Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops Volume II: Rapeseed-Mustard and Sesame Diseases

Author

S. J. Kolte, Ph.D.

Senior Research Officer/Project Leader (Oilseeds Pathology) Department of Plant Pathology Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology Pantnagar, District Nainital, Uttar Pradesh India

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

First published 1985 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 Reissued 2018 by CRC Press © 1985 by CRC Press, Inc. CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright. com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Kolte, S. J. Diseases of annual edible oilseed crops. Includes bibliographies and indexes. Contents:  v.  1.  Peanut diseases -- v.  3. Sunflower, safflower, and nigerseed diseases. 1. Oilseed plants--Diseases and pests--Collected works.  I. Title. SB608.O3K65 1985    633.8’5   84-5824 ISBN 0-8493-5380-7 (v. 1) ISBN 0-8493-5381-5 (v. 2) ISBN 0-8493-5382-3 (v. 3) A Library of Congress record exists under LC control number: 84005824 Publisher’s Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies may be apparent. Disclaimer The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and welcomes correspondence from those they have been unable to contact. ISBN 13: 978-1-315-89233-7 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978-1-351-07143-7 (ebk) Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

PREFACE These three volumes deal with the diseases of primarily cultivated annual edible oilseeds, i.e., peanut (groundnut), rapeseed-mustard, sesame, sunflower, safflower, and nigerseed. Diseases of other annual crops, e.g., soybean, cotton, and corn, which also contribute significantly to the world supply of edible vegetable oils and fats, have been excluded. Linseed oil, though used in certain parts of the world as edible oil, is mostly useful for industrial purposes. Hence, diseases of the linseed crop also have been excluded. A great deal of information has been accumulated on the diseases of peanut, rapeseedmustard, sesame, sunflower, safflower, and nigerseed. This is evident from the proliferation of research papers and reports in scientific journals throughout the world. The progress of research on diseases of some of these crops has been summarized periodically by review articles or popular articles and by occasional brief chapters in books and monographs or bulletins. Some of those chapters are quite old indeed. Yet, to the best of the author's knowledge, no one has presented a thorough discussion of diseases of these crops. Besides a pressing need for such a comprehensive work, the experience of the author in research in the pertinent field has prompted this attempt to bring together the scattered information on the subject in a comprehensive manner in order to present it in a useful form. An attempt has been made to present a broader view of the subject than that generally included in bulletins and manuals. Discussions on development of a straightforward nature and also of a controversial nature have been included to stimulate thinking especially among the graduate students. The information presented represents a careful synthesis of research articles. The survey of literature has been made as complete as possible up to the beginning of 1983. In most cases original papers are consulted, and the temptation to use review articles or abstracts as a major source of information is avoided. However, Review of Plant Pathology (formerly Review of Applied Mycology), Field Crop Abstracts, and Plant Breeding Abstracts have been freely consulted, especially when access to the original papers was not possible, particularly in the case of sunflower diseases and especially because of limitations of linguistic ability to do justice to numerous pertinent original publications in the Russian, German, French, and Spanish languages. Each volume of this set contains the ''Introduction", which deals with the uses and chemistry of vegetable oils and fats, trends in world production and consumption, production constraints, crop management and disease problems. Volume I covers peanut diseases; Volume II covers rapeseed-mustard and sesame diseases; Volume III covers sunflower, safflower, and nigerseed diseases. Depending upon the available literature, the treatment of all the above crop diseases follows a uniform plan which will be seen from the main paragraph headings in each chapter. The aim has been to make the subject matter regarding each disease as complete and self-contained as possible. At first the reader is introduced to the respective edible oilseed crop in each chapter with a brief botanical description of the crop, its origin, and distribution. The diseases are arranged under each crop (except nigerseed) on the basis of the primary causal factors as follows: fungal diseases, bacterial diseases, virus diseases, mycoplasma diseases, parasitic nematodes, phanerogamic parasites, and nonparasitic diseases. The sequence of description of diseases under each causal factor has been taken depending on the economic importance or prevalence of the disease. Illustrations of symptoms are given to assist in the proper diagnosis of the diseases. Under each category of the causal factors, wherever possible, diseases of less frequent occurrence or the less known diseases are briefly described under the head "Other Fungal Diseases", "Other Bacterial Diseases", etc. The aflatoxin problem is described separately in detail under the peanut crop in Volume I, Chapter 2, on peanuts. Deterioration of edible oilseeds mainly due to storage fungi is described under the separate head "Biodeterioration" in the case of each crop except safflower and nigerseed, where information on this topic is scanty.

In order to provide more readily accessible information, the sections devoted to specific diseases are arranged in the following form: geographic distribution, economic importance, symptoms, pathogen, host-range, physiological races, survival, infection, factors affecting infection and disease development, and control. The control section for many diseases is further divided into host resistance, chemical control, cultural control, and biological control. Chemicals suggested for control of various diseases are given mostly by common names or sometimes by trade names. The names of chemicals are listed alphabetically and their chemical names and principal manufacturers are given in the appendix. The morphological description of a pathogen affecting more than one crop is given under one crop only, and a cross-reference is made at the appropriate place. In describing the economic importance of the diseases and chemical control, units of measurement have been retained as mentioned in the original research papers or abstracts, without necessarily converting them into metric units. This has been done intentionally to avoid confusion among the readers and, more particularly, to present the original available information. It is reliably believed that this book will be of great help not only to students, researchers, and teachers but also to agricultural extension workers, field workers, seed growers, and seed crop inspectors, and subsequently to the farmers, to achieve the over-all objective of increase in oilseed crop yields throughout the world. Any criticism that readers may wish to make in order to improve the book or to make it more useful to all concerned will be greatly appreciated. S. J. Kolte

THE AUTHOR S. J. Kolte, Senior Research Officer/Project Leader (Oilseeds Pathology), is a staff member of the Faculty of Agriculture in the Plant Pathology Department of Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, District Nainital, Uttar Pradesh, India. He gained his Master of Science Degree in Agriculture with specialization in Plant Pathology from Nagpur University in 1967 and a doctorate degree in Plant Pathology from Pantnagar University in 1971. Since that time, he has been working on biological and control aspects of diseases of edible oilseed crops at Pantnagar University. He has authored about 30 research papers in the field of edible oilseed crop diseases. He traveled to visit leading oilseed research stations in Canada, the United Kingdom, and Sweden in 1981 under the IDRC- (Canada) assisted project on oilseeds. Besides research on oilseed crops, he is also engaged in teaching certain courses in plant pathology and in guiding graduate students for their research at Pantnagar University.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author first wishes to express his appreciation to the authorities of the Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, District Nainital, Uttar Pradesh, India (referred further as Pantnagar University) for providing him an opportunity to independently investigate the disease problems of oilseed crops. It is basically because of this research work and experience as the Project Leader of the Oilseed Pathology Project that the author could make a firm supporting base to write this book. Thanks are also due to the administrative authorities of the Pantnagar University for encouragement and for permitting the author to undertake the task of writing this book. The oilseed research project at the Pantnagar University, like other crop research projects, is in operation on the concept of coordinated interdisciplinary research. It is in this coordinated aspect of oilseed research that the author appreciates the cooperation and help given by Dr. Basudeo Singh, who is the Program Coordinator of oilseeds research at the Pantnagar University. The general cooperation received from Dr. R. S. Singh, Professor and Head of the Plant Pathology Department at the Pantnagar University, is gratefully acknowledged. Most of the illustrations, particularly the photographs of symptoms of different diseases, are the results of the author's original work. A few photographs have been obtained from other scientists working in India, the U.S., and Canada, whose help is acknowledged in the legends. Particular mention is gratefully made to: Dr. J. M. Klisiewicz, Research Plant Pathologist, Department of Plant Pathology, University of California at Davis; Dr. H. C. Huang, Plant Pathologist, Agriculture Canada Research Station, Morden, Canada; Dr. D. V. R. Reddy, Principal Virologist, Peanut Improvement Program, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, India; Dr. P. A. Shinde, Professor and Head, Department of Plant Pathology and Agricultural Microbiology, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, India; Dr. A. K. Deshmukh, Senior Safflower Breeder, Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute, Phaltan, India. Some of the figures are partly drawn from previous published records, and sources of illustrations have been duly given in the legends. On the author's request during his visit to Canada, the United Kingdom, and Sweden, several scientists supplied the reprints of their research papers, which facilitated the writing of this book in a more effective manner. Those who supplied the reprints most readily and willingly or those who helped in sending the reprints are: Drs. P. R. Verma, G. A. Petrie, and R. K. Downey, Canada Agriculture Research Station, Saskatoon, Canada; Dr. J. A. Hoes, Canada Agriculture Research Station, Morden, Canada; Drs. C. J. Rawlinson and G. Muthyalu, Plant Pathology Department, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Herts, U.K.; Dr. M. J. Barbetti, Department of Agriculture, South Perth, Western Australia; Dr. Ingar Olsson, Department of Crop Husbandry, University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden; Drs. P. Subrahmanyam and A. M. Ghanekar, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, India. To all these scientists the author is grateful. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the research grants provided by the International Development Research Centre, Canada (IDRC, Canada) and Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) for intensification of research on rapeseed at the Pantnagar University. The author very particularly expresses his appreciation to the IDRC (Canada) for supporting his participation in the observational study tour to visit leading oilseed research stations in Canada, the United Kingdom, and Sweden in 1981. During his visit the author gained professionally through field observations and discussions, and this experience has gone a long way in understanding the disease problems in oilseeds; this subsequently was quite useful especially in writing the chapters on rapeseed-mustard and sunflower diseases.

The author is grateful to Mr. N. Ramakrishna for his help in inserting corrections in the typed manuscript of the book. The author also gladly offers his thanks to Messrs. R, C. Pant and J. C. Papnai for their willing cooperation and careful typing throughout all phases of writing the manuscript. The author appreciates very much the help given by his wife, Rekha, in the set-up and assembly of the manuscript. The counsel and encouragement received from the author's parents and from his fatherly uncle, Vaidhya V. T. Kolte, are recorded herewith with a deep sense of gratitude and reverence. Finally, the courteous cooperation in all matters relevant to the development and production of this book which the author has received from the publisher, especially Ms. Sandy Pearlman, Managing Editor, and Mary Kugler, Coordinating Editor, CRC Press, is gratefully acknowledged.

Dedicated to my Revered Teacher, Dr. Y. L. Nene (Program Leader, Pulses, ICRISAT, Patancheru, India), a quite unassuming man, a scholar with an inborn spirit of research, and a teacher of rare genius from whose teaching the author has learned how to study and enjoy the joy of discoveries in plant pathology.

VOLUME OUTLINE FOR VOLUME I: Peanut Diseases

Chapter 1 — Introduction: Edible Oilseed Plants Chapter 2 — Peanut Diseases I. Introduction II. Fungal Diseases III. Other Fungal Diseases IV. The Aflatoxin Problem V. B iodeterioration VI. Bacterial Disease: The Wilt VII. Virus Diseases VIIL Mycoplasma Disease: The Witch's Broom IX. Parasitic Nematodes X. Phanerogamic Parasite: The Striga XL Non-Parasitic Diseases References Appendix: Trade, Common, and Chemical Names of Certain Pesticides Index

VOLUME OUTLINE FOR VOLUME III: Sunflower, Safflower, and Nigerseed Diseases Chapter 1 — Introduction: Edible Oilseed Plants Chapter 2 — Sunflower Diseases I. Fungal Diseases II. Biodeterioration III. Bacterial Disease IV. Virus Diseases V. Mycoplasma Diseases VI. Parasitic Nematodes VII. Phanerogamic Parasites VIII. Non-Parasitic Diseases References Chapter 3 — Safflower Diseases I. Fungal Diseases II. Bacterial Disease: The Leaf Spot III. Diseases Caused by Viruses IV. Mycoplasma Disease: The Phyllody V. Parasitic Nematodes VI. Non-Parasitic Diseases References Chapter 4 — Nigerseed Diseases References Index

TABLE OF CONTENTS Volume II: Rapeseed-Mustard and Sesame Diseases Chapter 1 Introduction I. Edible Oilseed Plants II. Chemical Nature of Edible Oils and Fats III. Trends in World Production and Consumption of Vegetable Oils and Fats IV. Production Constraints A. Basic Constraint B. Other Constraints in Developing Countries V. Crop Management VI. The Disease Problems References Chapter 2 Rapeseed-Mustard Diseases I. Fungal Diseases A. Seed Rot and Seedling Blight B. Alternaria Blight C. Downy Mildew D. White Rust E. Sclerotinia Rot F. Black-Leg or Stem Canker G. Powdery Mildew H. Fusarium Wilt I. Club Root J. Light Leaf Spot K. Root Gall Smut L. Other Fungal Diseases II. Biodeterioration III. Bacterial Diseases A. Bacterial Rot B. Bacterial Stalk Rot C. Other Bacterial Diseases IV. Virus Diseases A. The mosaics — Turnip Virus I Group B. Other Virus Diseases V. Mycoplasma Diseases A. Phyllody B. Green Petal Disease C. Aster Yellows VI. Parasitic Nematodes VII. Phanerogamic Parasite: The Broomrape VIII. Non-Parasitic Diseases References

1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 5 7 9 9 9 10 19 27 35 39 46 49 50 53 55 56 57 57 57 58 59 59 — .59 60 63 63 64 64 65 65 65 66

Chapter 3 Sesame Diseases I. Fungal Diseases A. Phytophthora blight B. Charcoal Rot C. Fusarium Wilt D. Alternaria Leaf Spot E. White Spot K Powdery Mildews 1. Oidium erysiphoides 2. Sphaerotheca fuliginea 3. Leveillula taurica 4. Erysiphe cichoracearum G. Corynespora blight H. Brown Angular Spot I. Angular Leaf Spot J. Aerial Stem Rot K. Other Fungal Diseases II. Biodeterioration III. Bacterial Diseases A. Bacterial Leaf Spot B. Bacterial Blight C. Bacterial Wilt IV. Virus Diseases A. Leaf Curl B. Mosaic C.. Other Viruses V. Mycoplasma Disease: The Phyllody VI. Parasitic Nematodes VII. Non-Parasitic Diseases A. Nutrient Deficiencies B. Other Disorders References

83 83 83 85 86 88 90 91 91 91 91 91 92 92 93 94 95 99 99 99 102 103 103 103 104 104 104 108 108 108 109 110

Appendix: Trade, Common, and Chemical Names of Certain Pesticides

123

Index

127

Volume II

1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION I. EDIBLE OILSEED PLANTS

Edible oilseed plants are those plants whose seeds bear fixed non-volatile oil. Such seeds could be consumed directly or may be eaten fried, roasted, or pounded and mixed with sugar; or the oil may be extracted from such seeds and directly used for cooking the food, or for confectionery purposes.1 Usually, refining of the oil is done before it is used as food. Edible vegetable oils may, however, be used occasionally for industrial purposes, e.g., manufacturing of soaps, varnishes, hair oils, lubricants, etc. The residues left, i.e., the oilcakes, serve as excellent animal or poultry feed. Oil-cakes may also be used as manure to increase the fertility status of soils. The demand for edible oilseeds for human consumption in different parts of the world is principally derived from three categories of cultivated crop plants: (1) primarily cultivated annual oilseed crops, e.g., peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), rapeseed-mustard (Brassica campestris L., B. napus L., B. juncea (L.), Czern and Coss, Eruca sativa Lam.), sunflower (Helianthus annum L. var. macrocarpus (DC) Ckll.), sesame (Sesamum indicumL.), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), nigerseed (Guizotia abyssinica Cass),and soybean (Glycine max (L) Merrill); (2) an annual fiber crop cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) through its seedbyproducts, and (3) perennial oilseed plants such as coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.) and oilpalm (Elaeis quineensis Jacq). Corn (Zea mays L.) oil also contributes significantly to the world edible oil supply. Thus the range of plants that could be cultivated for edible oils is extensive, but only a few that are included in the first (1) category are suitable for largescale commercial production or produce oil which is required in large quantities. In this book only this category of crops, excepting the soybean, is considered with respect to diseases and control.

II. CHEMICAL NATURE OF EDIBLE OILS AND FATS Edible oils and fats of vegetable origin are composed of triglycerides which are esters of one molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids.2i3 A reaction leading to the formation of a triglyceride is shown below: 0

CH2 -OH I CH—OH

I I

CH2 -OH Glycerol

+

HO-C-(CH2)n CH3 0 HO-C-(CH2)n CH3

o If

HO-C-(CH2 )n CH3 Fatty Acid

O

CH2 -O-C-(CH2)nCH3 ->

I ° CH-0-C-(CH CH-0-C-( 2)n CH3

I I

o II

CH2 -0-C-(CH2 ) n CH 3 Triglyceride

Triglycerides that are solids at room temperature are termed as "fats", whereas, the liquid ones are termed as "oils". The latter contain ester-bound unsaturated fatty acids. Fatty acids by and large are straight-chain aliphatic monocarboxylic acids (see Structure 1). Most of the members of this series contain an even number of carbon atoms in the molecule. Individual fatty acids are distinguished from one another by the nature of the

2

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

hydrocarbon chain. This chain can vary in length from 4 to 24 carbon atoms. When fatty acid contains one or more double bonds in the molecule, it is said to be unsaturated. Thus the fatty acid may be saturated (no double bond) as stearic acid, monounsaturated (one double bond) as oleic acid, or polyunsaturated (with two or more double bonds) as linoleic acid. The fatty acids are abbreviated according to the number of carbon atoms in the molecule and degree of unsaturation (number of double bonds). The common names, abbreviated symbols, systematics, and structural formulae of certain important fatty acids found in vegetable oils are given in Table 1. Physical and chemical properties of oil are determined by iodine number (IN), saponification value (SV), refractive index (RI) of oil. The IN, SV, RI, and fatty acid composition of important primarily cultivated annual edible oilseed plants are shown in Table 2. The natural configuration of fatty acids is the cis configuration, which is considered to be nutritionally more desirable.2

III. TRENDS IN WORLD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS The average annual rate of world production and consumption of oils and fats is about 3%, with the total annual production being 1 million metric tons.5 The production of annual oilseed field crops has increased considerably since 1960, and it now constitutes over 50% of the total production of fats and oils in the world.5 However, the supply of vegetable oils from annual field crops tends to remain quite flexible from year to year in relation to the total world supply of vegetable oils and fats. The present average per capital consumption of edible oils and fats is 30 g/day (highest) in Western Europe, 5 to 11 g/day (low) in India and other Asian countries, and 2 g/day (lowest) in Africa.5"7 Thus, the consumption of fats and oils in Asia and Africa and in other developing countries is much less as against the required minimum consumption level of 30 g/day. This is a serious situation, particularly when it comes to meeting the requirement of an essential fatty acid, linoleic (C,8:2), and the energy supply for body functions under a balanced diet pattern. Considering the global minimum per capital consumption as required for keeping human health, the increasing world population by about 2% every year, the present rate of oilseed production on a global scale is not and will not be satisfactory. However, developed countries such as the U.S., Canada, and the Soviet Union have been and should continue to be the major producing areas. The six annual edible oilseed crops, as considered in this book, are grown in different parts of the world, covering a wide range of geographical areas. The world production8 of some of these crops during the year 1978— 79 is given in Table 3. The yield of these crops is of higher magnitude in the developed countries as compared with the developing countries. For example, the average yield of peanuts in the developed countries, particularly in the U.S., is 25 to 27 q (quintals)/ha, whereas in India and in other semi-arid countries it is only about 8 to 9 q/ha. 9JO A similar situation appears to be true with respect to the high production of rapeseed (now canola) in Canada and sunflower in the Soviet Union, compared with the yield performance of these crops in developing countries. Safflower production is about 20 q/ha in the U.S., 13 q/ha in Mexico, and only 3 q/ ha in India. 11

IV. PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS A. Basic Constraints It is true that high-yielding varieties of oilseeds do not have the genetic potential to yield

Volume II TABLE 1 Common Names, Symbols, Systematics and Structural Formulae of Certain Important Fatty Acids Found in Vegetable Oils2 3 Common name

Symbol

Saturated fatty acids Myristic C ]4:0 Palmitic C16:0 Stearic C18:0 Arachidic C20:0 Unsaturated fatty acids c Palmitoleic ^lf»:U9) c Oleic ^IKilW r1 Linoleic *-18:2-]t m

Systematic

Structural formula

Tetradecanoic Hexadecanoic Octadecanoic Eicosanoic

C )3 H 27 COOH CI5H31COOH C17H35COOH C19H39COOH

9-Hexadecenoic 9-Octadecenoic 9,12,Octadecadienoic 9,12,Octa decatrienoic Eicosenoic 13-Docosenoic

Ct5H29COOH C17H33COOH C17H31COOH Ct7H29COOH C)9H37COOH C21H41COOH

Note: Figures in the parenthesis indicate the position of double bonds ( = ) in the fatty acid chain at carbon numbers starting from carboxyl group.

at par with cereals, even at the optimum management level. Besides, it could be observed that production of a unit quantity of fats and oils by a plant requires more energy than production of carbohydrates by cereals. In making comparisons, one should always keep in view the differential energy requirements for the plant to produce a quintal of oil. If for example, a plant produces 1 g of glucose, the conversion of this glucose into carbohydrate results in formation of 0.83 g carbohydrate, while if glucose is converted into lipid, only 0.38 g lipid is formed.6-7 It is because of this high differential energy requirement, that oil yield from oilseeds has continued to be restricted. B. Other Constraints in Developing Countries Poor plant population arising from poor-quality seed, particularly in the case of peanut and sunflower, inadequate nutrient status of soil and nutrient supply, no rhizobial inoculation — or use of inefficient rhizobial cultures in the case of peanuts, poor plant protection measures, and poor postharvest technology have been some other constraints for poor yields of oilseeds in developing countries. Besides, much of the oilseed acreage in developing countries — particularly in India — is rainfed and, therefore, a certain degree of instability is inherent in the production process.6 Absence of rain or lack of irrigation water at critical stages of the crop growth before maturity causes significant loss in yield.7

V. CROP MANAGEMENT Oilseed crop management must be seriously considered in view of the very low yield of these crops in developing countries. Considerable advancement in research has led to an increase in the productivity of the oilseed crops, both in developed as well as in developing countries, particularly in India. In some crops, like sunflower and safflower, it is now possible to plan on the exploitation of hybrid vigor. Higher productivity of the sunflower in Canada and other developed countries is attributed to the cultivation of hybrid sunflower varieties. In developing countries, adoption of a package approach (technological package),

TABLE 2 Average Oil Content, Iodine Number, Saponification Value, Refractive Index and Composition of Fatty Acids of Edible Oils of Certain Annual Oilseed Plants1'2'4 Oilseed plant Peanut Rape seed3 Rapeseedb Sunflower Sesame Safflower Nigerseed

Oil

44—50 30--48 43 40-^8 46—52 24—36 38—50

Iodine (#)

value

Refract index at 26°C

90 81—102 112 128 111 145 139

189 168—175 188—192 191 192 191 293

.4550 .4582 .4550? .4597 .4582 .4620 .4723

Note: — indicates not detected or information is not known. a b

Moderate to high erucic acid type. Canola (refined).

— — — — — — 2

8 1—4 4 5 8 5 5

^-18:0

C20:o

4

3 — — 1 1 1 trace

2—4 2 2 3 1 2

1

Unsaturated fatty acids (%)

Saturated fatty acids (%)

55 22—34 60 35 47 20 39

^18:2

r ^-18:3

c ^20:1

25 17—22 20 57 41 72 52

0 3—7 10 0 0 0 0

— 9 2 — — — —

C22:1 3 K

25^5 2 — — — —

a

i a.

Volume II

5

TABLE 3 World Production of Some Annual Edible Oilseed Crops During the Year 1978—798 Crop Peanut Rapeseed Sunflower Sesame

Seed yield (million tons)

Oil yield (million tons)

12.4 10.5 12.7 ].9

5.7 4.0 5.3 0.9

supported by package of services (seed, fertilizer, chemical supplies, etc.) constitutes an important major thrust to intensify oilseed production. 12 - 13 There is considerable scope for introduction of short-duration varieties of oilseeds in irrigated farming systems favoring a multiple cropping pattern. It becomes necessary to obtain a thorough latest knowledge of a particular crop in terms of land preparation, techniques of sowing, varieties, fertilizer requirements, and intensive care during growing season. Preparation of seedbeds with sufficient conservation of soil moisture is necessary for the peanut, sunflower, and rapeseed crops. Seed treatment with thiram (3g/kg) may be necessary for peanuts and sunflowers to get good seed germination and plant stand, directly increasing yieJd through such a simple treatment. Some crops, like rapeseed and mustard, are still sown by the broadcast method in India. It has now been demonstrated that through planned field experiments, the yield of rapeseed-mustard can be increased considerably by line sowing. It is, therefore, considered best that the rapeseedmustard crop be sown in lines through seed drills. The requirements for fertilizers will be determined by the fertility status of the soil, the nature of the oilseed crop to be grown, and the time of sowing. For the peanut crop, application of calcium through gypsum may be quite important for better pod and seed development.12 Some other nutritional problems with respect to deficiency of boron, zinc, and iron have been encountered in oilseed plants in different geographic areas. Timely steps should be taken to correct the above deficiencies. Other management practices include spraying of suitable insecticides and fungicides at the appropriate time for the control of insect pests and diseases. In the case of rapeseed-mustard, the crop must be essentially protected from aphid attack under Indian conditions.

VI. DISEASE PROBLEMS Peanut, rapeseed-mustard, sunflower, sesame safflower, and nigerseed are subject to attack by several infectious and non-infectious diseases. The loss in yield of the crop may vary, depending upon the nature of the pathogen and the severity of the attack. Considering all the vegetable-oil producing crops, the quantity lost, on a world basis, is estimated to be about 13.5 million tons/year — amounting to a monetary loss of about 16 million U.S. dollars.14 This excludes the newly developed diseases for which loss estimates have not been yet determined. Thus the overall Josses may be of a still higher magnitude. With an increasing emphasis on oilseed production, it is expected that with limited land resources through intensive farming, higher cropping intensity, better seeds, and greater use of fertilizers and herbicides, the production of oilseeds will increase; however, this might create new disease problems under the changed environments, in addition to the already existing diseases. Such a shift in the disease situation, as discussed in the following chapters, has already taken place in the case of peanuts due to use of benomyl for early and late leafspot

6

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

control, consequently favoring more peanut rust and Sclerotium rot development in the U.S., and with respect to rapeseed-mustard due to use of Barban® herbicide consequently favoring more serious development of Sclerotinia rot in Canada. Use of dalapon herbicide has increased the susceptibility of rapeseed to light leaf spot (Pyrenopeziza brassicae Sutton and Rawlinson) in the United Kingdom. A similar situation appears to be true with respect to nutrient status and susceptibility of rapeseed and sunflowers to fungal diseases. Currently rapeseed breeding programs in many parts of the world aim, among other objectives, at a lower concentration of ecrucic acid and glucosinolates. Derivatives of glucosinolates have been known to be fungitoxic. 15 Some volatile derivatives of glucosinolates are reported to be more abundant in light leaf spot-resistant varieties than in susceptible types of rapeseed.16 So the consequences of this trend, i.e., breeding for low glucosinolates and for other quality characters, must be thoroughly examined in the general context of rapeseed diseases. Oilseed crops are affected by foliage diseases such as the rusts, downy mildews, powdery mildews, and leaf spots, and blights. The control of these diseases through use of chemical sprays and host resistance has been achieved in a satisfactory manner, but the situation with respect to control of a number of soil-borne root diseases, e.g., charcoal rot, Sclerotinia rots, Verticillium wilts, Fusarium wilts, etc., is not satisfactory. Oilseed crops have a rather low-yield genetic potential. Therefore, the least expensive control measures, such as use of host resistance and cultural control, will find favor with farmers and others concerned with more oilseed production. However, because the crop may be affected by more than one disease simultaneously and protective measures other than host resistance can be effective in delaying breakdown of resistance, it becomes appropriate to develop disease management strategy for each crop as an integrated approach, combining different methods of control in the most convenient manner. 17 20 The development of resistant varieties would need a systematic collection, maintenance, and screening of germplasm. While the large-scale collection and maintenance of peanut germplasm is done by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid-Tropics (ICRISAT) at Hyderabad, India, 21 a similar system is lacking, particularly at the international level, in respect to rapeseed-mustard, sunflower, sesame, safflower, and nigerseed. However, collection of cruciferous (rapeseed-mustard) germplasm is maintained to a limited extent at the Institute Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias, Avid, Puerto de Herro, Madrid, Spain.22 Other important international research organizations presently engaged in supporting research on improvement of annual oilseeds are: (1) Institute de Recherche pur les Huiles et oleagineux (IRHO)23 of Paris, France, (2) Peanut Collaborative Research Support Program Planning (CRSPP)24 at the University of Georgia, and (3) International Development Research Center (IDRC) of Canada.

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REFERENCES 1 . Weiss, E. A., Castor, Sesame and Safflower, An Intertext Publisher, Leonard Hill, London, 1971, 743. 2. Vaisey, Genser, M. and Eskin, N. A. M., Canadian Rapeseed Oil — Properties, Processes and Food Quality, Publ. No. 54, Rapeseed Association of Canada, Winnipeg, Man., Canada, 1978, 13. 3. Dutcher, R. A., Jensen, C. O., and Alt house, P. M., Introduction to Agricultural Biochemistry, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1951, 72. 4. Chavan, V. M., Niger and Safflower, Indian Central Oilseeds Committee, Hyderabad, India, 1961, 30. 5. Doty, H. O., Jr., Future of sunflower as an economic crop in North America and the world, in Sunflower Science and Technology, Carter, J. F., Ed., American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, 1978, Chap. 15. 6. Swaminathan, M. S., An Integrated Strategy for Increasing the Production and Consumption of Oilseeds and Oils in India, 6th D.C.M. Chemical Works, S.S. Ramaswamy Memorial Lecture 1979, presented at the International Congress on Oilseeds and Oils and 34th Convention, Oil Technologists Association of India, Ashoka Hotel, New Delhi, February 9 to 13, 1979. 7. Rao, G. V. K., Components of An Integrated Production Strategy, presented at the Seminar on Achievements of Seventies and Future Challenges in the Field of Oilseeds and Oils, Annual Meeting of the Oil Technologists' Association of India, Western Zone, Bombay, February 16, 1980. 8. Van Waalwijk van Doom, Jaap, J. L., Sunflower production, trade and consumption worldwise, Sunflower Newl., 3(4), 19, 1979. 9. Gibbons, R. \V., The ICRISAT groundnut program, in Proc. Int. Workshop on Groundnuts, Gibbons, R. W. and Mertin, J. V., Eds., International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India, October 13 to 17, 1980, 12. 10. Wasnik, M. D., Increasing oilseeds production, Indian Fmg., 32(8), 17, 1982. 11. Patil, G. D. and Nikam, S. M., Cultivation of Safflower, Indian Fmg., 32(8), 82, 1982. 12. Kempanna, C. and Bhatnagar, P. S., Strategy for boosting oilseeds production, Indian Fmg., 32(8), 9, 1982. 13. Kumar, P. R., Production compaign for rapeseed-mustard in India, Paper presented at the National Seminar on Production Problems and Prospects of Rapeseed-Mustard in India — cum — Rabi Oilseed Workshop, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, August 9 to 13, 1982 (mimeographed). 14. Cramer, H. H., Plant Protection and World Crop Production, Bayer Pflanzenschutz Leverkusen, 1967. 15. Hooker, W. J., Walker, J. C., and Smith, F. G., Toxicity of betaphenethyl isothiocyanate to certain fungi, Am. J. Bot., 30, 632, 1943. 16. Rawlinson, C. J., Light leaf spot of oilseed rape: an appraisal with comments on strategies for control, Proc. Br. Crop Prot. Conf. ~ Pests and Diseases, 1979, 137. 17. Nene, Y. L., Pests and Diseases — "Host Spot" Locations, Invitational Paper presented at the joint session of the discipline of Agriculture and Botany, 63rd Indian Science Congress, Waltair, India, January 4, 1976 (mimeographed). 18. Misra, D. P. and Ghewande, M. P., Diseases of groundnut and their management, in Recent Advances in Plant Pathology (Prof. H. K. Saksena, Festschrift), Husain, A., Singh, K., Singh, B. P., and Agnihotri, V. P., Eds., Print House Lucknow, India, 1983, 324. 19. Kolte, S. J., Disease management strategies for rapeseed-mustard crops in India, paper presented at the National Seminar on "Production Problems and Prospects of Rapeseed-Mustard in India", Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, August 9, 1982. 20. Kolte, S. J., Management of rapeseed diseases with special reference to use of host resistance in India, Abstr., 6th Int. Rapeseed Conf., Paris, May 17 to 19, 1983, 25. 21. Proc. Int. Workshop on Groundnuts, Gibbons, R. W. and Mertin, J. V., Eds., International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India, 1980, 19. 22. Downey, R. K., Klassen, A. J., and Stringam, G. R., Rapeseed and Mustard, in Hybridization of Crop Plants, American Society of Agronomy — Crop Science Society of America, Madison, 1980, 495. 23. Gillier, P., The role and function of the IRHO in groundnut research and development, in Proc. Int. Workshop on Groundnuts, Gibbons, R. W. and Mertin, J. V., Eds., International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India, October 13 to 17, 1980, 25. 24. Jackson, C. R. and Cummins, D. G., Peanut collaborative research support program planning, in Proc. Int. Workshop on Groundnuts, Gibbons, R. W. and Mertin, J. V., Eds., International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India, October 13 to 17, 1980, 31.

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Chapter 2 RAPESEED-MUSTARD DISEASES The cultivated edible oil-yielding rapeseed and mustard plant species are members of the family Cruciferae and these mostly belong to the genus Brassica. B. campestris L., B. napus L., 5. juncea (L) Czern and Coss, and B. carinata Braun are the principal commercial rapeseed and mustard crops grown for edible oil in different parts of the world. All such plant species are related and rather similar in appearance.1 The relationship of Brassica taxa2 based on chromosome number and genome formulae is given in Figure 1. There are subspecies, formae, and varieties or types in the above crop species. Different forms of B. campestris are commonly known as Polish rape or summer turnip rape in Canada, turnip rape or colza (B. campestris L. ssp. oleifera (metzg) Sinsk) in Europe, and yellow sarson (B. campestris L var. yellow sarson prain) or brown sarson (B. campestris L. var. dichotoma Watt.) or toria (B. campestris L. var. toria Duth and Full) in India and other Asian countries. While the center of origin of certain forms of B. campestris is believed to be in Europe,3 the Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinents appear to be independent centers of origin for sarson and toria. B. napus L. is known as Argentine rape in Canada and winter rape (B. napus L. spp. oleifera (Metzg) Sinsk) in Europe. It is believed to have originated in Europe.3 B. napus is mostly grown in Canada, Europe, Japan, and Chile. Brown mustard or Chinese mustard or rat is the name used for varieties of B. juncea cultivated in China, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. B. juncea is a plant of Asiatic origin with its major center of diversity in China. 3 Abyssinian mustard is the cultivated form of B, carinata in Ethiopia and neighboring territories in Africa, and this appears to be its center of origin.3 Taramira or tara, known as rocket (Eruca sativa Mill., 2 n = 22, genome EE) in Europe, is also a cruciferous plant grown for oil in certain parts of India. It is believed to be a native of southern Europe and North Africa. All the above plant species are annual herbs, ranging in height from 0.45 to 1.75 m. The inflorescence is carymbose raceme. Some plants as toria and brown sarson are completely cross-pollinated, while some others such as yellow sarson, brown mustard or rai are selfpollinated with up to 14% natural cross pollination. The fruit is a silique which may be twovalved, three-valved, or four-valved depending on the number of carpels in the ovary. The oil content of the seed of different forms varies from 30 to 48%. Rapeseed and mustard crops are grown in tropical as well as in temperate zones. They are best adopted to areas having a relatively cool moist climate during the growing season and dry harvest periods. Principal producing areas are India, China, and Pakistan in Asia; Canada in North America; and Poland, France, Sweden, and Germany in Europe. The acreage of the crop has also increased considerably in recent years in England and Australia. The plant can tolerate a wide range of soil pH, and the crop can be grown in light sandy to marginal soils, though rich soils, particularly light loam to heavy loam soils, are best suited to their growth. Different diseases affecting the rapeseed and mustard crops are described in the following sections.

L FUNGAL DISEASES A. Seed Rot and Seedling Blight Several species of fungi are involved in causing seed rot and seedling blights.4"7 Rhizopus stolonifer is reported to be a more important cause for seed rot and preemergence seedling

10

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

B-juncea Brown musta n -18

Kale, cabbage n =3 qenome"c'1

FIGURE 1. formulae. 2

Relationship of Brassica taxa based on chromosome numbers and genome

blight of rapeseed.4 The postemergence mortality is seen scattered, and losses are negligible. However, instances of much greater incidence and/or severity of infection have been recorded in Canada. 5 6 A hard brown lesion 1 to 2 cm long may be seen at the base of the stern, with girdling sometimes taking place near soil level. The tap root may be discolored. Salmoncolored spore masses of Fusarium are often observed on affected tissues. Many of the same fungi found on plants at harvest may also attack seedlings, causing characteristic wire-stem symptoms. Sometimes the symptoms are confined to roots and consist of light brown lesions on the tap root and at the bases of larger lateral roots. Eventually girdling of the main root may take place, resulting in loss of the entire root system (Figure 2). Sometimes root regeneration may occur, so that the plant is not entirely lost and may actually produce some seed.7 Fungi involved in the disease complex are many, and no single organism could be associated with these diseases. Some of them are weakly or strongly virulent, and usually their combined activity results in the development of the disease. Causal fungi associated with this disease complex are tabulated (Table 1) along with the principal characteristic symptoms, host plants, and places where they are reported. 1. Control Seed treatment with thiram (0.1 to 0.2%) or captafol (0.1 to 0.2%) or with any other suitable seed protectant fungicide may be helpful in increasing the stand of the crop, particularly when seed rot and seedling blight problems are encountered by using infested seed. B. Alternaria Blight 1. Geographical Distribution Three species of Alternaria, viz., A. brassicae (Berk.) S^cc., A. brassicicola (Schw.) Wilts, and A. raphani Groves and Skolko have been found to affect the rapeseed and mustard

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FIGURE 2. Root rot of mustard seedling. Note the rotting at the base of the tap root (left) in comparison with the healthy plant (right).

crop quite commonly throughout the world. The disease caused by A. brassicae is more destructive and occurs more frequently than the one caused by either of the other two species. It is reported to occur in Canada, 7 - 27;i England, 28 ' 29 France, 2 *- 30 Germany, 31 Holland, 32 India, 33 ' 36 Poland, 37 Sri Lanka, 38 Spain, 39 Sweden, 2 * and Trinidad. 40 Many times, spots caused by A. brassicae and A. brassicicola occur together and could be seen simultaneously on the same plant. In the prairie provinces of Canada, A. brassicicola causing the disease in rapeseed was not observed till 1974.4! A. brassicae and A. raphani causing the disease are quite common in Canada. Domsch42 reported that the disease caused by A. brassicicola is more prevalent in the Kiel-Kitzeberg area of Germany. 2. Economic Importance Besides leaf infection reducing the photosynthetic area, siliquae are also directly affected by the disease and result in severe yield losses. Degenhardt et a/. 43 from Canada reported that the combined effect of A. brassicae and A. raphani under greenhouse conditions cause 70 and 42% loss in yield of /?. campestris and B. napus, respectively. According to them, A. brassicae alone can cause 63% loss in B. campestris and 42% in B. napus. Yield reductions due to A. raphani alone may be 42% in B. napus. About 20% yield loss of the crop was reported from Canada in 1955 and 1956 crop season due to infection of A. brassicae.21* In northern parts of India, at different locations, the loss in yield due to the disease has been recorded to be in the range of 10 to 70%, the maximum loss being in B. campestris var, yellow sarson or B. campestris var. brown sarson**AS Estimates of yield losses from other countries are not available.

12

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops Table 1 SEEDLING DISEASES OF RAPESEED AND MUSTARD Causal fungus

Symptoms'

Host plants

Alternaria alternata Fusarium speeies

Root rot Stem rot

Rape (B. campestris) Rape

F. aciiminatum (Ell. and Ev.) Wr. F. equisetii (Cda) Sacc. F. poae (Pk) Wr. Fusarium ox\sporum

Stem rot Stem rot Stem rot Root rot

F. roseum LK. emend. Snyder and Hansen F. solani (Mart.) Sacc. emend. Snyder and Hansen F. tricincrum (corda) Sacc. emend. Snyder and Hansen Gliocladium roseum (Link) Bainier Olpidium bassicae (Woro) Dang Pythium aphanidermatum P. butleri Subramanian P. debaryanum

P. intermedium d By P. irreguiare Buis P. mamillantum Meurs P. polymastum Drechs. P. spinosum Sawada Rhizoctonia solani Kiihn R. solani

R. napi Sclerotium rolfsii S. rolfsii (Pellicukiria rolfsii) i[ h

Countryh

Ref.

B. hina

Canada Germany, Canada Canada

6—8 9 10 1 1 , 12

Root rot

B. hina B. napus Rape (B. campestris), Mustard (B. juncea) Rape (B. campestris)

Canada Canada Canada U.S. Canada

11, 12 11, 12 8 13 6, 8

Root rot

Mustard (B. juncea) Rape

U.S. Canada

13 11

Root rot

Rape

Canada

11

Basal stem rot

Rape (B. campestris)

Canada

14

No visible symptoms"

Rape

Canada

4

Pre- and post-emergence damping-off Damping-off" Root rot

Mustard (B. juncea)

India

15

B. campestris v. toria Colza (B. napus), B. rapa oleifera Rape Mustard (B. juncea) Black mustard (B. nigra), Sinapis alba Mustard (8. juncea). B. perriridis Mustard Rape and other crucifers

India Germany

16 17

Canada Philippines U.K.

4 18 19

Holland, U.S.

13, 20

Europe Canada

21 22

Rape

Japan

23

Rape (B. campestris)

Canada

B. juncea, B. perriridis Mustard (B. juncea) B. juncea Mustard (B. juncea) B, juncea, B. perriridis B. campestris ?

U.S. India Philippines India U.S. India

4, 6, 8, 24 13 25 18 26 13 27

Damping-off Pre- and post-emergence damping-off Root rot Damping-off Pre- and post-emergence Damping-off Damping-off and seedling root rot Damping-off and seedling blight Root rot and seedling rot Dry root and bottom rot Damping-off Dry rot Seedling rot and root rot Root rot ?

Principal symptoms of affected seedlings. Country where the disease is reported to occur naturally or studied in laboratory. No visible symptoms, but sporangia and resting spores of the fungus may be seen in roots of young rape plants under greenhouse conditions.

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FIGURE 3. Altermiria spots on leaf ot"Brasslca campcstris var. yellow sarson.

Besides quantitative loss in yield, the quality of the seed, i.e., seed size, color of the seed, and its germination capability, are also adversely affected due to the disease. 27a4648 The shrunken and discolored seeds in turn fetch lower prices for the commercial produce. 3. Symptoms Symptoms of the disease are characterized by formation of spots on leaves, stem, and siliquae. All the three species produce more or less similar spots on rapeseed and mustard. However, spots produced by A. brassicae appear to be usually gray in color compared with the black sooty velvety spots produced by A. brassicicola. Spots produced by A. raphani show distinct yellow halos around them. But such characteristics of the spots are subject to a lot of variation depending upon the host and environmental conditions, and depending particularly on the presence of moisture favoring the sporulation of the fungus on the spots. Thus, these characteristics do not serve as diagnostic features for identification of the different spots produced by different species. Lower leaves show the symptoms first, with the appearance of black points which later on enlarge to develop into prominent, round, concentric spots of various sizes (Figure 3). The whole of the affected leaf shows the symptoms. As the disease progresses, the lower leaves defoliate and the spots subsequently appear on the middle and upper leaves. On the upper leaves, the spots tend to remain small in size with or without the concentric pattern. At the later stages of plant growth, the spots appear on siliquae and stem. The spots are round, black, and quite conspicuous on the siliquae of toria, yellow sarson, and brown sarson (B. campestris), and the numerous spots coalesce turning the whole of the siliqua completely black (Figure 4), Rotting of the seed may be seen just beneath the black spot

14

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

FIGURE 4. Altt'nuiria spots on siliquae of B. cumpexiris var. yellow sarson. Note the degree of severity from 0 (no spots) to 5 (maximum coverage) on the siliquae. Such a gradation of symptom severity can be used as a rating scale to measure the disease severity,

on siliqua of yellow or brown sarson. In mustard (B. juncea), brown-to-black spots on siliqua usually remain identical individually with a distinct gray center. On the stem, black elongated spots become visible in the form of black streaks with or without necrotic gray centers. Stems of B, campestris affected with the white rust (Albugo Candida) pathogen show extensive development of Alternaria spots.7-49 In temperate countries, seedling infection may be seen with the appearance of black spot on cotyledons and hypocotyls. 7 Damping-off of rapeseed seedlings due to infection of A. brassidcola has been reported in Finland.50 Petri51 did not observe any correlation between amount of seed infestation and reduction in the seedling stand. 4. Pathogen The three Alternaria species can be readily distinguished by microscopic observation. The comparative details of their morphology are given in Table 2, based on the descriptions given by Changstri;" Changstri and Weber53 and Wallker.54 (See also Figure 5.) 5. Survival All the three species of Alternaria survive in soil on the affected debris of rapeseed, mustard or on weed host plants or on cultivated cabbage or cauliflower. Some of the weeds, such as flaxweed (Camelina sp.), hedge mustard (Sisymbrium officinale), tumbling weed (5. altissimum), stinkweed (Anthemis cotula), etc. are commonly affected due to the Alternaria species in Canada. Anagallis arvensis L. and Convolvulus arvensis L. are reported as weed hosts for A. brassicae in India." The three species have also been reported to survive through seed.7-27a-56'S7 While this may be true in temperate climate countries, the same appears to be misleading in a tropical country such as India unless the seeds are kept under cold storage conditions. In India it is

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Table 2 COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A. BRASSICAE, A. BRASSICICOLA AND A. RAPHANI A. brassicae

A. brassicicola

A. raphani

Mycelium

Septate, brown to brownish-gray

Septate, olive gray to grayish black

Conidiophores

Dark, septate, arise in fascicles, measuring 14—74

Conidia

Brownish black, obclavate, muriform with long beak, longer and wider and more septations than that of A. bnissick'oki and A. raphani. produced singly or sparingly in chains of 2 to 3 (Figure 5A)

Olivaceous, septate, branched measuring 35— 45 ^ x 5—8 |JL Dark, cylindrical to oblong, muriform without beak, few septations and smaller than those of A. brassicae and A. raphani, produced in long chains of 8 to 10 spores (Figure 5B)

Spore body length (|x) Spore beak length (|UL) Spore body width (|a) Overall spore length (JJL) Transverse septation Longitudinal septation Rate of growth and sporulalion on media

96—114

45—55

Cottony whitish to greenish gray, aging to become dark olive Septate, olive-brown, simple or branched, 29—160 IJL x 4—K (x in size Olive-brown to dark, obclavate. muriform with poorly developed or no beak, wider than those of A. brassicae. less uniform in shape than cither of the other two species, more or less pointed at each end, appear singly or in chains of upto 6 spores (Figure 5C) 45—58

45—65

None

10—25

17—24

1 1 — 16

13—21

148—184

45—55

60—83

10—11

5—8

6—9

0—6

0—4

3—6

Rudiment growth, grow slowly

Produce well-developed, black sooty colony with distinct /onations. grow faster, sporulates abundantly Not known?

Cottony mycelial colony distinguishes this from the other species, less abundant sporulation

|JL

Formation of chlamydospores in culture or on host

X

A

8

|UL

Formed less frequently in culture

Usually olive brown chlamydospores are formed in culture as well as on the partially decayed affected plant parts

observed that the pathogen (A. brassicae) gets eliminated from the seeds during storage from April to September because of the prevailing high temperature. 58 This is supported by the observation that after storing the seed at 25 to 35°C temperature and observing the viability of the fungus periodically, A, brassicae gets eliminated from the seeds within 4 months after storage at 35°C.51-59-61 It is also possible that A. brassicae and A. raphani also survive through chlamydospores.62 64 According to Vaartnou and Tewari, 64 hyphal chlamydospores of A. raphani are produced on the stem, siliqua, and seed of infected plants. Such spores have been found to remain viable even after prolonged deep freezing of the infected material Tsuneda and Skoropad63 observed that conidia of A. brassicae are transformed into microsclerotia. Such structures are round, darkly pigmented, resist dessication, and function in a similar manner

16

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

FIGURE 5. Conidia of (A) Altenuiria hrussicae; (B) A. brassicicola; and (C) A. raphani. (After Changstri and Weber 51 ).

to those of the sclerotia produced by other fungi. More microsclerotia are formed only on the previously affected and partially decayed plant tissues, suggesting the possibility of survival of the fungus through such structures. Such structures on germination have been found to produce numerous new conidia and can thus increase the inoculum. Information on the presence of distinct physiological races is lacking. But variation in isolates of Alternaria brassicae affecting the rapeseed crop is indicated.65 6. Infection The primary infection results from the wind-borne spores produced on debris from the preceding crop or on overwintered weeds. In view of the recent studies, chlamydospores reported in the case of A. raphani and A. brassicae might also serve as a source for primary infection. In temperate climate countries, seeds from affected plants also act as a primary source for initial infection. 57 Conidia of Alternaria species germinate in the presence of moisture readily by giving rise to a germ tube which comes out from any cell of the spore. Sometimes even all cells of the spore germinate, giving rise to several germ tubes. A. brassicae penetrates the leaf only through stomata, whereas A. brassicicola penetrates the leaf tissue directly and through stomata. Direct penetration is known in the case of A. raphani. About 3 to 4 days after inoculation, the new spots develop which consequently form spores of the fungus enabling the pathogen to disseminate and cause secondary infection. A. brassicae produces cellulase enzyme66-67 and toxin. 6H - 70 However, the exact role of this enzyme or toxin in pathogenesis is not known. 7. Factors Affecting Development of the Disease and Epidemics While much still remains to be learned about the epidemiology of the disease, it is generally observed that moist and warm weather or alternate periods of rains and sunshine favor the development of the disease caused by A. brassicae.36 The infection rate on siliquae is correlated with the amount of rainfall during flowering. 71 The disease appears in a severe form when stormy weather, high wind, and over 80% relative humidity prevail during the development of the crop, especially at the siliquae formation stage.72 74 Such conditions permit the conidia to disperse and germinate and infect leaves and siliquae. According to Degenhardt et ah, 75 more than 95% relative humidity is required for conidial germination of the three species of Alternaria. Besides, lower temperatures ( Mustard (B. juncea) varieties R-2-62, R-28, R-428-62, and R-488-62, as well as sarson (B. campestris var. yellow sarson) varieties T-10, T-42, and A-28 are reported to be tolerant to the parasite under Rajasthan conditions. 519520 Presowing application of the herbicide Eptam® (2 to 3 kg/ha) may be beneficial to check the emergence of the parasite.

VIII. NON-PARASITIC DISEASES Rapeseed plants have been reported to show the symptoms of certain noninfectious diseases caused by nonparasitic agents in Canada. The plants are reported to be affected by a deficiency of phosphorus,4 intumescences characterized by development of white-green raised areas on leaves due to water congestion,12 frost injury, 4 and sterility due to 2,4-D drift injury. 12

66

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops REFERENCES

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93. Tewari, J. P. and Skoropad, W. P., The effect of polyoxins B and D on Altermiria brassicae and the black spot of rapeseed, Can, J. Plant Sci., 59(1), 1, 1979. 94. Humpherson - Jones, F. M,, Maude, R. B., and Kennedy, S. C., National Vegetable Research Station, Annual Report for the year 1979, Wellesbourne, Warwick, 1979, 65. 95. Cox, T., Souche, J. L., and Grapel, H., The control of Sclerotinia, Altemaria and Botrytis on oilseed rape with spray treatments of flowable formulation of iprodione, Abstr., 6th Int. Rapeseed Conf., Paris, Fr., May 17 to 19, 1983, 776. 96. Tsuneda, A. and Skoropad, W. P., The Altemaria brassicae-Nectria inventa host-parasite interface, Can. J. Bot., 55, 448, 1977. 97. Tsuneda, A. and Skoropad, W. P., Interactions between Nectria inventa, a destructive mycoparasite and fourteen fungi associated with rapeseed, Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc., 74(3), 501, 1980. 98. Sharma, S. K. and Gupta, J. S., Biological control of leaf blight disease of brown sarson caused by Altemaria brassicae and A. brassicicola, Indian Phytopath., 31(4), 448, 1978. 99. Vasudeva, R. S., Diseases of rapeseed and mustard, in Rape and Mustard, Singh D. P., Ed., Indian Central Oilseeds Committee, Hyderabad, 1958, 78. 100. Vanterpool, T. C., Rape diseases in Saskatchewan in i960, Can. Plant D is. Surv., 40, 60, 1960. 1 0 1 . Porter, R. H., A preliminary report of surveys for plant diseases in East China, Plant Dis. Rep., (Suppl.), 46, 153, 1926. 102. Darpoux, H., A contribution to study of the diseases of oleaginous plants in France, Ann. Epiphyt., 11, 71, 1946. 103. Raabe, A., Investigations on parasitic fungal diseses of colza and rape, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 18, 493, 1939. 104. Johnston, A., A preliminary plant disease survey in Hongkong, Plant Prod, and Prot. Div., FAO, Rome, 1963, 32. 105. Gaumann, E., Bietrage gur einer monographic dur Gattung Peronospora Corda, Beitrage Zur Kryptogamen flora der Schweiz, 5, 1, 1923. 106. Hiura, M. and Kanegae, H., Studies on the downy mildew of cruciferous vegetables in Japan, Trans. Sapporo Nat. Hist. Soc., 3, 125, 1934. 107. Perwaiz, M. S., Moghal, S. M., and Kamal, M., Studies on the chemical control of white rust and downy mildew of rape (sarson), W. Pak. J. Agric. Res., 7, 71, 1969. 108. Ocfemia, G. O., The occurrence of the white rust of crucifers and its associated downy mildew in Philippines, Philipp. Agric., 5, 289, 1925. 109. Dzhanuzakov., A., Specialization and variability in some peronosporaceous fungi, Bot. Zh., 47, 862, 1963; Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 42, 14, 1963. 110. Bjorling, K., Some fungus diseases of colza and white mustard, Vdxtaskyddsnotsier, Vaxtskyddsonst, Stockh., 5, 73, 1944. 1 1 1 . Nilsson, L., Some phytopathological observations in Scandia, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 29, 249, 1950. 1 1 2 . Hull, R., Sugarbeet yellows and the seed crop, Br. Sugbeet Rev.f 31, 125, 1963. 1 1 3 . Rawlinson, C. J. and Muthyalu, G., Diseases of winter oilseed rape: occurrence, effects and control, J. Agric. Sci. Camb., 93, 593, 1979. 114. Bains, S. S. and Jhooty, J. S., Mixed infections by Albugo Candida and peronospora parasitica on Brassica juncea inflorescence and their control, Indian Phytopath., 32, 268, 1979. 1 1 5 . Kolte, S. J. and Tewari, A. N., Note on the susceptibility of certain oleiferous Brassicae to downy mildew and white blister diseases, Indian J. Mycol. Plant Pathol., 10(2), 191, 1979. 116. Platford, R. G. and Branier, C. C., Diseases of rapeseeds in Manitoba, 1973-74, Can. Plant Dis. Surv., 55, 75, 1975. 117. Kolte, S. J., Sharma, K. D., and Awasthi, R. P., Yield losses and control of downy mildew and white rust of rapeseed and mustard, Abstr., 3rd Int. Symp. Plant Pathol., New Delhi, December 14 to 18, 1981, 70. 1 1 8 . Sharma, K. D., Symptomatology, Yield Losses and Control of Downy Mildew and White Rust of Rapeseed and Mustard, M.Sc. (Agriculture) Thesis, G. B. Pant Univ. Agric. Tech., Pantnagar (India), 1980. 1 1 9 . Guttenberg, H. Von and Schmoller, H., Kulterversuche mil Peronospora brassicae Gaum., Arch. Mikrobiol., 30, 268, 1958. 120. Wilson, G. W., Studies on North American peronosporales. VI., Notes on miscellaneous species, Mycologia, 6, 192, 1914. 1 2 1 . Gauman, E., Uber die Formen, der Peronospora parasitica (Pers) Fries. Ein Beitrag zur speziesfrage bei den parasitischen pilzen, Botan. Cerr., Bein, 35, 395, 1918. 122. Yerkes, W. D. and Shaw, C. G., Taxonomy of the Peronospora species on Cruciferae and Chenopodiaceae, Phytopathology, 49, 499, 1959. 123. Waterhouse, G. M., Peronosporales, in Fungi, Vol. 4 B , Ainsworth, G. C., Sparrow, F. K., and Sussman, A., Eds., Academic Press, London, 1973, 165.

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Bot., 40, 53, 1962. 179. Dhingra, R. K., Chauhan, Nirmal, and Chauhan, S. V. S., Biochemical changes in the floral parts of Brassica campestris infected by Albugo Candida, Indian Phytopath. 35(1), 177, 1982. 180. Degenhardt, K. J., Alternaria brassicae and A. raphani: sporulation in culture and their effects on yield and quality of rapeseed, M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. Alberta, Edmonton, 1973. 1 8 1 . Berkenkamp, B., Effect of fungicides on staghead of rape. Can. J. Plant Sci.t 60, 1039, 1980. 182. Verma, P. R. and Petri, G. A., A detached leaf culture technique for the study of white rust disease of Brassica species, Can. J. Plant Sci., 58, 69, 1978. 183. Parui, N. R. and Bandyopadhyay, D. C., A note on screening of rai (Brassica junca (Coss.) Curr. Sci. (India), 42, 798, 1973. 184. Anon., Annual Status Research Report of Oilseed Pathology Project, 1981-82, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, India, 1982. 185. Singh, B. D. and Kolte, S. 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192. Morrall, R, A. A., Dueck, J., McKenzie, D. L., and McGee, D. C., Some aspects of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in Saskatchewan, 1970-75, Can. Plant Dis. Surv., 56, 56. 1976. 193. Dueck, J., Diseases in rapeseed, Proc. Annu. Meet. Rapeseed Assoc., Can., Winnipeg, 1976, 47. 194. Dueck, J., Sclerotinia in rapeseed, Can. Agric., 22, 7, 1977. 195. Davidson, J. G. N,, Disease control in rapeseed, Agric. Can, NRG-77-7, G1-G7, 1977. 196. Yang, S. M., An investigation on the host range and some ecological aspects on the sclerotinia disease of the rape plant, Acta Phytopath. Sinica, 5, 1 1 1 , 1959. 197. Buchwald, N. F., Sclerotiniaceae of Denmark, A floristic systematic survey of the sclerotial cup fungi found in Denmark. Part I. Ciboria, Rutstroemia, Myriosclerotinia and Sclerotinia, Friesia, 3, 235. 1947. 198. Jamalainen, E. A., Overwintering of cultivated plants under snow, FAO Plant Prot. Bull., 2, 102, 1954. 199. Brun, H., Renard, M., Jouan, B., Tanguy, X., and Lamarque, C. 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Neto, J. P. DAC., Occurrence and apothecial state of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de. in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, Rev. Agron. Porto-Alegre, 17, 109, 1955 (Abstr. Rev. Appl. MycoL, 34, 502, 1955). 207. Hims, M. J., Damping-off of Brassica napus (mustard and cress) by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Plant Pathol. (UK), 28(4), 201, 1979. 208. Kriiger, W., Influence of some environmental factors on the development of apothecia and ascospores of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib) deBary., Z. Plfanzenkar Pflanzenschutz, 82, 101, 1975. 209. Kriiger, W., Influence of weather on the attack of rape by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary, Nachrichtenbl. Devt. Pflanzenschutzd. (Braunschweig), 27, 1, 1975. 210. Morrall, R. A. A. and Duek, J., Sclerotinia stem rot of spring rapeseed in Western Canada, Abstr., 6th Int. Conf., Paris, Fr., May 17 to 19, 1983, 181. 211. Kriiger, W., Marquard, W. R., and Schosser, E., Plant disease product quality II. Influence of stem canker Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib) de Bary on the quality of rapeseed., Abstr., Rev. Plant Pathol., 60(6), 2949, 1981. 212. Rai, J. N. and Dhawan, S., Studies on purification and identification of toxic metabolite produced by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum causing white rot disease of Crucifers, Indian Phytopath., 29, 407, 1976. 213. Rai, J. N., Tewari, J. P., Singh, R. P., and Saxena, V. C., Fungal diseases of Indian Crucifers, Nova Hedwigia, 47, (Suppl.), 477, 1974. 214. Kriiger, W., The influence of environmental factors on the development of apothecia and ascospores of the rape stalk-break pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary, Abst., Rev. Plant Pathol., 55, 442, 1976. 215. Kolte, S. J., Diseases of Rai and Toria, Indian Fmg., 32(8), 91, 1982. 216. Willets, H. J. and Wong, J. A. L., The biology of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, S. trifoliorum, and S. minor with emphasis on specific nomenclature, Bot. Rev., 46(2), 101, 1980. 217. Willets, H. J. and Wong, A. 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Anon., On the production of sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary, the agent of rape stalk break in the soil, Abstr., Rev. Plant Pathol., 55(5), 391, 1976.

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224. Newton, H. C. and Sequeria, L., Ascospores as the primary infective propagule of Sclerotinia sderotiorum in Wisconsin, Plant Dis. Rep., 56, 798, 1972. 225. Neergaard, Paul. Mycelial seed infection of certain crucifers by Sclerotinia sderotiorum (Lib) DBy, Plant Dis. Rep., 42, 1105, 1958, 226. Morall, R. A. A., Duczek, L. J., and Sheard, J. W., Variations and correlations within and between morphology, pathogenicity and pectolytic enzyme activity in Sclerotinia from Saskatchewan, Can. J. Bot., 50, 767, 1972. 227. Rai, J. N. and Dhavvan, S., Production of polymethyl galacturonase and cellulase and its relationship with virulence in isolates tf Sclerotinia sderotiorum (Lib.) de Bary, Indian J. Exp. BioL, 14, 197, 1976. 228. Dhawan, S., Protease activity in B. juncea plants infected with Sclerotinia sderotiorum, Curr. Sd. (India), 49(7), 291, 1980. 229. Rain, J. N. and Dhawan, S., Studies on purification and identification of toxic metabolites produced by Sclerotinia sderotiorum causing white rot disease of crucifers, Indian Phytopath., 29(4), 407, 1976. 230. K a poor, K. S., Some aspects of the host — parasite relations between Sclerotinia sderotiorum (lib) de Bary and rapeseed, Abstr., 6th Int. Rapeseed Conf., Paris, Fr., May 17 to 19, 1983, 188. 231. Williams, J. R. and Stelfox, D., Dispersal of ascospores of Sclerotinia sderotiorum in relation to Sclerotinia stem rot of rapeseed, Plant Dis. Rep., 63(5), 395, 1979. 232. Stelfox, D., Williams, J. R., Soehngen, U., and Topping, R. C., Transport of Sclerotinia sderotiorum ascospores by rapeseed pollen in Alberta, Plant Dis. Rep., 62, 576, 1978. 233. Berkenkamp, B. and Friesen, H. A., Effect of barban on stem rot of rape, Can, J. Plant Sd., 53, 917, 1973. 234. Dhawan, S., Effect of sulphur on the pathogenesis of Sclerotinia sderotiorum, Geobios, 6(5), 196, 1979. 235. Iwata, I. and Igita, K., On the growth characteristics of direct sowing rape on upland field, Bull. Kyushu Agric. Exp. Stn., 16, 207, 1972. 236. Abercron, M. V. and Finck, A., Boron supply of oilseed rape and resistance against some fungus diseases, Abstr., 6th Int. Rapeseed Conf., Paris, Fr., May 17 to 19, 1983, 183. 237. Hara, K. and Yanagita, Y., Using calcium cyanamide to control rape Sclerotinia rot (Japanese), Proc. Kyushu Assoc. Plant Prot., 13, 13, 1967. 238. Kriiger, W., Investigations concerning the epidemiology of rape cankers giving rise to Sclerotinia sderotiorum (Lib.) de Bary, Proc., Int. Rapskongress, 4, Giessen, West Germany, 1974, 595. 239. Kriiger, W., Control measures for Sclerotinia sderotiorum in rape, Phytopath. Z., 77, 125, 1973. 240. Kriiger, W., On the effect of calcium cyanamide on the development of apothecia of Whetzeliana sderotiorum (Lib.) Korf and Dumont, the agent of stalk rot of rape, Rev. Plant Pathol (Abstr.) 59(11), 5438, 1980. 241. Brun, H., Jouati, B. Plessis, J., and Tribodet, M., Pvoprietes preventives et curatives de la procymidone et du benomyl dans la lutte contre Sclerotinia sderotiorum sur colza, Abstr., 6th Int. Rapeseed Conf. Paris, Fr., May 17 to 19, 1983, 187. 242. Richardson, L. T. and Bond, E. J,, Methyl bromide fumigation of rapeseed infested with Sclerotia of Sclerotinia sderotiorum, Can. J. Plant Sd., 58, 267, 1978. 243. Anon., Annual Report for 1970, Federal Biological Institute for Agriculture and Forestry, Berlin and Brunswick, 1970, Abstr., Rev. Plant Pathol., 51, 3694f., 1972. 244. Morrall, R. A. A. and Dveck, J., Epidemiology of Sclerotinia stem rot of rapeseed in Saskatchewan, Can. J. Plant Pathol., 4(2), 161, 1982. 245. Henderson, M. P., The blackleg disease of cabbage caused by Phoma lingam (Tode) Desm., Phytopathology, 8, 379, 1918. 246. Bokor, A. Diseases of rape, J. Agric. W. Austr. (fourth series), 13, 45, 1972. 247 Bokor, A., Barbetti, M. J., Brown, A. G, P., MacNish, G. C., and Wood, P. McR., Blackleg of rapeseed, J. Agric. W. Austr., 16, 7, 1975. 248. McGee, D. C., Studies of blackleg disease of rapeseed in Australia, Abstr., Proc. Can. Phytopathol. Soc., 42, 21, 1975. 249. McGee, D. C. and Emmett, R, W., Blackleg (LeptospHaeria maculans (Desm.) (es. and de Not) of rapeseed in Victoria: Crop losses and factors which affect disease severity, Austr. J. Agric. Res., 28, 47, 1977. 250. Vanterpool, T. C., Rape diseases in Saskatchewan in 1961, Can. Plant Dis. Surv., 41(5), 372, 1961. 251. McGee, D. C. and Petrie, G. A., Seasonal patterns of ascospore discharge by Leptosphaeria maculans in relation to blackleg of oilseed rape, Phytopathology, 69(6), 586, 1979. 252. Daebeler, F. and Pluschkell, H. J., On the occurrence of Phoma lingam (tode ex Fr.) Desm. on winter rape in the German Democratic Republic, Abstr., Rev. Plant Pathol., 55,1529, 1926. 253. Lacoste, L., Louvet, J., Anselme, C., Alabouvette, C., Brunin, B., and Pierre, J. 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254. Lacoste,L., General report: rape crown necrosis due to Phoma Hngam (Tode) Desm. and its sexual form Loptosphaeria maculans {Desm.) Ces and Not. (French), Exp. Discuss. J. Int. Colza, Paris, 2, 279, 1970. 255. Alabouvette, C. and Brunin, B. Reserches sur la maladie col/a due a Leptosphaeria maculans (Desm.) ces at de Not. 1. Role des restes de culture dans la conservation et la dissemination du parasite, Ann. PhytopathoL, 2, 463, 1970. 256. Van Poeteren, N., Report on the activities of the phytopathological Service in the year 1930, Abstr., Rev. Appl. MycoL, 1 1 , 95, 1932. 257. Piening, L., Okolo, E., and Harder, D,, Blackleg of rapeseed in Kenya, East Afr. Agric. For. J . , 41, 110, 1975. 258. Neill, J. G. and Brien, R. M., Occurrence of dry rot on rape and choumollier in the field, New. J. Agric., 16, 19, 1933. 259. Ndimande, B., Studies on Phoma Hngam (Tode ex Fr.) Desm. and the dry rot on oilseed rape, Brassica napus (L) var. oleifera Metzger, Abstr., Rev. Plant PathoL, 56(3), 2262, 19. 260. Cook, R. J. and Evans, E. J., Build-up of diseases with intensification of oilseed rape in England, Proc. 5th Int. Rapeseed Conf., 1978, 333. 261. Kratiger, W., Spread of collar and stem rot (caused by Phoma Hngam) of rape in the Federal Republic of Germany, Abstr., Rev. Plant PathoL, 59(8), 3938, 1980. 262. Barbetti, M. J., Late blackleg infections in rape are important, Aust. Plant PathoL NewsL, 4, 3, 1975. 263. Barbetti, M. J., Brown, A. G. P., and Wood, P. McR., Prospects for a successful rape, J. Agric. W. Aust., 16(1), Ser. 4, 1 1 , 1975. 264. Walker, J. and McLeod, R. W., New records of plant diseases in New South Wales, 1970—71, Agric. Gaz. New South Wales, 83, 176, 1972. 265. Stovold, G. C., Infection of seed lots of rapeseed in New South Wales by the imperfect stage of the blackleg fungus, Plant Dis. Sur., 1975-76, 19. 266. Daebeler, F., Amelung, D., Pluschkell, H. J. and Legde, G., Occurrence of and importance of fungal diseases in winter rape in northern part of the GDR, Rev. Plant Pathol. (Abstr.), 59(11), 5437, 1980. 267. Petrie, G. A. and Dueck, J., Diseases, in Canola, Canada's Rapeseed Crop, Dale Adolphe, Ed., Publ. No. 56, Rapeseed Association of Canada, Winnipeg, 1979, 23. 268. Barbetti, M. J., Effect of temperature on development and progression in rape of crown canker caused by Leptosphaeria maculans, Aust. J. Exp. Agric. and Anim. Husb., 15(76), 705, 1975. 269. Gladders, P. and Musa, T. M., The development of Leptosphaeria maculans in winter oilseed rape and its implications for disease control Proc. Br. Crop Prot. Conf. on Pests and Diseases, Res. Rep., Vol. 1, Metropole Hotel, Brighton, England, November 19 to 22, 1979, 129. 270. Gladder, S. P. and Musa, T. M., Observations on the epidemiology of Leptosphaeria maculans stem canker in winter oilseed rape, Plant PathoL, U . K . , 29(1), 28, 1980. 271. Brunin, B. and Lacoste, L., Recherches sur la maladie du Colza due a Leptosphaeria maculans {Desm.) Ces. et de Not. 2. Pouvoir Pathogene des ascospores, Ann. PhytopathoL, 3(3), 477, 1970. 272. Smith, H. C. and Sutton, B. C., Leptosphaeria maculans, the ascogenous state of Phoma Hngam, Trans. Br. MycoL Soc., 47, 159, 1964. 273. Petrie, G. A. and Vanterpool, T. C., The occurrence of Leptosphaeria maculans on Thlaspi arvense, Can. J. Bot., 46, 869, 1968. 274. MacNish, G. C., Survival of Leptosphaeria maculans in rapeseed root tissue, Aust. Plant PathoL, 8 (2), 23, 1979. 275. McGee, D. C., Blackleg (Leptosphaeria maculans (Desm.) Ces et de Not.) of rapeseed in Victoria: Sources of infection and relationships between inoculum, environmental factors and disease severity, Aust. J. Agric. Res., 28, 53, 1977. 276. Lloyd, A. B., The transmission of Phoma Hngam (Tode) Desm. in the seeds of swede, turnip, chou moellier, rape and kale, N.Z. J. Agric. Res., 2, 649, 1959. 277. Petrie, G. 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284. Cunningham, G. H., Dry rot of swedes and turnips: its cause and control, N.Z. Dept. Agric: Bull., 133, 51, 1927. 285. Hughes, W., A study of Phoma lingam (Tode) Desm. and of the "dry rot 11 it causes particularly in swede turnips, Sclent. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., 20, 495, 1933. 286. Pound, G. S., Variability in Phoma lingam, J. Agric. Res., 75. 113, 1947. 287. McGee, D. C. and Petrie, G, A., Variability of Leptosphaeria maculans in relation to blackleg of oilseed rape, Phytopathology, 68, 625, 1978. 288. Humperson-Jones, F. M. and Ainsworth, L. F., Canker of Brassicas, Annu. Rep. for the year 1981, Plant Breed. Inst. Cambridge, 1982, 66. 289. Brunin, B. and Maraby, J., Statistical aspects of rape yields as a function of favourable climatic factors for the emission of ascospores of Leptosphaeria maculans (French), Exp. Discuss. J . Int. Colza, 2, Paris, 293, 1970. 290. McGee, D. C., The seasonal pattern of ascospore discharge of Leptosphaeria maculans, Aust. Plant Pathol. Soc. News!., 3, 27, 1974. 291. Alabouvette, C., Role of pycnidiospores of Phoma lingam (Tode) Desm. in rape crown disease, (French) Expo. Discuss. J. hit. Colza (Cetiom). Paris, 2, 297, 1970. 292. Barbetti, M. J., Role of pycnidiospores of Leptosphaeria maculans in the spread of blackleg disease of rape, Aust. J. Exp. Agric. Anim. Hush., 16(83), 911, 1976. 293. Alabouvette, C., Brunin, B., and Louvet, J., Studies on rape disease caused by Leptosphaeria maculans (Desm.) Ces. and De Not. IV. Pycniospores infectivity and varietal susceptibility (French with English Summary), Ann. Phytopathol., 6(3), 265, 1974. 294. Wood, P. McR and Barbetti, J., A study on the inoculation of rape seedlings with ascospores and pycnidiospores of the blackleg disease causal agent, Leptosphaeria maculans, J. Aust. Inst. Agric. Sci., 43, 79, 1977. 295. 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A., Variation in the response of rapeseed (Brassica napus and B. campestris) cultivars to blackleg (Leptosphaeria maculans) infection, Aust. J. Exp. Agric: Anim. Husb., 17, 445, 1977. 307. Brunin, B., Research on diseases of rape caused by Leptosphaeria maculans (Desm.) Ces and de Not. III. Anatomical aspects of collar necrosis, Ann. Phytopathol., 4, 87, 1972. 308. Chancogne, M., Brunin, B., Fritz, R. and Credt, M., Penetration du benomyl dans les plantules de colza par enrobage des Semences: action sur Leptosphaeria maculans. VII. Congres International de la Protection des Plantes, 1970, 229. 309. Pierre, J. G., Malaurie, G., and Dyck, M., Methode d'etude de la Selection de produits fongicides systemiques destines a la lutte contre Leptosphaeria maculans sur colza, Centre Technique Interprofessionnel des Oleagineux Metropolitans, Technical Note No. 27, 1972. 310. Brown, A. G. P., Brabetti, M. J., and Wood, P. 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313. Salmon, A., Monograph on the Erysiphaceae, Mem. Torrcy Eol. Club, 9. 1. 1900. 314. Blumer, Die Erysiphaceen Mitteleuropas mil besonderer beriicksichtigune der Schweiz. Beitr. Krypton Flora Schwei:, 7 ( 1 ) . 1, 1933. 315. Junell, L., Erysiphaceae of Sweden, Symb. Bot., Ups., 19. 1, 1967. 316. Junell, L., Svensk. Bot. Tidskr., 61, 209, 1967. 317. Cook, R. J., Diseases of oilseed rape in Europe, Report of a study tour undertaken in the Federal Republic of Germany and France, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Agriculture Development and Advisory Service, 1975 (mimeographed). 318. Bhander, D. S., Thakur, R. N., and Husain, A., A new disease of rapeseed and mustard in India, Plant Dis. Rep., 4 7 ( 1 1 ) , 1039, 1963. 3 1 9 . Sankhla, H. C., Singh, H. G., Dalela, G. G., and Mathur, R. L., Occurrence of perithecial stage of Er\siphe pol\goni on Brassica campestris var. sarson and B. juncea, Plant Dis. Rep., 51(9), 800. 1967. 320. Hirata, K., Host range and geographical distribution of powdery mildews. Niigata Univ., Jpn., 1966. 3 2 1 . Oran, Y. K., J. Turkish Phytopathol., 3, 1, 1974. 322. Yarwood, C. F., Effect of soil moisture and nutrient concentrations on the development of bean powdery mildew. Phytopathology, 39(10), 780, 1949. 323. Sharma, A. K., Powdery mildew diseases of some crucifers from Jammu and Kashmir State, Indian J. Mycol. Plant Pathoi., 9 ( 1 ) , 29. 1979. 324. Boesewinkel, H. J., The Morphology of the imperfect states of powdery mildews (Erysiphaceae), Bot. Rev., 46(2), 167, 1980. 325. Boesewinkel, H. J., Erysiphaceae of Newzealand, Sydowia, 32, 13, 1979. 326. Purnell, T. J. and Sivanesan, A M Erysiphe cruciferarum, C. M. I. Descriptions of pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria, No. 251, Commonw. Mycol. Inst. Kew, Surrey, England. 1970. 327. Sah a ran, G. S. and Kaushik, J. C., Occurrence and epidemiology of powdery mildew of Brassica, Indian Phytopath., 34, 54, 1981. 328. Singh, R, R. and Solanki, J. S., Fungicidal control of powdery mildew of Brassica juncea, Indian J. Mycol. Plant Pathoi., 4, 210. 1974. 329. Narain, A. and Siddiqui, J. A., Field reaction of species of Brassica to Erysiphe polygoni DC, Indian Oilseed J., 9, 153, 1965. 330. Johnston, T. D., Mildew and Club root in swedes and rape. Breeders Comments, Ann. Appl. Biol., 81, 278, 1975. 3 3 1 . Anon., Index of Plant Diseases in the United States, 1960. 332. Rai, J. N. and Singh, R. P., Fusarial wilt of Brassica juncea, Indian Phytopath., 26(2), 225, 1973. 333. Kanaujia, R. S. and Kishore, R., A new wilt disease of Brassica nigra caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. conglutinans, Indian Phytopathol.,34, 84, 1981. 334. Ka/onyi. S., The resistance of cruciferous weeds occurring in Hungary to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. conglutinans (Wr.) Snyder and Hansen, Abstr., Rev. Plant Pathoi., 54, 214, 1975. 335. Armstrong, G. M. and Armstrong, J. K., Wilt of Brassica carinata, Crambe abyssinica, and C. hispanica caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. conglutinans race 1 or 2, Plant Dis, Rep., 58, 479, 1979. 336. Woronin, M., Plasmodiophora brassicae, Urheberder der Kohlpflanzen-Hernie, Jahrb. Wiss. Bot., 1 1 , 548, 1878. English Trans, by C. Chupp., in Phytopathol. Classics, 4, 1934. 337. Walker, J. C., Diseases of Vegetable Crops, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952, 123. 338. Lembcke, G., Miiller, W., and Schlogel, H., The importance of clubroot in winter rape cultivation with reference to the Gadebusch area (Schwerin district), Abstr.. Rev. Plant Pathoi., 53, 58, 1974. 339. Anon,, Quarterly Report of the Plant Protection Committee for the South East Asia and Pacific Region, FAO Publ., Bangkok, Thailand, 1962, 12. 340. Gibbs, J. G., Club-root in cruciferous crops, investigations by Plant Research Station, N.Z. J. Agric., 13, 1, 1931. 341. Lobb, W. R., Resistant type of rape for areas with club root, N.Z. J. Agric., 82, 65, 1951. 342. Nowicki, B., Susceptibility of crucifers grown in Poland to cabbage club root (Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor.), Abstr., Rev. Plant Pathoi., 55, 2417, 1976. 343. Nilson, L., Some crop diseases in Scania in 1950, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 30, 360, 1951. 344. Paterson, W. G. W., A new race of Plasmodiophora brassicae woronin, Plant Patholog\ ( U . K . ) , 21(3), 145, 1972. 345. Stout, G. L., Altstatt, G. E., and Nakayama, R. M., Club root of Crucifers, Bull. Dept. Agric. Calif., 42(3), 113, 1954. 346. Martin, W. H., Plant Pathology — Fifty-third and Fifty-fourth Annual Reports for the 2 Year Period Ending June 30, 1933, New Jersey Agric. Exp. Stn., 57, 1933. 347. Colhoun, J., Clubroot disease of crucifers caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae, Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Phytopathol. Paper, 3, 108, 1958. 348. Karling, J. S., The Plasmodiophorales, 2nd ed., Hafner, New York, 1968, 256.

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349. Tommercup, I. C. and Ingram, D. S., The life cycle of Plasmodiophora brassicae Woronin in Brassica tissue cultures and in intact roots, New Phytologist, 70, 327, 1971. 350. Honig, F., Der Kohlkropferreger (Plastnodiophora brassicae Wor), Bine Monographic, Gartenbamvissenschaft., 5, 116, 1931. 3 5 1 . Ayers, G. W., Races of Plasmodiophora brassicae. Can. J. Rot., 35(6), 923, 1957. 352. Lammerink, J., Six pathogenic races of Plastnodiophora brassicae Wor. in New Zealand, N.Z. J. Agric. Res., 8(1), 156, 1965. 353. Lammerink, J., A survey of pathogenic races of club root in the South Island of New Zealand, N.Z. J. Agric. Res., 8(3), 867, 1965. 354. Walker, J. C., Physiologic races of Plastnodiophora brassicae. Systemic invasion of cabbage by PUixmodiophora brassicae, Phytopathology, 32, 18, 1942. 355. Williams, P. H., A system for the determination of races of Plasmodiophora brassicae that infect cabbage and rutabaga, Phytopathology, 56, 521, 1966. 356. Crute, I. R., Gray, A. R., Crip, P,, and Buczacki, S. T., Variation in Plasmodiophora brassicae and resistance to clubroot disease in Brassicas and allied crops — critical review. Plant Breed. Abstr.. 50(2), 91, 1980. 357. Buczacki, S. T., Toxopeaus, H., Mattusch, P., Johnston, T, D., Dixon, G. R., and Hobolth, L. A., Study of physiologic specialization in Plasmodiophora brassicae: proposals for attempted rationali/ation through international approach, Trans. Br. MycoL Soc., 65(2), 295, 1975. 358. Williams, P. H. and Yukawa, Y. B., Ultrastructural studies on the host parasite relations of Plasmodiophora brassicae. Phytopathology, 57(7), 682, 1967. 359. Butcher, D. M., Ei-Tigani, S., and Ingram, D., The role of indole glucosinolates in the clubroot disease of the Cruciferae, Physio!. Plant PathoL, 4, 127, 1974. 360. Buczacki, S. T. and Ockendon, J. G., Role of glueosinolate incidence and cluboot susceptibility of three cruciferous weeds, Trans. Br. MvcoL Soc., 72, 156, 1979. 361. Linss, H., Investigations on changes of the metabolism of rape plant after infection with Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor., Abstr., Rev. Plant PathoL. 5(5), 215, 1978. 362. Dekhuijen, H. M., Electron microscopic studies in the root hairs and cortex of a susceptible and a resistant variety of Brassica campestris infected with Plasmodiophora brassicae, Neth. J. Plant PathoL, 85, 1, 1979. 363. Rochlin, E., On the question of non-susceptibility of Cruciferae to Plasmodiophora brassicae, Abstr., Rev. Appl. MycoL, 13, 140, 19. 364. Walker, J. C., Morell, S., and Foster, H. H., Toxicity of mustard oil and related sulphur compounds to certain fungi, Am. J. Bot., 24(8), 536, 1937. 365. Stahman, M. A., Linnk, K. P,, and Walker, J, C., Mustard oils in crucifers and their relation to resistance to clubroot, J. Agric. Res., 67(2), 49, 1943. 366. Hooker, W. J., Walker, J. C., and Link, K. P., Effects of two mustard oils on Plasmodiophora brassicae and their relation to resistance to clubroot, J. Agric. Res., 70(3), 63, 1945. 367. Pyron, D. E., Walker, J. C., and Stahman, M, A., Toxicity of allylisothiocyanate vapour to certain fungi. Am. J. Bot., 27(1), 30, 1940. 368. Johnston, T. D., Transfer of disease resistance from Brassica campestris L. to rape (B. napus) Euphytica 23(3), 681, 1974. 369. Chiang, B. Y., Grant, W. F., and Chiang, M. S., Transfer of resistance to race 2, of Plasmodiophora brassicae from Brassica napus to Cabbage (B. oleracea var. Capitata). II. Meiosis in the interspecific hybrids between B. napus and 2 x and 4 x cabbage, Euphytica, 27(1), 81, 1978. 370. Chiang, M. S., Chiang, B. Y., and Grant, W. F., Clubroot-resistance transferred to cabbage. Can. Agric., 22(4), 23, 1977. 371. Watson, A. G. and Baker, K. F., Possible gene centres for resistance in the genus Brassica to Plasmodiophora brassicae, Econ. Bot., 23, 245, 1969. 372. Johnston, T, D., A new factor for resistance to clubroot in Brassica napus L., Plant PathoL, U . K . , 19, 156, 1970. 373. Lammerink, J., Interspecific transfer of clubroot resistance from Brassica campestris L. to B. napus L., N.Z. J. Agric. Res., 13, 105, 1970. 374. Reinmuth, E., Investigations on cabbage club root control by means of lime, Abstr., Rev. Appl. MycoL, 25, 147, 1946. 375. Haenseler, C. M. and Moyer, T. R., Effect of calcium cyanamide on the soil microflora with special reference to certain plant parasites, Soil Sci., 133, 1937. 376. Budzier, H. H., On the influence of compost on the occurrence of cabbage club root disease, Z. Pflkranth., 63(5), 257, 1956. 377. Anon., Leaf scorch threat to rape, Farmers Weekly, 4, April 1975, 45. 378. Rawlinson, C. J., Light leaf spot of oilseed rape: an appraisal with comments on strategies for control, Pests and Diseases, Proc. 1979 Br. Crop Prot. Conf., 1979, 137.

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379. Amelung, D. and Daebeler, A new leaf spot disease of winter rape caused by Pyrenopeziza brassicae (C\lindrosporiwn concentricum,) Abstr., Rev. Plant Pathol., 59, 3460, 1980. 380. Rawlinson, C. J., Sutton, B,, and Muthyalu, G., Taxonomy and biology of Pyrenopeziza brassicae sp. nov. (Cylindrosporlum concentricum}, a pathogen of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus ssp oleifera), Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc., 71(3), 425, 1978. 381. Ilott, T. W., Sexual reproduction in Pyrenopeziza brassicae, the fungus causing the light leaf spot disease of oilseed rape, Abst., 6th Int. Rapeseed Conf., Paris, Fr., May 17 to 19, 1983, 178. 382. Hickman, C. J., Schofield, E. R., and Taylor, R. E., Light leaf spot of Brassicae, Plant Pathol., U. K., 4, 129, 1955. 383. Rawlinson, C. J., Muthyalu, G., and Turner, R. H., Effect of herbicides on epicuticular wax of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus) and infection by Pyrenopeziza brassicae, Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc., 71, 441, 1978. 384. Maddock, S. E. ? Ingram, D. S., and Gilligan, C. A., Resistance of cultivated Brassicas to Pyrenopeziza brassicae, Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc., 76(3), 371, 1981. 385. Dixon, G. R., The reactions of some oil rape cultivars to some fungal pathogens, Proc. 8th Br. Insecticide and Fungicide Conf., 1975, 503. 386. Thompson, K. F. and Capitain, P., Annual Report of the Plant Breeding Institute for 1978, 1979, 95. 387. Jones, O. W., Davies, J. M. L., and Cook, R. J., Some observations on the control of Cylindrosporium concentricum (Gloesporium concentricum}, the cause of light leaf spot on oilseed rape, Proc. 8th Br. Insecticide and Fungicide Conf,, 1975, 507. 388. McRae, W., Report of Imperial Mycologist, Sci. Rep. Agric. Res. Inst. Pusa, 1921—22, 1922, 44. 389. McRae, W., Report of the Imperial Mycologist, Sci. Rep. Agric. Res. Inst. Pusa, 1925—26, 1926, 54. 390. Mitra, M., Gall formation on the roots of mustard due to a smut (Urocystis coralhides Rostrup), Agric. J. India, 23, 104, 1928. 391. Mundkur, B. B., Host range and identity of the smut causing root galls in the genus Brassica., Phytopathology, 28, 134, 1938. 392. Vaartnou, H. and Tewari, I., Aiternaria alternata, parasitic on rape in Alberta, Plant Dis. Rep., 56, 676, 1972. 393. Rao, B. R., Species of Aiternaria on some Cruciferae, Geobios, 4, 163, 1977. 394. Purkayastha, P. P. and Mallik, F., Two new species of Hyphomycetes from India, Nova Hedwigia, 27, 781, 1976. 395. Ruth, A. and Vanterpool, T. C., Aiternaria species on rape in western Canada, Abstr., Proc. Can. Phytopathol, Soc., 30, 10, 1963. 396. Chauhan, L. S. and Saksena, H. K., New Rhizoctonia leaf blight of rapeseed and mustard, Indian J. Farm Sci., 2, 98, 1974. 397. Mclntosh, A. E. S., Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, Malaya for the year 1949, 1951, 1. 398. Rogodin, M. N., New species of fungi from Bashkiv, USSR, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 36, 128, 1957. 399. Kirk, P. M., Cercospora brassicicola, C. M. I. Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria, No. 722, Commonw. Mycol. Inst. Kew, Surrey, England, 1982. 400. Govindu, H. C. and Thirumalachar, M. J., Notes on some Indian Cercosporae, VI, Sydowia, 9, 221, 1955. 401. Anon., Thirty-fourth Meeting of the Canadian Phytopathological Society, Abstr., Proc. Can. Phytopathol. Soc., 35, 16, 1968. 402. Vanterpool, T. C., Overwintering and spread of Mycosphaerella brassicicola, the cause of ringspot of rape, Proc. Can. Phytopathol. Soc., 35, 20, 1968. 403. Bjorling, K., Some fungus diseases of colza and white mustard, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 24, 44, 1945. 404. Bremer, H., Is men, H., Karel, G., O/kan, H., and Ozkan, M., Contributions to the knowledge of parasitic fungi of Turkey, Rev. Fac. Sci. Univ. Istanbul Ser. B, 8, 1, 1948. 405. Petrie, G. A., Diseases of Brassica species in Saskatchewan, 1970—72, II. Stem, pod and leaf spots, Can. Plant Dis. Surv., 53, 83, 1973. 406. Reyes, A. A., First occurrence after a severe white leaf spot on Chinese mustard in Canada, Can. Plant Dis. Surv., 59(1), 1, 1979. 407. Akerman, A., Annual report on the work done of the Swedish Seed Association for the year 1951, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 32, 11, 1953. 408. Czyzewska, S., Phytopathological and mycological studies on seeds of rape (B. napus var. oleifera), Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 39, 333, 1960. 409. Rai, J. N. and Singh, R, P., Production of toxic metabolite by Macrophomina phaseoli causing root rot of crucifers, Indian J. Mycol. Plant Pathol., 3, 21, 1973. 410. Rai, J. N. and Srivastava, S. K., Studies on the chemical control of root and stem rot of Brassica juncea caused by Macrophomina phaseolina, Indian J. Mycol. Plant Pathol., 7, 47, 1975.

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411. Rai, J. N. and Srivastava, S. K., Production of endopolygalacturonase and cellulase by isolates of Macrophomina phaseoli causing stem and root rot disease of Brassica juncea, Indian J. Mycol. Plant Pathoi., 7, 169, 1975. 412. Rai, J. N. and Srivastava, S. K., Virulence and in vitro sulphur utilization relationship in some isolates of Macrophomina phaseolina causing stem and root rot of o/f/ferous crucifers, Indian J. Mycol. Plant Pathoi., 7, 143, 1977. 413. Srivastava, S. K. and Dhawan, S., Screening of Brassica juncea cultivars for resistance against Macrophomina stem and root rot disease, Geobios, 6, 333, 1979. 414. Srivastava, S. K. and Dhawan, S., Epidemiology of Macrophomina stem and root rot of Brassica juncea (L) Czern and Coss in Northern India, Natl. Sci. Acad. (B), 45, (6), 617, 1979. 4 1 5 . Srivastava, S. K. and Dhawan, S., Histopathology of Macrophomina stem and root rot of Brassica juncea, Geobios, 7(4), 179, 1980. 416. Pape, H., Do possibilities exist for the control of clover canker?, Neue Mitt. Landw., 562, 1954. 417. Nilsson, H. E,, Influence of herbicides on infection by Verticillium dahliae on oilseed rape, Brassica napus var. oleifera, Phytopath. Z., 90, 361, 1977. 418. Kroeker, G., Wilt of rape and turnip rape in Sweden caused by Verticillium, Abstr., Rev. Plant Pathoi., 49, 262, 1970. 419. McDonald, J. D. and Leach, J. D., Evidence of an expanded host range of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. betae. Phytopathology, 66(7), 822, 1976. 420. Deslandes, J. A., Phytopathological investigations in Amazonia, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 26, 334, 1947. 421. Masurat, G. and Stephens, S., The occurrence of most important diseases and pests of agricultural and horticultural plants in 1962 in the territory of the German Democratic Republic, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 43, 510, 1964. 422. Czyzewska, S., Mycological and phytopathological studies on rape seeds (Brassica napus L. var. oleifera D.C.) (Polish with English Summary), Rocz, Nauk. Roln., 78 A (2), 283, 1958. 423. Gupta, Y. K., Agarwal, V. K., Roy, A. N., and Gupta, M. N., Fungi associated with rai (Brassica juncea) seeds, Curr. Sci., (India), 46, 319, 1977. 424. Kadian, O. P. and Saryanarayan, D., Studies on seed microflora of oilseed crops (ii) Rape, Brassica campestris L. Var. toria, Haryana Agric. Univ. J. Res., 1(3), 32, 1971. 425. Kanwar, Z. S. and Khanna, P. K., Mustard seed mycoflora in central India — their effects on the health of seed, seedling and pod and their control, Int. Pest Control, 21, 83, 1979. 426. Ramakrishnan, C. V. and Banerjee, B. N., Studies on mold lipase: Comparative study of Upases obtained from molds grown on mustard seed (Brassica nigra), Sci. Cult., 17, 298 1952. 427. Mills, J. T., Spoilage of rapeseed in elevator and farm storage in Western Canada, Can. Plant Dis. Surv., 56, 95, 1976. 428. Mills, J. T. and Sinha, R. N., Safe storage periods for farm-stored rapeseed based on mycological and biochemical assessment, Phytopathology, 70, 541. 1980. 429. Mills, J. T., Sinha, R. N., and Wallace, H. A, H., Multivariate evaluation of isolation techniques for fungi associated with stored rapeseed, Phytopathology, 68, 1520, 1978. 430. Sinha, R. N. and Wallace, H. A. H., Storage stability of farm-stored rapeseed and barley, Can. J. Plant Sci., 57, 351, 1977. 431. Appleqvist L.- A., and Loof, B., Post harvest handling and storage of rapeseed, in, Rapeseed: Cultivation, Composition, Processing and Utilization, Appleqvist, L. - A. and Ohlson, R., Eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1972, 60. 432. Rai, J. N. and Saxena, A., Effect of seed-borne fungi on the physico-chemical properties of oil of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea ssp. juncea), Indian J. Agric. Sci., 50, 769, 1980. 433. Jorgensen, J., Occurrence and causes of seed discoloration at commercial seed lots of white mustard (Sinapis alba), Acta Agric. Scandina Vica, 26, 109, 1976. 434. Richardson, M. J., Investigations on seed-borne pathogens of Brassica sp., Proc. Int. Seed Test Assoc., 35, 207, 1970. 435. Babuchowski, K. and Bundy, J., The effect of ultraviolet rays on the development of mould and yeast during storage of rapeseed, Abstr. Rev. Appl. Mycol., 43, 389, 1964. 436. Patei, M. K., Abhyankar, S. G., and Kulkarni, Y. S., Black rot of cabbage, Indian Phytopath., 2, 58, 1949. 437. Vir, S., Kaushik, C. D., and Chand, J. N., The occurrence of bacterial rot of raya (Brassica juncea coss) in Haryana, PANS, 19, 46, 1973. 438. Gandhi, S. K. and Parashar, R. D., Bacterial rot of raya (Brassica juncea), Indian Phytopath., 30, 24, 1977. 439. Chaves, B. A., Principal plant diseases in the northeast, Rev. Appl. Mycol., 26, 481, 1947. 440. Conners, I. L. and Savile, D. B. C., Twenty-fifth Annual Report, 1945, Can. Plant Dis. Surv., 37, 1946.

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441. Bain, D. C., Reaction of Brassica seedlings to black rot. Phytopathology, 42, 497. 1952. 442. Walker, J. C., Diseases of Vegetable Crops, McGraw-Hill, New York. 1952. 443. Gandhi, S. K. and Parashar, R. D., Evaluation of some fungicides and antibiotics against Xanthomonas campestris causing bacterial rot of ray a, Indian Phytopath., 31(2), 210, 1978. 444. Bhowmik, T. P. and Trivedi, B. M., A new bacterial stalk rot of Brassica, Curr, Sci., 49. 674, 1980. 445. Henry, A. W., Bacterial pod spot of rape in Alberta, Can. Plant Dis. Surv., 54, 91, 1974. 446. Henry, A. W. and Letal, J., Etiological and pathogenicity studies on the bacterial pod spot of rape. Can. Plant Dis. Surv., 57. 23, 1977. 447. Keyworth, W. G., Plant pathology, Rep. Natl. Veg. Res. Stn., Warwick, 19, 85, 1969. 448. Chamberlain, E. E., Turnip mosaic, a virus disease of crucifers, N. Z. J. Agric., 53, 321, 1936. 449. Kaufmann, O., Eine gefahrliche virus Krankheit an Rubsen, Raps, und Kohlriiben. Arh. BioL Reichsanst. Land. U. Forst\v.. 21, 605, 1936. 450. Pound, G. S. and Walker, J. C., Differentiation of certain crucifer viruses by the use of temperature and host immunity reactions, J. Agric. Res., 71, 255, 1945. 451. Walker, J. C., Lebeau, F. J., and Pound, G. S., Viruses associated with cabbage mosaic, J. Agric. Res., 70, 379, 1945. 452. Larson, R. H., Matthews, R. E. F. and Walker, J. C., Relationships between certain viruses affecing the genus Brassica, Phytopathology, 40, 955, 1950. 453. Nu, T. F., A list of plant viruses observed in China, Phytopathology, 29(5), 459, 1939. 454. Ling, L. and Yang, J. Y., A mosaic disease of rape and other crucifers in China, Phytopathology, 30(4), 338, 1940. 455. Ling, L. and Yang, J. Y., Rape mosaic, Nanking J., 9, 293, 1940. 456. Rao, D. V., Hiruki, C., and Chen, M. H., Mosaic disease of rape in Alberta caused by turnip mosaic virus, Plant Dis. Rep., 61(12), 1074. 1977. 457. Demski, J. W., Identity and prevalence of virus diseases of turnip and mustard in Georgia, Plant Dis. Rep., 57(11), 974, 1973. 458. Dale, W. T., Observations on a virus disease of certain crucifers in Trinidad, Ann. Appl. BioL, 35, 598, 1948. 459. Azad, R. N. and Sehgal, O. P., A mosaic disease of Chinese sarson (Brassica juncea (L.) Coss. Var. rugosa Roxb., Indian Phytopath., 12(1), 45, 1959. 460. Azad, R. N., Nagaich, B. B., and Sehgal, O. P., Chinese sarson mosaic: virus-vector relationship, Indian Phytopath., 16(1), 21, 1963. 461. Sylvester, E. S., Transmission of Brassica nigra virus by the green peach aphid. Phytopathology, 40(8), 743, 1950. 462. Sylvester, E. S. and Simons, J. N., Relation of plant species inoculated to efficiency of aphids in the transmission of Brassica nigra virus, Phytopathology, 41(10), 908, 1951. 463. Sylvester, E. S., Host-range and properties of Brassica nigra virus. Phytopathology, 43, 541, 1953. 464. Sylvester, E. S., Aphid transmission of non-persistent plant viruses with special reference to Brassica nigra virus, Hilgardia, 23(3), 53, 1954. 465. Takahashi, W. N., The morphology and host range of Brassica nigra virus, Am. J. Bot., 36(7), 533, 1949. 466. Faan, H. C. and Ko, C., A preliminary study of the mosaic virus of crucifers in the vicinity of Canton Ada PhytopathoL Sinica, 3(2), 155, 1957. 467. Shen, S. L. and Pu, Z. C., A preliminary study of the two strains of turnip mosaic virus on rape in Kiangsu Province, Acta Phytophylac. s.n., 4(1), 35, 1965. 468. Neuman, P., Diseases of seedlings and young plants of Brassicae, Pflanzenschutz, 7(3), 39, 1955. 469. Horvath, J., Natural occurrence of virus and mycoplasms pathogens on r^pd Brassica napits L/ in Hungary, Abstr., 6th Int. Rapeseed Conf., Paris, Fr., May 17 to 19, 1983, 177. 470. Blaszczak, W., Turnip mosaic virus and its effect on yield of turnip and mustard, Rev. Appl. Mycol. (Abstr.), 48, 2636, 1969. 4 7 1 . Rawlinson, C. J. and Muthyalu, G., Report of the Rothamsted Experimental Station for 1974, 1975, 237. 472. Rawlinson, C. J. and Muthyalu, G., Report of the Rothamsted Experimental Station for 1975, 1976, 264. 473. Wei, C. T., Shen, S. L., Wang, J. L., Zhang, C, W., and Zhu, Y. G., Mosaic disease of Chinese rape and other crucifers in eastern China, Acta PhytopathoL Sinica, 4(2), 94, 1960. 474. Tompkins, C. M., A mosaic disease of turnip, J. Agric. Res. (U.S.)-, 57, 589, 1938. 475. Avgelis, A. and Quacquarelli, A., Virus diseases of vegetable crops in Apulia. XII. A mosaic of Sinapis nigrar PhytopathoL Mediterr,, 12, 48, 1973. 476. Quacquarelli, A. and Avegallis, A., Serological relationships between the causal agent of a mosaic of mustard and radish mosaic virus, PhytopathoL Mediterr., 13(3), 160, 1974.

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477. Sharma, D, C., Rai mosaic virus, Indian Phytopath., 26(2), 346, 1973. 478. Horvath, J., Studies of a virus disease of Brassica napus, ActaphytopathoL Acad. Sci. Hung., 4 ( 1 ) , 29, 1969. 479. Sernal, J. A., A variant of the cucumber mosaic virus isolated from rape. Bull. Inst. Agron. Gembloux, 26, 203, 1958. 480. Horvath, J. and Hinfner, K., Natural infection of rape with cucumber mosaic virus in Hungary, Actaagron. Hung., 18, 226, 1969. 481. Fry, P. R., Cauliflower mosaic: virus disease of Brassicas, /V. Z. J. Agric., 85(6), 507, 1952. 482. Kovachevaski, I., Cauliflower mosaic in Bulgaria, Abstr., Rev. Appi. MycoL, 48, 2055, 1969. 483. Bennett, C, W., Studies on dodder transmission of plant viruses. Phytopathology, 34. 905, 1944. 484. Vasudeva, R. S., Report of the Division of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Sci. Rep. for the year 195455, Agric. Res. Inst., New Delhi, 1957, 87. 485. Stefanac, Z., Occurrence of turnip crinkle virus in Yugoslavia. Ada. Biol. lugosl. Ser. B., 6(1), 27, 1969. 486. Gilligan, C. A., Pechan, P. M., Day, R., and Hill, S. A., Beet Western yellows virus on oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.), Plant PathoL, U . K . , 29(1), 53, 1980. 487 Bindra, O. S. and Bakhetia, D, R. C., A note on natural incidence of Sesamum phyllody virus disease in Brassica spp. at Ludhiana, J. Res.. (Ludhiana), 4, 406, 1967. 488. Vasudeva, R. S. and Sahambi, H. S., Phyllody of Sesamum (Sesamum orientaie L.), Indian Phytopath., 8, 124, 1955. 489. Kaushik, C. D., Tripathi, N. N., and Vir, S., Effect of date of sowing of toria on phyllody incidence and estimation of losses, Haryana Agric. Univ. J. Res. (India), 3. 28, 1978. 490. Sandhu, R. S., Singh, G., and Bhatia, N. L., Studies on the effect of sowing dates and spacing on incidence of phyllody in Indian rape (Brassica campesths L. Var. toria Duth), Indian J. Agric. Sci., 39, 959, 1969. 491. Kolte, S. J. and Awasthi, R. P., Rapeseed Pathology, in Research on Rapeseed, Report for the year 1979-80. All-India Coordinated Research Project on Oilseeds in Assistance with International Development Research Centre, Canada, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, 1979. 492. Vasudeva, R. S., Diseases of rape and mustard, in Rape and Mustard, Singh, D. P., Ed., Indian Central Oilseeds Committee, Hyderabad, 1958. 493. Klein, M., Sesamum phyllody in Israel, Phytopath. Z., 88, 165, 1977. 494. Vasudeva, R. S. and Sahambi, H. S., Phyllody disease transmitted by a species of Deltocephalous Burmeister, Proc. 4th Int. Crop. Prot. Conf., Hamburg, 1957, 359. 495. Sahambi, H. S., Studies on sesamum phyllody virus; virus-vector relationship and host range, Plant Disease Problems, Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Plant PathoL, Indian Phytopathol. Sot-.. I . A . R . I . , New Delhi, 1970. 340. 496. Bhatia, N. L., Effect of sowing dates and seed rates on the growth, yield, and quality of toria (Brassica campestris L. var toria Duth and Full.), M.Sc. thesis, Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana, 1967. 497. Horvath, J., Green petal, a new disease of rape in Hungary, Acta Phytopathol. Acad. Sci. Hung., 4(4), 365, 1969. 498. Horvath, J., Occurrence of green petal disease of rape in Hungary and the aetiology of the disease, Abstr. Rev. Plant PathoL, 49, 3041, 1976. 499. Lehman, W. and Skadow, K., Studies on the occurrence, etiology and vector transmissibility of rape flower greening, Abstr. Rev. Plant PathoL, 51, 2631, 1972, 500. Conners, I. L., An Annotated Index of Plant Diseases in Canada and Fungi Recorded on Plants in Alaska, Canada, and Greenland, Can. Dept. Agric. Publ. 1251, Queen's Printer, Ottawa, 1967, 1. 501. Oostenbrink, M., Enige bijzondere aaltjesaantastingen in 1957, Tijsdchr. PIZiekt, 64(1), 122, 1958. 502. Bos, J., Ritzema, Het Stengelaaltje (Tylenchus devastatrix Kuhn); Overzicht Van mijne inleiding tot de excursie, gehouden bij gelegenheid Van de algemeene vergadering, te Maiden Op 27 Mei 1922, Tijdschr. PIZiekt., 28(11), 159, 1922. 503. Jones, F. G. W., Observations on the beet eelworm and other cyst forming species of Heterodera, Ann. Appl. Biol., 37, 407, 1950. 504. Winslow, R. D., Provisional lists of host plants of some root eelworms (Heterodera spp.), Ann. Appl. Biol., 41(4), 591, 1954. 505. Kuhn, J., Die Ergebnisse der versuche Zur Ermittelung der Ursache der Rubenmudigkeit and Zur-Erforschung der Natur der Nematoden, Ber. Physiol. Lab. Landw. Inst. Univ., Halle, 3, 1881, 1. 506. Holtzmann, O. V. and Aragaki, M,, Clover cyst nematode in Hawaii, Plant Dis. Rep., 47, 886, 1963. 507. Bessey, E. A., Root knot and its control, Bull. Bur. PL Ind. U.S. Dep. Agric., 217, 89, 1911. 508. Vuillemin, P. and Legrain, E., Symbiose de Heterodera radicicola avec les plantes cultivees au Sahara, C. R. Hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris, 118(10), 549, 1894. 509. Gaskin, T. A., Weed hosts of Mehidogyne incognita in Indiana, Plant Dis. Rep., 42(6), 802, 1958. 510. Kiryanova, E. S. and Krall, E. L., Plant Parasitic Nematodes and Their Control, Vol. II., (Translated from Russian), Amerind Publishing, New Delhi, 1980, 618.

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5 1 1 . Gaskin, T. A. and Crittenden, H. W., Studies on the host range of Meloidogyne hapla. Plant Dis. Rep., 40(4), 265. 1956. 512. Thorne, G. and Schuster, M. L., Nacobbus batatiformis n. sp. (Nematoda: Tylenchidae), producing galls on the roots of sugarbets and other plants, Proc. Helminth. Soc. Wash., 23(2), 128, 1956, 5 1 3 . Crossma, L. and Christie, J. R., Lists of plants attacked by miscellaneous plant infesting nematodes, Plant Dis. Rep., 21(9), 144, 1937. 5 1 4 . Filipjev, I. N. and Schuurmans Stekhoven, J. H., Jr., A Manual of Agricultural Helminthology, E. J. Brill, Leiden, XV. 1941. 5 1 5 . Rensch, B., Aphelenchus neglectus n. sp. eine neue parasitare Nematodenart. Zool. Am., 59, 277, 1924. 5 1 6 . Kiryanova, E. S. and Km 11, E. L., Plant Parasitic Nematodes and Their Control, Vol. I I . , (translated from Russian). Amerind Publishing. New Delhi, 1980, 371. 517. Rohde, R. A. and Jenkins, W. R., Host range of a species of Trichodorus and its host parasite relationships on tomato, Phytopathology, 47(5), 295, 1957. 5 1 8 . Kuiper, K., Enige Bijzondere aaltjesaantastingen in 1962, Neth. J. Plant Pathol., 69, 153, 1963. 5 1 9 . Anon., Twenty years of Agricultural Research in Rajasthan, Department of Agriculture, Plant Pathology Report, Krishi Bhavan, Jaipur, India, 1970. 520. Anon., Summary of Research Work Conducted on Oilseeds in Plant Pathology Section. Rajasthan, Report presented at All-India Oilseeds Workshop, Jaipur, August 27 to 31. 1972. 5 2 1 . Narasimhan, M. J. and Thirumalachar, M. J., A Sclerotinia disease of Orobanche cernua in Bihar area, Phytopath. Z., 22(4), 421. 1954. 522. Doloi, P. C., personal discussion, 1982. 523. Schory, Y. and Zur, M., The yield potential of Indian Hrassica varieties under Mediterranean conditions, Abstr., 6th Int. Rapeseed Conf., Paris. Fr., May 17 to 19, 1983, 281.

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Chapter 3 SESAME DISEASES Sesame (Sesamum indicum L; Syn. S. orientale L) is variously named as gingelly or til or tila. It belongs to the family Pedaliaceae. It is an annual, 1.0 to 1.5 m tall, herbaceous plant, maturing in 70 to 140 days. 1 The basic chromosome number is 13 pairs (2n — 26). The flowers are solitary, axillary, short-pediceled, and zygomorphic and are borne on the upper stem or branches. Self-pollination is the rule, but natural cross pollination due to visiting bees may usually be seen to the extent of 5%. t - 2 The fruit is a capsule and contains numerous small ovate seeds. The oil content of the seed ranges from 46 to 52%. Sesame is thought to have originated in India, 1 though its origin is sometimes traced to southern and south-western Africa and also to the East Indies. 1 - 2 The crop is mainly grown in the tropics and subtropics. Principal sesame-producing countries are India, China, Turkey, Burma, and Pakistan in Asia; Egypt and Sudan in Africa; Greece in Europe; Venezuela, Argentina, and Colombia in South America; Nicaragua and El Salvador in Central America; and Mexico and the U.S. in North America. Sesame grows on variety of soils, but good yield is obtained on light, sandy-loam, welldrained soils of moderate fertility. Different diseases affecting the crop are described below.

I. FUNGAL DISEASES A. Phytophthora Blight Phytophthora blight of sesame was first reported from India by Butler. 3 Widespread occurrence of the disease has now been reported from Argentina, 4 Dominican Republic,5 Egypt, 6 India, 7 10 Iran, 11 and Venezuela. 12 - 13 /. Economic Importance The disease has been reported to be of economic importance in the States of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan in India. 7 - 14 " 17 Since the disease generally kills the affected plants, it can be observed that the net loss is directly proportional to the incidence of the disease.7 The mortality of the plants due to the disease may be as high as 72 to 79%. 7J8 The infected seeds lose their viability. 9 2. Symptoms The disease can attack plants of all ages after they attain 10 days of age. Symptoms appear on all aerial parts of the affected plants. The first symptom is the appearance of watersoaked brown spots on leaves and stems. The spots gradually extend in size. Under favorable weather conditions the brownish discolored spots spread rapidly both upwards and down wards and also around the stem. The brownish area later turns deep brown and becomes black with the spread of the infection. The capsules are also affected. In humid weather the white woolly growth of the fungus can be seen on the surface of affected capsules. Capsules on affected branches are poorly formed. The seeds remain shriveled in the case of severe attack.7 - 1() 3. Pathogen The pathogen is Phytophthora parasitica (Dastur) var. sesami Prasad (= P. nicotiane B. deHann var. parasitica (Dastur) Waterh). Mycelium of the fungus in young culture is coenocytic and profusely branched, but septa can be observed in two month old cultures. The hyphae are hyaline and are 2 to 8 JJL thick.

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The fungus does not form sporangia on culture media, but abundant sporangia can be observed in nature on wooly mycelium growing on infected capsules. The sporangiophores are branched sympodially and bear ovate-to-spherical sporangia terminally. They have a prominent apical papilla and measure 25 to 50 x 20 to 35 JJL in size. The mycelium, when floated in tap water, form zoosporangia readily in 48 hr. The zoospores are formed inside, and they clearly get separated within the sporangium. The zoospores are liberated in water if the mycelium is flooded with water. The antheridium can be observed at the base, and attachment is typically amphigynous. The oospores are spherical, smooth, double-walled, and hyaline. 7 The fungus grows well on oatmeal/agar at an optimum temperature of 30°C.7 Culture of the fungus may show tendency to lose virulence if it is maintained on artificial medium for a long perod. ig The fungus is reported to be thiamine deficient. Its growth becomes good when thiamine is incorporated (200 |mg/€) in the medium. Among nitrogen sources, asparagine supports the best growth, whereas nitrates and ammonium salts are poorer sources for growth. Dextrin, sucrose, or starch are reported to be good carbon sources for the fungal growth. The fungus grows best at pH 6.5.20 4. Host Range and Variation P. parasitica var. sesami is restricted in its pathogenicity to sesame plants only. Gemawat and Prasad9 have shown variation in virulence among various isolates of P. parasitica var. sesami. Single zoospore isolates show great variations, under similar conditions of infection, in virulence which may range from non-pathogenic to highly pathogenic. 16 - 21 A few isolates of P. parasitica var. sesami can lose virulence, but the loss in virulence is not permanent, since a few cultures can regain the loss of virulence after passage through the host. On repeated host passages, the culture can even become more virulent than the original ones. 16 < 20 < 21 5. Survival The pathogen can survive in mycelial form up to 50°C temperature, and culture having chlamydospores may survive up to52°C. 16 Viability of the culture can be kept in a refrigerator for one year at 5°C. These studies suggest that the fungus can survive in soil during the summer and winter where temperature never rises beyond 50°C or drops below 5°C.10 The fungus survives in soil during the unfavorable period in the form of dormant mycelium and/ or in the form of chlamydospores. In addition to soil, seed also appears to play an important role in the recurrence and spread of the disease. In seed the mycelium has been located in the embryo.22 6. Infection When sections of diseased portions are cut, mycelium is seen in cortical tissues, but in advanced cases, it can be traced in phloem, xylem, and pith tissues. The mycelium in the host tissue is inter- or intracellular, but it does not form haustoria. The sporangiophores emerge in groups by rupturing the epidermis, but sometimes they emerge through stomata.10 The zoosporangia are formed abundantly if humid weather prevails for 2 to 3 days but soon stop formation if a dry spell appears. 10 The secondary infection occurs through zoospores. 7. Factors Affecting Infection and Disease Development Heavy rains for at least two weeks and high humidity (above 90%) for three weeks or more favor the development of the disease. When such favorable conditions persist for a longer time, the infection appears quite fast.23 It is observed that the initial development of the disease is much earlier when the soil temperature is 28°C, while the initial appearance of the disease is delayed with an increase in the soil temperature up to 37°C.9 10 It is further reported that incidence of the Phytophthora blight of sesame shows a close parallelism to the growth of the fungus.

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8. Control — Host Resistance Gemawat and Prasad24 and Sehgal 16 have tested some varieties of sesame (Sesamum orientate L) and five other species, viz., S. occidentalis Heer and Regal, S. indicum L, S. laciniatwn Willd., 5. prostration Retz. and 5. radiatum Schum and Thonn. for resistance to the disease; however, they failed to get any variety or species resistant to the disease. Fourteen varieties (three such varieties: NP 20, No. 16 and No. 37) are reported to be resistant at the seedling stage, and 17 others (five such varieties: NP 3, 4, 8, 24, and T-l 1) at the adult stage.25 Sesame lines N-62-39, E 8, and IV71/416-2 are least susceptible to the disease.26 In Venezuela three lines 71-184-1, 79-129-2 and 71-145-3 (selected from B4 of Ajinio Atar 55) are reported to be disease resistant. 13 9. Chemical Control Seed-borne infection can be controlled by treating the seed with thiram (0.3%). 17 Secondary infection and further spread of the disease can be brought under control by three sprayings of Bordeaux mixture (3:3:50), each at an interval of one week after the appearance of the disease. 9 Spray application of dithiocarbamate fungicides such as mancozeb (0.3%) or zineb (0.3%) and copper-based fungicides (0.3%) are reported to be effective in the control of the disease. 17 Sanitation and clean cultivation should be followed as additional measures to control the disease. B. Charcoal Rot Reports of occurrence of charcoal rot of sesame have been made from Bangladesh, 27 Burma,28 Cyprus,29 Egypt,30 Greece,31 India,32-" Iraq,3840 Korea,41 Nigeria,42-43 Pakistan-Sind region (formerly in India), 44 Palestine, 4?46 Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon),28 Turkey, 47 Uganda, 4849 the U.S., 50 and Venezuela. 51 1. Economic Importance The disease is particularly reported to be quite serious, limiting the production of the crop in the Chandrapur district of Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, 52 53 the Gwalior division of Madhya Pradesh34 and in the State of Haryana 54 in India. Seedling mortality due to seedborne infection aggravates the disease problem by reducing the plant stand per unit area, resulting in low yield. About 5 to 100% yield loss due to the disease is reported, 17 If the disease appears simultaneously with Phytophthora blight 55 or with Fusarium wilt 52 the losses in yield usually are very high. 2. Symptoms Sesame plants may be attacked immediately after sowing. The germinating seeds may become brown and rot. In the seedling stage, the roots may become brown and rot, resulting in thedeath of the plants. If the plants survive, the older plants are affected at the base of the stem, causing drooping of leaves and top of the plants. Such plants make poor growth and remain stunted. The mycelium of the fungus progress upward in the stem, and as the stem dries, pycnidia are formed as minute black dots. The stem may break-off and the blackening may extend upwards on the stem. The capsules are also affected. Such capsules open prematurely, exposing shriveled and discolored seeds.56 Seeds may show the presence of sclerotia on the surface. 3. Pathogen The pathogen is Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. The morphological and physiological characteristics of the pathogen have been described in Volume I. Literature on M. phaseolina and its isolates in India has been reviewed, and it is concluded that an isolate from sesame could be classified as M. phaseolina ssp.

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Leaf, stem, and root extracts of urd and mung beans have been reported to show an inhibitory effect on sclerotial formation of the sesame isolate in vitro. 59 Ammonium chloride also has an inhibitory effect on sclerotial formation of the fungus. 60 The two distinct strains, viz., pycnidia-forming and sclerotia-forming strains have been reported from Bangladesh. 27 The pycnidial strain is reported to be more pathogenic on sesame than the sclerotial strain. 4. Host Range and Survival M. phaseolina has a wide host range. The fungus survives in soil as well as through the sesame seeds. The sesame seed has been found to carry the fungus on and inside the testa assclerotia or as stromatic mycelium. 4 1 4 S 6 1 6 1 The standard blotter method or use of a selective medium facilitates the detection of seed-borne infection in sesame.62 5. Infection and Factors Affecting Disease Development It is reported that the germinating seed and seedlings stimulate normal sclerotial germination and attract developing mycelium to the host roots. Infection cushions and appressoria are also reported to be formed on sesame plants prior to infection. 61 Polygalacturonase activity of M. phaseolina is reported in sesame plants. 64 - 65 High soil temperature and moisture favor the spread of the fungus and increase the disease severity. 34 66 Periods of drought between heavy rains favor the development of the disease in Africa. 67 6. Control — Host Resistance Several researchers have attempted to detect resistant varieties or disease-resistant sources. 3968 70 Sesame varieties with red seed color show less susceptibility to the disease and give increase in yield. 1 - 40 Sesame lines ^Ajinio Attar 55", 51 "C-50" and "RT-TV 6 G-5, 34 - 69 NP 6,70 and M3-1 1 are reported to be resistant or less susceptible to the disease. The mature plant reaction, through hybridization studies, indicated that susceptibility in the mature plant is dominant over tolerance, and it is controlled by 1, 2, or 3 pairs of genes. 71 7. Chemical Control Seed treatment with Agrosan GN®, Aureofungin®, and captafol has been reported to be effective in the control of the disease/ 4 - 66 - 72 Captafol (0.3%), thiram (0.3%), or carbendazim (0.1 to 0.3%) gives complete control of seed-borne infection of M. phaseolina in sesame when used as seed treatment chemicals. 17 - 73 Benomyl, when applied to the soil, has proven to be a good fungicide for the control of the disease in pot experiments. 74 A high level of phosphorus nutrition of sesame plants in pot culture studies has shown reduction in the disease incidence.75 The possibility of control of the disease through green manuring and antagonistic fungi has been studied. 53 C. Fmarium Wilt Fusarium wilt of sesame is reported to occur in Egypt, 30 - 76 - 77 Colombia, 78 Greece,79 India, 52 - 80 - 81 Israel,82 Japan, 83 Korea,84 Malawi (formerly Nyasaland), 85 the U.S.S.R., 86 - 87 the U.S. ,88-91 and Venezuela.13-92-93 Similar disease has been reported from Pakistan,94 Peru,78 Puerto Rico,5 and Turkey.95 The disease can be devastating on susceptible varieties of sesame, but many local varieties have been found to have some degree of resistance to local races of the fungus. 96 Epiphytotic occurrence of the disease was reported in 1961 and 1964 in the U.S. 90 and in 1959 in Venezuela.92 1. Symptoms Plants get infected at any stage of the crop development. Yellowing of the leaves is the first noticeable symptom of the wilt in the field. Leaves become yellowish, droop, and

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dessicate. Sometimes such leaves show inward rolling of the edges and eventually dry up. The terminal portion dries up and becomes shrunken and bent over. In a severe infection the entire plant becomes defoliated and dry. In a less severe infection or when mature plants are infected, only one side of the plant may develop symptoms, resulting in partial wilting. A blackish discoloration in the form of streaks appears on infected plants. Discoloration of the vascular system is conspicuous in the roots. Roots in the later stages show rotting, wholly or partially corresponding with that side of the plant showing disease symptoms. Numerous, pink, pin-head sized sporodochia (containing macroconidia of the fungus) may be seen scattered over the entire dried stem. The capsules of wilted plants also show numerous sporodochia. Artificial inoculation of plants may result in killing of the seedlings similar to that caused by the damping-off fungi. Such seedlings also show discoloration, but the epidermis is not disrupted.52 2. Pathogen The pathogen is Fusarium oxysporum (Schelt.) f. sesami Jacz. Earlier the fungus was described under the name Neocosmospora vasinfecta var. sesami Jacz. 97 - 98 Later similarity of conidial stage of this fungus with that of Fusarium vasinfectum Atkinson was reported.9* Butler80 from India, identified the fungus as a strain of F. vasinfectum. Snyder and Hansen^ suggested that Fusarium causing wilt in sesame be treated as a form of F. oxysporum, Castellani96 then identified the fungus as F, oxysporum f. sesami. The fungus produces profuse mycelial growth on potato-dextrose-agar. The mycelium is arid, hyaline, septate, and richly branched, turning light pink when old. 52 The microconidia are formed abundantly. They are hyaline, ovoid to ellipsoid, unicellular, and measure 8.5 x 3.25 IJL in size. In the old culture the macroconidia are formed sparsely. They are 3 to 4 or 5, septate, and measure in the range of 35 to 49 x 4 to 5 JJL in size. The macroconidia are produced abundantly in sporodochia as they develop on affected plants. The chlamydospores are globose to subglobose, smooth or wrinkled, and measure 7 to 16 JUL in diameter. Physiological studies on the pathogen have been made.* 0 - 84 - 100 The fungus grows best on Richards' medium. It grows at the temperature range of 10 to 35°C with an optimum temperature of 26°C. Nitrate nitrogen and pH 5.6 support the maximum growth of the fungus. 52 84 3. Host Range and Variation in the Pathogen The fungus is restricted in its host range to sesame. Morphologic differences and similarities have been reported in different isolates of F. oxysporum f. sesami.9* ](n Three strains have been reported in Venezuela on the basis of morphological differences, but these strains are reported to show a similar degree of pathogenicity. 4. Survival The pathogen is reported to be seed and soil-borne, and it may persist for many years in the soil. 5. Infection and Factors Affecting Infection It appears that the fungus penetrates the host through root hairs and causes tracheomycosis.52-83-96 The culture filtrate of F. oxysporum f. sesami has been reported to have an inhibitory effect on sesame.102 Shoot and root growth is also inhibited by culture filtrate of the fungus, 103 indicating the production of toxic substances by the pathogen. High soil temperature to a depth of 5 to 10 cm and 17 to 27% water-holding capacity during dry periods is favorable for the development of the disease.92 The fusarium wilt of sesame is reported to be associated with nematode attack in Colombia, 78 and with Macrophomina phaseolina in Egypt, 30 India 52 and Uganda. 78

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Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

6. Control Differences in susceptibility are recorded in various sesame varieties. 81 t04 It is noted that indehiscent strains are less susceptible to the disease as compared to the dehiscent ones.90 Some selections from Uganda and certain lines with a rough seed coat placental attachment as well as large-seeded varieties are resistant to the disease.78 Sesame lines "Aceitera" and "Glauca'V ()S "Baco",90 "Sirogona",89 Tadshik selections,106 and "Venezuela-25"96 have been reported to be resistant or less susceptible to the disease. Tolerance of the mature plants to the disease is reported to be inherited and governed by a 1 or 2 dominant gene pair or by recessive genes.76 Benomyl and carbendazim are reported to be effective in inhibiting the growths of the fungus in vitro. 107 Sanitation and clean cultivation is recommended for the control of the disease. If the soil is infested heavily, at least five years should elapse between two sesame crops.78 D. Alternaria Leaf Spot Alternaria leaf spot of sesame was first described by Kvashnina 108 from the North Caucasus region in the Soviet Union. Kawamura 109 in Japan studied a similar leaf spot pathogen on sesame and named it as Macrosporium sesami Kawamura. Mohanty and Behera 110 from India reported Alternaria blight of sesame and found the causal organism to be closely resembling M. sesami. However, it differed from M. sesami in that some of the spores were catenulate. On the basis of the catenulation, the fungus was placed in Alternaria and renamed as A. sesami (Kawamura) Mohanty and Behera. In India 111 and in the U.S. 1 1 2 - 1 1 3 it was earlier referred only by the name Alternaria sp. The first identification of A. sesami in the U.S. was probably made by Leppik and Sowell 114 in 1958. The Alternaria leaf spot is now reported to occur in most of the tropical and subtropical areas of the world. The disease is reported to occur quite widely in El Salvador,' 15 Ethiopia,' 15 Nigeria," 6 India, 1 1 7 1 2 0 and the U.S. 1 1 2 - 1 2 1 - 1 2 3 /. Economic Importance The amount of damage to the sesamum plant is dependent on the stage of growth and environmental conditions. Epiphytotic occurrence of the disease has been reported from the Stoneville area in Mississippi in 1962, "2 the Tallahassee area in Florida in 1958, II3 the coastal area of the Orissa in 1957, ll() and Maharashtra in India in 1975.117 The actual effect of the disease on yield has, however, not been investigated in detail. It is however, reported that about 0.1 to 5.7 g seeds/100 fruits are lost due to the disease under Karnataka conditions in India. 118 2. Symptoms Symptoms of the disease appear mainly on leaf blades as small, brown, round-to-irregular spots, varying from 1 to 8 mm in diameter. The spots later become larger, more dark with concentric zonations demarcated with brown lines inside the spots on the upper surface. On the lower surface, the spots are lighter brown in color. Such spots often coalesce and may involve large portions of the blade, which become dry and are shed. Dark brown, spreading, water-soaked lesions can be seen on the entire length of the stem. The lesions also occur on the midrib and even on veins of leaves. In very severe attacks, plants may be killed within a very short period after symptoms are first noted, while milder attacks cause defoliation. Occasionally, seedlings and young plants are killed exhibiting pre- and postemergence damping-off. 3. Pathogen The pathogen is Alternaria sesami (Kawamura) Mohanty and Behera. The conidiophores of the fungus are pale brown, cylindrical, simple, erect, 0 to 3 septate, not rigid, arise

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FIGURE 1.

89

Conidia of Alternaria sesami.

singly, and measure 30 to 54 x 4 to VJJL and produce conidia at the apex. The conidia are produced singly or in chains of two. They are straight or slightly curved, obclavate, yellowishbrown to dark or olivaceous brown in color, and measure 30 to 120 x 9 to 30fx (excluding the beak). The conidia have 4 to 12 tranverse septa and 0 to 6 longitudinal septa at which they are slightly constricted, and terminate in a long hyaline beak measuring 24 to 210 x 2 to 4 JJL. The beak may be simple or branched 124 (Figure 1). The optimal temperature for growth of the fungus is in the range of 20 to 30°C, and the optimum pH for growth is 4.5. 1 2 5 -' 2 6 Maximum growth of the fungus is reported on mannitol followed by lactose as carbon sources, and the ammonium form of nitrogen is superior to the nitrate form. 125 4. Host Range and Physiological Races The fungus is restricted to sesamum in its pathogenicity. 126 Distinct physiological races have not been identified, although differential virulence among isolates of A. sesami has been described from India" 7 and the U.S. 1 2 2 5. Survival A. sesami mainly survives through se ed." 4J20J21J27J28 From infected capsules, A. sesami can penetrate into the seed coat, where it remains viable until germination of seed. The spores of the fungus attached to the seeds or capsule may serve to carry and disseminate the pathogen. Details of the infection process are not known. Excessive rainfall favors the development of the disease.129 6. Control Host resistance appears to be a promising method for contol of the disease. Hairy plants on the whole are reported to be free from attack due to A, sesami.13 Sesame lines "SI 948" (Kulithalai) 120 "SI-1561", "1683", "1737", "2177" and "2381",130J31 and Rio132 are reported to be resistant to the disease. Sesame varieties "Sirogoma" and "Venezuela 51" NO 4, E 8, JT 7, JT 63-117, A-6-5, JT 66-276, Anand-9, JT-62-10, VT-43, and Anand74 are also reported to be moderately resistant to the disease, 112 ' 118 - 133 Production of phytoalexin in resistant sesame plants in response to infection by Alternaria sesami has been reported.134 Effectiveness of different fungicides on A. sesami has been tested in vitro. 135 Spray applications of Bordeaux mixture (0.1%) and zineb (0.1%) !2 ° have been reported to be

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Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

FIGURE 2. White leaf spot of sesame. Note the white-gray center surrounded by blackish margin of the spots.

effective in the control of the disease. 120 Since the pathogen is seed-borne, attempts should be made to prevent the infection through seed treatment with effective chemicals. E. White Spot The white spot of sesame is reported from Australia," 6 Brazil," 7 China, 138 * 139 Colomb i a , 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 the Dominican R e p u b l i c , 1 4 2 - 1 4 3 India, 1 4 4 146 Sarawak, 1 4 7 Nicaragua, 1 4 8 Somaliland in Africa, 149 Sri Lanka, 1 ™ Sudan, 151 Surinam, 152 Uganda, 153 the U.S. 1 1 - 1 5 4 and Venezuela. 1 5 5 1 6 1 Systematic estimation of losses in yield has not been worked out, but considerable damage to the crop is reported to occur in India,' 45 and in Venezuela 15 ^ due to the disease causing complete defoliation and premature drying of capsules. It is reported that the disease causes 5 to 20% yield loss under Indian conditions. 130 /. Symptoms Small circular spots are scattered on both leaf surfaces. At first they are minute and later they increase in size to become 5 mm in diameter with whitish center surrounded by a blackish-purple margin (Figure 2). The spots may enlarge rapidly, coalesce into irregular blotches which often become about 4 cm in diameter, and are concentrically zoned. Under humid conditions, the disease becomes severe involving premature defoliation. On petioles the spots are enlongated. Capsules show more-or-less circular, brown-to-black lesions (1 to 7 mm). 2. Pathogen The pathogen is Cercospora sesami Zimmerman. Stromata are slight to none. Conidiophores are olivaceous, septate, usually single or in fascicles of up to 10, epiphyllous, nodulose, thickened towards the tip, and measure 40 to 60 x 4 JJL. Conidia are hyaline, cylindric, toothed-upwards, commonly 7 to 10 septate, and measure 90 to 135 x 3 to 4 (JL 144 - 162 The pathogen is reported to sporulate well on carrot leaf decoction agar medium. 163

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3. Survival C.sesami perpetuates through infected seed and also through plant residues in s o i l . 1 1 1 I M 4. Control Plant debris should be burned after threshing and before plowing. Hot-water treatment of seeds at a temperature of 53°C (128°F) for 30 min gives good control of the disease. 14? - LS4 Seed treatment with systemic fungicides like carbendazim (0.15%) or Bayleton® (0.15%) is reported to be effective in control of the seed-borne inoculum. 1 7 Some of the sesame varieties, viz., IS 4, 15, 21, 29, 41, 41 A, 41B, 128, and 128B are reported to be resistant to the disease. 17 - 164 The varieties ES 150 (H 60-18) from Morocco, ES 234 from Mexico, and ES 242 (Precoz) from Venezuela are also resistant to the disease. l65 F. Powdery Mildew Four different fungi have been reported to cause powdery mildew of sesamum. These are described below. Oidium erysiphoides Fr.— Oidium sp. or Oidium erysiphoides Fr. has been reported to cause powdery mildew of sesame in Abyssinia (now Ethiopia), 166 Australia, 167 India, 33J68 ~ m Iraq, 174 Japan, I7S Tanzania, 78 and Uganda. 176 The symptoms of the disease appear only on the upper surface of leaves as chalky white spots which ultimately cover the whole surface. The petioles are also affected. Usually the disease appears when the crop is about 45 to 60 days old. The severely infected leaves drop off. The affected plants produce shriveled seeds, and the yields are reduced. The mycelium of O. erysiphoides is ectophytic, hyaline, septate, granular, 16.5 to 8.4 |UL in width. The conidiophores are erect, cylindrical, becoming gradually broader at the top, rounded at the apex, and measure 74 to 132 x 12 to 15 |UL. The conidia measure 23 to 36 x 14 to 20 JJL in size. Sphaerotheca fuliginea (Schlecht) Pollacci— 5. fuliginea is reported to cause powdery mildew of sesamum in Nyasaland 85 (now Malawi), India, 177 and Sudan. 178 Symptoms of the disease start as small whitish spots on the upper surface of the leaves. The spots coalesce to form a single spot, finally covering the entire leaf surface with dirty white fungal growth, Generally, the mildew is confined to the upper surface of the leaves. In some susceptible varieties it is observed on both surfaces. The mycelium of S, fuliginea is septate, superficial, branched, 4.2 to 5.1 JJL (4.7 JUL) in thickness. Conidiophores erect, simple, septate, bearing single-celled hyaline oval-to-elliptical conidia measuring 220 to 34.3 jx (27.6 jx) x 11.0 to 22 |JL (16.5 JUL). The perithecial stage may or may not be observed on sesame leaves. The fungus, through cross-inoculation studies, has been reported to cause infection on the bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria). Leveillula taurica (Lev) Trnaud.— L. taurica, causing powdery mildew of sesame, is reported from India,179 Sicily,180 and Venezuela.181 Mycelium of the fungus is septate, branched, irregular in diameter, mostly internal, growing among the parenchyma cells. The conidiophores, single or in small clusters, emerge through stomata. They are hyaline, septate, branched and produce a single terminal conidium. External mycelium may be superficial over the surface of the leaf. Mature conidia are shed and secondary ones are produced. Conidia are hyaline, cylindrical to lancerate or pointed and measure 35 to 82 x 12 to 28 MErysiphe cichoracearum DC — Powdery mildew of sesamum caused by E. cichoracearum is reported to occur in China 139 and Thailand.' 82 /. Control Use of host resistance appears to be the most promising method for control of the powdery mildews of sesame. Out of the 50 varieties screened for resistance to Oidiopsis erysiphoides, two varieties, viz., "SI-1926" and "KRR-2", have been found to be resistant to the

92

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

disease. 183 Late-maturing varieties, in general, are reported to be less susceptible to the disease. Gaikwad et al. Ul9 screened 59 cultivars and reported that only one variety, viz., "194-5", is resistant to Oidiopsis sp. Other sesame lines which have been found resistant to this powdery mildew are SI-1561, 1683, 1737, 2177, 2381, and 2601. 184 In the absence of the availability of a commercial resistant variety, the crop can be protected from the powdery mildews by spray application of wettable sulfur (0.2%) fungicides or by dusting sulfur dust at the rate of 20 kg/ha. 171 G. Corynespora Blight Wei 183 of Commonwealth Mycological Institute first observed the sesamum herbarium material collected from Tanganyika Territory (Tanzania) and reported the association of Corynespora species with the affected sesame leaves. Association of this fungus with leaf blight of sesame has then been reported from Colombia, 141 India, 17 - 186 - 187 the U.S., m j 8 8 and Venezuela. 189 /. Symptoms Dark, irregularly shaped spots appear on leaves and stems. They enlarge, become brown with light centers, and coalesce forming a blotchy configuration. Extensive defoliation occurs and the affected plants die. On the stem, brown specks are formed which develop into elongated, scattered, irregular lesions. These lesions on the stem increase in size both ways up to 10 to 15 cm. Affected stems are bent irregularly on the lesions. Cankers of various sizes also appear on the stem. The center of the cankers is warty and straw-colored. In mature plants, the infected stem cracks length- and breadth-wise. 2. Pathogen The pathogen is Corynespora cassiicola (Berk and Curt.) Wei. Earlier the fungus was described under the name Helminthosporium cassiicola (Berk and Curt.) Berk. 185 The mycelium is hyaline, becoming brown, septate, and branched. Conidiophores are single or in groups of 2 to 6, up to 20-septate, and measure 44 to 380 x 6 to I I JJL. Conidia are 10 to 15 septate, may be in chains. The conidial length is variable. The range of length is 39 to 280 JJL with a mean of 153 JJL. The spore germinates from the polar cells with germ tube about the length of the conidia. Lateral cell germination may also be noticed. Two distinct races, viz., Race 1 and Race 2, have been reported. 190 The pathogen can infect cowpea, soybean, Dolichos lablab, and tomato. The pathogen survives through plant debris and also through the infected seeds. 187 - 188 3. Control Clean cultivation and disposal of plant debris should be followed to control the disease. The efficacy of certain copper and organo-mercurial fungicides inhibiting the growth of the fungus has been studied in vitro. 191 H. Brown Angular Spot Brown angular leaf spot disease of sesame was first described in 1891 in Uganda. 192 The disease is now reported to occur in Nigeria, 193 Saudi Arabia, 194 Sudan, 195 the U.S., 1 9 6 and Venezuela. 197 Epiphytotic occurrence of the disease has been reported from the U.S. 196 and Venezuela. 197 /. Symptoms Spots on the leaves are water-soaked, brown, limited to veinal areas, and assume an angular shape. They are 2 to 20 mm in diameter and may enlarge rapidly to coalesce into extensive necrotic areas. The stem and capsules are rarely affected. In the case of severe

Volume II

FIGURE 3. veinlets.

93

Angular leaf spot of sesame. Note that the spots are limited by leaf

infection, defoliation occurs. The upper surface of the spot on the leaves shows the presence of dark subepidermal fungal acervuli. The affected leaves frequently show the association of spots caused by Alternaria sesami and/or Cercospora sesami. 2. Pathogen The pathogen is Cylindrosporium sesami Hansford. The fungus produces subepidermal dark-colored acervuli, measuring 20 to 50 JJL in diameter on the leaf spots. The conidiophores are compact, erect, irregular in lenth, with 0 to 2 septa. Conidia are abundant, straight or slightly curved, filiform, with 2 to 5 inconspicuous septa, hyaline or pale in color, 25 to 240 JJL long and 2 |Ji wide. The fungus grows at a temperature range of 16 to 33°C giving an optimum growth at 27°C.196 The fungus survives through the seed. Selection V-16 is reported to be resistant to the disease. i93 Seed treatment with organomercurial compound (1 to 3 g/kg seed) has been reported to be effective for the control of the disease, 195 I. Angular Leaf Spot Mohanty198 first reported the occurrence of angular leaf spot of sesame from the Orissa state of India. Reports of its occurrence have further been made from the Uttar Pradesh State of India, 199201 and from Nicaragua,202 Nigeria,203 and Panama.202 7. Symptoms Leaf spots are angular limited by leaf veinlets measuring 1 to 8 mm in size (Figure 3). Initially the spots are minute and become visible as chlorotic lesions on the upper surface of the leaves; later, when the affected tissues become necrotic, the color of the spots changes

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Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

to dark brown, whereas on the corresponding lower surface of the leaves, the color of the spots remains olivaceous brown. The fruiting bodies of the fungus might become visible on both surfaces of the leaves but chiefly on the lower surface. 198 - 201 2. Pathogen The pathogen is Cercospora sesamicola Mohanty. The stromata dark brown, subglobular, 20 to 46 IJL in diameter, fascicles closely packed, conidiophores olivaceous, brown, simple, 0 to 2 septate. Conidia hyaline, cylindric, straight to mildly curved, base truncate to subtruncate, tip obtuse, indistinctly 2 to 7 septate, 20 to 120 x 2 to 2.8 JJL. The species is different from C. sesami in its ability to produce uniform angular leaf spots and in the short narrowly packed conidiophores and cylindric conidia. The sclerotial stage on sesame leaves appear always towards the close of the crop growth. The sclerotia are produced abundantly as dark pycnidia-like bodies on both surfaces of the leaves. 201 The mature sclerotia are chestnut-brown, spherical to globose, markedly raised above the level of epidermis, and measure 35 to 70 x 30 to 55 jx. Some of the sclerotia are transformed into spermogonia and immature perithecia. The spermatia measure in the range of 35 to 70 x 30 to 85 IJL. The genus Mycospharelia Johanson has been reported to be the possible perfect stage of the fungus. 201 The pathogen is reported to be seed-borne.114-202 However, Rathaiah and Pavgi199 reported that C. sesamicola perpetuates only through viable sclerotia in crop debris. The sclerotia are able to produce slender germ hyphae. It is reported that conidia and sclerotia of the pathogen are resistant to heat and desiccation. 200 J. Aerial Stem Rot Miyake204 was the first to report Helminthosporium attacking sesame; he published a description of the fungus, naming it H. sesami Miyake. In 1918 and 1919 Reinking205'206 reported //. sesameum Sacc. on dead and dying stems of sesame in the Philippines and Southern China. Mendez207 found Helminthosporium and Alternaria solani attacking sesame plants in Costa Rica. He believed that Helminthosporium sp. infected the plant after it was weakened by Alternaria. Helminthosporium blight of sesame was first described in Japan by Watanabe208 and by Poole209 and later by Stone210 in the U.S. 1. Symptoms Leaf lesions vary from small brown spots 1 mm in diameter to large elongated lesions of about 2 to 20 mm. Lesions of the stem range from small flecks 1 mm in diameter to large, sunken, dark-brown spots 10 x 40 mm in size. Dark-brown spots are also formed on capsules, resulting in the loss of some seeds. Stem lesions often weaken the plant, and foliage lesions cause premature defoliation. High humidity favors spread of the disease, and young plants are much more susceptible than mature ones. Plants less than 21 days old are more susceptible than mature ones. Nitrogen increases the susceptibility. Phosphorus or potash alone or phosphorus and calcium show decrease in the severity of infection. 2. Pathogen The pathogen is Helminthosporium sesami Miyake. The mycelium is hyaline to lightly colored, septate and branched. The conidiophores are dark, simple, separate with swollen bases, septate, and 150 to 250 x 6 to 8 (JL. The conidia are brown, obclavate, elongate with rounded ends, slightly curved, 5 to 9 septate, constricted, and measure 46 to 68 x 8 to 11 (x. //. sesameum is similar to H. sesami, but the conidia of//, sesameum measure 100 to 120 x 15 to 17 |UL and there are 18 to 20 septations without constrictions.

K. Other Fungal Diseases Causal fungus

distribution

Alternaria sp. Venezuela A. tenuis Nees ? Ascochyla sesami Miura '? Botryobasidium rolfsii (Saccardo) ? Venkatarayan Botryosphaeria ribis India

Geographic Symptoms and details Leaf spots?

Kef. 211

Leaf spots? ? ?

212 213 213

7

1 Leaf spots ?

21 3 226

95

Gloeosporium macrophomoides Saccardo Helminthosporium sp. Tanzania

Volume II

Brownish amphigenous lesions develop on all aerial plant parts. 17 The lesions coalese and vary from 2 to 25 mm in length. On the capsules minute, black, sunken spots appear but they rarely coalesce. The fungus survives through trashes left after harvest in the field. It also survives through seed. Seed treatment with thiram (.3%) and spray of mancozeb (.37r ) is recommended to control the disease. Choanephora cucurbitarum Thax. Uttar Pradesh (India) Wet rot of seedlings 214 Cercospora sp. Uganda, Vene/ela ? 176,21 1 Cladosporium sp. India ? 215 Colletotrichum sp. India, Nigeria, Uganda Oval, elliptical, water-soaked lesions appear on stem or leaf 33,43,78 axis. The spots do not encircle the stem completely, but Ion216,217 gitudinal streaks of dead tissue are formed. Cortical tissue of infected stem and branches cracks and exposes inner tissue, Curvularia maculans Nigeria ? 43,2 1 6 Cylindrosporium sesami n.sp. Cambodia, Uganda Irregular-to-round leaf spots characteri/ed by dark reddish-brown 218-220 color. Dothiorella philippinensis Petrak ? '? 213 Didymdla minuta Farr Cambodia Leaf spots? 218 Fusarium sp. Cambodia, Uganda, Venezuela ? 1 4 1 , 2 1 1,220 F. coeruleum (WB) Sacc India Root rot 94 F. semitecturn Nigeria ? 43 F. solani India, Israel, Turkey Foot rot. Aureofungin POO ppm) treatment of seed is helpful 82,221-2^5 in the control by increasing seed germination and seedling stand.

Causal fungus

distribution

96

K. Other Fungal Diseases (continued) Geographic Symptoms and details

Ref.

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

H. halodes Nigeria Causes white silk disease 43 Hypochnus centrifugus (Corticium Japan ? 227 centrifugum) Macrosporium sp. India Leaf spots 215 M. sesami Kawamura (now identiU.S.S.R. Leaf spots 86 fied as Alternaria sesami) Myrotheciwn roridum Tode ex Fr. India Leaf spots 228 Oospora sp. Tanzania Leaf spots ? 226 Pestalotiopsis ma\umbensis Nigeria ? 43 Phoma sp. India, Venezuela Blaekening of stalk at or just above soil 229 — 231 Phoma cxigua India Isolated from stem 232 Phoma sesamina Saccardo ? '? 21 3 Phymatotrichum omnivorum Sheer U.S. Root rot 78 Phytophthora sp. Egypt Root rot 233,234 Phytophthora cactorum (Leb and Peru, El Salvador? Reddish stem cankers develop between the collar and tip of the 235 Cohn) Schroet growing point P. drechslcri Tucker Rhodesia Root rot? 236 P. palmivora Butl. Argentina Stem and root rot 237 Phyllosticta sp. India Leaf spot 238 P. sesami Bohovik U.S.S.R.'? Leaf spots 86 P. aphanidermatum (Eds) Fitz. India Pre -emergence damping-off 239,240 P. ultimum Trow. U.S. Pre-emergence damping-off 1 13 Psedocercosporella sesami India Leaf spots 241 Rhizoctonia sp. India, Uganda Root rot 242.243 Rhizoctonia grisea (Sterens) Matz. ? Can infect sesame stalks 244 R. solani Kuhn Burma, Colombia, Egypt Affected plants show all the symptoms of wilt together with a 73,245-248 black discoloration of base of stem which frequently breaks off at ground level. Diseased plants do not develop seeds. It is reported to cause 10% loss in yield. Seed treatment with 0.2% formalin is effective in the control of the disease, giving 267c increase in yield. Soil treatment with quintozene is effective. Mature plant resistance is governed by 2 pairs of genes. Experimentally produced infection has been reported to be brought under control by seed treatment with thiophanate methyl.

Scierotium rolfsii Sacc.

India

Sphaeronema sesami Sehgal and Daftari Synchymwn sesami Sinha and India Gupta 5. sesamicola Lacy India

India

Thielavia lerricola (Oilman and Abbott) Emmons var minor (Rayss and Borut) Booth

India

Thielaviopsis basicola (Berk and 3 r ) perr

U.S.

Foliage of diseased plants gradually lose their green color and 223, 249—252 turn pale, followed by drooping. Roots, particularly the collar portion, turn yellowish-brown. Affected plants can be easily pulled out from the soil. White to tan-brown mustard seedshaped sclerotia are seen around the infected roots. The symptoms may be extended on stem, causing shriveling of the stem. The fungus can also be seen naturally causing water-soaked spots on leaves. Small necrotic leaf spots which coalesce to cover larger leaf 253 areas Galls are formed. Resting spores of the fungus are formed in 254 tne g alls Infection is confined to young axillary shoots which become malformed considerably. Young leaves are puckered and curled into various shapes. Severely infected shoots do not bear flowers or capsules and wither away prematurely. The infection results in two types of galls, the sporangial gall and resting spore galls. The black seeded varieties are more susceptible than the white seeded ones. A nematode Rhab'noid sp. has been found associated with resting sporangia of S. sesamicola on sesamum. Damping-off characterized by shrinking and brown discolora259.260 tion at or below the soil level of seedlings develops. Infected tissue £et disintegrated. Radicle and plumule are also attacked, and often seedlings do not emerge. Ziram ( . 2 % ) or quintozene ( .3% ) is effective through seed treatment or through soil drenching in controlling the disease.

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Rotting of the roots characterized by red color occurs. The 261,262 disease is. therefore, called as red rot. Reddish-brown lesions are present on upper stems. Affected stems may crack. Long wet periods after emergence increase the disease. Soils with pH of 5-6 or lower or sandy soils low in organic matter are less infested. It is also considered that the disease is spread and initial attacks made more severe by a parasitic nematode. Chlamydospores may be present in the infected tissues. Possibility of control of the disease through soil amendment with lucerne hay is indicated.

Causal fungus

distribution

Geographic Symptoms and details

'? Turkey, Uganda, U.S.

? Wilt

Note: ? Indicates that exact information is not known, but the fungus is found associated with sesame.

Ref.

213 263—265

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

Vermicularia sesamina Saccardo Venidilium alboatrum Reinke and Berthold ( = V. dahliae]

98

K. Other Fungal Diseases (continued)

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II. BIODETERIORATION Sesame seeds after threshing, unless stored with the utmost care, lose viability, and oil extracted from such seeds shows deterioration in its quality. 266 Several workers 12K267 273 have described the association of microflora with sesame seeds. In addition to the seed-borne fungi and bacteria which cause diseases in the seedling stage or at later stages of crop growth as described earlier, several other fungi have been found to remain in association with sesame seeds. Fungi-like Aspergillus niger, A. tamarii Kita, and Rhizopus nigricans have been frequently isolated from seeds collected from different locations. Some other fungi which have been isolated from sesame seeds are Alternaria brassicae, A. auleatus, A. terreus, A. versicolor, Choanephora cucurbitarum, Cladosporium herbarum, Cunninghamella echinulata, Drechslera neergaardi, Fusarium moniliforme var. minus, Helminthosporium tetramera, Manilla sitophila, Penicillium citrinum and Phoma nebulosa. Seed fungi have been reported to affect the quality of seeds by affecting seed germination directly, either by lowering the viability of seed or by making it nutritionally poor, or by secreting mycotoxic substances. A. flavus and A. tamarii are reported to produce aflatoxin while they infest the sesame seed.272 The seed fungi associated with the sesame seed also cause physico-chemical changes in the seed constituents and physico-chemical properties of extracted oils.274"276 Certain fungi are responsible for reduction in the total oil yield from seeds, whereas others spoil the oil quality by increasing free fatty acids due to their strong extracellular lipase enzymes. Oil extracted from the infested seed shows a lower iodine value and increased saponification value. The peroxide content of the oil may be increased with reduction in the tocopherol content. Increase in peroxide content shows degradation of triglycerides beyond the free fatty acid level, indicating thereby that rancid oil due to fungal attack of seed is more susceptible to autooxidation. 276 Cholesterol level of oil has also been reported to be decreased due to A. flavus and A. niger.277 Sesame seeds containing even 7 to 10% moisture content are likely to be affected very badly. It is, therefore, suggested that sesame seeds should be completely dried to avoid losses due to seed microflora and biodeterioration.278-279

III. BACTERIAL DISEASES A. Bacterial Leaf Spot Bacterial leaf spot of sesame was first recorded and described from Bulgaria under the name "black rot" by Malkoff280 in 1903. The disease was then attributed to Bacterium sesami (Malkoff) Nakatta. 28 ' Kovacevski282 showed that Psedomonas sesami Malkoff is the true causal agent of the disease. Now the bacterium is identified as Ps. syringae Van Hall p.v. sesami (Malkoff) Young, Dye, and Wilkie.283'284 The disease is worldwide in distribution and it is reported to occur in Brazil, 285 China,284 Greece,286'2S7 India,288-289 Italian Somaliland290 (now part of the Somali Republic), Japan, 291 Korea,284 Mexico, 292 South Africa,293 Sudan, 2 9 4 Tanzania, 2 9 5 - 2 9 6 Turkey, 297 Uganda, 298 the U.S., 2 9 9 ' 3 0 2 Yugoslavia, 303 and Venezuela.156'304'305 Under artificially inoculated conditions in the field, the disease has been reported to cause 21 to 27% loss in yield in India,306-307 Bremer et al.297 reported that the average number of capsules on healthy and partially wilted plants due to the disease are 10 and 4, respectively, indicating 60% loss in the capsules due to the disease. 1. Symptoms Symptoms appear on all above-ground parts of the plant. The first indication is the appearance of light, brown, angular spots with darker, more purple margins. The spots are

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Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

located between the leaf veins but may advance along the veins and petioles. The spots measure 1 cm in diameter. Several such spots merge together covering larger areas or even the entire leaf. Leaves may also show limited dark-brown marginal blighting. Badly affected leaves soon dry up and shed. Infection of the stem is initiated at the point of attachment of the petiole as a dark-brown lesion which rapidly spreads along the stem. Severe infection on the stem results in death. Spots on the capsules are usually slightly sunken, shiny, and purplish in color. The capsules may turn black when infected early and do not form seed. On older capsules, only minute spots appear. Microscopic examination of the affected leaves and stem show typical bacterial ooze. 2. Pathogen The pathogen is Psedomonas syringae Van Hall pv. sesami (Malkoff) Young, Dye, and Wilkie 283 (= P. sesami Malkoff). 2 * 4 - 308 < 309 The bacterium is a Gram negative rod, single or in pairs, forms no capsule, is motile by 2 to 5 polar flagella and measures 0.6 to 0.8 x 1.2 to 3.8 JJL. Colonies are white opalescent, circular, entire, smooth, flat, and striate. A green fluorescent pigment is formed on agar plates. The optimum temperature for growth is 30°C. The bacterial colonies on Kado and Heskett's medium are white and glistening. 306 The bacterium grows better on asparagine and glutamine than on other amino acids, 310 The bacterium liquifies gelatin; nitrite is not formed from nitrate; acids form without gas from arabinose, xylose, galactose, glucose, mannose, sucrose, glycerol, and rnannitol. No acid is formed from lactose, maltose, raffinose, dextrin, or starch.303 3. Host Range and Physiologic Races Ps. syringae pv. sesami is restricted to sesame only. Two races of the pathogen; viz., Race 1 and Race 2 are identified in the U.S. 301 - 31 ' The two races are similar morphologically and react alike physiologically, but they differ in glucose-asparagine ratio requirements. At high sugar levels, Race 2 requires less asparagine than Race 1. Race 2 also liquifies gelatin and peptonizes milk faster than Race I. 303 Varietal reactions to the two races differ markedly. 312 Under field conditions, the most important commerical varieties, "Margo" and "Dulce", are resistant to Race 1 and susceptible to Race 2. The "Early Russian" sesame variety is resistant to both the races. The Greek isolate of Ps. sesami is reported to be more virulent than the one from Yugoslavia. The Indian isolate, as reported by Durgapal and Rao,288 resembles the Ps. sesami isolate described by Malkoff280 but differs due to its ability to produce acid from sucrose and glycerol. 4. Survival The bacterium survives through seed, and it is reported that the pathogen is internally seed-borne.313-314 It survives in sterilized soil for the duration of 45 to 96 days and in unsterilized soil for 7 to 30 days only. 307 - 314 The bacterium thus does not survive for prolonged periods in host debris or in soil. But seed can retain the viability of the inoculum for 11 months. 5. Infection and Factors Affecting Infection Primary infection appears to be only through the infected seed. Secondary infection occurs through secondary growth of the bacteria as it becomes visible in the form of bacterial ooze on the infected tissue. It enters the host through wound and stomata, and invasion occurs through parenchyma tissue. Histological studies show that bacteria initially advace in the intercellular spaces of parenchyma tissue, middle lamella being dissolved slightly ahead, leading to formation of lysigenous cavities.314 Sections through stem reveals the permeation

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of the cortex by large irregular lacunae, in which the tissue is totally disorganized and filled with bacteria. 297 In severe cases the vascular bundle ring is disrupted and infection advances into the medulla, while the vessels may also contain bacteria. 297 The bacterium is reported to advance systemically in the xylem cells, and seed is also infected systemically. 314 The disease becomes more serious under conditions of high rainfall or where humidity persists for long periods. The disease is less severe when sesame is grown in more arid areas under furrow irrigation, but when flood-irrigated, standing water encourages the development of a severe occurrence of the disease. Spraying sesame plants with urea (0.2%) results in increased severity of the disease by directly making nitrogen available at the infection sites. Photoperiods and application of nitrogen in various forms can affect resistance by altering the ratio of reducing sugars to amino compounds. Nitrogen sources containing ammonia increase susceptibility over types that lack ammonia. Thomas 3IS reported that sesame (Early Russian) resistant to Ps. syriangae pv. Sesami becomes susceptible under a short photoperiod with supplemental nitrogen, while photoperiod alone has no effect on the reaction to the disease. 6. Control — Host Resistance Sesamum varieties "Dulce", "Margo", and "Early Russian" were found resistant to the disease. 301 - 316 * 317 The former two varieties were released for commercial production in the U.S. The resistance of these commercial varieties, however, broke down in 1958 due to the appearance of Race. 2. "Early Russian" however, possesses resistance to Race 1 as well as to Race 2. 312 "Early Russian" possesses a major recessive gene and a minor recessive gene complex (1 to 5 genes) for resistance to Race 2. This major recessive gene is different from the one which is responsible for resistance to Race I. 3 1 7 The resistance of sesame to Ps. syringae pv. sesami is also related to the ratio of reducing sugars to amino compounds in leaves, as it affects the susceptibility as described earlier. Some of the resistant sesame lines which have been detected under Indian conditions are Almora local white, Punjab 1, C23, MP 8, M3-1, EC 4090, EC 13536, EC 14538, EC 20783, EC 20785, and EC 20787.318 In Venezuela, out of 14 varieties screened, "Ajimio Atar 55" "Maporal", and "Morada" (all of African origin), and local sesame "A-15-13" have been reported to be resistant to the disease.304 It is believed that white-seeded early varieties are more resistant to the disease than darkseeded varieties.319 Of the white-seeded, two varieties released in Bulgaria, viz., "Sadovo 1" and "Sadovo 2", have been reported to be resistant to Ps. syringae pv. sesami.™'*2] Resistant varieties have also been detected in Tanzania and Sudan78 7. Chemical Control Seed treatment with antibiotics or organomercurials has been found effective to control the seed-borne infection. Soaking of seeds for one hour in solutions containing 250, 500, and 1000 ppm of streptomycin checks the seed infection. 322 The U.S. Department of Agriculture has recommended soaking of seeds in a 250 ppm solution of streptomycin for 30 minutes. 78 Soaking of sesame seeds in a mixture solution of 0.025% Agrimycin® + 0.05% Ceresan® wet is also reported to give good control of the disease. 313 The best degree of field control of the disease is given by Agrimycin (100 ppm) seed treatment followed by a spray of Agrimycin 100 when the first symptoms appear in the field. 323 Soaking of seeds in a mixture solution of Agrimycin 100 (0.025%) + Ceresan wet (0.05%) at room temperature for 9 hr. 289 and streptocycline sprays324 (0.3 g in 25 gallons water) are reported effective for control of the disease. Hot water treatment of seed at 52°C for 10 min is also effective in controlling the seedborne infection289-324

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B. Bacterial Blight Bacterial blight of sesame was first observed in Sudan, and the organism was identified by Sabet and Dowson.325 Rao326 reported it from India. The disease is also reported to occur in Venezuela. 327 The disease is reported to be destructive and often causes complete loss of the crop, particularly under rainfall conditions in Sudan,328"330 and in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh in India; 331 " 335 approximately 20% loss in yield has been reported from Jabalpur area in Madhya Pradesh.335 /. Symptoms Plants of all ages may be attacked due to the disease. Small, water-soaked, light-brown lesions develop on the margin of the cotyledonary leaf about 10 to 12 days after sowing. The lesions may spread, rapidly covering the entire cotyledons which consequently become dry. About 4% mortality due to the disease in 4 to 6-week-old seedlings has been reported.326 If the seedling survives, dark brown, water-soaked spots also appear on the true leaves.336 The water-soaked spots turn dark olive-green, increase in size (2 to 3 mm), and show a dark red-brown to black color. The spots commonly become angular and may coalesce to form large blotches. The affected leaves dry out and become brittle. In a severe infection, the lesions extend to the stem through the petiole, leading to formation of brown discoloration, resulting in systemic invasion and death of the plant. 334 Capsules may or may not be affected. When the capsules are attacked, oval, slightly raised, dark-brown spots are formed on them. The disease is known in Sudan as "Marad ed Dum" meaning thereby the blood disease, due to the red color of infected plant tissue. 2. Pathogen Xanthomonas campestris (Pamel) Dowson pv. sesami (Sabet and Dowson) Dye. 283337 The bacterium is rod-shaped, produces capsules, is motile by a single polar flagellum, and measures 0.4 to 0.6 x 0.8 to 1.6 jx. It grows well on yeast extract glucose agar on which yellow colonies are formed, 7 to 10 mm in diameter, after 7 days. The colonies are smooth, slightly viscid and shining. Acid but no gas is produced from arabinose, xylose, fructose, mannose, galactose, lactose, maltose, sucrose, raffinose, glycerol, and mannitol but not from rhamnose, sorbitor, and salicin. Starch is hydrolyzed slowly. Hydrogen sulfide is produced in culture but not nitrite from nitrate. Gelatin is liquified. 3. Physiological Races Two strains, viz., Fyzabad and Kanpur strains of X. campestris pv. sesami, have been reported in India. 338 The Fyzabad strain is reported to be more pathogenic than the Kanpur strain. Occurrence of an achromogenic form of the bacterium in culture has also been reported.339 4. Survival The bacterium does not survive in sesame plant debris in soil from year to year. Persistence of the bacterium in soil is reported only up to a period of 4 to 6 months, 324 The cause for death of X. sesami in moist soil is not investigated in detail, but an organism antagonistic to this bacterium has been reported.329 Seed can carry the pathogen up to a period of 16 months.329-334 A weed plant, Acanthospermum hisdidum, is reported to be susceptible to X. campestris pv. sesami. This host acts as a source of survival of the bacterium in its dried leaves from year to year.340 5. Infection and Factors Affecting Infection The bacterium enters the host primarily through stomata and quickly becomes vascular. The secondary spread is by spattering rains. High temperature and humidity favor the disease.

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Seedling infection of sesame is most severe at soil temperature of 20°C. Infection does not take place when soil temperature is 40°C.341 The disease also becomes severe when the soil moisture is 30 to 40% and relative humidity is 75 to 87%. Chand et al.333 observed the influence of age of leaves on severity of the disease under natural conditions. High stomatal frequency and high nitrogen and moisture content of young sesame leaves appear to be responsible for the greater susceptibility of young leaves to the disease.342 Susceptibility of "Venezuela 51" to X. campestris pv. sesami is reported to be increased by nitrogen under a long (16 hr/day) photoperiod315 and decreased under short photoperiods (12 hr light/day), whereas that of "Early Russian" is increased by nitrogen under the short photoperiod but little affected under the long photoperiod. 313 Changes in sugar levels in infected tissue have been studied. 335 The bacterium prefers glucose, possible due to altered metabolism of the host after infection. 6. Control Sesame "T-58" is reported to be resistant to the disease.343 Seedling infection can be used as a valid test for determining resistance of sesame to this disease.336 Chemical or antibiotic seed treatment or hot water treatment of seed and antibiotic sprays to check secondary spread are the same as described for bacterial leaf spot. In addition, copper oxychloride (0.5%) and captafol (0.16%) have been found useful in reducing the severity of the disease by 16 to 19%, resulting in increase in yield.305 C. Bacterial Wilt Bacterial wilt of sesame caused by Psedomonas solanaceamm E. F. Smith has been reported from Iran344 and Japan.345 Besides the reports of its occurrence, there is not much work done on this disease.

IV. VIRUS DISEASES A. Leaf Curl Leaf curl of sesame is reported to occur in India,346"349 Nigeria,350 Sierra Leone, 351 - 352 Tanzania, 226 Uganda,353 and Zaire.350 The disease is considered to be a serious one causing considerable reduction in yield, especially when the infection takes place at the early stage of crop growth. The incidence of the disease in certain years is reported to be to the extent of 60% in India. 1 Symptoms of the disease are characterized by curling of the leaves and marked thickening of the veins on the underside of the leaf, combined with a reduction in leaf size. Leaves may also become leathery, possessing dark-green color. Severely affected plants remain stunted and bear few flowers and capsules. The disease is caused by a virus, and it is identified as the Nicotinia 10 virus which causes leaf curl of tobacco, tomato, and papaya. The virus has a wide host range, and is transmitted by the white fly, Bemisia tabaci Genn. The virus is also graft-transmitted. 1. Control Resistant sesame lines have been reported possessing good growth and normal capsules.348 The sesamum variety "NP-6" is reported to be the least susceptible.70 Sesame lines "T13-3-2", "65-1/11" and "67-13-1/2-1" are found resistant to the leaf curl. 1 The variety "Entebbe ex Uganda" has also shown a high degree of resistance to leaf curl. Weekly spraying of the crop with Ekatox® (20 WP) results in two weeks delay in the appearance of the disease and give increase in yield.347

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B. Mosaic Mosaic of sesame is reported from the state of West Bengal in India3s4 and from Czech~slovakia.'~'Conspicuous cholorotic areas of irregular shape appear on the leaf lamina. The basal portion of the leaf may remain green while the top portion and margins of the leaves become yellow. Interveinal areas are usually yellow, and the young leaves may become completely yellow. As the disease progresses, the top leaves become gradually smaller in size and plants may not grow further. The disease is caused by the virus which is transmitted through sap and grafting.

C. Other Viruses Watermelon mosaic virus in Japan"' and in Korea,'57 turnip mosaic virus in Japan7' and tomato bigbud virus in A ~ s t r a l i ahave ' ~ ~ been reported to affect the sesame crop. Sesame can be infected artificially with tobacco ring spot virus. Symptoms induced in leaves are described as necrotic "frogeye" lesions leading to systemic necrosis and death.jS8 Top necrosis virus of guur is reported to infect sesame through sap i n o c u l a t i ~ n . ~Sesame ~" is also a host for alfalfa mosaic virus, potato acuba mosaic virus, and potato virus X.'60.361 Sesame is reported to be an indicator host for cucumber mosaic virus3'* and for Satsuma (Citrus) dwarf as per the studies done in Taiwan and Japan, respectively.

V. MYCOPLASMA DISEASE: THE PHYLLODY Prevalence of the sesamum phyllody erroneously named "leaf curl'' is traced since 1908 in Mirpurkhas area of India (now in Pakistan), as cited by Sahambi.'64 M~Gibbon'~'was the first to report its occurrence in Burma. The disease is now reported to occur in India, 30h-373 Iraq:'4 Sierra Leone,'?" Sudan,377Tan~ania,'~" Thailand,'7x-3x"Turkey,"' Uganda,.753Upper V~lta,"'~'~'and V e n e z ~ e l a . ' ? ~ The disease has been named "green flowering disease" or "pothe" in Burma,384."' sepal~idy,"~~"" and ~tenosis"~ in India, and "phyllomania" or "green flowering" in Africa."' Earlier workers gave varying opinions about the nature of the disease. Kashi Rams6' attributed the disease to the disturbed physiological conditions induced by early sowings accompanied by heavy rains. Storey'" suspected virus as the cause of the disease, without presenting any experimental evidence. Rhind et al.'X7carried out investigations for a number of years and suggested that the disease was due to environmental factors acting on a mixture of gene complexes. However, they did not exclude the possibility of its viral nature. The infectious nature of the disease was first shown by Pal and P u ~ h k a r n a t h 'of ~ ~India through graft-transmissibility of the causal agent, which they suspected to be a virus. The virus as the cause of the disease was further reported in India by Vasudeva and Sahambi.372The first evidence of association of mycoplasma-like organism with the disease was obtained in Upper Volta by Cousin et al. "* This has further been confirmed in Thailand,'7x in I~raeI,'~' and in India.3x'

I . Economic Importance Affected plants remain partially or completely sterile, resulting in total loss in yield. As much as 10 to 100% incidence of the disease has been recorded in the sesame crop in India.'.764The yield loss due to phyllody in India is estimated to about 39 to 74%.' The losses in plant yield, germination, and oil content of sesame seeds may be as high as 93.66, 37.77, and 25.92%, respectively.17 It is estimated that a 1% increase in phyllody incidence decreases the sesame yield by 8.4 kg under Coimbatore conditions in Ir~dia.'~'R o b e r t ~ o n ~ ~ ~ from Burma reported up to 90% incidence of the disease in the Sagaing and Lower Chin districts. A survey conducted in Thailand during 1969 and 1970 indicated that the phyllody was so severe in northeastern Thailand that farmers decreased the acreage for the sesame

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FIGURH 4. Phyllody of sesame. Note that the entire inflorescence is changed into short twisted leaf-life structures (left and middle). Healthy inflorescence on right.

crop.'7'' In Sudan, red varieties of sesame have been found to be affected to the extent of 100%. 2. S\mptoms Affected sesame plants express symptoms, depending on the stage of crop growth and time of infection. A plant infected in its early growth remains stunted to about two thirds of a normal plant, and the entire plant may be affected. The entire inflorescence is replaced by a growth consisting of short, twisted leaves closely arranged on a stem with very short internodes. However, when infection takes place at later stages, normal capsules are formed on the lower portion of the plants, and phylloid flowers are present on the tops of the main branches, and on the new shoots that are produced from the lower portions. 372 - 375 The most characteristic symptom of the disease is transformation of flower parts into green leaf-like structures followed by abundant vein clearing in different flower parts (Figure 4). The calyx becomes polysepalous and shows multicostate venation compared to its gamosepalous nature in healthy flowers. The sepals become leaf-like but remain smaller in size. The phylloid flowers become actinomorphic in symmetry and the corrola becomes polypetalous (Figure 5). The corrola may become deep green, depending upon the stage of infection. The veins of the flowers become thick and quite conspicuous. The stamens retain their normal shape, but they may become green in color. Sometimes the filaments may, however, become flattened, showing its tendency to become leaf-like. The anthers become green and contain abnormal pollen grains. In a normal flower there are only 4 stamens, but

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FIGURE 5. Close-up of an individual phylloid sesame flower (right) in comparison with the healthy flower (left). Note the thickening of sepals and petals and pseudosyncarpous ovary of affected flower.

a phylloid flower bears 5 stamens. The carpels are transformed into a leaf outgrowth which forms a pseudosyncarpous ovary by their fusion at the margins. This false ovary becomes very enlarged and flattened. It shows a soft texture and a wrinkled surface due to the thickening of the veins of the carpellary wall. Inside the ovary, instead of ovules there are small petiole-like outgrowths which later grow and burst through the wall of the false ovary producing small shoots. These shoots continue to grow and produce more leaves and phylloid flowers. The stalk of the phylloid flowers is generally elongated, whereas the normal flowers have very short pedicels. Increased indole acetic acid (IAA) content appears to be responsible for proliferation of ovules and shoots.390 Biochemical changes in sugar content of sesame plants due to phyllody have been studied. 391 Normal-shaped flowers may be produced on the symptomless areas of the plants, but such flowers are usually dropped before capsule formation, or the capsules are dropped later leaving the stalk completely bared.375 3. Pathogen The pathogen is a mycoplasma-like organism (MLO). As described earlier, the sesame phyllody is now reported to be caused by a mycoplasma-like organism. The mycoplasma bodies are reported to be present in phloem sieve tubes of affected plants. Electron microscopy has revealed that the big mycoplasma bodies, ranging from 100 nm diameter to 625 nm diameter are present in the sieve tubes. Generally the MLOs are round, but some may be 1500 nm long and 200 nm wide. Bodies with beaded structures can also be noticed. The MLOs are bounded by a single unit membrane as is typical for the MLO, and show ribosomelike structure and DNA-like strands within. 375 4. Transmission of the Pathogen The pathogen is transmitted by the leaf hopper vector (order: Homoptera) identified as Orosius albicinctus Distant. 392 Earlier it was reported to be transmitted by the jassids belonging to the genus Deltocephalus Burn (now identified as O. albicinctus).372 The pathogen

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has also been experimentally transmitted to the cotton plant by the vector, Orosius cellulosus Lindberg. 383 Attempts to transmit the pathogen through sap in Iran374 and through seed in Thailand 37 * have given negative results. 5. Pathogen-Vector-Host Relationship The pathogen undergoes an incubation period of about 3 weeks, both in the insect and the host, during summer months (May-July) under Delhi conditions in India, and this incubation period is considerably increased during winter months (October-January) due to low temperature. 364 - 371 Among the weather factors, the night temperature (minimum temperature) prevailing from the 30th to the 60th day after sowing is found to have a greater increase of disease incidence. A fall in the night temperature by 1°C at this time brings about increase by 5.7% in incidence of phyllody under Tamil Nadu conditions in India. 393 The minimum acquisition feeding period has been observed to be 8 hr, while the minimum infection feeding period is 30 min during May and June. Both male and female insects are equally efficient in transmitting the pathogen. The nymphs of the insect are capable of acquiring the pathogen but they are unable to transmit it, as by the time the incubation period is completed, they reach the adult stage. Once the leaf-hoppers have picked up the pathogen and become infective, the adult leaf hoppers remain so throughout the remainder of their lives without replenishment of the pathogen from infected plants. 364 371 Even a single leaf hopper may be able to cause infection. 393 It is interesting that leafhoppers show a marked preference for the diseased plants over healthy ones. The diseased plants have been reported to harbor an insect population about 2 to 6 times the population on healthy plants — due to higher moisture, higher nitrogen and lower calcium and potassium contents of the diseased plants. Lower content of calcium and potassium in the diseased plants is suspected to be the factor vulnerable for easy stylet and ovipositor penetration. 3M4 6. Host Range and Survival of the Pathogen The pathogen attacks a variety of plants, including some of the economically important crop plants.364-383-395*396 The disease has also been observed under natural conditions in a large number of plants such as chick-pea (Cicer arietinum L.), rapeseed (/?. campestris var. sarson Prain and B. campestris var. toria Duthie and Fuller), and Vicia faba L., and a majority of these have been shown to be affected with the sesame phyllody pathogen. Different sesamum species, viz., S. alatum Thonn, 5. indicum L., 5. occidantale Herr and Regel, 5. orientate, S. prostratum Retz, and 5. radiatum Schum. and Thonn, are susceptible to the disease.364 397 One or more of these plants are always present in nature. Observations on the biology of the leaf hopper, O. albicinctus, have shown that the leaf hopper can overwinter in all stages and is present in nature in smaller or greater number all the year round in India. Consequently the pathogen is perpetuated by the leaf hopper vector from season to season with the help of the large variety of host plants of the pathogen. 364 - 396 The pathogen is also transmitted to Nicotiana glutinosa L. and N. tabacum L. var. white Burley and produce typical phyllody symptoms when diseased shoots of petunia (affected with sesame phyllody) are grafted on each of the two species. But transmission of the pathogen to Nicotiana species through viruliferous leaf hoppers does not occur, probably because of an adverse effect of Nicotinia species on the vector as these are killed within 48 hr of their confinement on Nicotiana species.364 The pathogen is not transmitted to Callistephus chinensis Nees, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill sp., Solanum melongena L., or to Vinca rosea L.364 7. Control — Host Resistance Selections of disease-resistant sesame lines, which would flower within 40 to 50 days after sowing, appear to be desirable and important from the yield viewpoint under Indian

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conditions. 398400 At Coimbatore in India, certain sesame lines have been found to possess resistance to phyllody over 6 years of testing. These lines are: SI-289, "951", "1535", "2194", "2201", "2373", and "2635". 131401 Sesame lines "T-13-3-/2", "65-1/1-1", and "67-13-1/2-1" are also reported as resistant to phyllody. Some other sesame lines as "JT-7", "JT-276", and "N-32", though not resistant to the disease, have been found useful to escape the disease. 17 8. Chemical Control At the time of sowing, soil may be treated with Thimet® 10 G at the rate of 10 kg/ha402 or with phorate 10 G at the rate of 11 kg/ha403 or with Temik® 10 G at the rate of 25 kg/ ha404 to get the control of the disease. An effective degree of control is obtained if the above treatment is combined with spraying of the crop with Metasystox® (0.1%) or with any other effective chemical. 402 - 403 Tetracycline sprays at 500 ppm concentration at the flower initiation stage have proved to be effective against phyllody, but recovery is temporary. 17 A possibility of biochemical control by spraying manganese chloride has been indicated.390 It appears that manganese chloride oxidizes the phenol and protects or inhibits the enzymes, brining the auxin level to normal. Once hyperauxin is oxidized, the plant can gain its normal conditions. 9. Cultural Control An appropriate sowing date may be useful in avoiding severe occurrence of the disease. The incidence of the disease is reported to be reduced considerably by sowing the crop in early August under Indian conditions. The reduced population of the vector in the growth period of sesame plants is perhaps important in keeping the disease under check.405

VI. PARASITIC NEMATODES Sesame is generally not affected by plant parasitic nematodes under natural conditions. However, it has been listed as the host of Meloidogyne species (M. javanica, M. incognita, M. marioni) in India,406 Iran407 and the U.S.408 In Iran, M. marioni, locally known as "risheh" nematode, is recorded to cause damage to the sesame crop in summer and early autumn, especially in the Khouzestan area. M. marioni also attacks tobacco and other crops in Iran. If such crops are taken in rotation with sesame, damage to sesame due to this nematode is likely to be greater in certain years. Planting of immune crops or fallowing would be necessary if the nematode population became too high for profitable crop production.409 It is, however, reported from India that sesame root exudates possess a repellent action against M. incognita.410 It is, therefore, suggested the sesame be grown as a commercial crop mixed with vegetables to reduce losses in vegetables due to the nematode. Sesamum also appears in the host range of Pratylenchus pratensis, Rotylenchulus reniformis Linford and Oliveira, and Tylenchorhynchus dubius Buetschli in the U.S.S.R. 411 The nematode, Ditylenchus pumilus Karimova, is reported to found in near-root soil of sesame in the Shumanai area of the U.S.S.R. 4 1 ' It is indicated that infection of sesame plants by Fusarium spp. and Rhizoctonia is associated with a high nematode population in South America.409

VII. NON-PARASITIC DISEASES A. Nutrient Deficiencies Natural occurrence of deficiency symptoms of nutrient elements in sesame is reported to be widespread in Venezuela. 412 Pal and Bangarayy 413 and Sen and Lahiri414 from India did

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some pot-culture experiments to ascertain the symptoms of deficiency of some nutrients in sesame which are described below. 1. General Chlorosis, with or without Withering of Plants, Appearing Initially on Older Plants Nitrogen deficiency — Plants light green, stalk slender, branching absent and leaves erect. Lower leaves become lemon-yellow turning to orange. Discolored leaves are shed. Phosphorus deficiency — Branching suppressed, stalks slender, lower leaves dull dark grayish-green, necrosis of lower or majority of leaves is followed by defoliation. Magnesium deficiency — Lower leaves develop interveinal chlorosis, light-yellow in color becoming orange later. Green color persists in midrib and veins giving a characteristic pattern. 2. Chlorosis Appearing as Mottling with or without Necrosis Potassium deficiency — Plants become dwarf, and margins of lower leaves become wavy and cupped upward. Light lemon-yellow chlorotic mottling appears which later turns bright orange and finally copper-colored. Defoliation does not occur. 3. Effects Localized in the Growing Region, Terminals Die Back Calcium deficiency — Terminal dies out following distortion of the tips and bases of young leaves. Hooking downward of the young leaf tips is followed by twisting and puckering. B. Other Disorders L Fasciation Affected plants show flattened malformed stems much larger than normal, often with numerous longitudinal ridges. The foliage of the plants is small, crowded towards the stem apex. Tetracarpellate types are more affected. Eight-loculed selections from crosses between bicarpellate varieties from the U.S. and tetracarpellate types from Uganda are reported to be more severely affected than the tetracarpellate types. 415 The specific nonparasitic cause for the fasciation, however, is not known. 2. Leaf Curl Leaf curl reported from Tanzania226 has been reported to be caused by the tea mite, Hermitarsonemus latus.4]6 3. Sterility Sterility in sesame is reported from India. 417 - 418 No morphological differences are noticed between fertile and sterile plants except that there is a slightly longer ovary of sterile plants. The plants show complete sterility, being both male and female sterile. It is reported to be under the control of a recessive gene. It is suggested that self-incompatibility exists in certain varieties of sesame.417

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Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops REFERENCES

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130. Brar, G. S. and Ahuja, K. L., Sesame: its culture, genetics, breeding and biochemistry, in Annual Review of Plant Science, Vol. 1, Malik, C. P., Ed., Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India, 1979, 245. 131. Anon., All India Coordinated Research Project on Oilseeds Crops, Twelfth Kharif Oilseeds Workshop, Annual Progress Report 1977—78, Vol. I., April 24 to 27, 1978, 236. 132. Massay, J. H. C., Bull. Ga. Exp. Stn., No. NS. 181, 1966, 29. 133. Jayaramaiah, H., Siddaramaiah, A. L., Jos hi, M. S., and Habib, A. F., Varietal reaction of sesamum against Alternaria sesami (Kawamura) Mohanty and Beraha., Curr. Res., 10 (1), 6, 1981. 134. Chauhan, R. K. S. and Kulshrestha, B. M., Production of phytoalexin in Sesamum indicum against Alternaria sesami, Abstr., Indian Phytopath., 34 (1), 129, 1981. 135. Siddaramaiah, A. L., Desai, S. A., and Bhatt, R. P., Laboratory studies with some fungicides against fruit and leaf isolates of sesamum, Curr. Res., (Karnatak, India), 9 (5), 86, 1980. 136. Anon., Plant Diseases, Notes contributed by the Biological Branch, Agric. Gaz. N.S.W., 52 (5), 274, 1941. 137. Viegas, A. P. and Teixeria, C. G., Some fungi of Minas Gerais, Rodriguesia, 9 (19), 49, 1945 (Abstr. Rev. Appl. MycoL, 26, 129, 1947.) 138. Teng, S. D. and Ou, S. H., Diseases of economic plants of China. I., Sinensia, 9, 181, 1938. 139. Yu, T. F., A list of important crop diseases occurring in Kiansu Province, China, Hingnam Sci. J., 19, 67, 1940. 140. Barcenas, V. C., Diseases of groundnut and sesame in Tolima State, Abstr., Rev, Appl. MycoL, 42, 519, 1963. 141. Patiho, H. C., Diseases of oleaginous annuals in Colombia, Agric. Trop., 23 (8), 532, 1967. 142. Ciferri, R. and Gonzalez, R., Parasitic and saprophytic fungi of the Dominican Republic (5th series), Abstr., Rev. Appl. MycoL, 5, 583, 1926. 143. Gonzalez, F. R., and Ciferri, R., Parasitic and saprophytic fungi of the Dominican Republic (16th series), Abstr., Rev. Appl. MycoL, 8, 200, 1928. 144. Chowdhury, S., Physiology of Cercospora sesami Zimm., J. Indian Bot. Soc.t 23 (3), 91, 1944. 145. Chowdhury, S., Control of Cercospora blight of til, Indian J. Agric., Sci., 15 (3), 140, 1945. 146. Vasudeva, R. S., Phytopathologica] news from India, Commonw. Phytopathol. News, 7, 1961. 147. Turner, G. J., Plant Pathology Division Rep. Res. Brch. Dep. Agric., Sarawak for the year 1965, 1967, 83, (Abstr. Rev. Appl. Mycology, 46, 2358 d, 1967.) 148. Litzenberger, S. C. and Stevenson, J. A., A preliminary list of Nicaraguan Plant diseases, Plant Dis. Rep., SuppL, 243, 19, 1957. 149. Curzi, M., Of African fungi and diseases. 1. Concerning certain parasitic Hyphomycetes from Italian Somaliland, Boll. R. Sraz. Pat. Veg. N.S., 12, 2, 149, 1932. 150. Park, M., Report on the work of the Mycological Division — Administrative Report of the Director of Agriculture, Ceylon, for the year 1936, 1937, 28. 151. Ibrahim, F. M. and El Nur Elamin, A quantitative morphological classification of thirty species of Cercospora, Mycopathol. MycoL Appl., 52 (2), 141, 1974. 152. Del, Prado, H., Survey of the activities of the Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandary and Fisheries in 1961, Surinam, Landb., 10, 217, 1961, Abstr. Rev. Appl. MycoL, 43, 4, (6), 1964. J53. Hansford, C, G,, Annual Report of the Mycologist, Annu. Rep. Dep. Agric, Uganda for the year ended 31st December, 1931. 154. Nusbaum, C. J., The role of hot water seed treatment in the control of Cercospora blight of benne, Abstr., Phytopathology, 31 (8), 770, 1941. 155. Barboza, C. N., Mazzani, B., and Malaguti, G., Effect of leaf spots caused by Cercospora sesami Zimm. and Alternaria sp. on the yields of 10 sesame varieties, Abstr., Rev. Appl. MycoL, 47, 258, 1968. 156. Malaguti, G., Leaf diseases of sesame (Sesamum indicum) in Venezuela, Abstr., Rev. Plant PathoL, 54 (2), 94, 1975. 157. Mazzani, B,, El cultivo del ajonjoli, Agronomia, 3 (5—6), I, 1966. 158. Miiller, A. S. and Chupp, C., The Cercosporae of Venezuela, Bol. Soc. Cien, Nat. 8, (52), 35, 1942, 159. Mulleer, A. S. and Texera, D. A., The white spot of sesame, Agric. Venez., 5 (57—58), 47, 1941. 160. Tamayo, F., Botanical explorations in the Peninsula of Paraguana, Falcon State, Bol. Soc. Venez. Cien. Nat., 1 (47), 1, 1941. 161. Wolf, F. A., Notes on Venezuelan fungi, Uoydia, 12 (4), 208, 1949. 162. Vasudeva, R. S., Indian Cercosporae, 1CAR (New Delhi), 1963, 180. 163. Kilpattric, R. A. and Johnson, H. \V., Sporulation of Cercospora species on carrot leaf decoction agar, Phytopathology, 46(3), 180, 1956. 164. Kushwaha, U. S. and Kaushal, P. K., Reaction of sesamum varieties to Cercospora leaf spot in Madhya Pradesh, Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 4 (2), 228, 1972. 165. Singh, B. P., Shukla, B. N., Kaushal, P. K., and Shrivas, S. R., Reaction of sesamum germplasm to Cercospora leaf spot, JNKWRes. /., 10 (4), 372, 1976. 166. Ciccarone, A., Italian East Africa, Plant diseases reported in 1939, Int. Bull. Plant Prot., 15 (6), 117, 1940.

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167. Anon., Plant Disease Survey for the twelve months ending 30th June 1958. Twenty-eighth Annual Report, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, Biological Branch — Division of Science Services, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 38, 563, 1959. 168. Abraham, E. V., Shanmugham, N., Natrajan, S., and Remakrishnan, G., An integrated programme for controlling pests and diseases of sesamum, Madras Agric. J., 63, 532, 1976. 169. Gaikwad, S. J., Sabley, J. E., and Buldeo, A. N., Reaction of some sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) varieties to powdery mildew disease at Nagpur, J. Maharashtra Agric. Univ., (India), 2 (2), 170, 1977. 170. Roy, A. K., Outbreaks and new records, occurrence of powdery mildew caused by Oidium erysiphoides, FAO Plant Prot. Bull., 13 (2), 42, 1965. 171. Shanmugam, N., Natrajan, S., and Ramakrishnan, G., Fungicidal control of powdery mildew of Sesamum indicum L., Madras Agric. J . , 63, 420, 1976. 172. Venkata Krishnaiya, N. S., Powdery mildew on some new hosts in Mysore, Mysore Agric. J . , (India), 33, 5, 1958. 173. Vevai, E. J., Know your crop, its pest problems and control: sesamum, Pesticide, 1 (2), 34, 1973. 174. Ai Hassan, K. K., Oidium sp. on Sesamum indicum in Iraq, FAO Plant Prot, Bull., 21, 88, 1973. 175. Uozumi, T. and Yoshii, H., Some observations on the mildew fungus affecting the cucurbitaceous plants, Ann. Phytopath. Soc. Jpn., 16 (3—4), 123, 1952. 176. Snowden, J. D., Report of the Acting Mycologist for the period November 10th, 1925 to September 30th 1926, Annu. Rep. Uganda Dep. of Agric., for the year ended 31st December, 1926, 1927, 30. 177. Gemawat, P. D. and Verma, O. P., A new powdery mildew of Sesamum indicum incited by Sphaerotheca fuliginea, Indian J. Mycol. Plant Pathol., 2 ( 1 ) , 94, 1972. 178. Tarr, S. A. J., FAO Plant Prot. Bull., 2, 161, 1954. 179. Patel, M. K., Kamat, M. N., and Bhide, V. P., Fungi of Bombay, Supplement, 1, Indian Phytopath., 2, 142, 1949. 180. Graniti, A., Phytopathological Notes. III. Mildew (Leveillula taurica (Liv) Arn.) on sesame in Sicily, Rev. Agric. Subtrop., 52, 410, 1958; Abstr. Rev. Appl. Mycol., 38, 157, 1959. 181. Parra, R. E. J., Nass, A. H., and Diaz Polanco, C., Woolly mould of sesame in Venezuela 1. Aetiology of the disease, Agron. Trop., 26 (5), 457, 1976. 182. Reddy, D. B., (Ed.), Outbreak of pests and diseases and new records, Quart. Newsl. FAO Plant Prot. Committee for the South East Asia and Pacific Region, 14, 5, 1971. 183. Hiremath, R, V., Studies on diseases of sesamum I. Incidence of powdery mildew on some varieties, Oilseeds J.t 6(3), 18, 1976. 184. Anon., All India Coordinated Research Project on oilseed crops, Twelfth Kharif Oilseeds Workshop, Annual Progress Report 1977—78 Vol. I, 1978, 293. 185. Wei, C. T., Notes on Corynespora, Mycological paper No. 34, Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, England, 1950. 186. Mohanty, U. N. and Mohanty, N. N., Target spot of tomato, ScL Cult. India, 21, (6), 330, 1955. 187. Saksena, H. K. and Singh, D. V., Corynespora blight of sesame in India, Indian J, Farm Sci., 3, 95, J975. 188. Stone, W. J. and Jones, J. P., Corynespora blight of sesame, Phytopathology, 50, 263, 1960. 189. Subero, L. J., A new pathogen of sesame (Sesamum indicum) in Venezuela: Corynespora cassiicola (Berk. Curt.) Wei, Abstr., Rev. Plant Pathol., 58, 155, 1979. 190. Olive, L. S., Bain, D. C., and Lefebvre, C. L., A leaf spot of cowpea and soybean caused by an undescribed species of Helminthosporium, Phytopathology, 35, 822, 1945. 191. Singh, S. B,, Bais, B. S., Singh, D. R., and Singh, D. V., Effect of fungicides against Corynespora cassiicola (Berk, and Curt.) Wei in vitro, Indian J. MicrobioL, 9, 29, 1969. 192. Hansford, C. G., Contribution towards the fungus flora of Uganda. V, Fungi Imperfecti, Proc. Linnean Soc. London, 155th Session (1942—43), 1, 1943, 39. 193. Anon., Annual Report 1961—1962, Research and Specialist Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Northern Nigeria, Abstr., Rev, Appl. Mycol, 42, 728, 1963. 194. Anon., Report of the second session of the near East Plant Protection Commission, FAO, held at Tripoli, Libya, 6—13 May, 1967, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 48, 67, 1969. 195. Schmutterer, H. and Kranz, J., On Cylindrosporium sesami Hansf. causing brown spot disease of sesame, Phytopath. Z., 54 (2), 193, 1965. 196. Orellana, R. G., Leaf spot of sesame caused by Cylindrosporium sesami, Phytopathology, 51, 89, 1961. 197. Malaguti, G. and Ciccarone, A., Importance of brown angular leaf spot of sesame caused by Cylindrosporium sesami in Venezuela, Abstr., Phytopathology, 51 (1), 8, 1967. 198. Mohanty, N. N., Cercospora leaf spot of sesame, Indian Phytopath., 11, 186, 1958. 199. Rathaiah, Y. and Pavgi, M. S., Perpetuation of species of Cercospora and Ramularia parasitic on oilseed crops, Ann. Phytopathol Soc. Jpn. 39, (2), 103, 1973. 200. Rathaiah, Y. and Pavgi, M. S., Resistance of species of Cercospora and Ramularia to heat and desiccation, Friesia, 11, 77, 1976.

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201. Rathaiah, Y. and Pavgi, M. S., Development of sclerotia and spermogonia in Cercospora sesamicola and Ramuiciria carthami, Sydowia, 30, 148, 1977. 202. Ferrer, J. B., The occurrence of angular leaf spot of sesamum in Panama, Plant Dis. Rep., 44, 221. 1960. 203. Anon., Annual Report for the Institute for Agricultural Research, Samaru, 1962-63, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 44, 1350, 1965. 204. Miyake, J., Studies in Chinese fungi, Bot. Mag, Tokyo, 26, 64, 1912. 205. Reinking, O. A. Philippine economic plant diseases, PMipp. J. Sci., A., 13. 165, 1918. 206. Reinking, O. A., Diseases of economic plants in Southern China, Philipp. Agric., 8, 109, 1919. 207. Mendez, R., Study on a fungous disease of sesame in Costa Rica, Bol. Cent. Nac. Agric. S. Pedro, 5 (912), 426, 1940; Abstr. Rev. Appl. Mycol., 20, 424, 1941. 208. Watanabe, K., Leaf blotch of sesame, Ann. Phytopath. Soc. Jpn. 11 (2), 57, 1941. 209. Poole, D. D,, Aerial stem rot of sesame caused by Helminthosporium sesami in Texas, Plant Dis. Rep., 40, 235, 1956. 210. Stone, W. J., Sesame blight caused by Helminthosporium sesami. Phytopathology, 49, 815, 1959. 2 1 1 . Mazzani, I. A. B., Sesame growing, Aronomia, S. V. I. A., 3, 9, 1966, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 45, 3192, 1966. 212. Chorin, M., and Rotem, J., Leaf spot disease of cotton, Hassadeh, 38, 648, 1958. 213. Weber, G. F., Bacterial and Fungal Diseases of Plants in the Tropics, University of Florida Press, Gainesville, 1973, 495. 214. Kama! and Singh, S., Wet rot of sesame seedling in India, Sci. Cult., (India), 42 (5), 269, 1976. 2 1 5 . Mitter, J. H. and Tandon, R. N., The fungus flora of Allahabad, J. Indian BOL Sci., 9. 197, 1930. 216. Anon. Annu. Rep. Inst. Agric. Res., Samaru, North Nigeria, 1963. 217. Singh, B., Important diseases of Til (Sesamum indicum DC, Sesamum orientale L.) Agric. and Anim. Husb., U. P., (India), 3 (10-12), 54, 1953. 218. Farr, M. L., Mycological notes. II. New taxa, synonyms, and records, Am. Midi. Nat., 66, 2, 355, 1961; Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 41, 243, 1962. 219. Hansford, C. G., Annual Report of the Plant Pathologist, 1936, Rep. Dep. Agric. Uganda, 1936-37 (Part II), 1938, 43\ Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 17, 296, 1938. 220. Hansford, C. G., Report of the Senior Plant Pathologist, Rep. Dep. Agric., Uganda, 1937-38 (Part II), 1939, 20. 221. Bhargava, S. N. and Shukla, D. N., and Singh, N., Two new foot rot diseases, Natl. Acad. Sci., (India), 1 (4), 123, 1978. 222. Bremer, H., Karel, G., Biyikoglu, K., Goksel, N., and Petrank, F,, Contributions to the knowledge of the parasitic fungi of Turkey, VII., Rev. Fac., Sci. Univ. Istanbul, Ser. B, 17, 277, 1952. 223. Basuchaudhary, K. C. and Singh, A. K., Foot rot disease of sesame, Sci. Cult., (India), 40 (3), 115, 1974. 224. Daftari, L. N. and Verma, O. P., Effect of aureofungin on seedling mortality and growth of two varieties of sesame with seed-borne infection of Fusarium solani, Hindustan Antibiotic, Bull., 15 (3), 91, 1973. 225. Jofee, A. Z., The occurrence of Fusarium spp in Israel, Phvtopathol. Mediterr., 3 (1), 57, 1958. 226. Wallace, G. B., Report of the Mycologist, Annu. Rep. Dep. Agric. Tanganyika Territory, for the year 1932, 1933, 76. 227. Yokogi, K., Studies on the Hypochnus disease of Sesamum indicum and the pathogenicity of its causal organism to rice plants and soybeans, Agric. and Hort., 2, 487, 1927; Abstr. Rev. Appl. MvcoL, 7, 296, 1928. 228. Singh, D. B. and Srivastava, H. S., A new leaf spot disease of Sesamum orientale L. caused by Mvrothecium roridum Tode ex Fr., Indian J. Microbiol., 7 ( 1 ) , 39, 1967. 229. Barboza, C. N., Mazzani, B., and Malaguti, G., Varietal differences in the susceptibility of sesame to Phytophthora sp. and Phoma sp., Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 47, 258, 1968. 230. Luthra, J. C., Int. Bull. Plant Prot., 8, M 200, 1934. 231. Malaguti, G. and Diaz, C. H., Appearance of a new disease of sesame: black stalk, Agron. Trop., Maracay, 7, 159, 1957. 232. Sharma, K. R. and Mukerji, K. G., Effect of carbon sources on the physiology of reproduction in Phoma exigua, Incompatibility NewsL, 7, 48, 1976. 233. EI-Ghany, A. K. A., Seoud, M. B., Azab, M. W., El-Aify, K. A., and El-Gawwad, M. A. A., Control of root rot and wilt diseases of sesame by seed treatment with fungicides, Agric. Res. Rev., 53 (2), 79, 1975. 234. Seoud, M. B., EI-Ghany, A. K. A., and Mahmoud, B. K., Studies on the effect of fungicidal soil treatment on the incidence of root and wilt diseases of sesame, Agric. Res. Rev., 53 (2), 85, 1975. 235. Crandail, B. S. and Dieguez, J., Phytophthora stem canker of sesame in Peru, Phytopathology, 38 (9), 753, 1948. 236. Bates, G. R., Branch of Botany, Plant Pathology and Seed Testing, Rep. Minist. Agric. Rhod. Nyasald 1959—1960, 1961, 5Q; Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 41, 126, 1962.

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237. Frezzi, M. J., The species of Phytophthora in Argentina, Rev. Invest. Agric., Buenos Aires, 4 ( 1 ) , 47, 1950. 238. Narasimhan, M. J., Report of the Mycological Section for the year 1933—34, Admin. Rep. Agric. Dept. Mysore, 1933—34, 1935, 19. 239. Gemawat, P. D. and Prasad, N., Pre-emergence blight of sesamum caused by Pythium aphanidermatum (Eds) Fitz., Sci. Cult., (India), 31 (6), 315, 1965. 240. Kulkarni, N. B., Pre-emergence blight of sesame caused by Pythium aphanidermatum, Sci. Cult., (India), 31 (6), 315, 1965. 241. Purkayastha, R. P. and Mallik, F., Two new species of Hyphomycetes from India. Nova Hedwigia, 27, 781, 1976. 242. Pearl, R. T., Report of the Mycologist to the Government of the Central Provinces and Berar, Rep. Dep. Agric. Central Provinces and Berar for the year ending 30th June 1922, 1923. 19; Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 3, 78, 1924. 243. Hansford, C. C., Diseases of Simsim, in Agriculture in Uganda, Tothill, J. D., Ed., Oxford Univ. Press, London, 1940, 176. 244. Slooff, W. C., Thung, T. H., and Reitsma, J., Leaf diseases of sereh (Andropogon nardus L.) 1. Banded sclerotial disease caused by Rhizoctonia grisea (Steven) Matz., Chron. Natur., 103, 6, 1947. 245. Rhind, D., Report of the Mycologist, Burma, for the period ending 30th June 1924, Rangoon Supdt. Govt. Printing and Stationery, Burma, 1924, 6; Abstr. Rev. Appl. Mycol., 4, 259, 1925. 246. Rhind, D., Annual Report of the Mycologist, Burma, for the year ended the 30th June 1925, Rangoon Supdt. Govt. Printing and Stationery, Burma, 1926, 5; Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol.. 5, 344, 1926. 247. Rhind, D., Annual Report of the Mycologist, Burma, for the year ending the 30th June 1926. Rangoon, Supdt., Govt. Printing and Stationery, Burma, 1927, 7; Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 6, 397, 1927. 248. Serry, M. S., Selim, A. K., Satour, M. M., and Alahmar, B. A., Breeding for disease resistance in sesame, Sesamum indicum L. I. Inheritance of resistance to Rhizoctonia root rot, Egyptian J. Ph\topathol., 8, 9, 1976. 249. Bhargava, S. N. and Shukla, D. N., A new root rot of sesame, (Sesamum indicum), Indian J. Mycol. Plant PathoL, 9 (2), 244, 1979. 250. Buldeo, A. N., Shukla, V. N. and Patil, B. G., A new sclerotial disease of sesamum, Indian Phytopath., 32, 124, 1979. 251. Georgopoulos, S. G. and Thanasoulopoulos, C. C., Research on the control of Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. with fungicides, Ann. Inst. Phytopathol. Benaki, N.S., 3, 65, 1960. 252. Misra, R. P. and Khare, M. N., A sclerotial leaf and stem rot of mesta, Indian Phytopath., 23, 706, 1970. 253. Sehgai, S. P. and Daftari, L. N., A new leaf spot disease of sesamum, Curr. Sci., (India), 35 (16), 416, 1966. 254. Gupta, S. C. and Sinha, S., Further additions to the Synchytria of India, Indian Phvtopath., 4 (1), 7, 1951. 255. Bhargava, S. N., Shukla, D. N., and Singh, N., Some studies on gall disease of til., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., (India), B, 49 (2), 108, 1979. 256. Lacy, R. C., Studies on some Indian Synchytria I. Four new species from Bihar, Indian Phytopath., 3 (2), 155, 1951. 257. Variar, M. and Pavgi, M. S., In vitro germination of the prosorus and sexuality in four Synchytrium species, Mycopathologia, 73 ( 1 ) , 3, 1981. 258. Variar, M. and Pavgi, M. S., Varietal reaction of sesame to Synchytrium gall disease, Indian Phytopath., 34 (4), 430, 1981. 259. Chakravarti, B. P., Shekhawat, P. S., and Anilkumar, T. B., Damping-off and root rot of sesamum and Cluster-beans caused by Thielavia terricola (Gilman and Abbott) Emmons var. minor (Rayss and Borut) Booth, Mysore J. Agric. Sci., (India), 5, 495, 1971. 260. Chakravarti, B. P., Shekhawat, P. S., and Anilkumar, T. B,, Control of damping-off and root rot of sesame (Sesamum orientale) caused by Thielavia terricola var. minor by soil drenching with fungicides and antibiotics and their efficacy in treatment of seeds, Indian Phytopath., 26, 646, 1973. 261. Adams, P. B., Effect of soil temperature and soil amendments on Thielaviopsis root rot of sesame, Phytopathology, 61, (1), 93, 1971. 262. Thomas, C. A. and Papavizas, G. C., Susceptibility of sesame and castorbean to Thielaviopsis basicola, Plant Dis. Rep., 49 (3), 256, 1965. 263. Chilton, J. E., Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), a host for Verticillium albo-atrum Reinke & Borth, Plant Dis. Rep., 41, 803, 1957. 264. Esentepe, M., Karcilioglu, A., and Sezgin, E., The first report of Verticillium wilt on sesame and okra in Turkey, J. Turkish Phytopathol., 1 (3), 127, 1972. 265. Vassilieff, A. A., Wilt of cultivated host plants under control Asian conditions, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 13, 369, 1934.

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266. Mudaliar, C. R. and Sundararai, D. D., Dormancy and germination of some crop seeds, Madras Agric. J., 41 (4), 1 1 1 , 1954. 267. Husain, S. S. and Ahmed, M. A., Studies on stored food grain fungi part II. Fungi from oilseeds and Plantago ovata, Pak. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 14, 137, 1971. 268. Kadian, O. P., Testing Sesamum orientale L. seeds for diseases in Haryana, Haryana Agric. Univ. J. Res., (India), 2 (1), 41, 1972. 269. Mathur, S. B. and Kabeere, F., Seed-borne fungi of sesame in Uganda, Seed Sci. TechnoL, 3, 655, 1975. 270. Mishra, R. R. and Kanaujia, R. S., Studies on certain aspects of seed-borne fungi. II. Seed-borne fungi of certain oilseeds, Indian Phytopath., 26 (2), 284, 1973. 271. Singh, B. P., Sharma, Y. K., and Shukla, B. N., Role of seed-borne pathogens in reducing nutritive value of Sesamum indicum seeds, Proc. Nail. Acad. Sci.t India (B), 42, 440, 1972. 272. Vidhyasekaran, P., Lalithakumari, D., and Govindaswamy, C. V., Role of seed-borne fungi on the deterioration of quality of gingelly seeds, Indian J. MicrobioL, 12 (2), 104, 1972. 273. Reddy, A. S. and Reddy, S. M., Two unrecorded fungi on seeds of sesamum (Sesamum indicum L.) Drechslera neergaardi and Phoma nebulosa, Curr. Sci., (India), 51 (17), 844, 1982. 274. Sharma, K. D. and Chauhan, R. K. S., Succession of microflora on oilseeds of sesamum (Sesamum indicum L.) J. Jeewaji Univ., 2, 173, 1974. 275. Sharma, K. D., Biochemical changes in stored oilseeds, Indian J. Agric. Res., 11, 137, 1977. 276. Sharma, K. D., Biodeterioration of sesamum oil in situ by fungi, Indian Phytopath., 34 (1), 50, 1981. 277. Singh, B. K. and Prasad, T., Effect of seed-borne fungi on the cholesterol content of sesame seed, Seed Res., 7 ( 2 ) , 165, 1979. 278. Bass, L. N., Clark, D. C., and James, E., Vacuum and inert-gas storage of safflower and sesame seed, Crop Sci., 3, 237, 1963. 279. Kinman, M. L. and Ibert, E. R., Seed germination as an index of potential free fatty acid content of sesame oil, /. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 33 (12), 637, 1956. 280. Malakoff, Konstantin, Eine ba bakterienkrankheit auf Sesamum orientate in Bulgarien, Centr., F. Bakteriol., 11, 333, 1903. 281. Malkoff, K., Weitere Unter suchungen uber die Bakterien Krenkheit auf Sesamum orientale, Cbl. Bakt., 16, 664, 1906. 282. Kovacevski, I. C., New investigations of the etiology of black rot of sesame, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 9,698, 1930. 283. Young, J. M., Dye, D. W., Bradbury, J. F., Panagopoulos, C. G., and Robbs, C. F., A proposed nomenclature and classification of plant pathogenic bacteria, N.Z. Agric., Res., 21 (1), 153, 1978. 284. Bradury, J. F., Pseudomonas syringae pv. sesami, CMI Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria, No. 696, Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, England, 1981. 285. Pereira, A. L. G., A study of Pseudomonas sesami causador causal agent of a bacteriosis of sesame, Arq. Inst. S. Paulo, 34(3), 113, 1967. 286. Demetriades, S. D., Zachos, D. G., Panagopoulos, C. G., and Holevas, C. D., Brief report on the plant diseases observed in Greece during the year 1959, Ann. Inst. Phytopathol. Benaki, N.S., 3, 33, 1960. 287. Zachos, D. G. and Panagopoulos, C. G., The bacterium Pseudomonas sesami Malkoff in Greece, Ann. Inst. Phytopathol. Benaki, N.S., 3, 60, 1960. 288. Durgapal, J. C. and Rao, Y. P., Bacterial leaf spot of sesamum (Sesamum orientale L.) in India, Indian Phytopath., 20 (2), 178, 1967. 289. Singh, R. N., Integrated control of bacterial diseases of sesamum in India, Abstr., Indian Phytopath., 23, 155, 1970. 290. Curzi, M., Of African fungi and diseases II. Concerning Pseudomonas parasitic on plants in Italian Somaliland, Boll R. Staz. Pat. Veg. N.S. 15, 173, 1934. (Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 13, 565, 1934). 291. Nakata, K., Comparative studies of Bact. sesami with Bad. solanacearum and Bad. sesamicola, Ann. Phytopath. Soc. Japan, 2 (3), 229, 1930; Rev. Appl. Mycol. f 9, 577, 1930. 292. Rodriguez, S. H., Enfermedades parasitarias de los cultivos agricolas en Mexico, FolletoMiscelaneoINIA, No. 23, 58, 1972. 293. Gorter, G. J. M. A., Index of plant pathogens and the diseases they cause in cultivated plants in South Africa, Sci. Bull. Dep. Agric. TechnoL, Services Republic of South Africa, 392, 177, 1977. 294. Tarr, S. A. J., Diseases of economic crops in the Sudan. II. Fibres, Oilseeds, Coffee and Tobacco, FAO Plant Prot. Bull, 2(11), 161, 1954. 295. Peregrine, W. T. H. and Watson, D. R. W., Annual Report of the Plant Pathology Section, Dept. of Agriculture, Tanganyika, 21 Sept., 1963 to 30 Sept. 1964, 1964, 10; Abstr. Rev. Appl. Mycol., 44, 599, 1965. 296. Welsford, E. J., Diseases of simsim, Mycol. Circ. Tanganyika Dep. Agric., 3, 4, 1932. 297. Bremer, H., Ismen, H., Karet, G., Ozkan, H., and Ozkan, M., Contributions to knowledge of the parasitic fungi of Turkey, Rev. Fac. Sci. Univ. Istanbul, Ser. B., 13, 122, 1947.

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298. Emechebe, A. M., Some aspects of crop diseases in Uganda, Kampala, Uganda, Makerere Univ., 1975, 43. 299. Brown, J. G. and Streets, R. B., Diseases of Field Crops in Arizona, Ariz. Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull., 148, 1934, 181. 300. Gulp, T. W. and Stone, W. J., Factors affecting sesame production in the Mississippi Delta, Mississippi Farm Res., 22, 2, 1959. 301. Gulp, T. W., Race 2 of Pseudomonas sesami in Mississippi, Plant Dis. Rep., 48 (2), 86, 1964. 302. Dunlap, A. A., Two bacterial diseases in Texas, Plant Dis. Rep., 27, 274, 1943. 303. Sutic, D. and Dowson, W. J., Bacterial leaf spot of Sesamum in Yugoslavia, Phytopath. Z., 45, 57, 1962. 304. Urdaneta, U. R. and Mazzani, B., Varietal differences in susceptibility to bacterial disease of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) in Venezuela, Agron. Trap., 26 (4), 311, 1976. 305. Urdaneta, U. R. and Mazzani, B., Effectiveness of different chemicals for the control of bacteriosis of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) in Venezuela, Agron. Trop., 26 (1), 47, 1976. 306. Vajayat, R. and Ghakravarti, B. P., Yield losses due to bacterial leaf spot of Sesamum orientale in Rajasthan, Indian J. Mycol. Plant Pathol, 1 (1), 97, 1977. 307. Vajayat, R. M. and Ghakravarti, B. P., Survival of Pseudomonas sesami and effect of an antagonistic bacterium isolated from seeds on the control of the disease in the field, Indian Phytopath., 31 (3), 286, 1978. 308. Tothill, L. D., Agriculture in the Sudan, Oxford University Press, London, 1952, 341. 309. Poole, D. D. and Heather, C. D., A preliminary note on the duo-complex of sesame bacterial leaf spot in Texas, Plant Dis. Rep,, 40 (3), 236, 1956. 310. Thomas, C. A. and Orellana, R. G., Amino compounds and reducing sugar in relation to resistance of sesame to Pseudomonas sesami, Phytopath. Z., 46, 101, 1962. 3 1 1 . Thomas, C. A. and Orellana, R. G., Resistance of sesame varieties and pathogenicity of strains of Pseudomonas sesami in relation to amino acids and reducing sugars, Abstr., Phytopathology, 52, 30, 1962. 312. Thomas, C. A., Orellana, R. G., Kinman, M. L., and Rivers, G. W., A second pathogenic race of Pseudomonas sesami, Plant Dis. Rep., 46, 248, 1962. 313. Durgapal, J. CM Rao, Y. P., and Singh, R., Eradication of infection of Pseudomonas sesami from sesamum seeds, Indian Phytopath., 22 (3), 400, 1969. 314. Singh, R. N., Outbreaks and New records: Bacterial leaf spot of sesame, FAO Plant Prot. Bull., 17 (6), 138, 1969. 315. Thomas, C. A., Effect of photoperiod and nitrogen on reaction of sesamum to Pseudomonas sesami and Xanthomonas sesami, Plant Dis. Rep., 49 (2), 119, 1965. 316. Mupawose, R. M., Rhod. Agric. J., 68, 121, 1971. 317. Rivers, G., Kinman, M., and Gulp, T., Inheritance of resistance to bacterial leaf spot in sesame, Crop Sci., 4, 455, 1964. 318. Durgapal, J. C., Patel, P. N., and Rao, Y. P., Resistance in crops to bacterial diseases in India I. Evaluation of sesamum for resistance to bacterial leaf spot disease incited by Pseudomonas sesami, Indian Phytopath., 22 (2), 292, 1969. 319. Anon., Progress Reports from Experiment Stations, Season 1948—49, Empire Cotton Growing Corporation, London, 1950; Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 30, 156, 1958. 320. Popov, P. and Dimitrov, J., New promising sesame varieties, Sadova 1 and 2, Rasten nauki, Sofia, 1 (1), 31, 1964. 321. Popov, P. and Dimitrov, J., Technological properties of the new sesame varieties Sadovo 1 and 2, Rastern nauki, Sofia 4 (3), 43, 1967. 322. Thomas, C. A., Control of bacterial leaf spot of sesame by streptomycin seed treatment, Phytopathology, 46 ( I ) , 29, 1956. 323. Verma, O. P. and Daftari, L. N., Chemical control of bacterial leaf spot of sesamum in Rajasthan, Indian Phytopath., 29, 59, 1976. 324. Singh, R. N., Control of bacterial diseases of sesame (Sesamum orientale L.) by Streptocycline, Telhan Patrika (India), 1, (2), 1, 1969. 325. Sabet, K. A. and Dowson, W. J., Bacterial leaf spot of sesame (Sesame orientale L.), Phytopath. Z., 37, 252, 1960. 326. Rao, Y. P., Bacterial blight of sesamum (Sesamum orientale L.), Indian Phytopath., 15, 297, 1962. 327. Malaguti, G., A severe bacterial disease of sesame in Venezuela, Agron. Trop., 21 (4), 333, 1971. 328. Anon., Annual Report of Kenana Research Station, 1976—77, Abu Naama, Sudan, Ministr. Agric. Food and Nat. Resources, Abstr., Rev. Plant Pathol., 61 (1), 33, 1982. 329. Habish, H. A. and Hammad, A. H., Survival and chemical control of Xanthomonas sesami, FAO Plant Prot. Bull., 19(2), 36, 1971. 330. Sabet, K. A., Association of Xanthomonas sesami with two types of leaf spots affecting sesame, Nature, Lond., 213 (5078), 813, 1967.

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331. Mathur, R. S. and Swarup, J., Bacterial diseases of Oilseed crops, Indian Oilseeds J., 9 (4), 253, 1965. 332. Chand, J. N., Mandloi, S. C., and Kulkarni, S. N., Bacterial leaf blight of sesamum in Madhya Pradesh, Abstr., Indian Phytopath., 23, 156, 1970. 333. Chand, J. N., Mandloi, S. C., and Kulkarni, S. N., Studies on bacterial blight of sesamum (Sesamum orientale L.) caused by Xanthomonas sesami Sabet and Dowson, Bull, Indian Phytopathol. Soc.t 6, 19, 1970. 334. Rao, Y. P. and Durgapal, J. C., Seed transmission of bacterial blight disease of sesamum (Sesamum orientale L.) and eradication of seed infection, Indian Phytopath., 19 (4), 402, 1966. 335. Shukla, B. N., Chand, J. N., and Kulkarni, S. N., Changes in sugar content of sesamum leaves infected with Xanthomonas sesami, Indian Phytopath., 25 ( 1 ) , 150, 1972. 336. Habish, H. A. and Ham mad, A. H,, Seedling infection of sesame by Xanthomonas sesami Sabet and Dowson and the assessment of resistance to bacterial leaf spot disease, Phytopath. Z., 64 (1), 32, 1969. 337. Bradbury, J. ¥.9 Xanthomonas campestrispv. sesami, CMI Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi ana" Bacteria, No. 700, Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, England, 1981. 338. Singh, R. N., Two strains of Xanthomonas sesami causing two different types of infection in sesame, PANS, 15 (3), 368, 1969. 339. Durgapal, J. C., Albinism in Xanthomonas sesami, Curr. Sci. (India), 46 (8), 274, 1977. 340. Nayak, M. L. and Sharma, R. K., A new weed host of bacterial blight of sesamum, Indian Phytopath., 33 (3), 482, 1981. 341. Habish, H. A. and Hammad, A. H., Effect of certain soil conditions and atmospheric humidity on seedling infection by Xanthomonas sesami Sabet and Dowson, Sudan Agric. J., 5 (1), 30, 1970. 342. Sbukla, B. N., Chand, J. N., and Kulkarni, S. N., Effect of leaf age on the bacterial blight of sesamum, Indian Phytopath., 28 (2), 304, 1975. 343. Jain, A. C. and Kulkarni, S. N., Varietal reaction of Sesamum (Sesamum Orientale L.) to bacterial blight, JNKW. Res. J., (India), 1 (2), 181, 1967. 344. Altman, J., Eslami, A. K., and Vaziri, A., Diseases of crops in the Khuzestan Province of South Western Iran, Plant Dis. Rep., 56 (12), 1067, 1972. 345. Okabe, N. and Goto, M., Studies on Pseudomonas solanacearum XI. Pathotypes in Japan, Rep. Fac. Agric. Shizuoka Univ., 11, 25, 1961. 346. Jani, S. M. and Bharodia, R. K., Varietal susceptibility of sesamum (Sesamum indicum) to leaf curl disease, Gujarat Agric. Univ. Res. J., (India), 4 (1), 28, 1978. 347. Sahambi, H. S., Proceedings of the Mycological Research Workers Conference, Simla (India), 1958, 181. 348. Singh, B. P., Strains of sesamum resistant to leaf curl, virus, Indian Oilseeds J., 1 (4), 339, 1963. 349. Vasudeva, R. S., Report of the Division of Mycology and Plant Pathology 1953—54, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 1954. 350. Anon., Annual Report, Institute of Agricultural Research, Samaru, 1966—67, Ahmado Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria, 1968. 351. Deighton, F. C., Mycological work, Rep. Dep. Agric., S. Leone, for the year 1937, 1938, 45; Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 18, 157, 1939. 352. Deighton, F. C., Tobacco leaf curl in Sierra Leone, Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 19, 568, 1940. 353. Storey, H. H., Report of the Plant Pathologist, 5th Annu. Rep. East Afr. Agric. Res. Stn. Amani, for the year 1932—33, 1933, 13; Abstr., Rev. Appl. Mycol., 12, 748, 1933. 354. Gangopadhyay, S., Leaf mosaic disease of Sesamum orientale in West Bengal, Sci. Cult. (India), 33 (12), 537, 1967. 355. Anon., Plant Virology Proceedings of the 6th Conference of the Czechoslovak Plant Virologists, Olomouc, 1967, Academia Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Prague, 1969, 346. 356. Inouye, T., A virus disease of pea caused by watermelon mosaic virus, Ber. Ohara Inst. Landw. BioL, 12 (2), 133, 1964. 357. Chang, M. U. and Lee, C. U., A virus disease of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) caused by Watermelon mosaic virus (WMV), Korean J. Plant Prot., 19 (4), 193, 1980. 358. McLean, A., Diseases caused by ringspot virus in the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas, Plant Dis. Rep., 44 (9), 738, 1960. 359. Cooper, W. E., Top necrosis, a virus disease of Guar, Phytopathology, 39 (5), 347, 1949. 360. Costa, A. S. and Kitajima, E. W., Viral necrosis of Malva caused by a member of the potato virus x group, Bragantita, 29, 51, 1970. 361. Braikova, B., Sesame, a new differential host of potato virus x, Abstr., Rev. Plant PathoL, 60 (9), 473, 1981. 362. Chin, W., Strains of cucumber mosaic virus on tobacco in Taiwan, An. Rep. Tob. Res. Inst. Taiwan, 1968, 191; Abstr,, Rev. Plant PathoL, 49, 258, 1970. 363. Kishi, K. and Tanaka, S., Studies on the indicator plants of citrus viruses. II. Mechanical transmission of the virus causing Satsuma dwarf to sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), Ann. Phytopath. Soc. Japan., 29 (3), 142, 1964.

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364. Sahambi, H. S., Studies on sesamum phyllody virus: virus-vector relationship and host range, in. Plant Disease Problems, Proc. 1st Int. Symp. Plant Pathol., I.A.R.I., New Delhi, 1970, 340. 365. McGibbon, T. D., Annual Report of the Economic Botanist, Burma, for the year ended 30th June, 1924, 5. 366. Kashi Ram, Studies on Indian Oilseeds ( 1 ) . The types of sesamum indicum D C., Mem. Dep. Agric. Bot. Ser., 18, 144, 1930. 367. Kranti Kumar, Bhatnagar, M. P., and Upadhyaya, S. M., Occurrence of phyllody disease of sesamum (Sesamum indicum L.) in Rajasthan, Oilseeds J., 6, 308, 1962. 368. Pal, B. P. and Pushkarnath, Phyllody: a possible virus disease of sesamum, Indian J, Agric. Sci., 5 (4), 517, 1935. 369. Roy, S. C., A preliminary note on the occurrence of sepaloidy and sterility in 'tiP (Sesamum indicum), Agriculture and Lifestock in India, 1, 282, 1931. 370. Sahambi, H. S., Virus diseases of sesame and their control, Proc. Mycol. Res. Workers' Conf., Simla, India, 1958. 371. Sahambi, H. S., Studies on sesamum phyllody: Virus-vector relationships and host range, Abstr., Int. Symp. on Plant Pathol., New Delhi, India, Dec. 1966, 39. 372. Vasudeva, R. S. and Sahambi, H. S., Phyllody of sesamum (Sesamum orientate L.), Indian Phvtopath., 8, 124, 1955. 373. Vasudeva, R. S. and Sahambi, H. S., Phyllody disease transmitted by a species of Deltocephalus Burmeister, 4th Int. Cong. Crop Prot., Hamburg, Sec. 4, 1957, 359. 374. Mostafavi, M., Green flowering of sesamum, Iran J. Plant Pathol., 5, 7: 36—37. 375. Klein, M., Sesamum phyllody in Israel, Phytopath. Z., 88 (2), 165, 1977. 376. Deighton, F. C., Mycological work — Annu. Rep. Agric. Dep., Sierra Leone for the year 1931. 1932, 20. 377. Mazzani, B. and Malaguti, G., Phyllody in Lochnera and sesamum, Agron. Trop., Maracay, 2 ( 1 ) , 59, 1952. 378. Choopanya, D., Mycoplasma-like bodies associated with sesame phyllody in Thailand, Thai, J. Agric. 5c/., 5 (2), 127, 1972. 379. Choopanya, D., Mycoplasma-like bodies associated with sesame phyllody in Thailand, Phvtopathology, 6 3 ( 1 2 ) , 1536, 1973. 380. Kulthongkham, S., Sesame growing at Sukho- Thai. Kasikorn, 5, 318, 1948. 381. Turkmenoglu, Z. and Ari, O., A virus disease — phyllody virus noted on sesame in the Aegean region, Abstr., Rev. Appi. Mycol, 39, 483, 1960. 382. Cousin, M. T., Kartha, K. K., and Delattre, Sur la presence d' organismes de type mycoplasme dans tubes cribles de Sesamum orientate L. atteint de Phyllodie, Cot Fib. Trop., 25, 525, 1970. (Abstr., Rev. Plant Pathol., 50, 430, 1971). 383. Desmidts, M. and Laboucheix, J., Relationships between phyllody and a similar disease of sesame, FAO Plant Prot. Bull., 22 (1), 19, 1974. 384. Robertson, H. F., Annual Report of the Mycologist, Burma, for the year ended 30th June 1928, Rangoon, Supdt. Govt. Printing and Stationery, Burma, 1928, 10; Abstr. Rev. Appl. Mycol., 8, 355, 1929. 385. Su, M, T., Report of the Mycologist, Burma, Mandalay for the year ended 31st March 1933, 1933, 12; Abstr. Rev. Appl. Mycol., 18, 78, 1939. 386. Likhite, V. N., Stenosis on Gujarat Cotton, Proc. Assoc. Econ. Biol., Coimbatore, 3, 15, 1936. 387. Rhind, D., Odell, F. D., and Su, U. T., Observations of phyllody of sesamum in Burma, Indian J. Agric. Sci, 7 (6), 823, 1937. 388. Purohit, S. D., Ramawat, K. G. and Arya, H. C., Light microscopic detection of mycoplasma-like organism (MLO) in sesamum phyllody, Curr. Sci. (India), 47, 866, 1978. 389. Anon., Annual Progress Report of the Dep. Agric. Bot. -—Oilseeds, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore, 1977. 390. Purohit, S. D. and Arya, H. C., Phyllody: an alarming problem for sesamum growers, Agric. Digest, 4 (12), 5, 1980. 391. Prasad, S. M. and Sahambi, H. S., Biochemical changes brought about by sesamum phyllody, Indian Phytopath., 33 (4), 617, 1981. 392. Ghauri, M. S. K., Revision of the genus Orosius Distant (Homoptera: cicadellidae), Bull Br. Mus. Nat. Hist., 8 (7), 231, 1966. 393. Murugesan, S., Ramakrishnan, C., Kandaswamy, T. K., and Murugesan, M., Forecasting phyllody disease of Sesamum, Madras Agric. 7., 60 (7), 492, 1973. 394. Regupathy, A. and Jayaraj, S., Physiology of sesamum phyllody disease and its influence on the infestation of leaf hopper vector (Orosius albicintus), Phytopath. Z., 78 ( 1 ) , 86, 1973. 395. Bindra, O. S. and Bakhetia, D. R. C., A note on the natural incidence of Sesamum phyllody virus in Brassica spp. at Ludhiana, J. Res. Ludhiana, (India), 4 (3), 406, 1967.

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396. Bindra, O. S. and Singh, J., Biology and bionomics of Orosius albicinctus Distant, the jassid vector of sesamum Phyllody virus, Indian J. Agric. Sci., 48, 340, 1970. 397. Ramanujam, S., The cytogenetics of amphidiploid, Sesamum orientate, S. prostratum, Curr, Sci., (India), 13, 40, 1944. 398. Capoor, S. P., Important virus diseases of field and garden crops in India and their control. Tech., Bull. (Agric.) No. 12, /CAR, New Delhi, 1967. 399. Gupta, G. P., Mathur, B. P. and Khan, A, R., Studies on the performance of sesame varieties, Indian Oilseeds J . , 1 (2), 140, 1963. 400. Satpathy, D., Misra, B., Nanda, J. S., and Mahaptra, L. N., Sesamum indicum Linn. — Preliminary studies on the incidence of phyllody and yield in relation to the duration, Indian Oilseeds J., 7, 158, 1963. 401. Anon., All India Coordinated Research Project on Oilseeds, 10th Kharif Oilseeds Workshop, Annual Progress Report, 1976, Hyderabad, May 12 to 15, 1977, 141. 402. Muheet, A. and Chauhan, L. S., Control of Phyllody of sesamum (Sesamum orientate L.), Madras Agric. J . , 62, 219, 1975. 403. Tandon, I. N. and Banerjee, A. K., Control of Phyllody and leaf curl of Sesamum orientate, Plant Dis. Rep., 52 (5), 367, 1968. 404. Brar, K. S. and Sandhu, G. S., Major pests of Oilseed crops in Northern India and their control, Oilseeds J , , 6 (2), 16, 1976. 405. Mathur, Y. K. and Verma, J. P., Relation between date of sowing and incidence of sesamum phyllody and abundance of its cicadellid vectors, Indian J. Entomol., 34, 74, 1972. 406. Ayyar, P. N. K., Further experiments on the root-gall nematode Heterodera marioni (Cornu) Goodey, in South India, Indian J. Agric. Sd.t. 3 (6), 1064, 1934. 407. Salvation, M., Pests of cotton, kenaf, flax, sugarbeet, sugarcane, tobacco, sesame and castor beans, Entomol. Phytopathol. AppL, 18, 62, 1959. 408. Martin, G. C., Plants attacked by root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp) in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Nematohgica, 4, 122, 1959. 409. Weiss, E. A., Castor, Sesame and Sqfflower, Leonard Hill, An Intertext Publisher, London, 1971, 479. 410. Atwal, A. S. and Mangar, M., Repellent action of root exudates of Sesamum orientale against the root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita (Heteroderidae, nematoda), Indian J. Entomol,, 31, 286, 1969. 4 1 1 . Kirynova, E. S. and KralP, E. L., Plant Parasitic Nematodes and Their Control, Vol. II, Translated from Russian, Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Lt., New Delhi. 1980, 365. 509. 412. Bascones, L. and Lopez, R. J., The mineral nutrition of sesame, Sesamum indicum L. I. Visual deficiency symptoms and foliar diagnosis, II. Total extraction of nutrients, Agron. Trap., Maracay, 11. 17, 1961. 4 1 3 . Pal, N. L., and Bangarayya, A., Deficiency symptoms in Sesamum indicum, Indian J. Agric. Sci., 28 (4), 607, 1958. 414. Sen, P. K. and Lahiri, A., Studies on the nutrition of Oilseed Crops. IV: Effect of phosphorus and sulphur on the uptake of nitrogen and growth and yield of sesame (Sesamum indicum L), Indian Agric., 23, 6, 1959. 415. Weiss, E. A., Castor, Sesame and Safflower, Leonard Hill, An Intertext Publisher, London, 1971, 505. 416. Tribe, A. J., Sesame, Fid. Crop Abstr., 20 (3), 189, 1967. 417. Dabral, K. C., Sterility in sesame, JNKW Res. J . , (India), 2. 73, 1968. 4 1 8 . Kumar, L. S. S. and Rao, D. S., Inheritance of sterility in Sesamum orientale L., Indian J. Genet. Plant Breed., 5, 58, 1945.

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APPENDIX Trade, Common, and Chemical Names of Certain Pesticides TradeVcommon name

Pesticide useb

Actidione (cycloheximide)

F

Agrimycin 100

FZ

Agrosan GN

FZ

Alar (daminozide) aldicarb (Temik)

P IN

Aureofungin

F

Barban (Carbyne)

H

Basalin (fluchloralin)

H

Bavistin (carbendazim) Bayleton (triadimefon)

F F

benodanil (Calirus) benomyl (Benlate)

F F

Bordeaux mixture

FZ

Botran (dicloran, DCNA) Brestan (fentin acetate) Busan (TCMTB)

F F F

cadmium chloride calcium cyanamide Calixin (tridemorph) captafol (Difolatan)

F F/H F F

captan (Captane)

F

carboxin (Vitavax)

F

Cercobin (thiophanate)

F

Cercobin-M (thiophanatemethyl) Ceresan wet

F

Ceresan dry chloroneb (Demosan) chlorothalonil (Daconil) copper oxychloride (Blito x 50, Fytolan)

F F F F

F

Chemical name 3-2-(3,5-dimethyl-2-oxocyclohexyl)2-hydroxyethylglutarimide Streptomycin sulfate (15.5%) + oxytetracycline (1.5%) Penylmercuryacetate (0.9%) + ethyl mercury chloride (0.1%) /V-dimethylalminosuccinamic acid 2-methyl-2 (methylthio) propionaldehyde O-(methyl-carbamoyi) oxime Produced by the culture of Streptoverricillium cinnamomeus var terncola (N-methyl-paminoacetophenone and mycosamine) 4-chlorobut-2nyl3-chlorophenyl carbamate N-(2-chloroethyl)-2,6-dinitro-N-propyl-4-trifluoromethylaniline Methyl benzimidazol-2-ylcarbamate l-(4-chlorophenoxyl)-3,3-dimethyll-( 1,2,4-triazol-1-y i)butan-2-one 2-iodobenzanilide Methyl 1-(butylcarbamoyl) benzimidazol-2-ylcarbamate Copper sulfate and hydrate lime solution 2,6-dichIoro-4-nitroaniline Fentin acetate 2-(thiocyanomethylthio) benzothiazole Cadmium chloride Calcium cyanamide 2,6-dimethy 1-4-tridecyl morpholine 3a, 4,7,7a-tetrahydro-N-( 1,1,2,2-tetrachloro ethane sulfenyl) phthalimide 3a, 4,7,7a-tetrahydro-N-(trichloromethanesulfenyl) phthalimide 2,3-dihydro-6 methyl-5-phenylcarbamoyl-1,4-oxathiin 1, 2-di (3-ethoxycarbonyl-2-thioureido) benzene 1, 2-di (3-methoxycarbonyl-2thioureido) benzene Methoxyethyl mercurychloride (2.5% Hg) Pheny mercury acetate (1% Hg) 1,4-dichloro-2, 5-dimethoxybenzene Tetrachloroisophthalonitrile Copper oxychloride

Manufacturer Cyanamid Pfizer ICI

UniRoyal Union Carbide

Hindustan Antibiotics Ltd., Pimpri, India

Spencer BASF BASF Bayer BASF Du Pont

Upjohn Hoechst Buckman Caddy, Vicad Cyanamid BASF Chevron

Sankyo UniRoyal Nippon Soda Nippon Soda Bayer Bayer Du Pont Diamond Shamrock

124

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops APPENDIX (continued) Trade, Common, and Chemical Names of Certain Pesticides

Tradea/common name

Pesticide useb

Cuman (Ziram) 2,4-D DBCP (Nemagon) Dexon

F HP N F

dichlofluanid

F

dinitramine (Cobex)

H

dinoseb (Basanite) dodemorph (Meltatox)

H F

Du-Ter (fentin hydroxide) Ekatox (parathion)

F N

Eptam (EPTC) fensulfothion (Dasanit)

H IN

griseofulvin

F

iprodione (Rovral)

F

Lasso (alachlor)

H

mancozeb (Dithane M-45, Mancocide) maneb (Dithane M-22)

F

menazon (Sayfos, Saphizon)

I

Metasystox metham-sodium (Vapam)

1 FHIN

Miltox

F

naptalam (Alanap) (Dyanap) oxadiazon (Ronstar)

H H H

phorate {Thimate, Thimet)

I

Polyram (zineb)

F

procymidone (S 7131)

F

quintozene (Brassicol, Terraclor) Schradam (Sytam)

F I

thiram (Thiride,Arasan) Vorlex

F FIN

F

Chemical name Zinc dimethyldithiocarbamate 2,4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane Sodium p - dimethylaminobenzenediazosulfonate N-dichlorofluoromethanesulfenyl-N' N'-dimethyl-N-phenyl sulfamide N' N'- diethyl-2, 6-dinitro-4-trifluoromethyl-m-phenylenediamine 2-sec-butyI-4, 6-dinitrophenol 4 cyclododecyl-2, 6-dimethylmorpholine Fentin hydroxide 00-diethyl 0-4 nitrophenyl phosphorothioate S-ethyl diprophylthiocarbamate 00-diethyl 0-4-methylsulfinyl phenyl phosphorothioate 7-chloro-4, 6-dimethyoxycoumaran3-one-2-spiro-T- (2'-methoxy-6methylcyclohex-2 '-en-4-one) 3-(3,5-dichlorophenyl)-N-isopropylcarbamoyl-2,4, dioxoimidazolidine-1 -carboxamide a-2', 6'-diethyl-N-methoxymethyl acetanilide Complex of zinc and maneb containing 20% Mn and 2.5% Zn Manganese ethylenebis dithiocarbamate S-4,6-diamino-2,3,5-triazin-2-ylmethyl) 00-dimethyl phosphorodithioate Oxydemeton-methyl Sodium-N-methyldithio carbamate di hydrate Copper oxychloride (37.5%) + zineb (12%) N-1 -naphthylphthalamic acid Dinoseb + naptalam 5-tert-butyl-3(2,4-dichloro-5-isopropoxyphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-one 00-diethyl S(ethylthiomethyl) phosphorodithioate Zineb-ethylene thiuram disulfide (reaction mixture) N-(3,5-dichlorophenyl)-l,2-dimethylcyclo-propanedicarboximide Pentachloronitrobenzene Di(tetrarnethylphosphorodiamidic) anhydride Tetrame thyl thiuram disulfide Dichloropropane-dichloropropene

Manufacturer Ciba-Geigy Shell

Bayer US Borax BASF BASF Philips-Duphar Sandoz Stauffer Bayer Kayuku

Rhone Poulenc

Monsanto Rohm and Mass Rohm and Hass Plant Protection

Bayer Stauffer Sandoz UniRoyal UniRoyal Rhone-Poulenc Cyanamid BASF Sumitomo Hoechst, Olin, Mathieson Murphy ICI, Du Pont Nor AM

Volume II

125

APPENDIX (continued) Trade, Common, and Chemical Names of Certain Pesticides Tradea/common name

Pesticide useb

zineb (Dithane Z-78) ziram (Cuman, Ziride)

F F

Chemical name mixture + methyl isothiocyanate Zinc ethylene-bisdithiocarbamate Zinc dimethyl dithiocarbamate

Manufacturer

Rohm and Hass Ciba-Geigy, ICI

Sources: I. Mercer, S. L., PANS Pesticide Index, 1979 ed., Centre for Overseas Pest Research, London, 1979, 1. 2. Nene, Y. L. and Thapliyal, P. N., Fungicides in Plant Disease Control, 2nd ed., Oxford and IBM, New Delhi, 1979.

Trade names (with an initial capital letter or code number) are referred to the accepted common name. F = Fungicide; H = Herbicide;! = Insecticide; N = Nematicide; P = Plant growth regulator; Z = Bactericide. Principal manufactur or owner of trade name.

Volume II

127

INDEX

A Abyssinian mustard, 9 Acanthospermum hisdidum, 102 Actidione (Cycloheximide), 123 Aerial stem rot, 94 Agrimycin 100, 101, 123 Agrosan GN, 86, 123 Agrosiis sp., 51 Alachlor (Lasso), 124 Alar (Daminozide), 17, 123 Albugo Candida, 30 host resistance, 34 infection, 29 intraspecific morphologic taxa, 32 oospore, 31—32 primary infection, 33 races, 32 secondary infection, 33 staghead phase, 33 survival, 32 systemic infection, 33 cruciferarum, 30—32 Aldicarb (Temik), 108, 123 Aldolase, 52 Alfalfa mosaic virus, 104 Allylisothiocyanate, 26, 55 Alternaria alternata, 56, 57 auleatus, 99 brassicae, 10—11, 15, 17, 57, 99 brassicicola, 10—11, 15, 17, 57 flavus, 99 longipes, 56 napiformae, 56 raphanL 10—11, 15 sesami, 88—89, 93 solani, 94 sp., 33 conidia, 15—16 primary infection, 16 secondary infection, 16 sesame diseases, 95 survival, 14—16 tennis, 56, 95 terreus, 99 versicolor, 99 Alternaria blight biological control, 19 chemical control, 17—18 cultural control, 19 development and epidemics, 16—17 economic importance, 11, \ 3 effect on seed quality, 13 geographic distribution, 9—10 host resistance, 17 symptoms, 13—14

Alternaria leaf spot, 56, 88—90 Ammonium sulfate, 38 Anagattis arvensis, 14 Analap (Naptalam), 124 Angular leaf spot, 93—94 Anthemis cotula, 14 Anthriscus sylvestris, 37 Arabis, 32 Arachis hypogaea, I . 5—6 Arasan (Thiram; Thiride), 5, 10, 85, 86, 124 Argentine rape, 9 Armoracia rusticana, 32 sp., 32 Ascochyta sesami, 95 sp., 56 Ascospores, role in blackleg infection, 44 Aspergillus amstelodami. 57 candidus, 57 flavus* 51 glacus, 57 niger, 57, 99 repens, 57 sejunctus, 57 tamaric, 57 tamarii, 99 terreus, 57 versicolor* 57 Aster yellows disease, 64 Aureofungin, 86, 123 Aureomycin (Chlorotetracycline), 58

B Bacterial blight, of sesame, 102—103 Bacterial diseases rapeseed and mustard, 57—59 sesame, 99—103 Bacterial leaf spot, 99—101 Bacterial pod spot, 59 Bacterial rot, 57, 58 Bacterial stalk rot, 58—59 Bacterial wilt, 103 Barban (Carbyne), 6, 38, 123 Basalin (Fluchloralin), 123 Basanite (Dinoseb), 124 Bavistin (Carbendazim), 86, 91, 123 Bayleton (Triadimefon), 91, 123 Beet western yellows virus, 60 Bemisia tabaci, 103 Benlate, see Benomyl Benodanil (Calirus), 123 Benomyl (Benlate), 34, 39, 46, 53, 55, 86, 123 Biodeterioration rapeseed and mustard, 57

128

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

sesame, 99 Blackleg chemical control, 46 cultural control, 46 development and epidemics, 44—45 host resistance T 45—46 infection characteristics, 44 pathogen, 41—42 survival of pathogen, 42—43 Blackleg canker (stem canker) economic importance, 39—40 geographic distribution, 39 pathogen, 41—42 symptoms, 40—43 Black rot, see Bacteria/ leaf spot; Bacterial rot Blights, see also Alternaria blight; Bacterial blight, 6 Blito x 50 (Copper oxychloride; Fytolan), 18, 26, 103, 123 Blood diseases, of sesame, 102—103 Bordeaux mixture, 18, 26, 85, 89, 123 Boron, 5, 39 Botran (Dicloran; DCNA), 123 Botryobasidium rolfsii, 95 Botryosphaeria ribis, 95 Botrytis cinerea, 56 Brassica adpresa, 60 alba, 49, 58 alboglabra, 49 campestris, see also Rapeseed Alternaria blight, 10—11, 13—19 aster yellows, 64 bacterial diseases, 57—59 bacterial rot, 57—58 bacterial stalk rot, 58—59 biodeterioration, 57 blackleg, 39-^6 broomrape, 65 club root, 50—53 crop loss from disease, 5—6 downy mildew, 19—27 fungal diseases, see also Fungal diseases; specific diseases, 9—56 Fusarium wilt, 49—50 green petal disease, 64 growing conditions, 9 increasing yield, 5 light leaf spot, 53—55 mosaic viruses, 59—62 mycoplasma diseases, 63—64 nonparasitic diseases, 65 parasitic nematodes, 65 phanerogamic parasite, 65 powdery mildew, 46—49 root gall smut, 55—56 Sclerotinia rot, 35—39 seedling blight, 9—10, 12 seed rot, 9—10, 12 stem canker, 39—46 turnip virus I group, 59—62

virus diseases, 59—62 white rust, 27—35 carinata, 9, 45, 50, 58, 60 chinensis, 25, 49, 58 hirta, 58 japonica, 49 juncea, see also Mustard Alternaria blight, 10—11, 13—19 aster yellows, 64 bacterial diseases, 57—59 bacterial rot, 57—58 bacterial stalk rot, 58—59 biodeterioration, 57 blackleg, 39^16 broomrape, 65 club root, 50—53 crop loss from disease, 5—6 downy mildew, 19—27 fungal diseases, see also Fungal diseases; specific diseases, 9—56 Fusarium wilt, 49—50 green petal disease, 64 growing conditions, 9 increasing yield, 5 light leaf spot, 53—55 mosaic viruses, 59—62 mycoplasma diseases, 63—64 nonparasitic diseases, 65 parasitic nematodes, 65 phanerogamic parasite, 65 powdery mildew, 46—49 root gall smut, 55—56 Sclerotinia rot, 35—39 seedling blight, 9—10, 12 seed rot, 9—10, 12 stem canker, 39—46 turnip virus I group, 59—62 virus diseases, 59—62 white rust, 27—35 kaber, 42 napocampestris, 53 napus Alternaria blight, 11, 17 bacterial diseases, 58, 60 blackleg, 45 club root, 51 origin, 9 parasitic nematodes, 65 resistance to P. brassicae, 55 Sclerotinia rot, 39 white rust, 34, 35 nigra club root, 52 Fusarium wilt, 50 parasitic nematodes, 65 powdery mildew, 48 viral diseases, 59—62 white rust, 34 oleracea, 18, 50, 51, 55, 58, 60, pekinensis, 25 tornifoni, 58

Volume II Brassicol (Quintozene; Terraclor), 39, 53, 124 Brestan (Fentin acetate), 123 Broomrape, 65 Brown angular spot, 92—93 Brown mustard, 9 Brown sarson, see Brassica campestris Busan (TCMTB), 123

c Cadmium chloride, 123 Calcium, 5 deficiency, 109 Calcium cyanamide, 39, 123 Calirus (Benodanil), 123 Calixin (Tridemorph), 123 Came Una sp., 14 Campelina saliva, 58 Capsella bursa pastoris, 32, 48, 51, 53 sp., 31, 32 Captafol (Difolatan), 123 repeseed and mustard diseases, 10, 18, 26—27, 34, 58 sesame diseases, 86, 103 Captan (Captane), 123 Carbendazim (Bavistin), 86, 91, 123 Carboxin (Vitavax), 58, 123 Carbyne (Barban), 6, 38, 123 Carthamus linctorius, \ CCC (Cycocel), 17 Cellulase, 16, 38 Cercobin (Thiophanate), 123 Cercobin-M (Thiophanate-methyl), 123 Cercospora brassicicola, 56 cheiranthi, 56 sesami, 90—91, 93 sesamicola, 94 sp., 95 Cercosporella brassicae, 56 Ceresan, 101,123 Charcoal rot, 6, 86—86 Chinese mustard, 9 Chlamydospores, 15 Chloronbe (Demosan), 123 Chlorosis, 49, 109 Chlorotetracycline (Aureomycin), 58 Chorothalonil (Daconil), 34, 123 Choanephora cucurbitarium, 95, 99 Cicer arietinum, 107 Citrate, 52 Cladosporium herbarum, 57, 99 sp., 56, 95 Cleistothecia, 46—48 Clover dwarf virus, 64 Club root, 50—53 Cobrex (Dinitramine), 124 Colletotrichum, 95

129

Colza, 9 Convolvulus arvensis, 14 Copper oxychloride (Blito x 50; Fytolan), 18, 26, 103, 123 Coronopus didymus, 48 Corticium microsclerotia, 56 Corynespora blight, 92 Corynespora cassiicola, 92 Crambe abyssinica, 50 hispanica, 50 Criconemoides, 65 Crop management, 3, 5 Crotolaria juncea, 64 Crown canker, blackleg, 40, 42 Crucifers, 42 Cucumber mosaic virus, 104 Cuman (Ziram; Ziride), 26, 39, 124, 125 Cunninghamella echinulata, 99 Curvularia maculans, 95 Cycloheximide (Acitidione), 123 Cycocel (CCC), 17 Cylindrosporium concentricum, 54 sesami, 93, 95 Cystopus candidus, 30

D 2,4-D, 65, 124 Daconil (Chlorothalonil), 123 Dactylis sp., 51 Dalapon, 45, 55 Daminozide (Alar), 17, 123 Danasit (Fensulfothion), 124 Daucus carota, 59 DBCP (Nemagon), 124 DCNA (Botran; Dicloran), 123 Deltocephalus, 106 Demosan (Chloronbe), 123 Deptoria, 56 Descurainia sophia, 43 Developing countries, production constraints, 3 Dexon, 124 Dichlofluanid, 124 Dicloran (Botran; DCNA), 123 Didymella minuta, 95 Difolatan, see Captafol Dinitramine (Cobrex), 124 Dinoseb (Basanite), 124 Diplotaxis, 32 Discoloration of seed, 57 Disease problems, see also specific diseases, 5—6 Dithane M-22 (Maneb), 124 Dithane M-45 (Mancozeb), 17, 26, 34, 124 Ditylenchus dipsaci, 65 pumilus, 108 Dodemorph (Meltatox), 124 Dolichos lablab, 92

130

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

Doihiorclla phifippinenxix, 95 Downy mildew. 6 chemical control, 26—27 cultural control, 27 development and epidemics, 26 geographic distribution, 19 host resistance screening, 26 pathogen, 24—25 primary infection, 25 secondary infection, 25 symptoms, 21—24 yield loss formula, 19, 21 Drechsfera rieergaaridi, 99 Drestan (Fentin acetate), 39, 123 Du-Ter (Fentin hydroxide), 18, 26. 124 Dynap. 124

E ECD (European Club Root Differential) set. 51 Economic importance Alternaria blight, 1 1 , 13 Alternaria leaf spot, 88 bacterial rot, 57 blackleg or stem canker, 39—40 charcoal rot, 85 downy mildew, 19, 21 light leaf spot. 53 Phytophthora blight, 83 powdery mildew, 47 Sclerotinia rot, 35 sesamum phyllody, 104—105 total loss in yield, 5 viral disease in rape-mustard, 59 Ekatox (Parathion), 103, 124 Elaeis quineensis, 1 Enzymes, see also specific enzymes, 51 Epicuticular wax, 17 Eptam (EPTC), 56, 124 Eruca sativa, 1, 9, 49, 50, 58 Erucastrum, 32 Erucic acid, 55 Envinia carotovora, 58—59 Eryxiphe cichoracearum, 91 communis, 46 cruciferarum, 47, 48 polygoni, 46 European Club Root Differential (ECD) set, 51 Euscelis plebujus, 64

F Fasciation, 109 Fats, 1—2 Fatty acids, composition, 1—4 Fatty acid value (FAV), rapeseed during storage, 57 Fensulfothion (Danasit), 124 Femin acetate (Drestan), 39, 123

Fentin hydroxide (Du-Ter), 18, 26, 124 Fertilization, and incidence of Sclerotinia rot, 38 Fertilizers, 5 Flaxweed, 14 Fluchloralin (Basalin), 123 Frost injury, 65 Fungal diseases, see also specific diseases rapeseed and mustard, 9—56 Alternaria blight, 10—11. 13—19 blackleg, 39-^6 club root, 50—53 downy mildew, 19—27 Fusarium wilt, 49—50 light leaf spot, 53—55 other, 56 powdery mildew, 46—49 root gall smut, 55—56 Sclerotinui rot, 35—39 seedling blight, 9—10, 12 seed rot, 9—10, 12 stem canker. 39—46 white rust, 27—35 sesame, 83—98 aerial stem rot, 94 Alternaria leaf spot, 88—90 angular leaf spot, 93—94 brown angular spot, 92—93 charcoal rot, 85—86 Corvnexpora blight, 92 Fusarium wilt, 86—88 other, 95—98 Phytophthora blight, 83—85 powdery mildew, 91—92 white spot. 90—91 Fusarium moniUforme, 99 oxysporum* 49, 50, 56, 87 sp". 10, 33, 57, 95, 108 Fusarium wilt, 6 rapeseed and mustard, 49—50 sesame, 86—88 Fytolan (Blito x 50; Copper oxychloride), 18,26, J03, 123

G Geographic distribution Alternaria leaf spot, 88 angular leaf spot, 93 bacterial blight, 102 bacterial leaf spot, 99 bacterial rot, 57 blackleg canker, 39 broomrape, 65 brown angular spot, 92 charcoal rot, 85 downy mildew, 19 fungal diseases, 56, 95—98 Fusarium wilt, 86 leaf curl, 103

Volume II light leaf spot, 53 Phytophthora blight, 83 powdery mildew, 47 Sclerotinia rot, 35 sesame crops, 83 stem canker, 39 viral infection, 59, 60 white rust, 27 white spot, 90 Gloesoprium macrophomoides. 95 Glucose-6-phosphate, 52 Glucose-6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, 52 Glycine max, 1 Gossypium hirsutum, 1 Gray mold, 56 Green flowering disease (sesamum phyllody), 104— 108 Green petal disease, 64 Griseofulvin, 18, 124 Guizotia abyssinica, 5—6 Gypsum, 5

H Hedge mustard, 14, 32 Helianthus annuus, \ He bn in thosporiwn cassiicfffa, 92 ha I odes, 96 sesami, 94 sp., 95 tetramera, 99 Heracclum spondylium, 37 Hermitarsonemus latus* 109 Heterodera cruel/Crete, 65 schachtii, 65 trifoli, 65 Holcus sp., 51 Hot water treatment of seed, 91, 101 Hypochnus centrifugus, 96 I

IAAA, see Indole acetic acid Indole acetic acid, 106 3-Indole acetic acid, 52 Indole glucosinolate, 52 Intraspecific hybridization, 53 Intumescences, 65 Iodine number (IN), 2, 4, Iprodione (Rivral). 18, 124 Iron, 5 Jsocitrate dehydrogenase, 52

K Karathane, 48—49 Ketoglutarate, 52

131

L Lasso (Alachlor). 124 Leaf blight, 56 Leaf curl, 103—104, 109 Leaf hopper, 106—107 Leaf rot, 56 Leaf scorch, see Light leaf spot Leaf spot, see also Light leaf spot, 6 Alternaria, 56, 88—90 angular, 93—94 Lepidium. 32 Leptosphacria maculans, 45, 46, 55 characteristics, 41—42 host range and physiologic races, 43 survival, 42—43 Leveillula taurica. 56, 91 Light leaf spot. 53—55 Lime-sulfur, 53 Lolium sp., 51 Lycopersicon escutentum, 59, J07

M Macrophomina phaseolina, 56, 86—87 Macrosporium sesami. 88, 96 sp., 96 Macrosteles divisus, 64 Magnesium deficiency, 109 Malate, 52 Mancozeb (Dithane M-45; Mancocide). 17, 26, 34, 124 Maneb (Dithane M-22), 124 Manganese chloride, 108 Manozeb. 85 Marad ed Dum, 102—103 Matthiola sinuta, 56 Matt tola incana, 50 Meloidogyne, 65, 108 Meltatox (Dodemorph), 124 Menazon (Sayfos; Saphizon), 124 Metalaxyl, 27, 34 Metasystox, 108, 124 Metham-sodium (Vapam), 124 Methyl bromide. 39 Mildew, see also Downy mildew; Powdery mildew, 56 Miltox. 124 Mold, 56 Monilia sitophila, 99 Mosaics, see also Turnip virus I group. 60, 104 Mustard, see also Brassica junea bacterial diseases, 57—59 bacterial rot, 57—58 bacterial stalk rot, 58—59 biodeterioration, 57 broomrape, 65 fungal diseases, 9—56

132

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

Alienuirm blight, 10—11, 13—19 blackleg. 39^6 club root, 50—53 downy mildew, 19—27 Fusarium wilt, 49—50 light leaf spot, 53—55 other, 56 powdery mildew, 46—49 root gall smut, 55—56 Scierotinia rot, 35—39 seedling blight, 9—10, 12 seed rot, 9—10, 12 stem canker, 39—46 white rust, 27—35 mycoplasma diseases, 63—64 aster yellows, 64 green petal disease, 64 phyllody, 63—64 nonparasitic diseases, 65 parasitic nematodes, 65 phanerogamic parasite, 65 virus diseases, 59—62 mosaics, 59—62 other, 61 turnip virus I group, 59—62 Mycoplasma diseases rapeseed and mustard, 63—-64 sesame, 104—108 Mycoplasma-like organism (MLO), 106—108 Mycosphaerclla brassicicola, 56 Mycospharella, 94 Myrothecium rondium, 96

N Nacobbus batatiformix, 65 Naptalam (Alanap). 124 Nectria inventa. 19 Nemagon (DBCP), 124 Neocosmospora vasinfecta* see also Fusarim oxysporum, 86 Nicoricimi glulinosa* 107 tabacum. 59, 107 Nicotinia 10 virus, 103 Nigerseed, 5—6 Nitrogen, 101, 103 deficiency, 109 fertilization and Sclerotinia rot, 38 Non-parasitic diseases rapeseed and mustard, 65 sesame, 108—109 Nutrient deficiencies rapeseed and mustard, 65 sesame, 108—109

o Oidium erysiphoides, 91

Oilpalm see Ehieis quineensis Oilseeds, edible chemical nature, 1—2 consumption, 2 fatty acid composition, I—4 production constraints, 2—3 seed plants, I world production. 2 Oleifera, 9 Oospora sp., 96 Orobanche (tegyptiaca, 65 cernua, 65 Orosiits (ilbicincrus. 64, 106. 107 ct'IlHloxus. 107 Oxadiazon (Ronstar) , 124

p Papaver sp., 51 Parasitic nematodes of Srassica spp.. 65 of sesame. 108 Parathion (Ekatox), 103, 124 Peanut. 1, 5—6 Pedaliaceae, 83 Penicillium citrinum, 57, 99 verrucosunt, 57 Peronospora brassicac, 24, 26 parasitica, 21—22. 24—26, 31. 33 sp., 26—27 Pestaloriopsis mayumbensis, 96 Phenoxy, 45 Phoma exigutii 96 lingam* 41 nebuhsa, 99 sesamimi, 96 sp., 96 Phorate (Thimate; Thimet). 108, 124 Phosphorus deficiency, 65, 109 Photoperiods effect on bacterial blight, 103 effect of bacterial leaf spot, 101 Phyllody rapeseed and mustard, 63—64 sesame, 104—108 Phyllomania {sesamun phyllody), 104—108 Phyllosticta, 96 Phymatotrichum omnivorum, 96 Phytophthora parasitica* 83'—84 sp., 96 Phytophthora blight, 83—85 Pigeons, 45 Plasmodiophora brassicae, 50—53 Pk'iiodomus litigant, 33, 41, 44

Volume II PMG, sec Poly methyl galacturonase Pod rot. 56 Polish rape, 9 Pollen, 38 Polygalacturonase, 86 Polymethyl galacturonase (PMG), 38 Polyoxin B, 18 Polyoxin D, 18 Polyram (Dithane Z-78; Zineh), 17, 26, 85, 89, 124, 125 Potassium deficiency, 109 Potato acuba mosaic virus, 104 Potato virus X, 104 Pothe (sesamun phyllody), 104—108 Powdery mildew, 6 rapeseed and mustard, 46—49, 56 sesame, 91—92 Pratylenchus neglectits* 65 pratensis, 65, 108 Procymidone (S 713!), 39, 124 Production constraints, 2—3 Pseudocercosporella capsellae, 56 sesami. 96 Pseudomonas sesami, 99 solanacearum, 103 sp., 100 xyringa, 59, 100 Puruvate, 52 Pycnidiospores, role in blackleg infection, 44 Pyrenopeziia brassicae, 6, 54, 55

Q Quintozene (Brassicol; Terraclor), 39, 53, 124

R Rai, 9. 60 Ramularia armoraciae, 56 Rape, see Mosaic Rape canker, see Sclerotinia rot Rapeseed, see also Brassica campestris bacterial diseases, 57—59 bacterial rot, 57—58 bacterial stalk rot, 58—59 biodeterioration, 57 broomrape, 65 fungal diseases Alternaria blight, 10—11, 13—19 blackleg, 39—46 club root, 50—53 downy mildew, 19—27 Fitsarium wilt, 49—50 light leaf spot, 53—55 other. 56 powdery mildew, 46—49

root gall smut, 55-—-56 Sclerotinia rot. 35—39 seedling blight, 9—10, 12 seed rot, 9—10, 12 stem canker, 39—46 white rust, 27—35 mycoplasma diseases aster yellows, 64 green petal disease, 64 phyllody, 63—64 non-parasitic diseases, 65 parasitic nematodes, 65 phanerogamic parasite, 65 virus diseases mosaics. 59—62 other. 61 turnip virus I group, 59-—62 Raphtinus raphtmistrwn * 42 sativus* 32, 33, 48, 50, 58 sp., 32 Rapistrum, 32 Refractive index (RI), 2, 4 Resistant varieties, development, 6 Rhizoctonia solani, 56 sp., 96 Rhizopus nigricans, 99 sp., 57 stolonifer, 9—10 RI. see Refractive index Ronstar (Oxadiazon), 124 Rocket, 9 Root gall smut, 55—56 Root rot, 56 Rorippa islandica, 32 Rotyienchulus reinformis, 65, 108 Rovral (Iprodione), 18, 124 Rumex* 51 Rusts, 6

s S 7131 (Procymidone), 39, 124 Safflower, see also Canhamus tinctorius, 5—6 Saphizon (Menazon; Sayfos), 124 Saponification value (SV), 2, 4 S arson, 64 Satsuma dwarf virus, 104 Sayfos (Menazon; Saphizon), 124 Schradam (Sytam), 124 Sclerotinia libertiana, 35—37 rolfsii, 56, 97 sderotioriwi, 35—38 trifoliorum, 56 Sclerotinia rot. 35—39 Seedling blight, 9—10 Seed rot, 9—10

133

134

Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops

Sepaloidy (sesamum phyllody), 104—108 Sesame, see also Sesamum bacterial diseases, 98—103 bacterial blight, 102—103 bacterial leaf spot, 98—101 bacterial wilt, 103 biodeterioration, 98 fungal diseases, 83—98 aerial stem rot, 94 Alternaria leaf spot, 88—90 angular leaf spot, 93—94 brown angular spot, 92—93 charcoal rot, 85—86 Corynespora blight, 92 Fusarium wilt, 86—88 other, 95—98 Phytophthora blight, 83—85 powdery mildew, 91—92 white spot, 90—91 mycoplasma disease, 104—108 nonparasitic diseases, 108 nutrient deficiencies, 108 parasitic nematodes, 108 phyllody, 104—108 virus diseases, 103—104 leaf curl, 103 mosaic, 104 other, 104 Sesamum, see also Sesame, 5—6, 107 alatum, 107 indicum, I, 64, 83, 107 oil content, 83 resistance to Phytophthora blight, 85 laciniatum, 85 occidental, 107 occidentalis, 85 orientale, 85, 107 prostratum, 85, 107 radiatum, 85, 107 Seasamum phyllody, 104—108 Sinapsis alba, 17, 50 nigra, 60 sp., 32 Sisymbrium altissimitm, 14 officinale, 14, 32 sp., 43 Six-true-leaf stage, of blackleg, 44 Solatium melongena, 107 Soybean, 1 Sphaeronema sesmai, 97 Sphaerotheca fuliginea, 91 Staghead phase, 27—29 Stalk break, see Sderotinia rot Stem blight, see Sderotinia rot Stem canker, see also Blackleg canker; Sderotinia rot, 39-^0 Stem rot, 56 aerial, 94 Stenosis (sesamum phyllody), 104—108

Sterility, of sesame, 109 Stinkweed, 14 Storage guidelines, 57 Streptocycline, 101 Streptomycin, 101 Summer turnip, 9 Sunflower, see also Helianthus annuus, 3, 5—6 SV, see Saponification value Synchytrium sesami, 97 Sytam (Schradam), 124

T Taramira (tara), 9 TCMTB (Busan), 123 Temik (Aldicarb), 123 Terraclor (Brassicol; Quintozene), 39, 53, 124 Tetracycline, 108 Thielavia terricola, 97—98 Thimate (Phorate; Thimet), 108, 124 Thimet (Phorate; Thimate), 108, 124 Thimik (Aldicarb), 108, 123 Thiophanate (Cercobin), 123 Thiophanate-M (Cercobin-M), 123 Thiourea, 38 Thiram (Arasan; Thiride), 5, 10, 85, 86, 124 Thiride (Arasan; Thiram), 5, 10, 85, 86, 124 Thlaspi arvense, 43 Tomato bigbud virus, 104 Toria, see Brassica campestris Toxins, 16, 33, 44 Triadimefon (Bayleton), 91, 123 Trichodorus christiei, 65 tetes, 65 Trifluraltn, 34 Triglycerides, 1 Triose phosphate isomerase, 52 Tumbling weed (Sisymbrium altissimum), 14 Turnip crinkle, 60 Turnip mosaic virus, 104 Turnip rape, 9, 27, 33 Turnip virus I group, 59—62 Turritis glabra, 56 Tylenchorhynchus dubius, 108 Typhula borealis, 56

u Urea, 101 Urocystis brassicae, 55 coralloides, 56

V Vapam (Metham-sodium), 124 Vegetable oils, see Oils, edible

Volume II Vermicularia sesamina, 98 Verticillium alboatrum, 98 dahliae, 56 Verticillium wilt, 6, 56 Vinca rosea, 107 Virus diseases rapeseed and mustard, 59—62 sesame, 103—104 Vitavax (Carboxin), 58, 123 Vorlex, 124

w Wallemia sebi, 57 Water congestion, 65 Watermelon mosaic virus, 104 Weed hosts, see also specific hosts, 14 Whetzelinia sclerotiorum, 35—37 White blight, see Scierotinia rot White rot, see Scierotinia rot White rust biochemical changes, 33 chemical control, 34 cultural control, 34—35 development and epidemics, 34 economic importance, 27 geographic distribution, 27 host range and physiological specialization, 32 host resistance, 34 infection stages, 33 pathogen, 30—32 symptoms, 22, 23, 27—30 yield loss formula, 19, 21 White spot, 90—91 Winter rape, 9

Wire-stem symptoms, 10, 11

x Xanthomonas campestris, 58, 102

Y Yellow sarson, see Brassica campestris Yield loss, see also Economic importance Alternaria, 11 bacterial blight, 102 bacterial leaf spot, 99 blackleg, 39-^40 light leaf spot, 53 phyllody, 83 sesamum phyllody, 104—105 stem canker, 39—40 turnip mosaic virus, 59 white rust, 27 white spot, 90 Yield-loss formula blackleg or stem canker, 40 white rust, 27

Z Zea mays, 1 Zinc, 5 Zineb (Dithane Z-78; Polyram), 17, 26, 85, 89, 124, 125 Ziram (Cuman; Ziride), 26, 39, 124, 125 Ziride (Cuman; Ziram), 26, 39, 124, 125

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