(2023) 64:17
Vandegrift et al. Botanical Studies
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40529-023-00390-z
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Botanical Studies
Open Access
Richer than Gold: the fungal biodiversity
of Reserva Los Cedros, a threatened Andean
cloud forest
R. Vandegrift1,4* , D. S. Newman2,4 , B. T. M. Dentinger3, R. Batallas‑Molina4 , N. Dueñas5, J. Flores6, P. Goyes7,
T. S. Jenkinson8 , J. McAlpine1, D. Navas4, T. Policha1 , D. C. Thomas1,9 and B. A. Roy1
Abstract
Background Globally, many undescribed fungal taxa reside in the hyperdiverse, yet undersampled, tropics. These
species are under increasing threat from habitat destruction by expanding extractive industry, in addition to global
climate change and other threats. Reserva Los Cedros is a primary cloud forest reserve of ~ 5256 ha, and is among
the last unlogged watersheds on the western slope of the Ecuadorian Andes. No major fungal survey has been done
there, presenting an opportunity to document fungi in primary forest in an underrepresented habitat and location.
Above‑ground surveys from 2008 to 2019 resulted in 1760 vouchered collections, cataloged and deposited at QCNE
in Ecuador, mostly Agaricales sensu lato and Xylariales. We document diversity using a combination of ITS barcode
sequencing and digital photography, and share the information via public repositories (GenBank & iNaturalist).
Results Preliminary identifications indicate the presence of at least 727 unique fungal species within the Reserve,
representing 4 phyla, 17 classes, 40 orders, 101 families, and 229 genera. Two taxa at Los Cedros have recently been
recommended to the IUCN Fungal Red List Initiative (Thamnomyces chocöensis Læssøe and “Lactocollybia” aurantiaca
Singer), and we add occurrence data for two others already under consideration (Hygrocybe aphylla Læssøe & Boertm.
and Lamelloporus americanus Ryvarden).
Conclusions Plants and animals are known to exhibit exceptionally high diversity and endemism in the Chocó biore‑
gion, as the fungi do as well. Our collections contribute to understanding this important driver of biodiversity in the
Neotropics, as well as illustrating the importance and utility of such data to conservation efforts.
Resumen Antecedentes: A nivel mundial muchos taxones fúngicos no descritos residen en los trópicos hiper diversos
aunque continúan submuestreados. Estas especies están cada vez más amenazadas por la destrucción del hábitat
debido a la expansión de la industria extractivista además del cambio climático global y otras amenazas. Los Cedros
es una reserva de bosque nublado primario de ~ 5256 ha y se encuentra entre las últimas cuencas hidrográficas no
explotadas en la vertiente occidental de los Andes ecuatorianos. Nunca antes se ha realizado un estudio de diversidad
micológica en el sitio, lo que significa una oportunidad para documentar hongos en el bosque primario, en hábitat
y ubicación subrepresentatadas. El presente estudio recopila información entre el 2008 y 2019 muestreando mate‑
rial sobre todos los sustratos, reportando 1760 colecciones catalogadas y depositadas en el Fungario del QCNE de
Ecuador, en su mayoría Agaricales sensu lato y Xylariales; además se documenta la diversidad mediante secuenciación
de códigos de barras ITS y fotografía digital, la información está disponible en repositorios públicos digitales (GenBank
e iNaturalist). Resultados: La identificación preliminar indica la presencia de al menos 727 especies únicas de hongos
*Correspondence:
R. Vandegrift
werdnus@gmail.com; awv@uoregon.edu
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
This is a U.S. Government work and not under copyright protection in the US; foreign copyright protection may apply 2023. Open
Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation,
distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is
not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the
permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativeco
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Vandegrift et al. Botanical Studies
(2023) 64:17
Page 2 of 22
dentro de la Reserva, que representan 4 filos, 17 clases, 40 órdenes, 101 familias y 229 géneros. Recientemente dos
taxones en Los Cedros se recomendaron a la Iniciativa de Lista Roja de Hongos de la UICN (Thamnomyces chocöensis
Læssøe y “Lactocollybia” aurantiaca Singer) y agregamos datos de presencia de otros dos que ya estaban bajo consid‑
eración (Hygrocybe aphylla Læssøe & Boertm. y Lamelloporus americanus Ryvarden). Conclusiones: Se sabe que plantas
y animales exhiben una diversidad y endemismo excepcionalmente altos en la bioregión del Chocó y los hongos no
son la excepción. Nuestras colecciones contribuyen a comprender este importante promotor de la biodiversidad en
el Neotrópico además de ilustrar la importancia y utilidad de dichos datos para los esfuerzos de conservación.
Keywords Anamorph‑teleomorph connections, Ecuador, Conservation, Diversity, iNaturalist, Agaricales, Xylariales,
Fungi, Ecology, Tropical
Background
Global estimates for fungal diversity have ranged from
500,000 to 10 million over the course of the last century,
the most recent estimate narrowing that range to 2.2–
3.8 million (Hawksworth and Lücking 2017), of which
only ~ 150,000 have been described to science (Lücking
et al. 2021). With uncertainty surrounding the precise
scope and extent of Earth’s fungal diversity, a consensus has emerged that the majority of this diversity, both
known and unknown, resides in the tropics (Tedersoo
et al. 2014; Hu et al. 2019; Hawksworth & Lücking 2017).
Certain tropical regions have received ample mycological attention, while others remain dramatically underexplored and understudied (Piepenbring 2015). Of the
latter, the Andes mountain range is among the most
diverse and least mycologically documented places on the
planet (Geml et al. 2014; Simijaca et al. 2022; Ryvarden,
pers. comm.).
While localities possessing this combination of hyperbiodiversity and underdocumentation should already be
considered research priorities, we contend that a third
qualifier—conservation status—should be taken into
equal consideration. In recognition of these combined
attributes, we have conducted an array of short- and
long-term diversity and ecology studies within the threatened Ecuadorian protected forest, Reserva Los Cedros
(RLC), a 5256-hectare preserve of mostly primary, premontane to montane, moist, broadleaf forest (i.e., “cloud
forest”). Here, we synthesize more than a decade of collecting work at Los Cedros to provide the first major
exploration of one of its least known characteristics: its
fungal biodiversity. This work draws from our previously published studies (Policha 2014; Policha et al. 2016;
Thomas et al. 2016; Nelson et al. 2020), as well as new
collections, including many from previously unexplored
parts of the Reserve.
History of mycology in Ecuador
While uses of fungi among indigenous Andean-Amazonian peoples go back many thousands of years (Fidalgo
and Prance 1976; Davis and Yost 1983; Prance 1984; Zent
et al. 2004; Gamboa-Trujillo 2005; Zent 2008), the contemporary field of mycology in Ecuador has a relatively
brief history. The most notable early contributor was Nils
Gustav de Lagerheim (1889–1895), a Swedish botanist
and plant pathologist, and a founder of modern Ecuadorian mycology, who often published in collaboration
with Narcisse Théophile Patoulliard in Paris (Læssøe and
Petersen 2011a). The next sizable contribution was provided by Hans Sydow, who visited Ecuador in 1937, and
collected primarily microfungi (Sydow et al. 1939; Petrak
and Others 1948). Though much of Sydow’s material was
lost during the second world war, more than 180 fungal
species described from Ecuador are based on his types,
and at least 17 Ecuadorian taxa are named in his honor
(Læssøe and Petersen 2011a).
The 1970s were a period of renewed mycological investigation in Ecuador, attracting the attention of Rolf Singer
(1973), Harry C. Evans (1973–1975), and Kent Dumont
(1975), focusing (primarily) on the “higher” basidiomycetes, entomo- and phyto-pathogenic fungi, and inoperculate discomycetes, respectively. Dumont alone amassed
some 2,300 collections of Ecuadorian fungi, deposited
at NY (Læssøe and Petersen 2011a). In 1993, the British Mycological Society organized an internationallyattended expedition to Ecuador (Lodge and Cantrell
1995; Lodge 1996; Lunt and Hedger 1996), attracting
some 30 participants and generating upwards of 1600
collections, duplicates of which are housed at PUCE.
At the start of the twenty-first century, Danish mycologists Thomas Læssøe and Jens Petersen set out to create
what would ultimately become one of the most significant contributions not only to Ecuadorian mycology,
but to the study of tropical American fungi as a whole.
Over the course of several field expeditions (2001–2004),
Læssøe and Petersen generated both well-documented
collections and high-quality, in situ, color photography
for roughly 1200 species of Ecuadorian fungi. They also
assembled the first comprehensive bibliography of Ecuadorian mycological literature, out of which was born the
first Ecuadorian national checklist of fungi numbering
3,766 taxa (Læssøe and Petersen 2008). While certainly a
Vandegrift et al. Botanical Studies
(2023) 64:17
gross underestimate of Ecuador’s actual fungal diversity,
the list represents an important baseline for further study,
particularly in combination with data from the Ecuadorian National Herbarium (QCNE) (Batallas-Molina et al.
2020). The sum of these collection and curatorial efforts
went on to form the Ecuador section of the pair’s pioneering MycoKey website, a resource without equal in the
identification and appreciation of Andean-Amazonian
funga. From 2004 to 2011, MycoKey Ecuador would serve
as the only open-aceess, large-scale collection of highquality, color photographs of macrofungi from the South
American continent (Læssøe and Petersen 2011b).
More recently there has been an acceleration of mycological research in Ecuador, and a notable transition to
studies undertaken by Ecuadorian researchers. These
include works on wood decay fungi (Ullah et al. 2001;
Suárez-Duque 2004; Gehring and Batalles 2020), mycorrhizal fungi (Kottke et al. 2010, 2013; Novotná et al.
2018), and ethnomycology (Gamboa-Trujillo 2005; Gamboa-Trujillo et al. 2014), along with various taxonomic
and ecological studies (e.g., (Barili et al. 2017a, b, c, 2018;
Flores et al. 2018; Guevara et al. 2018; Toapanta-Alban
et al. 2021, 2022).
Our own research timeline began in January of 2008.
Five more expeditions followed over the course of the
next ten years (2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2018), resulting
in a variety of focused publications addressing specific
research questions (Dentinger and Roy 2010; Policha and
Roy 2012; Policha et al. 2016; Thomas et al. 2016; Nelson
et al. 2020). To date, no prior publication from our work
at Los Cedros has sought to comprehensively address the
sum of our fungal collections from the site, or explore
their implications.
Page 3 of 22
formally designated a bosque protector, a class of protected forest under Ecuadorian law. Historically, deforestation for conversion to pasture, colonization, and
hunting have been the major threats to the forest, but
recent years have seen an increased threat from largescale extractive industry, not only at Los Cedros but
throughout the Ecuadorian Andes (Vandegrift et al.
2017; Roy et al. 2018; Acosta et al. 2020).
In 2016, mining concessions covering 68% of the land
area of Los Cedros were granted to a Canadian company in a joint venture with the Ecuadorian national
mining company (ENAMI). This set up a years-long
legal battle between the protected forest and the mining companies seeking to exploit it, with implications
not only for protected forests in Ecuador, but for the
global movement towards granting rights directly to
nature (Guayasamin et al. 2021). The case worked its
way to Ecuador’s Constitutional Court, the highest in
the nation. In December 2021, the Constitutional Court
chose to uphold the landmark Rights of Nature provisions in Ecuador’s constitution (Article 71–74), safeguarding Reserva Los Cedros from the threat of mining
(Jimenez, 2021). However, despite mining within the
protective forest being prohibited outright in the decision, the mining concessions covering the Reserve
remain active in the official registry of the regulatory
entity (ARCERNNR, 2023), and the mining companies
continue to be active in the region, though not within
the limits of the Reserve.
Here, we provide a preliminary account of the macrofungal diversity within an ecosystem considered to be
a conservation priority, recognizing that the first step
toward bringing conservation efforts for funga into parity
with those of flora and fauna is documentation.
Threats to Los Cedros
In contrast to many of our mycological predecessors
of the last two centuries—who would have found it
relatively easy to locate large, dense swaths of primary
rainforest in which to collect data over a long period—
the biodiversity researcher of the twenty-first century
is increasingly required to dedicate at least as many
resources to protecting their habitats of interest as they
do to simply studying them, lest there be no habitats left
to study. This has contributed to an evolving paradigm
shift in the planning, execution, and conceptualization of
biodiversity research, and the roles and responsibilities of
biodiversity researchers (Zedler 1997; Franco 2013; Darwall et al. 2018). In few places has this been truer than
the perennially-imperiled but fiercely-defended cloud
forests of Reserva Los Cedros (Torre 2012; Vandegrift
et al. 2017; Roy et al. 2018; Guayasamin et al. 2021, 2022).
Since its founding in 1988, Reserva Los Cedros has
been under near-constant threat, despite in 1994 being
Methods
Study site
Bosque Protector Reserva Los Cedros is a 5256 hectare
preserve consisting of mostly (> 84%) primary cloud
forest ranging in elevation between 1000 and 2700 m
(Fig. 1). Los Cedros is at the southern boundary of the
Chocó bioregion in the Toisin Range, which extends
west from the western slopes of the Andes mountains in
northwest Ecuador. Rainfall measurements at the Field
Station, at 1395 m, indicate that 2903 ± 186 mm of rain
falls annually (Jose DeCoux, pers. comm.) and far more
rain falls on the ridges. Reserva Los Cedros hosts an
exceptionally rich diversity of plants and animals (Roy
et al. 2018; Wilson and Rhemtulla 2018; Ramirez Perez
and Hausdorf 2022; Mariscal et al. 2022), and as indicated by the findings of the present work, is also home to
a comparable degree of fungal diversity.
Vandegrift et al. Botanical Studies
(2023) 64:17
Page 4 of 22
Reserva
Los
Cedros
Oso
Site of los Cedros
High elevation 'RTG'
Permanent plot
RLC Headquarters
Permanent Forest Plot
Other sampling site
Mining concession
0
500
Desiccation was achieved through the use of silica gel, a
portable dehydrator at or below 43 °C, or both.
Beginning in 2014 (collections RLC1173–RLC1854),
we began selectively employing a photographic technique
known as “focus stacking”, via the computer program
Zerene Stacker (v. 1.00-1.04; Littlefield, 2014–2023), to
address the significantly reduced depth of field which
accompanies macro photography, particularly at higher
magnifications.. Photographs generated during this
period were also subject to color calibration using an
X-Rite ColorChecker Passport and a display colorimeter
(ColorMunki Display & Eizo EX4).
1000 m
Fig. 1 Map showing the location of Reserva Los Cedros within
Ecuador; inset shows the primary sampling locations, and the overlay
(red) shows the extent of mining concessions affecting the Reserve
(see above, Threats to Los Cedros)
Collecting methods
Through a combination of plot/transect sampling (see
Ecological Collections below), opportunistic collecting, and focused sampling of particular taxonomic
groups (e.g., Xylariaceae), we have, over the course of
a 11-year period spanning six separate collecting trips,
generated over 1700 fungal collections from along the
1700 m altitudinal gradient of Reserva Los Cedros. Primary sampling locations were near to the research station, within or near the two permanent diversity plots,
and at the high-elevation ‘Richer Than Gold’ expedition
site, which was sampled in late 2018.
While methods varied somewhat over the course of
sampling, collection protocols generally adhered to
the following principles: assigning of unique collection numbers; annotation and photo documentation
of fresh specimens; geotagging of collections; tissue
sampling for use in molecular work; preservation via
desiccation; and duplication (when not singletons)
for dual deposit at the Herbario Nacional del Ecuador
(QCNE) del Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INABIO) and one or more secondary research institutions
(OSC and K, primarily). The specimens collected and
deposited at QCNE from the period 2008–2018 correspond to the cataloging numbers QCNE201900201999; QCNE242449-242548, QCNE244173-244890;
QCNE246391-246500; QCNE247390-247547.
All herbarium codes follow Index Herbariorum
(2018). Specimen images, notes and metadata were
entered into individual observations on iNaturalist,
where they will be linked with their respective voucher
records on MycoPortal, as well as any associated accession numbers for sequence data uploaded to GenBank.
Ecological collections
To compare communities in different parts of the
Reserve, we set up plots in which the collecting was done
at the same time of year (January) and in as short a time
period as possible (3–4 days) per plot. In 2010, two plots
of parallel transects were established about 1 km apart
within the Reserve in two different habitats: ridgetop at
1666 m and riverbottom at 1322 m. The ‘Oso Ridge Fungus Plot’ consisted of two 300 m long transects along the
Oso ridge, separated by 10 m, while the ‘Permanent Forest Plot’ was within the 1 ha ‘Permanent Tree Diversity
Plot’ established by Peck in 2005 (Peck et al. 2008; Mariscal et al. 2022) on the banks of the Los Cedros River,
and consisted of ten 55 m and one 45 m long transects.
The different arrangements of the transects at the two
sites was necessary due to the restricted area of traversable terrain. In all cases the sampling points were 5 m
apart along the transects and 10 m between transects.
The sampled points consisted of a circle with a radius
of 1.2 m around each point (= 4.42 m2) for a combined
total of 542.4 m2 per plot. Within each sampled point we
looked for macrofungi on all surfaces, including standing or dead wood up to 1.5 m in height; equal sampling
intensity was applied to all plots.
All fungi within each sample area were recorded for
morphospecies present, and the number of fruiting
bodies was counted. Each new morphospecies encountered within the plots was vouchered for future identification. In practice, this meant we counted but did
not always collect the myriad of small, white-spored,
litter-decomposing, marasmioid and mycenoid agarics.
Surveys were done in mid January in 2010, 2011 and
2012, but due to how the data were recorded in each
year, the data could not be combined for all analyses.
In 2010, under the direction of B. Roy, we counted
and collected representatives of both ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes; in 2011, under B. Dentinger, the focus
was basidiomycetes; in 2012, under R. Vandegrift, the
focus was the genus Xylaria Hill ex Schrank and only
Vandegrift et al. Botanical Studies
(2023) 64:17
at the lower (Brazilargo) plot (Policha 2014; Policha
et al. 2016; Thomas et al. 2016).
Statistical analysis
Species richness in the plots was estimated using
Chao2 and Jacknife1 estimators (Burnham and Overton 1978; Chao 1984; Colwell and Coddington 1994).
Collections from ecological sampling were used to
compare communities between lower elevation and
higher elevation sites; data were subsetted from the full
dataset and converted into site-by-species matrixes,
analyzed using both incidence (presence-absence) and
abundance (number of fruiting bodies observed within
the plot at the time of collection; note that the voucher
collection may have been a subset of all fruiting bodies present). Community structure was analyzed using
Jaccard (for incidence) or Bray–Curtis (for abundance)
distances, visualized using non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and differences were assessed
with permutational multivariate analysis of variance
(PerMANOVA).
Data were analyzed using R Statistical Software
(v3.1.0, R Core Team, 2014), including the vegan package (Oksanen et al. 2013). We also utilized the reshape
and dplyr packages (Wickham 2007, 2009; Wickham
et al. 2019) for data manipulation, and the ggplot2 package (Wickham 2011) for visualization. All scripts, data
tables, and raw data are available via an open FigShare
repository (Vandegrift et al. 2023). Edited sequences
have been uploaded to GenBank (accession numbers
provided in Additional file 2).
Sanger sequencing
DNA was extracted either by impregnation into Whatman FTA plantcards (Dentinger et al. 2010) or by suspension of dried material in an extraction buffer. We
primarily sequenced the ITS1 and ITS2 regions using
the primers ITS1F and ITS4 (White et al. 1990). For a
subset of ± 100 Xylariaceae we added partial LSU (the
ribosomal large subunit gene) by using the primers
ITS1F and LR3 (Vilgalys and Hester 1990). For extraction and sequencing we used the protocol of Dentinger et al. (2010) when the DNA was on Whatman
FTA cards, and of Thomas et al. (2016) otherwise, with
the exception of RLC1-155, which were sequenced at
BOLD (BarCode of Life Data Systems) in Guelph, Canada, and a subset of Xylariaceae, which were sequenced
as test subjects by the North American Mycoflora Project (now FunDiS) in the Aime Lab (Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana). For sequence editing we used
Geneious Prime (v2022.2, Dotmatics, Boston, MA).
Page 5 of 22
Identification
We have been conservative with our determinations as
we were working in an understudied tropical area with
many fungal groups for which we had no specialized
expertise. For these reasons, we made frequent use of
open nomenclature qualifiers (Sigovini et al. 2016) to
indicate uncertainty. We use confer (cf.) to indicate that
the collection in question should be compared to that
taxon; the determination will likely be confirmed when
examined by a specialist or compared to authentic reference material. We use affinis (aff.) to indicate that the
collection has some affinity with the name applied, but
differs in some potentially significant way; the name
applied is the best determination we are able to make,
and the collection is likely to be a closely related, but
distinct, taxon. We use the qualifier sensu lato (s.l.) to
indicate that a taxon name should be applied in the
broad sense; ‘group’ to indicate that a taxon belongs to
a group of similar, difficult to distinguish taxa epitomized by the name used; and, similarly, we use ‘complex’ to indicate that a taxon is part of a monophyletic
grouping of difficult to distinguish taxa. Where possible, we follow previous conventions in the literature for
the use of these qualifiers.
For about half the specimens, ITS sequences were
used to aid in identification. We have translated the open
nomenclature concepts into sequence similarity thresholds: we use confer at greater than 98% pairwise identities with reliable reference sequences, indicating that the
determination will likely be confirmed when examined by
a specialist or compared to authentic reference material;
we use affinis at greater dissimilarity, 96–98% pairwise
identities (or occasionally < 96% when also morphologically supported), to indicate that the best determination possible from reference sequences is likely a closely
related taxon.
All sequences were initially compared to the UNITE
(Abarenkov et al. 2010; Kõljalg et al. 2013; Nilsson et al.
2019) and the GenBank (Clark et al. 2016; Benson et al.
2017) nr databases using BLAST. We followed up by
using BLAST distance trees to examine putative relationships among matches, and top sequence hits were
examined in more detail, including but not limited to
location of any publications utilizing those sequences
and macromorphological comparison of our collections with images or other reference data (e.g., distribution, phylogenies). Comparison to primary literature
is essential since GenBank does not permit non-author
annotation (Bidartondo et al. 2008) and many fungal
sequences are misidentified (Hofstetter et al. 2019).
Current nomenclature was determined using Index
Fungorum and Mycobank, except where contradicted
by Jaklitsch et al. (2016) or agaric.us (Kalichman et al.
Vandegrift et al. Botanical Studies
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Page 6 of 22
◂
100%
Unknown
incertae sedis
Liceales
Fig. 2 Relative number of collections, by assigned order; taxa
representing relative abundances greater than 2.5% of all collections
are listed in boldfaced, and color groups are used to differentiate
phylum. There remain 106 collections for which an order‑level
determination has not yet been made (n = 1760 collections)
Physariales
Stemonitales
Trichiales
Protosteliales
Pleosporales
2020), which we gave priority for determining for the
most current familial placements of genera of ascomycetes and agarics, respectively.
Eurotiales
Pyrenulales
75%
Laboulbeniales
Baeomycetales
Peltigerales
Teloschistales
Helotiales
Rhytismatales
Pezizales
Boliniales
Diaporthales
Hypocreales
Ophiostomatales
50%
Sordariales
Sphaeriales
Xylariales
Xylobotryales
Agaricales
Auriculariales
Boletales
Cantharellales
Corticiales
Geastrales
Gomphales
25%
Hymenochaetales
Polyporales
Russulales
Trechisporales
Agaricostilbales
Atractiellales
Dacrymycetales
Septobasidiales
Tremellales
Diversisporales
0%
Glomerales
Results
Diversity checklists
During the course of this study, 1760 vouchered collections of fungi were made. Our findings indicate the presence of at least 727 unique species of macrofungi within
Reserva Los Cedros, representing 229 genera in 101 families, 40 orders, 17 classes, and 4 phyla (Fig. 2). The vast
majority of fungi collected were members of the phyla
Basidiomycota (Fig. 3) and Ascomycota (Fig. 4). We provide two checklists to organize this information: a taxonomic list, structured hierarchically ( Additional file 1),
and a collections list, structured by individual collection
with full collection information, taxonomic classification,
and associated accession number (herbarium and GenBank) provided for each specimen ( Additional file 2).
These figures only begin to approach the true magnitude of the fungal diversity within the Reserve (Fig. 5).
The Chao2 richness estimator predicts at least twice as
many taxa present, 1671 total species; the Jackknife 1 estimator is somewhat more conservative, estimating 1,205
total species. Both are almost certainly underestimates,
given existing sampling biases. Such richness estimates
are susceptible to influence from sampling biases introduced by project participants, such as when collections
were made in the service of ecological projects (Policha
et al. 2016; Thomas et al. 2016; Policha et al. 2019). These
biases have a clear effect on the taxonomic coverage of
the fungi collected (Fig. 2), specifically leading to overrepresentation of the Agaricales (Fig. 6) and the Xylariales (Fig. 7) within our dataset. An examination of these
well-sampled orders reveals a smaller gap in sampled
and estimated diversity, particularly in the Xylariales,
within which the genus Xylaria is especially well sampled
(Fig. 5). In the Xylariales, we have recorded 118 unique
taxa, or 61% of the Chao2 richness estimator prediction
of 193 total species; in contrast, the ratio of sampled to
estimated species for the total set of collections predicts
only 43.5% complete sampling. Interestingly, despite the
over-representation of Agaricales in our collections, the
Vandegrift et al. Botanical Studies
(2023) 64:17
ratio of sampled to predicted richness remains similar to
the total dataset (42.9%).
Ecological sampling
Macrofungal communities sampled systematically in
2010 from the two permanent forest plots at Los Cedros,
representing lower elevation riverbottom (Permanent
Forest Plot) and higher elevation ridgetop (Oso Fungus Plot) habitats, resulted in 354 vouchered collections
representing count data taken within each point of each
plot (Additional file 3). These collections were used to
compare the two communities at the two plots. Despite
only sharing 13% of taxa (25 taxa; Fig. 8), we observed
no statistically significant differences between fungal
communities at lower and higher elevation sites (Fig. 9;
PerMANOVA (abundance with Bray–Curtis distances):
F1, 190 = 1.43, R2 = 0.007, P = 0.083; PerMANOVA (incidence with Jaccard distances): F1, 190 = 1.41, R2 = 0.007,
P = 0.053). Furthermore, of the shared taxa, only nine
could be identified to the level of species, meaning it
is likely that the degree of shared taxa is even less than
reported here (see Additional file 3 for differential abundance data).
Discussion
Diversity and ecology
This investigation of fungi at Reserva Los Cedros contributes to the long history of mycology in Ecuador, providing some of the most comprehensive documentation of
fungal diversity within montane cloud forests anywhere
in the world (Læssøe and Petersen 2008, 2011b; Lodge
et al. 2008; Gómez-Hernández and Williams-Linera 2011;
Geml et al. 2014; Del Olmo-Ruiz et al. 2017; Gehring and
Batalles 2020; Haelewaters et al. 2021). We have contributed 905 ITS sequences connected to vouchered and
well-documented specimens to GenBank, of which more
than 10% have no close matches (> 90% pairwise identities) within the GenBank nr database. That richness
estimates for the most frequently collected orders—Agaricales and Xylariales—are still far from saturation suggests that even with targeted, multi-year collecting of
single fungal groupings, novel taxa may be expected to be
recovered for many years to come within forests of this
Page 7 of 22
type. Many putatively undescribed taxa are documented
for the first time here, including new species of Chalciporus (Boletaceae), Psilocybe (Hymenogastraceae s.l.), Ionomidotis (Cordieritidaceae), Kretzschmaria and Xylaria
(Xylariaceae).
The comparative ecological sampling in 2010, which
included broad taxonomic coverage sampled intensively
and systematically between two different habitats, seems
at first to have generated contradictory results: the riverbottom habitat and the ridgetop habitat were found to
share only 25 species, out of a total pool of 188 individual
taxa (Fig. 8); our multivariate statistical analysis, however, failed to recover a significant difference between
the communities (change in beta-diversity), as would
be expected (Fig. 9). The seeming discrepancy between
these results is likely explained by undersampling relative
to the high diversity present within the sites, with most
taxa being sampled only once or twice in this subset of
our data; as such, multivariate statistical approaches to
community analysis are severely underpowered to detect
differences, even when present, as is likely the case here.
This is a stark demonstration of the degree of sampling
effort necessary to characterize fungal communities in
tropical cloud forests well enough to test for changes in
beta-diversity.
“Simulated Access” & parataxonomy
Historically, the documentation of fungal collections
has been dominated by written descriptions, occasionally supplemented by illustration or photography. Such
descriptions are highly technical and often taxon-specific, requiring a working knowledge of diagnostic features and the terminology used to describe them for
specific taxonomic groups. This presents a problem for
researchers engaged in more broadly-focused field work,
as in the case of our collecting efforts.
These same constraints are partly responsible for the
preponderance of taxonomic descriptions and decisions
based on dried material; a practice whose shortcomings
are perhaps best exemplified by the revelations found
in Hans-Otto Baral’s system of “vital taxonomy” (Baral
1992). While Baral’s findings pertain chiefly to certain
microscopic structures found in the discomycetes, they
stand as a testament to the general ephemerality and
(See figure on next page.)
Fig. 3 Some Diversity of Basidiomycota (excluding Agaricales) from Los Cedros. A Botryobasidium sp. [RLC1697] B Geesterania cf. davidii [RLC1264]
C Chionosphaera (= Fibulostilbum) phylaciicola [RLC1611] D Boletinellus exiguus [RLC644] E Polyporus iathinus [RLC1415] F indet. Polyporales (cf.
Gloeoporus / cf. Skeletocutis) [RLC1614] G cf. Calocera [RLC1824] H Geastrum sp. [RLC1514] I cf. Dacryopinax [RLC1612] J Septobasidium sp. nov.
[RLC1602] K Irpex rosettiformis [RLC1177] L Hymenochaete cf. damicornis [RLC1511] M Fuscoporia contigua [RLC1233] N Ramaria sp. [RLC1263] O cf.
Lindtneria [RLC1348]
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Fig. 3 (See legend on previous page.)
Page 8 of 22
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elusivity of so many fungal features, which may remain
unknown even to their specialists for centuries. In recognition of this, combined with our team’s limited technical capacity to both recognize and describe a given
fungal group’s most nuanced characters, we have used
high quality, color-calibrated, digital photography (and in
select instances, videography) to provide future specialists with a degree of “simulated access” to fresh specimens, from which they would otherwise be temporally
and spatially separated. Characters uncapturable by
photography (e.g.: odor, taste, texture/consistency) are
recorded in the traditional written form, as the lexicon
of descriptive terms for these qualities is more or less the
same from one macrofungal group to another. The specialist, being the more qualified party, may then articulate
their own written descriptions. This practice alleviates
the need for plurality of taxonomic proficiency on the
part of the collector(s), increases visual objectivity over
linguistic subjectivity, and records details whose diagnostic value may not be comprehended for years to come.
High-quality photodocumentation presents an additional benefit in the form of providing taxonomic
machine learning algorithms with feature-rich source
imagery (Joly et al. 2014; Wäldchen and Mäder 2018),
whether used in tandem with other parameters or in
isolation. These methods are already being experimentally employed across biological taxonomy (Sun et al.
2017; Bambil et al. 2020; Mahmudul Hassan and Kumar
Maji 2021; Høye et al. 2021), including fungi (Picek
et al. 2022; Bartlett et al. 2022), and are poised to offer
insights otherwise unattainable by existing taxonomic
expertise. It is important to regard such innovations
as individual components of the complete taxonomic
toolkit, as overreliance on new and groundbreaking
tools can have demonstrably deleterious effects, as has
occurred with DNA sequencing (Bidartondo et al. 2008;
Hofstetter et al. 2019).
We consider this approach to be an extension of the
parataxonomic model first described by entomologist
Daniel Janzen (Janzen 1991). Janzen drew attention to
the magnitude of the planet’s still-undiscovered biodiversity, coupled with contemporary rates of taxonomic
description of novel taxa, and inferred that, barring some
exponential change in either variable, it would be several
Page 9 of 22
thousand years before humanity would achieve total taxonomic documentation of all life on Earth. To address
this problem, he proposed a division of taxonomic labor.
The tasks for which specialized taxonomic training is not
required (e.g., travel arrangements, permit acquisition,
specimen documentation, preservation, deposit/duplication, etc.) would fall to a new, assistive class of biodiversity researcher: the “parataxonomist”. This would, in turn,
free up precious time and resources for the “alphataxonomist” to focus on those tasks which their highly specialized expertise renders them uniquely qualified to
address (e.g., precise identifications, descriptions of novel
taxa, nomenclatural considerations, inferring evolutionary relationships, identifying target taxa for additional
sequencing, etc.).
We have found great value in the parataxonomic
model for its ability to facilitate existing research relationships (DSN first entered the project partly as a
parataxonomist), as well as for its ability to function in
a prefigurative sense, laying the groundwork for future
collaborations. By generating a great variety of interesting, high-quality collections—specifically selected for
their known or perceived taxonomic significance—we
hope to appeal to the research interests of a wide range of
alphataxonomists: a kind of “taxonomic brochure” for the
fungi of Los Cedros, the Chocó bioregion, and the Andes
as a whole. Such engagement is expected to multiply the
total biodiversity research output of the project, hastening the comprehension of Reserva Los Cedros’ megadiverse funga, and in turn strengthening the Reserve’s
conservation status.
Scaling, systematizing and tailoring these roles to meet
Ecuador’s unique circumstances could bring about scientific, economic and conservational achievements in
Ecuador on par with, if not exceeding, those experienced
by Costa Rica during its parataxonomic heyday (Kazmier
2017).
Notable collections from Los Cedros
In addition to corroborating estimates of fungal hyperdiversity in Ecuador’s Chocó bioregion, our research
has also resulted in a wide variety of novel taxonomic
insights, including the discovery of several putatively new
(See figure on next page.)
Fig. 4 Some Diversity of Ascomycota (excluding Xylariales) from Los Cedros. A Nectriopsis tremellicola parasitizing a Crepidotus sp. [RLC1832] B
“Encoelia” heteromera [RLC1380] C Cordyceps pruinosa group on indet. spider [RLC1718] D Phyllobaeis sp. [RLC1320] E Cordieritidaceae [RLC1466] F
Stromatographium stromaticum (= Fluviostroma wrightii) [RLC1318] G Moelleriella turbinata [RLC1323] H Cordyceps tenuipes on lepidopteran pupa
[RLC1687] I Cookeina tricholoma [RLC1269] J Xylobotryum portentosum [RLC1339] K Caliciaceae [RLC1211] L Gibellula sp. on indet. spider (collected in
forest canopy ~ 75 m above forest floor) [RLC1799] M Lachnaceae [RLC1723] N Cordyceps nidus complex on trap door spider (Ctenzidae) [RLC1613]
O Neobulgaria sp. [RLC1312]
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Fig. 4 (See legend on previous page.)
Page 10 of 22
(2023) 64:17
Page 11 of 22
400
200
Unique Taxa
600
729
Vandegrift et al. Botanical Studies
All taxa
Agaricales
0
Xylariales
0
500
1000
1500
1771
Collections
Fig. 5 Collector’s curve, showing number of unique taxa recovered
by all collections and the two most frequently encountered orders,
Agaricales and Xylariales
taxa, from across many orders of macrofungi. In keeping with the concepts laid out in the previous section, the
following synopses are presented as an abbreviated, representative sampling of collections which are known or
suspected to deserve further alphataxonomic inquiry (see
Additional file 2 for corresponding accession data). The
findings discussed below should therefore be considered
preliminary.
Ascocoryne cf. trichophora (Fig. 10)—We observed and
collected a purple, stilbelloid anamorph [RLC1069, 1205,
1703] which further study revealed to be a close macroand micromorphological match to Heydenia trichophora
A. L. Smith, described from the Dominican Republic
(Smith 1901). This taxon was later recombined in Coryne
(Seifert 1989), upon the discovery of its adjoining teleomorph,, and finally transferred to Ascocoryne (Johnston
et al. 2014). ITS sequences from our Los Cedros anamorph indeed place it in the genus Ascocoryne, but basal
to the genus’ two major clades (A. sarcoides s.l. and A.
cylichnium s.l.) (Baral, unpub.), with no BLAST match
exceeding 83% identity with any reference sequence in
GenBank or UNITE. Unfortunately, no sequences are
available from authentic material of A. trichophora. Our
Ecuadorian anamorph has not been observed occurring
in proximity to any teleomorph, and of those teleomorphic Ascocoryne collections we have made [RLC1696,
1692, 1311], none have yielded a close match to Seifert’s
description of the sexual state of Coryne (= Ascocoryne)
trichophora.cf. Trichopeziza (Fig. 11)—Our high-elevation sampling location (Fig. 1, RTG) yielded two collections [RLC1672, 1698] of a small, ornate discomycete,
collected exclusively on decaying Cyclanthaceae fronds.
Its combination of morphological and molecular characters enable an identification only to family level (Lachnacaeae). While possessing attributes of certain species in
the genus Trichopeziza—such as the presence of ornamented, multiseptate, pigmented hairs which turn violet
in the presence of KOH—our ITS sequence is sufficiently
distant from any reference collection in that genus to
merit withholding the application of this name. The
genus Belonidium is another possibility, but this is an
“old” genus in the sense of modern discomycetology, and
as such is in dire need of re-circumscription, having for
many decades been a “dumping ground” for superficially
similar lachnoid fungi..Members of other similar, more
well-defined genera in the family (e.g., Lachnum, Dasyscyphella, Capitotricha, Erioscyphella, Lasiobelonium,
etc.) have so far failed to present a collection of characters to which the Los Cedros taxon conforms without
the presence of one or more disqualifying exceptions.
ITS sequences of our collections have yielded no BLAST
matches within 83% identity of any publicly available
sequence.
Mycomalus & Munkia (Fig. 12)—Among the many
fungi described from Brazil by German mycologist Alfred
Möller in his seminal work Phycomyceten und Ascomyceten: Untersuchungen aus Brasilien (Möller, 1901) is
the monotypic Mycomalus bambusinus. Despite much
collecting effort in the same ecoregion (Mata Atlântica)
(Fidalgo 1968; Baltazar and Gibertoni 2009; Gumboski
and Eliasaro 2011; Costa et al. 2014; Maia et al. 2015),
this large, conspicuous fungus remains elusive.
Collections determined as Mycomalus sp./My. bambusinus in Neotropical fungaria have been consistently found to correspond to different taxa (Newman,
unpub). While recent, unconfirmed reports of the “true”
My. bambusinus appearing in Santa Catarina province,
Brazil, are awaiting authentication (Trierveiler-Pereira,
pers. comm.), the holotype would appear to be the
only authentic vouchered collection of the genus in the
125 years since its initial description.
This did not prevent speculation that Mycomalus
may in fact be the sexual state of Munkia martyris
(Spegazzini; von Höhnel 1911; Petrak 1947; Bischoff
et al. 2004), a sporodochial anamorph also occurring
on bamboo. Von Höhnel (von Höhnel 1911) noted the
similarity between the unique conidiogenesis observed
in the sporodochial cavities of Mu. martyris and the
conidiogenesis Möller documented from germinated
ascospores of My. bambusinus. However, the lack of
pleomorphic or dimorphic collections of either genus,
as well as the lack of molecular data from the My. bambusinus holotype, have thus far stymied efforts to determine their potential connection.
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Fig. 6 Some Diversity of Agaricales from Los Cedros. A Physalacria sp. nov. [RLC1310] B Mycena sect. Longisetae [RLC1662] C Psilocybe zapotecorum
[RLC1610] D Mycena chloroxantha [RLC1293] E Hydropus sp. [RLC128.1] F indet. Mycenaceae s.l. [RLC1784] G Favolaschia sp. [RLC1775] H Calathella
columbiana [RLC1686] I Marasmius sect. Marasmius [RLC1324] J Cyathus sp. [RLC1679] K Gloiocephala sp. [RLC1289] L Pterulicium sp. [RLC1268] M
indet. Cyphellaceae s.l. [RLC1772] N indet. Physalacriaceae (cf. Rhizomarasmius / cf. Gloiocephala) [RLC1720]
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Material collected at Los Cedros finally confirms
this long-standing anamorph-teleomorph hypothesis.
Two collections possessing the combined attributes
of Munkia martyris and Mycomalus were made during the 2018 field season, in the immediate vicinity of
our expedition base camp [RLC1631, 1648]. Both collections include pleomorphic stromata, with a Munkia
martyris anamorph and Mycomalus teleomorph. In
addition to bringing resolution to this 122-year-old
taxonomic debate, our collections also provide the first
molecular data for either genus in the form of two ITS
sequences (one from each collection), which are no
greater than ~ 80% identical to any sequences currently
in GenBank or UNITE.
Crucially, while the teleomorph we observed at Los
Cedros is consistent with Möller’s generic circumscription of Mycomalus, it is not consistent with My. bambusinus, from which it differs substantially in stromatal
size and color, as well as habitat and distribution (Mata
Atlântica vs. Chocó). The anamorph, while being a compelling match to Spegazzini’s description of Munkia
martyris, was originally described from low-elevation
(~ 150 m.a.s.l.) Paraguayan Chaco grassland/savannah.
Type studies are therefore still needed to accurately
determine the identities of species involved.
Adding further intrigue is the still-unresolved question
of the Munkia/Mycomalus nutritional mode. The amplydocumented Möller genus, Ascopolyporus—uncannily
similar to Mycomalus in both habit and habitat—has
been shown to exhibit a unique form of dual-trophism.
The fungus parasitizes insects (Coccoidea/Aleyrodoidea),
which feed on living plants (mostly bamboo), consuming
the insect entirely save for the stylet. The disembodied
stylet is then utilized like a siphon through which the fungus extracts phloem (Bischoff et al. 2005). Transitioning
hosts and nutritional modes in this way enables Ascopolyporus and its allies (e.g., Hypocrella, Moelleriella, Samuelsia, Dussiella (= Echinodothis), Neohyperdermium) to
exceed the mass of their initial insect hosts by dozens to
hundreds of times. Mycomalus has been suspected but
never demonstrated to exhibit this dual-trophic behavior
(Koroch et al. 2004). Our Los Cedros material may provide a definitive and long-awaited answer to this Mycomalus/Munkia question as well.
Page 13 of 22
Rhodoarrhenia (Fig. 13)—The genus Rhodoarrhenia
was erected by Singer in 1964 to accommodate a particular group of (sub)tropical, wood-inhabiting, reduced
agarics, some of which had been previously placed by
Lloyd in the genus Rimbachia (Singer 1963). They are
characterized by a gregarious to cespitose habit, dorsallystipitate/pendant attachment, and an anastomosing to
merulioid hymenium. Rhodoarrhenia closely resembles descriptions and illustrations of the Pegler genus,
Skepperiella, believed to be restricted in distribution to
tropical Africa, and from which Rhodoarrhenia is said
to differ principally in its absence of pileal and hymenial cystidia (Pegler 1973) and presence of chiastobasidia
(Singer 1963). Examples of Rhodoarrhenia observed by
us, both at Los Cedros and in cloud forests elsewhere in
the Neotropics, have ranged from white to gray-blue to
dingy yellow in appearance. Two such color morphs have
been found to occur at Los Cedros (gray-blue and white),
whose sequences share 98% ITS identity [RLC137, 813].
When joined with a multi-locus dataset including Trinidadian-Tobagoan, Guyanan, and Belizean collections,
these sequences corresponded to two out four phylogenetically distinct taxa, which interestingly don’t appear to
group by color (Aime, unpub). Despite being a signature
fungal feature of Neotropical mountain forests, adequate
circumscription of this genus is lacking, and it may be
polyphyletic. Singer designated as its type a fungus with
a “purplish red” spore print (R. pezizoidea), while all
other members possess white to pale-pigmented spores
(Singer 1963). On the basis of the material sequenced
thus far, much of Rhodoarrhenia belongs squarely in the
Cyphellaceae, but type studies are needed to determine
what affinities R. pezizoidea has with these taxa. Our Los
Cedros collections represent the first sequences of the
genus to be uploaded to GenBank.
Ionomidotis aff. fulvotingens (Fig. 14)—An unusual discomycete was found occurring on downed, decorticate
logs in the mud and manure of the mule pasture: one of
the only human-disturbed habitats within the boundary
of Los Cedros. Microscopic and molecular analysis have
revealed this character-rich fungus to be an undescribed
and highly unique member of the Ionomidotis fulvotingens group, which contains several undescribed taxa
(Baral, unpub.). Its ITS sequence is no greater than 89%
identicalto any publicly available sequence. A review of
(See figure on next page.)
Fig. 7 Some Diversity of Xylariales from Los Cedros. A Xylaria telfairii [RLC1203] B Annulohypoxylon sp. [RLC1228] C anamorph of Xylaria globosa
with characteristic red exudates [RLC1344] D Xylaria tuberoides [RLC1328] E Xylaria apiculata [RLC1469] F section of Phylacia poculiformis [RLC1601]
G Rosellinia sp. [RLC1173] H Xylaria schweinitzii (anamorph/immature) [RLC1335] I cf. Thuemenella [RLC1827] J Hypoxylon sp. [RLC1176] K section of
Xylaria clusiae [RLC1480] L section of Xylaria melaneura group [RLC1378]; this collection was previously identified as X. tucumanensis at the time this
photo appeared on the cover of Biotropica 48(3) accompanying Thomas et al. (2016)
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Fig. 7 (See legend on previous page.)
Page 14 of 22
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Page 15 of 22
Permanent Forest Plot
Oso Fungus Plot
95
25
68
Fig. 8 Shared species between the riverbottom (Permanent Forest
Plot) and ridgetop (Oso Fungus Plot) sampling in 2010
the field photography and microcharacters of a collection
from the Læssøe and Peterson expeditions of the early
2000s (TL-11793), collected less than 40 km from the Los
Cedros mule pasture, suggests this collection is conspecific with our Los Cedros material. This was the second
of two particularly notable collections to come from this
unexpectedly prosperous habitat, the first being Thamnomyces chocoensis [RLC1425], each collected within days
of one another in 2014, and neither observed again since.
Camarops ustulinoides (Fig. 15)—AOur 2014 expedition saw the collection of an unusual pyrenomycete,
identified by Dr. Jack Rogers and Dr. Yu-Ming Ju as the
rarely-reported Camarops ustulinoides. Despite having
a somewhat xylariaceous appearance, C. ustulinoides
does not reside in the Xylariales, but rather in the only
distantly-related Boliniales (Huhndorf and Miller 2008;
Untereiner et al. 2013). An ITS sequence obtained from
our material [RLC1499] was found to differ from that
of the only other C. ustulinoides ITS sequence in GenBank by almost 10%. Given the authority of the identification of our Los Cedros collection, and the somewhat
opaque pedigree of this nominally conspecific reference
sequence (a Puerto Rican strain purchased from a private Spanish culture library in the early 2000s), we are
inclined to believe that the existing sequence is erroneously annotated.
Incidentally, the accessions with which our ITS
sequence shares the highest degree of identity are three
endophyte sequences taken from Jacaranda copaia
seeds in Panama, followed closely by three endolichenic
sequences taken from a collection of Lecanora oreinoides
in Highlands, North Carolina. This would appear to
make our Los Cedros collection the stromatal “face” of
one or more hitherto “faceless” endophytic/endolichenic
lifestyles.
Xylaria and Viaphytism (Fig. 16)—Collections of the
genus Xylaria from Los Cedros have been used to elucidate a novel ecological theory, known as the Foraging
Ascomycete Hypothesis, or simply viaphytism (Thomas
et al. 2016, 2020; Nelson et al. 2020). Briefly, viaphytism
refers to the utilization of a leaf-endophytic life stage by
typically saprobic fungi as a means of dispersal; the fungi
travel by way of (“via-”) the plants’ leaves (“-phyte”) to
bridge spatial and temporal gaps in preferred substrate.
This allows for persistence in the environment, even
when substrates or environmental conditions that allow
fruiting are absent.
Samples targeting the genus within the Permanent
Forest Plot were collected in 2012 in combination with
60
NMDS with Bray-Curtis dissimarities
Oso Fungus Plot
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
Permanent Forest Plot
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
Fig. 9 NMDS ordination on Bray–Curtis dissimilarities; there is no significant difference between the riverbottom (Permanent Forest Plot) and
ridgetop (Oso Fungus Plot) sites
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Fig. 10 Ascocoryne. A apothecia of indet. Ascocoryne sp. [RLC1311]; B,
C stilbelloid synnemata of Ascocoryne cf. trichophora [RLC1205]. Scale:
A,C = 100 μm; B = 200 μm
extensive cultivation of endophytic fungi from the leaves
of trees within the plot; ITS sequences were used to associate collected stromata with endophyte occurrence,
and permutational nearest-neighbor analysis was used
to examine spatial co-occurrence of the two life stages
(Thomas et al. 2016). From that experiment, there was
only a single taxon found occurring as an endophyte that
was not also found fruiting on the forest floor within the
plot, Xylaria flabelliformis s.l., a species with a distinctive anamorph; it has since been collected several times
elsewhere at Los Cedros [RLC220, 643, 1301, 1407, 1291]
(Fig. 16c).
That study, which provided the first concrete evidence
of the viaphytic lifestyle, recorded 36 species of Xylaria
from Los Cedros, of which 19 could be confidently
assigned to named species; here, we emend that a total
of at least 55 putative species of Xylaria, of which 25 can
be confidently assigned to a named species, as well as
three undescribed taxa. Among these is one particularly
charismatic Xylaria sp. nov. [RLC1126, 1129, 1429, 1711,
1828, 1829] (Fig. 16b), which possesses some of the longest stromata ever recorded in the genus (≥ 25 cm). A second putative Xylaria sp. nov. [RLC1334, 1451] (Fig. 16a;
Additional file 2, “Xylaria sp. nov. 02”) represents one of
the few taxa in the world known to occur on bamboo,
Page 16 of 22
Fig. 11 cf. Trichopeziza. A detail of crimson‑colored hymenium and
two‑toned hairs B section of single fruiting body C detail of stipe and
receptacle surfaces showing hair development along entire length
D orange and lemon‑yellow apothecia within the same collection
[RLC1672] thought to represent earlier developmental stages (note
lack of yellow hairs in immature fruiting bodies). Scale: A,B = 200 μm;
C,D = 500 μm
the substrate from which both collections of that species
were made.
Conservation in action
Among our Los Cedros collections are four species
nominated to the IUCN Global Fungal Red List Initiative (Dahlberg and Mueller 2011): Lamelloporus americanus, Thamnomyces chocoensis, Hygrocybe aphylla, and
“Lactocollybia” aurantiaca (Fig. 17); all are awaiting final
assessment. Their distributions range from the broadly
Neotropical (H. aphylla & “L.” aurantiaca) to apparent
endemics (L. americanus & T. chocoensis), with T. chocoensis known only from the holotype collection and our
Los Cedros material, collected less than 80 km apart from
one another. We suspect many of the undescribed taxa
encountered at Los Cedros to be unique to the Chocò
bioregion, an area known for high levels of endemicity (Gentry 1992; Myers et al. 2000; Quijano-Abril et al.
2006; Ruiz-Guerra et al. 2007; Frahm 2012). As such,
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Page 17 of 22
Fig. 12 Mycomalus/Munkia martyris. A ex situ arrangement of RLC1648 containing anamorphic and pleomorphic stromata B close‑up of
sporodochial extrusions, pigmented at the leading edge C pleurogenous conidiophores bearing globose conidia D sporodochial cavity
with extruding bundle of pleurogenous conidiophores E close‑up of pleomorphic stroma showing superior Mycomalus teleomorphic layer
(pinkish‑apricot) encircling inferior sporodochial Munkia martyris anamorph (white dots against black) F cross‑section of pleomorphic stroma
revealing palisade of immersed perithecia (above) and some some scattered sporodochial cavities (below) G longitudinal section of perithecia
and contents H asci and unejected ascospores in Lugol’s iodine solution (2.2%) I ascus apices J disarticulated part‑spores. Scale: D,G,H = 10 μm;
C,I,J = 50 μm
we intend to submit any newly described taxa for IUCN
assessment as they are published.
Such designations are likely to be of significant value to
future conservation initiatives, at Los Cedros or any similarly threatened forest where the same species are shown
to occur. This is directly evidenced by the citing of these
IUCN-nominated taxa by the constitutional court in its
written decision (Jiménez 2021), which references Los
Cedros’ funga in three of its 105 enumerated sections.
This is the first time fungal diversity data has impacted
an Ecuadorian constitutional court judgment, and the
second instance on the South American continent of fungal diversity and conservation reaching federal levels of
deliberation. The first was the passage of legislation in the
Chilean Parliament granting equal recognition and protection to funga under the law as was guaranteed to flora
and fauna (Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile
2022); a landmark achievement of the now multinational
NGO, Fundación Fungi, and its foundress, Giuliana Furci.
Pioneers at the still largely-uncharted frontier of fungal
conservation have highlighted the importance of biodiversity and phenological data as foundational first steps
toward obtaining a comprehensive picture of the funga of
a given locality, such that it may form a meaningful part
of the conservation conversation (Dahlberg et al. 2010;
Gonçalves et al. 2021; Mueller et al. 2022). Less demonstrated or discussed, however, is the political potency
these baseline metrics possess in the defending of habitats from damage or destruction posed by major agribusiness, urban development, extractive industry, and
other existential threats.
We present our ongoing work at Los Cedros as a case
study in biodiversity research as conservational praxis,
in the hopes that fellow biologists may recognize the
power of their own data to promote change in environmental decision-making, even at the highest levels of
government.
Vandegrift et al. Botanical Studies
(2023) 64:17
Fig. 13 Rhodoarrhenia. A gray‑blue color morph ex situ [RLC1234] B
close‑up of hymenium of white color morph [RLC1618] C white color
morph in situ [RLC1618]
Fig. 14 Ionomidotis aff. fulvotingens. A general habit of immature,
developing and mature apothecia in situ [RLC1478] B close‑up
of orange granules C close‑up of turquoise‑tipped primordial
apothecia D development of well‑defined, fingerlike apothecia. Scale:
A,C = 5 mm; B,D = 1 mm
Page 18 of 22
Fig. 15 Camarops ustulinoides. A pleomorphic stromata in situ
[RLC1499] B view of anamorphic tissue at stromatal margin C
close‑up of ostiolar mounds on stromatal surface D section of stroma
to show elongated perithecial contents and supporting stromatal
context tissue. Scale: A = 1 cm; B,D = 2 mm; C = 1 mm
Fig. 16 Xylaria spp. A Xylaria sp. nov. 02 ex situ [RLC1451] B Xylaria
sp. nov. 01 in situ [RLC1829] C close‑up of Xylaria flabelliformis s.l.
[RLC1291]. Scale: A B C μm
Vandegrift et al. Botanical Studies
(2023) 64:17
Page 19 of 22
in 2018 (no. NGS‑166C‑18 to R.V.). The National Science Foundation (NSF)
supported the project (DEB‑0841613 to BAR and BTMD) from 2009 to 2012.
We are grateful to Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INABIO) and Herbario
Nacional de Ecuador (QCNE) for their logistical support in 2010, especially Dra.
Diana Fernandez, and for help in obtaining permits through the Ministerio
del Ambiente de Ecuador. Scientific Research Authorizations: No. 001‑07
IC‑F‑DRCI‑MA, No. 02‑10‑1C‑FLO‑DPAI/MA, No. 03‑2011‑IC‑FLO‑DPAI/MA, No.
12‑2013‑1013‑IC‑FAU‑FLO‑DPAI/MA, and Framework Contract for Access to
Genetic Resources No. MAE‑DNB‑CM‑2016‑0045. During this collaboration, a
Memorandum of Understanding and a Specific Inter‑institutional Cooperation
Agreement were established between the National Institute of Biodiversity
(INABIO) and the University of Oregon, thanks to the management of Magister
Mario Yánez and Diego Inclán, PhD, in their respective periods.
Author contributions
Conceptualization: BAR, BTMD, RV, TP. Drafted Article: RV, DSN, BAR. Editing:
All authors. Data Collection: BAR, BTMD, RV, DCT, DSN, TJ, JM, RB, DN, JF, PG, TP.
Data Analysis & interpretation: RV, DSN, BAR, BTMD. Funding: BAR, BTMD, RV,
TP, DCT. Permits: TP, BAR, RB, RV, DSN, PG.
Fig. 17 RLC Taxa submitted for IUCN Global Fungal Red List
assessment. A Lamelloporus americanus [RLC779] B Thamnomyces
chocoensis [RLC1425] C Hygrocybe aphylla [RLC740] D “Lactocollybia”
aurantiaca [RLC1839]. Scale: B,D = 1 cm; C = 2 mm
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.
org/10.1186/s40529‑023‑00390‑z.
Funding
RV and DSN received partial funding from a 2017/2018 Experiment.com
crowdfunding campaign (experiment.com/projects/sequencing‑the‑fungi‑of‑
the‑ecuadorian‑andes), with a large contribution from the Oregon Mycologi‑
cal Society. Two National Geographic Explorer Grants facilitated this work, one
at the beginning in 2008 (no. NGS‑8317‑07 to BAR and BTMD) and one in 2018
(No. NGS‑166C‑18 to RV). The National Science Foundation (NSF) supported
the project (DEB‑0841613) from 2009 to 2012. No funding organization had
any role in the design of the study nor the collection, analysis, and interpreta‑
tion of data nor in writing the manuscript.
Availability of data and materials
All data and scripts used in the preparation of this manuscript are available
in Additional file 1: Appendix S1, Additional file 2: Appendix S2, Additional
file 3: Appendix S3, or the FigShare repository Vandegrift R, Newman DS,
Dentinger B, et al. (2023) Data from: Richer than Gold: the fungal biodiversity
of Reserva Los Cedros, a threatened Andean cloud forest. Figshare. 10. 6084/
m9.figshare.22043828.
Declarations
Additional file 1: Taxonomic list, structured hierarchically, of all vouchered
fungi and fungus‑like organisms from Los Cedros.
Additional file 2: Collection data for all vouchered specimens across the
entire study, structured by individual collection.
Additional file 3: Data from vouchered collections used in the 2010
ecological experiment, and the taxonomic list derived therefrom.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank all the staff at Reserva Los Cedros (www.reservaloscedros.
org), but especially J. DeCoux, E. Levy, F. Lomas, and M. Obando for facilitating
our work. Everyone who helped us with collecting is gratefully acknowledged,
but especially (in alphabetical order): G. Bailles, F. Bechtolsheim, S. Boden, M.
Davis, L. Espinoza, L. Kramer, R. Manobanda, D. S. Larco, A. Nelson, D. Nicastro,
A. Troya, and M. Wherley. A. Ludden was hugely helpful in the lab and M. Sher‑
rit aided with fungarium curation, and G. C. Carroll was always inspirational. J.
Kalichman was instrumental in facilitating the migration of observation data
from Mushroom Observer to iNaturalist with the creation of custom python
scripts. DSN is particularly indebted to L. Quijada, J. K. Mitchell, D. Pfister, T.
Iturriaga, and K. Hodge for their collaboration in the study of our discomycete
collections. Special thanks to H.‑O. Baral for making available preliminary
molecular data on the genus Ascocoryne, and we are grateful to R. Tehan for
identifying and sequencing many Hypocrealean collections. RV and DSN
both extend heartfelt thanks to all the generous backers of the 2017/2018
Experiment.com crowdfunding campaign (experiment.com/projects/
sequencing‑the‑fungi‑of‑the‑ecuadorian‑andes), with special recognition
for the outstanding contribution made by the Oregon Mycological Society.
Two National Geographic Explorer Grants facilitated this work, one at the
beginning in 2008 (no. NGS‑8317‑07 to BAR and BTMD) and one at the end,
Ethics approval and consent to participate:
All fungal collections were in accordance with regulations from the Ministerio
del Ambiente de Ecuador under Scientific Research Authorizations: No.
001‑07 IC‑F‑DRCI‑MA, No. 02‑10‑1C‑FLO‑DPAI/MA, No. 03‑2011‑IC‑FLO‑DPAI/
MA, No. 12‑2013‑1013‑IC‑FAU‑FLO‑DPAI/MA, and the Framework Contract for
Access to Genetic Resources No. MAE‑DNB‑CM‑2016‑0045, as stipulated in the
Memorandum of Understanding and Specific Inter‑institutional Cooperation
Agreement established between the Ecuadorian National Institute of Biodiver‑
sity (INABIO) and the University of Oregon.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
All authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Author details
1
Inst. of Ecology and Evolution, Department of Biology, University of Oregon,
Eugene, OR 97402, USA. 2 Glorieta, NM, USA. 3 Biology Department and Natu‑
ral History Museum, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA. 4 Herbario
Nacional del Ecuador (QCNE), sección botánica del Instituto Nacional de
Biodiversidad (INABIO), Avenida Río Coca E6‑115 e Isla Fernandina, Sector
Jipijapa, Quito, Ecuador. 5 Departamento de Investigación de Mycomaker,
Quito, Ecuador. 6 Departamento de Investigación de Reino Fungi, Quito,
Ecuador. 7 Microbiology Institute‑Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito,
Ecuador. 8 Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, East
Bay, Hayward, CA, USA. 9 Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Research, University
of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Bayern, DE, Germany.
Vandegrift et al. Botanical Studies
(2023) 64:17
Received: 16 February 2023 Accepted: 8 June 2023
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