part II) Physical Principles of Food Preservation (eds. M. Karel, O.R. Fennema and D.B. Lund), 378–460. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker. Karim, M.A. and Hawlader, M.N.A. (2005). Drying characteristics of banana: theoretical modelling and experimental validation. Journal of Food Engineering 70: 35–45. Katekawa, M.E. and Silva, M.A. (2006). A review of drying models including shrinkage effects. Drying Technology 24: 5–20. Katekawa, M.E. and Silva, M.A. (2007). On the influence of glass transition on shrinkage in convective drying of fruits: a case study of banana drying. Drying Technology 25: 1659–1666. Krokida, M.K., Karathanos, V.T., and Maroulis, Z.B. (2000). Effect of osmotic dehydration on color and sorption characteristics of apple and banana. Drying Technology 18: 937–950. Labuza, T.P. (1980). The effect of water activity on reaction kinetics of food deterioration. Food Technology 34 (4): 36–41. Lii, C.Y., Chang, S.M., and Young, Y.L. (1982). Investigation of the physical and chemical properties of banana starches. Journal of Food Science 47: 1493–1497. Marriott, J. and Palmer, J.K. (1980). Bananas – physiology and biochemistry of storage and ripening for optimum quality. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 13: 41–88. Maskan, M. (2000). Microwave/air and microwave finish drying of banana. Journal of Food Engineering 44: 71–78. Mercali, G.D., Marczak, L.D.F., Tessaro, I.C., and Norena, C.P.Z. (2012). Osmotic dehydration of bananas (Musa Sapientum, Shum.) in ternary aqueous solutions of sucrose and sodium chloride. Journal of Food Process Engineering 35: 149–165. Mishra, A.A., Shukla, R.N., Kumar, A., and Gautam, A.K. (2016). Effect of drying temperature and packaging material on quality and shelf life of dried banana powder. International Journal of Processing and Postharvest Technology 7: 47–52. Monteiro, R.L., Carciofi, B.A.M., and Laurindo, J.B. (2016). A microwave multi-flash drying process for producing crispy bananas. Journal of Food Engineering 178: 1–11.

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Naknaen, P., Charoenthaikij, P., and Kerdsup, P. (2016). Physicochemical properties and nutritional compositions of foamed banana powders (Pisang Awak, Musa sapientum L.) dehydrated by various drying methods. Journal of Science and Technology 13: 177–191. Nguyen, M.H. and Price, W.E. (2007). Air-drying of banana: influence of experimental parameters, slab thickness, banana maturity and harvesting season. Journal of Food Engineering 79: 200–207. Nimmol, C., Devahastin, S., Swasdisevi, T., and Soponronnarit, S. (2007). Drying of banana slices using combined low-pressure superheated steam and far-infrared radiation. Journal of Food Engineering 81: 624–633. Noor, M. and Augustin, M.A. (1984). Effectiveness of antioxidants on the stability of banana chips. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 35: 805–812. Occena, L.G., Uebersax, M.A., and Hosfield, G.L. (1996). Steam and hot water extractive pretreatments of whole bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) drum-dried meals. Michigan Dry Bean Digest 20: 9–14. Ozturk, S., Sakiyan, O., and Alifaki, Y.O. (2017). Dielectric properties and microwave and infrared-microwave combination drying characteristics of banana and kiwifruit. Journal of Food Process Engineering 40: e12502. Pan, Z., Shih, C., McHugh, T.H., and Hirschberg, E. (2008). Study of banana dehydration using sequential infrared radiation heating and freeze-drying. LWT – Food Science and Technology 41: 1944–1951. Porciuncula, B.D.A., Segura, L.A., and Laurindo, J.B. (2016). Processes for controlling the structure and texture of dehydrated banana. Drying Technology 34: 167–176. Raikham, C., Prachayawarakorn, S., Nathakaranakule, A., and Soponronnarit, S. (2013). Optimum conditions of fluidized bed puffing for producing crispy banana. Drying Technology 31: 726–739. Rastogi, N.K. (2012). Recent trends and developments in infrared heating in food processing. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 52: 737–760. Rodrigues, S. and Fernandes, F.A. (2007). Ultrasound in fruit processing. In: New Food Engineering Research Trends, (ed. A.P. Urwaye), pp. 103–135. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers. Romano, G., Argyropoulos, D., Gottschalk, K., Cerruto, E., and Muller, J. (2010). Influence of colour changes and moisture content during banana drying on laser backscattering. International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering 3: 46–51. Saha, B., Bucknall, M., Arcot, J., and Driscoll, R. (2018). Derivation of two layer drying model with shrinkage and analysis of volatile depletion during drying of banana. Journal of Food Engineering 226: 42–52. Sankat, C.K., Castaigne, F., and Maharaj, R. (1996). The air-drying behaviour of fresh and osmotically dehydrated banana slices. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 31: 123–135. Thuwapanichayanan, R., Prachayawarakorn, S., Kunwisawa, J., and Soponronnarit, S. (2011). Determination of effective moisture diffusivity and assessment of quality attributes of banana slices during drying. LWT – Food Science and Technology 44: 1502–1510. Torreggiani, D. (1993). Osmotic dehydration in fruit and vegetable processing. Food Research International 26: 59–68.

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Tribess, T.B., Hernández-Uribe, J.P., Méndez-Montealvo, M.G.C., Menezes, E.W.D., Bello-Perez, L.A., and Tadini, C.C. (2009). Thermal properties and resistant starch content of green banana flour (Musa cavendishii) produced at different drying conditions. LWT – Food Science and Technology 42: 1022–1025. USDA-AMS (2004). Bananas: Market Inspection Instructions. Available at https://www.ams .usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Bananas_Inspection_Instructions%5B1%5D.pdf (accessed 15 February 2019). Van Arsdel, W., Copley, M., and Morgan, A. (eds.) (1973). Food Dehydration, Volume 2 -Practices and Applications. Westport, CT: AVI Publishing Co. Wang, J., Li, Y.Z., Chen, R.R., Bao, J.Y., and Yang, G.M. (2007). Comparison of volatiles of banana powder dehydrated by vacuum belt drying, freeze-drying and air-drying. Food Chemistry 104: 1516–1521. Wong, C.W., Teoh, C.Y., and Putri, C.E. (2018). Effect of enzymatic processing, inlet temperature, and maltodextrin concentration on the rheological and physicochemical properties of spray-dried banana (Musa acuminata) powder. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 42: e13451. Yan, Z.Y., Sousa-Gallagher, M.J., and Oliveira, F.A.R. (2008). Identification of critical quality parameters and optimal environment conditions of intermediate moisture content banana during storage. Journal of Food Engineering 85: 163–172. Zhang, P., Whistler, R.L., BeMiller, J.N., and Hamaker, B.R. (2005). Banana starch: production, physicochemical properties, and digestibility – a review. Carbohydrate Polymers 59: 443–458.

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8 Green Banana Processing, Products and Functional Properties Jasim Ahmed Environment & Life Sciences Research Centre, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Safat 13019, Kuwait

Introduction Banana (Musa spp. L.) is one of the most appealing fruits in the world. It belongs to the order Zingiberales and genus Musa. The fruits are an elongated, cylindrical, and curved shape with the skin color ranging from green to yellow. Bananas are mostly produced in Asia, South America, and Africa. The fruit is rich in vitamins and minerals, in particular, vitamins B and C, potassium, and calcium. Because of the health benefits, the consumption of banana has increased significantly in the developed countries. Although the major market share of bananas is based on the trade of the ripe fruit for both local consumption and international trade, the unripe or green bananas (GBs), also known as plantains, are a significant nutritional source for the people in many regions of the world. According to the FAO, the production of plantains and related products reached 39.24 MMT (million metric tons) in 2017 (FAO 2019). Although bananas and plantains are among the top fruit crops, limited industrial products are made from these. The most common banana products are puree, juices, and chips. Despite the high production, about 20% of the average produce is wasted due to the perishable nature of the fruits and also rejected fruits are disposed of improperly. The loss is severe in Brazil. According to the Brazilian Banana Producers Association, 40% of production is lost because of lack of coordination from farming to marketing (Izidoro et al. 2007). The rate of plantain postharvest losses varies among countries, and depend upon the organization of production, handling of fruits, and modes of consumption. The losses can be minimized by the processing of rejected fruits and the utilization of green banana pulp, which contains 70–80% starch on a dry weight basis (Izidoro et al. 2011). To utilize the waste and to make proper utilization of fruits, some alternative technologies or approaches are required. Green bananas are great source of resistant starches (RSs) (47–57% dry basis), in particular, type II (RS2). RS2 is packed tightly in a radial pattern, and this compact structure limits the accessibility of digestive enzymes and accounts for its resistant nature (Almeida 2009). In addition to RS, unripe banana (UB) flour contains 28% available starch, 7.2% dietary fiber, 0.96% sucrose, and 0.85% reducing sugars (Fuentes-Zaragoza et al. 2010). In the food industry, green banana flour (GBF) has been utilized in the development of many food products including cereal bars, cookies, crackers, noodles, and pasta. GBF and starches have Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition, First Edition. Edited by Muhammad Siddiq, Jasim Ahmed, and Maria Gloria Lobo. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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attracted significant attention from nutritionists and health professionals because of their positive effect on human health since they increase the intake of unavailable carbohydrates, which may reduce the risk of non-communicable diseases (Giuntini et al. 2015; Sardá et al. 2016). Therefore, the consumption of unripe GBF is helpful in maintaining human health and reduces postharvest losses of the fruits. This chapter reviews the processing and utilization of green banana into flour and starch, and their effect on human health. It is to be noted that both green banana (GB) and unripe banana (UB) terms are used interchangeably in this chapter to maintain the source information.

Preservation of Green Banana into Flour and Starch Drying Drying is one of best preservation techniques to remove excess water from the fresh produce. The most common drying methods for plantains are sun drying and hot air drying. However, reports are available on drying in a spouted bed, freeze-drying, and spray drying. During the process, both heat and mass transfer occur simultaneously. Two different mechanisms carry over the drying process: movement of water from inside the material to the surface; and evaporation of surface water to the surrounding environment. The leading parameters that influence the drying operations are temperature, air velocity, humidity, thickness, and dimension of the sample. The drying methods have a direct impact on the quality of the product. The drying kinetics and mathematical modeling of green banana have been reported in the literature. The hot air drying was employed for green banana slices (4 mm) using a tray dryer (Tribess et al. 2009). The total drying time was about six hours with variable air temperatures (52–58 ∘ C) and air velocity (0.6–1.4 m/s) at various temperature–air velocity combinations. After dehydration, the slices were ground to a powder with a particle size of 250 μm. Hatami et al. (2017) dried thin green banana slices (2.6 mm) in an indirect forced solar dryer at air mass flow rates of 0.016, 0.041, and 0.082 kg/s. The dryer comprised of a solar collector for heating air, a drying chamber, a rotator AC current fan located at the top of the chamber for air suction and formation of forced convection in airflow, and an exit duct for conducting the humidified air into the atmosphere. The variation in drying rate versus moisture ratio showed two distinct falling drying rates. During the first stage, the volume change of the product is higher than the evaporated water volume. Furthermore, more volume change occurred as the air mass flow rate increased. In the subsequent phase initiated from the critical moisture content, where the evaporated water volume equals the volume change of the product, and the air mass flow rate showed no significant effect on volume change in this stage. The shrinkage factor of the samples was less than one during drying indicating non-isotropic shrinkage with contraction of inner voids. Furthermore, product shrinkage [(1 − V/V 0 )] showed two descending drying steps in which the volume change was more than the evaporated water volume in the first step and equal to that in the second step. The dimensionless evaporated water volume [(V evap /V 0 )] with respect to the dimensionless volume [(ΔV/V 0 )] difference of the product also revealed that two

Preservation of Green Banana into Flour and Starch

steps of volume change existed during drying separated at critical moisture ratio 0.23. The changes of area and volume were only related to the product moisture content and were independent of the air mass flow rate, and air temperature. Bezerraa et al. (2013) produced GBF by drying in a conical spouted bed dryer with continuous feeding. The dryer made up of a conical base with an internal angle of 60∘ and an inlet orifice diameter of 50 mm. A cylindrical column (D × H = 200 mm × 300 mm) was connected to the conical base of the dryer. The upper part of the equipment was composed of another cone and a cyclone. The operation started with the introduction of inert polyethylene pellets (D = 3.60 mm; density of 905.23 kg m−3 and sphericity of 0.850) into the equipment. Spouting started when the air was injected at the base of the bed, and the spout was established when the inlet air was heated to the desired temperature. The working temperatures were set to 80 and 90 ∘ C, and drying airflow rate was at 50 m3 /h. The green banana paste was fed to the drying chamber, at a rate of 3.91 ml/min, into the annular sliding layer from both sides by a peristaltic pump. The dried powders were separated from the outlet air in a cyclone and a bag filter. Results indicated that the flour with peel had the highest viscosity values, however, flour with and without peel showed a high tendency to retrogradation. The swelling power and solubility were similar for all flour samples, with low solubility under cold and high solubility under hot conditions. The starch granules diameter varied from 70 to 110 μ, with flattened and elongated morphology. The sorption isotherms of unpeeled and peeled banana flour exhibited type II and III, respectively, and the BET model delivered the best fit to the data, obtaining values for the monolayer adsorption of 5.78 and 4.34, respectively, and desorption of 4.85 and 4.14, respectively. To improve the water migration rate during drying of unripe banana, La Fuente et al. (2017) employed two pretreatment methods, namely ultrasound (US) and pulsed vacuum (PV). The ultrasonication was carried out at 154 W and 25 kHz for 20 minutes prior to hot air-drying while the PV was maintained at 50 kPa in a vacuum-convective drier at ambient temperature for 60 minutes. Experiments were carried out in various combinations of pretreatment methods and drying. Experiments were conducted following various combinations: (i) US for 20 minutes + air-drying at 50 ∘ C; (ii) US for 20 minutes + PV for 60 minutes + air-drying at 50 ∘ C; (iii) US for 25 minutes + air-drying at 60 ∘ C; and (iv) US for 25 minutes + PV for 60 minutes + air-drying at 60 ∘ C. Experimental drying curves of banana slices exhibited no constant rate period for the drying of banana, and the complete drying took place in the falling rate period with two falling rates. Among various mathematical models, the best fit was obtained between the experimental data and the predictive values from the Midilli model (Midilli et al. 2002), with four parameters as shown in Table 8.1. Furthermore, the drying temperature strongly influenced the drying kinetics, i.e. the higher the temperature, the higher the value of Deff obtained, mainly related to the first falling rate, as expected. X − Xe = a exp(−ktn ) + bt X0 − Xe

(8.1)

Where X 0 , X and X e are the zero time, at time t, and the equilibrium moisture content, respectively, and, a, k and b are fitting parameters. The pretreatment of green banana did not help the moisture migration and the drying rate. Increases in water effective diffusivity,

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Table 8.1 Midilli model parameters for drying kinetics of unripe banana slices using various pretreatments prior to drying.

Pretreatment

Drying temperature (∘ C)

Time (min)

k (min−1 )

n (−)

a (−)

b (min−1 )

Control

50

−

0.003

1.066

0.989

0.002

60

−

0.006

1.026

1.008

0.003

50

20

0.009

0.960

1.108

0.004

60

25

0.008

1.010

1.142

0.004

Ultrasound

Ultrasound + pulsed vacuum

50

20 + 60

0.005

0.996

0.989

0.003

60

25 + 60

0.005

1.061

1.088

0.004

Source: Adapted from La Fuente et al. (2017).

at the two falling rate periods, were observed due to the application of US, whereas the combined technique of US + PV did not improve the water migration, at both air-drying temperatures. The results revealed drying time savings of 28 and 18% at 50 and 60 ∘ C, respectively. One of the major limitations of GBF for consideration as an important food ingredient is its unpleasant astringency taste, which is produced by soluble tannin forming insoluble complexes with salivary proteins (Bravo 1998). Furthermore, products formulated with GBF were found to possess an unpleasant astringency flavor due to the soluble condensed tannins or proanthocyanidins. To improve the flavor in GBF, Liao and Hung (2015) adopted the astringency removal method as described by Simoons (1990) for other fruits. The green banana fruits were immersed in 10% limewater at room temperature for four days. De-astringent green banana fruits were peeled, cut into 2-cm slices and immediately dipped in a 0.3% citric acid solution for five minutes. The fruit slices were dried at 30 ∘ C for 24 hours in a low-temperature desiccant dryer, which consisted of a honeycomb-type desiccant wheel dehumidifier and an air-cooled chiller. The dried slices were ground into powder, passed through 60 mesh sieve and stored in a sealed plastic bag. Astringency removal efficiency was evaluated by measuring the amount of soluble condensed tannins, expressed as mg catechin equivalents (CE) (9.04 mg CE/g extract) (Liao and Hung 2015). The soluble condensed tannin content (9.04 mg CE/g extract) of flour obtained from green banana fruit submitted to a previous limewater de-astringent treatment was significantly (p < 0.05) reduced by 42.6% compared with that (15.76 mg CE/g extract) of the non-treated control group, suggesting that limewater treatment improved the palatability of the flours by efficiently reducing their unpleasant astringency flavor. Osmotic dehydration effects on the kinetics and some quality attributes of green banana slices at 25 ∘ C with glycerol, sorbitol, and a mixture of both at concentrations varying from 40 to 60 g/100 g for up to six hours were described (Chaguri et al. 2017). A simplified Fick’s equation was employed to estimate a pseudo-diffusion water coefficient by considering a banana slice as an infinite slab with negligible radial diffusion. The three-component diagram showed that the first pseudo-equilibrium was achieved, and the water pseudo-diffusion coefficient showed higher values with glycerol solutions. A modified Peleg’s model was employed to obtain the maximum water loss. The following changes in green banana physical-chemical properties were observed: moisture content

Influence of Processing on Green Banana Resistant Starch

from 1.25 to 0.19 kg/kg dry basis; soluble solute content from 5.4 to 16.9 ∘ Brix; the total color difference from 2.7 to 15.8; and the maximum biaxial extensional viscosity from 0.63 to 1.53 MPa s. Moreover, the obtained low chroma difference values suggest that the osmotically drying process may be a suitable technique to preserve the final color of green banana slices. Ultrasonic wave propagation and spray drying were employed to produce green banana starch (GBS) (Izidoro et al. 2011). Green banana samples were cut into cubes, blended in 1% bisulfite solution (1:2 w/v) followed by filtering through sieves of 35, 48, 100, 150, and 200 mesh. The solution obtained after passing through 200 mesh was centrifuged. The supernatant was removed, and the decanted mass was divided into four portions namely: a conventional oven, a spray dryer, a conventional oven with ultrasound treatment, and a spray dryer with ultrasound treatment. The results indicated high RS content, which was reduced by ultrasound treatment and also by spray drying. Both techniques increased the solubility, swelling power, and water absorption capacity.

Agglomerated Green Banana Flour Mechanically dried unripe banana flours (UBFs) are fine and cohesive particles, however, they show a low dispersibility and solubility in water, at ambient temperature. The dispersion of GBF in hot water was avoided because of the heat sensitivity of RS above the gelatinization temperature. The best way to improve the flowability of UBF is the agglomeration process, where the particle sizes improve significantly. Rayo et al. (2015) studied the production of instant UBF by agglomeration in a pulsed fluidized bed (PFB) with a view to produce granules with higher dispersion in cold water for human consumption. GBF was submitted to an agglomeration process using a PFB at pulsation frequency of 10 Hz and air inlet temperature of 95 ∘ C, which resulted in a process yield of about 88% and a moisture of agglomerated flour of 2.61 g/100 g (db). An aqueous solution of sodium alginate (5 g/100 g) was used as a binder. The process conditions were flow rate of 3.0 ml/min, temperature of 95 ∘ C, pressure of 100 kPa, air velocity of 1.2 m/s and time of 50 minutes. Agglomerated UBF was obtained with reduced moisture content, increased mean particle diameter, high flowability and porosity with irregular shape (Table 8.2). Agglomerated flour presented a RS content of 53.95 ± 0.22 g/100 g in comparison with 57.49 ± 0.43 g/100 g (db) for the original content, indicating that the agglomeration process did not affect the functional properties of GBF and increased particle wettability properly for use in liquid preparations.

Influence of Processing on Green Banana Resistant Starch The steps for the isolation of RS from green banana are shown in Figure 8.1. Bello-Pérez et al. (1998) produced unripe banana starch from the macerated pulp. The homogenate was consecutively sieved through selected sieve screens number 50- and 100-mesh followed by centrifugation. The white-starch sediments were drying in a convection oven at 40 ∘ C for 48 hours, ground and passed through a 100-mesh sieve. The produced starch exhibited a water holding capacity (WHC) of 4.2 g/g dry sample at 25 ∘ C, and the value increased

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Table 8.2 A comparison of physical properties between unripe banana flour and agglomerated unripe banana flour. Physical properties

UBF

Agglomerated UBF

X w (g/100 g)

3.97

2.61

𝜌b (kg/m )

515

329

𝜌tap (kg/m3 )

652

403

𝜌P (kg/m )

1452

1330

𝜀t (−)

0.70

0.73

CI (%)

21

18.3

HR (−)

1.27

1.22

3

3

dFLODEX (mm)

26

9

hFLODEX (mm) 𝛼 (∘ )

38

33

FLODEX

68

54

𝛼 freefall (∘ )

37

34

tw (s)

>748

64 ∘ C), an antagonistic effect of pressure and heat was observed Pressures >200 MPa were required to achieve 4-log reduction of total mesophilic bacteria and pectate lyase inactivation HPH produced brighter and less viscous banana juice The homogenization design could play a critical role in determining the desired effects on product quality attributes HPH treatments could be a reliable technological alternative to conventional heat treatments for added-value banana juice production Residual polyphenol oxidase in the juice from HPCD-treated banana pulp was lower than that from mild heat-treated pulp Color L* value and clarity of juice was higher than that of mild heat-treated banana pulp, however, a* value, b* value, viscosity, pectin and protein were lower compared with mild heat treatment The particle size and zeta potential of juice from HPCD-treated pulp became smaller and more negative, and all their reduction increased with increasing treatment temperature A slight decrease in the juice yield, pH, and total soluble solids of banana juice from HPCD-treated banana pulp was observed compared with juice from mild heat-treated banana pulp

HPCD, high pressure carbon dioxide; HPH, high pressure homogenization; HPP, high pressure processing; LDPE, low-density polyethylene; PME, pectin methylesterase; TPC, total phenolic content; TSS, total soluble solids. Source: a Xu et al. (2016); b Ly-Nguyen et al. (2003); c Calligaris et al. (2012); d Yu et al. (2013).

Pulsed Electric Field Processing

The main principle of HPH is similar to the conventional homogenization employed in the dairy industry except for the pressure level, which is significantly higher (up to 400 MPa). HPH allows processing in continuous fluid foodstuffs and its great potential to inactivate pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms in fruit juices has been reported (Suárez-Jacobo et al. 2011; Velázquez-Estrada et al. 2011). Besides its ability to reduce the microbial activity, ultra HPH also minimizes the adverse effects of heat on food properties or constituents. The effects of HPH are a function of the level of pressure applied for the homogenization, the temperature of the enzyme during the process, the nature of enzyme studied, pH of homogenization and the presence/absence of substrate during homogenization (Tribst and Cristianini 2012a, 2012b). Calligaris et al. (2012) examined the potential applicability of HPH for the production of banana juices using prototype equipment working up to 400 MPa and a lab-scale homogenizer working up to 150 MPa. It was observed that pressures higher than 200 MPa were required to achieve 4-log cycle reduction of total mesophilic bacteria and pectate lyase inactivation. HPH-treated banana juice was found to be brighter and less viscous than the untreated one. Furthermore, data indicated that HPH treatments could be a reliable technological alternative to conventional heat treatments for the production of value-added fruit juices. However, the design of homogenizer could play a critical role in affecting the product quality attributes.

High Pressure Carbon Dioxide High pressure carbon dioxide (HPCD) is another novel non-thermal technology for pasteurization of food products by inactivating microorganisms and enzymes. The HPCD preservation technique has many advantages. Carbon dioxide used in this process is relatively inert, inexpensive, nontoxic, nonflammable, recyclable and readily available in high purity leaving no residue when removed after the process (Clifford and Williams 2000). Additionally, it is considered to be a GRAS (generally recognized as safe) solvent, which means it can be used in food products. Yu et al. (2013) employed HPCD at 20 MPa and mild heat at atmospheric pressure to extract juice from banana pulp. The process temperatures were 45, 50, 55, and 60 ∘ C, and the treatment time was 30 minutes. It was observed that the residual polyphenol oxidase (PPO) in the juice from HPCD-treated banana pulp was lower than the mild heat-treated banana pulp and its minimum value was 11.6% at 60 ∘ C. The lightness and clarity of juice from HPCD-treated banana pulp was higher than that from mild heat-treated banana pulp; however, color a* and b* values, viscosity, pectin, and protein were lower. The particle size and zeta potential of juice from HPCD-treated banana pulp were finer and more negative. Moreover, a slight decrease in the juice yield, pH, and TSS of banana juice from HPCD-treated banana pulp was observed as compared with juice from mild heat-treated banana pulp.

Pulsed Electric Field Processing The potential to commercialize the non-thermal pulsed electric field (PEF) technology or electroporation as a new method to preserve food products has received the attention of the

175

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food industry, which wishes to satisfy consumers’ demands for fresh-like products (Wouters et al. 2001). The PEF treatment or high intensity pulsed electric field is one of the most suitable techniques for fruit processing, which has emerged as a promising alternative to conventional pasteurization (Sizer and Balasubramaniam 1999; Toepfl et al. 2007). By permeabilizing cell membranes, PEF facilitated tissue softening and improved mass transfer, resulting in improved extraction. This process has been studied as a non-thermal treatment for food pasteurization (Eshtiaghi and Knorr 2002). However, the PEF technology is mostly suitable for liquid foods, e.g., fruit juice to increase their shelf life while maintaining the sensory attributes. The retention of vitamins, pigments and antioxidants adds a healthier, fresh-like and more appetizing product. The PEF treatment of liquid foods is based on the application of high intensity electric field (typically 20–80 kV/cm) to the food product as it flows between two electrodes. Generally, PEF treatment systems consist of (i) a pulse generator, (ii) treatment chambers, (iii) a fluid-handling system, and (iv) monitoring systems (Rivas et al. 2006). A schematic diagram of the unit is illustrated in Figure 9.2a. The PEF treatment chamber uses two electrodes

HV Pulse Generator Handling System

HV Electrode Sample

Controller System

in Sample out

Ground Electrode

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 9.2 (a) Schematic diagram of pulse electric field heating unit. (b) PEF SafeJuice System for juice processing. Source: Courtesy of Elea GmbH, Germany. (c) Co-field industrial continuous treatment chambers fitted with food grade stainless steel and nylon, plug-and-play, with high-voltage interlock. Source: Courtesy of Energy Pulse System, Portugal.

Microwave Drying

and delivers a high voltage to the food material. An industrial PEF system and continuous treatment chamber of fluid food are shown in Figure 9.2b and Figure 9.2c, respectively. The design of the treatment chamber is one of the most important factors in the development of the PEF treatment for non-thermal pasteurization, as it should impart uniform electric field to foods with a minimum increase in temperature and the electrodes should be designed to minimize the effect of electrolysis (Toepfl et al. 2007). The PEF may be applied in the form of exponentially decaying, square wave, bipolar, or oscillatory pulses and at ambient, subambient, or slightly above ambient temperature. Duration of pulses is in seconds. The key variables involved in PEF are electric field strength (E), pulse duration or pulse width (𝜏), treatment time (t), pulse repetition rate (f ), the waveform of the pulse, and treatment temperature. Huang and Wang (2009) reviewed various PEF designs for liquid food pasteurization. In recent years, PEF treatment has received a great deal of attention for fruit processing. It is expected that application of PEF treatment would be less detrimental than heat treatment for plant tissue ingredients such as pigments, vitamins, and flavoring agents. Additionally, the process ensures product safety by inactivating microorganisms. Most of the research work on PEF treatment of fruit products is of the comparative type. Post-PEF products are regularly compared with high-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization to ensure the safety issue. PEF technology has been integrated with the aseptic processing and packaging technologies to process fruit products through a continuous flow processing line. A combination of mild heat treatment and PEF are found to be effective. Application of PEF is restricted to low electrical conductivity food products that can withstand high electric fields. It is also important that the product does not entrap bubbles. The particle size of the liquid food is an application limitation for this technology. Several theories have been proposed to explain microbial inactivation by PEF, and the most studied are electrical breakdown and electroporation (Weaver 1995). Contrary to other juices, limited information is available on the application of PEF for banana juice. Walking-Ribeiro et al. (2008) used a combination of moderate heat and PEF as a potential alternative to thermal pasteurization of a smoothie based on banana, pineapple, and coconut milk using E. coli K12 as a test organism. The smoothie was heated to a selected temperature (25, 45 or 55 ∘ C) over 60 seconds, and thereafter, cooled to 10 ∘ C. PEF was applied at the electric field strengths of 24 and 34 kV/cm with specific energy inputs of 350, 500, and 650 kJ/l. A higher reduction in E. coli was achieved by increasing the temperature from 45 to 55 ∘ C. By increasing the field strength in the stand-alone PEF treatment from 24 to 34 kV/cm, a higher number of E. coli cells were inactivated (2.8 vs. 4.2 log10 CFU/ml). An increase in heating temperature from 45 to 55 ∘ C during a combined heat/PEF hurdle approach induced a further inactivation, i.e., 5.1 compared with 6.9 log10 CFU/ml, respectively, with the latter value comparable with the bacterial reduction of 6.3 log10 CFU/ml, achieved by thermal pasteurization (72 ∘ C, 15 seconds).

Microwave Drying MW heating refers to dielectric heating because of the polarization effects at a selected frequency band in a non-conductor. MWs are a part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which consists of frequencies from 300 to 3000 MHz. MW energy is delivered at a molecular

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level, through molecular interaction with the electromagnetic field, in particular, through molecular friction resulting from dipole rotation of polar solvents and the conductive migration of dissolved ions (Oliveira and Franca 2002). MW heating is very common as it is mostly used in the household for the warming of foods in the form of MW ovens. The technology exploited food industries for tempering frozen foods, cooking of solid foods, and also in continuous flow MW heating of fluids (Ahmed and Ozadali 2012). In the United States, the MW frequencies employed for the household and industries are regulated by the Federal Communication Commission. For household MW ovens, a frequency of 2450 MHz is assigned whereas 915 MHz is prescribed for industrial applications. The heating of foods using MW depends on the generation of heat inside the food by the transformation of electromagnetic energy from the MWs into heat. Furthermore, MW heating differs widely from the conventional heating of foods in the following points: (i) ease of power on and off for the heating and degree of heating; (ii) it has very rapid heating dynamics without overheating the surface; (iii) it does not depend on the contact with hot surfaces or a hot medium or electrodes; (iv) the heating is very selective on materials used for the heating purpose; and (v) it is volumetric heating, thus theoretically more uniform in heating over conventional heating (Coronel et al. 2009). The non-uniform temperature gradient becomes the major limitation of MW heating. It is suggested that heating efficiency could be improved by following certain rules during heating including MW waveguide location, food composition, geometry and placement of food inside the oven (Geedipalli et al. 2007). An industrial MW dryer is shown in Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3 An industrial microwave dryer (5–100 kW/915 MHz per module). Source: Courtesy of PÜSCHNER GMBH (Germany).

Ultrasound

Dehydration of banana offers an excellent method of preservation by removing the moisture content and lowering the water activity, and further slowing down microbial growth, enzymatic activity, and chemical reaction. Different drying methods have been reported in the literature for banana including solar drying, tray drying, and osmotic/hot air drying. Drying of banana slices using a series of steps, convection (60 ∘ C at 1.45 m/s)/MW (350, 490, and 700 W power)/convection/finishing by MW (at 350 W), was reported by Maskan (2000). The drying of banana slices took place in the falling rate period and the convection drying took the longest time. Higher drying rates were observed with higher power level. MW finish drying reduced the convection drying time by about 64.3%. The crisp banana slices can be produced by dehydration too. A comparative study of different drying strategies to produce dried bananas with controlled microstructure and texture properties was evaluated by Monteiro et al. (2016). They employed MW heating coupled with vacuum pulses for the work. Banana slices were dehydrated by microwave vacuum drying (MWVD), a microwave multi-flash drying (MWMFD), and freeze-drying. Barba et al. (2014) compared the effects of the MW-assisted drying process against the convective air-assisted drying and found the MW drying process was more effective. In particular, the resulting samples were homogeneous in water content; the contents of reducing sugars were decreased significantly on drying with MWs. Further, the PPO was inactivated by the high temperature produced by the process and thus the polyphenol content remained practically the same as in the fresh product. Öztürk et al. (2017) evaluated the effects of initial moisture content, different drying methods, and different MW power on the quality and dielectric properties of banana. They also aimed to examine the correlation between dielectric properties and MW and microwave-infrared combination (MW-IR) drying characteristics of banana. Samples with different initial moisture contents were dried by using different MW powers (180, 270, and 360 W). For combination drying of banana, the application parameters were adjusted to 360 W for MW power and 600 W for upper and lower halogen lamps (600 W). It was found that an increase in MW power increased the rate of drying and a decrease in processing time. Furthermore, the combination of IR and MW resulted in higher rates of moisture loss from the product. Dielectric properties of banana samples decreased with increasing MW power and initial moisture content. When MW and combination dried samples were compared with conventionally dried ones, products with lower final moisture content and higher quality could be produced with a time saving of approximately 98%.

Ultrasound Ultrasound is sound waves, where the frequency surpasses the hearing limit of the human ear (∼20 kHz). Ultrasound has been known for many years for its major applications in medical diagnostics, industrial processes, and inspections. The applications of ultrasound in food processing and quality control can be divided into low energy (low power, low intensity) and high energy (high power, high intensity), based on the frequency range. Low energy ultrasound (frequencies >100 kHz and intensities 1 W cm2 ) has a disruptive impact on the physicochemical, mechanical and biochemical properties of foods (Awad et al. 2012). High energy systems are quite attractive for the food industry for controlling microstructure and modifying textural characteristics, and inactivation or acceleration of enzymatic activity to improve shelf life and quality of products. The propagation of ultrasound in a liquid produces bubble cavitation because of the pressure changes. The collapse of those microbubbles is responsible for an increase in temperature and pressure. Thus, the intense local energy and high pressure generate a localized pasteurization effect without causing a significant rise in macro-temperature (Jiménez-Sánchez et al. 2016). However, still, the technology remains at laboratory or pilot scale due to lack of efficient design of ultrasonic power systems. Ultrasound has been identified as a potential technology to meet the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requirement of a 5-log reduction in pertinent microorganisms found in fruit juices (Salleh-Mack and Roberts 2007). When high power ultrasound propagates in a liquid, cavitation bubbles are generated due to pressure changes. These microbubbles collapse violently in the succeeding compression cycles of a propagated sonic wave. The effect of ultrasonic pretreatment before air-drying on the quality of bananas was examined by Fernandes and Rodrigues (2007). The water diffusivity in the air-drying process for bananas increased after the application of ultrasound and the overall drying time was reduced by 11% confirming an energy cost intensive. During the ultrasonic treatment, bananas lost sugar, so the ultrasonic pretreatment can be a promising process to produce dried fruits with low sugar content. Bora et al. (2017) employed ultrasound and enzymatic pretreatment (cellulase and pectinase) in studying the yield and properties of banana juice. Ultrasonic pretreatment individually did not increase the yield of juice significantly. However, ultrasound in combination with the enzymes produced a maximum yield (89.40%) over the control (47.30%). The viscosity of the juice lowered with the addition of enzymes and with the application of ultrasound. Ultrasonication alone was found to be more effective than enzymatic treatment in improving the juice clarity.

Ionizing Radiation Ionizing radiation has the potential for extending the shelf life of food commodities due to its capabilities to eliminate pathogens, disinfest fresh fruits as a postharvest quarantine treatment, delay ripening, and reduce or eliminate microorganisms. Ionizing radiation can be achieved using γ-rays (with Co-60 or Cs-137 radioisotope), electron beams, or X-rays, as specified in 21 CFR 179.26(a) for packaged food. The influence of radiation on food and packaging depends on the type of radiation and energy level, exposure time, composition, physical state, temperature and environment of the absorbing material. Chemical changes can occur via primary radiolysis effects, which occur as a result of the adsorption of the energy by the absorbing matter and can have biological consequences in the case where the target materials include living organisms. With proper application, irradiation can be an effective means of eliminating and reducing the microbial load and thus the foodborne diseases they induce, thereby improving the safety of many foods as well as extending their shelf life (Komolprasert 2007).

Ionizing Radiation

Expert groups of national and international organizations as well as many regulatory agencies have generally concluded that irradiated food is safe and wholesome, and that food irradiation at commonly used dosing levels does not present any enhanced toxicological, microbiological, or nutritional hazards to the food beyond those brought about by conventional food processing techniques. These experts have agreed that irradiation of food for microbial safety should be carried out under Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) and Good Irradiation Practices (GIPs). Subsequently, standards on various aspects of radiation processing have been developed and internationally accepted (Farrar et al. 1993). The World Health Organization (WHO) considers ionizing radiation an important process for ensuring food safety (Diehl 1995). It can be a useful control measure in the production of several types of raw or minimally processed foods such as poultry, meat and meat products, fish, seafood, and fruits and vegetables (Molins et al. 2001). An increased interest in food irradiation for quality and microbiological safety was realized by several emerging studies on various food products, including irradiation of fruit juices (Fan et al. 2004). Irradiation is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation in order to destroy food-poisoning bacteria such as Salmonella, Campylobacter, and E. coli and viruses, and for insect disinfestation in foods. Thomas et al. (1971) studied γ-irradiation (20–40 krad) for inhibiting ripening in preclimacteric bananas without altering the fruit quality, and it was found that both fruit maturity at harvest and post-irradiation storage temperature markedly influence the response to irradiation. The ability of the banana fruit to withstand higher doses of γ-irradiation depends on the physiological status of the fruit at the time of irradiation. Doses above 50 krad resulted in severe skin discoloration and fruit splitting. Ionizing radiation under anoxia did not reduce the radiation injury significantly, which suggests that factors other than ozone formed during the radiation in air may contribute the radiation damage. Furthermore, it was reported that banana fruits on the climacteric could withstand a dosage up to 200 krad without effect on ripening rate. Gloria and Adao (2013) employed a range of γ-irradiation doses (0, 1, 1.5, and 2 kGy) to green “Prata” bananas at the full three-quarter stage and stored at 16 ∘ C and 85% relative humidity. Samples were collected at a regular interval and analyzed for peel color, pulp-to-peel ratio, and levels of starch, soluble sugars and bioactive amines. It was found that the starch degradation and formation of fructose and glucose followed first- and zero-order kinetics, respectively. Higher irradiation doses caused increased inhibitory effect on starch degradation and glucose formation. However, doses of 1.5 and 2.0 kGy caused browning of the peel, making the fruit unacceptable. Irradiation at 1.0 kGy was the most promising dose, as it did not affect peel color, the pulp-to-peel ratio or the levels of the amines spermidine, serotonin and putrescine. However, it slowed down starch degradation and the formation and accumulation of fructose and glucose, delaying the ripening of the fruit for seven days. With the ability to modify wavelengths necessary to the photosynthetically active radiation spectrum of plant pigments, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) provide huge potential in horticultural lighting. Huang et al. (2018) employed LED-light irradiation to study the ripening and nutritional quality of postharvest banana fruit. Mature green bananas were treated daily with selected blue (464–474 nm), green (515–525 nm), and red (617–627 nm) LED lights for 8 days and compared with non-illuminated control. It was observed that the

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blue LED lighting had the highest capability for the acceleration of ripening in bananas, followed by red and green. Under LED-light irradiation, faster peel de-greening and flesh softening, and increased ethylene production and respiration rate in bananas were noted during storage. Additionally, the accumulation of ascorbic acid, total phenols, and total sugars in banana fruit were improved by LED light exposure.

Other Novel Processing Technologies Some other novel technologies have been explored in fruit processing, including ultraviolet (UV) light, pulse light technology, ultrafiltration, ozone treatment, and dense-phase carbon dioxide. Before discussing some of those technologies, it is worth mentioning that the use of some of the technologies such as radiation for food processing or packaging may not be allowed in some countries. It is highly advisable to check with the local regulatory agencies before considering any applications (Ahmed and Ozadali 2012). For instance, the FDA is responsible for regulating the use of irradiation in the treatment of food and food packaging in the US and countries exporting to the US (FDA 2005). This authority derives from the 1958 Food Additives Amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) where Congress explicitly defined a source of radiation as a food additive (Section 201(s) of the FD&C Act). The 1958 Food Additives Amendment also provides that food is adulterated (that is, it cannot be marketed legally) if it has been irradiated, unless the irradiation is carried out in conformity with a regulation prescribing safe conditions of use (Section 403(a)(7) of the FD&C Act).

Ultraviolet Light UV-light technology is a non-thermal, non-chemical, simple, and inexpensive approach applied in the food industry for disinfection. UV light is the electromagnetic radiation in the spectral region classified into four wavelength ranges: UV-A (315–400 nm), UV-B (280–315 nm), UV-C (200–280 nm), and Vacuum-UV (100–200 nm) (Krishnamurthy et al. 2008). The UV-C light treatment uses the radiation from the electromagnetic spectrum (200–280 nm) and a powerful surface germicidal method. It is safe to apply, but some simple precautions are necessary to avoid worker exposure to light and evacuate the generated ozone. It is also reported that both UV-B (280–315 nm) and UV-C (200–280 nm) treatments can enrich certain nutrients and nutraceutical compounds. The UV radiant exposure must be at least 400 J/m2 in all parts of the product to achieve microbial inactivation. The major governing factors in the process are the transmissivity of the product, the geometric configuration of the reactor, the power, wavelength and physical arrangement of the UV source(s), the product flow profile and the radiation path length. UV may be used in combination with other alternative process technologies, including various powerful oxidizing agents such as ozone and hydrogen peroxide (FDA 2000). Alothman et al. (2009) evaluated the effect of ultraviolet (UV-C; 2.158 kJ/m2 ) treatment on total phenol, flavonoid, and vitamin C content of fresh-cut banana. It was observed that the UV-C irradiation elevated levels of phenolic and flavonoid contents of banana after 10 minutes of treatment. However, UV-C treatment decreased the vitamin C content.

Other Novel Processing Technologies

Ozone Treatment Ozone is a triatomic allotrope of oxygen and decomposes readily to oxygen. It has a high oxidation potential of 2.07 V in alkaline solution over chlorine (1.36 V), and, therefore, it can be used as an effective antimicrobial agent. Furthermore, the decomposition of ozone to oxygen without producing toxic residues makes it an environmentally friendly sanitizer. A trace amount of ozone with a short contact time produces the desired antimicrobial effect. Excess ozone auto decomposes rapidly to produce oxygen and thus it leaves no residues in food. Such advantages make ozone attractive to the food industry and consequently it was declared as GRAS for use in food processing by the FDA in 1997 (Graham 1997). De Alencar et al. (2013) studied the influence of ozone treatment (both dry and wet) on the physicochemical, microbiological and sensory qualities of banana. Ozone gas was produced employing an ozone generator based on dielectric barrier discharge (DBD). Bananas untreated with ozone were used as an experimental control. For the dry processing, the fruits were directly fumigated with ozone for 30 minutes. For the wet treatment, the water was first ozonized for 20 minutes followed by immersion of the fruit in the ozonized water for 10 minutes. In both treatments, the utilized gas concentration and flow were 0.36 mg/l and 1.5 l/min, respectively. The quality of the fruits was evaluated at different time intervals (0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 days). It was found that the fruits immersed in the ozonized water presented better quality, in reference to both the physicochemical and microbiological parameters, as well as having good sensory acceptability. The effect of ozone treatment on total phenol, flavonoid, and vitamin C content of fresh-cut banana cv. “Pisang Mas” was investigated by Alothman et al. (2010). Total phenol and flavonoid contents of fresh-cut banana increased significantly by ozone treatment for up to 20 minutes, with a corresponding increase in ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) values. However, ozone treatment was shown to decrease the vitamin C significantly.

Microfiltration Membrane processes have attracted attention from fruit juice processors because of the athermal separation process without any phase change. Also, the process produces additive-free juices, which have high quality and fresh-like taste. Juice clarification, stabilization, depectinization and concentration are typical steps in which membrane processes such as microfiltration , ultrafiltration , nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis have been successfully employed. Microfiltration and ultrafiltration offer a quite competitive and attractive alternative compared with thermal processes that cause an irreversible change in the flavor profile, color degradation, and appearance of the cooked product (Cassano et al. 2006). Microfiltration is mostly used as a pretreatment for clarification of various juices. The use of ultrafiltration for the clarification of fruit juices has been employed for various fruit juices. Sagu et al. (2014a) extracted banana juice by pectinase treatment, and clarification of banana juice was carried out using centrifugation and hollow fiber microfiltration. A comparative study of these two processes was conducted with five parameters namely, viscosity, clarity, alcohol-insoluble solids (AIS), polyphenol, and protein in the clarified banana juice. Microfiltration showed

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the best result in terms of viscosity, clarity, and AIS. The optimal values of these parameters were: viscosity, 1.22 mPa s; clarity, 93.1% T; and AIS, 0.24% w/w. Based on these physical and nutritional parameters of banana juice obtained, and considering operating parameters, microfiltration was found to be most suitable for primary clarification of banana juice. Furthermore, Sagu et al. (2014b) employed cross flow ultrafiltration using a hollow fiber module under total recycle mode for banana juice clarification. Three surface-modified polysulfone-based membrane cartridges with molecular weight cut-offs 10, 27, and 44 kDa were used to identify the most suitable membrane. Results indicated that the membrane of molecular weight cut-off 27 kDa was suitable. The permeate flux depended strongly on the transmembrane pressure drop, but its variation on cross flow rate was insignificant. The clarified juice had high clarity and no pectineus materials, and it contained a significant amount of polyphenol and protein.

Machine Vision Color is the first impression as a quality indicator for a consumer, and the acceptance or rejection of the banana fruit depends upon the accepted color of the peel. In the trade, there are seven stages practiced to evaluate ripening of banana, which relate to pigment changes in the peel of the banana: stage 1, green; stage 2, green, traces of yellow; stage 3, more green than yellow; stage 4, more yellow than green; stage 5, green tip and yellow; stage 6, all yellow; and stage 7, yellow, flecked with brown (Li et al. 1997). In the industry, the color of the fruit is compared with either a visual inspection or color chart or employing some instrument to assess its ripeness. However, all these tests have several limitations and processes are labor intensive. In recent years, computer vision-based approaches have been proposed to assess the color of banana fruits during ripening stages for the quality inspection, which overcomes the deficiencies of visual and instrumental techniques and offer an objective measure for color and other physical factors. Many algorithms have also been developed based on the appearance of bananas and other quality factors. The system consists of standard illuminants, a digital camera for image acquisition, and computer software for image analysis. A computer vision system was reported by Mendoza and Aguilera (2004) to identify the ripening stages of bananas based on color, development of brown spots, and image texture information. They counted nine features of appearance, namely, L*, a*, and b* values, brown area percentage, number of brown spots/cm2 , and homogeneity, contrast, correlation and entropy of image texture by capturing images for classification purposes. They showed selected images of one banana from stage 3 to the overripe stage with color change and development of spots. Results indicated that although there were variations in data for color and appearance, a simple classification technique is as good to identify the ripening stages of bananas as professional visual perception. Using L*, a*, and b* bands, brown area percentage and contrast it was possible to classify banana samples in their seven ripening stages with an accuracy of 98%. Computer vision shows promise for online prediction of ripening stages of bananas. Hu et al. (2015) extended the earlier concept color vision by developing an automatic algorithm based on computer vision to determine three size indicators of banana, namely,

Other Novel Processing Technologies

Figure 9.4

Typical computer vision system. Source: Zhang et al. (2018). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

length, ventral straight length, and arc height, respectively. A typical computer vision system is shown in Figure 9.4. The automatic algorithm calculated these indicators by three steps, namely, (i) image pre-processing, (ii) the Five Points Method which is the core part of the automatic algorithm, and (iii) the Euclidean distances between two certain points. The three size indicators of 28 bananas with slightly curved, curved, and end-straight shape were determined using the manual method, the semi-automatic method, and automatic method, respectively. Results indicated that the automatic method was more precise with lower standard deviations and more accurate with a percent difference within 16 and 22% for the length and the ventral straight length, respectively. In conclusion, the automatic algorithm was acceptable for banana size determination. Zhang et al. (2018) proposed a novel convolutional neural network architecture, which is designed specifically for the fine-grained classification intended to measure banana ripening stages. The proposed deep indicator integrates the capabilities of accurate fine-grained classification and non-invasive examination. It consists of fine-grained image features based on a data-driven mechanism and offers a deep indicator of banana ripening stage. The resulting indicator can help to differentiate the subtle differences among subordinate classes of bananas in ripening state. Experimental results from 17,312 images of bananas in different ripening stages demonstrated that the deep indicator achieved an accuracy significantly superior to state-of-the-art computer vision-based systems both in rough-

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and fine-grained classification of ripening stages irrespective of whether the bananas had severe defects or not.

Conclusions Banana fruit is mostly consumed as fresh, and a limited portion of the total production goes for processing. The ripening process can be delayed by a suitable novel technology. Considering conventional thermal pasteurization as the processing index, various novel technologies can be employed to produce banana products with desirable sensory and nutritional qualities. Among various available novel technologies, HPP and MW processing have huge potential for industrial applications to produce safe products. More research is required needed for full-scale commercialization of the novel technologies with respect to process optimization, packaging, and consumer acceptance.

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Knorr, D., Heinz, V., and Buckow, R. (2006). High-pressure application for food biopolymers. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Proteins and Proteomics 1764: 619–631. Komolprasert, V. (2007). Packaging for foods treated by ionizing radiation. In: Packaging for Non-Thermal Processing of Food (ed. J.J. Han), pp. 87–99. Ames, IA: Blackwell Publishing. Krishnamurthy, K., Irudayaraj, J., Demirci, A., and Yang, W. (2008). UV pasteurization of food materials. In: Food Processing Operations Modeling: Design and Analysis (eds. S. Jun and J.M. Irudayaraj). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. Li, M., Slaughter, D.C., and Thompson, J.E. (1997). Optical chlorophyll sensing system for banana ripening. Postharvest Biology and Technology 12: 273–283. Ly-Nguyen, B., Van Loey, A.M., Smout, C., Verlent, I., Duvetter, T., and Hendrick, M.E. (2003). Effect of mild-heat and high-pressure processing on banana pectin methylesterase: a kinetic study. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 51: 7974–7979. Martin, J.-L. (2016). Technical and economic feasibility of high-pressure processing on charcuterie foods. Cahiers de l’IFIP 3: 25–43. Maskan, M. (2000). Microwave/air and microwave finish drying of banana. Journal of Food Engineering 44: 71–78. Mendoza, F. and Aguilera, J.M. (2004). Application of image analysis for classification of ripening bananas. Journal of Food Science 69: E471–E477. Molins, R.A., Motarjemi, Y., and Käferstein, F.K. (2001). Irradiation: a critical control point in ensuring the microbiological safety of raw foods. Food Control 12: 347–356. Monteiro, R.L., Carciofi, B.R.M., and Laurindo, J.B. (2016). A microwave multi-flash drying process for producing crispy bananas. Journal of Food Engineering 178: 1–11. NCFST (National Center for Food Safety and Technology) (2009). NCFST receives regulatory acceptance of novel food sterilization process. Press release (27 February). Summit-Argo, IL. Oliveira, M.E.C. and Franca, A.S. (2002). Microwave heating of foodstuff. Journal of Food Engineering 53: 347–359. Öztürk, S., Sakıyan, ¸ O., and Alifakı, Y.O. (2017). Dielectric properties and microwave and infrared-microwave combination drying characteristics of banana and kiwifruit. Journal of Food Process Engineering. 40 (3): e12502. Patazca, E., Koutchma, T., and Balasubramaniam, V.M. (2007). Quasi-adiabatic temperature increase during high-pressure processing of selected foods. Journal of Food Engineering 80: 199–205. Rivas, A., Rodrigo, D., Martínez, A., Barbosa-Cánovas, G.V., and Rodrigo, M. (2006). Effect of PEF and heat pasteurization on the physical–chemical characteristics of blended orange and carrot juice. LWT– Food Science & Technology 39: 1163–1170. Sagu, S.T., Karmakar, S., Nso, E.J., and De, S. (2014a). Primary clarification of banana juice extract by centrifugation and microfiltration. Separation Science and Technology 49: 1156–1169. Sagu, S.T., Karmakar, S., Nso, E.J., Kapseu, C., and De, S. (2014b). Ultrafiltration of banana (Musa acuminata) juice using hollow fibers for enhanced shelf life. Food and Bioprocess Technology 7: 2711–2722. Salleh-Mack, S.Z. and Roberts, J.S. (2007). Ultrasound pasteurization: the effects of temperature, soluble solids, organic acids and pH on the inactivation of Escherichia coli ATCC 25922. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 14: 323–329.

References

Sizer, C.E. and Balasubramaniam, V.M. (1999). New intervention processes for minimally processed juices. Food Technology 53: 64–67. Suárez-Jacobo, A., Rüfer, C.E., Gervilla, R., Guamis, B., Roig-Sagués, A.X., and Saldo, J. (2011). Influence of ultra-high pressure homogenisation on antioxidant capacity, polyphenol and vitamin content of clear apple juice. Food Chemistry 127: 447–454. Thomas, P., Dharkar, S.D., and Sreenivasan, A. (1971). Effect of gamma irradiation on the postharvest physiology of five banana varieties grown in India. Journal of Food Science 36: 243–247. Toepfl, S., Mathys, A., Heinz, V., and Knorr, D. (2007). High intensity pulsed electric fields applied for food preservation. Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 46: 537–546. Tribst, A.A.L. and Cristianini, M. (2012a). High-pressure homogenization of a fungi 𝛼-amylase. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 13: 107–111. Tribst, A.A.L. and Cristianini, M. (2012b). Changes in commercial glucose oxidase activity by high pressure homogenization. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 16: 355–360. Velázquez-Estrada, R.M., Hernández-Herrero, M.M., López-Pedemonte, T.J., Briñez-Zambrano, W.J., and Roig-Sagués, A.X. (2011). Inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enterica serovar Senftenberg 775W inoculated into fruit juice by means of ultra-high pressure homogenisation. Food Control 22: 313–317. Walking-Ribeiro, M., Noci, F., Cronin, D.A., Riener, J., Lyng, J.G., and Morgan, D.J. (2008). Reduction of Staphylococcus aureus and quality changes in apple juice processed by ultraviolet irradiation, pre-heating and pulsed electric fields. Journal of Food Engineering 89: 267–273. Weaver, J.C. (1995). Electroporation of cells and tissues. In: The Biomedical Engineering Handbook (ed. J.D. Bronzino), pp. 1431–1440. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press and IEEE. Wouters, P.C., Alvarez, B.I., and Javier, R. (2001). Critical factors determining inactivation kinetics by pulsed electric field food processing. Trends in Food Science & Technology 12: 112–121. Xu, Z., Wang, Y., Ren, P., Ni, Y., and Liao, X. (2016). Quality of banana puree during storage: a comparison of high-pressure processing and thermal pasteurization methods. Food & Bioprocessing Technology 9: 407–420. Yu, Y., Xiao, G., Wu, J., Xu, Y., Tang, D., Chen, Y., Wen, J., and Fu, M. (2013). Comparing characteristic of banana juices from banana pulp treated by high-pressure carbon dioxide and mild heat. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 18: 95–100. Zhang, Y., Lian, J., Fan, M., and Zheng, Y. (2018). Deep indicator for fine-grained classification of banana’s ripening stages. Journal on Image and Video Processing Article # 46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13640-018-0284-8.

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10 Value-Added Processing and Utilization of Banana By-Products Dalbir Singh Sogi Department of Food Science and Technology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab 143005, India

Introduction Banana is one of the most widely grown tropical fruit, cultivated in over 130 countries along the tropics and subtropics of Capricorn (Mohapatra et al. 2010). Banana produces a huge quantity of by-products or solid waste during harvest and postharvest operations. In order to get a clear picture of the by-products, one needs to know the different parts of the banana plant and their role in human nourishment. The banana plant is tall and sturdy with large size leaves and a bunch of fruits (Figure 10.1). It is a large flowering herb which does not have a woody stem. Its trunk, called a pseudostem, is formed by spirally bound leaf sheaths. The stalk or petiole along with the blade or lamina is attached to the sheath. A new sheath, formed at the center of the pseudostem, is tubular in shape and its ends meet each other. However, as it grows older, the next sheath is formed in the center, and the edges of the old sheath are forced apart (Archibald 1949). Generally, a banana plant is 5 m tall but its height may vary from 3 to 7 m depending on variety and growing conditions. Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow to about 2.7 m long and 60 cm wide. At the maturity stage, a stem develops from the rhizome or corm, which moves inside the pseudostem and emerges at the top to produce an inflorescence. The banana fruits develop from the inflorescence in a large “hanging cluster”, also known as a “bunch,” comprising of 3–20 hands each bearing up to 20 fruits or “fingers.” A commercial banana bunch weighs 30–50 kg whereas an individual fruit has an average weight of around 125 g (INIBAP 2000). A banana plant produces only one bunch in its lifetime which leads to enormous waste generation first at the time of banana bunch harvesting, and secondly at the time of processing or consumption. The parts of the banana plant which turn into solid waste are the roots, suckers, rhizome, pseudostem, leaves, peduncle, rachis, and male bud. The main underground structure is the rhizome, also called the corm or bulb, which produces primary roots and suckers. Secondary and tertiary roots originate from the primary roots. After harvesting, the suckers are either used for producing new crop or discarded as waste. The pseudostem is formed by the spirally bound leaf sheaths. A thin true stem is present at the center of the pseudostem that develops into a peduncle, bunch, rachis, and male flower. Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition, First Edition. Edited by Muhammad Siddiq, Jasim Ahmed, and Maria Gloria Lobo. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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youngest leaf

leaves leaf stalk or petiole oldest leaf

banana bunch pseudostem

suckers

female flower

male flower

underground stem (corm)

roots cross section vertical section of the false of the corm stem and leaf bases

Figure 10.1

Parts of a banana plant at the time of harvesting. Source: FAO (2019a).

The leaf synthesizes food through photosynthesis and consists of three parts, i.e., sheath, petiole, and blade. The sheath is the part of the pseudostem that supports the petiole and blade. After harvesting, leaves become a part of the solid waste (ProMusa.org 2019). The bunch is the main item of commerce and is separated by cutting the peduncle and rachis. The mature unripe bunch or hands are packed and sent to the fresh fruit market or food processing industry. Unripe bananas are used for making banana chips, flour, etc. The fruit is ripened with the help of growth regulators such as ethylene gas, ethephon solution, etc., and marketed as either fresh fruit or used for processing into various products such as juice, pulp, powder, jam, puree, etc. The peel is discarded as solid waste at the time of consumption or processing.

Quantity of Waste The quantity of waste generated has been estimated from data on banana production as well as area under cultivation. Kamdem et al. (2013) reported that the volume of the waste produced was double the weight of the banana produced. Sellin et al. (2013) reported that waste generated for 1 ton of banana was 1.5 tons of leaves and 2.5 tons of pseudostem, which makes the total waste about four times that of banana fruit. The waste production in banana for one hectare cultivated area has been estimated as follows: 8 tons of pseudostems, 7.7 tons of foliage, and 0.5 of tons of rachis, for a total of 16.2 tons/ha. Amarnath and Balakrishnan (2007) estimated the residual biomass of pseudostem and leaves to be 13–20 tons of dry matter per hectare per year. Published reports on the waste production indicated that current

Waste Composition

Table 10.1

Year

Estimated solid waste produced from banana (in million tons, MT). Acreage (million hectare)a

Pseudostems (MT)b

Foliage (MT)b

Rachis (MT)b

Total waste (MT)b

1970

5.9

47

45

3

96

1980

6.6

53

51

3

107

1990

7.7

61

59

4

124

2000

9.5

76

73

5

154

2010

10.3

83

80

5

167

2017

11.2

89

86

6

181

Source: Adapted from a FAO (2019b); b Kamdem et al. (2013).

solid waste production on farms was 200 million tons based on area under cultivation and 300 million tons based on production (Table 10.1). Banana peel waste is produced in fruit markets, households, institutional catering, and the food processing industry. Degradation of this biomass produces gases that give off odor. The banana waste is disposed of by the farmers into the rivers, lakes, or dumped in low-lying areas, causing a serious threat to the environment due to the release of greenhouse gases (Shah et al. 2005). Banana peel contributes about 40% of the total weight of fruit (Anhwange 2008) and the total peel waste produced as processing and municipal waste was estimated at about 60 million tons.

Waste Composition All parts of the banana plant yield solid waste except the edible part inside a finger or fruit. However, edible tissues may also end up as solid waste in a damaged bunch, hand, or fingers. The composition of different parts of banana has been reported from different regions of the world. Pseudostem contains 12% lignin, 34.5% cellulose, 60.1% holocellulose, and 13.9% ash on dry mass basis (Cordeiro et al. 2004). Oliveira et al. (2007) reported the composition of the petiole, leaf blade, floral stalk, leaf sheath and rachis, as shown in Table 10.2. The major constituent of these wastes was holocellulose, which consists of mainly cellulose and hemicelluloses. Lignin content was highest in leaf blade, and holocellulose content was highest in petiole, whereas leaf sheath contained the highest level of cellulose. Floral stalk contained a high amount of starch and the petiole contained a high amount of pentosans. Banana sheath contains 6.4% dry matter, which is composed of 3.4% crude protein, 31.4% crude fiber, 34.6% cellulose, 15.5% hemicelluloses, and 6% lignin on dry basis (Subramanian et al. 1988). The outer covering of the pseudostem contains a significant amount of cellulosic material whereas the core or pith is rich in polysaccharides (Cordeiro et al. 2004). Comparison between unripe and ripe banana peel showed that there was a substantial decrease in starch content as the fruit ripens (Table 10.3). Waghmare and Arya (2016) reported that unripe banana peel was rich in starch and total carbohydrates. Gebregergs et al. (2016) reported low starch and high sugar content in ripe banana peel. Banana peel is a good source of lignin (6–12%), pectin (10–21%), cellulose (7.6–9.6%), hemicelluloses

193

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10 Value-Added Processing and Utilization of Banana By-Products

Table 10.2 Chemical composition of parts of banana plant discarded as waste at the time of harvesting (%, w/w dry weight basis). Constituent

Pseudostema

Petiolesb

Leaf bladeb

Floral stalkb

Leaf sheathsb

Rachisb

Lignin

12.0

18.0

24.3

10.7

13.3

10.5

Cellulose

34.5

31.0

20.4

15.7

37.3

31.0

Holocellulose

60.1

62.7

32.1

20.3

49.7

37.9

Pentosans

−

16.2

12.1

8.0

12.4

8.3

Starch

−

0.4

1.1

26.3

8.4

1.4

Proteins

−

Ash

13.9

1.6

8.3

3.2

1.9

2.0

11.6

19.4

26.1

19.0

26.8

Source: Adapted from a Cordeiro et al. (2004); b Oliveira et al. (2007).

Table 10.3

Chemical composition of unripe and ripe banana peel.

Parameters

Unripe banana peel (%)a

Ripe banana peel (%)b

Proximate Moisture

10.0

20.0

Protein

8.4

6.0

Fat

4.7

6.0

Ash

7.6

−

Carbohydrate

69.4

−

Water soluble reducing sugar

2.1

−

Starch

41.2

3.0

Pectin

7.4

11.0

Carbohydrates

Cellulose

9.3

9.0

Hemicellulose

3.2

8.0

Lignin

2.3

9.0

Acid detergent fiber

17.5

−

Neutral detergent fiber

20.7

−

Dietary fiber

−

19.0

Glucose

−

2.0

Xylose

−

1.0

Source: Adapted from a Waghmare and Arya (2016); b Gebregergs et al. (2016).

Waste Utilization

(6.4–9.4%), and galacturonic acid (Davey et al. 2009). Pectin extracted from banana peel contained glucose, galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, and xylose. Banana peel is a rich source of starch (3%), crude protein (6–9%), crude fat (3.8–11%), total dietary fiber (43.2–49.7%), polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid and linolenic acid, pectin, essential amino acids, and micronutrients (Emaga et al. 2007, 2008). These reports confirm that banana parts are an excellent source of nutrients, which can be exploited to get a variety of products of natural origin.

Waste Utilization Quantity and purity of any agro-waste play an important role in its utilization. Waste generated in small quantity over a large area becomes uneconomical for processing due to the cost of collection and shipping to waste handling and processing facilities. Another major problem is the level of impurities in the waste. Generally, waste produced at farm, processing unit or municipal collection center varies in terms of quantity and purity. Farm waste is available in large quantities in the growing area and is relatively free from impurities. Food processing waste is also available in large quantities at the processing unit and is free from other impurities. Banana farm waste such as rhizome, suckers, pseudostem, petiole, leaf blade, peduncle, rachis, and male flower has been utilized to get a variety of value-added products. Banana stalk and peel wastes generated off the farm have also been studied to find suitable technology for their utilization.

Domestic and Agriculture Use The pith in banana stem is used for human consumption in India after cooking in water and the addition of salt and spices. Fibrous matter of the pseudostem is used for making ropes for agriculture and domestic purposes. Pseudostem is decomposed along with the other agricultural residues, such as wheat straw, and used for mushroom cultivation. Banana leaves are available in abundance in banana growing areas. Traditionally, leaves are used to serve meals or snacks to family and guests. Many dishes are prepared by wrapping the food in banana leaves during cooking. Banana leaves are dried and used as a fuel for domestic cooking. Leaves are conditioned and used to prepare a variety of household items such as mats, baskets, plates, bowls, cups, trays, etc. Leaves are also used for covering the agricultural produce to protect it from contamination. Leaves are used as fodder for domestic animals along with other materials. Leaves are also used as mulching material to preserve the soil moisture in orchards and agricultural fields. Banana is considered an auspicious plant and is used in a number of social and religious ceremonies. It is a common practice in India to decorate gates or doors with banana leaves. Banana peel contains sugars which can be used in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages and vinegar (Bakhru 1995).

Food and Feed Products Starch

Floral stalk of banana plant contains high amount of starch, which can be extracted and used in pharmaceutical and food industry (Oliveira et al. 2007). NMR analysis and

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microscopic examination of banana parts of “Dwarf Cavendish” variety indicated the presence of starch. The starch contents of floral stalk and leaf sheaths were 26.3% and 8.4%, respectively, whereas petioles/midrib, leaf blades and rachis contained about 1% starch. Animal Feed

The effect of feeding banana tops or stem as the forage component of a molasses-based diet was studied by Ruiz and Rowe (1980). Volatile fatty acid concentration and rate of dry matter degradation were higher when soybean meal was given along with chopped banana stem than the stem alone. The efficiency of utilization of banana tops and stem increased with dietary protein supplement. Banana sheath was found suitable for feeding lambs (Subramanian et al. 1988). Amarnath and Balakrishnan (2007) studied the microbial biomass growth by degrading banana waste substrate. Study results indicated that pseudostem, leaves, and stem supported microbial growth at 24, 36, and 48 hours of incubation. Banana leaves produced the higher microbial biomass than stem and pseudostem and ranked first in fodder potential to cattle followed by pseudostem and stem. The micronutrient (Fe and Zn) content of peel was higher compared with pulp, making it more suitable as an ingredient in cattle and poultry feed (Davey et al. 2009). El-Ghani (1999) studied the effect of banana plant wastes on milk yield and composition, rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility as well as the nutritive value of the experimental rations. It was demonstrated that 15% of banana plant waste can be used for dairy cows without affecting the milk yield and quality.

Non-food Products Enzyme Production

Osma et al. (2007) reported that banana skin is highly suitable as an attachment place for filamentous fungi. This fungus adherence property together with its high carbohydrate content makes banana skin an excellent support-substrate for solid-state fermentation (SSF) processes. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) microphotographs of banana skin with and without fungus (Figure 10.2) show that the fungus grows well by attaching to the banana skin. This process is facilitated due to the high hydrophobicity of the banana skin, which enables the attachment of the fungus to the carrier. Reddy et al. (2003) investigated Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus sajor-caju for their viability to produce various lignolytic and cellulolytic enzymes, such as laccase, lignin peroxidase, xylanase, endo-1,4-β-D-glucanase, and exo-1,4-β-D-glucanase, on banana leaf biomass and pseudostems using solid substrate fermentation. The production patterns of these enzymes were studied during a 40-day growth period of the organisms. A similar level of enzyme activity and production pattern was observed for both organisms. Leaf biomass was shown to be a more suitable substrate than pseudostems for enzyme production. Generally, maximum specific activities of enzymes were observed between day 10 and day 20 of culture growth. However, very low levels of cellulolytic enzyme activities were detected compared with lignin degrading enzymes by both the organisms. Figure 10.3 shows production patterns of lignolytic and cellulolytic enzymes by P. ostreatus.

Waste Utilization

(A)

(B)

200 µm

200 µm

Figure 10.2 SEM microphotographs of banana skin: (A) with fungus; and (B) without fungus. Source: Osma et al. (2007). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Specific activity (U/mg protein)

2.5

(A)

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

0

0.6 Specific activity (U/mg protein)

Laccase Lignin peroxidase Xylanase CMCase FP activity

5

10

15 20 25 30 Growth time (days)

35

40

(B)

0.5

Laccase Lignin peroxidase Xylanase CMCase FP activity

0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0

0

5

10

15 20 25 30 Growth time (days)

35

40

Figure 10.3 Production patterns of lignolytic and cellulolytic enzymes on leaf (A) and pseudostem (B) biomass of banana waste by Pleurotus ostreatus. Source: Reddy et al. (2003). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

197

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10 Value-Added Processing and Utilization of Banana By-Products

The feasibility of producing bacterial cellulases by solid-state bioprocessing of banana wastes was investigated by Krishna (1999). Banana fruit stalk (peduncle) was sliced, dried at 70 ∘ C for 24 hours, ground and passed through a sieve to get particles 200–2400 μm in size. The effects of pretreatment on the substrate, moisture content, particle size, pH of the medium, incubation temperature, enrichment of the medium with nitrogen and carbon sources, inoculum size, and the incubation period were studied for optimal production of cellulase enzymes by Bacillus subtilis (CBTK 106). The optimal filter paper activity of 2.8 IU/g dry fermented substrate (g-ds), carboxymethyl cellulase activity of 9.6 IU/g-ds and cellobiase activity of 4.5 IU/g-ds were obtained at 72 hours of incubation in media containing banana fruit stalk (autoclaved at 121 ∘ C for 60 minutes, particles size 400 μm, optimal moisture content of 70%, pH 7.0, incubation at 35 ∘ C, minerals, and nutrients of (NH4 )2 SO4 or NaNO3 or glucose at 1.0% using inoculums at a rate of 15%). Banana fruit stalk was found to be the most suitable lignocellulosic substrate. The total enzyme production was 12-fold higher in SSF than that in submerged fermentation. It was suggested that banana fruit stalk could be an excellent substrate for SSF on a commercial scale. Alpha amylase (α-amylase) is one of the main enzymes used in various sectors such as the food, textile, paper and detergent industries. Mazumdar and Maumdar (2018) optimized the production of α-amylase by the fungus Aspergillus oryzae on banana peel as a substrate using solid-state fermentation. A number of parameters such as incubation period, incubation temperature, initial pH of the media, and substrate content can affect the production of α-amylase in the SSF system. Results showed that optimum conditions for the maximum α-amylase (6.55 U/g) production were an incubation period of 96 hours, incubation temperature of 35 ∘ C, initial pH of the medium of 5.0, and substrate amount of 50 g. Paper and Paperboard

Banana waste, rich in cellulosic matter, is used in the manufacture of paper. Manual and mechanical methods are used to extract the fibers from banana waste (Chauhan and Sharma 2014). Quality and purity of the manually extracted fiber is high, producing higher grade paper than machine extracted fiber. However, machine extracted fibers are cheaper than those from the manual process. Chauhan and Sharma (2014) improved the mechanical process for fiber extracted from banana leaves, green stem and trunk by using enzyme treatment (0.5% enzyme at 40 ∘ C for 4 hours) followed by pulping (8% NaOH, 3.5 hours, at 100 ∘ C, bath ratio 1:8). Black liquor was drained, and cooked fibers were washed and subjected to the beating treatment. The enzyme assisted mechanical process was shown to be useful for handmade paper manufacturers to utilize banana fibers for high quality paper production. Alarcón and Marzocchi (2015) processed fresh pseudostem to obtain fibrous material by drying under ambient conditions and cooking under alkaline condition (10.5% active alkali concentration) in a horizontal rotary digester at 145 ∘ C for 45 minutes. The extraction process of pulp from pseudostem of the banana tree was technically feasible, with the resulting pulp having the potential to be used for the manufacture of paper board products. Nanofibers

Nanofibers have potential application as reinforcing elements in composite material. Tibolla et al. (2014) isolated cellulose nanofibers from banana peel having an average

Waste Utilization

Table 10.4 Physical and mechanical properties of the control film (FC) and nanocomposites reinforced with cellulose nanofibers that were passed through the high-pressure homogenizer zero (FN-0), three (FN-3), five (FN-5), and seven (FN-7) times.

Sample

Thickness (𝛍m)

Density (g/cm3 )

Moisture content (%)

Tensile strength (MPa)

Elongation at break (%)

FC

85

1.21

15.9

7.3

32.2

FN-0

85

1.15

15.6

8.9

25.9

FN-3

85

1.17

15.2

10.1

21.6

FN-5

86

1.17

14.9

11.1

21.4

FN-7

86

1.15

14.5

9.9

20.7

Source: Pelissari et al. (2017). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

diameter of 10.9 and 7.6 nm and a length of 454.9 and 2889.7 nm from chemical and enzymatic processes, respectively. The aspect ratio was in the range of long fibers. Pelissari et al. (2017) isolated cellulose nanofibers from banana peel to prepare nanocomposites. The most suitable mechanical treatment was five passages through the high-pressure homogenizer (Table 10.4). The cellulose nanofibers improved the features of the starch-based film. Pectin and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) isolated from banana peels were used to prepare films, with or without the addition of citric acid, by Oliveira et al. (2017). The dispersion was prepared with CNC (0–10%), 5 g pectin, glycerol as a plasticizer, citric acid, and distilled water to get solid content of 2.5 g/100 ml. The film-forming dispersion was homogenized for 30 minutes, deaerated under vacuum, cast on petri dishes and dried at 40 ∘ C for 16 hours. The water resistance and water vapor barrier properties were enhanced with the addition of CNCs. Further, the tensile strength, water resistance and barrier to water vapor were improved by the presence of citric acid. Fuel Briquettes

Sellin et al. (2013) pressed the pseudostem in a hydraulic press to remove water, followed by dehydration at 60 ∘ C for 24 hours. Dried leaves and pseudostem were milled to get an average particle size of 2.5 mm and then pressed in a briquetting hydraulic press using compaction pressure of 18 MPa for 0.6 and 1 second. The dimensions of the briquettes produced were 50 × 50 mm, diameter and length. The moisture content in the wastes for briquetting varied between 8% and 15%. The banana leaves and pseudostem had carbon contents of 43.28 and 38.92%, respectively. The high heating values of the leaves and pseudostem were approximately 17.10 and 13.70 MJ/kg, respectively. Maximum release of energy by waste and briquettes were at 580 and 300 ∘ C, respectively. The briquettes of pseudostem and leaves offered compressive strength of 15 and 5.3 MPa, respectively. The thermal properties and physicochemical characteristics of banana wastes demonstrated their potential application as fuel in the form of briquettes. The suitability of banana biomass for pyrolysis in comparison with other lignocellulosic biomasses was assessed by Kabenge et al. (2018). The high levels of fixed carbon, volatile matter and ash contents were strong indicators that banana peel is an adequate feedstock for pyrolysis work to yield value-added bio-infrastructure products. The maximum weight

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10 Value-Added Processing and Utilization of Banana By-Products

degradation rate for the banana peel biomass occurred in the temperature range of 450–550 ∘ C. The lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose fractions had significant correlation between the biomass heating values and chemical composition. Pyrolysis characteristics of the banana leaves, pseudostem and peel biomasses were comparable. Biogas

There are two available methods for conversion of banana biomass into energy: thermal and biological (Tock et al. 2010). Thermal conversion includes direct combustion and gasification, whereas biological conversion is carried out using anaerobic digestion. Biological conversion (e.g., anaerobic digestion) is typically preferred for high water content biomass. Anaerobic digestion is a low-temperature process that can be used to process both wet and dry feeds (with water addition) and is cost effective for low, medium or high scale production. Carbon dioxide and methane with small traces of hydrogen sulfide are the primary gases produced by this process. A general schematic for the anaerobic digestion of biomass is shown in Figure 10.4. Biogas production from six morphological parts of the “Williams Cavendish” banana cultivar was investigated by Kamdem et al. (2013). The bulbs, leaf sheaths, petioles–midribs, leaf blades, rachis stems, and floral stalks gave total biogas production of 256, 205, 198, BIOMASS

PRETREATMENT

DIRECT USE SUPERNATANT

200

PRIMARY DIGESTION CH4 + CO2 SECONDARY DIGESTION

GAS CLEANUP FERTILIZER

POST TREATMENT PIPELINE GAS

ANIMAL FEED

THERMAL CONVERSION

GAS AND LIQUID FUELS

Figure 10.4 A general schematic of anaerobic digestion process for value-added utilization of banana biomass. Source: Tock et al. (2010). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Waste Utilization

126, 253, and 221 ml/g dry matter, respectively, and total biomethane production of 150, 141, 127, 98, 162, and 144 ml/g, respectively. The biogas production rates and yields were dependent on the biochemical composition of the banana parts and the ability of anaerobic microbes to access the fermentable substrates. The bioconversion yield for each banana part was below 50%, showing that these substrates were not fully biodegraded after 188 days. Odedina et al. (2017) reported that ground banana waste produced 330.6 ml CH4 /g volatile solids which was higher than chopped banana, rambutan or longan waste. The combination of a thermophilic reactor with a retention time of four days and a mesophilic reactor with a retention time of 20 days performed better than a single stage mesophilic reactor. A two-stage digestion process resulted in volatile solids destruction of 68.5% and energy yield of 2510.9 kJ/kg volatile solids at a feed concentration of 2% total solids under optimal conditions. Divyabharathi et al. (2018) evaluated the performance of a solid-state anaerobic digester of one cubic meter capacity to treat banana wastes for biogas generation. The process was initiated by adding 500 kg of fresh cow dung, 500 kg of water, and 100 l of slurry from a running biogas plant. Later, mashed banana peel waste was added as feed material which produced about 730 l of biogas with 56–65% methane content. The specific biogas production of banana wastes was 23–27 l/kg of feed. The maximum specific gas production was 379 l/kg of total solids destruction and 2100 l/kg of volatile solids destruction.

Bioethanol

In recent years, there has been increasing effort to develop biofuels to minimize dependence on fossil fuels, which negatively impact the environment (Molino et al. 2018). Two types of paths have been explored for producing cost-effective biofuels. First generation biofuels are generally made from carbohydrates, lipids, and oils from agroindustry wastes using conventional methods. Second generation biofuels are typically derived from mainly plant biomass such as the stalks, stems, leaves, and wood (Ingale et al. 2014). In this regard, banana biomass offers a great potential to develop biofuels, e.g., bioethanol. Guerrero et al. (2018) optimized the saccharification and fermentation conditions of banana pseudostem and rachis for bioethanol production. The highest ethanol yield from pseudostem was 112 l/ton, while from rachis it was 103 l/ton, at high solid loading, low enzyme dosage, low yeast inoculums and no mineral salt supplementation. Prakash et al. (2018) investigated Geobacillus stearothermophilus HPA19 for the production of a cocktail of thermo-alkali-stable xylano-pectino-cellulolytic enzymes. The enzyme cocktail showed stability at 80 ∘ C and at pH as high as 10.0. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize saccharification leading to twofold increase in reducing sugar. Subsequent fermentation produced 2.1% alcohol with 76.5% efficiency within 30 hours. In another study, banana peel was chopped, sun dried, oven dried at 60 ∘ C, ground, and washed. This mass was subsequently hydrolyzed using 1.50% acid concentration, at 91 ∘ C and a retention time of 21.7 minutes to get maximum ethanol recovery (Gebregergs et al. 2016). Waghmare and Arya (2016) hydrolyzed unripe banana peel powder of hybrid variety of Musa acuminate × Musa balbisiana under optimized conditions of 1.5% H2 SO4 at 120 ∘ C for 20 minutes. The results showed that Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCIM 3095 produced 35.5 g/l ethanol at optimized fermentation conditions.

201

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Wastewater Treatment In a comprehensive review, Ahmad and Danish (2018) discussed the conversion of banana waste into a variety of adsorbents (Figure 10.5). The use of banana waste derived adsorbents in water, and wastewater industries have significant potential advantages. For example, it is low cost, widely available, and protecting the environment by preventing methane/CO2 gas formation due to unsafe damping in wetlands or burning, which also produces CO2 gas and water vapor – thereby contributing to global warming. However, there are some research gaps that need more attention, e.g., (i) optimized production of the banana waste derived adsorbents, (ii) comparative studies of banana waste derived activated carbon production methods, and (iii) its commercial utilization by various food and non-food industries. Waste banana pith can be used for effluent treatment for color removal by absorbing dyes (Namasivayam and Kanchana 1992; Namasivayam et al. 1998). The banana stem was pre-carbonized at 250 ∘ C for 2.5 hours and then passed through a chemical activation process using 0.4 M KOH solution (Taer et al. 2018). The pellets were formed with eight ton hydraulic pressure, carbonized at 600 ∘ C and physically activated using CO2 gas at 900 ∘ C for two hours in order to get the highest specific capacitance. Oyewo et al. (2016) used nano-structured banana peel to treat mine water for the removal of uranium and thorium. Carboxylic and amine groups of nano-structured banana peel were successful in removal of metals. Palm oil mill effluent contains a high amount of

Banana Waste Derived Adsorbents

Applied against Metal ions, Dyes, pesticides, radionuclides, inorganic anions, miscellaneous organic pollutants

Figure 10.5 Banana waste derived adsorbents for use in wastewater treatment. Source: Ahmad and Danish (2018). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

References

organic matter with potential threat to the environment (Mohammed and Chong 2014). Natural, chemically and thermally modified banana peel was used as sorbent for the treatment of biologically treated palm oil effluent. Removal of color, total soluble solids (TSSs), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), and tannin and lignin was 95.96, 100, 100, 97.41, and 76.74%, respectively. Fresh or dried banana peel was soaked in 20% phosphoric acid in 1:10 ratio for two hours and then heated at 230 ∘ C for two hours to get bio-char (Zhou et al. 2017). The bio-chars from dehydrated and fresh peel showed excellent lead clarification capability of 359 and 193 mg/g, respectively.

Conclusions Banana plant bears one bunch of fruit in its life span, therefore, at least 200 million tons of agricultural waste is generated worldwide whereas postharvest processing or consumption generates about 60 million tons of waste. Banana waste varies in composition but invariably contains cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, starch, sugars, protein, and minerals. Banana parts are traditionally used for domestic and agricultural purposes. It is considered an auspicious plant and its leaves, pseudostem, and fruit are used in social and religious ceremonies. Banana leaf is widely used to serve meals and snacks in banana growing areas as well as for wrapping the food during cooking. Farm animals are fed banana leaf which is rich in cellulose, starch, sugar, vitamins, and minerals. Banana parts have been successfully utilized for bioethanol and biogas production. Pseudostem and sheath are processed to obtain fibers for rope making. Cellulosic pulp has been used successfully for the preparation of paper and paper board. Activated carbon from banana parts has demonstrated its potential for wastewater treatment as an absorbent. In recent years, nanotechnology has been applied to isolate nanoparticles from banana waste for modification of conventional material especially for the packaging industry. In summary, each part of the banana waste or by-product has potential to be utilized for food, fiber, feed, and energy purposes.

References Ahmad, T. and Danish, M. (2018). Prospects of banana waste utilization in wastewater treatment: a review. Journal of Environmental Management 206: 330–348. Alarcón, L.C. and Marzocchi, V.A. (2015). Evaluation for paper ability to pseudo stem of banana tree. Procedia Materials Science 8: 814–823. Amarnath, R. and Balakrishnan, V. (2007). Evaluation of the banana (Musa paradisiaca) plant by-product’s fermentation characteristics to assess their fodder potential. International Journal of Dairy Science 2: 217–225. Anhwange, B.A. (2008). Chemical composition of Musa sapientum (banana) peels. Journal of Food Technology 6: 263–268. Archibald, J.G. (1949). Nutrient composition of banana skins. Journal of Dairy Science 32: 969–971. Bakhru, H.K. (editor) (1995). Foods that Heal, pp. 63–68. Delhi: Orient Paperbacks.

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Chauhan, S. and Sharma, A.K. (2014). Utilization of pectinases for fiber extraction from banana plant’s waste. International Journal of Waste Resources 4: 162. Cordeiro, N., Belgacem, M.N., Torres, I.C., and Moura, J.C.V.P. (2004). Chemical composition and pulping of banana pseudo-stems. Industrial Crops Products 19: 147–154. Davey, M.W., Van-den Bergh, I., Markham, R., Swennen, R., and Keulemans, J. (2009). Genetic variability in musa fruit provitamin A carotenoids, lutein and mineral micronutrient contents. Food Chemistry 115: 806–813. Divyabharathi, R., Angeeswaran, R., Pugalendhi, S., and Kumar, K.J. (2018). Performance evaluation of solid-state digester for biogas production from banana wastes. Chemical Science Review Letters 7 (25): 12–18. El-Ghani, A.A.A. (1999). Utilization of banana plant wastes by lactating Friesian cows. Egyptian Journal of Nutrition and Feeds 2: 29–37. Emaga, T.H., Andrianaivo, R.H., Wathelet, B., Tchango, J.T., and Paquot, M. (2007). Effects of the stage of maturation and varieties on the chemical composition of banana and plantain peels. Food Chemistry 103: 590–600. Emaga, T.H., Robert, C., Ronkart, S.N., Wathelet, B., and Paquot, M. (2008). Dietary fiber components and pectin chemical features of peels during ripening in banana and plantain varieties. Bioresource Technology 99: 4346–4354. FAO (2019a). Banana (Land & Water Databases). Available at http://www.fao.org/land-water/ databases-and-software/crop-information/banana/en (accessed 30 November 2019). FAO (2019b). Banana Production by Countries – 2017. Available at http://faostat.fao.org/site/ 339/default.aspx (accessed 27 May 2019). Gebregergs, A., Gebresemati, M., and Sahu, O. (2016). Industrial ethanol from banana peels for developing countries: response surface methodology. Pacific Science Review A: Natural Science and Engineering 18: 22–29. Guerrero, A.B., Ballesteros, I., and Ballesteros, M. (2018). The potential of agricultural banana waste for bioethanol production. Fuel 213: 176–185. Ingale, S., Joshi, S.J., and Gupte, A. (2014). Production of bioethanol using agricultural waste: banana pseudo stem. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology 45: 885–892. INIBAP (2000). Bananas. International network for the improvement of banana and plantain. Available at http://bananas.bioversityinternational.org/files/files/pdf/publications/ brochure_bananas.pdf (accessed 20 December 2019). Kabenge, I., Omulo, G., Banadda, N., Seay, J., Ziwa, A., and Kiggundu, N. (2018). Characterization of banana peels wastes as potential slow pyrolysis feedstock. Journal of Sustainable Development 11 (2): 14–24. Kamdem, I., Hiligsmann, S., Vanderghem, C., Bilik, I., Paquot, M., and Thonart, P. (2013). Comparative biochemical analysis during the anaerobic digestion of lignocellulosic biomass from six morphological parts of Williams Cavendish banana (Triploid Musa AAA group) plants. World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnolology 29: 2259–2270. Krishna, C. (1999). Production of bacterial cellulases by solid-state bioprocessing of banana wastes. Bioresource Technology 69: 231–239. Mazumdar, A. and Maumdar, H. (2018). Bio-processing of banana peel for alpha amylase production by Aspergillus oryzae employing solid-state fermentation. The Clarion 7: 36–42.

References

Mohammed, R.R. and Chong, M.F. (2014). Treatment and decolorization of biologically treated palm oil mill effluent (POME) using banana peel as novel biosorbent. Journal of Environmental Management 132: 237–249. Mohapatra, D., Mishra, S., and Sutar, N. (2010). Banana and its by-product utilisation: an overview. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research 69: 323–329. Molino, A., Larocca, V., Chianese, S., and Musmarra, D. (2018). Biofuels production by biomass gasification: a review. Energies 11: 811. Namasivayam, C. and Kanchana, N. (1992). Waste banana pith as adsorbent for color removal from wastewaters. Chemosphere 25: 1691–1705. Namasivayam, C., Prabha, D., and Kumutha, M. (1998). Removal of direct red and acid brilliant blue by adsorption on to banana pith. Bioresource Technology 64: 77–79. Odedina, M.J., Charnnok, B., Saritpongteeraka, K., and Chaiprapat, S. (2017). Effects of size and thermophilic pre-hydrolysis of banana peel during anaerobic digestion, and biomethanation potential of key tropical fruit wastes. Waste Management 68: 128–138. Oliveira, L., Cordeiro, N., Evtuguin, D.V., Torres, I.C., and Silvestre, A.J.D. (2007). Chemical composition of different morphological parts from ‘Dwarf Cavendish’ banana plant and their potential as a non-wood renewable source of natural products. Industrial Crops Products 26: 163–172. Oliveira, T.I.S., Rosa, M.F., Ridout, M.J., Cross, K., Brito, E.S., Silva, L.M.A., Mazzetto, S.E., Waldron, K.W., and Azeredo, H.M.C. (2017). Bionanocomposite films based on polysaccharides from banana peels. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 101: 1–8. Osma, J.F., Herrera, J.L.T., and Couto, S.R. (2007). Banana skin: a novel waste for laccase production by Trametes pubescens under solid-state conditions. Application to synthetic dye decoloration. Dyes and Pigments 75: 32–37. Oyewo, O.A., Onyango, M.S., and Wolkersdorfer, C. (2016). Application of banana peels nanosorbent for the removal of radioactive minerals from real mine water. Environment Radioactivity 164: 369–376. Pelissari, F.M., Mahecha, M.M.A., Sobral, P.J.A., and Menegalli, F.C. (2017). Nanocomposites based on banana starch reinforced with cellulose nanofibers isolated from banana peels. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 505: 154–167. Prakash, H., Chauhan, P.S., General, T., and Sharma, A.K. (2018). Development of eco-friendly process for the production of bioethanol from banana peel using in-house developed cocktail of thermo-alkali stable depolymerizing enzymes. Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering 41: 1003–1016. ProMusa.org (2019). Morphology of the Banana Plant. Available at http://www.promusa.org/ Morphology+of+banana+plant (accessed 11 Nov 2019). Reddy, G.V., Babu, P.R., Komaraiah, P., Roy, K.R.R.M., and Kothari, I.L. (2003). Utilization of banana waste for the production of lignolytic and cellulolytic enzymes by solid substrate fermentation using two Pleurotus species (P. ostreatus and P. sajor-caju). Process Biochemistry 38: 1457–1462. Ruiz, G. and Rowe, J.B. (1980). Intake and digestion of different parts of the banana plant. Tropical Animals Products 5: 253–256.

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Sellin, N., Oliveira, B.G., Marangoni, C., Souza, O., Oliveira, A.P.N., and Oliveira, T.M.N. (2013). Use of banana culture waste to produce briquettes. Chemical Engineering Transactions 32: 349–354. Shah, M.P., Reddy, G.P., Banerjee, R., Ravindra, Babu, P., and Kothari, I.L. (2005). Microbial degradation of banana waste under solid-state bioprocessing using two lignocellulolytic fungi (Phylosticta spp. MPS-001 and Aspergillus spp. MPS-002). Process Biochemistry 40: 445–451. Subramanian, P.R., Kadirvel, R., Viswanathan, K., and Chandrasekaran, D. (1988). In vitro studies and short-term feeding trial in lambs to evaluate plantain sheath (Musa sapientum) as a feed for ruminants. Animal Feed Science and Technology 20: 343–348. Taer, E., Agustino, A., Farma, R., Taslim, R., Awitdrus, Paiszal, M., Ira, A., Yardi, S.D., Sari, Y.P., Yusra, H., Nurjanah, S., Hartati, S.D., Aini, Z., and Setiadi, R.N. (2018). The relationship of surface area to cell capacitance for monolith carbon electrode from biomass materials for supercapacitor application. Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1116: 032040. Tibolla, H., Pelissari, F.M., and Menegalli, F.C. (2014). Cellulose nanofibers produced from banana peel by chemical and enzymatic treatment. LWT – Food Science and Technology 59: 1311–1318. Tock, J.Y., Lai, C.L., Lee, K.T., Tan, K.T., and Bhatia, S. (2010). Banana biomass as potential renewable energy resource: a Malaysian case study. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14: 798–805. Waghmare, A.G. and Arya, S.S. (2016). Utilization of unripe banana peel waste as feedstock for ethanol production. Bioethanol 2: 146–156. Zhou, N., Chen, H., Xi, J., Yao, D., Zhou, Z., Tian, Y., and Lu, X. (2017). Biochars with excellent Pb(II) adsorption property produced from fresh and dehydrated banana peels via hydrothermal carbonization. Bioresource Technology 232: 204–210.

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11 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Profile of Raw and Processed Banana Products Jiwan S. Sidhu and Tasleem A. Zafar College of Life Sciences, Kuwait University, 13060 Safat, Kuwait

Introduction Fruits and fruit products are known not only to promote general good health and well-being but also to lower the risk of various chronic diseases, such as heart diseases, stroke, gastrointestinal disorders, certain types of cancer, hypertension, age-related macular degeneration, eye cataracts, and skin rejuvination and improve the immune system (Sidhu and Zafar 2018). Banana belongs to the tropical fruits as it grows more profusely in tropical rain forest areas. Unripe banana fruit has flesh rich in starch which converts into sugars on ripening. Banana is known to be rich in carbohydrates (particularly, starch and dietary fiber), certain vitamins, and minerals. Banana (Musa spp.) is an edible fruit and an herbaceous flowering plant belonging to the genus Musa, and the family Musaceae. In some producing countries, banana is consumed as a cooked vegetable (called plantains). All the edible banana fruits now are seedless (parthenocarpic) and belong to two species, Musa acuminata Colla and Musa balbisiana Colla; the hybrid from these two species is Musa × paradisiaca L. (Morton 1987). Mostly, bananas are eaten in ripe form and known as dessert banana whereas plantains are consumed in cooked form and are also a staple food source in many developing countries. This chapter describes the chemical composition, nutritional profile and health benefits of bananas. Additionally, the nutritional composition of selected banana-based products is also discussed.

Nutritional Composition The nutritional profile of raw bananas, by weight and size, is presented in Table 11.1 (USDA 2019). The values shown here are for bananas available in the USA, therefore, some differences can be anticipated in composition of bananas in other parts of the world owing to variable climatic and soil conditions, agricultural practices, postharvest handling, and processing techniques, etc. Additionally, varietal differences can also contribute to variations in the composition of raw and finished products. Banana fruit is a rich source of Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition, First Edition. Edited by Muhammad Siddiq, Jasim Ahmed, and Maria Gloria Lobo. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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Table 11.1

Nutritional profile of raw bananas, per 100 g and by size.

Composition

100 g

Extra small (81 g)

Small (101 g)

Medium (118 g)

88.4

Large (136 g)

Proximate, Energy, and Sugars Water

74.91

60.7

75.7

Energy

89

72.1

89.9

Protein Total lipid (fat) Carbohydrate, by difference Fiber, total dietary Sugars, total

1.09 0.33 22.84

0.883 0.267 18.5

2.6

2.11

12.23

9.91

1.1 0.333 23.1 2.63 12.4

105 1.29 0.389 27 3.07

102 121 1.48 0.449 31.1 3.54

14.4

16.6

5.9

6.8

Minerals Calcium Iron Magnesium Phosphorus Potassium Sodium

5 0.26 27 22 358 1

4.05 0.211 21.9 17.8 290 0.81

5.05 0.263 27.3 22.2 362 1.01

0.307 31.9 26 422 1.18

0.354 36.7 29.9 487 1.36

Vitamins Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid

8.7

7.05

8.79

Niacin

0.665

0.539

0.672

Folate, total Choline, total Vitamin A, RAE

20 9.8 3

16.2 7.94 2.43

10.3 0.785

11.8 0.904

20.2

23.6

27.2

9.9

11.6

13.3

3.03

3.54

4.08

β-Carotene

26

21.1

26.3

30.7

35.4

α-Carotene

25

20.2

25.2

29.5

34

Lutein + zeaxanthin

22

17.8

22.2

26

29.9

Vitamin K (phylloquinone)

0.5

0.405

0.505

0.59

0.68

Source: USDA (2019).

carbohydrates (e.g., starch and fiber), several minerals and vitamins. Potassium content in bananas is among the highest found in all fruits. Appel et al. (1997) reported that the significantly high potassium and low sodium contents in banana are optimum for people suffering from hypertension and on a low-sodium diet. For dessert banana, the right level of sourness, sweetness, firmness, mealiness, and aroma are some of the important sensory attributes of consumer preferences for the fruit. Bugaud et al. (2016) reported the optimal and acceptable levels of these sensory attributes for dessert banana and have suggested that 33% level of unsatisfied consumers can be taken as the cut-off point for these sensory attributes. The stage of maturity determines the chemical

Nutritional Composition

composition of banana fruit and its peel. Peel can be up to about 40% of the fruit and ends up as a waste product. Using high-resolution NMR, Yuan et al. (2017) analyzed various metabolites during postharvest senescence of banana fruit. The chemical profiles for the primary and secondary metabolites consisting of organic acids, amino acids, carbohydrates (starch and fiber), and phenolics were similar at all five stages of maturity but the individual compounds showed large variations. According to their findings, valine, alanine, aspartic acid, choline, acetate, glucose, malic acid, gallic acid, and dopamine were the principal metabolites responsible for the postharvest senescence of banana fruits. At the last stage of maturity (stage 5), ethanol was produced from glucose metabolism, and salsolinol from dopamine, which was a typical marker for the postharvest senescence of banana fruit. However, Goswami and Borthakur (1996) have reported that moisture, crude fat, crude protein, and most of the minerals were higher in the early stages of postharvest development of banana but decreased as the fruit ripened. Potassium was found to be the most abundant mineral (4.10–5.55 g/100 g, dry weight). During the development of fruit, the starch content increased but the total soluble sugars decreased. The total phenolics decreased throughout the development period of the fruit. The activity of α-glucan phosphorylase increased during the starch synthesis when the fruit was developing, but the acid phosphorylase activity declined during this period. Dessert banana pulp and peel composition from different sources is shown in Table 11.2. The data on banana pulp is from AAA and AAB varieties of the fruit. Banana peel, which is Table 11.2

Dessert banana’s pulp and peel composition (per 100 g, fresh weight basis).

Composition

Unit

Banana pulp AAA variety

1

Banana

AAB variety

68.5

peel

Moisture

%

73.8

Protein

%

2.2

—

83.5 1.8

Fat

%

0.1

—

1.71

Starch

%

10.0

—

1.2

Total sugars

%

40.0

—

29.0

Sodium

mg

17.4

16.0

24.3

Iron

mg

0.8

0.8

0.6

Calcium

mg

4.9

7.2

19.2

Potassium

mg

318.9

342.3

Magnesium

mg

30.8

39.4

—

Phosphorus

mg

21.7

26.3

—

Manganese

mg

0.2

0.7

Vitamin C

mg

4.5

12.7

—

Vitamin A, RAE

μg

8.2

12.4

—

β-Carotene

μg

55.7

96.9

—

78.1

76.2

Dry weight basis. Source: Adapted from Lustre et al. (1976), Adisa and Okey (1987), Wall (2006), and Mohapatra et al. (2010).

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11 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Profile of Raw and Processed Banana Products

primarily a waste, is also rich in certain nutrients, e.g., total sugars, which makes it suitable for processing into a variety of by-products (Chapter 10 is dedicated to the value-added utilization of banana plant and fruit waste). Alkarkhi et al. (2011) compared certain physicochemical properties of banana pulp and peel flours obtained from green as well as ripe fruits. To differentiate between the peel and pulp flour, they recommended the use of total soluble solids (TSS), water holding capacity, and back extrusion force, whereas to discriminate between flour prepared from green and ripe banana, TSS and viscosity were better measures. Physicochemical quality and antioxidant changes in “Leb Mue Nang” cultivar of banana fruit during the three stages of ripening was investigated by Youryon and Supapvanich (2017). They found no differences in both the peel and pulp color, texture, TSS, and total acidity during three stages of ripening. On full maturity, the highest amount of total phenolics and total antioxidant activity were observed in this cultivar. Emaga et al. (2007) investigated the effect of stage of maturity and variety on the chemical composition of banana and plantain peels. According to their findings, peel had 8–11% protein and was rich in linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid, and potassium; plantain peel was richer in starch than dessert banana. As the fruit matured, the soluble sugars increased but the starch decreased.

Carbohydrates Banana fruit is rich in carbohydrates, such as starch, fiber, pectin, sucrose, glucose, and fructose. Banana carbohydrates (particularly, starch and sugars) change significantly from the green to ripe (full yellow) and over-ripe (brown > yellow) stages. As shown in Figure 11.1, starch decreased from 58.6 to 2.6% during ripening. Further, sucrose content increased from 6.0 to 53.2% while reducing sugars accumulated from 1.3% to 33.6% during transition to full ripening. These changes in carbohydrates contribute to the desirable sensory attributes of 70 60

Content (%, dw)

210

Starch

Sucrose

Reducing Sugar

58.6 53.2

50 40

33.6 30 20 10 0

6.0 1.3 Green

2.6 Trace Yellow

Yellow > Green

All Yellow

Brown > Yellow

Figure 11.1 Changes in the carbohydrate fractions at selected stages of banana ripeness. Source: Lii et al. (1982). Reproduced with permission of John Wiley and Sons.

Nutritional Composition

sweet flavor and smooth texture or mouthfeel in ripe bananas. Green bananas by contrast have starchy taste and sticky mouthfeel. Adão and Gloria (2005) studied the changes in carbohydrates and bioactive amines during the postharvest storage of banana fruits for 35 days at 16 ∘ C and 85% relative humidity (RH). It was observed that the desirable yellow color developed in 21 days, whereas black spots appeared after 28 days, with a significant increase in the pulp-to-peel ratio. The green banana fruit had higher starch content and lower soluble sugars, however, as the ripening process progressed, starch content decreased significantly. After 28 days, glucose and fructose were predominant. The decrease in starch content followed first-order reaction kinetics, whereas the increase in glucose and fructose followed zero-order kinetics. They also detected a few bioactive amines, including putrescine, spermidine, and serotonin. Upon storage, a significant decrease in serotonin and putrescine was observed after 14 and 21 days, respectively. Banana starch was isolated from unripe green fruit that had a high solubility of 16.8% at 90 ∘ C and swelling power of 17.1 g water/g starch (Torres-Gutierrez et al. 2008). The banana starch showed high syneresis and low stability in refrigeration and freezing cycles. Considering these properties, banana starch can be used in food systems requiring high-temperature processing such as jellies, sausages, bakery, and canned foods, but is not suitable in refrigerated and frozen foods. In a similar study, Liu et al. (2017) isolated a carbohydrate consisting of polygalacturonic acid, with a molecular weight of 8.9 kDa from banana (Musa nana Lour.), which can be used for the development of functional foods and phytomedicines. The resistant degradation during the postharvest ripening of Cavendish banana and plantains, as well as starch granule structure and action of amylases was investigated by Gao et al. (2016). Plantain banana had the higher content of total starch and resistant starch (RS), and a faster rate of starch degradation. Shiga et al. (2017) identified two wild cultivars of banana having potentially immunomodulatory mannan and arabinogalactan. As the immunomodulatory activity is associated with the interaction of these polysaccharides, it would be beneficial to breed new cultivars by introducing disease resistance from these wild plants into domesticated dessert and plantain banana cultivars. Campuzano et al. (2018) investigated the physicochemical and nutritional characteristics of flour produced from banana at different stages of maturity. Fruits from the 1st and 2nd stages, being higher in starch content, can be used in emulsions, whereas fruit from the 3rd and 4th stages of ripening, when it is low in starch but high in sugars, and bioactive compounds, can be used in the preparation of beverages and baby foods. The chemical and physical properties of green banana peel and pulp flour, as reported by Yangilar (2015), are shown in Table 11.3. Banana peel flour had significantly higher content of ash, total starch, and total dietary fiber, including soluble and insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), than found in the pulp flour. Agama-Acevedo et al. (2016) also reported that banana peel flour is a rich source of dietary fiber, extractable polyphenolics, ash, starch, and antioxidant activity, making it suitable for use as a functional ingredient for developing new food products. Banana peel also has significant amounts of carbohydrates, with the potential to develop value-added by-products from it, e.g., pectin, bioethanol, and enzymes. Oliveira et al. (2016) extracted pectin from banana peels with citric acid, using different pH, temperature, and

211

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11 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Profile of Raw and Processed Banana Products

Table 11.3

Composition of flour from green banana pulp and peel (g/100 g).

Parameter

Dry matter Ash Total starch Soluble dietary fiber

Pulp flour

9.87 3.10 73.8

Peel flour

11.06 4.4 60.66

8.8

8.2

Insoluble dietary fiber

40.8

58.6

Total dietary fiber

49.6

66.8

Total phenolics, GAE1

0.61

0.80

1

Gallic acid equivalent. Source: Adapted from Yangilar (2015).

extraction time. The higher temperature and pH conditions resulted in higher extraction yield; however, the degree of methoxylation decreased from 79 to 43%. The optimum conditions of pectin extraction, i.e., those which gave a maximum yield of galacturonic acid with at least 51% degree of methoxylation, were: temperature, 87 ∘ C; pH, 2.0; and residence time, 160 minutes.

Aroma and Flavor Compounds The typical flavor of fruit develops primarily during the ripening period. A fruit may have more than one hundred volatile flavor components; however, these compounds constitute only a tiny fraction of the whole fruit, typically, a few parts per million (ppm). Boudhrioua et al. (2003) identified 12 aromatic compounds (2 alcohols, 9 esters, and 1 phenol) by GC-MS in fresh and air-dried bananas. The moisture content of pulp and drying temperature were found to affect the content of aromatic compounds in the finished product. Vermeir et al. (2009) characterized the flavor components of banana fruit using GC-MS. The sweetness of the fruit is attributed to the presence of D-glucose, D-fructose, and sucrose, whereas L-malic acid and citric acid maintain the sourness. The ability of the banana cultivars to tolerate low temperature is related to the metabolism responsible for producing flavor compounds. A number of studies have reported in detail about the flavor compounds of banana fruit (Sidhu and Kabir 2010; Kabir and Sidhu 2012). Free and glycol-conjugated volatile flavor components from three cultivars of banana and plantain were reported by Aurore et al. (2011). The main volatile components were: (E)-2-hexenal and acetoin in Cavendish; (E)-2-hexenal and hexanal in plantain; and 2,3-butanediol, and two distereoisomer sterols in Frayssinette bananas. The most abundant aglycones detected in these banana samples were 3-methyl-butanol, 3-methyl-butanoic acid, sterols, and acetovanillone. While studying two banana cultivars, Facundo et al. (2012) found that the cold storage temperature affected volatile components more strongly in “Nanicao” than in the “Prata” cultivar. In the “Nanicao” cultivar, cold storage reduced esters, such as 2-pentanol acetate, 3-methyl-1-butanol acetate, 2-methylpropyl butanoate, 3-methylbutyl butanoate, 2-methylpropyl-3-methylbutanoate, and butyl butanoate. Using GC-FID and GC-MS techniques, Pino and Febles (2013) isolated 146 flavor compounds from “Giant Cavendish” banana cultivar, out of which 124 compounds were positively

Nutritional Composition

identified; out of these, 31 odorants were considered to contribute to the typical aroma of bananas. Bugaud and Alter (2016) studied 13 cultivars and 4 new triploid hybrids of banana for both sensory profiling and chemical analyses using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) GC-MS. They detected 41 volatile compounds in banana cultivars and built a partial least square regression model, which suggested that two butanoate esters, 2-methylpropyl butanoate and 3-methylbutyl butanoate, mainly contributed to banana odor and aroma. The 3-methylbutyl esters were found to be the most abundant in 17 cultivars.

Minerals and Vitamins Banana fruit is rich in certain minerals and vitamins. Hardisson et al. (2001) measured the macro-elements (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus) and micro-elements (iron, copper, zinc, and manganese) in banana fruit in the Canary Islands. Bananas grown in the north island were rich in potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, copper, and zinc, whereas the fruit obtained from the southern part was rich in calcium. The dwarf Brazilian banana grown in Hawaii, on per 100 g basis, had 12.7 mg ascorbic acid, 96.9 μg β-carotene, 104 μg α-carotene, and had higher phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, manganese, and zinc than the William cultivar (Wall 2006). The average potassium content for banana grown in Hawaii was 336.6 mg/100 g. The carotenoid (β-carotene and α-carotene) and riboflavin content of Fe’i and also non-Fe’i banana cultivars grown on the Solomon Islands indicated that the β-carotene equivalents ranged from 45 to 7124 μg/100 g (Englberger et al. 2010). All Fe’i cultivars had a riboflavin content ranging from 0.10 to 2.72 mg/100 g. The consumption of these cultivars was recommended to alleviate vitamin A deficiency and improve overall health. Facundo et al. (2015) identified 10 carotenoids in two cultivars of banana; the major ones were all-trans lutein, all-trans α-carotene, and all-trans β-carotene. However, the accumulation of carotenoids was found to be significantly reduced by the low-temperature storage of bananas.

Postharvest Storage and Composition Cold storage is not suitable for extending the shelf life of banana because it suffers from cold injury. Several alternative treatments have been tried to extend the shelf life of banana fruit to avoid chilling injury as well as to retain most of the antioxidants (Wang et al. 2015; Ahmed and Palta 2016; Lo’ay and El-Khateeb 2018). Nitric oxide treatment (sodium nitroprusside 0.05 mM) inhibited chlorophyll degradation and enhanced the antioxidant capacity of the banana fruits during cold storage (Wang et al. 2015). The treatment with exogenous dipping application of ascorbic acid (9 mM) increased the chilling tolerance by increasing antioxidant enzyme activities of banana during cold storage (Lo’ay and El-Khateeb 2018). The wax coating of banana has been reported to improve the retention of moisture, ascorbic acid, soluble solids, and freshness during seven-day cold storage (Orishagbemi et al. 2015). Irradiation treatment with UV-C rays at 200–280 nm has been shown not only to extend the shelf life of banana fruit but also enhance its phenolic contents and antioxidant capacity (Ding and Nur 2015). Coating of banana fruits with 1% shrimp chitosan solution resulted in lower weight loss, reduced darkening, and delayed changes by three to four days in TSS and titratable acidity during storage at 26 ∘ C and 85% RH (Hossain and Iqbal 2016).

213

11 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Profile of Raw and Processed Banana Products

Nutritional Quality of Processed Banana Products Nectar, Fried, Baked, and Chips Products The proximate composition of raw banana and nectar, fried, baked, and chips is shown in Figure 11.2. Nectar is prepared from banana pulp. Protein, carbohydrate (total dietary fiber, and total sugars) content are highest in dried banana chips. Fried and baked bananas have similar protein and total dietary fiber content, whereas carbohydrates, especially, total sugars are higher in baked banana versus fried banana. At stage 5 ripening, when the skin color turns yellow, the fruit is ready for conversion into pulp/puree (Yao et al. 2017). The banana pulps were rich in minerals, in particular, potassium (584 mg/100 g) and magnesium (58 mg/100 g), total sugars (5.2 g/100 g), and starch (1.8 g/100 g) with excellent sensory attributes. High-pressure treatment of banana pulp at 500 MPa for a holding time of 90 seconds retained the total phenolic content − flavonoids (0.22 g ellagic acid equivalent/kg dry weight) and total antioxidant activity at the highest levels (Jimenez-Martinez et al. 2017). Banana fruit pulp and powder have been used for developing various functional foods based on cereals, milk, and meat, which are briefly discussed here. The ripe banana flour when added to layer and sponge cakes (20–40% replacement) lowered the sensory

Carbohydrate (g/100 g)

2.3

2.0

Protein (g/100 g)

58.4

60

2.5

45

0.38 Raw Nectar Fried Baked Chips

8

0

7.7

24.0

0.9 Raw Nectar Fried Baked Chips

0

20.5 12.9

10

14.3

20 2.9

4 2.7

30

35.3

Total Sugars (g/100 g)

6

0

18.0

40 Total Dietary Fiber (g/100 g)

2

Raw Nectar Fried Baked Chips

12.2

0.0

22.8

15

0.5

32.6

30

1.22

1.09

1.0

1.14

1.5

2.6

214

Raw Nectar Fried Baked Chips

Figure 11.2 Selected proximate composition of raw banana and processed banana products. Source: Based on data from USDA (2019).

Nutritional Quality of Processed Banana Products

quality but improved the dietary fiber, polyphenols and antioxidant capacity significantly (Segundo et al. 2017). The replacement of 50% wheat flour by banana flour (unripe and ripe) produced cookies with higher dietary fiber and with acceptability index of 64.4% (Santos et al. 2015). The unripe banana flour (UBF) had higher amount of starch and lower sugars, and was found suitable for cookie making. In contrast, the ripe banana flour exhibited hygroscopicity because of the high sugar content, and found application in bread making (Pragati et al. 2014). Green banana pulp (GBP) flour-based extruded snacks were developed by Mridula et al. (2017). The snacks were evaluated for expansion ratio, bulk density, water absorption index, chemical composition and sensory acceptability. Based on multiple response analysis, it was observed that the addition of 8 g of banana pulp in the formulation with feed moisture content of 14%, and screw speed of 350 RPM, resulted in the best quality snacks. The protein and iron contents in the snacks were 15.46 g/100 g and 4.48 mg/100 g, respectively.

Baby Foods Banana is a popular fruit for preparation of a wide variety of baby foods. For example, applesauce with bananas, apple-banana juice, banana juice with low-fat yogurt, orange-apple-banana juice, strained bananas, banana-apple dessert, banana-yogurt dessert, banana with mixed berries, bananas with apples and pears (strained), banana pudding, bananas and pineapple (strained), bananas and strawberry (strained), mixed cereal with applesauce and bananas, mixed cereal with bananas (dry, instant), oatmeal with applesauce and bananas, oatmeal cereal with bananas (dry, instant), plums, bananas, and rice (strained), rice cereal with applesauce and bananas, and rice cereal with bananas (dry, instant). The nutritional composition of selected banana-based baby foods is shown in Table 11.4.

Porridge and Pasta A nutritious instant porridge was prepared by replacing brown rice (0–100%) with pregelatinized UBF (Loypimai and Moongngarm 2015). Replacement of brown rice with pregelatinized UBF up to 80% level produced an acceptable porridge with significantly improved level of RS, dietary fiber, antioxidant activity and total phenolics contents. Castelo-Branco et al. (2017) compared pasta made from wheat flour and a blend of wheat flour, green banana flour (GBF), and green banana peel flour and found that 15% banana flour enriched pasta had higher ash, total dietary fiber and total phenolics contents.

Meat Products To improve the dietary fiber contents in meat products, Kumar et al. (2013) incorporated GBF and soybean hull flours (SHFs) in chicken nuggets and evaluated the physicochemical characteristics and storage stability. With the addition of these ingredients, the protein content in nuggets was decreased but the dietary fiber and mineral contents increased significantly, while energy values decreased significantly compared with the control or 100% chicken meat nuggets (Table 11.5). Bastos et al. (2014) prepared hamburger patties using flours obtained from GBP, green banana peel, apple peel, and oatmeal flour, as partial fat substitutes. Substitution with GBFs

215

216

11 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Profile of Raw and Processed Banana Products

Table 11.4

Nutritional composition of selected banana-based baby foods (per 100 g).

Composition

Unit

Banana, strained

Banana-yogurt, strained

Banana pudding

Apple- banana Juice

Proximate, energy, and sugars Water

g

76.7

80.7

83.5

87.1

Energy

kcal

91

78

68

51

Protein

g

1

1.1

1

0.2

Total lipid (fat)

g

0.2

0.52

0.8

0.1

Carbohydrate1

g

21.34

17.35

14.14

12.3

Dietary fiber, total

g

1.6

0.5

0.8

Sugars, total

g

11.36

12.2

10.55

30

11

0.2 11

Minerals2 Calcium

mg

4

7

Magnesium

mg

26

10

5

6

Phosphorus

mg

20

28

34

8

Potassium

mg

290

100

90

123

Sodium

mg

2

14

54

4

Selenium

μg

1.1

0.9

Vitamin C3

mg

21.9

13.9

Choline, total

mg

4.1

4.7

1.1

0.3

2

Vitamins

12

27.9

10.7

2.3

1

By difference. Minerals and vitamins 45% reduction in crown rot incidence in Musa AAA Berangan bananas as compared with non-irradiation treatment (Mohamed et al. 2017). The low dose exposure of X-rays (3–5 × 10−14 Gy) can also enhance the shelf life of the ambon banana (Musa acuminanta) fruits by delaying the process of ripening (Dwijananti et al. 2016).

Chemical Control Agents Use of Fungicides

The microbiological quality of bananas and their products can be maintained through use of antifungal agents to particularly address the postharvest losses caused by fungal pathogens during storage and transportation of the whole banana. The incidences of storage fungal

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13 Microbiology of Fresh Bananas and Processed Banana Products

diseases can be effectively decreased by dipping fruits in fungicide formulations, which may include single or combinations (Nath et al. 2014) and can be non-systemic (e.g., mancozeb, chlorothalonil, copper oxychloride) or systemic (e.g., carbendazim/bavistin, propiconazole, hexaconazole) in nature (Nath et al. 2015). Diedhiou et al. (2014) immersed bananas in four different fungicides for five minutes and observed that only Imazalil treatment improved the shelf life to 24 days on storage at 14 ∘ C temperature. Ozonation

Ozone (O3 ) is a highly reactive molecule comprised of three oxygen atoms, which exhibits a short half-life of not more than 30 minutes. It is considered to be a natural oxidizer and the safest antimicrobial sanitizer having generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status for application on whole or peeled and fresh-cut produce as it exhibits formation of zero residues due to prompt degradation to molecular oxygen (Suslow 1998; Carletti et al. 2013). Ozonation of whole bananas can be performed by either immersing the whole fruit in ozonated water or fumigation with gaseous ozone in a closed chamber (de Alencar et al. 2013). However, immersion in ozonized water for a period of 10 minutes is the most effective technique to decrease the microbial cell load besides it induces natural molecules of antimicrobial and antioxidant significance (Suslow 1998). Further, ozone treatment can also be performed for the minimally processed products, particularly the fresh-cut banana. Alothman et al. (2010) observed significant increase in the flavonoids and total phenolic content in fresh-cut banana on treatment with 0.72 mmol of ozone for 30 minutes.

Plant Botanicals and Biological Control Agents The plant derived botanicals are relatively cheap and green alternatives to pesticide control agents. Ekhuemelo and Yaaju (2017) evaluated the performance of extracts of garlic and ginger at different concentrations (10–30% w/v) in an in vitro study performed on a pure culture of B. theobromae. They reported complete inhibition of the mycelial growth of the test fungi on application of 30% (w/v) garlic extract. The essential oils (EOs) are considered to have known antifungal properties (Kaur et al. 2018). Application of these EOs can effectively eradicate postharvest fungal diseases of banana. Thus, these present an environmentally safe and effective option for tacking postharvest fungal diseases in a cost-effective manner. Abd-Alla et al. (2014) evaluated the commercial EOs of cinnamon, thyme, and sweet and bitter almond, and reported that the incidence of crown rot disease in stored bananas varied from 78.7 to 100% by application of 4.0% (v/v) concentration of EOs with absolute reduction by cinnamon and thyme EOs. The biocontrol agents can also be very useful in reducing the incidences of fungal fruit rots of banana during storage. Adebesin et al. (2009) reported inhibition of F. oxysporum and C. musae mycelial growth on application of culture/conidial filtrates (at 50% v/v) of Trichoderma asperellum NG-T161. However, the action spectrum and efficacy of reduction in disease incidences can be improved by combined application of multiple species and strains of the biocontrol agent. Sangeetha et al. (2009) identified different Trichoderma sp. fungal inoculants exhibiting antagonism against L. theobromae and C. musae and observed that the consortia application led to disease inhibition equivalent to carbendazim fungicide control at both ambient and cold temperature storage conditions for 25 days.

Microbiological Quality Maintenance

Packaging Modules for Banana Modified Atmosphere Packaging

Controlled atmosphere packaging is a prerequisite technique for improving the shelf life of fresh-cut banana as it can effectively deal with the increased reducing sugar content and higher predisposition to microbial attack and contamination of the packaged fruits (Rocha et al. 2011). The atmosphere in the packaging module can be modified by varying concentrations of the gases, CO2 and O2 involved in respiration by the cells. Decreasing the O2 concentration from 1 to 10% while increasing the CO2 concentration (from 2 to 14%) can improve the shelf life of banana by ceasing the respiration and production of ethylene (Lassois et al. 2010). Esguerra et al. (2016) reported the application of vacuum packaging as the active MAP for organically grown Japanese Balangon bananas as an effective technology to keep the banana green for a period of 25 days stored at 13.0–13.5 ∘ C. However, creation of a modified atmosphere passively by respiration in sealed low density polyethylene packages delayed development of yellow color in banana peel for up to 20 days of storage at 15 ∘ C (Julianti and Yusraini 2012). Therefore, banana should not be stored at less than 13 ∘ C otherwise the characteristic symptoms for the cold injury on the peel as well as the fruit will appear (Figure 13.3). Further modification of MAP may involve the application of ethylene/CO2 /moisture scrubbers and can extend the shelf life of stored banana more than one month (Chauhan et al. 2006). Other Innovative Techniques Polymer Films and Coatings

The shelf life of the stored bananas can be improved by packaging the produce in polymeric films or application of coatings on the fruit peel/surface. The peel of the banana fruit can be coated with both degradable as well as non-degradable coatings. Edible coatings on banana (A)

(B)

Figure 13.3 Banana fruit showing typical cold injury symptoms characterized as the appearance of discoloration on the peel (A) and mesocarp texture loss and discoloration (B) on storing the fruit at 7 ∘ C for a week.

257

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13 Microbiology of Fresh Bananas and Processed Banana Products

fruit have also been evaluated for extension in shelf life of the stored fruit. These coatings reduce water loss, alter the gas exchange through the fruit surface, delay ripening, decrease decay, and thus improve fruit appearance and extend the shelf life (Kaur et al. 2017). The common polymers utilized are chitosan (Suseno et al. 2014; Hossain and Iqbal 2016; Zahoorullah et al. 2017; Dwivany et al. 2018), carboxymethyl cellulose (Senna et al. 2014), alginate, carrageenan (Bico et al. 2011; Rocha et al. 2011), gum Arabic (Maqbool et al. 2017), jojoba wax (Gol and Rao 2011), sucrose ester or SemperfreshTM (Yurdugül 2016), silk fibroin (Marelli et al. 2016), polyvinyl alcohol (Senna et al. 2014), starch (Thakur et al. 2019), and similar natural polymers. Further, these polymers can also be blended to improve the mechanical and gas exchange properties of the coatings on the fruit surface. Senna et al. (2014) prepared polyvinyl alcohol/carboxymethyl cellulose-tannin composites plasticized through gamma irradiation as degradable edible coatings for extending the shelf life of bananas from 9 to 19 days. Nanotechnological Interventions for Improved Packaging Solutions

Different nanomaterials can be incorporated as reinforcing material in natural or synthetic polymers to alter the mechanical (tensile strength, Young modulus, elongation at break or stretchability, Poisson’s ratio, thickness), gas barrier, and optical properties of the films besides improving their thermal stability. The supplementation of nanomaterials also imparts novel functional properties to the prepared films. Ogunsile and Oladeji (2016) reported the application of banana fibers as reinforcement material to alter the properties of synthetic thermoplastic composite, low density polyethylene films. However, the supplementation of nanomaterials is of great relevance particularly for improvement in various properties of the biopolymer derived edible and biodegradable films (Flores-López et al. 2016). Orsuwan and Sothornvit (2017) reported fabrication of a banana flour-based film having improved mechanical and water vapor barrier properties due to supplementation of sodium saturated montmorillonite and banana starch nanoparticle (1:1, 5% w/w) making it suitable for both food packaging and pharma applications. Nanoformulations of the natural fibers can also be utilized to alter the mechanical and other properties of the biodegradable packaging films. Marelli et al. (2016) utilized silk fibroin micellar/nanoparticulate aqueous suspension to dip-coat banana fruits to enhance their shelf life. Another biocompatible biopolymer, cellulose, can also be a utilized as a filler to develop bionanocomposite films (dos Santos et al. 2016). The nanocellulose can be derived from the banana pseudostem fibers, which are a waste (Khawas and Deka 2016). The cellulose fibers can be defibrillated through cryo-crushing, or high intensity ultrasonication treatment (dos Santos et al. 2016). Similarly, the banana fiber derived cellulose-polymer composite can be reinforced with inorganic nanofiller, such as silica nanoparticles, to improve its film properties (Rahul et al. 2017). Apart from whole fruit packaging systems, nano-enabled alternatives for the processed banana products are also available. Manikantan et al. (2012) described the development of 15 different nanocomposite packaging films by use of nano-clay and compatibilizer combinations. They reported 2% and 4% nanoclay and 5% and 10% compatibilizer combinations, respectively, to maintain the quality of the packaged banana chips. The nano-interventions

Methods for Evaluation of Microbial and Overall Quality

are finding their applicability in the development of scavengers and high-density absorption pads for effective removal of ethylene (Sundramoorthy et al. 2018), which is of utmost relevance for climacteric fruit, as banana ripens even after detachment from the parent plant due to action of pectin lyases and β-galactosidase enzymes (Wang et al. 2018).

Methods for Evaluation of Microbial and Overall Quality Conventional Techniques The postharvest shelf life of the banana fruit is largely affected by attack of fungal pathogens due to high sugar content and low pH conditions of the ripened fruit (Kuyu and Tola 2018). Therefore, standard methods, e.g., artificial inoculation, have to be devised to evaluate the susceptibility to different variants of anthracnose disease, such as wound, quiescent anthracnose, and crown rot in Cavendish banana (de Bellaire and Mourichon 1997). Similarly, the bacterial spoilage pathogens and other opportunistic contaminants can be detected by enumeration of the CFU on selective/differential media (broth or agar based) followed by biochemical and serological characterization of the purified isolates for identification of the genera and species. However, the fungal spoilage pathogens can be identified presumptively on the basis of their morphology. Further, both filamentous molds and unicellular yeast require molecular characterization through 26s rRNA D1/D2 domain and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region amplification followed by sequencing. The ITS redundancy may result in ambiguity for identification of the fungal pathogen. Use of other gene targets, such as β-tubulin (Penicillium and Aspergillus), actin (Cladosporium) and similar genes can help in complete identification at the species level (Leyva Salas et al. 2017). Further, the aberrancy in the general fruit characteristics primarily including evaluation of the total soluble solids, starch, mineral and vitamin contents (chemometrics), and relative loss over different storage time durations could be indirect techniques indicating the fruit status and probably the attack by spoilage pathogens and postharvest shelf life status of the fruits (Magwaza and Tesfay 2015).

Non-Destructive Methods These techniques involve rapid measurement of both external as well as internal fruit quality attributes non-invasively such that robust and accurate predictions regarding their shelf life during storage and transportation can be performed to decrease the postharvest losses (Zude 2003; Liew and Lau 2012; Ali et al. 2018; Pu et al. 2018; Toma et al. 2018). The non-destructive techniques are diverse and can involve imaging-based methods, spectroscopy-enabled protocols, chimeric imaging-spectroscopy techniques, and simulation modeling methods, which utilize statistical algorithms besides nanotechnology-inspired sensor platforms for evaluation of fruit quality of banana. The non-destructive methods (NDMs) can help both in instantaneous analysis of the fruit quality parameters under pre- and postharvest storage and transportation conditions. For instance, banana being a climacteric fruit exhibits peak respiratory activities as it reaches

259

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13 Microbiology of Fresh Bananas and Processed Banana Products

maturity. Later, it quickly deteriorates due to onset of senescence resulting in the loss of shelf life (Li et al. 2016). Therefore, it is pertinent to develop methods involving detection of banana quality in a non-destructive manner which is more apt for ensuring automatic grading.

Acknowledgment The author is thankful to the Head, Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India for providing the necessary infrastructural facilities.

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Index a AA genome group 20 AAA genome group 20 AAAB, AABB, ABBB groups 21 AAB genome group 20 AB genome group 20 ABB genome group 20–1 acetoin 212 acetovanillone 212 Acremonium sp. 46t, 253 aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1, G2 types) 254 agmatina 233 air circulation 76 alginate 258 all-trans lutein 213 all-trans α-carotene 213 all-trans β-carotene 213 alligator skin 38 α-amylase 108 α-carotene 31 all-trans 213 structure 231f α-glucan phosphorylase 209 Alternaria 251, 253 Alternaria tenuis 254 “Ambon” banana 93 amines 31, 50, 234 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid 30 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid oxidase 29, 30 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase 30 aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) 76 annealing (ANN)-treated flour 149 anthocyanins 33 anthracnose 34, 46t, 52–3, 52f, 77, 253f

anti-browning agents 14 antioxidant compounds 15, 31–3, 218, 221, 233, 255 apple bananas 20 arabic gum coating 90 artificial ripening and commercialization 74–5 ascorbic acid 14, 15, 121, 233 aseptic canning 103–4 Aspergillus flavus 251, 252, 253, 254 Aspergillus fumigatus 254 Aspergillus niger 251, 252, 253, 254 Aspergillus oryzae 198 Aspergillus sp. 46t, 246, 253, 257 Asupina 21 Australimusa 227, 228 autoclaved/debranched green banana flour 160 auxins 27, 28

b baby foods 106–7, 107box, 215, 216t Bacillus 74, 246, 248, 252 Bacillus subtilis 50, 198, 255 bacterial diseases, preharvest 249 baked products 214–15 banana aphid 56 banana blood diseases 53–5 banana bract mosaic virus (BBrMV) 47t, 249 banana bunchy top disease (BBTD) 47t, 56, 249 banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) 47t, 56, 249 banana chips 87, 120, 126–8, 214–15

Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition, First Edition. Edited by Muhammad Siddiq, Jasim Ahmed, and Maria Gloria Lobo. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Index

banana flour 13, 120 green banana 142–5, 146t, 148–50, 152–3, 153f banana fruit 24–5 banana juice 103–6, 104f, 105f banana mild mosaic virus (BanMMV) 250 banana plant parts 21–4, 22f, 23t at time of harvesting 191–2, 192f banana powder 121 banana production, global 2–3, 2f, 3t banana shipping containers 13 banana slices 120, 123 banana streak virus 48t, 249, 250 banana virus X (BVX) 250 banana wilt 249 banana Xanthomonas wilt (BXW) 47t, 55 “BARI Kola 1” 64 Basolite A520 93 Basolite C300 93 bavistin 256 bee wax coating 28 benzimidazole 50, 73 benzylaminopurine (BAP) 27 “Berangan” bananas 27, 104 β -carotene 31, 121 all-trans 213 structure 231f β-cryptoxanthin 31 β-sitosterol 33, 157, 18, 235 Bifidobacterium bifidum 217 bioactive amines 233–4 bioethanol 201 biogas 200–1 biogenic amines 15, 82, 233–4 black leaf streak disease (BLSD) 28, 249 black sigatoka 3, 7, 46t, 48, 49t, 50–1, 49 blanching 14, 121, 133f Bliss container 84 “Bluggoe” 21 “Bogoya” 20 Botryodiplodia 249 Botryodiplodia theobromae 253, 254, 256 bruising, resistance to 83 Bugtok disease 52–5, 249 bumpy finger 38 “Burro” 8 2,3-butanediol 212 butanoic acid 1-methylhexyl ester 134t butanoic acid 3-methylbutyl ester 134t

butyl butanoate 212 butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) 135 butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) 135

c Callimusa 227, 228 campesterol 33, 157, 218 Campylobacter 181 cancer therapy 237 Candida 246 canned banana slices 106 Capsicum annuum 55 carbendazim 256 carbon dioxide injury 40 carboxymethyl cellulose 258 carnuba wax coating 28 carotenoids 15, 31, 82, 231–3 structures 231f carrageenan 258 catechin 33, 218, 229 catecholamines 33, 218 Caturra Cavendish (AAA) 155 Cavendish 3, 6, 8, 20, 24 Ceratocystis paradoxa 46t, 253 Chaetanaphothrips signipennis 37 chilling injury 40 Chiquita 4 chitosan 258 chitosan coating 28, 89 chitosan+1-methylcyclopropene coating 89 chitosan-based edible coating (FreshSeal ) 76, 89 chlorothalonil 50, 256 choke throat 25, 36 cholesterol 33 cigar end tip rot 249 cinnamic acid 218 Cinnamomum zeylanicum 91 citric acid 14, 29 citrin 254 Cladosporium 46t, 253, 257 Clostridium 247 CODEX standards for bananas 67–8 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 52 Colletotrichum musae 46t, 52, 77, 90, 251, 252, 253, 254, 256 color vision 184, 185f container liners, plastic film 13, 84 conventional bananas, exports 1

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Index

cooking 158 cooking plus high-moisture treatment 158 cooking plus high-moisture treatment plus storage 158 cooling to storage temperature 76 evaporative cooling 76 forced air cooling 76 hydro-cooling 76 room cooling 76 vacuum cooling 76 copper oxychloride 256 cordana leaf spot 46t corrugated fiberboard containers (CFCs) 84, 88 p-coumaric acids 33, 218 Cox–Merz rule 150 crown rot 73, 74, 78, 252, 253f Crown Sealer 73–4 cryptoxanthin 218 “Cuarenta días” bananas 40 cucumber mosaic virus 48t Curvularia 46t, 251, 253 Cutrale-Safra 4 cyanidins 31, 33 cycloartenol 33 cycloeucalenol 33 cycloeucalenone 235 cytokinins 27, 28

d dehydrated banana products 117–35 commercial 117–18 dehydration principles 118–19 dehydration processes and equipment 120–9 drum drying 124–5, 125f freeze drying 125–6, 126f, hot air drying (cabinet, tunnel) 123, 124f infrared heating 127–8 microwave drying 126–7 osmotic dehydration systems 128–9, 128f preparation of bananas 120 pretreatments to enhance product quality 120–1 spray drying 123–4, 125f traditional solar drying 121–3, 122f quality and composition 129–34

carbohydrates (sugars, starch, fiber) 129–30, 130f color (browning) 130–1 flavor compounds 133–4 packaging and shelf life 134 texture and microstructure 131–3, 131f, 132f dehydration phases 118–19, 119f Del Monte 4 delphinidin 33 development, factors affecting 25–8 growth regulators and other treatments 27 light 26 mineral nutrition 26 natural ecosystems 28 relative humidity and rainfall 25 soil 26 temperature 25 water 25–6 wind 27 Dickeya paradisiacal 47t, 249 differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) 152 dihydroxyphenylalanine 40 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) 158, 183, 233 Dockounou 248 “doctor blade” 125 Dole 4 dopamine 33, 218, 234 drum drying 124–5, 125f “Dwarf Cavendish” variety 196, 235

e (E)-2-hexenal 212 East African highland banana subgroup 20 edible coatings (ECs) 76 edible diploids 20 EFE (ethylene forming enzyme) 30 El Niño 10 Electronic nose 262t Elemicin 134t “Embul” banana 90, 91 endo-1,4-β-D-glucanase 196 Ensete 227 Enterobacter 246, 254 Enterobacter faecalis 246 enzyme production 196–8 epicatechin 33

Index

epinephrine 33 equilibrium modified atmosphere 91 Erwinia 249 Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora 249 Erwinia chrysanthemi 249 Escherichia coli 170, 181, 237, 246, 254 ethanol 209 Ethephon 27 ethrel 27 ethylene 30 biosynthesis 29f ethylene forming enzyme (EFE) 29 ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) 87 Eugenol 134t Eumusa 227, 228 Eumusae leaf spot 46t European Federation of Corrugated Board Manufacturers 84 European Union Market 9–10 banana supply, 2008–2017 10f banana prices, 2008–2017 10f exo-1,4-β-D-glucanase 196 expanded polystyrene (PS) packaging 88 extrusion 147

f Fairtrade bananas 4, 11 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) 182 Fei bananas 21 fermented beverages 108 ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) 158, 183 ferulic acid 33, 218 Fiber Box Association 84 finger drop 39–40 finger rot 248 flavonoids 31, 229t flavor compounds 134t “Flhorban916” 83 “Flhorban925” 83 Flexiviridae 250 foamed banana powders 121 “Fougamou” 83 fractures of dried bananas 132f Frayssinette 212 Freckle 46t free radicals 31 free sterols 235

freeze-drying 86, 125–6, 126f, 179 “French Corne” 83 fresh-cut banana 106 fried products 214–15 fruit angularity 63f “full green” 63 “full three-quarters” 63 “light three-quarters” 63 fruit grades and standards 67–8 fruit growth and development 21–5 fruit quality disorders 35–41, 36f during banana cultivation 36–9 during harvest or at the packing house 39 from transport, ripening, and marketing practices 39–41 potassium deficiency 38–9 fruit ripening 28–31 compositional changes 30–1 physiology and biochemistry 28–30 climacteric phase 29 pre-climacteric phase 28–9 ripening phase 29–30 senescence 30 role of ethylene and other hormones 30 fruit rot 248 fruits, classification of 68 Class I 68 Class II 68 Extra class 68 fuel briquettes 199–200 Fufu 110 fungal diseases postharvest 251 preharvest 249 see also under names fungicides 73–4, 255–6 Fusarium 46t, 246, 249, 251, 252, 254 Fusarium moniliforme 251, 253, 254 Fusarium musae 254 Fusarium oxysporum 253, 254, 256 Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc) 46t, 51, 249, 254 Fusarium semitectum 253, 254 Fusarium solani 254 Fusarium solaniintricate 253 Fusarium sporotrichoides 253 Fusarium thapsinum 254 Fusarium verticilloides 253, 254 Fusarium wilt 20, 26, 51–2, 249

271

272

Index

Fusarium Wilt Tropical Race 4 (TR4) 2, 3, 11, 46t, 51, 249 fused fingers 39 Fyffes 4

thermal diffusivity and conductivity thermal properties 154 waste utilization 163–4 “Gros Michel” 20, 21, 24, 37, 51, 249 gum arabic 258

155

g galacturonic acid 14 gallic acid 33, 218, 229 gallocatechin 233 gallocatechin gallate 218 γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase 237 gas chromatography (GC) 134 GC-FID 212 GC-MS techniques 212 GCTCV somaclones 52 generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status 89, 176, 183, 256 gentisic acid 33 Geobacillus stearothermophilus 201 gibberellic acid (GA3) 27, 30 gibberellins 27, 28 global banana production 1, 11, 61 global trade exports and imports 4–5, 5t, 6t Gloeosporium 249 Gloeosporium musae 249 Gloeosporium musarum 249, 251 glutathione 233 glycemic index (GI) 162, 218 “Goldfinger” 6, 21 Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) 68 “Grande Naine” 20, 27, 83 green banana pulp (GBP) flour-based extruded snacks 215 green bananas 20, 141–64 antioxidant properties 157–8 drying 142–5 flour 142–5, 146t functional properties of 148–50 microstructure 155–6 pasting properties 152–4 rheology 150–1, 151f starch 142–5, 211 digestibility of 158–63, 162t influence of processing on 145–8, 146f, 146t, 147t functional properties of 148–50, 149t resistant 15, 145–8, 147t, 211 total 211 tarts 110

h 2-heptanol acetate 134t harvest planning 64–7, 66f harvesting 33–5, 65f, 194t age bunch control 34 fruit grades and standards 67–8 harvest practices 64–7 image processing 35 “three quarters full” stage 34 VIS/NIR Spectroscopy 35 harvesting indices 33–4, 61–4 banana harvesting grade/bunch age 62–3 fruit diameter 62 fruit weight, finger diameter, and length 63 growth degree days 64 image processing 64 harvesting tools 64, 77 “Hawaiano” 6 head rot 47t, 249 health benefits 218–20 heart rot 249 Heliconia 227 Heminthosporium 251, 253 hexaconazole 256 hexanal 212 hexyl isovalerate 134t high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) 111, 170, 171f high pressure carbon dioxide (HPCD) 175 high pressure homogenization (HPH) 105, 106, 173–5 high pressure processing (HPP) 14, 81, 104, 169, 170–3, 174t high pressure shift freezing (HPSF) 173 high temperature injury 40 high-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization 177 histamine 234 hot air drying (cabinet, tunnel) 123, 124f hot water treatment 255 humidity 76 hybrid solar dryer 122

Index

lutein 31 all-trans 213 lycopene 31

p-hydroxybenzoic acid 33 hydroxycinnamic acid 229

i Iholena subgroup 20 image processing 34, 35 indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) 27 infectious chlorosis disease 48t infrared (IR) heating 127–8, 169 Ingentimusa 227, 228 ionization radiation 14, 180–2 irradiation 110, 169, 255 isoamyl butyrate 134t isobutyl isoval ester 134t 2-isopentenyl adenine (2-iP) 27

j Japanese Balangon bananas jasmonates 28 jojoba wax 258

257

k kaempferol 31 kinetin (Kin) 27 Klebsiella pneumoniae 237, 246, 254, 255 “Kluai Hom Thong” 90 “Kluai Kai” 91 “Kolikuttu” 92 Kottai Vazhai 38

l La Niña 10 laccase 196 Lactobacillus 246, 252 Lactobacillus acidophilus 217 Lactobacillus rhamnosus 129 Lasiodiplodia theobromae 46t, 252, 253, 254, 256 latex (sap) stain 39 leaf rubbing injury (alligator skin) 38 “Leb MueNang” cultivar 210 Leucocyanidin 31 light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 181–2 lignin peroxidise 196 Listeria 247 Listeria monocytogenes 170 low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) 33 low-temperature storage 11 Lubisi 110

m machine vision 184–6 malic acid 29 mancozeb 50, 256 Maoli-Popoulu subgroup 20 “Manzano” 8 market outlook 10–11 mashed/pureed banana 15 Matooke 109 maturity stain 37–8 maximum residue level (MRL) 73 Mbege 248 meat products 215–16, 216t Mentha arvensis 108 metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) expression 237 methionine 30 3-methyl-1-butanol acetate 212 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) 28, 76, 89, 93, 100 24-methylene cycloartenol 33 2-methylpropyl butanoate 212, 213 2-methylpropyl-3-methylbutanoate 212 3-methylbutanoic acid 212 3-methylbutanoic acid 3-methylbutyl ester 134t 3-methylbutanol 212 3-methylbutyl acetate 134t 3-methylbutyl butanoate 212, 213 microbial control agents (MCAs) 74 microfiltration 183–4 microorganisms fresh banana products 245–7 methods for evaluation of quality 259–60 conventional techniques 259 non-destructive methods 259–60 microbial safety of banana and its products 254–5 postharvest factors 251–2 abiotic factors 251–2 biotic factors 251 preharvest factors 248–50 abiotic agencies 250–1 biotic agencies 248–50 processed banana products 247–8

273

274

Index

microorganisms (contd.) spoilage and postharvest losses due to 252–4 see also under names microbiological quality maintenance 255–8 chemical control agents 255–6 nanotechnological interventions 257–8 packaging modules for banana 257 physical control agents 255 plant botanicals and biological control agents 256 polymer films and coatings 257 microwave drying 126–7, 177–9, 178f microwave heating 14, 81, 169 microwave multi-flash drying process 127, 132, 179 microwave vacuum drying 127, 132, 179 Midilli model 143, 144t milk products 217, 217f mint (Mentha arvensis) extract 108 mixed ripening 41 modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 12, 76, 84, 257 moisture vapor transmission (MVT) 135 Moko disease 47t, 53–5, 54f, 249 “Monalisa” 6 Mosaic disease 47t Mucor 254 multispectral imaging 261t Musa taxonomy 19–20, 227 Musa acuminata 20, 24, 90, 201, 228, 251, 255 Musa balbisiana 20, 24, 201, 207, 228 Musa cavendishii (dessert banana) 99, 127 Musa cliffortiana 227 Musa errans 235 Musa ingens 21, 227 Musa nana Lour. 211 Musa paradisiaca 99, 207, 227, 235 Musa sapientum (true banana) 99, 235, 251 Musa schizocarpa 228 Musa textilis 228 Musicillium theobromae 46t, 253 Mycosphaerella 45 Mycosphaerella eumusae 46t Mycosphaerella fijiensis 46t, 48, 249 Mycosphaerella musae 46t Mycosphaerella musicola 249

mycotoxins 254 myricetin 31 Mysore subgroup 20, 51

n “Nanicao” cultivar 212 nanocellulose 258 nanofibers 198–9 nanomaterials in food packaging 81–2 nanotechnological interventions 257–8 nano-zeolite KMnO4 93 naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) 27 near-infrared hyperspectral imaging 261t near-infrared spectroscopy 262t nectar products 214–15 Neocordana johnstonii 46t Neocordana musae 46t 7-O-neohesperoside naringenin 229 Nigrospora sphaerica 46t, 253 nitrous oxide 100 Noboa 4 31-norcyclolaudenone 235 norepinephrine 33 nutritional composition of raw banana 32f, 207–13 aroma compounds 212–13 carbohydrates 210–12 flavor compounds 212–13 minerals 213 postharvest storage and composition 213 vitamins 213 nutritional quality of processed banana products 214–17 baby foods 215 meat products 215–16 milk products 217 nectar, fried, baked, and chips products 214–15 porridge and pasta 215 nylon 6 87

o ochratoxin A 254 ohmic heating 81, 104, 169 Orchidantha 227 organic banana exports 1 production 3, 11 oscillating magnetic field 169

Index

osmotic dehydration systems 128–9, 128f oxalic acid 29 oxygen deficiency injury 40 ozone treatment 14, 81, 169, 183, 256

p packaging 74, 81–95 fresh bananas 82–5 processed banana products 85–8, 86f banana juice 87–8, 88f dried and dehydrated bananas 86–7 frozen bananas 88 technologies 88–94 active packaging 91–4, 92t edible films and coatings 88–90 intelligent packaging 94, 95t modified atmosphere packaging 90–1 packing house sanitation 69 paclobutrazol (PBZ) 27 Panama disease 20, 26, 51, 55, 249 Pantoea 246 paper and paperboard 198 paraffin coating 28 pasta 215 patulin 254 pectin 14, 29, 33, 109 pectin methylesterase (PME) 29,170 pectinase 108 Pectobacterium carotovorum 47t peel 14, 209t, 211 abrasion 41 browning of Williams banana 94 bruised 39 color75, 75f ethylene exposure 75, 75f flour from 212t waste 194t, 195–6 peel fruit splitting 28, 36–7 peel electrolyte leakage (PEL) 83 Penicillium 46t, 246, 252, 253, 257 Pentalonia nigronervosa 56 2-pentanol acetate 212 peroxidase (POD) induced enzymatic browning in banana 14 phenolic compounds 15, 31, 82, 228–30, 229t, 233 phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) activity 90 Phyllosticta cavendishii 46t

Phyllosticta maculata 46t Phyllosticta musarum 46t phytochemicals 31–3, 230t phytosterols 15, 33, 82, 157, 234–5 Pichia 246 Pisang Awak 24, 51 pith in banana stem 195 plant growth and development 21–5 plantains see green bananas Pleurotus ostreatus 196, 197, 197f, 198 Pleurotus sajor-caju 196 point scars 38 polyamines 28, 233–4 polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 87 polyethylene terephthalate (PET)/low-density polyethylene terephthalate (LDPE) 135 metallized PET/LDPE 135 polyethylene wax emulsion coating 28 polygalacturonic acid 29 polymer films and coatings 257 polyphenol oxidase (PPO) 13, 82, 90, 175 polypropylene (PP) 135 polyurethane (PU) packaging 88 polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) 87, 258 “Pome” 20, 21 “Poovan” 38, 106 porridge 215 postharvest economic losses 77–8 postharvest nutritional and quality losses 78 postharvest operations 69–75, 69f, 70f artificial ripening and commercialization 74–5 cluster cutting and fruit selection 73 cooling and transportation 74 fungicide and crown sealer 73–4 hand separation from the bunch (de-handing), quality control, and washing 70–3 packaging 74 reception and quality control 70 storage 11–13, 12f, 76–7 transportation to packing house 69–70 potassium content 15, 207–8 potassium deficiency 38–9 precocious ripening 39 yellow pulp 39 potassium permanganate (KMnO4) 28, 76, 92

275

276

Index

“Prata” cultivar 30, 212 Prata Anã 155 precooling, postharvest 84 processed products 13–14, 13f propiconazole 256 protocatechuic acid 229 protopectin 29 provitamin-A activity 31 Pseudocercospora 45, 48 Pseudocercospora eumusae 46t, 49 Pseudocercospora fijiensis see Mycosphaerella fijiensis Pseudocercospora musae 46t, 48 Pseudomonas 246 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 255 pseudostem rot 47t, 249 pullulanase 160 pulp 101–3, 102f bruised 39 pulse HPP 110 pulsed electric field (PEF) 14, 81, 104, 110, 169, 175–7, 176f pulsed fluidized bed (PFB) 145 pulsed light application 110 pulsed ultraviolet 81 pulsed vacuum (PV) 143 puree 101–3, 120 bruised 39 putrescina 233 pVACs 231–3 pyrimethanil 50

q quality control 70 quercetin 31, 218

r radio frequency (RF) heating 81, 169 identification tags 94 Ralstonia 249 Ralstonia solanacearum 47t, 52, 53, 249 Ralstonia syzygii subsp. celebesensis 53, 249 Rasthali 106 Rauvolfia caffra 248 Ravenala 227 reactive nitrogen species (RNS) scavengers 31 reactive oxygen species (ROS) 31

“Red” 8 Red Banana 106 Red Macabu 104 red rust thrips 37 reflectance mode hyperspectral imaging 260t regular slotted container (RSC) 84 relative humidity 76 rigid container 84 resistant starch (RS) 15, 112, 219–20, 220t RS3 159–60 response surface methodology (RSM) 201 reusable plastic containers (RPCs) 84 RGB imaging and neural networks 260t rhizome rot 47t, 249 Rhizopus stolonifera 254 Rhodochlamys 227, 228 riboflavin 121 rice starch edible coating 89 ripe banana nutritional profile 111–13, 112t ripe banana processing 99–101, 100f, 110–11 ripe banana products 101–9, 101f banana juice 103–6, 104f, 105f banana pectin for jam and jelly 109 banana pulp and puree 101–3, 102f banana-based baby foods 106–7 canned banana slices 106 fermented beverages 107–8 fresh-cut banana 106 indigenous 109, 109t intermediate-moisture 107 unfermented banana beverages 107–8 ripening phases 11, 28 USDA description 117, 118t “Robusta” fruit quality 93 rough handling 77

s “Saba” 8 Saccharomyces 246, 252 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 201, 246 S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) 30 synthetase 30 salicylic acid 30, 33, 100 Salmonella 170, 181, 247 Salmonella typhi 246 salsolinol 209 senescent spots 41

Index

serotonin 33, 218, 234 SH-4001 21 Shigella 246 Shigella sonnei 254 Shrikhand 217 Sigatoka Disease Complex 39, 45–51, 46t silk bananas 20 silk fibroin 258 sinapic acid 33 sinking fruit 37 sitosteryl glucoside 235 sodium content in banana 15 solar drying 121–3, 122f solid fiberboard containers 84 solid-phase microextraction (SPME) 134, 213 spermidine 233 spermine 233 spray-dried banana powder 124 spray drying 123–4, 125f Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) 69 Staphylococcus 246 Staphylococcus aureus 237, 246, 252, 255 starch 258 green banana 142–5, 211 digestibility of 158–63, 162t influence of processing on 145–8, 146f, 146t, 147t functional properties of 148–50, 149t resistant 15, 145–8, 147t, 211 total 211 rapidly digestible starch (RDS) 219 resistant starch (RS) 15, 112, 219–20, 220t green banana 15, 145–8, 147t, 211 RS3 159–60 slowly digestible starch (SDS) 219 waste, utilization of 195–6 sterol 212 steryl esters 235 steryl glucosides 220, 235 stigmasterol 33, 157, 218 storage 11–13, 12f, 76–7 streak disease (Banana streak Obinol’Ewai virus) 48t, 249 Strelitzia 227 strobilurins 50 suckers 21 Sucrier 20, 91, 93

sucrose ester (SemperfreshTM ) 258 Sumitomo 4 sunburn/sunscald 38 sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum) 55 sword suckers 21 syringic acid 33 Syzygium aromaticum 91

t T-2 toxin 254 tannic acid 218 tannins 33 telescoping box 84 tetracyclic triterpene (24R)-4α,14α,24trimethyl-5α-cholesta-8,25(27)dien-3β-ol 235 thermal insulation packaging materials 88 thermal processing 169 thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) 154 thiabendazole 73 thiamine 121 thidiazuron (TDZ) 27 Thielaviopsis 251, 253 time–temperature indicators (TTIs) 88 tip-over disease 249 Tonto 110 total phenolic contents 121 total polyphenol content 157 Trachsphaera fructigena 249 trans-alpha-carotene 218 trans-beta-carotene 31, 218 transportation 77 triazoles 50 Trichoderma 74, 256 Trichoderma asperellum 256 Tropical Race 4 (Foc TR4) 51 tryptophan 33 tyramine 234

u ultra high pressure (UHP) 170 ultrasonication 110 ultrasound (US) 81, 143, 179–80, 182 ultraviolet (UV) light 14 unfermented banana beverages 107–8 unripe banana flours (UBF) 145, 215 unripe bananas see green bananas USA banana grade standards 68

277

278

Index

USA (contd.) consumption 7–9, 7f, 8f Grocery Manufacturers’ Association (GMA) pallet 84 imports 6–7, 7f, 8t production 6–7 retail prices 8, 9f

v “Valery” 20 vanillic acid 33 vapor pressure deficit (VPD) 118 Verticillium 46t Verticillium theobromae 249, 254 viral diseases, preharvest 249–50 visible/near-infrared (VIS/NIR) spectroscopy 34, 35 visible/nearinfrared hyperspectral imaging 260t VIS-SWNIR spectroscopy 262t vitamin A 231 vitamin C 31, 231 vitamin E 31

quantity of 192–3, 193t utilization 195–201 animal feed 196 domestic and agriculture use 195 non-food products 196–201 starch 195–6 wastewater treatment 202–3 water absorption index (WAI) values 148 water suckers 21 “Williams” 20, 83, 92 withered pedicels 40

x Xanthomonas 51 Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum 47t, 55, 249 xylanase 196

y Yang cycle 29t, 30 yellow sigatoka 46t, 48, 50f, 249 Yersinia 247 Yersinia enterocolitica 246

w

z

washing tanks in banana packing houses 73 waste 14, 191–203 composition 193–5, 194t

zearalenone 254 zeatin (ZEA) 27 zeaxanthin, structure of 231f zeolite Z13X 93