Original paper
Pathogenic fungi in the work environment of organic and
conventional farmers
Wioletta Żukiewicz-Sobczak1,2, Grażyna Cholewa1, Ewelina Krasowska1, Jacek Zwoliński1, Paweł Sobczak3,
Kazimierz Zawiślak3, Jolanta Chmielewska-Badora1, Jacek Piątek1, Andrzej Wojtyła2
1Department
of Allergology and Environmental Hazards, Institute of Rural Health, Lublin, Poland
Head: Wioletta Żukiewicz-Sobczak MD, PhD
2Department of Promotion, Food and Nutrition, Institute of Rural Health, Lublin, Poland
Head: Andrzej Wojtyła MD, PhD
3Department of Food Engineering and Machines, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland
Head: Prof. Kazimierz Zawiślak
Postep Derm Alergol 2012; XXIX, 4: 256-262
DOI: 10.5114/pdia.2012.30463
Abstract
Recent research conducted at the Institute of Rural Health indicated the harmfulness of organic dusts present in
the environments of agricultural producers. Due to the high concentration of biological agents contained in dust
grains, derived from conventional and organic cropping systems, there is a real risk of developing respiratory diseases in people doing agricultural work. Conventional and organic cropping systems differ significantly in terms
of fertilization method and plant protection. Such differences may also influence the composition of biological
agents in grain dust, which can cause various health effects in humans. No assessment has been carried out in
farms with different systems of farming. Ambiguous statements on existing health risks in people doing agricultural work on conventional and organic farms prompted the Department of Allergy and Environmental Hazards,
Institute of Rural Health in Lublin, to perform mycological tests and assess the degree of contamination with fungi pathogenic for humans in grain dust and grain from organic and conventional farms. A literature review and
research conducted at the Institute of Rural Medicine show that the problem of occupational exposure to the presence of molds and mycotoxins in grains and grain dusts and their possible role in the development of pathological
changes of the respiratory system is very important from the standpoint of hygiene and occupational medicine,
and still requires further studies.
Key words: molds, conventional crops, organic farming.
Introduction
High concentrations of biological agents contained in
grain dust derived from conventional and organic cropping systems could pose a real danger of developing respiratory diseases in people doing agricultural work. Conventional and organic cropping systems significantly differ
in terms of method of fertilization and plant protection,
and this may influence the biological agents contained
in grain dust which can cause various health effects in
humans. The views concerning the impact on health
of the two production systems are still divided, not only
because of the quality of raw materials produced, but also
because of the health hazard for people working with
crops. One theory assumes that a different method of fer-
tilization, characterized by organic farming, causes
changes in the metabolism of plants. Greater amounts
of secondary metabolites cope better with the threats in
the form of fungal diseases or insects. This would mean
that pathogenic fungi should be less frequent in products
derived from organic production systems. On the other
hand, in organic farming conventional antifungal preparations are not applied. The ecological system prohibits
chemical treatment of raw materials, and seed quality
standards in organic farming provide detailed features
of the grain [1]. In addition, there are also specific plant
protection measures which are essential in conventional
agriculture in the fight against weeds and pests. From this
point of view a greater number of weeds and crop dam-
Address for correspondence: Wioletta A. Żukiewicz-Sobczak PhD, Department of Allergology and Environmental Hazards, Institute of Rural
Health, 2 Jaczewskiego, 20-090 Lublin, Poland, phone: +48 69 814 37 43, e-mail: wiola.zukiewiczsobczak@gmail.com
256
Postępy Dermatologii i Alergologii XXIX; 2012/4
Pathogenic fungi in the work environment of organic and conventional farmers
age by pests can contribute to greater infestation by pathogenic fungi. Ambiguity on this subject prompted
the Department of Allergology and Environmental Hazards from the Institute of Rural Health in Lublin to perform mycological tests and assess the population of grains
and organic dusts from farms with conventional and ecological profiles of fungi pathogenic for humans.
Data taken from the reports of the Agricultural and
Food Quality Inspection show that in recent years, organic farming in Poland has been growing rapidly, and organic agricultural producers constitute the majority of agricultural producers. Data obtained from the Central
Statistical Office, from the years 2009-2010, indicate that
organic agricultural producers accounted for approximately 98% of all producers. In 2010 we saw an increase
in the number of organic producers in 15 Polish provinces, with the exception of the Małopolska province. In
the structure of organic agricultural land derived from
2010, meadows and pastures had the largest share
(42.3%), followed by crops to feed (20.6% of agricultural
land), then corn (19.6%) and other crops (17.5%) [2]. One
of the oldest and most widely grown cereals in the world
is wheat. According to literature sources the area under
wheat in Poland in 2008 was 2 277 954 ha [3]. Wheat, like
other grains, can be infected at all stages of its development by fungi, which in turn can reduce grain quality and
can cause significant losses in yield [4-6]. One of the grains
belonging to plants less susceptible to fungal diseases is
a mutant of wheat and rye, triticale [7]. Triticale cultivation has many advantages: it is more resistant to diseases
of wheat and rye (including complete resistance to smut
and rust caused by fungi of the genus Basidiomycetes),
to lodging, has good winter hardiness, has lower soil
requirements than wheat, and greater resistance to weeds
and drought [8]. Numerous studies indicate that the grain
ripened in spikes or stored in low humidity conditions,
subjected to microdamage resulting from the technique
of harvesting and the threshing machine, may be a substrate for the growth of fungi [9]. The composition
of fungi present in the grain depends on the conditions
prevailing during the growing season (e.g., weather conditions, the method of cultivation, application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides) [1, 10]. Many studies confirm
that climatic conditions have a significant impact on
the development of various plant pathogens. The species
of the genus Fusarium prefer high humidity persisting
longer than 24 h and air temperatures reaching above
20°C [11-16]. Some of the research conducted at the Institute of Rural Health in 10 samples of wheat and 10 samples of settled dust, collected from farms that carry out
threshing using a combine harvester, showed the presence in grain of wheat fungal species Alternaria alternata, Geotrichum candidum, Aspergillus fumigatus, Monilia
candida and white yeasts, in samples of settled dust fungi of the genus Penicillium and species Alternaria alter-
Postępy Dermatologii i Alergologii XXIX; 2012/4
nata, Rhodotorula rubra, Oidiodendron flavum, Monilia
linicola geophila and Cladosporium linicola [17].
The population of professionals potentially exposed
to biological agents contained in the grain dust are agricultural workers (including employees of certain sectors
of the agro-food industry) [18, 19]. In many studies
the authors have shown that inhalation of organic dust
contaminated with mold spores may cause allergic respiratory diseases. The literature shows that the components of organic dust can cause asthma, allergic alveolitis, organic dust toxic syndrome (ODTS), byssinosis,
chronic bronchitis, allergic rhinitis, mucous membrane
irritation, sick building syndrome (SBS), chronic fatigue
syndrome (CFS) and certain infectious diseases and cancer [17, 18, 20]. Very high exposure in the agricultural work
environment occurs during grain harvesting and threshing, feed administration, rapeseed threshing, herbs cleaning, tobacco cultivation, collecting hay from the fields, flax
turbination and pig and cattle breeding [17, 21-24]. Previous studies conducted at the Institute of Rural Health on
health risks for farmers in conventional farms showed
that molds belonging to different genera and species, such
as Penicillium spp., Mucor spp., Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium fulvum, Cladosporium herbarum, Aspergillus
fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, and Aspergillus candidus may
be etiologic factors of allergic and immunotoxic diseases.
In the literature there are few data on levels of pathogenic
fungi in the work environment of farmers. There is no
information about the health hazards of agricultural producers in the Polish organic farms. Most research on
organic farms, from the last decade, mainly focused on
the phytopathological aspect. To date there are no specified levels of molds and their metabolites in organic dusts
from organic farms.
Aim
The aim of research conducted at the Institute of Rural Health in 2010-2011 in Lublin, Poland was to compare
the existing occupational risk for agricultural producers
due to the presence of mold in the grain and grain dust
on conventional and ecological farms. Comparison
of the two tillage systems helps to determine whether
a particular system has an effect on colonization of wheat
and triticale by filamentous fungi and yeasts, which in
turn may be a potential cause of symptoms in people
exposed to inhalation of grain dust.
Material and methods
As part of the project by the Department of Allergology and Environmental Hazards from the Institute of Rural Health in Lublin in 2010, wheat grain and wheat dust
formed during the threshing of wheat were sampled,
while in 2011 triticale samples (grain and dust) formed
during the threshing of grown triticale were collected in
257
W. Żukiewicz-Sobczak, G. Cholewa, E. Krasowska, J. Zwoliński, J. Chmielewska-Badora, J. Piątek, P. Sobczak, K. Zawiślak,
A. Wojtyła
conventional and organic farms from the Lublin area.
The concentration and composition of species of fungi on
potato agar (PDA) in the collected samples of wheat and
triticale were determined. The collected samples of specified concentration and species composition of filamentous fungi, using the dilution plating method consisting
in the execution of logarithmic dilutions of the sample
(from 102-108), were then plated onto the substrate with
each dilution. The plates were incubated in a thermostat
at 30°C for 72 h then at room temperature for 72 h, after
which the specified concentration of fungi in CFU/g was
determined. In the final stage the fungal species were
identified using macroscopic and microscopic methods
(size, shape, size and color of the colony, shape, color and
surface of conidia, length and color of conidiophores,
the number of sterigma rows) based on mycological keys,
and finally the species composition of flora was determined in percentages and images were made with
a microscope and camera.
Results
In the samples of wheat grain and dust collected from
organic farming significant levels of fungi were found.
In the dust of wheat they were present in the range of
25 × 105 – 33 × 105 CFU/g, and in wheat grain within
the limits of 8.5 × 103 – 12 × 103 CFU/g. It should be noted that higher concentrations of fungi were found in
the dust than in grain. In the samples of wheat grain collected from organic farming were Aspergillus flavus, Cladosporium sp., Aureobasidium sp., Ulocladium sp., Cladosporium macrocarpum, Fusarium sp., Penicillium sp.,
Table 1. Molds and yeasts identified in the grain and dust of wheat taken from conventional and organic crops from the province of Lublin in 2010, isolated on PDA medium
Fungi and ye asts
Wheat 2010
Wheat grain
Wheat dust
Organic farming [%]
Conventional crops [%]
Organic farming [%]
Conventional crops [%]
Acremoniella atra
0.00
0.85
0.00
0.00
Alternaria alternata
0.00
0.85
0.00
0.00
Alternaria sp.
0.00
0.00
1.19
0.87
Aspergillus flavus
23.42
0.00
0.00
7.23
Aureobasidium sp.
16.22
0.00
0.00
0.00
Cladosporium herbarum
0.00
6.78
7.94
5.49
Cladosporium macrocarpum
6.31
7.63
9.52
8.67
Cladosporium sp.
22.52
38.14
32.54
33.24
Cladosporium sphaerospermum
1.80
4.24
0.00
0.00
Yeasts
0.90
19.49
0.00
8.67
Fusarium oxysporum
0.00
0.85
0.00
0.00
Fusarium sp.
6.31
3.39
18.25
9.54
Gonatobotrys sp.
0.00
0.00
14.29
12.72
Mucor hiemalis
0.00
3.39
0.79
0.00
Mucor racemosus
0.00
2.54
0.00
0.00
Mucor sp.
0.00
0.00
1.59
2.02
Paeciliomyces variotii
0.00
1.69
0.00
0.00
Penicillium citrinum
0.00
3.39
0.00
0.00
Penicillium expansum
2.70
0.00
2.38
2.89
Penicillium sp.
4.50
0.00
7.14
5.78
Ulocladium sp.
11.71
1.69
4.37
2.89
Ulocladium chartarum
3.60
5.08
0.00
0.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Σ
258
Postępy Dermatologii i Alergologii XXIX; 2012/4
Pathogenic fungi in the work environment of organic and conventional farmers
Table 2. Molds and yeasts identified in triticale grain and dust collected from conventional and organic crops from the province of Lublin in 2011, isolated on PDA medium
Fungi and yeasts
Triticale 2011
Triticale grain
Triticale dust
Organic farming [%]
Conventional crops [%]
Organic farming [%]
Conventional crops [%]
Absidia sp.
5.41
0.00
0.00
0.00
Alternaria alternata
2.70
4.11
4.32
3.33
Aspergillus fumigatus
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.83
Aspergillus sp.
2.70
0.00
0.00
0.00
Aureobasidium sp.
0.00
0.00
2.43
38.04
Cladosporium herbarum
2.70
0.68
0.00
0.00
Cladosporium macrocarpum
32.43
2.74
15.95
0.00
Cladosporium sp.
2.70
0.68
7.84
1.66
Yeasts
45.95
67.12
4.59
11.23
Fusarium culmorum
0.00
0.00
0.27
0.00
Fusarium sp.
5.41
4.11
37.30
21.83
Gonatobotrys sp.
0.00
2.05
3.24
8.11
Penicillium sp.
0.00
6.16
1.08
1.25
Rhizopus sp.
0.00
0.00
0.81
0.00
Stachybotrys chartarum
0.00
2.74
0.00
0.00
Trichophyton sp.
0.00
0.00
0.54
0.00
Ulocladium sp.
0.00
9.59
21.62
13.72
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Σ
Ulocladium chartarum, Penicillium expansum, Cladosporium sphaerospermum and yeasts. In the samples of
wheat grain and dust collected from conventional crops
fungi were also found at high levels, in the dust of wheat
within the range of 20.5 × 105 – 40 × 105 CFU/g, and in
the wheat grain 7.5 × 103 – 20.5 × 103 CFU/g. In the samples of wheat grain collected from conventional crops
were Cladosporium sp., yeasts, Cladosporium macrocarpum, Cladosporium herbarum, Ulocladium chartarum,
Cladosporium sphaerospermum, Fusarium sp., Mucor
hiemalis, Penicillium citrinum, Mucor racemosus, Pae-
cilomyces variotii, Ulocladium sp., Acremoniella atra,
Alternaria alternata, Fusarium oxysporum. In the samples
of wheat dust from organic farming the following molds
were found: Cladosporium sp., Fusarium sp., Gonatobotrys
sp., Cladosporium macrocarpum, Cladosporium herbarum,
Penicillium sp., Ulocladium sp., Penicillium expansum,
Mucor sp., Alternaria sp., Mucor hiemalis. In the samples
of wheat dust from conventional crops, the following fungi were found: Cladosporium sp., Gonatobotrys sp., Fusarium sp., Cladosporium macrocarpum, yeasts, Aspergillus
flavus, Penicillium sp., Cladosporium herbarum, Penicilli-
Table 3. The concentration of fungi in wheat grain and wheat dust, samples collected from conventional and organic crops
from the province of Lublin in 2010, isolated on PDA medium
Number
of sample
Wheat grain –
conventional crops
Wheat grain –
organic farming
Number
of sample
Wheat dust –
conventional crops
Wheat dust –
organic farming
1
8.5 × 103
12 × 103
5
20.5 × 105
27 × 105
2
7.5 × 103
8.5 × 103
6
38 × 105
33 × 105
3
20.5 × 103
9 × 103
7
27 × 105
26 × 105
4
10 × 103
9 × 103
8
40 × 105
25 × 105
Postępy Dermatologii i Alergologii XXIX; 2012/4
259
W. Żukiewicz-Sobczak, G. Cholewa, E. Krasowska, J. Zwoliński, J. Chmielewska-Badora, J. Piątek, P. Sobczak, K. Zawiślak,
A. Wojtyła
Table 4. The concentration of fungi in triticale grain and triticale dust, samples collected from conventional and organic
crops from the province of Lublin in 2011, isolated on PDA medium
Number
of sample
Triticale grain –
organic farming
Triticale dust –
organic farming
Number
of sample
Triticale grain –
conventional crops
Triticale dust –
conventional crops
1
5.5 × 103
19 × 104
6
4 × 103
33 × 104
2
0.5 × 103
20.5 × 104
7
6.5 × 103
47 × 104
3
1 × 103
38 × 104
8
7 × 103
32 × 104
4
1 × 103
21 × 104
9
1.5 × 103
36 × 104
5
0
37.5 × 104
10
5.5 × 103
6.6 × 104
um expansum, Ulocladium sp., Mucor sp., Alternaria sp.
In the samples of triticale grain and dust samples from
organic farming were the following concentrations of fungi: the dust from triticale – 19 × 104 – 38 × 104 CFU/g, in
triticale grain – 0-5.5 × 103 CFU/g. In the triticale grain
samples from organic farming, the following fungi were
identified: yeasts, Cladosporium macrocarpum, Absidia
sp., Fusarium sp., Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus sp., Cladosporium herbarum, Cladosporium sp. In the samples
of triticale grain from conventional farming, the
following fungi were present: yeasts, Ulocladium sp., Penicillium sp., Alternaria alternata, Fusarium sp., Cladosporium macrocarpum, Stachybotrys chartarum, Gonatobotrys
sp., Cladosporium herbarum, Cladosporium sp. In the samples of triticale grain and dust collected from conventional
crops the following concentrations of fungi were determined: the dust from triticale, 6.6 × 104 – 47 × 104 CFU/g;
in triticale grain, around 1.5 × 103 – 7 × 103 CFU/g. The concentration of fungi in the collected samples of organic
farms was lower than in samples from conventional
farms, which may indicate a higher efficiency of organic
farming in terms of contamination of mold fungi. In tests
of triticale dust from organic crops the following fungi
were identified: Fusarium sp., Ulocladium sp., Cladosporium macrocarpum, Cladosporium sp., yeasts, Alternaria
alternata, Gonatobotrys sp., Aureobasidium sp., Penicillium sp., Rhizopus sp., Trichophyton sp., Fusarium culmorum. In the samples of triticale dust from conventional
crops, the following molds were found: Aureobasidium
sp., Fusarium sp., Ulocladium sp., yeasts, Gonatobotrys
sp., Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium sp., Penicillium sp.,
Aspergillus fumigatus. The isolated fungi, as well as
the dominance of species including Alternaria alternata,
are known and are confirmed by the literature of this field
[25, 26].
These results are consistent with the objectives
of the research project, i.e., pathogenic fungi are present
in smaller amounts of products derived from organic production systems. Despite the fact that organic farming
does not apply antifungal preparations and typical characteristics of plant protection measures, which are
the basis in conventional agriculture of the fight against
260
weeds and pests, it is appropriately matched to the type
of cereal crops to better cope with threats such as fungi.
It should be noted that the meteorological conditions during the summer in the years 2010-2011 were extremely
wet, which had a significant impact on biodiversity and
concentration of the identified species. The high degree
of grain infestation was associated with the weather conditions prevailing during the growing season. High levels
of precipitation and moderate temperatures during
the summer months (June-August) constitute a favorable
environment for the development of fungi infecting grain
[26]. The entire test results revealed a significant health
hazard for agricultural producers, due to the presence
of allergenic and toxinogenic molds occurring in crops
of wheat and triticale. They represent a potential health
hazard for farmers exposed to inhalation of dust during
operation and thus indicate a substantial degree of occupational exposure in this occupational group.
Discussion
The research indicates considerable contamination
of grain samples and grain dust samples of wheat and
triticale with molds. The scientific literature widely
describes exposure to mycotoxins entering the body by
ingestion but inhalation exposure – most relevant for
hygiene and occupational medicine – is still poorly understood [9]. From trials with conventional and organic crops
of wheat, the most frequently isolated were fungi from
the genera Cladosporium and Fusarium and also yeasts.
In the case of triticale, the most numerous were fungi
of the genera Fusarium, Cladosporium, Alternaria, Ulocladium and also yeasts. Fusarium spp. produce many
metabolites and the most important group of metabolites among zootoxins are trichothecenes, which can
cause numerous human and animal intoxications [27].
Fungi of the genus Cladosporium very rarely cause
opportunistic fungal infections, but from the standpoint
of allergy are a common allergen [28]. Cladosporium
and Alternaria are responsible for inhalant allergies (oculorhinitis, mold asthma). They can also cause allergic alveolitis: Alternaria – "woodworker's lung", Cladosporium –
Postępy Dermatologii i Alergologii XXIX; 2012/4
Pathogenic fungi in the work environment of organic and conventional farmers
"tobacco worker's lung". Also important for allergy are
yeast, Aspergillus and Penicillium [29]. Ulocladium sp.
rarely causes disease in humans. Among the isolated fungi Aspergillus and Trichophyton occurred less frequently.
According to the classification, taking into account
biosafety of fungi potentially pathogenic for humans and
animals, fungi have been included in the class of BSL-2
because they are not neutral to human health [30]. In this
group are also fungi of the genera Fusarium and Absidia.
Rhizopus sp. and yeasts can have first or second degree
of risk to health [28]. The literature shows that diseases
caused by the harmful effects of mycotoxins – mycotoxicoses – have been known for many years. Inhaled mycotoxins with grain dust arising during agricultural work are
a potential occupational hazard for farmers. Particularly
important are the trichothecenes, produced by different
species of fungi of the genus Fusarium, and ochratoxin,
produced by fungi of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium [17, 31]. Because of their low volatility, mycotoxins
rarely can be secreted directly into the air or may be present in airborne particles or hyphal fragments with
a diameter allowing them to reach the alveoli [32]. In
the situation when the grain dust has several mycotoxins, their effect may accumulate and cause disease symptoms in the form of "acute episodes of lung" and other
symptoms such as burning eyes, shortness of breath,
chest pain, fever, dry cough and malaise [17, 31, 33, 34].
High risk of exposure to inhaled mycotoxins occurs due
to storage of grain insufficiently desiccated, high temperatures, and lack of air circulation in the silo. Health
risk is also associated with emptying silos (or other grain
storage areas), and further marketing or processing
of grain (trade, milling, etc.) [9]. The frequent occurrence
of T-2 toxin – an inhibitor of protein synthesis that affects
the immune system – is found in different varieties of winter and spring cereals. The highest concentration of this
mycotoxin was observed in organic cereals such as wheat,
rye and triticale. Zearalenone, another dangerous mycotoxin, according to the literature appeared widely in
organic cereals such as rye, barley and oats [33, 35]. Consuming food or feeding animals with mycotoxin contaminated feed can cause various diseases in humans and
animals referred to as mycotoxicoses. They represent
a direct threat to humans and warm-blooded animals.
The danger arising from the possible production of toxic
fungi metabolites is included in the assumptions
of the national defense. Mycotoxins such as aflatoxin and
T-2 toxin are recognized by the National Security Bureau
as potential biological weapons [36].
Conclusions
Based on the survey it was found that the concentration of fungi in the collected samples from ecological
farms was lower than in samples taken from conventional
farms. In samples of grains and grain dust of wheat and
Postępy Dermatologii i Alergologii XXIX; 2012/4
triticale, higher concentrations of fungi occurred in
the dust than in grains. This indicates a high degree of risk
to the health of people working on growing, harvesting
and storing grain. The isolated species of fungi also
demonstrated the direct exposure of people engaged in
agricultural work to the effects of metabolites produced
by these fungi. Although not all aspects of the impact
of mycotoxins on humans by inhalation are known, there
is reason to believe that long-term inhalation of even
small doses of these compounds not only can cause
mycotoxicosis, but may also involve the risk of cancer [17,
31, 37-42]. The review of the literature and our own investigations show that the problem of occupational exposure to the presence of molds and mycotoxins in grain
and grain dust, and their role in the development
of pathological changes of the respiratory system, is very
important and still needs further investigation [9, 43-45].
References
1. Girsch L, Weinhappel M. Specific seed health standards for
organic cereal seed. Proc. of the First world Conference on
Organic Seed, July 5-7, FAO, 2004 Rome, Italy: 79-83.
2. Zdrojewska I. Report on the status of organic farming in
Poland in the years 2009-2010. Agricultural and Food Quality Inspection. IJHARS. Warsaw 2011 [Polish].
3. Central Statistical Office. Regional Data Bank. Data for 20072008 [Polish].
4. Korbas M. Diseases of the grain, opportunities and prospects
for eradication [Polish]. Prog Plant Protection/Post Ochr
Roślin 2004; 44: 147-54.
5. Weber R. Risks and ways of reducing wheat fusarium diseases [Polish]. Post Nauk Rol 2007; 2: 19-31.
6. Suchorzyńska M, Misiewicz A. Mycotoxic phytopathogenic
fungi of the genus Fusarium and detection of PCR techniques [Polish]. Post Mikrobiol 2009; 48: 221-30.
7. Boligłowa E, Klima K. Health status of spring triticale grown
in organic and conventional system [Polish]. Progress in Plant
Protection 2010; 50: 615-9.
8. Woś H, Banaszak Z, Mikulski W. Triticale: yesterday, today
and tomorrow [Polish]. Wieś Jutra 2008; 4: 31-3.
9. Soroka PM, Cyprowski M, Szadkowska-Stańczyk I. Occupational exposure to mycotoxins in various branches of industry. Med Pr 2008; 59: 333-45.
10. Szwajkowska-Michalek L, Stuper K, Lakomy P, et al. Contents
of microscopic fungi in dusts coming from cereal analysis
laboratories. Ann Agric Environ Med 2010; 17: 101-6
11. Brennan JM, Egan D, Cooke BM, Doohan FM. Effect of temperature on head blight of wheat caused by Fusarium culmorum and F. graminearum. Plant Pathol 2005; 54: 156-60.
12. Brennan JM, Fagan B, van Maanen A, et al. Studies on in vitro
growth and pathogenicity of European Fusarium Fungi. Eur
J Plant Pathol 2003; 109: 577-87.
13. Jaczewska-Kalicka A. The occurrence of disease and crop losses of winter wheat with particular reference to the impact
of climate [Polish]. Prog Plant Protection 2001; 41: 607-16.
14. Matusinsky P, Mikolasova R, Klem K, Spitzer T. Eyespot infection risks on wheat with respect to climatic conditions and
soil management. J Plant Pathol 2009; 91: 93-101.
15. Suproniene S, Justesen A, Nicolaisen M, et al. Distribution
of trichothecene and zearalenone producing Fusarium spe-
261
W. Żukiewicz-Sobczak, G. Cholewa, E. Krasowska, J. Zwoliński, J. Chmielewska-Badora, J. Piątek, P. Sobczak, K. Zawiślak,
A. Wojtyła
cies in grain of different cereal species and cultivars grown
under organic farming conditions in Lithuania. Ann Agric
Environ Med 2010; 17: 79-86
16. Sutton JC. Epidemiology of wheat head blight and maize ear
rot caused by Fusarium graminearum. Can J Plant Pathol
1982; 4: 195-209.
17. Krysińska-Traczyk E, Perkowski J, Kostecki M, et al. Filamentous fungi and mycotoxins as potential occupational risk factors among farmers harvesting various crops [Polish]. Med
Pr 2003; 54: 133-8.
18. Dutkiewicz J, Górny RL. Biologic factors hazardous to health:
classification and criteria of exposure assessment [Polish].
Med Pr 2002; 53: 29-39.
19. Broding HC, Frank P, Hoffmeyer F, Bunger J. Course of occupational asthma depending on the duration of workplace
exposure to allergens – a retrospective cohort study in bakers
and farmers. Ann Agric Environ Med 2011; 18: 35-40.
20. Jahnz-Rozyk K, Targowski T, Owczarek W, et al. Effects of allergic diseases, concomitant with allergic rhinitis, on the clinical efficacy and costs of allergen-specific immunotherapy in
Poland. Postep Derm Alergol 2011; 28: 378-81.
21. Krysińska-Traczyk E. Mold fungi as an etiologic factor of occupational diseases occurring in the agricultural and forestry
work environment [Polish]. Med Wiej 1994; 29: 108-14.
22. Krysińska-Traczyk E. Microflora of the farming work environment as an occupational risk factor [Polish]. Med Pr 2000;
51: 351-5.
23. Krysińska-Traczyk E, Skórska C, Prażmo Z, et al. Bio-aerosols
as potential health hazards for farmers working in the grain threshing [Polish]. Med Ogólna 1999; 5: 301-6.
24. Krysińska-Traczyk E, Dutkiewicz J, Skórska C, et al. Occupational exposure to individual farmers on bio-aerosols occurring in the dust with thyme [Polish]. Med Ogólna 1999; 5;
186-93.
25. Nowicki B, Zamorski C, Schollenberger M. Pathogenic fungi
colonizing grains of triticale. Acta Agrobot 1996; 49: 107-14.
26. Kwiatkowski J, Wachowska U. Fungal communities of different generations of triticale grain in 1993-1994. Acta Agrobot 2005; 58: 135-42.
27. Kwaśna H, Chełkowski J, Zajkowski P. Fusarium (Sierpik) in
the series: Fungi (Mycota) [Polish]. Vol. XXII – Institute
of Botany Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków 1991.
28. Krzyściak P, Skóra M, Macura AB. Atlas of human pathogenic fungi. Med Pharm, Wrocław 2010.
29. Baran E. Draft of medical mycology [Polish]. Wrocław 1998.
30. Nabrdalik M. Filamentous fungi in buildings. Ecol Chem Eng
2007; 14: 489-96.
31. Hintikka EL, Nikulin M. Airborne mycotoxins in agricultural
and indoor environments. Indoor Air 1998; 4: 66-70.
32. Sorenson WG. Fungal spores: hazardous to health. Environ
Health Perspect 1999; 107: 469-72.
33. Cudowska B, Marcinkiewicz S, Kaczmarski M. Sensitization
to cereal allergens in children with atopic dermatitis. Postep
Derm Alergol 2011; 28: 181-6.
34. Perry LP, Iwata M, Tazelaar HD, et al. Pulmonary mycotoxicosis: a clinicopathologic study of three cases. Med Pathol
1998; 2: 432-6.
35. Solarska E, Mazurkiewicz J, Pałka A, Potocka E. Determining
the occurrence of mycotoxins in different varieties of winter
and spring cereals grown organically. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Summary of results of research
on organic farming carried out in 2008 [Polish]. Warsaw
2009; 245-52.
36. Korbas M, Horoszkiewicz-Janka J. Importance and the potential to reduce harmful fungal metabolites [Polish]. Prog Plant
Protection/Post Ochr Roślin 2007; 47: 141-7.
262
37. Perry LP, Iwata M, Tazelaar HD, et al. Pulmonary mycotoxicosis: a clinicopathologic study of three cases. Med Pathol
1998; 2: 432-6.
38. Munoz Rodriguez AF, Palacios I, Molina R. Influence of meteorological parameters in hourly patterns of grass (Poaceae)
pollen concentrations. Ann Agric Environ Med 2010; 17:
87-100.
39. Karakis GP, Sin B, Tutkak H, et al. Genetic aspect of venom
allergy: association with HLA class I and class II antigens.
Ann Agric Environ Med 2010; 17: 119-23.
40. Perez-Badia R, Rapp A, Morales C, et al. Pollen spectrum and
risk of pollen allergy in central Spain. Ann Agric Environ Med
2010; 17: 139-51.
41. Pérez-Badia R, Vaquero C, Sardinero S, et al. Intradiurnal
variations of allergenic tree pollen in the atmosphere of Toledo (central Spain). Ann Agric Environ Med 2010; 17: 269-75.
42. Brinchmann BC, Bayat M, Brogger T, et al. A possible role
of chitin in the pathogenesis of asthma and allergy. Ann Agric
Environ Med 2011; 18: 7-12.
43. Żukiewicz-Sobczak W, Cholewa G. Fungi and substances produced by them as a threat to the health of agricultural workers and animal breeders [Polish]. Institute of Rural Health
in Lublin 2011; 96-102.
44. Jakubowicz J, Jakubowicz O, Żaba C, et al. Nowe regulacje
prawne dotyczące chorób zawodowych. Postep Derm Alergol 2010; 27: 122-5.
45. Lemieszek M, Chilosi M, Golec M, et al. Mouse model
of hypersensitivity pneumonitis after inhalation exposure to
different microbial antigens associated with organic dusts.
Ann Agric Environ Med 2011; 18: 159-68.
Postępy Dermatologii i Alergologii XXIX; 2012/4