Jour Pl Sci Res 28 (2) 55-59 2012 Pollution Indicators and Their Detection 1 Maqbool Geelani S , 2Bhat S J A, 3Hanifa Geelani S , 1Haq S 1 Division of Environmental Sciences, S. K. University of Agriculture, Sciences & Technology Kashmir193 201 (Jammu & Kashmir-India) 2 Faculty of Forestry, S. K. University of Agriculture, Sciences & Technology Kashmir- 193 201 (Jammu & Kashmir-India) 3 Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Kashmir Hazratbal, Srinagar (J & K), India- 190 006 *Corresponding Author E-mail: geelani111@gmail.com, geelani111@yahoo.com Pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, water and soil that may harmfully affect the life or create a potential health hazard of any living organism. The development, civilization and rapid industrialization by man has caused a great damage to the environment leading to environmental pollution. There has grown up a serious concern all over the world about the rivers turning murky, fish rotting on sea shores, trees withering, cities choking with foul air, toxic chemicals being cycled into food stuffs and diseases epidemics appearing so frequently. The microbes, plants, animals, bacteria, biotic communities etc. show different levels of sensitivity and can be successfully employed as indicators to access and predict environmental pollution in a timely manner Key words: Pollution indicators Organism/organisms or attributes of the community which can be used to provide information on State of the environment and change from normal conditions. Organisms (microbes, plants, insects, bacteria etc) serving as indicators of environmental pollution and giving Indications of the hazardous substances or indication of the state of environmental pollution of water, air, soil etc. by having ability to accumulate substances causing pollution are called pollution indicators. The first reference to environmental indicators is attributed to Plato, who cited the impacts of human activity on fruit tree harvest (Rapport, 1992). Ecological indicators are primarily used either to assess the condition of the environment (e.g., as an earlywarning system) or to diagnose the cause of environmental change (Dale and Beyeler, 2001). Indicator species An indicator species is any biological species that defines a trait or characteristic of the environment. For example, a species may indicate an environmental condition such as a disease outbreak, pollution, species competition or climate change. Indicator species can be among the most sensitive species in a region, and sometimes act as an early warning to monitoring biologists. Lindenmayer et al., 2000 suggest 7 alternative definitions of indicator species: ± ± ± A species whose presence indicates the presence of a set of other species and whose absence indicates the lack of that entire set of species. A keystone species, which is a species whose addition to or loss from an ecosystem leads to major changes in abundance or occurrence of at least one other species. A species whose presence indicates humancreated abiotic conditions such as air or water pollution (often called a pollution indicator species). 56 ± ± ± ± Maqbool Geelani S., Bhat S.J.A., Hanifa Geelani S., and Haq S. A dominant species that provides much of the biomass or number of individuals in an area. A species that indicates particular environmental conditions such as certain soil or rock types. A species thought to be sensitive to and therefore to serve as an early warning indicator of environmental changes such as global warming or modified fire regimes (sometimes called a bioindicator species). A management indicator species, which is a species that reflects the effects of a disturbance regime or the efficacy of efforts to mitigate disturbance effects. The microbes, plants, animals, bacteria, biotic communities etc. show different levels of sensitivity and can be successfully employed as indicators to access and predict environmental pollution in a timely manner (Ali, 2011). The harmful effects of the environmental pollution can be assessed on the basis of the adequate data collected at properly selected sampling stations, using well defined sampling procedures and analytical techniques to conduct both physico-chemical and biological monitoring programme and collect basic data on the quantity and quality of the pollutants present in the environment (Melamed, 2009 ). Pollution Indicators of Air A plant is used to indicate air quality and locate sources of air pollution utilizing known as air “Pollution Indicator Plant.” Indicator plants containing a series of chambers, where the particulate matter and chemicals have been removed by a series of filters. Bio-indicator plants are very sensitive to a selected (toxic) chemical, they respond quickly with typical visible foliar symptoms to the presence of medium-to-low levels of the noxious agent; they are very cost-effective and represent a striking visual demonstration unit. The category of plants as a indicator of air pollution are discussed below: 1. Lichen (Parmelia Orthotrichum, Polytrichum). 2. Algae (Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Chlorococcum, Chlorosarcina). 3. Moss Tillandsia usneoides, Sphagnum, Bryum. The Journal of Plant Science Research 4. Herbs and grasses. 5. Tulsi. 6. Tobacco. 7. Lettuce plants. 1. Lichen (Parmelia): For nearly 25 years that lichen growth and health can assess many air pollutants and the value of these living organisms rather than manmade instruments for assessing sulfur dioxide levels is that they are inexpensive and give quick results. Lichens are especially useful in forestry to assess where conifers should be planted since conifers are affected by the same sulfur dioxide levels that cause lichen cover to decline. The possibility of transplanting healthy lichens into areas suspected of being polluted, and monitoring physiological parameters such as respiration and photosynthesis, to give a rapid indication of pollution levels is obvious. 2. Algae: Aerial or sub-aerial algae would also be ideal as indicators of air pollution because of ease of handling, range of species specific sensitivity which is greater than in higher plants and much quicker physiological responses to air chemistry than occur in high plants. Many of the cortecolous, lithophilous and epiphytic algae, liverworts, fern gametophytes are ideally suited as air biological monitoring organisms. Using both pollution tolerant and pollution sensitive species would be best for air quality indication. Especially suitable as test organisms in the Air Biomonitor are the microalgae found in both aerial and subaerial habitats such as species of Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Chlorococcum, Chlorosarcina, Chlorosarcinopsis, Gloeocystis, Chlorhormidium Pleurococcus, Stichococcus, Trebouxia, Chroococcus, Gloeocapsa, Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Schizothrix, and Scytonema and the diatoms- Navicula and Nitzschia. 3. Moss (Tillandsia): Tillandsia usneoides is an indicator species to air pollution, that its decline is directly related to raised levels of air pollution, and that the most acidic pollutants are the most harmful. Air pollutants are absorbed by Spanish moss. An experiment was formulated with two stages: the first, stage involved taking air samples in Houston and testing for the quantity of specific pollutants using a gas chromatograph and the second stage was putting Spanish moss in an Pollution Indicators and Their Detection Environmental Study Chamber (ESC), which is a closed system, and exposing it to the pollutants found in the air samples. Tillandsia usneoides, commonly called Spanish moss, is a relative of the pineapple (order Bromeliales, family Bromeliaceae, genus Tillandsia (air plant), and species usneoides) (Spanish moss). In fact, it is an epiphyte, a plant that gains all of its moisture and nutrients from the air (Arny). The thin trichomes (scales) that cover the whole plant, these trichomes play an important role in the absorption of moisture and nutrients from the air. The trachomas act as pumps, and draw moisture and dissolved minerals into the plants through the stomata (Arny). This indicates that whatever is present in the air—including pollutants— will be absorbed by the plants. 4. Herbs and grasses: Changes in sensitive species of herbs and grasses occur much earlier than in shrub and tree populations. Generally, the degree of ‘Crown die-back’ and death of trees is directly related to the level of SO2, NO2 HF and HCl pollution of air. 5. Tulsi: Tulsi is sensitive to pollution and a minor change in pollution level is also been detected by this plant. Certain visual observations on the plant supported our prediction that Tulsi can be used as effective bioindicator for autoexhaust pollution. Tulsi act as bioindicator for determining the increased level of nitrogen and sulphur status in atmosphere. 6. Tobacco: Biomonitoring of ozone with tobacco is miniaturized kit based on tobacco seedlings (Nicotiana tabacum L.) cultivars Bel-W3 (O3-supersensitive) and Bel-B (O3- resistant). The biomonitoring units consisted of polystyrene tissue-culture plates with wells filled with organic compost; each well held a 10-day-old tobacco seedling, raised in a controlled environment. 7. Lettuce plants: Lettuce plants as bioaccumulations of trace elements Homogeneous adult lettuce plants, Lactuca sativa raised in a greenhouse were exposed to ambient air in 15 dm3 containers at nine stations and regularly provided with water until field capacity. ± Lichens acting as bioindicator of heavy metals like (Pb, Cr, Cu, Cd, Ni etc) caused due to pollution from motor vehicles activites on roadside soils e.g. Xanthoria candelaria, Xanthoria elegans etc. ± ± ± 57 Pine tree barks and needles acts as indicators of different degrees of heavy metal pollution (Urban, Industrial, highway) concentrations e.g. lead (pb), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), cromium (Cr) e.g. Turkish red pine (Pinus brutia Ten.), Italian stone pine (Pinus Pinea L.), Australian pine (Pinus nigra) etc. Spider Webs acts as an efficient traps of airborne particulates and provide a useful indicator for monitoring environmental pollutants because they are unexpensive and easy to collect and are widespread in urban areas (Hose, 2002) and acts as best indicators Indicators of Heavy Metal Pollution e.g. (Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd etc.) in Air e.g. Achaearanea tepidariorum, Araneus ventricosus. (S. Xiao, 2006) Pigeons as an Indicator Species for monitoring Air Pollution. Heavy metals like Zn, Pb causes DNA damage and traces of which is found in kidney, lung, liver and blood of pigeons e.g. Wild pigeons. (Pauline et al., 2007). The harmful effects of air pollution can be assessed on the basis of adequate data collected at properly selected sampling stations, using well defined sampling procedures and analytical techniques for the detection of various pollutants. The various collecting devices and techniques employed for the particulate and gaseous air pollutants are: Gravity techniques: used to collect settleable particles (e.g. fly ash, soot, smoke etc.) and devices include dust fall bucket, dust fall jar etc. Filtration techniques: used for collecting suspended particulates that do not settle out early and devices include high volume sampler, paper tape sampler etc. Precipitation techniques: applied for collecting aerosol particles and radio active particulates e.g. Thermal precipitation and electrostatic precipitation. Cold trapping: Gaseous pollutants from the air stream trapped in different collecting chambers maintained at progressive decreasing temperature (00 to 1960C in liquid nitrogen bath). This technique is used to collect insoluble non reactive vapours, hydrocarbons, radio active gases etc. The Journal of Plant Science Research 58 Maqbool Geelani S., Bhat S.J.A., Hanifa Geelani S., and Haq S. Absorption sampling: Desired gaseous contaminants collected by closely contacting or bubbling through absorbent solution. The absorbents used include water (for absorbing gases), oils (for absorbing hydrocarbons). Devices for detection includes glass scrubbers, packed columns etc. Adsorption sampling: Gases and vapours in the polluted air adsorbed on suitable adsorbents e.g. activated charcoal, activated carbon etc. Great sampling: Taken out between suitable intervals to come into contact with suitable absorbing solution e.g. Liquid or gas displacement collector, deflated plastic bag are employed. Pollution Indicators of Soil ± ± ± ± ± ± Biological material (grass, leaves, bark, pine needles) are analyzed to evaluate the possible uptake of contaminants and the relationship with the pollution sources. Fungi (Fusarium sp, Trichoderma sp, Aspergillus sp and Rhizoctonia sp) bacteria (Bacillus sp). Microbial counts responds to the presence of heavy metals in the soil and thus serve as microbial indicator species for metal pollution. Macro invertebrates indicators of pollution by heavy metals soil invertebrates respond to different environmental factors, including direct effect of heavy metals, suggesting confounding factors generating spurious relationships between the values of species as bioindicators and the pollution. Algal species e.g. Chlorella vulgaris, C. pyrenoidosa, Hormidium flaccidum etc. Any change in the physio-chemical factors alters the composition of algal flora. Soil pollutants are minerals, nitrates, nitrites, sulfates, phosphates, anthropogenic pollutants. Soils are usually sampled for: Assessing their agricultural quality. Evaluating contamination levels in polluted sites for heavy metals (pb, cd, Hg etc.), E.C, pH, texture etc. The Journal of Plant Science Research Pollution Indicators of Water The aquatic environment with its water quality is considered the main factor controlling the state of health and disease in both man and animal. Nowadays, the increasing use of the waste chemical and agricultural drainage systems represents the most dangerous chemical pollution. The most important heavy metals from the point of view of water pollution are Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd, Hg, Ni and Cr. Some of these metals (e.g. Cu, Ni, Cr and Zn) are essential trace metals to living organisms, but become toxic at higher concentrations. Others, such as Pb and Cd have no known biological function but are toxic elements. In the attempt to define and measure the effects and presence of pollutants on aquatic system, biomarkers plays an important role (Mesut Do—an and Bayram Klzllkaya, 2010). Various aquatic organisms occur in rivers, lakes, seas and marines potentially useful as biomarkers of metal pollutants, including fish, shellfish, oyster, mussels, clams, aquatic animals and aquatic plants and algae. ± ± ± ± Marine Algae e.g. A. curicuatum, C. gracilis and P. capillacea are important pollution indicators of heavy metals (Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni and Zn ) in seas. Hydrophytes (Phragmites australis, Typha angustifolia, Potamogeton pectinatus, Ranunculus sphaerosphermus and Groenlandia densa) acts as bioindicators of iron and manganese pollutions in marshes and lakes. Somatic coliphages and bacterial indicators (E. coli, total coliforms (TC) and faecal coliforms (FC) acts as bacterial indicators of bathing water. Coliforms The fecal streptococci have been used extensively as indicator bacteria in aquatic systems and this precedent has also been used to monitor the level of fecal contamination in soil. Any organism used in such a manner must represent a fecal source, be foreign to the soil environment, and possess characteristics which allow its differentiation from any other closely related organisms. Such criteria have been applied to certain fecal streptococcal biotypes as indicators of soil pollution, as Indicator of Pollution Indicators and Their Detection ± ± Faecal Pollution of water due to: they are abundant in faeces and they are generally found only in polluted waters. Fish scales (Puntius sarana sarana (Hamilton), and Labeo rohita (Hamilton) due to Silicates, Nitrates, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn, Ca etc causing damage of lepidonts on marginal circuli, Disruption of circuli and damaged lepidonts due to pollution of water. Green Algae (Enteromorpha intestinalis and Cladophora glomerata) acts as Bioindicators of Heavy Metal Pollution (manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in stream. Detection of water quality and various pollutants of water is characterized on the basis of various physical, chemical and biological characteristics: ± ± ± Physical characteristics: Colour, Odour, Dissolved oxygen (DO), Insoluble substances, Temperature range etc. Chemical characteristics: Chemical oxygen demand, pH, Acidity, Hardness, Total carbon, Total dissolved solids, Chlorine, Oil and Grease etc. Biological characteristics: Biological oxygen demand, Presence of pathogens etc. Biological monitoring is valuable method used in conservation studies to protect and preserve the biological integrity of natural ecosystem, which includes preventive measures (Dale and Beyeler, 2001). Bioindicators of pollutants are useful in predicting the level and degree of pollutants before the effects of the pollutants starts, which caused large proportions (Pai, 2002; Verma, 2002). Qualitative and quantitative analysis of different groups of organisms have led to establishment of bioindicators. As scientific advancements and innovation in the development and use of ecological indicators continue through applications of molecular biology, computer technology such as geographic information systems, data management such as bioinformatics, and remote 59 sensing, our ability to apply ecological indicators to detect signals of environmental change will be substantially enhanced (Niemeijer, 2002). 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