Smooth
Bark that has a smooth texture and may be covered in lenticels.
Vase-shape
When a plant has upright spreading branches with an outline shape of a vase.This deciduous tree has a short trunk with dark bark and forms a vase habit with a rounded crown. It has dark purple leaves and the saucer-shaped white flowers appear in early spring. The cultivar 'Nigra' produces darker leaves and pale pink flowers.
Prunus cerasifera is naturally found from south-east Europe to south-west Asia growing in woodlands. It prefers a well drained moderately fertile sandy to clay loam and is pH adaptable but prefers a pH from 5.0 to 7.5. It grows in an open sunny position with some wind protection and is drought and frost tolerant.
The Purple Leafed Plum is grown for its spreading crown and masses of pink spring flowers. It is planted in shrub borders for screening or used as a specimen in a Japanese garden along avenues and in parks. It is also used for street plantings and has a moderate growth rate establishing in 3 to 4 years as a small tree and is long-lived. When young it can be grown in large tubs or planter boxes and the cultivar 'Nigra' is the more commonly cultivated plant for colour contrast. It has a medium water requirement once established (Scale: 2-drops from 3) and prefers deep moist soil during summer.
I.D. 179
UK hardiness zone H6
Climate zones 3, 7, 14 - 20
USDA Zone 3-10
Prunus (PROO-nus) cerasifera (ke-ra-SI-fe-ra)
Etymology
Genus: Latin – Prunus – ‘plum’ referring to the type of tree, a plum tree
Species: Latin - cerasifera – ‘cerasi’ meaning (cherry) and ‘fera’ meaning (wild) referring to the fruit
Cultivar – Latin ‘Nigra’ – (black) referring to the dark early foliage
Cultivar
'Atropurpurea' Pissard Plum
This upright shrub forms a dense habit and produces light pink flowers that appear before the leaves. The leaves are ruby red on opening, maturing to dark purplish red.
'Festeri'
This upright tree to 10 m (30 ft) forms a dense habit and produces light pink flowers that appear before the leaves in spring. The leaves are ruby red on opening, maturing to dark purplish red.
'Hessei'
This upright shrub produces narrow reddish brown leaves that have a yellowish margin.
'Hollywood', 'Trailblazer'
This upright tree to 10 m (30 ft) forms a dense habit and produces white to pink flowers that appear before the leaves. The leaves are green above and purplish below.
'Newport'
This hardy shrub forms a rounded crown and produces light pink flowers that appear before the leaves. The leaves are light bronze on opening and maturing to dark purplish red.
'Nigra'
This smaller plant has deep purple leaves with single pale pink flowers during spring.
'Purpusii'
This shrub has variable foliage that is plum-red with creamy variegation to bronze with yellow-pink variegation.
'Thundercloud'
This upright shrub forms a dense habit and produces single pink fragrant flowers that appear before the leaves. The leaves are deep purplish red.
Rosaceae (ro-ZAY-see-ee)
Rose Family
Distribution
The plants in this family are found in many parts of the world with the greatest diversity in the temperate to sub-tropical regions of the northern hemisphere.
Diagnostic Features
This large family consists of herbaceous herbs, deciduous or evergreen shrubs or trees and some climbers. Some of the plants have branches with thorns.
The leaves are simple or compound (pinnate or palmate) and arranged alternately rarely opposite with or without stipules that adnate to the petiole.
The regularly normally bisexual flowers are arranged in a terminal or axillary racemose or cymose and paniculate inflorescence.
The commonly large and showy calyx has 4 - 5 sepals that are normally imbricate and often epicalyx with 5 extra sepal-like organs. The 4 - 5 petals are sometimes absent and are available in a wide range of colours except blue..
The whorled stamens number twice or more than the petals and are perigynous.
The ovary is superior or inferior with one to several carpels that are free or united.
The fruit is a capsule, pome, drupe or achene containing seeds that lack endosperm.
There are 85 - 100 genera with around 2,000 species or more.
Note:
Many of the species are grown as ornamental plants and for bush or tree fruit that is used in deserts or for making cider.
This plant tolerates between USDA zones 3a to 10a and grows to 6 m (25 ft)
Fahrenheit -40º to 35º F
These temperatures represent the lowest average.
Celsius -37.3º to 1.6º C
Attention
All photographs and data are covered by copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, reference or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any means with out written permission. All inquiries should be addressed to plantfile.com attention Peter Kirkland.
Simple
The leaf that is not divided.
Elliptical
A leaf that tapers equally at both ends. Broadest at the middle.
Spiral
Leaves arrangment is twisted like a screw.
Crenulate
A leaf margin with very small rounded saw tooth appearance.
Crateriform
A saucer shaped hollow.
Solitary
When a flower that arises singly from within the axis of a leaf or terminally.| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun |
| Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
The 25 mm (1 in) wide single crateriform flowers appear on a short spur branch when the tree is 1 to 3 years old and normally before the leaves during early spring. The cultivar 'Nigra' has single pale pink flowers with a reddish calyx and also appear during early spring.
Drupe
A succulent fruit composed of an outer fleshy layer "The Purple Leafed Plum is grown for its spreading crown and masses of pink spring flowers. It is planted in shrub borders for screening or used as a specimen in a Japanese garden along avenues and in parks. It is also used for street plantings and has a moderate growth rate establishing in 3 to 4 years as a small tree and is long-lived. When young it can be grown in large tubs or planter boxes and the cultivar 'Nigra' is the more commonly cultivated plant for colour contrast.
Note:
This plant is susceptible to Rust, Brown Rot, Shot Hole, Root Knot Nematode, Japanese Beetle, Leafcutting Bee and Greenhouse Thrips.
Take hardwood cuttings in winter.
Plants are budded onto seedling understock.
Asexual Propagation (Cuttings general)
Propagation from cuttings is possible because every cell of a plant containers the genetic information to create an entire plant.
1. Reproduction occurs through the formation of adventitious roots and shoots.
2. The uniting of vegetative parts with budding and grafting.
3. Taking stem cuttings and layering is possible due to the development of adventitious roots
4. Root cuttings can form new shoots and it is possible to join roots and shoots to form a new plant.
5. A new plant may be formed from a single cell in an aseptic culture system, (cloning).
It is important to propagate vegetatively as this form of cloning retains the unique characteristics of the cultivars or where particular aspects of a plant may be lost if propagated by seed.
Equipment Required for Taking Cuttings
1. A sharp knife that is not too large or a razor mounted in a handle.
2. Good pair of sharp secateurs that is clean.
3. A dibbler to make a hole in the media and allow the cutting to be placed in.
4. Propagation structures that are either a timber frame with glass or polyethylene cover or a glasshouse.
The object of the structure is to create an environment where the temperature and humidity can be controlled. This can be achieved with a simple cover over a pot with a wire frame and plastic.
This stops the draughts and maintains humidity.
5. A hotbed is a useful item as many plants root more quickly if the media is slightly warmer.
Bottom heat is obtained from thermostatically controlled heating cables that are running under the media.
6. Misting systems are of great benefit to cuttings as the regulated fogging with water inhibits the cuttings from drying out and as a result the cuttings may be grown in full sun.
This results in faster root development and less subject to diseases by fungi and bacteria.
7. Rooting mediums
The rooting medium must be well drained, sand may be used as long as it is thoroughly washed and leached of all salts. It is very well drained and it is excellent for cutting that root up quickly. Equal parts of sand and peat moss have good results for cuttings, which are left for a period of time to allow the roots to form.
Vermiculite and perlite are also used as a well-drained rooting media but has the same disadvantage as sand having no nutrients. The cuttings must be potted up as soon as the roots developed, or a light application of liquid fertiliser can be applied.
Types of Cuttings
Stem cuttings
These are the main types of cuttings.
1. Softwood cuttings
These cuttings are taken from young growth on side shoots and tip growth.
2. Semi hardwood cuttings
These cuttings are taken from wood that is firmer and semi ripe usually during mid summer.
3. Hardwood cuttings
These cuttings are taken from mature wood normally towards the end of the season.
4. Root cuttings
Cut sections of roots to obtain new plants during late winter to early spring.
5. Leaf cuttings
Cut the leaf blade in order to obtain new plants during the growing period of the plant.
Cutting preparation
Hardwood cuttings
When taking hardwood cuttings remove the leaves and in semi hardwood reduce the number of leaves by half. Cut the wood straight across just below a node or joint. Hardwood cuttings are normally between 100 to 760 mm long and may have either a heel of the older wood attached to the base, or a short section of the older wood at the base. These cuttings are prepared during the dormant season from late autumn to early spring and are made up from previous season's growth.
This type of cutting is used for woody deciduous plants such as Crepe Myrtle, Rose rootstocks and some fruit trees.
The cuttings should be healthy wood with ample supply of stored food as to nourish developing roots and shoots and placed in the rooting media with the aid of a dibbler stick.
Softwood cuttings
The cuttings for softwood should be 60 to 130 mm long and be of material with enough substance as to not deteriorate before the new roots appear. Cut below a node and retain the leaves on the upper portion. Place in a well-drained media and maintain a high humidity.
Soaking the cuttings and leaving them standing in water for long periods is undesirable.
Herbaceous cuttings
These cuttings are taken from succulent plants such as Geraniums and Coleus. The cutting should be 70 to 130 mm long with leaves retained on the upper end. As in softwood cuttings these require an environment of high humidity. Some fleshy cuttings ooze sap and may require a drying period for a few hours before being placed in the rooting media.
Leaf cutting
In these cuttings a leaf blade and petiole or part off is used to raise a new plant. The original leaf doses not become a part of the new plant as roots and shoots appear from the base of the leaf. In some cases roots appear from the severed veins.
Leaf-Bud cuttings
These cuttings incorporate a leaf, petiole and a small piece of the stem. These cuttings are an advantage where the plant uses the axillary bud at the base of the petiole for new shoot growth and maximises available propagation material, as each node will produce a new plant.
As in softwood cuttings these require an environment with high humidity and warmth.
Root cuttings
These cuttings are best taken from younger plants during late winter to early spring prior the new season's growth unless the dormant period is during summer.
Trim the roots as they are dug up and to maintain polarity cut strength at the crown end and a slanted cut at the distal end (away from the crown).
Root cuttings of small plants are placed in flats in lengths of 20 to 50 mm and laying horizontally on the surface of the soil. These may be lightly covered with sieved sand or media, watered and then placing a piece of glass or polyethylene over the container till roots / shoots appear.
Fleshy root cuttings
These cuttings should be 50 to 75 mm long and placed vertically in a well-drained sand media.
Keep the polarity correct and when the roots develop transplant the cuttings into a separate container.
Large root cuttings
These cuttings are 50 to 150 mm long and are tied up in bundles and placed in boxes of damp sand, sawdust or peat for about three weeks at a temperature of 4. 5 deg C. When taken out they should be planted in a prepared bed 50 to 80 mm apart with the tops of the cuttings level with or just below the soil level.
Grafting and Budding (General)
Grafting and budding have many different purposes.
1. It produces clones that are otherwise unobtainable through cuttings, layering and division.
2. To gain the benefits of certain rootstocks.
3. Changing cultivars of established plants.
4. It accelerates the reproductive maturity of seedlings in a hybridisation program.
5. Repairing damaged parts of trees.
Grafting is the joining two pieces of living tissue as so they grow into a single living plant there is 5 requirements for a successful graft.
1. The stock and the scion must be compatible.
2. The scion and stock must have intermittent contact in the cambium region and held together by wrapping or wedging.
3. The graft must be carried out when the stock and scion are in the right physiological stage. A dormant bud and a stock that is capable of forming a callus.
4. Protect all cut areas after the grafting operation with wax or tape.
5. After-care of the plant by the removal of shoots from below the graft.
Tools and Materials Required for Grafting
1. Knives
There are two types of knives, budding and grafting either folding or a fixed blade. A budding knife may do both jobs if required. The knife must be razor sharp and is usually honed on an oil stone at a 20-deg angle.
2. Grafting Waxes
The ideal grafting wax should adhere well and not wash off, crack, chip and still be pliable enough to allow the callus to grow. A darker wax is often used as the sun will warm it and thus it remains pliable.
When applying the hot wax be careful that the temperature is not extreme as to damage the living wood.
The wax is normally heated on a small burner and applied with a brush and there is an aerosol form available for small jobs.
3. Wrapping and Tying Materials
String is a simple material to tie a graft in place. Waxed string is good as it adheres to the wax covering. The string should be strong enough to hold the scion in place but weak enough to be broken by hand.
Tape is cloth, adhesive or PVC. The nurseryman's adhesive is the most convenient as it can be used for tiering and sealing but do not apply to many layers as this will not disintegrate quickly and cause constrictions.
Grafting Methods
Whip Grafting
This method is used for smaller material. The scion should contain 2 to 3 buds with the graft occurring in the smooth internode area.
The cut that is made at the top of the stock should be the same as the cut on the bottom of the scion.
These should marry together evenly with a reverse cut that forms interlocking tongues.
If the scion is smaller than the stock it should be placed to one side. After the graft is complete it is secured by wrapping or tying then waxing.
Splice Grafting
This is the same as whip grafting except there is no tongue only a slanted cut on both stock and scion.
Side Graft
There are several methods for this but normally it involves the insertion of the scion into the side of the stock that is normally larger.
Cleft Grafting
This is an old method that works well for straight grained plants. It involves the cutting of the stock are right angles and splitting it with a large knife and inserting the prepared tapering wedged scion on the cambium layer. After the graft is complete it is sealed with wax.
Wedge Grafting
This type of grafting is carried out during late winter to early spring. The scion used should be 10 to 13 mm long and 8 to 12 mm thick with a wedge shape base that matches the stock cavity.
Using a large knife a wedge should be cut in to the side of stock as to create a 2 cm (1/16 in) long V shape which can be nocked out to form a cavity. More than one cut may be made around the edge of the stock to allow multiple grafts.
Matching the cambium layers on the stock and scion gently tapped into place tilting slightly outwards to ensure that the cambium layers cross.
After grafting is completed all exposed areas are to be covered in grafting wax to seal off.
Budding
This is a form of grafting that has only one bud and uses only a small section of the bark. It is carried out by slipping bark that is actively growing. The T-budding is a quick and reliable method and is widely used in commercial production.
Methods of Budding
1. T-Budding
This commonly used method is carried out by making a vertical cut about 2.5 cm (1 in) long in the stock. A horizontal cut is then made at the top of the vertical cut and runs one third around the stock. Twist the knife to open the two flaps of bark.
Preparing the Bud
Use a sharp knife and slice 12 mm (½ in) below the bud up and under at a depth of about 25 mm (1 in) finishing just above the bud then a horizontal cut is made through the bark to release the bud.
Inserting the Bud into the Stock
The bud is inserted into the stock by pushing down and in side the T cut until the two horizontal cuts are even. The bud union is then tightly tied.
2. Inverted T-Budding.
This method is used in areas of high rainfall or where a plant weeps a lot. The budding method is the same as a normal T-Bud but has the advantage of draining well. It is important to insert the bud with the correct orientation.
2. Patch Budding
Patch budding is carried out during late summer or spring. It involves removal of a piece of bark that is replaced with a bud of equal size. A special double bladed knife is used and this is normally carried out on larger plants.
Method of Patch Budding
1. The stock is cut about one third around with two parallel horizontal cuts using a double bladed knife.
Vertical cuts join the horizontal and the piece of bark is removed.
2. The bud is prepared in the same method and is removed by sliding it off from one side.
3. The bud is then inserted into the stock and may require trimming to form a tight fit.
4. The union is then wrapped or covered with wax revealing only the bud.
There are many variations of the patch bud,
Flute Bud
Ring Bud
I-Bud
Chip Budding
Chip budding is normally used before growth starts with small wood in early spring and as growth tappers during autumn.
Method of Chip Budding
1. Make a cut at 45 deg down and into the stock to a quarter the thickness. A second cut is made 25 mm (1 in) above going down and in to meet the base of the first cut.
2. The bud is cut in the same method creating a wedge that is the same size as the stock cut.
3. Remove the chip from the stock and place the matching bud into the stock.
4. Wrap the union with tape and cover all exposed cuts.
PEST
NAME
Borer (General)
Various Borer Species
ORDER
Various
FAMILY
Various
Description of the Pest
Generally the larvae bore holes into the heartwood, sapwood or down the centre of twigs. These tunnels may be small or large, deep or shallow and when they emerge from their tunnels at night, they feed on the surrounding tissue. Entrance holes may be covered by a layer of chewed wood fragments ("frass"), silk webbing or exposed and the tunnels may be solitary or form galleries. Certain species attack only twigs and young shoots, while others attack the trunk or roots.
Fruit tree moth borer damage
The adults female of a fruit tree moth borer normally deposits eggs in damaged areas of the bark or where there is and existing active site. The larvae vary but generally they are creamy to brown, thick soft grub-like reddish brown, and up to 40mm in length.
The adults are white, satiny moths with 40-60mm wingspans with their black abdomens fringed with orange-brown hair or beetle lava that has been deposited in the bark or twigs then tunnels the host.
American Plum Borer (Euzophera semifuneralis) lava is pinkish white to brownish green and attacks the inner bark and cambium region of the tree causing premature death. It is normally found on Platanus orFraxinus species and may also infest many species of fruit trees.
Apple Root Borer (Leptopius squalidus) female adult is a weevil to 20mm long and feeds on the leaves and the plump, legless grub-like lava feeds on the roots of the same host forming tunnels in the deep roots. It is commonly found on Acacia and Eucalyptus species damaging the anchorage of the plant.
Banksia Borer (Cyria imperialis) adult is a black beetle with yellow markings on its wing covers growing to 15mm long. The thickish legless lava is white, tapering from the head and forms flattened tunnels into the heartwood of the host.
Bronze Birch Borer (Agrilus anxius) is a bronze coloured beetle up to 14mm long and lays eggs in crevices in the bark. The legless white larva grows to 20mm long and feeds on the sapwood girdling the branch with flat irregular galleries.
Cedar Tree Borer (Semanotus ligneus) is a black beetle with orange and red markings on its wing covers and grows to 12mm long. The larva feeds on the sapwood of Sequoia, Thuja species and Pinus radiata with curved tunnels that may girdle branches.
Chestnut Borer (Agrilus bilineatus) adult is a tiny slender, blackish green beetle up to 8mm long emerging during spring. The small white larvae have a flat head and are up to 15mm long, forming galleries under the bark of Quercus species.
Cypress Bark Beetle (Phloeosinus cupressi) adult is dark brown with a blackish head, oblong in shape up to 3mm long. The tiny beetles tunnels under the bark of the host and deposits eggs. After hatching the tiny 4mm long, legless larvae bore into the heartwood damaging the tree. After they pupate in the tunnel they emerge through small round holes, commonly many together on the trunk. Damaged trees show signs of browning and dead leaves in the upper branches or falling damage twigs. Cupressus species are particularly vulnerable to attack.
Deodar Weevil (Pissodes nemorensis) is brownish with an obvious snout feeding on the cambium layer and deposits eggs in the bark of the leader and branches. The white lava tunnel the wood eventually killing the leader.
European Corn Borer (Pyrausta nubilalis) is a small moth that lays up to twenty eggs on flower buds. The young flesh coloured larvae mature to a reddish brown and each of its segment has four, spined dark spots.
Elephant Weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris) is a grey or black insect up to 20mm long and lays eggs in the bark near the base of stressed trees. The larva tunnels its way through roots or trunks depositing frass as it goes, then emerging from a second round hole. The adults eat strips from the leaves, normally not bothering the plant.
Elm Borer (Saperda tridentate) adult is a greyish beetle with red bands and black spots on its wing covers and is up to 12mm long. The eggs are laid on the bark and the whitish lava tunnels into the bark and sapwood where it overwinters. It is normally found on Ulmus species.
Iris Borer (Macronoctua onusta) is born from a grey moth with a wing span up to 30mm across, and lays eggs that overwinter in old leaves and debris. As the leaves emerge the eggs hatch entering the leaves at the base, visually forming tunnels and growing to 30mm long. In the later season flower buds may be attacked. Both flowers and leaves eventually turn brown and die.
Lilac Borer (Podosesia syringae) adult is a wasp-like moth that produces pure white lava with a brown head that are up to 25mm long. It initially feeds in the sapwood causing wilting before tunnelling the hardwood making the branches brittle. Evidence of frass is found at the tunnel entrance and secondary fungal attacks infect the holes. Normally found on Syringa species.
Locust Borer (megacyllene robiniae) adult is a black beetle with golden spots, up to 20mm long and produces a small larva that tunnels galleries into the sapwood causing a blackish discolouration. Robinia species are normally attacked.
Mottled Borer (Cryptorhynchus lapathi) attacks Salix species. The adult beetle is black up to 10mm long and the lava bore into the surface of the stem causing swollen growth. Salix species are attacked.
Murry Pine Borer can be two species (Diaoxus erythrurus) and (Diaoxus scalaris). The adults are glossy green-brown beetles that are up to 20mm long and the white grub-like lava is legless, tapering from the head. They tunnel into the sap or hardwood of the trees forming connecting galleries causing ringbarking and creating brittle branches, commonly fond on Callitris species.
Peach Borer (Sanninoidea exitiosa) is a larva that tunnels roots causing gummosis that is mixed with frass at the crown just below soil level. The affected Prunus species produce yellowish leaves and grows poorly. There is another borer, Lesser Peach Borer (Synanthedon pictipes) which attacks any part of the plant from the trunk to the branches and is found on several Prunus species.
Puriri Moth (Aenetus Virescens) a New Zealand short lived moth that grows with a wing span of over 100mm (4in) wide laying eggs on the forest floor at night during spring. The caterpillars grow to 100mm long feeding on leaves and then ascending into the trees and entering the cambium layer up to 150mm deep forming a characteristic '7'-shape burrow that is concealed by frass. The caterpillar may live for 7-years before pupating and collectively they ring bark branches or trunks causing dieback.
Many New Zealand plants including Nothofagus solandri, Pomaderris spp.and ornamentals such as Quercus spp. Betula pendula, Salix spp. Populus spp. Acer spp. Citrus limon and Paulownia spp. are attacked. Control is difficult and generally the plants tolerate attack.
White Pine Weevil (Pissodes strobi) lava feed on the inner bark and sap wood of terminal shoots causing ringbarking and death of the shoot. The reddish brown beetle up to 6mm long is mottled in white and emerges during early summer then lays yellowish lava that are up to 9mm long.
Scribble Moth (Ogmorgraptis scribula) is a grey moth up to 0.4mm wide and produces a cream to brown larvae that is also about 0.4mm long and tunnels in the bark causing a scribble effect. This normally has no detrimental effect on the tree.
Spotted Hemlock Borer (Melanophila fulvoguttata) adult is a colourful metallic beetle with yellowish red spots on the wing covers and lays eggs in cracks in the bark. The white lava is up to 14mm long and forms galleries in the bark and sapwood of the host.
The large Swift Moth and Wood Moths can have a wing span up to 250mm wide and produce large larva that are grub like up to 150mm long, some with horny plates on the thorax. These larvae bore tunnels that are up to 30mm across straight through the heartwood of the host plant. The larvae may live in the tunnel for up to five years before pupating.
Red Cedar Bark Beetle (Phloesinus dentatus) is a small beetle up to 3mm long and lays its larva in excavations in the bark. When the larva emerges they bore galleries in the bark and tend to be more prevalent in stressed or recently transplanted plants.
Vegetable Weevil (Listroderes difficilis) is found during cooler weather (spring or autumn). The adult brown beetle up to 19mm long with a "V" mark on its back and the eggs are laid in the soil around the base of the host plant. The cream coloured lava emerges in spring after rain and feed on the lower leaves forming irregular holes or chewing holes in stems. The lava also feed on fleshy roots boring holes into carrots. Both the adults and lava cause damage, feeding on the plant during the night and resting at the base or under ground during the day. The lava pupates in the soil over winter.
Wattle Web-covering Borer (Cryptophasa rubescens) adult is a satin coloured moth that is up to 50mm across and deposits green fleshy lava that is up to 35mm long. The lava forms shallow tunnels in the bark and sap wood of the host and camouflages it with chewed wood and faeces that is webbed together. Commonly seen attacking the branches on Acacia species.
Life Cycle
These insects have normally have a Holometabolous life cycle. But some borers such as Termites have a Hemimetabolous life cycle.
Eggs are laid singly or in groups, in damaged areas of the bark and branch. Larvae shelter in tunnels they create in the wood and some species may take many years to pupate and emerge as an adult. This may take place in live or dead wood. Other species such as Corn Borer can have up to two generations per year.
Termites and their damage
Distribution of the Pest
Borers are found throughout the world with many species found in Australia both on the coast and inland.
Period of Activity
Varies with the insect concern. Many larvae can be active for many months. Termites are active all year.
Damage Caused
Most damage appears on branches or trunks where the larvae feed on the soft tissue and extensive feeding may cause ring-barking. Normally plants survive borer attack but repetitive attack will cause the death. Certain species are a serious pest in plantations or monocultures such as the Pine Bark Weevil, and the Sirex wood wasp.
Typical borer damage by a moth larva
Chestnut Borer feeds on the sap wood ringbarking large branches and overwinters in the tunnels.
Corn Borer feeds on flower buds and leaves resulting in there death, after which the larva tunnel down the stem causing wilting. There are many crop plants and ornamentals that are affected by this larva.
Swift Moth and Wood Moths weaken trees by boring large tunnels through the branches that may not be noticed until holes are cut through the bark during emergence.
Iris Borer damages leaves to turn brown and wilt, flowers also turn brown and with the aid of a bacterial rot, collapse and die. This damage may be extended to the flower stalk.
Stem Borer (Papaipema nebris) is a small lava to 12mm long, and attacks many garden plants including Lilium, Aster, Alcea and Phlox species
Borer Damage 
Resin oozing from a trunk
Susceptible Plants
There are many plants that are attacked by these pests including Banksia, Callistemon, Melaleuca, Lagerstroemia, Jacaranda species, and flowering stonefruit. Eucalyptus, Acacia species and many ornamental such as Acer species. Plants that are stressed, are particularly venerable.
Acacia and Eucalyptus species are attacked by Swift Moths and Wood Moths.
Acacia species are susceptible to attack from the Wattle Web-covering Borer (Cryptophasa rubescens), which weakens and causes die back of branches.
Acer platanoides is attacked by the Leaf Stalk Borer (Nepticula albostriella) that tunnels into the petiole of the leaf turning it blackish and also attacks the fruit.
Acer saccharinum is attacked by the Petiole Borer (Caulocampus acericaulis) which tunnels in the petioles. It generally attacks the leaves on the lower branches causing them to fall.
Acer species may also be attacked by several borers including the Flat Headed Borer (Chrysobothris femorata), a 25mm long lava of a coppered coloured beetle, that tunnels galleries under the bark girdling the trees The Sugar Maple Borer (Glycobius speciosus) which girdles branches killing them and the Leopard Moth (Zeuzera pyrina) lava that tunnels large holes into branches making them structurally weak. This lava can grow to 80mm long and 12mm thick overwintering in the tunnels.
Banksia species are attacked by the Banksia Web-covering Borer (Xylorycta strigata) a greenish lava up to 40mm long that tunnels down the centre of branch tips. The entrance is covered in silken web littered with faecal material and causes the death of the branchlets.
Betula and Populus species are attacked with the Bronze Birch Borer (Agrilus anxius) and heavy infestation may kill the tree. Populus species are also attacked by the Poplar Borer (Saperda calcarate).
Brachychiton species are attacked by the Kurrajong Weevil (Axionicus insignis) the lava of this plump greyish weevil is white and legless, entering the plant through wounds forming rounded tunnels that may girdle the tree, killing it.
Carya species are attacked by the Painted Hickory Borer (Megacyllene caryae). The adult dark brown beetle has obvious zig zag lines on its wing covers and the lava is cream coloured, both up to 20mm long. The lava tunnels the sapwood of living trees causing ring barking and also tunnels dead trees.
Cornus species are attacked by several borers such as the Flat Headed Borer (Chrysobothris femorata) and the Dogwood Borer (Thamnosphecia scitula).
Cupressus species are attacked by the Cypress Bark Beetle (Phloeosinus cupressi) causing the branches to turn brown and die off from the top or causing the leaves to wilt. On first indication of infestation selective prune off damaged areas or remove the tree.
Hakea sericea and other Hakea species are attacked by the Web-covering Borer (Neodrepta luteotactella). The larvae bore into the twigs and fruit forming a small covering of frass. This insect also infects Macadamia species. Hakeas are also attacked by several other web-covering borers.
Hakea sericea
Pinus and Picea species are attacked by the White Pine Weevil (Pissodes strobi) in the northern hemisphere.
Samanea saman is attacked by the borer (Xystrocera globosa) which chews into the sap wood of stressed trees and can cause serious damage.
Sorbus aucuparia is attacked by the Round Headed Borer (Saperda candida) which forms galleries in the trunk at ground level, forming round holes in the bark.
Tilia species are attacked by the European Bark Borer (Chrysoclista linneela), which feeds on the bark and thew Linden Borer (Saperda vestita) that attacks the base of the trunk or roots.
Tsuga species are attacked by Spotted Hemlock Borer (Melanophila fulvoguttata).
Vaccinium ovatum is infested by the Azalea Stem Borer (Oberea myops). The yellowish lava of this beetle bores into the tips of stems during the flowering period and is up to 12mm (½in) long. It is also commonly found on Rhododenron species.
Control
Cultural Control
Larvae may be destroyed after exposure by pulling away the covering pad of frass, or by pushing a length of wire into the tunnel. Damaged branches may be removed. Improve the culture by feeding and watering the plant.
Frass due to the Fruit tree moth borer
Biological Control
No effective biological control though certain species of trees exude gum or resin sealing the holes and limiting the activity of the larvae or causing its death.
Chemical Control
There is no satisfactory chemical control most borers of live wood.
Note
It is your responsibility by law to read & follow the directions on the label of any pesticide
PEST
NAME
Aphids
Various Aphid Species
ORDER
Hemiptera
FAMILY
Aphididae
Description of the Pest
The common name varies and aphids may be referred to as black fly, greenfly, ant cows or plant lice.
These small insects have soft globular body that is from 1mm to 8mm long and vary in colour from green, yellow, black and pink, with the winged forms being elongated. Both adult and nymphs, have piercing and sucking mouthparts.
Aphids are found on buds, flowers, or leaves and stems, preferring soft new growth. On older leaves the aphids are found in protected positions, such as under the leaf. Certain species of aphids form galls as they suck sap and may be found on the roots of the plant. (E.g. Woolly aphids and Black peach aphids)
Most aphids possess a pair of characteristic tubular projections, known as cornicles; these secrete a pheromone and a waxy fluid, which is thought to protect them from some of their predacious enemies.
White exoskeletons, honey dew and sooty mould indicate the presence of Aphids
Balsam Twig Aphid (Mindarus abietinus) is greenish and covered in a white wax and is normally found on the young shoots of conifers bending and killing the needles. It is found on Abies and Picea species.
Aphid and their exoskeletons
on underside of a leaf
Black Citrus Aphid (Toxoptera aurantii) has a soft plump green body and the black coloured adults may or may not be winged. They feed in groups, curling leaves and producing honeydew attracting sooty mould.
Green Peach Aphid (Myzus persicae) is a soft plump green insect up to 0.2mm long and may be wingless. The nymphs are yellowish green and are responsible for spreading viruses in Dianthus species.
Spruce Gall Aphid (Chermes abietis) form cone shaped galls up to 12mm long resulting from the feeding. The wingless female adult lays eggs on the stems and the immature females overwinter on bud scales. Large infestation will weaken trees such as Picea abies and Pseudotsuga menziesii.
Tulip Bulb Aphid (Anuraphis tulipae) is small, waxy grey coloured and infests the underside of the bulb scales or rhizomes. They occur in the ground or on above ground parts and during storage.
Life Cycle
These insects have a Hemimetabolous life cycle, i.e. The nymphs resemble the adults.
During spring all eggs produced hatch as female nymphs. Adult Aphids are capable reproducing without fertilisation. The males are only produced in some species as the weather cools down, and the day length shortens.
Aphids are capable of giving birth to living young and large populations build up quickly during summer. Over crowding causes the aphids to become smaller, less fertile and produce more winged forms that can migrate to other host plants.
There are many different types of aphids and the life cycle varies from warm to cold climates.
Typical life cycles
Distribution of the Pest
World wide
Period of Activity
In warm climates they are seen throughout the year, but aphids dislike hot dry or cold conditions and heavy rain will decrease the population. In cold areas aphid eggs are laid around a bud base or other protected areas of the plant during autumn and emerge as nymphs during spring, feeding on the new growth.
Numbers build up quickly in the warmer months of the year. Some species feed during winter on Sow thistles.
Susceptible Plants
There is a wide range of plants attacked, from roses to vegetables, shrubs and trees. Certain aphids attack a specific genus while others have a wide range of host plants. Many are capable of transmitting plant virus diseases.
Adults and nymphs feeding
A colony of aphids
Acer species are attacked by several aphids including the Norway Maple Aphid (Periphyllus lyropictus) which is a greenish with brown markings and secret honeydew, preferring Acer platanoides. Other aphids include (Drepanaphis acerifolia) and (Periphyllus aceris) which are commonly found on the underside of leaves.
Acer species are also attacked by the Woolly Maple Aphid (Phenacoccus acericola) which covers the undersides of the leaves with a cotton-like mass
Alnus species are infested with the Alder Blight Aphid (Prociphilus tessellates) which is blue-black adult that forms woolly masses on the down-turned leaves. The nymphs overwinter in bark crevices.
Aquilegia species are attacked by several aphids including (Pergandeidia trirhoda) which is a small, flat cream coloured insect that is found on young branches and the underside of leaves.
Betula species may be attacked by the European Birch Aphid (Euceraphis betulae) which is small and yellowish or the Common Birch Aphid (Calaphis betulaecolens) which is large and green producing ample honeydew for sooty mold to grow on.
Callistephus species may be attacked by the Corn Root Aphid (Anuraphis maidi-radicis) causing the plant to become stunted, the leaves wilt and turn yellow. The aphids feed on the roots producing honeydew and are dispersed to other host by ants. It is also attacked by the Potato Aphid (Macrosiphum solanifolii).
Carya species are attacked by Gall Aphids (Phylloxera caryaecaulis) which is found on the leaves, twigs and stems forming galls and turning them black.
Chaenomeles and Gladiolus species, new growth and leaves become infested with the aphid (Aphis Gossypii)
Cupressus macrocarpa may become infested with the Cypress Aphid (Siphonartrophia cupressi).
Cyclamen species are attacked by the aphid (Myzus circumflexus) and (Aphis gossypii) which can infest healthy plants.
Dendranthema, Dianthus and Crocus species are attacked by several types of aphid including the Green Peach Aphid (Myzus persicae) and the Chrysanthemum Aphid (Macrosiphoniella sanborni).
Hibiscus species are attacked by the aphids (Aphis craccivora) and (Aphis gossypii), both congregate towards the branch tips and may cause leaf curl. Normally only seen in sub-tropical climates.
Aphids on a stem
Mandevilla species
Larix species is attacked by the Woolly Larch Aphid (Adelges strobilobius). The winged adults deposit eggs at the base of the needles during spring and white woolly areas appear attached to the needles where the adult aphids feed. The young aphids overwinter in the crevices of the bark.
Mandevilla species is attacked by aphids that congregate towards the branch tips and may cause leaf curl.
Pinus species is attacked by several species of aphid including Pine Bark Aphid (Pineus strobi), Pine leaf Aphid (Pineus pinifoliae) and the White Pine Aphid (Cinara strobi).
Primula species are attacked by four species of aphid including foxglove, and green peach aphid.
Rudbeckia, Delphinium, Chrysanthemum and Helianthus species are attacked by a bright red aphid (Macrosiphum rudbeckiae).
Sorbus aucuparia is affected by the Rosy Apple and Woolly Apple aphid which attacked the foliage and young shoots.
Spiraea species are attacked by the Aphid (Aphis spiraecola) which feeds on the young shoots and flowers.
Tropaeolum species are attacked by the Black Bean Aphid (Aphis fabae), which is found in large numbers on the underside of the leaves, turning them yellow and causing them to wilt then die.
Tulipa, Iris, Freesia, Gladiolus and Zephyranthes species are infested with the Tulip Bulb Aphid.
Ulmus species are infected by two types the Woolly Apple Aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum), which curls and kills young terminal leaves and the Elm Leaf-Curl Aphid (Eriosoma ulmi) which occasionally attacks the trees.
Viburnum species are attacked by the Snowball Aphid (Anuraphis viburnicola). This aphid congregates at the end of the branches causing the leaves to curl and become deformed under which they hide.
Aphids on Quercus robur
Damage Caused
Buds that have been attacked may not open, leaves and twigs become twisted or distorted and wilt. The aphids also produce honeydew, which is sticky and attracts sooty mould (fungus). This fungus forms a thick layer over the leaf, fruit or stems reducing the plants photosynthesis capability. The sooty mould spoils the plants appearance and its fruit, as does the insects white exoskeletons.
Control
Cultural Control
Aphids may be removed from a plant by hosing them off with water (limited success) or applying soapy water to aphids.. Another organic sprays can be efficient in controlling aphids. Aphids may also be removed physically by hand for small colonies on spine less plants. Species that live under ground are difficult to control but cultivation of the surrounding soil may help in controlling the infestation. (limited mainly to annual or commercial crops)
Reflective mulch around the plants also reduces numbers by repelling the insect this material is available commercially. (Reflective mulches are mainly used in market gardens for avoiding the Green peach Aphids) Resistant rootstocks are available to avoid some root feeding aphid of commercial plants, e.g. Vines and fruit trees
Biological control
Aphids are attacked by several insects includes parasitic wasps or predators such as ladybirds/ lady beetles, hover flies, lacewings, spiders.
Parasitised aphids
Chemical Control
Aphids may be controlled by spraying with a contact or systemic insecticide. The type of application used will depend on the plant is being attacked.
Aphids can be suffocated and therefore controlled with the use of e.g. White oil, Pest oil, Soapy water from soap such as Lux Flakes ®
Note
It is your responsibility by law to read & follow the directions on the label of any pesticide
Monitoring
Aphid are attracted by yellow colour and traps such as boards painted yellow and covered in glue or sticky substance will attract and trap the insects. There is also a commercially sticky yellow tape that can be attached to susceptible plants
Amendments by B. Sonsie Dip Hort Sc Burnley
PEST
NAME
Bag Shelter Moths
Various Bag Moths Species
ORDER
Lepidoptera
Description of the Pest
There many caterpillars that constructs a shelter that they live in and also acts as protection from predators. These caterpillars feed solitary or are gregarious emerging at night to feed. The caterpillars (larva) have chewing mouth parts.
Bagworm (Thyridopterix ephemeraeformis) adult is a moth that produces caterpillars that construct a small elongated shelter from pieces of the host's leaves and enlarges to 80mm long, as the lava grows. The eggs overwinter in an old female bag and many plants are attacked such as Thuja and Abies species.
Bluegrass Webworm (Crambus teterrellus) is the larvae of the closed winged moth. Deposited bead-like eggs hatch in 10 days and the emerging lava feed on the leaves of Turf Grass. They then construct a silken tunnelled nest close to the soil and disguised with soil, leaf fragments and droppings. The larvae pupate in a cocoon under ground for 14 days. Infested lawns such as Stenotaphrum secundatum (St Augustine) have a ragged appearance and areas may die off completely.
Forest Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria) are bluish with white diamond-shaped spots along its back, feeding solitary on leaves and unlike the Eastern Tent Caterpillar nests are not built by binding twigs together, but by surrounds a single branch.
Juniper Webworm (Dichomeris marginalla) is a small larva to 12mm long and is brown with reddish brown longitudinal stripes. They form bags by webbing twigs and needles and appear during summer. The eggs are laid by a female adult moth with a wing span of 10mm and the immature larvae overwinter.
Procession Caterpillars or also known as Itchy Caterpillar (Ochrogaster contraria) is a fleshy caterpillar that grows up to 50mm long and is named because of its procession habit when moving about head to tail. It appears banded in reddish brown stiff hairs that are long and irritate skin on contact. The adult brown moth has a wing span up to 50mm across with two spots on its forewings.
Larva constructs large obvious shelters or bags using the twigs and leaves towards the end of the branches. These bags have some stiff hairs that cause irritation, old casts and have a mud brick-like appearance.
Tentmaker (Ichthyura inclusa) adult female moth is grey wings that are white striped and produces a black larva with yellow stripes. The larvae construct silken nests by binding twigs together and feed on the surrounding leaves. Commonly found in Populus species. A simular caterpillar The Eastern Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma americanum) is found on Cherry trees.
Webbing Caterpillar is up to 25mm long with numerous black hairs along its body and constructs shelters that incorporate stems and leaves, becoming larger as the larvae grows. The silk ties are littered with debris and excrement. The adult moth is greyish with small markings on the wings.
Life Cycle
These insects have a Holometabolous life cycle, i.e. an egg, larval, pupal and adult stage
The insect commonly pupates inside the bag, some pupate in the soil.
Distribution of the Pest
Larvae are active from mid summer through autumn, regardless of the climatic conditions.
They are found throughout coastal and inland Australia but the species vary with the climatic environment.. The moths fly to new areas aided by the wind and larva of certain species walk to a new host when the old one is depleted of food.
Gregarious larvae
Typical bag shelter
Period of Activity
Larvae shelter in the bag, where they feed during the day; they leave their shelter to continue feeding at night on the surrounding foliage.
Damage Caused
Larvae eat the leaves of shrubs or trees and a heavy infestation can cause complete defoliation. Ugly bags hang or are wrapped around the plant sometimes in large numbers. The shelters can be up to 300mm across and are constructed of twigs and leaves that are curled or joined together with silken thread, commonly look unattractive.
Leaves damaged by the larvae
Susceptible Plants
A wide range of plants are attacked by these moths and include Brachychiton , Acacia, Baeckea , Beaufortia, Juniperus, Kunzea, Leptospermum, Melaleuca and Syncarpia species. The larva nest in the host plant or at the base and normally feed at night.
Nest at base of
Acacia
spp.
Hairy caterpillar
Acer, Betula, Quercus and Populus species are susceptible to the Forest Tent Caterpillar.
Cotoneaster species are attacked by Webworm (Cremona cotoneaster) lava which skeletonises the leaves.
Turf grasses are susceptible to an infestation of Sod Webworm (Herpetogramma licarsisalis). It is a sporadic pest that appears from late summer to autumn. The adult is moth is grey-brown with black spots and has wings are up to 25mm across with transverse dark wavy lines. It flies during the night depositing eggs. The larva (caterpillars) feed on the leaves and construct a silken nest close to the ground where they live out there lives. When fully fed the larvae are up to 25mm long, green brown with dark spots displayed on its body.
Control
Cultural Control
Cut bags from the tree during daylight and destroy.
Use gloves as some bags and larvae are armed with irritating hairs.
Biological Control
Birds and lizards help keep numbers down, but these are not commercially available.
Bacillus thuringiensis a bacterial disease of insects in the order Lepidoptera applied to leaves late in the day may reduce the number of larva
Chemical Control
Systemic, contact or stomach insecticides may be effective if sprayed onto the exposed larva
Note
It is your responsibility by law to read & follow the directions on the label of any pesticide
Amendments by B. Sonsie Dip Hort Sc Burnley
PEST
NAME
Greenhouse or Black Thrips
Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis
ORDER
Thysanoptera
FAMILY
Phlaeothripidae
Description of the Pest
The adult is up to 1.5mm long and is dark brown to black with the end of the abdomen being lighter in colour and having feathery wings and rarely flies. The tiny nymphs are lighter in colour and both adult and nymph have rasping and sucking mouthparts.
Life Cycle
This insect has a Hemimetabolous life cycle, ie. When the immature nymphs resemble the adults.
There are 4-nymphal stages with the first two on the plant and the last two in the soil or in leaf litter, where it is non-feeding.
Period of Activity and Distribution of the Pest
This pest is distributed world wide preferring hot dry weather in a shady cool position with some moisture and is active in the warmer months of the year.
Susceptible Plants
This pest attacks a wide range of ornamental plants in including Fuchsia, Azalea (Rhododendron species) Viburnum, Cissus, Liquidambar, Vitis (Grapes), Passiflora (Passionfruit) species, Persimmon and Prunus species.
Morinda citrifolia is attacked by the greenhouse thrip (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis) which is parasitic on noni leaves.
Morinda citrifolia
Damage Caused
The adult and two first nymphal stages cause the damage by rasping and sucking plant tissue by forming colonies on the underside of the leaf. The leaf surface has a characteristic silvering appearance with blobs of excrement that are black or brown. The pest is also found between overlapping leaves where it attacks the underside and upper layer of the leaf.
Cultural control
The infected plant may be sprayed with a soapy spray particularly on the underside of the leaves.
Biological control
A parasitic wasp may reduce the numbers.
Chemical control
The affected plants may be sprayed with insecticide including a systemic (Dimethoate) or contact (Maldison). Two applications are required with a 10 day spacing to allow newly hatched nymphs and resting adults that are found in leaf litter to emerge onto the plant.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
PEST
NAME
Leafcutting Bee
Megachile species
ORDER
Hymenoptera
FAMILY
Megachilidae
Description of the Pest
Adults grow to 15mm in length; they resemble honey bees in size and shape, but are black in colour, with lines of pale hair on their abdomens. They have modified chewing mouthparts. They are solitary, cause little damage, and are often important pollinators.
Hair on abdomen
Appearance and Distribution of the Pest
Leafcutter bees occur in Australia, Europe and North America.
Life Cycle
These insects have a Holometabolous life cycle, ie. When metamorphosis is observed during the pupal stage.
Period of Activity
Most active during the warmer months.
Damage Caused
As their name suggests, leafcutter bees cut oval or circular pieces (up to 10mm across) from the margins of the leaves of susceptible plants, which they use to line their nests, which they construct in natural cavities.
Susceptible Plants
A wide range of ornamentals are susceptible, particularly Rosa, Syringa (lilacs), Camellia, Wisteria, and Prunus species.
Cultural Control
The insects may be swatted when seen but, as they cause little serious damage, this is unnecessary.
Biological Control
There is no effective (or necessary) biological control.
Chemical Control
Not usually indicated.
PEST
NAME
Japanese Beetle
Popillia japonica
ORDER
Coleoptera
Description of the Pest
The adult beetle has an iridescent bluish-green body with streaked grey, wing cases and is up to 12mm long. The eggs are laid in lawn or grassy areas where the small larva feed. Both adult and larva have chewing mouth parts. The insect originated in Japan and was introduced into eastern USA and southern Canada.
This insect has a Holometabolous life cycle, ie. When metamorphosis is observed during the pupal stage.
Image by Ohio State University
Period of Activity
The adult is active and the eggs are laid from summer to autumn although the female adult normally lays its eggs in the first seven to ten days of its life.
Life Cycle
The tiny white eggs are up to 1.5mm long and are deposited on the soil where they can absorb moisture. After hatching the whitish larvae are a typical curl grub and identified by a serious of bristles in a 'V' shape on its raster. There are three larva stages with the mature larvae growing to 32mm long, then pupate in the soil. The pupa is cream at first becoming red-brown and growing to 14mm long. Adults are oval shape, metallic green 10mm long by 7mm wide with brownish wing covers and five tufts of whitish hairs on either side of the abdomen.
Adult beetles emerge in early summer and find a suitable host plant to feed on, and then release an odour that attracts other emerging beetles to that plant. The females attract the males by emitting a pheromone and matting can occur on the host plant or on the ground. Fertilised females burrow into the soil up to 100mm to deposit up to five eggs then returning to the host plant and mate again. During the summer period the female deposits up to 60 eggs and under hot conditions the eggs can hatch within nine days. Under cooler conditions it can take up to thirty days for the eggs to hatch. Emerging larvae feed on the roots of the host plant.
Damage Caused
The adults skeletonize leaves and chew on buds or flowers, sometimes completely defoliating the host plant. The skeletonised leaves soon wither and die. Turf grass becomes spongy under foot as a result of tunnelling and the grass has a withered appearance in irregular patches that will not respond to watering. On inspection by lifting the turf numerous larvae can be found feeding on the roots.
Susceptible Plants
There are many broad leafed plant species that are attacked including fruit, vegetables and ornamental plants. Roses are badly affected and may have up to 50 adults on a single bloom.
The larvae attack the roots of Turf Grass such as Poa pratensis (Kentucky Bluegrass), Lolium perenne (Perennial Ryegrass), Festuca arundinacea (Tall Fescue) and Agrostis palustris (Bent).
Many trees are particularly susceptible to attack and should not be planted around turfed areas such as golf courses. These include; Acer palmatum (Japanese Maple), Acer platanoides (Norway Maple), Quercus palustris (Pin Oak), Aesculus species (Horse Chestnut), Hibiscus syriacus (Rose of Sharon), Platanus occidentalis (American Sycamore), Prunus cerasifera (Cherry Plum), Prunus x blireana (Blireana Plum), Prunus campanulate (Taiwan Cherry), Prunus x yedoensis (Tokyo Cherry), Rosa species, (Rose), Salix species (Willow), Tilia species (Linden) Ulmus species (Elms) and Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia Creeper).
Vitis, Alcea, Zinnia, Hibiscus and Dahlia species are also attacked.
Cultural Control
It is difficult to control infestations of Japanese Beetles, but certain measures such as keeping soil dry during the first larval stage or avoid planting trees that are susceptible to beetle attack around lawn areas will help. Small infestations may be removed by hand during the early morning and small crops may be covered in netting for protection.
Biological Control
There is no effective natural control, but certain species of parasitic wasps help control. Soils may be infected by Bacterial Milk Disease which after a couple of years can be efficient in controlling larvae, but infected areas should not be sprayed during this period as this may kill off the bacterium.
Chemical Control
Smaller plants may be sprayed with a contact insecticide when the insect is first seen or turf areas can be sprayed with a systemic chemical.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
DISEASE
NAME
Canker (General)
Various Canker Species
Description
This is a fungal problem that enters the plant through wounds causing dieback of twigs and stems.
Symptoms
The stems become discoloured (pale brown) usually from a pruned point, working its way down the stem and normally intersecting or surrounded with live cambium. The bark splits or cracks, foliage dies and infected areas can develop tiny black fruiting bodies. Heavy infected plants eventually die, though certain varieties are resistant halting the spread of the infection.
Black Canker (Phyaslospora miyabeana) forms dark brown spots with concentric rings on the upper leaf surface and grey spots on the stems. The tiny black fruiting bodies develop in the stem lesions. It is found on Salix species and persistent attacks will kill the tree.
The Canker (Cytospora valsa) causes the browning and death of branches in Picea abies and Picea pungens. This infection occurs normally from the base of the tree with infected needles falling, and white resinous patches appearing on the bark accompanied by cankers with tiny black fruiting bodies.
The Canker (Corynneum cardinale) is a casual fungus that invades wounds and infects living bark and associated cambium turning the foliage yellowish. As it spreads it girdles the branch killing it and ultimately the top of the tree dies out. Cankers eventually form in the trunk and ooze resin. It is found on Cypress.
Platanus x hybrida
Cankerstain (Ceratocystis fimbriata f. platani) forms sunken cankers on the trunk and large limbs forming longitudinal cracks and roughened bark. Infected areas form callus around the margins which dies off and when cut open, dark coloured streaks are revealed extending to the central pith. These streaks then radiate out into uninfected wood resulting in the thinning of the crown and producing unusual small leaves. It is normally transmitted through poor tree surgery techniques and infected tools.
Cytospora Canker
Cytospora Canker (Cytospora chrysosperma) is a casual fungus that infects the young twigs, then moving to the stems, branches and trunk causing brown sunken areas to appear that is covered in red pustules. The fungus tends to attack trees that are in poor health. Control requires the removal of infected branches and improved culture to regain the plants vigour. Sorbus aucuparia, Salix and Popular species are susceptible.
Cypress Canker
Cypress Canker (Seiridium species) enters the plant through wounds or through insect damage causes the bark to spread revealing brown powdery spores that are accompanied by oozing resin. The canker eventually girdles the branch or trunk causing ringbarking and the death of the plant.
Nectria Canker (Nectria Cinnabarina) forms cankers on the twigs and small branches producing red fruiting bodies and eventually killing the tree. It is found in many parts of the world infecting a range of trees including hardwoods.
Populus nigra
Poplar Canker (Cryptodiaporthe populea) infects the cambium layer damaging the bark and sapwood where the elongated sunken canker forms. Branches are girdled causing the upper portion to die off. This is a serious problem for Populus nigra var. Italica entering the plant through wounds or the leaves then spreading to twigs and branches. Control is difficult as removal of infected parts will not eradicate the problem, but encourage it. Young plants may be sprayed with a copper based fungicide to reduce leaf infection and heavily infected plants should be removed the burnt.
Stem Canker of Red Flowering Gum (Sporotrichum destructor) enters through wounds in the bark forming cankers in the trunk and branches, splitting the bark apart, revealing the wood and infesting the surface with powdery spores. This infection causes the leaves to wither and then the branches die, eventually killing the tree.
Stem Canker (Strumella coryneoidea) is a casual fungus that forms on the trunks of trees as a smooth, dispersed or sunken infection. On mature trees the infection sheds the bark with the canker forming callus tissue around the margins and the centre being exposed. These cankers then tend to extend up and down the trunk, only girdling over a long period of time. It is found on Quercus, Fagus, Aesculus species, and Acer rubrum , Nyssa sylvatica, Carya ovata and Morinda citrifolia.
Source and Dispersal
The spores are found on infected dead plant material and can be dispersed by wind and with splashing water.
Favoured Conditions
It prefers a warm humid conditions and plants that have a wounds derived from poor pruning techniques and insect or other damage, especially if water is allowed to settle on the wound.
Affected Plants
Cankers may infect a wide range of trees and shrubs with some species being specific to its host. Examples are listed below.
Abies species are infected by several cankers including (Cytospora pinastri), (Cryptosporium macrospermum) and (Scoleconectria balsamea). These fungi form dead sunken areas on the trunk and branches.
Alnus species are infected by a few cankers including (Nectria coccinea) and (Physalospora obtusa) these attack the branches causing die back.
Betula species may be infected by the Canker (Nectria galligena) that occurs in the forks of trees causing splitting and cracking of the bark by swelling, to reveal the canker. Callus rings may form around the affected areas as a defence mechanism triggered by the tree.
Buxus species are infected by the Canker (Pseudonectria rousseliana) which shows signs of poor new growth during spring with the leaves turning from light green to a tan colour. These leaves tend to lay flat along the stems and reddish pustules appear both on the stems and leaves. The bark becomes loose and on inspection reveals a darkish colour underneath. It is difficult to control and the canker can kill the plant.
Castanea species are infected by the Twig Canker (Cryptodiaporthe castanea), a fungal problem that causes significant damage to the twigs and small branches, but tends to attack stressed trees.
Cercis and Ribes species are infected by the Canker (Botryosphaeria ribis) which forms small sunken areas on the stems causing wilting and eventually killing the branch by girdling. The cankers turn the bark black then split it open and the adjoining wood becomes discoloured. This is a serious problem for this and many other plant species.
Cotoneaster, Betula, Catalpa and Aesculus species are infected by the canker (Physalospora obtusa).
Cypress Canker
Cupressus species and Chamaecyparis lawsoniana are susceptible to Cypress Canker (Seiridium species) which causes leaf browning and then girdles the trunks resulting in ringbark. There is also another Canker (Coryneum cardinale) that has simular characteristics and is found in the northern hemisphere.
Cupressus sempervirens is infected by Cytospora Canker (Cytospora cenisia var. littoralis).
Larix species are susceptible to several fungal cankers including (Trichoscyphella wilkommii), (Trichoscyphella ellisiana), (Aleurodiscus amorphus), (Leucostoma Kunzei) and (Phomopsis spp.)
Nyssa sylvatica is attacked by three cankers including (Strumella coryneoidea).
Pinus species are infected by many types of cankers.
Platanus species are infected by Cankerstain.
Cytospora Canker on Salix babylonica
Pseudotsuga menziesii Douglas Fir is attacked by several cankers including (Cytospora species), (Dasyscypha ellisiana), (Dasyscypha pseudotsugae), (Phacidiopycnis pseudotsugae) and (Phomopsis lokoyae). These infections normally do not require control and are more prevalent on the coastal form.
Salix and Populus species are infected by several cankers including Cytospora Canker (Cytospora chrysosperma), Hypoxylon Canker (Hypoxylon pruinatum), Septoria Canker (Mycosphaerella populorum) and Branch Gall (Macrophoma tumefaciens). Many of these fungi can cause the death of the plant.
Thuja orientalis, Cupressus and Juniperus species are infected by the canker (Corynneum cardinale).
Tilia and Acer species are infected by (Nectria cinnabarina) attacking twigs or branches.
Tsuga species are infected by several cankers including (Dermatea balsamea) and ( Cytospora species).
Ulmus species are infected with up to eight fungal cankers including (Apioporthe apiospora) and (Nectria coccinea).
Vaccinium ovatum is infected by the canker (Coryneum microstictum) which attacks the stems.
Vinca species are infected by canker-dieback (Phomopsis livella) causing the shoots to wilt, turn brown and die. This can reduce the plant to ground level, and normally occurs during rainy periods.
Non-chemical Control
It is very difficult to control and correct pruning techniques with sharp tools for repairing wounds or prune well below the infected areas. Ensure that there are no ragged edges on the cuts and the angle should cut allows water to run off or dress the wound. Plant resistant varieties when available. Heavily infected trees should be removed to avoid spreading the disease.
Improve the culture of the affected plant to increase vigour for greater resistance.
Chemical Control
There is no satisfactory chemical control and prevention is imperative.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
DISEASE
NAME
Leaf Spot (General)
Various Leaf Spot Species
Description
There is a wide variety of fungal leaf spots that infect perennials, shrub and trees. Some are specific to the host while others can affect a range of plants.
Symptoms
Generally light brown to purplish or blackish spots appear on the leaf and form concentric rings of fruiting bodies. The spots may leave holes, perforating the leaf or expand with pale green to yellowish margins and when the holes merge the leaf normally dies. There are many different types of leaf spot, some are discussed below.
Alocasia species
Alternaria Leaf Spot (Alternaria nelumbii) forms a small reddish brown spots that are boarded in light green, and as they develop in size the leaf curls and dies from the margin inwards. Normally occurs on Nelumbo species (water lilies).
Helminthosporium Disease
Helminthosporium Disease (Bipolris species), (Drechslera species) and (Exserophilum species) are responsible for several leaf spots that occur on all Turf Grass species. Generally they form black or white spots that may be faded and produce masses of spores in the thatch during late summer, under humid conditions. The life cycle is short and when conditions are favourable spores are splashed onto the foliage from the thatch, causing wide spread infection. Cynodon dactylon (common couch) is most susceptible and found in bowling or golf greens where it is a serious problem.
Banana Leaf Spot
Banana Leaf Spot (Mycosphaerella musicola) is found on many species of banana causing pale yellow streaks on the young leaves to turn brown with dark spots. The leaf then becomes dried, brown and dead commencing from the margins, eventually the leaf dies. Control requires removal of infected foliage or the spraying of a fungicide and fungicides should not be used during the fruiting period.
Lophostemon confertus (Brush Box)
Leaf Spot on Brush Box (Elsinoe species). This is a casual fungus that attacks the epidermal layer of the leaf, forming circular spots that are up to 25mm across and are often restricted by the main vein. These spots are a dull yellowish brown but can also have purplish patterns. A leaf may have more than one spot develop on its surface and normally appears on scattered leaves throughout the tree. This doesn't affect the vigour of Lophostemon confertus.
Palm Leaf-scab (Graphiola phoeicis) appears as yellow spots and develop into scabs or warts that are outwards hard and dark but with a soft centre with powdery yellowish brown spores. The infected leaves eventually die.
Palm Leaf Spot, Chamaedorea elegans
Palm Leaf Spot (Pestaloptiopsis species) appears as a small spot with a dark centre on the leaves and affects palms that are growing in shaded humid positions and normally control is not required, though infected fronds should be removed.
Source and Dispersal
Infection source is other contaminated plants and the spores are spread by wind or by splashing water. The fruiting bodies are black spots that appear on the damaged tissue releasing spores.
Favoured Conditions
This fungus prefers a warm humid environment and leafy plants with soft new growth, particularly if they are crowded.
Affected Plants
There are many ornamental and native plants that are hosts to a wide range of fungal leaf spots. Some specific ones are listed below. Plants such as Cornus or Paeonia species are infected by a large variety of leaf spots, while other plants attract a specific leaf spot.
Generally a healthy plant can tolerate fungal leaf spot attack, though it may make the plant look unsightly. In trees and shrubs it is difficult to control and generally not necessary, but in perennials and annuals control may be necessary in order to save the plant.
Acalypha and Arctotis species are infected by up to three leaf spots including (Cercospora acalyphae) and (Ramularia acalyphae) that rarely require control.
Acer species are infected by Purple Eye (Phyllosticta minima) which forms spots with brownish centres and purplish margins causing the death of the leaves.
Acer species are also infected by Tar Spot (Rhytisma acerinum) which forms round black spots that have yellow margins. Not normally seen on cultivated trees, but seen in forests.
Adiantum, Asplenium, Blechnum, Cyathea, Davallia, Nephrolepis, Platycerium, Polypodium and Pteris species are infected by the leaf spot (Pseudocercopora species) which forms circular brown spots on the fronds and heavy infection can defoliate a plant.
Aesculus species are occasionally infected with the leaf spot (Septoria hippocastani) which forms small brown spots.
Agave species are susceptible to the leaf spot (Coniothyrium concentricum), which appear as greyish spots up to 20mm (1in) across with concentric rings and black fruiting bodies. Affected leaves are destroyed as the infection spreads.
Albizia julibrissin is susceptible to the fungal leaf spot (gloeosporium aletridis), which does not normally require control.
Amelanchler, Chaenomeles, Crataegus and Rhaphiolepis species Mespilus germanica are infected by the leaf spot (Fabraea maculata) which may cause considerable damage during wet periods.
Aquilegia species can be infected by three types of Leaf Spot including (Ascochyta aquilegiae), (Cercospora aquilegiae) and (Septoria aquilegiae), normally appearing during humid conditions forming spots on the leaves.
Arbutus species are infected by two leaf spots (Septoria Unedonis) which produces small brown spots on the leaves and (Elsinoe mattirolianum).
Arctostaphylos manzanita is infected by the leave spot (Cryptostictis arbuti) which damages leaves but is not normally detrimental to the shrub.
Aspidistra species are infected by the leaf spot (Colletotrichum omnivorum) causing whitish spots on the leaves and petiole.
Aster species are infected by many leaf spots including (Alternaria species), (Cercosporella cana), ( Ovularia asteris) and (Septoria asteris).
Aucuba species are infected by several leaf spots, usually as a secondary infection after aphid attack. These include (Phyllosticta aucubae) and (Phyllostica aucubae).
Azalea
Azalea (Rhododendron species) are susceptible to Leaf Scorch (Septoria azalea). This fungal disease forms reddish- brown spots which expand and engulf the leaf, with fruiting bodies appearing in the centre. Infected leaves die, then fall and the branchlets wilt. This problem is more serious during wet periods and may require control using a fungicide.
Banksia robur
Banksia species are infected by several leaf spots causing chlorotic areas that have brown centres and is not normally a major problem for the plant.
Betula species may be infected by the Leaf Spots (Gloeosporium betularum) that forms brown spots with darker margins and (Cylindrosporium betulae) that also forms brown spots with faded indefinite margins.
Bougainvillea species are infected by the leaf spot (Cercosporidium bougainvilleae) which forms rounded spots with dark margins that yellowish ting. Infected leaves die and fall from the plant.
Calendula species are infected by the Leaf Spot (Cercospora calendulae) which rapidly infects the plant spotting the leaves and killing the plant.
Callicarpa species may be infected by the leaf spot (Atractilina callicarpae) forming irregular brownish spot or (Cercospora callicarpae) which can defoliate the plant in subtropical climates.
Campsis species may be infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Phyllosticta tecomae), (Septoria tecomae) and (Cercospora duplicata).
Carpinus species are infected by the leaf spots (Gloeosporium robergei), (Gnomoniella fimbriata) and (Septoria carpinea), all are minor infections not normally requiring control.
Carya species are infected by several leaf spots including (Gnomonia caryae) that infects leaves with irregular reddish spots on the upper surface with corresponding brown spore producing spots on the underside. It also has a secondary spore release that occurs on the dead leaves where it over winters. Other leaf spots include (monochaetia desmazierii) and (Marssonina juglandis).
Ceanothus species are susceptible to the leaf spot (Cercospora ceanothi) and (Phyllosticta ceanothi) both are of minor importance not requiring control.
Celtis species are infected by many leaf spots including (Cercosporella celtidis), (Cylindrosporium celtidis), (Phleospora celtidis) and (Septogloeum celtidis).
Chrysanthemums species are infected by the leaf spot (Septoria species) which forms yellow spots appear toward the edge of the leaves; these become enlarged brownish patches with yellow margins. Damaged areas may converge and in severe attacks and the leaves may fall prematurely or flower production is reduced.
Clematis species are infected by the fungal disease (Ascochyta clematidina) which may cause stem rot or leaf spots that are water soaked areas with reddish margins. The infection spreads from the leaves to the stem causing wilting and eventually girdling the stem killing the plant. There are many fungal leaf spots that infect this plant including (Cercospora rubigo) and (Septoria clematidis)
Dracaena deremensis
Cordyline and Dracaena species may be infected by the leaf spot (Phyllosticta maculicola) which forms small brownish spots that have yellowish margins and has black fruiting bodies that forms coils of spores. These plants are also susceptible to other leaf spots such as (Glomerella cincta) and (Phyllosticta dracaaaenae). Keep foliage dry to avoid infection.
Cynodon dactylon, Pennisetum clandestinum and many other Turf Grasses are susceptible to Helminthosporium Disease.
Daphne species are infected by the leaf spot (Gloeosporium mezerei) and (Marssonina daphnes) both of which form thickish brown spots that are seen on both sides of the leaves. Infected leaves turn yellowish before dieing.
Dendranthema species are infected by many leaf spots such as (Septoria chrysanthemi) which first forms yellowish spots up to 25mm (1in) across that become black. Infected leaves die prematurely and persist on the plant.
Dianthus species may be infected by the leaf spot (Septoria dianthi). It forms light brown rounded spots that have a purplish border. The scattered spots on the lower leaves can also be found on the stems and the spores are dispersed by water from the tiny black fruiting bodies.
Dieffenbachia species are infected by several leaf spot fungi including (Cephalosporium species) and (Myrothecium species).
Eucalyptus species
Eucalyptus species are infected by many fungal leaf spots such as (Mycosphaeralla species), (Hendersonia species) and (Monocheatia monochaeta). Generally leaf spots appear on the juvenile or new leaves causing brownish spots that enlarge and may have a purplish halo around the margin. Mature adult leaves are not normally infected and the trees rarely require control measures.
Fern species are infected by the leaf spot, (Alternaria polypodii). This fungus appears as brown circular or oblong spots that congregate along the margins of the pinnae causing the fronds to turn brown and die. It is spread by wind currents from plant to plant and control methods include removing infected fronds and maintaining a drier atmosphere.
Ficus species are infected by various fungal leaf spot including (Pseudocercospora species). Generally the fungal attack forms circular or irregular dark coloured spots on the leaves eventually causing them to fall prematurely.
Ficus elastica is susceptible to many fungal leaf spots including (Alternaria species), (Leptostromella elastica) and (Phyllosticta roberti).
Strawberry
Fragaria x ananassa (Strawberry) is infected by the fungal leaf spot (Mycospharella fragariae). The mature leaf is initially infected with well defined brown spots that that turn light grey with red-purplish margins. As the spots merge they form large brown blotches and the leaf turns yellow then dies. This fungal attack normally occurs on plants in poor health and can be a serious problem early in the season seriously damaging stock.
Fraxinus species
Fraxinus species are infected by the leaf spot (Gloeosporium aridum) giving the leaf a scorched appearance as large blotches appear from the margin or apex and turn brown with a papery texture. It is more prevalent during rainy periods and infected leaves fall prematurely. Collect and depose of fallen leaves otherwise control is not normally required.
Fuchsia species may be infected by the leaf spot (Septoria species) or ( Cercospora species), both form spots with dead centres and dark margins.
Gladiolus species are infected by Hard Rot or Leaf Spot (Septoria gladioli). On the corms reddish brown circular water soaked spots become large and sunken. These areas dry out and form obvious margins. The leaves may also have these symptoms but is not commonly seen.
Hemerocallis species are infected by several leaf spots including (Cercospora hemerocallis) and (Heterosporium iridis). These may be in the form of black spots or brownish spots that converge killing the leaf. Infected leaves should be removed and burnt.
Hibiscus species
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Hibiscus syriacus and Hibiscus tiliaceus are susceptible to several fungal leaf spots including (Ascochyta abelmoschi), (Cerospora kellermanii) and (Phyllosticta hibiscina). All cause spotting or blotching of the leaf surface; remove and destroy infected parts.
Hydrangea species are infected by four fungal species including (Ascochyta hydrangeae), (Phyllosticta hydrangeae) and (Septoria hydrangeae).
Iris species are infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Alternaria iridicola) and (Macosphaerella species).
Iris species are also infected by the leaf spot (Didymellina macrospore) that forms greyish spots with brown water soaked borders and coalesce on the upper part of the leaf. This casual organism commonly occurs after flowering killing the leaves but will not infect the bulbs. The bulbs become weak over several seasons due to the decreased foliage.
There is also a Bacterial Leaf Spot (Bacterium tardicrescens) that is commonly mistaken as a fungal problem causing translucent spots that coalesce and involve the entire leaf. Normally found on Iris species.
Laburnum anagyroides is infected by the Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta cytisii). The leaf forms light grey spots with no definite margin and mature to brown. The black fruiting bodies appear as dots in the centre of the spot.
Leucanthemum species are infected by the leaf spot (Cerocspora chrysanthemi) and (Septoria leucanthemi).
Magnolia species are susceptible to many species including (Alternaria tenuis), (Mycosphaerella milleri) and (Phyllosticta species). Leaves generally turn brown from the apex or margins turning brown or spots appear on the leaf surface and leaves become yellow before withering and dieing. Normally the make the tree look poorly but have little effect on its growth. Control is not normally required.
Nerium oleander is susceptible to several fungal leaf spots including (Cercospora nerella), (Cercospora repens), (Gloesporium species) and (Phyllosticta nerii). Infected leaves should be removed but generally control is not required.
Nyssa sylvatica is infected by the leaf spot (Mycosphaerella nyssaecola) forming irregular purplish blotches.
Orchids such as Cattleya, Cymbidium, Cypripedium, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Paphiopedilum, Phalaenopsis and Zygopetalum species are infected by several leaf spots including (Cerospora, Colletotrichum and Phyllosticta species). Normally forming dark or dead, circular or irregular areas on the leaves.
Palms such as Syagrus, Howea, Phoenix, Roystonea and Washingtonia species are infected by Leaf-scab (Graphiola phoeicis).
Palms such as Archontophoenix, Caryota, Chamaedorea, Cocos, Dypsis, Howea, Liculia, Linospadix, Livistona, Phoenix, Ptychosperma, Rhapis, Roystonea, Syagrus, Washingtonia and Wodyetia species are susceptible to several fungal leaf spots including;
(Bipolaris spp.), (Cylindrocladium spp.), (Colletotrichum spp.) and (Pestalotiopsis spp.).
Generally the circular leaf spots are brown and may have a yellow halo such as Palm Ring Spot (Bipolaris incurvata). They vary in size from small to large depending on the species. When a plant is healthy it recovers from attack, but heavy infections can defoliate, causing the collapse of the plant.
Palms are also infected by the Brachybasidium Leaf Spot (Brachybasidium pinangae). This fungus forms angular leaf lesions that produce fruiting bodies on the underside and is commonly found on Archontophoenix species.
Archontophoenix cunninghamiana
Passiflora species are infected with many types of leaf spot such as (Alternaria passiflorae).
Phoenix species are susceptible to False Smut (Graphiola phoenicis). This fungus forms yellow leaf spots that become hard with a raised with a blackish scab, which produces masses of powdery spores that are thread-like.
Pittosporum species
Pittosporum species are susceptible to the leaf spots (Alternaria tenuissima), (Phyllostica species) and (Cercospora pittospori). Circular or angular dark spots appear on the leaves and are surrounded by necrotic areas that are yellowish. Generally removal of infected leaves is adequate control.
Poa species and other cool season grasses are infected by Winter Fusarium Leaf Disease (Fusarium species), which causes small pale spots that are water soaked to appear on the leaves that turn red-brown. Infected leaves become bleached then wither and die, but the infection will not affect the crown or roots of the plant. It can be identified by pink, cotton-like mycelium and the plant prefers cold wet weather.
Populus species are infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Ciborinia bifrons, Ciborinia confundens), and (Mycosphaerella populicola).
Prunus species are infected by several leaf spots including (Cercospora circumscissa and Septoria ravenelii).
Pseudotsuga menziesii Douglas Fir is infected by the Leaf Cast (Rhabdocline pseudotsugae) Symptoms include the needles becoming yellowish at the apex and extending down the needle and spreading to others during moist spring weather turning them brown. Brownish scorched areas are noticeable on the tree from a distance. Control; is not normally required for mature trees but nursery stock may require spraying with a copper based fungicide.
Psidium guajava (Guava) is infected by (Glomerella cingulate). This fungus courses spots to appear on leaves and mummifies and blackens immature fruit or rots mature fruit. This fungus can devastate a guava crop.
Quercus species are infected by several types of leaf spot including (Cylindrosporium microspilum) and (Marssonina martini). These attacks tend top take place later in the season and normally not detrimental to the tree.
Rhododendron species are infected by a large variety of fungal leaf spots including (Cercospora rhododendri) and (lophodermium melaleucum)
Salix species are infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Ascochyta salicis) and (Septogloeum salicinum).
Senecio species are infected by the fungal leaf spot (Alternaria cinerariae) and (Cercospora species), forming dark rounded or angular spots.
Spiraea species are attacked by the fungal leaf spot (Cylindrosporium filipendulae).
Stenotaphrum secundatum (Buffalo) turf grass is susceptible to Grey Leaf Spot (Pyricularia grisea) in domestic and commercial situations devastating lawns. This fungal disease infects the stems and leaves with small brown lesions that enlarge rapidly forming grey-brown spots that have darker borders or surrounded by yellow chlorotic areas. This infection is commonly found on newly laid turf but will also infect established lawns. It is most prevalent during warm humid periods in soil with a high nitrogen level.
Syringa species are attacked by up to six species of leaf spot including (Cercospora lilacis) and (Phyllostica species).
Syzygium species
Syzygium species are infected by fungal leaf spots but normally control is not required.
Tagetes species are infected by the leaf spot (Septoria tageticola), which starts at the base and moves progressively up through the plant, covering the leaves in grey to black spots.
Trillium species are host to several leaf spots, including (Colletotrichum peckii) (Gloeosporium Trillii) (Heterosporium trillii).
Ulmus species are infected by many fungal leaf spots including (Gnomonia ulmea) and (Cercospora sphaeriaeformis).
Veronica species are infected by the leaf spot (Septoria veronicae). The symptoms include small violet to brown spots appear on the upper surface of the leaf and correspondingly yellowish brown on the underside. The spots converge forming a scorched shot-hole appearance and eventually death of the leaf.
Vaccinium ovatum
Vaccinium ovatum is infected by the leaf spot (Rhytisma vaccinii) and (Dothichiza caroliniana).
Vicia species are infected by the leaf spot (Erostrotheca multiformis), which forms greyish spots that enlarge and may defoliate the plant.
Wisteria species are infected by three fungal leaf spots (Phyllostica wisteriae), (Septoria wisteriae) and (Phomatospora wisteriae).
Non-chemical Control
Remove and destroy infected plant material and avoid overhead watering. When planting select infection resistant varieties. Practice crop rotation and add pot ash to the soil to decrease the plants venerability to the disease. Many species of fungus overwinter in fallen leaves, remove and destroy any litter under the plant.
Winter Fusarium Leaf Disease in Turf Grasses can be minimised by aerating the soil, reducing thatch and avoid excessive nitrogen in the soil.
Chemical Control
Protective fungicides such as zineb or copper oxychloride should be sprayed at the first sign of infection and cuttings should be sprayed as they start to grow.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
DISEASE
NAME
Armillaria Root Rot, Honey Fungi
Armillaria luteobubalina
Description
This naturally occurring fungus grows between the bark and wood of trees producing distinctive cream sheets of hyphae. The toadstool-like fruiting bodies are yellowish brown and appear from the soil or sprout out of the base of the host plant.
Image by Dr Brett Summerell
Symptoms
This is a vigorous fungus that attacks the roots of trees and is not normally noticed until dieback starts to occur. Affected plants generally appear declined, with some dieback and by this stage; the disease may be well established. Leaves can turn yellow, shrivel and fall from the plant and the branches die back. Citrus trees may produce a heavy crop of fruit just before death. Splits often occur on the trunk of affected trees and the bark may lift revealing white sheets of mycelium or hyphae under the bark. These hyphae will have a distinctive "mushroom" smell. Affected roots become spongy, powdery or jelly-like and when dissected reveal similar white sheaths under the bark. Infected plants may survive for many years before final death of the tree.
Image by Dr Brett Summerell
Source and Dispersal
This fungus is a native species that is naturally found in Eucalyptus forests and woodlands throughout eastern Australia and south-western Australia. It is commonly found on old tree trunks and decaying wood where honey coloured toadstools appear from the base of the host or surrounding soil in May-June. The toadstools produce white spores that are dispersed by wind, but generally the fungus spreads underground through contact between infected and uninfected roots. The fungus can grow about 1-1.5 metres per year along a root. This species, unlike those in the northern hemisphere does not produce rhizomorphs, thick strands that are flat resembling shoe-strings.
Mycelium on wood
Image by Dr Brett Summerell
The fungus is not spread by contaminated soil as it only grows in root material. Spread to new sites is either through spore movement (very rare), movement of infected plants or through movement of contaminated wood chip used for mulch. Dead or dying trees should be inspected for the presence of this pathogen prior to use as mulch.
This fungus can survive for many years in infested root and stem material depending on the size of the material and speed of decomposition of the wood.
Favoured Conditions
This fungus prefers sandy soil types and is more frequently found in more freely drained soils. Moisture is required for growth of the fungus along the root system. Generally the damage caused to plants is greater on plants that are already under stress or weakened. The retention of infested root systems and stumps in the soil has contributed to an increase in the occurrence of this disease.
Affected Plants
The host range for this fungus is extremely wide and includes many ornamentals and Australian native plants. Fruit trees and perennials are also commonly attacked. The most susceptible species include oaks, camellias, azaleas, roses and eucalypts.
Amaryllis, Narcissus and Hippeastrum species are also infected.
Cedrus species trunk
Image by Dr Brett Summerell
Cedrus species are also affected by Armillaria root rot causing the roots to rot and the trunk to swell and spilt open. There is no control for these infections.
Non-chemical Control
Control of this disease is totally dependent on removal of the inoculum of the fungus from the soil. To be effective this will require removal of the infested roots and stem, a process that may be difficult in garden beds. Infected plants should be removed and disposed of, but it is not necessary to remove the surrounding soil as the fungus only occurs in the plant. When clearing affected land for cultivation, remove all stumps and roots and allow 2 to 3 years prior to replanting.
Trees that are in the early stages of attack may be saved by removal of the affected roots and leaving remaining roots exposed for several years. Top soil around the trunk should also be removed for a distance of up to 1m and affected trees should be fertilised and watered to encourage vigour.
Chemical Control
There is no practical or effective chemical control. Fumigation has been carried out to eradicate the fungus but success is dependent on the removal of large sources of inoculum. However many of the chemicals used for this purpose are highly toxic and have restricted usage now.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
Amendments by
Dr Brett Summerell
Director Science and Public Programs
Royal Botanic Gardens Trust, Sydney
DISEASE
NAME
Rust (General)
Various Rust Species
Description
Generally this fungal problem involves many species causing a range of symptoms, but generally produces pustules that release reddish - brown spores. Most fungus is specific to its host and normally will not infect other plant species.
Pustules
Symptoms
The upper leaf surface develops red, brown or yellow areas and the underside produces bright yellow to orange spores that correspond to the patches above. Infested leaves become brown in patches, fall prematurely and flower and fruit may also be infected. This overall, results in a loss of vigour and in small plants may lead to death.
Pelargonium x hortorum
Myrtle Rust (Puccinia psidii) This fungal disease infects plants in the Myrtaceae family and was only recently detected in 2010 and has since spread across eastern Australia from the Northern Territory to Queensland, NSW, Victoria and Tasmania. This rust attacks soft and actively growing foliage or shoots with varying symptoms. It normally starts as small purple spots on the leaves from which spores form in yellow pustules that fade to grey as the infection matures and can merge creating leaf distortion and death of the plant.
The life cycle starts when the powdery yellow spores are distributed by wind to other plants where they germinate and start to grow by piercing the plant cells to obtain nutrients. Germination occurs in dark moist positions with a temperature between 15° to 25°C and the new pustules can release spores in 10 to 12 days, (spores remain viable for 3-months). The spores spread rapidly by wind, water, insects or animals. They are also distributed by plant material, clothing, shoes and vehicles.
Puccinia psidii
Needle Rust (Melampsora farlowii) infects the new leaves turning them to yellow and fall from the shoot giving the branch a scorched appearance. The fruiting bodies are found on the underside of the leaf and is waxy-red.
Rust in Poplar (Melampsora species). A fungal problem involving at least two species (Melampsora medusae) and (Melampsora larici-idaei).
The upper leaf surface becomes flecked with yellow to light green and the underside produces bright yellow orange spores that correspond to the patches above. Infested leaves become brown in patches, fall prematurely and shoots may die back as a result of not being hardened off to the elements. This overall, results in a loss of vigour and in small plants may lead to death.
The source of the fungus is from other infected plants or fallen leaves and is dispersed by wind.
Host plants include Lombardy Poplars particularly Populus nigra 'Italica' and cottonwoods.
White Rust (Albugo candida) forms snow white pustules that contain colourless spores that turn yellow then brown and are found on the underside of leaves.
White Pine Blister Rust (WPBR) is caused by the fungus (Cronartium ribicola). It is a obligate parasite requiring a living host to survive. The life cycle requires two host species with part of it life on the Pinus species and the other part on Ribes species. First cankers or sores appear on the Pinus species realising spores that land on the Ribes species infecting it. The infection produces a different type of spore that land on the needles and growing branches of the Pinus species and eventually forming cankers. The spores are spread by wind and prefer cool moist conditions. Symptoms include brown spots on the needles and the appearance of dead branches in the crown. Cankers will also appear on the trunk and it tends to attack young trees. Control methods include removal of Ribus species in the affected areas and breading naturally resistant Pinus species.
The Rust (Endophyllum sempervivi) affects Sempervivum species by infecting the young leaves and eventually the crown. The mycelium then travels to the roots and extends into any off shots. Leaves that are infected turn yellowish, grow longer and are thin. Persistent infection may kill the plant.
Source and Dispersal
The source of the fungus is from other infected plants or fallen leaves that contain the fruiting bodies and is dispersed by wind.
Favoured Conditions
Generally rust is more prevalent during summer, preferring warm humid conditions and particularly when the leaves are damp.
Affected Plants
A wide range of ornamental annuals, perennials, ferns, trees, shrubs including, Hibiscus species that are infected by Kuehneola malvicola predominantly in southern USA.
Abies species are infected by many types of rust including (Milesia fructuosa) and (Uredinopsis mirabilis).
Abutilon, Phymosia and Alcea species are infected by the rust (Puccinia heterospora).
Alnus species are occasionally infected with Leaf Rust (Melampsoridium hiratsukanum) which forms yellowish pustules on the leaves that develop turning the leaf brown.
Amelanchler species and Calocedrus decurrens are infected by several rust species including (Gymnosporangium libocedri).
Antirrhinum majus (Snapdragon) is infected by the rust (Puccinia antirrhini). This fungal problem that infects the epidermal layer on the leaf underside, forming pale green areas that are raised and split open revealing reddish brown spores that have a dusty appearance.
As the infestation grows, concentric rings of spore pustules appear around the original infection. The corresponding position on the upper leafs surface turns yellow eventually causing the leaf to wilt and die. The infestation is not restricted to the leaves; all above ground parts of the plant are susceptible and infected plants transmit the fungus dispersing it by wind.
Infected plants should be removed and destroyed.
Anemone and Prunus species are infected by the rust (Tranzschelia pruni-spinosae) that stimulates abnormal growth in the plant during spring.
Aquilegia, Anemone, Delphinium and Clematis species are infected by the Rust (Puccinia rubigo-vera var. agropyri).
Arctostaphylos manzanita is infected by the rust (Pucciniastrum sparsum) occurring in coastal regions but is not normally detrimental to the plant.
Artemisia species are infected by the rust (Uromyces ari-triphylli) which is a systemic disease that is transmitted through seeds. It causes the leaves to turn yellow then die and can infect all parts of the plant except the roots.
Bambusa species are infected by the rust (Dasturella divina) which forms elongated brownish strips on the leaves.
Berberis species may be infected by the Rust (Puccinia graminis) that forms orange spotting on the leaves. It certain regions plants infected with this rust must be removed and destroyed to avoid infecting neighbouring agriculture crops.
Betula species may be infected by Leaf Rust (Melampsoridium betulinum) that forms reddish-yellow spots on the leaves and heavy infestation can defoliate the tree. The host tree changes to Pseudolarix species during the sexual stage and causes blistering of the leaves.
Calendula species may be infected by the Rust (Puccinia flaveriae).
Callistephus and Solidago species may be infected by the Rust (Coleosporium solidaginis) which forms bright yellow spots particularly on new foliage or young plants.
Canna species may be infected by the rust (Puccinia Thaliae).
Canna indica
Centaurea species are infected by the rust (Puccinia cyani) and (Puccinia irrequisita) which can cover the stems and leaves.
Cleome species are infected by the rust (Puccinia aristidae) but rarely requires control.
Dianthus species are infected by the rust (Uromyces dianthi) which forms powdery brown spots that appear on both sides of the leaves. The leaves curl and die and the plant becomes stunted. This is a common problem that occurs when grown in a protected enclosure (hot house).
Ficus species are infected by the rust (Cerotelium fici) which forms small brown spots, and causes the leaves to turn yellow then fall prematurely.
Fuchsia species are infected with (Pucciniastrum epilobii). This fungus caused purplish red blotches on the upper leaf surface, that become dry in the middle and result in a brown patch with purple edges. On the underside of the leaf, corresponding to the patches, yellow orange spores form. Heavily infected leaves become yellow and drop prematurely. This leads to a loss of vigour in the plant and infected plants transmit the fungus.
Certain cultivars are more susceptible than others, particularly 'Orange Drops' and 'Novella'.
Hydrangea species is infected by (Pucciniastrum hydrangeae) causing yellowish brown pustules to appear on both sides of the leaf. The leaf becomes dry and brittle.
Iris species
Iris and Dietes species are very susceptible to the rust (Puccinia iridis). Leaves form rusty red powdery spots that enlarge. They are appear on both sides of the leaves causing the surrounding area to turn pale yellow then brown and the black spores appear soon after, overwintering on dead infected leaves. Plants may be heavily infected but normally survive attack.
Larix species are infected by several Needle Rusts including (Melampsora paradoxa), (Melampsora medusae) and (Melampsoridium betulinum). The fungi attacks the needles predominantly towards the branch tips turning them yellow and eventually killing them . The underside of the leaf develops pale yellow fruiting bodies.
Lupinus species are infected by three species of rust including (Puccinia andropogonis var onobrychidis).
Malus andChaenomeles species may be infected by the rust (Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae) or (Gymnosporangium clavipes) which forms brown or bright orange spots on the leaves or twigs and can defoliate the tree. Juniperus virginiana and Mespilus germanica may also be infected by rust.
Mathiola and Arabis species are infected by White Rust.
Pinus species are infects by the Comandra Blister-rust (Cronartium comandre).
Plumeria rubra Leaf upper surface Leaf underside
Plumeria species are susceptible to the rust (Coleosporium plumeriae). Leaves and flowers may be infected with the underside forming bright yellow pustules and causes premature leaf or flower drop.
Populus nigra 'Italica' is infected by the rust (Melampsora species) which forms pustules to form on the leaves turning them brown and causing premature leaf drop.
Rhododendron and Tsuga species are infected by the rust (Pucciniastrum vaccinii) and is commonly found in nursery stock, spreading rapidly. Tsuga species are also infected by Needle Rust.
Ribes species are infected by the rust (Cronartium ribicola). This leaf rust appears on the underside of the leaves (preferably older leaves) forming dusty brown pustules and is a serious problem. This rust only appears when White Pine (Pinus strobes) grows near where the alternate stage of the fungus occurs.
Rudbeckia species are infected by several species of rust including (Puccinia dioicae) and (Uromyces rudbeckiae).
Salix species are infected by four types of (Melampsora species).
Senecio, Bellis and Calendula species are infected by the rust (Puccinia lagenophora) which forms blister-like pustules that release brown spores.
Sorbus aucuparia is affected by several rust from the (Gymnosporangium species) causing circular yellow spots, that appear on the leaves during summer and develop into orange cup-shaped fruiting bodies.
Trillium species are infected by the rust (Uromyces halstedii) that damages the leaf surface.
Festuca arundinacea 
Rust
Turf Grass are susceptible to rust (Puccinia species) and (Uromyces species), causing yellow flecks to appear on the stems and leaves. These markings enlarge before the pustules form and in severs cases the lawn has a yellow, red or brown appearance.
The infection appears from spring to summer under humid low light conditions and turf that is under stress or with excessive nitrogen in the soil is more susceptible. Many species may be infected including Lolium perenne (Perennial Ryegrass) and Poa pratensis (Kentucky Bluegrass).
Rust on Perennial Ryegrass
Viburnum species are mildly affected by two types of rust (Coleosporium viburni) and (Puccinia linkii).
Viola species are infected by the rust (Puccinia violae) which forms green spots on the underside of the leaves. It is not commonly seen on cultivated plants.
Non-chemical Control
Cut off and destroy any infected branches, fallen leaves and remove heavily infected plants. Improve the culture by, pruning to improve air circulation, allow space between plants and avoid over crowding. Avoid planting susceptible species. Plants that are infected with a systemic form should be removed and destroyed
Chemical Control
Not possible to spray large trees but young plants may be treated with a protectant fungicide such as wettable sulphur. In a domestic garden small plants such as Fuchsia species may be sprayed with a protectant chemicals as symptoms appear, aided by the removal of existing infected leaves. Under commercial conditions stock may be sprayed with a fungicide such as oxycarboxin.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
DISEASE
NAME
Brown Rot, Stone Fruit
Sclerotinia fructicola & Sclerotinia laxa
Description
Pathogenic, Fungal Problem
Symptoms
This fast spreading fungal disease attacks flower, fruit and twigs. Infected blossoms turn brown, die and persist on the plant particularly under humid condition. Normally mature fruit is affected forming brown soft patches that rapidly engulf the host that is covered in purplish dusty spores. The fruit becomes completely rotten within 3 top 5 days then shrivels and falls or persists on the plant (mummies). The fungus migrates from the infected fruit and girdles the twigs causing them to die.
Source and Dispersal
The fungus overwinters on dead fruit (mummies) and there stalks or the infested twigs and is spread by wind or water and insects. It can also be spread by moving infected plants or parts of to other areas.
Mummy
Favoured Conditions
It prefers conditions when the blossoms remain wet for up to 15 hours as in cool nights during rainy periods in spring. It commonly first selects damaged areas for infection.
Affected Plants
Stonefruits are the main host and all species and cultivars are affected.
Non-chemical Control
Avoid watering directly on the blossoms and prune to encourage adequate air circulation. Prune affected twigs and remove dead fruit during winter and destroy. During the growing period remove any infected fruit or flowers immediately and when handling mature fruit avoid damaging the skin.
Chemical Control
Preventative fungicides such as copper oxychloride may be sprayed during the flowering period, prior to rain.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
DISEASE
NAME
Shot Hole in Stonefruit
Stimina carpophila
Description
A fungal problem
Symptoms
The leaves, fruit and twigs are attacked. The leaves develop small brown spots that have reddish margins. These increase in size up to 6mm across becoming dry then fall out creating the 'shot hole ' appearance and when grouped together form irregular shapes. Twigs exhibit raised brown spots and young shoots form cankers that exude gum. Recurring attack of the twigs can result in dieback, weakening the vigour of the tree. The fruit reveals various symptoms with apricots and almonds forming raised brown scabs and peaches and nectarines having large brown depressed spots that split open and exude gum.
Source and Dispersal
The fungus is derived from infected plant material, particularly the twigs and the spores are dispersed by wind or splashing water.
Favoured Conditions
It is most active in spring during wet weather preferring humid conditions.
Affected Plants
This fungus attacks Stonefruit.
Morinda citrifolia is affected by the fungus (Guignardia morindae) which attacks the leaves.
Morinda citrifolia
Non-chemical Control
Remove any infected fruit or twigs or fallen leaves and destroy.
Chemical Control
Plants and fallen leaves can be sprayed with a fungicide (copper oxychloride) during late autumn with a follow up spray in spring.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
DISEASE
NAME
Root Knot & Other Nematodes
Meloidogyne & other species
Description
Root Knot Nematode or eelworms are transparent thin nematodes that are an organism up to 0.5mm long and attacks the roots by injecting saliva that stimulates the surrounding cells to form galls. The adult male lives in the soil and the female are found in the roots, laying up to 2,000 eggs in a mass in the soil adjoining the roots.
Symptoms
Above ground the plant infected by Root Knot Nematode develops slowly and is stunted. During hot weather the plant wilts easily as it is unable to keep up with the transpiration rate and under extreme conditions the plant dies. The young nematodes attack the roots forcing there way up the root tips forming galls. On inspection the galls are found centrally located along the roots and are up to 20mm across. The galls slow the rate of nutrients and water passing through the plant and as the galls break down they allow opportunity for other diseases to enter the plant.
The roots are severely damaged if the galls are physically removed.
Other species of nematode have simular symptoms and are individually discussed below.
Source and Dispersal
The nematodes are found in soil or in infested plants and are dispersed by water, soil movement and attached to tools or shoes.
Nema Head
Favoured Conditions
It prefers sandy soil types and a warm moist weather conditions.
Life Cycle
Affected Plants
A wide range of plants are attacked by the Root Knot Nematode including tomatoes, potatoes, carrots, tobacco, hibiscus, gardenia and roses. Some species of nematodes are plant specific such as (Meliodogyne incognita) which attacks Hemerocallis, Celosia and Viola species, forming small wart-like swelling on the roots.
Alternanthera, Begonia, Dianthus, Psidium, Thunbergia and Weigela species are attacked by the Root Nematode (Meloidogyne incognita). This forms small swellings on the roots causing the top growth to be stunted and not responding to improved culture. In cool climates it is found on plants in glasshouses.
Buxus species are attacked by the Meadow Nematode (Pratylenchus species) that turn the leaves a bronze colour and cause stunting of the plant. These microscopic nematodes enters through the roots and eventually result in the death of the plant.
Lagunaria patersonii is attacked by a simular nematode, the Root Burrowing Nematode (Radopholus similis) that feeds by burrowing in the outer root tissue.
Lavandula species that are grown in the northern United States are susceptible to the Peanut Root Knot Nematode (Melioidogyne hapla). Berberis species are also susceptible.
Tulipa species are attacked by Bulb and Stem Nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci) which forms brownish streaks along the stem that may blister and may cause wilting. The flowers petals become distorted and the general vigour of the plant poor.
Nematodes damage
Turf Grass are susceptible to several Parasitic Nematodes including (Helicotylenchus species), (Xiphenema Species), (Hemicycliophora species) and (Ibipora lolii). All turf grasses are susceptible and the nematodes are active from spring to autumn requiring a soil temperature 15 ºc. The leaves become chlorotic and have a weak appearance as a result of the damaged roots. Generally it is only a major problem when the nematode numbers are very high, otherwise control is not warranted.
Cultural Control
Crop rotation in infected soils, avoid using plants from the Brassicaceae family for up to four years and plant species that are tolerant of nematodes, this will reduce numbers. Beds may be laid fallow for several seasons to deter nematodes, but numbers build up quickly once susceptible plants return.
Affected plants such as roses may have the bare roots dipped in hot water 45ºC for 15 minutes during the dormant period and contaminated growing media can be heat treated at 60ºC for 30 minutes before being used.
Any infested plants should be removed and destroyed or deposed off site.
Improve the soil structure and avoid acidity by the addition of lime or dolomite. Garden beds may also be pre planted with marigolds or mustard to deter nematodes, but should be removed or thoroughly composted prior to planting as they can push nematodes towards the crop. Green manure crops may be grown prior to planting and infested soil may require up to three seasons of manure crops to bring nematodes under control.
Biological Control
The encouragement of earthworms reduces nematode numbers as they accidentally eat them in there normal course of growth.
Chemical Control
The soil can be treated with a nematicide such as fenamiphos in a domestic situation. Commercial growers may fumigate the soil prior to planting with the appropriate chemicals.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
Average Lowest Temperature : -10º C 14º F
USDA : 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
This USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) hardiness zone chart can be used to indicate a plant’s ability to withstand average minimum temperatures. However, other factors such as soil type, pH, and moisture, drainage, humidity and exposure to sun and wind will also have a direct effect on your plant’s survival. Use this chart only as a guide, always keep the other factors in mind when deciding where, when and what to plant.
A plant's individual USDA zone can be found in the Plant Overview.
Climate Description
Cool to Cold
These zones have low winter temperatures with moderate humidity and moderate summer temperatures.
Frosts and snow are severe. Droughts rarely occur and wind is cold.
Plant growth
Endemic native and exotic cool climate plants grow well within these zones.
| Dictionary | Growth Habit |
| Leaf Type | Botanic Flower Description |
| Leaf Shape | Flower Inflorescence |
| Leaf Arrangement | Fruit Type |
| Leaf Margin | Bark Type |
| Leaf Apex And Bases | Flower Description |
