Review Important Medicinal and Food Taxa (Orders and Families) in Kenya, Based on Three Quantitative Approaches Fredrick Munyao Mutie 1,2,3, Yuvenalis Morara Mbuni 4, Peninah Cheptoo Rono 1,2,3, Elijah Mbandi Mkala 1,2,3, John Mulinge Nzei 2,3, Methee Phumthum 5, Guang‐Wan Hu 2,3,* and Qing‐Feng Wang 1,2,3 CAS Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China 2 Sino‐Africa Joint Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China 3 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China 4 East African Herbarium, Nairobi National Museums, P.O. Box 45166, Nairobi 00100, Kenya 5 Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand * Correspondence: guangwanhu@wbgcas.cn 1 Citation: Mutie, F.M.; Mbuni, Y.M.; Rono, P.C.; Mkala, E.M.; Nzei, J.M.; Phumthum, M.; Hu, G.‐W.; Wang, Q.‐F. Important Medicinal and Food Taxa (Orders and Families) in Kenya, Based on Three Quantitative Approaches. Plants 2023, 12, 1145. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Abstract: Globally, food and medicinal plants have been documented, but their use patterns are poorly understood. Useful plants are non‐random subsets of flora, prioritizing certain taxa. This study evaluates orders and families prioritized for medicine and food in Kenya, using three statis‐ tical models: Regression, Binomial, and Bayesian approaches. An extensive literature search was conducted to gather information on indigenous flora, medicinal and food plants. Regression resid‐ uals, obtained using LlNEST linear regression function, were used to quantify if taxa had unexpect‐ edly high number of useful species relative to the overall proportion in the flora. Bayesian analysis, performed using BETA.INV function, was used to obtain superior and inferior 95% probability cred‐ ible intervals for the whole flora and for all taxa. To test for the significance of individual taxa de‐ parture from the expected number, binomial analysis using BINOMDIST function was performed to obtain p‐values for all taxa. The three models identified 14 positive outlier medicinal orders, all with significant values (p < 0.05). Fabales had the highest (66.16) regression residuals, while Sapin‐ dales had the highest (1.1605) R‐value. Thirty‐eight positive outlier medicinal families were identi‐ fied; 34 were significant outliers (p < 0.05). Rutaceae (1.6808) had the highest R‐value, while Fabaceae had the highest regression residuals (63.2). Sixteen positive outlier food orders were recovered; 13 were significant outliers (p < 0.05). Gentianales (45.27) had the highest regression residuals, while Sapindales (2.3654) had the highest R‐value. Forty‐two positive outlier food families were recovered by the three models; 30 were significant outliers (p < 0.05). Anacardiaceae (5.163) had the highest R‐ value, while Fabaceae had the highest (28.72) regression residuals. This study presents important medicinal and food taxa in Kenya, and adds useful data for global comparisons. plants12051145 Academic Editor: Igor Loskutov Keywords: Bayesian analysis; binomial analysis; linear regression, outlier Received: 6 January 2023 Revised: 25 February 2023 Accepted: 27 February 2023 1. Introduction Published: 2 March 2023 Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/license s/by/4.0/). Scientific literature documents that traditional herbs are as old as mankind and are utilized three to four times compared to modern medicines [1]. Globally, between 35,000 and 70,000 plant species, including monocots, dicots, gymnosperms, pteridophytes, and lichens, have been used for medicine in different cultures at some point in time [2]. In Africa, over 5400 species are medicinal, and about 10% have been, to some extent, devel‐ oped commercially [3]. Many modern medicine prescriptions are plant‐based [1], with estimates indicating that 67% of chemotherapy drugs are derived from natural products [4], whereas higher plants contribute over 25% of all drugs in clinical use [5]. Over 50,000 secondary metabolites have been discovered in the plant kingdom alone [6]. The potential for discovering more compounds is higher in the tropics since about 1% of tropical plants Plants 2023, 12, 1145. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12051145 www.mdpi.com/journal/plants Plants 2023, 12, 1145 2 of 151 have been studied for pharmaceutical potential, although the tropics harbor nearly half of all flowering plants [5]. If medicinal plants were not efficacious, they would not have de‐ veloped into a primary means of treatment in many societies [7]. This argument was jus‐ tified when a test involving medicinal and non‐medicinal plants was carried out against the measles virus: non‐medicinal plants failed to decrease replication of the virus below control levels in infected U937 cells after 48–72 h, while extracts from medicinal plants had a neutralization effect [8]. Successful treatments using plant‐based medicines include the use of artemisinin as an antimalarial drug [9] and the application of neem shampoo to eradicate head lice [10]. Food plants are also important resources, and globally, over 77% of rural households collect them, and this proportion is higher in Africa (88%). Wild food plants are harvested for both commercial and subsistence purposes [11]. Generally, diversity of wild food plants is higher than that of cultivated food crops [11,12]. Native flora is an important resource for many communities in Kenya [13–15]. Its exploitation can be a buffer against periodical famines [15,16], since it can improve the nutrition of many people through the provision of vitamins, minerals, etc. Deficiencies of vitamin A, which can be obtained from wild fruits, are among the major health concerns in many children, especially in develop‐ ing countries [17]. Many wild plants eaten in Kenya have been demonstrated to contain energy, fats, proteins and other nutrients [18]. People are very selective and rely heavily on certain taxa for food and medicine [19]. The selection of medicinal plants is based on diverse reasons, i.e., a tradition passed from one generation to another, the efficacy of the plants, cross‐cultural acquisition of knowledge, the abundance of plants, the symbolic resemblance of plant parts to certain body organs, and the taxonomic affiliation of plants to known medicinal taxa [20]. How‐ ever, plant‐based medicine is not just symbolic and placebo [21]. To find consistent pat‐ terns of plant uses, ethnobotanical studies have applied various metrics, such as informant consensus factor, the relative frequency of citation, use reports, and fidelity levels [22–24]. However, those indices are not independent from each other, and thus behave similarly. They are also not grounded in well‐supported statistical approaches, and thus not robust enough to lead into discovery of new drugs [25,26]. Understanding plant use patterns cannot be achieved through species counts since they tend to overemphasize large fami‐ lies, while percentages of medicinal species overemphasize small families [27]. If medici‐ nal plants were selected at random, the proportion of plants selected from each family would be equal [28]. Quantitative analysis based on least squares regression found that some families comprise a higher number of medicinal species than would be expected from a null model of a linear relationship between the total number of species in a family and the observed medicinal species [29]. This model was applied by Moerman [30], when analyzing patterns of plant uses by native Americans, where bias towards uses of certain taxa was identified, demonstrating that medicinal properties were not randomly distrib‐ uted in plants. Plants used for the treatment of diseases portray a phylogenetic clustering [31], and this has been supported by the detection of phylogenetic signals in seed plants due to the presence of related secondary metabolites [32]. A number of studies carried out worldwide support the perspective that certain plant families are heavily relied on for medicinal uses, e.g., in North America [19], Mexico [33], South Africa, Nepal and New Zealand [34], South Africa [28], Southern Belize [35], and Thailand [29]. Linear regression, binomial, and Bayesian models have been widely applied in de‐ tecting outliers in floras [19–21,29,30,36,37]. Linear regression approach evaluates outliers by regressing the number of useful species against the total number of species per taxon, then interpreting the resultant least squares line as a measure of average relationship be‐ tween taxa sizes and the number of useful plants. Regression residuals obtained are used to quantify the extent to which taxa have unexpectedly high or low number of useful spe‐ cies relative to the overall proportion of species in a flora [19–21,36]. However, this ap‐ proach lacks tests of statistical hypotheses and prowess to measure uncertainties for esti‐ mates or control error rates associated with over‐ and under‐use of taxa. Regression Plants 2023, 12, 1145 3 of 151 approach is also subjective in assessing what constitutes a large or a small residual [20], thus a new metric was coined to be used alongside the residuals [29]. Regression model is also biased towards large families, assumes a linear relationship between useful species and total species in taxa [37], and it is also unclear whether more outliers would result from the overall proportion in a given flora than one would expect by chance [20]. Bino‐ mial analysis was thus introduced, and was first used in highlighting outstanding medic‐ inal taxa in Ecuadorian Shuar flora using contingency tables. This model provides tests of statistical hypotheses by assessing whether distribution of useful plants among taxa would depart significantly from a homogenous null distribution, which is analogous to analyzing overall significance of an ANOVA model, then testing for the significance of individual parameters. Binomial model relies on a test statistic with a binomial distribu‐ tion, that assumes that the proportion of useful plants in taxa equals the proportion of useful plants in the whole flora, and treats each species within taxa as a random trial with a probability of being utilized or not [20]. Although binomial approach considers the sto‐ chastic process of the number of species used, it treats the proportion of useful species in the flora as a fixed number, which is in fact an estimated value with inherent uncertainties, since it is obtained from sampled data. To accommodate these uncertainties, Bayesian model treats the proportion of useful species in taxa as a random variable, with values ranging from 0–1, and with a certain probability known as prior probability. These values are assumed to be uniformly distributed prior to sampling since there is no sufficient ground to believe that some taxa would have a lower or higher probability of being se‐ lected. The prior probability is updated to posterior probability, after sampling and ana‐ lyzing the total and useful species in each taxon. Since proportion of all useful species in the local flora is a random variable, it is also assigned a posterior probability. Posterior probability distributions of useful species in each taxon and in the whole flora are used to judge if certain taxa depart from the expected proportion of useful species [37]. The com‐ bination of the three approaches is thus recommended to avoid biases when dealing with small to medium‐sized samples [29,37]. These approaches are important when exploring higher taxonomic groups to identify important taxa and in comparing unrelated cultures by discounting ineffective taxa [34]. If medicinal plants are selected independently more than once, their case for efficacy is stronger, and in this perspective, common patterns have been found in different ethno‐ medicinal floras pertaining to diverse cultures [34]. However, close cultures may undergo transmission of ethnomedicinal knowledge, thus distorting the independent cultural con‐ sensus on the use of those plants and, in turn, affecting anticipated biological activities [34]. Understanding why different plants produce different secondary metabolites is par‐ amount for bioprospecting [28]. The high cost of research and development of novel drugs necessitates optimization of the drug bioprospecting phase to help identify ethnomedici‐ nal taxa possessing biological activities, especially when the resource base is extensive and diverse [28,34]. One such extensive resource base is the flora of Kenya, which is distrib‐ uted in seven floral regions (K1–K7) [38]. Medicinal and food plants are diverse and im‐ portant resources in Kenya [39,40]. Plants found in dry areas are perceived to have better medicinal qualities [41], while wild fruits are most important to people living in arid areas [42]. This suggests that Kenya, 80% of whose landmass is under arid and semi‐arid con‐ ditions, which are also some of the most botanically diverse habitats with over 5000 indig‐ enous species [43,44], is an important region for evaluating the selection behavior of useful plants. Kenya is also endowed with culturally diverse ethnic minorities [45], who have potentially played a role in shaping her present traditional plant use patterns. Plant selec‐ tion behavior pertaining to medicinal and food taxa is not well understood in Kenya. At a global scale, studies have mostly focused on unraveling relationships between total flo‐ ras and ethnomedicinal floras, thus paying little attention to comparative analyses be‐ tween medicinal and food floras. Based on three quantitative approaches: Regression, Bayesian, and Binomial analyses, the objective of this study was to test whether medicinal Plants 2023, 12, 1145 4 of 151 and food taxa in Kenya are selected randomly by the users, since the flora of Kenya has never been explored in this perspective. 2. Results 2.1. Medicinal Orders The modeled linear relationship between predicted medicinal taxa and the total num‐ ber of species was given as P = 0.1599T + 7.1454 (for orders) and P = 0.176T + 1.4133 (for families). The two equations explained 64.88% and 65.74% of the variation in y‐values, respectively, and the total number of species in the flora was a significant predictor of medicinal species in both orders and families (p < 0.05; Figure 1). Cumulatively, the three models identified 14 important medicinal orders; only six of those orders (Fabales, Mal‐ pighiales, Malvales, Sapindales, Mrytales, and Rosales) were recovered under all models. The regression model recovered six positive outliers, while binomial and Bayesian models identified 14 and 12 orders, respectively. Fabales had the highest residuals (66.16), fol‐ lowed by Malpighiales (55). Under the regression model, Sapindales had the highest R‐ value (1.1605), followed by Rosales (0.7507). All the 14 orders identified by the three mod‐ els were recovered under the binomial model with significant values (p < 0.05; Table 1). Figure 1. Linear regression model showing the relationship between the number of medicinal spe‐ cies and the total number of species for orders and families. Table 1. Quantitative analysis of medicinal species in orders. T—total number of species in the flora; M—medicinal species; ↑/↓—positive/negative outliers based on residuals; Pa—predicted medicinal Plants 2023, 12, 1145 5 of 151 species under regression model; Res.—regression residuals; Pb—predicted medicinal species under binomial model; inf.—Bayesian inferior 95% probability credible intervals; sup.—Bayesian superior 95% probability credible intervals; *—positive outliers. Order Fabales Malpighiales Sapindales Malvales Rosales Asterales Gentianales Lamiales Myrtales Caryophyllales Solanales Brassicales Apiales Ericales Cucurbitales Magnoliales Ranunculales Vitales Santalales Celastrales Saxifragales Zygophyllales Boraginales Zingiberales Icacinales Geraniales Piperales Oxalidales Laurales Canellales Arecales Proteales Aquifoliales Buxales Liliales Dilleniales Gunnerales Nymphaeales Dioscoreales Fagales Cornales Pandanales Metteniusales Ceratophyllales Vahliales Dipsacales Regression Analysis Binomial Analysis Bayesian Analysis T M Pa Res. R‐Value Pb p‐Value inf. (0.2102) sup. (0.2314) 592 168 ↑ 101.84 66.16 0.6497 * 130.59 0.0002 * 0.249 * 0.3214 418 129 ↑ 74 55 0.7433 * 92.21 0* 0.2663 * 0.3545 158 70 ↑ 32.4 37.6 1.1605 * 34.85 0* 0.3678 * 0.5211 236 72 ↑ 44.88 27.12 0.6043 * 52.06 0.0016 * 0.2499 * 0.3667 134 50 ↑ 28.56 21.44 0.7507 * 29.56 0* 0.2958 * 0.4577 440 96 ↑ 77.52 18.48 0.2384 97.06 0.5672 0.1822 0.2592 533 109 ↑ 92.4 16.6 0.1797 117.58 0.8283 0.1725 0.2408 676 131 ↑ 115.28 15.72 0.1364 149.12 0.9596 0.1658 0.2253 100 35 ↑ 23.12 11.88 0.5139 * 22.06 0.0021 * 0.2636 * 0.4477 182 47 ↑ 36.24 10.76 0.2969 40.15 0.129 0.2002 0.3265 166 42 ↑ 33.68 8.32 0.2471 36.62 0.1796 0.193 0.3244 116 32 ↑ 25.68 6.32 0.2461 25.59 0.0951 0.2028 0.3636 55 22 ↑ 15.92 6.08 0.382 12.13 0.0021 * 0.281 * 0.5325 94 28 ↑ 22.16 5.84 0.2636 20.74 0.0498 * 0.2149 0.3971 76 25 ↑ 19.28 5.72 0.2967 16.77 0.0194 * 0.2338 * 0.441 32 15 ↑ 12.24 2.76 0.2256 7.06 0.0016 * 0.308 * 0.6365 34 14 ↑ 12.56 1.44 0.1147 7.5 0.0096 * 0.2632 * 0.5789 55 17 ↑ 15.92 1.08 0.0679 12.13 0.0814 0.2029 0.441 81 21 ↑ 20.08 0.92 0.0459 17.87 0.2365 0.1764 0.3644 37 13 ↓ 13.04 −0.04 −0.003 8.16 0.0479 * 0.2181 0.5135 37 11 ↓ 13.04 −2.04 −0.1564 8.16 0.1753 0.175 0.459 16 6↓ 9.68 −3.68 −0.3801 3.53 0.1201 0.1844 0.6167 61 13 ↓ 16.88 −3.88 −0.2298 13.46 0.6057 0.1293 0.3318 9 4↓ 8.56 −4.56 −0.5327 1.99 0.1153 0.1871 0.7376 3 3↓ 7.6 −4.6 −0.6052 0.66 0.0107 * 0.3976 * 0.9937 16 5↓ 9.68 −4.68 −0.4834 3.53 0.2672 0.1421 0.5596 17 5↓ 9.84 −4.84 −0.4918 3.75 0.315 0.1334 0.5348 12 4↓ 9.04 −5.04 −0.5575 2.65 0.2627 0.1386 0.6143 8 3↓ 8.4 −5.4 −0.6428 1.76 0.25 0.137 0.7007 2 2↓ 7.44 −5.44 −0.7312 0.44 0.0487 * 0.2924 * 0.9916 7 2↓ 8.24 −6.24 −0.7573 1.54 0.4791 0.0852 0.6509 7 2↓ 8.24 −6.24 −0.7573 1.54 0.4791 0.0852 0.6509 1 1↓ 7.28 −6.28 −0.8626 0.22 0.2206 0.1581 0.9874 1 1↓ 7.28 −6.28 −0.8626 0.22 0.2206 0.1581 0.9874 8 2↓ 8.4 −6.4 −0.7619 1.76 0.5555 0.0749 0.6001 2 1↓ 7.44 −6.44 −0.8656 0.44 0.3925 0.0943 0.9057 2 1↓ 7.44 −6.44 −0.8656 0.44 0.3925 0.0943 0.9057 3 1↓ 7.6 −6.6 −0.8684 0.66 0.5265 0.0676 0.8059 10 2↓ 8.72 −6.72 −0.7706 2.21 0.6832 0.0602 0.5178 4 1↓ 7.76 −6.76 −0.8711 0.88 0.631 0.0527 0.7164 5 1↓ 7.92 −6.92 −0.8737 1.1 0.7124 0.0433 0.6412 5 1↓ 7.92 −6.92 −0.8737 1.1 0.7124 0.0433 0.6412 1 0↓ 7.28 −7.28 −1 0.22 0.7794 0.0126 0.8419 2 0↓ 7.44 −7.44 −1 0.44 1 0.0084 0.7076 3 0↓ 7.6 −7.6 −1 0.66 1 0.0063 0.6024 10 1↓ 8.72 −7.72 −0.8853 2.21 0.9173 0.0228 0.4128 Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Commelinales Alismatales Asparagales Poales 6 of 151 73 58 447 838 11 ↓ 5↓ 44 ↓ 29 ↓ 18.8 16.4 78.64 141.2 −7.8 −11.4 −34.64 −112.2 −0.4149 −0.6951 −0.4405 −0.7946 16.1 12.79 98.61 184.86 0.9486 0.9981 1 1 0.0867 0.0382 0.0742 0.0243 0.2504 0.1868 0.1296 0.0493 2.2. Medicinal Families The three models identified 38 positive outliers, whereas 31 outliers were identified by all the models. The bayesian approach identified 31 families, while the binomial ap‐ proach identified all 34 positive outliers (p < 0.05). The regression approach identified 32 positive outliers, but it did not recover Canellaceae, Peraceae, Phytolaccaceae, Pittospo‐ raceae, Salvadoraceae, and Typhaceae, which were identified by the other two models. Rutaceae (1.6808) had the highest R‐value, followed by Oleaceae (1.497). Fabaceae had the highest (63.2) residuals, followed by Lamiaceae 25.74 (Table 2). Table 2. Quantitative analysis of medicinal species in families. T—total number of species in the flora; M—medicinal species; Pa—predicted medicinal species under the regression model; ↑/↓—pos‐ itive/negative outliers based on residuals; Res.—regression residuals; Pb—predicted medicinal spe‐ cies under binomial model; inf.—Bayesian inferior 95% probability credible intervals; sup.—Bayes‐ ian superior 95% probability credible intervals; *—positive outliers. Family Fabaceae Lamiaceae Malvaceae Euphorbiaceae Asteraceae Rubiaceae Combretaceae Cucurbitaceae Rutaceae Phyllanthaceae Solanaceae Capparaceae Amaranthaceae Annonaceae Sapindaceae Anacardiaceae Moraceae Oleaceae Meliaceae Vitaceae Rhamnaceae Salicaceae Celastraceae Araliaceae Melastomataceae Bignoniaceae Apiaceae Burseraceae Ebenaceae Menispermaceae Verbenaceae Regression Analysis Binomial Analysis Bayesian Analysis T M Pa Res. R‐Value Pb p‐Value inf. (0.2102) sup. (0.2314) 559 163 ↑ 99.8 63.2 0.6333 * 123.34 0.0001 * 0.2555 * 0.3306 198 62 ↑ 36.26 25.74 0.7098 * 43.69 0.0016 * 0.2526 * 0.3809 221 66 ↑ 40.31 25.69 0.6373 * 48.76 0.0042 * 0.2422 * 0.3621 217 64 ↑ 39.61 24.39 0.6159 * 47.88 0.0065 * 0.2383 * 0.3589 398 93 ↑ 71.46 21.54 0.3014 87.81 0.2829 0.1948 0.2777 254 60 ↑ 46.12 13.88 0.301 56.04 0.2969 0.1882 0.2922 38 20 ↑ 8.1 11.9 1.4687 * 8.38 0* 0.3718 * 0.6758 70 25 ↑ 13.73 11.27 0.8204 * 15.44 0.0064 * 0.255 * 0.4746 28 17 ↑ 6.34 10.66 1.6808 * 6.18 0* 0.4226 * 0.7648 51 21 ↑ 10.39 10.61 1.0213 * 11.25 0.0017 * 0.2873 * 0.549 51 21 ↑ 10.39 10.61 1.0213 * 11.25 0.0017 * 0.2873 * 0.549 48 20 ↑ 9.86 10.14 1.0281 * 10.59 0.0018 * 0.2882 * 0.5579 64 22 ↑ 12.68 9.32 0.7354 * 14.12 0.0162 * 0.2392 * 0.4665 30 15 ↑ 6.69 8.31 1.241 * 6.62 0.0007 * 0.3306 * 0.6694 36 15 ↑ 7.75 7.25 0.9357 * 7.94 0.0066 * 0.271 * 0.579 25 13 ↑ 5.81 7.19 1.2363 * 5.52 0.001 * 0.3337 * 0.7007 55 18 ↑ 11.09 6.91 0.6226 * 12.13 0.045 * 0.2181 0.4596 17 11 ↑ 4.41 6.59 1.497 * 3.75 0.0002 * 0.4099 * 0.827 23 12 ↑ 5.46 6.54 1.1973 * 5.07 0.0015 * 0.3282 * 0.7088 55 17 ↑ 11.09 5.91 0.5325 * 12.13 0.0815 0.2029 0.441 18 10 ↑ 4.58 5.42 1.1828 * 3.97 0.002 * 0.335 * 0.7555 18 10 ↑ 4.58 5.42 1.1828 * 3.97 0.002 * 0.335 * 0.7555 37 13 ↑ 7.93 5.07 0.6403 * 8.16 0.048 * 0.2181 0.5135 12 8↑ 3.53 4.47 1.2693 * 2.65 0.0012 * 0.3857 * 0.8614 15 8↑ 4.05 3.95 0.9737 * 3.31 0.008 * 0.2988 * 0.7535 6 6↑ 2.47 3.53 1.4298 * 1.32 0.0001 * 0.5904 * 0.9964 41 12 ↑ 8.63 3.37 0.3906 9.05 0.1761 0.1762 0.4458 42 12 ↑ 8.81 3.19 0.3628 9.27 0.1998 0.1718 0.4367 20 8↑ 4.93 3.07 0.6216 * 4.41 0.0545 0.2182 0.6156 16 7↑ 4.23 2.77 0.6551 * 3.53 0.0438 * 0.2298 0.6708 22 8↑ 5.29 2.71 0.5136 * 4.85 0.0914 0.1971 0.5727 Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Sapotaceae Crassulaceae Cannabaceae Urticaceae Hypericaceae Apocynaceae Thymelaeaceae Polygonaceae Rosaceae Ranunculaceae Zygophyllaceae Icacinaceae Olacaceae Salvadoraceae Boraginaceae Loranthaceae Primulaceae Moringaceae Oxalidaceae Asparagaceae Ochnaceae Loganiaceae Canellaceae Peraceae Phytolaccaceae Pittosporaceae Typhaceae Zingiberaceae Clusiaceae Opiliaceae Myrtaceae Rhizophoraceae Geraniaceae Talinaceae Aristolochiaceae Santalaceae Plumbaginaceae Convolvulaceae Nyctaginaceae Piperaceae Adoxaceae Aquifoliaceae Berberidaceae Buxaceae Cactaceae Flagellariaceae Francoaceae Hamamelidaceae Lecythidaceae Liliaceae Monimiaceae 7 of 151 28 34 6 29 12 235 14 20 26 16 16 3 3 4 61 50 17 6 6 103 18 13 2 2 2 2 2 8 3 3 9 9 15 4 5 23 6 114 12 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9↑ 10 ↑ 5↑ 9↑ 6↑ 45 ↑ 6↑ 7↑ 8↑ 6↑ 6↑ 3↑ 3↑ 3↑ 13 ↑ 11 ↑ 5↑ 3↑ 3↑ 20 ↑ 5↑ 4↑ 2↑ 2↑ 2↑ 2↑ 2↑ 3↑ 2↑ 2↑ 3 3 4↓ 2↓ 2↓ 5↓ 2↓ 21 ↓ 3↓ 3↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 6.34 7.4 2.47 6.52 3.53 42.77 3.88 4.93 5.99 4.23 4.23 1.94 1.94 2.12 12.15 10.21 4.41 2.47 2.47 19.54 4.58 3.7 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 2.82 1.94 1.94 3 3 4.05 2.12 2.29 5.46 2.47 21.48 3.53 3.53 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 2.66 2.6 2.53 2.48 2.47 2.23 2.12 2.07 2.01 1.77 1.77 1.06 1.06 0.88 0.85 0.79 0.59 0.53 0.53 0.46 0.42 0.3 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.18 0.06 0.06 0 0 −0.05 −0.12 −0.29 −0.46 −0.47 −0.48 −0.53 −0.53 −0.59 −0.59 −0.59 −0.59 −0.59 −0.59 −0.59 −0.59 −0.59 −0.59 −0.59 0.4193 0.3518 1.0249 * 0.3809 0.702 * 0.0521 0.5475 * 0.4189 0.3357 0.4187 0.4187 0.5454 * 0.5454 * 0.4169 0.07 0.077 0.135 0.2149 0.2149 0.0235 0.0914 0.0807 0.133 0.133 0.133 0.133 0.133 0.0633 0.0302 0.0302 0.0009 0.0009 −0.0131 −0.0554 −0.1279 −0.0845 −0.1901 −0.0222 −0.149 −0.149 −0.3708 −0.3708 −0.3708 −0.3708 −0.3708 −0.3708 −0.3708 −0.3708 −0.3708 −0.3708 −0.3708 6.18 7.5 1.32 6.4 2.65 51.85 3.09 4.41 5.74 3.53 3.53 0.66 0.66 0.88 13.46 11.03 3.75 1.32 1.32 22.73 3.97 2.87 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 1.77 0.66 0.66 1.99 1.99 3.31 0.88 1.1 5.07 1.32 25.15 2.65 2.65 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.1453 0.2007 0.0026 * 0.1716 0.0309 * 0.8773 0.067 0.1317 0.1981 0.1202 0.1202 0.0107 * 0.0107 * 0.0359 * 0.606 0.5595 0.3151 0.1258 0.1258 0.7755 0.3638 0.3182 0.0487 * 0.0487 * 0.0487 * 0.0487 * 0.0487 * 0.2501 0.1246 0.1246 0.3175 0.3175 0.4298 0.2133 0.3054 0.596 0.3952 0.854 0.5135 0.5135 0.2206 0.2206 0.2206 0.2206 0.2206 0.2206 0.2206 0.2206 0.2206 0.2206 0.2206 0.1794 0.1685 0.4213 * 0.1729 0.2513 * 0.1464 0.2127 0.1811 0.1652 0.1844 0.1844 0.3976 * 0.3976 * 0.2836 * 0.1293 0.1279 0.1334 0.1841 0.1841 0.1296 0.1258 0.1276 0.2924 * 0.2924 * 0.2924 * 0.2924 * 0.2924 * 0.137 0.1941 0.1941 0.1216 0.1216 0.1102 0.1466 0.1181 0.0977 0.099 0.1239 0.0909 0.0909 0.1581 0.1581 0.1581 0.1581 0.1581 0.1581 0.1581 0.1581 0.1581 0.1581 0.1581 0.5083 0.463 0.9633 0.494 0.7487 0.2467 0.6771 0.5697 0.5018 0.6167 0.6167 0.9937 0.9937 0.9473 0.3318 0.3532 0.5348 0.8159 0.8159 0.2813 0.512 0.581 0.9916 0.9916 0.9916 0.9916 0.9916 0.7007 0.9324 0.9324 0.6525 0.6525 0.5238 0.8534 0.7772 0.4215 0.7096 0.2655 0.5381 0.5381 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874 Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Musaceae Myrothamnaceae Penaeaceae Arecaceae Proteaceae Passifloraceae Pedaliaceae Basellaceae Chrysobalanaceae Dilleniaceae Nymphaeaceae Picrodendraceae Smilacaceae Velloziaceae Cornaceae Lauraceae Myricaceae Simaroubaceae Araceae Dichapetalaceae Dioscoreaceae Cleomaceae Balsaminaceae Hernandiaceae Resedaceae Malpighiaceae Achariaceae Colchicaceae Putranjivaceae Stilbaceae Asphodelaceae Connaraceae Molluginaceae Alismataceae Alismataceae Ancistrocladaceae Aphloiaceae Bixaceae Burmanniaceae Cabombaceae Caricaceae Casuarinaceae Gunneraceae Kirkiaceae Lophiocarpaceae Metteniusaceae Montiaceae Montiniaceae Myristicaceae Papaveraceae Petiveriaceae 8 of 151 1 1 1 7 7 30 13 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 26 9 9 15 21 4 4 10 5 5 5 5 57 6 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 2↓ 2↓ 6↓ 3↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 5↓ 2↓ 2↓ 3↓ 4↓ 1↓ 1↓ 2↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 10 ↓ 1↓ 1↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 1.59 1.59 1.59 2.65 2.65 6.69 3.7 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 5.99 3 3 4.05 5.11 2.12 2.12 3.17 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 11.45 2.47 2.47 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 −0.59 −0.59 −0.59 −0.65 −0.65 −0.69 −0.7 −0.77 −0.77 −0.77 −0.77 −0.77 −0.77 −0.77 −0.94 −0.94 −0.94 −0.94 −0.99 −1 −1 −1.05 −1.11 −1.12 −1.12 −1.17 −1.29 −1.29 −1.29 −1.29 −1.45 −1.47 −1.47 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −1.59 −0.3708 −0.3708 −0.3708 −0.2439 −0.2439 −0.1036 −0.1895 −0.4335 −0.4335 −0.4335 −0.4335 −0.4335 −0.4335 −0.4335 −0.4849 −0.4849 −0.4849 −0.4849 −0.1652 −0.3327 −0.3327 −0.2599 −0.2171 −0.5277 −0.5277 −0.3697 −0.5639 −0.5639 −0.5639 −0.5639 −0.1263 −0.595 −0.595 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 0.22 0.22 0.22 1.54 1.54 6.62 2.87 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 5.74 1.99 1.99 3.31 4.63 0.88 0.88 2.21 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 12.58 1.32 1.32 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.2206 0.2206 0.2206 0.4792 0.4792 0.6769 0.5721 0.3926 0.3926 0.3926 0.3926 0.3926 0.3926 0.3926 0.5266 0.5266 0.5266 0.5266 0.7098 0.6236 0.6236 0.6752 0.7126 0.6311 0.6311 0.6833 0.7125 0.7125 0.7125 0.7125 0.8371 0.7759 0.7759 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.1581 0.1581 0.1581 0.0852 0.0852 0.0959 0.0839 0.0943 0.0943 0.0943 0.0943 0.0943 0.0943 0.0943 0.0676 0.0676 0.0676 0.0676 0.0862 0.0667 0.0667 0.0727 0.0782 0.0527 0.0527 0.0602 0.0433 0.0433 0.0433 0.0433 0.0987 0.0367 0.0367 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874 0.6509 0.6509 0.3747 0.508 0.9057 0.9057 0.9057 0.9057 0.9057 0.9057 0.9057 0.8059 0.8059 0.8059 0.8059 0.3808 0.5561 0.5561 0.4565 0.4028 0.7164 0.7164 0.5178 0.6412 0.6412 0.6412 0.6412 0.2943 0.5787 0.5787 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Zosteraceae Ericaceae Juncaceae Portulacaceae Balanophoraceae Ceratophyllaceae Costaceae Droseraceae Gisekiaceae Goodeniaceae Haloragaceae Limeaceae Menyanthaceae Phrymaceae Pontederiaceae Tamaricaceae Amaryllidaceae Didiereaceae Gelsemiaceae Pandanaceae Podostemaceae Vahliaceae Onagraceae Caryophyllaceae Erythroxylaceae Hypoxidaceae Polygalaceae Linaceae Aponogetonaceae Begoniaceae Potamogetonaceae Xyridaceae Eriocaulaceae Violaceae Gesneriaceae Commelinaceae Caprifoliaceae Aizoaceae Lentibulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Lythraceae Hydrocharitaceae Iridaceae Plantaginaceae Campanulaceae Linderniaceae Brassicaceae Gentianaceae Orobanchaceae Acanthaceae Orchidaceae 9 of 151 1 7 7 19 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 14 3 3 3 3 3 9 21 4 10 33 5 6 6 6 6 7 13 8 71 9 10 11 17 28 17 23 23 38 28 38 28 55 271 240 0↓ 1↓ 1↓ 3↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 2↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 1↓ 3↓ 0↓ 1↓ 5↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 1↓ 0↓ 11 ↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 1↓ 2↓ 0↓ 1↓ 1↓ 3↓ 1↓ 2↓ 0↓ 3↓ 34 ↓ 10 ↓ 1.59 2.65 2.65 4.76 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77 3.88 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 3 5.11 2.12 3.17 7.22 2.29 2.47 2.47 2.47 2.47 2.65 3.7 2.82 13.91 3 3.17 3.35 4.41 6.34 4.41 5.46 5.46 8.1 6.34 8.1 6.34 11.09 49.11 43.65 −1.59 −1.65 −1.65 −1.76 −1.77 −1.77 −1.77 −1.77 −1.77 −1.77 −1.77 −1.77 −1.77 −1.77 −1.77 −1.77 −1.88 −1.94 −1.94 −1.94 −1.94 −1.94 −2 −2.11 −2.12 −2.17 −2.22 −2.29 −2.47 −2.47 −2.47 −2.47 −2.65 −2.7 −2.82 −2.91 −3 −3.17 −3.35 −3.41 −4.34 −4.41 −4.46 −4.46 −5.1 −5.34 −6.1 −6.34 −8.09 −15.11 −33.65 −1 −0.622 −0.622 −0.3694 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −0.4842 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −0.6664 −0.4128 −1 −0.6849 −0.3076 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −0.7298 −1 −0.2092 −1 −1 −1 −0.773 −0.6846 −1 −0.8169 −0.8169 −0.6297 −0.8423 −0.7531 −1 −0.7296 −0.3077 −0.7709 0.22 1.54 1.54 4.19 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 3.09 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 1.99 4.63 0.88 2.21 7.28 1.1 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.54 2.87 1.77 15.67 1.99 2.21 2.43 3.75 6.18 3.75 5.07 5.07 8.38 6.18 8.38 6.18 12.13 59.79 52.95 1 0.8253 0.8253 0.8238 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.8486 1 1 1 1 1 0.8939 0.8733 1 0.9173 0.8825 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9609 1 0.9355 1 1 1 0.9856 0.9917 1 0.9968 0.9968 0.9948 0.9991 0.9991 1 0.9998 1 1 0.0126 0.0319 0.0319 0.0573 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0433 0.0063 0.0063 0.0063 0.0063 0.0063 0.0252 0.0519 0.0051 0.0228 0.0676 0.0042 0.0036 0.0036 0.0036 0.0036 0.0032 0.0178 0.0028 0.0892 0.0025 0.0023 0.0021 0.0138 0.0219 0.0014 0.0103 0.0103 0.0287 0.0085 0.0162 0.0009 0.0198 0.0913 0.023 0.8419 0.5265 0.5265 0.3789 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.4046 0.6024 0.6024 0.6024 0.6024 0.6024 0.445 0.3491 0.5218 0.4128 0.3106 0.4593 0.4096 0.4096 0.4096 0.4096 0.3694 0.3387 0.3363 0.2569 0.3085 0.2849 0.2646 0.2729 0.2277 0.1853 0.2112 0.2112 0.2087 0.1776 0.1732 0.1194 0.1487 0.1703 0.075 Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Cyperaceae Poaceae 10 of 151 269 546 12 ↓ 13 ↓ 48.76 97.51 −36.76 −84.51 −0.7539 −0.8667 59.35 120.47 1 1 0.0259 0.0141 0.0763 0.0403 2.3. Food Orders Under the regression model, the predicted number of food taxa was recovered under the equations: P = 0.0685T + 5.2227 (for orders) and P = 0.0734T + 1.2479 (for families). The two models explained 47.14% and 49.64% of the variation in y‐values, respectively, and the number of total species in the flora was a significant predictor of food species in both orders and families (p < 0.05; Figure 2). Sixteen positive outliers were recovered by the three approaches, where seven of them were recovered by all three models. Both binomial and Bayesian models recovered 13 positive outliers each. The linear regression model re‐ covered 11 positive outliers, where Sapindales (2.3654) had the highest R‐value, followed by Rosales (1.4997). Solanales and Fabales were identified by the regression model only. Gentianales (45.27) and Sapindales (37.95) had the highest regression residuals (Table 3). Figure 2. Linear regression model showing the relationship between the number of food species and the total number of species for orders and families. Table 3. Quantitative analysis of food orders. T—total number of species in the flora; F—food spe‐ cies; ↑/↓—positive/negative outliers based on residuals; Pa—predicted food species under regression model; Res.—regression residuals; Pb—predicted food species under binomial model; inf.— Plants 2023, 12, 1145 11 of 151 Bayesian inferior 95% probability credible intervals; sup.—Bayesian superior 95% probability cred‐ ible intervals; *—positive outliers. Orders Gentianales Sapindales Fabales Rosales Ericales Brassicales Caryophyllales Malvales Cucurbitales Solanales Malpighiales Celastrales Boraginales Magnoliales Myrtales Zygophyllales Arecales Vitales Santalales Nymphaeales Ranunculales Zingiberales Dioscoreales Oxalidales Aquifoliales Canellales Dilleniales Piperales Icacinales Pandanales Alismatales Buxales Metteniusales Geraniales Ceratophyllales Gunnerales Vahliales Fagales Lamiales Cornales Proteales Laurales Liliales Dipsacales Commelinales Saxifragales Apiales Regression Analysis Binomial Analysis Bayesian Analysis T F Pa Res. R‐Value Pb p‐Value inf. (0.1050) sup. (0.1212) 533 87 ↑ 41.73 45.27 1.0847 * 60.16 0.0003 * 0.1343 * 0.197 158 54 ↑ 16.05 37.95 2.3654 * 17.83 0* 0.2723 * 0.4189 592 72 ↑ 45.77 26.23 0.5729 * 66.82 0.2681 0.0977 0.1504 134 36 ↑ 14.4 21.6 1.4997 * 15.12 0* 0.2009 * 0.3496 94 29 ↑ 11.66 17.34 1.4868 * 10.61 0* 0.2242 * 0.4082 116 30 ↑ 13.17 16.83 1.2781 * 13.09 0* 0.1877 * 0.3454 182 34 ↑ 17.69 16.31 0.922 * 20.54 0.0022 * 0.137 * 0.2498 236 37 ↑ 21.39 15.61 0.7299 * 26.64 0.025 * 0.116 0.2087 76 26 ↑ 10.43 15.57 1.4931 * 8.58 0* 0.2453 * 0.4545 166 25 ↑ 16.59 8.41 0.5066 * 18.74 0.0826 0.1043 0.213 418 40 ↑ 33.86 6.14 0.1815 47.18 0.8842 0.0711 0.1277 37 13 ↑ 7.76 5.24 0.6759 * 4.18 0.0001 * 0.2181 * 0.5135 61 11 ↑ 9.4 1.6 0.1701 6.88 0.078 0.1042 0.2953 32 8↑ 7.41 0.59 0.0789 3.61 0.023 * 0.133 * 0.4226 100 12 ↓ 12.07 −0.07 −0.006 11.29 0.4569 0.0704 0.1983 16 6↓ 6.32 −0.32 −0.0504 1.81 0.0061 * 0.1844 * 0.6167 7 5↓ 5.7 −0.7 −0.1231 0.79 0.0003 * 0.3491 * 0.9148 55 8↓ 8.99 −0.99 −0.1101 6.21 0.278 0.0762 0.2622 81 9 ↓ 10.77 −1.77 −0.1644 9.14 0.5719 0.0601 0.1982 3 2↓ 5.43 −3.43 −0.6316 0.34 0.0353 * 0.1941 * 0.9324 34 4↓ 7.55 −3.55 −0.4703 3.84 0.5444 0.0481 0.2674 9 2↓ 5.84 −3.84 −0.6575 1.02 0.27 0.0667 0.5561 10 2↓ 5.91 −3.91 −0.6615 1.13 0.314 0.0602 0.5178 12 2↓ 6.04 −4.04 −0.6691 1.35 0.3996 0.0504 0.4545 1 1↓ 5.29 −4.29 −0.811 0.11 0.1129 0.1581 0.9874 2 1↓ 5.36 −4.36 −0.8134 0.23 0.213 0.0943 0.9057 2 1↓ 5.36 −4.36 −0.8134 0.23 0.213 0.0943 0.9057 17 2↓ 6.39 −4.39 −0.6869 1.92 0.5871 0.0358 0.3471 3 1↓ 5.43 −4.43 −0.8158 0.34 0.3018 0.0676 0.8059 5 1↓ 5.57 −4.57 −0.8203 0.56 0.4505 0.0433 0.6412 58 4↓ 9.2 −5.2 −0.565 6.55 0.905 0.0281 0.1646 1 0↓ 5.29 −5.29 −1 0.11 1 0.0126 0.8419 1 0↓ 5.29 −5.29 −1 0.11 1 0.0126 0.8419 16 1↓ 6.32 −5.32 −0.8417 1.81 0.8528 0.0146 0.2869 2 0↓ 5.36 −5.36 −1 0.23 1 0.0084 0.7076 2 0↓ 5.36 −5.36 −1 0.23 1 0.0084 0.7076 3 0↓ 5.43 −5.43 −1 0.34 1 0.0063 0.6024 4 0↓ 5.5 −5.5 −1 0.45 1 0.0051 0.5218 676 46 ↓ 51.53 −5.53 −0.1073 76.3 1 0.0515 0.0896 5 0↓ 5.57 −5.57 −1 0.56 1 0.0042 0.4593 7 0↓ 5.7 −5.7 −1 0.79 1 0.0032 0.3694 8 0↓ 5.77 −5.77 −1 0.9 1 0.0028 0.3363 8 0↓ 5.77 −5.77 −1 0.9 1 0.0028 0.3363 10 0↓ 5.91 −5.91 −1 1.13 1 0.0023 0.2849 73 4 ↓ 10.22 −6.22 −0.6087 8.24 0.9711 0.0223 0.1327 37 1↓ 7.76 −6.76 −0.8711 4.18 0.9881 0.0064 0.1381 55 2↓ 8.99 −6.99 −0.7775 6.21 0.989 0.0112 0.1231 Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Asterales Asparagales Poales 12 of 151 440 447 838 15 ↓ 15 ↓ 15 ↓ 35.36 35.84 62.63 −20.36 −20.84 −47.63 −0.5758 −0.5815 −0.7605 49.66 50.45 94.58 1 1 1 0.0209 0.0205 0.0109 0.0555 0.0546 0.0293 2.4. Food Families The three models recovered 42 positive outliers; 27 families were recovered by all three models (p < 0.05). The regression model identified 35 positive outliers, where Ana‐ cardiaceae (5.163) had the highest R‐value, followed by Sapotaceae (4.7522). Fabaceae had the highest regression residual (28.72), and was only recovered as an outlier under regres‐ sion approach. Binomial and Bayesian models identified 30 (p < 0.05) and 34 positive out‐ liers, respectively (Table 4). Table 4. Quantitative analysis of food families. T—total number of species in the flora; F—food spe‐ cies; ↑/↓—positive/negative outliers based on residuals; Pa—predicted food species under regression model; Pb—predicted food species under binomial model; inf.—Bayesian inferior 95% probability credible intervals; sup.—Bayesian superior 95% probability credible intervals; *—positive outlier. Family Fabaceae Apocynaceae Rubiaceae Cucurbitaceae Malvaceae Anacardiaceae Sapotaceae Amaranthaceae Capparaceae Burseraceae Celastraceae Moraceae Sapindaceae Rhamnaceae Convolvulaceae Ebenaceae Boraginaceae Solanaceae Rutaceae Cleomaceae Annonaceae Rosaceae Loganiaceae Zygophyllaceae Polygonaceae Arecaceae Verbenaceae Vitaceae Salicaceae Lamiaceae Combretaceae Urticaceae Menispermaceae T F 559 235 254 70 221 25 28 64 48 42 37 55 36 18 114 20 61 51 28 15 30 26 13 16 20 7 22 55 18 198 38 29 16 Regression Analysis Binomial Analysis Bayesian Analysis Pa Res R‐Value Pb p‐Value inf. (0.1050) sup. (0.1212) 71 ↑ 42.28 28.72 0.6793 * 63.09 0.1609 0.102 0.1572 41 ↑ 18.5 22.5 1.2166 * 26.52 0.0032 * 0.1314 * 0.2282 40 ↑ 19.89 20.11 1.0109 * 28.67 0.0192 * 0.1179 0.2074 26 ↑ 6.39 19.61 3.0715 * 7.9 0* 0.2676 * 0.489 37 ↑ 17.47 19.53 1.118 * 24.94 0.0096 * 0.1241 * 0.2223 19 ↑ 3.08 15.92 5.163 * 2.82 0* 0.5635 * 0.8843 19 ↑ 3.3 15.7 4.7522 * 3.16 0* 0.4917 * 0.8206 18 ↑ 5.95 12.05 2.0275 * 7.22 0.0002 * 0.186 * 0.4019 16 ↑ 4.77 11.23 2.3535 * 5.42 0* 0.2167 * 0.4754 14 ↑ 4.33 9.67 2.2327 * 4.74 0.0001 * 0.2101 * 0.4854 13 ↑ 3.96 9.04 2.2798 * 4.18 0.0001 * 0.2181 * 0.5135 14 ↑ 5.28 8.72 1.6491 * 6.21 0.0026 * 0.1583 * 0.3837 11 ↑ 3.89 7.11 1.8275 * 4.06 0.0015 * 0.1801 * 0.4698 8↑ 2.57 5.43 2.1139 * 2.03 0.0004 * 0.2445 * 0.665 15 ↑ 9.62 5.38 0.56 * 12.87 0.3042 0.0817 0.206 8↑ 2.72 5.28 1.9456 * 2.26 0.0009 * 0.2182 * 0.6156 11 ↑ 5.73 5.27 0.9213 * 6.88 0.078 0.1042 0.2953 10 ↑ 4.99 5.01 1.0035 * 5.76 0.0566 0.1106 0.3253 8↑ 3.3 4.7 1.422 * 3.16 0.0102 * 0.1528 * 0.4724 7↑ 2.35 4.65 1.9801 * 1.69 0.0007 * 0.2465 * 0.7012 8↑ 3.45 4.55 1.3189 * 3.39 0.0157 * 0.1422 * 0.4461 7↑ 3.16 3.84 1.2178 * 2.93 0.0221 * 0.1375 * 0.4628 6↑ 2.2 3.8 1.7247 * 1.47 0.0017 * 0.2304 * 0.7114 6↑ 2.42 3.58 1.477 * 1.81 0.0061 * 0.1844 * 0.6167 6↑ 2.72 3.28 1.2092 * 2.26 0.0197 * 0.1459 * 0.5218 5↑ 1.76 3.24 1.8382 * 0.79 0.0003 * 0.3491 * 0.9148 6↑ 2.86 3.14 1.0959 * 2.48 0.0312 * 0.1321 * 0.4841 8↑ 5.28 2.72 0.5137 * 6.21 0.278 0.0762 0.2622 5↑ 2.57 2.43 0.9462 * 2.03 0.0446 * 0.1258 * 0.512 18 ↑ 15.78 2.22 0.1406 22.35 0.8635 0.0585 0.1392 6↑ 4.04 1.96 0.4862 4.29 0.254 0.0754 0.3053 5↑ 3.38 1.62 0.4808 3.27 0.2242 0.0771 0.3472 4↑ 2.42 1.58 0.6513 * 1.81 0.0977 0.1031 0.499 Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Olacaceae Opiliaceae Oleaceae Salvadoraceae Myrtaceae Phyllanthaceae Pedaliaceae Chrysobalanaceae Nymphaeaceae Passifloraceae Clusiaceae Talinaceae Cannabaceae Moringaceae Zingiberaceae Dioscoreaceae Hypoxidaceae Alismataceae Aquifoliaceae Kirkiaceae Basellaceae Canellaceae Dilleniaceae Limeaceae Peraceae Pittosporaceae Asphodelaceae Didiereaceae Icacinaceae Pandanaceae Primulaceae Ochnaceae Achariaceae Aristolochiaceae Putranjivaceae Portulacaceae Bignoniaceae Connaraceae Oxalidaceae Dichapetalaceae Onagraceae Aizoaceae Malpighiaceae Hypericaceae Nyctaginaceae Piperaceae Araceae Amaryllidaceae Lythraceae Adoxaceae Alismataceae 13 of 151 3 3 17 4 9 51 13 2 2 30 3 4 6 6 8 9 10 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 57 3 3 3 17 18 5 5 5 19 6 6 6 9 9 10 10 12 12 12 26 14 28 1 1 3↑ 3↑ 4↑ 3↑ 3↑ 6↑ 3↑ 2↑ 2↑ 4↑ 2↑ 2↑ 2↑ 2↑ 2↑ 2↑ 2↑ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 5↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 2↓ 2↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 2↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 1↓ 2↓ 1↓ 2↓ 0↓ 0↓ 1.47 1.47 2.5 1.54 1.91 4.99 2.2 1.39 1.39 3.45 1.47 1.54 1.69 1.69 1.84 1.91 1.98 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 5.43 1.47 1.47 1.47 2.5 2.57 1.61 1.61 1.61 2.64 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.91 1.91 1.98 1.98 2.13 2.13 2.13 3.16 2.28 3.3 1.32 1.32 1.53 1.53 1.5 1.46 1.09 1.01 0.8 0.61 0.61 0.55 0.53 0.46 0.31 0.31 0.16 0.09 0.02 −0.32 −0.32 −0.32 −0.39 −0.39 −0.39 −0.39 −0.39 −0.39 −0.43 −0.47 −0.47 −0.47 −0.5 −0.57 −0.61 −0.61 −0.61 −0.64 −0.69 −0.69 −0.69 −0.91 −0.91 −0.98 −0.98 −1.13 −1.13 −1.13 −1.16 −1.28 −1.3 −1.32 −1.32 1.0435 * 1.0435 * 0.6028 * 0.9462 * 0.5719 * 0.2021 0.3623 0.434 0.434 0.1595 0.3623 0.2974 0.1846 0.1846 0.0899 0.0479 0.0091 −0.2432 −0.2432 −0.2432 −0.283 −0.283 −0.283 −0.283 −0.283 −0.283 −0.0795 −0.3188 −0.3188 −0.3188 −0.1986 −0.2215 −0.3808 −0.3808 −0.3808 −0.2431 −0.4077 −0.4077 −0.4077 −0.476 −0.476 −0.4954 −0.4954 −0.5302 −0.5302 −0.5302 −0.3663 −0.5605 −0.3945 −1 −1 0.34 0.34 1.92 0.45 1.02 5.76 1.47 0.23 0.23 3.39 0.34 0.45 0.68 0.68 0.9 1.02 1.13 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 6.43 0.34 0.34 0.34 1.92 2.03 0.56 0.56 0.56 2.14 0.68 0.68 0.68 1.02 1.02 1.13 1.13 1.35 1.35 1.35 2.93 1.58 3.16 0.11 0.11 0.0014 * 0.0014 * 0.1168 0.0053 * 0.0717 0.522 0.1744 0.0127 * 0.0127 * 0.4436 0.0353 * 0.0654 0.1404 0.1404 0.2259 0.27 0.314 0.1129 0.1129 0.1129 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.7854 0.3018 0.3018 0.3018 0.5871 0.6189 0.4505 0.4505 0.4505 0.6489 0.5125 0.5125 0.5125 0.6597 0.6597 0.6981 0.6981 0.7624 0.7624 0.7624 0.8086 0.813 0.8405 1 1 0.3976 * 0.3976 * 0.0969 0.2836 * 0.1216 * 0.0559 0.0839 0.2924 * 0.2924 * 0.0545 0.1941 * 0.1466 * 0.099 0.099 0.0749 0.0667 0.0602 0.1581 * 0.1581 * 0.1581 * 0.0943 0.0943 0.0943 0.0943 0.0943 0.0943 0.0389 0.0676 0.0676 0.0676 0.0358 0.0338 0.0433 0.0433 0.0433 0.0321 0.0367 0.0367 0.0367 0.0252 0.0252 0.0228 0.0228 0.0192 0.0192 0.0192 0.0235 0.0166 0.0219 0.0126 0.0126 0.9937 0.9937 0.4764 0.9473 0.6525 0.2344 0.508 0.9916 0.9916 0.2983 0.9324 0.8534 0.7096 0.7096 0.6001 0.5561 0.5178 0.9874 0.9874 0.9874 0.9057 0.9057 0.9057 0.9057 0.9057 0.9057 0.1898 0.8059 0.8059 0.8059 0.3471 0.3314 0.6412 0.6412 0.6412 0.317 0.5787 0.5787 0.5787 0.445 0.445 0.4128 0.4128 0.3603 0.3603 0.3603 0.2429 0.3195 0.2277 0.8419 0.8419 Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Ancistrocladaceae Aphloiaceae Berberidaceae Bixaceae Burmanniaceae Buxaceae Cabombaceae Cactaceae Caricaceae Casuarinaceae Flagellariaceae Francoaceae Gunneraceae Hamamelidaceae Lecythidaceae Liliaceae Lophiocarpaceae Metteniusaceae Monimiaceae Montiaceae Montiniaceae Musaceae Myristicaceae Myrothamnaceae Papaveraceae Penaeaceae Petiveriaceae Zosteraceae Geraniaceae Balanophoraceae Ceratophyllaceae Costaceae Droseraceae Gisekiaceae Goodeniaceae Haloragaceae Menyanthaceae Phrymaceae Phytolaccaceae Picrodendraceae Pontederiaceae Smilacaceae Tamaricaceae Typhaceae Velloziaceae Cornaceae Gelsemiaceae Lauraceae Myricaceae Podostemaceae Simaroubaceae 14 of 151 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 15 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 1↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 2.35 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.47 1.47 1.47 1.47 1.47 1.47 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.32 −1.35 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.39 −1.47 −1.47 −1.47 −1.47 −1.47 −1.47 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −0.5743 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 1.69 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.34 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.8341 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126 0.0155 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0084 0.0063 0.0063 0.0063 0.0063 0.0063 0.0063 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.8419 0.3023 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.7076 0.6024 0.6024 0.6024 0.6024 0.6024 0.6024 Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Vahliaceae Hydrocharitaceae Erythroxylaceae Hernandiaceae Resedaceae Colchicaceae Linaceae Stilbaceae Aponogetonaceae Begoniaceae Molluginaceae Plumbaginaceae Potamogetonaceae Xyridaceae Ericaceae Eriocaulaceae Juncaceae Proteaceae Caryophyllaceae Asparagaceae Gesneriaceae Caprifoliaceae Rhizophoraceae Meliaceae Santalaceae Brassicaceae Campanulaceae Lentibulariaceae Araliaceae Violaceae Thymelaeaceae Melastomataceae Ranunculaceae Commelinaceae Scrophulariaceae Polygalaceae Crassulaceae Balsaminaceae Loranthaceae Iridaceae Plantaginaceae Apiaceae Orobanchaceae Gentianaceae Linderniaceae Euphorbiaceae Acanthaceae Cyperaceae Asteraceae Orchidaceae Poaceae 15 of 151 3 17 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 21 103 8 9 9 23 23 38 38 11 12 13 14 15 16 71 17 33 34 21 50 23 23 41 55 28 28 217 271 269 398 240 546 0↓ 1↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 1↓ 7↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 1↓ 1↓ 2↓ 2↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 0↓ 4↓ 0↓ 1↓ 1↓ 0↓ 2↓ 0↓ 0↓ 1↓ 2↓ 0↓ 0↓ 13 ↓ 12 ↓ 5↓ 13 ↓ 0↓ 10 ↓ 1.47 2.5 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.61 1.61 1.61 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 2.79 8.81 1.84 1.91 1.91 2.94 2.94 4.04 4.04 2.06 2.13 2.2 2.28 2.35 2.42 6.46 2.5 3.67 3.74 2.79 4.92 2.94 2.94 4.26 5.28 3.3 3.3 17.18 21.14 20.99 30.46 18.86 41.32 −1.47 −1.5 −1.54 −1.54 −1.54 −1.61 −1.61 −1.61 −1.69 −1.69 −1.69 −1.69 −1.69 −1.69 −1.76 −1.76 −1.76 −1.76 −1.79 −1.81 −1.84 −1.91 −1.91 −1.94 −1.94 −2.04 −2.04 −2.06 −2.13 −2.2 −2.28 −2.35 −2.42 −2.46 −2.5 −2.67 −2.74 −2.79 −2.92 −2.94 −2.94 −3.26 −3.28 −3.3 −3.3 −4.18 −9.14 −15.99 −17.46 −18.86 −31.32 −1 −0.5993 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −0.6415 −0.2053 −1 −1 −1 −0.6594 −0.6594 −0.5046 −0.5046 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −0.3807 −1 −0.7275 −0.7329 −1 −0.5933 −1 −1 −0.7651 −0.6216 −1 −1 −0.2431 −0.4323 −0.7618 −0.5732 −1 −0.758 0.34 1.92 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.68 0.68 0.68 0.68 0.68 0.68 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 2.37 11.63 0.9 1.02 1.02 2.6 2.6 4.29 4.29 1.24 1.35 1.47 1.58 1.69 1.81 8.01 1.92 3.72 3.84 2.37 5.64 2.6 2.6 4.63 6.21 3.16 3.16 24.49 30.59 30.36 44.92 27.09 61.63 1 0.8694 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9191 0.9534 1 1 1 0.9364 0.9364 0.9384 0.9384 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9659 1 0.9808 0.983 1 0.9815 1 1 0.9926 0.989 1 1 0.9973 1 1 1 1 1 0.0063 0.0138 0.0051 0.0051 0.0051 0.0042 0.0042 0.0042 0.0036 0.0036 0.0036 0.0036 0.0036 0.0036 0.0032 0.0032 0.0032 0.0032 0.0112 0.0338 0.0028 0.0025 0.0025 0.0103 0.0103 0.0162 0.0162 0.0021 0.0019 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0015 0.0229 0.0014 0.0072 0.007 0.0012 0.0123 0.0011 0.0011 0.0058 0.0112 0.0009 0.0009 0.0356 0.0257 0.0082 0.0193 0.0001 0.0101 0.6024 0.2729 0.5218 0.5218 0.5218 0.4593 0.4593 0.4593 0.4096 0.4096 0.4096 0.4096 0.4096 0.4096 0.3694 0.3694 0.3694 0.3694 0.2284 0.1338 0.3363 0.3085 0.3085 0.2112 0.2112 0.1732 0.1732 0.2646 0.2471 0.2316 0.218 0.2059 0.1951 0.1362 0.1853 0.1533 0.1492 0.1544 0.1346 0.1425 0.1425 0.1257 0.1231 0.1194 0.1194 0.0998 0.0758 0.0427 0.0551 0.0152 0.0334 Plants 2023, 12, 1145 16 of 151 2.5. Taxa Shared between Medicinal and Food Uses Of the 21 orders recovered, only Celastrales, Cucurbitales, Ericales, Magnoliales, Malvales, Rosales, and Sapindales were significant outliers for both food and medicinal categories. Fabales was shared between the two categories, although it was not a signifi‐ cant positive outlier food taxon. In total, 59 families were recovered, with 21 common positive outliers, of which 14 (Amaranthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Capparaceae, Celastraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Malvaceae, Moraceae, Olacaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rutaceae, Salicaceae, Salvadoraceae, Sapindaceae) were significant positive outliers. 3. Discussion Malphigiales and Fabales, which contain Euphorbiaceae and Fabaceae, respectively, were recovered as positive medicinal outliers with significant values. In South Africa, Malphigiales was also recovered as a positive outlier, with Euphorbiaceae influencing its outlier status most [28]. Euphorbiaceae is an important medicinal taxon since its members contain terpenoids and derivatives, aliphatics, and alkaloids as abundant compounds and at least 1.7% of all major compounds [28]. In our study, Malphigiales comprised four sig‐ nificant positive outlier medicinal families (Salicaceae, Euphorbaceae, Hypericaceae, and Phyllanthaceae), and all of them were recovered with positive regression residuals in South Africa [28]. Three Sapindales families, i.e., Sapindaceae, Meliaceae, and Anacardi‐ aceae, which were significant positive medicinal outliers, were also recovered with posi‐ tive residuals in South Africa [28]. Anacardiaceae comprise flavonoids, aliphatics, and ter‐ penoids as the major compounds [28]. Rutaceae was also a significant positive outlier in our study, and previous studies support its importance in traditional medicine, e.g., alka‐ loid nitidine extracted from Zanthoxylum asiaticum (L.) Appelhans, Groppo & J. Wen root bark has a high antimalarial activity and is the main chemical component in many Ru‐ taceae species [46]. Nitidine was first isolated from Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern. & Timler, and received considerable attention as a potential anticancer drug after it was discovered to be potent against leukemia in mice [47]. To date, over 400 secondary metabolites have been discovered in Zanthoxylum species, with alkaloids and terpenoids being the major compounds [48]. In Fagaropsis, 18 main phytocompounds are known, and flavonoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids are among the compounds responsible for its me‐ dicinal properties [49]. Isolation and characterization of 21 secondary metabolites from Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f. ex Benth. revealed that imperatorin had the highest anti‐ bacterial activity. Some C. anisata extracts such as murrayamine‐A, gravelliferone, and ex‐ cavatin had activities against HeLa cells (LC50 = 1.14–3.26 μg/mL), with good selectivity index values (SI 38.20–231.58) and those compounds are not toxic to normal Vero cells (LC50 = 69.15–434.78 μg/mL), indicating their potential in the development of anticancer drugs [50]. Related medicinal plants portray efficacy against human diseases due to in‐ heritable similarities in the secondary metabolites [28], endorsing the idea of phylogenetic based bioprospecting. Similar to this study, Malvales was recovered as a positive outlier medicinal taxon in South Africa. Moreover, Rosales was recovered as a positive medicinal outlier in our study, while Solanales, Asterales, and Gentianales were not recovered as significant positive outliers, unlike in South Africa [28]. Orders and families shared for both food and medicine suggest possibility of generalist taxa. Moerman [19] also found a substantial overlap between drug and food plants in North America. However, the ob‐ served differences suggest that the two categories have independent applications. Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae and Lamiaceae, which are among the largest medicinal families in Kenya [14,51], were recovered as positive outliers, although Faba‐ ceae was not a significant outlier, which agrees with another study in South Africa [34]. However, Fabaceae is an important medicinal family in China and Nepal [34,52]. All the medicinal families recovered as important in our study were also reported in Thailand [29]. This relationship might be due to shared traditional knowledge between the two re‐ gions or due to the presence of the same important lineages [52]. However, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 17 of 151 Euphorbiaceae, which was a significant positive outlier in our study, was not recovered as a significant outlier in South Africa [34]. This is expected because the two regions com‐ prise different floras and cultures. Each family may also have substantially different spe‐ cies compositions in different regions [34], thus influencing how its species are picked. Asteraceae, the second‐largest medicinal family in Kenya, was not recovered as a positive outlier by any of the three models. Based on floral studies in Kenya [53,54], Asteraceae is abundant in the highlands, where it is moist. Lowland plants, mostly found in arid areas, are perceived to have better medicinal properties [41]. A previous study supported that the accumulation of chemical compounds in plants is influenced by edaphic factors [52]. Although water stress may play an important role in increasing the quantities of second‐ ary metabolites in many plants [55], the scale of our study is not sufficient to address this perspective. However, Asteraceae is an important medicinal family in North America and South Africa [27,28]. Rutaceae had the highest R‐value, which agrees with results obtained from Thailand, where it was among the families with the highest R‐values [29]. Some me‐ dicinal families recovered here as positive medicinal outliers have been reported else‐ where in the world, e.g., Rutaceae, Lamiaceae, Araliaceae, and Cucurbitaceae in Daodi pharmacopeia in China [52]; Amaranthaceae in Ecuador [20]; Anacardiaceae in South Af‐ rica [28,34]; Malvaceae and Solanaceae in Nepal, New Zealand, and South Africa [28,34]; Lamiaceae in Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand, North America, Korea and Ecuador [19,20,33,34,36]; Fabaceae in Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand, and South Africa [28,33,34]; Euphorbiaceae in Mexico, Nepal, and South Africa [28,33,34]; and Rutaceae in Nepal [34]. Acanthaceae, Cactaceae and Juncaceae were among the negative outlier medicinal fami‐ lies in North America [27], which agrees with the results of our study. In Southern Belize and China, Cyperaceae and Orchidaceae were also among the negative outlier medicinal families [35,52]. Orchidaceae is the largest family globally, but most orchids are rare epi‐ phytes and thus not easily accessible for medicinal uses [35]. However, there are differ‐ ences in the identification of important medicinal taxa globally. For example, in North America, Rosaceae was identified as a positive outlier, while Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae, and Fabaceae were identified as negative outliers using regression residuals, contrary to our results [27]. This convergent uses of medicinal families in different regions by unre‐ lated cultures strongly indicates their efficacy and further highlights their importance in different cultures suggesting the need to prioritize them in bioscreening and conservation since they present a potential for the discovery of new or overlooked medicinal species [28,34]. Since previous studies have largely focused on important medicinal taxa, Saslis– Lagoudakis et al. [34] recommended analyses of floras to identify other important taxa, such as food plants. Here, 14 positive outlier food orders and 27 positive outlier food fam‐ ilies were recovered with significant values. In North America, Rosaceae, Fabaceae and Poaceae, which produce human foods, were avoided as medicinal sources, but Solanaceae was important in both uses since most of its members are important foods globally [19]. However, Fabaceae and Solanaceae were only recovered as positive outliers under the regression model and thus were not significantly used for food. Moerman [27] argued that since grasses do not produce significant quantities of secondary metabolites, they com‐ prise the majority of the food plants that humans and animals depend on in North Amer‐ ica. Though the two floras are different, our study does not support this perspective since Poaceae was a negative outlier. Cyperaceae and Scrophulariaceae, which were among the negative outlier food taxa, were also ranked among the least important food families in North America using regression residuals [19]. Polygonaceae and Rosaceae were ranked among the top food families in North America, while Rubiaceae and Malvaceae were ranked among the least. Those four families were recovered as positive outliers by all three models. Lamiaceae was only recovered as a positive outlier under the regression model, but it was not significantly used for food, unlike in North America, where most of the aromatic plants were used for tisanes [19]. Unlike in North America, Apiaceae, Cac‐ taceae, and Liliaceae were not recovered as positive outliers in Kenya, while similar to Plants 2023, 12, 1145 18 of 151 North America, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, and Campanulaceae are not important food families in Kenya. 4. Materials and Methods 4.1. Study Area Kenyan landmass covers an area of about 582,000 km2 (Figure 3), with an altitude raising from sea level through a series of plateaus to the highest point in Mount Kenya, about 5200 m above sea level [56]. The low‐lying areas receive low rainfall and are thus hotter [57]. Kenya is divided into 7 floral regions [38]. The climate of Kenya is of tropical monsoon, belonging to tropical savanna climate, where the annual temperatures are in the range of 22–26 °C, while the annual minimum temperatures are in the range of 10–14 °C [58]. The highest temperatures are experienced in northwest and northern Kenya, where night temperatures can be 29 °C and the mean annual temperatures can reach above 34 °C [56]. Rainfall patterns in Kenya vary according to different seasons through‐ out the year, where most regions experience high rainfall from March to June, and October to December, with the annual rainfall decreasing from 2000–250 mm from southwest to northeast Kenya [58]. Habitat types in Kenya include wooded grasslands, bushlands, grasslands, semi‐deserts, afro‐alpine, mangroves, inland wetlands, etc. [59,60]. There are 3 vegetation types in Kenya: forest types, grasslands, and semi‐arid grasslands [60]. Most of the area in Kenya is arid to semi‐arid, where the climax vegetation comprises bushland, wooded grassland and desert scrub, while the transitional zones with higher rainfall com‐ prise woodlands [44,56]. The vegetation of many dry areas in Kenya is characterized by occasional baobab trees and low, stunted, dense thorn bushes with thick undergrowth [57], consisting of scrublands and woodlands [61]. The Kenyan coast comprises about 50% of forest‐dependent plant species, which are nationally threatened, making it the most important area for conservation despite its small area [56]. Most of the arid areas in Kenya lack forests except on hills [57], where species endemism is high [56,62]. Dry forests in Kenya consist of Drypetes spp., Combretum spp., Vepris spp., Croton spp., Euphorbia spp., Dombeya spp., and Commiphora spp. [62,63]. Plants 2023, 12, 1145 19 of 151 Figure 3. Map of Kenya (study area) (K1–K7 represents the seven floral regions of Kenya). In Kenya, most of the plants used locally for traditional medicine and food are ob‐ tained from the forests, proving the significance of biodiversity to the livelihoods of local inhabitants [51,64]. Many forests in dry environments are affected by harsh conditions and are thus deciduous, with low species diversity and a reduced canopy, and may have low tree density under extreme droughts. Many forests have been depleted over the years due to human activities; hence their species diversity is lower compared to the previous decades [63]. This destruction may escalate in the future due to difficult climate manifes‐ tation in East Africa, where warming is likely to lead to dryness in some areas and higher precipitation in others [65]. Based on these arguments, the utilization of forest resources needs to be well documented, understood, and properly managed if future generations are expected to benefit from them. Kenya comprises 42+ tribes, and some groups are com‐ posed of subtribes [45,66]. Those groups have renown traditional knowledge regarding the use of plants [51,67,68]. Since over 80% of the Kenyan land mass is under arid and semiarid conditions [44], the majority of the people live in arid areas, depending on Plants 2023, 12, 1145 20 of 151 livestock farming, and their lives may be constrained by frequent droughts [69], hence influencing their economic lifestyles; thus, some of them have commercialized useful plants [51,70]. 4.2. Floral and Ethnobotanical Data Collection An elaborate independent literature search in google scholar, web of science, seman‐ tic scholar, science direct, PubMed, Scopus, Scientific Electronic Library Online, and Google search was conducted to gather information on medicinal and food plants of Kenya. Keywords like ethnobotany, useful plants, traditional knowledge, medicinal plants, and food plants, combined with Kenya, were used to aid in the data search. Where possible, we added studies cited by already retrieved studies if the reported ethnobotan‐ ical work was carried out in Kenya. Since some ethnomedicinal materials collected data from both traditional healers/herbalists and non‐specialists of traditional medicine, we merged all the materials into 1 data set. Ethnomedicinal data were obtained from 74 arti‐ cles [7,14,51,64,66–68,71–137], 4 ethnobotanical reports [138–141], 3 books [142–144], and 11 dissertations (includes MSc. and PhD) [41,145–154]. Data on food plants were obtained from 19 articles [12–14,16,18,100,114,134,155–166] and 2 books [142,167]. The materials ob‐ tained were published between 1966 and 2021. We traced all the use reports to their orig‐ inal sources to remove repeated publications. Retrieved studies were entered in Microsoft Excel and screened manually to remove those with taxonomic errors. Where possible, we verified all the scientific names to ensure that they existed in the floral regions where the studies were carried out. Although our survey may not cover all the food and medicinal plant uses in Kenya, it represents a reliable sample due to its extensive geographical cov‐ erage. Data obtained were treated as a census rather than a sample of medicinal and food uses since it is more useful in understanding human behaviors compared to analyses of sample sizes [30]. Data on the flora of Kenya were obtained from Zhou et al [38], and updated according to Plants of The World Online (https://powo.science.kew.org/ accessed on 1 February–31 March 2021). Plant orders were obtained from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (https://www.gbif.org/ accessed on 1–30 April 2021). Plants not de‐ termined to species level and introduced species were removed during analyses. Infra‐ specific taxa were merged with the parent species. Fifty orders, 188 families, and 5883 species represented the total flora of Kenya. In total, 1298 medicinal plants (Appendix A) and 664 food plants (Appendix B) were subjected to quantitative analysis. 4.3. Quantitative Methods 4.3.1. Regression Analysis Regression analysis was carried out using Moerman’s LINEST linear regression func‐ tion approach in MS Excel 2016, according to Bennett and Husby [20]. The expected num‐ bers of medical and food species were recovered under the equation: y = bx + m; both b and m were obtained using the LINEST function. Regression residuals were used to ana‐ lyze a simple plot of the number of medicinal and food species against the total number of species in each category [29]. Since this approach violates the statistical assumptions of homoscedasticity and normality when used for analyzing useful floras [20], we applied the metric ‘relative regression residual (R)’ [29]; where R is the relative difference between the observed number of medicinal/food species (O) and predicted number (P) of medici‐ nal/food species under the model (P): R = (O − P)/P. We used the critical range of R‐values to filter random noise, which could result from data sets assembled from many sources, and thereafter identified positive outliers as those with R > 0.5 [29]. 4.3.2. Binomial Analysis To test for the significance of individual taxa departure from the expected number of medicinal/food plants, we conducted a binomial analysis to obtain p‐values for the Plants 2023, 12, 1145 21 of 151 positive outliers using the BINOMDIST function in MS Excel 2016 [20]. To obtain the sig‐ nificant values, we calculated 2 probabilities: (a) The probability that the number of medicinal and food plants in each category is equal to the expected; (b) The probability that the number of medicinal and food species in each category is equal to or more than the expected value. The 95% interval probability that the number of medicinal/food species is higher than expected was calculated as p = (1 + a) − b [20]. 4.3.3. Bayesian Analysis We conducted a Bayesian analysis using BETA.INV function in MS Excel 2016 [37]. Here, we calculated the inferior (inf.) 95% probability credible intervals and the superior (sup.) 95% probability credible intervals. Taxa with inferior 95% probability credible in‐ tervals higher than the superior 95% probability credible intervals obtained for all species were considered important (Bayesian inferior and superior 95% probability credible in‐ terval values obtained for all categories analyzed are enclosed in brackets in the results). 5. Conclusions Using linear regression, Binomial and Bayesian analyses, our results add information to the literature regarding outstanding medicinal and food plant taxa in Kenya. By com‐ paring our results with those from other studies elsewhere in the world, we have contrib‐ uted towards the synthesis of taxa that might prove to be important candidates for future bioscreening of useful chemical compounds. The comparison of outlier medicinal and food taxa further highlights that some taxa are more important in Kenya than previously known. In the future, we suggest a phylogenetic evaluation of orders and families identi‐ fied as important for medicinal uses to clearly understand the relationships between indi‐ vidual taxa. We also suggest comparative analyses of plants used by different ethnic mi‐ norities in Kenya and between different regions, especially in tropical Africa, to unravel the cultural interrelationships in those regions. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.M.M., G.‐W.H. and Q.‐F.W.; methodology, F.M.M. and M.P.; software, F.M.M. and M.P.; validation, F.M.M., E.M.M. and G.‐W.H.; formal analysis, F.M.M. and M.P.; investigation, F.M.M. and Y.M.M.; resources, G.‐W.H.; data curation, F.M.M.; writing— original draft preparation, F.M.M. and M.P.; writing—review and editing, M.P., J.M.N. and P.C.R.; visualization, F.M.M. and J.M.N.; supervision, G.‐W.H. and Q.‐F.W.; project administration, G.‐ W.H.; funding acquisition, G.‐W.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 31961143026, 31970211 and the Sino‐Africa Joint Research Center, grant number CAS SAJC202101. Data Availability Statement: The data used to support the findings of the manuscript is contained in Appendices A and B. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Appendix A Checklist of medicinal plants of Kenya, introduced species are indicated in brackets as ‘exotic.’ Species/Family Acanthaceae Habit Acanthus eminens C.B.Clarke Shrub Parts Diseases Treated References Leaf, whole plant, roots Chest/joint pains, fever, abdominal cramps/pains, spleen/liver problems, [78,88,109,119,120, 132,141,143,152] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 22 of 151 Acanthus polystachyus Delile Shrub Anisotes ukambensis Lindau Asystasia mysorensis (Roth) T.Anderson Barleria acanthoides Vahl Shrub Herb Barleria delamerei S.Moore Herb Shrub Barleria eranthemoides R.Br. ex Shrub C.B.Clarke Barleria grandicalyx Lindau Herb Barleria quadrispina Lindau Shrub alimentary canal problems, hyperten‐ sion, stomachache, typhoid, amoebiasis, headache, heart‐problem, skin diseases, wounds, eye infections Leaf, root, Mental disturbance, acaricide, cough, [98,120,133,144] stem spleen/liver problems, fever Bark Bleeding during pregnancy [74] Chira, false teeth, colds, headache, ma‐ Leaf [76,78,99,143] laria, ringworms, cough, skin diseases Roots, leaves Tonic, eye lotion [77] Whole plant, Polio, fever, tonic, eye lotion [72,77] roots, leaf Dyspepsia, vomiting, postpartum hem‐ [51,81,102,148] Leaf, root, orrhage, diaphragm, foreign objects whole plant pierced into the skin, boils Leaf Snakebites [78] Wasting sickness in goats, menstrual [127,142] Roots disorders Barleria ventricosa Hochst. ex Herb Nees Whole plant Rheumatism Blepharis edulis (Forssk.) Pers. Herb Whole plant Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Herb B.Heyne ex Roth Whole plant Sores Crabbea velutina S.Moore Herb Crossandra massaica Mildbr. Herb Dicliptera laxata C.B.Clarke Herb Root, leaf, whole plant Leaf Roots, leaf, aerial parts [106] Lung problems, malaria, hepatitis, TB, [72,77,92] chest pain [140] Scabies, prophylaxis for baby ailments, [76,140,141] enlarged glands Snakebites (humans/cattle), syphilis [67,76] Colorectal cancer, diarrhea, skin rashes, chest pain, difficult breathing, wounds, [117,119,122,144] mouth ulcers in children, cough, eye/ear infection, boils, snakebites Duosperma kilimandscharicum Shrub (Lindau) Dayton Leaf Cuts, sores, wounds Dyschoriste radicans Nees leaf Itchy skin, HIV/AIDs, fever, STIs, orchi‐ tis, skin diseases, wounds, eye infec‐ [78,119,143,144] tions Leaf Skin diseases, wounds, eye infections Herb Dyschoriste thunbergiiflora Herb/shrub (S.Moore) Lindau Hygrophila auriculata (Schu‐ Herb mach.) Heine Hypoestes aristata (Vahl) Sol. Herb ex Roem. & Schult. Hypoestes forskaolii (Vahl) R.Br. Herb Justicia anagalloides (Nees) T.Anderson Herb Whole plant Corneal ulcers [80] [78] [143] Wounds, stomachache, colds, malaria, liver problems, stomach ulcers, nausea, [67,87,109,115,131, Leaves, roots, joint/chest pain, TB, chest complaints, 141,152] stems pneumonia, sore throat, cough, eye dis‐ eases, abdominal pains Root, bark, Stomachache, colds, malaria, liver prob‐ [91,104,132,152,16 leaves, aerial lems, stomach ulcers, nausea, pesticide 8] parts Leaves Edema [144] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 23 of 151 Justicia calyculata Deflers Justicia exigua S.Moore Herb Herb Aerial parts Snakebites Whole plant Gastrointestinal problems Postnatal pains, eyes problems, cough, Leaves, roots boils, diarrhea, stomachache, vomiting, ulcers, pneumonia Aerial parts, Aphrodisiac bark [126] [79] Justicia flava (Forssk.) Vahl Herb Justicia odora (Forssk.) Lam. Shrub Justicia striata (Klotzsch) Bull‐ Herb ock Leaves Skin sores/ulcers [141] Lepidagathis scariosa Nees Herb Leaves Diarrhea, wounds, edema, foot and mouth in livestock, pneumonia [78] Monechma subsessile (Oliv.) C.B.Clarke Herb Roots Labor pains [144] Malaria, cough, breast/colorectal/skin cancer, toothaches, diarrhea, stomach‐ ache, STIs, edema, orchitis [67,78,79,101,117,1 19,122,143,144] Nicoteba betonica (L.) Lindau Herb Ruellia patula Jacq. Herb Leaves, flow‐ ers, roots, whole plant, aerial parts Root [67,78,122,125,132 ] [80] Thunbergia fischeri Engl. Thunbergia holstii Lindau Achariaceae Herb Shrub Joint diseases [149] Joint dislocation (humans, livestock), boils, toothache, body swellings, watery painful eyes, wounds, internal injury, bone fractures, stomachache, mouth ul‐ cers, cellulitis, cough, suppurating ears, [78,86,120,122,125, Leaves, buds diarrhea, skin diseases, goat/sheep dis‐ 141,143,144,168] eases, backache, hydrocele, joint pains, fungal diseases, tongue thrush, fetus placement in the womb, hardening of soft parts of the central part of the head in babies, gall sickness in cattle Whole plant Purgative [67] Leaves Malaria [138] Grandidiera boivinii Jaub. Shrub Roots, leaves Herb/shrub Skin diseases, wounds/cuts, teeth prob‐ lems, back/knee aches, conjunctivitis, malaria, venereal diseases, septic swell‐ [41,51,76,78,84,89, ing, urinary tract problems, constipa‐ 90,92,96,115,120,1 Roots, whole tion, STIs, back/joint/bone problems, ar‐ 27,132,136,138,143 plant, leaves thritis, general body, stomachache, an‐ ,144,147,149,152,1 thrax, toothache, cough, excess men‐ 68] strual discharge, headache, gonorrhea, kidney problems, diabetes, kidney pains Thunbergia alata Bojer ex Sims Herb Common cold, tonsils, septic swelling, [127] poison antidote Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. Achyropsis fruticulosa Shrub C.B.Clarke Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. Hern/shrub ex Schult. Alternanthera pungens Kunth Herb (exotic) Root Malaria [77] Roots, flowersECF in cattle, retained placenta [67,89,139] Leaves, roots Toothache, mouth sores [106,122] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 24 of 151 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. Herb ex DC. Amaranthus graecizans L. Herb Amaranthus hybridus L. Herb Amaranthus spinosus L. Herb Amaranthus tricolor L. (exotic) Herb Beta vulgaris L. (exotic) Herb Celosia anthelminthica Asch. Herb Celosia argentea L. Celosia schweinfurthiana Schinz (exotic) Celosia trigyna L. Herb [119] AIDS, amoebiasis, cough, colds/flu, dia‐ betes, energy boost, high blood pres‐ Leaves, wholesure, immunity booster, increase blood, [41,78,81,147] poor digestion, boils, rheumatism, an‐ plant thelmintic, wounds, prevent abortion, cancer Colic pain in infants, mineral/vitamin deficiency in pregnancy, urinary tract Leaves, roots, [84,88,96,111,147,1 infection, kidney and stomach ailments, whole plant 53,168] bilharzia, stomach acid, anthelmintic in human/animals, measles, malaria Roots, whole Mouth infection, venom antidote, [76,132,144] plant wounds, fever Leaves Ear diseases, skin disease [141,144] Cancer [41] Whole plant Anthelmintic [143] Leaves, flow‐ Convalescents [67] ers, stems Whole plant Malaria, anthelmintic Herb Whole plant Anthelmintic [143] Abdominal upsets in infants, blood de‐ Whole plant [88] toxifier in pregnancy Diarrhea, fever in babies, cough, ana‐ plasmosis in cattle, roundworms in chil‐ [119,132,168] Leaves, roots dren, suppurating ears, urinary disor‐ ders Malaria, stomach problems, wounds, Roots, bark, joint pains, emetic, purgative, diarrhea, [67,78,104,109] leaves fungal infections Dental problems, malaria, emetic, ul‐ Roots, leaves, cers, breast cancer, boils, urinary prob‐ [41,67,84,104,115,1 bark, whole lems, diabetes, vomiting, diarrhea, heart 38,144,147,168] plant problems, stomachache, anthelmintic Malaria, wounds, induce pregnancy, Roots, leaves [99,141,144,152] skin rashes, abdominal pains, emetic Leaves Generally medicinal [91] Leaves, whole Neck swelling in calves, wounds, an‐ [67,115,132,140] plant thelmintic, boils Chenopodium opulifolium Herb Schrad. ex W.D.J.Koch & Ziz Cyathula cylindrica Moq. Herb Cyathula polycephala Baker Herb Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. Eye infections, wounds, skin diseases Herb Chenopodium album L. (exotic) Herb Cyathula uncinulata (Schrad.) Schinz Digera muricata (L.) Mart. Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants Gomphrena celosioides Mart. (exotic) Ouret lanata (L.) Kuntze Psilotrichum elliotii Baker Psilotrichum scleranthum Thwaites Leaves Herb/shrub Herb Herb Herb Roots Herb/shrub Shrub Leaves Sores eyes Whole plant Boils Convulsions, aphrodisiac, smoothening Roots, leaves skin Whole plant, Venereal diseases, induce salivation in babies roots Herb/shrub Herb Wound, burns [124,143] [77] [67] [147] [127,150] [127] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Sericocomopsis hildebrandtii Schinz Sericocomopsis pallida (S.Moore) Schinz Amaryllidaceae Allium ampeloprasum L. (ex‐ otic) 25 of 151 Shrub Root Malaria, stomachache, weight during pregnancy, induce bile release from the [77,92,97,105,136] gallbladder, hepatitis, purgative Shrub Root Malaria Herb Allium cepa L. (exotic) Herb Allium sativum L. (exotic) Herb Colds, flu, cleaning mouth, earache, [84,108,147] cough Cough, flu, headache, pneumonia, bloat (cows), chest problem, digestive disor‐ Roots [14,41,73,74,168] ders, rheumatism, wounds, colds (hu‐ man/cattle) Malaria, HIV/AIDs, toothache, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, respiratory dis‐ [14,83,85,98,108,12 Roots, fruits eases, stomachache, mosquito repellant, 9,137,146] allergies, colds, runny nose Leaves Ammocharis tinneana (Ko‐ tschy & Peyr.) Milne‐Redh. & Herb Schweick. Root, exudate Snakebites, emetic Crinum macowanii Baker Root, exudate Herb Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. (ex‐ Shrub/tree otic) Lannea alata (Engl.) Engl. Shrub/tree Lannea fulva (Engl.) Engl. Shrub/tree Lannea rivae (Chiov.) Sacleux Shrub/tree Lannea schimperi (Hochst. ex Tree A.Rich.) Engl. Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Shrub/tree Engl. Lannea triphylla (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Engl. Shrub/tree [72] Urinary tract infections, chest pains, boils, snakebites, livestock diseases Leaves, roots Toothache, child colic [126,143] [80,143] [150] Roots, leaves Burns, wounds, stomach problems [72,80] Gut disorders, diarrhea, chest pains, [91,99,116,132,141, Roots, bark cough, stomachache, antivenom, head‐ 142] ache, astringent, expectorant, colds Ear problems, nose and throat prob‐ [41,77] Bark lems, diarrhea Aphrodisiac, gut problems, diarrhea, Bark, roots, dysentery, acaricide, prophylaxis for [41,78,116,133,140 leaves baby/children’s ailments, stomachache, ] chest problems Malaria, venereal diseases, induce labor pains, amoeba, stomachache, boils, skin rashes, cough, colds/flu, STIs, urinary system infections, pneumonia, gastroin‐ testinal problems, pregnancy anemia, [14,41,51,75,76,79, 81,100,102,104,106 vomiting, headache, waterborne dis‐ Bark, roots, eases, arthritis, increase blood, barren‐ ,108,127,132,138,1 leaves ness, boils, skin diseases, toothache, 42,143,145,148,150 heart problem, dermatological prob‐ ,151] lems, jaundice, anthrax, gynecological problems, dysentery, infertility, teeth re‐ moval, anti‐acid, laxative, backache, gonorrhea Diarrhea, liver diseases, dysentery, [14,77,80,99,139] Roots, bark rheumatism, body swelling, malaria, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 26 of 151 Lannea welwitschii (Hiern) Engl. Tree Mangifera indica L. (exotic) Tree Roots, leaves, bark, fruits Ozoroa insignis Delile Shrub/tree Bark, root, stems, leaves Ozoroa obovata (Oliv.) R.Fern. Shrub/tree & A.Fern. Roots Pistacia aethiopica Kokwaro Shrub/tree Roots, bark Schinus molle L. (exotic) Tree Roots, leaves, stems Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst. Tree Bark, roots, fruits Searsia longipes (Engl.) Mof‐ Shrub/tree fett Fruits, roots Searsia natalensis (Bernh. ex C.Krauss) F.A.Barkley Leaves, bark, seeds, roots, stems, Shrub/tree colds, stomachache, chest problems, nausea in pregnancy Diarrhea, hemorrhoids, infertility in women, menstrual troubles, gonorrhea, [110] epilepsy, skin infections, ulcers TB, malaise, allergies, amoebiasis, back/joint/bone problems, burns, cough, colds/flu, diabetes, goiter, hypertension, injuries/cuts, wounds, kwashiorkor, ma‐ [14,41,80,83,84,106 laria, pneumonia, rheumatism, typhoid, ,116– toothache, ringworms, diarrhea, gonor‐ 119,129,139,143,14 rhea, stomachache, ear infections, chest 6,150,168] pains, toothache, skin/throat/breast can‐ cer, constipation, STIs, diabetes, yellow fever, diarrhea, abdominal pains Mumps, toothache, snakebites, compli‐ cations in menstruation, venereal dis‐ eases, diarrhea, clean womb, liver prob‐ lems, rib pain, tonic, stomachache, kid‐ [67,77,79,86,87,91, ney diseases, acaricide, retained pla‐ 99,105,107,111,112 centa in human/animals, constipation in ,127,132,133,140– animals, gastrointestinal problems, en‐ 143,145] larged spleen, headache, cancer, vomit‐ ing, heart problem, pregnancy pains, as‐ tringent, dysmenorrhea, malaria Menstrual disorders, venereal diseases, [127,142,150] stomachache, malaria, dizziness Allergies, cough, colds/flu, dental prob‐ lems, diabetes, malaria, spleen pain and [41,84,140,168] enlargement, dizziness, liver problems, fever, pneumonia, rheumatism Cough, colds/flu, malaria, rheumatism, [41,71,107,168] chicken pox Colds, flu, edema of limbs, respiratory disorders, joint pains, toothache, joint aches, backache, body aches, malaria, stomachache, constipation, dysentery, [14,41,64,72,90,91, diarrhea, fever, ulcers, enlarged spleen, 99,100,104,112,127 heartburn, dysentery, liver problems, ,141–143,147] rheumatism, diabetes, tick control, ab‐ dominal pain, spleen diseases, STI’s, cough Amoeba, anthelmintic, backache, stom‐ [14,99,147] achache, headache, influenza, diarrhea [14,41,66,68,71,72, Abdominal pains, gonorrhea, anthel‐ 75– mintic in human/livestock, malaria, tonic, respiratory disorders, stomachic, 79,81,82,84,86,88,9 endometritis, foot/mouth disease, post‐ 0,98–101,104– partum pain, stomach problems, diar‐ 109,112,113,115,11 rhea, teeth cleaning, stomachache, bone 7,119,120,123,125, pains, premenstrual pains, madness, 127,132,133,135,13 Plants 2023, 12, 1145 27 of 151 6,138,140– weak bone, joint pains, abdominal pains, urinary tract infection, convul‐ 144,148,152,154,16 8] sions, constipation, spinal cord prob‐ lem, liver and spleen diseases, peptic ul‐ cers, invigorant, helps in child delivery, back/bone joint problems, cough, colds, flu, ear‐nose‐throat problems, lack of appetite, low libido, back/joint/bone problems, arthritis, wounds, dental dis‐ eases, livestock weakness, giardia, head‐ ache, neck pain, fever, TB, vomiting, eye lotion, stomach/skin/breast cancer, in‐ fluenza, back pain, anthrax, postpartum pains, toothache, tonsillitis, boils, acari‐ cide, abdominal pain, heartburn, rashes, liver enlargement, asthma, wounds, prophylaxis for diseases various dis‐ eases, general body weakness, colic pain, pain in pregnancy, strengthen bones, vitamin supplements, bilharzia, afterbirth pains, indigestion, chest prob‐ lems, pneumonia, respiratory disorders, abdominal pains, venereal diseases, sore feet, purgative Annonaceae Annona senegalensis Pers. Shrub/tree Annona squamosa L. (exotic) Shrub/tree Asteranthe asterias (S.Moore) Engl. & Diels Huberantha stuhlmannii (Engl.) Chaowasku Monanthotaxis fornicata (Baill.) Verdc. Monanthotaxis schweinfurthii (Engl. & Diels) Verdc. Monanthotaxis trichocarpa (Engl. & Diels) Verdc. Eye problems, snakebites, stomach up‐ sets, acaricide stomachache, poison anti‐ [95,112,126,133,13 Leaves, bark, dote, intestinal pains, vomiting, diar‐ rhea, constipation, sores, ulcers, boils, 4,142–144,150] roots liver/spleen problems, headache, dizzi‐ ness, colds Nutrient supplement, ulcers, blood pu‐ Roots, leaves, rifier, hypertension, reproductive disor‐ [110,150] fruits ders, dizziness Shrub/tree Roots, leaves Sore throats, coughs, venereal diseases [127] Shrub Roots, bark Hypertension, typhoid, obesity Shrub Roots, leaves General body pains, prenatal care, men‐ [127] struation complications Liana Roots Malaria, rheumatism [41,129] Liana Leaves Headache [142] Monodora grandidieri Baill. Shrub/tree Uvaria acuminata Oliv. Shrub/tree [150] Rectal problems, anthelmintic, aphro‐ Roots, leaves disiac, gastrointestinal gas, reproductive [127,134,150] disorders Convulsions, snakebites, dysentery, cough, stomach upsets, spleen prob‐ [75,100,127,142,14 Roots, leaves lems, laxative, gastrointestinal gas, aph‐ 5,150] rodisiac, rectal prolapse, menstrual Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Uvaria faulknerae Verdc. Uvaria leptocladon Oliv. 28 of 151 Liana Shrub/tree/li‐ ana Herb Roots, leaves Cancer, purgative, colds [129,141] Herb Bark Chest problems, bronchitis [144] Herb Seeds Colds [67,89] Uvariodendron anisatum Verdc. Shrub/tree Herb Coriandrum sativum L. (ex‐ Herb otic) Daucus carota L. Herb Daucus incognitus (C.Nor‐ man) Spalik, Reduron & Ba‐ Herb nasiak Diplolophium africanum Turcz.Herb Ferula communis L. Herb Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (ex‐ Herb otic) Oenanthe palustris (Chiov.) C.Norman Oenanthe procumbens (H.Wolff) C.Norman [142] Diuretic, abortifacient [127] [150] Tree/liana Heteromorpha trifoliata (H.L.Wendl.) Eckl. & Zeyh. Root Shrub/tree Tree Uvaria scheffleri Diels Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. [127] Convulsions, reproductive disorders, aphrodisiac Malaria, joint/chest pains, cough/colds/flu, lack of appetite, pain‐ Bark, root killer, stomach disorders, debility, pneumonia, swollen legs, stomach pain in pregnancy, retained placenta Allergies, amoebiasis, arthritis, cough, colds, flu, diabetes, HIV/AIDs, infertil‐ ity, injuries, cuts, wounds, retained pla‐ centa in cows/human, low libido, rheu‐ Roots, leaves matism, STIs, ulcers, scorpion/snake bites, breast/prostate cancer, calf rejec‐ tion, erectile dysfunction/impotence, malaria, labor pains, aphrodisiac Roots Convulsions, bloody diarrhea Roots Aphrodisiac Uvaria lucida Bojer ex Benth. Shrub/liana Uvariodendron kirkii Verdc. Xylopia parviflora Spruce Apiaceae Afroligusticum aculeolatum (Engl.) P.J.D.Winter Alepidea peduncularis Steud. ex A.Rich. Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. cramps, malaria, female reproductive disorders Roots, leaves Convulsions Shrub/tree Herb Herb Roots, leaves [127,150] [41,77,84,91,96,99, 129,139,141,142] [14,41,84,146,168] Leaves, roots, Loss of memory, toothache, ear infec‐ stems, whole tions, boils, mouth ulcers, infertility, plant measles, stomachache, HIV/AIDs Colds, flu, digestive disorders, nausea, Leaves dysentery Roots Heartburns, stomach disorders [41] Roots Pneumonia [120] Root Roots Ailments in children/babies General sickness in babies/children [140] [140] Colic, Vitamin A supplement [41] [119,122,143,144,1 54] [84,168] Stomachache, skin infections, measles, [67,99,109,120,140, Roots, levees ulcers, tonic, syphilis, poison, fever in 142,152,168] children/babies, cough, aphrodisiac Stomach complications, poisonous to Leaves [109,168] livestock Leaves, seeds Mouth infection in babies, cough [67,109] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. 29 of 151 Tree Torilis arvensis (Huds.) Link Herb Apocynaceae Acokanthera oppositifolia Shrub/tree (Lam.) Codd Acokanthera schimperi (A.DC.) Shrub/tree Schweinf. Adenium obesum (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. Buckollia volubilis (Schltr.) Venter & R.L.Verh. shrub Liana Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton Shrub/tree Carissa spinarum L. Shrub Skin, partial blindness, edema, dysen‐ tery, diabetes mellitus, boils, protracted Leaves, bark, labor, retained afterbirth, malaria, acari‐ [51,67,81,85,98,106 aerial parts, cide, emetic, fever, pneumonia, spleen ,120,129,133,139,1 roots, stems pain and enlargement, swollen legs and 40,142,147] body pains during pregnancy, itchy eyes, sensitive eyes Leaves Preventing miscarriage [77] Bar, roots, [72,88,100,142,168 Cancer, liver disease, poison fruits, leaves ] Blood pressure, HIV/AIDs, diarrhea, an‐ [68,78,88,89,91,105 Roots, stems, tivenom, syphilis, poisonous, ectopara‐ leaves, bark ,107,142,145,168] sites (ticks, fleas, mites), malaria Stomach ailments, snakebites, poison‐ [68,72,77,127,134,1 Bark, root ous, ectoparasites 42] Bark Aid in child delivery, malaria [78] Determine unborn babyʹs sex, tooth‐ Roots, bark, ache, yellow fever, anemia, malaria, [14,51,88,91,104,13 exudates, camel cough, poisonous, emetic, vomit‐ 2,134,141,142,147] fruits, stems ing, diarrhea, stomachache, foreign ob‐ jects pierced into the body Abdominal pains, infertility in women, malaria, gonorrhea, syphilis, nose bleeding, diarrhea, typhoid fever, lacta‐ tion, postpartum pain, pelvic pains, backache, skin allergies, seizures, fever, herpes zoster (shingles), amoebas, STIs, measles, joint pains, afterbirth pains, cancer, chest problems, cleans stomach, cough, colds/flu, energy boost, high blood pressure, painkiller, pneumonia, [14,41,64,68,71– medicine antidote, rheumatism, TB, an‐ 74,76–79,81– thelmintic, chest pains, polio, arthritis, 83,86–91,93,97– chest pains, stomachache, asthma, al‐ 99,101–103,105– Roots, fruits, lergy, peptic ulcers, colic pain in infants, 108,112,113,118– bark, leaves, wounds, hypertension, diabetes, men‐ 120,123,124,129,13 seeds strual pains, ingestion and abdominal 0,132,133,135– 138,140– pains during pregnancy, bone pain, toothache, dizziness, headache, theiler‐ 143,146,147,150,15 iosis, helminthiasis, salmonellosis, heart 1,154,168] water, milk letdown, prevent first and second trimester, abortion, vomiting, in‐ fertility (sheep, goat), milk let down, mastitis, miscarriage (cow), tonic, con‐ stipation, eye infections, reduces body fat, dysentery, aphrodisiac, abdominal pains, breast cancer, acaricide, general malaise, appetizer, swelling and bruises, HIV/AIDs, strengthen bones, bloat, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 30 of 151 heartburn, cathartic, gynecological dis‐ eases, softens stool, digestion and cough (cattle), muscle pain, epilepsy Carissa tetramera (Sacleux) Stapf Shrub/tree Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold Tree (exotic) Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don (exotic) Herb/shrub Cryptolepis oblongifolia Shrub (Meisn.) Schltr. Cynanchum altiscandens Shrub K.Schum. Cynanchum ethiopicum Liede Herb & Khanum Cynanchum insipidum (E.Mey.) Liede & Khanum Cynanchum viminale (L.) L. Desmidorchis retrospiciens Eh‐ renb. Desmidorchis speciosa (N.E.Br.) Plowes Edithcolea grandis N.E.Br. Funtumia africana (Benth.) Stapf Herb Herb Herb Roots, leaves Convulsions Wounds, skin rashes, cuts/burns, lung Fruit, leaf, problems in livestock, mosquito repel‐ flower, bark, lant, congested nose in children, skin roots, fruits disease, ringworms, induce sneezing Throat/stomach/esophageal cancer, Leaves, whole pneumonia, chest pain, gastrointestinal plant, roots problems, malaria Roots General body weakness [127] [74,76,87,106,108,1 43,150] [79,104,117,122,12 4,143] [140] Tuber, aerial Colds, stomachache, circumcision parts wounds, increase milk letdown [144,152] Roots [109] Pneumonia Stomachache, abnormal vaginal secre‐ tion, anaplasmosis, Chira, malaria, eye Leaves, roots problem, reproductive disorders, in‐ crease milk letdown in animals Roots, bark Syphilis, bone pain, body pains, cough Infertility, chest problems, conges‐ Whole plant tion/wheezing [68,76,127,144,150 ] [14,67,140] [88,91] Herb Exudate Emetic [67] Herb Exudates Ringworms [51] Tree Leaves, bark Boils, dysentery, diarrhea [116] Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) Shrub W.T.Aiton Diarrhea, diabetes, fevers, abdominal Seeds, roots, pains, wounds, toothache (never to [83,99,136,140,141, whole plant, swallowed), liver diseases, kidney prob‐ 168] exudate lems, chest pains, headache Gomphocarpus integer (N.E.Br.) Bullock Roots Herb Gomphocarpus physocarpus E.Mey. Shrub Gomphocarpus semilunatus A.Rich. Shrub Kanahia laniflora (Forssk.) Shrub R.Br. Landolphia buchananii (Hallier Liana f.) Stapf Landolphia kirkii Dyer ex Shrub Hook.f. Amoeba [147] Stems, fruits, Stomach problems in women, tooth‐ roots, exu‐ ache, aids calf delivery in cows, flu, con‐ [67,76,109,152] date, leaves gested nose Gum lesions, toothache, syphilis, gonor‐ Leaves, wholerhea, gastroenteritis, malaria, [104,115,122,131,1 plant nose infection, stomach problem, head‐ 43] ache, infertility, purgative Epilepsy [142] Leaves, roots Back/joint ache, venereal diseases, ma‐ [78,84,111,168] laria, wounds, gonorrhea, molluscoid Roots Stomach ailments [127] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 31 of 151 Leptadenia lanceolata (Poir.) Liana Goyder Marsdenia abyssinica (Hochst.) Liana Schltr. Marsdenia angolensis N.E.Br. Liana Marsdenia rubicunda Liana (K.Schum.) N.E.Br. Marsdenia schimperi Decne. Liana Mondia whitei (Hook.f.) Skeels Shrub Nerium oleander L. (exotic) Shrub/tree Orbea dummeri (N.E.Br.) Herb Bruyns Pachycarpus concolor E. Mey. Herb Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Herb/shrub Chiov. Periploca linearifolia Quart.‐ Dill. & A.Rich. Shrub Plumeria alba L. (exotic) Shrub/tree Plumeria rubra L. (exotic) Shrub/tree Rauvolfia caffra Sond. Shrub/tree Rauvolfia mannii Stapf Shrub/tree Leaves General medicine [91] Bark, roots Diarrhea, heartburn, oral thrush [67,86,142] Root Anthelmintic, runny nose, poison [14] Roots Postnatal care, threatened miscarriage [127,141] Root Abdominal pain [141] Appetizer, fatigue, mineral deficiency, aphrodisiac, respiratory problems, aller‐ gies, cough, colds/flu, dental disorders, [14,41,66,99,105,10 Roots, fruits, malaria, rheumatism, stomach disor‐ 7,110,125,133,142– flowers, ders, indigestion, heartburn, kidney ail‐ 144,146,168] stems, ments, asthma, gonorrhea, acaricide, an‐ orexia, STIs, stimulant after giving birth, aphrodisiac, infertility, stomachache Upper respiratory tract infections, gas‐ Leaves trointestinal complications, blocked [68,122] nose, chest pain Gastrointestinal ulcers, sores on [139,140] Stems lips/tongue, baby stomach problems Roots Cattle sores caused by skin maggots [67] Exudate, Stomachache, rashes, dermatitis [67,132,141] roots Infertility, abdominal pains in preg‐ nancy, ulcers, malaria, stomachache, headache, backache, diarrhea, colds, flu, cough, chest problems, bad smell of flat‐ ulence, mouth inflammation in children, anthelmintic, retained placenta, fever, [41,78,83,84,87,88, Roots, leaves, joint pains, gonorrhea, teeth problems, 91,99,103,104,107, stems, exu‐ spinal cord problem, aphrodisiac, her‐ 109,120,128,131,13 date pes zoster, oral thrush, pneumonia, can‐ 2,141,152,168] cer, pre/postmenopausal symptoms, lumbago in women, diabetes, syphilis, pesticide, eye problems, amoeba, wounds, skin sores/ulcers, typhoid, body strength, warts Bark, root, Removal of thorn, wounds (cow, goat, [14,73,146] leaves, exu‐ sheep, human), STI’s date Exudate Ringworms [122] Allergies, amoebiasis, cough, colds/flu, pneumonia, rheumatism, stomach dis‐ Bark, fruit, orders, respiratory disorders, body [14,41,80,100,143,1 root weakness, chest diseases, bloat, ECF, 46,147] anthelmintic, trachoma in cattle, arthri‐ tis, skin care, toothache Itching and pimples, arrow poison, ma‐ Root, bark [14,145] laria, headache, toothache, general body Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Rauvolfia mombasiana Stapf 32 of 151 Liana weakness, cough, arthralgia, anthelmin‐ tic in chicken Malaria, poison, venereal diseases, Bark, roots stomach pains, skin conditions, swell‐ [134,142] ings Prenatal care, diabetes, enlarged pros‐ [41,91,127] Roots, fruits tate Roots, bark Skin diseases [134,142] Fever, headache, chest pain, malaria, fe‐ Roots ver, stomach problems, gonorrhea, pre‐ [77,136,139] vent abortion Poison [134] Root, bark, Malaria, anthelmintic, typhoid, amoeba, [74,145,147] stem, leaves pneumonia, livestock diseases Respiratory disorders, cancer, breast cancer, headache, stomachache, cough, Roots, bark, toothache, wounds/cuts, cattle diseases [14,78,88,99,117] fruits (ECF, constipation), pneumonia, chest problems, aids in delivery Amoeba, asthma, malaria, measles, [41,142] Latex wounds Root Stimulate milk letdown (human/cattle) [142] Shrub/liana Root Tonic [99] Shrub/tree Bark Infertility, abdominal pains [141] Herb Roots Shrub/tree Saba comorensis (Bojer ex A.DC.) Pichon Schizozygia coffeoides Baill. Shrub Secamone punctulata Decne. Liana Liana Strophanthus kombe Oliv. Liana Tabernaemontana pachysiphon Tree Stapf Tabernaemontana stapfiana Britten Tabernaemontana ventricosa Hochst. ex A.DC. Tacazzea conferta N.E.Br. Vincetoxicum fruticulosum (Decne.) Decne. Aquifoliaceae Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk. Araceae Anchomanes abbreviatus Engl. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott (exotic) Culcasia falcifolia Engl. Gonatopus boivinii (Decne.) Engl. Stylochaeton salaamicus N.E.Br. Zamioculcas zamiifolia (G.Lodd.) Engl. Araliaceae Astropanax abyssinicus (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Seem. Tree Shrub/tree [14,127,144] Herb Wounds, septic swellings Colds (human, cattle, sheep), sore Roots, leaves throat, anxiety, fast heart beat Leaves Dry cough, ECF, edema, epilepsy Herb Roots [127] Herb Whole plant Induce salivation in babies [127] Herb Whole plant Eardrops [127] Herb Tree Astropanax volkensii (Harms) Lowry, G.M.Plunkett, Gostel Shrub/tree & Frodin Cussonia arborea Hochst. ex A.Rich. Tree Mumps [127] [78] Leaves, exu‐ Bronchitis, cough, pneumonia, aphro‐ [131,147] date disiac, cleaning the womb Chest pains, malaria, pneumonia, live‐ stock diseases, fever, kidney problems, colds, sore throat, whooping cough, Leaves, bark, swollen bodies, cough, inhaled to clear [67,91,109,120,132, 141,142,152,168] stem, exudate blocked nose, typhoid, TB, goiter, rashes, allergies, headache, expectorant, liver problems, skin diseases (goats/sheep) Stomachache, childbirth, veterinary Leaves [116,144] uses, constipation Plants 2023, 12, 1145 33 of 151 Cussonia holstii Harms ex Engl. Tree Cussonia spicata Thunb. Tree Cussonia zimmermannii Tree Harms Polyscias fulva (Hiern) Harms Tree Polyscias kikuyuensis Sum‐ Tree merh. Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L. (exotic) Tree Hyphaene compressa H.Wendl. Tree Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Tree Abdominal pains, bones/joints prob‐ lems, cough, colds/flu, kwashiorkor, malaria, rheumatism, clear uterus after parturition, fever, alcoholic tremors, Bark, roots stimulant, retained placenta, tonic, ear‐ nose‐mouth infection, irregular men‐ struation, wounds (cows), backache, stomachache STI’s, fever, spinal cord problem, teeth‐ ing, abdominal upsets, stimulant, liver Leaves, bark, enlargement, abdominal pains, diar‐ roots rhea, splenomegaly, painkiller, emetic, malaria Roots Kwashiorkor Bark Obesity Joint pains, arthritis, rheumatism, Leaves, bark wounds, skin diseases Fruits, leaves Skin rash, asthma, kidney problems, wounds Anthelmintic [14,41,67,71,77,105 ,136,138,142,147,1 68] [77,88,109,132,141, 145,152] [127] [78] [41,88,109,168] [108,150] Bark [14] Root, leaves, Stomachache, chest problems, stimulant [14,41,80,152] exudate Aristolochiaceae Asarum canadense L. (exotic) Herb Aristolochia albida Duch. Asparagaceae Herb Agave sisalana Perrine (exotic) Tree Albuca abyssinica Jacq. Albuca bracteata (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt Albuca virens (Lindl.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt Herb Herb Herb Asparagus africanus Lam. Liana Asparagus buchananii Baker Shrub/liana Asparagus falcatus L. Herb Asparagus flagellaris (Kunth) Shrub Baker Cough, colds/flu, mental ailments, [41] pneumonia, STI’s Snake antidote, poison [134] Root, leaves, exudate Earache, burns, eye problems, injuries, cuts/wounds, acaricide, gonorrhea, ap‐ [14,41,64,84,106,12 Roots, leaves, petizer, anthelmintic, retained placenta, 0,133,139,144,152] exudates mosquito repellant, fed to livestock to increase milk letdown Roots Arthritis, sores [67,154] Bone injuries, wounds, cancer, colds, Roots [14,67,91,152] constipation/bloat (cattle) Diabetes, back pains, tonsils, arthritis, Roots [83,91,115,168] poisonous to livestock Boils, mental illness, wounds, venereal diseases, cough, sore throat, skin infec‐ [67,89,94,123,135,1 Roots, leaves tions, urinary tract infections, arthritis, 54] gonorrhea, parturition Prevent second trimester abortion, preg‐ Leaves, roots [81] nancy edema Stomach ailments, constipation, convul‐ Stems, roots, sions, teeth problem, rashes, rheuma‐ [127,132,138] leaves toid arthritis Leaves, roots, Boils, abscesses, stomachache, syphilis, [94,99] fruits conjunctivitis Plants 2023, 12, 1145 34 of 151 Asparagus racemosus Willd. Liana Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop Herb Chlorophytum subpetiolatum (Baker) Kativu Herb Dracaena afromontana Mildbr. Shrub/tree Dracaena arborescens (Cornu ex Gérôme & Labroy) Byng Herb & Christenh. Dracaena fragrans (L.) Ker Shrub/tree Gawl. Dracaena frequens (Chahin.) Herb Byng & Christenh. Dracaena parva (N.E.Br.) Byng Herb & Christenh. Dracaena perrotii (O.Warburg) Herb Byng & Christenh. Dracaena steudneri Engl. Impatiens tinctoria A.Rich. Roots Reduce madness [99] Leaves, roots, Stomach problems, swollen spleen, stems chest pains [99,131] Roots, leaves Venereal diseases, snakebites [127] Leaves, roots labor pains, chase mosquitoes [144] Roots [14] Immune booster Herb Leaves, exu‐ Snakebites, wounds [126,143] date Exudates, Gonorrhea, rheumatism, arthritis, [51,72,143] roots snakebites, earache Cancer, toothaches, rheumatism, anthel‐ mintic, skin cancer, diabetes, stomach‐ [41,83,116,144,145, Bark, leaves, ache, measles, diarrhea, veterinary med‐ 154] roots icine (goat), reduce pains birth and pre‐ vent dizziness at childbirth birth Bark, branches, Gonorrhea [135] roots, stems Exudates, Eye problems, STIs, snake repellant [91,92,95] stems Root Ulcers, cancer [91] Herb Roots Herb Roots Herb Fruits Herb Roots Herb Abdominal/colic pains, anemia, stom‐ [14,78,84,87,88,109 Leaves, roots achache, joint pains, burns, child deliv‐ ,115,120,131,132,1 ery, retained placenta, lumbago, blood 43,144,152,168] Tree Dracaena suffruticosa (N.E.Br.) Herb Byng & Christenh. Dracaena volkensii (Gürke) Byng & Christenh. Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop Balsaminaceae Impatiens hochstetteri Warb. Impatiens sodenii Engl. & Warb. Impatiens stuhlmannii Warb. Arthritis, infertility in women, cancer, boils, stomachache, gonorrhea, im‐ muno‐booster, syphilis, malaria, labor, [14,84,87,99,104,10 scrotum problems, removing thorn, Leaves, roots rheumatism, improve sexual desire, in‐ 9,120,131,141,143, digestion, kidney diseases, abdominal 146,147,152,168] pains, bone setting, jaundice, venereal diseases, HIV/AIDs, anthelmintic (cat‐ tle), retained placenta, lower back pain Back pain in women, postpartum pain, STI’s, boils, toothache, abscess, diarrhea, [14,113,115,119,13 Roots, leaves sores, wounds, medicine for cattle, 8,147] rheumatoid arthritis Herb Mouth infection in babies [109] Difficult births in women, joint pain, [77,141,152] purgative Fever, dizziness, vitamin C [144] Retained placenta, infertility, purgative, [120,131,141] abdominal pains, thrush in mouth Basellaceae Basella alba L. Plants 2023, 12, 1145 35 of 151 cleanser, breathing difficulty, diarrhea, amoebiasis, irregular menstruation, con‐ stipation, anthrax, bloat in cattle, anti‐ dote, increases milk production, stom‐ ach pain/constipation after birth Berberidaceae Shrub Stem, roots, leaves, bark Malaria, wounds, anthelmintic, stom‐ achache, pain relief [99,104,107,132] Fernandoa magnifica Seem. Tree Roots Chest medicine, female reproductive disorders [142,150] Jacaranda mimosifolia D.Don (exotic) Tree Leaves STIs, acaricide [41,133] Berberis holstii Engl. Bignoniaceae Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. Tree Bark, roots, fruits, leaves, seeds Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K.Schum. Leaves, bark, root Tree Markhamia zanzibarica (Bojer Shrub/tree ex DC.) K.Schum. Leaves, roots Spathodea campanulata P.Beauv. Bark, leaves, stems, exu‐ date Tree Measles, liver diseases, edema, stom‐ achache, anemia, arthritis, asthma, cleans digestive system, depression, aphrodisiac, rheumatism, STIs, typhoid, abortifacient, headache, malaria, purify [14,41,72,73,76,78, blood, amoeba, anthelmintic (cow, poul‐ 79,84,88,89,98,103 try, goat, sheep, pig, human), dystocia – (cow), breast/uterine/skin cancer, gut 105,108,110,116,11 problems, gonorrhea, syphilis, kidney 7,121,132,139,141, diseases, piles, snakebite antidote, lep‐ 143,144,146,147,16 rosy, rashes, pneumonia, skin sores and 8] ulcers, colds/flu, sores/wounds, pro‐ mote conception and pregnancy, choles‐ terol control, abdominal pains, infertil‐ ity in women, emaciation, skin diseases, ulcers, diabetes, purgative, diarrhea Eye infection (cattle/human), toothache, snakebites, arthritis, skin inflammation, myalgia, earache, malaria, cataract, amoeba, back/joint/bone/chest prob‐ lems, diarrhea, family planning, inju‐ [14,41,66,76,87,101 ries/cuts/wounds, measles, pancreas ,116,117,119,120,1 problems, rheumatism, STIs, stomach 22,124,125,133,143 disorders, typhoid, arthritis, colorectal ,147,154] cancer, stomachache, sore throat, flu, stomachache, measles, cardiac condi‐ tions, kidney ailments, acaricide, ring‐ worms, menstrual pains, pneumonia Abdominal pain, bleeding and edema in pregnancy, snakebites, bleeding during [87,127] childbirth Liver disorders, headache, sore throat, stomachache, malaria, chest, backache, STI’s, arthritis, tongue infections, cervi‐ [66,78,101,116,117, cal/bone/breast/colorectal/skin cancer, 119,120,122,142,14 abortifacients, infertility, veterinary 4,154] uses, rashes in children that turn into wounds, appetizer, cut/wounds/burns, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 36 of 151 chest pain, liver complaints, livestock diseases (increase milk production, bloat, cough, fever), sore throat, head‐ ache, colds Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. Boraginaceae Bourreria nemoralis (Gürke) Thulin Bourreria petiolaris (Lam.) Thulin Shrub/tree Roots, leaves, Cough, malaria, ulcers, venereal dis‐ bark, flowers, eases, wounds, acaricide fruits Shrub/tree Roots Stomach problems, kidney ailments, asthma [41,127] Shrub/tree Roots Female reproductive disorders [150] Cordia africana Lam. Tree Cordia monoica Roxb. Shrub/tree Cordia sinensis Lam. Shrub/tree Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst. ex A.DC. Herb Echiochilon lithospermoides (S.Moore) I.M.Johnst. Herb Ehretia bakeri Britten Shrub/tree Ehretia cymosa Thonn. Shrub/tree [66,133,144] Vitamins, pneumonia, broken limbs, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, can‐ cer, eye problems, family planning, heartburns, injuries/cuts, wounds, live‐ [14,41,73,84,88,104 Bark, leaf, stock diseases, labor pains, stomach dis‐ fruit, aerial ,105,119,120,144,1 orders, typhoid, prevents abortion, ma‐ parts 46,147] laria, eye diseases pain (cow), general weakness (cow, goat, sheep, pig), bone injuries, toothache, cough, venereal dis‐ eases Backache, diarrhea, leprosy, mental ill‐ ness, ocular disorders, retained pla‐ [67,71,77,80,89,99, Roots, bark, centa, livestock diseases, fever, 105,135,136,145,14 leaves, fruits joint/chest pains, stomach disorder, ma‐ 7] laria, vomiting, eye ache/infection, frac‐ tures, gonorrhea Eye problems, diarrhea, malaria, chest Roots, flow‐ problems, pneumonia, fractures, wom‐ [67,68,72,77,95] ers, bark, exu‐ anʹs stomach, fevers, eye infection, date stomachache Back/joint/bone problems, skin rashes, [41,115,122,144,16 Leaves ulcers, chest pain, wounds, parturition 8] (man, livestock), sore throat Whole plant Livestock medicine [77] Gastrointestinal complications, upper Bark respiratory tract infections, malaria, [68,145] muscle ache, toothache Abdominal ulcers, livestock diseases, malaria, rheumatism, anaplasmosis (cow, ruminant), diarrhea/dysentery (human, cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), [14,41,73,78,84,88, Leaves, roots, boils, stomachache, chest pain, boils, 91,116,122,141,144 bark, aerial aphrodisiac, typhoid, muscle ache, parts ,145,147,168] toothache, impotency, wounds, pain killer, cough, colds, vomiting, venereal diseases, pneumonia, epilepsy, ECF, tonsils, mental problems, asthma Plants 2023, 12, 1145 37 of 151 Euploca rariflora (Stocks) Di‐ Herb ane & Hilger (exotic) Heliotropium steudneri Vatke Herb Heliotropium zeylanicum Herb (Burm.f.) Lam. Symphytum officinale L. (ex‐ Herb otic) Trichodesma zeylanicum Herb (Burm.f.) R.Br. Brassicaceae Brassica oleracea L. (exotic) Herb Cardamine obliqua Hochst. ex Herb A.Rich. Lepidium bonariense L. (exotic) Herb Lepidium sativum L. (exotic) Herb Nasturtium officinale W.T.Ai‐ Herb ton (exotic) Spinacia oleracea L. (exotic) Herb Burseraceae Boswellia neglecta S.Moore Shrub/tree Commiphora africana (A.Rich.) Shrub/tree Engl. Commiphora baluensis Engl. Tree Commiphora edulis (Klotzsch) Shrub Engl. Commiphora eminii Engl. Tree Root Joint diseases [149] Leaves Fleas, arrow poison wounds [72,147] Roots Boils, abscesses, [94] Wounds, joints/bones, problems, in‐ [168] flamed muscles, ulcers, boils, dry cough Roots, leaves, Snakebites, TB, ulcers, stomachache, [84,99,148] whole plant colds/flu, wounds Roots Scurvy Heartburns [41] Scurvy [147] Stems, leaves Cleaning stomach after childbirth Bone/joint pains, fever, respiratory dis‐ Seeds eases, stomachache Peptic ulcers, anemia, allergies, blood Leaves cleanser, respiratory diseases, cough Pneumonia [77] [137] [88,168] [41] Chest, headache, ribs, diarrhea, stomach Bark, resin disorders, swollen legs and stomach [72,77,100,139] pain in pregnant women Abdominal pains, renal diseases, wounds, skin moisturizer, jiggers, eye problem, convulsions, venereal dis‐ eases, boils, skin rashes, edema, ulcers, [71,72,77,79,84,87, Fruits, bark, swollen testicles, snakebite, typhoid, di‐ 89,92,96,98,104,10 roots, exu‐ arrhea, stomach problems, malaria, 5,107,108,127,138, dates pneumonia, brucellosis, back/pain/joint 141,143,148,150] pain, dysmenorrhea, burns, gum dis‐ eases, cough, gynecological problems Stomach disorders, body swellings, ty‐ [51,77,100,139,145 Bark, roots phoid, malaria, diarrhea (human, poul‐ ] try), swollen diaphragm Convulsions, diarrhea, sore throat, Bark, leaves pregnancy stomach pains, retained pla‐ [51,100,127,139] centa, tapeworms, cough, chest pains After‐birth pains, constipation, hard stool, rheumatism, STIs, stomach disor‐ ders, malaria, stomachache, skin rushes, colds, pneumonia, anthrax, constipa‐ Roots, leaves, tion, acidity, muscle pains, stomach [14,41,133,146,147 branches, crumps, measles, cough (cow, goat, ] bark sheep, poultry, pig, ruminants, human), anaplasmosis (cow, ruminants), helmin‐ thiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), diarrhea/dysentery (cow, poultry, goat, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 38 of 151 sheep, pig), pleuritis, bloat, cuts/wounds Commiphora kataf (Forssk.) Engl. Tree Commiphora kua (R.Br. ex Royle) Vollesen Shrub/tree Commiphora oddurensis Chiov.Shrub Commiphora ovalifolia J.B.Gil‐ Shrub/tree lett Commiphora rostrata Engl. Shrub/tree Commiphora schimperi (O.Berg) Engl. Toothache [64,77] Roots, bark, leaves, exu‐ date Bark Body swelling, prenatal care, wounds, ringworms, toothache, acaricide (goats, [51,94,100,127] cattle) Abdominal pains [139] Bark, exudate Cellulitis, scabies [80,94] Leaves, twigs Mild chest pains, cough Root, bark, Malaria, constipation, wounds leaves, exu‐ date [80] Shrub/tree Stems, leaves Gonorrhea [105,107] Shrub/tree Root Chest complaints [142] Shrub Fruits Boils [147] shrub Roots, branches Gonorrhea [99] Whole plant Stems, roots, leaves Roots Body swellings [134] Urinary tract infections, joint aches, ma‐ [77,145,147] laria, ECF Cough, stomachache [99] Shrub/tree Commiphora swynnertonii Burtt Buxaceae Buxus obtusifolia (Mildbr.) Hutch. Cactaceae Opuntia ficus‐indica (L.) Mill. (exotic) Rhipsalis baccifera (J.S.Muell.) Stearn Campanulaceae Lobelia fervens Thunb. Herb Lobelia giberroa Hemsl. Shrub Lobelia holstii Engl. Canellaceae Herb Warburgia stuhlmannii Engl. Tree Warburgia ugandensis Spra‐ gue Fruits Tree [97,100,111] Toothache, rheumatism, ease pains, joint pains, cough, malaria, chest pain, [134,142,150] Bark, leaves heart pain, antioxidant, veterinary med‐ icine Eye problems, stomachache, internal wounds, bloat, malaria, cough, appe‐ tizer, chest and lungs problems, diar‐ rhea, respiratory problems, back pain in [14,41,64,67,68,71– women, cleansing uterus, colds/flu, 74,77– healing after delivery, chicken pox, 79,82,84,86,88– stinking feet, gonorrhea, pneumonia, 92,95,98,99,101,10 Bark, stems, skin problems, livestock diseases, an‐ 4,105,107,109,110, leaves, roots, thelmintic, headache, allergies, tooth‐ 116,119,120,123,12 seeds, fruits 9,132,135,136,138, ache, amoebiasis, asthma, back/bone/joints problems, diabetes, en‐ 140– 144,146,147,152,15 ergy boost, general body pains, high blood pressure, meat appetizer, prostate 3,168] cancer, rheumatism, STIs, swellings, TB, typhoid, ulcers, abdominal disorders, arthritis, constipation, general body Plants 2023, 12, 1145 39 of 151 weakness, fever, muscular pains, inter‐ nal wounds, bacterial infections, heart water, ectoparasites, black quarter, emetic, trypanosomiasis, ECF, helmin‐ thiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), pneumonia (cow, goat, sheep, poultry), general weakness/dullness (cow, goat, sheep, poultry, pig), sore throat, skin diseases, oral thrush, gastrointestinal problems, blood/mucus in stool, after‐ birth stomach pains, prophylaxis for children diseases, cough (cattle), ano‐ dyne, expectorant, erectile, dysfunc‐ tion/impotence, abdominal disorders, heart problems, gout, purgative, tonsils, uvala problems Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. (exotic) Herb Celtis africana Burm.f. Tree Celtis gomphophylla Baker Tree Celtis philippensis Blanco Shrub/tree Chaetachme aristata Planch. Shrub/tree Trema orientale (L.) Blume Shrub/tree Wounds, diarrhea/dysentery (cow, Leaves, flow‐ poultry, goat, sheep, pig), pneumonia (poultry), Newcastle disease (poultry), ers, seeds stimulant Bone problems, livestock diseases, an‐ Roots, stems tipruritic, stomachache Roots, leaves, Backache, general body illness, infertil‐ roots ity, anthelmintic, STIs Roots Diarrhea Leaves, roots, Malaria, strength, skin, boils, infertility bark Afterbirth pains, bacterial infections, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, stom‐ Roots, bark ach disorders, anthelmintic, yellow fe‐ ver, insect repellant, constipation [73,144,146] [14,152] [66,116] [142] [77,116,120] [41,144,148,168] Capparaceae Boscia coriacea Graells Shrub/tree Boscia integrifolia J.St.‐Hil. Tree Boscia salicifolia Oliv. Tree Cadaba farinosa Forssk. Shrub/tree Cadaba glandulosa Forssk. Shrub Dental problems, detoxifier, eye prob‐ lems, meat appetite, pneumonia, pros‐ tate cancer, tonsillitis, stomachache, fleas/mites, gonorrhea, malaria, burns, [14,41,51,64,67,72, Leaves, roots, hepatitis, livestock diseases, obesity, 77,80,91,100,132,1 fruits, seeds food poisoning, abdominal pains, par‐ 39] tial blindness/eye injuries in cattle, an‐ thelmintic and diarrhea (human, goats, cattle) Diarrhea, gonorrhea, cattle fever, gyne‐ cological disorders, malaria, retained af‐ [71,72,77,81,89,97, Stems, leaves, terbirth, prevent first trimester abortion, 103,104] bark vomiting, hepatitis, diarrhea, joint pains, swelling/bruises due to thorns Bark, leaves Backache, chronic joint pains [130,142] Fruits, roots, Emetic, pregnancy anemia, STIs, colds, [72,100,134,135,14 stems, leaves fever, snakebites 2] Root Purgative [142] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 40 of 151 Capparis cartilaginea Decne. Shrub Capparis fascicularis DC. Liana Capparis sepiaria L. Liana Capparis tomentosa Lam. Liana Capparis viminea Oliv. Liana Crateva adansonii DC. Crateva kirkii (Oliv.) Chris‐ tenh. & Byng Maerua angolensis DC. Shrub/tree Eye lotion, heartburn, peptic ulcers, skin Root, bark, sores/ulcers, abdominal pains, [67,91,139,141] leaves swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, retained placenta Venereal diseases, diarrhea, stomach‐ Roots, leaves, ache, colds, poisonous, wounds, burns, [67,72,76,79,108,12 fruits anthelmintic, false teeth, gastrointestinal7,142,143] problems, stomach pains Poisonous, colds, emetic, purgative, Roots, leaves chest pains, wounds, malaria, menstrual [74,142,150] cramps Respiratory problems, determine un‐ born babyʹs sex, poisonous to camels, emetic/purgative, cough, colds/flu, [41,77,88,105,136,1 Roots, leaves, back/bone joint problems, prostate can‐ 42,145,150] fruits cer, wounds, burns, muscle ailment, painkiller, female infertility, menstrual problems Venereal diseases, infertility, septic Roots [127,142,168] swelling, poisonous Amoebiasis [132] Shrub/tree Leaves Shrub/tree Maerua crassifolia Forssk. Shrub/tree Maerua denhardtiorum Gilg Shrub/tree Maerua edulis (Gilg & Gilg‐ Ben.) DeWolf Shrub Leaves, fruits Toothache, colds, poison, wounds [134,136] Leaves, roots, Wound, stomachache [132,142] bark Leaves Eye infection [77] Sore joints, stimulant, amoeba, diabetes, stomach problems, eye problems, swol‐ [67,86,100,139,142, Roots, bark len legs and body pains during preg‐ 143] nancy Swollen/bruised skin, purgative, Stems, roots, wounds, snakebites/spits, swollen dia‐ [14,51,77,80] leaves phragm Constipation and stomach disorders, [80,100] Leaves, roots wounds, sore throat Colic pain, anorexia, blood cleanser, pneumonia, mites, bone/joint pains, [14,80,88,137] Roots, leaves gland complications, stomachache, toothache, women’s health, malaria Wounds, aphrodisiac, headache, tonic, STIs, gonorrhea, backache, toothache, chest congestion, skin disorders, burns, boils, eye lotion, diarrhea, aphrodisiac, [72,76,77,88,90,99, Leaves, roots, bone pain, pain in pregnancy, vaginal 113,136,138,140,14 shoots, bleeding during pregnancy, eye prob‐ 3,152,168] lems, rheumatism, venereal diseases, cuts, sores, rheumatoid, arthritis, mouth blisters Maerua endlichii Gilg & Gilg‐ Shrub Ben. Maerua kirkii (Oliv.) F.White Shrub/tree Maerua subcordata (Gilg) De‐ Tree Wolf Maerua triphylla A. Rich. Caricaceae Shrub/tree Wounds [142] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 41 of 151 Carica papaya L. (exotic) Tree STIs, malaria, gonorrhea, pneumonia, afterbirth pains, allergies, asthma, back/joint/bone problems, body weak‐ ness, chest problems, constipation, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, diar‐ rhea, heartburn, injuries/cuts, wounds, [14,41,74,84,96,98, chicken diseases, retained placenta, Roots, leaves, prostrate problems, rheumatism, skin 106– stems, bark, diseases, anthelmintic, stomach disor‐ 108,113,116,117,11 exudate ders, typhoid, toothache, ulcers, syphi‐ 9,139,143,146,150] lis, lung ailment, amoeba, respiratory, pneumonia, miscarriage, cervical/colorectal/breast, skin prob‐ lems, ringworms, bronchitis, venereal diseases, gastrointestinal problems, diu‐ retic, cattle cough, induce labor Caryophyllaceae Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult. Pollichia campestris Aiton Herb Aerial parts Fever Herb Roots Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Herb Leaves Malaria, emetic [67] Heartburn, cough, sore throat, skin dis‐ [168] eases [144] Celastraceae Catha edulis (Vahl) Endl. Shrub/tree Elaeodendron buchananii (Loes.) Loes. Tree Gymnosporia arbutifolia (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Loes. Shrub/tree Gymnosporia buchananii Loes. Shrub/tree Gymnosporia heterophylla (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Loes. Shrub/tree Gymnosporia mossambicensis Shrub/tree (Klotzsch) Loes. Gymnosporia obscura (A.Rich.) Shrub/tree Loes. Gymnosporia putterlickioides Loes. Shrub/tree Skin diseases, TB, cough, colds/flu, den‐ [14,41,67,72,74,77, Bark, roots, tal problems, diarrhea, livestock flu, leaves, aerial rheumatism, fatigue, toothache, gonor‐ 104,106,120,146,14 rhea, stimulant, gum, acidity, pneumo‐ 7,168] parts nia, malaria, STI’s Cuts, wounds, syphilis, respiratory dis‐ orders, diarrhea, urinary tract problems, [89,104,105,123,13 Bark, roots, malaria, stomach problems, sores, ear‐ 8,142,168] leaves ache, poisonous to livestock and hu‐ man, kidney problems Fruit, leaf, Malaria, wound, acaricide, cough, tu‐ stems, bark, [103,119,133,140] berculosis, general body itching root Bark, roots Stomachache, cancer [99,145] Headache, diabetes, gonorrhea, malaria, wounds, infertility in women, eye in‐ [71,77,99,103,104,1 Bark, leaves, flammation, prenatal care, venereal dis‐ 16,120,127,133,135 roots, fruits, eases, liver problems, breathing prob‐ ,136,143,144,152] stems lems, STIs, gut problems, syphilis, boils, acaricide, chest pain Roots Roots Roots, bark Prenatal care [127] Arthritis, cancer of breast and prostate [84,154] glands Joint pains, diarrhea, toothache, ear in‐ [77,80,96,104,129,1 fections, malaria, tonic, stomachache, 38,139] abdominal pains Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes. 42 of 151 Shrub/tree Loeseneriella africana (Willd.) Liana R.Wilczek Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes. Maytenus undata (Thunb.) Blakelock Malaria, gynecological conditions, lum‐ bago, blood cleanser, amoebiasis, back/joint/bone problems, constipation, cough, colds/flu, fever, indigestion, ma‐ laria, stomach disorders, mild stimu‐ [14,41,64,68,72,76, Bark, roots, lant, TB, stomachache, toothache, boils, 79,80,84,88,105,10 aerial parts, arthritis, body aches, stomachache, aca‐ 7,124,128,129,133, leaves, stems, ricide, poison, pregnancy pain, good 140,142,144,146,14 health of fetus, anthrax, wounds, sores, fruits 7,168] respiratory system, chest complaints, di‐ arrhea, dysentery, gastrointestinal dis‐ eases, menstrual pain, eye infections, nausea, severe headache, aphrodisiac, kidney problems Gastrointestinal pains, diarrhea, colo‐ Roots, leaves rectal/skin/breast cancer, aphrodisiac, [117,127,168] male impotency Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Mystroxylon aethiopicum Shrub/tree (Thunb.) Loes. Chrysobalanaceae Parinari curatellifolia Planch. Tree ex Benth. Cleomaceae Cleome gynandra L. Herb Cleome strigosa (Bojer) Oliv. Cleome usambarica Pax Clusiaceae Herb Herb Tonic, stronger bones Diarrhea, antiseptic, wounds, teething, Roots, bark, diarrhea, false teeth, tonic, malaria, [14,67,77,100,103,1 stems, leaves stomach disorders, laxative, general 09,127,142,152] body wellness Bark, leaves, Pneumonia, colic pain in children, stom‐ [67,77,89,107,135] roots, seeds ach disorder, antiseptic, colic pain Bark Bleedings, diarrhea, injuries, cuts, wounds, malaria [41,104] Stomachache, colic pain in infants, ear infection, blood cleanser, diarrhea, lep‐ [66,76,78,79,88,91, Roots, leaves, rosy, acaricide, typhoid, stomach prob‐ 108,120,132,133,14 stems, whole lems, conjunctivitis, thread worms, 4,147] plant stomach congestion, facilitate birth, epi‐ leptic fits, malaria, retained afterbirth Leaves Earache [134] Roots Eye problems, tonic [136] Tree Twig, bark, root, fruit Garcinia livingstonei T.Ander‐ Tree son Bark, roots Garcinia buchananii Baker [142,168] Stomach problems, diabetes mellitus, chest pain, asthma, diarrhea, abdominal [82,85,131,133] discomfort, respiratory symptoms in livestock, acaricide Childbirth pains, stomach disorder, tonic, typhoid, stomachache, teeth prob‐ [67,77,132,140] lems, liver pain and enlargement Colchicaceae Gloriosa superba L. Combretaceae Herb Whole plant, Abortifacient, poison, abdominal pains, [89,134,141,143,14 roots, exudate wounds 4,168] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Combretum aculeatum Vent. 43 of 151 Shrub Roots, leaves Combretum apiculatum Sond. Shrub/tree Roots, bark, leaves Combretum collinum Fresen. Shrub/tree Root, bark, leaves, exu‐ date Combretum exalatum Engl. Shrub/tree Roots Combretum hereroense Schinz Shrub/tree Combretum illairii Engl. Combretum molle R.Br. ex G.Don Combretum mossambicense (Klotzsch) Engl. Combretum padoides Engl. & Diels Shrub/liana Shrub/tree Leaves, bark, roots, stems, branches Shrub Exudate Shrub/tree Combretum paniculatum Vent. Shrub/liana Combretum pentagonum Liana M.A.Lawson Combretum schumannii Engl. Shrub/liana Combretum zeyheri Sond. Tree Terminalia brownii Fresen. Leaves, roots Leaves, bark, roots Shrub/tree Stomachache, constipation, wounds, sores, malaria, gonorrhea, back pains, [14,72,77,80,139] hepatitis, dysentery, hiccup, retained placenta, abdominal pains Stomach pains, eye infections, hyperten‐ sion, female infertility, gonorrhea, skin [14,80,86,91,99,119 diseases, bloody urine, scorpion bite, di‐ ] arrhea, snakebites, cancer, ear problems Infertility in women, snakebites, amoe‐ biasis, back/bone joints problems, cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, malaria, [41,79,87,126,133,1 pneumonia, stomach disorders, TB, ty‐ 43] phoid, acaricide, gastrointestinal prob‐ lems, dysentery Swollen legs and body pains during [139] pregnancy Chest pains, tuberculosis, cough [51,127] Venereal diseases, cough, colds, ma‐ [75,127,150] laria, female infertility STI’s, backache, respiratory problems, kidney problems, back/joint problems, cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, general body pains, malaria, medicine antidote, ty‐ phoid, warts, liver disease, sore throat, [76,77,79,80,84,90, rib pain, stomachache, boils, gonorrhea, 105,107,116,118,11 snakebites, acaricide, gastrointestinal 9,133,135,138,140, problems, colic pain, typhoid, abortion, 145,168] leprosy, fever, pain, hookworm, bone fractures, abdominal pain, constipation, anthelmintic, dysentery, headache, HIV infections Earache [80] Bloody diarrhea, wounds, conjunctivi‐ [75,111] tis, malaria Poisonous, STIs, joint ailments, stom‐ Roots, seeds [142,144] achache, birth pains, fever Roots, leaves Leaves Headache Bark Reproductive disorder, body swellings [150] Stomach disorders [41] Skin disorders emetic, fevers, colds, cholera, flu, cough, eye problems, ma‐ laria, jaundice, amoebiasis, back/bone [14,41,51,64,68,74, problems, diabetes, family planning, in‐ 80,81,84– flammations, injuries, cuts/wounds, 86,91,96,98,100,10 livestock diseases, pneumonia, rheuma‐ 4– tism, stomach disorders, STIs, yellow fe‐ 106,129,130,132,13 ver, ulcers, clotting agent (human, cat‐ 7,139–146,148,151] tle), joint stiffness/pains, excessive bleeding after birth, sterilize dogs, Roots, bark, leaves [142] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 44 of 151 induce abortion, syphilis, gonorrhea, heartburn, jaundice, arthritis, trypano‐ somiasis, prevent second trimester abor‐ tion, pregnancy edema, pregnancy ane‐ mia, allergy, kidney, family planning, abdominal/colic pains, cancer, blind‐ ness, typhoid, stomachache, teeth prob‐ lems, waterborne diseases, asthma, uri‐ nary tract infection, dysmenorrhea, de‐ bility, abdominal pains, allergy, abor‐ tion, ringworm, anthelmintic in (hu‐ man, animals), toothache, poison for hunting, infertility, edema, chest pains, reddening of childʹs anal pore, retained placenta, appetizer, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, diarrhea Terminalia kilimandscharica Tree Engl. Terminalia mollis M.A.Law‐ Shrub/tree son Terminalia orbicularis Engl. & Shrub/tree Diels Bark [153] Stems, roots, Gut problems, diarrhea, stomachache, bark acaricide [116,133] Bark [137] Terminalia prunioides M.A.Lawson Shrub/tree Bark, leaves Terminalia spinosa Engl. Shrub/tree Bark, roots Tree Bark Terminalia tetraptera (Wick‐ ens) Gere & Boatwr. Commelinaceae Cough, STI’s Bone/joint pain Postnatal pains, mild madness, ring‐ worms, peptic ulcers, kidney pains, [51,80,142] aphrodisiac Stomach ailments, jaundice, malaria, [91,100,127,142] sore throat Venereal diseases, wounds, men aphro‐ [150] disiac Aneilema aequinoctiale (P.Beauv.) G.Don Herb Aneilema leiocaule K.Schum. Herb Aneilema spekei C.B.Clarke Herb Commelina africana L. Herb Commelina albescens Hassk. Herb Commelina benghalensis L. Herb Commelina erecta L. Commelina foliacea Chiov. Commelina imberbis Ehrenb. ex Hassk. Herb Herb Whole plant, Malnutrition, colds, ocular disorders, leaves, flow‐ [77,89,134] children fever ers Cough in children [136] Whole plant, Fever, swollen organs, stomach ailments [92,144] leaves and emaciation in animals Stillbirth, fever, wounds, eyes, earache, Leaves, exu‐ colds, cough, sores, diseases of the ear, [14,99,105,115,136, date, whole hemostatic when umbilical cord cut, im‐ 140,141,144,145] plant mune booster Children’s fever [77] Eye problems, children’s diseases, dislo‐ [41,67,74,95,115,12 Leaves, exu‐ cations, injuries, cuts/wounds, colds, 7,136,168] date earache, eye infections, cough Spathe Sores [140] Children’s fever, cough in children [77,136] Herb Whole, flower Childrenʹs cough, fever [72,99] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Commelina ramulosa (C.B.Clarke) H.Perrier (ex‐ otic) Cyanotis foecunda DC. ex Hassk. Cyanotis lanata Benth. Compositae Acanthospermum glabratum (DC.) Wild (exotic) 45 of 151 Herb Malaria [124] Herb Cough in children [136] Herb Shoots, leaves Ulcers in animals, knee problems, thin‐ [144] ning in humans, fever, heart ailments Herb Leaves Broken limbs, boils Acmella caulirhiza Delile Herb Leaves, flow‐ ers, aerial parts, whole plant, fruits, bark Ageratum conyzoides L. (ex‐ otic) Herb Leaves, roots Artemisia abyssinica Sch.Bip. Shrub ex A.Rich. (exotic) Leaves Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd. Shrub Whole plant, roots, leaves Artemisia annua L. (exotic) Leaves Herb [66,144] Malaria, oral thrush, ulcers, nasal con‐ gestion, diarrhea, spinal cord problem, halitosis, toothache, afterbirth, oral cav‐ [77,83,86,88,89,91, 101,102,109,115,11 ity infections, diabetes, fever, cough, mouth ulcers, ringworms, wounds, ear 9,120,122,123,132, discharge, craniotomy (surgery), gingi‐ 138,141,143,144,15 vitis, bad smell, gum diseases, stomach‐ 2,168] ache, sore throat, insect repellant, bro‐ ken limps Eye problems, mouth sores, tetanus, wounds, chest pains, rheumatism, ma‐ [76,84,95,104,118,1 laria, stomachache, injury/cuts, bloody 19,143,144,146,147 diarrhea, bronchitis, poisonous to live‐ ,168] stock, hemostatic, stop epistaxis, sore eyes, bowel problems Heavy menstruation (menorrhagia), [86,87] livestock diseases, common colds ECF, malaria, anthelmintic, colds, influ‐ enza, fever, ear drop, abdominal pain, [99,104,105,120,13 expectorant, cough, headache, loss of 2,141,147,168] appetite Asthma, malaria, cough [14,41,98,104] Stomachache, cough, pneumonia, yel‐ low fever, wounds, diarrhea, poison an‐ tidote, malaria, postpartum hemor‐ [14,74,80,81,104,14 rhage, prevent first/second trimester 0,143,145,147,151, abortion, vomiting, pregnancy edema, 168] sore eyes/gums, ulcers (animals), bums, eye diseases, anthrax, cuts, contracep‐ tive, retained placenta Wounds, drippy nose in poultry, post‐ partum pain, headache, cuts, snakebites, diabetes mellitus, malaria, skin diseases, [51,79,85,96,104,10 liver damage, anthelmintic, coagulant, 6,113,115,119,125, anthrax, pimples, postpartum pains, 143,144,149,168] gastrointestinal problems, joint diseases, eye diseases, contraceptive, stomach‐ ache, fever, edema Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.) Herb/shrub Wild Roots, leaves, whole plant Aspilia pluriseta Schweinf. ex Herb/shrub Engl. Leaves, roots Baccharoides adoensis (Sch.Bip. Shrub ex Walp.) H.Rob. Roots, leaves, Eye infections, malaria, TB, gastrointes‐ [79,99,119,133,142, whole plant, tinal disorders, heart/kidney diseases, 144] bark Plants 2023, 12, 1145 46 of 151 stomachache, acaricide, livestock dis‐ eases, anthelmintic, gonorrhea Baccharoides hymenolepis (A.Rich.) Isawumi, El‐ Ghazaly & B.Nord. Shrub Baccharoides lasiopus (O.Hoffm.) H.Rob. Shrub Berkheya spekeana Oliv. Herb Bidens hildebrandtii O.Hoffm. Herb/shrub Bidens pilosa L. Herb Blumea axillaris (Lam.) DC. Bothriocline longipes (Oliv. & Hiern) N.E.Br. Brachylaena huillensis O.Hoffm. Carduus keniensis R.E.Fr. Carduus schimperi Sch.Bip. Herb Shrub Roots, leaves Stomachache, abdominal pains, purga‐ [99,119,141,143] tive, infantile jaundice Malaria, stomachache, shoulder pains, backache, pneumonia, scurvy, chest pains, burns, colds, spinal cord prob‐ lem, typhoid, allergies, amoeba, asthma, cancer, dental problems, diabetes, heart‐ burn, hypertension, inflammation, ton‐ sils in cows, loose bladder, reduces ad‐ diction, reduces menstrual flow, rheu‐ [41,67,74,81,83,84, 99,103,104,106,109 Leaves, roots, matism, skin diseases, STIs, stomach whole plant, disorders, lungs, dog poison, acidity, ,115,117,118,129,1 bark, stems nausea, sexual weakness, rashes, cough, 31,133,138,142– diabetes, crop pests, prevent first/sec‐ 147,152,168] ond trimester abortion, vomiting, colo‐ rectal cancer, postpartum pains, skin rashes, diarrhea, sore throat, acaricide, scabies, venereal diseases, maggot in sores, human/sheep anthelmintic, sup‐ purating ear, skin diseases, appetizer, aphrodisiac, menstrual pains, fever Roots, leaves, Arthritis, indigestion, amoeba, sores on [99,132,140,141,15 whole plant lips/tongue, abdominal pains 4] Roots Stomach disorders, malaria [77] Eye problems, snakebites, aphrodisiac, infertility, skin infections, hemorrhage, stomachache, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, dizziness, ear‐nose‐throat problems, eye problems, heartburns, injuries/cuts/wounds, ma‐ [14,41,74,81,84,86, Leaves, roots, laria, pneumonia, rheumatism, STIs, 88,95,104,106,108, shoots, whole stomach disorders, ear complications, 109,113,115,117,12 plant, flow‐ toothache, eye inflammation, malaria, 2,126,132,133,138, ers, aerial ringworms, gonorrhea, sore eyes, post‐ 143–147,168] parts, stems partum hemorrhage, milk letdown, first/second trimester abortion, skin/throat cancer, anthelmintic, coagu‐ lant, diarrhea, stomach upsets, acari‐ cide, rashes, diabetes, urinary disorders, liver/kidney problems, diabetes Roots Gonorrhea [99] Sores, sore throat, fever, malaria, Roots, leaves [67,136] strength and hygiene on babies Shrub/tree Leaves, roots Gastrointestinal complaints [150] Herb Herb Roots Spinal cord problems Whole plant Arthritis [109] [154] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 47 of 151 Chrysanthemum indicum L. (exotic) Herb Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. Herb Conyza newii Oliv. & Hiern Cotula anthemoides L. Crassocephalum montuosum (S.Moore) Milne‐Redh. Crassocephalum picridifolium (DC.) S.Moore Shrub Herb Leaves, twigs, Arthritis, heartburn whole plant Leaves, roots Backache, pimples, expectorant Leaves HIV/AIDs, cough Herb Roots, shoots Infertility in women [144] Herb Roots [144] Herb Flowers, leaves Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S.Moore Crepis carbonaria Sch.Bip. Herb Dichrocephala chrysanthemifo‐ Herb lia (Blume) DC. Dichrocephala integrifolia (L.f.) Herb Kuntze Echinops amplexicaulis Oliv. Herb Echinops angustilobus S.MooreHerb Echinops hispidus Fresen. Herb Emilia coccinea (Sims) G.Don Herb Emilia discifolia (Oliv.) C.Jef‐ Herb frey Erigeron bonariensis L. (exotic) Herb Erigeron canadensis L. (exotic) Herb Erigeron karvinskianus DC. Herb (exotic) Erythrocephalum marginatum (O.Hoffm.) S.Ortiz & Herb A.P.Cout. Whole plant Cough Flowers Stomachache [78] [91,154] [77,109,141] [143] Stomach complications, malaria, mouth infection in babies, remove particles [109,168] from eyes, wounds/burns Assist in parturition [67] Poisonous to cattle [168] Oral cavity infections, memory loss, [119,123,144,147,1 Fruits, leaves, measles, skin growths, stomach ail‐ 54] seeds ments, diarrhea, head rashes Roots Arthritis, chronic cough [140,154] Roots STIs [120] Roots Chest congestion [86] Stomach problems [115] Stomach ailments, constipation, nausea, amoeba, body aches, fatigue, malaria, clean womb, skin rashes, allergy, ring‐ Roots, leaves, worm, peptic ulcers, pregnancy stom‐ [14,78,84,140,143,1 whole plant achache, aching bones, infantile diseases44,147] that causes disability, appetizer, anthel‐ mintic, eye infection, chronic asthma, eye infection Toothache, snakebites, stomachache, back pain in women, postpartum pain, ringworms, wounds, headache, malaria, meningitis, arthritis, heartburn, oral thrush, gonorrhea, diarrhea, measles, [74,86,99,113,115,1 stomach ailments, rashes, boils, itching, 17– Roots, leaves, liver diseases, dysentery, anaplasmosis 120,122,125,126,14 stems (cattle), heartburn, STIs, colds, 6,147,152,154,168] throat/breast/squamous cell carcinoma of the gums, appetizer, tonsils, skin pimples, throat infections, backache, pimples, sore throat, postpartum pains, fever Toothache [41] Heartburn, oral thrush, sore throat, Leaves [86,144] cough Roots, leaves, Restore penile erection and sexual whole plant vigor, liver pains, malaria [96,106,127,129] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Eschenbachia subscaposa (O.Hoffm.) G.L.Nesom Ethulia scheffleri S.Moore Ethulia vernonioides (Schweinf.) M.G.Gilbert Euryops jacksonii S.Moore 48 of 151 Herb Roots, leaves Obesity, breast cancer, tonsils [78] Herb/shrub Leaves Malaria [67] Herb Roots Retained placenta [67] Herb Flowers Shrub Root, bark Herb Herb Leaves Whole plant Assist childbirth [67] Wounds, tetanus, cough, colds, diabe‐ [14,83,117,141,147 tes, colorectal, skin care cancer, skin ] sores/ulcers Skin problems, oral cavity infections, stomachache, malaria, livestock diseases [68,79,82,97,107,12 and hard dung, ticks, giardiasis, emetic, 3,138,143,144,168] measles, eye ailments Abdominal pains, arthritis, meningitis, malaria, typhoid, epilepsy, diarrhea, stomachache, stiches, acaricide, gastro‐ [64,76,79,87,101,11 intestinal problems, typhoid, amoebia‐ 6,132,133,144] sis, teeth‐problems, constipation, flatu‐ lence, menstrual problems, cuts, trema‐ tode/termite control Stomachache, earache, chest pains, an‐ thelmintic, menstrual pains, livestock diseases, heartburn, peptic ulcers, labor, malaria, pain in male private parts, after [41,88,103,104,119, birth pains, amoebiasis, bilharzia, gas‐ 120,132,144,147,15 tritis, measles, typhoid, cough, colds, 2,168] mouth wounds, snakebites, eye prob‐ lem, headache, influenza, kidney stones, wounds, venereal diseases, diarrhea in cattle Heartburn, oral thrush, impotence, an‐ [86,141] thrax, abdominal pains Fever [144] Fever, mouth rashes, wounds [144] Shrubs Leaves Sores on cattle Herb/shrub Whole plant, Nausea, vomiting, toothache, headache, [71,99] roots stomachache Herb Roots Expel placenta, chronic cough [99,140] Herb Roots Pregnancy edema [81] Herb Stems, leaves Tonic [67] Herb Leaves Tonic, keep illness away [67] Anthelminthic, cough, headache, wounds, repel fleas and lice [115,168] Galinsoga parviflora Cav. (ex‐ Herb otic) Leaves, roots Gutenbergia cordifolia Benth. Herb ex Oliv. Leaves, roots Gymnanthemum amygdalinum Shrub/tree (Delile) Sch.Bip. Whole plant, roots, leaves Gymnanthemum auriculiferum Shrub (Hiern) Isawumi Bark, roots, leaves Gymnanthemum myrianthum (Hook.f.) H.Rob. Gynura scandens O.Hoffm. Gynura valeriana Oliv. Helichrysum formosissimum Sch.Bip. Helichrysum forskahlii (J.F.Gmel.) Hilliard & B.L.Burtt Helichrysum globosum Sch.Bip. Helichrysum glumaceum DC. Helichrysum luteoalbum (L.) Rchb. (exotic) Helichrysum nudifolium (L.) Less. Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Sweet Herb [67] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 49 of 151 Helichrysum schimperi Shrub (Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.) Moeser Stomachache, wounds, colds, malaria, Leaves, roots, stomach disorders, fever, nausea, stems cough, inflammation [99,109,131,152,16 8] Hirpicium diffusum (O.Hoffm.) Roessler Whole plant Eye lotion [77] Herb Hoffmannanthus abbotianus (O.Hoffm.) H.Rob., S.C.Kee‐ Liana ley & Skvarla Jeffreycia hildebrandtii (Vatke) Herb/shrub H.Rob., S.C.Keeley & Skvarla Jeffreycia usambarensis (O.Hoffm.) H.Rob., S.C.Kee‐ Shrub ley & Skvarla Kleinia petraea (R.E.Fr.) C.Jef‐ Herb frey Kleinia squarrosa Cufod. Shrub Lactuca inermis Forssk. Herb Laggera brevipes Oliv. & HiernHerb Laggera crispata (Vahl) Hep‐ Herb per & J.R.I.Wood Laggera elatior R.E.Fr. Herb Launaea cornuta (Hochst. ex Oliv. & Hiern) C.Jeffrey Herb Linzia glabra Steetz Herb Lipotriche scandens (Schu‐ mach. & Thonn.) Orchard Shrub Pneumonia, wounds, stomachache, cough, malaria, eye infections, stomach [14,67,71,72,77,81, 84,91,103,104,107, acidity, constipation, poisoning, Roots, stems, first/second trimester abortion, vomit‐ 131,140– bark, leaves ing, skin rashes, emetic, typhoid, joint 142,144,146,147,15 pain/brucellosis/ back pain, fecal impac‐ 2,168] tion in babies/children, anaplasmosis Convulsions, stomach trouble, snakebite [127,142] Roots antidote Flowers Cause eyes sores [142] Whole plant, Abdominal pains, sore eyes [141,168] leaves Asthma, amenorrhea, syphilis, jaundice, Stems, aerial malaria, edema, cholera, thrombosis, parts, bark, second trimester abortion, pregnancy [51,81,96,102,106] leaves edema, measles, smallpox, diarrhea in poultry Joint pains, cough, stomachache, rheu‐ Roots, whole matism, diabetes, heartburn, gonorrhea, [74,83,99,130,147] plant, leaves syphilis Snakebite, measles, afterbirth pains, Roots, leaves toothache, suppurating ears, baby skin [14,99,126,168] care Leaves, roots Hiccups, colds, measles [99,144] Liver problems, gonorrhea, afterbirth [152,168] pains, toothache, suppurating ears Chira, chronic joint pains, malaria, am‐ oebiasis, diabetes, appetizer, aphrodis‐ iac, stomach disorders, typhoid, anthel‐ [14,41,51,83,84,86, Leaves, exu‐ mintic, chest pain, throat cancer, ulcers, 96,106,108,111,112 date, whole dysentery, breast/prostate cancer, stom‐ plant, leaves, ,129,130,139,144,1 achache, warts, toothache, liver prob‐ shoots 68] lems, coccidiosis in poultry, measles, stop sneezing, swollen testicles, small‐ pox, edema Snakebites, boils, stomach ailments, post/partum hemorrhage, first/second [79,81,122,126,143, Roots, leaves, trimester abortion, diarrhea, gastroin‐ 144,147] whole plant testinal problems, stomach problems, menstrual problems, oral thrush, fever Roots Leaves Teeth infections [144] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 50 of 151 Microglossa densiflora Hook.f. Shrub Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze Microglossa pyrrhopappa (Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.) Agnew Mikania cordata (Burm.f.) B.L.Rob. (exotic) Orbivestus karaguensis (Oliv. & Hiern) H.Rob. Gerbera piloselloides (L.) Cass. (exotic) Pluchea dioscoridis (L.) DC. Shrub Leaves, roots, Pneumonia, wounds, stomachache, stems menstrual pains, backache Malaria, boils, abscesses, arthritis, emetic, gum aches, eye lotion, skin rashes, measles, cough, nose bleeding, colorectal/skin/breast cancer, expel pla‐ Leaves, roots, centa, joints, wounds, toothache, acari‐ whole plant cide, snakebites, gastrointestinal prob‐ lems, promote fetal alignment or labor, colds, stomachache, anthrax, mental ill‐ ness, skin infections, promote appetite premature birth [99,152] [67,77,79,94,98,101 ,104,115,117,119,1 26,133,142– 144,147,154,168] Herb/shrub Leaves, roots Malaria, abdominal pains [67,141] Herb Leaves Measles [144] Anthrax [143] Tonic [67] Herb Herb Leaves Shrub Leaves Psiadia punctulata Vatke Shrub Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. Herb Senecio hadiensis Forssk. Liana Senecio lyratus Forssk. Senecio moorei R.E.Fr. Herb Herb/shrub Senecio syringifolius O.Hoffm. Liana Solanecio angulatus (Vahl) C.Jeffrey Herb Solanecio cydoniifolius (O.Hoffm.) C.Jeffrey Herb Infantile ailments, pregnancy pains [142] Abdominal pains, STIs, ectoparasites (ticks, fleas), insecticide, wounds, burns, malaria, scabies, skin infection, diar‐ [68,71,72,76,77,91, rhea, urinary problems, cough, sore Leaves, roots, throat, colds, afterbirth pains, inflam‐ 97,99,105,107,113, bark, flowers mation, brucellosis, gonorrhea, edema, 115,140–144,168] aphrodisiac, infertility, vertigo, ab‐ dominal pains, sexual stimulant, female conditions, headache, afterbirth pains Malaria, joint pains, diabetes, fever, meningitis, stomach disorders, stomach‐[14,41,76,79,84,103 Leaves, whole ache, colds/flu, wounds, gastrointestinal ,104,115,118,129,1 plant problems, plague, gingivitis, HIV/AIDs, 30,132,143,147,153 abdominal pains during menstruation, ] vomiting Roots, leaves, Malaria, diarrhea, myalgia, kidney dis‐ [72,88,109,141,152 stems eases, blood cleanser, baby tonic, colds ] Roots Fever [77] Cough [125] Wounds, eye inflammation, stomach‐ Leaves, roots [111,152] ache, malaria Mouth wash/teeth cleaning, livestock Roots, stems, diseases, aphrodisiac, pneumonia, pros‐ [41,77,107,135,147 leaves, bark tate cancer, STIs, whooping cough, ] backache, colds, gonorrhea Leaves Skin rashes, joint pains [77,119] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Solanecio mannii (Hook.f.) C.Jeffrey 51 of 151 Tree Solanecio nandensis (S.Moore) Liana C.Jeffrey Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Herb Sonchus luxurians (R.E.Fr.) C.Jeffrey Herb Sonchus oleraceus L. Herb Sonchus schweinfurthii Oliv. & Herb Hiern Sphaeranthus bullatus Mattf. Sphaeranthus confertifolius Robyns Sphaeranthus kirkii Oliv. & Hiern Herb Shrub Herb Sphaeranthus steetzii Oliv. & Herb Hiern Sphaeranthus suaveolens DC. Herb Sphaeranthus ukambensis Vatke & O.Hoffm. Herb Tagetes minuta L. (exotic) Herb Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trevis.) Sch.Bip. (exotic) Herb Roots, leaves, fruits, whole plant Stems, leaves Snakebites, STIs, malaria, livestock, spi‐ nal cord problem, colds, chest infec‐ tions, heartburn, dental problems, poi‐ son antidote, rheumatism, arthritis, [41,73,74,77,78,91, sprains, boils, scurvy, wounds, stomach 109,113,117,119,12 ailments, purgative, anaplasmosis 0,126,131,133,141, (cow), trypanosomiasis (cow, goat), 143,145,147,152,15 skin/breast/colorectal cancer, skin dis‐ 4,168] eases, acaricide, sterility, itchy rash, ab‐ dominal pains, livestock fever, stomach‐ ache, cancer, pneumonia, cough, epi‐ lepsy, typhoid Malaria, stomachache, breast/colorectal [117,131] cancer Amoeba, diabetes, erectile dysfunction [41,78,83,84] (impotence), tonsils, cough Roots, whole plant, leaves Leaves, whole Diabetes [83] plant Gonorrhea, STIs, diabetes, typhoid, liver Roots, leaves [83,113,115,168] problems Gastrointestinal problems, sore throat, [79,143,144] Leaves, roots neck pains Tonic, first/second trimester abortion, Leaves, roots [67,81] vomiting, pregnancy edema Fruits, leaves, Smoothen skin, skin conditions [135] roots, stems Leaves, aerial Swollen legs during pregnancy, malaria, [51,139] parts edema Medicine for pregnancy, diarrhea, Leaves, whole cough, inflammation, difficulty in [77,122,140,144] plant breathing, skin ulcers/rashes, madness Leaves, flow‐ Postpartum pain, nasal congestion, ma‐ ers, whole laria, retained afterbirth, stomachache, [67,103,104,113,14 plant, shoots, rheumatism, cough, sore throat, flu, eye 4,152,168] fruits ailments Food poisoning, stomachache, baby fe‐ [91,139] Stems, roots ver Fever, infertility, polio, muscle ache, nose bleeding, malaria, meningitis, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, [41,66,73,76– cough, colds/flu, dental problems, dia‐ Bark, leaves, 78,109,113,115,118 betes, headache, herbicide, injuries/cuts, whole plant, – wounds, skin diseases, TB, arthritis, roots, flowers, 120,122,129,133,14 asthma, toothache, control cock‐ shoots 1,143,144,146,147, roaches/fleas, mosquito/ant repellant, 152,154,168] ectoparasites (cow, poultry), skin dis‐ eases, stomachache, toothache, ab‐ dominal pains, ulcers Flower, General ectoparasites i.e., mites, lice, leaves, stems, flea infestation (cow, poultry), tick infes‐[73,133] aerial parts tation (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig) Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Taraxacum sect. Taraxacum F.H.Wigg. (exotic) 52 of 151 Herb Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. Shrub/tree Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) Shrub A.Gray (exotic) Tridax procumbens L. (exotic) Herb Vernonia colorata (Willd.) Drake Vernonia galamensis (Cass.) Less. Vernonia holstii O.Hoffm. Connaraceae Agelaea pentagyna (Lam.) Baill. Convolvulaceae Astripomoea grantii (Rendle) Verdc. Astripomoea hyoscyamoides (Vatke) Verdc. Astripomoea malvacea (Klotzsch) A.Meeuse Cuscuta australis R.Br. Cuscuta campestris Yunck. Cuscuta kilimanjari Oliv. Dichondra repens J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. (exotic) Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. Hewittia malabarica (L.) Suresh Hildebrandtia obcordata S.Moore Shrub Roots, shoots Barrenness, afterbirth pains [144] General body fatigue, wounds, skin in‐ Leaves, fections, asthma, cough, bronchitis, fe‐ [71,99,107,109,140, stems, roots, ver, constipation, gastrointestinal dis‐ 152,168] bark eases, vitamin, nausea, headache, chest diseases Indigestion, sprains, livestock diseases, malaria, snakebites, stomachache, head‐ ache, joint pains, typhoid, amoebiasis, contagious diseases, cough, colds/flu, insecticides, chicken diseases, pesticide, [41,66,73,79,82,84, Leaves, roots, pneumonia, stomach disorders, anthel‐ 87,98,101,104,106, bark, whole mintic, herbicide, diabetes mellitus, sore 108,115,118,119,12 plant, flow‐ throat, liver problems, livestock weak‐ 2,126,129,130,133, ness, ectoparasites (cow), helminthiasis ers, stems 143,144,146,168] (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), tonsils, jiggers, acaricide, anaplasmosis, pim‐ ples, wounds, gastrointestinal prob‐ lems, asthma, skin diseases, venereal diseases Dental problems, injuries/cuts, wounds, [14,41,51,67,99,147 Leaves, stems malaria, stomachache, toothache ] Anthelmintic, cough, pneumonia, stom‐ Roots [74] achache Herb Leaves Eye lotion, eye problems [77,136] Herb/shrub Roots Abdominal pains, tonsils [99,100] Shrub/liana Roots Impotence [144] Herb Leaves Chronic headache [144] Herb Leaves Typhoid [144] Malaria, stomach dysentery, constipa‐ tion Whole plant Typhoid, diarrhea Exudate Scabies, pimples, warts, boils Bark, whole Pregnancy edema, stomach pains plant [119] [168] Herb Leaves [118,126] Herb Leaves, roots Diarrhea, wounds, oral thrush [76,143] Herb Roots Stomach swellings, constipation, pain [144] Shrub Roots Constipation [142] Herb Herb Herb Herb Roots Snakebites, skin wounds, ringworms [74] [81,84] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 53 of 151 Hildebrandtia sepalosa Rendle Shrub Roots Stomach problems, upper respiratory tract infections, gastrointestinal compli‐ [72,116] cations Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. (ex‐ Herb otic) Leaves, stems, exu‐ date Wounds from poisoned arrows, acari‐ cide Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet Herb Ipomoea hildebrandtii Vatke Ipomoea jaegeri Pilg. Shrub Shrub Ipomoea kituiensis Vatke Shrub Ipomoea lapidosa Vatke Liana Ipomoea longituba Hallier f. Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker Gawl. Shrub Breast/cervical/skin cancer, colds, mea‐ sles Exudate Fungal infections Roots Emetic, gonorrhea Stomachache, typhoid, constipation, di‐ Leaves, roots, gestive disorders, cough, remove thorn stems from flesh, snake poison Twigs, roots, Ocular disorders, toothache, paresthe‐ leaves, stems sia, blood cleanser, STIs Roots Kwashiorkor Herb Leaves Leaves, roots Anthrax [133,147] [117,119] [143] [67,77] [41,76,80,98,100,10 8,142] [88,91] [138] [147] Ipomoea spathulata Hallier f. Shrub Ipomoea tenuirostris Choisy Ipomoea wightii (Wall.) Choisy Cornaceae Herb Roots, exu‐ Eyes problems, eye lotion, ringworms, [72,76,77,99,136,14 dates, leaves diarrhea, tonic, infertility 1] Leaves Rheumatism [99,141] Herb Exudate Cornus volkensii Harms Tree Cuts/wounds [152] Typhoid, amoeba, stomachache, vomit‐ [132] ing Crassulaceae Cotyledon barbeyi Schweinf. ex Baker Herb Crassula granvikii Mildbr. Herb Crassula schimperi Fisch. & C.A.Mey. Herb Kalanchoe crenata (Andrews) Herb Haw. Kalanchoe densiflora Rolfe Herb Teeth problem, skin infections, stomach complications, spinal cord problem, [67,109,142] Leaves painful parts of the body, fatigue pains, rheumatism Rheumatism and thinning, black water, Shoots, leaves dermatitis, increase blood, swelling of [144] stomach/legs/whole body Wounds [136] Navel infections in children, swollen ar‐ eas for muscle sprain and myalgia, Leaves, exu‐ stomach problems, bruises, wounds, [87,89,109,132] date umbilical cord problem, rashes, disin‐ fectant Eye problems, joint pains, stomachache, umbilical cord, wounds, muscle pains, fast heartbeat, heartburn, heartache, skin problems, rheumatism, muscu‐ [14,67,72,94,95,119 Leaves, roots, lar/bone dislocations, dermatitis, arthri‐ ,131,136,143,144,1 stems tis, dislocated joints, stiff/swollen mus‐ 52,154,168] cles, liver problems, boils, whitlow, edema, poisonous, swollen body, abor‐ tifacient Plants 2023, 12, 1145 54 of 151 Kalanchoe glaucescens Britten Herb Kalanchoe lanceolata (Forssk.) Herb Pers. Kalanchoe marmorata Baker Herb Kalanchoe obtusa Engl. Kalanchoe prittwitzii Engl. Cucurbitaceae Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai Herb Herb Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Herb Cucumis aculeatus Cogn. Herb Herb Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. ex Herb Spach Cucumis engleri (Gilg) Ghe‐ bret. & Thulin Herb Cucumis ficifolius A.Rich. Herb Cucumis prophetarum L. Herb Cucurbita ficifolia Bouché (ex‐ Herb otic) Kedrostis pseudogijef (Gilg) C.Jeffrey Cleanse blood [67] [67,88] [168] [127] [67] [41] Leaves, whole Diarrhea, snoring, abdominal pains [76,91,143] plant Malaria, livestock diseases, anaplasmo‐ sis (cow, ruminant), helminthiasis (cow, [14,67,73,101,114,1 Leaves, fruits, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), loss of feath‐ 15,140] exudate ers (poultry), cough, ECF, emetic, nau‐ sea, appetite Abdominal pains, acidity, emetic, gas‐ Fruits, roots, trointestinal problems, emetic, hasten [79,86,91,143,147] leaves delivery, cathartic, hemorrhoids Roots Malaria [67] Leaves, roots, Malaria, stomach complications, Chira, [14,108,109,114,11 bark, whole constipation, emetic, abdominal pains, 9,141,168] plant bloody stool Emetic, remove phlegm, malaria, infer‐ Fruits, roots [86,87,114] tility, infected ears, syphilis Leaves Mouth ulcers [122] Herb Cough, AIDs, amoeba, cancer, hard stool, immunity booster, operated mother, prostrate problems, skin dis‐ [41,96,168] Fruits eases, snakebites, stomach disorders, anthelmintic, urinary disorders, aphro‐ disiac Roots, seeds Afterbirth, anthelmintic [120] Herb Roots Herb Roots Liana Roots Liana Leaves [127] Leaves, bark, Diarrhea, yellow fever, malaria, hepati‐ exudate, [51,77] tis, measles, cuts stems Leaves, exu‐ Wounds, toothache [114,152] date Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Herb (exotic) Cucurbita pepo L. (exotic) Gerrardanthus lobatus (Cogn.) C.Jeffrey Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) Cogn. Kedrostis gijef (Forssk. ex J.F.Gmel.) C.Jeffrey Kedrostis heterophylla Zimm. Leaves Rheumatism Leaves, flow‐ Splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, blood ers cleanser, rheumatism Stiff muscles, liver problems, skin dis‐ Leaves eases, diarrhea and foot rot in sheep Whole plant Children’s diseases, pesticide Leaves Stiff joints, rheumatism Liana Lagenaria abyssinica (Hook.f.) Herb C.Jeffrey Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Herb Standl. Leaves Malaria Smallpox, bloat in livestock, measles, boils, whitlow Eye medicine, snake poison, malaria, cough, stomachache Children’s diseases Cough [111] [114,121,143] [72,114,142] [87] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Lagenaria sphaerica (Sond.) Naudin Momordica anigosantha Hook.f. Momordica boivinii Baill. 55 of 151 Herb Scabies, candidiasis, ringworms, lep‐ Flowers, roots rosy, retained placenta, abdominal pains [114,131] Herb Fruits [132,141] Herb Roots Momordica foetida Schumach. Herb Momordica friesiorum (Harms) Herb C.Jeffrey Induce menstruation [114] Trigeminal neuralgia, sinusitis, wounds, teething problems, abdominal pains, Roots, whole amoeba, fever, arthritis, heartburn, oral plant, aerial thrush, colic pain in infants, emetic, dia‐ [82,85– parts, fruits, betes mellitus, skin rashes, fever, stom‐ 88,109,114,117,118 leaves, exu‐ achache, malaria, anthelmintic, cough ,120,132,154] date (livestock, human), breast/cervical can‐ cer, poisonous, chest problems, head‐ ache, typhoid Stem, bark, Malaria, livestock diseases, emetic, [67,88,89,114,152] leaves, roots, spleen, liver diseases, vomiting seeds Momordica pterocarpa Hochst. Herb ex A.Rich. Momordica rostrata Zimm. Herb Momordica spinosa (Gilg) Shrub/liana Chiov. Peponium vogelii (Hook.f.) Herb Engl. Zehneria pallidinervia (Harms) Herb C.Jeffrey Zehneria scabra (L.f.) Sond. Herb Cupressaceae Cupressus torulosa D.Don ex Tree Lamb. (exotic) Hesperocyparis lusitanica (Mill.) Bartel (exotic) Tree Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Tree Endl. (exotic) Vomiting, emetic Ear infection, malaria [114] Malaria, brain stimulant, emetic, laxa‐ tive, swollen legs and body pains dur‐ Roots, leaves, ing pregnancy, retained placenta, ab‐ [114,131,139,144] fruits, shoots dominal pains, fever, burns, stomach‐ ache, coccidiosis (poultry), measles, trematodes, cuts, boils of livestock Headache, hepatitis, respiratory dis‐ [72,137] Roots, bark eases, fever, malaria Leaves, fruits, Fever, dysmenorrhea, venereal diseases, [77,114] whole plant headache, rash Leaves Snakebites [127] Malaria, asthma, boils, wounds, consti‐ pation, livestock diseases, skin disor‐ Stems, leaves, ders, ringworms, gonorrhea, measles, seeds, roots, colds, flu, hypertension, eye infections, shoots, diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pains, branches skin rashes, cough, cancer, recuperate patients, eye/ear problems, warts, cuts [41,67,76,86,91,99, 105,107,109,114,11 5,131,132,138,147, 152,168] Leaves, bark Colds, urinary bladder inflammation [152] Leaves, exu‐ Cancer, epilepsy, rheumatism, skin dis‐ eases, typhoid, toothache, anthelmintic, [41,116,133] date, fruit, bark, stems measles, dysentery, acaricide Eye problems, whopping cough, stom‐ [41,72,86,88,95,117 Leaves, bark, achache, livestock diseases, cancer, ,120,132,133,136,1 branches, ex‐ wounds, breathing difficulty, amoeba, 40,141,145,152,168 udates, roots cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, gall bladder, ,64] kidney problems, knock swells, malaria, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 56 of 151 placenta removal, rheumatism, typhoid, anthelmintic, broken bones, sore throat, breast/throat/squamous carcinoma of the gum, acaricide, aphrodisiac, expec‐ torant Cyperaceae Cyperus alternifolius L. Herb Roots Cyperus articulatus L. Herb Roots Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk. Cyperus dichrostachyus Hochst. ex A.Rich. Cyperus elegantulus Steud. Boils, rashes Malaria, body weakness, fever, pneu‐ monia, hiccups [80] [103,104,115,128,1 44,147] Herb Fever [136] Herb Fever [136] Herb Cyperus esculentus L. Herb Cyperus impubes Steud. Cyperus laevigatus L. Cyperus niveus Retz. Herb Herb Herb Cyperus papyrus L. Herb Cyperus rigidifolius Steud. Herb Cyperus rotundus L. Herb Dichapetalaceae Dichapetalum ruhlandii Engl. Shrub/liana Dichapetalum zenkeri Engl. Dilleniaceae Tetracera boiviniana Baill. Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea minutiflora Engl. (exotic) Dioscorea praehensilis Benth. Dioscorea quartiniana A.Rich. Ebenaceae Fever [136] Abdominal upsets, bad breadth, stom‐ achache, abdominal/colic pains, eye Leaves, roots problems, typhoid, cough, blindness, [88,91,132] backache, headache, chest problem, gin‐ givitis, appetizer Fever [136] Chickenpox, malaria, stomach disorders [41] Fever [136] Pneumonia, headache, malaria, hyper‐ [74,143,168] Leaves, roots tension, nutritional edema, HIV/AIDs Fever [136] Leaves Heart problems [144] Poisonous [142] Venereal diseases, menstrual disorders, [127] prenatal care Shrub/tree Roots Shrub Roots Stomach ailments, venereal diseases Tubers, exu‐ date Fruits Roots Blood cleanser, viral diseases, rheuma‐ [41,84,147,168] tism, heartburn, gonorrhea, warts Measles [144] Poisonous, fever [77,99] Herb Herb Herb Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F.White Shrub/tree Diospyros consolatae Chiov. Shrub/tree Diospyros loureiroana G.Don Shrub/tree Diospyros scabra (Chiov.) Shrub/tree Cufod. [127] Diarrhea, sores, laxative, malaria, ring‐ Seeds, bark, worms, skin rashes, internal injuries, oc‐ [66,89,116,120,125, roots, twigs ular disorders in livestock, STIs, vene‐ 144] real diseases Toothache, stomach ailments, skin dis‐ eases, respiratory problems, kidney Roots, leaves, problem, gastrointestinal gas, snake‐ [127,150] back bites, arthritis, umbilical cord, hernia, veterinary medicine Snakebites [134] Womenʹs stomach troubles, fever in [91,142] Bark children Plants 2023, 12, 1145 57 of 151 Diospyros squarrosa Klotzsch Shrub/tree Euclea divinorum Hiern Shrub/tree Euclea natalensis A.DC. Shrub/tree Euclea racemosa L. Shrub/tree Ericaceae Agarista salicifolia (Lam.) G.Don Euphorbiaceae Shrub/tree Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. Shrub Acalypha paniculata Miq. Herb/shrub Acalypha psilostachya Hochst. Herb ex A.Rich. Acalypha volkensii Pax Shrub Croton alienus Pax Shrub/tree Prenatal care, septic swelling, convul‐ [127] sions Sore throat, cathartic, malaria, constipa‐ tion, excessive menstrual flow, anthel‐ mintic, diarrhea, infertility, spinal cord problem, abdominal upsets, skin disor‐ ders, blood cleansers, invigorant, prophylaxis of cancer and respiratory disorders, stomachache, amoeba, boils, skin rashes, snakebites, dental prob‐ [14,41,66–68,71– lems, dislocation, indigestions, livestock 74,79–82,85– diseases, heartburn, toothache, cough, 88,91,98– tonic, diabetes mellitus, anthrax, rheu‐ 100,104,105,107– Stems, bark, matism, stomach rumblings, cleans the 109,112,113,115,11 leaves, roots, womb, headache, appetizer, joint pains 6,120,124,132,133, seeds, fruits in livestock, fever, venereal diseases, 135,138,141– protracted labor, postpartum hemor‐ 143,146,147,149,15 rhage, retained afterbirth, anaplasmosis 4,168] (cow, ruminant), constipation (cow, goat, sheep), sore throat, pneumonia, chest pains, acaricide, problems during pregnancy, arthritis, leprosy, asthma, joint diseases, bleeding gums, loose teeth, dysentery, menstrual pains, bloat, laxative, ulcers, wounds, gonorrhea, purgative, tonic for anemia Diarrhea, poisoning, snakebites, diabe‐ tes mellitus, anthelmintic, mouth infec‐ Roots tions, stomach ulcers, gonorrhea, consti‐ [85,99,127,150] pation, vaginal discharge, toothache, earache Poisoning, diabetes mellitus, liver, an‐ thelmintic, stomach disorders, Chira, Root, bark, [14,76,77,85,127,14 bloody diarrhea, stomachache, constipa‐ leaves 0,142] tion, purgative, colic pain, general body wellness Roots Leaves, bark Digestion, indigestion, poisonous [99,142] Snakebites, induce labor pains, liver, wounds, scorpion/bee stings, fever in [64,77,91,100,127,1 Roots, leaves children, cerebral malaria, headache, 42,143,150] gastrointestinal gas, gonorrhea, gastro‐ intestinal problems Roots, stems, Acaricide [133] bark Roots Retained placenta Leaves, roots Gonorrhea, sores, fatigue, dizziness Roots General health, rheumatism [144] [67,144,168] [168] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Croton dichogamus Pax 58 of 151 Shrub/tree Croton macrostachyus Hochst. Tree ex Delile Croton megalocarpus Hutch. Tree Gonorrhea, arthritis, polio symptoms, chest pain, tonic, malaria, bone/joint pain, respiratory diseases, fever, ab‐ [14,51,67,71,72,77, Roots, bark, dominal pain, oral thrush, chest conges‐ 84,89,91,98,105,10 leaves, seeds, tion, asthma, cough, colds, rheumatism, 7,129,136,137,139, stems joint diseases, miscarriage, swollen legs 142,143,149,168] and body pains during pregnancy, back pains, stomachache, edema, infertility Eye problems, sore throat, flu, TB, stom‐ achache, measles, dysentery, malaria, respiratory disorders, ear infection, al‐ lergies, ringworms, dysmenorrhea, diar‐ rhea, fever in cows, typhoid, measles, acaricide, asthma, bites, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, general body pains, heart problems, increase body temperatures, injuries/cuts, wounds, [14,41,66,67,81,84, Roots, bark, livestock (pregnancy test in cows), mea‐ 85,87,88,95,99,101, leaves, seeds, sles, mumps, pneumonia, rheumatism, 104,116,117,119,12 stems, exu‐ skin diseases, STIs, straighten muscles, 0,123,132,133,141– thorn pricks, anthelmintic, oral cavity date 147,153,168] infections, cleansing digestive and blood circulation system, diabetes melli‐ tus, amoeba, venereal diseases, back‐ ache, fatigue, postpartum hemorrhage, colorectal/skin/breast, sore throat, flu, dysentery, asthma, headache, rashes, purgative, aphrodisiac, cathartic, food poisoning, asthenia, warts, fever in live‐ stock/man Stomachache, malaria, respiratory con‐ ditions, back pain, amoeba, joint/bone problems, body weakness, chest conges‐ tions, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, general body pains, headache, injuries/cuts, wounds, live‐ stock diseases, pneumonia, rheumatism, STIs, stomach acid, body swellings, ty‐ [14,41,51,64,68,72– phoid, ulcers, anthelmintic, kidney fail‐ 74,77,85,91,92,98,9 Roots, bark, ure, lung problems, cancer, toothache, 9,105– leaves diabetes mellitus, fever, diarrhea, ana‐ 107,113,116,121,12 2,133,136,139,140, plasmosis, diarrhea/dysentery (cow, 145,146,151,168] poultry, goat, sheep, pig), paraly‐ sis/stroke, abortifacients, purgative, aca‐ ricide, boils, pneumonia, migraine, dia‐ phragm, throat infection, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, re‐ tained placenta, abdominal pains, con‐ stipation, liver disease in poultry, aph‐ rodisiac Plants 2023, 12, 1145 59 of 151 Croton menyharthii Pax Shrub Croton pseudopulchellus Pax Shrub/tree Croton scheffleri Pax Shrub Croton somalensis Pax Tree Croton sylvaticus Hochst. Shrub Croton talaeporos Radcl.‐Sm. Shrub/tree Influenza, malaria, pregnancy pains, menstrual pains, muscle spasms, female Leaves, roots [67,100,142,150] reproductive disorders, vaginal dis‐ charge, ulcers, respiratory problem Convulsions, gastric lesions, inflamma‐ Roots, leaves tion, convulsions, snakebite, rheuma‐ [127,150] tism Roots Fever, malaria [77] Stem, bark, Influenza, malaria, stomachache [107,142] leaves, roots Acaricide, malaria, stomach disorders, Roots, bark, respiratory infections, wounds, tonsilli‐ [14,133,134,142] buds, seeds tis, colds, stomachache General body pains, inflammation, Roots, leaves colds, stomach complaints, typhoid, hy‐ [127,142,150] pertension, rheumatism Erythrococca atrovirens (Pax) Shrub Prain Erythrococca bongensis Pax [125] Herb Arthritis, livestock diseases, stomach‐ ache, Chira, acaricide, livestock diseases, [66,67,76,77,133,14 Leaves, roots, dizziness, insect bites, ECF in cattle, 0,142,143,168] stems heartburn, backache, gynecological problems, HIV/AIDs, anthelmintic Roots Infertility, gonorrhea, chest pains [99] Branches Stomach pains in childbirth [67] Eye problems, livestock diseases, ton‐ sils, ear complication, wounds, retained Leaves, exu‐ placenta in cattle, ECF in cattle, poison, [14,41,73,100,106,1 muscle pull, prevent termites, bloat, 42,146,168] date edema in cattle, swollen glands in calves, asthma Branches Sore throat, flu, asthma [100] Venereal diseases, infertility, gonorrhea, flu, joint pains, STIs, eye problems, ma‐ laria, retained placenta, chest problems, bronchitis, headache, barrenness, upper [41,67,68,71– Bark, roots, respiratory tract infections, gastrointes‐ 73,77,100,105,107, latex, leaves, tinal complications, wounds, coenu‐ 120,132,133,135,13 stems ruses, ECF in cows, stomach diseases, 8,142,145,150,168] acaricide, poison, backache, mumps, blood pressure, menstrual cramps, rash, asthma, bronchial conditions, hernia, leprosy, lumpy skin disease in cows Exudate Skin ulcers, warts [51,140] Shrub Exudate Shrub/tree Erythrococca fischeri Pax Shrub/tree Euphorbia abyssinica J.F.Gmel. Tree Euphorbia bicompacta Bruyns Shrub/tree Euphorbia bussei Pax Tree Euphorbia candelabrum Tré‐ maux ex Kotschy Tree Euphorbia crotonoides Boiss. Euphorbia cryptospinosa P.R.O.Bally Septic wounds Euphorbia cuneata Vahl Shrub/tree Euphorbia engleri Pax Shrub/tree Poisonous [142] Roots, aerial Gonorrhea, constipation, increase fertil‐ [77,80,105] parts, exudate ity, dust in eyes, hepatitis in calves Poisonous [142] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 60 of 151 Euphorbia friesiorum (A.Hässl.) S.Carter Shrub/tree Euphorbia gossypina Pax Shrub Euphorbia heterochroma Pax Shrub Euphorbia heterophylla L. Herb Euphorbia hirta L. Herb Euphorbia inaequilatera Sond. Herb Euphorbia joyae P.R.O.Bally & Shrub S.Carter Euphorbia meridionalis Herb P.R.O.Bally & S.Carter Euphorbia milii Des Moul. (ex‐ Shrub otic) Euphorbia nyikae Pax ex Engl. Shrub/tree Euphorbia pereskiifolia Houllet Shrub/tree ex Baill. Euphorbia quinquecostata Tree Volkens Euphorbia scheffleri Pax Shrub Euphorbia schimperiana Scheele Herb Euphorbia systyloides Pax Euphorbia tenuispinosa Gilli Herb Shrub Euphorbia tirucalli L. Shrub/tree Exudate, bark Poisonous, elephantiasis, blindness [84,142,168] Warts (verrucae), ringworms, poison‐ Stems, roots, ous, swollen legs and body pains dur‐ [80,94,139,142] exudate ing pregnancy, fever Malaria, gonorrhea, fever, gland com‐ Roots, stems, plications, respiratory diseases, ticks, ec‐ [68,72,73,77,100,13 exudate, toparasites, pneumonia, tuberculosis, 6,137,145] whole plant acaricide, gonorrhea, chest problems, vi‐ rus diseases in chicken, HIV/AIDs Leaves Chira, increase letdown in livestock [108,144] Skin infections, stomach problems, chest Leaves, roots, problems, asthma, respiratory and uri‐ whole plant, nary disorders, diarrhea, skin diseases, [109,119,144,168] exudate male impotency, lactating moth‐ ers/cows, rashes Leaves, roots, Gonorrhea, stimulant, to allay hunger, exudate, prevent sleep, wounds, burns, skin ul‐ [67,77,143,144] whole plant, cers, glaucoma, snakebite, pregnancy stems problems Roots, stems Postpartum hemorrhage, cough Stems Malaria, STIs, induce diarrhea as a means of cleansing the body [113,142] [92] Fruits, leaves, Skin infections, warts [74,146] exudate Latex Septic swelling, malaria, wounds/burns [127,136] Latex Stems, exu‐ date, roots, fruits Shoots, exu‐ date, leaves, branches Fish poison [142] Insecticide in grain stores [100] Vomiting, toothache, goat medicine, poisonous, stomachache, cuts [51,77,81,100,138] Coughs, colds, poisonous, increase lactation in animals [67,99,144,168] Wounds Poison, diarrhea in chicken/goats Eye infection, warts (verrucae), cancer, eye problems, injuries/cuts/wounds, livestock diseases, malaria, STIs, stom‐ ach disorders, typhoid, epilepsy, tooth‐ Stems, bark, aches, pesticide in stored grains, wom‐ enʹs health, acaricide, poisonous, infer‐ exudate, tility, relieves pain and prevents infec‐ branches tion to sores, eye infection, swollen glands, poisonous to eyes, sore throat, measles, removing specks from eyes, pesticidal (aphids) Stems [72] [100,142] [14,41,66,86,94,100 ,116,127,133,137,1 41– 143,145,147,168] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Euphorbia transvaalensis Schltr. Euphorbia ugandensis Pax & K.Hoffm. 61 of 151 Herb Latex Herb/shrub Euphorbia uhligiana Pax Herb Euphorbia umbellata (Pax) Bruyns Shrub/tree Euphorbia wakefieldii N.E.Br. Tree Excoecaria madagascariensis Shrub/tree (Baill.) Müll.Arg. Warts [77] Colds, cough [142] Branches, Wounds, colds, stomach disorders, hy‐ [51,72,135] fruits, roots, pertension whole plant Poisonous, backache, joint swelling, Leaves, latex sore throat, respiratory problems, fun‐ [142,143] gal skin disease, boils (cattle) Stems Postnatal abdominal pains [127] Bark, latex Poisonous [134,142] Jatropha curcas L. (exotic) Shrub/tree Jatropha dichtar J.F.Macbr. Shrub Jatropha ellenbeckii Pax Jatropha podagrica Hook. (ex‐ otic) Jatropha spicata Pax Jatropha velutina Pax & K.Hoffm. Macaranga capensis (Baill.) Sim Macaranga kilimandscharica Pax Mallotus oppositifolius (Geiseler) Müll.Arg. Manihot esculenta Crantz (ex‐ otic) Neoboutonia macrocalyx Pax Neoboutonia melleri (Müll.Arg.) Prain Shrub Burns, injuries/cuts, wounds, snake‐ Leaves, roots, bites, stomach disorders, mouth blisters, [41,74,106,138,143, fruits, leaves constipation, lice/flea control, miscar‐ 146,147,150] riage, diarrhea, kwashiorkor Root, bark, Stomach, chest problems, eyedrops, [72,142] exudates emetic Exudates Wounds [142] Shrub Leaves Herb/shrub Leaves, stems Laxative, diarrhea Leaves, exu‐ Wounds dates [100,142] Tree Bark [122] Tree Roots, leaves, Bilharzia, cough, stomachache, cancer, [41,99,131,133] stems acaricide Shrub/tree Roots Ricinus communis L. Herb Chest problems, fever Diarrhea Chest pains [100,120] [142] Tree Root, bark, Foot and mouth disease, acaricide, aph‐ [14,96,133,139] stems, leaves rodisiac, abdominal pains Bark, exudate Warts, malaria [93,103,104,168] Shrub/tree Stems, roots Acaricide, poisonous Herb Ruminal impaction, constipation, infer‐ tility, regulate menstrual cycle, chest pains, stomachache (after‐birth), consti‐ pation, livestock diseases, snakebites, [14,41,51,64,67,68, septic swelling, laxative, joint pains, 73,74,77,81,86,91,9 burns, diarrhea, vomiting, stomachache, 4,96,99,105,106,11 Leaves, roots, arthritis, bites, blood cleanser, burns, 1,113,115,118– seeds, bark cough, colds/flu, dental problems, de‐ 120,122,127,130,13 toxifier, family planning, hard stool, in‐ 2–134,139,141– digestion, injuries/cuts, wounds, labor 145,147,151,152,16 pains, aphrodisiac, pimples, pneumo‐ 8] nia, rheumatism, stomach disorders, laxative, umbilical cord infection, dry skin, ringworms, asthma, whooping, Herb/shrub [133,142] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 62 of 151 Shirakiopsis elliptica (Hochst.) Tree Esser Spirostachys africana Sond. Tree Spirostachys venenifera (Pax) Tree Pax Suregada zanzibariensis Baill. Shrub/tree Tragia brevipes Pax Herb Tragia furialis Bojer Herb Tragia impedita Prain Herb Flagellariaceae Flagellaria guineensis Schu‐ Liana mach. Geraniaceae Monsonia angustifolia E.Mey. Herb ex A.Rich. Monsonia glauca R.Knuth Herb Pelargonium alchemilloides (L.) Herb LʹHér. Pelargonium quinquelobatum Herb Hochst. ex A.Rich. Hamamelidaceae malaria, fevers, retained afterbirth, pro‐ tracted labor, postpartum hemorrhage, ECF, bloat (cow), skin rushes, urinary problems, enhance appetite, abdominal pains, syphilis, ulcers, acaricide, eye ail‐ ments (cloudy eyes), STIs, emetic, poi‐ sonous, smooth skin, ease parturition, scorpion bites, earache, venereal dis‐ eases, gonorrhea, bilharzia, earache, pinworms Eye injury/infection in livestock, dental Bark, leaves, problems, malaria, colorectal/esopha‐ [41,66,116,117,119, seeds geal cancer, burns, asthma, acaricide, 125,133,144] man/animal fattening Roots, bark, Antiseptic, congestion, breast swelling [100,127] stems Stems, leaves, Poisonous, livestock boils [14,142] branches Roots Body swelling [127] Hair loss, indigestion, ulcers, anemia, hypertension, peptic ulcers, diabetes, topical anesthetic agent, rheumatism, [66,67,77,81,86,88, purgative, snakebites, delayed/pro‐ 91,99,115,117,141, Roots, leaves tracted labor, tonic, breast cancer, leuke‐ 168] mia, urinary problems, joint problems, rheumatism, labor pains, diarrhea, anti‐ venom, purgative, impotency Roots, leaves Skin diseases, diarrhea, tonic [77,127] Roots Retained placenta [139] Leaves, fruits Venereal diseases [127,134] Leaves, whole Black quarter in cattle, liver disease plant Roots Fleas on calves [67] Leaves Sore eyes, eye diseases [99,141] Roots Diarrhea [67] Trichocladus ellipticus Eckl. & Shrub/tree Zeyh. Bark, roots, leaves Diarrhea, teeth problems, oral candidia‐ sis, digestion, stomach disorders, [67,77,88,109,152] strength Hernandiaceae Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq. Hydnoraceae Tree Leaves Antiseptic Hydnora abyssinica A.Br. Herb Roots, stems, Diarrhea, amoebic dysentery, diabetes, [77,81,83,102,143,1 whole plant first/second trimester abortion, 68] [67,77] [127] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 63 of 151 stomachache, retained placenta, female conditions Hypericaceae Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir. Hypericum peplidifolium A.Rich. Hypericum quartinianum A.Rich. Tree Herb Shrub Hypericum revolutum Vahl Shrub/tree Psorospermum febrifugum Spach Shrub/tree Psorospermum orientale (Engl.) Shrub/tree Byng & Christenh. Hypoxidaceae Hypoxis obtusa Burch. ex Ker Herb Gawl. Icacinaceae Apodytes dimidiata E.Mey. ex Shrub/tree Arn. Pyrenacantha kaurabassana Baill. Herb Pyrenacantha malvifolia Engl. Herb Eye infection, scabies, flu, stomachache, heavy menstruation, malaria, bloody di‐ arrhea, arthritis, breast development in [66,74,98,101,112,1 Leaves, fruits, young, colorectal/skin/breast cancer, 16,117,119,122,133 general body pains, dysentery, itchy bark, roots ,142–144,154,168] genitals, acaricide, infertility, wounds, chest pain, jigger/thorn, headache, cough, venereal diseases Whole plant, Injured/infected eyes, dermatitis, diar‐ [144] leaves, roots rhea Leaves, roots, Rheumatism, diarrhea [99] branches Joint pains, diarrhea, rheumatism, [99,109] Roots, leaves wounds Fruit, bark/stem/lea Acaricide, fattening (goats, rams) [133,144] f Roots Tonic [142] Roots Baby/children skin rashes, stomach medicine [140,168] General body weakness, joints pains/weakness, sore throat, malaria, Seeds, fruits, chest pains, tonic, stomachache, anthel‐ [67,77,140,152] roots, bark mintic, diarrhea, internal injuries, blood clot in muscles, livestock diseases, spleen pain and enlargement Jiggers, boils, rashes, aphrodisiac, fetus development, labor pains, veterinary [142,150] Tubers medicine Induce vomiting in pregnant women or [92] those suspected to have malaria Iridaceae Gladiolus dalenii Van Geel Herb Roots Meningitis, malaria, diarrhea, asthma, allergy, joint pains, rheumatism [98,118,140] Juncaceae Juncus oxycarpus E.Mey. ex Kunth Lamiaceae Herb Flowers Colds, chest pains [67] Aeollanthus repens Oliv. Herb Ajuga integrifolia Buch.‐Ham. Herb ex D.Don Leaves, whole Eye diseases, mouth thrush plant Leaves, aerial Malaria, menstrual pains, indigestion, parts, whole abdominal pains, boils, chronic joint plant, stems, pains, amoeba, back/bone problems, bites, cough, colds/flu, headache, roots [141] [7,14,41,64,66– 68,73,74,77,84– 87,101,103,104,107 ,110,115,122,129,1 Plants 2023, 12, 1145 64 of 151 30,138,141,143,144 livestock diseases, rheumatism, ty‐ phoid, arthritis, fever, gonorrhea, tooth‐ ,147,153,154,168] ache, epilepsy, diabetes mellitus, acid‐ ity, nausea, pneumonia, body pains, dysentery, stomachache, retained pla‐ centa, anaplasmosis, mastitis, ECF (cows), Newcastle disease (poultry), hel‐ minthiasis (cows, poultry, goats, sheep, pigs), lung diseases (cows, goats, sheep, poultry), anthelmintic, tonsils (cattle), indigestion, menstrual problems, con‐ vulsions, dermatitis, liver problems, hy‐ pertension, afterbirth pains, measles Clerodendrum hildebrandtii Vatke Shrub/tree Clerodendrum johnstonii Oliv. Shrub Clerodendrum rotundifolium Oliv. Clinopodium abyssinicum (Benth.) Kuntze Clinopodium uhligii (Gürke) Ryding Coleus aegyptiacus (Forssk.) A.J.Paton Coleus barbatus (Andrews) Benth. ex G.Don Shrub Herb Herb/shrub Herb/shrub Shrub Roots Chest medicine, general medicine [134,142] Malaria, hypertension, heart pains, joint Leaves, roots, pains, toothache, body pains, abdominal[14,88,99,101,104,1 pains, aphrodisiac, dysmenorrhea, gen‐ 41,145,147,152] shoots eral weakness, stomach upsets/pains Leaves, roots, Malaria, stomachache, fever [104,143] bark Leaves, whole Cough, headache, indigestion, anodyne, [7,132,141] plant eye diseases, abdominal pains Constipation, headache, chest conges‐ [7,86] tion Stomachache, prenatal care, stomach af‐ [77,127] ter giving birth Abdominal pains, diarrhea, vomiting, malaria, stomachache, joint pains, con‐ stipation, headache, backache, protru‐ sion of bowels, livestock diseases, body swellings/legs, joint pain, liver diseases, skin rashes, stomach upsets, dysentery, amoeba, arthritis, bilharzia, brucellosis, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, ec‐ [7,41,73,74,79,81,8 zema, eye problems, hypertension 4,86– HIV/AIDs, injuries/cuts, wounds, neu‐ 88,96,98,100,101,1 tralizes poison, rheumatism, typhoid, 06,109,111,113,115 Leaves, roots anthelmintic, retained placenta, consti‐ ,116,119– pation, tonic, sprains, stiff neck, muscle 122,129,132,133,13 cramp, colic pain in infants, eyes, oral 6,141,144,146,147, thrush, measles, snakebites, skin 152,168] growths, tooth/gum aches, pneumonia, biopesticide, first abortion, vomiting, pneumonia (cow), fractures, dysentery, chest problems, skin diseases, abscess, warts, acaricide, indigestion, painful teeth, mouth ulcers, tetanus, disinfect‐ ant, asthma, allergy, strength, purga‐ tive, gonorrhea, eye ailments, induce Plants 2023, 12, 1145 65 of 151 Coleus caninus (B.Heyne ex Roth) Vatke Herb Coleus cylindraceus (Hochst. ex Benth.) A.J.Paton Herb Coleus hadiensis (Forssk.) Herb A.J.Paton Coleus igniarius Schweinf. Shrub Coleus lactiflorus Vatke Shrub Coleus lasianthus Gürke Herb Coleus maculosus (Lam.) Herb A.J.Paton Coleus otostegioides (Schweinf. Herb/shrub ex Gürke) A.J.Paton Coleus prostratus (Gürke) Herb A.J.Paton Coleus succulentus Pax Herb Coleus sylvestris (Gürke) A.J.Paton & Phillipson Herb/shrub Coleus umbrosus Vatke Herb Endostemon tereticaulis (Poir.) Herb M.R.Ashby Equilabium kamerunense Shrub (Gürke) Mwany. & A.J.Paton Equilabium laxiflorum (Benth.) Herb Mwany. & A.J.Paton Fuerstia africana T.C.E.Fr. Herb/shrub blood production, dermatitis, earache, skin damaged (cow) Cough, liver diseases, livestock dis‐ Leaves, roots [7,77,99] eases, toothache Morning sickness, general body weak‐ Whole plant, ness, peptic ulcers, livestock diseases, [7,81,139] stems prevent first abortion Leaves, stems Childbirth [72] Bark Malaria, livestock diseases, strength Aerial parts Acaricide, stomach trouble Whole plant Kwashiorkor, edema in children [77,104,136] [133,142] [51] Roots [7,136] Stomachache, strength Whole plant Kwashiorkor, edema in children [51] Whole plant Skin problems [118] Leaves, stems Abscesses [94] Wounds, livestock diseases, allergies, Leaves amoebiasis, diarrhea, painkiller, tooth‐ [7,41,136,152] ache, typhoid, constipation, strength Roots, leaves, Smallpox, tonic, livestock diseases, [7,51,142,168] whole plant emetic, diarrhea, stomachache Roots, shoots Malaria, edema, diarrhea, backpains [51] Whole plant Stomachache [7] Anthelmintic, sore throat, purgative, in‐ [99,141] fertility, eye diseases, abortifacient Malaria, snakebites, pneumonia, ulcers, infertility, mouth inflammation in chil‐ dren, respiratory disorders, ringworm, abscesses, ophthalmia, problems, skin complaints, colds, heartburn, oral thrush, livestock diseases, diabetes mellitus, stomachache, urinary infec‐ tions, ulcers, gonorrhea, venereal dis‐ [7,67,71,74,81,82,8 eases, postpartum hemorrhage, prevent 5,86,88,91,94,97,99 Leaves, roots, first/second trimester abortion, preg‐ ,101– whole plant, nancy edema, pregnancy anemia, eyes 104,115,117,119,12 shoots infection, colorectal cancer, oral infec‐ 2,126,140,141,152, tions, anthelmintic, respiratory disor‐ 168] ders, internal injury, swollen legs, wounds, bloody diarrhea, mouth ulcers, boils, STIs, cuts, toothache, tonic, infant postpartum care, sore/red eyes, ear dis‐ eases female conditions, dandruffs, sore throat, chest complaints, kidney Roots, leaves Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Hoslundia opposita Vahl 66 of 151 Shrub Hyssopus officinalis L. (exotic) Herb/shrub Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. Herb Leonotis ocymifolia (Burm.f.) Iwarsson Shrub Leucas calostachys Oliv. Shrub Leucas deflexa Hook.f. Leucas glabrata (Vahl) Sm. Herb Herb Leucas grandis Vatke Herb/shrub Prenatal care, convulsions, tonic, asthma, cough, colds/flu, typhoid, snakebite, aphrodisiac, constipation, sore throat, postpartum hemorrhage, prevent first trimester abortion, vomit‐ [7,41,51,64,75,81,8 4,91,111,112,127,1 Roots, leaves, ing, acaricide, colic pain in children, whole plant ameba, oral thrush/wounds, cuts, pim‐ 31,133,144,145,148 ples/scabies, itches/rashes, anthelmintic, ,150] stomach pains, sores, ulcers, boils, hic‐ cups, hemorrhoids, diabetes, blood pu‐ rifier, child delivery, snakebites, edema, malaria Cough, colds, sore throat, nose block‐ [168] ing, indigestion Malaria, wounds, heart problems, stom‐ achache, lungs/kidneys/liver problems, cough, toothache, boils, heartburn, oral thrush, acidity, anthelmintic, vomiting, Leaves, buds, [7,14,67,76,79,81,8 diarrhea, gonorrhea, acaricide, gastroin‐ 6,123,124,133,136, whole plant, testinal problems, abortion, anaplasmo‐ 138,142– roots, aerial sis in cattle, insect bites, skin diseases, 144,147,152,168] parts colds, bleeding during pregnancy, con‐ junctivitis, headache and body weak‐ ness, eye treatment, fever, problems in passing urine Wounds, teething, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, diarrhea, in‐ digestion, appetizer, malaria, rheuma‐ tism, ulcers, anthelmintic (human/ani‐ [7,41,67,84,86,89,9 Bark, roots, mals), antiseptic, skin rashes, blood pu‐ 9,109,115,129,138, leaves, whole rifier, dysentery, chest congestion, dia‐ 140,142,144,152,16 plant betes, gall sickness, stomach pains, diar‐ 8] rhea, urinary problems, sore lips and tongue, anaplasmosis (cattle), insect bites, skin diseases, venereal diseases, fever, edema, problems in passing urine Colds, cough, diarrhea, malaria, respira‐ tory problems, headache, tonic, pneu‐ monia, sprains, heartburn, peptic ulcers, abdominal distension, colic pain in in‐ [7,79,86,87,101,105 Roots, bark, fants, amoeba, hypertension, renal dis‐ ,120,125,133,141– orders, skin disorders, cancer, arthritis, leaves 144] acaricide, stomachache, gastrointestinal problems, expectorant, dysmenorrhea, abdominal pains, hernia, cuts, wounds, livestock (diarrhea, chest problems) Eye infection in livestock [125] Root Child’s tonic [142] Leaves, roots, Wounds, tonic, colds, persistent skin [7,14,74,84,120,141 ,144,168] whole plant disease, anthelmintic, ear infection, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 67 of 151 Leucas jamesii Baker Shrub Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. Herb Leucas tomentosa Gürke Shrub Mesosphaerum pectinatum (L.) Herb/shrub Kuntze Mesosphaerum suaveolens (L.) Herb Kuntze Micromeria imbricata (Forssk.) Herb/shrub C.Chr. Nepeta azurea R.Br. ex Benth. Herb Ocimum americanum L. Herb Ocimum basilicum L. Herb Ocimum gratissimum L. Herb/shrub Ocimum kilimandscharicum Gürke Herb abdominal pains, ringworms, stomach‐ ache, diarrhea, anaplasmosis in cattle, anti‐acid, earache, thrush (in children) and sores Leaves Cholera, stomachache [92] Eye problems, wounds, liver problems, gastrointestinal troubles, constipation, Leaves [7,95,109,144] stomachache, black tongue, eye ail‐ ments, edema, fever, snakebite Roots Dysentery, stomachache, purgative [142] Molluscoid, stomachache, diarrhea, skin [7,119,122,143,144 Leaves, roots problems, gastrointestinal problems, ] oral thrush, fever in animals Leaves Skin wounds, fungal infections [118] Chest pains, pimples, mouth inflamma‐ Roots, stems, tion, livestock diseases, teeth problem, [7,109,131,152,168 leaves, whole pneumonia, stomachache, gastroenteri‐ ] plant tis, cough, colds Leaves Backache, livestock diseases [7] Malaria, delayed/protracted labor, post‐ partum hemorrhage, prevent first/sec‐ Leaves, whole ond trimester abortion, vomiting, preg‐ [81,100,104,134] plant nancy edema, stomach complaints, mos‐ quito repellant Headache, morning sickness, allergies, bites, cough, colds/flu, anthelmintic, na‐ sal/bronchial catarrh, stomachache, con‐ stipation, vermifuge, diabetes mellitus, [7,14,41,64,77,79,8 Leaves, roots, malaria, eye ailments, gastrointestinal 4,85,91,102,111,11 whole plant problems, headaches, itching 2,115,129,141,143, skin/rashes, repel insects (termites, fleas,147] mites, weevils, mosquitoes), abdominal pains, pain relief, rectal problems, preg‐ nancy and child birth problems Headache, diarrhea, toothache, swelling of the body, chronic joint pains, chest pains, cough, colds/flu, fever, ear/nose/throat problems, general body weakness, malaria, rheumatism, anthel‐ [7,14,41,64,74,76,8 mintic, skin infection, stomachache, in‐ 4,90,99,111,115,11 Leaves, roots, secticide, body rash, pesticide of stored 7,119,122,127,129, bark grains, pneumonia, mosquito repellent, 130,141,142,145– colorectal cancer, bronchitis, stomach 147,168] ulcers, throat infections, constipation, abdominal pain, sore eyes, hiccups, hemorrhoids, control termites, runny nose, ulcers Nasal congestion, colds, flu, insect bites, [7,86,96,101,106,12 Leaves, roots, general pains, malaria, diarrhea, dysen‐ 2,125,133,139,142, stems, shoots tery, constipation, cough, eye problems, 147,168] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 68 of 151 Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. Herb ex Benth. Ocimum spectabile (Gürke) Shrub A.J.Paton Orthosiphon thymiflorus Herb (Roth) Sleesen Platostoma africanum P.Beauv. Herb Platostoma hildebrandtii Herb/shrub (Vatke) A.J.Paton & Hedge Premna chrysoclada (Bojer) Gürke Premna hildebrandtii Gürke Premna oligotricha Baker Premna resinosa (Hochst.) Schauer Premna serratifolia L. Rotheca microphylla (Blume) Callm. & Phillipson Shrub/tree Shrub/liana Shrub Shrub Shrub/tree Shrub Rotheca myricoides (Hochst.) Shrub Steane & Mabb. Leaves congested chest, measles, stomachache, repel insects, diabetes, sore eyes, acari‐ cide, wounds, respiratory problems, fe‐ vers, abdominal pains Respiratory disorders and common ail‐ [14,168] ments, stomachache Leaves Asthma, cough, colds/flu, eye lotion [41,77] Leaves Stomach and oral cavity infections [123] Shoots Mouth thrush, sore throat [144] Leaves Colds, wounds [7] Diarrhea, prenatal care, convulsions, in‐ duce conception, dysentery, kidney [75,127,134,142,15 Roots, leaves trouble, purgative, fevers, female repro‐ 0] ductive disorder, malaria Leaves, roots Convulsions, diarrhea, stomachache [127,142] Roots Joint/bone pain [77] Fever, venereal diseases, fever, malaria, Roots, leaves [77,80,127,129] mosquito repellant, joint pains Leaves Headache [142] Convulsions, headache, vomiting, gas‐ Rots, leaves trointestinal gas, cerebral malaria, post‐ [127,142,150] natal problems Sore throat, ear infections, malaria, gon‐ orrhea, syphilis, aphrodisiac, STIs, vene‐ real diseases, diarrhea, polio, joint pains, abscesses, back/bone pains, burns, cough, colds/flu, tonsilitis, arthri‐ tis, typhoid, rheumatism, emetic, gonor‐ rhea, heartburn, oral thrush, cancer, throat cancer, diabetes mellitus, polio, abortions, headache, clean the womb, [14,41,66– diabetes, gland complications, respira‐ 68,72,77,79,83– tory diseases, stomachache, gastrointes‐ 86,91,94,97– tinal disorders, lumbago, venereal dis‐ 99,101,103,105,107 Roots, bark, eases, pneumonia, sore throat, ear prob‐ ,113,116,119,120,1 leaves, shoots lems, flu, dysentery, diarrhea, headache, 23,124,129,130,132 eye infections, chest pains, bronchitis, ,133,135– indigestion, infertility, amoebic dysen‐ 144,146,147,149,15 tery, anthelmintic, rheumatism, acari‐ 4,168] cide, venereal diseases, typhoid, asthma, strength, splenic pain and en‐ largement, enema against extreme body weakness due to chronic diseases, ab‐ dominal pains, threatened miscarriage, joint diseases, stimulate spasms during childbirth, menstrual pains, tonic, men‐ tal illness, abdominal pains during men‐ ses, HIV/AIDs, retained placenta, rabies, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 69 of 151 Salvia coccinea Bucʹhoz ex Etl. Herb (exotic) Salvia leucantha Cav. (exotic) Shrub Salvia rosmarinus Spenn. (ex‐ Shrub otic) Tetradenia urticifolia (Baker) Phillipson Shrub Tinnea aethiopica Kotschy ex Shrub Hook.f. Vitex doniana Sweet Tree Vitex ferruginea Schumach. & Shrub/tree Thonn. Vitex fischeri Gürke Tree Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr. Shrub/tree Volkameria eriophylla (Gürke) Shrub/tree Mabb. & Y.W.Yuan measles, TB, colic, eye disease, swell‐ ings, wounds, asthma, aphrodisiac, la‐ bor pains, poultry fever, ECF in live‐ stock, toothache, purgative Menstrual overflow, ulcers, bad eye, Leaves [117,147] breast/esophageal/colorectal cancer Shoots, leaves Burns, edema [144] Chest problems, cough, colds/flu, pneu‐ monia, retarded memory, rheumatism, Leaves, stems [41,74,119,147] stomachache, stress, inappetence, smelly body/feet Malaria, inappetence, amoeba, catalyzes vomiting, dental problems, general body pains, heartburns, livestock dis‐ eases, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, stomach disorders, cough, colds, flu, bronchitis, stomach upsets, flatulence, [7,14,41,73,105,121 Stems, leaves, mouth ulcers, diarrhea, fevers, boils, ,141,142,144,146,1 mumps, stomach ailments, constipation, roots, 47] body pains, burns/scalds, anaplasmosis (cow, ruminants), trypanosomiasis (cow, goat), miscarriage (cow), cataract, abdominal pains, cough in cattle and goats, vomiting, asthma, edema, anthel‐ mintic Abdominal pains, constipation, eye lo‐ Whole plant, tion, Chira, acaricide, stomach upsets, [76,77,127,133,143, roots, leaves, gastrointestinal complaints in children, 145,150] fruits measles Diarrhea, vomiting, whooping cough, Leaves, fruits, acaricide, allergies, colds, cancer of [84,98,120,133,144, bark breast and prostate glands, vitamin sup‐ 147] plements, wounds Fruits, roots Appetite, gastrointestinal complaints Livestock diseases, acaricide, anti‐acid, Leaves, bark fever, infection stomachache Venereal diseases, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, chest prob‐ Roots lems, dental problems, diarrhea, in‐ crease blood, typhoid Swollen testicles, otitis, earache, anthel‐ Leaves, roots mintic, amoeba, stomachache, snake bites, malaria, edema [150] [14,41,133,144] [41,127] [51,74,103,104,142 ] Lauraceae Kuloa usambarensis (Engl.) Trofimov & Rohwer Tree Bark, leaf, roots Back pain, asthma, cancer, cardiac dis‐ orders, cough, colds/flu, dizziness, hy‐ [14,41,103,104,113, pertension, joints, malaria, pneumonia, 145–147,168] rheumatism, typhoid, anthelmintic, chest pains, appetizer, whooping cough, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 70 of 151 Persea americana Mill. (exotic) Tree Lecythidaceae Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng. Fabaceae Abrus fruticulosus Wall. ex Wight & Arn. Abrus precatorius L. body ache, swelling, tumors, measles, muscular contractions, disturbed breathing, stomachache, antidote, aph‐ rodisiac, clearing throat, relaxation Toothache, anemia, invigorant, amoeba, blood purifier, cancer, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, ear‐nose‐throat prob‐ lems, energy boost, headache, immune Bark, seeds, booster, increase blood, malaria, pros‐ [14,41,83,88,116,11 roots, leaves, tate cancer, rheumatism, skin diseases, 7,119,152] fruits stomach disorders, diabetes, colorec‐ tal/skin/breast cancer, skin, gut prob‐ lems, STIs, toothache, cholesterol con‐ trol Tree Bark Fish poison [142] Shrub Roots Pneumonia [84] Shrub Acacia mearnsii De Wild. (ex‐ Tree otic) Aeschynomene abyssinica (A.Rich.) Vatke Herb/shrub Afzelia quanzensis Welw. Tree Albizia amara (Roxb.) B.Boi‐ vin Tree Eye problems, asthma, septic swelling, gynecological pains, venereal diseases, colds, cough, stomachache, diabetes Leaves, roots, mellitus, febrifuge, fever, throat, skin [75,76,85,95,100,10 seeds, whole cancer, gonorrhea, emetic, inflamed 8,117,119,127,134, plant 142,143,150] breasts during breast‐feeding, family planning, emetic, poison, asthma, epi‐ lepsy, heart pain, snakebites, venereal diseases, malaise Typhoid, chronic joint pains, chicken‐ Leaves, pox, dental problems, measles, skin dis‐ [41,73,130,146,147, stems, bark, eases, smallpox, toothaches, wounds 152] roots from poisoned arrows, cough (cows, goats, sheep, poultry, pig, ruminants) Heartburn, chest pain, cough, uter‐ Leaves, bark, ine/skin/squamous cell carcinoma of the [117,120,140] roots gums Chest pains, stomachache, postnatal Roots, bark care, chest pain, snakebites, excessive [127,150] menstruation Muscle and bodybuilding, indigestion, smooth baby skin and softens baby faces, back/bone problems, cough, Bark, [14,41,64,84,86,103 colds/flu, chest problems, joints, ma‐ branches, laria, peptic ulcers, hypertension, fe‐ ,104,107,128,135,1 fruits, roots, male infertility, stomachache, emetic, 42,149] stem wounds, joint diseases, typhoid, piles, diarrhea, gonorrhea, ulcers, dandruff, cancer Plants 2023, 12, 1145 71 of 151 Albizia anthelmintica (A.Rich.) Tree Brongn. Albizia coriaria Welw. ex Oliv. Tree Malaria, stomachache, backache, emetic, induce bile release from the gall blad‐ der, purgative, tonic, helminthiasis, di‐ arrhea, convulsions, allergies, amoeba, [14,41,51,64,67,68, joint/bone pain, general body pains, gonorrhea, headache, women’s health, 72,80,84,90,92,96,1 00,102,105,107,110 Bark, roots, wounds, syphilis, arthritis, flu/cold, leaves, aerial pneumonia, brucellosis, anthelmintic ,121,127,128,132,1 parts (human, animals), runny nose, cough, 34,135,137– skin diseases, asthma, snakebite, aphro‐ 139,141,142,150,16 disiac, venereal diseases, edema, eye 8] problems, retained placenta, abdominal pains, tonic, fever, liver diseases (poul‐ try), cattle diseases (eye injuries, cough, bloat) TB, genital thrush, gonorrhea, malaria, STIs, venereal diseases, pneumonia, menorrhagia, postpartum hemorrhage, sore eyes, livestock respiratory diseases, breast/uterine/skin cancer, diarrhea, [66,76,79,82,104,11 Roots, bark, stomachache, eye problems, boils, flu, 6– stems, leaves colic pains, abdominal discomfort, con‐ 118,124,133,143,14 stipation, infertility, anthelmintic, 4] joints/backbone, cardiac conditions, kid‐ ney ailments, acaricide, gastrointestinal conditions, threatened abortion, whoop‐ ing cough, anthrax, jaundice Albizia glaberrima (Schumach. Shrub/tree & Thonn.) Benth. Leaves Albizia grandibracteata Taub. Tree Roots, bark, leaves Albizia gummifera (J.F.Gmel.) Tree C.A.Sm. Albizia versicolor Welw. ex Tree Oliv. Albizia zygia (DC.) J.F.Macbr. Tree Astragalus atropilosulus Herb (Hochst.) Bunge Bauhinia taitensis Taub. Shrub Bauhinia tomentosa L. Shrub/tree Bauhinia variegata L. (exotic) Shrub/tree Headache, stomachache [120] Gonorrhea, headache, stomachache, ac‐ [120,125,133] aricide Oral thrush, postpartum bleeding, STIs, stomachache, malaria, liver diseases, ab‐ dominal ulcers, amoeba, back/joint/bone [14,41,67,74,84,87– Bark, roots, problems, chest problems, pneumonia, 89,101,103,104,116 fruits, leaves, rheumatism, TB, typhoid, skin disor‐ ,117,119,125,129,1 gum ders, throat/skin cancer, gut problems, 41,142,145,168] cough, flu, anthelmintic, ringworms, HIV/AIDs, dental care, acaricide, im‐ mune booster Convulsions, chest pains, venereal dis‐ Roots, leaves [127] eases Bark Pneumonia [98] Uterine pains after childbirth Roots Roots, bark Leaves Joint problems, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, sores, wounds Retained placenta, cough, malaria Meat allergy, allergy rash [67] [41,80] [14,80,146] [144] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 72 of 151 Biancaea decapetala (Roth) O.Deg. Shrub Roots Skin infections, urinary tract infections, [14,123,142,144,14 gum aches, poisonous, toothache, stom‐ 7] achache Cadia purpurea (G.Piccioli) Aiton Shrub Bark Poison, flees and parasites Shrub Allergies, joint pains, amoeba, bites, ma‐ Leaves, roots, laria, snakebites, stomach disorders, flu, [41,84,105,130,139, branches, constipation, weight loss, stomachache, 146,150,151] seeds tonsils, eye/ear problems, infertility, nausea in pregnant women Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth Calpurnia aurea (Aiton) Shrub/tree Benth. Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC. Liana Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Chamaecrista hildebrandtii (Vatke) Lock Chamaecrista kirkii (Oliv.) Standl. Chamaecrista nigricans (Vahl) Greene Craibia brevicaudata (Vatke) Dunn Craibia brownii Dunn Craibia zimmermannii (Harms) Dunn Tree Herb Herb Poisonous [77,136] [142] Root Urinary problem, passing blood in urine[144] Malaria, diabetes mellitus, chest pain, muscular pain, fever, ulcers, goat medi‐ cine, hypertension, hemostatic, yellow fever, typhoid fever. fatigue, body Aerial parts, aches, inflammatory skin diseases, pain‐ [51,85,100,128,139, bark, roots, ful joints, menstrual cramps, aphrodis‐ 142,145,148,150,15 leaves, pods iac, venereal disease, stomachache, 1] swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, retained placenta, tooth‐ ache, cough, gonorrhea, kidney pains, colds, pain in joints Gastrointestinal problems, body pain [79,140,143] Roots, leaves including bones and joints, stomachache Leaves, Wounds, meat allergy, skin rashes, men [144] shoots infertility, livestock black water Herb Roots, leaves Stomachache, anthelmintic [76] Shrub/tree Roots [127] Tree Roots Cough [80] Bark, leaves, high blood pressure, fever, anthelmin‐ [145] stems tic, animals (constipation) Wounds, backache, colds, dirty body system, skin infections, STIs, gonorrhea, [109,115,142,143,1 Leaves, roots urinary infections, gastrointestinal prob‐52,168] lems Leaves Sore eyes, fever, stomach upsets [100,142,145] Stomachache, body swellings, gastroin‐ testinal conditions, conjunctivitis in chil‐ [79,95,99,143] dren Stomach upsets (constipation, dyspep‐ sia), cough, anemia, strength, chest Leaves, roots, [72,88,91,136,141,1 pains, purgative, proper placement of whole plant 44] baby in womb, sore throat, mouth rushes, wounds Roots Fever [109] Tree Crotalaria agatiflora Schweinf. Shrub/tree Crotalaria axillaris Aiton Herb/shrub Crotalaria brevidens Benth. Herb Crotalaria incana L. Herb Crotalaria keniensis Baker f. Shrub Hypertension Plants 2023, 12, 1145 73 of 151 Crotalaria laburnifolia L. Herb Roots Helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig) [73] Crotalaria lachnocarpoides Engl. Herb/shrub Root Sore throat [140] Crotalaria mauensis Baker f. Herb/shrub Crotalaria natalitia Meisn. Herb/shrub Crotalaria pallida Aiton Herb Crotalaria polysperma Kotschy Herb Cynometra webberi Baker f. Tree Dalbergia boehmii Taub. Shrub/tree Dalbergia lactea Vatke Shrub/liana Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. Tree & Perr. Dalbergia microphylla Chiov. Shrub Delonix elata (L.) Gamble (ex‐ Tree otic) Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Tree Raf. Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. Dolichos compressus R.Wilczek Dolichos kilimandscharicus Taub. Mouth infection in babies, asthma, uri‐ [109,147,168] nary infections Strength, cough, chest pain [136] Roots Oral infections [119] Vomiting, diarrhea [132] Leaves Children’s diseases [127] General body pains, diarrhea, induce la‐ [127] Roots bor pains STIs, diabetes, managing pain and in‐ Roots, leaves flammation, back pains, liver pains, [113,115,154,168] gonorrhea Gastrointestinal pains, prenatal care, tonsils, venereal diseases, artery prob‐ Bark, roots, lems, back/joint/bone pains, chest prob‐ [41,84,100,127,129, leaves lems, cough/colds/flu, dental problems, 134] malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, ty‐ phoid, tonic, liver problems Leaves Mouth ulcers [142] Roots, leaves Bark Livestock diseases, wounds [14,51,80] Bark STIs, stomachache [144] Shrub/tree Roots, bark, leaves, branches Diarrhea, prenatal care, cough, convul‐ sions, anesthesia, ulcers, gonorrhea, ma‐ laria, poisonous, scorpion stings, snake‐ [51,89,104,111,112, bites, bones, injuries to reduce swelling, 127,134,142,143,15 colds, asthma, toothache, gastrointesti‐ 0] nal problems, constipation, amoebic dysentery, body pains Herb Roots Infertility Herb Dolichos oliveri Schweinf. Herb/shrub Entada abyssinica Steud. ex A.Rich. Tree Entada leptostachya Harms Liana [120] Roots, stems, Acaricide [133] leaves Poisonous, dementia, epilepsy; fever in Roots [77,142,143] livestock Scabies, flu, infertility, cough, anthel‐ mintic, body aches, dysentery, stomach‐ ache, edema, diarrhea, STIs, TB, child‐ [66,87,88,116,118,1 Bark, leaves, birth, joint/backbones, cardiac condi‐ 20,125,133,143,144 roots tions, kidney ailments, cancer, veteri‐ ] nary uses, acaricide, sprained mus‐ cles/limbs, body swelling, heart ail‐ ments Roots, bark, Tuberculosis, cough, boils, abscesses, [14,41,51,72,80,84, 94,96,100,139,142, leaves, exu‐ cuts/wounds, amoeba, eye problems, knee problems, STIs, stomachache, 151,153] date Plants 2023, 12, 1145 74 of 151 snakebites/spits, arrow poison, polio, back pain, anthelmintic (human, ani‐ mals), malaria, anemia, hemorrhage, high fever, madness, gastroenteritis, ep‐ ilepsy, helps increase milk letdown, edema, snake repellent, swollen legs, body pains and hemorrhage in pregnant women, retained placenta, abdominal pains, eye injury, food poisoning, inter‐ nal injury Eriosema glomeratum (Guill. & Herb Perr.) Hook.f. Eriosema robustum Baker Shrub Erythrina abyssinica Lam. Tree Erythrina excelsa Baker Tree Erythrina melanacantha Taub. Tree ex Harms Roots Roots Fever [144] Cough [144] Swollen lymph glands, abdominal/colic pain in children, chickenpox, infertility, malaria, urinary tract infections, cancer‐ ous wounds, stomach pains, postpar‐ tum pain, mouth, laxative, internal inju‐ ries, pneumonia, STIs, abscesses, aller‐ gies, amoeba, antidote, back/joint/bone problems, bilharzia, cancer, cholera, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, diar‐ rhea, ear‐nose‐throat problems, general body pains, increase blood, inju‐ ries/cuts/wounds, livestock diseases, male paralysis, measles, medicine anti‐ [14,41,66,67,73,74, dote, prostrate problems, rheumatism, 81,84,86,87,91,94,9 RVF, stomach disorders, typhoid, ul‐ 9,101,102,105,110, cers, uterus problems, vomiting, 113,116,119,120,12 Stems, roots, whooping cough, anthelmintic, arthritis, 3,129,133,135,138, bark toothache, chest pains, peptic ulcers, hy‐ 140– pertension, mumps, gonorrhea, snake‐ 147,151,153,154,16 bites, amoeba, diarrhea, pregnancy ane‐ 8] mia, pregnancy edema, anaplasmosis (cow, ruminant), helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), skin diseases, stomachache, mumps, body swellings, chest problems, blood cleanser, evacua‐ tion of bowels, anemia, fever, liver in‐ flammation, acaricide, eye infection, syphilis, abdominal pains, tonic, skin sores/ulcers and swellings, allergy, gon‐ orrhea, diabetes, gout, liver disorder, epilepsy, swelling of legs, anthrax, cattle cough and bloat, elephantiasis, kidney problems, menstrual problems Bark, roots, Snakebites, STIs, loose stool [118,126,143] exudate Stomachache, venereal diseases, eradi‐ Bark cate mites from chicken/cattle, chest [14,80,146] pain, colds, cough, snakebites Plants 2023, 12, 1145 75 of 151 Erythrophleum suaveolens (Guill. & Perr.) Brenan Faidherbia albida (Delile) A.Chev. Gelrebia trothaei (Harms) Gagnon & G.P.Lewis Grona adscendens (Sw.) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi Grona barbata (L.) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi Grona setigera (E.Mey.) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi Herb Guilandina bonduc L. Liana Tree Bark, seeds Poisonous [142] Shrub/tree Fruits Cancer, liver enlargement [91,132] Shrub Fruits Poisonous [142] Stomachache [125] Edema [144] Herb/shrub Herb Guilandina volkensii (Harms) Liana G.P.Lewis Hylodesmum repandum (Vahl) Herb H.Ohashi & R.R.Mill Indigofera ambelacensis Herb Schweinf. Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex Herb A.Rich. Indigofera atriceps Hook.f. Herb Indigofera bogdanii J.B.Gillett Shrub Indigofera circinella Baker f. Indigofera colutea (Burm.f.) Merr. Indigofera conjugata Baker Indigofera dendroides Jacq. Indigofera emarginella Steud. ex A.Rich. Indigofera garckeana Vatke Indigofera lupatana Baker f. Herb Leaves Strengthen sunken part of baby head Leaves, roots and scalp and bring head to normal [144] shape Asthma, complications during menstru‐ Seeds, leaves, ation, miscarriage, internal blood clots [127] roots in eyes Eye problems, back pain in women, back/joint/bone problems, cough, [14,41,84,95,103,10 colds/flu, malaria, pneumonia, rheuma‐ 4,107,113,119,129, Leaves, roots, tism, STIs, typhoid, anthelmintic, acid‐ 138,142,143,146,14 bark, seeds ity, headache, general body pains, fe‐ 7,168] vers, venereal diseases, stomach ulcers, sore throat, chest pain, stomachache Roots Stomach upsets [125] Heart disease [99] Toothache, abdominal cramps/pains, malaria, abortion, pain in urination, ar‐ [14,86,88,91,99,105 thritis, chest pains, cough, colds, asthma, diarrhea, skin rashes, stomach‐ ,115,119,120,132,1 Leaves, roots ache, anthelmintic, cancer, skin sores 38,139,141– and ulcers, anthrax, congested chest, 144,146,147,152,15 sore throat, aphrodisiac, retained pla‐ 4,168] centa, hear problem, kidney ailment, fe‐ ver, edema Teeth problems [132] Roots Joint pain, bone pain [77] Snakebites, cough, stomach problems, Leaves, roots [67,126,143,144] sore throat, stomachache Herb Shoots Kill mites, snakebites wounds [144] Herb Herb Leaves Leaves Chest problems Fungal diseases [144] [118] Herb/shrub Roots, stems Acaricide Shrub Roots Herb/shrub Roots [133] Gonorrhea, joint pain [77] Cough, colds/flu, epiglottis hair, anthel‐ mintic, malaria, pneumonia, backache, [14,41,51,74,80,96] diarrhea, constipation Plants 2023, 12, 1145 76 of 151 Indigofera spicata Forssk. Herb Indigofera spinosa Forssk. Herb/shrub Indigofera swaziensis Bolus Shrub Roots, whole plant, stems, leaves Roots Roots, whole plant Strength Malaria, anthelmintic, body aches, weaknesses, rheumatism, bone pain [77] Baby diseases [140] Cough, wounds, burns, diarrhea, sore throat [67,77,122,143] [77,147] Indigofera tanganyikensis Baker f. Indigofera trita L.f. Kotschya africana Endl. Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet Herb Roots Herb/shrub Shrub Herb Millettia dura Dunn Shrub/tree Leaves Headache, stomachache [99,142] Various parts Acaricide [133] Seeds, roots Lung disease in sheep, poisonous [168] Allergies, cough, colds/flu, malaria, ty‐ Bark, roots phoid, anthelmintic, ECF in cattle, [14,41,74,146] pneumonia, diarrhea, amoeba, madness Roots Coughs, chest pains [127] Leaves Cough [120] Bark, root, Acaricide [133] aerial parts Millettia usaramensis Taub. Shrub/tree Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC. Liana Mucuna poggei Taub. Liana Mundulea sericea (Willd.) Shrub/tree A.Chev. Neonotonia wightii (Wight & Herb Arn.) J.A.Lackey Neorautanenia mitis (A.Rich.) Herb Verdc. Bark, leaves Fish poison, jiggers [142,150] Leaves Breast cancer, edema, excess bleeding after miscarriage [117,144] Roots Abortifacients [141] Newtonia buchananii (Baker) Tree G.C.C.Gilbert & Boutique Bark, root Newtonia hildebrandtii (Vatke) Tree Torre Bark Ormocarpum keniense J.B.Gil‐ Shrub lett Leaves Ormocarpum kirkii S.Moore Shrub/tree Ormocarpum sennoides (Willd.) DC. Shrub/tree Ormocarpum trachycarpum (Taub.) Harms Shrub/tree Ormocarpum trichocarpum (Taub.) Engl. Shrub/tree Parkinsonia aculeata L. (exotic) Shrub/tree Malaria, anthelmintic, chest pains, gon‐ orrhea, blood pressure, anemia, im‐ [14,41,146] mune booster, fatigue, runny nose (cat‐ tle), colds, cough Chest problems, dysentery, asthma and other respiratory disorders, malaria, [41,72,77,80,129] stomach disorders Anthelmintic [80] Postpartum bleeding, threatened abor‐ tion, cuts, wounds, septic swelling, dia‐ Bark, roots, betes mellitus, headache, swollen [14,85,90,100,105,1 leaf breasts, stomachache, livestock stomach 27,142,143,145] cleansing, diarrhea, dislocations, joint swellings, malaria, colds Convulsions, prenatal care, gynecologi‐ Roots, leaves [127] cal pains, burns, children’s diseases Diarrhea, whooping cough, miscarriage, Leaves, roots, sunken fontanelle, swellings, cough, tu‐ [67,76,107,140] stems, bark berculosis Ringworm, stomachache, ulcers, main‐ tain pregnancy, pregnancy cramps, gas‐ [67,71,77,79,94,96, Roots, leaves trointestinal disorders, bleeding after 106,142,143] miscarriage, diarrhea, stomach prob‐ lems, dislocations, joint swellings Roots Prevent miscarriage [144] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Philenoptera bussei (Harms) Schrire 77 of 151 Tree Philenoptera eriocalyx (Harms) Tree Schrire Piliostigma thonningii (Schu‐ Tree mach.) Milne‐Redh. Platycelyphium voense (Engl.) Herb Wild Polhillides velutina (Willd.) Herb/shrub H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi Pseudarthria hookeri Wight & Herb/shrub Arn. Pterolobium stellatum (Forssk.) Liana Brenan Rhynchosia elegans A.Rich. Rhynchosia hirta (Andrews) Meikle & Verdc. Rhynchosia resinosa (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Baker Senegalia adenocalyx (Brenan & Exell) Kyal. & Boatwr. Senegalia ataxacantha (DC.) Kyal. & Boatwr. Herb Leaves Sore eyes [112] Roots Abdominal pains, diarrhea [87] Colds, cough (asthma), splenomegaly, Roots, leaves stomachache, TB, chest pains, joint pains, backache Roots Cough, mental illness Herb/shrub [67,87,99,107,109,1 13,138,142,168] [98,143] Ease child delivery, retained placenta [143] Shrub Leaf, stems, roots, bark Acaricide [133] Shrub/tree Roots Septic swelling [127] Shrub Senegalia brevispica (Harms) Shrub/tree Seigler & Ebinger Senegalia hamulosa (Benth.) Boatwr. Convulsions, venereal diseases, prenatal [127] care Back/joint/bone problems, chest prob‐ lems, cough, colds/flu, aphrodisiac, ma‐ laria, pneumonia, eye infections, [14,41,80,84,100,10 Leaves, bark, wounds, ulcers, diabetes, blood pres‐ 4,129,132,142,148] roots sure, stomachache, waterborne diseases, gonorrhea, rheumatism, digestion, chest pains Livestock medicine, asthma, TB, chronic joint pains, amoeba, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, malaria, typhoid, dys‐ entery, fever, respiratory ailments, snakebites, hookworm, skin infections, [14,41,66,74,80,82, Bark, leaves, livestock respiratory symptoms, pro‐ 84,107,112,116,120 longed menstruation, gonorrhea and roots ,130,133,142,143] other venereal diseases, ear, stomach‐ ache, childbirth, fractures, colic pains, acaricide, venereal diseases, chest pains, bronchitis, diarrhea, blood pressure, cat‐ tle medicine, wounds/ulcers, diuretic Bone/joint pain, yellow fever, snake re‐ Bark [100,137] pellant Leaves Shrub Cough, pneumonia, malaria, eyes, boils, [14,77,80,84,129] back/joint ache, gonorrhea Wounds, ringworm, headache/fonta‐ nelle, back/bone joints problems, giddi‐ ness, cough, livestock diseases, malaria, stomachache, diarrhea, itchy skin, [41,51,67,76,77,80, Roots, leaves, rashes, removal of ganglion, colic pain 91,94,96,100,106,1 aerial parts after meals, infertility, swollen repro‐ 37–141,143,168] ductive organs in men, anthelmintic, jaundice in infants, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, edema Roots, bark Bark Diarrhea [77] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Senegalia mellifera (Benth.) Seigler & Ebinger 78 of 151 Shrub/tree Senegalia montigena (Brenan Shrub & Exell) Kyal. & Boatwr. Senegalia persiciflora (Pax) Tree Kyal. & Boatwr. Senegalia polyacantha (Willd.) Tree Seigler & Ebinger Senegalia senegal (L.) Britton Shrub/tree Senna bicapsularis (L.) Roxb. Shrub Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) Shrub/tree H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna longiracemosa (Vatke) Lock Shrub/tree Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Ir‐ win & Barneby Herb Bark, roots, leaves Appetizer, tonic, indigestion, postpar‐ tum tonic, sore throat, ECF, convul‐ sions, snakebites, joint pains, cholera, asthma, gonorrhea, back/bone prob‐ lems, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, general body pains, malaria, wounds, STIs, stomachache, infertility, pneumo‐ nia, syphilis, rheumatism, back/joint ache, swollen legs, diarrhea, purgative [41,51,80,84,90– 92,96,97,100,104,1 06,107,110,127,129 ,130,138,139,141,1 42,147,168] Roots Anthelmintic [142] Bark Colic pain [140] Leaves Sores [168] Indigestion, stomachache, purgative, [67,72,77,89,92,104 constipation, gonorrhea, diarrhea, ab‐ Roots, bark ,107,115,136,142,1 dominal disorders, abortion, malaria, 48] skin rashes, eye medicine Leaves Diarrhea, relax infant’s body [76] Cathartic, malaria, back pain in women, STIs, joint pain, eye infection, constipa‐ tion, Chira, fever, typhoid, allergies, amoeba, bone problems, chest conges‐ tion, chickenpox, diarrhea, gall bladder, general body pains, hard stool, heart‐ burn, measles, meat allergy, rheuma‐ tism, skin diseases, stomach disorders, swellings, urinary system infections, [14,41,67,73,76– oral cavity infections, cancer, breast 79,84– pain, skin swellings, emetic, purgative, Leaves, 87,91,99,101,103,1 diabetes mellitus, anthrax, boils, scurvy, leaves, bark, 04,108,109,113,115 mosquito/bee repellant, anaplasmosis stems, aerial ,117,119,120,123,1 (cow), helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, parts 29,131,133– sheep, pig), hepatitis, colorectal cancer, 135,138,140– back pains, pimples, pneumonia (cattle, 147,152–154,168] human), skin rashes, tonsils, headache, acaricide, ringworms, antihemorrhagic, hypertension, gastrointestinal disorders, pain/swelling of liver, anthelmintic (hu‐ man, animals), poisonous, stomachache, enhance childbirth, constipation in cat‐ tle, skin care, abdominal and menstrua‐ tion pains, mental problems, insecticide, asthma, gonorrhea, excess bile Stomachache, cough, malaria, headache, Leaves, roots, fever, painkiller, abortifacient, vomiting,[14,72,77,80,139,14 stems swollen legs and body pains during 2,145] pregnancy, abdominal pains Leaves, seeds, Childrenʹs medicine, abortifacient [91,142] roots Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Senna occidentalis (L.) Link 79 of 151 Shrub Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) Shrub H.S.Irwin & Barneby (exotic) Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Ir‐ win & Barneby (exotic) Tree Senna singueana (Delile) Lock Shrub/tree Senna spectabilis (DC.) H.S.Ir‐ Tree win & Barneby (exotic) Sesbania macrantha Welw. ex Shrub E.Phillips & Hutch. Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. Shrub/tree Sophora tomentosa L. Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston Shrub Tamarindus indica L. Shrub/tree Tree Malaria, stomachache, diarrhea, ty‐ phoid, fever, backache, cough, chest [14,51,76,79,80,101 pain, gastrointestinal problems, gastric ,108,111,118,119,1 Leaves, roots complaints, cathartic, abdominal men‐ 22,124,143,144,147 struation pains, fever and dizziness ,150] (people, livestock), snakebites, kidney problems, ECF, swollen testicles Inhalant, anaplasmosis (cow), helmin‐ Leaves, roots, thiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), [66,73,99,168] seeds retained placenta, purgative, constipa‐ tion, afterbirth pains, stomachache Snakebites, allergies, back/joint/bone Roots, stems, problems, cough, colds/flu, headache, [41,106,126,133,14 injuries/cuts, wounds, malaria, TB, ul‐ 3,147] leaves cers, gonorrhea, acaricide, stomachache Prenatal care, general body pains, vene‐ real diseases, anthrax, chickenpox, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, indi‐ [14,41,68,77,84,85, Leaves, bark, gestions, diabetes mellitus, malaria, fe‐ 127,129,133,142,14 roots vers, diarrhea, stomach disorders, sore 5,147] throat, anthelmintic, acaricide, anthrax, elephantiasis Chronic joint pains, cramping, back‐ Bark, roots, bone, STIs, venereal diseases, joint ail‐ [106,116,130,144] leaves ment Leaves, stems Acaricide [133] Stomach ailments, ulcers, tonic, throat/uterine/skin cancer, Chira, flu, childbirth, poultry, genital infections, [66,76,77,116,117,1 constipation, acaricide, hunchback, 19,133,143,144] jaundice, livestock blindness, afterbirth pains, retained placenta Fish poison [142] Roots, leaves, Malaria, first trimester abortion, preg‐ [81,96] whole plant nancy edema Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, malaria, stomachache, headache, dizziness, snake spits/bites, allergies, pimples, joint pains, amoeba, back/bone prob‐ lems, chickenpox, cough, colds/flu, eye [14,41,51,66,76,77, 80,85,88,96,98,99,1 problems, appetizer, measles, ring‐ worms, arthritis, gonorrhea, cancer, dia‐ 06,110– Roots, fruits, 112,121,124,127,13 betes mellitus, rheumatism, earache, bark, leaves dysentery, fevers, asthma, leprosy, ul‐ 2– cers, liver disease, acaricide, sores, ul‐ 134,137,139,141– cers, boils, rashes, amenorrhea, throat 147,150,151] infections, anthelmintic, livestock dis‐ eases, laxative, tuberculosis, typhoid, general body malaise, leech, pneumo‐ nia, anemia, retained placenta, Leaves, stems, roots, whole plant, bark, seeds Plants 2023, 12, 1145 80 of 151 Tephrosia emeroides A.Rich. Herb Tephrosia interrupta Hochst. & Shrub Steud. ex Engl. Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Herb/shrub Baker Tephrosia polyphylla (Chiov.) Herb J.B.Gillett Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. Herb Tephrosia uniflora Pers. Herb/shrub Tephrosia villosa (L.) Pers. Herb Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. Teramnus labialis (L.f.) Spreng. Trifolium baccarinii Chiov. Trifolium rueppellianum Fresen. Vachellia amythethophylla (Steud. ex A.Rich.) Kyal. & Boatwr. Vachellia ancistroclada (Brenan) Kyal. & Boatwr. Vachellia drepanolobium (Harms ex Y.Sjöstedt) P.J.H.Hurter Vachellia elatior (Brenan) Kyal. & Boatwr. Vachellia etbaica (Schweinf.) Kyal. & Boatwr. [140] Roots Fever [77] Roots Fever [77] Roots Leaves [74] [77] [51,127] Herb Roots Chira [76] Herb Leaves Infected gums [144] Herb Shoots Fever in animals, measles, anthelmintic [144] Herb Tree Roots Roots Roots [144] Malaria Fever Prenatal care, cough, fever, malaria Diseases, constipation, control of ro‐ Roots, leaves, dents ectoparasites, crop pests, general fruits, bark, ectoparasites (cow, poultry), acaricide, seeds fish poison Tylosema fassoglense (Kotschy Herb/shrub ex Schweinf.) Torre & Hillc. Vachellia abyssinica (Hochst. ex Benth.) Kyal. & Boatwr. abdominal pain, tonsillitis, smallpox, edema Cough Poultry for fever, induce lactation (cows), sore throat [73,74,133,142] Epilepsy, infertility in women, renal dis‐ ease, cancer, epilepsy, constipation (huma, livestock), gastrointestinal com‐ Roots, leaves, plications e.g., stomachache, anemia, fe‐ [79,82,86,87,98,133 whole plant ver, jaundice, pneumonia, hypertension, ,143,144] fever/joint pains in livestock, acaricide, flu, asthma, diabetes, obesity, venereal diseases Spinal cord problem, body weakness, Bark, roots, [68,84,109,116,143, arthritis, gastrointestinal distress, lum‐ leaves 154] bago, wounds, colds/flu, skin problems Tree Leaves, roots, Acaricide bark [133] Shrub/tree Roots, bark Indigestion, appetizer, tonic, malaria [92,138] Shrub/tree Roots, bark, branches Cleaning women after giving birth, postpartum pain, infertility, tonic, uter‐ ine cleaning, TB, back/joint/bone prob‐ [41,67,68,73,77,90, lems, cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, rheu‐ 92,105,121,129,135 matism, sore throat, diuretic, retained ,138,142,143,168] placenta in (human, cows), babesiosis, gastrointestinal problems, malaria, live‐ stock diseases, sore throat, stomachache Tree Bark Diarrhea, stomach disorder, cough Tree Bark, stems, Stomachache, colds, venereal diseases, [77,88,100,127,136 roots respiratory disorders, chest pains ] [67,77,142] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Vachellia gerrardii (Benth.) P.J.H.Hurter 81 of 151 Shrub/tree Vachellia hockii (De Wild.) Sei‐ Shrub/tree gler & Ebinger Vachellia horrida (L.) Kyal. & Shrub Boatwr. Vachellia kirkii (Oliv.) Kyal. & Tree Boatwr. Vachellia lahai (Steud. & Hochst. ex Benth.) Kyal. & Tree Boatwr. Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb. Tree Vachellia oerfota (Forssk.) Kyal. & Boatwr. Shrub Vachellia paolii (Chiov.) Kyal. Shrub & Boatwr. Retained placenta, prostrate problems, arthritis, wounds from poisoned ar‐ [41,71,77,121,123,1 Stems, bark, rows, bone pain, joint pain, backache, 35,147,154] roots, seeds livestock diseases, digestion, stomach‐ ache, after‐delivery tonic Cancer, STIs, childbirth, diarrhea, ma‐ laria, labor cramps, stomachache, boils, swelling, gynecological problems, ab‐ [72,76,77,84,88,91, Bark, leaves, dominal/colic pains, fecal impaction, as‐ 97,99,118,136,140, roots tringent, colds/flu, gastrointestinal 141,143,144] problems, cough, abscess, whitlow, ve‐ nereal diseases, joint ailments Bark Stomach disorders [77] Bark Abdominal pains [139] Bark, roots, leaves, gum Skin eruptions, astringent, stomachache,[88,91,120,132,141 toxemias of pregnancy and bowels –143] Indigestion, tonic, painful joints/arthri‐ tis, stomachache, wounds, body aches, stomachic, stamina, stimulant, gonor‐ rhea, chest pain, upper respiratory dis‐ eases, stomachache, joint pains, colds/flu, cough, amoeba, arthritis, back/bone problems, heartburn, burns, malaria, medicine antidote, anthelmin‐ [14,41,51,67,68,71, tic (human, cattle), eye infection, diabe‐ 72,77,80,81,83,89– tes, gastrointestinal complications, 93,96,99,100,102,1 babesiosis, pregnancy edema, women Bark, roots, 05– after giving a birth, aphrodisiac, acari‐ stems, seeds 107,110,112,123,12 cide, diarrhea, dysentery, leprosy, ul‐ 7,129,130,132,133, cers, cancers/tumors, abdominal/colic 135,138,139,141,14 pains, headache, tuberculosis, constipa‐ 2,147–151,168] tion, venereal diseases, sores, rashes, sore eyes, eyelids, liver enlargement, chest pains, firms stool, typhoid, stom‐ ach upsets/ulcers, spleen problems, kid‐ ney problems, fever, asthma, fibroids, infertility, throat cleaning and bloat in cattle, retained placenta, bleeding gums, sore throat, tonsils, kwashiorkor Retained placenta, STIs, postpartum tonic, facilitate lactation, rejuvenation, Stems, bark, diarrhea, womenʹs stomach pain, hepa‐ [72,77,90,92,107,13 roots, leaves, titis, fever, gonorrhea, bone disease, 2,138,142,149] gonorrhea, malaria, rheumatism, ty‐ seeds phoid, amoeba, joint diseases, facilitate lactation, purgative, mouth blisters Bark Skin diseases [142] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 82 of 151 Vachellia reficiens (Wawra & Shrub/tree Peyr.) Kyal. & Boatwr. Bark, roots Vachellia robusta (Burch.) Kyal. & Boatwr. Tree Roots, bark Vachellia seyal (Delile) P.J.H.Hurter Tree Roots, bark, leaves Vachellia sieberiana (DC.) Kyal. & Boatwr. Tree Vachellia stuhlmannii (Taub.) Shrub/tree Kyal. & Boatwr. Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Gal‐ Tree asso & Banfi Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) Tree Banfi & Galasso Vachellia zanzibarica Shrub/tree (S.Moore) Kyal. & Boatwr. Vigna schimperi Baker Herb Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc. Herb Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Herb Linaceae Hugonia castaneifolia Engl. Linderniaceae Craterostigma plantagineum Hochst. Loganiaceae Shrub/liana Herb Bark, branches, fruits, roots, stems Roots, leaves, bark Strengthener, appetizer, tonic/adap‐ togen, laxative, stomach disorders, stomachache, aphrodisiac Retained placenta, livestock diseases, chest pains, colds, cough, bronchial ob‐ struction, malaria Diarrhea, cough, colds, blood cleanser, chronic joint pains, amoeba, stomach‐ ache, livestock diseases, headache, ab‐ dominal pains, induce perspiration, ap‐ petizer, gastrointestinal problems, ma‐ laria [77,90,99] [90,92,98,100,127,1 35] [41,64,88,111,127,1 30,132,135,141– 143,168] Given to women after delivery to help [133,135] in healing, acaricide Cholera, pneumonia, cough, sores, ul‐ [112,127] cers, boils Gonorrhea, malaria, stomachache, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, pancreatic diseases, pains, [41,51,72,77,80,81, pneumonia, wounds, fever, polio, pro‐ Bark, roots, 91,92,97,100,104,1 tracted labor, bone disease/strength, in‐ fruits 06,129,138,139,142 digestion, clean kidneys, cancer, diar‐ ,148] rhea, chest pains, swollen legs, retained placenta, abdominal pains/swelling, mouth diseases/ulcers Pneumonia, appetizer, skin disorders, fatigue, typhoid, diarrhea, stomach dis‐ orders, peptic ulcers, amoeba, hyperten‐ sion, renal disorders, female infertility, [41,73,82,86,92,104 mumps, cancer, arthritis, sore throat ,105,138,142,152,1 Bark, roots (human), cough (livestock, human), ma‐ 68] laria, foot and mouth (ruminants, poul‐ try, cows), indigestion, constipation, colds, receding gums, sore throat Stomachache, diarrhea, cough, asthma, Roots, leaves [127] septic swelling, snakebites Leaves Tonsils [144] Leaves, seeds Nutritional supplement [66] Roots, leaves, Boils, conjunctivitis, poisonous [94,143,168] seeds Roots Snakebites, convulsions, colds [127,142] Toothache [143] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 83 of 151 Strychnos henningsii Gilg Shrub/tree Roots, leaves, branches, bark Strychnos innocua Delile Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. Shrub/tree Leaves, seeds Shrub/tree Roots, fruits Shrub/tree Roots, seeds, leaves, bark Strychnos spinosa Lam. Loranthaceae Agelanthus oehleri (Engl.) Polhill & Wiens Shrub Agelanthus pennatulus (Spra‐ Shrub gue) Polhill & Wiens Agelanthus sansibarensis Shrub (Engl.) Polhill & Wiens Emelianthe panganensis (Engl.) Danser Englerina woodfordioides (Schweinf.) Balle ex M.G. Gil‐Shrub bert Erianthemum dregei (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Tiegh. Oliverella hildebrandtii (Engl.) Shrub Tiegh. Oncocalyx fischeri (Engl.) Shrub M.G.Gilbert Phragmanthera usuiensis (Oliv.) M.G.Gilbert Shrub Arthritis, stomachache, malaria, body/joint/bone pain, epilepsy, diabe‐ tes, back pain in women, postpartum pain, amoeba, cough, colds/flu, head‐ ache, stomach disorders, swellings, ty‐ phoid, anthelmintic, mosquito repellant, delayed labor, prevent first/second tri‐ [14,41,51,64,77,81, mester abortion, vomiting, pregnancy 84,85,93,96,99,100, edema, pregnancy anemia, postpartum 102– 105,107,113,129,13 hemorrhage, fever, induce abortion, make arrow poison, rheumatism, chest 0,135,138– pain, strengthen bones, dysmenorrhea, 140,142,146,147,14 impotence, ulcers, muscular 9,151,168] pains/swellings, diarrhea, general body weakness, pneumonia, alcohol hango‐ ver, swollen legs and body pains in pregnancy, wounds, gastrointestinal complaints, snakebites, constipation, kidney pains Acaricide [133] Enhances conception and pregnancy, [127,150] jiggers Stomach ailments, pneumonia, asthma, [106,112,127,133,1 induce labor pains, colds, flu, acaricide, 42] jiggers, abortifacient, poisonous Shoots, whole Prevent miscarriage, enhance concep‐ [77,144] plant tion in sterile women Chest problems, malaria, fever, pneu‐ Leaves, roots monia, colds, joint pain, stomach com‐ [109] plications Leaves, Headache [99] branches Whole plant Prevent miscarriage [77] Whole plant, Pneumonia, liver/spleen diseases, pneu‐ [67,99,132,141] bark, twigs monia, liver enlargement, heartburn Bark Snake bite wounds Whole plant Prevent miscarriage Whole plant, bark, twigs Whole branch, branches, bark, leaves, roots [99] [77] Pain, retained afterbirth, wounds, pre‐ [67,68,77] vent miscarriage Clean umbilical cord wound, paralysis, stroke, gout, stomach cancer, arthritis, [67,99,120,135,141, pneumonia, pain, colds, stroke, gout, 154] liver diseases Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Plicosepalus curviflorus (Benth. ex Oliv.) Tiegh. Tapinanthus buvumae (Ren‐ dle) Danser Lythraceae 84 of 151 Shrub Shrub Lawsonia inermis L. Shrub/tree Punica granatum L. (exotic) Shrub/tree Rotala tenella (Guill. & Perr.) Herb Hiern Malpighiaceae Caucanthus auriculatus Liana (Radlk.) Nied. Triaspis mozambica A. Juss. Liana Malvaceae Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet Herb/shrub Abutilon longicuspe Hochst. Shrub ex A.Rich. Abutilon mauritianum (Jacq.) Herb/shrub Medik. Adansonia digitata L. Twigs Tree Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Tree (exotic) Ceiba speciosa (A.St.‐Hil., A.Juss. & Cambess.) Ravenna Tree (exotic) Corchorus olitorius L. Herb Corchorus trilocularis L. Herb Dombeya burgessiae Gerrard ex Harv. Shrub/tree Pneumonia [67] Heartburn [132] Emetic, stomach problems, dysen‐ Roots tery/severe diarrhea, womenʹs stomach [72,77,142] disorder after birth Amoeba, infertility, malaria, meat appe‐ tite, STIs, stomachache, tonsilitis, pneu‐ Fruits, seeds, [14,41,84,146,168] monia, wounds, erectile dysfunc‐ roots tion/impotence, gonorrhea, diarrhea, anthelmintic, aphrodisiac Blood cleanser, lumbago, peripheral neuropathy, muscle cramps, joint pains, Whole plant pre/post‐menopausal syndromes, obe‐ [88] sity, cardiovascular disorders, cerebro‐ vascular disorders, hyperlipidemia Roots Leaves Bone pain, rheumatism, backache, ma‐ [77] laria Stomach medicine [142] Retained placenta [136] Retained placenta [136] Seeds, roots, Dysentery, retained placenta, expecto‐ [136,141,142,168] leaves rant, aphrodisiac Dizziness, nausea, headache, hyperten‐ sion, children’s diseases, skin infections, malaria, fly repellant, fumigant, arrow poison antidote, erectile dysfunc‐ [14,80,84,100,111,1 Leaves, bark, tion/impotence, 27,129,134,139,145 fruits, roots epilepsy, body swellings, kidney stones, ,150] measles, appetizer, backache, stomach‐ ache, anthelmintic, abdominal pains, tie umbilical cord Bark General body pains [116] Bark Wounds [116] Wounds, infantʹs mouth, growth, teeth‐ [108,120] ing in babies Snakebites, applied to gums to treat Leaves plastic teeth in infants, sore throat, vom‐ [126,143,144] iting Cough, stomach ulcers, retained pla‐ Leaves, roots centa, pneumonia, hiccups, wounds, [84,142,144] stomach upsets Leaves Plants 2023, 12, 1145 85 of 151 Dombeya kirkii Mast. Shrub/tree Roots Dombeya rotundifolia (Hochst.) Planch. Tree Bark, roots, stems, leaves Dombeya taylorii Baker f. Shrub/tree Roots, leaves Dombeya torrida (J.F.Gmel.) Bamps Tree Roots, leaves, bark Grewia arborea (Forssk.) Lam. Shrub/tree Grewia forbesii Harv. ex Mast. Shrub/tree Grewia holstii Burret Shrub Leaves, bark Roots Roots Grewia kakothamnos K.Schum. Shrub Roots, bark Grewia lilacina K.Schum. Herb Grewia micrantha Bojer Shrub/tree Grewia microcarpa K.Schum. Shrub/tree Roots Roots, leaves Roots Grewia plagiophylla K.Schum. Shrub/tree Leaves, bark, roots Grewia similis K.Schum. Shrub/tree Roots, bark, stems Grewia tembensis Fresen. Shrub Bark Grewia tephrodermis K.Schum. Shrub/tree Grewia trichocarpa Hochst. ex Shrub/tree A.Rich. Grewia truncata Mast. Shrub Grewia villosa Willd. Shrub Stem, bark, leaves, roots, seeds Roots Roots, bark Strength, yaws [77,143] Dysentery, back/joint/bone problems, [41,77,84,99,105,12 cough, colds/flu, malaria, wounds, rheumatism, diarrhea, meningitis, ty‐ 9,141,168] phoid, joint pains, stomachache Stomach ailments [127] Diarrhea, stomachache, backache, ty‐ phoid fever, livestock diseases, malaria, anthelmintic, chest problems, pre/post‐ menopausal syndrome, allergies, joint [14,41,67,88,99,109 pains, STI’s, sustain pregnancy, joints, ,120,127,131,132,1 rheumatism, indigestion, allergies, vom‐ 41,168] iting, goiter, abdominal pains, liver dis‐ eases, vertigo, chest pains, colds, cough, retained pla‐ centa Chronic joint pains [130] Convulsions [127] Stomach ailments, asthma [127] Skull fissures, cough, injuries, cuts, wounds, malaria, gonorrhea, stomach [41,84,92,139,142] problems Strength [77] Dysentery, pneumonia [142] Diarrhea [108] Diarrhea, pre/post‐natal care, kidney trouble, fever, blood clotting, excess [75,100,127,142,15 menstrual bleeding, paralysis, yellow 0] fever, malaria, obesity, skin diseases, epilepsy Stomachache, constipation, wounds, [83,106,138,147,16 bleeding gums, diabetes, impotency, 8] sores, malaria, menstrual problems Reduced appetite, swollen diaphragm [51] Eye infections, malaria, chest pains, snakebites, cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, respiratory disorders, boils, sores, gon‐ [14,41,51,72,80,89, orrhea, infertility, retained placenta, 92,94,100,107,124, livestock disease, soreness after birth, 133,135,139,143] acaricide, stomach upsets, wounds, backache, cuts, respiratory disorders, aphrodisiac, edema, skin rashes Skin, malaria, diarrhea, acaricide [76,111,120,133] Chest pains, convulsions, diarrhea [100,127] Appetizer, galactagogue, tonic, stom‐ Bark, twigs, achache, diarrhea, rheumatism, malaria, [14,41,51,77,84,90, leaves, roots, facial swellings, sore/swollen eyes, 92,100,134,139,141 stems, fruits spleen diseases, cancer of breast and ,142,145] prostate glands, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 86 of 151 Hibiscus diversifolius Jacq. Shrub Hibiscus faulknerae Vollesen Hibiscus flavifolius Ulbr. Shrub Herb Hibiscus fuscus Garcke Herb Hibiscus greenwayi Baker f. Hibiscus kabuyeanus Mwachala Hibiscus ludwigii Eckl. & Zeyh. Shrub body swellings, excessive menstrual flow, remove thorns pierced into the skin, retained placenta Anthelmintic, stomachache, mouth in‐ Roots [76] fection, toothache Roots Spleen pain [140] Burns, rashes, boil, abdominal pains, fe‐ [67,77,141,143,147 Roots, leaves ver, anemia, HIV/AIDs, dysentery, diar‐ ] rhea, dermatitis, stomachache, fever Roots, leaves, aerial parts, Acaricide, abdominal pains [133,139] stems Malaria, appetizer, vomiting, diarrhea, Bark [100,109,168] colds, pneumonia Roots, leaves Convulsions, toothache [127] Leaves, roots Burns [67] Cough, colds/flu, swollen feet, rheuma‐ tism, stroke, chest problems, wounds, [41,99,115,119,143, Roots, bark, aphrodisiac, chest pain, induce spasms 144,147,168] seeds, leaves during childbirth, sprained mus‐ cles/limbs Bark Colds [72] Herb Leaves Heritiera littoralis Aiton Tree Hibiscus aethiopicus L. Herb Hibiscus aponeurus Sprague & Herb Hutch. Hibiscus calyphyllus Cav. Hibiscus micranthus L.f. Shrub Herb/shrub Herb Hibiscus vitifolius L. Herb Kosteletzkya adoensis (Hochst. Herb/shrub ex A.Rich.) Mast. Malva parviflora L. Herb Malva verticillata L. Herb Melhania muricata Balf.f. Shrub Melhania ovata (Cav.) Spreng. Herb/shrub Boils [100] Wounds [136] Eye infections, boils, Chira, stomach ul‐ [14,76,77,80,84,100 Roots, leaves cers, mental disorders, cuts, fever, ane‐ ,143] mia, HIV/AIDs, chicken diarrhea Roots Inflammations, wounds, eyes problems [14,80,136] Shoots Menstrual fever [144] Roots Exudate, roots Roots Leaves Boils [152] Wounds, boils, toothache [168] Arthritis, pneumonia, lung problems [92] Wounds, burns [72] Chest blockage, sore throat, reduce fetal movements, typhoid, flu, waterborne [89,109,120,132,14 Roots, leaves diseases, headache, mumps, retained 4] placenta Melochia corchorifolia L. Herb/shrub Pavonia arabica Hochst. & Steud. ex Boiss. Herb Whole plant Fever Pavonia burchellii (DC.) R.A.Dyer Herb Roots Herb/shrub Roots Eye problems (chalazion, conjunctivitis, proptosis tumors, retina blastoma), diar‐[95,147] rhea Rheumatism, barrenness [41,138] Tree Roots Asthma, coughs, diarrhea Herb Roots, leaves Skin cancer, family planning Pavonia urens Cav. Rhodognaphalon mossambi‐ cense (A.Robyns) A.Robyns Sida cordifolia L. [77] [127] [117,119] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 87 of 151 Sida javensis Cav. Herb Sida massaica Vollesen Shrub Sida ovata Forssk. Herb/shrub Sida rhombifolia L. Herb Sida schimperiana Hochst. ex Shrub A.Rich. Sida tenuicarpa Vollesen Shrub Sterculia africana (Lour.) Fiori Tree Sterculia appendiculata K.Schum. Sterculia rhynchocarpa K.Schum. Sterculia stenocarpa H.J.P.Winkl. Thespesia danis Oliv. Tree Roots Shrub/tree Leaves, roots Induce labor pains, venereal diseases Herb/shrub Roots, bark Shrub/tree Thespesia garckeana F.Hoffm. Shrub/tree Triumfetta brachyceras K.Schum. Triumfetta cordifolia A.Rich. Leaves, whole Internal injury, bleeding, back pain plant Leaves, roots Excess gas in stomach, sprains Remove retained placenta (cows), wounds, kwashiorkor Uterine/skin/squamous cell carcinoma Leaves of the gums, diarrhea, stomachache, sunken fontanelle Roots, whole Colic pain, anthelmintic plant Respiratory disorders, peptic ulcers, rheumatism, diarrhea, protracted labor, Roots, leaves, pregnancy edema, boils, wounds, preg‐ whole plants, nancy complications, chest complica‐ aerial parts tion, appetizer, chest pains, kidney problems sore throat, kwashiorkor Bark, aerial Malaria, erectile dysfunction, stomach parts, seeds, upsets, diarrhea, heart problem, dysen‐ roots tery, rectal prolapse, asthma Shrub Shrub Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Herb/shrub Waltheria indica L. Marantaceae Maranta arundinacea L. (ex‐ otic) Melastomataceae Antherotoma naudinii Hook.f. Antherotoma senegambiensis (Guill. & Perr.) Jacq.‐Fél. Dissotis speciosa Taub. Dupineta brazzae (Cogn.) Ver.‐Lib. & G.Kadereit Shrub Stomach ailments, hypertension [122] [146,152] [80,138] [76,117] [140,144] [41,81,88,119,122,1 38,143,147,168] [51,72,91,100,129,1 50] [127] [127] Back/joint/bone problems, indigestion, [14,41,77] malaria, anthelmintic, stomachache Infertility in women, convulsions, septic Roots, leaves swelling, gonorrhea, fibroids, female [127,142,150] sexual problems Amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, malaria, typhoid, [41,140,147] Fruits, bark stomach disorders, acidity, epigastric distress, heartburn, abdominal pain Boils, retained placenta, boils, malig‐ [99,143,144] Boils, leaves nant cells Leaves Hepatic diseases [99] Colorectal/uterine/squamous cell carci‐ Leaves, roots noma of the gums, labor pain, reduce [76,117,119,144] blood flow after birth, whooping cough Leaves Skin/uterine/breast cancer [117] Herb Tonsilitis [41] Herb Increase milk letdown in livestock [144] Herb Leaves Falling person diseases [143] Herb/shrub Leaves Diarrhea, cough [99,125] Herb Leaves Cough [144] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Heterotis rotundifolia (Sm.) Jacq.‐Fél. Memecylon teitense Wickens Tristemma mauritianum J.F.Gmel. Warneckea amaniensis Gilg Meliaceae 88 of 151 Herb Leaves Cough [134] Shrub/tree Leaves [145] Herb Leaves Shrub/tree Roots Malaria, fever Allergies, heart ailment, labor pains, proper fetus positioning Bronchial trouble Azadirachta indica A.Juss. (ex‐ Tree otic) Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. Tree Lepidotrichilia volkensii (Gürke) J.‐F.Leroy Tree Melia azedarach L. [119,144] [142] Eye/ear infections, typhoid, ringworms, genital thrush, herpes, malaria, fever, body pains, insect bites, pest control, skin rashes, HIV/AIDs, Chira, cholera, amoeba, back/joint/bone pains, blood purifier, brucellosis, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, dia‐ betes, hypertension, injuries/cuts, [14,41,64,66,68,73, wounds, appetizer, numbness, pimples, 75,84,85,93,96,98,1 pneumonia, rheumatism, skin diseases, 05– Bark, leaves, STIs, stomach disorders, anthelmintic, 108,110,111,125,12 roots, fruits helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, 9,133,138,144– sheep, pig), weakness/dullness (cow, 147,150,151,168] goat, sheep, poultry, pig), acaricide, boils, pimples, hepatitis, leprosy, ulcers, abdominal pains, infertility, edema, continuous menstruation, contraceptive, gonorrhea, diarrhea, gout, yellow fever, arthritis, fatigue, antiseptic, insect repel‐ lant (moth/mosquito) skin care, arthral‐ gia, asthenia, measles Diarrhea, stomach problems, difficult delivery in women, chest problems, pneumonia, earache, infertility in women, menstrual disorders, joint pains, kidney problem, spinal cord problem, fever, typhoid, dysentery, skin Bark, roots, allergies, backache, chest problems, di‐ [14,41,82,88,91,97, arrhea (cow), fever, body swellings, ar‐ 99,104,109,117,120 flowers, fruits, stems, thritis, malaria, anthelmintic, heartburn, ,131,133,141,145,1 leaves emetic, cough, colds, headache, gastri‐ 47,152,154,168] tis, skin rashes, fungal infections, acne, abscesses, livestock diseases (respira‐ tory symptoms, anthelmintic), tonic, skin/throat/breast cancer, skin cancer, TB, expectorant, acaricide, purgative, abdominal pains Leaves Scalp in babies Abdominal pains, STIs, malaria, mea‐ sles, immunity booster, typhoid, colo‐ Leaves, bark, rectal/esophageal cancer, stomachache, roots diarrhea, gut diseases, dysentery, kid‐ ney ailments, blood cleanser, skin [144] [41,76,79,87,101,10 4,108,116,117,119, 120,124,133,143,15 0] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 89 of 151 Melia volkensii Gürke Tree Trichilia dregeana Sond. Tree Trichilia emetica Vahl Tree Turraea abyssinica Hochst. Shrub/tree Turraea floribunda Hochst. Shrub/tree Turraea holstii Gürke Shrub/tree Turraea mombassana Hiern ex Shrub C.DC. Turraea robusta Gürke Tree Turraea wakefieldii Oliv. Shrub/tree diseases, headache, acaricide, colds/flu, fever Cholera, constipation, malaria, boils, amoeba, chest problems, cough, Roots, leaves, colds/flu, pneumonia, stomach disor‐ [14,41,51,77,80,96, 139,147] fruits, bark ders, insecticide, gum/tooth ache, ear problems, swollen legs, abdominal pains, edema Bark Stomach ailments, poisoning [144] Flu, general body weakness, fever, stomachache, STIs, malaria, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, epilepsy, pancreas diseases, rheumatism, anthelmintic, moisturizer, poisoned arrow wounds, body aches, pneumonia, inappetence, breast/skin/colorectal cancer, scabies, [14,41,66,74,80,84, boils, chest problems, whooping cough, Bark, leaves, 101,104,112,116,11 TB, gut, constipation, prenatal care, twigs, root 7,125,134,141,142, abortifacients, infertility, measles, dys‐ 144,145,147,168] entery, diarrhea, cardiac conditions, vet‐ erinary, emetic, poisonous, cuts/bruises, purgative, abdominal pains, kidney problems, skin diseases, immune booster, jiggers, body swellings, vene‐ real diseases, induce labor pains, stom‐ ach ailments in livestock, insecticide (cockroaches, bedbugs) Stem, bark, Tonic, anthelmintic [107,135] leaves, roots Roots Cough [142] Acaricide, painkiller, nerval disorder, Roots, leaves, laxative, menstrual cycle, anthelmintic [133,144,145,168] bark in cattle, measles, diarrhea, stomach congestion Fruits, roots, Emetic, malaria, dizziness, body pains, [67,104,105,107,13 stems, bark joint diseases, excess bile, fever 5,140,149] Roots, bark, STIs, anthelmintic, malaria, acaricide [104,118,133,147] whole plant Bark, roots, Measles, chest pain, chickenpox, cough [150] leaves Melianthaceae Bersama abyssinica Fresen. Tree Roots, bark, leaves Urinary tract infections, STIs, enlarged prostate gland, eye inflammation, colds, stomach complications, fever, livestock [66,85,86,108,109,1 diseases, birth difficulty, bleeding, 13,116,120,131,138 stomachache, pneumonia, TB, malaria, ,141,142,144,152,1 amoebiasis, diabetes mellitus, 68] joints/backbone, aphrodisiac, poisonous to livestock, cancer, chest problems, in‐ fertility, syphilis Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Menispermaceae Chasmanthera dependens Hochst. 90 of 151 Liana Cissampelos mucronata A.Rich.Liana Cissampelos pareira L. Liana Stems Stomachache, diarrhea [51,139] Malaria, hypertension, abortifacient, [101,120,143,144,1 Roots, leaves, stomach ailments, constipation, ab‐ stems dominal pain, whooping cough, burns, 47] snakebite antidote Wounds, snakebites, amoeba, asthma, diarrhea, typhoid, vomiting, anthelmin‐ tic, malaria, abdominal severe pains in [14,41,51,86,99,103 Roots, bark, women, stomachache, hypertension, ,104,127– leaves cough, sore throat, colds, gastric com‐ 129,150,168] plaints, urinary disorders, venereal dis‐ eases Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Liana W.Theob. Cocculus pendulus (J.R.Forst. Liana & G.Forst.) Diels Jateorhiza palmata (Lam.) Liana Miers Leaves Stomachache [142] Wood Emetic [142] Roots Stomach medicine [142] Stephania abyssinica (Quart.‐ Liana Dill. & A.Rich.) Walp. Liver problems, colic in infants, stom‐ Roots, leaves, achache, malaria, diarrhea/dysentery bark (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), heart problems, gonorrhea, impotency [73,74,104,119,152, 168] Leaves, whole Flu, madness, cough, mental ill‐ plant ness/madness [76,98,143] Molluginaceae Paramollugo nudicaulis (Lam.) Herb Thulin Monimiaceae Xymalos monospora (Harv.) Tree Baill. Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria (J.F.Gmel.) Tree Lesch. Ficus amadiensis De Wild. Tree Ficus asperifolia Miq. Shrub Ficus benjamina L. (exotic) Tree Ficus bussei Warb. ex Mildbr. Tree & Burret Ficus cordata Thunb. Tree Ficus glumosa Delile Shrub/tree Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. Shrub/tree Ficus lutea Vahl Tree Ficus natalensis Hochst. Tree Bark, roots Leaves, bark, roots Fruits, bark, roots, latex Latex General body relief, anthelmintic, stom‐ [14] achache Fontanel gap, abdominal pains, STIs, kidney ailments, ringworms [116,122] Acaricide [133] Skin swellings in human/livestock Chest problems, diarrhea, headache, livestock diseases, stomach disorders [142] Roots, leaves Malaria Bark, roots, Boost immunity, improve general stems health Root, bark, Stomachache, diarrhea, acaricide fruit, latex Roots Diarrhea Leaves, roots, Sore throat, asthma, heavy menstrua‐ bark tion, general illness, veterinary uses Fruits, bark, Toothache, skin infections, teeth prob‐ roots, latex, lems, diabetes mellitus, arthritis stems, leaves [41] [111] [135] [77,99,133] [142] [116] [66,85,109,116,132 ] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 91 of 151 Ficus populifolia Vahl Ficus scassellatii Pamp. Shrub/tree Tree Ficus sur Forssk. Tree Ficus sycomorus L. Tree Latex Sore eyes [142] Stomach problems, malaria [136] Diarrhea, vomiting, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, dental prob‐ [41,67,77,81,104,11 Bark, roots, lems, pneumonia, malaria, pregnancy 6,120,133,142] fruits, latex edema, toothache, acaricide, stomach‐ ache Diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, uterine cleaning, excess menstrual flow/incon‐ sistency, clean uterus after birth, after‐ birth bleeding, toothache, stomachache, joint pains, allergies, amoeba, dental [14,41,51,66,77,89, problems, clean kidney, malaria, meat 100,105,108,110,11 Leaves, bark, allergy, pneumonia, body swellings, ty‐ 3,116,127,130,133, latex, fruits phoid, abortifacient, constipation, colic 135,139,143,145,14 pains, gut problems, abdominal discom‐ 6,168] fort, acaricide, scrofula, cough, chest diseases, dysentery, snakebites, laxative, anthelmintic, liver troubles, stomach‐ ache and hemorrhage in pregnancy Ficus thonningii Blume Tree Bark, latex, roots Malaria, respiratory problems, excess menstrual flow/pains, joint pains, tooth‐ ache, livestock diseases, arthritis, liver diseases, edema, dental problems, diar‐ [41,73,81,86,88,100 rhea, STIs, typhoid, uterine problems, ,101,105,113,116,1 cancer, toxicity, prevent abortion, diar‐ 32,133,143– rhea/dysentery (cow, poultry, goat, 147,152,168] sheep, pig), chest problems, stomach‐ ache, acaricide, sore throat, wounds, constipation, nose bleeding, mouth sores, venereal diseases, fever Ficus vasta Forssk. Tree Bark, roots, fruits, buds, latex Liver disease, edema, acaricide, astrin‐ [88,133,141] gent Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg Tree Morus alba L. (exotic) Tree Morus mesozygia Stapf Morus nigra L. (exotic) Trilepisium madagascariense DC. Moringaceae Tree Tree Allergies, bites, cancer, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, family planning, hy‐ [41] pertension, malaria, stomach disorders, STIs, typhoid Cough, colds/flu, dental problems, Leaves, fruits rheumatism, stomach disorders, blind‐ [41,74,106] ness, anthelmintic, blood recharge Stems, bark Urinary tract infections, veterinary [116] Leaves Arthritis [154] Tree Bark Joint/backbone problems [116] Roots Swollen legs/pains in pregnancy, re‐ tained placenta, abdominal pains, in‐ crease milk letdown, edema, malaria, gonorrhea [51,139] Moringa borziana Mattei Herb/shrub Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Moringa oleifera Lam. 92 of 151 Shrub/tree Moringa stenopetala (Baker f.) Tree Cufod. Musaceae Back pain, HIV/AIDs, amoeba, asthma, clean blood, cancer, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, detoxifier, fibroids, im‐ mune booster, malaria, protein source, rheumatism, stomach disorders/acid, ty‐ Leaves, roots, phoid, hypertension, toothache, ulcers, [14,41,83,96,98,106 seeds, flowers whiten teeth, diabetes, fungal infection, ,110,145,150] herpes zoster, genital thrush, herpes simplex, syphilis, anemia, arthritis, ma‐ laise, vitamin/iron source, hysteria, con‐ junctivitis, reproductive disorder, diabe‐ tes Roots Tree Roots, exu‐ date, fruits, stems Musa × paradisiaca L. (exotic) Tree Roots, bark, exudate Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman Musa acuminata Colla (exotic) Tree Myricaceae Myrica salicifolia Hochst. ex A.Rich. Myrothamnaceae Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw. Myrtaceae Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) K.D.Hill & L.A.S.Johnson (exotic) Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. (exotic) Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (exotic) Bark Fever Infertility, snakebite, measles, runny eyes, rumbling stomach, tapeworms, livestock diseases, rheumatism, dental problems, dislocations, inju‐ ries/cuts/wounds, STIs, arthritis, heart‐ burn, liver diseases/enlargement, medi‐ cine for cows, eye infection, earache/in‐ fection, stomachache Ear infections, asthma, cough, gonor‐ rhea, family planning, wounds, female infertility, ant repellent Blood pressure [77] [41,87,91,100,116,1 20,126,132,141,144 ,145,152,154,168] [14,66,113,116,146, 150] [105] Shrub/tree Urinary tract problems, tonic, tonsillitis, cough, chest congestion, goiter, malaria, [14,67,72,86,93,103 Bark, stems, livestock diseases, anodyne, abdominal ,104,107,120,121,1 leaves, roots pains, asthma, stomach upsets, analge‐ 41,145,168] sic, respiratory diseases, colds, anti‐acid, intoxicating property, throat infections Shrub Leaves Chest pain [77] Tree Bark, leaves Fever, flu, cough [143] Tree Leaves Colds [98] Leaves Allergies, back/joint/bone problems, chest problems, chickenpox, cough, colds/flu, fever, headache, injuries, cuts/wounds, livestock diseases, ma‐ [41,84,115,116] laria, measles, pneumonia, rheumatism, skin diseases, slow urine passing, small‐ pox, stomach disorders, measles, pim‐ ples Tree Plants 2023, 12, 1145 93 of 151 Eucalyptus grandis W.Hill ex Tree Maiden (exotic) Eucalyptus regnans F.Muell. Tree (exotic) Eucalyptus robusta Sm. (ex‐ Tree otic) Eucalyptus saligna Sm. (ex‐ otic) Tree Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. (exotic) Tree Psidium guajava L. (exotic) Tree Syzygium cordatum Hochst. ex Krauss Tree Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Tree Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. Tree Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia erecta L. Commicarpus helenae (Roem. & Schult.) Meikle Commicarpus plumbagineus (Cav.) Standl. Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. Ochnaceae Herb Bark, leaves, Fever, colds, headache roots [150] Leaves [152] Leaves Leaves Chickenpox, livestock diseases Skin infections, chickenpox, measles, [109] asthma Back pain in women, cough, colds/flu, injuries/cuts, wounds, malaria, skin dis‐ [14,41,74,84,136,14 eases, chicken diseases, fever, toothache, 5–147] measles, stomach ailments, allergy, poi‐ son emetic, chickenpox, bloat in cattle Smallpox [106] Constipation, malaria, allergies, amoeba, jaundice, back/joint/bone prob‐ lems, cough, colds/flu, chest problems, goiter, painkiller, rheumatism, skin dis‐ [14,41,76,84,88,96, eases, typhoid, stomachache, cancer, Leaves, bark, 99,106,108,116,119 STIs, nausea, diarrhea, colic pains, an‐ fruits, roots ,143,145,146,150,1 thelmintic (human, animals), typhoid, 68] dysentery, inflammatory, ringworms, ulcers, diabetes fever, hypertension, toothache, reproductive disorders, wounds, boils, runny nose Colds, diarrhea, afterbirth stomachache, [14,41,67,68,72,87, Leaves, bark, stomachache, malaria, typhoid, fruits, stems, strength/tonic, gastrointestinal compli‐ 120,133,136,141– 143,152,168] cations, acaricide, abdominal pains, roots cleaning blood Dysentery, dysentery, gut problems, ac‐ [66,98,116,122,133, Fruits, leaves, aricide, boils, stomach complications, 145] bark, roots emetic, cough, hypertension Infertility, typhoid, wounds, paresthe‐ sia, cancer, invigorant, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, [41,66,67,77,88,109 Bark, roots, HIV/AIDs, malaria, tonic, rheumatism, ,116,117,119,132,1 stomachache, skin cancer, kidney ail‐ fruits 33,140,144,145,168 ments, veterinary uses, menstrual pains, ] acaricide, eye problem, heartburn, fever, indigestion, aphrodisiac Leaves Herb Diarrhea, ringworm [76] Tonic, malaria, earache, wounds [136] Malaria, earache, headache, cuts, re‐ moving ganglion [72,91,99] Herb Leaves, roots Herb Stems, leaves Stomach ailments, chest conditions [134] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 94 of 151 Ochna holstii Engl. Tree Ochna insculpta Sleumer Shrub/tree Ochna mossambicensis Klotzsch Shrub/tree Ochna ovata F. Hoffm. Shrub/tree Ochna thomasiana Engl. & Gilg Olacaceae Strombosia scheffleri Engl. Shrub/tree Tree Ximenia americana L. Shrub/tree Ximenia caffra Sond. Shrub/tree Stomachache, emetic when poison in‐ gested Roots, seeds, Strength, chest pain, diarrhea in chil‐ leaves dren, boils, children fever Roots Stomachache Sore/inflamed skin, stomachache, poi‐ son emetic Menstrual disorders, leprosy, miscar‐ Roots, leaves riage Leaves [145] [14,77,140] [142] [80,145] [127] Leaves, bark Stomachache, tonic, insecticide [77,84] Malaria, stomachache, constipation, uterine bleeding, tonic, venereal dis‐ eases, toothache, boils, skin rashes, ab‐ scesses, back/bone problems, dental [14,41,71,77,79,84, problems, rheumatism, skin diseases, 90,91,94,98,100,10 Stem, bark, stomach acid, thorn pricks, joint pains, 4– leaves, roots, pneumonia, gum pains, diarrhea, acari‐ 108,112,124,127,13 cide, wounds, tonsillitis, mouth sores, fruits 3,135,138,140,143, fever, cough, anemia, menstrual pains 146,147,150] (dysmenorrhea), gonorrhea, respiratory problems, vomiting, constipation, gyne‐ cological problems, pleuritis, HIV, rheu‐ matoid arthritis Ulcers, wounds, asthma, livestock dis‐ eases, anthelmintic, diarrhea, toothache, Roots, fruits, painkiller, malaria, fevers, acute upper [14,68,72,74,76,77, bark, leaves respiratory tract infections, dermatitis, 80,118,138,141] ulcers, toothache, mouth infection, stomachache, abdominal pains Oleaceae Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. Liana ex DC. Jasminum dichotomum Vahl Liana Jasminum fluminense Vell. Shrub/liana Jasminum grandiflorum L. Liana Jasminum streptopus E.Mey. Shrub/liana Noronhia battiscombei (Hutch.) Shrub/tree Hong‐Wa & Besnard Noronhia nilotica (Oliv.) Shrub/tree Hong‐Wa & Besnard Olea capensis L. Tree Diarrhea, oral thrush, chest pains, weak Roots, leaves, joints, malaria, spinal cord aches, cough, [132,152] bark aphrodisiac, wounds Leaves Menstrual pains, epilepsy [143] Heartburn, headache, Wuoyo, snake‐ [71,76,77,86,99,142 Roots, leaves bites, cough, chest/joint pains, insecti‐ ,143,168] cide, wounds, menstrual pains, leprosy Malaria, laxative, stomachache, diar‐ [67,109,120,140– Leaves, roots, rhea, anthelmintic, cough, chest pains, 143] whole plant liver diseases, HIV/AIDs Roots Headache, snakebites [77] Bark Malaria, back pains, anthelmintic [77] Bark Stomach disorders [77] Scabies, constipation, urinary infections, [14,41,66,72,88,90, Bark, leaves, stomachache, peptic ulcers, tonic, colds, 99,103,104,117,120 fruits, roots ,125,131,133,136,1 fever, livestock diseases, backache, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Olea europaea L. 95 of 151 Shrub/tree Olea welwitschii (Knobl.) Gilg Tree & G.Schellenb. diabetes, chest pains, mouth inflamma‐ 38,146,147,152,168 tion in children, malaria, pneumonia, ] general body weakness/fatigue/pains, amoeba, joint pains, anthelmintic, blood cleanser, cough, TB, difficulty in breath‐ ing, amoeba, arthritis, inju‐ ries/cuts/wounds, aphrodisiac, prostrate problems, rheumatism, skin cancer, aca‐ ricide, wounds Malaria, pneumonia, anthelmintic, re‐ tained afterbirth, respiratory problems, anaplasmosis, eye inflammation, stom‐ achache, joint pains, chest pains, umbili‐ cal cord, livestock diseases, diarrhea, mouth infection in babies, fever, eye in‐ fections, seizures, ringworms, stomach [41,68,71– rumbles, amoeba, back/bone problems, 73,77,82– cough, colds/flu, dislocation, body 86,88,89,91,92,97,9 pains, headache, boost immunity, inju‐ 9,103– Stems, bark, ries/cuts, wounds, internal injuries, ap‐ 105,107,109,110,12 leaves, roots petizer, muscle fatigue, rheumatism, 0,129– body swellings, typhoid, urinary dis‐ 133,135,136,138,14 0– eases, liver disease, polio, gonorrhea, enlarged prostate, arthritis, skin disor‐ 142,145,147,149,15 ders e.g. allergy, cancer, mellitus, itchy 2,168] rashes, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneu‐ monia in livestock, asthma, lumbago, helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), bone fractures, acaricide, eye ailments, heartburn, sore throat, kidney problems, hypertension Scabies, chest problems, flu, gut prob‐ lems, constipation, stomachache, child‐ Bark, root, birth, prenatal care, infertility, [116] twigs joint/backbone problems, STIs, dysen‐ tery, diarrhea, cancer, urinary tract in‐ fections Malaria, chest problems, sore throat, toothache, diabetes mellitus, candidia‐ [41,67,68,71,77,85, Bark, twigs, sis, anesthesia, stomach pains, bloody 136,140,142,145,15 leaves, roots stool, diarrhea, pregnancy pains, meat 2,168] allergy, painkiller, poison antidote, headache, cuts Schrebera alata (Hochst.) Welw. Tree Onagraceae Epilobium hirsutum L. Opiliaceae Herb Roots Stomach pains [84] Opilia amentacea Roxb. Liana Roots, bark, branches Malaria, diarrhea, fever [41,92,138,142] Roots Venereal diseases, children’s diseases [127] Pentarhopalopilia umbellulata Shrub/liana (Baill.) Hiepko Orchidaceae Plants 2023, 12, 1145 96 of 151 Aerangis kirkii (Rchb.f.) Herb Schltr. Angraecum sacciferum Lindl. Herb Ansellia africana Lindl. Herb Bonatea steudneri (Rchb.f.) Herb T.Durand & Schinz Eulophia petersii (Rchb.f.) Herb Rchb.f. Habenaria cirrhata (Lindl.) Herb Rchb.f. Microcoelia exilis Lindl. Herb Solenangis wakefieldii (Rolfe) Herb P.J.Cribb & J.Stewart Vanilla roscheri Rchb.f. Herb Ypsilopus amaniensis Herb (Kraenzl.) Dʹhaijère & Stévart Orobanchaceae Asepalum eriantherum (Vatke) Shrub Marais Cistanche tubulosa (Schenk) Herb Wight ex Hook.f. Striga hermonthica (Delile) Herb Benth. Oxalidaceae Averrhoa bilimbi L. (exotic) Tree Biophytum abyssinicum Steud. Herb ex A.Rich. Biophytum umbraculum Welw.Herb Oxalis corniculata L. Herb Leaves Convulsions [127] Leaves Branches Pneumonia Eardrops [109] [99,127] Roots Sores [67] Roots Prevent first trimester abortion [81] Roots Abdominal pains [141] Leaves Convulsions [127] Leaves Convulsions [127] Stomach pains, prenatal care [127] Chest pain [77] Root Whole plant Backache Childbirth problems [72] Leaves Thrush [143] Fruits Aphrodisiac, appetizer [150] Rashes, smallpox [132] Whole plant, Arthritis, dizziness, stomachache [144,154] leaves Skin infections, memory loss, mouth ul‐ [122,123,141,154] Leaves cers/sores, diseases of the eye Passifloraceae Adenia cissampeloides (Planch. Liana ex Hook.) Harms Leaves, branches Adenia ellenbeckii Harms Herb/shrub Roots Adenia gummifera (Harv.) Harms Liana Stems, roots Adenia kirkii (Mast.) Engl. Adenia venenata Forssk. Adenia volkensii Harms Herb Liana Herb/shrub Stems, roots Roots Fruits, roots Passiflora edulis Sims (exotic) Liana Passiflora quadrangularis L. (exotic) Liana [142] Stems, leaves Wounds Swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy Cough, gonorrhea, headache, miscar‐ riage, aphrodisiac, STIs, female repro‐ ductive disorder, boost immunity, diar‐ rhea, colds, dysmenorrhea Complications in menstruation Cattle diarrhea Poisonous Amoeba, cough, colds/flu, epilepsy, heart problems, insomnia, nervous sys‐ tem problems, poisoning, stomachache, rheumatism Amoeba [99] [139] [14,77,100,127,142, 150] [127] [14] [77] [41,144,147,150] [41] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Passiflora subpeltata Ortega (exotic) Pedaliaceae Sesamothamnus busseanus Engl. Sesamum angolense Welw. Sesamum calycinum Welw. 97 of 151 Herb Leaves Shrub/tree Whole plant Bleeding Herb Leaves Herb Diabetes mellitus [85] [142] Measles [99] Sore eyes, hair relaxer, prevent first/sec‐ Leaves, roots, ond trimester abortion, vomiting, preg‐ [81,99,115,143,147 seeds nancy edema, pregnancy anemia, stom‐ ] achache, ringworm, constipation Oliniaceae Olinia rochetiana A.Juss. Shrub/tree Respiratory, STIs, pneumonia, colds, cough, oral candidiasis, urinary tract in‐ [67,77,88,99,105,11 Bark, leaves, fections, chest problems, TB, rheuma‐ 3,120,131,135,140– stems, roots tism, malaria, fever, bronchitis, indiges‐ 142,147] tion, tapeworms, anodyne, expectorant, dysmenorrhea, abdominal pains Peraceae Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach Shrub Clutia kilimandscharica Engl. Shrub Menstrual cramps, spinal cord problem, joint pains, appetizer, arthritis, colds, rheumatism, liver pains, colic pain in in‐ [67,77,86,89,91,99, fants, malaria, eye lotion, headache, Bark, leaves, stomachache, influenza, indigestion, 103,104,109,132,13 roots liver pains, acaricide, erectile dysfunc‐ 3,138,140– tion, teeth problems, prophylaxis, pain 142,154,168] in pregnancy, aphrodisiac, infertility, purgative, abdominal pains, diarrhea, kwashiorkor Joints pains, diarrhea, typhoid, men‐ strual problems, colds, appetizer, gen‐ Roots, leaves, eral body weakness, anthelmintic, gon‐ [67,104,120,131,13 aerial parts, orrhea, constipation, stomachache, ma‐ 3,142,152] bark laria, aphrodisiac, tonic, indigestion, rheumatism, acaricide, wounds Phyllanthaceae Antidesma venosum E.Mey. ex Shrub/tree Tul. Bischofia javanica Blume (ex‐ Tree otic) Bridelia cathartica Bertol. Shrub/tree Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill. Shrub/tree Amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, blood purifier, cough, colds/flu, diabe‐ tes, immune booster, low libido, ma‐ [41,64,112,142,143, Roots, leaves, laria, pneumonia, rheumatism, stomach 168] twigs, sap disorders, tonsilitis, liver complaints, livestock diseases, abdominal pain, poi‐ sonous Roots Stomach infections [123] Leaves, roots Convulsions, prenatal care [127] Boils, stomachache, STIs, dysentery, di‐ [14,41,66,67,74,111 arrhea, HIV/AIDs, back/joint/bone prob‐ Bark, roots, ,113,116,117,119,1 lems, blood purifier, brucellosis, cancer, leaves 20,133,140,142,144 chest problems, cough, colds/flu, cleans ,146,147,168] uterus, dizziness, hypertension, increase Plants 2023, 12, 1145 98 of 151 blood, malaria, pneumonia, rheuma‐ tism, skin diseases, typhoid, clean di‐ gestive system, tonic, livestock diseases, acidity, earache, cervi‐ cal/breast/skin/colorectal cancer, dysen‐ tery, allergy, acaricide, epigastric dis‐ tress, immune booster Bridelia scleroneura Müll.Arg. Shrub/tree Bridelia taitensis Vatke & Pax Shrub/tree Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle Shrub Hymenocardia acida Tul. Shrub/tree Margaritaria discoidea (Baill.) Shrub/tree G.L.Webster Phyllanthus amarus Schu‐ Herb mach. & Thonn. Stems, roots, bark Leaves, stems, whole plant, bark Acaricide [133] Cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, livestock diseases, earache, stomachache, laxative [14,51,80,139] abdominal pains, wounds Malaria, venereal diseases, convulsions, stomachache, kidney pains, childbirth problems, amoeba, bilharzia, dental problems, meat allergy, prostate cancer, [14,41,75,77,80,81, typhoid, irritated/itchy skin, cough, 84,101,112,119,122 Leaves, roots, joint aches, chest pains, vomiting, head‐ fruits, aerial ,127,133,139,142,1 ache, acaricide, boils, diarrhea, back parts 43,146,147,150,168 pain, insect repellant, breast cancer, kid‐ ] ney problems, female reproductive dis‐ orders, aphrodisiac, HIV/AIDs, anthel‐ mintic, fatigue, chickenpox, retained placenta Bark, leaves Acaricide [133] Bark Acaricide, pregnancy pain [133,140] Roots Arthritis [154] Phyllanthus fischeri Pax Shrub Phyllanthus kaessneri Hutch. Phyllanthus muellerianus (Kuntze) Exell Phyllanthus nummulariifolius Poir. Phyllanthus odontadenius Müll.Arg. Phyllanthus ovalifolius Forssk. Phyllanthus physocarpus Müll.Arg. Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Shrub/tree Breast/skin/colorectal, skin diseases, Leaves, fruits, roundworms, HIV/AIDs, gynecological [117,119,142,143] stems, bark diseases Cough [142] Shrub/tree Leaves Acaricide [133] Shrub Fruits Roundworms, anthelmintic [67,144] Herb Roots Stomach pains [144]o Shrub/tree Aerial parts Acaricide, corneal ulcers [133,143] Shrub/tree Roots STIs [142] Shrub/tree Roots, leaves Convulsions, snakebites Malaria, constipation, general illness, Leaves, roots toothache Roots Poisonous to livestock [127] Roots Fertility potions, aphrodisiac [134] Roots Stomachache, diarrhea, induce saliva‐ tion in children [127] Phyllanthus sepialis Müll.Arg. Shrub Phyllanthus somalensis Hutch. Shrub Phyllanthus welwitschianus Herb/shrub Müll.Arg. Thecacoris spathulifolia (Pax) Shrub Leandri [74,84,101] [142] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 99 of 151 Phytolaccaceae Hilleria latifolia (Lam.) H.Wal‐ Herb ter Phytolacca dodecandra LʹHér. Shrub (exotic) Phytolacca octandra L. Shrub Picrodendraceae Oldfieldia somalensis (Chiov.) Tree Milne‐Redh. Pinaceae Pinus patula Schiede ex Tree Schltdl. & Cham. (exotic) Piperaceae Piper capense L.f. Herb/shrub Whole plant Dermatitis Fracture, antivenom, poisonous (hu‐ man, livestock), breast cancer, body Leaves, roots, pains, stomach problems, childbirth, fruits emetic, purgative, roundworms, tape‐ worms, syphilis, skin rashes, enlarged glands, abortifacient, barrenness Roots Pneumonia [144] [72,77,86,99,120,13 8,141–143,154,168] [152] Roots, bark Pneumonia, arthritis, fatigue, cough, tu‐ [142,150] berculosis Leaves Flu, respiratory [116] Cough, colds, kidney problems, ma‐ laria, depression, anthelmintic, diarrhea, [14,97,99,125,147,1 Leaves, roots, sore throat, enlarged uvula, increase 68] stems milk letdown, arthritis, laxative, anthrax (cattle) Piper guineense Schumach. & Shrub Thonn. Roots Sore throat, fever, toothache Piper umbellatum L. Roots, roots Headache, fever, bronchitis, inflamma‐ tion, rashes, eye inflammation, anthel‐ [122,125,131,144] mintic Shrub Pittosporaceae Pittosporum abyssinicum De‐ Tree lile Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims Shrub/tree Bark Roots, bark, leaves [142,144] Emetic, malaria, nausea, purgative, [131,142,168] stomach problems Boils, STIs, malaria, diarrhea, stomach‐ ache, urinary tract, emetic, fever, purga‐ tive, tonic, measles, oral infections, fe‐ [66,67,77,99,101,10 ver, chest pains, amoeba, appetizer, con‐3,104,109,116,119, stipation, acaricide, headache, vomiting, 120,132,133,140– bronchitis, asthma, liver diseases, nose 142,144,152,168] bleeding, rectum infection, infertility in goats, mosquito repellant Plantaginaceae Plantago palmata Hook.f. Herb Roots Plumbaginaceae Plumbago dawei Rolfe Herb/shrub Bark Plumbago zeylanica L. Herb/shrub Root, aerial parts, roots, leaves Tonsils, pneumonia, eye problems, ve‐ [78] nereal diseases, typhoid, diarrhea Diarrhea, malaria, stomach problems [136] Boils, abscesses, burns, malaria, infertil‐ ity, aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, remove pseudo teeth in children, skin blisters, [51,72,74,77,94,107 swollen legs, stomachache, liver, an‐ ,138,143,144,147] thrax, measles, sprained limps, skin dis‐ eases, fever, eye infection, gonorrhea, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 100 of 151 eye injury (cattle), lung/liver diseases (poultry) Poaceae Cenchrus americanus (L.) Mor‐ Herb rone Cenchrus clandestinus Herb (Hochst. ex Chiov.) Morrone Cenchrus hohenackeri (Hochst. Herb ex Steud.) Morrone Cenchrus purpureus (Schu‐ Herb mach.) Morrone Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Herb Stapf (exotic) Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Ren‐ Herb dle Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Herb Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Herb Willd. Digitaria abyssinica (Hochst. Herb ex A.Rich.) Stapf Chronic joint pains, malaria, vomiting, [14,130] asthenia, swelling on the body Skin infections, ringworms, heartburns, diarrhea, anthelmintic, jaundice, tonsils, [41,88,109,115,168 Leaves, roots urinary problems, venereal diseases, ] liver troubles Bark, branches, Malaria [135] roots Bark, seeds Leaves Headache, purify blood, clean pores, [108,119,143] flu/colds, diarrhea Cough, colds/flu, fever, malaria, stom‐ [41] ach disorders Whole plant, Kidney stones, stomachache, prevent [81,96,106] leaves, stems second trimester abortion, vomiting Leaves Leaves Seeds Eleusine jaegeri Pilg. Leaves Elymus repens (L.) Gould (ex‐ Herb otic) Enteropogon macrostachyus (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Munro Herb ex Benth. Hyparrhenia diplandra (Hack.) Herb Stapf Oldeania alpina (K.Schum.) Stapleton Oryza sativa L. (exotic) Saccharum officinarum L. (ex‐ otic) Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (exotic) Sporobolus pyramidalis P.Beauv. Triticum aestivum L. (exotic) Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb [41,143] Leaves Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. Herb (exotic) Herb Allergies, dermatological infections Heartburn Ringworms, pain inside umbilical cord of adults, backache, urinary disorders Ringworm, cough, colds/flu, measles, chickenpox, itchy rash, kidney prob‐ lems, diabetes Wounds, skin infections STIs, back/bone joints problems, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, gouts, ma‐ laria [91] [147,152,168] [41,94,138,143,146 ] [109] [41] Whole plant Trypanosomiasis [68] Leaves [144] Insect repellant for safari ants Balding, edema, blood cleanser, cough, colds/flu, mental ailments, pneumonia, Fruits, shoots, rheumatism, STIs, malaria, diarrhea, [14,41,88,132,147,1 stems aphrodisiac, impotency, retained pla‐ 52,168] centa (cattle, human), menstruation problems Roots Colds [14] Leaves, roots, Acaricide, malaria, baby stomach prob‐ [14,133,139] exudate lems Measles, energy boost, acaricide, gastro‐ Seeds [14,41,88,133,143] intestinal problems, diarrhea, colds Roots Gonorrhea, stomach ailments [113,147] Cancer [41] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Zea mays L. (exotic) 101 of 151 Herb Cough, heartburn, abdominal ulcers, re‐ [73,88,133,139,152, Cobs, flowers tained placenta (cows, human), acari‐ 168] cide, urinary disorders in men Podocarpaceae Afrocarpus falcatus (Thunb.) C.N.Page (exotic) Tree Podocarpus latifolius (Thunb.) Tree R.Br. ex Mirb. (exotic) Polygalaceae Carpolobia goetzei Gürke Polygala erioptera DC. Polygala persicariifolia DC. Shrub/tree Herb Herb Polygala sphenoptera Fresen. Herb Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. Shrub/tree General body health, fever, malaria, liver and spleen diseases, peptic ulcers, Bark, roots, stomachache, measles, acaricide, hyper‐ leaves, twigs tension, arthritis, anodyne, itchy skin rash, chest troubles Malaria, stomachache, dysmenorrhea, Bark, leaves, cleanse womb, afterbirth, asthma, gall roots bladder, indigestion, acaricide, chest troubles [14,67,68,88,91,109 ,118,132,133,135,1 41,168] [41,67,88,97,120,13 3,142,152,168] Roots, leaves Aphrodisiac [127] Cough, whitlow, skin rashes [141] Leaves Eye and ear diseases [141] Leaves, stem, Infertility in women, eye inflammation, [99,152,168] roots stomachache, cough, aphrodisiac Body swellings, chest pains, amoeba, asthma, back/bone problems, cough (human, cattle), colds/flu, general body pains, malaria, mental disorders, tonsili‐ tis, anthelmintic, acidity, stomach ail‐ [14,41,74,111,118,1 Roots, bark, ments, delayed delivery, purgative, diz‐ 29,133,139,142,146 leaves ziness, headache, acaricide, vaginal dis‐ ,147,150,168] charge, menstrual cramps, infertility, aphrodisiac, joint pains, sores, tooth‐ ache, retained placenta, abdominal pains Polygonaceae Oxygonum sinuatum (Hochst. Herb & Steud. ex Meisn.) Dammer Tonsillitis, conjunctivitis, boils, cellulitis, toothache, diabetes mellitus, rashes, dandruffs, burns, skin/throat cancer, [76,84,85,90,94,106 Roots, leaves, body swellings, wounds, skin infection, ,115,117,118,143,1 whole plant stomachache, urinary problems, gonor‐ 47,168] rhea, typhoid, venereal diseases, joint pains, eye diseases, enlarged uvula Persicaria setosula (A.Rich.) K.L.Wilson Leaves Herb Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Herb Rumex acetosella L. Herb Rumex hypogaeus T.M.Schust. Herb & Reveal Revive the dying [67] Malaria, menstrual problems, stomach‐ ache, conjunctivitis (cow, poultry, goat, [41,67,73,101,119,1 Leaves, roots sheep, pig), eye infections, general well‐ 68] being, scabies, anthelmintic Abdominal pains, hypertension, diabe‐ Roots [86,91] tes Roots Venereal diseases [168] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 102 of 151 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Herb Rumex usambarensis (Engl.) Dammer Shrub Malaria, stomachache, fever, snakebites Leaves, roots paralysis, sore throat, livestock diseases [101,144,152] (infection/stomach) Anthelmintic, constipation, joint pains, [81,105,119,122,13 vomiting, urinary tract infections, Leaves, roots cough, chest pain, difficulty in breath‐ 0] ing Portulacaceae Portulaca foliosa Ker Gawl. Herb Portulaca oleracea L. Herb Portulaca quadrifida L. Primulaceae Herb Embelia schimperi Vatke Shrub/liana Lysimachia volkensii Engl. Herb Maesa lanceolata Forssk. Shrub/tree Myrsine africana L. Shrub/tree Myrsine melanophloeos (L.) R.Br. ex Sweet Tree Wounds, burns, swollenʹ belly in chil‐ dren Wounds, burns, typhoid, cancer, diar‐ Whole plant rhea, urinary disorders, liver/kidney problems Whole plant Wound, burns Whole plant [77,140] [77,91,115,168] [77,91] Joint pains, chest pain, malaria, colds, Stem, bark, anthelmintic, wounds, stomach prob‐ [107,109,131,142,1 leaves, roots, lems, fever, rheumatic fever, tuberculo‐ 68] seeds sis, pneumonia, brucellosis, diarrhea Wounds [136] Flu, anthelminthic, appetizer, stomach‐ ache, STIs, malaria, backache, arthritis, snakebites, skin allergies, heartburn, chest pain, boils, colic pains, headache, abdominal pains, pregnancy, kidney [77,79,88,91,92,99, Roots, fruits, diseases, acaricide, cough, fontanel in‐ 101,116,120,122,12 bark, seeds, flammation or wounds, veterinary use 6,133,141,142,144– as poison antidote, astringent, purga‐ leaves 146,168] tive, dysmenorrhea, itchy skin rashes, enlarged glands, abortifacients, fever (humans, animals), sore throat, heart problems, gonorrhea, healing umbilical scar, dysentery Gonorrhea, constipation, headache, ma‐ laria, respiratory disorders, anthelmintic (human, livestock), heartburn, tubercu‐ losis, diabetes, bone/joint pain, kidney diseases, helminthiasis, wounds, tonic, [67,68,72,77,83,88, Bark, fruits, tranquillizer, fever, typhoid, tuberculo‐ 89,105,132,135– leaves, seeds sis, stomach problems, dysentery, chest 138,140,141,147,14 pain, abdominal disorders, backache, 9,168] dysmenorrhea, internal boils due to in‐ juries or inflammatory diseases, purga‐ tive, copious perspiration, relaxation, appetite, measles, stomachache Anthelmintic, gonorrhea, heartburn, weak bones, chest pains, joint pains, di‐ [14,41,67,68,88,99, Fruits, seeds, arrhea, malaria, general body weakness, 105,107,109,120,13 bark pneumonia, stomachache, colds, rum‐ 1,132,141,142,145– bling stomach, hypertension, livestock 147,152] diseases, purgative, dysmenorrhea, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 103 of 151 afterbirth pains, amoeba, back/bone pains, blood purifier, constipation, inju‐ ries/cuts, wounds, kidney disorders, ap‐ petizer, prostate cancer, rheumatism, skin diseases, typhoid, headache, pur‐ gative, arthralgia, body pain, fever Proteaceae Faurea rochetiana (A.Rich.) Chiov. ex Pic.Serm. Faurea saligna Harv. Tree Shrub/tree Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. ex Tree R.Br. (exotic) Macadamia tetraphylla L.A.S.Johnson (exotic) Putranjivaceae Drypetes gerrardii Hutch. Ranunculaceae Bark Roots, bark Bark, roots Bark Tree Leaves, roots Wounds, acaricide Liana Clematis hirsuta Guill. & Perr. Liana Roots, leaves, bark Clematis simensis Fresen. Liana Roots, stems, leaves, exu‐ date, flowers Clematis villosa DC. Herb Hydrastis canadensis L. (ex‐ otic) Nigella sativa L. (exotic) Herb Herb Ranunculus multifidus Forssk. Herb Thalictrum rhynchocarpum Quart.‐Dill. & A.Rich. Stomach upsets/ulcers, urinary tract in‐ fections, indigestion, tonic, asthma, back/joint/bone problems, chest prob‐ lems, cough, colds/flu, general body pains, stomach disorders, diarrhea, menstrual pains, stomachache, head‐ ache, itchy skin rash, abdominal pain Back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, anthelmintic, sore throat, ear, chest problems, toothache, immune booster, antidote Tree Roots, leaves, flowers, stems Clematis brachiata Thunb. Chronic cough Herb Allergies, skin cancer [140] [41,67,77,91,99,105 ,131,132,135,141,1 42,168] [14,41,116] [41,117] [133,147] Mouth inflammation, stomachache, chest pains, colds, headache, backache, [77,97,103,104,122, syphilis, gonorrhea, fever, arthritis, cough, malaria, amoeba, stomach ail‐ 131,140,142,143,14 6,147,152,154,168] ments, constipation, depression, flu, bleeding gums, toothache, body swell‐ ings, nasal congestion, snuff Headache, colds, malaria, fever, ear [14,67,83,98,104,10 problem, chest problem, diabetes, an‐ 9,146] thelmintic, antidote Sinusitis, allergy, colds, cough, wheez‐ ing, chest pain, blocked nose, headache, wounds, mouth inflammation, stomach‐ [67,86,87,132,141,1 ache, chest pains, malaria, purgative, 42,152,168] rashes, meningitis, anodyne, abdominal pains, oral thrush, bleeding gums Stuffy nose and associated respiratory [125] problems Painkiller [41] Seeds Headache, hypertension, stomachache [137] Roots, seeds, Pneumonia, malaria, oral thrush, purga‐ [67,141] leaves tive, expectorant Roots Purgative, expectorant [141] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 104 of 151 Resedaceae Caylusea abyssinica (Fresen.) Herb Fisch. & C.A.Mey. Rhamnaceae Roots, whole Abdominal pains, anthelmintic, cough, [99,140,141] plant abdominal pains Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Shrub/tree Hemsl. Roots, bark Diarrhea, men infertility, stomach disor‐ [14,77,80,86,91,142 der, liver ailments, erectile dysfunction, ] typhoid, fever Helinus integrifolius (Lam.) Kuntze Bark Arthritis, paralysis Liana Helinus mystacinus (Aiton) E.Mey. ex Steud. Liana Maesopsis eminii Engl. Tree Rhamnus prinoides LʹHér. Shrub/tree Rhamnus staddo A.Rich. Shrub/tree Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz Shrub/tree [68] Respiratory disorders, snakebites, stom‐ Leaves, bark, achache, animal fever, anthrax, rinder‐ [77,88,139,144] roots, shoots pest, headache Bark Cough [122] Splenomegaly, infertility, cancer, syphi‐ lis, gonorrhea, arthritis, stomachache, pneumonia, brucellosis, indigestion, tonic, backache, arthritis, prostate, ma‐ laria, postpartum weakness, dizziness, [14,41,67,72,77,83, dirty circulatory system, headache, waist pains, constipation, weak joints, 86– body weakness, fever, diarrhea, appe‐ 90,92,97,99,103– Roots, seeds, 105,107,109,110,11 tizer, amoeba dysentery, abdominal bark, leaves cramps, joint pains, allergies, amoeba, 3,131,132,135,136, bone problems, blood cleanser, cough, 138,141,142,146,14 colds/flu, dental problems, rheumatism, 7,149,152,154,168] typhoid, anthelmintic, colic pain in in‐ fants, renal disorders, skin disorders, snakebites, neck stiffness, diabetes, abortifacient, chest problems, pleuritis, purgative, epilepsy, mouth diseases Tonic, STIs, flu/colds, diabetes, endome‐ tritis, diarrhea, chest pains, heartburn, stomachache, toothache, cough, malaria, gonorrhea, syphilis, diabetes, chest [41,67,68,71,72,77, pain, backache, fever, pneumonia, bone 92,97,99,103– problems, dental problems, headache, 105,107,109,110,11 Roots, bark, rheumatism, arthritis, venereal diseases, 8,121,135,136,138, leaves, stems polio, body aches, fever, hepatitis, men‐ 140– strual problems, livestock diseases, ana‐ 142,147,149,152,15 plasmosis, typhoid, maleʹs libido, vom‐ 4,168] iting in babies, epilepsy/tetanus, infertil‐ ity, hypertension, joint diseases, rheu‐ matic pains, kidney problems Boosting immunity, stomachache, an‐ thelmintic, joint pains, prenatal care, [68,71,77,88,127,13 tonic, pneumonia, respiratory disorders, Roots, bark, 0– joint ache, retained afterbirth, allergies, leaves, fruits 132,135,138,140,14 anemia, pregnancy pains, measles, in‐ 1,143,147,151,152] fertility, epilepsy, dizziness, fever, ring‐ worm, menstrual problems Plants 2023, 12, 1145 105 of 151 Ziziphus abyssinica Hochst. ex Shrub/tree A.Rich. Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Shrub/tree Ziziphus mucronata Willd. Shrub/tree Rhizophoraceae Cassipourea celastroides Alston Tree Cassipourea euryoides Alston Shrub/tree Cassipourea malosana (Baker) Shrub/tree Alston Rosaceae Alchemilla abyssinica Fresen. Herb Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmel. Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman Tree Tree Burns, kidney, asthma, pneumonia, Roots, bark, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia in [77,82,104,120,133, leaves, aerial livestock, malaria, stomach disorders, 153] parts acaricide Tuberculosis, indigestion, diarrhea, in‐ Roots, leaves, digestion, cough, abdominal pains, colic [86,99,112,132,139, bark pains, stomachache, dysentery, catarrhs, 141,142] amoeba, rheumatism, retained placenta Abdominal pains, prenatal care, body inflammation, snakebite, arthritis, stom‐ [67,71,77,80,87,89, achache, diarrhea, acaricide, wounds, 99,127,133,140,141 bleeding in miscarriage, fecal impaction ,148,149] in babies/children, heartburn, pain in pregnancy, rheumatism, joint diseases Leaves Bark Roots Body wellness Aphrodisiac, rheumatism Malaria, pneumonia, cancer, fibroids, wounds Backache, spinal cord problems, eye in‐ fection, bruises, malaria Infertility in women, livestock diseases, amoeba, cough, colds, flu, headache, Flowers, bark, rheumatism, typhoid, stomachache, di‐ aerial parts arrhea, anthelmintic, allergy, gout, ab‐ dominal pains Eye problems, joint pains, prostate can‐ cer, stomachache, urinary tract infec‐ tions, back pain in women, HIV/AIDs, washing newborns to shed off dead skin, appetizer, fever, malaria, vomit‐ ing, diarrhea, postmenopausal syn‐ drome, allergies, arthritis, amoeba, back/bone problems, blood cancer, blood cleanser, brucellosis, cancer, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, dia‐ betes, epilepsy, family planning, fi‐ Bark, roots, broids, injuries, cuts/wounds, heart fruits, leaves, problems, increase blood, indigestion, stems meat allergy, pneumonia, rheumatism, tonsilitis, tumors, typhoid, ulcers, an‐ thelmintic, chest pains, general body weakness, peptic ulcers, hypertension, rheumatism, brain fatigue, congested chest, anthrax, body ache, joint ache, cough (cow, goats, sheep, poultry, pig, ruminants), tonic, colorec‐ tal/breast/skin/prostate cancer, STIs, ac‐ aricide, purgative, aphrodisiac, ab‐ dominal pains, astringent, gonorrhea, Leaves [139] [150] [41,152] [109] [41,67,109,132,141, 142,152,168] [14,41,66,67,73,74, 77,83,84,86,88,89,9 1,95,103– 105,107,109,113,11 6,117,120,125,131– 133,135,136,141,14 2,145–147,152,168] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 106 of 151 Rhaphiolepis bibas (Lour.) Gal‐ Shrub asso & Banfi (exotic) Rubus apetalus Poir. Shrub Rubus keniensis Standl. Shrub Rubus pinnatus Willd. Tree Rubus steudneri Schweinf. Shrub Rubus volkensii Engl. Shrub Rubiaceae Afrocanthium keniense (Bull‐ ock) Lantz Afrocanthium lactescens (Hi‐ ern) Lantz Agathisanthemum bojeri Klotzsch breast cancer, liver diseases, indigestion, meat allergy, anaplasmosis in cattle, toothache, arthritis Roots, fruits, Kwashiorkor, marasmus, diabetes, [41,119,144] bark stomachache, toothache, earache Blood cleanser, malnutrition, prophy‐ Roots, leaves, laxis of cancer, cough, colds, STIs, joint [88,144,147] fruits ailment, stomachache Roots Stomachache, STIs, afterbirth problems [120,131] Malaria, diarrhea, stomachache, Roots, leaves [41,101,146,152] amoeba, gonorrhea Roots Cough, abdominal pains, stomachache [99,132] Cough, colds, acidity, general body [147] Fruits health Shrub/tree Bark Liver problems [168] Tree Roots, bark Backache, purgative [140,141] Herb/shrub Prenatal care, convulsions, skin infec‐ Roots, leaves tions, colds, stomachache, sore eyes, ears, anthelmintic [75,112,127] Roots Malaria [111] Roots, bark Malaria, headache [74] Fruits Malaria [111] Roots Constipation, stomach ailments [112,127] Agathisanthemum globosum Herb (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Klotzsch Breonadia salicina (Vahl) Hep‐ Tree per & J.R.I.Wood Canthium glaucum Hiern Shrub Catunaregam nilotica (Stapf) Shrub/tree Tirveng. Back pain in women, allergies, appe‐ tizer, low libido, pneumonia, pregnancy [41,113,146] problems, rheumatism, sleeping sick‐ ness, flu Eye problems in livestock, heavy men‐ [116,125] struation Coffea arabica L. Shrub/tree Roots Coffea eugenioides S.Moore Tree Leaves Conostomium quadrangulare (Rendle) Cufod. Herb Leaves, roots Purgative, lice infestation Coptosperma graveolens (S.Moore) Degreef Shrub/tree Craterispermum schweinfurthii Shrub/liana Hiern Dirichletia glaucescens Hiern Shrub Dolichopentas longiflora (Oliv.) Herb Kårehed & B.Bremer Galium aparinoides Forssk. Herb Galium simense Fresen. Herb Malaria, aphrodisiac, erectile dysfunc‐ Bark, roots, tion, eyedrops, ulcers, sores, smallpox stems, leaves lesions, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy Aphrodisiac, diarrhea, malaria, veteri‐ Bark nary Leaves Insecticide e.g., termites Bark, roots, Laxative, skin, malaria, purgative, back leaves pains, lice infestation, warts Stomach ulcers, urinary infections, Roots, whole throat cancer in cattle, anaplasmosis in plant cattle, nervous and urinary disorders Leaves Cancer, general body rashes [141] [104,119,134,139,1 42] [116] [84] [67,91,115,120,141, 168] [89,105,168] [131] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Galium spurium L. Gardenia posoquerioides S.Moore 107 of 151 Herb Roots, leaves Stomach disorders, false teeth Shrub/tree Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. Shrub/tree & Thonn. Gardenia transvenulosa Verdc. Shrub/tee Gardenia volkensii K.Schum. Shrub/tree Hymenodictyon parvifolium Oliv. Shrub/tree Syphilis [109] [142] Malaria, purgative, acaricide, emetic, Roots, fruits, eyes, amoeba, vomiting, cough, pneu‐ [67,71,72,98,132,13 bark monia, epigastric pain, appetizer, heart‐ 3,140,142,143,148] burn, chest pain, mental illness Roots Stomach ailments [142] Emetic, back/joint/bone problems, burns, malaria, STIs, snakebite, Roots, fruits, [14,41,86,87,117,14 breast/uterine/skin cancer, purgative, 2] bark colds, sores, cough, stomachache, an‐ thelmintic Constipation, diarrhea, snakebites, live‐ Roots, leaves stock diseases, ears sores, sooth red [51,64,96,100,105] eyes, ulcer pains, aid conception, edema Asthma, pneumonia, cough, allergy, [98,144] Bark, roots joint pains, appetizer, fatigue, diarrhea Keetia gueinzii (Sond.) Brid‐ son Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus Hiern Lasianthus kilimandscharicus K.Schum. Meyna tetraphylla (Schweinf. ex Hiern) Robyns Mussaenda arcuata Poir. Oxyanthus speciosus DC. Shrub/tree Roots Diarrhea [127] Shrub/tree Roots Malaria, colds [14] Shrub/tree Roots Alleviate pain in pregnant women [142] Shrub Shrub/tree Pavetta abyssinica Fresen. Shrub/tree Pavetta crassipes K.Schum. Shrub/tree Leaves, bark Bark Roots, leaves, bark Roots, leaves Pavetta oliveriana Hiern Shrub/tree Pavetta subcana Hiern Shrub Pavetta teitana K.Schum. Pentanisia ouranogyne S.Moore Shrub/tree Pentas lanceolata (Forssk.) Deflers Pentas pubiflora S.Moore Pentas zanzibarica (Klotzsch) Vatke Pentodon pentandrus (Schu‐ mach. & Thonn.) Vatke Polysphaeria multiflora Hiern Psychotria amboniana K.Schum. Psychotria faucicola K.Schum. Psychotria holtzii (K.Schum.) E.M.A.Petit Shrub/liana Herb/shrub Joint pains, venereal diseases [144] Sore throat [72] Colorectal/skin/breast cancer, purgative, [91,117,141] abdominal pains Chronic joint pains, asthma, acaricide [118,130,133] Acaricide, aphrodisiac, abdominal [133,141] Leaves, roots pains, meningitis Roots, whole Gonorrhea, cough (cows), fleas (cattle) [67,89,142] plant Leaves, roots Pneumonia [74] Tonic, appetizer in babies/children, ma‐ Roots [67,111,140] laria Joint aches, malaria, kidney problems, Roots, bark scurvy, depression, arthritis, venereal [97,104,147] disease Roots Purgative [99,141] Herb/shrub Roots, leaves Malaria, tonic [41,67,84] Herb Roots Anthelmintic, pneumonia, cough [74] Shrub/tree Leaves Sore muscles, wounds [142] Shrub Leaves, roots Convulsions, headache [127,142] Shrub Roots Diarrhea [142] Shrub Leaves Colds [142] Herb Herb/shrub Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Psychotria kirkii Hiern Psychotria lauracea (K.Schum.) E.M.A.Petit Psychotria orophila E.M.A.Petit Psydrax parviflorus (Afzel.) Bridson Psydrax schimperianus (A.Rich.) Bridson 108 of 151 Shrub Shrub/tree Rytigynia acuminatissima (K.Schum.) Robyns Spermacoce princeae (K.Schum.) Verdc. Tarenna pavettoides (Harv.) Sim Tennantia sennii (Chiov.) Verdc. & Bridson Uncaria africana G.Don Malaria, meat allergy [136,140] Glover et al. 1966 Roots, leaves Childbirth, given to women after birth [14,67,142] Shrub/tree Malaria [136] Shrub/tree Back/joint/bone problems, diarrhea [41] Shrub/tree Pyrostria phyllanthoidea Shrub/tree (Baill.) Bridson Rhodopentas bussei (K.Krause) Herb/shrub Kårehed & B.Bremer Rhodopentas parvifolia (Hiern) Shrub Kårehed & B.Bremer Rubia cordifolia L. Roots Herb Breast cancer, diarrhea, wounds, Shoots, roots, strengthen bones, general body weak‐ [117,132,140,141,1 bark ness, abdominal pains, backache, joint 44,168] pains Dizziness, weak bones, bad breadth, re‐ Roots, bark [139,140] tained placenta Roots Venereal diseases [142] Vomiting, malaria, constipation in chil‐ [81,129,140] dren Mouth inflammation, gonorrhea, diar‐ rhea, vomiting, pneumonia, cough, whooping cough, skin infection, heart‐ [68,77,86,99,104,10 Roots, leaves, burn, oral thrush, livestock diseases, 9,115,119,120,123, whole plant malaria, upper respiratory tract infec‐ 138,140,141,143,15 tions, ringworms, oral infections, an‐ 2,168] thelmintic, stomachache, hypertension, chest pain, dysentery, urinary disorders Roots, bark Shrub/tree Bark Herb Roots, leaves Breast/colorectal/skin cancer, boils [117,119] Shrub/tree Leaves [144] Shrub Shrub/liana Vangueria apiculata K.Schum. Shrub/tree Vangueria infausta Burch. Shrub/tree Vangueria madagascariensis J.F.Gmel. Shrub/tree Vangueria volkensii K.Schum. Shrub/tree Rutaceae Arthritis Correct fetus during parturition [154] Diarrhea, malaria, impotence and infer‐ [51] tility Roots, bark Stomach disorder, strength [77] Prolonged menstruation, arthritis, veter‐ Leaves, roots, inary uses, body swellings, warts, tuber‐ [66,116,144,154] twigs culosis Snakebites, prenatal care, cough, colds, Roots, leaves, body pains, anthelmintic, pneumonia [14,73,74,105,112,1 fruits (cow, goat, sheep, poultry), stop men‐ 16,127,147] ses, fever, eye problems Mouth infection in babies, stomach complications, brucellosis, cholera, heartburn, loin pains, medicine anti‐ Leaves, roots, [41,67,84,86,103,10 dote, pancreatic diseases, prostrate 4,109,140,146,154] bark, shoots problems, rheumatism, typhoid, arthri‐ tis, men infertility, malaria, colic pain, anthelmintic (human, animals) Malaria, amoeba [41,124] Roots Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Calodendrum capense (L.f.) Thunb. Citrus × aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle 109 of 151 Tree Shrub/tree Citrus × aurantium L. Shrub/tree Citrus × limon (L.) Osbeck Shrub/tree Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f. ex Benth. Shrub/tree Fagaropsis angolensis (Engl.) H.M.Gardner Tree Fagaropsis hildebrandtii (Engl.) Shrub/tree Milne‐Redh. Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. Shub/tree Stomach upsets, emetic, fever, bleeding [105,109,145] wounds (human, sheep) Replacement milk for nursing mothers, Leaves, fruits [108] colds, flu Cough, colds/flu, arthritis, cancer, low Roots, leaves, libido, nose bleeding, rheumatism, eye [41,146,150] fruits, bark ache Malaria, stomachache, flu, colds, ring‐ worm, asthma, back/joint/bone prob‐ lems, blood cleanser, chest conges‐ [14,41,74,94,106,10 Fruits, leaves tions/pains, ear‐nose‐threat infections, 8,143,146,150] appetizer, rheumatism, typhoid, skin rashes, pneumonia, prostate cancer, in‐ fertility, anthelmintic Malaria, anthelmintic, stomach prob‐ lems, prostate, convulsions, cough, colds, mouth infection in babies, emetic, blood cleanser, stroke, whooping cough, body pains, constipation, poisoning, di‐ [14,74,81,84,88,99, arrhea, pneumonia, teeth cleansing, pro‐101,103– Leaves, roots, tracted labor, retained placenta, post‐ 105,109,111,120,12 partum hemorrhage, headache, fever, 1,127,138,141– bark indigestion, toothache, kidney/heart dis‐144,146,147,150,16 8] eases, livestock diseases, vertigo, ab‐ dominal pains, typhoid, chest pain, res‐ piratory problems, measles, chest dis‐ eases, tonsillitis, afterbirth pains, men‐ strual problems Chest problems, gut problems, induces menopause, amoeba, bone problems, cough, colds, flu, diarrhea, dysentery, [41,66,74,84,93,103 Leaves, roots, livestock diseases, malaria, rheumatism, ,104,111,116,141,1 stomach disorders, typhoid, anthelmin‐ bark 46,147] tic, joint pains, stomachache, headache, chest problems, STIs, expectorant, ab‐ dominal pains, backache Morning sickness, womenʹs infertility, malaria, asthma, ulcers, chronic joint pains, abscesses, arthritis, cough, Roots, bark, colds/flu, postpartum hemorrhage, milk [41,81,94,102,129,1 leaves letdown, prevent first/second trimester 30,139] abortion, vomiting, pregnancy anemia, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy Gonorrhea, syphilis, malaria, arthritis, [14,41,66,68,72,74, STIs, stomach pains, body pains, diar‐ 76,77,79,80,84,90,9 rhea, stomachache, pneumonia, infertil‐ 3,98,100,102,103,1 Bark, leaves, ity, eye ointment, ringworms, blood pu‐ 05,108,111,112,118 roots rifier, cough, chest congestion, helmin‐ ,124,127,129,132,1 thiasis, amoeba, abscess, ECF, lumbago, 33,138,141– 143,146,147,153] rheumatism, retained placenta, Bark Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Toddalia simplicifolia Engl. Vepris eugeniifolia (Engl.) I.Verd. Vepris glomerata (F.Hoffm.) Engl. 110 of 151 Shrub/tree Roots, bark, leaves Shrub Bark leaves Shrub/tree Roots Vepris nobilis (Delile) Mziray Shrub/tree Vepris samburuensis Kokwaro Shrub/tree Vepris sansibarensis (Engl.) Shrub/tree Mziray Zanthoxylum asiaticum (L.) Shrub/tree Appelhans, Groppo & J.Wen inducing abortion, acaricide, headache, pregnancy problems, typhoid, chest problems, asthma, abdominal pains, back ache/joint ache, wounds, swollen breasts and testicles , boils, pregnancy problems, bubonic plague, anthelmintic, kidney problems, diabetes, menstrual problems Pneumonia, allergy, gonorrhea, diar‐ rhea, malaria, stomachache, weak bones, rib bones, eye problem, colds, flu, joint pains, skin rashes, chest trou‐ [51,67,68,71,77,83, bles, poisoning, diabetes, cerebral ma‐ 84,96,99,100,103– laria, fevers, hepatitis, fever, oral trash, 105,111,128,129,13 wounds, typhoid, firm stool, stomach 6,139,147,149,152] acid, tonic, blood pressure, joint dis‐ eases, swollen legs and body pains dur‐ ing pregnancy, edema Hepatitis, sore throat, malaria, body [72,77] pains Colds, snakebites [127] Toothbrush, brucellosis, aphrodisiac, livestock diseases, malaria, headache, joint pains, colds, pneumonia, anthel‐ mintic, chest pain, arthritis, backache, [41,67,84,86,88,89, Bark, roots, blood cleanser, invigorant, stimulate im‐98,104,109,119,120 leaves munity, stomachache, labor, back/bone ,133,135,136,140,1 problems, nausea, rheumatism, amoeba, 41,143,145,152] acaricide, asthma, tonic, dizziness, cough, expectorant, abdominal pains, internal body pains/weakness, anthrax Liver problems [136] Snakebites, body inflammation, repro‐ [127,150] Roots ductive disorder Abdominal pains, gynecological disor‐ ders including infertility, cough, colds, cancer, renal disorders, anthelmintic in [14,67,71,72,79,82, cattle, malaria, backpain in women, mouth inflammation, joint pain, boils, 86– 89,98,99,103,107,1 chest pains, general body weakness, headache, fever, mouth infection in ba‐ 09,115,118– Leaves, roots, 120,123– bies, pneumonia, stomachache, sore bark, stems, throat, tonic, respiratory disorders, TB, 125,129,131,132,13 fruits urinary tract problems, arthritis, cancer, 4– throat cancer, joint aches, food poison‐ 136,140,141,143,14 4,147,150,152,154, ing, rheumatism, asthma, irregular menstruation, back pains, indigestion, 168] kidney problems, typhoid, amoeba, aphrodisiac, firms stool, abdominal pains, emesis in livestock Plants 2023, 12, 1145 111 of 151 Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. Shrub/tree Zanthoxylum gilletii (De Wild.) P.G.Waterman Zanthoxylum holtzianum (Engl.) P.G.Waterman Zanthoxylum rubescens Planch. ex Hook. Zanthoxylum usambarense (Engl.) Kokwaro Tree Shrub/tree STIs, flu/cold, indigestion, throat infec‐ tion, pain in fallopian tubes, asthma, pneumonia, malaria, ulcers, fever, gen‐ eral body pains, gastric lesions and pain, urinary tract infections, venereal diseases, bleeding gums, chest pains, stomach problems, anthrax, measles, epilepsy, psychotic disorders, oral thrush, emetic, sore throat, livestock diseases, joint pains, cholera, allergies, [14,41,51,64,72,74, back/bone problems, constipation, cough, dental problems, gouts, head‐ 76,77,79–81,84– 86,88,91,92,96,98– ache, injuries, cuts/wounds, rheuma‐ Roots, bark, tism, ringworms, TB, ulcers, sores, dia‐ 100,102,103,106,10 leaves, seeds, betes mellitus, chest congestion, mouth 9,111,112,127– fruits sores/ulcers, freshens the mouth, anthel‐ 132,134,138,139,14 mintic, toothache, delayed labor, first 1–143,146– trimester abortion, vomiting, pregnancy 148,150,151] edema, snakebite, keep gums hard and healthy, amoeba, mouth ulcers, head‐ ache, typhoid, stomachache, waterborne diseases, body pains, boils, muscular pains, diarrhea, abdominal pains, epi‐ lepsy, peptic ulcers, obesity, reproduc‐ tive disorders, anthrax, immune booster, cattle cough, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, retained placenta, kidney problems, edema Asthma, bronchitis, sore throat, colic pain, constipation, hepatomegaly, se‐ vere body inflammation, tongue, an‐ thrax, cough, colds, chest problems, ma‐ laria, rheumatism, joint aches, skin can‐ cer, scabies, gut problems, buccal/oral [14,66,87,98,101,11 Bark, leaves, problems, headache, cardiac conditions, 6,117,125,142– seeds, roots gout, veterinary uses, asthma, pneumo‐ 144,147,168] nia, body malaise, fevers, anaplasmosis in cattle, toothache, bleeding gums, snakebites, headache, prostate cancer, dental problems, arthralgia, joint pains, fever, venereal diseases, stomachache, scratches on body, wounds Leaves, roots, Ulcer, cough [145] bark Shrub/tree Bark, leaves Breast/colorectal/skin/esophageal cancer [117] Tree Malaria, diarrhea, postpartum weak‐ Bark, leaves, ness, backache, joint pains, emetic, fruits, seeds, amoeba, arthritis, bone problems, body roots, stems weakness, brucellosis, cough, colds, flu, headache, rheumatism, STIs, stomach [41,67,68,77,93,103 – 105,107,113,135,13 7,138,140,142,168] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 112 of 151 disorders, tonsilitis, typhoid, ulcers, throat infections, respiratory tract infec‐ tions, malignant catarrhal fever, fever, chest pain, sore throat, livestock medi‐ cine, chest pain, pneumonia, toothache, bleeding gums, bad breath, purgative Salicaceae Casearia battiscombei R.E.Fr. Tree Bark, roots Dovyalis abyssinica (A.Rich.) Shrub/tree Warb. Roots, stems, leaves, fruit, bark Dovyalis caffra (Hook.f. & Harv.) Warb. (exotic) Shrub Fruits Dovyalis macrocalyx (Oliv.) Warb. Shrub/tree Roots, leaves, whole plant, fruits Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. Shrub/tree Roots, bark, leaves Ludia mauritiana J.F.Gmel. Shrub/tree Oncoba routledgei Sprague Shrub/tree Oncoba spinosa Forssk. Scolopia theifolia Gilg Scolopia zeyheri (Nees) Szyszyl. Joint problems, abdominal pains, infer‐ [88,120] tility, stomachache Splenomegaly, arthritis, infertility, indi‐ gestion, postpartum weakness, diar‐ rhea, malaria, afterbirth weakness, joint pain, STIs, backache, anthelmintic, stomachache, general body weakness, pneumonia, dirty circulatory system, stomach ulcers, boost immunity, sei‐ [14,41,84,87– zures/epilepsy, muscle pains, invigor‐ 89,105,113,131,132 ant, blood cleanser, skin rashes, vene‐ ,135,138,141,142,1 real diseases, bone problems, cough, 46,147,152,168] colds, flu, appetizer, rheumatism, gon‐ orrhea, toothache, chest pains, colic pain in infants, headache, eyes problems, wounds, body pains, boils, heartburn, acidity, stomach ailments, chiggers, aphrodisiac, abdominal pains, typhoid, kidney problems, diabetes Lack of appetite, malaria, rheumatism, cough (cow, goat, sheep, poultry, pig, [41,73] ruminant) Constipation, peptic ulcers, headache, colds, joint pain, fever, malaria, breast [88,109,125,133,14 problem, stomach complications, body 4,146] weakness, seizures/epilepsy, skin rashes, boils, acaricide Measles, chickenpox, dysmenorrhea, STIs, back/joint/bone problems, malaria, pneumonia, anthelmintic, arthritis, hy‐ [41,74,86,87,99,111 pertension, stomachache, indigestion, ,120,132,141,154] asthma, indigestion, diarrhea, gonor‐ rhea, infertility, anti‐venom, abdominal pains Malaria [14] Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Roots Fruits, flow‐ Jiggers, biopesticide ers Leaves Skin diseases Roots STIs [144] [142] Shrub/tree Bark [152] Trimeria grandifolia (Hochst.) Shrub/tree Warb. Gonorrhea [74] Stem, bark, Malaria, brucellosis, postpartum weak‐ [67,77,86,104,105,1 07,113,120,124,135 roots, fruits, ness, cough, backache, weak bones, colds, heartburn, STIs, arthritis, leaves ,136,138,140– Plants 2023, 12, 1145 113 of 151 gonorrhea, heartburn, toothache, renal 142,145,147,152,15 disorders, cancer, arthritis, rheumatism, 4,168] fever, chest pain, joint pains, dysmenor‐ rhea Salvadoraceae Azima tetracantha Lam. Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. Ex Poir. Salvadora persica L. Santalaceae Osyridicarpos schimperianus (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) A.DC. Shrub Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Shrub Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steud. Shrub/tree Viscum bagshawei Rendle Shrub Viscum fischeri Engl. Shrub Viscum tuberculatum A.Rich. Shrub Sapindaceae Roots Roots, branches Stomach disorders [142] Eye problem, amoebiasis, anemia, rheu‐ [100,132,150] matism, gouts Malaria, flu/cold, colds, stomachache, internal wounds, induce bile release from the gall bladder, eye infections, an‐ thelmintic, constipation, tonic, respira‐ tory infections, pneumonia, abdominal pain, colic pain, joint pains, abscesses, typhoid, blocked nose, fever, abortion, [14,41,64,68,72,77, childbirth, retained placenta (cattle, hu‐ 80,88,90– Stems, bark, man), ulcers, seizures, mange, trypano‐ 92,94,96,100,105,1 roots, twigs, somiasis, brucellosis, anthrax, cleaning 07,110,121,130,136 leaves the stomach after birth, emetic, purga‐ ,138,139,149,150] tive, dental caries, toothache, gum dis‐ eases, livestock diseases, backache, chest problems, chest pains, ulcers, aph‐ rodisiac, labor pain, obesity, hernia, whitening teeth, rib pain, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, eye infections Malaria, swollen breasts [136] Ringworms, impotence, fatigue, boost immunity, back/joint/bone problems, cough/colds/flu, AIDS, allergies, back/joint/bone problems, blood puri‐ fier, chest problems, general body pains, fever, malaria, pneumonia, prostate can‐ [14,41,72,77,84,89, Stems, bark, cer, rheumatism, stomach disorders, an‐ 99,100,105,107,129 leaves, roots, thelmintic, abdominal pains in children, ,135,136,140– diarrhea, gonorrhea, pregnancy prob‐ seeds 142,145,147,168] lems, swollen breasts, indigestion, ex‐ cessive bleeding after birth, mosquito repellant, dysentery, typhoid, fever, tonic, swollen udder in cows, purgative, insecticide, cow fever, typhoid in live‐ stock Leaves, stems Enhance sexual performance [143] Whole plant, Pneumonia, emetic, purgative, retained afterbirth, chest pains, hypertension, di‐ [67,77,99,168] branches, arrhea, respiratory problems twigs Pneumonia, retained afterbirth, hyper‐ Branches, [67,68,99,168] bark tension, diarrhea, respiratory problems Plants 2023, 12, 1145 114 of 151 Allophylus abyssinicus (Hochst.) Radlk. Tree Allophylus pervillei Blume Shrub/tree Allophylus rubifolius (Hochst. Shrub/tree ex A.Rich.) Engl. Aporrhiza paniculata Radlk. Tree Blighia unijugata Baker Tree Cardiospermum corindum L. Herb Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Herb Boils, hunchback, rickets, colds, skin problems, fatigue, boost immunity, Leaves, roots, headache, heartache, chest pains, child‐ [14,66,88,116,120,1 bark, fruits birth problems, STIs, crooked limps, ir‐ 44,146,152,168] regular menstruation, fever, weight loss, edema, toothache Roots, stem Headache, prenatal care, colds, wounds, [75,127,150] bark, leaves fibroids, female reproductive disorders Roots, leaves Headache, prenatal care [127] Bark Tuberculosis [142] Stems, roots, Veterinary uses, headache, fever [112,116,144] bark Anthelmintic, amoeba, joint pains, ma‐ Bark, roots laria, polio, snakebites, stomachache, [14,72,77,84,146] STI’s Snakebite, malaria, polio, antidote for Seeds, roots, arrow poison, eye medicine, rashes, [136,143,168] leaves boils, sprained muscles Septic swelling, stomachache, aphrodis‐ [127,150] Roots iac, diabetes, gastrointestinal complaints Deinbollia borbonica Scheff. Shrub/tree Deinbollia kilimandscharica Taub. Shrub/tree Fruits Shrub/tree Excessive menstruation, respiratory dis‐ orders, back/bone joints problems, diar‐ rhea, stomach disorders, malaria, ECF, [14,41,73,77,88,99, Bark, twigs, chest pain, pneumonia, stimulates milk 104,113,115,132,14 leaves, roots after birth, respiratory disorders, rheu‐ 1,168] matic, dysmenorrhea, colds, tonsills in cattle Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Haplocoelum foliolosum (Hi‐ Shrub/tree ern) Bullock Lepisanthes senegalensis (Poir.) Tree Leenh. Pappea capensis Eckl. & Zeyh. Shrub/tree Paullinia pinnata L. Liana Zanha africana (Radlk.) Exell Tree Leaves Poisonous Eye lotion Fruits, leaves Poisonous [168] [77] [142] Backache, tonic, appetizer, indigestion, infertility, gout, stomachache, stamina, aphrodisiac, typhoid fever, amoebic dysentery, abdominal pain, excessive [41,67,77,81,84,89– menstruation, body/muscle building, 92,97,102,105,107, Stem, bark, tuberculosis, rib/joint pains, AIDs, ar‐ 113,129,130,135,13 leaves, roots, thritis, bone problems, chest problems, 8,142,147– seeds cough, colds, flu, diarrhea, malaria, dia‐ 149,154,168] betes, body aches, invigorator, rheuma‐ tism, body weakness, postpartum hem‐ orrhage, emetic, cancer, rheumatoid ar‐ thritis Hiccoughs, acaricide, poisonous, diar‐ Leaves, roots [125,133,142,144] rhea, snakebite Leaves, roots, Miscarriage (bleeding), typhoid fever, [41,81,84,94,102,12 bark abscesses, malaria, pregnancy edema, 9,151] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 115 of 151 dog poison, pneumonia, toothache, flu, kidney ailments, allergies Sapotaceae Aningeria adolfi‐friederici Tree (Engl.) Robyns & Gilbert Englerophytum oblanceolatum Shrub/tree (S.Moore) T.D.Penn. Manilkara discolor (Sond.) Tree J.H.Hemsl. Manilkara mochisia (Baker) Tree Dubard Manilkara sansibarensis (Engl.) Tree Dubard Latex, bark Backache, stomachache, poisonous [77,99,120,168] Fruits Ulcers in digestive track, boils around belly, scabies [116,125] Bark Stomach disorders [77] Roots, bark Cough, colds, snakebites, fever [100,127,142] Bark Pneumonia, rheumatism, cough [112,142,150] Manilkara sulcata (Engl.) Dubard Shrub/tree Roots Sideroxylon inerme L. Shrub/tree Roots, bark Synsepalum cerasiferum Tree (Welw.) T.D.Penn. Vitellariopsis kirkii (Baker) Shrub/tree Dubard Scrophulariaceae Buddleja polystachya Fresen. Shrub Simaroubaceae Brucea antidysenterica J.F.Mill. Shrub/tree Smilacaceae Smilax anceps Willd. Liana Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. (exotic) Herb/shrub Datura metel L. (exotic) Herb Datura stramonium L. (exotic) Herb Lycium europaeum L. Shrub Cough, chest pains, snakebites, stings, diarrhea, ulcers/stomach upsets, foot and mouth disease in cattle Chest pains, cough, disorders in men‐ struation [100,127,134] [127] Latex, bark Colorectal/esophageal cancer, wounds [117,142] Roots Stomach ailments Roots, leaves Infertility, eye diseases Shoots [127] [99,120,141] Arrow poison, malaria [136] STIs [144] Eye problems, cellulitis, diarrhea/dysen‐ tery (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), dullness (poultry), Newcastle disease, [73,94,95,117,119,1 Fruits, leaves, coccidiosis (poultry), weakness/dullness 33,139,143,144,150 stems (cow, goat, sheep, poultry, pig), ,168] throat/breast/squamous cell carcinoma, joint problems, acaricide, tumors, con‐ stipation, abdominal pains Stems, leaves, Poison, respiratory congestion [134] flowers Colds, mouth inflammation, toothache, asthma, ectoparasites i.e., mites, lice, flea infestation (cow, poultry), tick infes‐ tation (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), [73,88,115,138,144, Seeds, leaves, coccidiosis and Newcastle (poultry), 152,168] roots, fruits foot rot (cow, goat, sheep, ruminant, pig), body swellings, tonsils, earache, wounds, boils, asthma, fever, poison‐ ous, madness, epilepsy Root, leaves, Malaria, rheumatism, breast swelling, [72,77,137,142] stem headache, backache, respiratory Plants 2023, 12, 1145 116 of 151 Nicotiana tabacum L. (exotic) Herb Physalis lagascae Roem. & Schult. Herb Physalis peruviana L. Herb Solanum aculeastrum Dunal Shrub/tree Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. Herb/shrub Solanum americanum Mill. Herb diseases, rib pain, backpain, joint pain, cough Eye problems, malnutrition, insecticide, wounds, colds, constipation, pesticide of stored grains, stomach infections, [68,73,88,96,109,12 babesiosis, gastroenteritis, chronic 0,133,137,141,146, Leaves, fruits cough, gingivitis, candidiasis, glossitis, 147,168] ectoparasites i.e., mites, lice and fleas’ infestation (cow, poultry), acaricide, ex‐ pectorant, leech Leaves, whole Stomachache, boils, malaria, facilitate [76,119,144] plant childbirth Malaria, postpartum pain, diarrhea, cholera, joint pains, stiff joints, skin al‐ lergies, respiratory disorders, tonsillitis, arthritis, anthelmintic, cough, colds, [14,88,89,101,110,1 Roots, leaves, anemia, acidity, chest problems, ty‐ 13,115,119,122,133 phoid, acaricide, mouth ulcers, ear dis‐ ,143,146,147,152,1 fruits charge, stomachache, indigestion, con‐ 54,168] stipation, diuretic, asthma, abdominal ailments, headache, hiccups, bloat in cattle/humans Pneumonia, liver diseases, boils at teething, chest problems, malaria, joint pains, infertility in women, diarrhea, gonorrhea, livestock diseases, eye prob‐ lems, fever, spinal cord problem, colds, [14,67,82,87,99,109 toothache, nausea fever, osteomyelitis, Leaves, roots, ,113,115,117,131,1 backache, rheumatism, pesticide of fruits 32,141,142,146,147 stored grains, warts, bleeding gums, ,152,168] respiratory symptoms and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (livestock), skin/breast/cervical cancer, tonsils, wounds, bronchitis, venom, expecto‐ rant, dysmenorrhea, immune booster Asthma, cough, colds, eye problem, fe‐ Roots, leaves ver, spinal cord problem, throat prob‐ [87,109,136] lems, wounds STIs, general body problems, chest pains, joint pains, backache, stomach‐ ache, diarrhea, gonorrhea, headache, mouth inflammation, toothache, sprains, colic pain in infants, vita‐ min/mineral deficiency in pregnancy, [41,76,79,83,84,88, Leaves, fruits, amoeba, tonsils, anthelmintic, stomach 106,115,132,136,14 roots crumps, acidity, indigestion, diabetes, 3–145,147,152,168] earache, toothache, constipation, ty‐ phoid fever, teeth problems, stomach‐ ache, fever, throat, wounds, erectile dys‐ function (impotence), malaria preven‐ tion, respiratory disorders, burns, scalds Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Solanum anguivi Lam. 117 of 151 Shrub Solanum arundo Mattei Shrub/tree Solanum goetzei Dammer Herb/shrub Solanum hastifolium Hochst. Shrub ex Dunal Fruits, roots Roots Leaves Roots, leaves Solanum incanum L. Herb/shrub Roots, bark, fruits, leaves Solanum mauense Bitter Shrub Roots, fruits Solanum mauritianum Scop. (exotic) Shrub/tree Fruits, bark, roots Solanum nakurense C.H.Wright Herb/shrub Fruits Solanum nigriviolaceum Bitter Shrub Skin problems, ringworms, infertility in women, stomachache, poultry (skin [73,152] rashes, loss of feather) Fever, sore throat, wounds [77,89] Abscesses [142] Eye lotion, livestock diseases (anthrax, [77,121,142] black quarter), diarrhea, smallpox Ear infection/ache, constipation, throat infection, stomachache, malaria, oral hy‐ giene, tonic, sore throat, oral wounds/thrush, diarrhea, respiratory disorders, toothache, ringworms, joint pains/swelling, anthelmintic, amoeba, asthma, back/bone joints problems, bru‐ cellosis, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, family plan‐ ning, gastritis, poison/sting/snake/spi‐ [14,41,51,66– 68,72,73,76,77,79,8 der bite antidote, pesticide, pimples, 1,82,84,85,88– prostate cancer, rheumatism, ring‐ worms, skin diseases, TB, fever, chest 92,96,99– pain, wounds, skin disorders, respira‐ 101,103,105,106,11 tory disorders in sheep, arthritis, head‐ 1,115,119,120,125, ache, sprains, rabies, whitlow, emetic, 128– diabetes mellitus, polio, jiggers, warts, 130,132,133,135,13 fever, ingestion, ectoparasites/acaricide, 6,138,139,141– delayed labor, prevent abortion, vomit‐ 144,146– ing, helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, 148,150,152,154,16 sheep, pig), lumpy skin disease (cow), 8] foot rot (cow, goat, sheep, ruminants, pig), infection of umbilical cord, erectile dysfunction, abdominal/colic pains, backache, liver enlargement, scabies, ex‐ pectorant, boils, kidney problem, hasten child delivery, typhoid, edema, leprosy, chickenpox, pneumonia, HIV, swollen legs in pregnancy, retained placenta, measles, sheep (colds) Anthelmintic, purgative, chest ailments, pneumonia, anthrax (man/animals), ma‐ [67,89,131,132,136, laria, chest pains, teeth problems, flu, 142,168] stomachache, fever, throat, wounds Pneumonia, cough, asthma, malaria, splenomegaly, colorectal cancer, skin [87,115,117,144] rashes, STIs, poisonous Pneumonia, otitis media [131,152] Teeth problems, ringworms, rashes, colds, skin infections, joint pain, [67,87,99,109,143] Fruits, roots wounds, chest pain, fever, ear problem, cough, livestock diseases Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Solanum runsoriense C.H. Wright Solanum schumannianum Dammer 118 of 151 Liana Fever, throat, wounds [136] Shrub Fever, throat, wounds [136] Solanum taitense Vatke Shrub Solanum terminale Forssk. Shrub/liana Solanum tettense Klotzsch Shrub/tree Solanum tuberosum L. (exotic) Herb Solanum zanzibarense Vatke Shrub Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Herb/shrub Roots, leaves, Arthritis, malaria, typhoid, stomach‐ [92,105] stems ache, respiratory Arthritis, toothache, chest congestion, [86,132,136,154] Fruits, roots rashes, fever, throat, wounds Boils, abscesses, diabetes mellitus, fever, typhoid, throat, wounds, threatened [51,72,77,85,94,123 Roots, leaves ,136,139,141,142] miscarriage, stomach pains, retained placenta, abdominal pains, diarrhea Bites, wounds [41] Roots Toothache [142] Tonic, backache, joint pains, galacta‐ gogue, appetite, livestock diseases, gon‐ orrhea, excessive menstrual flow, post‐ partum pain, meningitis, cerebral ma‐ laria, anthrax, detoxify meat from in‐ fected animal, urinary tract, rectal prob‐ [14,41,67,72,74,77, lems, STIs, diarrhea, toothache, joint 81,84,85,88,90,91,9 Roots, bark, pains, bone problems, cough/colds/flu, 3,103– whole plant, malaria, arthritis, pneumonia, pain‐ 105,113,115,120,13 fruits, stems, killer, stomach upsets, burns, wounds, 0,132,133,141– leaves headache, rheumatism, boils, allergic 143,146,147,154,16 conditions, retained afterbirth, eye dis‐ 8] eases, coagulant, acaricide, amoeba, cancer, purgative, anodyne, anthrax, skin sores/ulcers, gum diseases, ab‐ dominal pains, aphrodisiac, gynecologi‐ cal problems, jaundice, hepatitis, stom‐ achache, diabetes, blood pressure Stilbaceae Nuxia congesta R.Br. ex Fresen. Shrub/tree Talinaceae Talinum caffrum (Thunb.) Herb Eckl. & Zeyh. Talinum portulacifolium Herb (Forssk.) Asch. ex Schweinf. Theaceae Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze Shrub/tree (exotic) Thymelaeaceae Backache, stomachache, joint pains, body weakness, respiratory disorders, indigestion, menstrual pains, astringent, Leaves, roots, abdominal/colic pains, flu, malaria, ty‐ [14,88,91,99,109,13 bark phoid, smallpox, pneumonia, rashes, 2,141,145,152] varicose veins, vomiting, mumps, ton‐ sils, edema, dysmenorrhea, expectorant, colds, cough Roots Prevent abortion, fever [139] Leaves, roots Arthritis, backache, STIs e.g., gonorrhea, [77,92] wounds, boils Leaves Eye problems, stomach disorders, STIs [14,41,95] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Englerodaphne subcordata (Meisn.) Engl. Gnidia involucrata Steud. ex A.Rich. 119 of 151 Shrub Roots Constipation in children, allergy after eating meat, poisonous [140] Herb/shrub Stalks Expectorant [141] Lasiosiphon glaucus Fresen. Shrub/tree Lasiosiphon latifolius (Oliv.) Brenan Shrub/tree Struthiola thomsonii Oliv. Herb/shrub Synaptolepis kirkii Oliv. Shrub Fibers are said to be poisonous, arrow [84,136,141,142,16 Roots, bark, poison, abdominal pains, back pains, twigs, leaves joint ache, insecticide, irregular men‐ 8] struation Poisonous, ulcers, evacuation of bowels, Roots, leaves, [96,99,100,142,145 toxic to cows, pesticide, snakebites, pes‐ bark ] ticide for maize storage Roots Cough, stomachache [67,99,142] Fruits, leaves, Anthelmintic, convulsions, wounds, [127,142,150] roots snakebite, female infertility, hydrocele Typhaceae Typha domingensis Pers. Herb Roots Typha latifolia L. Urticaceae Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Laportea alatipes Hook.f. Herb Roots Diabetes, diarrhea, impotency, female [83,168] conditions Diarrhea, impotency, female conditions [168] Herb Roots Tonic Herb Leaves Laportea ovalifolia (Schumach. Herb & Thonn.) Chew Myrianthus holstii Engl. Tree Obetia radula (Baker) Baker ex Tree B.D.Jacks. Pouzolzia parasitica (Forssk.) Herb Schweinf. Urena lobata L. Shrub Urera hypselodendron (Hochst. Liana ex A.Rich.) Wedd. Urera sansibarica Engl. Liana Urtica dioica L. (exotic) Herb Urtica massaica Mildbr. Herb [77] Vitamin supplement [14] Excessive menstrual bleeding, retained placenta, diarrhea, stomach problems, [99,144] Roots, leaves gastrointestinal infections, blood booster Leaves, bark, Stomachache [14] roots Roots Barrenness Stems, roots Burn, livestock diseases Roots [142] [77] Afterbirth, ease delivery [120] Stomachache after birth, spider bites, Roots, leaves antidote, livestock diseases, pregnancy [67,142,152] problems, tonic Leaves Leprosy [127] Diabetes, ulcers, boils, anthelmintic, Leaves, roots [105,120,123] skin, stomach infections Abdominal pains, stomachache, aphro‐ disiac, irregular menstruation, poison antidote, infertility, malaria, sprains, headache, typhoid, dirty circulatory sys‐ [41,83,85,87,90,99, tem, joint pains, chest pains, mouth in‐ 104,107,109,113,11 Roots, leaves, flammation, muscle pains, body weak‐ 5,117,128,132,146, whole plant ness, livestock diseases, kidney prob‐ 147,152,154,168] lem, bruises, arthritis, bone problems, cough, colds, flu, diabetes, tonic, inju‐ ries/cuts, wounds, heartburn, hyperten‐ sion, leg swellings, appetizer, Plants 2023, 12, 1145 120 of 151 pneumonia, rheumatism, stomach acid, arthritis, adds blood in the body, cancer, diabetes, anemia, skin/uterine/breast cancer, pimples, urinary problems, ul‐ cers, vomiting, leukemia, skin rough‐ ness, problems of passing urine, frac‐ tures, venereal diseases Velloziaceae Xerophyta spekei Baker Shrub Whole plant, Burns, dog bites, diabetes, snakebites stems [84,94] Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. (exotic) Shrub Lantana trifolia L. Shrub Lantana ukambensis (Vatke) Verdc. Herb Lantana viburnoides (Forssk.) Shrub Vahl Lippia abyssinica (Otto & Shrub A.Dietr.) Cufod. Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng. Shrub Diarrhea, measles, joint pains, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, headache, injuries/cuts/wounds, malaria, wounds, [14,41,73,76,80,84, change the sex of expected kids, tox‐ icity, pneumonia (cow, sheep), cough 86,104,106,108,111 Leaves, roots, (cow, goat, sheep, poultry, pig, rumi‐ ,115,119,127,130,1 whole plant nant), sore throat, nose bleeding, breath‐33,142,143,145– ing problems, acaricide, poison, anthel‐ 147,150] mintic, hepatitis, rheumatism, tooth‐ ache, anticoagulant, liver problems, re‐ tained placenta, conjunctivitis/eye prob‐ lems, toothache, runny nose Stomachache, malaria, diarrhea in live‐ stock, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, fever, pneumonia, hyperten‐ sion, heartburn, oral thrush, hepatic dis‐ eases, glandular disorders, rheumatism, sore throat, livestock joint problems, [41,74,82,86,91,92, constipation, hiccups, chest problems, 99,101,109,115,119 Roots, leaves, eye injury, anemia, ringworms, boil, aerial parts. ,120,122,125,138,1 mouth ulcers, abdominal/colic pains, twigs 40,141,143,145,146 enhance milk letdown, abdominal en‐ ,154] largement, general body weakness, as‐ tringent, anodyne, expectorant, menin‐ gitis, anthelmintic, hepatitis, toothache, anticoagulant, liver problems, sore throat, conjunctivitis, eye problems, kid‐ ney problems, urinary tract problems Measles, malaria, smallpox, strength, Roots, leaves, colds, headache, cough, asthma, medi‐ [14,72,77,147] whole plant cine for pregnant woman, children skin stems rashes, runny nose Leaves, whole Aphrodisiac, medicine for a pregnant [77,80] plant woman Leaves, roots, Acaricide, conjunctivitis, painful eyes [122,133] stems Wounds, headache, chest congestion, [68,77,81,86,91,102 Leaves, roots, malaria, migraines, measles, postpar‐ ,104,115,131,140,1 twigs, stems tum hemorrhage, children skin rashes, 41,143,144,168] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 121 of 151 Lippia kituiensis Vatke Herb/shrub Priva curtisiae Kobuski Verbena bonariensis L. Viburnaceae Sambucus africana Standl. Violaceae Rinorea ilicifolia (Welw. ex Oliv.) Kuntze Vitaceae Ampelocissus africana (Lour.) Merr. Cayratia ibuensis (Hook.f.) Suess. Herb Herb colds/flu, anaplasmosis, amoeba, body weakness, cough, anthrax, abdominal pains, tapeworms, chest complaints, toothache, stomachache, bloody diar‐ rhea, afterbirth pains, insect repellant Respiratory problems, measles, live‐ stock diseases, chronic joint pains, [14,41,90,105] Leaves, roots cough, colds, flu, malaria, stomachache, emetic Leaves Ophthalmia [67] Leaves Mouth infection in babies [109] Herb Flowers Colds [168] Shrub/tree Roots Snakebite antidote [134] Shrub/liana Roots Threatened miscarriage [141] Herb Leaves Leprosy [144] Roots Diarrhea, wounds, burns, boils, swollen legs, body pains and pregnancy, hemor‐ [51,77,96,139] rhage, retained placenta, headache, pneumonia Stems Septic swelling, eardrops Cissus aphyllantha Gilg Shrub/liana Cissus phymatocarpa Masinde Herb & L.E.Newton Cissus quadrangularis L. Herb Cissus rotundifolia Vahl Liana Cissus sylvicola Masinde & L.E.Newton Liana [127] Cuts, wounds, diarrhea, septic swelling, ear drops, respiratory disorders in cat‐ tle, colds, malaria, stomach problems, gastric ulcers, schistosomiasis, neurosis, ECF, rheumatism, epilepsy, TB, asthma, [51,67,68,72,76,77, Leaves, stems, sap, colibacillosis, rib pain, livestock hepati‐ 89,100,105,121,127 tis, skin disorders, earache, chest pain, ,142,143,149,168] roots pesticide, poisonous, fly infestation, vi‐ ral, joint diseases, eye infections, skin problems, diarrhea/fever/virus in poul‐ try Stomachache, septic swelling, ear drops, allergies, swollen joints, spleen prob‐ lems, bee stings, throat infection, pneu‐ [51,67,71,77,84,88, Leaves, roots, monia, cough, tonic, boils, skin diseases, 98,100,127,139,142 stems, whole body pains, cuts, skin inflammation, re‐ plant ,143] tained placenta, abdominal pains, septic wounds, poultry diseases (diarrhea, fe‐ ver, sneezing) Stems Septic swelling, ear drops [127] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 122 of 151 Cyphostemma adenocaule (Steud. ex A.Rich.) Desc. ex Liana Wild & R.B.Drumm. Cyphostemma bambuseti (Gilg & M.Brandt) Desc. ex Wild & Liana R.B.Drumm. Cyphostemma cyphopetalum (Fresen.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. Herb Cyphostemma heterotrichum (Gilg & R.E.Fr.) Desc. ex Shrub Wild & R.B.Drumm. Cyphostemma kilimandschari‐ cum (Gilg) Desc. ex Wild & Herb R.B.Drumm. Cyphostemma maranguense Herb (Gilg) Desc. Stomachache, swollen abdomen, tuber‐ Roots, leaves, culosis, arthritis, malaria, jiggers, colo‐ [14,72,76,99,108,11 bark, whole rectal/breast/skin cancer, syphilis, an‐ 7,133,144] plant thelmintic, pneumonia, acaricide, weight loss Back/joint problems, cough, colds/flu, HIV/AIDs, malaria, rheumatism, sore [41,136] throat, STIs, stomach disorders, bone pain, tuberculosis, aphrodisiac STIs, tonic, galactagogue, stomachache, malaria, dermatitis, eye problems, en‐ Leaves, roots, larged glands, pesticide, teeth problems, [90,91,94,96,99,132 whole plant gonorrhea, retained placenta, itchy skin ,139,141,152] rash, chickenpox, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy Whole plant Acaricide Stems [133] Bone pain, tuberculosis [136] Anaplasmosis, malaria [115,168] Cyphostemma serpens (Hochst. Herb ex A.Rich.) Desc. Tonic, cervical/skin/breast cancer, acari‐ Leaves, cide, abortifacient, abscess, boils, gyne‐ [67,91,117,133,143 stems, roots, cological diseases, polio, dermatological ] whole plant problems Cyphostemma ukerewense (Gilg) Desc. Leaves Herb Rhoicissus revoilii Planch. Liana Rhoicissus tridentata (L.f.) Wild & R.B.Drumm. Shrub/liana Asphodelaceae Aloe ballyi Reynolds Tree Tonsils [119] Stomachache, cuts, sores, burns, live‐ stock diseases, stomach disorders, Roots, stems, strength, acaricide, antiseptic, gastroin‐ [67,77,79,98,100,12 whole plant testinal problems, general body malaise, 7,133,142,143] malaria, facilitate conception/preg‐ nancy, venereal diseases, leprosy Wounds, malaria, cuts, sores, snake‐ bites, constipation, stomachache, diar‐ rhea, bilharzia, ear drops, oral cavity in‐ fections, arthritis, livestock diseases, heartburn, peptic ulcers, renal disor‐ [67,68,86,87,99,101 ders, anemia, cleans blood, respiratory ,105,107,123,127,1 Roots, stems, infections, fever, menstrual pains, fever, 33,140– bark, exudate acaricide, anthelmintic, prevent miscar‐ 142,144,147,150,15 riage, prophylaxis for children/babies 4,168] diseases, abdominal pains, skin dis‐ eases, hydrocele, tapeworms, red/pain‐ ful eyes, infertility, kidney and bladder complaints, dysmenorrhea, livestock fe‐ ver Leaves Pneumonia, malaria [84] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 123 of 151 Aloe dawei A.Berger Shrub Aloe deserti A.Berger Aloe elgonica Bullock Shrub Shrub Aloe kedongensis Reynolds Shrub Aloe kilifiensis Christian Herb Aloe lateritia Engl. Herb Aloe macrosiphon Baker Shrub Aloe secundiflora Engl. Shrub Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (exotic) Herb Aloe volkensii Engl. Shrub Zamiaceae Encephalartos hildebrandtii A.Braun & C.D.Bouché (ex‐ Tree otic) Zingiberaceae Aframomum angustifolium Herb (Sonn.) K.Schum. Cathartic, gastrointestinal problems, Leaves, roots hoof wounds, mouth diseases, anthrax [143,144] dermatitis, kidney ailment Leaves Malaria [111] Leaves, roots Malaria, ulcers, urinary tract, acaricide [120,133] Abdominal pains in infants, rashes/ring‐ worms, colds, infertility in women, ma‐ laria, headache, appetizer, livestock dis‐ [78,84,86,87,98,135 Roots, leaves eases, asthma, pneumonia, gonorrhea, ,168] laxative, fever, wounds, anaplasmosis in cattle, chicken diseases, typhoid, skin diseases, ear problems, coccidiosis Latex Headache [127] Typhoid, laxative, wounds, constipa‐ Leaves, juice [84,168] tion, malarial skin conditions Leaves Malaria [111] Tonic, ECF, headache, diarrhea, ty‐ phoid, edema, HIV/AIDs, STIs, blood cleanser, infertility, respiratory disor‐ ders, allergies, obesity, joint pains, ab‐ scesses, cellulitis, cholera, ulcers, filaria‐ sis, fatigue, scorpion stings, arthritis, [14,51,64,68,72,74, rheumatism, eyes, tuberculosis, aching 80,81,88,90,94,96,9 Inflorescence, ears, diabetes, malaria, chest pains, con‐ 9,102– roots, leaves, junctivitis, wounds, ectoparasites, re‐ 106,111,113,129,13 exudate, tained afterbirth, prevent abortion, 0,132,139,146,147, whole plant vomiting, pneumonia, chest pains, 151–153,168] amoeba, rashes, anthelmintic, stomach‐ ache, acne, laxative, constipation, colds, cuts, cough, body weakness, abdominal pains, purgative, indigestion, skin con‐ ditions, antiseptic, peptic ulcers, dia‐ phragm swelling, diarrhea in poultry Malaria, wounds, swelling, boils, laxa‐ Leaves, exu‐ tive, constipation, malarian skin condi‐ [74,76,111,168] date tions Headache, anthelmintic (livestock), wounds, malaria, colorectal/esopha‐ geal/prostate cancer, whooping cough, [71,92,99,109,117,1 Leaves, roots, pneumonia, chest pain, cough, joint pains/swellings, fever, stomachache, di‐ 27,144,150] bark arrhea, skin diseases, hypertension, eye problems, veterinary medicine, sore feet, jiggers Stems Septic swelling [127] Seeds Anthelmintic [147] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 124 of 151 Aframomum mala (K.Schum.) Herb K.Schum. Aframomum melegueta Herb K.Schum. (exotic) Aframomum zambesiacum Herb (Baker) K.Schum. Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ex‐ Herb otic) Seeds Anthelmintic [143] Seeds Amoeba [146] Leaves Colds [14] Roots Malaria, sore throat, respiratory dis‐ eases, throat infections, internal body [108,137,143,168] pains, flu, colds, fever, indigestion, cir‐ culatory stimulant Zygophyllaceae Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Tree Roots, bark, fruits, resin Balanites glabra Mildbr. & Schltr. Roots, branches, fruits, bark Shrub/tree Balanites pedicellaris Mildbr. & Schltr. Roots Balanites rotundifolia (Tiegh.) Shrub/tree Blatt. Balanites wilsoniana Dawe & Tree Sprague Tribulus terrestris L. Herb Stomachache, respiratory disorders, itch, bone problem, bilharzia, constipa‐ tion, cough, colds/flu, headache, kwash‐ [41,51,67,71,72,76, iorkor, burns, eyes, malaria, purgative, 77,80,88,91,96,97,9 diarrhea, Chira, body/chest/rib pain, 9,100,104,106,108, rheumatism, blood cleanser, respiratory 110,138,139,141– disorders, edema, heartburn, bilharzia, 143,147,148] epigastric pain, expectorant, dysmenor‐ rhea, skin irritation, measles, aphrodis‐ iac, retained placenta, abdominal pains Induce vomiting during pregnancy or if one has malaria, induce bile release, pneumonia, cowpox, stomach upsets, [92,105,130,135] emetic to clean the stomach, chronic joint pains Emetic, skin irritations [100,142] Urinary tract infections, gastrointestinal Roots, leaves, complications (emetic), eye infection, [68,77,91,123,142] fruits eye lotion, wounds, pesticide Bark, leaves, General body pains, muscle injuries, in‐ [127,150] roots somnia, amnesia Whole plant Erectile dysfunction, arthritis [91,132] Appendix B Checklist of food plants in Kenya; introduced species are indicated in brackets as ‘exotic.’ Family/Species Acanthaceae Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Asystasia mysorensis (Roth) T.Anderson Crabbea velutina S.Moore Crossandra mucronata Lindau Crossandra nilotica Oliv. Dyschoriste radicans Nees Justicia anagalloides (Nees) T.Anderson Habit Part Eaten References Herb Leaves (vegetable) [134,158–161,166,167] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [159,160,166,167,169] Herb Herb Herb Herb General Flowers General Leaves (vegetable) [163] [13,163] [163] [159,160,169] Herb General [162] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Justicia caerulea Forssk. Justicia calyculata Deflers Justicia ladanoides Lam. Justicia matammensis (Schweinf.) Oliv. Justicia odora (Forssk.) Lam. Achariaceae Rawsonia lucida Harv. & Sond. Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L. Alismataceae Burnatia enneandra Micheli Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthus blitum L. Amaranthus caudatus L. 125 of 151 Herb Herb Herb General Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) [163] [159,160,163] [16,163] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [16,169] Herb General [163] Tree Shrub/subshrub Fruits Leaves (vegetable) [13,142] [134] Herb Tubers [156] Herb Herb Herb Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Amaranthus graecizans L. Herb Leaves (vegetable) Amaranthus hybridus L. Herb Leaves (vegetable) Amaranthus sparganiocephalus Thell. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthus thunbergii Moq. Amaranthus tortuosus Hornem. (exotic) Caroxylon dendroides (Pall.) Tzvelev (exotic) Celosia argentea L. Celosia schweinfurthiana Schinz Celosia trigyna L. Chenopodium opulifolium Schrad. ex W.D.J.Koch & Ziz Cyathula orthacantha (Hochst. ex Asch.) Schinz Digera muricata (L.) Mart. Ouret lanata (L.) Kuntze Psilotrichum sericeum (J.Koenig ex Roxb.) Dalzell Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. Sericocomopsis hildebrandtii Schinz Amaryllidaceae Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf. Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. (exotic) Lannea alata (Engl.) Engl. Lannea edulis (Sond.) Engl. Lannea fulva (Engl.) Engl. Lannea rivae (Chiov.) Sacleux Lannea schimperi (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Engl. Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Engl. Herb Herb Herb Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) General [159,160,169] [12,134,159,160,166,167] [134] [12,13,18,157,159,160,162,163,1 65–167] [12,16,18,134,159,160,162,166,1 67,169] [166,167] [134,159,160,166,167] [163] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [165,166] Shrub/subshrub Leaves [13] Herb Subshrub Herb Stems, leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) [18,134] [16] [169] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [13,16,159,160,169] Herb General [163] Herb Subshrub Leaves, flowers (vegetable) [18,163,166,167] Leaves (vegetable) [166,167] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [161] Herb Subshrub/shrub General General [163] [163] Herb General [163] Tree Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits, bark, tubers [158] [100,142,167] [167] Shrub/tree Fruits [167] Shrub/tree Fruits; bark (tea) [14,100,142,163,167] [13,100,142,163,165,167] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 126 of 151 Lannea triphylla (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Shrub/tree Engl. Ozoroa insignis Delile Shrub/tree Pistacia aethiopica Kokwaro Tree Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst. Tree Sclerocarya gillettii Kokwaro Tree Searsia crenulata (A.Rich.) Moffett Shrub/tree Searsia longipes (Engl.) Moffett Shrub/tree Searsia natalensis (Bernh. ex Shrub/tree C.Krauss) F.A.Barkley Searsia pyroides (Burch.) Moffett Shrub/tree Searsia quartiniana (A.Rich.) A.J.Mill. Shrub/tree Searsia ruspolii (Engl.) Moffett Shrub/tree Searsia tenuinervis (Engl.) Moffett Shrub/tree Sorindeia madagascariensis (Spreng.) Tree DC. Annonaceae Annona senegalensis Pers. Shrub/tree Annona squamosa L. (exotic) Shrub/tree Monodora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal Tree Uvaria acuminata Oliv. Shrub/tree Uvaria denhardtiana Engl. & Diels Shrub Uvaria kirkii Oliv. ex Hook.f. Shrub Uvaria lucida Bojer ex Benth. Shrub/tree Uvaria scheffleri Diels Shrub/liana/tree Uvariodendron anisatum Verdc. Shrub/tree Apiaceae Afroligusticum linderi (C.Norman) Herb P.J.D.Winter Apocynaceae Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Shrub/tree Codd Acokanthera schimperi (A.DC.) Shrub/tree Schweinf. Ancylobothrys petersiana (Klotzsch) Shrub Pierre Ancylobothrys tayloris (Stapf) Pichon Liana Baseonema gregorii Schltr. & Rendle Herb Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton Shrub/tree Caralluma arachnoidea (P.R.O.Bally) Herb M.G.Gilbert Carissa bispinosa (L.) Desf. ex Brenan Shrub/tree Carissa spinarum L. Shrub/tree Carissa tetramera (Sacleux) Stapf Shrub Ceropegia ballyana Bullock Herb Ceropegia johnstonii (N.E.Br.) Bruyns Herb Ceropegia stenantha K.Schum. Herb Fruits, roots; bark (tea) [13,18,142,156,163,167] Gum Roots (tea) Seeds, fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits; leaves (chewed); leaves, bark (tea) Fruits; leaves (tea) Fruits Fruits Fruits; leaves (chewed, vegetable) [13,163] [142] [100,134,142,161,163,165,167] [142] [100] [100,167] [14,16,142,162,163,166,167] [14,16,142,167] [167] [167] [142,166,167] Fruits [100,142] Fruits; bark (chewed) Fruits Seeds Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits [16,142,167] [158] [142] [100,142,167] [142] [142] [161] [13,142,163,165,167] [14] Roots [13] Fruits [142,155] Fruits [142,155,167] Fruits [100,142,155,161] Fruits Tubers Seeds [142] [13] [18] General [164] Fruits Fruits, flowers; roots (vegetable) Fruits, roots General Tubers Tubers [142] [13,14,16,18,100,142,155,156,16 3,165,167] [100,155,158,161] [164] [18,156,162] [13] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Ceropegia stenoloba Hochst. ex Chiov. Ceropegia woodii Schltr. Cynanchum hastifolium K.Schum. Cynanchum insipidum (E.Mey.) Liede & Khanum Cynanchum viminale (L.) L. 127 of 151 Herb Tubers [13] Herb Herb Tubers Fruits [156,163] [13,163] Herb Fruits; leaves (vegetable) [13,156,159,160,166] Herb Desmidorchis retrospiciens Ehrenb. Herb Dictyophleba lucida (K.Schum.) Liana Pierre Echidnopsis dammanniana Herb E.Dammann & Sprenger Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) Subshrub/shrub W.T.Aiton Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gardner Tree ex Thwaites Landolphia buchananii (Hallier f.) Shrub/tree Stapf Landolphia kirkii Dyer ex Hook.f. Liana Leptadenia lanceolata (Poir.) Goyder Liana Marsdenia schimperi Decne. Liana Mondia whitei (Hook.f.) Skeels Liana Monolluma socotrana (Balf.f.) Meve Herb & Liede Orbea dummeri (N.E.Br.) Bruyns Herb Orbea tubiformis (E.A.Bruce & Herb P.R.O.Bally) Bruyns Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov. Herb Rauvolfia caffra Sond. Tree Saba comorensis (Bojer ex A.DC.) Liana Pichon Schlechterella africana (Schltr.) Herb K.Schum. Stathmostelma pedunculatum (Decne.) Herb K.Schum. Stathmostelma propinquum (N.E.Br.) Herb Schltr. Strophanthus mirabilis Gilg Shrub Tabernaemontana elegans Stapf Shrub/tree Vincetoxicum diplostigma Meve & Subshrub Liede Vincetoxicum fruticulosum (Decne.) Shrub/subshrub Decne. Aquifoliaceae Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk. Shrub/tree Araceae Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Herb (exotic) Gonatopus boivinii (Decne.) Engl. Herb Raw stems edible; roots (vegetable) General [156,163,167] [163,164] Fruits [142,155] General [163] General [163] Leaves (vegetable) [158] Fruits [142,155,167] Fruits; leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) General Roots [142,155,158,167] [18,162,166,167] [162] [155,167] Stems [13,163] General [163] General [163] General Stems (ferment beer) Fruits; plant used to make sour milk [163] [155] Tubers [156] Roots [156] Tubers [167] Roots Fruits [142,155] [155] General [163] General [163] Roots (vegetable) [156] Tubers; leaves (vegetable) [14,159,160] Famine food [161] [16,142,155,158,161,165,167] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 128 of 151 Stylochaeton borumense N.E.Br. Arecaceae Areca catechu L. (exotic) Borassus aethiopum Mart. Cocos nucifera L. (exotic) Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Herb General [163] Tree Tree Tree Tree [163] [134,142,167] [16,158] [142] Hyphaene compressa H.Wendl. Tree Hyphaene coriacea Gaertn. (exotic) Hyphaene petersiana Klotzsch ex Mart. Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Aristolochiaceae Hydnora abyssinica A.Br. Asparagaceae Asparagus buchananii Baker Asparagus falcatus L. Chlorophytum blepharophyllum Schweinf. ex Baker Chlorophytum macrophyllum (A.Rich.) Asch. Dracaena ellenbeckiana Engl. Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop Ornithogalum gracillimum R.E.Fr. Asphodelaceae Aloe deserti A.Berger Aloe kedongensis Reynolds Aloe ngongensis Christian Shrub/tree Nuts Fruit Fruits Make wine Germinating seeds; fruit juice drunk; wine tapped stem Fruits [18,167] Tree Fruit [157] Tree Fruit [142,167] Herb Tubers, fruits, buds [16,18,100,162,163,166,167] Shrub Shrub General General [163] [164] Herb Tubers [156] Herb Tubers [156] Shrub/tree Herb Herb General Tubers Tubers [163] [156,157,163] [156] Shrub/subshrub Shrub Shrub [167] [167] [167] Aloe secundiflora Engl. Herb Ferment beer Ferment beer Ferment beer Ferment beer; nectar, inflorescence Roots used to flavor beer Leaves Leaves (vegetable) [159,160] General Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) General General General Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) [164] [79,159–161,163,167,169] [134,166,167] [163] [163] [163] [134] [167] Leaves (vegetable) [167] General Leaves (vegetable) [164] [159,160] Leaves (vegetable) [14,158–160,165–167] Aloe turkanensis Christian Shrub Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (exotic) Herb Asteraceae Aspilia kotschyi (Sch.Bip. ex Hochst.) Herb Oliv. Aspilia pluriseta Schweinf. ex Engl. Shrub Bidens pilosa L. Herb Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob. Herb Dicoma tomentosa Cass. Herb Emilia discifolia (Oliv.) C.Jeffrey Herb Erigeron bonariensis L. (exotic) Herb Ethulia conyzoides L.f. Herb Galinsoga parviflora Cav. (exotic) Herb Gymnanthemum amygdalinum Shrub/tree (Delile) Sch.Bip. Kleinia squarrosa Cufod. Shrub Lagascea mollis Cav. (exotic) Herb Launaea cornuta (Hochst. ex Oliv. & Herb Hiern) C.Jeffrey [18,161–163,165,167] [167] [157,163] [18] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 129 of 151 Solanecio angulatus (Vahl) C.Jeffrey Herb Sonchus oleraceus L. (exotic) Herb Sonchus schweinfurthii Oliv. & Hiern Herb Vernonia popeana C.Jeffrey Herb Basellaceae Basella alba L. Herb Bignoniaceae Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. Tree Boraginaceae Cordia africana Lam. Shrub/tree Cordia crenata Delile Shrub/tree Cordia monoica Roxb. Shrub/tree Cordia quercifolia Klotzsch Shrub/tree Fruits Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) General [158] [134,167] [16,169] [163] Leaves (vegetable) [12,16,159,160,166,167,169] Fruit (ferment beer) [14,16,134,142,157,163,165,167] Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits [13,142] [142,157,163] [142,163,164,167] [164] [18,100,142,156,157,162– 164,167] [142] [142] Cordia sinensis Lam. Shrub/tree Fruits; fruits (make beer) Cordia somaliensis Baker Ehretia janjalle Verdc. Euploca ovalifolia (Forssk.) Diane & Hilger Heliotropium longiflorum (A.DC.) Jaub. & Spach Heliotropium zeylanicum (Burm.f.) Lam. Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm.f.) R.Br. Brassicaceae Brassica carinata A.Braun (exotic) Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. Erucastrum arabicum Fisch. & C.A.Mey. Burseraceae Boswellia neglecta S.Moore Commiphora africana (A.Rich.) Engl. Commiphora baluensis Engl. Commiphora edulis subsp. boiviniana (Engl.) J.B.Gillett Commiphora eminii subsp. zimmermannii (Engl.) J.B.Gillett Commiphora hildebrandtii Engl. Commiphora kataf (Forssk.) Engl. Commiphora kua (R.Br. ex Royle) Vollesen Commiphora mollis (Oliv.) Engl. Commiphora myrrha (T.Nees) Engl. Shrub/tree Shrub Herb/subshrub General [163] Subshrub General [163] Subshrub General [163] Herb/subshrub Leaves (vegetable) [159,160] Herb Herb Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) [166] [160] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [159,160,166,167] Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Tree Gum/resin, fruits; bark (tea) [13,100,157,163,164,167] Shoots, bark, roots, gum [13,18,100,156,163,164,167] Fruits, shoots [13] Shrub/tree Fruits, shoots [13,163,164] Tree Fruits edible [14] Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Roots chewed when thirsty Fruits, shoots Stems, roots (chewed when thirsty) Fruits, shoots, gum General Leaves, bark, seeds; leaves (vegetables); bark (tea) General Root swellings chewed when thirsty [156] [13] Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Commiphora rostrata Engl. Shrub/tree Commiphora samharensis Schweinf. Commiphora sarandensis subsp. moyaleensis J.B.Gillett Shrub/tree Shrub [156,157,164] [13] [163] [18,142,157,166] [163] [142] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 130 of 151 Commiphora schimperi (O.Berg) Engl. Shrub/tree Cactaceae Opuntia ficus‐indica (L.) Mill. (exotic) Shrub/tree Opuntia humifusa (Raf.) Raf. (exotic) Subshrub Campanulaceae Cyphia glandulifera Hochst. ex Herb A.Rich. Lobelia fervens Thunb. Herb Canellaceae Warburgia ugandensis Sprague Tree Cannabaceae Celtis africana Burm.f. Tree Trema orientale (L.) Blume Shrub/tree Capparaceae Boscia coriacea Graells Shrub/tree Boscia integrifolia J.St.‐Hil. Shrub/tree Boscia mazzocchii (Chiov.) Fici & Kers Cadaba farinosa Forssk. Capparis erythrocarpos Isert Capparis fascicularis DC. Capparis tomentosa Lam. Crateva adansonii DC. Elaeodendron schlechterianum (Loes.) Loes. Elaeodendron schweinfurthianum (Loes.) Loes. Gymnosporia heterophylla (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Loes. Gymnosporia mossambicensis (Klotzsch) Loes. Maerua angolensis DC. Maerua denhardtiorum Gilg Shoots, roots, gum; bark (tea) [13,18,156,157,163,167] Fruits Fruits [165] [161] Tubers; leaves (vegetable) [13,166,167] Whole plant (vegetable) [134] Bark, fruits [18,142] Fruits Fruits [13] [142] Fruits, cotyledons; twigs (flavor milk) Bark (tea; roots) eaten like potatoes. [18,100,142,157,162–164,167] [100,157,163] Shrub/tree Fruits [142] Shrub/tree Shrub Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Shrub/tree General Fruits General Fruits Seeds [163,164] [16] [163] [100,163] [142] Shrub/tree Fruits [100] Shrub/tree Fruits [100,142] Shrub Fruits; roots (vegetable) [100,142] Shrub Fruits [100] Shrub/tree General [164] Fruits/nuts [13,142] Fruits; roots used in [13,16,18,100,142,162,164,165,1 soup/porridge; seeds, roots 67] (water sweetener) Nuts [13] Roots (chewed to quench thirst, boiled in broth, food); [156,157,163] fruits Roots (porridge); fruits [100] Roots used in soup [142] Bark (tonic) [142] Maerua edulis (Gilg & Gilg‐Ben.) DeWolf Herb Maerua kirkii (Oliv.) F.White Shrub/tree Maerua subcordata (Gilg) DeWolf Shrub Maerua triphylla A.Rich. Shrub/tree Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes. Shrub/tree Maytenus undata (Thunb.) Blakelock Shrub/tree Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Tree Loes. Salacia stuhlmanniana Loes. Shrub/tree Thilachium africanum Lour. Shrub/tree Fruits [16,100,142] Fruits Fruits, roots (porridge) [100] [13,100,134,142,156,161] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Thilachium thomasii Gilg Caricaceae Carica papaya L. (exotic) Caryophyllaceae Pollichia campestris Aiton Celastraceae Catha edulis (Vahl) Endl. Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes. Salacia elegans Welw. ex Oliv. Salacia erecta (G.Don) Walp. Salacia madagascariensis (Lam.) DC. Chrysobalanaceae Hirtella zanzibarica Oliv. Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth. Cleomaceae Cleome allamanii Chiov. Cleome angustifolia Forssk. Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. 131 of 151 Shrub/tree Fruits, roots (porridge) [100,167] Tree Leaves (vegetable) [160] Subshrub Fruits [13] Shrub/tree [142,167] Liana Liana Liana Leaves, shoots (stimulants) Fruits, leaves, roots (vegetable) Seed/fruit Fruit Fruits Tree Seed/fruit [134,142] Tree Fruits [134,142,167] Herb Herb Herb General General General Cleome gynandra L. Herb Leaves (vegetable) Cleome hirta (Klotzsch) Oliv. Cleome monophylla L. Cleome strigosa (Bojer) Oliv. Clusiaceae Garcinia buchananii Baker Garcinia livingstonei T.Anderson Colchicaceae Colchicum melanthioides (Willd.) J.C.Manning & Vinn. (exotic) Combretaceae Combretum aculeatum Vent. Combretum constrictum (Benth.) M.A.Lawson Combretum molle R.Br. ex G.Don Terminalia brownii Fresen. Terminalia catappa L. Terminalia spinosa Engl. Commelinaceae Commelina africana L. Commelina benghalensis L. Commelina forskaolii Vahl Commelina imberbis Ehrenb. ex Hassk. Connaraceae Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Alston Convolvulaceae Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Herb Herb Herb Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) [163] [163,164] [164] [12,16,18,159,160,163,166,167,1 69] [159,160,166] [166] [134] Shrub/tree Tree Fruit Seed/fruit [142] [127,134,142,167] Herb Corms [156] Shrub/tree Seeds, leaves, fruits [18,100,157,163,165] Shrub General [164] Shrub/tree Tree Tree Tree General Fruits Fruits Bark (tea) [163] [142,163] [142] [157,163] Herb Herb Herb Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) [16,159,160,166,167] [16,159,160,165–167] [163,166] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [166] Shrub/liana Seed aril [142] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [166,167] Shrub/tree [18,100,156] [134,142] [167] [142,167] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 132 of 151 Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. (exotic) Ipomoea biflora (L.) Pers. Ipomoea donaldsonii Rendle Ipomoea elythrocephala Hallier f. Ipomoea hildebrandtii Vatke Ipomoea kituiensis Vatke Ipomoea lapathifolia Hallier f. Ipomoea longituba Hallier f. Ipomoea mombassana Vatke Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker Gawl. Ipomoea oenotherae (Vatke) Hallier f. Ipomoea pes‐caprae (L.) R.Br. Ipomoea spathulata Hallier f. Jacquemontia tamnifolia (L.) Griseb. Seddera latifolia Hochst. & Steud. Crassulaceae Kalanchoe lanceolata (Forssk.) Pers. Cucurbitaceae Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai Coccinia adoensis (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Cogn. Coccinia grandiflora Cogn. Herb Herb Shrub Herb Shrub/subshrub Shrub Herb Shrub Herb Herb Herb Herb Shrub Subshrub Subshrub Leaves (vegetable) Tubers; leaves (vegetable) General Roots General General Tubers Tubers Leaves (vegetable) General Tubers Leaves (vegetable) Roots used in soup Leaves (vegetable) General [160] [156,159,160,163] [164] [13] [163] [164] [167] [13,156,167] [18,162,165–167] [164] [13,16,156,167] [134] [142,163,164] [134] [163] Herb General [164] Herb Fruit, leaves, seeds [158,162,167] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [16,114,169] Herb Roots Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Herb Coccinia trilobata (Cogn.) C.Jeffrey Cucumis aculeatus Cogn. Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. ex Spach Cucumis engleri (Gilg) Ghebret. & Thulin Cucumis ficifolius A.Rich. Cucumis melo L. (exotic) Cucumis prophetarum L. Cucumis pustulatus Naudin ex Hook.f. Cucurbita maxima Duchesne (exotic) Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C.Jeffrey Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) Cogn. Kedrostis gijef (Forssk. ex J.F.Gmel.) C.Jeffrey Kedrostis pseudogijef (Gilg) C.Jeffrey Herb Herb Herb [13] [18,157,159,160,162,163,166,16 Fruits; leaves (vegetable) 7] Fruits edible, leafy vegetable [114,167] Leaves (vegetable) [114,163] Leaves (vegetable) [18,114,157,162–164,166,167] Herb General [163] Herb Herb Herb Leaves (vegetable) Fruits (vegetable) Fruits [166] [16,134] [114] Herb General [162–164] Herb Herb Herb Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) [160] [114] [114,163] Liana Leaves (vegetable) [114,162,166] Liana [166,167] Herb Herb Herb Herb Fruits; leaves (vegetable) Fruits, seeds; leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Fruits Fruits; leaves (vegetable) Fruits Herb General Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. Herb Lagenaria sphaerica (Sond.) Naudin Momordica calantha Gilg Momordica charantia L. Momordica foetida Schumach. Momordica friesiorum (Harms) C.Jeffrey [134,166,167] [114] [114] [134] [114] [163] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Momordica rostrata Zimm. 133 of 151 Herb Momordica spinosa (Gilg) Chiov. Shrub Momordica trifoliolata Hook.f. Herb Peponium vogelii (Hook.f.) Engl. Herb Zehneria anomala C.Jeffrey Herb Cyperaceae Cyperus alatus subsp. albus (Nees) Herb Lye Cyperus amauropus Steud. Herb Cyperus blysmoides Hochst. ex Herb C.B.Clarke Cyperus comosipes Mattf. & Kük. Herb (exotic) Cyperus rotundus L. Herb Cyperus rubicundus Vahl Herb Dichapetalaceae Dichapetalum zenkeri Engl. Shrub/tree Didiereaceae Calyptrotheca somalensis Gilg Shrub Dilleniaceae Tetracera litoralis Gilg Shrub/liana Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea bulbifera L. (exotic) Herb Dioscorea cayenensis subsp. rotundata Herb (Poir.) J.Miège (exotic) Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) Pax Herb Dioscorea minutiflora Engl. (exotic) Herb Dioscorea schimperiana Hochst. ex Herb Kunth Ebenaceae Diospyros bussei Gürke Tree Diospyros consolatae Chiov. Shrub/tree Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex Tree A.DC. Diospyros natalensis (Harv.) Brenan Shrub/tree Diospyros squarrosa Klotzsch Shrub/tree Diospyros wajirensis F.White Shrub/tree Euclea divinorum Hiern Shrub/tree Euclea racemosa L. Shrub/tree Euphorbiaceae Acalypha indica L. Herb Acalypha volkensii Pax Shrub/subshrub Croton dichogamus Pax Shrub/tree Croton pseudopulchellus Pax Shrub/tree Erythrococca bongensis Pax Shrub/tree Erythrococca fischeri Pax Shrub/tree Erythrococca kirkii (Müll.Arg.) Prain Shrub/tree Euphorbia bussei Pax Tree Fruits; leaves (vegetable, tea) Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits [142] [157,163] [13,114] [13] Bulbs [13] General [163] Roots/bulbs [156,165,167] Roots [13] General General [163] [163] Fruits [127] Root juice (quench thirst) [142] Fruits [158] Roots/tubers [167] Roots/tubers [14] Tubers; leaves (vegetable) Tubers [127,134,158,167] [167] Bulbs [156] Fruits Fruits [127] [100] Fruits/seeds [165,167] Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits [127] [127] [142] [100,167] [100] Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Roots used in soup Stem smoke (flavor milk) Leaves (vegetable) General Leaves (vegetable) Roasted roots [157] [16,169] [142,156] [127] [16,159,160,169] [163] [142] [100] [114,163,167] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Euphorbia candelabrum Welw. Tree Euphorbia scheffleri Pax Shrub/tree Givotia gosai Radcl.‐Sm. Tree Manihot esculenta Crantz (exotic) Shrub/tree Suregada zanzibariensis Baill. Shrub Tragia impedita Prain Shrub Fabaceae Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) Tree W.Wight Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin Tree Albizia anthelmintica (A.Rich.) Shrub/tree Brongn. Astragalus atropilosulus (Hochst.) Subshrub Bunge Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth Shrub Clitoria ternatea L. Subshrub Craibia brownii Dunn Tree Craibia laurentii (De Wild.) De Wild. Shrub/tree Crotalaria brevidens Benth. Herb/subshrub Crotalaria lanceolata E.Mey. Herb Crotalaria ochroleuca G.Don Herb/subshrub Crotalaria polysperma Kotschy Herb Crotalaria pycnostachya Benth. Herb Delonix elata (L.) Gamble Shrub/tree Dialium holtzii Harms Tree Dialium orientale Baker f. Shrub/tree Entada leptostachya Harms Liana Eriosema shirense Baker f. Herb Erythrina abyssinica Lam. Tree Faidherbia albida (Delile) A.Chev. Shrub/tree Indigofera lupatana Baker f. Shrub Indigofera schimperi Jaub. & Spach Shrub Indigofera spinosa Forssk. Shrub/subshrub Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet Herb Macrotyloma maranguense (Taub.) Herb Verdc. Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC. Shrub Ormocarpum kirkii S.Moore Shrub/tree Ormocarpum trachycarpum (Taub.) Shrub/tree Harms Parkia filicoidea Welw. ex Oliv. Tree Phaseolus vulgaris L. (exotic) Herb Philenoptera eriocalyx (Harms) Shrub/tree Schrire Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Shrub/tree Milne‐Redh. Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. (exotic) Shrub/tree Senegalia mellifera (Benth.) Seigler & Shrub/tree Ebinger 134 of 151 Roasted roots Meat tenderizer Fruits Leaves (vegetable) Fruits Fruits [100] [142] [142] [160] [158] [165] Leaves (vegetable) [158] Gum; stems used in soup [163,167] Leaves (vegetable) [158] Roots chewed [156] Seeds, fruits, leaves Leaves (vegetable) Seeds Bean Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) General Leaves (vegetable) General Fruits Fruits Stem water drunk Tubers Roots (tea) General Leaves (vegetable) Tubers General Leaves (vegetable); beans [16,158,167] [165] [142] [13] [16,160,166,167,169] [159] [159,160,166,167] [163] [159] [163,164] [167] [142,158,167] [100] [167] [142] [163] [165] [18] [164] [13,166,167] Roots [156] Bean Leaves (vegetable) [13,142] [158,164] General [164] Fruit Leaves (vegetable) [142] [160] [163] General [134,165,167] General [162] Gum [142,157,162,163] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 135 of 151 Senegalia polyacantha (Willd.) Seigler Tree & Ebinger Senegalia senegal (L.) Britton Shrub/tree Senna bicapsularis (L.) Roxb. (exotic) Shrub Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) Shrub/tree H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna italica Mill. Herb/subshrub Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Irwin & Herb/subshrub Barneby Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (exotic) Herb Senna singueana (Delile) Lock Shrub/tree Tamarindus indica L. Tree Tephrosia nubica (Boiss.) Baker Subshrub Tephrosia pumila (Lam.) Pers. Herb Tephrosia villosa subsp. ehrenbergiana Herb (Schweinf.) Brummitt Tylosema fassoglense (Kotschy ex Herb Schweinf.) Torre & Hillc. Vachellia bussei (Harms ex Tree Y.Sjöstedt) Kyal. & Boatwr. Vachellia drepanolobium (Harms ex Shrub/tree Y.Sjöstedt) P.J.H.Hurter Vachellia elatior (Brenan) Kyal. & Tree Boatwr. Vachellia etbaica (Schweinf.) Kyal. & Shrub/tree Boatwr. Vachellia gerrardii (Benth.) Shrub/tree P.J.H.Hurter Vachellia hockii (De Wild.) Seigler & Shrub/tree Ebinger Vachellia horrida (L.) Kyal. & Boatwr. Shrub/tree Vachellia kirkii (Oliv.) Kyal. & Shrub/tree Boatwr. Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H.Hurter & Shrub/tree Mabb. Vachellia oerfota (Forssk.) Kyal. & Boatwr. Vachellia paolii (Chiov.) Kyal. & Shrub Boatwr. Vachellia reficiens (Wawra & Peyr.) Shrub/tree Kyal. & Boatwr. Vachellia seyal (Delile) P.J.H.Hurter Shrub/tree Vachellia sieberiana (DC.) Kyal. & Tree Boatwr. Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso & Shrub/tree Banfi Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) Banfi Tree & Galasso Gum [142] Gum, fruits Leaves (vegetable) [13,18,142,157,162–165,167] [16] Leaves (vegetable) [165] General [163] General [163] Leaves (vegetable) Fruit Fruit, leaves, seeds; fruit (food spice, vinegar substitute) General Leaves (vegetable) [16,158–160,163,169] [142] [163] [16] General [163] Fruit/seeds [167] Bark (tea) [100] Galls, fruits, inner bark [13,142,167] Bark (tea) [18,157,163] Gum [157,163] Bark used in soup [142] Bark [142,167] Galls [13] Bark (tea) [142] [14,16,18,134,142,158,161– 163,165–167] Pods; pod, bark (used in tea) [100,163,167] General [162] Gum [142] Bark/gum [13,18,142,162,164] Gum; bark (tea) [142,162,163,167] Gum [142] Fruits/seeds, gum [13,18,142,157,162–164,167] Gum [142] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Vatovaea pseudolablab (Harms) J.B.Gillett Vigna friesiorum Harms Vigna frutescens A.Rich. Vigna luteola (Jacq.) Benth. Vigna membranacea A.Rich. Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek Vigna schimperi Baker Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc. Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Vigna vexillata (L.) A.Rich. Wajira grahamiana (Wight & Arn.) Thulin & Lavin Wajira praecox (Verdc.) Thulin & Lavin Geraniaceae Pelargonium quinquelobatum Hochst. ex A.Rich. Hydrocharitaceae Ottelia ulvifolia (Planch.) Walp. Hypericaceae Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir. Hypoxidaceae Hypoxis angustifolia Lam. Hypoxis urceolata Nel Icacinaceae Pyrenacantha kaurabassana Baill. Kirkiaceae Kirkia tenuifolia Engl. Lamiaceae Hoslundia opposita Vahl Leucas glabrata (Vahl) Sm. Leucas jamesii Baker Leucas urticifolia (Vahl) Sm. Mesosphaerum pectinatum (L.) Kuntze Ocimum americanum L. Ocimum basilicum L. Ocimum gratissimum L. Ocimum kilimandscharicum Gürke Premna chrysoclada (Bojer) Gürke Premna oligotricha Baker Premna resinosa (Hochst.) Schauer Vitex doniana Sweet Vitex ferruginea Schumach. & Thonn. Vitex fischeri Gürke Vitex mombassae Vatke 136 of 151 Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Fruits, flowers leaves [13,18,142,156,157,162,163,166, (vegetables); tubers 167] Tubers [167] Roots [13,156] Leaves (vegetable) [159,160] Leaves (vegetable); roots [13,156,163,165–167] General [163] Leaves (vegetable) [159] Seeds edible [167] Leaves (vegetable); seeds [16,158–160,163,166,167,169] Tubers chewed when thirsty [156] Herb Roots [156] Herb Roots [13] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [13] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [159,169] Shrub/tree Fruits [14,134] Herb Herb Corms Corms [156] [156] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [165] Shrub/tree Bark chewed when thirsty [142] Shrub Subshrub shrub Herb Fruits, leaves (tea) Leaves (vegetable) General General [13,16,100,142,161,163,167] [158,163,164] [164] [163] Herb/subshrub General [163] Herb/subshrub Herb/subshrub Subshrub Shrub Shrub/tree Shrub Shrub Tree Seeds/leaves Leaves (flavor tea) Leaves (flavor tea) Leaves (flavor tea) Fruits Fruits Fruits/seeds Fruits [134] [167] [167] [142,167] [134,142] [13] [13,134,142,163] [142,163,167] Shrub/tree Fruits [142,167] Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Fruits Fruits/seeds [142] [134,142,161,167] Herb Plants 2023, 12, 1145 137 of 151 Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr. Shrub/tree Vitex strickeri Vatke & Hildebrandt Shrub/tree Limeaceae Limeum viscosum var. kenyense Herb Friedrich Loganiaceae Strychnos bredemeyeri (Schult.) Liana Sprague & Sandwith Strychnos decussata (Pappe) Gilg Shrub/tree Strychnos henningsii Gilg Shrub/tree Strychnos innocua Delile Shrub/tree Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. Tree Strychnos spinosa Lam. Shrub/tree Loranthaceae Oncocalyx fischeri (Engl.) Shrub M.G.Gilbert Oncocalyx ugogensis (Engl.) Wiens & Shrub Polhill Lythraceae Sonneratia alba Sm. Tree Lawsonia inermis L. Shrub/tree Malpighiaceae Acridocarpus zanzibaricus A.Juss. Shrub Malvaceae Abutilon fruticosum Guill. & Perr. Herb/subshrub Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet Herb/subshrub Abutilon mauritianum (Jacq.) Medik. Shrub Fruits Fruits [14,142,161,165,167] [142] General [163] Tubers [167] Fruits Fruits (ferment beer) Fruits Fruits Fruits [100,142] [167] [142,167] [142,158,165,167] [167] General [163] General [163] Fruits General [142] [163] Leaves (vegetable) [158] [163] [163] [163] [13,16,163] Adansonia digitata L. Tree Corchorus olitorius L. Corchorus tridens L. Corchorus trilocularis L. Grewia arborea (Forssk.) Lam. Grewia capitellata Bojer Grewia forbesii Harv. ex Mast. Grewia kakothamnos K.Schum. Grewia lilacina K.Schum. Grewia mollis Juss. Grewia nematopus K.Schum. Grewia penicillata Chiov. Grewia plagiophylla K.Schum. Grewia similis K.Schum. Grewia tembensis Fresen. Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori Grewia tephrodermis K.Schum. Grewia trichocarpa Hochst. ex A.Rich. Herb Herb Herb Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Shrub Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Shrub Shrub Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Shrub Shrub/tree Shrub/tree General General General Seeds; leaves, shoots, root tips, germinating seeds (vegetables); seed pulp (curdle milk, flavor food) Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Shrub/tree Fruits [14,100,134,142,156,161,165– 167] [16,18,158–161,166,167] [158,166] [16,162,166,167,169] [142] [142] [100] [13] [13,142,164] [18,142,162] [100] [142] [100,161] [13,16,100,142,165] [13,142,163,167] [13,18,142,157,162–164,167] [13,100,142,157,163–165,167] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 138 of 151 Grewia truncata Mast. Shrub/tree Fruits Grewia villosa Willd. Shrub Fruits Hibiscus calyphyllus Cav. Shrub Hibiscus greenwayi Baker f. Shrub/tree Hibiscus micranthus L.f. Shrub Hibiscus palmatus Forssk. Herb Hibiscus vitifolius L. Herb/shrub Melhania ovata (Cav.) Spreng. Herb/subshrub Sida acuta Burm.f. Herb/subshrub Sida rhombifolia L. Herb/subshrub Sterculia africana (Lour.) Fiori Tree Sterculia rhynchocarpa K.Schum. Shrub/tree Sterculia stenocarpa H.J.P.Winkl. Tree Thespesia danis Oliv. Shrub/tree Thespesia garckeana F.Hoffm. Shrub/tree Triumfetta annua L. Herb/subshrub Meliaceae Trichilia emetica Vahl Tree Menispermaceae Chasmanthera dependens Hochst. Liana Cissampelos mucronata A.Rich. Liana Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob. Liana Hyalosepalum caffrum (Miers) Liana Troupin Moraceae Dorstenia hildebrandtii var. schlechteri Herb (Engl.) Hijman Ficus amadiensis De Wild. Tree Ficus capreifolia Delile Tree Ficus glumosa Delile Tree Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. Tree Ficus lutea Vahl Tree Ficus natalensis Hochst. Tree Ficus populifolia Vahl Tree Ficus salicifolia Vahl Shrub/tree Ficus sur Forssk. Tree Leaves (vegetable) Stems General General General General Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Fruits Fruits Fruits, leaves Fruits Fruits Leaves (vegetable) [100] [13,14,18,100,134,157,162,163,1 65,167] [159] [13] [163] [163] [163] [163] [16,159,160] [159,160] [18,100,162,164,165] [157,163] [13,14,142,163] [134,158,161] [14,142,165,167] [134] Fruits [157,163] Roots, stems General General [13,142,156,163] [163] [162] Stems [13] Tubers [13] Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits General Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits [142] [142] [13,142] [100] [163] [13,167] [142] [142] [13,16,100,142,163,165,167] [13,14,18,100,142,157,162,164,1 66,167] [14,100,142,163,166] [167] [142] Ficus sycomorus L. Tree Fruits Ficus thonningii Blume Ficus vallis‐choudae Delile Ficus vasta Forssk. Moringaceae Tree Tree Tree Fruits Fruits Fruits Moringa oleifera Lam. Tree Moringa stenopetala (Baker f.) Cufod. Tree Myrtaceae Psidium guajava L. (exotic) Tree Root powder (flavor); seeds, [134,142,158,166,167] leaves (vegetable) Leaf/seeds (vegetable); seeds [167] (purify water) Fruits [18] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Syzygium cordatum Hochst. ex Krauss Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia diffusa L. Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea lotus L. Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea (Savigny) Verdc. Ochnaceae Ochna atropurpurea DC. Ochna inermis (Forssk.) Schweinf. Olacaceae Strombosia scheffleri Engl. 139 of 151 Shrub/tree Leaves (tea); fruits [14,142,167] Tree Tree Fruits Fruits [16] [14,167] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [159,160] Herb Tubers [156,157,163] Herb Roots, fruits, seeds, flowers [134,156,167] Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Seeds/fruit General [134,161] [163] Tree Seeds Ximenia americana L. Shrub/tree Fruits/seeds Ximenia caffra Sond. Oleaceae Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC. Olea capensis subsp. macrocarpa (C.H.Wright) I.Verd. Olea europaea L. Olea welwitschii (Knobl.) Gilg & G.Schellenb. Onagraceae Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H.Hara Opiliaceae Opilia amentacea Roxb. Opilia campestris Engl. Pentarhopalopilia umbellulata (Baill.) Hiepko Orobanchaceae Ghikaea speciosa (Rendle) Diels Pseudosopubia hildebrandtii (Vatke) Engl. Oxalidaceae Oxalis latifolia Kunth Pandanaceae Pandanus rabaiensis Rendle. Passifloraceae Adenia ellenbeckii Harms Adenia venenata Forssk. Adenia volkensii Harms Basananthe hanningtoniana (Mast.) J.J.de Wilde Pedaliaceae Sesamum angustifolium (Oliv.) Engl. Sesamum calycinum Welw. Shrub/tree Fruits [142] [13,14,16,18,100,134,161– 163,165,167] [13,14,142,163] Liana Roots used in soup [156] Shrub/tree Fruits [142] Shrub/tree Fruits [142] Tree Fruits [142] Subshrub Leaves (vegetable) [16,159,160,169] Liana Shrub/tree Fruits Fruits [100,142] [13,142] Shrub Fruits [142] Herb General [163] Herb General [163] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [159,160] Tree Fruits [142] Herb Shrub Herb/shrub General Fruits Fruit, seeds, leaves [163] [142] [18,157,162,163] Herb General [163] Herb Herb Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) [16,160,166,169] [159,167] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 140 of 151 Sesamum indicum L. Herb Peraceae Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach Shrub/tree Phyllanthaceae Antidesma venosum E.Mey. ex Tul. Shrub/tree Bridelia cathartica Bertol. Shrub/tree Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill. Tree Bridelia scleroneura Müll.Arg. Shrub/tree Bridelia taitensis Vatke & Pax Shrub/tree Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Shrub/tree Royle Piperaceae Piper capense L.f. Shrub/tree Pittosporaceae Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims Tree Poaceae Cenchrus americanus (L.) Morrone Herb (exotic) Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Herb (exotic) Cymbopogon giganteus Chiov. Herb Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. Herb Dactyloctenium geminatum Hack. Herb Dactyloctenium giganteum B.S.Fisher Herb & Schweick. Echinochloa haploclada (Stapf) Stapf Herb Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. Herb (exotic) Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Vignolo Herb ex Janch. Eragrostis tef (Zuccagni) Trotter Herb Hyparrhenia cymbaria (L.) Stapf Herb Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (exotic) Herb Sporobolus macranthelus Chiov. Herb Urochloa deflexa (Schumach.) Herb H.Scholz Polygalaceae Carpolobia goetzei Gürke Shrub/tree Polygonaceae Oxygonum salicifolium Dammer Herb Oxygonum sinuatum (Hochst. & Herb Steud. ex Meisn.) Dammer Persicaria senegalensis (Meisn.) Soják Herb Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Herb Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Herb Rumex usambarensis (Engl.) Dammer Shrub/subshrub Seeds; leaves (vegetable) [158–160,167] Roots used in soup [156] Fruits/seeds Fruits; leaves (vegetable) Fruits Fruit Fruits [134,142,167] [142,158,161] [16,100] [142] [14,100,142,165,167] Fruits [13,16,134,142,157,163,165,167] Roots (vegetable) [156] Fruits [142] Seeds [18,167] Leaves [16] General Grain Rhizomes [163] [163,167] [40,156] Grain [167] General [163] Grain [163,167] General [163] Grain Leaves (vegetable) Tubers, grains General [167] [16] [18,163,167] [163] General [163] Seed/fruit [134,142] Leaves (vegetable) [166,167] [13,16,159,160,163,165– 167,169] [159,160] [167] [12,166] Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable); stems, leaves (chewed) [12,142,166,167] Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L. Herb Vegetable, salad; grain (flour) [162,166,167] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Portulaca quadrifida L. 141 of 151 Herb Primulaceae Maesa lanceolata Forssk. Tree Myrsine africana L. Shrub/tree Putranjivaceae Drypetes gerrardii Hutch. Tree Rhamnaceae Phyllogeiton discolor (Klotzsch) Shrub/tree Herzog Rhamnus prinoides LʹHér. Shrub/tree Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz Shrub/tree Ziziphus abyssinica Hochst. ex Shrub/tree A.Rich. Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Shrub/tree Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Tree Ziziphus mucronata Willd. Shrub/tree Ziziphus pubescens Oliv. Shrub/tree Rosaceae Rubus apetalus Poir. Shrub Rubus niveus Thunb. Shrub Rubus pinnatus Willd. Liana Rubus rigidus Sm. Shrub Rubus scheffleri Engl. Shrub Rubus steudneri Schweinf. Shrub/liana Rubus volkensii Engl. Shrub Rubiaceae Afrocanthium keniense (Bullock) Tree Lantz Afrocanthium kilifiense (Bridson) Tree Lantz Afrocanthium lactescens (Hiern) Tree Lantz Afrocanthium pseudoverticillatum Shrub/tree (S.Moore) Lantz Bullockia dyscritos (Bullock) Tree Razafim., Lantz & B.Bremer Bullockia fadenii (Bridson) Razafim., Shrub/tree Lantz & B.Bremer Bullockia mombazensis (Baill.) Shrub/tree Razafim., Lantz & B.Bremer Bullockia pseudosetiflora (Bridson) Shrub Razafim., Lantz & B.Bremer Bullockia setiflora (Hiern) Razafim., Shrub/tree Lantz & B.Bremer Canthium glaucum Hiern Shrub/tree Canthium oligocarpum Hiern Shrub/tree Coffea arabica L. Shrub/tree Conostomium quadrangulare (Rendle) Herb Cufod. Vegetable, salad; grain (flour) [16,159,160,163,166,167,169] Fruit Bark, seeds [142] [18] Fruits [13] [13,14,18,100,142,157,162,163,1 65,167] Roots boiled in soup [156] Fruits; roots boiled in soup [16,142,167] Fruits, gum Fruits [100,142,167]. Fruits Fruits/seeds Fruits Fruits [18] [134,142,157,158,162,163,167] [13,14,100,142,163–165,167] [142,161] Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits [142,167] [167] [14,142,167] [13] [167] [142] [167] Fruits [142] Fruits [142] Fruits [142,163,167] Fruits [142] Fruits [142] Fruits [142] Fruits [100,142] Fruits [18,142] Fruits [13,142,163] Fruits Fruits Seeds (coffee) [142,167] [142] [14,167] Nectar [157,163] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 142 of 151 Coptosperma graveolens (S.Moore) Shrub/tree Degreef Coptosperma littorale (Hiern) Degreef Shrub/tree Cremaspora triflora (Thonn.) Shrub/tree K.Schum. Eumachia parviflora (R.D.Good) Shrub Razafim. & C.M.Taylor (exotic) Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Shrub/tree Thonn. Heinsia crinita (Wennberg) G.Taylor Shrub/tree Keetia gueinzii (Sond.) Bridson Shrub/tree Keetia zanzibarica (Klotzsch) Bridson Shrub Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus Hiern Shrub/tree Meyna tetraphylla (Schweinf. ex Shrub/tree Hiern) Robyns Mussaenda arcuata Poir. Shrub/tree Pavetta crassipes K.Schum. Shrub/tree Pavetta gardeniifolia Hochst. ex Shrub/tree A.Rich. Pentanisia schweinfurthii Hiern Herb Polysphaeria multiflora Hiern Shrub/tree Polysphaeria parvifolia Hiern Shrub/tree Pyrostria bibracteata (Baker) Cavaco Shrub/tree Pyrostria phyllanthoidea (Baill.) Shrub/tree Bridson Rothmannia fischeri (K.Schum.) Tree Bullock ex Oberm. Rytigynia uhligii (K.Schum. & Shrub/tree K.Krause) Verdc. Tennantia sennii (Chiov.) Verdc. & Shrub Bridson Uncaria africana G.Don Liana Vangueria apiculata K.Schum. Shrub/tree Vangueria infausta Burch. Shrub/tree Vangueria loranthifolia K.Schum. Shrub/tree Vangueria madagascariensis J.F.Gmel. Shrub/tree Vangueria schumanniana (Robyns) Shrub/tree Lantz Vangueria volkensii K.Schum. Shrub/tree Rutaceae Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. Shrub/tree Vepris glomerata (F.Hoffm.) Engl. Shrub/tree Vepris nobilis (Delile) Mziray Tree Vepris uguenensis Engl. Shrub Zanthoxylum asiaticum (L.) Shrub/tree Appelhans, Groppo & J.Wen Fruits [134] Seed/fruit [134] Fruits [142] Fruits [142] General [163] Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits [142,158,161] [16,142] [142] [142,161] Fruits [14,100,162,163,165,167] Fruits Fruits [142] [142] Fruits [13] General Fruits Fruits Fruits [163] [142] [161] [142] Fruits [100,142] Fruits [142] Fruits [142] Fruits [100,142,165] Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits [13] [142,167] [142,161,167] [13] [13,14,100,142,158,163,165,167] Fruits [167] Fruits [142,167] Fruits, roots Fruits Fruits General [100,142,163] [142] [142] [163] Fruits (food flavor) [134] Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. Shrub/tree Fruits; leaves, bark, seeds (flavor tea, soup) [18,100,134,161,163,167] Zanthoxylum holtzianum (Engl.) P.G.Waterman Shrub/tree Fruits [158] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Zanthoxylum usambarense (Engl.) Kokwaro Salicaceae Dovyalis abyssinica (A.Rich.) Warb. Dovyalis macrocalyx (Oliv.) Warb. Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. Oncoba spinosa Forssk. Scolopia zeyheri (Nees) Szyszyl. Salvadoraceae Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. ex Poir. Dobera loranthifolia (Warb.) Harms Salvadora persica L. Santalaceae Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steud. Sapindaceae Allophylus africanus var. griseotomentosus (Gilg) Verdc. Allophylus ferrugineus Taub. Allophylus rubifolius (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Engl. Chytranthus obliquinervis Radlk. ex Engl. Deinbollia borbonica Scheff. Deinbollia kilimandscharica Taub. Haplocoelum foliolosum (Hiern) Bullock Haplocoelum inoploeum Radlk. Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius Baker Lepisanthes senegalensis (Poir.) Leenh. Pappea capensis Eckl. & Zeyh. Sapotaceae Aningeria adolfi‐friederici (Engl.) Robyns & Gilbert Englerophytum natalense (Sond.) T.D.Penn. Englerophytum oblanceolatum (S.Moore) T.D.Penn. Gambeya albida (G.Don) Aubrév. & Pellegr. Inhambanella henriquesii (Engl. & Warb.) Dubard Malacantha alnifolia (Baker) Pierre Manilkara butugi Chiov. Manilkara discolor (Sond.) J.H.Hemsl. Manilkara mochisia (Baker) Dubard Manilkara sansibarensis (Engl.) Dubard Manilkara sulcata (Engl.) Dubard 143 of 151 Tree Leaves/bark (flavor tea/soup) [167] Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Fruits Fruits Seed/fruits Fruit Fruits [13,16,142,167] [167] [18,134,142,161,163,167] [142] [142] Shrub/tree Tree Shrub/tree Fruits Fruits Fruits/roots [18,100,142,157,162,163,167] [142] [13,18,142,157,162–164,167] Shrub Fruits [142] Shrub/tree Fruits [13] Shrub/tree Fruits [142] Shrub/tree Fruits [100] Shrub/tree Fruits [142,158] Shrub/tree Shrub/tree Fruits Fruits [142,161,134] [142,165] Shrub/tree Fruits [13,142] Shrub/tree Tree Fruits; leaves (vegetable) Fruits [142,158] [100,161] Tree Fruits [16] Tree Fruits/seeds; bark (tea) [16,100,142,163,167] Tree Seed oil [142] Tree Fruits [142] Tree Fruit [142] Tree Fruit [142] Tree Fruits [142] Tree Tree Fruits Fruits [142] [142] Tree Fruits [13,142] Tree Fruits [100,142,158,161,163,167] Shrub/tree Fruits [142,167] Tree Fruits [100,142,161,167] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Mimusops bagshawei S.Moore Mimusops kummel Bruce ex A.DC. Mimusops obtusifolia Lam. Mimusops somalensis Chiov. Sideroxylon inerme L. Synsepalum brevipes (Baker) T.D.Penn. Synsepalum cerasiferum (Welw.) T.D.Penn. Synsepalum msolo (Engl.) T.D.Penn. Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens L. (exotic) Lycium shawii Roem. & Schult. Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertn. Physalis angulata L. Physalis lagascae Roem. & Schult. Physalis peruviana L. Solanum aculeastrum Dunal Solanum nigrum L Solanum coagulans Forssk. Solanum incanum L. Solanum lycopersicum L. (exotic) Solanum villosum Mill. Talinaceae Talinum caffrum (Thunb.) Eckl. & Zeyh. Talinum portulacifolium (Forssk.) Asch. ex Schweinf. Urticaceae Forsskaolea viridis Ehrenb. ex Webb Laportea alatipes Hook.f. Myrianthus holstii Engl. Pilea johnstonii Oliv. Urtica massaica Mildbr. Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. (exotic) Lantana trifolia L. Lantana ukambensis (Vatke) Verdc. Lantana viburnoides (Forssk.) Vahl Lippia carviodora Meikle 144 of 151 Tree Tree Shrub/tree Tree Shrub/tree Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits [142] [16,142,163,167] [100,142,161,167] [161,167] [142] Tree Fruits [142,167] Tree Fruits [142] Tree Fruits [142,167] Shrub Shrub/tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Shrub/tree Herb Subshrub Shrub/subshrub Herb Herb/shrub Leaves (vegetable) General Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) Fruits Fruits Leaves (vegetable) Seeds (coagulate milk) General Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) [160] [162,163] [161] [169] [159] [16] [142] [12,13,16,157–161,163,166,169] [157,163,164] [164] [160] [162] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [161] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [13,16,134,159–161,164,169] Subshrub Herb Tree Subshrub Herb Leaves (vegetable) Leaves Fruits Leaves (vegetable) Leaves (vegetable) [157] [14] [14,142,167] [12] [12,166,167] Shrub Shrub Shrub Subshrub/shrub Shrub Fruits Fruits; leaves (vegetable) Fruits Fruits Leaves (tea) Fruits edible; leaves used in tea Fruits edible; leaves used in tea [16,161,165,167] [16,142,165,167] [142,163,167] [167] [142,164,167] Roots Fruits General Fruits; roots used in soup [156] [142] [164] [16,142,156,162,163] Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng. Shrub Lippia kituiensis Vatke Shrub Vitaceae Cayratia ibuensis (Hook.f.) Suess. Cissus aphyllantha Gilg Cissus quadrangularis L. Cissus rotundifolia Vahl Herb Shrub Liana Shrub [167] [14,142,167] Plants 2023, 12, 1145 Cyphostemma adenocaule (Steud. ex A.Rich.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. Cyphostemma bambuseti (Gilg & M.Brandt) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. Cyphostemma cyphopetalum (Fresen.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. Cyphostemma serpens (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Desc. Zingiberaceae Aframomum angustifolium (Sonn.) K.Schum. Aframomum mala (K.Schum.) K.Schum. Zingiber officinale Roscoe (exotic) Zygophyllaceae 145 of 151 Herb Fruits; leaves (vegetable) [158,163,165] Herb General [163] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [157,159,160,163,169] Herb Leaves (vegetable) [13,16,169] Herb Seed/fruits [134] Herb Fruits [16] Herb Root [16] [14,16,18,100,142,162,163,165– 167] [142,164] [18,100,142,162–164,167] Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Tree Balanites glabra Mildbr. & Schltr. Balanites pedicellaris Mildbr. & Schltr. Shrub/tree Fruit, seed oil, gum; leaf/shoots (vegetable) Fruits Tree Fruits, cotyledons Balanites rotundifolia (Tiegh.) Blatt. Shrub/tree Tribulus cistoides L. Tribulus terrestris L. Herb Herb Fruits, cotyledons; fruit (flavor milk) Leaves Leaves (vegetable) [13,18,142,157,162,163,167] [18,162] [159,160] References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Kubukeli, P.S. Traditional healing practice using medicinal herbs. Lancet 1999, 354, SIV24. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐ 6736(99)90367‐7. Farnsworth, N.R.; Soejarto, D.D. Global importance of medicinal plants. In Conservation of Medicinal Plants, Akerele, O., Hey‐ wood, V.; Synge, H., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge; 1991; pp. 25–51. Van Wyk, B.E. A review of commercially important African medicinal plants. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2015, 176, 118–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.10.031. Wangkheirakpam, S. Chapter 2‐Traditional and folk medicine as a target for drug discovery. In Natural Products and Drug Dis‐ covery; Mandal, S.C.; Mandal, V.; Konishi, T., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018; pp. 29–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978‐0‐08‐102081‐4.00002‐2. Gurib‐Fakim, A. Medicinal plants: Traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Mol. Aspects Med. 2006, 27, 1–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2005.07.008. Teoh, E.S. Medicinal Orchids of Asia; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2016; pp. 1–752. https://doi.org/10.1007/978‐3‐319‐24274‐3. Githinji, C.W.; Kokwaro, J.O. Ethnomedicinal study of major species in the family Labiatae from Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1993, 39, 197–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378‐8741(93)90036‐5. Parker, M.E.; Chabot, S.; Ward, B. J.; Johns, T. Traditional dietary additives of the Maasai are antiviral against the measles virus. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2007, 114, 146–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.06.011. Tu, Y. The discovery of artemisinin (qinghaosu) and gifts from Chinese medicine. Nat. Med. 2011, 17, 1217–1220. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.2471. Heukelbach, J.; Oliveira, F.A.S.; Speare, R. A new shampoo based on neem (Azadirachta indica) is highly effective against head lice in vitro. Parasitol. Res. 2006, 99, 353–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436‐006‐0146‐7. Hickey, G.M.; Pouliot, M.; Smith‐Hall, C.; Wunder, S.; Nielsen, M.R. Quantifying the economic contribution of wild food har‐ vests to rural livelihoods: A global‐comparative analysis. Food Policy 2016, 62, 122–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.food‐ pol.2016.06.001. Marshall, F. Agriculture and use of wild and weedy greens by the Piik AP Oom Okiek of Kenya. Econ. Bot. 2001, 55, 32–46, doi.org/10.1007/BF02864544. Ichikawa, M. The utilization of wild food plants by the Suiei Dorobo in Northern Kenya. J. Antrop. Soc. Nippon 1980, 88, 25–48. Plants 2023, 12, 1145 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 146 of 151 Kathambi, V.; Mutie, F.M.; Rono, P.C.; Wei, N.; Munyao, J.N.; Kamau, P.; Gituru, R.W.; Hu, G.W.; Wang, Q.F. Traditional knowledge, use and conservation of plants by the communities of Tharaka‐Nithi County, Kenya. Plant Divers. 2021, 42, 479– 487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pld.2020.12.004. Mutie, F.M.; Rono, P.C.; Kathambi, V.; Hu, G.W.; Wang, Q.F. Conservation of wild food plants and their potential for combatting food insecurity in Kenya as exemplified by the drylands of Kitui county. Plants 2020, 9, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9081017. Johns, T.; Kokwaro, J.O. Food plants of the Luo of Siaya district, Kenya. Econ. Bot. 1991, 45, 103–113. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860055. Mbora, A.; Jamnadass, R.; Lillesø, J.B. Growing High Priority Fruits and Nuts in Kenya: Uses and Management. World Agroforestry Centre: Nairobi, Kenya, 2008. Sarfo, J.; Keding, G.B.; Boedecker, J.; Pawelzik, E.; Termote, C. The Impact of Local Agrobiodiversity and Food Interventions on Cost, Nutritional Adequacy, and Affordability of Women and Children’s Diet in Northern Kenya: A Modeling Exercise. Front. Nutr. 2020, 7, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2020.00129. Moerman, D.E. An analysis of the food plants and drug plants of native North America. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1996, 52, 1–22. Bennett, B.C.; Husby, C.E. Patterns of medicinal plant use: An examination of the Ecuadorian Shuar medicinal flora using con‐ tingency table and binomial analyses. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2008, 116, 422–430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.12.006. Moerman, D.E. Symbols and selectivity: A statistical analysis of native american medical ethnobotany. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1979, 1, 111–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378‐8741(79)90002‐3. Friedman, J.; Yaniv, Z.; Dafni, A.; Palewitch, D. A preliminary classification of the healing potential of medicinal plants, based on a rational analysis of an ethnopharmacological field survey among Bedouins in the Negev Desert, Israel. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1986, 16, 275–287, doi.org/10.1016/0378‐8741(86)90094‐2. Prance, G.T.; Balée, W.; Boom, B.M.; Carneiro, R.L. Quantitative ethnobotany and the case for conservation in ammonia. Conserv. Biol. 1987, 1, 296–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523‐1739.1987.tb00050.x. Tardio, J.; Pardo‐De‐Santayana, M. Cultural Importance Indices: A comparative analysis based on the useful wild plants of Southern Cantabria (Northern Spain) 1. Econ. Bot. 2008, 62, 24–39. Leonti, M. The relevance of quantitative ethnobotanical indices for ethnopharmacology and ethnobotany. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2022, 288, 115008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2022.115008. Dudney, K.; Warren, S.; Sills, E.; Jacka, J. How study design influences the ranking of medicinal plant importance: A case study from Ghana, West Africa. Econ. Bot. 2015, 69, 306–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12231‐015‐9322‐Y/METRICS. Moerman, E. Poisoned apples and honeysuckles: The medicinal plants. Med. Anthropol. Q. 1989, 3, 52–61. https://doi.org/10.1525/maq.1989.3.1.02a00040. Douwes, E.; Crouch, N.R.; Edwards, T.J.; Mulholland, D.A. Regression analyses of southern African ethnomedicinal plants: Informing the targeted selection of bioprospecting and pharmacological screening subjects. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2008, 119, 356– 364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.07.040. Phumthum, M.; Balslev, H.; Barfod, A.S. Important medicinal plant families in Thailand. Front. Pharmacol. 2019, 10, 1125. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.01125. Moerman, D.E. The medicinal flora of Native North America: An analysis. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1991, 31, 1–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378‐8741(91)90141‐Y. Saslis‐Lagoudakis, C.H.; Klitgaard, B.B.; Forest, F.; Francis, L.; Savolainen, V.; Williamson, E.M.; Hawkins, J.A. The use of phy‐ logeny to interpret cross‐cultural patterns in plant use and guide medicinal plant discovery: An example from Pterocarpus (Leguminosae). PLoS ONE 2011, 6, e22275. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022275. Zhang, Y.; Deng, T.; Sun, L.; Landis, J.B.; Moore, M.J.; Wang, H.; Wang, Y.; Hao, X.; Chen, J.; Li, S.; et al. Phylogenetic patterns suggest frequent multiple origins of secondary metabolites across the seed‐plant “tree of life.” Natl. Sci. Rev. 2021, 8, nwaa105 https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaa105. Leonti, M.; Fernando, R.R.; Sticher, O.; Heinrich, M. Medicinal flora of the Popoluca, Mexico: A botanical systematical perspec‐ tive. Econ. Bot. 2003, 57, 218–230, doi.org/10.1663/0013‐0001(2003)057[0218:MFOTPM]2.0.CO;2. Saslis‐lagoudakis, C.H.; Williamson, E.M.; Savolainen, V.; Hawkins, J.A. Cross‐cultural comparison of three medicinal floras and implications for bioprospecting strategies. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2011, 135, 476–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.03.044. Amiguet, V.T.; Arnason, J. T.; Maquin, P.; Cal, V.; Pablo, S. V.; Luis, P. A. A regression analysis of Q’eqchi’ Maya medicinal plants from southern Belize. Econ. Bot. 2006, 60, 24–38, doi.org/10.1663/0013‐0001(2006)60[24:ARAOQM]2.0.CO;2. Moerman, D.E.; Pemberton, R.W.; Kiefer, D. A comparative analysis of five medicinal floras. J. Ethnobiol. 1999, 19, 49–67. Weckerle, C.S.; Cabras, S.; Castellanos, M.E.; Leonti, M. Quantitative methods in ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology: Con‐ sidering the overall flora—Hypothesis testing for over‐ and underused plant families with the Bayesian approach. J. Ethnophar‐ macol. 2011, 137, 837–843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.07.002. Zhou, Y.; Liu, B.; Mbuni, Y.; Yan, X.; Mwachala, G.; Hu, G.; Wang, Q. Vascular flora of Kenya, based on the Flora of Tropical East Africa. PhytoKeys 2017, 90, 113–126. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.90.20531. Vasisht, K.; Kumar, V. Compendium of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Africa. Earth, Environmental and Marine Sciences and Technologies; Area Science Park: Trieste, Italy, 2004. Plants 2023, 12, 1145 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 147 of 151 Maundu, P.M. Utilization and conservation status of wild food plants in Kenya. In The Biodiversity of African Plants, van der Maesen, L.J.G.; van der Burgt, X.M.; van Medenbach de Rooy, J.M. Eds.; Springer: Dordrecht, 1996; pp. 678–683, doi.org/10.1007/978‐94‐009‐0285‐5_83. Muriuki, J. Medicinal trees in smallholder agroforestry systems: Assessing some factors influencing cultivation by farmers. PhD thesis, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna, 2011. Kariuki, L.W.; Maundu, P.M.; Morimoto, Y. Some intervention strategies for promoting underutilized species: Case of local vegetables in Kitui district, Kenya. II International Symposium on Underutilized Plant Species: Crops for the Future Beyond Food Security, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 27 June–1 July 2011; International Society for Horticultural Science: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2011. Grace, O.M.; Malombe, I.; Davis, S.D.; Pearce, T.R.; Simmonds, M.S.J. Identifying priority species in dryland Kenya for conser‐ vation in the Millenium Seed Bank Project. In Systematics and Conservation of African Plants, van der Burgt, X.; van der Maesen, J.; Onana J.‐M. Eds.; Royal Botanic Gardens: Kew, UK; 2010; pp. 749–758. Kigomo, N.B. State of Forest Genetic Resources in Kenya; Forest Genetic Working Papers; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2001. Balaton‐Chrimes, S. Who are Kenya’s 42 (+) tribes? The census and the political utility of magical uncertainty utility of magical uncertainty. J. East. African Stud. 2021, 42, 42–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2020.1863642. Gakunju, D.M.N.; Mberu, E.K.; Dossaji, S.F.; Gray, A.I.; Waigh, R.D.; Waterman, P.G.; Watkins, W.M. Potent Antimalarial Ac‐ tivity of the Alkaloid Nitidine, Isolated from a Kenyan Herbal Remedy. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1995, 39, 2606–2609. Messmer, W.M.; Tin‐Wa, M.; Fong, H.H.S.; Bevelle, C.; Farnsworth, N.R.; Abraham, D.J.; Trojanek, J. Fagaronine, a new tumor inhibitor isolated from Fagara zanthoxyloides Lam. (Rutaceae). J. Pharm. Sci. 1972, 61, 1858–1859. https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.2600611145. Mutinda, E.S.; Kimutai, F.; Mbandi, E.; Nyongesa, E.; Ochieng, W.; Nanjala, C.; Njambi, C.; Kirega, M.; Muguci, M.; Wahiti, R.; et al. Ethnobotanical uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of pantropical genus Zanthoxylum L. (Rutaceae): An update. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2023, 303, 115895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2022.115895. Mutinda, E.S.; Mbandi, E.; Nanjala, C.; Nyongesa, E.; Ochieng, W.; Kimutai, F.; Tian, J.; Kirega, M.; Wahiti, R.; Hu, G. Traditional medicinal uses, pharmacology, phytochemistry, and distribution of the Genus Fagaropsis (Rutaceae). J. Ethnopharmacol. 2022, 284, 114781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.114781. Tatsimo, S.J.N.; Tamokou, J.D.D.; Lamshöft, M.; Mouafo, F.T.; Lannang, A.M.; Sarkar, P.; Bag, P.K.; Spiteller, M. LC‐MS guided isolation of antibacterial and cytotoxic constituents from Clausena anisata. Med. Chem. Res. 2015, 24, 1468–1479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00044‐014‐1233‐4. Mutie, F.M.; Gao, L.; Kathambi, V.; Rono, P.C.; Musili, P.M.; Ngugi, G.; Hu, G.; Wang, Q. An ethnobotanical survey of a dryland botanical garden and its environs in Kenya: The Mutomo hill plant sanctuary. Evidence‐Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2020, 2020, 1543831. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/1543831. Lei, D.; Wu, J.; Leon, C.; Huang, L.; Hawkins, J.A. Medicinal plants of Chinese Pharmacopoeia and Daodi: Insights from phy‐ logeny and biogeography. Chinese Herb. Med. 2018, 10, 269–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chmed.2018.06.004. Mbuni, Y.; Zhou, Y.; Wang, S.; Ngumbau, V.M.; Musili, P.M.; Mutie, F.M.; Njoroge, B.; Kirika, P.M.; Mwachala, G.; Vivian, K.; et al. An annotated checklist of vascular plants of Cherangani hills, Western Kenya. PhytoKeys 2019, 120, 1–90. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.120.30274. Melly, D.K.; Kipkoech, S.; Muema, B.W.; Kamau, P.; Malombe, I.; Hu, G.; Wang, Q.F. An annotated checklist of the vascular flora of South and North Nandi Forests, Kenya. PhytoKeys 2020, 155, 87–139. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.155.51966. Yang, L.; Wen, K.S.; Ruan, X.; Zhao, Y.X.; Wei, F.; Wang, Q. Response of plant secondary metabolites to environmental factors. Molecules 2018, 23, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23040762. Wass, P. Kenya’s Indigenous Forests: Status, Management and Conservation; IUCN: Gland, Switzerland; Cambridge, UK, 1995. Saggerson, E.P. Geology of the South Kitui area: Degree Sheet 53, SW Quarter, with Coloured Geological Map; Geological Sur‐ vey of Kenya: Nairobi, Kenya, 1957. Gao, J. Guide to the World Stattes: Kenya; Social Sciences Academic Press: Beijing, China, 2004. Beentje, H.; Smith, S. FTEA and after. Syst. Geogr. Plants 2001, 71, 265–290. https://doi.org/10.2307/3668673. Edwards, A.D.C. A vegetation map of Kenya. J. Ecol. 1940, 28, 377–385. Lind, E.M.; Morrison, M.E.; Hamilton, A. East African Vegetation; Longman Group Limited: London, UK, 1974. Malonza, P.K.; Muasya, A.M.; Lange, C.; Webala, P.; Mulwa, R.K.; Wasonga, D.V.; Mwachala, G.; Malombe, I.; Muasya, J.; Kirika, P.; Malaki, P. Biodiversity Assessment in Dryland Hilltops of Kitui and Mwingi Districts; National Museums of Kenya: Nai‐ robi, Kenya, 2006; pp. 1–67. M’mboroki, K.G.; Wandiga, S.; Oriaso, S.O. Climate change impacts detection in dry forested ecosystem as indicated by vege‐ tation cover change in‐Laikipia, of Kenya. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2018, 190, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661‐018‐6630‐6. Njoroge, G.N.; Kaibui, I.M.; Njenga, P.K.; Odhiambo, P.O. Utilisation of priority traditional medicinal plants and local people’s knowledge on their conservation status in arid lands of Kenya (Mwingi District). J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2010, 6, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746‐4269‐6‐22. Boko, M.; Niang, I.; Nyong, A.C.V.; Githeko, A.; Medany, M.; Osman‐Elasha, B.; Tabo, R.; Yanda, P. Africa. In Climate change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovern‐ mental panel; Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J., Hanson, C.E., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2007; pp. 433–467. Plants 2023, 12, 1145 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 148 of 151 Shiracko, N.; Owuor, B.O.; Gakuubi, M.M.; Wanzala, W. A survey of ethnobotany of the AbaWanga people in Kakamega County, western province of Kenya. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 2016, 15, 93–102. Glover, P.E.; Stewart, J.; Gwynne, M.D. Masai and Kipsigis Notes on East African Plants. East African Agric. For. J. 1966, 32, 200– 207. https://doi.org/10.1080/00128325.1966.11662117. Nanyingi, M.O.; Mbaria, J.M.; Lanyasunya, A.L.; Wagate, C.G.; Koros, K.B.; Kaburia, H.F.; Munenge, R.W.; Ogara, W.O. Eth‐ nopharmacological survey of Samburu district, Kenya. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2008, 4, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746‐4269‐4‐ 14. Eriksen, S.; Lind, J. Adaptation as a political process: Adjusting to drought and conflict in Kenya’s drylands. Environ. Manage. 2009, 43, 817–835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267‐008‐9189‐0. McMullin, S.; Phelan, J.; Jamnadass, R.; Iiyama, M.; Franzel, S.; Nieuwenhuis, M. Trade in medicinal tree and shrub products in three urban centres in Kenya. For. Trees Livelihoods 2012, 21, 188–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2012.733559. Duncan, C.M.; Buchanan, C.; Mutiso, C. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Masaai people of Losho, Kenya. Int. J. Pharmacol. Res. 2016, 6, 68–74, https://doi.org/10.7439/ijpr. Fratkin, E. Traditional medicine and concepts of healing among Samburu pastoralists of Kenya. J. Ethnobiol. 1996, 16, 63–97. Gakuubi, M.M.; Wanzala, W. A survey of plants and plant products traditionally used in livestock health management in Buuri district, Meru County, Kenya. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2012, 8, 39, https://doi.org/10.1186/1746‐4269‐8‐39. Gakuya, D.W.; Itonga, S.M.; Mbaria, J.M.; Muthee, J.K.; Musau, J.K. Ethnobotanical survey of biopesticides and other medicinal plants traditionally used in Meru central district of Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2013, 145, 547–553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.11.028. Gathirwa, J.W.; Rukunga, G.M.; Mwitari, P.G.; Mwikwabe, N.M.; Kimani, C.W.; Muthaura, C.N.; Kiboi, D.M.; Nyangacha, R.M.; Omar, S.A. Traditional herbal antimalarial therapy in Kilifi district, Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2011, 134, 434–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.12.043. Geissler, P.W.; Harris, S.A.; Prince, R.J.; Olsen, A.; Odhiambo, R.A.; Oketch‐Rabah, H.; Madiega, P.A.; Andersen, A.; Mølgaard, P. Medicinal plants used by Luo mothers and children in Bondo district, Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2002, 83, 39–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378‐8741(02)00191‐5. Ichikawa, M. A Preliminary report on the ethnobotany of the Suiei Dorobo in Northern Kenya. African Study Monogr. Suppl. 1987, 7, 1–52. https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.1987.01060120124039. Jeruto, P.; Lukhoba, C.; Ouma, G.; Otieno, D.; Mutai, C. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Nandi people in Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2008, 116, 370–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.11.041. Johns, T.; Faubert, G.M.; Kokwaro, J.O.; Mahunnah, R.L.A.; Kimanani, E.K. Anti‐giardial activity of gastrointestinal remedies of the Luo of East Africa. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1995, 46, 17–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378‐8741(95)01224‐2. Kaigongi, M.M.; Musila, F.M. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Tharaka people of Kenya. Int. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomedicine 2015, 1, 1–8. Kaingu, C.K.; Oduma, J.A.; Kanui, T.I. Practices of traditional birth attendants in Machakos District, Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2011, 137, 495–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.05.044. Kama‐Kama, F.; Midiwo, J.; Nganga, J.; Maina, N.; Schiek, E.; Omosa, L.K.; Osanjo, G.; Naessens, J. Selected ethno‐medicinal plants from Kenya with in vitro activity against major African livestock pathogens belonging to the “Mycoplasma mycoides cluster.” J. Ethnopharmacol. 2016, 192, 524–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.09.034. Kamau, L.; Mbaabu, M.P.; Mbaria, J.M.; Karuri, G.P.; Kiama, S.G. Knowledge and demand for medicinal plants used in the treatment and management of diabetes in Nyeri County, Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2016, 189, 218–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.05.021. Kareru, P.; Kenji, G.; Gachanja, A.; Keriko, J.; Mungai, G. Traditional medicines among the Embu and Mbeere people of Kenya. African J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med. 2007, 4, 75–86. Keter, L.K.; Mutiso, P.C. Ethnobotanical studies of medicinal plants used by traditional health practitioners in the management of diabetes in Lower Eastern Province, Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2012, 139, 74–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.10.014. Kigen, G.; Fatuma, S.; Kibosia, J.; Rono, H.; Kiprop, E.; Wanjohi, B.; Kigen, P.; Kipkore, W. Ethnomedicinal Plants Traditionally Used by the Keiyo Community in Elgeyo Marakwet County, Kenya. J. Biodiversity, Bioprospecting Dev. 2014, 1, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.4172/2376‐0214.1000132. Kigen, G.; Maritim, A.; Some, F.; Kibosia, J.; Rono, H.; Chepkwony, S.; Kipkore, W.; Wanjoh, B. Ethnopharmacological survey of the medicinal plants used in Tindiret, Nandi County, Kenya. African J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med. 2016, 13, 156–168. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v13i3.19. Kigen, G.; Kipkore, W.; Wanjohi, B.; Haruki, B.; Kemboi, J. Medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Sangurur, Elgeyo Marakwet County, Kenya. Pharmacognosy Res. 2017, 333–347. https://doi.org/10.4103/pr.pr. Kigen, G.; Kamuren, Z.; Njiru, E.; Wanjohi, B.; Kipkore, W. Ethnomedical survey of the plants used by traditional healers in Narok County, Kenya. Evidence‐based Complement. Altern. Med. 2019, 2019, 8976937. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/8976937. Kimondo, J.; Miaron, J.; Mutai, P.; Njogu, P. Ethnobotanical survey of food and medicinal plants of the Ilkisonko Maasai com‐ munity in Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2015, 175, 463–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.10.013. Kipkore, W.; Wanjohi, B.; Rono, H.; Kigen, G. A study of the medicinal plants used by the Marakwet community in Kenya. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2014, 10, 24, https://doi.org/10.1186/1746‐4269‐10‐24. Plants 2023, 12, 1145 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 149 of 151 Kiringe, J.W. A survey of traditional health remedies used by the Maasai of Southern Kaijiado District, Kenya. Ethnobot. Res. Appl. 2006, 4, 61–74. https://doi.org/10.17348/era.4.0.61‐74. Kirira, P.G.; Rukunga, G.M.; Wanyonyi, A.W.; Muregi, F.M.; Gathirwa, J.W.; Muthaura, C.N.; Omar, S.A.; Tolo, F.; Mungai, G.M.; Ndiege, I.O. Anti‐plasmodial activity and toxicity of extracts of plants used in traditional malaria therapy in Meru and Kilifi Districts of Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2006, 106, 403–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.01.017. Kisangau, D.P.; Herrmann, T.M. Utilization and conservation of medicinal plants used for primary health care in Makueni district, Kenya. Int. J. Biodivers. Sci. Manag. 2007, 3, 184–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/17451590709618172. Klauss, V.; Adala, H.S. Traditional herbal eye medicine in Kenya. World Health Forum 1994, 15, 138–143. Kisangau, D.P.; Kauti, M.; Mwobobia, R.; Kanui, T.; Musimba, N.; License, C.A. traditional knowledge on use of medicinal plants in Kitui County, Kenya. Int. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomedicine 2017, 4, 1–10. Koch, A.; Tamez, P.; Pezzuto, J.; Soejarto, D. Evaluation of plants used for antimalarial treatment by the Maasai of Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2005, 101, 95–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.03.011. Mailu, J.K.; Nguta, J.M.; Mbaria, J.M.; Okumu, M.O. Medicinal plants used in managing diseases of the respiratory system among the Luo community: An appraisal of Kisumu East Sub‐County, Kenya. Chinese Med. 2020, 15, 95, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13020‐020‐00374‐2. Mbuni, Y.M.; Wang, S.; Mwangi, B.N.; Mbari, N.J.; Musili, P.M.; Walter, N.O. Medicinal plants and their traditional uses in local communities around Cherangani hills, Western Kenya. Plants 2020, 9, 331. Medley, K.E.; Kalibo, H.W. Ethnobotanical survey of ‘wild’ woody plant resources at Mount Kasigau, Kenya. J. East African Nat. Hist. 2007, 96, 149–186. https://doi.org/10.2982/0012‐8317(2007)96[149:ESOWWP]2.0.CO;2. Mukungu, N.; Abuga, K.; Okalebo, F.; Ingwela, R.; Mwangi, J. Medicinal plants used for management of malaria among the Luhya community of Kakamega East sub‐County, Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2016, 194, 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.08.050. Musila, W.; Kisangau, D.; Muema, J. Conservation status and use of medicinal plants by traditional medical practitioners in Machakos District, Kenya; National Museums of Kenya: Nairobi, Kenya, 2004; 27–29. Muthaura, C.N.; Rukunga, G.M.; Chhabra, S.C.; Mungai, G.M.; Njagi, E.N.M. Traditional phytotherapy of some remedies used in treatment of malaria in Meru district of Kenya. South African J. Bot. 2007, 73, 402–411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2007.03.004. Muthaura, C.N.; Keriko, J.M.; Mutai, C.; Yenesew, A.; Gathirwa, J.W.; Irungu, B.N.; Nyangacha, R.; Mungai, G.M.; Derese, S. Antiplasmodial potential of traditional phytotherapy of some remedies used in treatment of malaria in Meru‐Tharaka Nithi County of Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2015, 175, 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.09.017. Muthee, J.K.; Gakuya, D.W.; Mbaria, J.M.; Kareru, P.G.; Mulei, C.M.; Njonge, F.K. Ethnobotanical study of anthelmintic and other medicinal plants traditionally used in Loitoktok district of Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2011, 135, 15–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.02.005. Mutwiwa, C. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Mwala Sub‐County, Machakos County, Kenya. J. Dis. Med. Plants 2018, 4, 110. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jdmp.20180404.12. Mwaura, A.; Kamau, J.; Ombori, O. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants commonly traded in Kajiado, Narok and Nai‐ robi counties, Kenya: Medicinal plant species traded in Kenya. East African J. Sci. Technol. Innov. 2020, 1, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.37425/eajsti.v1i3.153. Nagata, J.M.; Jew, A.R.; Kimeu, J.M.; Salmen, C.R.; Bukusi, E.A.; Cohen, C.R. Medical pluralism on Mfangano Island : Use of medicinal plants among persons living with HIV/AIDS in Suba District , Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2011, 135, 501–509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.03.051. Ngari, E.W.; Chiuri, L.W.; Kariuki, S.T.; Huckett, S. Ethnomedicine of Ogiek of River Njoro Watershed, Nakuru‐Kenya. Ethnobot. Res. Appl. 2010, 8, 135–152. Ngaruiya, G.W. Reweaving stakeholder networks: Promoting climate mitigation and Maasai culture using medicinal plants in Kenya. Ecosyst. Serv. 2015, 15, 103–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2015.05.010. Nguta, J.M.; Mbaria, J.M.; Gakuya, D.W.; Gathumbi, P.K.; Kiama, S.G. Traditional antimalarial phytotherapy remedies used by the South Coast community, Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2010, 131, 256–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.06.031. Nicolle, S. The relevance of ethnobotanical studies to linguistic vitality: The case of plant use and classification among the Digo of Kenya. Univ. Nairobi Occas. Pap. Lang. Linguist. 2004, 2, 86–103. Njoroge, G.N.; Bussmann, R.W. Ethnotherapeutic management of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and reproductive health conditions in central province of Kenya. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 2009, 8, 255–261. Njoroge, G..; Newton, L. Ethnobotaby and distribution of wild genetic resources of the family Cucurbitaceae in the central highlands of Kenya. Plant Genet. Resour. Newsl. 2002, 132, 10–16. Njoroge, G.N.; Bussmann, R.W.; Gemmill, B.; Newton, L.E.; Ngumi, V.W. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in central Kenya. Lyonia 2004, 7, 71–87. Nyunja, A.; Onyango, J.C.; Erwin, B. The Kakamega forest medicinal plant resources and their utilization by the adjacent Luhya community. Int. J. Trop. Med. 2009, 4, 82–90. Ochwang’i, D.O.; Kimwele, C.N.; Oduma, J.A.; Gathumbi, P.K.; Mbaria, J.M.; Kiama, S.G. Medicinal plants used in treatment and management of cancer in Kakamega County, Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2014, 151, 1040–1055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.051. Plants 2023, 12, 1145 150 of 151 118. Odhiambo, J.A.; Lukhoba, C.W.; Dossaji, S.F. Evaluation of herbs as potential drugs/medicines. African J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med. 2011, 8, 144–151. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v8i5S.20. 119. Odongo, E.; Mungai, N.; Mutai, P.; Karumi, E.; Mwangi, J.; Omale, J. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Ka‐ kamega County, western Kenya. Appl. Med. Res. 2018, 4, 22. https://doi.org/10.5455/amr.20180315095706. 120. Okello, S.V.; Nyunja, R.O.; Netondo, G.W.; Onyango, J.C. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Sabaots of mt. Elgon Kenya. African J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med. 2010, 7, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v7i1.57223. 121. Ole‐Miaron, J.O. The Maasai ethnodiagnostic skill of livestock diseases: A lead to traditional bioprospecting. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2003, 84, 79–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378‐8741(02)00283‐0. 122. Omale, J.; Mutai, P.; Njogu, P.; Mukungu, N.; Mwangi, J.; Odongo, E. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Emu‐ haya Subcounty, Vihiga County in Western Kenya. Appl. Med. Res. 2020, 7, 6–25. https://doi.org/10.5455/amr.20190707020750. 123. Omwenga, E.; Hensel, A.; Shitandi, A.; Goycoolea, F. Ethnobotanical survey of traditionally used medicinal plants for infections of skin, gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract and the oral cavity in Borabu sub‐county, Nyamira county, Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2015, 176, 508–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.032. 124. Orwa, J.A.; Mwitari, P.G.; Matu, E.N.; Rukunga, G.M. Traditional healers and the management of malaria in Kisumu District, Kenya. East Afr. Med. J. 2007, 84, 51–55. 125. Otieno, N.E.; Analo, C. Local indigenous knowledge about some medicinal plants in and around Kakamega forest in western Kenya. F1000Research 2012, 1, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.1‐40.v2. 126. Owuor, B.O.; Mulemi, B.A.; Kokwaro, J.O. Indigenous snake bite remedies of the Luo of Western Kenya. J. Ethnobiol. 2005, 25, 129–141. https://doi.org/10.2993/0278‐0771(2005)25[129:isbrot]2.0.co;2. 127. Pakia, M.; Cooke, J.A. The ethnobotany of the Midzichenda tribes of the coastal forest areas in Kenya: 2. Medicinal plant uses. South African J. Bot. 2003, 69, 382–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0254‐6299(15)30321‐5. 128. Rukunga, G.M.; Gathirwa, J.W.; Omar, S.A.; Muregi, F.W.; Muthaura, C.N.; Kirira, P.G.; Mungai, G.M.; Kofi‐tsekpo, W.M. Anti‐ plasmodial activity of the extracts of some Kenyan medicinal plants. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2009, 121, 282–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.033. 129. Waiganjo, B.W.; Githae, E.W.; Warui, C.M.; Opiyo, E.A. Ethnobotanical and vegetation survey of Kiango’mbe and Kianjiru Hill Forests In Embu County, Kenya. Int. J. Med. Plants Res. 2015, 4, 157–167. 130. Wambugu, S.N.; Mathiu, P.M.; Gakuya, D.W.; Kanui, T.I.; Kabasa, J.D.; Kiama, S.G. Medicinal plants used in the management of chronic joint pains in Machakos and Makueni counties, Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2011, 137, 945–955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.06.038. 131. Amuka, O.; Okemo, P.O.; Machocho, K.A.; Mbugua, P.K. Ethnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by the Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infections. Ethnobot. Res. Appl. 2014, 12, 627–641. 132. Wanjohi, B.K.; Sudoi, V.; Njenga, E.W.; Kipkore, W.K. An Ethnobotanical study of traditional knowledge and uses of medicinal wild plants among the Marakwet community in Kenya. Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2020, 2020, 3208634, https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3208634. 133. Wanzala, W.; Takken, W.; Mukabana, W.R.; Pala, A.O.; Hassanali, A. Ethnoknowledge of Bukusu community on livestock tick prevention and control in Bungoma district, western Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2012, 140, 298–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.01.021. 134. Weiss, E.A. Some indigenous plants used domestically by East African coastal fishermen. Econ. Bot. 1979, 33, 35–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858210. 135. Nankaya, J.; Nampushi, J.; Petenya, S.; Balslev, H. Ethnomedicinal plants of the Loita Maasai of Kenya. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2019, 22, 2569–2589. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668‐019‐00311‐w. 136. Bussmann, R.W. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2006, 2, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746‐4269‐2‐35. 137. Delbanco, A.S.; Burgess, N.D.; Cuni‐Sanchez, A. medicinal plant trade in Northern Kenya: Economic importance, uses, and origin1. Econ. Bot. 2017, 71, 13–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231‐017‐9368‐0. 138. Mungai, G.; Maundu, P. Ethnobotanical Survey of the Potential And Traditional Use of Plant Species in Amboseli Biosphere Reserve; UNESCO: Paris, France, 1996. 139. Musila, W.M. A Preliminary Survey of Medicinal Plants Used by Kamba Traditional Midwives in Mwingi District, Kenya; IUCN: Nairobi, Kenya, 2000. 140. Muasya, J. The Ethnobotany of the Pokot of Ol Ari Nyiro Ranch, Laikipia, Kenya; East Africa Herbarium: National Museums of Kenya; 1993; 58p. 141. Lindsay, R.S.; Hepper, F.N. Medicinal Plants of Marakwet, Kenya; Royal Botanical Gardens: Kew: Richmond, UK, 1978. 142. Beentje, H.; Adamson, J.; Bhanderi, D. Kenya Trees, Shrubs, and Lianas; National Museums of Kenya: Nairobi, Kenya, 1994. 143. Kokwaro, J.O.; Johns, T. Luo Biological Dictionary; East African Publishers: Nairobi, Kenya, 1998. 144. Olembo, N.; Fedha, S.; Ngaira, E. Medicinal and Agricultural Plants of Ikolomani Division, Kakamega District, Kenya; Devel‐ opment Partners: Kakamega, Kenya, 1995. 145. Himberg, N. Traditionally Protected Forests´Role within Transforming Natural Resource Management Regimes in Taita Hills, Kenya. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, 2011. 146. Adongo, O.S. Medicinal plants of Chuka community in Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya and Some of their Selected Essential Elements. MSc Thesis, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya, 2013. Plants 2023, 12, 1145 151 of 151 147. Ibui, A.K. Indigenous Knowledge, Belief and Practice of Wild Plants Among the Meru of Kenya: Past and Present Human‐Plant Relations in East Africa. Ph.D. Thesis, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands, 2007, pp. 351. 148. Kamau, P. N. Anthropogenic Fires, Forest Resources, and Local Livelihoods at Chyulu Hills, Kenya. MSc Thesis, Miami Uni‐ versity, Oxford, OH, USA, 2013. 149. Matu, E.N. Some Kenyan Medicinal Plants Used in Treating Joint Diseases: Ethnobotany, Seed Characteristics, Germination Physiology and the Potentials for Germinants to Establish. MSc Thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1998. 150. Maunguja, A.B. Assessment of Plant Diversity and Utilization of Wild Medicinal Species by Households Proximate to Arabuko Sokoke Forest in Kilifi County of Kenya. BSc Dissertation, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya, 2016. 151. Muya, L.G. Use, Conservation and Management of Plants for Indigenous Herbal Medicine in Kenya: The Case of Kitui District. MSc Thesis, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada, 1994. 152. Ndegwa, F.K. Use, Conservation and Harvesting of Medicinal Plants by the Ogiek of East Mau Forest, Nakuru District, Kenya. Ph.D. Thesis, Kenyatta University, 2008. 153. Wagate, C. Pharmacological Evaluation of Antimicrobial and Bioactivity of Plant Used in Ethnomedicine and Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Machakos and Kitui Areas, Kenya. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya, 2008. 154. Wainaina, S.M. Ethnobotanical, Antioxidant and Toxicity Study of Selected Medicinal Plants Used in Nyamira North Sub‐ county, Nyamira County. MSc Thesis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya, 2019. 155. Omino, E.A.; Kokwaro, J.O. Ethnobotany of Apocynaceae species in Kenya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1993, 40, 167–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378‐8741(93)90065‐D. 156. Kabuye, C.H. Edible roots from wild plants in arid and semi‐arid Kenya. J. Arid Environ. 1986, 11, 65–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140‐1963(18)31310‐7. 157. Morgan, W.T.W. Ethnobotany of the Turkana: Use of plants by a pastoral people and their livestock in Kenya I. Econ. Bot. 1981, 184, 96–130. 158. Rajat, J.; Jefwa, J.; Mwafaida, J. Survey on indigenous food plants of Kaya Kauma and Kaya Tsolokero in Kilifi County Kenya. J. Life Sci. 2017, 11, 82–90. https://doi.org/10.17265/1934‐7391/2017.02.004. 159. Orech, F.O.; Aagaard‐Hansen, J.; Friis, H. Ethnoecology of traditional leafy vegetables of the Luo people of Bondo district, western Kenya. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2007, 58, 522–530. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637480701331163. 160. Orech, F.O.; Friis, H.; Estambale, B.A. Food Safety and Food Security in Relation to Consumption of Indigenous Leafy Vegeta‐ bles Among the Luo in Western Kenya Food Safety and Food Security in Relation to Consumption of Indigenous Leafy Vege‐ tables Among the Luo in Western Kenya. J. Nutr. Ecol. Food Res. 2013, 1, 240–245. https://doi.org/10.1166/jnef.2013.1038. 161. Pakia, M.; Cooke, J.A. F. The ethnobotany of the Midzichenda tribes of the coastal forest areas in Kenya: 1. General perspective and non‐medicinal plant uses. South African J. Bot. 2003, 69, 370–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0254‐6299(15)30320‐3. 162. Watkins, T.Y. The prevalence of wild food knowledge among nomadic Turkana of northern Kenya. J. Ethnobiol. 2010, 30, 137– 152. https://doi.org/10.2993/0278‐0771‐30.1.137. 163. Timberlake. Vernacular names and uses of plants in northern Kenya. East African J. Nat. Hist. 1994, 83, 31–69. https://doi.org/10.2982/0012‐8317(1994)83[31:VNAUOP]2.0.CO;2. 164. Makishima, H. Flora and vegetation of Nachola, Samburu district, northern Kenya: A study of vegetation in an arid land. African Study Monogr. Suppl. 2005, 32, 63–78. https://doi.org/10.14989/68469. 165. Shumsky, S.A.; Hickey, G.M.; Pelletier, B.; Johns, T. Understanding the contribution of wild edible plants to rural Socialecolog‐ ical resilience in semi‐arid Kenya. Ecol. Soc. 2014, 19, 34. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES‐06924‐190434. 166. Maundu, P.M. 1997. The status of traditional vegetable utilization in Kenya. In Traditional African Vegetables. Promoting the Con‐ servation and Use of Underutilized and Neglected Crops; Guarino, L. Ed.; International Plant Genetic Resources Institute: Rome, Italy, 1997. 167. Maundu, M.; Ngugi, W.; Kabuye, H. Traditional Food Plants of Kenya; National Museums of Kenya: Nairobi, Kenya, 1999. 168. Gachathi, M. Kikuyu Botanical Dictionary: A guide to Plant Names, Uses and Cultural Values; Tropical Botany: Gituamba, Kenya, 2007. 169. Ogoye‐ndegwa, C. Traditional gathering of wild vegetables among the Luo of Western Kenya‐A nutritional anthropology pro‐ ject1. Ecol. Food Nutr. 2003, 42, 69–89, 10.1080/03670240390202318. Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual au‐ thor(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.