Medically Important Plant Biomes: Source of Secondary Metabolites [1st ed. 2019] 978-981-13-9565-9, 978-981-13-9566-6

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-xi
Ethnobotanical Aspects of Some Traditional Medicinal Plants (Iftikhar Ahmad, Muhammad Sajid Aqeel Ahmad, Mumtaz Hussain, Mansoor Hameed)....Pages 1-19
Medicinal Plant: Environment Interaction and Mitigation to Abiotic Stress (Murtaza Abid, M. M. Abid Ali Khan)....Pages 21-50
Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Properties of Medical Plants (Dilfuza Jabborova, Kakhramon Davranov, Dilfuza Egamberdieva)....Pages 51-65
Biologically Active Components of the Western Ghats Medicinal Fern Diplazium esculentum (Ammatanda A. Greeshma, Kandikere R. Sridhar, Mundamoole Pavithra)....Pages 67-83
Medicinal Plants as a Source of Alkaloids (Valentina Laghezza Masci, Stefano Bernardini, Lorenzo Modesti, Elisa Ovidi, Antonio Tiezzi)....Pages 85-113
Nutraceutical and Bioactive Significance of Ferns with Emphasis on the Medicinal Fern Diplazium (Ammatanda A. Greeshma, Kandikere R. Sridhar)....Pages 115-131
Secondary Metabolite Production in Medicinal Plants Using Tissue Cultures (Bilal Ahmad, Aamir Raina, Samiullah Khan)....Pages 133-152
Endophytic Bacteria Associated with Medicinal Plants: The Treasure Trove of Antimicrobial Compounds (Dina Barman, Kaushik Bhattacharjee)....Pages 153-187
The Importance of Endophytic Fungi from the Medicinal Plant: Diversity, Natural Bioactive Compounds, and Control of Plant Pathogens (Laith Khalil Tawfeeq Al-Ani)....Pages 189-238
Medicinal Plant-Associated Microbes as a Source of Protection and Production of Crops (Osama Abdalla Abdelshafy Mohamad, Jin-Biao Ma, Yong-Hong Liu, Li Li, Shaimaa Hatab, Wen-Jun Li)....Pages 239-263
Endophytic Microbial Diversity in the Halophytic Medicinal Plant Ferula and Their Bioapplicable Traits (Nimaichand Salam, Mipeshwaree Devi Asem, Yong-Hong Liu, Min Xiao, Wen-Jun Li)....Pages 265-276
Endophytic Bacteria-Mediated Regulation of Secondary Metabolites for the Growth Induction in Hyptis suaveolens Under Stress (Yachana Jha)....Pages 277-292
Bioactive Potentials of Novel Molecules from the Endophytes of Medicinal Plants (Monnanda S. Nalini, Harischandra S. Prakash, Mysore V. Tejesvi)....Pages 293-351

Citation preview

Microorganisms for Sustainability 15 Series Editor: Naveen Kumar Arora

Dilfuza Egamberdieva Antonio Tiezzi Editors

Medically Important Plant Biomes: Source of Secondary Metabolites

Microorganisms for Sustainability Volume 15

Series Editor Naveen Kumar Arora Environmental Microbiology School for Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14379

Dilfuza Egamberdieva  •  Antonio Tiezzi Editors

Medically Important Plant Biomes: Source of Secondary Metabolites

Editors Dilfuza Egamberdieva Faculty of Biology National University of Uzbekistan Tashkent, Uzbekistan Key Laboratory of Biogeography and Bioresource in Arid Land Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, CAS Urumqi, People’s Republic of China

Antonio Tiezzi Department for the Innovation on Biological, Agrofood and Forestal systems (DIBAF) Laboratoy of Plant Cytology and Biotechnology, Tuscia University Viterbo, Vatican City State

ISSN 2512-1901     ISSN 2512-1898 (electronic) Microorganisms for Sustainability ISBN 978-981-13-9565-9    ISBN 978-981-13-9566-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9566-6 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

Plants have been used for centuries as one of the main sources of natural drugs, and this tradition is well documented. The role of plants as health agents in multiple cultures of the world, transmitted through generations is widely known. Their compounds have important ecological functions, providing protection against pests, diseases, ultraviolet-B damage, and other environmental stresses. Plants are also producers of pharmaceutical drugs, such as antibiotics, anticancer, and antifungals, food supplements, and agrochemicals and have a wide variety of other industrial biotechnology applications, such as the steroid production. The new advances in genome sequencing technology enhance the progress in the study of metabolic pathways to be able to understand the role of some enzymes, improving human health and industrial uses. In recent time, the study of the plant biome opened new perspectives for the identification and production of medically important secondary metabolites, and this book, an impressive collection of chapters, is an important contribution and provides an up-to-date review of each topic of this interesting field. Each chapter intends to present relevant information about the state of the art and the basis for new research and application of plants. The book yields information about the compounds produced by plants, their relation with endophytes, and the role of these microbes in nature, working on the protection against diseases and abiotic stress, growth promotion, and production of useful secondary metabolites as antimicrobial and anticancer drugs, mycotoxins, insecticides, and agrochemical compounds useful for industrial crops. Ferns have relevance as nutraceuticals due to their rich content of protein, fiber, minerals, vitamins, essential amino acids, and fatty acids. Besides bioherbicide potential, ferns are endowed with chemopreventive, hepatoprotective, cytotoxic, antihyperglicemic, leishmanicidal, trypanocidal, antimicrobial, antinociceptive, and immunomodulatory metabolites. Lately, the application of recombinant techniques and tissue culture involves the in vitro production of plants cells, allowing the strain improvement, selection of high-­producing cell lines, and medium optimization that can lead to an enhancement in secondary metabolite production.

v

vi

Foreword

The editors of this book, Dilfuza Egamberdieva and Antonio Tiezzi, in putting together this excellent volume which highlights plant biomes and their relevant importance as source of secondary metabolites offered a real contribution to the enhancement of this research field. As a final result, this book will be of great value to students and researchers interested in the study of new sources of secondary metabolites. University of Concepcion Concepcion, Chile

Mario J. Silva Osorio,

Contents

1 Ethnobotanical Aspects of Some Traditional Medicinal Plants����������    1 Iftikhar Ahmad, Muhammad Sajid Aqeel Ahmad, Mumtaz Hussain, and Mansoor Hameed 2 Medicinal Plant: Environment Interaction and Mitigation to Abiotic Stress����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   21 Murtaza Abid and M. M. Abid Ali Khan 3 Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Properties of Medical Plants��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   51 Dilfuza Jabborova, Kakhramon Davranov, and Dilfuza Egamberdieva 4 Biologically Active Components of the Western Ghats Medicinal Fern Diplazium esculentum ��������������������������������������������������   67 Ammatanda A. Greeshma, Kandikere R. Sridhar, and Mundamoole Pavithra 5 Medicinal Plants as a Source of Alkaloids ��������������������������������������������   85 Valentina Laghezza Masci, Stefano Bernardini, Lorenzo Modesti, Elisa Ovidi, and Antonio Tiezzi 6 Nutraceutical and Bioactive Significance of Ferns with Emphasis on the Medicinal Fern Diplazium ��������������������������������  115 Ammatanda A. Greeshma and Kandikere R. Sridhar 7 Secondary Metabolite Production in Medicinal Plants Using Tissue Cultures������������������������������������������������������������������������������  133 Bilal Ahmad, Aamir Raina, and Samiullah Khan 8 Endophytic Bacteria Associated with Medicinal Plants: The Treasure Trove of Antimicrobial Compounds�������������������������������  153 Dina Barman and Kaushik Bhattacharjee

vii

viii

Contents

9 The Importance of Endophytic Fungi from the Medicinal Plant: Diversity, Natural Bioactive Compounds, and Control of Plant Pathogens��������������������������������������������������������������  189 Laith Khalil Tawfeeq Al-Ani 10 Medicinal Plant-Associated Microbes as a Source of Protection and Production of Crops��������������������������������������������������  239 Osama Abdalla Abdelshafy Mohamad, Jin-Biao Ma, Yong-Hong Liu, Li Li, Shaimaa Hatab, and Wen-Jun Li 11 Endophytic Microbial Diversity in the Halophytic Medicinal Plant Ferula and Their Bioapplicable Traits ����������������������  265 Nimaichand Salam, Mipeshwaree Devi Asem, Yong-Hong Liu, Min Xiao, and Wen-Jun Li 12 Endophytic Bacteria-Mediated Regulation of Secondary Metabolites for the Growth Induction in Hyptis suaveolens Under Stress����������������������������������������������������������  277 Yachana Jha 13 Bioactive Potentials of Novel Molecules from the Endophytes of Medicinal Plants����������������������������������������������  293 Monnanda S. Nalini, Harischandra S. Prakash, and Mysore V. Tejesvi

About the Series Editor

Naveen  Kumar  Arora, PhD,  Microbiology, Professor in the Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, is a renowned researcher in the field of Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology. His specific area of research is rhizosphere biology and PGPRs. He has more than 50 research papers published in premium international journals and several articles published in magazines and dailies. He is an editor of 10 books, published by Springer. He is a member of several national and international societies, Secretary General of Society for Environmental Sustainability, in editorial board of four journals, and reviewer of several international journals. He is also the Editor in Chief of the journal Environmental Sustainability published by Springer Nature. He has delivered lectures in conferences and seminars around the globe. He has a long-standing interest in teaching at the PG level and is involved in taking courses in bacteriology, microbial physiology, environmental microbiology, agriculture microbiology, and industrial microbiology. He has been an advisor to 118 postgraduate and 8 doctoral students. Recently, he was awarded for excellence in research by the Honorable Governor of Uttar Pradesh. Although an academician and researcher by profession, he has a huge obsession for the wildlife and its conservation and has authored a book Splendid Wilds. He is the President of Society for Conservation of Wildlife and has a dedicated website www.naveenarora.co.in for the cause of wildlife and environment conservation.

ix

About the Editors

Dilfuza  Egamberdieva  graduated in Biology from the National University of Uzbekistan in 1993 and received her PhD in Agricultural Sciences from the Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany, in 2000. She conducted her postdoctoral studies at the Helsinki University of Finland, University of Florence, Italy; Manchester Metropolitan University, UK; Leiden University in the Netherlands; and Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research, Germany. She established the research laboratory “Plant Microbe Interactions” at the National University of Uzbekistan. She has received numerous fellowship and awards for her academic achievements, including UNESCO-L’Oréal Fellowship for Women in Science, UNESCO-MAB Award, and Alexander Von Humboldt Fellowship. In 2012, she was awarded the TWAS Prize in Agricultural Sciences for her innovative ­contributions to the study of plant-microbe interactions in stressed environments. She has published over 100 peer-reviewed papers in international journals and 40 chapters, including 4 books published by Springer. Antonio Tiezzi  graduated in Biology from the University of Siena, Italy, in 1979. He then worked at Siena University and was a Visiting Scholar at the Biozentrum, Basel, Switzerland, under an EMBO fellowship. In 1982, he gained experience in the vaccine industry at Sclavo (now GSK) in Siena, and in 1983, he undertook research at the Einstein College of Medicine, NY, USA. In 1985, he worked at the Department of Environmental Sciences, Siena University, and since 1992, he has been a Professor of Plant Cytology at Tuscia University, Viterbo, Italy. His main research areas include plant cytoskeleton – he discovered the motor protein kinesin in plants and became a board member of the European Cytoskeletal Forum – and bioactive plant substances. He has published 95 papers in peer-reviewed journals and 25 book chapters; has edited 3 books, including 1 book published by Springer; has participated in numerous international meetings; and has coordinated national and international educational/research networks and projects.

xi

Chapter 1

Ethnobotanical Aspects of Some Traditional Medicinal Plants Iftikhar Ahmad, Muhammad Sajid Aqeel Ahmad, Mumtaz Hussain, and Mansoor Hameed

Abstract  Ethnobotany (study of usage of plant parts for human health) is considered to be a part of Economic Botany, which emphasizes on the economic utilization of plants for human welfare. Biological diversity is universally recognized as an important part of the world’s natural heritage and an essential component for the sustainability of global ecosystems. In the current era, modern allopathic medicines are very fast effective and have over-ridden the traditional herbal remedies. Additionally, the diversity of traditional medicinal plants is facing a continuous decline due to a number of natural and anthropogenic activities including the clear-­ cutting of forests, conversion of grasslands into cultivated lands, industrialization, overgrazing, soil erosion, desertification, etc. Similarly, overexploitation also poses a severe threat to diversity of medicinal plants and has led to decline severely a number of species. It should be recognized that plant diversity has a commendable importance as a source of pharmaceutically active substances. In this chapter, the medicinal value and usage of various medicinal plants typically used in traditional medicine have been discussed. Keywords  Medicinal plants · Diversity · Active ingredients · Soon Valley · Salt Range

1.1  Introduction Indigenous knowledge of plants of different areas is as old as human civilization. However, the term “ethnobotany” was first used by an American botanist Johan W. Harshberger in 1896, “to the study of plants used by primitive and aboriginal people.” In modern ecological terms ethnobotany was described as “The study of

I. Ahmad (*) Department of Botany Sciences, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan M. S. A. Ahmad · M. Hussain · M. Hameed Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 D. Egamberdieva, A. Tiezzi (eds.), Medically Important Plant Biomes: Source of Secondary Metabolites, Microorganisms for Sustainability 15, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9566-6_1

1

2

I. Ahmad et al.

direct interactions between human and plant populations” (Plotkin 1991; Heiser 1993). Today ethnobotany is widely accepted as a science of human interactions with plants and related ecosystems. Plants have been used as medicine since ancient times. The use of plants to improve economy is an old tradition of human history. An ethnobotanical use of plants is more common in many parts of the world especially developing countries like Pakistan due to lack of medical facilities in the far lying areas from cities. For example, 40 medicinally important plant species of 21 families were reported in Kala Chitta Hills (Salt Range) of District Attock which were under common use of indigenous people. Due to increase in population, demands of people increase causing great pressure on the products of the area. The region is very rich in having medicinal plants. To understand the indigenous knowledge of the local people, ethnomedicinal study is very important. This helps a lot for creating awareness among them regarding sustainable natural resource management. Local people, hakims, and medicinal businessmen are very important in this regard (Mahmood et al. 2004). In Africa, people use different plant extracts for treating trypanosomiasis. Methanolic extracts from 23 plants collected from the Savannah vegetation belt of Nigeria were analyzed in vitro for trypanocidal activity against Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma congolense at concentrations of 4 mg/ml, 0.4 mg/ml, and 0.04 mg/ml. Extracts of Khaya senegalensis, Piliostigma reticulatum, Securidaca longipedunculata, and Terminalia avicennioides were strongly trypanocidal to both organisms, while extracts of Anchomanes difformis, Cassytha spp., Lannea kerstingii, Parkia clappertoniana, Striga spp., Adansonia digitata, and Prosopis africana were trypanocidal to either T. brucei brucei or T. congolense. This provided scientific basis for the use of some plants in the traditional management of trypanosomiasis (Atawodi et al. 2003). Some of the indigenous plants are very important in the diets of post-postpartum women during which time it is claimed that these spices and herbs aid the contraction of the uterus. Spices and herbs are generally known to possess antibacterial and antioxidant properties (Iwu 1989).

1.2  Some Traditional Medicinal Plants A large number of medicinal plant species have been reported growing in various parts of the world. For example, Leporatti and Lattanzi (1994) studied the ethnobotanical use of 27 medicinal plants species. They reported and discussed their traditional medicinal uses. The inhabitants use the medicinal plants for various purposes and are dependent on surrounding plant resources for their food, shelter, and health. A total of 25 species of herbs belonging to 18 families and their medicinal uses by indigenous people were recorded from the area. Some of these species were used for the treatment of cholera, dyspepsia, fever, herpes, eczema, jaundice, and liver complaints (Qureshi and Khan 2001).

1  Ethnobotanical Aspects of Some Traditional Medicinal Plants

3

The vegetation of Lawat in the District of Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, for ethnobotanical purposes was investigated. He recorded 52 species out of which 3 species were of 2 gymnospermic families while 49 species were of 35 angiospermic families. Most of the plants were used medicinally. The investigation indicated that the medicinal plants were either used singly or with mixtures by local inhabitants. The area under investigation, due to unplanned utilization, had resulted in loss of medicinally important plant species (Dar 2003). Euphorbiaceae is an important plant family especially recognized for its anticancer components, anti-hepatitis B components, and carcinogenic factors. In the literature of ancient traditional Chinese medicine, 33 species of plants from 17 genera of Euphorbiaceae have been mentioned as medicines. Presently 111 species within 35 genera of medicinal euphorbiaceous plants have been reported. Among them, 17 species were used to treat snakebites. It was observed that most of the species within the Euphorbiaceae family contained toxic components. Only a few species were employed as widespread medicines. Most species were recognized only as local minority tribe medicines (Lai et al. 2005). Sambucus nigra bush of family Caprifoliaceae is one of the plants which are most commonly used for medicinal and various other purposes by the inhabitants of Catalonia and in many Mediterranean regions. It is a most versatile plant, being used for food and medicine. In addition, almost every part of the plant, including the bark, roots, leaves, flowers, and fruit, has some uses (Valles et al. 2004). Similarly, leaves and roots of Justicia adhatoda L. (Acanthaceae) are used for coughs, bronchitis, asthma, and rheumatism. Leaf buds are also used in diabetes and for joints and as antiseptic. Green leaves of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Solonaceae) are used to relieve the pain from joints and painful swelling. Roots are used as diuretic and tonic. Juice of the whole plant is useful in rheumatism, whereas seeds have been reported to be used as to coagulate milk (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). Whole plant of Buxus papillosa is used as diaphoretic, purgative, and antirheumatic. Different species of Dicliptera shoots are used as tonic. Peganum harmala, a herbal whole plant, is used as an analgesic, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, hypnotic, and antispasmodic. Salvia virgata leaves are applied to tumors and ulcers. Solanum indicum roots, leaves, and fruits are used as expectorant, carminative analgesic, and febrifuge. Solanum surattense whole plant is used as vasodilator, astringent, and expectorant. Sophora mollis or Khumbi seeds are used as anthelmintic (Ahmad et al. 2002; Khan 1951). Adiantum species are used for chest complaints, cough, expectorant, increasing lactation, colds, emmenagogue, aiding kidney function, antiparasitic, dandruff, and general cure-all. The fresh or dried leafy fronds are antidandruff, antitussive, astringent, demulcent, depurative, emetic, weakly emmenagogue, emollient, weakly expectorant, febrifuge, galactogogue, laxative, pectoral, refrigerant, stimulant, sudorific, and tonic (Grieve 1984). In Nepal, a paste made from the fronds is applied to the forehead to relieve headaches and to the chest to relieve chest pains. The plant is best used fresh, though it can also be harvested in the summer and dried for later use (Chiej 1984; Launert 1981).

4

I. Ahmad et al.

Fig. 1.1  Some important medicinal plants of Acanthaceae, Adiantaceae, and Solanaceae families found commonly growing in Salt Range of Pakistan

1  Ethnobotanical Aspects of Some Traditional Medicinal Plants

5

Fig. 1.2 Some important medicinal plants of Buxaceae, Leguminosae, Lamiaceae, and Zygophyllaceae families found commonly growing in Salt Range of Pakistan

6

I. Ahmad et al.

1.3  Proximate Composition Composition described in terms of main classes of substances is called proximate composition, for example, proteins or minerals that first arrived in the process of analysis. In proximate analysis the groups are measured as such, instead of individual proteins or specific minerals (FAO 2001). It mostly includes proteins, fats, minerals, and carbohydrates. Almost all plants contain these substances and are initially analyzed proximately. Morinda citrifolia is an important medical plant in Southeast Asian countries. It was analyzed proximately and biochemically to make a more modern drug from a traditional product. In order to obtain better understanding of the medicinal characteristics of the M. citrifolia a fruit cultivated in Cambodia, fatty acids, proteins, amino acids, and sugars of juices were analyzed (Chunhieng et al. 2005). Kochhar et al. (2006) analyzed three traditional medicinal plants known for their hypoglycemic action, namely, bitter gourd, fenugreek seeds, and jambu seeds, for proximate composition, available carbohydrates, dietary fibers, and anti-nutritional factors. Protein, fat, ash, crude fiber, carbohydrate, and energy content of these medicinal plants ranged from 4.16% to 25.80%, 0.49% to 6.53%, 2.16 to 9.89%, 1.28 to 10.92%, 58.13 to 90.85%, and 319.11% to 394.46% kcal, respectively. Total soluble sugars, reducing sugars, nonreducing sugars, and starch content varied from 2.03% to 11.76%, 0.78 to 4.43%, 1.03 to 8.0%, and 29.20 to 33.63%, respectively. Dietary fiber constituents like hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, pectin, and total dietary fiber varied from 8.44% to 34.75%, 1.46 to 8.23%, 0.38 to 5.18%, 0.36 to 2.95%, and 22.4 to 40.38%, respectively. It was found that these plants were a good source of protein, fat, minerals, crude fiber, and energy and a rich source of available carbohydrates and dietary fiber. It was concluded that these hypoglycemic traditional medicinal plants provide various nutrients which are not provided by allopathic medicine, and these plants have no adverse effects. Therefore, the diabetic patients should be encouraged to include these medicinal plants in their daily diet to control blood sugar level. Ripe fruits of Dennettia tripetala were analyzed for proximate composition. Dennettia tripetala contained crude protein (15.31%), total carbohydrate (62%), crude fibers (9.84%), crude lipids (3.47%), and moisture (8.0%). It had an energy value of 480.24 g cal·100 g−1 of fresh fruit (Okwu and Morah 2004). This justifies the use of Dennettia tripetala fruits as food and a drug in herbal medicine in Southeastern Nigeria. Cymbopogon jwarancusa is a useful plant in diseases of blood, skin, vomiting, abdominal tumors, unconsciousness, and fever (Kirtikar and Basu 1982). This plant was proximately studied (Mahmud et al. 2002) and was found to contain moisture contents, 67.02%; ash contents, 9.52%; carbohydrates, 1.8%; reducing sugar, 1.07%; nitrogen, 0.67%; crude proteins, 5.02%; and crude fiber, 9.50%. Four medicinal plants belonging to the family Lamiaceae were chemically screened (Edeoga et al. 2006) for their chemical constituents and nutritional value. The medicinal plants contained crude protein (9.19–17.94%), crude fiber (4.88–9.04%), ash

1  Ethnobotanical Aspects of Some Traditional Medicinal Plants

7

(5.68–6.88%), carbohydrate (66.24–75.87%), crude lipid (3.48–4.90%), and food energy (357.68–373.26 mg/cal). These plants play an important role not only in nutrition but also in traditional medicine and in pharmaceutical industry. Fagoina arabica is among the widely used medicinal plants all over the world including Pakistan. Generally the plant is located on dry calcareous rocks, distributed in most parts of the Mediterranean region to South Africa, Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan especially Sindh, Punjab, and NWFP (Rizvi et al. 1996). Proximate analysis of this plant revealed that leaves and seeds have maximum moisture content (58.51  ±  0.50) followed by shoots and roots (43.29  ±  0.42, 29.45  ±  0.28, ­respectively). Ash and protein (1.85 ± 0.12, 0.64 ± 0.01, respectively) increased in different parts in descending order, i.e., roots leaves and seeds (Shad et al. 2002). Now interest has been developed in wild species for their possible medicinal values in diets. Wild plant species provide minerals, fibers, vitamins, and essential fatty acids and enhance taste and color in diets. In addition, they have antibacterial, hepatoprotective, and anticarcinogenic properties and therefore have medicinal value (Green 1992; Bianco et al. 1998). Yildirim et al. (2001) analyzed eight plant species in Turkey for dry matter, ascorbic acid, nitrogen, and protein which are important nutritionally as well as for medicinal value. Piliostigma thonningii is a leguminous medicinal plant belonging to the family Caesalpiniacea used for the treatment of dysentery, fever, infections, respiratory ailments, snake bites, hookworm, and skin diseases (Jimoh and Oladiji 2005). Proximate composition of Piliostigma thonningii seeds showed that seeds contained moisture contents 6.71%, ash 3.50%, crude proteins 30.33%, crude fibers 35.03%, lipids 1.42%, and carbohydrates 23.00%. Two rural settled Fulani villages, northeastern Nigeria, were surveyed for the use of wild plants as food or medicine (Lockett et al. 2000). Different parts of commonly used plant species were proximately analyzed for protein, fat, carbohydrate, and mineral contents. Kuka bark (Adansonia digitata) given to infants to increase weight gain contained high fat, calcium, copper, iron, and zinc contents. Cediya (Ficus thonningii), dorowa (Parkia biglobosa), and zogale (Moringa oleifera) were found to be the good sources of protein and fat and excellent sources of calcium and iron or copper and zinc. Fruits, leaves, and nuts of aduwa (Balanites aegyptiaca) were widely used during the dry season and drought. Edible wild species available during the wet season generally were inferior in energy and mineral content as compared to dry season plants. Fruits commonly eaten by children were poor sources of protein and minerals but rich in carbohydrate and fibers. Shiwaka leaves (Veronia colorate) that were mostly consumed by pregnant women to increase breast milk production and to expel intestinal worms contained high-fiber contents. In Nigeria four medicinal plants belonging to the family Lamiaceae were chemically screened and found to contain high percentage of phytochemicals. The medicinal plants investigated were Hyptis suaveolens and three putative hybrids of Ocimum gratissimum (Hybrid A, B, and C). The plants contained crude protein (9.19–17.94%), crude fiber (4.88–9.04%), ash (5.68–6.88%), carbohydrate (66.24–75.87%), crude

8

I. Ahmad et al.

lipid (3.48–4.90%), and food energy (357.68–373.26 mg/cal). This showed the significance of these plants not only in traditional medicine but also in food and in pharmaceutical industries (Edeoga et al. 2006). Carica papaya belonging to the family Caricaceae is an important and common medicinal plant in tropical Africa. Proximate analysis of the unripe pulp of Carica papaya was analyzed for the presence of different phytochemicals and minerals (Oloyede 2005). It showed that the pulp contained starch (43.28%), sugars (15.15%), crude protein (13.63%), crude fat (1.29%), moisture (10.65%), and fiber contents up to 1.88%. These results indicated that the pulp of mature unripe Carica papaya contained nutrients and mineral elements useful in nutrition. The presence of some phytochemicals like saponins and cardenolides explained the astringent action of the plant encountered in the numerous therapeutic uses. Arubi (2003) analyzed papaya kernel flour for proximate composition and functional properties. The flour was high in protein (32.4%) but moderate in available carbohydrates (49.9%) and low in moisture (7.5%) contents. The total minerals and fiber contents were 5.3% and 4.2%, respectively. Oil and water absorption capacities of the flour sample were high. The flour had very good foaming and emulsifying properties. These results suggested that papaya kernel flour can be used in a number of food formulations. The underground caudex of the cycad, Stangeria eriopus, is used extensively by several communities in South Africa, mainly as an emetic. It was found that only in the month of July during 1992, 3410 plants were sold, which threatened the remaining plant populations. Proximate analysis of the caudex material gives high carbohydrate content with only small percentages of fat, protein, fiber, and ash (Osborne et al. 1994). Hassan and Umar (2006) studied the nutritive value of Momordica balsamina L. leaves by analyzing their proximate composition, amino acids, and mineral constituents. The results showed that the plant leaves had high moisture contents (71.00 ± 0.95% fresh weights). The concentration of estimated crude protein and available carbohydrates on dry weight (DW) basis was 11.29  ±  0.07% and 39.05 ± 2.01%, respectively. The leaves also have high mineral (18.00 ± 0.56% DW) and crude fiber (29.00  ±  1.23% DW) contents, while crude lipid contents (2.66 ± 0.13% DW) and energy value (191.16 kcal/100 g DW) were low. The results indicated that the Momordica balsamina leaves could be a good supplement for mineral, protein, carbohydrate, and fiber contents. Wild edible plants form an important part of traditional diets in the Himalaya. In the Sikkim Himalaya, 190 species were screened as edible species, out of which nearly 47 species came to the market. Twenty-seven plant species were analyzed proximately for their nutritive values, 22 were edible for their fruits and 5 for leaves and shoots. Among different plant parts, generally higher nutrient concentration was recorded for leaves, followed by new shoots and fruits (Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2004). For different species the crude fiber contents ranged between 2.15% and 39.90%, total soluble salts between 4.66% and 21.00%, and vitamin C contents from 6 to 286  mg/100  g. The fat contents were determined high in the fruits of

1  Ethnobotanical Aspects of Some Traditional Medicinal Plants

9

Castanopsis hystrix, Machilus edulis, and Cinnamomum species, while the protein contents were highest in Hippophae rhamnoides, Cucumis melo, and Elaeagnus latifolia. The total carbohydrate contents ranged from 32% to 88% in the fruits of various wild plants, whereas the reducing sugar ranged from 1.25% to 12.42% and total sugar from 2.10% to 25.09% and the lignin contents varied from 9.05% to 39.51%, the hemicellulose between 25.63% and 55.71%, and cellulose contents from 9.57% to 33.19% in different species. It was suggested that a few wild edible species were needed to be grown for commercial cultivation and included in the traditional agro-forestry systems, which will reduce pressure on them in natural forest stands as well as producing economic benefits for poor farmers.

1.4  Minerals The attention toward the inorganic constituents of medicinal plants was drawn by Hakim Abdul Hameed, President of Hamdard National Foundation, India, who is the originator of the discipline “Elementology” (Arora et al. 1984). Health depends upon the organized state of elements in the body, and their imbalance causes disease (Golden 1988), and restoration of balance by drugs can cure diseases. Medicinal plants show therapeutic effects for the treatment of different diseases due to the presence of certain chemical compounds in these plants. These are mostly organic compounds which have biological activities, but none of these act independently and they cannot perform the functions of the medicinal plant as a whole (Mutaftchiev 2003). Analyses have showed that medicinal plants are rich in many trace elements, and it was suggested that this was an important factor in the curative effect of these plants (Olabanji et al. 1997; Pereira and Felcman 1998). The trace elements can be found in free-states or organically bound in a complex. It is a well-established fact that different states and forms can have different functions in its physiological activities such as biotoxicity and percent absorption in the body (Svendsen and Lund 2000). Trace elements coexist with various organic compounds in medicinal plants (Remington 1995), and mostly they are bound to organic compounds. So the concentration of the free trace elements will be very low. Medicinal properties of most of the medicinal plants are attributed mainly due to their cultivation in different parts of the world (Rajput et al. 1996), and the active constituents, especially inorganic elements present in plants, are in very variable quantities (Gauch 1972) if grown in different environmental conditions and different types of varieties used for cultivation. It is very much clear now that inorganic trace elements are very active in very small concentrations, and the analysis of different parts of both plants and decoction has shown the presence of many essential and important elements such as Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, Co, Mn, etc. Zn is very effective in killing virus (Randal 1984).

10

I. Ahmad et al.

Sahito et al. (2001) investigated two varieties of medicinal herb Catharanthus roseus for elemental composition as Ca, Na, K, Mg, Zn, Fe, Cu, Co, Mn, Ni, Cd, Pb, Ba, and Al. The level of essential elements such as Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu was present in considerable amount. In decoction the level of essential elements was high as compared to toxic elements. Most of the medicinal plants qualify as nonprescription drugs, and some of them are taken in low doses as food drugs in these days (Obiajunwa et  al. 2002), for example, Se, Zn, vitamin E, and other antioxidants of plant origin are proving to be reliable weapons in the effort against premature aging and the postponement of degenerative diseases. There are at least 50 elements which are vital for the well-­ being of humans (Tolonen 1990). Now the people are very much interested in trace elements in the area of medical science. Obiajunwa et al. (2002) investigated different major and minor elements in different plants. Fourteen different elements, namely, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Br, Rb, and Sr were detected in varied amounts in different plants. The concentrations of Ca and K were the highest, whereas Br and Se were the least. All the essential elements were present in required dose, but some plants such as C. procera, A. indica, and A. wilkesiana showed toxicity due to their high Cr level. The high concentration of Ca is very important as Ca enhances the qualities of bones and teeth and also of neuromuscular systemic and cardiac functions. Iron is another important element present in all the specimens which plays a role in oxygen and electron transport in human beings. The high amount of Fe and Ca in C. alata showed that it could be especially useful in the treatment of constipation in nursing and pregnant mothers at 5 g/dose, as its main medicinal activity is as a mild laxative. E. hirta, A. melegueta, M. indica, and G. kola contained high concentration of Zn and could be used in cases of Zn deficiency which includes impairment in healing, taste, and growth (Obiajunwa et al. 2002). In addition to identifying the active secondary metabolites of these medicinal plants, the knowledge of their elemental composition is very important in determining their toxicity or safety for use. More than 25 naturally occurring elements perform essential functions in the human body. Some of them such as zinc, copper, selenium, cobalt, chromium, molybdenum, manganese, and iodine are required in small amounts, and each comprises less than 0.01% of the body weight, and they are called as essential trace elements. They work in a similar way in the body. Most of them are at the active site of enzymes or of physiologically active substances of the body. Dietary deficiency of these elements causes various problems, which are consistent with the decreased activity of these active substances (Wada and Yanagisawa 1996). Zinc is one of the most important trace elements in the body as it performs various biological activities. It is an essential catalytic component for more than 200 enzymes and also acts as a structural component of many proteins, hormones, neuropeptides, hormone receptors, and most likely polynucleotide (Fabris and Mocchegiani 1995). Due to its role in cell division, differentiation, programmed cell death, gene transcription, biomembrane functioning, and obviously many enzymatic activities, zinc is considered a most important element in the accurate working of an organism, from the very first embryonic stages to the last periods of life

1  Ethnobotanical Aspects of Some Traditional Medicinal Plants

11

(Fabris and Mocchegiani 1995). The zinc supplementation is efficacious in most of the problems. It is said to be a therapeutic support instead of a simple dietary supplement. The relevance of zinc to many age-associated diseases and the aging itself of the major homeostatic mechanisms of the body, i.e., the nervous, neuroendocrine, and immune systems, places zinc in an essential position in the economy of the aging organism. Rajurkar and Damame (1998) studied elemental composition of some Ayurvedic medicinal plants used for healing urinary tract disorders. Fourteen elements were estimated in different plants: among these Cu, Cr, Co, and Cd were found to be present at the trace level; Mn, Pb, Zn, Ni, Na, Fe, and Hg at minor level; and K, Ca, and Cl at major level. The differences in the concentration of the elements are attributed to soil composition and the climate in which the plant grows. It was found that these elements play an important role in treatment of urinary tract disorders. Some inorganic trace elements such as V, Zn, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Na, and Ni play an important role in maintaining normoglycemia by activating the beta-cells of the pancreas. Leaves of four traditional medicinal plants (Murraya koenigii, Mentha piperitae, Ocimum sanctum, and Aegle marmelos) widely used in the treatment of diabetes and related metabolic disorders were analyzed for different inorganic elements. The levels of Cu, Ni, Zn, K, and Na were found to be in trace amounts, and Fe, Cr, and V levels were found in minor levels (Narendhirakannan et al. 2005). According to Anke (1986) 7 quantitative elements and perhaps 18 trace elements are of vital importance for the animals. Their metabolism is antagonistically or synergistically influenced by the inorganic and organic constituents of the food of different kinds. More than 30 elements (Cu, Zn, Mg, Mn, Cr, V, and so on) are involved in the treatment in the process of arteriosclerosis. Singh and Garg (1997) analyzed specific plant parts of several plants (fruits, leaves, or roots) often used as medicines in the Indian Ayurvedic system for 20 elements (As, Ba, Br, Ca, Cl, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Mo, Na, P, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, Sr, and Zn). Most of the medicinal herbs were found to be rich in one or more of the elements under study. Dennettia tripetala or pepper fruit plant is a well-known Nigerian spicy medicinal plant. Dennettia tripetala, besides protein, carbohydrate, fibers, and lipids, also contains important mineral contents as calcium (1.80%), phosphorus (0.33%), potassium (2.50%), and magnesium (0.42%). Trace elements included Fe, Cu, Zn, and Cd; however, Cr was not detected. This justifies the use of Dennettia tripetala fruits as food and a drug in herbal medicine in Southeastern Nigeria (Donatus and Morah 2004). Mineral analysis of Piliostigma thonningii showed that seeds were good source of antioxidant micronutrients such as Fe, Ca, Se, Zn, and Mn. So it could serve as a cheap source of antioxidant micronutrients supplements in both man and animal. The level of iron among all minerals analyzed was found to be the highest (782  ppm). This might be of nutritional importance especially in the part of the world where anemia and iron deficiency is more common (Jimoh and Oladiji 2005). P. thonningii seeds are also good sources of calcium (43.11  ppm), while zinc (0.016 ppm), manganese (1.00 ppm), and phosphorus (0.02 ppm) levels were quite

12

I. Ahmad et al.

low when compared with iron and calcium but comparable with values for some legumes (Elegbede 1998). Iron, selenium, zinc, and manganese are antioxidant micronutrients (Talwar et al. 1989), and their presence could thus boost the immune system. Fagoina arabica is among the widely used medicinal plants in Pakistan. Its mineral composition showed that Zn and Na were maximum in roots and minimum in leaves and seeds. Concentrations of Fe, P, K, and Ca decreased in order of leaves, seeds, shoots, and then roots. Fagonia arabica contained Ca, Na, P, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn. Zn plays an important role as an antioxidant in animals (Bray and Betteger 1990) as well as in plant membranes (Cakmak and Marschner 1988). Fagonia arabica contains lower amounts of heavy metals. The possible reason for low ­concentrations of heavy metal could be due to the fact that this herb is found mostly in desert and dry calcareous rocks where industrial pollutions are not found, which might have resulted in least amount of heavy metal. However, the macro elements (P, K, Na, Ca) were found to be maximum. Phosphorus is mainly involved in RNA, DNA sugar-phosphate backbone, in the process of energy transfer, and it is the inorganic phosphate that appears as an intermediate product during photosynthesis and respiration pathways of metabolism (Shad et al. 2002). Fagonia arabica contains a fair amount of K and Na. Due to this reason, it is mostly used in diseases like diarrhea, stomatitis, and deobstruent (Dey et al. 1980) where mostly fluid losses take place (Whitney and Hamilton 1984). Cu, Zn, Mn, and Fe are considered as trace elements due to their relatively minute quantity that is essential to the body. Copper is important for red blood cell formation, mitochondria function, and a component of ribonucleic acid, whereas Zn, Mn, and Fe are necessary for the development of bones and connective tissues (Nielsen 1987). Unlike other compounds, living organisms cannot synthesize mineral elements. Only small fraction of the Ca, Mg, and P and most of the Na, K, and Cl are present as electrolytes in the body fluids and soft tissues. Electrolytes present in blood or cerebrospinal fluid maintain acid-base and water balance and adjust osmotic pressure. They regulate membrane permeability and exert characteristic effects on the excitability of muscles and nerves (Nielsen 1987; Bukhari et al. 1987). The distribution of the elements in various genera and species of plants will be highlighted in the knowledge of the distribution of certain valuable trace elements and their availability from medicinal plants. The uptake of mineral constituents depends on many factors such as the amount of mineral elements present in soil, their availability, moisture contents of soil, and the botanical factor. The variation in mineral composition was observed in different varieties of the same species (Sahito et al. 2001).

1  Ethnobotanical Aspects of Some Traditional Medicinal Plants

13

1.5  Bioactive Substances Medicinal plants are considered very important for the health of individuals and communities. These plants mostly display a wide range of biological and pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal properties (Okwu and Ekeke 2003; Okogun 1985). The medicinal value of such plants is due to the presence of some chemical substances which create or enhance a definite physiological function in the human body. Phytochemicals perform many ecological and physiological functions and are widely distributed in plant kingdom. Medicinal plants can synthesize and accumulate a great variety of phytochemicals including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, cyanogenic glycosides, phenolic compounds, and saponins (Pandey 1980; Edeoga et  al. 2005; Okwu 2004). Phytochemicals are present in different plants and are used as important components of both human and animal diets. Diets containing an abundance of fruits and vegetables are protective against a variety of diseases, particularly cardiovascular diseases (Uruquiaga and Leighton 2000). Herbs and spices are harmless sources for obtaining natural antioxidants (Okwu 2004; Kim et al. 1994). Most of these are potent bioactive compounds found in different parts of medicinal plant that can be used for therapeutic purpose or which are precursors for the synthesis of useful drugs (Sofowara 1993). The active principles differ from plant to plant due to their biodiversity, and they produce a definite physiological action on the human body (Edeoga et al. 2006). Leaves and stems of most of the plants were found rich in alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic compounds. They had already been examined to show medicinal activity as well as exhibiting physiological activity (Sofowara 1993). Natural products have been an important source of drugs for centuries, and about half of the pharmaceutical market presently depends on natural products (Clark 1996). Ten medicinally important plants belonging to different families were analyzed and compared for alkaloids, tannins, saponins, terpenoid, flavonoids, and phenolics. The medicinal plants investigated were Cleome rutidosperma, Emilia coccinea, Euphorbia heterophylla, Physalis angulata, Richardia brasiliensis, Scoparia dulcis, Sida acuta, Spigelia anthelmia, Stachytarpheta cayennensis, and Tridax procumbens. All the plants were found to contain alkaloids, tannins, and flavonoids except for the absence of tannins in S. acuta and flavonoids in S. cayennensis, respectively. These plants were found very important in traditional medicine (Edeoga et al. 2005). Phenolic compounds are widely distributed in the plant kingdom, and the presence of phenols is considered to be potentially toxic to the growth and development of pathogens (Singh and Sawhney 1988). Phenolic compounds act as electron donors and are readily oxidized to form phenolate ion or quinine which is an electron acceptor. Protonated phenol is used as a cleaning agent (Uruquiaga and

14

I. Ahmad et al.

Leighton 2000) and acts as anti-inflammatory, anticlotting, antioxidant, immune enhancer, and hormone modulator agents. Phenols have been the subjects of extensive research as disease preventives (Duke 1992). Phenols have been shown to have the ability to block specific enzymes that cause inflammation. They also modify the prostaglandin synthesis pathways and thereby protect platelets from clumping. Phytochemicals show a wide range of biological effects due to their antioxidant properties. Several types of polyphenols (phenolic acid and flavonoids) show anticarcinogenic and antimutagenic effects (Uruquiaga and Leighton 2000). Polyphenols are considered to interfere several steps in the development of malignant tumors, inactivating carcinogens and inhibiting the expression of mutagens. Several studies have shown that in addition to their antioxidant protective effect, polyphenols, particularly flavonoids, also inhibit the initiation, promotion, and progression of tumors (Okwu 2004; Uruquiaga and Leighton 2000). Recently plant flavonoids have attracted attention as potentially important dietary cancer chemo-protective agents (Okwu and Okwu 2004). In addition, the possible antitumor action of certain flavonoids has also generated interest (Kandaswami et  al. 1991). Moreover, naturally occurring phytochemicals are potential anti-allergic, anticarcinogenic, antiviral, and antioxidant agents (Okwu 2004; Uruquiaga and Leighton 2000). Flavonoids ­represent the most common and widely distributed groups of plant phenolics that are potent water-soluble super antioxidants and free radical scavengers which prevent oxidative cell damage, have strong anticancer activity, and protect against all stages of carcinogenesis (Okwu 2004). Flavonoids in intestinal tract lower the risk of heart disease (Cook and Samman 1996). Most of these effects of flavonoids have been linked to their known functions as strong antioxidants, free radical scavengers, and metal chelators (Torel et al. 1986; Nakayama et al. 1993). Flavonoids are mostly 15-carbon compounds and are distributed throughout the plant kingdom (Harborne 1973). Some isoflavones act as allelochemicals widely used in insecticides. They are also important in disease resistance (Salisbury and Ross 1992). Some other biological functions of flavonoids include protection against allergies, inflammation, free radicals, platelet aggregation, microbes, ulcers, hepatoxins, viruses, and tumors (Okwu 2004; Okwu and Omodamiro 2005). The presence of phenolic compounds in certain plants makes them very good antimicrobial and antibacterial agent in different infections. This is the reason that B. pinnatum, with higher phenolic compounds, is effective in the treatment of typhoid fever and other bacterial infections, particularly those caused by Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Salmonella typhi (Ofokansi et al. 2005). These results supported the use of B. pinnatum in treating the placenta and navel of a newborn baby, which not only heals fast but also prevents the formation of infections (Okwu 2001, 2003). Alkaloids were also detected in these plants. Alkaloids and their synthetic derivatives are used as basic medicinal agents for their analgesic, antispasmodic, and bactericidal effects (Stary 1998). They show marked physiological activity when given to animals (Okwu and Okwu 2004).

1  Ethnobotanical Aspects of Some Traditional Medicinal Plants

15

The phytochemical analyses of Piliostigma thonningii seeds showed that seeds contain saponins, flavonoids, phenolics, glycosides, as well as cardiac glycosides (Jimoh and Oladiji 2005). Some of these chemical compounds have been reported to have inhibitory effects on some gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis among others. They also have prominent effects on animal systems and microbial cells (Liu et al. 1990; Oyagade et al. 1999). The presence of these chemical compounds therefore suggests the pharmacological activities of P. thonningii. Four medicinal plants of family Lamiaceae were analyzed chemically for certain phytochemical constituents including alkaloids, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, and phenols. The plants investigated were Hyptis suaveolens and three putative hybrids of Ocimum gratissimum. All the plants contain high percentage yield of crude alkaloids and flavonoids ranging from 10.44–14.32% to 9.28–12.54%, respectively. Tannins and phenols were present in all plants; however, saponins were absent in these plants. This gives significance of these plants in traditional medicine and in the pharmaceutical industries (Edeoga et al. 2006). Two Nigerian medicinal plants (Garcinia kola Heckel and Aframomum melegueta) were analyzed for their phytochemicals (Okwu 2005). These plants were found to contain bioactive constituents as flavonoids (5.76–1.98  mg/100  g), phenols (0.09–0.11  mg/100  g), saponins (1.24–11.48  mg/100  g), and tannins (0.26– 0.38 mg/100 g). These constituents are considered responsible for the health-related properties of these plants, which are based on their antioxidant, anticancer, antitumor, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and anti-allergic activities. These facts justify the popular use of G. kola and A. melegueta in herbal medicine in Nigeria.

1.6  Conclusion According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 80% of the world’s population relies on traditional herbal medicine for their primary health-care needs. These traditional systems are culturally and psychologically more tolerable in most of the societies as compared to western allopathic medicines. In addition, being the natural plant products, they are considered to be the safest way of treating diseases with least side effects on human health as compared to allopathic or homeopathic medicines. Medicinal plants not only serve as important source of raw materials for the manufacture of traditional medicines but also used for the preparation of a number of modern allopathic medicines. The use of herbal medicines is increasing day by day, and efforts are underway to examine the medicinal plant resources and their active ingredients. However, the research in medicinal plants requires a considerable interaction of researchers with indigenous communities. In addition, successful research must involve peoples from other disciplines such as ethnobotanists, natural product chemists, pharmacologists, taxonomists, traditional healers, and/or user communities, and if useful compounds are isolated that have need of development, then synthetic chemists are compulsory.

16

I. Ahmad et al.

This chapter on medicinal flora of the Soon Valley in Salt Range shows that more than 98 angiosperms of 45 families are traditionally locally used as healing agents. However, a large number of plant species belonging to different plant groups still need a thorough pharmacognostic assessment. Local people collect and sell a large number of species of plants to merchants in the market or to larger pharmaceutical trading houses. This, however, is not done on a scientific basis, and species may be mixed, or not collected at the time of maximum potency because the synthesis of various nutritional and medicinal components varies considerably during different seasons and at different localities. Different plants are used for different medicinal purposes throughout the country. During the last quarter century, environmental and cultural changes and market-based economics have seriously influenced all aspects of traditional medicine systems by affecting environment and resources of traditional medicine. Over harvesting of medicinal plants and animal species has resulted in resource degradation, loss of biodiversity, and the loss of indigenous and traditional medicinal knowledge. Such extensive uses are common threats to most of the plant species. Acknowledgment  This book chapter has been extracted form “Review of Literature” section presented in the Ph.D. thesis of Iftikhar Ahmad (89-ag-1513) submitted to University of Agriculture, Faisalabad in 2008. A partial material has also been drawn from the article “WORLD IS TURNING BACK TO NATURAL MEDICINES: Past, present and future of medicinal plants” published as a new article by the same author(s).

References Ahmad H, Ahmad A, Jan MM (2002) The medicinal plants of salt range. Online J  Biol Sci 2:175–177 Anke M (1986) Role of trace elements in the dynamics of arteriosclerosis. Z Gesamte Inn Med 41(4):105–111 Arora RB, Vohora SB, Khan MSY (1984) Proceedings of the first international conference on elements in health and disease. World Health Organization and Institute of History of Medicine and Medical Research, New Delhi Arubi PA (2003) Proximate composition and selected functional properties of defatted papaya (Carica papaya L.) kernel flour. Biomed Life Sci 58(3):1–7 Atawodi SE, Bulus T, Ibrahim S, Ameh DA, Nok AJ, Mamman M, Galadima M (2003) In vitro trypanocidal effect of methanolic extract of some Nigerian savannah plants. Afr J Biotechnol 2(9):317–321 Bianco VV, Santamaria P, Elia A (1998) Nutritional value and nitrate contents in edible wild species used in Southern Italy. In: Proceedings 3rd international summit on diversification of vegetable crops. Acta Horticult 467:71–87 Bray TM, Betteger WJ (1990) The physiological role of zinc as an antioxidant. Free Radic Biol Med 8:281–291 Bukhari AQ, Ahmad S, Mirza M (1987) The role of trace elements in health and disease. In: Elements in health and diseases. In: 2nd international conference held in Karachi, Pakistan Cakmak I, Marschner H (1988) Increase in membrane permeability and exudation in roots of zinc deficient plants. J Plant Physiol 132:356–361

1  Ethnobotanical Aspects of Some Traditional Medicinal Plants

17

Chiej R (1984) Encyclopedia of medicinal plants. MacDonald 1984. ISBN:0-356-10541-5. Covers plants growing in Europe. Good photographs Chunhieng T, Hay L, Montet D (2005) Detailed study of the juice composition of noni (Morinda citrifolia) fruits from Cambodia. Fruits 60:13–24 Clark AM (1996) Natural products as a resource for new drugs. Pharma Res 13:1133–1141 Cook NS, Samman S (1996) Flavonoids  – chemistry, metabolism, cardioprotective effect and dietary sources. J Nutr Biochem 7:66–76 Dar ME (2003) Ethnobotanical uses of plants of Lawat District Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Asian J Plant Sci 2(9):680–682 Dey AC, Singh B, Singh MP (1980) Indian medicinal plants used is ayurvedic preparation. Bishen Singh Mahendrapal Singh publishers, Dehra Dun Donatus EO, Morah FNI (2004) Mineral and nutritive value of Dennettia tripetala fruits. Fruits 59:437–442 Duke J (1992) Handbook of biological active phytochemicals and their activities. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 99–131 Edeoga HO, Okwu DE, Mbaebie BO (2005) Phytochemical constituents of some Nigerian medicinal plants. Afr J Biotechnol 4(7):685–688 Edeoga HO, Omosun G, Uche LC (2006) Chemical composition of Hyptis suaveolens and Ocimum gratissimum hybrids from Nigeria. Afr J Biotech 5(10):892–895 Elegbede JA (1998) Legumes. In: Osagie AU, Eka OU (eds) Nutritional quality of plant foods. Post Harvest Research Unit, University of Benin, pp 53–83 Fabris N, Mocchegiani E (1995) Zinc, human diseases and aging. Aging (Milano) 7(2):77–93 FAO (2001) FAO in partnership with support unit for International Fisheries and Aquatic Research, SIFAR. Aberdeen Gauch HG (1972) Inorganic plant nutrition. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg Golden MH (1988) Trace elements in human nutrition. Hum Clin Nutr 6:448–455 Green C (1992) An overview of production and supply trends in the U.S. specialty vegetable market. Acta Horticult 318:41–45 Grieve (1984) A modern herbal. Penguin, London. 919 p Harborne JB (1973) Phytochemical methods. Chapman and Hall, Ltd, London, pp 49–188 Hassan LG, Umar KJ (2006) Nutritional value of balsam apple (Momordica balsamina L.) leaves. Pak J Nutr 5(6):522–529 Heiser CB (1993) Ethnobotany and economic botany. In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed) Flora of North America. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 199–206 Iwu M (1989) Food for medicine. In: Iwu M (ed) Dietary plants and masticetories as sources of biologically active substances. University of IFE Press, pp 303–310 Jimoh FO, Oladiji AT (2005) Preliminary studies on Piliostigma thonningii seeds: proximate analysis, mineral composition and phytochemical screening. Afr J Biotechnol 4(12):1439–1442 Kandaswami C, Perkins E, Soloniuk DS, Arzewiecki G, Middle E (1991) Anti-preventative effects of citrus flavonoids on a human squamous cell carcinoma in vitro. Cancer Lett 56:147–152 Khan AH (1951) The medicinal plants, their past and present (with special reference to the work being done in Pakistan). Pak J For 1:353–367 Kim SY, Kim JH, Kim SK, Oh MJ, Jung MY (1994) Antioxidant activities of selected oriental herb extracts. J Am Oil Chem Soc 71:633–640 Kirtikar KR, Basu BD (1982) Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn. Vol I and II International Book distributor, Dera Dune, India Kochhar A, Nagi M, Sachdeva R (2006) Proximate composition, available carbohydrates, dietary fibre and anti nutritional factors of selected traditional medicinal plants. J Hum Ecol 19(3):195–199 Lai XZ, Yang YB, Shan XL (2005) The investigation of euphorbiaceous medicinal plants in Southern China. Econ Bot 58(1):307–320 Launert E (1981) Edible and medicinal plants. The Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd., London

18

I. Ahmad et al.

Leporatti ML, Lattanzi E (1994) Traditional physiotherapy periodic grazing on coastal areas of Makran (Southern Pakistan). Fitotherapia 65:158–161 Liu S, Babajide O, Charles DH, Alvie M (1990) 3-methoxysampangine, a Noval antifungal copyrine alkaloids fungi deistopholis pattern. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 34(4):529–533 Lockett CT, Calvert CC, Grivetti LE (2000) Energy and micronutrient composition of dietary and medicinal wild plants consumed during drought. Study of rural Fulani, Northeastern Nigeria. Int J Food Sci Nutr 51(3):195–208 Mahmood T, Khan MA, Ahmad J, Ahmad M (2004) Ethnomedicinal studies of Kala Chitta Hills of District Attock, Pakistan. Asian J Plant Sci 3(3):335–339 Mahmud K, Naseer R, Shahid M, Rashid S (2002) Biochemical studies and trace elements profiles of Cymbopogon Jwarancusa. Asian J Plant Sci 1(1):57–58 Mutaftchiev KL (2003) Catalytic spectrophotometric determination of manganese in some medicinal plants and their infusions. Turk J Chem 27:619–626 Nakayama NG, Lindsey ML, Michael LH (1993) Inhibition of the infectivity of influenza virus by tea polyphenols. Antivir Res 21:289–299 Narendhirakannan RT, Subramanian S, Kandaswamy M (2005) Mineral content of some medicinal plants used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Biol Trace Elem Res 103(2):109–115 Nielsen FH (1987) In: Mertz W (ed) Trace elements in human and animal nutrition, 5th edn. Academic, New York, p 2 Obiajunwa EI, Adebajo AC, Omobuwajo OR (2002) Essential and trace element contents of some Nigerian medicinal plants. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 252(3):473–476 Ofokansi KC, Esimone CO, Anele CK (2005) Evaluation of the in vitro combined antibacterial effects of the leaf extracts of Bryophyllum pinnatum.(Fam: crassulaceae) and Ocimum gratissimum (Fam: Labiate). Plant Prod Res J 9:23–27 Okogun JI (1985) Drug production efforts in Nigeria. Chemistry Research and missing link. Being the text of a lecture given to the Nigeria. Acad Sci 29–52 Okwu DE (2001) Evaluation of the chemical composition of indigenous spices and flavouring agents. Glob J Pure Appl Sci 7:455–459 Okwu DE (2003) The potentials of Ocimum gratissimum, Pengluria extensa and Tetrapleura tetraptera as spice and flavouring agents. Nig Agric J 34:143–148 Okwu DE (2004) Phytochemicals and vitamin content of indigenous spices of South Eastern Nigeria. J Sustain Agric Environ 6:30–34 Okwu DE (2005) Phytochemicals, vitamins and mineral contents of two Nigerian medicinal plants. Int J Mol Med Adv Sci 1(4):375–381 Okwu DE, Okwu ME (2004) Chemical composition of Spondias mombin Linn plant parts. J Sustain Agric Environ 6:140–147 Okwu DE, Omodamiro OD (2005) Effects of hexane extract and phytochemical content of Xylopia acthiopica and Ocimum gratissimum on the uterus of Guinea pig. Bio-Research 3(2):40–44 Okwu DE, Ekeke O (2003) Phytochemical screening and mineral composition of chewing sticks in south eastern Nigeria. Global J Pure Appl Sci 9(2):235–238 Okwu DE, Morah FN (2004) Mineral and nutritive value of Dennettia tripetala fruits. Fruits 59(6):437–442 Olabanji SO, Makanji OV, Ceccato D, Buoso MC, Haque AM, Cherubini R, Moschini G (1997) Biol Trace Elem Res 58:223–236 Oloyede OI (2005) Chemical profile of unripe pulp of Carica papaya. Pak J Nutr 4(6):379–381 Osborne R, Grove A, Oh P, Mabry TJ, Ng JC, Seawright AA (1994) The magical and medicinal usage of Stangeria eriopus in South Africa. J Ethnopharmacol 43(2):67–72 Oyagade JO, Awotoye OO, Adewumi TJ, Thorpe HT (1999) Antibacterial activity of some Nigerian medicinal plants. I. Screening for antibacterial activity. Biosci Res Comm 11(3):193–197 Pandey BP (1980) Economic botany for degree honours and post-graduate students. S. Chand and Company Ltd., Ram Nagar Pereira CE, Felcman J (1998) Correlation between five minerals and the healing effect of Brazilian medicinal plants. Biol Trace Elem Res 65(3):251–259

1  Ethnobotanical Aspects of Some Traditional Medicinal Plants

19

Plotkin MJ (1991) Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants – the search for new jungle medicines. In: Akerele O, Heywood V, Synge H (eds) The conservation of medicinal plants. In: Proceedings of an International Consultation, 21–27 March 1988, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 53–64 Qureshi SJ, Khan MA (2001) Ethnobotanical study of Kahuta from Rawalpindi District Pakistan. Online J Biol Sci 1(1):27–30 Rajput MT, Hassney SS, Khan KM (1996) Plant taxonomy. Oxford Publisher Ltd., Pakistan Rajurkar NS, Damame MM (1998) Mineral contents of medicinal plants used in the treatment of diseases resulting from urinary tract disorders. Appl Radiat Isot 49(7):773–776 Randal J (1984) Am Health 3:37. cited in cur. Sci 54:364 Remington JP (1995) Solutions, emulsions, suspensions, and extracts. In: The science and practice of pharmacy, vol 2. Mack Publishing Company, Easton. 19th 1495–1523 Rizvi MA, Ahmad L, Sarwar GR (1996) Wild medicinal plants of Madinatul Hikmah and its adjacent areas. Hamdard Medicus 39:8–10 Sahito SR, Kazi TG, Kazi GH, Jakhrani MA, Shaikh MS (2001) Trace elements in two varieties of indigenous medicinal plant Catharanthus roseus (Vinca rosea). Sciences 1(2):74–77 Salisbury FB, Ross CW (1992) Plant physiology. Wadsworth. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing company, Redwood City Shad AA, Shah H, Khattak FK, Dar NG, Bakht J (2002) Proximate and mineral constituents of medicinal herb Fagonia Arabica. Asian J Plant Sci 1(6):710–711 Singh V, Garg AN (1997) Availability of essential trace elements in Ayurvedic Indian medicinal herbs using instrumental neutron activation analysis. Appl Radiat Isot 48(1):97–101 Singh R, Sawhney SK (1988) Advances in frontier areas of plant biochemistry. Prentice Hall in India Private Ltd., New Delhi, p 487 Sofowara A (1993) Medicinal plants and traditional medicine in Africa. Spectrum Books Ltd., Ibadan, p 289 Stary F (1998) The natural guide to medicinal herbs and plants. Tiger Books International, London, pp 12–16 Sundriyal M, Sundriyal RC (2004) Wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: nutritive values of selected species. Econ Bot 58(2):286–299 Svendsen R, Lund W (2000) Speciation of Cu, Fe and Mn in beer using ion exchange separation and size-exclusion chromatography in combination with electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. Analyst 125(11):1933–1937 Talwar GP, Srivastava LM, Mudgil KD (1989) Textbook of biochemistry and human biology, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall of India, Private Ltd., New Delhi Tolonen M (1990) Vitamins and minerals in health and nutrition. Ellis Horwood Limited, Chichester Torel JB, Scontia S, Blevo ZO, Lapis MV (1986) Inhibition of lipid peroxidation by flavonoids. Superoxide anions, hydroxyl ions. BBA 759:38–41 Uruquiaga I, Leighton F (2000) Plant polyphenol antioxidants and oxidative stress. Biol Res 33:159–165 Valles J, Angels Bonet M, Agelet A (2004) Ethnobotany of in Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula): the integral exploitation of a natural resource in mountain regions. Econ Bot 58(3):456–469 Wada O, Yanagisawa H (1996) Trace elements and their physiological roles. Nippon Rinsho 54(1):5–11 Whitney EN, Hamilton EMN (1984) The trace minerals. In: Understanding nutrition, 3rd edn. West Publishing Company, St. Paul Yildirim E, Dursun A, Turan M (2001) Determination of the nutrition contents of the wild plants used as vegetables in Upper Çoruh Valley. Turk J Bot 25:367–371

Chapter 2

Medicinal Plant: Environment Interaction and Mitigation to Abiotic Stress Murtaza Abid and M. M. Abid Ali Khan

Abstract  Herbal/traditional plant medicine is the most antioxidant-rich category. Abiotic stresses including climatic factors, plant species, extreme temperatures, light intensity, soil and air pollution, drought, flooding, salinity and osmotic changes, and other environmental factors affected both the enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidant defense system in plants. The activities of the antioxidant enzymes such as polyphenol oxidase (PPO), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and lipoxygenase (LOX) are altered in stressed conditions which lead to the changes in malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide radical, and hydrogen peroxide content of the cells. The different components of nonenzymatic defense system such as glycine betaine (GB), proline, glutathione (GSH), ascorbic acid (AsA), tocopherols, carotenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds also play a crucial role as they interact at cellular level. A common factor between most stresses is the active production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). They are actively produced and used as signaling molecules by cells in response to most abiotic stresses. Due to the highly reactive nature of ROS, their production and detoxification need to be strictly controlled. Studies on transformed plants expressing increased activities of single enzymes of the antioxidant defense system indicate that it is possible to confer a degree of tolerance to stress by these means. The advent of plant transformation has placed within our grasp the possibility of engineering greater stress tolerance in plants by enhancements of the antioxidant defense system. Keywords  Medical plant · Environment · Interaction · Abiotic stress · Antioxidant defense system

M. Abid Ex-Research Assistant, Department of Biochemistry, K. G. M. University, Lucknow, UP, India M. M. Abid Ali Khan (*) Department of Botany, Shia P. G. College, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 D. Egamberdieva, A. Tiezzi (eds.), Medically Important Plant Biomes: Source of Secondary Metabolites, Microorganisms for Sustainability 15, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9566-6_2

21

22

M. Abid and M. M. Abid Ali Khan

2.1  Introduction 2.1.1  Reactive Oxygen Species and Antioxidant System Plants have integrated antioxidant systems, which include enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants that are usually effective in blocking harmful effects of ROS. Ethylene biosynthesis and membrane breakdown involving lipid peroxidation seem to involve free radicals. Since plants have less evolved mechanisms of stress avoidance, they require important means of adaptation to changing environmental conditions. A cyanide-insensitive respiratory pathway in chloroplasts competes for electrons with photosynthetic electron transport (Bennoun 1994) and may also reduce oxygen. Furthermore, some important sites, such as the reaction center protein of PSII (DI) and the apoplastic space, appear to have very little protection against oxidative damage (Castillo and Greppin 1988; Luwe et al. 1993). To save themselves from these lethal oxygen intermediates, plant cells and its organelles like chloroplast, mitochondria, and peroxisomes employ antioxidant defense systems. A great deal of research has established that the induction of the cellular antioxidant machinery is important for protection against various stresses (Tuteja 2007; Khan and Singh 2008; Gill et al. 2011; Singh et al. 2008). The components of antioxidant defense system are enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants. Enzymatic antioxidants include SOD, CAT, POD, APX, monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), and glutathione reductase (GR), and nonenzymatic antioxidants are GSH, AsA (both water soluble), carotenoids and tocopherols (lipid soluble), proline, glycine betaine, flavonoids, and phenols (Gill et al. 2011; Mittler et al. 2004; Singh et al. 2008).

2.1.2  Abiotic Stresses Plants are often subjected to hostile environmental conditions which cause abiotic stress conditions that play a major role in determining productivity and yields (Boyer 1982) and also the differential ecological distribution of the plants species (Chaves et al. 2003). A significant feature of plant adaptation to abiotic stresses is the activation of multiple responses involving complex gene interactions and crosstalk with many molecular pathways (Basu 2012; Umezawa et  al. 2006). Abiotic stresses elicit complex cellular responses that have been elucidated by studying plant abiotic responses at the whole-plant, morphological, physiological, biochemical, cellular, and molecular levels (Grover et al. 2001). The development of stress-­ tolerant plants either by genetic engineering or through conventional breeding has been done. The elucidation of the different components and molecules playing important role in abiotic stress responses of a broad range of species in both model and crops plant is in progress. Now, efforts are being made to expand our knowledge on plant response to abiotic stresses using holistic system biology approaches,

2  Medicinal Plant: Environment Interaction and Mitigation to Abiotic Stress

23

t­aking advantage of available high-throughput tools such as transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. The objective of this chapter is to provide an insight of abiotic stress biology in medicinal plants. In the present chapter, we present some details about the enzymatic and nonenzymatic responses of plants to various abiotic stresses for the better adaptation to face the environmental constraints. 2.1.2.1  Types of Abiotic Stresses Stress is usually defined as an external factor that exerts a disadvantageous influence on the plant (Taiz and Zeiger 1991). Alternatively, stress could be defined as a significant deviation of the optimal condition of life (Larcher 2003). The effects of the following types of abiotic stresses have been studied in quite detail (Fig. 2.1). Temperature Among stile conditions, temperature stress is considered to be one of the most damaging because of the ever-changing components of the environment. Heat stress has several impacts on the life processes of organisms, and plants, in particular, are most affected since they are as sessile and cannot move to more favorable environments. The changing climate and global warming have made the study related to temperature stress as the major concerns for plant scientists worldwide. High temperature (HT) is now considered to be one of the major abiotic stresses for decreasing crop production and yield (Hasanuzzaman et al. 2012). As there is an optimum temperature limit in every plant species for plant growth and metabolism, there may be devastating effects of temperature on the growth and survival of plants. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) indicates that global temperatures have risen during the last 30  years (EPA Student’s Guide to Global Climate Change. www.epa.gov 2011) and also said that the decade from 2000 to 2009 was the hottest period ever recorded. High temperature stress is defined as the rise in temperature beyond a critical threshold for a period of time sufficient to cause irreversible damage to plant growth and development (Wahid 2007). The growth and development of plants involves numerous biochemical reactions, all of which operates at a particular temperature (Zróbek 2012). Low temperature (LT) or cold stress also affects plant growth and crop productivity and leads to substantial crop losses (Xin and Browse 2000; Sanghera et al. 2011). Chilling stress results from cool temperatures low enough to produce injury without forming ice crystals in the cells, whereas freezing stress results in ice formation within plant tissues. Plants differ in their tolerance to chilling (0–15 °C) and freezing (methanol>ethyl acetate extract>chloroform>hexane extract. However, by maceration method, the activity was highest in ethyl acetate and lowest in chloroform: ethyl acetate>methanol extract>butanol>hexane >chloroform (Rahman 2013). Elodea (Egeria) densa Planch  Elodea plants were incubated in the presence of individual and mixed sulfate salts of Ni, Cd, Cu, Zn, and Mn to study the influence of heavy metals (HM) on shoot growth, structural and functional parameters of the photosynthetic apparatus, lipid peroxidation, enzymatic activities of the antioxidant defense system (superoxide dismutase and catalase), and the content of non-protein (NPSH) and protein thiols (PSH) in leaves. The accumulation of HM in leaves decreased in a row: Mn>Cu>Cd>Zn>Ni. The largest reduction in chlorophyll content was caused by Mn and Cu, whereas the strongest reduction in carotenoid content was induced by Cu. The presence of Cu produced the largest decrease in the maximal quantum efficiency of photosystem II (PSII) (Fv/Fm). The presence of Cd elevated the content of chlorophyll and carotenoids without altering the photochemical efficiency of PSII; Cd retarded the shoot growth but had no appreciable effect on leaf mesostructure. The addition of the second metal to the growth medium alleviated in most treatments the detrimental action of individual ions owing to the enhanced activities of SOD and catalase and because of the significant increase in the content of NPSH. It is supposed that the observed antagonism of metal ions is related to their competitive interactions restricting the entry of HM into the cell. The chloroplast dimensions in elodea cells showed no uniform change under the action of HM. The addition of Ni caused a significant reduction of chloroplast volume (more than a 2.5-fold decrease compared to control values). A similar effect was noted under combined application of all metals examined (the reduction by 1.4 times). On the other hand, the long-term exposure (68 days) of plants to Cd or Cd + Ni induced the reliable increase in the chloroplast volume, which was likely caused by the chloroplast swelling. It is not excluded that the presence of Cd resulted in partial destruction of chlorophyll, which was evident from the pale leaf color.

40

M. Abid and M. M. Abid Ali Khan

The addition of Ni, Zn, and Mn to the growth medium elevated SOD activity by 20% on the average compared to control values. Under combined application of most metals, SOD activity was substantially higher, especially in the presence of Ni + Cd, Ni + Zn, and Ni + Mn combinations. The heavy metals examined had little influence on CAT activity when applied individually. However, the combined application of two metals enhanced CAT activity by 1.5–2.0 times, with an exception of Mn + Cd and Mn + Cu combinations. Synthesis of NPSH and PSH is a known means of plant protection against deleterious action of HM. The content of non-protein thiols increased significantly in the presence of individual HM and their combinations. The largest increase was observed in the presence of metal pair Mn + Cu. Non-protein thiols, reduced glutathione (GSH) in particular, play an active role in membrane protection against free radical damage (Maleva et al. 2012). Jatropha curcas L.  In the present study, the effects of aluminum (Al) concentrations on growth, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, catalase, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activities in Jatropha curcas L. seedlings were investigated. It was seen that with the increasing Al concentrations, the biomass of cotyledons increased initially and then decreased, but the biomass of hypocotyls and radicles decreased gradually. Compared to the control, SOD activity in the cotyledons, hypocotyls, and radicles was all enhanced by Al stress. SOD activity in the hypocotyls increased significantly with increasing Al concentrations. The pattern of SOD isoforms was analyzed by native PAGE, and activity staining revealed that at least four SOD isoenzyme bands in the cotyledons, hypocotyls, and radicles were detected, respectively. Al stress significantly affected the POD activity in the cotyledons showing significant increase. On the activity gels, at least six bands in the cotyledons, hypocotyls, and radicles were observed. POD isoenzyme (II and III) in the cotyledons showed an increase in the staining intensities with the increasing of Al concentration. In the hypocotyls and radicles, the main increase in the staining intensities was isoenzyme IV and III, respectively. Compared to control, CAT activities in hypocotyls and radicles were all increased, while in cotyledons, CAT activities were increased first and then decreased with the increasing Al concentration. Compared to the control, the PAL activities were all increased, but the change trends were different. In the cotyledons and radicles, PAL activities were increased first and then decreased with the increasing Al concentration (Ou-yang et al. 2014). Ctenanthe setosa (Rosc.) Eichler  The relationship of the antioxidant enzyme to drought stress tolerance was studied during leaf rolling in the leaf, petiole, and root of Ctenanthe setosa. Chlorophyll and carotenoid content and the chlorophyll stability index decreased in the early period of drought stress but increased in later periods, approaching the control level as leaf rolling increased. Relative water content decreased, while the root/shoot ratio increased during drought stress. LPO measured as MDA content also increased and then declined in the same drought period, contrary to photosynthetic pigment content. SOD activity did not significantly change in leaves. In the petiole and root, however, it decreased in the early drought

2  Medicinal Plant: Environment Interaction and Mitigation to Abiotic Stress

41

period but increased later. GR activity did not significantly change in the leaf and petiole versus the control but increased in root. POD activity increased in the leaf and petiole but decreased in the root. A peroxidase isoenzyme activity band present in the control leaves did not appear in leaves exposed to drought, but in the latter periods, that activity increased. Tolerance of drought stress apparently is closely associated with the antioxidant enzyme system as well as leaf rolling in C. setosa (Terzi and Kadioglu 2006). Cleome gynandra L.  The effects of heavy metals on antioxidant defense system were studied in Cleome gynandra plants. The decreased value of phenolics with increased concentration of heavy metal copper and cadmium shows that phenol form chelation with metal and thereby reduce the toxicity of the plant during accumulation of the metal. Antioxidant activity was found to be maximum in the plant exposed to control soil, while free radical scavenging activity was reduced much in the plant exposed to heavy metal-contaminated soils. The proline value was considerably increased with increased concentration of copper and cadmium. Superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione were increased significantly in the plant sample exposed to heavy metal-contaminated soils. Among the two metals, cadmium affects the plant to a greater extent than copper (Haribabu and Sudha 2011). Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don.  Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. was studied for salinity stress, and the ability of triadimefon (TDM), a triazole group of fungicide, to ameliorate the stress was also studied. There was decreased overall growth of this plant and reduced chlorophyll content, protein, and antioxidant enzymes such as POX, SOD, and PPO.  The root alkaloid ajmalicine increased under salt treatment. When these stressed plants were treated with TDM, it minimized the injurious effects of NaCl stress by increasing the root and shoot growth, leaf area, dry weight (DW), chlorophyll and protein contents, and the activities of antioxidant enzymes like POD, SOD, and PPO. The quantity of ajmalicine was also increased with the TDM treatment when compared to both control and NaCl-treated plants (Jaleel et al. 2008). Antioxidant responses were analyzed in Catharanthus roseus under salt stress in order to investigate the plant’s protective mechanisms against long-term salt-­ induced oxidative stress. High salinity caused a decrease in reduced glutathione and an enhancement in total ascorbate content and the antioxidant enzyme and ascorbate peroxidase activities. Moreover, salinity induced a significant decline in superoxide dismutase and peroxidase activities. The changes found in catalase activities may be of great importance in the H2O2 detoxification mechanism under oxidative stress (Jaleel et al. 2007). The effect of responses of Catharanthus roseus to NaCl stress has been explored. The plants were exposed to different concentrations of salt and the effect of treatment on germination, growth parameter, and antioxidant defense system investigated. Increasing the NaCl concentration reduced germination percentage, and the fresh and dry weights of treated plants also showed a decrease. Ascorbic acid

42

M. Abid and M. M. Abid Ali Khan

c­ ontent increased in the presence of stress, and glutathione concentration showed a significant increase. NaCl caused a significant decrease of SOD activity and enhanced the activities of catalase, peroxidase, and glutathione reductase. The MDA content increased with the increasing concentrations of NaCl. MDA content of samples treated by NaCl also increased (Amirjani 2015).

2.1.4  Medicinal Plants and Their Antioxidant Properties In addition to providing defense, plants have long been a source of exogenous (i.e., dietary) antioxidants. It is believed that two-thirds of the world’s plant species have medicinal importance, and almost all of these have excellent antioxidant potential (Krishnaiah et al. 2011). The in vitro evaluation of antioxidant activity of medicinal plants or their phytochemicals several biochemical tests have been used. In ethanopharmacological and nutraceutical investigations, these assays are done to understand the probable mechanism of action of plant antioxidants (Antolovich et  al. 2002) in minimizing the oxidative stress linked pathophysiology of diseases. There are several in vitro assays used to measure and confer antioxidant activity to plants; however, each of these has its own limitations regarding applicability. In these assays, plants are generally assessed for their function as reducing agents, hydrogen donors, singlet oxygen quenchers, or metal chelators, after which they are classified as primary (chain-breaking) and secondary (preventive) antioxidants. Primary antioxidants act by donating a hydrogen atom, while secondary antioxidants function via binding of metal ions capable of catalyzing oxidative processes and scavenging oxygen, absorbing UV radiation, inhibiting enzymes, or decomposing hydroperoxides (Kasote 2013). Since time immemorial, plants have been a source of food and medicines, either in the form of traditional preparations or as pure active principles (Hegde et  al. 2014). Most of the medicinal effects of plants have been attributed to their potent antioxidant activity. It has been suggested that free radicals are involved in the pathology of more than 50 human diseases, including aging (Halliwell 1991). Plants are rich storehouse of secondary metabolites, and the complex diversity of these metabolites makes them fascinating candidates for study. Plant antioxidants such as ascorbic acid and flavonoids have been shown to be the best exogenous antioxidants. Indeed, these compounds not only restrain ROS production by scavenging free radicals but also help boost endogenous antioxidant defenses of the body (Halliwell 2006). The chemical structure of polyphenols is responsible for its antioxidant potential as they determine the conjugation reactions with methyl, sulfate, or glucuronide groups (Scalbert and Williamson 2000). Flavonoids are the most important and abundant dietary polyphenols, with over 5000 reported to date (Ross and Kasum 2002; Dai and Mumper 2010). In addition to their remarkable antioxidant property, polyphenols have pro-oxidant properties also.

2  Medicinal Plant: Environment Interaction and Mitigation to Abiotic Stress

43

2.2  Conclusion Plants are exposed to harsh climatic and environmental conditions which lead to stress. Abiotic stresses overproduce ROS in plants which are highly unstable and toxic to the cells and leads to oxidative damage. Manageable amounts of ROS are produced during normal metabolic processes, but excessive amounts damage nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins, causing them to lose their activity. Since plants are sessile, they need to be equipped with excellent antioxidant defense mechanisms to detoxify the harmful effects of ROS. The antioxidant defenses could be either enzymatic (e.g., superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidases, and glutathione reductase) or nonenzymatic (e.g., glutathione, glycine betaine, proline, α-tocopherols, phenols, carotenoids, and flavonoids).

References Agrawal SB, Rathore D (2007) Changes in oxidative stress defense system in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) cultivars grown with and without mineral nutrients and irradiated by supplemental ultraviolet-B. Environ Exp Bot 59(1):21–33 Al Hassan M, Pacurar A, López-Gresa MP, Donat-Torres MP, Llinares JV, Boscaiu M, Vicente O (2016) Effects of salt stress on three ecologically distinct Plantago species. PLoS One 11(8):e0160236 Allen RD (1995) Dissection of oxidative stress tolerance using transgenic plants. Plant Physiol 107(4):1049 Almeselmani M, Deshmukh PS, Sairam RK, Kushwaha SR, Singh TP (2006) Protective role of antioxidant enzymes under high temperature stress. Plant Sci 171(3):382–388 Almeselmani M, Deshmukh P, Sairam R (2009) High temperature stress tolerance in wheat genotypes: role of antioxidant defense enzymes. Acta Agron Hung 57(1):1–14 Alscher RG, Erturk N, Heath LS (2002 May 15) Role of superoxide dismutases (SODs) in controlling oxidative stress in plants. J Exp Bot 53(372):1331–1341 Amirjani MR (2015) Effect of salinity stress on seed germination and antioxidative defense system of Catharanthus roseus. ARPN J Agric Biol Sci 10:163–171 Antolovich M, Prenzler PD, Patsalides E, McDonald S, Robards K (2002) Methods for testing antioxidant activity. Analyst 127(1):183–198 Armstrong W, Drew MC (2002) Root growth and metabolism under oxygen deficiency. In: Plant roots: the hidden half, 3rd edn. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 729–761 Asada K (1999) The water-water cycle in chloroplasts: scavenging of active oxygens and dissipation of excess photons. Ann Rev Plant Biol 50(1):601–639 Basu U (2012) Identification of molecular processes underlying abiotic stress plants adaptation using, in: Benkeblia, N. (Ed) “Omics” technologies. In: Sustainable agriculture and new technologies. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 149–172 Bayat L, Askari M, Fariba A, Morteza Z (2014) Effects of Rhizobium inoculation on Trifolium resupinatum antioxidant system under sulfur dioxide pollution. Biol J Microorg 2(8):37–50 Bazin MJ, Markham P, Scott EM, Lynch JM (1990) Population dynamics and rhizosphere interactions. In: Lynch JM (ed) The rhizosphere, pp 99–127 Bennoun P (1994) Chlororespiration revisited: mitochondrial-plastid interactions in Chlamydomonas. Biochim Biophys Acta (BBA) Bioenerg 1186(1):59–66

44

M. Abid and M. M. Abid Ali Khan

Biemelt S, Keetman U, Mock HP, Grimm B (2000) Expression and activity of isoenzymes of superoxide dismutase in wheat roots in response to hypoxia and anoxia. Plant Cell Environ 23(2):135–144 Blokhina OB, Fagerstedt KV, Chirkova TV (1999) Relationships between lipid peroxidation and anoxia tolerance in a range of species during post-anoxic reaeration. Physiol Plant 105(4):625–632 Blokhina OB, Chirkova TV, Fagerstedt KV (2001) Anoxic stress leads to hydrogen peroxide formation in plant cells. J Exp Bot 52(359):1179–1190 Boyer JS (1982) Plant productivity and environment. Science 218(4571):443–448 Burbott AJ, Loomis WD (1969) Evidence for metabolic turnover of monoterpenes in peppermint. Plant Physiol 44(2):173–179 Burke JJ, Gamble PE, Hatfield JL, Quisenberry JE (1985) Plant morphological and biochemical responses to field water deficits I.  Responses of glutathione reductase activity and paraquat sensitivity. Plant Physiol 79(2):415–419 Caldwell MM, Björn LO, Bornman JF, Flint SD, Kulandaivelu G, Teramura AH, Tevini M (1998) Effects of increased solar ultraviolet radiation on terrestrial ecosystems. J Photochem Photobiol B Biol 46(1):40–52 Calgaroto NS, Castro GY, Cargnelutti D, Pereira LB, Gonçalves JF, Rossato LV, Nicoloso FT (2010) Antioxidant system activation by mercury in Pfaffia glomerata plantlets. Biometals 23(2):295–305 Campbell SA, Nishio JN (2000) Iron deficiency studies of sugar beet using an improved sodium bicarbonate-buffered hydroponic growth system. J Plant Nutr 23(6):741–757 Caplan A, Claes B, Dekeyser R, Van Montagu M (1990) Salinity and drought stress in rice. R.S. Sangwan and B.S. Sangwan-Norreel (eds.). The impact of biotechnology in agriculture. © 1990 Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp 391–402 Castillo FJ, Greppin H (1988) Extracellular ascorbic acid and enzyme activities related to ascorbic acid metabolism in Sedum album L. leaves after ozone exposure. Environ Exp Bot 28(3):231–238 Chandra A, Bhatt RK, Misra LP (1998) Effect of water stress on biochemical and physiological characteristics of oat genotypes. J Agron Crop Sci 181(1):45–48 Chaves MM, Maroco JP, Pereira JS (2003) Understanding plant responses to drought—from genes to the whole plant. Funct Plant Biol 30(3):239–264 Chen S, Xing J, Lan H (2012) Comparative effects of neutral salt and alkaline salt stress on seed germination, early seedling growth and physiological response of a halophyte species Chenopodium glaucum. Afr J Biotechnol 11(40):9572–9581 Chen J, Wang WH, Liu TW, Wu FH, Zheng HL (2013) Photosynthetic and antioxidant responses of Liquidambar formosana and Schima superba seedlings to sulfuric-rich and nitric-rich simulated acid rain. Plant Physiol Biochem 64:41–51 Chirkova TV, Novitskaya LO, Blokhina OB (1998) Lipid peroxidation and antioxidant systems under anoxia in plants differing in their tolerance to oxygen deficiency. Russ J Plant Physiol 45(1):55–62 Covello PS, Chang A, Dumbroff EB, Thompson JE (1989) Inhibition of photosystem II precedes thylakoid membrane lipid peroxidation in bisulfite-treated leaves of Phaseolus vulgaris. Plant Physiol 90(4):1492–1497 Dai J, Mumper RJ (2010) Plant phenolics: extraction, analysis and their antioxidant and anticancer properties. Molecules 15(10):7313–7352 Davies KJ (1987) Protein damage and degradation by oxygen radicals. I. General aspects. J Biol Chem 262(20):9895–9901 Dhindsa RS (1991) Drought stress, enzymes of glutathione metabolism, oxidation injury, and protein synthesis in Tortula ruralis. Plant Physiol 95(2):648–651 Dhindsa RS, Matowe W (1981) Drought tolerance in two mosses: correlated with enzymatic defense against lipid peroxidation. J Exp Bot 32(1):79–91

2  Medicinal Plant: Environment Interaction and Mitigation to Abiotic Stress

45

Egneus H, Heber U, Matthiesen U, Kirk M (1975) Reduction of oxygen by the electron transport chain of chloroplasts during assimilation of carbon dioxide. Biochim Biophys Acta (BBA) Bioenerg 408(3):252–268 Elstner EF (1982) Oxygen activation and oxygen toxicity. Ann Rev Plant Physiol 33(1):73–96 Fischer BB, Krieger-Liszkay A, Hideg É, Šnyrychová I, Wiesendanger M, Eggen RI (2007) Role of singlet oxygen in chloroplast to nucleus retrograde signaling in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. FEBS Lett 581(29):5555–5560 Fridovich I (1986) Biological effects of the superoxide radical. Arch Biochem Biophys 247(1):1–11 Ghanati F, Morita A, Yokota H (2005) Effects of aluminum on the growth of tea plant and activation of antioxidant system. Plant Soil 276(1–2):133–141 Gill SS, Khan NA, Anjum NA, Tuteja N (2011) Amelioration of cadmium stress in crop plants by nutrients management: morphological, physiological and biochemical aspects. Plant Stress 5(1):1–23 Gjorgieva D, Panovska TK, Ruskovska T, Bačeva K, Stafilov T (2013) Influence of heavy metal stress on antioxidant status and DNA damage in Urtica dioica. Biomed Res Int 2013. Article Id 276417:6 Golemiec E, Tokarz K, Wielanek M, Niewiadomska E (2014) A dissection of the effects of ethylene, H2O2 and high irradiance on antioxidants and several genes associated with stress and senescence in tobacco leaves. J Plant Physiol 171(3):269–275 Gong B, Wen D, Bloszies S, Li X, Wei M, Yang F, Wang X (2014) Comparative effects of NaCl and NaHCO3 stresses on respiratory metabolism, antioxidant system, nutritional status, and organic acid metabolism in tomato roots. Acta Physiol Plant 36(8):2167–2181 Grover A, Kapoor A, Lakshmi OS, Agarwal S, Sahi C, Katiyar-Agarwal S, Dubey H (2001) Understanding molecular alphabets of the plant abiotic stress responses. Curr Sci 80(2):206–216 Guo JH, Liu XJ, Zhang Y, Shen JL, Han WX, Zhang WF, Zhang FS (2010) Significant acidification in major Chinese croplands. Science 327(5968):1008–1010 Halliwell B (1991) Drug antioxidant effects. Drugs 42(4):569–605 Halliwell B (2006) Reactive species and antioxidants. Redox biology is a fundamental theme of aerobic life. Plant Physiol 141(2):312–322 Haribabu TE, Sudha PN (2011) Effect of heavy metals copper and cadmium exposure on the antioxidant properties of the plant Cleome gynandra. Int J Plant Anim Environ Sci 1(2):80–87 Hartung W, Leport L, Ratcliffe RG, Sauter A, Duda R, Turner NC (2002) Abscisic acid concentration, root pH and anatomy do not explain growth differences of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) and lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) on acid and alkaline soils. Plant Soil 240(1):191–199 Hasanuzzaman M, Hossain MA, da Silva JAT, Fujita M (2012) Plant response and tolerance to abiotic oxidative stress: antioxidant defense is a key factor. In: Bandi V, Shanker AK, Shanker C, Mandapaka M (eds) Crop stress and its management: perspectives and strategies. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 261–315 He H, Ding Y, Bartlam M, Sun F, Le Y, Qin X, Tang H, Zhang R, Joachimiak A, Liu J, Zhao N, Rao Z (2003) Crystal structure of tabtoxin resistance protein complexed with acetyl coenzyme a reveals the mechanism for beta-lactam acetylation. J Mol Biol 325(5):1019–1030 Heagle AS, Annu R (1989) Ozone and crop yield. Phytopathology 27:397–423 Heath RL (1987) The biochemistry of ozone attack on the plasma membrane of plant cells. Recent Adv Phytochem 21:29–54 Hegde PK, Rao HA, Rao PN (2014) A review on Insulin plant (Costus igneus Nak). Pharmacogn Rev 8(15):67 Heidari M, Golpayegani A (2012) Effects of water stress and inoculation with plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) on antioxidant status and photosynthetic pigments in basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). J Saudi Soc Agric Sci 11(1):57–61 Hernandez JA, Corpas FJ, Gomez M, Río LA, Sevilla F (1993) Salt-induced oxidative stress mediated by activated oxygen species in pea leaf mitochondria. Physiol Plant 89(1):103–110 Hernandez JA, Olmos E, Corpas FJ, Sevilla F, Del Rio LA (1995) Salt-induced oxidative stress in chloroplasts of pea plants. Plant Sci 105(2):151–167

46

M. Abid and M. M. Abid Ali Khan

Hossain MA, AL-Raqmi KAS, AL-Mijizy ZH, Weli AM, Al-Riyami Q (2013 Sep) Study of total phenol, flavonoids contents and phytochemical screening of various leaves crude extracts of locally grown Thymus vulgaris. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 3(9):705–710 Hu WH, Song XS, Shi K, Xia XJ, Zhou YH, Yu JQ (2008) Changes in electron transport, superoxide dismutase and ascorbate peroxidase isoenzymes in chloroplasts and mitochondria of cucumber leaves as influenced by chilling. Photosynthetica 46(4):581–588 Huang M, Guo Z (2005) Responses of antioxidative system to chilling stress in two rice cultivars differing in sensitivity. Biol Plant 49(1):81–84 Jackson MB (1982) Ethylene as a growth promoting hormone under flooded conditions. In: Wareing PF (ed) Plant growth substances, 1982: the proceedings of the 11th international conference on plant growth substances, Aberystwyth, 12–16 July, 1982. Academic, London Jackson MB (2004) The impact of flooding stress on plants and crops. Available at: http://www. plantstress.com/Articles/waterlogging_i/waterlog_i.htm Jackson MB, Ram PC (2003) Physiological and molecular basis of susceptibility and tolerance of rice plants to complete submergence. Ann Bot 91(2):227–241 Jaleel CA, Gopi R, Manivannan P, Panneerselvam R (2007) Responses of antioxidant defense system of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.  Don. to paclobutrazol treatment under salinity. Acta Physiol Plant 29(3):205–209 Jaleel CA, Gopi R, Kishorekumar A, Manivannan P, Sankar B, Panneerselvam R (2008) Interactive effects of triadimefon and salt stress on antioxidative status and ajmalicine accumulation in Catharanthus roseus. Acta Physiol Plant 30(3):287 Kahrizi S, Sedighi M, Sofalian O (2012) Effect of salt stress on proline and activity of antioxidant enzymes in ten durum wheat cultivars. Ann Biol Res 3(8):3870–3874 Kala S (2015) Effect of Nacl salt stress on antioxidant enzymes of Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk.) genotypes. Int J Food Sci Technol 4(2):40–43 Kalashnikov JE, Balakhnina TI, Zakrzhevsky DA (1994) Effect of soil hypoxia on activation of oxygen and the system of protection from oxidative destruction in roots and leaves of Hordeum vulgare. Russ J Plant Physiol 41:583–588 Kasote DM (2013) Flaxseed phenolics as natural antioxidants. Int Food Res J 20(1):27–34 Khan NA, Singh S (2008) Abiotic stress and plant responses. IK International, New Delhi Khosh-Khui M, Ashiri F, Saharkhiz MJ (2012) Effects of irrigation regimes on antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.). Med Aromat Plants 1:114 Kim K, Portis AR (2004) Oxygen-dependent H2O2 production by Rubisco. FEBS Lett 571(1–3):124–128 Kochian LV, Pineros MA, Hoekenga OA (2005) The physiology, genetics and molecular biology of plant aluminum resistance and toxicity. Plant Soil 274(1–2):175–195 Kotak S, Larkindale J, Lee U, von Koskull-Döring P, Vierling E, Scharf KD (2007) Complexity of the heat stress response in plants. Curr Opin Plant Biol 10(3):310–316 Koyama H, Toda T, Hara T (2001) Brief exposure to low-pH stress causes irreversible damage to the growing root in Arabidopsis thaliana: pectin–Ca interaction may play an important role in proton rhizotoxicity. J Exp Bot 52(355):361–368 Krishnaiah D, Sarbatly R, Nithyanandam R (2011) A review of the antioxidant potential of medicinal plant species. Food Bioprod Process 89(3):217–233 Laisk A, Pfanz H, Schramm MJ, Heber U (1988) Sulfur-dioxide fluxes into different cellular compartments of leaves photosynthesizing in a polluted atmosphere. Planta 173(2):230–240 Laisk A, Kull O, Moldau H (1989) Ozone concentration in leaf intercellular air spaces is close to zero. Plant Physiol 90(3):1163–1167 Landry LG, Pell EJ (1993) Modification of Rubisco and altered proteolytic activity in O3-stressed hybrid poplar (Populus maximowizii x trichocarpa). Plant Physiol 101(4):1355–1362 Larcher W (2003) Physiological plant ecology: ecophysiology and stress physiology of functional groups, 4th edn. Springer, Berlin, pp 345–437 Latef AAA, Tran LSP (2016) Impacts of priming with silicon on the growth and tolerance of maize plants to alkaline stress. Front Plant Sci 7:1–10

2  Medicinal Plant: Environment Interaction and Mitigation to Abiotic Stress

47

Li C, Xu H, Xu J, Chun X, Ni D (2011) Effects of aluminium on ultrastructure and antioxidant activity in leaves of tea plant. Acta Physiol Plant 33(3):973–978 Liang B, Huang X, Zhang G, Zhang F, Zhou Q (2006) Effect of lanthanum on plants under supplementary ultraviolet-B radiation: effect of lanthanum on flavonoid contents in soybean seedlings exposed to supplementary ultraviolet-B radiation. J Rare Earths 24(5):613–616 Lidon FJC (2012) Micronutrients’ accumulation in rice after supplemental UV-B irradiation. J Plant Interact 7(1):19–28 Liu EU, Liu CP (2011) Effects of simulated acid rain on the antioxidative system in Cinnamomum philippinense seedlings. Water Air Soil Pollut 215(1–4):127–135 Liu TT, Wu P, Wang LH, Zhou Q (2011) Response of soybean seed germination to cadmium and acid rain. Biol Trace Elem Res 144(1–3):1186–1196 Lutz HJ, Costello DF, Hickie P, Stone EL, Bates M, Ellison L (1957) Symposium on applications of ecology. Ecology 38(1):46–64 Luwe MW, Takahama U, Heber U (1993) Role of ascorbate in detoxifying ozone in the apoplast of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) leaves. Plant Physiol 101(3):969–976 Malan C, Greyling MM, Gresse J  (1990) Correlation between CuZn superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase, and environmental and xenobiotic stress tolerance in maize inbreds. Plant Sci 69(2):157–166 Maleva MG, Nekrasova GF, Borisova GG, Chukina NV, Ushakova OS (2012) Effect of heavy metals on photosynthetic apparatus and antioxidant status of elodea. Russ J  Plant Physiol 59(2):190–197 Marques TCLLD e MS, Soares AM (2011) Antioxidant system of ginseng under stress by cadmium. Sci Agric 68(4):482–488 Marschner H (1995) Mineral nutrition of higher plants, 2nd edn. Academic, San Diego, Kindly, p 889 Marulanda A, Porcel R, Barea JM, Azcón R (2007) Drought tolerance and antioxidant activities in lavender plants colonized by native drought-tolerant or drought-sensitive Glomus species. Microb Ecol 54(3):543 McKee WH, McKevlin MR (1993) Geochemical processes and nutrient uptake by plants in hydric soils. Environ Toxicol Chem 12(12):2197–2207 Mehlhorn H (1990) Ethylene-promoted ascorbate peroxidase activity protects plants against hydrogen peroxide, ozone and paraquat. Plant Cell Environ 13(9):971–976 Mehlhorn H, Lelandais M, Korth HG, Foyer CH (1996) Ascorbate is the natural substrate for plant peroxidases. FEBS Lett 378(3):203–206 Mittler R (2002) Oxidative stress, antioxidants and stress tolerance. Trends Plant Sci 7(9):405–410 Mittler R, Vanderauwera S, Gollery M, Van Breusegem F (2004) Reactive oxygen gene network of plants. Trends Plant Sci 9(10):490–498 Moran R, Porath D (1980) Chlorophyll determination in intact tissues using N,NDimethylformamide. Plant Physiol 65:478–479 Morsy AA, Salama A, Hamid K, Kamel HA, Fahim Mansour MM (2012) Effect of heavy metals on plasma membrane lipids and antioxidant enzymes of Zygophyllum species. Eur Asian J Biosci 6:1–10 Nagesh Babu R, Devaraj VR (2008) High temperature and salt stress response in French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). Aust J Crop Sci 2(2):40–48 Ormrod DP, Hale BA (1995) Physiological response of plants and crops to ultravoilet - B radiation stress. In: Pessarakli M (ed) Handbook of plant and crop physiology. Marcel Dekker Inc, New York, pp 761–770 Ou-yang C, Gao S, Mei LJ, Chung TW, Tang L, Wang SH, Chen F (2014) Effects of aluminum toxicity on the growth and antioxidant status in Jatropha curcas seedlings. J Med Plants Res 8(3):178–185 Paz RC, Rocco RA, Reinoso H, Menéndez AB, Pieckenstain FL, Ruiz OA (2012) Comparative study of alkaline, saline, and mixed saline–alkaline stresses with regard to their effects on

48

M. Abid and M. M. Abid Ali Khan

growth, nutrient accumulation, and root morphology of Lotus tenuis. J  Plant Growth Regul 31(3):448–459 Peiser G, Yang SF (1985) Biochemical and physiological effects of SO2 on non-photosynthetic processes in plants. AGRIS, Publisher: Stanford University Press, CA Pell EJ, Lukezic FL, Levine RG, Weissberger WC (1977) Response of soybean foliage to reciprocal challenges by ozone and a hypersensitive-response-inducing Pseudomonad. Phytopathology 67:1342–1345 Peng YL, Gao ZW, Gao Y, Liu GF, Sheng LX, Wang DL (2008) Eco-physiological characteristics of alfalfa seedlings in response to various mixed salt-alkaline stresses. J Integr Plant Biol 50(1):29–39 Polle A, Chakrabarti K, Chakrabarti S, Seifert F, Schramel P, Rennenberg H (1992) Antioxidants and manganese deficiency in needles of Norway spruce (Picea abies L.) trees. Plant Physiol 99(3):1084–1089 Ponnamperuma FN (1983) Effects of flooding on soils. In: Kozlowski TT (ed) Flooding and plant growth, vol 24. Academic, New York, pp 29–96 Potters G, Pasternak TP, Guisez Y, Jansen MA (2009) Different stresses, similar morphogenic responses: integrating a plethora of pathways. Plant Cell Environ 32(2):158–169 Radi AA, Abdel-Wahab DA, Hamada AM (2012) Evaluation of some bean lines tolerance to alkaline soil. J Biol Earth Sci 2(1):18–27 Rahman SM (2013) Effect of temperature and extraction process on antioxidant activity of various leaves crude extracts of Thymus vulgaris. J Coast Life Med 1(2):130–134 Ross JA, Kasum CM (2002) Dietary flavonoids: bioavailability, metabolic effects, and safety. Ann Rev Nutr 22(1):19–34 Rout JR, Behera S, Keshari N, Ram SS, Bhar S, Chakraborty A, Sahoo SL (2015) Effect of iron stress on Withania somnifera L.: antioxidant enzyme response and nutrient elemental uptake of in vitro grown plants. Ecotoxicology 24(2):401–413 Rozema J, van de Staaij JWM, Bjorn LO, Bakker N (1999) Depletion of stratospheric ozone and solar UV-B radiation: evolution of land plants, UV-screens and function of phenolis. Editors J. Rozema, In: Stratopheric ozone depletion: the effects of enhanced UV-B radiation on terrestrial ecosystems, Leiden, Publisher Backhuys Publishers, pp 1–19 Russell AE, Laird DA, Mallarino AP (2006) Nitrogen fertilization and cropping system impacts on soil quality in Midwestern Mollisols. Soil Sci Soc Am J 70(1):249–255 Saha D, Mandal S, Saha A (2012) Copper induced oxidative stress in tea (Camellia sinensis) leaves. J Environ Biol 33(5):861 Sairam RK, Shukla DS, Saxena DC (1997) Stress induced injury and antioxidant enzymes in relation to drought tolerance in wheat genotypes. Biol Plant 40(3):357–364 Sairam RK, Deshmukh PS, Saxena DC (1998) Role of antioxidant systems in wheat genotypes tolerance to water stress. Biol Plant 41(3):387–394 Sanghera GS, Wani SH, Hussain W, Singh NB (2011) Engineering cold stress tolerance in crop plants. Curr Genomics 12(1):30 Santhanakrishnan D, Perumal RK, Chandrasekaran B (2014) Effect of tannery soaking water on antioxidant enzymes of Salicornia brachiata. Int J Curr Microb Appl Sci 3(2):359–367 Scalbert A, Williamson G (2000) Dietary intake and bioavailability of polyphenols. J  Nutr 130(8):2073S–2085S Schubert S, Schubert E, Mengel K (1990) Effect of low pH of the root medium on proton release, growth, and nutrient uptake of field beans (Vicia faba). Plant Soil 124(2):239–244 Sekmen HA, Türkan I, Takio S (2007) Differential responses of antioxidative enzymes and lipid peroxidation to salt stress in salt-tolerant Plantago maritima and salt-sensitive Plantago media. Physiol Plant 131(3):399–411 Setter TL, Waters I (2003) Review of prospects for germplasm improvement for waterlogging tolerance in wheat, barley and oats. Plant Soil 253(1):1–34 Shi QH, Zhu ZJ, Juan LI, Qian QQ (2006) Combined effects of excess Mn and low pH on oxidative stress and antioxidant enzymes in cucumber roots. Agric Sci China 5(10):767–772

2  Medicinal Plant: Environment Interaction and Mitigation to Abiotic Stress

49

Shimazaki KI, Sugahara K (1980) Inhibition site of the electron transport system in lettuce chloroplasts by fumigation of leaves with SO2. Plant Cell Physiol 21(1):125–135 Siefermann D, Harms H (1987) The last harvesting and protective function of carotenoids in photosynthetic membranes. Physiol Plant 69:51–568 Sielewiesiuk J (2002) Why there are photodamages to photosystem II at low light intensities. Acta Physiol Plant 24(4):399–406 Singh TP (2006) Protective role of antioxidant enzymes under high temperature stress. Plant Sci 171(3):382–388 Singh S, Anjum NA, Khan NA, Nazar R (2008) Metal-binding peptides and antioxidant defence system in plants: significance in cadmium tolerance. Abiotic stress and plant responses. IK International, New Delhi, pp 159–189 Smirnoff N, Colombé SV (1988) Drought influences the activity of enzymes of the chloroplast hydrogen peroxide scavenging system. J Exp Bot 39(8):1097–1108 Smith SR, Russell KA (1969) Occurrence of ethylene and its significance in anaerobic soil. Nature 222:769–771 Sofo A, Dichio B, Xiloyannis C, Masia A (2004) Effects of different irradiance levels on some antioxidant enzymes and on malondialdehyde content during rewatering in olive tree. Plant Sci 166(2):293–302 Stewart RR, Bewley JD (1980) Lipid peroxidation associated with accelerated aging of soybean axes. Plant Physiol 65(2):245–248 Stoop JM, Williamson JD, Pharr DM (1996) Mannitol metabolism in plants: a method for coping with stress. Trends Plant Sci 1(5):139–144 Surekha K (1997) Effect of drought and salinity on growth and development of isabgol (Platago ovate Forsk.). MSc thesis, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India Suzuki N, Mittler R (2006) Reactive oxygen species and temperature stresses: a delicate balance between signaling and destruction. Physiol Plant 126(1):45–51 Taiz L, Zeiger E (1991) Plant physiology. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Redwood City, pp 346–368 Terzi R, Kadioglu A (2006) Drought stress tolerance and the antioxidant enzyme system. Acta Biol Cracov Ser Bot 48:89–96 Tuteja N (2007) Mechanisms of high salinity tolerance in plants. Methods Enzymol 428:419–438 Umezawa T, Fujita M, Fujita Y, Yamaguchi-Shinozaki K, Shinozaki K (2006) Engineering drought tolerance in plants: discovering and tailoring genes to unlock the future. Curr Opin Biotechnol 17(2):113–122 Upadhyaya H, Panda SK (2013) Abiotic stress responses in tea [Camellia sinensis L. (O) Kuntze]: an overview. Rev Agric Sci 1:1–10 Vandana N (2003) Physiological response of Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk.) genotypes to salt stress. Doctoral dissertation, MSc thesis, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India Varshney UK, Surekha K (2001) Differential response of chloride and sulphate dominated salinity on growth and developmental aspects of isabgol (Plantago ovate Forsk.). Abstract number: 1121, National symposium on plant biodiversity and its conservation, Patiala, p 56 Veljovic-Jovanovic S, Bilger W, Heber U (1993) Inhibition of photosynthesis, acidification and stimulation of zeaxanthin formation in leaves by sulfur dioxide and reversal of these effects. Planta 191(3):365–376 Wahid A (2007) Physiological implications of metabolite biosynthesis for net assimilation and heat-stress tolerance of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) sprouts. J  Plant Res 120(2):219–228 Xin Z, Browse J (2000) Cold comfort farm: the acclimation of plants to freezing temperatures. Plant Cell Environ 23(9):893–902 Yan B, Dai Q, Liu X, Huang S, Wang Z (1996) Flooding-induced membrane damage, lipid oxidation and activated oxygen generation in corn leaves. Plant Soil 179(2):261–268 Yin H, Chen Q, Yi M (2008) Effects of short-term heat stress on oxidative damage and responses of antioxidant system in Lilium longiflorum. Plant Growth Regul 54(1):45–54

50

M. Abid and M. M. Abid Ali Khan

Yuan Y, Liu Y, Luo Y, Huang L, Chen S, Yang Z, Qin S (2011) High temperature effects on flavones accumulation and antioxidant system in Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi cells. Afr J Biotechnol 10(26):5182–5192 Zhang J, Kirkham MB (1994) Drought-stress-induced changes in activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxidase in wheat species. Plant Cell Physiol 35(5):785–791 Zhang HM, Wang BR, Xu MG, Fan TL (2009) Crop yield and soil responses to long-term fertilization on a red soil in southern China. Pedosphere 19(2):199–207 Zhang XL, Jia XF, Yu B, Gao Y, Bai JG (2011) Exogenous hydrogen peroxide influences antioxidant enzyme activity and lipid peroxidation in cucumber leaves at low light. Sci Hortic 129(4):656–662 Zhao X, Nishimura Y, Fukumoto Y, Li J (2011) Effect of high temperature on active oxygen species, senescence and photosynthetic properties in cucumber leaves. Environ Exp Bot 70(2):212–216 Zheng G, Lv HP, Gao S, Wang SR (2010) Effects of cadmium on growth and antioxidant responses in Glycyrrhiza uralensis seedlings. Plant Soil Environ 56(11):508–515 Zróbek SA (2012) Temperature stress and responses of plants. In: Ahmad P, Prasad MNV (eds) Environmental adaptations and stress tolerance of plants in the era of climate change. Springer, New York, pp 113–134

Chapter 3

Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Properties of Medical Plants Dilfuza Jabborova, Kakhramon Davranov, and Dilfuza Egamberdieva

Abstract  There is evidence of medicinal plants having been used in the treatment of human disease caused by various pathogenic microorganisms in many countries of the world. Plants with known antimicrobial activities were used for therapeutic treatments. They contain various biological compounds which could be used in the development of novel drugs for human well-being. Their phytochemical constituents include alkaloids, saponins, tannins, flavonoids, and glycosides, which serve as defense mechanisms against various microbes including insects. These compounds may include antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer activities. The search for new antimicrobial compounds from medicinal plants from many continents is an important line of research because of the increased number of multidrug resistance pathogenic microorganisms. However, the therapeutic ability of a number of medicinal important plants is still unknown. Considering the importance of medicinal plants as sources for antimicrobial drugs, in this review, we report on progress to date in antimicrobial activities of medicinal plants. Keywords  Medicinal plants · Antibacterial · Antifungal · Bioactive compounds

D. Jabborova Laboratory of Medical Plants Genetics and Biotechnology, Institute of Genetics and Plant Experimental Biology, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan K. Davranov Faculty of Biology, National University of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan D. Egamberdieva (*) Faculty of Biology, National University of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan Key Laboratory of Biogeography and Bioresource in Arid Land, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, CAS, Urumqi, People’s Republic of China © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 D. Egamberdieva, A. Tiezzi (eds.), Medically Important Plant Biomes: Source of Secondary Metabolites, Microorganisms for Sustainability 15, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9566-6_3

51

52

D. Jabborova et al.

3.1  Introduction The increasing incidence of multidrug resistance microorganisms has constantly become a scientific community concern (Compean and Ynalvez 2014). The members of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus cereus were known as the causal agents of food-borne diseases (Pandey and Singh 2011; Braga et al. 2005). The dermatophytes and also Candida spp. are considered an important group of skin pathogens which cause many skin disorders. Many of the medicinal plant species are used for the treatment of various diseases (Bussmann et  al. 2010; Duraipandiyan and Ignacimuthu 2011; Mamedov and Egamberdieva 2018). To date many plant secondary metabolites known to contain various antimicrobial compounds were screened against human pathogenic microbes (Egamberdieva and Teixeira da Silva 2015). Several scientists studied the biological activity of medicinal plants and their metabolites with antimicrobial activity against food spoilage bacteria (Gnat et  al. 2017; David et  al. 2010; Egamberdieva and Jabborova 2018). The phytochemical constituents of medicinal plants play a major role in plant biological activity, e.g., saponins (Lacaille-Dubois and Wagner 1996), flavonoids (David et al. 2010), and alkaloids (Omulokoli et al. 1997) were reported for their antiviral and antibacterial properties (Egamberdieva et  al. 2017). The screening of medicinal plants for their biological active metabolites might lead to the isolation of compounds that are effective as antifungal, antiviral, or antibacterial agents (Cushnie and Lamb 2005; Shrivastava et al. 2015). In previous work it has been observed that alkaloids and phenolic compounds have strong interaction with microbial cells through enzymes and proteins (Burt 2004; Gill and Holley 2006). Antimicrobial activity of Indian medicinal plants broadly reported based on folklore knowledge (Duraipandiyan and Ignacimuthu 2011). The Middle East has thousands of year’s history in traditional medicine, which has been used for treatment of various ailments. The flora of Uzbekistan covers more than 4500 species of vascular plants, of them around 20% has showed positive effect on various ailments (Mamedov et al. 2005; Shurigin et al. 2018).

3.2  Antimicrobial Activities of Medicinal Plants The antimicrobial activities of medicinal and aromatic plants from various countries were described, and some results (Ahmad and Beg 2001; Kokoska et  al. 2002; Alzoreky and Nakahara 2003; Rios and Recio 2005; Sher 2009; Pirbalouti et  al. 2010; Verma et al. 2012; Akinpelu et al. 2015) were listed in Table 3.1. Tajkarimi et al. (2010) described antimicrobial activities of aromatic plants. In another study, Gupta et al. (2010) reported antibacterial activity of Achyranthes aspera, Tagetes patula, and Lantana camara plant extracts against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Bacillus subtilis.

3  Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Properties of Medical Plants

53

Table 3.1  Antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants Plant species Cinnamomum cassia, Rumex nervosus, Ruta graveolens, Thymus serpyllum Allium sativum Punica granatum Persea americana Achyranthes aspera

Antimicrobial properties Antibacterial

References Alzoreky and Nakahara (2003)

Antibacterial

Verma et al. (2012)

Antibacterial Antibacterial

Akinpelu et al. (2015) Gupta et al. (2010) and Beaulah et al. (2011) Gupta et al. (2010)

Lantana camara Tagetes patula Lavandula multifida Annona squamosa

Antibacterial

Punica granatum

Antibacterial, antifungal

Ocimum gratissimum, Eugenia uniflora, Murraya koenigii, Cynodon dactylon, Lawsonia inermis, Adha-thoda vasica Cuminum cyminum

Antibacterial

Zingiber officinale

Antibacterial

Syzygium aromaticum Thymus vulgaris Psidium guajava Calendula officinalis

Antibacterial

Azadirachta indica

Antibacterial, antifungal

Camellia sinensis Tussilago farfara Aesculus hippocastanum Equisetum arvense

Antibacterial Antibacterial

Antibacterial Antibacterial

Antibacterial

Antibacterial Antibacterial

Guesmi et al. (2017) Patel and Kumar (2008) and Padhi et al. (2011) Silva et al. (2008a, b), Alzoreky (2009), Mangang and Chhetry (2012), Mangang and Chhetry (2012), Mahboubi et al. (2015), Guesmi et al. (2017), Mishra et al. (2017), and Mostafa et al. (2018) Fadeyi and Alcapan (1989)

Arora and Kaur (1999). Shan et al. (2007), Shan et al. (2007), Chaudry and Tariq (2008), Dua et al. (2013), and Mostafa et al. (2018) Alzoreky and Nakahara (2003), Betoni et al. (2006), Ushimaru et al. (2007), Sapkota et al. (2012), Qader et al. (2013), and Mostafa et al. (2018) Mostafa et al. (2018) Farjana et al. (2014) Chakraborthy (2008) and Farjana et al. (2014) Alzoreky and Nakahara (2003), El-Mahmood et al. (2010), Koona and Budida (2011), Sapkota et al. (2012), Jabeen et al. (2013), Farjana et al. (2014), Rakholiya et al. (2014), and Mishra et al. (2017) Farjana et al. (2014) Hleba et al. (2014)

(continued)

54

D. Jabborova et al.

Table 3.1 (continued) Plant species Terminalia arjuna Polyalthia longifolia Momordica charantia Alstonia boonei Solanum coagulans Pituranthos tortuosus Anogeissus acuminata Boerhavia diffusa Bauhinia variegata Soymida febrifuga Aristolochia indica Terminalia chebula Tinospora cordifolia Tribulus terrestris Annona squamosa Rhanterium epapposum Lumnitzera littorea Alternanthera sessilis Cinnamomum zeylanicum Dahlia pinnata Piper nigrum Plumeria rubra Achillea millefolium, Ipomoea pandurata, Hieracium pilosella, and Solidago canadensis Glycyrrhiza glabra Allium sativum Phyllanthus niruri Baccharis dracunculifolia Chamaecyparis obtuse, Chrysanthemum boreale, Cryptomeria japonica Cynara scolymus, Achyrocline satureioides Dennettia tripetala Rosmarinus officinalis

Antimicrobial properties Antimicrobial

References Gupta et al. (2016)

Antifungal Antibacterial Antifungal Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antifungal Antibacterial, antifungal Antibacterial, antifungal Antibacterial Antifungal Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial

Wang et al. (2016) Ogueke et al. (2014) Qin et al. (2016) Mighri et al. (2015) Mishra et al. (2017) Mishra et al. (2017) Mishra et al. (2017) Mishra et al. (2017) Kumar et al. (2011) Mishra et al. (2017) Mishra et al. (2017) Mishra et al. (2017) Kalidindi et al. (2015) Adam et al. (2011), Akbar and Al-Yahya (2011), and Demirci et al. (2017) Saad et al. (2011)

Antibacterial, antifungal Antibacterial

Patil et al.(2009)

Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial, antiviral

Johnson et al. (2010) Ajay et al. (2009) Bissa et al. (2011) Karsha and Bhagyalakshmi et al. (2010) Baghel et al. (2010) Frey and Meyers (2010)

Betoni et al. (2006), Ushimaru et al. (2007), and Sapkota et al. (2012) Selvamohan et al. (2012) Ferronato et al. (2007) Lee and Choi (2015)

Antibacterial

Asolini et al. (2006)

Antibacterial, antifungal Antibacterial

Ejechi and Akpomedaye (2005) and Oyemitan et al. (2019) Silva et al. (2008a, b) and Adam et al. (2014) (continued)

3  Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Properties of Medical Plants

55

Table 3.1 (continued) Plant species Cyclocarya paliurus Malva aegyptiaca Blepharis cuspidata, Boswellia ogadensis, Thymus schimperi Periploca laevigata Tridax procumbens

Antimicrobial properties Antibacterial, antifungal Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial

Prunus domestica

Antibacterial

Artemisia nilagirica, Artocarpus integrifolia, Citrus maxima, Coix lacryma-jobi, Hedychium coronarium, Lantana camera, Michelia champaca, Passiflora foetida, Strobilanthes flaccidifolius Helicteres hirsuta Syzygium aromaticum Anagallis arvensis Cichorium intybus

Antifungal

Polygonum hydropiper

Antibacterial, antifungal Antibacterial, antifungal Antibacterial Antibacterial, antifungal Antifungal Antifungal

Kigelia africana Cnicus benedictus Seriphidium kurramense Rosmarinus officinalis Salvia bicolor

Antibacterial Antibacterial Antifungal Antibacterial, antifungal

References (Xie et al. 2012) Fakhfakh et al. (2017) Gadisa et al. (2019) Hajji et al. (2019) Bharati et al. (2012) and Andriana et al. (2019) Islam et al. (2017) and El-Beltagi et al. (2019) Mangang and Chhetry (2012)

Pham et al. (2018) Vizhi et al. (2016) Soberón et al. (2017) Mares et al. (2005), Nandagopal and Kumari (2007), Verma et al. (2013), Rehman et al. (2014), and Shaikh et al. (2016) Hasan et al. (2009) Owolabi et al. (2007) Szabó et al. (2009) Ahmad et al. (2018) and Mahmoud et al. (2011) Adam et al. (2014) Taghreed (2012)

In another study Guesmi et al. (2017) reported that Lavandula multifida showed the most powerful activity against Bacillus cereus strain. The extract of Punica granatum showed antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella typhi, which cause borne diseases (Alzoreky 2009; Mahboubi et al. 2015; Guesmi et al. 2017; Mishra et al. 2017). In other reports cumin seed (Cuminum cyminum) extract exhibited antimicrobial activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (Shan et al. 2007; Chaudry and Tariq 2008). Dua et al. (2013) reported that extracts of cumin effective against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and B. pumilus were ranged between 6.25 and 25 mg/ ml. Qader et al. (2013) studied Zingiber officinale and Thymus kotschyana for their

56

D. Jabborova et al.

effect on human pathogenic bacteria S. aureus and E. coli, and they found antimicrobial activity of plant extracts. Similar reports were published by other authors, where Zingiber officinale and Allium sativum extracts inhibited growth of S. aureus (Betoni et al. 2006; Ushimaru et al. 2007; Sapkota et al. 2012). Mostafa et  al. (2018) observed an antimicrobial activity of plant extracts of Zingiber officinale, Punica granatum, Syzygium aromaticum, and Thymus vulgaris against Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella typhi at concentration of 10 mg/ml. Silva et al. (2008a, b) reported that extracts of Punica granatum fruit (pomegranate) were inhibitory against Staphylococcus aureus. The plant extracts of guava (Psidium guajava), neem (Azadirachta indica), and marigold (Calendula officinalis) also inhibited growth of bacteria belonging to Pseudomonas, Vibrio, Klebsiella, Escherichia, Salmonella, and Staphylococcus genera (Farjana et al. 2014). Plants belonging to T. farfara and Equisetum arvense also showed antimicrobial properties against human pathogenic bacteria (Hleba et al. 2014). Gupta et al. (2016) reported that human pathogenic bacteria Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, and Staphylococcus aureus were inhibited by methanol extracts of Terminalia arjuna, Camellia sinensis, and Polyalthia longifolia. The ethanol extract of Alstonia boonei inhibited growth of E. coli with inhibition zone of 23.73 mm (Ogueke et al. 2014). Several crop extracts also showed antifungal activity against plant pathogenic fungi such as Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, and Verticillium. For example, vegetable crop extract Momordica charantia inhibited the mycelial growth of Fusarium solani, a plant pathogen which causes root rot disease (Wang et  al. 2016). The extract of Solanum coagulans showed remarkable antifungal activity against T. mentagrophytes, M. gypseum, and E. floccosum (Qin et al. 2016). In another report Annona squamosa Linn. leaf extract showed antifungal activity against Alternaria alternata, Fusarium solani, Microsporum canis, and Aspergillus niger (Kalidindi et al. 2015). Following other reports we found that Artemisia nilagirica, Artocarpus integrifolia, Citrus maxima, Hedychium coronarium, Lantana camera, Passiflora foetida, and Strobilanthes flaccidifolius showed also antifungal activity against R. solani (Mangang and Chhetry 2012). Similar results were obtained by Mahmoud et  al. (2011) where ethanol extract of S. kurramense was effective against A. flavus. Mighri et al. (2015) reported the antibacterial activity of P. tortuosus on E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, moderate activity against S. aureus, and high activity against Streptococcus pyogenes and Enterobacter aerogenes. Methanol extract of plants such as Anogeissus acuminata, Boerhavia diffusa, Soymida febrifuga, and Tribulus terrestris showed antimicrobial activity against Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Mishra et al. 2017). Annona squamosa Linn. is cultivated throughout America, Brazil, and India and is used as traditional medicine in treatment of various diseases (Kaleem et al. 2008; Raj et al. 2009).

3  Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Properties of Medical Plants

57

The antimicrobial properties of Rhanterium epapposum were positive against B. cereus, S. aureus, and P. vulgaris (Adam et al. 2011; Akbar and Al-Yahya 2011). Furthermore several biological active compounds with antimicrobial properties such as flavonoids, tannins, sterols, triterpenes, and essential oils were found (Al-Yahya et al. 1990; Akbar and Al-Yahya 2011). Demirci et  al. (2017) evaluated the antimicrobial potential of R. epapposum essential oil against Bacillus subtilis, Enterobacter aerogenes, Proteus vulgaris, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and the yeast Candida parapsilosis. The essential oil was able to inhibit growth of microbial strains. In another study the extracts from different mangrove plants have been reported to possess inhibition action against human and plant pathogens (Chandrasekaran et al. 2009; Sivaperumal et al. 2010; Ravikumar et al. 2010; Hu et al. 2010; Khajure and Rathod 2010). Saad et al. (2011) investigated the antimicrobial properties of ethyl acetate and methanol extracts of Lumnitzera littorea leaves against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and two fungal strains Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans. Mathabe et al. (2006) reported that methanol, ethanol, and acetone extracts from Indigofera daleoides, Punica granatum, Elephantorrhiza burkei, Ximenia caffra, Schotia brachypetala, and Spirostachys africana showed antimicrobial activity against Vibrio cholerae, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella species, and Salmonella typhi. Some plants such as Ocimum gratissimum and Eugenia uniflora have been reported to be rich in volatile oils, which have antimicrobial effect against Staphylococcus sp., Escherichia coli, and Shigella sp. and are mainly used in the treatment of diarrhea and ear infection in human beings. However, the ethanol and aqueous extracts of Murraya koenigii, Cynodon dactylon, Lawsonia inermis, and Adha-thoda vasica showed least inhibitory activity (Fadeyi and Alcapan 1989). Frey and Meyers (2010) reported antimicrobial properties of Achillea millefolium, Ipomoea pandurata, Hieracium pilosella, and Solidago canadensis against Salmonella typhimurium. Similarly, Patil et al. (2009) reported a significant antifungal and antibacterial activity against Candida albicans, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli by the diethyl ether fraction of ethanolic extract of Glycyrrhiza glabra. The methanolic extract Phyllanthus niruri (stone breaker) showed the maximum activity against Staphylococcus sp. (Selvamohan et al. 2012). In another study Baccharis dracunculifolia oil at a 10-μL dose prevented microbial growth of E. coli, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa in antimicrobial assays (Ferronato et al. 2007). The methanolic extracts of Chamaecyparis obtusa and Cryptomeria japonica possessed strong antiviral activity against HRV3 at a concentration of 100 μg/mL with no cytotoxicity. Similarly, methanolic extract of Chrysanthemum boreale possesses strong antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, and Yersinia enterocolitica (Lee and Choi 2015). Asolini et al. (2006) reported that ethanol extracts of artichoke (Cynara scolymus) inhibited the growth of Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis,

58

D. Jabborova et al.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and S. aureus. The essential oil of Dennettia tripetala fruit possesses antimicrobial activities against bacterial and fungal isolates (Ejechi and Akpomedaye 2005). The hydroalcoholic extract of Rosmarinus officinalis Linn. showed antibacterial activity against Streptococcus spp. and Lactobacillus casei (Silva et al. 2008a, b). Adam et al. (2014) reported high antifungal activity of aqueous extract of Rosmarinus officinalis toward Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. In another study Fakhfakh et al. (2017) reported the highest inhibitory effect of polysaccharide extract of Malva aegyptiaca against gram-negative bacteria. Polysaccharides derived from plants Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal.) showed antifungal activity against Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida sp. and antibacterial activity against E. coli, S. aureus, and B. subtilis (Xie et al. 2012). The essential oils of medicinal plants that contain phenols also possess antimicrobial activities. For example, the essential oils from Blepharis cuspidata, Boswellia ogadensis, and Thymus schimperi showed antimicrobial activity against multidrug resistance E. coli, K. pneumoniae, and S. aureus (Gadisa et  al. 2019).Essential oil extracted from B. cuspidate had elicited high antibacterial effect on tested Enterobacteriaceae. A novel water-soluble polysaccharide isolated from root barks of Periploca laevigata demonstrated antioxidant potential and high antibacterial activity against several gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (Hajji et  al. 2019). Tridax procumbens L. showed effective inhibition on the growth of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and Proteus mirabilis (Bharati et al. 2012; Andriana et al. 2019). El-Beltagi et al. (2019) evaluated the phytochemical composition of Prunus domestica fruit and their antimicrobial activity. They found that ethanol extract of fruit exhibited antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (ZI = 18.51 mm). Islam et al. (2017) reported antimicrobial potential, gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria have been found susceptible to the P. domestica extract, for example, strain of S. aureus (19.7 ± 0.4 mm) and E. coli (14.4 ± 0.7 mm). There are other plants with antimicrobial potential; however, they were not fully studied yet. For example, Helicteres hirsuta Lour. known with wide pharmacological properties showed antimicrobial activity against E. coli (MIC values of 2.5 and 5.0 mg/mL) and S. lugdunensis (MIC values of 0.35 and 0.50 mg/ mL) (Pham et al. 2018). In another study Vizhi et al. (2016) tested the antibacterial activity of methanol, ethyl acetate, and acetone extracts of Syzygium aromaticum medicinal plant against Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. Methanol extract of S. aromaticum showed good antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. The antifungal compounds derived from plant Anagallis arvensis L. showed higher inhibitory activity against human pathogenic yeast Candida albicans (Soberón et  al. 2017). Mares et al. (2005) reported antifungal activity of C. intybus against anthropophilic fungi Trichophyton tonsurans, T. rubrum, and T. violaceum. Cichorium intybus leaf extracts showed antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, E. coli, and C. albicans. Root extracts had pronounced effects on B. subtilis, S. aureus, Salmonella typhi, Micrococcus luteus, and E. coli (Nandagopal and Kumari 2007).

3  Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Properties of Medical Plants

59

Cichorium intybus crude extract exhibited wide range of antimicrobial activity against E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. epidermidis, S. aureus, and B. subtilis (Rehman et al. 2014). Moreover, the growth of fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium solani, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Aspergillus niger was inhibited by plant extract. Shaikh et al. (2016) tested seed extract of Cichorium intybus showed antimicrobial activity against several human pathogenic bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus. Ethyl acetate and ethanol extract were found to be significant against P. aeruginosa. The biological active compounds such as lactucin and lactucopicrin derived from C. intybus exhibited antibacterial activity (Verma et al. 2013). Polygonum hydropiper (L.) root extract showed significant antibacterial activities against four grampositive (Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus megaterium, Staphylococcus aureus, and Enterobacter aerogenes) and four gram-negative (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, and Shigella sonnei) bacteria (Hasan et  al. 2009). The ethanolic and aqueous extract of Kigelia africana showed antimicrobial activity against both bacteria and fungi (Owolabi et al. 2007). Other plants such as Cnicus benedictus L. showed antibacterial activity against ten pathogens such as Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella enteritidis, Staphylococcus aureus ssp., Escherichia coli, Streptococcus pyogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis, and Shigella sonnei (Szabó et al. 2009). Ahmad et al. (2018) investigated the antimicrobial activity of crude ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Seriphidium kurramense by agar well diffusion assays against five bacterial species such as Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis, and Salmonella typhi, and six fungal species such as Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Alternaria solani, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium solani, and Pleurotus florida. The ethanol extract showed its highest growth inhibition (74.4%) toward B. subtilis and its lowest inhibition (32.2%) toward K. pneumoniae. A petroleum ether extract and a methanolic extract of aerial parts of Salvia bicolor against Staphylococcus epidermidis and Candida albicans.

3.3  Conclusion From published reports, it is evident that antimicrobial properties of medicinal plants were reported based on folklore information. They synthesize various biological active compounds that possess antimicrobial properties. The compounds contain alkaloids, saponins, coumarins, steroids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, and tannins. A number of essential oils that contain aldehydes or phenols were also used as antimicrobial agents. These reports provide an insight into the antibacterial properties of medicinal plants used in traditional medicine and justification for the use of medicinal plants in medicine to treat infectious diseases. It will also lead to the development of some new biologically active compounds which can be formulated as antimicrobial agents.

60

D. Jabborova et al.

References Adam SIY, Ahmed AYA, Omer AKM, Bashir AMA, Abdel Rahman OAM, Abdelgadir WS (2014) In vitro antimicrobial activity of Rosmarinus officinalis leave extracts. J Agri-Food Appl Sci 2(1):15–21 Adam SIY, El-Kamali HH, Adama SEI (2011) Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity of two Sudanese wild plants, Rhanterium epapposum and Trichodesma africanum. J Fac Sci Technol 2:83–96 Ahmad I, Beg AZ (2001) Antimicrobial and photochemical studies on 45 Indian medicinal plants against multi-drug resistant human pathogens. J Ethnopharmocol 74:113–123 Ahmad K, Ali A, Afridi WA, Somayya R, Ullah MJ (2018) Antimicrobial, hemagglutination and phytotoxic activity of crude ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Seriphidium kurramense. J Tradit Chin Med 38(3):433–438 Ajay KM, Mishra A, Kehri HK, Pandey BSAK (2009) Inhibitory activity of Indian spice plant Cinnamomum zeylanicum extracts against Alternaria solani and Curvularia lunata, the pathogenic dematiaceous moulds. Ann Cli Micro Antimicrob 8:1–9 Akbar S, Al-Yahya MA (2011) Screening of Saudi plants for phytoconstituents, pharmacological and antimicrobial properties. Aust J Med Herbalism 23:76–87 Akinpelu DA, Aiyegoro OA, Akinpelu OF, Okah AI (2015) Stem bark extract and fraction of Persea americana (Mill) exhibits bactericidal activities against strains of Bacillus cereus associated with food poisoning. Molecules 20:416–429 Al-Yahya MA, Al-Meshal IA, Mossa JS, Al-Badr AA, Tariq M (1990) Saudi plants, a phytochemical and biological approach. KACST, Riyadh, pp 75–80 Al-Zoreky NS (2009) Antimicrobial activity of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) fruit peels. Int J Food Microbiol 134(3):244–248 Alzoreky NS, Nakahara K (2003) Antibacterial activity of extracts from some edible plants commonly consumed in Asia. Int J Food Microbiol 80:223–230 Andriana Y, Xuan TD, Quy TN, Minh TN, Van TM, Viet TD (2019) Antihyperuricemia, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities of Tridax procumbens. L Foods 8(21):1–12 Arora DS, Kaur J (1999) Antimicrobial activity of spices. Int J Antimicrob Agents 12:257–262 Asolini FC, Tedesco AM, Ferraz C, Alencar SM, Carpes ST (2006) Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of phenolic compounds in extracts of plants used as tea. Braz J  Food Technol 9(6):209–215 Baghel AS, Mishra CK, Rani A, Sasmal D, Nema RK (2010) Antibacterial activity of Plumeria rubra Linn. plant extract. J Chem Pharma Res 2(6):435–440 Beaulah AG, Sadiq AM, Santhi RJ (2011) Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Achyranthes aspera: an in vitro study. Pharma Chem 3(5):255–262 Betoni JE, Mantovani RP, Barbosa LN, Di Stasi LC, Fernandes JA (2006) Synergism between plant extract and antimicrobial drugs used on Staphylococcus aureus diseases. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 101(4):387–390 Bharati V, Varalakshmi B, Gomathu S, Shanmugapriya A, Karpagam T (2012) Antibacterial activity of Tridax procumbens Linn. Int J Pharm Sci Res 3:364–367 Bissa S, Bohra A, Bohra A (2011) Screening of Dahlia pinnata for its antimicrobial activity. J Res Biol 1:51–55 Braga LC, Shupp JW, Cummings C, Jett M, Takahashi JA, Carmo LS (2005) Pomegranate extract inhibits Staphylococcus aureus growth and subsequent enterotoxin production. J Ethnopharmacol 96:335–339 Burt S (2004) Essential oils: their antibacterial properties and potential application in foods: a review. Int J Food Microbiol 94:223–253 Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Meyer K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A (2010) Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 6:10 Chakraborthy GS (2008) Antimicrobial activity of the leaf extracts of Calendula officinalis (LINN.). J Herb Med Toxicol 2(2):65–66

3  Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Properties of Medical Plants

61

Chandrasekaran M, Kannathasan K, Venkatesalu V, Prabhakar K (2009) Antibacterial activity of some salt marsh halophytes and mangrove plants against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2:155–160 Chaudry NMA, Tariq P (2008) In vitro antibacterial activities of Kalonji, cumin and poppy seeds. Pak J Bot 40(1):461–467 Compean KL, Ynalvez RA (2014) Antimicrobial activity of plant secondary metabolites: a review. Res J Medicinal Plant 8(5):204–213 Cushnie TP, Lamb AJ (2005) Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids. Int J  Antimicrob Agents 26:343–356 David E, Elumalai EK, Sivakumar C, Therasa SV, Thirumalai T (2010) Evaluation of antifungal activity and phytochemical screening of Solanum surattense seeds. J Pharm Res 3:684–687 Demirci B, Yusufoglu HS, Tabanca N, Temel HE, Bernier UR, Agramonte NM, Alqasoumi SI, Al-Rehaily AJ, Can Bas KH, Demirci F (2017) Rhanterium epapposum Oliv. essential oil: chemical composition and antimicrobial, insect-repellent and anticholinesterase activities. Saudi Pharm J 25:703–708 Dua A, Gaurav G, Balkar S, Mahajan R (2013) Antimicrobial properties of methanolic extract of cumin (Cuminum cyminum) seeds. Int J Res Ayurveda Pharm 4(1):104–107 Duraipandiyan V, Ignacimuthu S (2011) Antifungal activity of traditional medicinal plants from Tamil Nadu, India. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 1:204–215 Egamberdieva D, Jabborova D (2018) Medicinal plants of Uzbekistan and their traditional use. In: Egamberdieva D, Ozturk M (eds) Vegetation of Central Asia and environs. Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99728-5 Egamberdieva D, Teixeira da Silva JA (2015) Medicinal plant and PGPR: a new frontier forphytochemicals. In: Egamberdieva D, Shrivastava S, Varma A (eds) Plant GrowthPromoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) and medicinal plants. Springer, Berlin, pp 287–303. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13401-7_14 Egamberdieva D, Wirth S, Behrendt U, Parvaiz A, Berg G (2017) Antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants correlates with the proportion of antagonistic endophytes. Front Microbiol 8:199. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2017.00199 Ejechi BO, Akpomedaye DE (2005) Activity of essential oil and phenolic extract of pepperfruit (Dennettia tripetala G.  Baker); Anonaceae against some food borne microorganisms. Afr J Biotechnol 4(3):258–261 El-Beltagi HS, El-Ansary AE, Mostafa MA, Kamel TA, Safwat G (2019) Evaluation of the phytochemical, antioxidant, antibacterial and anticancer activity of Prunus domestica. Not Bot Horti Agrobo 47(2):395–404 El-Mahmood AM, Ogbonna OB, Raji M (2010) The antibacterial activity of Azadarichta indica (neem) seeds extracts against bacterial pathogens associated with eye and ear infections. J Med Plants Res 4(14):1414–1421 Fadeyi MO, Alcapan UE (1989) W Afr J Pharmaco Drug Res 9:29–30 Fakhfakh N, Abdelhedi O, Jdir H, Nasri M, Zouari N (2017) Isolation of polysaccharides from Malva aegyptiaca and evaluation of their antioxidant and antibacterial properties. Int J  Biol Macromol 105:1519–1525 Farjana A, Zerin N, Kabir M (2014) Antimicrobial activity of medicinal plant leaf extracts against pathogenic bacteria. Asian Pac J Trop Dis 4:920–923 Ferronato R, Marchesan ED, Pezenti E, Bednarski F, Onofre SB (2007) Antimicrobial activity of essential oils produced by Baccharis dracunculifolia D.C. and Baccharis uncinella D.C. (Asteraceae). Rev Bras Pharmacogn 17(2):224–230 Frey FM, Meyers R (2010) Antibacterial activity of traditional medicinal plants used by Haudenosaunee peoples of New York State. BMC Complement Altern Med 10:64 Gadisa E, Weldearegay G, Desta K, Tsegaye G, Hailu S, Jote K, Takele A (2019) Combined antibacterial effect of essential oils from three most commonly used Ethiopian traditional medicinal plants on multidrug resistant bacteria. BMC Complement Altern Med 19:24

62

D. Jabborova et al.

Gill AO, Holley RA (2006) Disruption of Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes and Lactobacillus sakei cellular membranes by plant oil aromatics. Int J Food Microbiol 108:1–9 Gnat S, Majer-Dziedzic B, Nowakiewicz A, Trościańczyk A, Ziolkowska G, Jesionek W, Choma I, Dziedzic R, Zięba P (2017) Antimicrobial activity of some plant extracts against bacterial pathogens isolated from feces of red deer (Cervus elaphus). Pol J Vet Sci 20(4):697–706 Guesmi F, Ben Hadj A, Landoulsi A (2017) Investigation of extracts from Tunisian ethnomedicinal plants as antioxidants, cytotoxins, and antimicrobials. Biomed Environ Sci 30(11):811–824 Gupta D, Dubey J, Kumar M (2016) Phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants against selected common human pathogenic microorganisms. Asian Pac J Trop Dis 6(1):15–20 Gupta RN, Kartik V, Manoj P, Singh PS, Alka G (2010) Antibacterial activities of ethanolic extracts of plants used in flok medicine. Int J Res Ayurveda Pharm 1(2):529–535 Hajji M, Hamdi M, Sellimi S, Ksouda G, Laouer H, Li S, Nasri M (2019) Structural characterization, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of a novel polysaccharide from Periploca laevigata root barks. Carbohydr Polym 206:380–388 Hasan MF, Das R, Khan A, Hossain MS, Rahman M (2009) The determination of antibacterial and antifungal activities of Polygonum hydropiper (L.) root extract. Adv Biol Res 3(1–2):53–56 Hleba L, Vukovic N, Horskac E, Petrova J, Sukdolak S, Kacaniova M (2014) Phenolic profile and antimicrobial activities to selected microorganisms of some wild medical plant from Slovakia. Asian Pac J Trop Dis 4(4):269–274 Hu HQ, Li ZS, He H (2010) Characterization of an antimicrobial material from a newly isolated Bacillus amyloliquefaciens from mangrove for biocontrol of Capsicum bacterial wilt. Biol Control 54:359–365 Islam NU, Amin R, Shahid M, Amin M, Zaib S, Iqbal J (2017) A multitarget therapeutic potential of Prunus domestica gum stabilized nanoparticles exhibited prospective anticancer, antibacterial, urease inhibition, anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. BMC Complement Altern Med 17(1):276 Jabeen K, Hanif S, Naz S, Iqbal S (2013) Antifungal activity of Azadirachta indica against Alternaria solani. J Life Sci Technol 1(1):89–93 Johnson M, Wesely EG, Selvan N, Kavitha MS (2010) In vivo and in vitro anti-bacterial efficacy of Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.). Int J Pharma Res Dev 2(10):72–79 Kaleem M, Medha P, Ahmed QU, Asif M, Bano B (2008) Beneficial effects of Annona squamosa extract in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Singap Med J 49:800–804 Kalidindi N, Thimmaiah NV, Jagadeesh NV, Nandeep R, Swetha S, Kalidindi B (2015) Antifungal and antioxidant activities of organic and aqueous extracts of Annona squamosa Linn. leaves. J Food Drug Anal 23:795–802 Karsha PV, Bhagyalakshmi O (2010) Antibacterial activity of black pepper (Piper nigrum Linn.) with special reference to its mode of action on bacteria. Ind J Nat Prod Res 1(2):213–215 Khajure PV, Rathod JL (2010) Antimicrobial activity of extracts of Acanthus ilicifolius extracted from the mangroves of Karwar coast Karnataka. Rec Res Sci Technol 2(6):98–99 Kokoska L, Polesny Z, Rada V, Nepovim A, Vanek T (2002) Screening of some Siberian medicinal plants for antimicrobial activity. J Ethnopharmacol 82:51–53 Koona S, Budida S (2011) Antibacterial potential of the extracts of the leaves of Azadirachta indica Linn. Not Sci Biol 3(1):65–69 Kumar SM, Rajeswari, Astalakshmi M (2011) Evaluation of antimicrobial activities of Aristolochia Indica (Linn). Int J Pharm Pharma Sci 3(4):271–272 Lacaille-Dubois MA, Wagner H (1996) A review of the biological and pharmacological activities of saponins. Phytomedicine 2:363–386 Lee JH, Choi HJ (2015) Antiviral and antimicrobial activity of medicinal plant extracts. J Microb Biochem Technol 7:286–288 Mahboubi A, Asgarpanah J, Sadaghiqani PN, Faizi M (2015) Total phenolic and flavonoid content and antibacterial activity of Punica granatum L. Var. pleniflora flower (Golnar) against bacterial strains causing food borne diseases. BMC Complem Altern Med 15:366–373

3  Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Properties of Medical Plants

63

Mahmoud DA, Hassanein NM, Youssef KA, Abou Zeid MA (2011) Antifungal activity of different neem leaf extracts and the nimonol against some important human pathogens. Braz J Microbiol 42:1007–1016 Mamedov N, Gardner Z, Craker LE (2005) Medicinal plants used in Russia and Central Asia for the treatment of selected skin conditions. J Herbs Spices Med Plants 11(1–2):191–222 Mamedov, Egamberdieva (2018) Phytochemical constituents and pharmacological effects of liquorice: a review. In: Ozturk M, Hakeem KR (eds) Plant and human health, Volume 3 Mangang HC, Chhetry GKN (2012) Antifungal properties of certain plant extracts against Rhizoctonia solani causing root rot of French bean in organic soil of Manipur. Int J Sci Res Publ 2(5):001 Mares D, Romagnoli C, Tosi B, Andreotti E, Chillemi G, Poli F (2005) Chicory extracts from Cichorium intybus L. as potential antifungals. Mycopathologia 160(1):85–91 Mathabe MC, Nikolova RV, Lall N, Nyazema NZ (2006) Antibacterial activities of medicinal plants used for the treatment of diarrhoea in Limpopo Province, South Africa. J  Ethnopharmacol 105:286–293 Mighri H, Sabri K, Eljeni H, Neffati M, Akrout A (2015) Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Pituranthos chloranthus (Benth.) Hook and Pituranthos tortuosus (Coss.) Maire essential oils from Southern Tunisia. Adv Biol Chem 5:273–278 Mishra MP, Rath S, Swain SS, Ghosh G, Das D, Padhy RN (2017) In vitro antibacterial activity of crude extracts of 9 selected medicinal plants against UTI causing MDR bacteria. J King Saud Univ Sci 29:84–95 Mostafa AA, Al-Askar AA, Almaary KS, Dawoud TM, Sholkamy EN, Bakri MM (2018) Antimicrobial activity of some plant extracts against bacterial strains causing food poisoning diseases. Saudi J Biol Sci 25:361–366 Nandagopal S, Kumari RBD (2007) Phytochemical and antibacterial studies of chicory (Cichorium intybus L.)—a multipurpose medicinal plant. Adv Biol Res 1:17–21 Ogueke CC, Uwaleke J, Owuamanama CI, Okolue B (2014) Antimicrobial activities of Alstonia boonei stem bark, a Nigerian traditional medicinal plant. Asian Pac J Trop Dis 4:S957–S962 Omulokoli E, Khan B, Chhabra S (1997) Antiplasmodial activity of four Kenyan medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol 56:133–137 Owolabi J, Omogbai EKI, Obasuyi O (2007) Antifungal and antibacterial activities of ethanolic and aqueous extract of Kigelia african (Bignoniaceae) stem bark. Afr J Biotechnol 6(14):882–885 Oyemitan IA, Elusiyan CA, Akinkunmi EO, Obuotor EM, Akanmu MA, Olugbade TA (2019) Memory enhancing, anticholinesterase and antimicrobial activities of βphenylnitroethane and essential oil of Dennettia tripetala Baker f. J Ethnopharmacol 229:256–261 Padhi LP, Panda SK, Satapathy SN, Dutta SK (2011) In vitro evaluation of antibacterial potential of Annona squamosa Linn. and Annona reticulata L. from Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Orissa, India. J Agric Technol 7(1):133–142 Pandey A, Singh P (2011) Antibacterial activity of Syzygium aromaticum (Clove) with metal ion effect against food borne pathogens. Asian J Plant Sci Res 1(2):69–80 Patel DJ, Kumar V (2008) Annona squamosal L.: phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial screening. J Pharm Res 1(1):34–38 Patil SM, Patil MB, Sapkale GN (2009) Antimicrobial activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. roots. Int J Chem Sci 7(1):585–591 Pham HNT, Sakoff JA, Bond DR, Vuong QV, Bowyer MC, Scarlett CJ (2018) In vitro antibacterial and anticancer properties of Helicteres hirsuta Lour. leaf and stem extracts and their fractions. Mol Biol Rep 45:2125–2133 Pirbalouti AG, Jahanbazi P, Enteshari S, Malekpoor F, Hamedi B (2010) Antimicrobial activity of some Iranian medicinal plants. Arch Biol Sci Belgrade 62(3):633–642 Qader MK, Khalid NS, Abdullah AM (2013) Antibacterial activity of some plant extracts against clinical pathogens. Int J Microbiol Immunol Res 1(5):53–56 Qin XL, Lunga PK, Zhao YL, Liu YP, Luo XD (2016) Chemical constituents of Solanum coagulans and their antimicrobial activities. Chin J Nat Med 14(4):308–312

64

D. Jabborova et al.

Raj DS, Vennila JJ, Aiyavu C, Panneerselvam K (2009) The hepatoprotective effect of alcoholic extract of Annona squamosa leaves on experimentally induced liver injury in Swiss albino mice. Int J Integr Biol 5:182–186 Rakholiya K, Kaneria M, Chanda S (2014) Inhibition of microbial pathogens using fruit and vegetable peel extracts. Int J Food Sci Nutr 1–7 Ravikumar S, Muthuraja M, Sivaperumal P, Gnanadesign M (2010) Antibacterial activity of the mangrove leaves Exoecaria agallocha against selected fish pathogens. Asian J  Med Sci 2(5):211–213 Rehman A, Ullah N, Ullah H, Ahmad I (2014) Antibacterial and antifungal study of Cichorium intybus. Asian Pac J Trop Dis 4(2):S943–S945 Rios JL, Recio MC (2005) Medicinal plants and antimicrobial activity. J Ethnopharmacol 4:80–100 Saad S, Taher M, Susanti D, Qaralleh H, Abdul Rahim NA (2011) Antimicrobial activity of mangrove plant (Lumnitzera littorea). Asian Pac J Trop Med 523–525 Sapkota R, Dasgupta R, Nancy, Rawat DS (2012) Antibacterial effects of plants extracts on human microbial pathogens & microbial limit tests. Int J Res Pharm Chem 2(4):926–936 Selvamohan T, Ramadas V, Shibila Selva Kishore S (2012) Antimicrobial activity of selected medicinal plants against some selected human pathogenic bacteria. Adv Appl Sci Res 3(5):3374–3381 Shaikh T, Rub RA, Sasikumar S (2016) Antimicrobial screening of Cichorium intybus seed extracts. Arab J Chem 9:S1569–S1573 Shan B, Cai Y, Brooks JD, Corke H (2007) The in vitro antibacterial activity of dietary spice and medicinal herb extracts. Int J Food Microbiol 117:112–119 Sher A (2009) Antimicrobial activity of natural products from medicinal plants. Gomal J Med Sci 7(1):72–78 Shrivastava S, Egamberdieva D, Varma A (2015) PGPRs and medicinal plants- the state of arts. In: Egamberdieva D, Shrivastava S, Varma A (eds) Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) and medicinal plants, Springer, pp 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13401-7_1 Shurigin V, Davranov K, Wirth S, Egamberdieva D, Bellingrath-Kimura SD (2018) Medicinal plants with phytotoxic activity harbour endophytic bacteria with plant growth inhibitory properties. Environ Sustain 1(2):209–215 Silva MAR, Higino JS, Pereira JV, Siqueira-Júnior JP, Pereira MSV (2008a) Antibiotic activity of the extract of Punica granatum Linn. over bovine strains of Staphylococcus aureus. Rev Bras Pharmacogn 18(2):209–212 Silva MSA, Silva MAR, Higino JS, Pereira MSV, Carvalho AAT (2008b) In vitro antimicrobial activity and antiadherence of Rosmarinus officinalis Linn. against oral planktonic bacteria. Rev Bras Pharmacogn 18(2):236–240 Sivaperumal P, Ramasamy P, Inbaneson S, Ravikumar S (2010) Screening of antibacterial activity of mangrove leaf bioactive compounds against antibiotic resistant clinical isolates. World J Fish Mar Sci 2(5):348–353 Soberón JR, Sgariglia MA, Pastoriza AC, Soruco EM, Jager SN, Labadie GR, Sampietro DA, Vattuone MA (2017) Antifungal activity and cytotoxicity of extracts and triterpenoid saponins obtained from the aerial parts of Anagallis arvensis L. J Ethnopharmacol 203:233–240 Szabó I, Pallag A, Cristian- Blidar F (2009) The antimicrobial activity of the Cnicus benedictus L. extracts. Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Fascicula Biol Tom 1:126–128 Taghreed AI (2012) Chemical composition and biological activity of extracts from Salvia bicolor Desf. growing in Egypt. Molecules 17:11315–11334 Tajkarimi MM, Ibrahim SA, Cliver DO (2010) Antimicrobial herb and spice compounds in food. Food Control 21:1199–1218 Ushimaru PI, Silva MTN, Di Stasi LC, Barbosa L, Fernandes JA (2007) Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant extracts. Braz J Microbiol 38(1):717–719 Verma R, Rawat A, Ganie SA, Agnihotri RK, Sharma R, Mahajan S (2013) In vitro antibacterial activity of Cichorium intybus against some pathogenic bacteria. Br J Pharm Res 3(4):767–775

3  Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Properties of Medical Plants

65

Verma V, Singh R, Tiwari RK, Srivastava N, Verma S (2012) Antibacterial activity of extracts of Citrus, Allium and Punica against food borne spoilage. Asian J Plant Sci Res 2(4):503–509 Vizhi DK, Irulandi K, Mehalingam P, Kumar NN (2016) In vitro antimicrobial activity and phytochemical analysis of fruits of Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry  – an important medicinal plant. J Phytopharmacol 5(4):137–140 Wang S, Zheng Y, Xiang F, Li S, Yang G (2016) Antifungal activity of Momordica charantia seed extracts toward the pathogenic fungus Fusarium solani L. J Food Drug Anal 24(4):881–887 Xie JH, Shen MY, Xie MY, Nie SP, Chen Y (2012) Ultrasonic-assisted extraction, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal.) Iljinskaja polysaccharides. Carbohydr Polym 89:177–184

Chapter 4

Biologically Active Components of the Western Ghats Medicinal Fern Diplazium esculentum Ammatanda A. Greeshma, Kandikere R. Sridhar, and Mundamoole Pavithra

Abstract  The riparian fern Diplazium esculentum is nutritionally and medicinally valuable in the ethnic population of the Western Ghats of India. Fiddle heads of this fern are nutraceutically versatile and consumed similar to other leafy vegetables. The present study has addressed biologically active compounds (total phenolics, tannins, flavonoids, vitamin C, phytic acid, L-DOPA, trypsin inhibition and haemagglutination) and antioxidant potential (total antioxidant activity, ferrous ion-­ chelating capacity, reducing power, DPPH and ABTS radical-scavenging activities) in uncooked and cooked fiddle heads. Fiddle heads were devoid of L-DOPA as well as haemagglutinin activity. Total phenolics and flavonoids contents were not influenced by cooking, while tannins, vitamin C, phytic acid and trypsin inhibition activity were higher in uncooked than cooked fiddle heads. Among the antioxidant properties, total antioxidant activity and ferrous ion-chelating capacity were not influenced by cooking, whereas reducing power, DPPH and ABTS radical-­ scavenging activities were higher in uncooked than cooked fiddle heads. The principal component analysis was performed to ascertain the link between bioactive components and antioxidant potential of uncooked and cooked fiddle heads. Vitamin C and trypsin inhibition activity of uncooked fiddle heads influenced the ABTS radical-scavenging activity, while total phenolics, flavonoids and tannins of cooked samples influenced the total antioxidant activity, ferrous ion-chelating capacity and reducing power. Cooking has differentially influenced the bioactive components as well as antioxidant potential of fiddle heads. There also seems to be geographical difference in quantity of bioactive components (phenolics, flavonoids and vitamin C) as well as antioxidant potential (reducing power). Further insights are warranted to utilize different parts of the ethnically valued fern D. esculentum for nutritional and therapeutic advantages. Keywords  Antioxidant potential · Bioactive compounds · Ethnic value · Leafy vegetable · Non-conventional food · Nutraceutical potential · Riparian fern

A. A. Greeshma · K. R. Sridhar (*) · M. Pavithra Department of Biosciences, Mangalore University, Mangalore, Karnataka, India © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 D. Egamberdieva, A. Tiezzi (eds.), Medically Important Plant Biomes: Source of Secondary Metabolites, Microorganisms for Sustainability 15, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9566-6_4

67

68

A. A. Greeshma et al.

4.1  Introduction Consumption of nutrient-rich vegetables is one of the alternatives to overcome the malnutrition as well as nutrition-dependent human ailments (Ruma 2016; Sridhar and Karun 2017). Various ethnic groups are formulating and utilizing plant-based nutrients as well as medicines for several generations worldwide. In the recent past, ethnobotanical studies are advancing rapidly towards evaluation of traditional knowledge of wild plant sources as food and medicine (Jain 1987a, b, 1991; Sridhar et al. 2016; Sridhar and Karun 2017). Up to 80% of world’s foods are derived from plants belonging to 17 families, and the most important families include Brassicaceae, Fabaceae and Poaceae (Fici 2016). However, pteridophytes (ferns) are largely ignored and untapped natural resource for food as well as medicine (Singh and Singh 2012). Ferns are well known for food value (nutritional), medicine (homeopathic, ayurvedic and unani), insecticide (anti-herbivory) and antibiotic properties (Benniamin 2011). Pteridophytes and their allies of the Western Ghats include up to 256 illustrated forms (Dudani et al. 2012). One of the nonconventional edible and medicinal ferns of the Western Ghats is Diplazium esculentum, which is riparian and commonly occurs on the banks of streams and rivers. It is an important delicacy of multiethnic population of the Western Ghats (Archana et  al. 2013; Greeshma and Sridhar 2016; Greeshma et  al. 2018). Rinsed fiddle heads of D. esculentum are pan-frayed by seasoning with edible oil, spices and grated coconut to serve as a starter dish. Tender leaves of D. esculentum are consumed with hot sauce in Uttarkhand, India (Alderwerelt 1989). It also serves as an ingredient in culinary dishes in the Philippines (Tongco et al. 2014). Apart from nutritional qualities, D. esculentum is also known for biologically active constituents (Kaushik et al. 2012; Archana et al. 2013; Tongco et al. 2014; Greeshma et  al. 2018). Its foliage is traditionally used to cure headache, pain, fever, wounds, dysentery, glandular swelling, diarrhoea and skin infections (Akter et al. 2014). Roy et al. (2013) demonstrated through in vitro assays that the extract of D. esculentum possesses significant quantity of natural antioxidants, which prevents progression of various oxidative stress-associated diseases. The tribal communities and ethnic groups of the Western Ghats are utilizing different parts of this fern (e.g. rhizome, stem, fronds, pinna and spores) in treatment of many human ailments (Akter et al. 2014). Dried rhizomes of D. esculentum also serve as insecticides, and its decoction is useful in curing haemoptysis as well as cough (Anderson et al. 2003). In Albino mice model, aqueous extract of fresh leaves of D. esculentum at low doses (100  mg/kg) served as significant CNS stimulant against standard caffeine (Kaushik et  al. 2012). Fiddle heads of D. esculentum being known for nutritional and medicinal values, the present study envisaged to emphasize some of the biologically active components, antioxidant potential and their interrelationships.

4  Biologically Active Components of the Western Ghats Medicinal Fern…

69

Fig. 4.1  Side view of grown-up Diplazium esculentum (a), close-up view of fiddle heads with tender pinna (b) and different swirling patterns of fiddle heads (c–f)

4.2  The Fern The fiddle heads of fern Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. (family, Athyriaceae) were sampled from five different locations of the Western Ghats of Karnataka (Bethri, Kiggal, Mekeri, Murnad and Nelji) during southwest monsoon season (June–August, 2014) and brought to the laboratory in cold packs. The identity of the fern was confirmed by taxonomic descriptions by (Beddome 1865; Manickam and Irudayaraj 1992) (Fig. 4.1). Five fiddle head samples were independently processed within 6–8 h of sampling by rinsing in distilled water to remove the debris followed by pressing with paper towel to remove surface water. Each sample was divided into two groups, the first group was dried in an oven (50–55 °C), while the second group was pressure cooked without addition of more water followed by oven drying. The dried samples were milled (Wiley Mill, mesh # 30), and powder samples were preserved in refrigerator for further analysis.

4.3  Assessment 4.3.1  Bioactive Components The fern samples were assessed for eight bioactive components like total phenolics, tannins, flavonoids, vitamin C, phytic acid, L-DOPA, trypsin inhibition and haemagglutination.

70

A. A. Greeshma et al.

Total Phenolics  Total phenolics content of fern flour was assessed by the method outlined by Rosset et al. (1982). To fern flour (100 mg) methanol (50%, 10 ml) was added, mixed, incubated in water bath (95  °C, 10  min), cooled and centrifuged (2000 rpm, 20 min) and the supernatant recovered. The process was repeated, and the pooled final volume of supernatant was made to 20 ml. Flour extract (0.5 ml) was mixed with equal volume of distilled water, incubated (10 min, room temperature) on adding sodium carbonate (prepared in 0.1 N NaOH, 5 ml). On addition of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (dilution 1:2, 0.5 ml), the absorbance was read (725 nm; UV-VIS Spectrophotometer-118, Systronics, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India). The content of total phenolic was expressed as standard mg tannic acid equivalents/gram fern power (mg TAEs/g). Tannins  Tannin content of fern flour was evaluated based on the procedure by Burns (1971). To fern powder (1 g) methanol (50 ml) was mixed to extract tannins and shaken on a rotary shaker (28 °C, 24 h) followed by centrifugation (1500 rpm) to sample the supernatant. To the supernatant (1  ml) vanillin hydrochloride was added (5 ml: 4% in methanol +8% concentrated HCl in methanol; 1:1) followed by incubation (20  min, room temperature), and the absorbance was measured at 500 nm. The catechin dissolved in methanol served as standard, and tannin content was expressed in mg catechin equivalents (mg CEs/g). Flavonoids  Total flavonoids content in fern flour was detected by the method outlined by Chang et al. (2002). Fern flour (1 mg) was extracted with methanol (1.5 ml), aliquots of extract (0.5 ml each) were mixed with aluminium chloride (10%, 0.1 ml) + potassium acetate (1M, 0.1 ml), and the final volume was made to 3 ml in distilled water followed by incubation (30 min, room temperature). The standard used was quercetin dihydrate, and absorbance was measured (415 nm) and expressed the flavonoids in mg equivalents/gram fern powder (mg QEs/g). Vitamin C  Vitamin C content of fern powder was evaluated based on the procedure by Roe (1954). Powder flour (1 g) was extracted using trichloroacetic acid (TCA, 5%, 10 ml), and aliquots of extract (0.2 ml) were made up to 1 ml using TCA (5%) and mixed followed by addition of chromogen (1 ml) (dinitrophenyl hydrazine thiourea copper sulphate solution: 5 parts of 5% thiourea +5 parts of 0.6% copper sulphate + 90 parts of 2% 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine in H2SO4). The mixture was incubated (boiling water bath, 10  min), cooled, and on addition of H2SO4 (65%, 4 ml) further incubated (room temperature, 10 min), and absorbance was measured (540 nm). The standard used was ascorbic acid for quantification of vitamin C and represented in mg ascorbic acid equivalents/gram fern powder (mg AAEs/g). Phytic Acid  Phytic acid in fern powder was determined based on the method by Deshpande et al. (1982) and Sathe et al. (1983). Fern powder (2 g) was extracted with sodium sulphate (10  ml, 10% in 1.2% HCl) and stirred (room temperature,

4  Biologically Active Components of the Western Ghats Medicinal Fern…

71

2 h). On centrifugation (3000 rpm, 10 min), the supernatant was made up to 10 ml in sodium sulphate. The extract (5  ml) was blended with ferric chloride (2  g in 16.3  ml of 12N HCl, diluted to 1 L) and vortexed followed by centrifugation (3000 rpm, 10 min). Filtered the supernatant (Whatman # 1), and the filtrate was made to 10 ml using distilled water. Free soluble phosphorous was determined by vandomolybdophosphoric acid method by potassium dihydrogen phosphate as reference to express phytic acid in percentage.



Total phosphorus ( g / 100 g ) =

M ×V × F × ∆Ap 10, 000 × W × V

(4.1)

[M, average of phosphorus standard (μg/∆Ap); V, original sample in ml; F, dilution factor; ∆Ap, absorbance; W, weight of sample (g); V, volume of sample (ml)]



Phytic acid ( % ) =

Phosphorus ( g / 100 g ) 0.282



(4.2)

(0.282, factor used to convert phosphorus into phytic acid as it contains 28.2% of phosphorus). L-DOPA  The L-DOPA (L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalaninne) of fern powder was determined by method proposed by Fujii et al. (1991). Fern samples were mixed with distilled water (1 ml), incubated (room temperature) for 2 h and centrifuged (1500 rpm, 10 min), and the supernatant is allowed to concentrate to dryness using a rota evaporator. To eliminate high molecular weight compounds, the extract was dissolved in distilled water followed by filtering through ultrafilter overnight. The fraction was purified using ODS extraction mini column (C18 Sep-Pak Cartridge, Waters) with water followed by evaporation to dryness. The L-DOPA was determined in HPLC (Tosoh system DP-8020; UV-8020, 280 nm; Column, Aqua 180 Mightsil; Kanto chemical Co. Inc., Japan) as well as LC-ESI/MS (Positive mode; Waters 181 Associates Inc., Milford, MA). Trypsin Inhibition  Trypsin activity was evaluated according to the method by Kakade et al. (1974). Fern powder (1 g) was stirred constantly with NaOH (0.01N, 50 ml) up to 10 min. The extract (1 ml) was diluted with distilled water (1:1), followed by addition of enzyme standard (2  ml) (2  mg trypsin/100  ml 0.001  M NaOH) and incubated in water bath (37 °C, 10 min), and 5 ml BAPNA (40 mg Nα-Benzoyl-­L-arginine 4-nitroanilide hydrochloride dissolved in dimethyl sulphoxide and made to 100 ml with Tris-buffer at 37 °C) was added and incubated at room temperature (10 min). Acetic acid (30%; 1 ml) was added to stop the reaction followed by measurement of absorbance (410 nm). Control was prepared as per protocol without addition of the fern extract. Trypsin inhibition (TIu)/mg of fern flour was calculated.

72



A. A. Greeshma et al.

( Ac 410 − As 410 ) × 100  per ml extract TIu / mg =  Mg sample per ml of extract

(4.3)

(Ac, absorbance of control; As, absorbance of sample) Haemagglutination  The haemagglutinin activity in fern powder was determined by the method outlined by Occeña et al. (2007). The fern extract was prepared by mixing defatted powder (1 g) in NaCl (0.9%; 10 ml) and incubated at room temperature (1 h). Centrifuged (2000 rpm, 10 min), supernatant was collected and filtered to use as crude agglutinin. Heparinized human blood samples were centrifuged (2000 rpm, 10 min) to separate erythrocytes. Erythrocytes (A+, B+, AB+, O+) were washed repeatedly until the clear supernatant was obtained (1:4; chilled saline, 0.9%). Processed erythrocytes (4 ml) were transferred into phosphate buffer (100 ml; 0.0006 M, pH 7.4) and incubated (37 °C, 1 h) by addition of trypsin (2%, 1 ml) on mixing. On incubation, trypsinized solution was repeatedly washed using saline (0.9%) to remove trypsin content. The erythrocytes were suspended in saline (0.9%) and made to 100 ml. Round bottomed 96-well microtitre plate was used for assay. Phosphate buffer (50 μl) was added in the well # 1–11, followed by the addition of crude agglutinin extract (50 μl) to the well # 1, and mixed, and twofold serial dilution was made up to well # 11. Erythrocytes suspension (50 μl) was added to well # 1–11. The well # 12 served as control for sample. Contents in the wells were gently mixed followed by incubation at room temperature (4 h) to observe haemagglutination in each well. Haemagglutination unit/gram (Hu/g) was calculated.



Hu / g =

Da × Db × S V

(4.4)

(Da, dilution factor of extract in well #1; Db, dilution factor of well containing 1 Hu is the well in which the haemagglutination was observed; S, initial extract/gram fern powder; V, volume of extract in well # 1).

4.3.2  Antioxidant Properties Evaluation of antioxidant potential of any plant material has no universal method. In almost all methods, a radical has been generated, and the capability of test sample in quenching the radical is assessed (Erel 2004). According to Wong et al. (2006), it is necessary to evaluate at least two methods for a fair assessment of antioxidant potential of a biological material. In our study, five methods of assessment have been followed to get a fair idea of antioxidant potential of uncooked and cooked fiddle heads of D. esculentum (total antioxidant activity, ferrous ion-chelating capacity, reducing power, DPPH radical-scavenging activity and ABTS radical-­scavenging activity). The fern powder samples each of 0.5 g were extracted with 30 ml methanol using a rotary shaker (150 rpm, 48 h). After the samples were centifuged, the supernatant

4  Biologically Active Components of the Western Ghats Medicinal Fern…

73

was transferred to a preweighed Petri dish and allowed to evaporate at room temperature. The extract weight was assessed gravimetrically and dissolved in methanol at concentration 1 mg/ml to assess antioxidant potential. Total Antioxidant Activity  Total antioxidant activity (TAA) was determined by the method by Prieto et al. (1999). To methanolic extract of fern (1mg/ml; 0.1 ml) added the reagent mixture (28 mM sodium phosphate +4 mM ammonium molybdate in 0.6 M sulphuric acid) followed by incubation (95 °C, 90 min). The absorbance was measured (695 nm), and the TAA was expressed in μM equivalents of ascorbic acid/ gram (μM AAEs/g). Ferrous Ion-Chelating Capacity  Ferrous ion-chelating capacity of the methanolic extract of fern was determined by the protocol by Hsu et  al. (2003). On mixing methanol extract (1 ml) with 2 mM ferrous chloride (0.1 ml) + ferrozine (5 mM, 0.2 ml), the volume was made to 5 ml (in methanol) followed by incubation (room temperature) for 10 min, and the absorbance was measured (562 nm). Control was prepared similar to the sample without addition of fern extract to calculate percent ferrous ion-chelating capacity.



 A  Ferrous ion-chelating activity ( % ) =  1 s 562  100  Ac 562 

(4.5)

(As, absorbance of sample; Ac, absorbance of control). Reducing Power  Reducing power of the fern extract was detected following the method by Oyaizu (1986) with a slight modification. Different concentrations of fern extract (0.2–1.0 mg/ml) were prepared in phosphate buffer (0.2 M, pH 6.6), and potassium ferricyanide (1%, 2.5 ml) was added and incubated (50 °C) up to 20 min. The TCA (10%, 2.5 ml) was added to the mixture followed by centrifugation (3000 rpm, 10 min), and supernatant (2.5 ml) was mixed with double-distilled water (2.5 ml) followed by addition of FeCl3 (0.1%, 0.5 ml), and absorbance was measured (700 nm). DPPH Radical-Scavenging Activity  Radical-scavenging activity of the fern extract was determined according to Singh et al. (2002). Different concentrations of fern extract (0.2–1.0  mg/ml) were made up to 1  ml using methanol, and reagent was added (0.001 M DPPH in methanol, 4 ml). On mixing it was incubated in dark room temperature up to 20 min. The reagent devoid of extract served as control, and the absorbance was measured (517 nm).



 [ A − As 517 ]  Free radical-scavenging activity ( % ) =  c 517  ×100 Ac 517  

(where Ac, absorbance of control; As, absorbance of sample)

(4.6)

74

A. A. Greeshma et al.

ABTS Radical-Scavenging Activity  The ABTS [(2, 2′-azinobis (3-­ethylbenzothiaz oline-­6-sulfonic acid)] cationic radical decolourization assay was performed based on the procedure by Adedapo et al. (2008). Stock solution (ABTS+, 7.4 mM, and potassium persulphate, 2.6 mM) and working solution (mixing stock solutions 1:1; allowed to react at room temperature, for 12 h in dark) were prepared. The working solution was diluted with methanol to get suitable absorbance (1 ± 0.01 units at 734 nm). Different concentrations of fern extract (made up to 62 μl using absolute alcohol) were treated with ABTS+ (188 μl, in dark, 30 min) followed by measurement of absorbance (734 nm) to determine percent inhibition.



 Assay control − ( Test − Control )  Inhibition percentage ( % ) =   100 (4.7) Assay control  

(Assay control, ethanol + ABTS reagent; control, sample + ethanol + methanol).

4.3.3  Data Analysis The distinction between uncooked and cooked fern flours in assays was assessed by t-test (StatSoft Inc. 2008). To establish the relationship between the bioactive components (total phenolics, tannins, flavonoids, vitamin C, phytic acid and trypsin inhibition activity) and antioxidant potential (total antioxidant activity, ferrous ion-­ chelating capacity, reducing power assay, DPPH radical-scavenging activity and ABTS radical-scavenging activity), the principal component analysis (PCA) was employed (SPSS version 16.0: www.spss.com).

4.4  Observations and Discussion 4.4.1  Bioactive Components Total Phenolics  Total phenolics content of the fiddle heads of D. esculentum was not influenced by pressure cooking (p > 0.05) (Fig. 4.2a). Turkmen et al. (2005) observed increased content of phenolics in cooked vegetables such as green beans, pepper and broccoli. The phenolic contents of fiddle heads of D. esculentum in the present study are higher than the fiddle heads from Assam, while opposite for the young pinna reported from Bangladesh, India (Darjeeling, Maharashtra) and the Philippines (Das et al. 2013; Roy et al. 2013; Akter et al. 2014; Tongco et al. 2014; Saha et al. 2015). Moderately high quantity of total phenolics in the study is comparable with an earlier report by Archana et  al. (2013). Phenolic compounds are well known for their importance as antioxidants, antimicrobial agents and insecticidal potential (De Britto et al. 2012).

4  Biologically Active Components of the Western Ghats Medicinal Fern…

75

Fig. 4.2  Bioactive principles of fiddle heads of Diplazium esculentum: total phenolics (a), tannins (b), flavonoids (c), vitamin C (d), phytic acid (e) and trypsin inhibition (f) (t-test: ∗p