Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines

Ramon Razal

The book is written primarily as a reference material for university/college students, teachers, scientists and extension and field workers with an interest in non-wood forest products (NWFPs). It provides basic information about the various types of NWFPs that can be obtained from Philippine forest ecosystems. Because NWFPs are known by various names in different regions of the country, the book presents the vernacular names in use in several localities and the scientific names of the non-wood producing species. The book also provides botanical description of the plants including their ecological distribution. It likewise covers substantial aspects about nursery propagation and the requirements for plantation establishment/cultural management of majority of non-wood producing species. Moreover, the book is enriched with the processing and utilization technologies for most of the NWFPs.

NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS OF THE PHILIPPINES NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS OF THE PHILIPPINES RAMON A. RAZAL Professor, Department of Forest Products and Paper Science University of the Philippines Los Banos College of Forestry and Natural Resources (UPLBCFNR) and ARMANDO M. PALIJON Professor Institute of Renewable Natural Resources University of the Philippines Los Banos College of Forestry and Natural Resources (UPLBCFNR) NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS OF THE PHILIPPINES 2009 Copyright 2009 College of Forestry and Natural Resources University of the Philippines Los Baños No part of this publication may be be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Views expressed in this book are solely of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the publisher/copyright owner. Trade names of chemicals cited in this book are solely for discussion purposes. There is no intention to indorse the name of products or imply criticism of similar ones not mentioned. College of Forestry and Natural Resources with funding support from the University of the Philippines Textbook Writing Grant Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development First printing 2009 Razal, Ramon A. and Armando M. Palijon. 2009. Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines. UPLB College of Forestry and Natural Resources, College, Laguna 4031. ISBN No. 978-971-579-058-1 Printed by El Guapo Printing Press, Calamba City, Laguna. Foreword Filipino experts are credited with having coined the phrase “non-timber forest products,” which was initially meant to supplant the use of the derisive term minor forest products for all goods and services, other than timber, that can be derived from the forests. The terminology still begs to be generally accepted because of the negative connotation of “non” and disparity in the understanding about its scope. The continuing debate spawned other terminologies such as non-wood forest products, special forest products, other economic forest products, and secondary forest products, among many others, for this group of forest-based materials. On the bright side, the idea which was planted by the introduction of the term, that forests are a source of other products that are just as economically important as timber, has lingered. Heightened recognition of the potential of these products to meet man’s needs has also been accompanied by observations that their harvest and use, unlike that of timber, result in more benign, if not negligible impact, on the environment. Additionally, these products are perceived to increase the share of poor people not endowed with capital to extract timber, in the benefits that forest can provide. Consequently, green markets that have a preference for these products have opened up and even created special niches for novelty items crafted by indigenous peoples out of these materials. The present book has taken note of the relationship between indigenous cultures and non-timber forest resources, particularly the contributions of traditional knowledge systems in sustaining these resources. The book covers various facets of Philippine non-timber forest products that were first expounded by William H. Brown in his classic Minor Forest Products of the Philippines, but with infusion of new findings from continuing research efforts here and abroad. Because the gap between Brown’s work and the present publication spans almost a century already, this work is a welcome refresher and an invaluable reference material on contemporary practices in the cultivation, propagation, processing, utilization, and marketing of these emerging products. It is likewise a much sought after addition to existing literature and educational materials on forestry and forest products originally written by Filipino experts in the field. While the book’s focus is on Philippine forest products, it also contributes in the continuing global discussion on appropriate methods of classification and valuation of forest products and even proposes a system to use for such purpose. It has also touched on recent trends in R&D, as well as on social issues such as the role of women and children in their harvesting and utilization, and recommends future directions for their further promotion and development. As an advocate of non-wood forest products myself, I believe that forestry professionals and students should aim to gain a better understanding of these resources from our forests. Reading this book can be a valuable first step in achieving this goal. Florentino O. Tesoro, Ph.D. Undersecretary (retired), Department of Science and Technology Table of Contents Page No. v vii xi-xii xiv xvi xvii Foreword Table of contents Figures and tables Abbreviations used Symbols used Preface I. Introduction 1 Definition of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) Supply and distribution of NWFPs NWFPs in the market Significance of NWFPs The special case of rattans II. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines Scope and importance of classification Classification defined Existing international systems of classification Proposed systems of classification Types and brief profile of selected Philippine NWFPs Plant sources of structural materials and fiber products Rattan Other important palms Bamboo, a “tree” with over a hundred uses Other plant sources of fiber Forest vines Plant sources of leaf fibers Herbs, shrubs, or trees that produce stem or bast fibers Climbing aroids, plant sources of root fibers Medicinal and cosmetic plant products Plants producing chemical or extractive products Resin producing plants Dye and tannin producing plants Gum and latex producing plants Plants producing essential oils Plants producing seed oils Plant sources of edible fruits and nuts Animals and animal products vii 3 8 11 11 13 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 22 24 29 32 33 36 38 41 42 49 49 54 58 61 64 68 71 III. Cultural Management of NWFPs Propagation and management of plant sources of structural materials and fiber products Rattan Sexual propagation of rattan Asexual propagation of rattan Care and maintenance Areas suitable for rattan plantation development Growth of rattan Other Important Palms Bamboo Sexual propagation Use of wildlings Macro-vegetative propagation Micro-vegetative propagation Establishment and management of bamboo farms or plantations Other plant sources of fiber Forest vines Plant sources of leaf fiber Herbs, shrubs, or trees that produce stem or bast fibers Climbing aroids Selected Medicinal Plants Plants producing chemical and extractive products Resin-producing plants Dye and tannin-producing plants Gum and latex-producing plants Plant sources of essential oils Plant sources of seed oils Plant sources of edible fruits and nuts IV. 79 79 79 81 82 83 87 87 91 91 92 93 96 97 99 99 101 104 106 106 110 110 117 118 118 120 121 Properties, Harvesting, and Utilization of NWFPs 129 Plant Sources of Fibers and Structural Materials Rattan The harvesting of rattan Properties of rattan poles Processes involved in the manufacture of rattan products Other palms Bamboo Harvesting of bamboo Properties of bamboo Utilization of bamboo The processing of bamboo to its various end-uses 130 130 130 130 132 viii 137 145 145 147 149 149 V. Forest vines Plant sources of leaf fibers Plant sources of stem and bast fibers Plant sources of root fibers Medicinal plants Harvesting and utilization of lagundi for volatile oil production Extractive products Naval stores from Benguet and Mindoro pines Dye and tannin-producing plants Gums and latex-producing forest plants Essential oils Seed Oils Harvesting and Utilization of Forest Food Plants 152 153 157 159 159 159 163 163 169 171 171 176 178 Issues and Challenges Facing Philippine NWFPs 185 Resource assessment Developing markets for NWFPs Marketing of tikog products Trading of salago fiber Economic benefits from NWFP-based livelihood enterprises Trade in NWFPs Certification of NWFPs Valuation of NWFPs The role of women and children in NWFP-based livelihood NWFPs in relation to carbon and climate change VI. Philippine Policies on NWFPs Policies on rattan On resource extraction Rattan processing and utilization Rattan plantation establishment and development Policies on bamboo and anahaw Banning and lifting of cutting and transporting of bamboo in some regions of the country Cutting/gathering, and/or utilization of anahaw palms Bamboo as a species for reforestation and industrial forest development Policies on edible fruit-bearing trees Other policies relevant to NWFPs Harvesting, utilization, and transportation of other nontimber products within forest/timberland Harvesting, utilization, and transportation of non-timber forest products within social forestry and/or CBFM areas NWFP-based processing industries ix 187 189 190 191 191 195 196 197 198 199 203 204 205 207 208 210 210 210 211 212 213 213 213 215 Incentives for NWFP processing and plantation development Forest charges Transport/shipment of NWFPs/commodities Confiscation, forfeiture, and disposition of conveyances used in the commission of forest offences VII. The Future of Philippine NWFPs Research, information, education, and training on NWFPs The potential of new technologies for enhancing sustainable use of NWFPs 215 217 218 219 223 224 226 Annex Tables A B C D E F G H I Checklist of Philippine rattan Bamboo species found in the Philippines Bast fiber producing species of the Philippines Medicinal plants of the Philippines Philippine plant sources of natural dyes Gums and latex-producing plant species in the Philippines Essential oil producing species of the Philippines Seed oil producing species of the Philippines Edible fruits and nuts in the Philippines 231 237 241 247 274 278 280 284 289 Glossary 293 Index of scientific plant names Index of vernacular plant names 333 337 x List of Figures Rattan poles being air-dried in Southern Leyte Palasan (Calamus merrillii) Buri (Corypha elata) harvested for its fibers Anahaw (Livistona rotundifolia) Kawayan kiling (Bambusa vulgaris) Giant bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper) Bolo (Gigantochloa levis) Buho (Schizostachyum lumampao) Runo (Miscanthus sinensis) Pandan (Pandanus sp.) Tiger grass (Thysanolaena maxima) Bamban (Donax cannaeformis) Lagundi (Vitex negundo) Sambong (Blumea balsamifera) Akapulko (Cassia alata) Noni (Morinda citrifolia) Gogo (Entada rheedii) and gogo seeds Pili (Canarium ovatum) Ilang-ilang (Cananga odorata) Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) Bani (Pongamia pinnata); Inset shows bani seeds. Lumbang (Aleurites moluccana) Talisay (Terminalia catappa) Datiles (Muntingia calabura) Kaong (Arenga pinnata) Kamansi (Artocarpus altilis) Rattan seedlings in a seed box Potting rattan germinants Propagating bamboo using one-node bamboo culm cuttings Propagation of bamboo by branch cuttings Tissue culture of bamboo Field planting of bolo (G. levis) Scraping of rattan poles being done by women, young and old alike. Air-drying of rattan poles Step-by-step process in extracting buntal fibers from the petiole of buri Soaking of buntal fibers in aqueous solution containing vinegar to improve fiber whiteness Weaving buntal hats xi 13 24 26 27 30 30 31 31 32 36 38 40 44 45 45 47 48 53 61 63 65 66 67 70 70 71 80 81 94 95 96 98 132 133 138 138 139 (a) Drying raffia fibers by hanging on clothesline (b) Photograph shows difference in raffia fibers produced using two methods, by boiling to give the bleached fiber effect and without boiling, resulting in darker fibers Splitting raffia Storing raffia by winding them into rolls Weaving raffia for bag making Anahaw fans for sale Anahaw leaves for sale as roofing material Bamboo slats being prepared for treatment by soaking in preservative solution. Air-drying bamboo by letting them stand on end Finishing touches on a newly-assembled bamboo sofa Bamboo cross-cutting machine Bamboo splitter Manually transporting pandan leaves from the farm to the village for processing into woven products. Transporting pandan Ilohan for flattening pandan leaves Air-drying tikog stalks Bottles containing shampoo from gogo; advertisement for lauat, herbal shampoo containing ingredients from gogo Tapping the almaciga tree for Manila copal by making an incision on the bark; Collecting the resin that exuded from the incision Crude Manila copal (almaciga resin); (b) crude Manila elemi (pili resin). Still for essential oil extraction Traditional selling of NWFP on horse-carried carts Mother and daughter bringing handicrafts to market on foot Women socializing while weaving buntal hats xii 140 140 140 141 143 143 149 150 150 151 151 153 148 154 155 163 165 166 172 189 198 199 List of Tables Resource inventory of NWFP and their potential for generating livelihood in upland and coastal ecosystems in the different regions in the Philippines Comparison between furniture manufacturing establishments of wood and rattan in1995 Projections (2011-2015) of the demand for rattan for furniture List of NWFPs by category Commercially-important NWFPs Other uses and products of selected Asian rattan Value (in US$)of forest-based furniture exports Commercially-tapped sources of pine resin: species and country Yield (in t/ha) for a number of fruit crops in three Southeast Asian countries based on 2007 FAO records. Place and time of collection of almaciga seeds Trade classification and characteristics of commercially-sold rattan species Anti-stain fungicides with their compositions and concentration for rattan dipping treatment Categories and samples of products derived from bamboo culms NWFPs in the Philippines and their significance/economic contribution Cost-and-return analysis of a 1 ha ambolong plantation used for shingle production Cost-and-return analysis of plantation establishment and production of soft broom from tiger grass per hectare at spacing of 2m × 2m Imports of NWFPs (2005) NWFP exports (2005) Partial list of forest policy issuances on or related to NWFPs Rates of forest charges on selected NWFPs as specified in DAO No. 2000-63 pursuant to R.A. 7161 and based on FOB market price of forest products xiii 9-10 13 14 20 21 25 32 50 69 112 132 134 149 186 193 194 195 196 204 218 Abbreviations Used AAC ANAA APPS AYMC BCR BFAD BIOTECH BOI CBFM CDO/CDA CENRO CFIP CFNR CIFOR CITC CNFPO CO CPC DENR DAO DOH DOST DTI ECC ENRA ERDB ERDS FAO-UN FIDA FMB FOB FPRDI FRIM FRIP GDP GNP GTH HRDO HS IAA ICRAF IDRC IFMA IFP Annual Allowable Cut α-naphthalene acetic acid Airponic Plant Propagation System Anao Ylang-ylang Multipurpose Cooperative Benefit Cost Ratio Bureau of Food and Drugs National Institute of Biotechnology and Microbiology Board of Investments Community-Based Forest Management Community Development Officer/Assistant Community and Environment Office Chamber of Furniture Industries of the Philippines College of Forestry and Natural Resources Center for International Forestry Research Cottage Industry Technology Center Certificate of Non-Timber Forest Products Origin Certificate of Origin Provisional Central Product Classification Department of Environment and Natural Resources Department Administrative Order Department of Health Department of Science and Technology Department of Trade and Industry Environmental Compliance Certificate Environment and Natural Resources Academy Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau Ecosystems Research and Development Service Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Fiber Industry Development Authority Forest Management Bureau Free On Board Forest Products Research and Development Institute Forest Research Institute of Malaysia Forest Resources Inventory Project Gross Domestic Product Gross National Product Gifts, Toys, and House Wares Human Resources Development Office Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System Indole acetic acid World Agroforestry Centre International Development Research Center Integrated Forest Management Agreement Industrial Forest Plantations xiv IRR ISFP ISIC ITP ITTO IUFRO KFRI LGU MC MNR MRI NGO NIRPROMP NPV NRDC NSTA NTFP NWFP PCARRD PCHI PCHRD PD PENRO PICOP PITACH PLTP PMO PO RA RLI ROI RRDP RSD RUP SEANN SFDO SITC SMEs SNA SYC TBTO Internal Rate of Return Integrated Social Forestry Program International Standard Classification of all Economic Activities Industrial Tree Plantation International Tropical Timber Organization International Union of Forest Research Organizations Kerala Forest Research Institute Local Government Unit Memorandum Circular Ministry of Natural Resources Multi-Resource Inventory Non-Government Organization National Institute for Research and Production of Medicinal Plants Net Present Value Natural Resources Development Corporation National Science and Technology Authority Non-Timber Forest Products Non-Wood Forest Products Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development Philippine Chamber of Handicraft Industries Philippine Council for Health Research and Development Presidential Decree Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office Paper Industries Corporation of the Philippines Philippine Institute for Traditional and Alternative Health Care Private Land Timber Permit Project Management Officer People’s Organization Republic Act Relative Light Intensity Return on Investment Rural Reconstruction Development Program Rattan Special Deposit Resource Use Permit South and East Asian Countries Non-Timber Forest Products Network Social Forestry Desk Officer Standard Trade Classification Small and Medium Enterprises System of National Accounts Sustained Yield Cut Tributyltinoxide xv TLA TPSA TREES UPLB US WHO Timber License Agreement Timber Production Sharing Agreement Training Center for Tropical Resources and Ecosystems Sustainability University of the Philippines Los Baños United States World Health Organization Symbols used B cm g ha K kg L lm m M N P pc, pcs ppm sp, spp ºC $ P % billion centimeter gram hectare Potassium kilogram liter lineal meter meter million Nitrogen Phosphorus Piece, pieces Parts per million species degree Celsius dollar peso per cent xvi Preface Interest in non-wood forest products (NWFPs) has grown in recent years but unlike in the past, the present attention appears to remain for a long time. There are many reasons for the renewed enthusiasm towards NWFPs among which is the shift in consumer preferences to products that are considered natural, indigenous, environment-friendly and healthy. NWFPs easily fit this description: natural because they are mostly gathered from the wild; indigenous being products that are known to have links with the culture of native people; environment-friendly because they can be removed from forests without inflicting too much damage on the ecosystem; and healthy because of their valuable medicinal and wellness-promoting uses. However, only a limited number of materials that compile information about the various NWFPs in the Philippines have been written. Students looking for a “one-stop” source of information – like what are the various kinds of NWFPs we have in the country, their geographic distribution, how they can be propagated, the methods for their harvesting and use – have to pore over several materials to locate data of interest. This book has been written primarily as a reference material for university/college students, teachers, scientists and extension and field workers with an interest in NWFPs. It provides basic information about the various types of NWFPs that can be obtained from Philippine forest ecosystems. Because NWFPs are known by various names in the different regions of the country, the book presents the vernacular names in use in several localities and the scientific names of the non-wood producing species. The book also provides botanical description of the plants including their ecological distribution. It likewise covers substantial aspects about nursery propagation and the requirements for plantation establishment/cultural management of majority of the non-wood producing species. Moreover, the book is enriched with the processing and utilization technologies for most of the NWFPs. Chapter I introduces the reader/user on the history and definition, supply and distribution, market and significance of NWFPs. The reader’s attention is also drawn towards rattan, which is considered special being second only to timber in importance as forest product. Chapter II delves on the classification and description of selected Philippine NWFPs and proposes that these forest resources be classified into five (5) categories as follows: a) plant sources of structural and fiber products; b) medicinal and cosmetic plant products; c) plants producing chemical or extractive products; d) plant sources of edible fruits and nuts; and, e) animals and animal products. Chapter III deals with the propagation and management of the non-wood producing species while Chapter IV focuses on the properties, harvesting and utilization of NWFPs. Chapter V presents some of the issues and challenges facing Philippine NWFPs that include resource assessment, market development, economic benefits from selected NWFPbased livelihood enterprises, trade and certification of NWFPs and the role that women and children play in NWFP-based livelihood. Chapter VI is about Philippine policies dealing with NWFPs. These consist of regulations related to cutting, harvesting from natural as well as from artificial stands, transportation, processing and utilization. Also, included are policies on incentives for NWFP processing and plantation development, forest charges, penalties or sanctions for commission of forest offences like illegal cutting, and gathering and transport of NWFPs. Finally, Chapter VII invites the reader to look into the future of Philippine NWFPs particularly the research, information and training directions and the potential of new technologies for enhancing sustainable use of NWFPs. xvii An extensive bibliography of the important research literature is included in each chapter. Majority of the references, both local and international, are specialized works and deal with the specific topic more extensively than that is covered by the present book. Thus, these references are valuable for those wishing to study NWFPs in greater detail. The main author of the book has been teaching forest product processing and utilization for many years, including the “Non-Timber Forest Products” course which he conceptualized and instituted at UPLB. He has also done a number of research studies on the subject, together with his undergraduate and graduate student advisees. The latest among his works is the value chain study of rattan and bamboo in Leyte Island, Philippines, which was undertaken for the Environment and Rural Development Program (EnRD) of the German Technical Cooperation (GTZ). He served as Project Team Leader of the Integrated Non-Timber Forest Products Research Program at UPLB. The co-author has served as NWFP consultant in an FAO funded project in Bangladesh in 1992 and study leader of a European Commission Bamboo Project from 1998 to 2002. He has done extensive research on the production of some NWFPs specifically bamboo and rattan. He has likewise taught NWFP Silviculture for decades, a course he himself developed and institutionalized. As the second most comprehensive publication after Dr. William H. Brown’s book on “Minor Products of Philippine Forests” published in 1920 and reprinted in 1953, it is hoped that the present book will not only enrich knowledge and skills in NWFP production and utilization but will likewise encourage entrepreneurs to engage in NWFP-based industries, be they small, medium or large in scale. It is likewise hoped that by exposing the gaps in knowledge about NWFPs, scientists will be convinced to undertake more research and development activities for the sustainable development of NWFPs in the country. This book would not have been successfully completed without the able support of many people, including For. Rose Jane Peras, Dr. Manuel Castillo, Dr. Nelson Pampolina, Ms. Aileen Peria for the editorial advice, our students who have used the materials in this book and who gave useful comments, the staff at the College of Forestry and Natural Resources Dean’s Office for assistance on various aspects of the book’s writing and production, as well as the blind reviewers who helped with the scientific names, and for suggesting improvements in the book’s contents. We are grateful to Arsenio B. Ella, FPRDI Scientist, for the photos and discussions on resin tapping and NWFP industry development. We are thankful to Dr. Florentino O. Tesoro, a former mentor, FPRDI Director, and DOST Undersecretary for agreeing to write the foreword for this book. We profusely thank the U.P. Textbook Writing Grant for the financial support for writing the manuscript and the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) for the funds for printing the book. We are likewise indebted to our respective families for putting up with our tempers while we are doing the research work and preparing the manuscript, most especially their love, care and inspiration that have kept us going. RARazal AMPalijon xviii NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS OF THE PHILIPPINES I. INTRODUCTION TO NWFPs In 1920, Dr. William H. Brown, an American botanist stationed in the then Bureau of Forestry, published two volumes entitled “Minor Products of Philippine Forests” that would hence become classic reference materials in the science and practice of Philippine forestry. These books, which were subsequently reprinted in 1953, have been widely used in the natural sciences field and influenced much of contemporary Philippine thinking on what constitutes “minor forest products.” These materials contained basic information on the availability and distribution, botanical properties and identification, as well as harvesting, extraction and utilization of Philippine forest plants. They also served as the initial bases for classifying products from Philippine forests into minor, on one hand, and major or principal products on the other. These plant products that are not derived from the woody trunks of trees constitute the non-wood forest products (NWFPs), the main subject of this book. But before delving into NWFPs, let us take another look at the timber resources which comprised the “major” forest products that were of great economic interest to the Americans. In this group belong the dipterocarps, tree species which are members of family Dipterocarpaceae that had once dominated the moist tropical forests of our country. Comprising the dipterocarps are many species that became very popular hardwoods in the United States such as the lauans (e.g., red lauan, Shorea negrosensis Foxw.) yakal (S. astylosa Foxw.), palosapis (Anisoptera thurifera (Blanco) Blume), and dalingdingan (Hopea malibato Foxw.). The use of the term “Philippine mahogany” by lumber firms in the US to refer to the Philippine dipterocarps may have had its origin in the 1920’s. The use of the trade name for the select group of Philippine timber enhanced their commercial value in the North American market even if these were not true mahoganies in the real sense of the word. The US Federal Trade Commission later prohibited the use of the trade name “Philippine Mahogany” in 1926. But this directive brought about the opposite effect of giving a wider publicity to woods that originated from the Philippines, causing the Commission to reverse itself in 1931 (Serevo, 1958). Species belonging to the so-called “Philippine mahogany” were further broken down into the dark and light red Philippine mahogany. Dark red Philippine mahogany comprise of red lauan (S. negrosensis Foxw.), tangile (S. polysperma (Blanco) Merrill), and tiaong (S. agsaboensis Stern syn. S. ovata Dyer ex Brandis). The light red Philippine mahogany group includes almon (S. almon Foxw.), bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan (Blanco) Merr.), mayapis (S. palosapis (Blanco) Merr.) and white lauan (S. contorta Vid.). In addition to the dipterocarps, other species such as narra (Pterocarpus indicus Willd.), dao (Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr.), ipil (Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) O.Ktze.), and molave (Vitex parviflora Juss.) also became highly sought after because of certain special characteristics of their wood. They were referred to in the market as premium tropical hardwood species. Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Included in Brown’s work on minor products from Philippine forests were coconut and other palms, mangrove species, and fiber plants such as abaca (Musa textilis Nees). These plant species were already significant in terms of their contribution to the livelihood of Filipino farmers and gatherers in those days. Some were already even generating substantial import earnings for the islands during the Spanish colonial times. Still, Brown devoted separate chapters on palms, fiber plants, and mangrove species as additional categories of “minor forest products.” Coconuts and abaca were no longer being extracted from forests and were already being cultivated in many settled areas of the archipelago. Commerce involving these plants could be anything than small, as Filipinos were consuming in no insignificant quantities products derived from these plants. In contrast, most products that were traded in substantial volume to the United States, such as sugar cane and tobacco were noticeably excluded from the book. Thus, it can be inferred that the use of the descriptive “minor” for these groups of forest products was in the context of what were considered as unimportant to the consumers in the United States at the time Brown’s books were published. Apart from abaca and coconut, other forest products that were important to Filipinos not only because of their market value but also in terms of their usefulness for subsistence and daily living were included in Brown’s list of minor forest products. Among them were bamboo, rattans, and resins, and certain types of palm like buri (Corypha elata Roxb.) that had been used for making novelty hats and ambolong (Metroxylon sagu Rottb.) from whose pith sagu or “palm starch” was derived. Bamboo and rattan were made into items that were useful as implements for farming, fishing, and in performing the usual household chores such as cooking and cleaning in a typical Filipino home. They also serve as materials in the fabrication of domestic or clothing accessories and furniture, in the construction of native houses, fences, animal cages and other similar structures. In addition, rattan, Manila copal, and other extractive products already had niches in the international trade (Brown, 1920). It was apparent that these products were making substantial contributions to family, community, and the national economy of the Islands at that time. During the American colonial period, U.S. consumers were introduced to the hardwoods from the tropical forests of the Philippines. The US was then the main trading “partner” of the Philippines whose natural virgin forests became the source of logs that were largely shipped off. But trade between the US and the Philippines had been disrupted during the Second World War. Shortly after the Japanese occupying forces were defeated in the war, the newly-established Republic of the Philippines signed an agreement with the United States that provided US nationals parity rights in the exploitation of the country’s natural resources. These gave American-owned companies equal access to the country’s forest resources, most of which directly exported the unprocessed timber to the mainland US. In addition to meeting trade quotas, the Philippines also needed materials for reconstruction following the destruction brought by the war with Japan in the early 1940’s. All of these contributed to the large demand for timber that could only be supplied through more intensive cutting and harvesting of logs from the forests. Mindanao meanwhile, which was 2 Chapter 1. Introduction to NWFPs tagged by the Philippine government with the label of “land of opportunity”, attracted settlers from Luzon and the Visayas. To entice settlers, the government adopted a policy of giving lands to those who would move to Mindanao. These settlers cleared several hectares of forests, built their house, and established a new life there with their family. The expansion of these homesteads by enterprising settlers had contributed to the reduction of forested areas in the country. These developments accounted for the sharp decline in the total area covered with forest trees and associated vegetation in almost all of the islands of the archipelago in the 1900’s. As of 2000 (FAO, 2000), the per capita forest cover was less than 0.17 hectare of forestland per Filipino. The dire consequences of this low ratio are now evident. Presently, logs and lumber are imported to supply the country’s need for wood, especially by the forest products manufacturing sector like the makers of wood furniture and the plywood manufacturers. Also, the once mighty forest-based industry that employed hundreds of thousands Filipinos has been reduced to a negligible economic sector, contributing less than 0.1% of the country’s gross national product (GNP) (DENR, 2006). Calamities such as typhoons and monsoon rains, all too often flood lowland areas of the country. Lakes, rivers and dams are silted, endangering the long-term availability of water for domestic and irrigation purposes. Some sectors are now demanding a total ban in the cutting of logs from Philippine forests because of fear that further removal of trees would result in far more ominous consequences for the country’s environmental sustainability. Because of the negative image of timber extraction, many people had been deprived of earning income from the forests through logging. For many, NWFPs had become alternative sources of livelihood. Like timber, NWFPs are not inexhaustible. It is imperative that production and consumption of these resources should not exceed sustainable limits to avoid total depletion. In order to prevent NWFPs from suffering the same fate as timber, it is necessary that information regarding their properties, production, management and proper utilization should be disseminated as widely as possible. Knowledge on NWFPs is important for forest technicians and professional foresters trained in academic institutions offering courses in forestry. These human resources should be equipped with the proper attitude toward various types of people and communities who depend on NWFPs. They should be well-aware of appropriate techniques and practices for the production, conservation and wise utilization of NWFPs. This book will provide students with the material that will serve as a textbook to cover the growing range of information on the subject. Definition of Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) Arriving at a universal definition of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) has been an elusive and a ticklish undertaking in the forestry sector. Even international experts on 3 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 NWFPs have not arrived at a common agreement as to the acceptable terminology nor the scope of this group of products. Other terminologies that are being used to refer to this group include minor forest products, special forest products, other forest products, nontimber forest products and non-wood goods and services (Chandrasekharan, 1995). The difficulty in arriving at an acceptable, common terminology stems from several considerations or issues. First, what products from the vast array of materials that can be sourced from the forests should the terminology include? A host of dichotomies exists such as living versus non-living, plants versus animals, tangible versus intangible products or services, raw or processed, tree- or timber-derived or not, and so on. The second issue is the land use or type where these products are obtained or harvested from. Is the terminology limited to products that are sourced from forests alone, or would it include those planted in related land uses as well as the ones that are cultivated in lowland farms or plantations? This also touches on the question of of whether to include under this group those that have already been domesticated and are, therefore, grown in commercial quantities in non-forest areas. A third important consideration is the extent to which the product contributes to the economy of the locality or the country where the product is harvested, processed or consumed, or whether it is sufficient that the products are used up by the forest dwellers or native tribes who gather them. Owing to variations in forest type and composition, there are also differences among countries in terms of what are considered as NWFPs. This was highlighted in the third South and East Asian Countries Non-Timber Forest Products Network (SEANN) workshop in Katmandu, Nepal in 1999. Whenever the delegates from India and the other South Asian countries talked about NWFPs, the discussion would invariably focus on medicinal plants and related products. In the Philippines, NWFPs are dominated by rattan and bamboo, and to some extent, by resins or tree exudates. Thus, it is important to grasp the context in which the term NWFP is used. What could be encompassed in the definition may be site-specific and would require an understanding of the purpose for putting forward such a definition. Chandrasekharan (1995) looked into the inadequacies and inconsistencies of the different terminologies used for this group of forest products. In the end, he proposed the use of nonwood forest products (NWFPs) which he had hoped would be adopted by the group of experts gathered in the meeting of the International Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest Products in Yogyakarta, Indonesia in January, 1995. Chandrasekharan finally settled with the definition that considered NWFPs as including “all goods of biological origin, as well as services, derived from forest or any under similar use, and exclude wood in all its forms.” Together, let us take a close look at this definition. We can begin by finding out which products would be included in the terminology. “All goods of biological origin” could mean all plants and animals, and parts thereof, both raw and processed, for as long as they originate from these living things. It should be remembered that this version of the 4 Chapter 1. Introduction to NWFPs definition of NWFPs categorically excludes wood in all its forms. Therefore, woodfuel, charcoal, driftwood, branches, and the like would not form part of NWFPs. In the Philippines, the latter products are considered to comprise this group along with rattan, bamboo, palms, resins, gums, honey and some animal products albeit officially, the term “non-timber forest products (NTFPs)”, was adopted. Some qualification is certainly needed. Additionally, it should be mentioned that in some countries including the Philippines, “wood” coming from the trunk of certain palm trees are processed and utilized for purposes similar to those of timber from trees. In practice, the inside, hardened and highly lignified tissue of the trunk of these tall, erect palms is popularly referred to as “wood” even if they are technically not the same as the wood from the stem of hardwood or softwood trees. If “wood in all its forms” are to be excluded, then “palma brava” which is ‘wood” from the anahaw trunk (Livistonia rotundifolia) ought to be excluded from the list of NWFPs. However, the Philippine Forestry Statistics published yearly by the Forest Management Bureau (FMB) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) has listed palma brava as a minor forest product that has figured in international trade. If these are excluded, the aggregated value of non-timber forest products over the years that palma brava had been reported by FMB would have to be recalculated. Chandrasekharan’s preferred definition of NWFPs also includes animals and animal products. In the Philippines as well as in other countries, animals in the forest are classified as wildlife and in general, their use and consumption by humans are not promoted for biodiversity conservation purposes, unlike those that are derived from plant sources. Notable exceptions are the honeybees, edible birds’ nest, butterflies, and crocodiles grown for their leather in crocodile farms. Those that are consumed as meat (or “bushmeat” in the literature on NWFPs in Africa or Latin America) could be just exchanged among the families within forest communities or sold in non-formal markets such as along roadways and makeshift markets. Customers include local people looking for cheap protein sources and other passers-by who are not averse to consuming so-called “exotic” food products. These sources of animal protein may include the baboy damo (wild pig), sawa (python), bayawak (monitor lizard), palaka (frogs), kuhol (freshwater snail), freshwater fish, and certain types of insects. The present work does not treat these animal food sources in great depth because other authors have tackled (Rubio, 1998) on their availability and the extent by which they are bred, harvested, exchanged, and consumed. Other animals that have attracted interest in terms of providing livelihood opportunities are the butterflies which are collected, mounted in frames and sold to consumers and homeowners. Certain types of worms produce silk by feeding on the leaves of certain plants, birds that are trapped and sold in cages, snakes and iguanas peddled to those who are into adopting them as pets, and monkeys that are sold to serve as test animals in medical laboratories abroad. 5 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Other materials that can be sourced from the forest but are non-biological in origin are also excluded from NWFPs, and from further discussion in this book. Thus, rocks and stones, pebbles, soil, and fossil formations are not considered as belonging to NWFPs. This brings us to services that are considered as belonging to NWFPs as per definition proposed by Chandrasekharan (1995). While the inclusion was suggested for economic reasons, it could muddle rather than provide a rallying point for the proposed definition of NWFPs. First, it can be argued whether Chandrasekharan wanted such services to be also biological in origin. This will be very difficult to argue about, much less to settle. Second, the inclusion of services under NWFPs could be unnecessary for the simple reason that these are highly valuable by themselves to pretty much stand as its own group. The services that were being proposed for inclusion comprise water, eco-tourism, heritage, cultural, and aesthetic value that could provide extensive economic benefits from the forests. Carbon sequestration is another service attributable to forests, and negotiations are going on among rich and poor countries on the cost and valuation of forest activities for their ability to add to (or reduce) global carbon stocks. The proposed inclusion of forest services under NWFPs is designed to address the perceived under-valuation of forest benefits and services. Many of these services are not yet included in the system of national accounts which is why forests in general, are not well-appreciated from an economic standpoint. But this seems to point toward the need for developing improved methods of accounting and valuation rather than a case of classification of such services. Embracing them in the definition of NWFPs might result in diminishing rather than magnifying their value. The foregoing statement should not be taken, however, as a denigration of the material goods that have traditionally been regarded as NWFPs. A final point to consider in Chandrasekharan’s proposed definition is the land use or area where the products are extracted from. The definition qualifies NWFPs “as derived from forests or similar use” which is vague in terms of what really constitutes similar use, not to mention potential disagreements on what constitutes the forests where NWFPs are supposed to originate from. In the FAO definition of forests, only land of more than half a hectare with the canopies of the trees covering more than 10% of the area, which is not under mainly agricultural or urban use, are considered as forests (CIFOR News, 2002). In the Philippines, forests refer to land uses with a slope of 18% or higher. Thus, these are generally located in mountains or upland areas that are also considered by legislative fiat, as public lands. FAO has reconsidered the 1995 proposed definition of NWFPs, culminating in an interdepartmental FAO meeting in 1999, which resulted in a harmonized definition of NWFPs as “consisting of goods of biological origin other than wood, derived from forests, other wooded land and trees outside forests”. This definition basically subscribes to the 1995 definition in terms of exclusion of woody raw materials, the forests as source of these materials, and the qualification of the products to be goods (tangible and physical) that are 6 Chapter 1. Introduction to NWFPs biological in nature or origin. It differs from the 1995 definition in that forest services (e.g. ecotourism, grazing, bioprospecting) and forest benefits (e.g. soil conservation, soil fertility, watershed protection) have been excluded. The latter’s exclusion was explained on the basis of the greater difficulty encountered in assessing and quantifying them, which also accounted for the lack of a clear definition of forest services and benefits (FAO, 1999). Another departure from the 1995 definition is the clarification on what constitutes allied land use, which included other wooded land and trees outside forests. FAO (undated) emphasized that the land use where NWFPs are derived or gathered from consisted of the wild, forest plantations, agroforestry schemes as well as trees outside forests. Consequently, this has encompassed artificial production as a means of making available NWFPs in addition to those that have naturally regenerated from forests. Summarized below are some of the terminologies from various sources that are used to refer to the group of forest products that is the subject of this book: Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). NTFPs describe a broader range of goods than those defined as NWFPs. NTFPs can include small products made of ligneous (or woody) materials such as wooden stools, masks, drums or other handcrafted items which are not industrial timber or pulp. This has been the term officially adopted by the Philippines for this group of forest products starting with the 1984 Philippine Forestry Statistics published by the Forest Management Bureau (FMB) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). The glossary entry on non-timber forest products has the corresponding definition, “includes all forest products except timber.” Unfortunately, the phrase “also known as minor forest product” was added to the definition, which reflects an outdated view of these products in the government bureaucracy. Minor Forest Products. Traditionally, these are products derived from the forests that are of minor economic significance compared to timber. We discourage the use of the phrase for this group of products. Until 1982, the glossary of Philippine Forestry Statistics included an entry on minor forest products, which meant to “include all forest products except timber.” In the Revised Forestry Code of the Philippines (Presidential Decree No. 705 dated May 19, 1973) forest products are defined as “timber, pulpwood, firewood, barks, tree tops, resin, gums, and wood oils, honey, beeswax, nipa, rattan and other forest growth such as grass, shrub, and flowering plants, the associated water, fish, game, scenic, historical, recreational and geologic resources in the forest.” If one goes by this definition, the Philippine minor forest products would pertain to all of the items listed, except perhaps the first two which are timber and pulpwood. As we are all aware by now, these non-timber products are by no means minor nor should their consideration be subordinated to timber in the management of forestlands. 7 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Prior to FAO’s and Chandrasekharan’s proposed definition, an alternative definition of NWFPs had been offered. According to Wickens (1991), NWFPs comprise of “all the biological material (other than industrial roundwood and derived sawn timber, wood chips, wood-based panels and pulp) that may be extracted from natural ecosystems, managed plantations, etc., and be utilized within the household, be marketed, or have social, cultural, or religious significance. The use of the ecosystems for recreation, nature reserves, catchment management, etc., is regarded as forest services.” Supply and Distribution of NWFPs Wicken’s (1991) definition referred to NWFPs as biological materials extracted from natural ecosystems or managed plantations. These natural ecosystems correspond to the forests referred to in Chandrasekharan’s definition, while plantations would form part of the related land uses. As already mentioned, forests are dominated by vegetation that are comprised of trees. They generally occur in upland areas, or in the case of the Philippines, where slope is 18% or greater. Other related ecosystems are those in low-lying areas with tree vegetation that are not normally cultivated such as those in mangrove areas and other coastal ecosystems. Data from the DENR suggest that with the exception of the National Capital Region, all other places or regions in the Philippines have NWFPs that are either currently or could potentially be used to promote people’s livelihood. Table 1.1 in the succeeding page, reproduced with some modification from the information kit of DENR (1997a), indicates the types of NWFPs and the livelihood opportunities that are made available in the different regions of the country. The NWFPs that could be extracted from natural forests include bamboo, rattan and resins. The resins could be tapped from resin-producing trees include dammar and balau from the dipterocarps, copal from almaciga (Agathis philippinensis Warb.), and elemi from pili (Canarium ovatum Engl.) and other related Burseraceae species. Vines, leaves and other plant parts that can be used for treatment of various types of ailments, dyes from barks, are also mostly obtained from natural forests. In mangroves and coastal ecosystems, tannins from the bark, nipa (Nypa fruticans Wurmb.) fronds and sap, some dye and medicinal producing plants can also be gathered. From plantations, essential oils, rubber, fruits, medicinal plants, buri and abaca are commercially produced. Abaca is cultivated in large tracts of land in Bicol and in the eastern Visayan provinces but is currently classified as an agricultural crop, although its planting is generally confined to mountains or upland areas. Many agroforest systems provide fruits that find their way to market stalls such as rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.), guava (Psidium guajava L.) santol (Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr.), avocado (Persea gratissima Gaertn.), banana (Musa sp.), and mango (Mangifera indica L.). 8 Table 1.1. Resource inventory of NWFPs and their potential for generating livelihood in upland and coastal ecosystems in the different regions of the Philippines (DENR, 1997a). Livelihoods Resources availability in region 1 Making paper from abaca Abaca production and utilization Buri fiber extraction and processing Pandan farming for fiber production Making paper from cogon Salago plantation and fiber extraction Sawali weaving from African oil palm Anahaw production and utilization Ambolong production for shingle making Hinggiw harvesting and handicraft weaving Rattan furniture making Rattan plantation establishment and management Rattan seedling production Commercial bamboo farming Deformed bamboo production 2 3 4 5                            6 7 8 9 10 11 12                                                                                    13      CA R NC R           Livelihoods Resources availability in region 1 Bamboo utilization  Giant bamboo for propagule production Tiger grass farming and broom making Kaong harvesting and processing Growing plants producing  essential oil Pili tree production and nut processing Rubber farming intercropped with corn Cashew nut processing  Wild fruit processing Beekeeping Butterfly farming Coastal Ecosystem Bakauan plantation and  utilization Tangal production and utilization Tikog production and utilization Nipa production and utilization  2  3       4      5 6 7                                9  10   11  12 13 CAR              8                                      NCR Chapter 1. Introduction to NWFPs NWFPs in the Market In the Philippines, NWFPs whose production is documented in the Annual Forestry Statistics of DENR (1997b)1 include the following: almaciga resin or copal, anahaw leaves, bamboo, buri midribs, elemi, hinggiw, honey, nipa shingles, diliman and other vines, salago bark, split and unsplit rattan, and tanbark. The volume and value of exports have been recorded for almaciga resin, elemi gum, bamboo, rattan poles, salago fiber, and buri raffia. Exported manufactured articles from NWFPs include baskets and basketware from bamboo, rattan, raffia, etc., placemats from abaca, buri and pandan, and furniture of bamboo, rattan, and buri. Imported NWFPs include gum, bamboo, and split and unsplit rattan. Worldwide, trade in NWFPs is dominated by the following products: ginseng roots, natural honey, walnuts, gum turpentine, rosin, rattan, and gum arabic. Rubber products command the highest aggregate value of imports at US$4.2 B. However, the issue of whether to classify rubber as a forest or agricultural product continues to be debated upon. Significance of NWFPs NWFPs are important because of their contribution to household and national economies, to food security and to environmental objectives (which include the ability to store and sequester carbon), and the conservation of biological diversity. It was estimated (Vantomme, 1997) that 80% of the population of the developing world use NTFPs for health and nutritional needs. Further, Vantomme (1997) asserted that several million households worldwide depend heavily on NWFPs for subsistence, for their income or both. NWFPs can also be used as inputs for large-scale industrial processing, including internationally traded commodities as foods and beverages, confectionery, flavorings, perfumes, medicines, paints or polishers. “Presently, at least 150 NWFPs are significant in terms of international trade, including honey, gum arabic, rattan, cork, forest nuts and mushrooms, essential oils, and plant or animal parts for pharmaceutical products" (Vantomme, 1997). According to de Beer and McDermott (1996), the total value of NWFPs cannot be quantified. However, based on several case studies of communities in Southeast Asia, they have determined the manifold uses and relative importance of NWFPs to the rural household, apart from their role in providing cash income and in generating employment in the market economy. Traditional forest dwellers benefit from the nutritional value of NWFPs, either as staple or emergency food, or as side dishes and snacks. NWFPs also provide fodder for domesticated animals. Many forest dwellers build their houses from NWFPs such as bamboo and various palms, and make baskets, mats, and furniture and 1 For consistency throughout the book, NWFP is used although the DENR and other authors refer to this group of forest products by some other names, such as Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). 11 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 other household adornments from rattan and other fiber-producing plants. Various types of farming, fishing, or hunting implements and household tools or utensils that are almost indispensable to their day-to-day living are also derived from NWFPs. Many other specific examples on traditional uses of NWFPs as dye, torches, glue, insecticide, dart poison, and accessories for dance costumes by various indigenous peoples in Southeast Asia were described by de Beer and McDermott (1996). Traditional medicine employing NWFPs also benefit millions of forest dwellers, especially those that are farthest removed from modern hospitals or health care centers. According to Vantomme (1997), NWFPs may be gathered from the wild, produced as (semi)-domesticated plants in plantation or in agroforestry schemes, or produced in intermediate production systems of varying degrees of domestication. Their wild or semidomesticated status distinguishes them from well-established agricultural crops such as oil palm, cocoa, coconut, rubber or coffee. The degree by which products are domesticated is of importance to FAO, which has an Agriculture Department that deals with industrial production of plantation crops for major edible oils, medicinal and aromatics and food additives, and other cultivated crops such as spices, aromatic oils (geranium oils), mushrooms, etc. NWFPs that fall under the responsibility of FAO's Forestry Department include the group of plants (and animal products) that are gathered from (wild) sources in forests or other related land uses. In terms of contribution to government coffers, the gathering of NWFPs, just like timber, are levied what are referred to as forest charges. Forest charges on NWFPs increased from Php60,111 in 1976 to Php15.3M in 1996. This represented an increase of more than 25,000% over a twenty-year period. However, in 2006, the value of forest charges was only Php6.39M which is the second lowest over the ten-year span from 1996. Of the forest charges collected from NWFPs in 2006, Php6.13M is on rattan, representing 96% of the total. Among the local 435 manufacturers of furniture in 1995 (Table 1.2), 122 are using rattan as raw material (DENR, 1997b). Compared to the 281 wood furniture manufacturers, rattan furniture manufacturers employed (on average) 9,566 employees, who received Php412M in salaries, and whose output was valued at Php2.43B. The corresponding figures for the wood furniture manufacturers were: 9,931 employees, Php467M in compensation, and Php2.06B worth of products. Per capita, therefore, workers in rattan furniture manufacturing firms, while receiving slightly lower average compensation, added more value to their products than their counterparts in the wood furniture manufacturing plants. In addition to the economic benefits that NWFPs provide, interest in these products also stem from their contribution to meeting environmental objectives in forest areas. It is widely accepted that the more people begin to recognize the value of NWFPs in enhancing their livelihoods, the more that they would become interested in their conservation and protection. In the end, NWFPs would also enhance biological diversity (FAO, 2002). 12 Chapter 1. Introduction to NWFPs Table 1.2. Comparison between furniture manufacturing establishments of wood and rattan in 1995. INDUSTRY No. of Establishments Total Employment Compensation (Php) Value of Output (Php) Cost* (Php) 281 9,931 467,458 2,064,030 1,224,723 122 9,566 411,916 2,432,611 1,509,834 Wood furniture manufacture & repair including upholstery Rattan, reed, wicker & cane furniture manufacture & repair including upholstery * Inclusive of the cost of materials consumed and industrial services The Special Case of Rattans Among the Philippines’ non-wood forest resources, rattans rank high in economic importance. Most of the regions contribute to rattan production in the country, which was topped by Region 13 (CARAGA) in Mindanao for the period 1997 to 2006. Rattan canes, in solid or split form, are used as raw material for the furniture and handicraft industry. Rattan-made products are widely accepted in the international market, owing in part to aggressive product development through novel designs, highly skilled workmanship, and impeccable finishing by the manufacturing sector. Rattan’s contribution to employment, income and foreign exchange generation of the country is enormous (Pabuayon, 1991). The rattan industry has continued to provide employment to a lot of people, which include those who are involved in gathering/collection from the forests to those engaged in trading and Fig. 1.1 Air-drying of rattan poles in transporting, material preparation, Southern Leyte. processing and marketing’ both raw and finished rattan products. Globally, Filipino furniture designers such as Kenneth Cobonpue have reaped awards for their rattan-made furniture products owing to their inspired and intricate designs. 13 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 The revised Philippine Master Plan for Forestry Development (2003) predicted that the gaps between the supply of, and demand for rattan would widen if nothing was done to plant rattans and develop plantations. With assumptions that growth rate would be between 3 to 5% and production would decrease by 10% every five years based on average production for five years prior to 2003, it was projected that rattan requirement for furniture would reach between a low of 61.90M to a high of 79.48M lineal meters by 2015. This corresponds to an additional of between 8,799 to 12,462 hectares needed for planting rattan, assuming an average of 400 hills per hectare and an average yield of 4,800 lm per hectare of a 15-year old rattan plantation. It should be noted that the revised Master Plan’s projection of rattan requirements in 2015 was only about 7-8% of what had earlier been predicted in the 1990 Forestry Master Plan. Assuming that plantation development would amount to Php16,500 per hectare, investments would require between Php175.67M to Php248.80M by 2015. Table 1.3 Projections (2011-2015) of the demand for rattan for furniture (DENR, 2003). 2011 2013 2015 Low High Low High Low High Export value (US$M) 126.48 150.39 134.19 165.80 142.36 182.79 Rattan needed (lm) 54.99 65.39 58.34 72.09 61.90 79.48 Rattan available (lm) 19.66 19.66 19.66 Difference (lm) 35.33 45.73 39.68 52.43 42.24 59.82 Plantation needed (ha) 7,361 9,526 8,268 10,923 8,799 12,462 Cost of additional plantations 146.96 190.19 165.07 218.08 175.67 248.80 (PhpM) It was emphasized in the 1990 Forestry Master Plan that even if the existing rattan resources at that time, in both old and secondary forests, were managed on a sustainable basis, they would not be able to meet the projected demand. It was also unlikely that the deficit could be filled through importation since most of the rattan producing countries like Indonesia and Malaysia have either banned the export of raw rattan or have imposed exorbitant export duties. Plantation development in public forests, in A & D and private lands had been identified as the only viable alternative. Projected hectarage of plantations for growing rattans from 2011 to 2015 are also presented in Table 1.3. A thorough inventory of existing rattan plantations is needed to verify on the ground what had actually taken place in terms of developing these resources. 14 Chapter 1. Introduction to NWFPs References: Brown, W.H. 1920. Minor Products of Philippine Forests. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Bureau of Forestry. Vol. 1 Bulletin No. 22. Bureau of Printing, Manila 473 pp. Chandrasekharan, C. 1995. Terminology, Definition and Classification of Forest Products Other Than Wood. In the Report of the International Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest Products. FAO (Non-Wood Forest Products #3). Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). 2002. What is a forest? CIFOR News No. 31. p. 1,5. De Beer, J.H. and M.J. McDermott. 1996. The Economic Value of Non-Timber Forest Products (3rd ed). Netherlands Committee for IUCN. 196 pp. DENR. 1990. Philippine Master Plan for Forestry Development. Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City. DENR. 1997a. Sustainable Livelihood Options for the Philippines. An Information Kit. Upland Ecosystem. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City. DENR. 1997b. Philippine Forestry Statistics. Forest Management Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Visayas Ave., Quezon City. DENR. 2000. Philippine Forestry Statistics. Forest Management Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Visayas Ave., Quezon City. DENR. 2003. Revised Master Plan for Forestry Development. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Visayas Ave., Quezon City. DENR. 2006. Philippine Forestry Statistics. Forest Management Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Visayas Ave., Quezon City. FAO. 1999. Towards a harmonized definition of non-wood forest products. Unasylva. 50(198):63-64. FAO. 2000. Forest Cover 2000. www.fao.org/forestry/fo/fra/main/pdf/table3.pdf FAO (undated). What are non-wood forest products? (FAO, NWFP website:http: //www.fao.org/forestry/site/6388/en) Pabuayon, I.M. 1991. Natural Resource Accounting: Rattan. Natural Resource Accounting Project Final Workshop. U.P. Diliman, Quezon City, October 15, 1991 pp. 44. Serevo, T.S. 1958. Development of Philippine Mahogany Trade with the United States and Other Countries of the World. The Lumberman 3:30. Vantomme, P. 1997. Non-wood forest products for rural income and sustainable forestry. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Sustainable Management of NonWood Forest Products. UPM, Serdang, Malaysia. October 10-14, 1997. Wickens, G.E. 1991. Management issues for development of non-timber forest products. Unasylva. 165 (42):3-8. 15 II. CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF NWFPs IN THE PHILIPPINES This chapter presents an overview of the different NWFPs in the Philippines, and classifies them using a system, at least for the plant-derived NWFPs, based on the primary utilization of these plants. Where many products can be derived from a given species, they are listed in the category that the authors consider as their primary uses. Classifying NWFPs is an important, yet a very contentious issue because of its impacts on planning, policy and decision-making, allocation of government funds, and public perception of the value and importance of forests. There is likewise a need to articulate the categorization of erstwhile agricultural crops that are grown in forestlands, on one hand, and the domesticated NWFPs being produced in large, commercial scale in agricultural lands on the other. In trade, none of the existing classification schemes include a separate category for forest products other than timber, and the current practice lumps NWFPs with agricultural products to the detriment of the forestry sector. Statistical records and economic indicators make a distinction between the relative contribution of agriculture and forestry to the value added to the Gross National Product (GNP). At constant prices, the share to Philippine GNP of the forestry sector has dropped from 2.03% in 1977 to 0.12% in 1997 (representing a shrinking in contribution by 94%). The corresponding change in agriculture is from 19.97% in 1977 to 16.04% in 1997, or about a reduction of 20%. Consequently, forestry, particularly the forest-based industrial sector, has experienced considerable diminution in clout over personalities and institutions that define the national development agenda. Scope and Importance of Classification The discussion that follows draws heavily from the paper of Chandrasekharan (1995) who articulated in the FAO Expert Consultation Meeting held in Indonesia the importance of defining terminologies and having a system of classification for forest products other than wood. The reader is, therefore, advised to refer to Chandrasekharan’s treatise on NWFP classification (1995) for additional details. No generally accepted classification system for NWFPs is currently being used in the Philippines. The current practice is to simply list the various products from the forest other than timber, with individual products, species, or groups of related species appearing in one or more lists on the basis of their uses, taxonomic grouping, commercial quantity and availability, familiarity, and convenience. Brown and Fisher (1920) presented minor forest products under the following categories: mangrove, palm and palm products, bamboos, fiber plants, pulp sources, plants producing resins, gums, seed oils and essential oils, wild food plants, and plant sources of natural dyes. It is apparent that Brown’s grouping combined both taxonomic classification and Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 end-product type as bases for assigning the different classes of minor forest products. This has resulted in overlap and the possibility of overestimating the importance of some species that have multiple uses and products, albeit some of which are minor, or the undervaluation of others that have only singular use, but nevertheless significant in terms of economic value and livelihood potential. Classification defined Webster’s Dictionary (1995) defined class as a group, set, or kind sharing common attributes. Classification, on the other hand, is the systematic arrangement in groups or categories according to established criteria. According to Chandrasekharan (1995), classification “provides a rational system of relationships wherein distinction and coherence between elements are put into shape by a logical structure and ordering, within defined boundaries”. Different countries have varying systems of classifying NWFPs (Chandrasekharan, 1995). These systems are characterized by the absence of hierarchical links and clear product boundaries. The systems currently in use, therefore, fail to provide the consistency that is needed for aggregating and comparing NWFPs for trade analysis, provision of market information, export potential, or long-term planning for product development. Consequently, there is undervaluation of resources extracted and used from forests other than timber, which diminishes estimates of the overall contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) and to national welfare of forests and associated products. Internationally, there is no separate group for forest products or for forestry under any of the international product classification systems. Current practice lumps forestry with agriculture. Another problem that diminishes the importance of forestry is that NWFPs are reported under other sectors outside of forestry. For the most part, the dilemma stems from the complexity of the continuing debate on the boundary between forestry and agriculture. These difficulties should not deter local efforts to continue the development of a logical and functional system for classifying NWFPs in the Philippines. Classification is important because it helps in providing data by homogenous categories and displays interconnections between categories that add clarity and comparability of information. It also aids in tracking the flow of goods and services through the economic systems to facilitate analysis of trade to support development (Chandrasekharan, 1995). Thus, logically classifying NWFPs can lead to further development, particularly on the economic and trade aspects. However, it is apparent that sectors outside of forestry have to be involved in the effort as well because NWFPs permeate activities and functions in the other sectors of society. The classification scheme adopted for NWFPs was designed (Chandrasekharan, 1995) to take into consideration several factors that include: a) origin of the groups of organisms that yield the product, b) the specific part of plants or animals that provided the product, c) manner of collection and harvest, and d) proportion of products and predominant intermediate or end use in industry and trade. 18 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines As mentioned earlier, different countries adopted varying systems of classifying NWFPs while in the case of the Philippines, no widely accepted classification system has been used. Thus, the Philippines shares the same problems with other countries in terms of the general lack of consistency in the manner by which NWFPs are compared and aggregated for trade analysis, the provision of market information, export potential, or planning for product development. Consequently, NWFPs get reported under other sectors, thereby incorrectly suggesting low contribution of forests to GDP and the national welfare. The need to improve the classification and accounting of NWFPs cannot be overemphasized, but it is likewise conceded that it cannot take place unless the general system in forestry is improved as well. At the moment, however, the forestry sector in the Philippines may not be in a mood to go into forest products classification considering the great diminution of traditional forest industry particularly the timber-based sector. Doing so may also be misconstrued as a continuance of the utilitarian view of forests. Suffice it to say that the sector contributes its share in the value of goods derived from forests. This book will attempt to provide a basis for the logical arrangement of such resources by proposing a classification system for Philippine NWFPs. Existing International Systems of Classification Listed below are brief descriptions of the five existing product classification systems mentioned by Chandrasekharan (1995). None of these systems give prominence to NWFPs as a distinct group of products. It is, therefore, a big challenge to the sector and to forestry in general, to influence these schemes so forest products are not relegated to products of negligible commercial importance. 1. International Standard Industrial Classification of all Economic Activities (ISIC). It defines an industry as the set of all production units engaged primarily in the same or similar kinds of productive economic activity. Such an activity is characterized by an input of resources, a production process, and an output of products. 2. Standard International Trade Classification (SITC) It is a classification made according to physical properties of the product, duly considering the materials from which the product is made and also the stage of fabrication and industrial origin. The main purposes of SITC are to help international comparison of product situation, provide greater comparability in foreign trade, and provide a basis for systematic analysis of world trade. Only commodities entering external merchandise trade are included. 3. Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (HS) This system is under the Customs Co-operation Council. The system representing the separate categories of goods corresponds well to SITC Rev. 3, and the industrial origins of goods. 19 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 4. Provisional Central Product Classification (CPC) It constitutes a complete product classification, covering transportable and nontransportable goods as well as services and assets. It includes not only products that are an output of economic activity (i.e., goods and services) but also nonproduced assets, including tangible assets such as land, and intangible assets arising from legal contracts such as patent and copyrights. 5. System of National Accounts (SNA) SNA is prepared under the auspices and joint responsibility of five organizations: Commission of the European Communities - Euro stat; International Monetary Fund; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development; United Nations and the World Bank. It is a system of macro-economic accounts intended for use of both national and international statistical agencies, and it reinforces the central role of national accounts in economic statistics. Proposed Systems of Classification The categories of NWFPs in accordance with groupings proposed by FAO in 1991, excluding the list for animal products, are given in Table 2.1. The main groupings are food, forage, pharmaceuticals, toxins, aromatics, biochemicals, fibers, and ornamentals. Note that four to five (including fibers), of these are chemical products that can be extracted from plant sources. Table 2.1. List of NWFPs by category*. Category Food Forage Pharmaceuticals Toxins Aromatics Industrial Chemicals and Biochemicals Fiber Ornamentals Description Wild, domesticated, semi-domesticated plants, usable weeds, fungi, etc. and their edible roots, tubers, bulbs, stems, leaves, shoots, flowers, fruits, seeds, etc. to provide cereals, vegetables, edible fats and oils, spices and flavorings, salt substitutes, sweeteners, meat tenderizers, beverages, and thirst quenchers. Food for livestock and wildlife. Drugs, anesthetics, ointments, lotions, purgatives, for both human and veterinary use. For hunting, ordeal poisons, hallucinogens, pesticides, and fungicides. Essential oils for cosmetic and perfume industries, unguents, and incense. Non-edible fats and oils, naval stores, waxes, gums and latex, dyes, tannins, biochemicals for plastics and coatings, paints and varnish industries. Cloth, matting, cordage, basketry, brooms, stuffing for pillows, and cork. Aesthetically pleasing plants for horticultural and amenity planting, as well as cut and dried-flower trades. *FAO, 1991. A more detailed classification of NWFPs based on their commercial significance is given by Iqbal (1993), with examples given for each class. This is summarized in Table 2.2. Curiously, there is no separate group for solid, structural NWFPs such as bamboo, rattan 20 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines and vines which are significant in the context of tropical forests. These solid, fibercontaining products can be used either for furniture, handicrafts or for structural purposes and can stand on their own as a major product category. Table 2.2. Commercially-important NWFPs.a Category Food products Spices, condiments and culinary herbs Industrial plant oils and waxes Plant gums Natural pigments Oleoresins Fibers and flosses Vegetable tanning materials Latex Incense wood Essential oils Plant insecticides Medicinal plants Wild plants Miscellaneous products a Products 1. Nuts: Brazil nuts, walnuts and chestnuts. 2. Fruit: Gingko. 3. Edible fungi: Morels, mushrooms. 4. Vegetable: Bamboo shoots. 5. Starch: Sago. 6. Bird's nests. 7. Oils. 8. Maple sugar. 1. Nutmeg. 2. Cinnamon. 3. Cardamom. 4. Bay leaves. 5. Oregano. Tung oil, neem oil, jujuba oil, candle, or lumbang oil. 1. Gums for food use: Gum Arabic and gum tragacanth. 2. Technological grade gums. Annato seeds, logwood. 1. Pine oleoresin. 2. Copal, dammar. 3. Amber. 1. Fibers: Bamboo, rattan, raffia, cork, broom, and grasses. 2. Flosses: Kapok or silk cottons. Quebracho, mimosa, catha/cutch. Natural rubber, gutta percha, chicle. Sandalwood. Ilang-ilang. Pyrethrum, derris. Taxus sp. Betel nuts, bidi leaves, lacquer. Iqbal, 1993. Types and Brief Profile of Selected Philippine NWFPs Philippine NWFPs are grouped in the present work under seven categories as follows: 1) sources of fiber and structural materials; 2) plants producing medicinal and cosmetic products; 21 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 3) plants that yield extractive or chemical products; 4) sources of essential oils; 5) sources of seed oils; 6) those providing edible fruits and nuts; and 7) animal-derived products. The sources of fiber and structural materials include rattan and other important palms, bamboo, forest vines, and plants producing fibers from their leaves, bark or roots. The plants that yield chemical and extractive products have, as sub-categories, those producing resins, dyes and tannins, and gums and latex. Many forest plants have multiple uses but in this book, NWFPs are categorized based on what is considered as the more important product that can be derived from the plant. However, other uses are mentioned whenever a particular plant is described. PLANT SOURCES OF STRUCTURAL MATERIALS AND FIBER PRODUCTS In the Philippines, perhaps the most significant NWFPs are rattan and other palms, bamboo, fiber products from stems, bark, roots and leaves, vines and other materials used in light construction, furniture, handicrafts and specialty items around which small- and medium-scale enterprises are established. Thus, this category includes forest products other than timber that can be used as wood substitutes for building houses, making furniture, and in fabricating farming and fishing tools, carpentry works, as well as toys and musical instruments. Fiber products are those used in the cordage and cottage industries, as well as the manufacture of fabric, baskets, bags, mats, hats, and other personal accessories. The category also includes traditional tying materials, where the use of metal and other modern-day fasteners may be inappropriate or unacceptable. Paper, an important product derived from plant materials, is also included in this grouping. Rattan There are close to 70 species of rattan in the Philippines and the ones that are commercially used differ primarily in their pole size. Rattan is a climbing palm, with a viny habit. It is a member of the Palmae or Arecaceae family. It is characterized by the presence of thorns or spines, hairs, and bristles in the plant parts. It has either cirrus or a flagellum. The former is an extension of the leaf midrib while the latter arises from the leaf sheath’s axil that enables the rattan plant to cling to tree stems or branches for support. Four genera of rattan, represented by 66 species, can be found in the Philippines. These are: Calamus, the largest genus of rattan with 45 known species, Daemonorops with 14 species, Korthalsia with 5 species, and Plectocomia with 2 species. Of the 66 known species, 32 are said to be endemic to the Philippines. The different species of rattan that can be found in the Philippines (Fernando, 1989) are listed in Annex Table A. 22 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines Twelve out of the 66 rattan species are identified to be commercially significant (Pabuayon, 1991). Of the 12 species, nine belong to the genus Calamus, and the rest are members of the genus Daemonorops. Calamus rattan is considered superior to those of the genus Daemonorops (Brown and Merrill, 1920). The commercially important Calamus rattan includes: 1) palasan (Calamus merrillii Becc.) (shown Fig. 2.1), 2) limuran (C. ornatus var. philippinensis Becc.), 3) tagiktik (C. filispadix Becc.), 4) sika (C. caesius Blume) 5) sika-sika (C. microsphaerion Becc.), 6) tumalim (C. mindorensis Becc.), 7) Malacca cane (C. scipionum Lour.), 8) tandulang gubat (C. dimorphacanthus Becc.), 9) biri (C. siphonophatus Mart.), and 10) arurog (C. javensis Blume). The Daemonorops species are: 1) ditaan (Daemonorops mollis (Blanco) Merr.), 2) rogman (D. oligolepis Becc.), and 3) sumulid (D. ochrolepis Becc.). According to Brown and Merrill (1920), Daemonorops species never produce long, whiplike structures unlike Calamus species. This character is used to distinguish between the two genera. Palasan (C. merrillii), the most widely used among the native rattans, is endemic to the Philippines and grows in primary forests of up to 1,200 m in altitude (Fig. 2.1). It thrives in the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, Palawan, Panay, Mindanao, and Basilan (De Guzman and Fernando, 1986). It is a large diameter, clustering, dioecious rattan whose leaves are pinnate with a long, reflexed spiny cirrus at the tip, and produce minute flowers, and globose one-seeded, brown fruits (De Guzman and Fernando, 1986; Fernando, 1989). Philippine rattan species largely grow in natural dipterocarp stands, and to some extent in submarginal and mossy forests. In 1987, rattan resources were estimated by the RPGerman Forest Resources Inventory Project (FRIP) to be about 4.57 billion lineal meters (lm) (Serna, 1988). Of these, 1.8 million lm were growing in old growth and 2.77 lm in secondary/residual dipterocarp forests. These stocks of rattan were recorded when the country in 1987 still had 1.04 million ha of old growth and 3.36 million ha of secondary/residual dipterocarp forests. The present stocks of rattan are considerably less than what could be found more two decades ago, as the country’s forests declined to just a little more than 0.8 million ha of old growth and 2.73 million ha of secondary/residual dipterocarp stands. 23 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 The main use of rattan is the conversion of the stem into derivatives that can be crafted or fashioned to produce different shapes, designs, and product types. Rattan leads the group of materials used in the manufacture of what are known in the international market as wicker furniture. The adaptability of rattan for this purpose emanates from the flexibility of its cane, which can be bent to suit intricate designs. It is also very light but relatively strong for its weight. The cane has an innately strong outer shell. The skin is usually scraped off and the portion just beneath it is separated from the core as derivatives and used as tying material or woven to produce mats that serve as seats and backs for a variety of furniture and novelty products. Fig. 2.1 Palasan (Calamus merrillii) Rattan is also popular to manufacturers of furniture using mixed materials such as plastics, iron, wood, marble, and textile products. But rattan has other uses. Young rattan shoots can be used for food, and certain species have edible fruits. Young rattan seedlings are potted and are in great demand as indoor and outdoor ornamental plants. Its foliage is also used as decorative material in flower arrangements. Recently, limuran shoots that Aetas in Central Philippines consume as part of their diet have been shown to contain medicinal properties. In Thailand, the young shoots of a species known as “wai-dong” (Calamus siamensis) are canned and exported. Table 2.3 shows a list of other uses and products from selected Asian rattan species (Johnson, 1997). Other Important Palms There are many erect palms in the forests whose fruits, inflorescence, stems, and fronds including the rachis, are sources of innumerable non-wood products. Majority of these species are also used as ornamentals. Some of the erect palms that are utilized by the cottage industries for the production of various construction and handcrafted items include buri (Corypha elata Roxb.), nipa (Nypa fruticans Wurmb.), anahaw (Livistona rotundifolia (Lam.) Mart. var. luzonensis Becc.), and ambolong (Metroxylon sagu Rottb.). The description of each of these important palms is given as follows: 24 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines Table 2.3. Other uses and products of selected Asian rattan species (Johnson, 1997). Product/Use Fruit/food source Palm heart/ food source Seeds/ chewed Fruit/ traditional medicine Palm heart/ traditional medicine Fruit/ red dye source Leaves/ thatching Leaflet/ cigarette wrapper Leaf sheath/petiole for grater Rachis/ fishing pole Examples of species and conservation status (in bold letters) Calamus ornatus (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand): unknown conservation status; Calospatha scortechinii (Malaysia): threatened; Daemonorops ingens (Malaysia, Indonesia): unknown conservation status Calamus javensis (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand): nonthreatened; Daemonorops fissa (Malaysia, Indonesia): nonthreatened; Plectocomiopsis geminiflora (Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand): non-threatened Calamus tonkinensis (Vietnam): threatened Calamus castaneus (Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand): unknown conservation status; Daemonorops didymophylla (Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand): non-threatened Calamus javensis (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand): nonthreatened; Daemonorops grandis (Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand): non-threatened; Korthalsia rigida (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand): unknown conservation status Daemonorops didymophylla (Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand): nonthreatened Calamus andamanicus (India): threatened; Daemonorops ingens (Malaysia, Indonesia): unknown conservation status Calamus longispathus (Malaysia): threatened; Daemonorops leptopus (Malaysia, Singapore): threatened Calamus burckianus (Indonesia): non-threatened Daemonorops grandis (Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand): nonthreatened Buri Buri (Corypha elata Roxb. syn. with C. utan Lamk.) is the largest among the native palms naturally growing in the Philippines (Fig. 2.2). Its trunk can attain a diameter of 1 m and a height of 20 m. It is locally known as buri or buli (Tagalog, Bisaya, and Bicol), bagatai or taktak (Ibanag, Nueva Vizcaya), ebus or ibus (Pampanga, Tarlac), piet (Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan), serar (Bagobo), silad (Bisaya), and silag (Ilokos, Pangasinan, Tarlac) (Brown and Merrill, 1920). It has very large, fan-shaped leaves. The outer part of the leaves is split into about 100 narrow segments. The petiole or rachis, 2 to 3 m long, has margins dotted with black, hard spines. Buri is a monocarpic palm i.e., it flowers and bears fruits once in its lifetime, and then it dies (Brown and Merrill, 1920; Santos et al., 1986). There are two known varieties of buri, which can easily be distinguished by the color of the petioles. These varieties are called "limbahon" or red and "lupisan" or white varieties (Pablo and Polinag, 1990; and PCARRD- DOST -RRDP, 1988). 25 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Among the erect palms, buri is considered second to coconut in economic and industrial importance (Pablo and Polinag, 1990; PCARRD-DOSTRRDP, 1988). The frond is the most important part of buri. The rachis or petiole yields fiber which is commercially known as buntal. It is used in hat Fig. 2.2 Buri (Corypha elata) harvested for its fibers. weaving, among other products. The coarser fibers of young buds are used in rope making, the mature leaves for covering tobacco bales, while the midribs are used for making brooms. The raffia fiber, obtained by stripping from the un-opened leaf or shoot, is used in making cloth, hats, mats, and bags. The midribs of young leaves are used for the manufacture of buri furniture and for weaving high quality hats and cigarette cases. The diameter and length of the midribs are important factors that determine the quality of the finished products. The fresh sap from flower buds of buri is sweet, hence a good source of beverage. This sap is one of the sources of fermented drink popularly known as “tuba.” This tuba can be made into alcohol through spontaneous fermentation. The sap can also be converted into sugar. Buri buds are edible and can be eaten raw or cooked. The edible kernels of the young fruits can be made into preserved sweets. Candies from buri sap, locally known as “pakaskas”, are considered specialty products that have found their way into the export market. The main trunk of buri contains an inner pith or bud that can be eaten and prepared into native vegetable dishes and also yields a good quantity of starch. However, these can be collected only when the plant dies. Mature seeds are used as buttons, marbles, and beads for rosaries, necklaces and bracelets. The stem has potential for use as a building material. Nipa Nipa (Nypa fruticans Wurmb.) is locally known as such in Cagayan, the Bicol provinces, and Antique but is also known as lasa or sasa in Bulacan, Bataan, Manila, Laguna, Pampanga, Quezon, and Rizal (Brown and Fisher, 1920). It is a low, shrubby palm with a stout, creeping, subterranean stem or rhizome. The rhizome sends up branches above ground with erect clusters. The petioles are very stout while the leaves are 3 to 9 m long and have around 80 to 86 leaflets. The inflorescence or flower stalk ranges from 1.19 to 2.13 m in length with the male flowers borne on long, slender brown stem. The fruits or 26 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines nuts comprise of closely packed clump of carpels numbering about 65 to 70 nuts in one bunch. The nuts borne at the central portion of the cluster or bunch contain edible meat while those at the basal or apical portion may remain immature and meatless throughout the fruiting stage (Brown and Fisher, 1920; Cabahug and Llamas, 1990; Quimbo, 1988; Santos et al. 1986). Nipa, just like other palms, has innumerable uses. Its leaves are employed in making shingles that are widely used as roofing material for low-cost houses. Increasingly, nipa shingles are becoming popular for building structures that are designed to lend a native or rural setting to places or destinations that cater to tourists and foreign visitors, like resorts, restaurants, and farm gardens. Other uses of the leaves are in making bags, coarse baskets, hats, mats, raincoats, and wrappers. The leaf midribs are made into brooms while the petioles are used as fuel or coarse brush. Nipa leaf fibers are processed into tying materials. The sap from young flower buds are extracted and processed into alcohol, wine, sugar, and vinegar. The alcoholic beverage obtained from the inflorescence of nipa is also popularly known as tuba. The kernel of the seeds can be eaten raw or cooked and preserved as sweet (Cabahug and Llamas, 1990; DENR, 1997; Melana, 1980; PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). Anahaw This palm is locally known as anahaw (Livistona rotundifolia (Lam.) Mart. var. luzonensis Becc.) in the Bicol and Tagalog provinces, as anau in Cagayan and Isabela, and by several other local names. It is an erect, solitary palm with a height ranging from 15 to 25 m and a trunk diameter of about 25 cm. It has a smooth and straight trunk with conspicuously close but rather shallow rings of leaf scars (Fig. 2.3). The leaves are circular having a diameter of 1 m, fan-shaped with tips divided into segments of 2.5 to 4 cm wide, and normally crowded at the top of the trunk. The petiole or rachis is flattened, green in color with a smooth top and bottom surface although both sides have hard, black spines. Anahaw bears Fig. 2.3 Anahaw (Livistona rotundifolia). 27 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 green flowers, while the fruit is fleshy and yellow in color and contains hard, round, and brown seed (Brown 1920; De Guzman and Fernando, 1986; Zuela and Reaviles, 1991). The leaves and trunk of anahaw have many uses. The mature leaves are used as roofing or thatching for houses especially the native “bahay kubo”. Roofing made of high quality, mature anahaw leaves can last up to 15 years if properly installed and maintained. The young to medium-aged leaves are made into raincoats, hats, fans, and containers for rice, corn, and charcoal (Zuela and Reaviles, 1991). The leaves from young palms are widely used as backdrop for flower arrangements. The young buds and shoots of anahaw are cooked and relished as vegetable. The trunk is commonly used as poles, construction posts, and as piles for fish pens and wharves. Characteristically, the anahaw trunk is hard, strong, and very durable and thus, suitable for construction purposes. The nickname palma brava for the “wood” derived from the anahaw trunk could be traced to its “wood-like” properties, which lend durability and strength to the product or structure made from it. Its natural resistance to decay-causing organisms, even under prolonged exposure to water, explains why it is a preferred material in building fishpens in Laguna de Bay. The trunk may also be split into strips for flooring and sidings of houses. The anahaw strip is also used for tool handles and in making native hammocks. The anahaw palm is in demand for landscaping purposes because of its attractive leaves (Maligalig and Abrenilla, 1985). Ambolong Ambolong (Metroxylon sagu Rottb.), is locally known as ambulong, bagsang, langdang, lumbai, lumbiag, or sagu among the Visayans and as lumbia in the Bagobo dialect (Brown and Merrill, 1920). Two varieties of ambolong can be found in the Philippines: one has spiny leaves while the other is spineless. This clump-forming palm has 6 to 9 m long pinnate leaves that are erect and gracefully arching. It grows to a height of 20 to 25 m and has a smooth trunk reaching a diameter of 40 cm. The leaflets are glossy green. The palm produces a tall branching inflorescence bearing small flowers. The fruits, about 5 cm in diameter, are borne in clusters. They are scaly, spherical in shape and dull yellow in color when young and turn golden brown when mature. The plant bears flowers and fruits at ages between 12 to 15 years in natural stand (Brown and Merrill, ibid). Like buri (C. elata Roxb.), this palm is monocarpic. The leaves are popularly used in the Philippines as thatching materials. In other countries, ambolong is mainly used as source of starch or sago flour extracted from the pith-like center of the trunk. This sago is a staple food for millions of people in the Far East and Southwestern Pacific Ocean region. Sarawak was once an exporter of sago starch. Western New Guinea has been processing several thousand tons of sago each year, which was being exported mostly to Japan (Baconguis and Panot, 1991). 28 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines Bamboo, a “Tree” with over a Hundred Uses Bamboo is often referred to as “poor man’s timber.” It is not a tree but a tall grass, and belongs to the Gramineae or Poaceae family. In fact, bamboo species have the distinction of being the world’s tallest grasses. They grow naturally inside forests although they also thrive well in lowland areas and along riverbanks. Their importance is derived from the utility of the long, slender, pliable stem, usually hollow in the center, which many people find convenient to use for making spears and hunting tools (e.g., bow and arrow), for farming and growing food (such as trellises), fishing (traps) as well as for building houses and fences, animal cages and poultry sheds, in making furniture, tools or cooking utensils, transport vessels, water or liquid containers, toys, and musical instruments such as flutes and percussion instruments. In recent times, the use of ethnic and native products has become fashionable, which further increased the demand for bamboo-made products. This is evident in the resurgence of bamboo as material for interior design of houses, accessories, and other home, office and restaurant furnishing. There are over 75 genera and 125 species of pachymorph and leptomorph bamboos in the world (McClure, 1996). Pachymorph bamboos are morphologically referred to as sympodial or clump forming and are mostly occurring in the tropics. These include species of the genera Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, and Gigantochloa, among others. Leptomorphs, on the other hand, are considered as monopodial or non-clump forming and are predominant in the temperate regions. Examples include species of the genera Arundinaria, Phyllostachys, and Sasa (Farrelly, 1984). The Philippines has more than 12 genera of bamboos. In 1996, about 62 species were recorded in the country (Rojo, 1996) as compared to the 49 species previously reported (Annex Table B) (PCARRD, 1991). The increase in the number of species can be due to the establishment of bambuseta in different parts of the country that encouraged introduction of living specimens of exotic species. There could be other unrecorded introductions of ornamental bamboo species since interest in bamboo among plant enthusiasts in the country has been growing (Rojo, 1996). Twenty-one out of the 62 bamboo species reported to occur locally are endemic or native to the Philippines. Of the 21 native species, 13 are climbers such as bikal baboi (Schizostachyum dielsianum (Pilger) Merr.) and only 8 are erect. Some species could have been introduced during pre-historic times and had naturalized in the country while a few others are new introductions (PCARRD, 1991; Virtucio and Roxas, 2003). The erect species that are economically important are utilized as banana props, fish pens and cages, handicraft, baskets and furniture, construction materials, and banca outrigger (PCARRD 1991). These species include (PCARRD, 1991; Virtucio and Roxas, 2003): 1) kawayan tinik (Bambusa blumeana Schultes f.), 2) kawayan kiling (B. vulgaris Schrad.) (shown in Fig.2.4), 3) bayog (Dendrocalamus merrilianus (Elm.) Elm.), 4) giant bamboo (D. asper) (shown in Fig. 2.5) 5) bolo (Gigantochloa levis (Blanco) Merr.) (shown in Fig. 2.6), 29 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 6) kayali (G. atter (Hassk) Kurz), 7) buho (Schizostachyum lumampao (Blanco) Merr.) (shown in Fig. 2.7), 8) anos (S. lima (Blanco) Merr.), and 9) laak (Sphaerobambos philippinensis (Gamble) S. Dransf.). Fig. 2.4 Kawayan kiling (Bambusa vulgaris) The actual number of commercial species may increase as more industrial uses are discovered, particularly of the species with thick walls and big diameter culms like B. bambos (L.) Voss, B. olhamii Munro, B. utilis L., D. latiflorus Munro, D. giganteus (Wall.) Munro and Guadua angustifolia Kunth (Rojo, 1996) and a small, thinner walled S. fenixii Gamble (Balbin, 2001). The bamboo species considered as most desirable for construction is kawayan tinik (B. blumeana). It has a high specific gravity and low shrinkage when dried from green or wet condition to lower moisture content. It forms a dense clump, and its basal spiny branches interlace into a thicket to 3 m high (Fernando et al., 2004). The culm can reach a height of 25 m, the diameter up to 15 cm, and culm wall up to 3 cm thick. Like many other local species of bamboo, its internodes are hollow. It may have been introduced to the Philippines from Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and Lesser Sunda Islands during the very early days (Fernando et al., ibid). Bamboo is as ubiquitous as the nipa huts in the rural areas all over the Philippines. The structural components of such houses are made primarily of bamboo, beginning with Fig. 2.5 Giant bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper) the stairs, posts, flooring materials, the walls, and dividers if there are any, including the framework of the roof as well as the stick that holds the nipa shingles together. Outside the house, one will find bamboo being used as fence material, cage for domestic animals, as trellis supporting vines and the 30 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines climbing vegetables, as props for bananas, and as poles supporting clothesline or for picking coconuts and other fruits growing in the orchard. The world famous bamboo organ in the City of Las Piñas in Metro Manila is illustrative of the many novel uses of bamboo. Bamboo can be constructed into rafts to ferry people on waterways or during floods, used as footbridge, and as scaffolding during building construction. The young shoots are used as food, and in China, India, and some other countries, bamboo is used as industrial source of fiber for papermaking. Thus, bamboo, just like the other NWFPs, has been of enormous importance to the rural and national economy. Its growth habits, particularly its ability to stabilize stream or riverbanks in view of its root structure have also made it a significant contributor to the amelioration of the environment (Khan, 1995). Fig. 2.6 Bolo (Gigantochloa levis) The Philippines has 39,000 to 52,000 ha of bamboo stands distributed as follows: 20,500 to 34,000 ha in forest lands, 2,236 ha in government plantation, 3,037 ha in privately owned land and 13,455 ha of “natural stands” (Master Plan for the Development of Bamboo, 1997). Inventory of the bamboo resources conducted by the FRI-RP German Project in 1998 showed that buho (S. lumampao) and anos (S. lima) were two of the naturally occurring erect bamboo species found inside natural forest areas. It was Fig. 2.7 Buho estimated that buho comprise about 172 (Schizostachyum lumampao) million culms while there could be as much as 27.2 million culms of anos. Estimates of the demand for bamboo by various industries like the construction sector, banana production, fishing, poultry raising, farming, furniture and handicraft making, and many others could range from 52 million (Tesoro, 1991) to 82 million culms (Master Plan for the Development of Bamboo, 1997) annually. Bamboo-made furniture exports from the country have also steadily risen in the last few years, as can be seen from Table 2.4 below. The share of bamboo furniture in the export market had increased until 2005, but declined in 2006 along with the apparent lack of growth in overall furniture exports. 31 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Table 2.4 Value (in US$) of forest-based furniture exports (Source: FMB-DENR). Rattan Wood Bamboo Year 2006 60,878 135,817 2,580 2005 91,769 137,937 2,784 2004 98,179 123,333 4,013 2003 86,646 26,963 3,030 2002 96,970 122,457 3,347 2001 92,002 111,559 2,929 2000 118,024 139,313 3,181 1999 113,897 128,621 2,674 1998 108,238 125,195 1,928 1997 123,018 115,406 1,786 1996 119,293 99,789 1,572 1995 119,690 89,424 1,510 Total 199,275 232,490 225,525 116,639 222,774 206,490 260,518 245,192 235,361 240,210 220,654 210,624 Other Plant Sources of Fiber The following section will cover other sources of fiber starting with another grass, runo, which grows well in the Cordillera Mountain and is widely used in Northern Philippines for housing construction to making export-quality handicraft products. Also discussed are forest vines, whose stems are used as materials for making handicrafts and baskets and to some extent, as decorative furniture. Likewise, plants producing leaf fibers such as pandan and tikog are included, along with other stem or bast-fiber producing herbs, shrubs, or trees such as bamban (Donax cannaeformis (G. Forst.) K. Schum.). Climbing aroids whose aerial roots have been found suitable for many useful items, be they traditional, novel designer or collector artifacts, belong to this category. Most, if not all of these materials are being utilized not only by the rural and local population to meet domestic needs, but also to support occupations such as farming or fishing, and to supply the raw Fig. 2.8 Runo (Miscanthus sinensis) material needs of the rural cottage industries and the exporters of native handicrafts. Runo Runo (Miscanthus sinensis Anders.) (Fig. 2.8) is a grass whose leaves are very similar to talahib, but which is not as widely distributed. It appears to be confined to certain parts of Luzon, such as in the Batanes Islands where it is known as biau, in Bikol where it is known 32 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines as bigao, gaho or gisa, in Benguet where it is called bi-idu, and in Zambales where the name talahib is used (Brown, 1920). Among Igorots and the local people in Abra and in Nueva Vizcaya, the grass is referred to as runo. It is a gregarious grass whose height reaches from 1 to 3 m, with coarse leaves and erect, sturdy stems that are amenable for use both as a decorative and as structural material in low-cost houses. It can be used for fencing, walls, and to some extent, as flooring material, although other uses such as for ceiling, curtains or window blinds, have been noted. Other uses are in making trays, baskets, hanging ornaments, and frames. According to Brown (1920), when successive fires would occur in high elevation areas in the Mountain Provinces, regrowth would eventually consist exclusively of the plant. FOREST VINES A vine is a plant whose stem requires support and climbs by tendrils or twining, or creeps along the ground. Vines or climbers produce long yet flexible stems that make them suitable for novelty hand-made items that are popular in markets for native products. Some vines also find their way into the medicinal plants market, while others are used as components for making floral decorations or wreaths. The description, particularly the distinguishing features of selected vines, such as nito (Lygodium species), kilob, and hinggiw (Streptocaulon baumi Decne.) follows. Apart from the ones mentioned in this chapter, there are other important vines from Philippine forests that were described in Brown’s (1920) collection, such as hagnaya or diliman (Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.( Bedd.), gogo (Entada rheedii Sprengel commonly reported erroneously as E. phaseoloides (L.) Merr.) and baling-uai (Flagellaria indica L.). In a recent book on the Flora of Mt. Makiling, Fernando et al. (2004) mentioned two other species of vines that occur in the area, agpoi (Bauhinia integrifolia Roxb. subsp. cumingiana (Benth. K. & S.S. Larsen) and balloon vine (Cardiospermum halicacabum L.), whose stems could also be used for tying, decorative purposes, or as materials for the handicraft industries. Nito The family Schizaeaceae embraces the genus Lygodium, which includes nine (Holtum, 1959) fern species commonly known as nito and are occurring in various parts of the Philippines. These are found in Ilocos Norte and Sur, Cagayan, Isabela, La Union, Zambales, Pangasinan, Cavite, Rizal, Laguna, Quezon province, Camarines, Sorsogon, Samar, Negros, Cebu, Capiz, Antique, Iloilo, Bohol, Surigao, and Misamis (Brown, 1920). They differ in the characteristics of their rhizome and rachis-branch, and in the shape and the presence of distinguishing features in their leaves. The nito species in the Philippines are Lygodium circinnatum (Burm.) Sw., L. flexuosum (Linn.) Sw., L. japonicum (Thrunb.) Sw., L. microphyllum (Cav.) R.Br. (reported by Brown, 1920, as L. scandens) and L. auriculatum (Willd.) Alston. The latter was reported as L. semihastatum, which was included among the five species described by Brown (1920). 33 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 L. circinnatum (Burm.) Sw., the most widely known and used species, is locally known as agsam in Albay, nitong puti in Quezon, and as naui in some localities in Mindanao (Brown, 1920; Zamora and Co, 1986). Its rhizome is short, creeping, and with black hairs on fronds that are climbing and twining (Zamora and Co, 1986). L. flexuosum (Linn.) Sw. is locally known as katak in Cagayan, nitong puti in Rizal, nito a daddakel in Benguet, and as nito, kalulung, or sasitang in Isabela (Brown, 1920; Zamora and Co, 1986). Its rhizome is short, creeping and have dark brown to nearly black hairs at the apex while its fronds are closely spaced. Its stipes is about 11.3 cm long (Zamora and Co, 1986). L. japonicum (Thunb.) Sw. is locally known as nitong hapon and agsam in the Camarines provinces, karekai in Isabela, kulot in Cavite, and as nitong puti in Rizal, parts of Cavite and Batangas (Brown, 1920; Zamora and Co, 1986). Its rhizome is wide-creeping and bears dark brown hairs. Fronds are only 1 mm apart (Zamora and Co, 1986). L. microphyllum (Cav.) R.Br. is locally known as agsam in the Camarines provinces, nitonitoan in Laguna and nitong-parang in Rizal (Brown, 1920; Zamora and Co, 1986). Its rhizome is slender, long, creeping and bears 1 to 2 mm long, brownish hairs. Its leaflets are thin, pale, green and distinctly jointed to their stalks (Zamora and Co, 1986). L. auriculatum (Willd.) Alston is locally known as anton in Albay (Brown, 1920; Zamora and Co, 1986). Its rhizome is short-creeping and bears about 1 mm long blackish hairs. Fronds are climbing and twining (Zamora and Co, 1986).The stems of nito are widely used as materials for handicraft making and for other novelty items such as mats, hats, fancy boxes, placemats, and cigarette cases. The stems are also commonly used as tying materials. Except for L. japonicum, the very young leaves of the other 4 species are eaten in Java (Ochse, 1931 as cited by Zamora and Co, 1986). The stipes of L. circinnatum are chewed and applied to bites of venomous reptiles or insects to neutralize the poison (Guerrero, 1921, as cited by Zamora and Co, 1986). It is also used as substitute for Helmintostachys zeylanica in cases where a protective medicine is desired after childbirth (Quisumbing, 1951 as cited by PCARRD-DOSTRRDP, 1988). The roots and leaves of L. circinnatum are applied to wounds in the Dutch Indies. A decoction of roots and leaves of L. microphyllum is used for treating dysentery and spitting of blood (Ochse, 1931 as cited by Zamora and Co, 1986). Kilob Kilob (Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.) Underw.), as it is commonly known, was reported by Brown (1920) as Gleichenia linearis (Burm.) Clarke. It belongs to the family Gleicheniaceae. The species is known locally as gapingoi in Benguet, and as kilog, kilob and tilob among the Tagalog provinces. The rhizome is slender, long-creeping with hairy apex. Fronds are very large, branching in equal or unequal dichotomies except the ultimate forks. There are 5 varieties in the Philippines that are distinguished by the color of the hairs of dormant axillary buds and by the presence or absence of stipular leaflets covering the buds (Price, 1972). 34 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines Splints from rachises of kilob are excellent for weaving coiled baskets and are also used in making belts and mats (Brown, 1920). The stems may be woven to form wall partition for houses, fish traps, for chair and stool seats, as well as for caps and pouches. The oldest and strongest stems make the best pens. The leaves have medicinal application as poultice. A decoction is used to cure people as well as fever (Burkill, 1935 as cited by Zamora and Co, 1986). Hinggiw Hinggiw represents another group of climbing plants whose stems could easily be transformed into products that meet the fancy of customers. There are two species found in the Philippines that are locally known as hinggiw. One of them is Streptocaulon baumi Decne. of the family Apocynaceae (Asclepiadaceae). This is locally known as sadak in Pangasinan, Ilocos Sur, and Isabela as well as in some parts of Mindanao (DENR, 1997). Other local names include duktung-ahas (Rizal and Camarines), hinggiu-kalabaw (Bulacan), hinggiu-na-puti (Manila), mara-ipus (La Union), and sibut-sibutan (likewise in Rizal) (Brown, 1920). The plant is a woody vine with stem growing to 4 m or more in length. The leaves, 7 to 13 cm long, are opposite in arrangement, rounded or heart-shaped at the base, and pointed at the tip. The flowers are numerous and very small (Brown, 1920; DENR, 1997). It is claimed that two variants of this species exist, hinggiw pula and hinggiw puti (DENR, 1997). The other hinggiw species referred to is Ichnocarpus ovatifolius A. DC. syn. I. volubilis (Merr) belonging to family Apocynaceae. It has similar uses, processing, and cultural management requirements as S. baumi. It is locally known as hinggiu in Cavite, Pangasinan, Rizal, Laguna, and Mindoro; sig-id in Zambales and Mindoro; uakak in Cagayan; and sadak in Ilocos Sur and some parts of Pangasinan (Brown, 1920). It is a woody vine having more than 4-m long stems. The leaves, 5 to 14 cm long, are opposite, which are either rounded or pointed at the base and tip. The flowers, which are about 6 mm long and borne on compound inflorescence, are white in color and fragrant (Brown, ibid). The viny stems of these hinggiw plants are made into baskets, fruit trays, animal-shaped crafts, and other decorative items. The stems are also used as tying materials, ropes, and fences. Other vines As mentioned earlier, there are other vine species such as hagnaya or diliman (Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.) Bedd.) and baling-uai (Flagellaria indica L.) used as tying material by the rural population. Hagnaya stems are preferred tying materials for fish traps made of bamboo splits due to their durability even when submerged in salt water (Brown, 1920). The split stems are also made into bags and baskets, attaché cases, and other decorative items. The young shoots are eaten raw or as salad ingredients. Mature leaves are being used as compost. The plant is also a good soil stabilizer because its massive roots are firmly attached to the ground (Florido et al., 1997). The split stems of baling-uai 35 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 are used for tying shingles and fences. They are also used in weaving baskets if rattan and other vines are not available. PLANT SOURCES OF LEAF FIBERS Interest in this group owes to the various uses that the leaves of these plants offer, especially in making products that enable the rural communities to earn a living, sometimes as main sources of their livelihood, or in most cases, as additional sources to augment income from farming, fishing or other forms of employment. This category includes pandan, tikog, and tiger grass, among many plant species as well as those that have already been mentioned in this chapter such as buri, anahaw, ambolong, and nipa. The leaves of many of these plants have various uses such as roofing material for native houses, raincoats, wrappers, baskets, fruit containers, mats, bags, and interior designer items. Pandan The pandan or screw pine is a monocotyledonous plant. The descriptive “screw” refers to the spiral arrangement of the leaves, while the name pine could be due to the resemblance of the fruit to pine cones, especially of the more common and widely distributed species (See Fig. 2.9). Pandan plants belong to the order Pandanales. They are mostly found in the tropics and specifically abundant in Malay Archipelago, Melanesia, and Madagascar. A few species can be found in subtropical areas like New Zealand, Southern China, and Japan (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1994). In the Philippines, pandan plants are widely distributed in both secondary and virgin forests. Many species grow vigorously in clay loam soil within humid areas (Tura, 1994). They also occur along the seashore, lagoons, and mangrove fringes, lowland swamps, along rivers, mountain forest and in shady forest and even under coconut plantations where they may be under-story shrubs that represent a diversity of growth forms (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1994). About 40 known species of pandans were reported by the DENR (1997). However, Co et al., (unpublished manuscript) reported that at least 51 species and 8 undescribed taxa belong to this group. The pandan species found in the Philippines Fig. 2.9 Pandan (Pandanus sp.) vary from small, less than 1 m high, to tall plants, 15 m or more in height (Brown, 1920). They also have characteristic prop roots, and spines are scattered all over the trunk. Two commercially important species include 36 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines karagomoi (Pandanus simplex Merr.) and sabotan (P. sabotan Blanco) (PCARRD-DOSTRRDP, 1988). This is now considered a cultivated form of the common pandan, P. odoratissimus L.f. Karagomoi (P. simplex) is an erect plant, reaching a height of 6 to 8 m and a diameter of 11 to 22 cm. As the plant ages, it usually develops 2 to 3 orthotropic branches at the top. It has prominent prop roots at the lower base of the slender stem. Leaves are dark green, 3 to 5 m long and 6 to 10 cm wide, with spines at the leaf blade and at the midrib. The fruit is oblong, green when young; generally more than one foot in length and possesses long peduncles. The outer appearance of the fruit is similar to a well-developed jackfruit. When matured, the fruit gradually turns pink starting from the base up to its tip. Sections of the fruit, each contains one small seed, just fall to the ground (PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988), which could later regenerate into wildlings. The common name karagomoi has been used for this plant in Quezon, most of the Bicol provinces, and in Leyte and Cebu. The plant grows well in southeastern towns of Laguna, especially those at the foot of Mt. Banahaw that include Majayjay, Cavinti, and Luisiana. Sabotan (P. sabotan) is also erect like karagomoi, but relatively shorter, having a height ranging from 2 to 4 m. The leaves resemble those of pandan dagat (P. tectorius Soland. syn. P. odoratissimus) or beach pandan, but are finer in quality. Another important pandan species is pandan banguhan (P. amaryllifolius Roxb.), whose leaves are added to enhance the aroma of steamed rice and other Filipino recipes. Pandan leaves are commercially very useful. The leaves are stripped and made into fine mats, lady's handbags, hats, baskets and other handcrafted items. They are also made into novelty items such as wall decors, picture frames, portfolios, and fancy slippers (Gan and Cosico, 1982; PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). Pandan leaves are also good materials for making cocooning frames (Olea et al., 1984). More recently, “bean bags” had been crafted out of pandan leaves by weavers in Luisiana, Laguna and adjacent towns. Tikog Tikog is one of the natural fiber materials used in the production of mats for sleeping, praying and for decorative purposes. It is indigenous to the Philippines, with an apparent long history of use by the local weaving industry. In the Visayan region, the procedure for weaving mats has been in existence long before the Spaniards came. Almost every woman has learned the art of weaving at an early age. The weavers are locally known as “paraglara” (Labro, 2001). Tikog is a perennial sedge plant belonging to the Cyperaceae family (Kuhn, 1982). PCARRD (1994) reported two species of tikog that are growing in the Philippines and are being used in the weaving of mats. These are Fimbristylis globulosa (Retz.) Kunth and Fimbristylis utilis Elm. Brown (1920) classified Fimbristylis globulosa as synonymous with F. efoliata Steud.; F. umbellaria (Lamk.) Vahl and Scirpus globulosa Retz. while F. utilis is similar with F. torresiana Gaud. Recently, however, F. utilis is synonymous with F. globulosa as per a Flora Malesiana treatise (Kern, 1974). 37 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Tikog (F. globulosa (Retz) Kunth) is the more common species and is known as anahiuan among the Manobos and Cebuanos, as anahuan to Subanons, badang-badang in the Ilocos region, muta in Pampanga, pakupakuan in Bulacan, sudsud in Bukidnon, and as tikog in Eastern Visayas, Panay and some parts of Cebu (Brown, 1920). The tikog plant grows rhizomes reaching 20 to 120 cm long that produce clumps of stalks. Mature stalks grow from 1 to 3 m long and 2 to 4 mm wide. It has linear, concave and pinlike leaves with basal attachment. The stems or stalks are pliant, tufty, shiny, and smooth in appearance. The newly developed stalks are fully covered with leaf filaments. As the stalk matures, the basal portion becomes enveloped by the developing leaf (Brown, 1920). Tiger Grass Tiger grass (Thysanolaena maxima Kuntze syn. T. latifolia (Hornem) Honda), is a member of family Poaceae and is known in the different regions of the Philippine archipelago by a variety of names such as bugubi in Pampanga, buibui in Ilocos, cagache in the Mountain Provinces, gatbo in Bicol, lasa or tambu in Central Luzon and Southern Tagalog regions, tagadeu in Bontoc, tagisa, lubanum, or talankaran in Igorot, and tagisa in Misamis (Brown, 1920). The plant can be recognized easily because of its fully open panicle and its very numerous minute spikelets (See Fig. 2.10). It attains a maximum height of about 2 m. The leaves have a striking resemblance with those of bamboo. The inflorescence, including its stalk, can reach a length of up to 1 m (Brown, ibid). Tiger grass has been a viable source of livelihood in upland communities. This species is used largely in making brooms that are typical domestic cleaning tools in the Filipino household. The panicles are the plant parts that are excellent for making brooms, which are extensively and popularly used for sweeping polished hardwood floors characteristic of many of the old houses in the Philippines. The broom is also one of Baguio’s prides, with visitors not failing to bring home one as a souvenir item or as a “pasalubong”. Brooms made from as far away as Catanduanes and Sorsogon are brought to Fig. 2.10 Tiger grass (Thysanolaena maxima) Baguio and labeled/sold as Baguiomade products. HERBS, SHRUBS, OR TREES THAT PRODUCE STEM OR BAST FIBERS A number of Philippine plants ranging in size from herbs, shrubs, to large-sized trees have fibrous barks or bast fibers that are important for the cordage and handicraft industries. 38 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines Bast fibers are bundles of fibers that are formed at the fibro-vascular region of the trunk. They are called phloem or inner bark, responsible for the translocation of food materials coming from the leaves. The cellular tissue of the phloem holds these materials in place. Gummy and waxy substances hold the fibers together within the bundles. Bast bundles give strength to the plant stalk (PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). Many bast fiber producing species belong to anyone of the families Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, Malvaceae, Thymelaeaceae, and Moraceae. There are several other families with one or two species that are bast fiber producing like Apocynaceae, Boraginaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Connaraceae, Convolvulaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Fabaceae (Leguminosae), Loganiaceae, Malvaceae, Myrsinaceae, Sapindaceae, Thymelaeaceae, Ulmaceae, Urticaceae, and Vitaceae (Brown, 1920). Annex Table C provides a list of the various bast fiber species under each of these plant families. A few selected species that are being commercially utilized in the Philippines are briefly described below: Bamban Bamban (Donax cannaeformis (Forst.) K. Schum.) of the Marantaceae family is locally known as such in the provinces of Cagayan, Pampanga, Bataan, Tarlac, Cavite, Laguna, Quezon, Mindoro, Camarines, Sorsogon, Albay, Iloilo, Capiz, Negros, Antique, Cebu, Bohol, Palawan; barasbarasan in Tarlac; bonbon in Cavite and Mindoro; darumaka in La Union, Ilocos, Nueva Vizcaya, Zambales, Tarlac, and Camiguin Island; garomaka in La Union and Pangasinan; langkuas in Ilocos; manban in Leyte; matalbak in Bataan, Bulacan; and mini in Benguet (Brown, 1920). In the present work, bamban is considered as a subclass by itself because unlike vines, the plant is an erect, clump-forming shrub with cylindrical stem and dichotomous branches (See Fig. 2.11). Its height, inclusive of branches, ranges from 3 to 4 m. The bases of the branches are somewhat swollen (ADB, 1992; PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988; Quimbo, 1980). The stem of bamban, either solid or split, is widely used for weaving mats, hats, baskets, bags, and other handicraft items. They are sometimes substituted for rattan canes. The stem is also ideal for fish traps, hats, and the skin used for tying nipa shingles (Brown, ibid). A root decoction is reported to be effective against snakebites and other forms of blood poisoning (Fernando et al., 2004). In Bicol (Abyans), bamban is used to scare snakes. The fleshy portion of the fruit is eaten raw. The juice of crushed roots is used to cure anan (Tinia flava) and other fungus infections. A paste formed from crushing young stems with ginger and cinnamon bark is swallowed for biliousness. The juice from curled-dry leaves is used to treat sore eyes (Borboran et al., 1983; PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). 39 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Fig. 2.11 Bamban (Donax cannaeformis) Salago Salago (Wikstroemia species), which belongs to the family Thymelaeaceae, is a shrub with an exceptionally high fiber potential. Brown (1920) reported four species of Wikstroemia that are common in the Philippines and classified them according to the size or shape of the leaves. Small leaf salago (W. indica (L.) C.E. Mey.) is locally known as baleo in Ilocos Norte, salago or talo in Albay, and as titipuho or palupo in the Batanes Islands. It is a small shrub with a height ranging from 1 to 3 m. The leaves, 1.5 to 7 cm long, are somewhat leathery, opposite, widest at the middle, somewhat rounded at the tip, and pointed at the base (Brown, 1920). The flowers are borne in the axils, small, and usually yellow in color. The fruits are small, green when young but turn red when ripe. Lance-leaf salago (W. lanceolata Merr.) is locally known as salagip in Batangas, salagong sibat in Makiling, salago in Abra and Quezon province, and tuka in Ilocos Sur (Brown, 1920; Fernando et al., 2004). It is a small shrub 1 to 2 m in height as reported by Brown (1920). Individual plants at the Quezon Land Grant with a height reaching more than 3 m have been observed. The leaves, 4 to 8 cm long, are opposite, smooth, lanceolate, and pointed at both ends. Leaves of very young seedlings have glabrous or whitish underneath and become green as the plant matures. The flowers are small, light colored, and borne in small clusters. The fruits are also small, rounded, and green when young and turn red when ripe. Large-leaf salago (W. meyeniana Warb.) is locally known as sagu in Laguna and as salago in Albay. Just like the other species of Wikstroemia, it is a small shrub 1 to 2 m high. The leaves, 6 to 12 cm long, are opposite, rounded at the base and pointed at the tip. The flowers, 1.5 to 2 cm long, are greenish yellow and are borne in small clusters. The fruits are rounded, about 1 cm in diameter, and green in color when young and turn red when ripe (Brown, 1920). 40 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines Round leaf salago (W. ovata E. Mey.) is locally called as dapnit in the Ilocos and Bontoc provinces and as salago in Bulacan and Laguna. It is a small shrub 1 to 3 m high. The leaves, 5 to 10 cm long, are opposite, smooth, rounded at the base, pointed at the tip. The flowers, about 1.5 cm long, are borne in small clusters. The fruits are 1 cm long, green when young but turn red when ripe (Brown, 1920). The bark of salago is extensively used for tying and making ropes. The plant is sometimes called money tree because fibers extracted from its bark are exported to other countries like Japan and used in the manufacture of currency, bank notes, and other specialty papers. The bast is also used in making nets, fishing lines, wallets, and hats (DENR, 1997). Malaboho Malaboho (Sterculia oblongata R. Br.) of the Malvaceae family is another bast fiber producing plant. Its local names include bakan in Mindoro; balinad, oos or uos, and saripongpong in the Camarines provinces; banilad in Rizal; bunga or malabunga in Quezon province; hantak in the Batanes Islands; lapnit in Calayan and Babuyan Islands; malakakao or malaboho in Bataan and Laguna; and as sinaligan in Benguet and Abra (Brown, 1920). It is a small to medium-sized tree reaching a height of 12 m and a diameter of about 70 cm. The leaves, 12 to 20 cm long, are whorl or crowding at the tip, smooth with prominent venation underneath, rounded or heart-shaped at the base and pointed at the tip. The somewhat hairy flowers, 5 to 6 mm long, are borne on compound inflorescences (Brown, 1920) or in large numbers in narrow panicles (PCARRD-RRDP-DOST, 1988). The fruits, 5 cm long and 3.5 cm wide, are inflated, hairy, with a thick leathery covering, and contain 4 to 6 seeds about 1.5 cm long (Brown, 1920; PCARRD-RRDP-DOST, 1988). The bast fiber of malaboho has medium strength. It is used for making hats, handbags, placemats, wallets, ropes, lampshades, and as a tying material. In Benguet, the rope made from malaboho bast fiber is preferred for use during the rainy season (Brown 1920). The seeds of malaboho can be eaten (PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). CLIMBING AROIDS, PLANT SOURCES OF ROOT FIBERS Climbing aroids are monocotyledonous vines belonging to family Araceae that cling on many tropical trees and are characterized by their prominent, stout aerial roots that more often extend from the top of tall trees down to the ground. PCARRD-DOST-RRDP (1988) described two types of aerial roots that are formed by climbing aroids: climbing and absorbent roots. Climbing roots are insensitive to gravity, show great negative heliotropism, cling closely to the stem of the support tree, and can creep into bark crevices. Absorbent roots are insensitive to light but respond markedly to gravity. Thus, they reach down to the soil for nourishment. Aerial absorbent roots are usually straight and have uniform diameter. The more common of these aerial root producing climbing aroids are lukmoy (Scindapsus curanii Engl. & Krausse) and amlong (Raphidophora merrillii Engl. now reduced to Epipremnum pinnatum (L.) Engl.) (Florido et al., 1997; PCARRD-DOSTRRDP, 1988). Traditionally, these roots are used for tying. More recently, the inner core 41 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 of lukmoy and amlong roots were discovered to be excellent materials for the manufacture of handcrafted products like baskets, bags, hammocks, cradles, hats and lampshades and consequently utilized as substitutes for rattan. The amlong sap is used as a cure for snakebites while the spadix is valued as an emmenagogue. There are climbing aroids that do not produce absorbent aerial roots. They only possess climbing roots but the stems are important as material for the cottage industry. Species belonging to this group of climbing aroids include dugtong (Pothos hermaproditus (Blanco) Merr.) now reduced to P. scandens L. and balongkahinai (Pothoidium lobbianum Schott) (Brown, 1920). Dugtong (Pothos hermaphroditus (Blanco) Merr. syn. P. longifolius) is a vine that is known as bagi and malagayaman in Quezon, bagu-balanak or mala-ang lako lakop in Samar, palipe or uarat-uarat in the Camarines provinces, and tibatib in Bulacan (Brown, 1920). Other names include apis, hipan, and oro-ola. Its peculiar leaves possess petioles that are leaf-like, making the plant easily recognizable. Its roots are used for making coiled baskets (Brown, 1920; Fernando et al., 2004). Bolong kahinai (Pothoidium lobbianum Schott) is locally known as ariman in Cagayan, balongkahinai in Negros Occidental, baralta in Cavite, Rizal, and Batangas, magutapilak in Butuan, and malagayaman in Zambales (Brown, 1920). The appearance is almost similar to Pothos sp. although bolong kahinai can be distinguished from dugtong by its compound inflorescence. It has numerous drooping branches that cover the main stem and branches of trees like a dense, green curtain (Fernando et al., 2004). Like dugtong, bolong kahinai stem, in solid or split form, is used for making baskets and other handcrafted items. Bolong kahinai has found extensive use as tying materials for fish corrals (Brown, ibid.). The pounded stem of bolong kahinai is used as antidote for centipede bite (Lugod and Pancho, undated). MEDICINAL AND COSMETIC PLANT PRODUCTS There has been a resurgence of interest in traditional medicine in recent years. The turnaround in how people value traditional and indigenous herbal medicine followed closely the World Health Organization (WHO) Conference on Indigenous and Parallel Medicine in 1977 (Swangpol, 1995). This conference appealed to all member countries to do their utmost to preserve the natural heritage found in their ethno-medicine and pharmacology and to include the use of known and tested medicinal plants and their derivatives into their primary health care system. According to the Asian Development Bank (1992), three-fourths of the world’s population, particularly the poor, depended on traditional medicine that were more affordable and found to be just as effective as synthetic drugs. 42 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines There are over 2,000 species of medicinal plants in India, 1,000 in Peninsular Malaysia, 850 in the Philippines, 400 in Nepal, and more than 200 in Thailand. Some medicinal plants like ginseng (Panas ginseng), a native of North Korea and northeastern regions of the People’s Republic of China, are now widely cultivated in many developed countries. The export of medicinal plants earns substantial foreign exchange for many countries. The Philippines is one of the Southeast Asian countries that utilize and engage in the commercial production of drugs from forest-derived medicinal sources (De Padua et al., 1977; Lugod and Pancho, undated; Sulit, 1950 and 1958). Annex Table D shows some Philippine plants reported to have medicinal value. Many of these plants still await confirmatory efficacy studies. Propagating medicinal plants in forestlands as well as in agroforests and farmlands can boost their availability for commercial production. There are certain requirements in the commercial growing of medicinal plants that could best be met through forest cultivation. Since 1978, the National Institute for Research and Production of Medicinal Plants (NIRPROMP), Philippine Council for Health Research and Development of the Department of Science and Technology (PCHRD-DOST), and the Department of Health (DOH) began to concentrate efforts on promoting medicinal plant research and business opportunities on 10 species namely: (1) akapulko (Cassia alata L. syn. Senna alata (L.) Roxb.), (2) ampalaya (Momordica charantia L. var. Makiling), (3) garlic or bawang (Allium sativum L.), (4) guava or bayabas (Psidium guajava L.), (5) lagundi (Vitex negundo L.), (6) niog-niogan (Quisqualis indica L.), (7) pansit-pansitan or ulasimang bato (Peperomia pellucida (L.) HBK), (8) sambong (Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC.), (9) tsaang gubat (Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam.), and (10) yerba buena (Mentha × cordifolia Opiz.). However, the Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD), now Food and Drug Administration (FDA) had only authorized the commercial production and sale of clinically accepted formulations from lagundi and sambong. Those developed from ampalaya and others such as banaba (Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers.), narra (Pterocarpus indicus L.), and pitupito (a combination of seven plants to produce a tea formulation), have yet to pass clinical trials and are therefore marketed as food supplements. There have also been some commercial opportunities for akapulko and yerba buena. Some of the more common forest-based Philippine medicinal plants are described below. Other plants that have been described include those commercially marketed as supplements, whose effectiveness has not yet been clinically proven. 43 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Lagundi Lagundi (Vitex negundo L.) of the family Lamiaceae is known in Ifugao as dabtan, dangla, limo-limo or lingo-lingo in the Ilocos provinces, daragal and sagarai among the Bagobos, lagundi in Aklan, kalipapa-madam in Maguindanao, kamalan in the Tagalog region and in Ilocos, limpapa, molrei-oso or magupay in Sulu, lingei in Bontoc, and tugas in SamarLeyte area (Quisumbing, 1951). It is a deciduous, erect, branched shrub reaching a height of 2 to 5 m (see Fig. 2.12). The leaves are palmately compound, opposite, and consist of 3 to 5 leaflets. The leaflets, 4 to 10 cm long, are lanceolate, pointed at both ends, having margins that are sometimes entire. The middle leaflets are distinctly stalked and larger than the others. The bluish-purple inflorescence, 10 to 20 cm long, is a panicle, terminal in location, containing numerous blue flowers measuring 6 to 7 mm long. Fruits are small, globose to broadly ovoid, and turn purplish-black on ripening (Fernando et al., 2004). Lagundi has many local uses, which vary depending on the plant part and the manner of preparation. Boiled bark and leaves produce a decoction claimed to be effective as anti-gastralgic. The leaves are used in aromatic baths, as insectifuge and for the treatment of headaches if applied to the forehead. A decoction of the leaves is also said to be useful as lactagogue, emmenagogue, and ulcer wash (Lugod and Pancho, undated). Boiled seeds are eaten and the water taken internally to prevent the spread of poison from bites of poisonous animals or used externally in disinfecting wounds. Wine treated with seeds was also noted to be good for dropsy and the plant is suitable as a febrifuge (Quintana, 1997). Fig. 2.12 Lagundi (Vitex negundo) PCHRD (1989) enumerated other medicinal applications from lagundi. The root is said to be tonic, febrifuge, and expectorant while the fruit is considered to be nervine, cephalic, and emmenagogue. The powdered root is also prescribed for piles as demulcent and also for dysentery. The root is also used in dyspepsia, colic, rheumatism, worms, boils, and leprosy. The flowers are used in curing diarrhea, fever, and diseases of the liver and also recommended as cardiac tonic. The flowers and stalks, reduced to powder, are administered in cases of discharge of blood from the stomach and bowels. The fruit is given for headache, catarrh, watery eyes, and when dried is considered a vermifuge. The seeds make a cooling medicine for skin diseases, leprosy, and for inflammation of the mouth. Drugstores now sell tablets, syrups, or capsule formulations from lagundi leaves with the brand name Ascof®, which medical doctors prescribe for asthma and cough. The price is relatively more affordable than other brands. 44 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines Sambong Sambong (Blumea balsamifera (L) DC.) of the family Compositae is locally known as alibhon or alimon in Negros, bukadkad in Samar, kalibun in Cuyo Islands, kalibura in Palawan, lakadbulan in Camarines provinces and Albay, sambon in Zamboanga, sobosob in the Ilocos provinces, Abra, and Pangasinan and as takamain in Davao. Sambong is a coarse, erect, half woody herb reaching a height of 1.5 to 2.5 m and stem diameter of 2.5 cm (see Fig. 2.13). The leaves, 7 to 20 cm long, are spear-shaped and with toothed margins and short petioles (Brown, 1921). As described by Brown (1921) and Quisumbing (1951), different parts of sambong have specific medicinal uses. The roots are used locally as a cure for colds. The leaves are applied to the forehead to relieve headache. An infusion is used as a bath for women after childbirth. Tea made from the leaves is used for stomach pains. A decoction of the leaves is used as anti-diarrhetic and anti-gastralgic and for aromatic baths to cure rheumatism (Lugod and Pancho, undated). It is extensively used as diuretic (to ease urination) and anti-urolithiasis (to cure gall bladder ailments) (Quintana, 1997). Sambong tablets are now commercially being produced and made available in most drugstores. Fig. 2.13 Sambong (Blumea balsamifera) Akapulko Akapulko (Cassia alata L. syn. Senna alata (L.) Roxb.) is a member of the Fabaceae (Leguminosae) family and is locally known as bayabas-bayabasan, katanda, katandang-aso, bikas-bikas, or pakayonkom among the Tagalogs, kapurko in Zamboanga, andadasi nga bubugtong in La Union, andadasi nga dadakel in Pangasinan, sunting in Surigao, pakayomkom kastila in Pampanga, ancharasi in Benguet, andalan in Sulu, and palo china in Negros and Busuanga (Quisumbing, 1951). Akapulko is a tall shrub reaching a height of 1.5 to 3 m. (See Fig. 2.14). The leaves, 40 to 60 cm long, are Fig. 2.14 Akapulko pinnately arranged with 16 to 28 sometimes 16 to 24 (Cassia alata) leaflets (Stainer, 1960). The leaflets, 5 to 15 cm long, are oblong in shape, broad and rounded at the apex, having a small point at the tip and are gradually increasing in size from the base towards the tip of the leaf. The inflorescence, 10 to 50 cm long, are terminal and at the axils of the leaves. The flowers, about 4 cm in 45 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 diameter, are thin, yellowish, oblong and concave in shape and have 2.5 to 3 cm long bracts. Blooming occurs in December to February. The pod, 15 cm long and 1.5 cm wide, is rather straight, green in color and turns dark brown or black when mature. The pods contain 50 to 60 flattened, triangular seeds (Quisumbing, ibid). The sap of akapulko leaves is extensively used in curing a wide range of skin diseases such as herpes, ringworm and athlete’s foot (Traditional Medicine Unit - Department of Health, 1992). They are also used for the treatment of skin fungal infection locally known as “anan”. The sap is an efficient anti-herpetic especially when the herpes is of the furfuraceous form (Brown, 1921). A tincture or extract from the leaves is reported to be purgative. A decoction from the leaves and flowers is used as expectorant in bronchitis and dysporia, as astringent and mouthwash in stomatitis and as goog for eczema. A strong decoction from the leaves is said to be abortifacient. A decoction of the roots is used against tympanites (Quisumbing, 1951). At present, akapulko-derived drug formulations are available in the market for public consumption. Niog-niogan Niog-niogan (Quisqualis indica L.) of the family Combretaceae is locally known as balitadhan, piñones, pinion, or bonor in the Visayas; bawe-bawe or babi-babe in Pampanga; kasumbal, talolong, tanglon, or tangulo in Bicol; tagarau, tagulo, tanolo, or totoraok in the Tagalog region; as talilung among the Ibanags; aleluia tartaraok to Ilocanos; and taungon to Manobos (Quintana, 1997). Niog-niogan is a woody vine with a stem reaching a length of 8 m. Its leaves, 7 to 15 cm long, are obovate and oppositely arranged. Flowers change their color from white to red. Fruits are five-angled just like balimbing (Averrhoa bilimbi). Niog-niogan is used for the treatment of cough. Its fruit is also prescribed for use as a vermifuge (Quintana, 1997). The plant is extensively used as trellis and pergola plant in landscape work. Tsaang Gubat Tsaang gubat (Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam.) of the family Boraginaceae is locally known as alibungog in the Visayas, kalabonog or maragued among the Ilocanos; and tagkolot, talibunog, or kalimunog among the Tagalog-speaking provinces (Quintana, 1997). The other names by which this species is known in the Visayas is alangit and balingsua in Cebu; buntaitai, buyo-buyo, or buyok-buyok in Panay; santing in Sulu, cha or chaang-bundok among the Tagalogs; as gari in the Bagobo dialect; icha, icha-nga, atap, icha-ti-bakir, or itsa in the Ilocos region; kalimumug in Maguindanao; mara-mara in Bicol, Samar-Leyte and in some parts of the Visayas, as maratia among the Ibanags, as palupo in Ibatan; and as putputai in other parts of Bicol (Technopak, 1983). It is a shrub reaching a height of 1.5 m with many erect stems. The leaves, 0.5 to 4 cm long and 0.5 cm wide, are alternate and with fascicles (2 or 3 arising from one point) that are variable in shape and have dark green, glossy surface, although light green underneath. The flowers, 1 to 4 from a common stalk, are borne on the axils. The fruit, 4 to 5 mm in diameter, is a drupe, yellow orange in color and succulent when ripe (PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988; Quintana, 1997). 46 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines A decoction from the leaves can be used to treat stomach pains and tympanites (kabag in Tagalog) (Quintana, 2003). The plant is cultivated as an ornamental. Bangkoro or Noni Bangkoro or noni (Morinda citrifolia L. var. bracteata (Roxb.) Hook. f.) of the Rubiaceae family is locally known as apatot or ampapatot in Pangasinan; bangkudo, bacudo, nino, lino in the Tagalog provinces; as bangkuro or bangkoro in the Ilocos, Cuyo Island, Mindoro, Cebu, Quezon, Palawan and Cotabato, taing-aso in Mindoro, tumbong aso in Manila; and nino in Leyte and the Bicol provinces (Brown, 1921; Lugod and Pancho, undated). Bangkoro or noni is a small tree reaching a height of 3 to 5 meters with spreading branches. The leaves, 10 to 25 cm long, have prominent veins, quite large, ovate or broadly elliptic to oblong, acute or slightly acuminate and shiny (See Fig. 2.15). The plant possesses peduncle leaf, 1 to 3 cm long, which is opposed and solitary. It bears funnel shaped flowers throughout the year. The blossoms are creamy white. The fruit is about the size of a potato and resembles a small breadfruit. When ripe, the green fruit turns pale yellow and has a soft pulp. When over-ripe, the fruit turns black and emits a foul odor (Mintilla, 1999; Quisumbing, 1951; Scott, 1991). The production of noni juice from its fruit has become a million dollar business. Based on manufacturer’s claims, the juice, when taken regularly, could boost the patient’s immune system or improve resistance to certain illnesses including cancer. In the late 1990s, at the height of the noni fruit’s popularity especially as cure for various ailments, even supermarkets carried raw noni fruits on their shelves for sale to shoppers. Various plant parts have been reported to cure different illnesses (Mintilla, 1999; Zulueta, 1999; Solomon, 1998). A decoction from the roots can be used to lower blood pressure. The bark is said to have a strong astringent property and is used to cure Fig. 2.15 Noni (Morinda citrifolia) malaria. The fruit is locally used as an emmenagogue. The seeds have purgative action. The leaves when fresh are applied on ulcers to bring about rapid cure while the sap of the leaves is used as anti-arthritic. The leaves can also be used to relieve pain as well as to treat external inflammation, skin diseases, indigestion, and fracture. There are many other known uses of noni. Brown (1921) reported on the use of the roots primarily as a source of dye, which gives various colors on different fabrics depending on the type of mordant used. The finer roots are claimed to produce better results than the mature ones. The coloring matter is found principally in the root bark. This can be obtained in large quantity from three- to four-year-old trees (Brown, 1921). 47 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Balanoy Balanoy (Ocimum basilicum L.) of the Labiatae family is known locally as balanai in Rizal, balanoi in the Batanes Islands and Quezon province, bauing or solasi in Balabac Island, biddi in La Union, kalu-ui in Basilan, and kamangi in Culion Island (Brown, 1921). It is also known as bouak or saging among Visayans, samilik or samiring in Bicol, biday to Ilocanos, and as albahaca de caballo in Zamboanga (Quintana, 1997). The plant is an erect, branched shrub reaching a height of 0.5 to 1.5 m. The leaves, 1.5 to 3 cm long, are eggshaped or ovate in shape, pointed at apex, entire or slightly toothed, somewhat hairy and very aromatic. The flowers, 8 to 15 cm long, are borne in racemes. The corolla, 9 to 10 mm long, is pink or purplish in color. The fruits are very small, rounded, and black in color (Brown, 1921; Quintana, 1997). The leaves are used for aromatic baths to cure rheumatic pains and paralysis. Oil that can be distilled from the herb has an excellent fragrance (Brown, 1921). A decoction brewed from the roots and leaves is good specifically for gonorrhea. A decoction from the leaves is used to remedy dizziness and toothache. The plant is diaphoretic while the flowers cure cough (Lugod and Pancho, undated). Leaf infusion is carminative and stimulant (Brown, 1921; Lugod and Pancho, undated). Gogo Gogo (Entada rheedii Sprengel) is a member of the Leguminosae (Fabaceae) family. It is locally known as balugo or gogo in the Tagalog provinces and in Pampanga; barugo, bayogo, or balones in the Visayas; dipai among the Igorots; gogongbakay in some parts of Pampanga); kezzing among the Ibanags; lipay to Ilocanos; and tamayan in Baguio. Gogo is a woody vine or liana (See Fig. 2.16). Its long, straight, or sometimes slightly curved giant pod reaches a height of 1 to 2 m and a width of 0.07 to 0.15 m (Quimio et al., 1997). The stems are often flat, spiraled and angled. The leaves have long petioles and the rachis ends in tough tendrils. Its yellowish white flowers are about 2 to 4 mm long. Its oblong or obovate leaflets are 2.5 to 5 cm long, usually consisting of 1 to 3 pairs per pinna. The brown seeds of gogo are sub-orbicular, flat, about 4 to 6  3.3 to 5.1 cm, and have hard testa. Fig. 2.16 Gogo (Entada rheedii) and gogo seeds (inset). All gogo parts are usable. Among rural folks in the Philippines, gogo is commonly used as shampoo. Stems of gogo macerated in cold water has been traditionally used as hair and scalp cleansing agent. It is also used as a body or fabric scrub/sponge. The bark is used for decorative purposes such as lanterns, Christmas decors, design for dresses, and in the manufacture of basketware, and other aesthetic products. Seeds of gogo are used for 48 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines medicinal purposes such as remedy for swellings of the axilla, pains of loins and joints, and for cerebral hemorrhage, and as a febrifuge. Its use as an emetic had likewise been reported. PLANTS PRODUCING CHEMICAL OR EXTRACTIVE PRODUCTS Three groups of plants producing chemicals or extractive products are lumped under this section. The chemical products are obtained either by inflicting injury on the bark of the stem which then exudes the sap that is later collected, or by subjecting the material to extraction with water or with organic solvents. These plants include those that produce resins, such as Manila copal from almaciga and the naval stores derived from the Pine species; plants that produce tannins and dyes which find use as coloring materials or preservative; and those that produce gums and latex. Resin Producing Plants Resin production from plants for domestic use and for export has made Manila famous. Most resins extracted from Philippine forest plants and exported abroad carried the label “Manila” as part of their commercial name to indicate the quality of the resin and not because they come from the Philippines. These included Manila copal from almaciga and Manila elemi from pili (Canarium ovatum Engl.) and piling liitan (C. luzonicum (Blume) A.Gray). Other extractive products from Philippine forests include pagsahingin resin from pagsahingin (C. asperum Benth.), the so-called “naval stores” from two pine (Pinus) species found in the Philippines, balau from the apitong group of Dipterocarps, and damar from species of Hopea and Shorea. The two pine species that are growing naturally in the Philippines and the other extractive-producing tree species are described below. Philippine Pine Species The genus Pinus is one of the most widely distributed genera of trees in the northern hemisphere, extending from the polar region to the tropics. It is also one of the most extensively introduced genera due to its large-scale use for timber and pulp. Large areas of Pinus stands can be found outside of its natural geographic range. In the Philippines, there are two indigenous pine species namely, Benguet pine (Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon) and Mindoro pine (Pinus merkusii Jungh. and Vriese). These two species serve as the main sources of “naval stores” in the country, with Benguet pine used as source of turpentine during the Spanish times (Brown, 1921). Worldwide, only a few species of Pinus are commercially tapped as source of resin for rosin and turpentine production. These are listed in Table 2.5. Naval stores refer to resinous products obtained from conifers, especially pines. The term is derived from their ancient use in the construction and maintenance of wooden sailing vessels, for caulking timber planks employed in building ships to make them watertight 49 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 and less moisture-absorbent. Naval stores include oleoresin, rosin, and turpentine. Oleoresin2, in this case, is the natural product that exudes from the pine tree due to natural or man-made injury, as when tapping the tree. It is primarily made up of volatile oils that, upon distillation, separate from the solid residue and collected as turpentine. The solid portion is referred to as rosin. Turpentine derived from the distillation of pine oleoresin is used as solvent and thinner. It can also be obtained from the carbonization or distillation of pinewood, in which case it is more accurately referred to as wood turpentine to distinguish it from the oleoresin-derived turpentine, which is conveniently called gum turpentine. Rosin, on the other hand, is used in making varnish, paper, soap, and for rosining or treating violin bows. Dark-colored, sticky residues from the distillation of turpentine are referred to as pitch. It is liquid when heated and hard when cold and used for proofing wood and fabric, such as roofs and boat hulls. Table 2.5. Commercially tapped sources of pine resin: species and country. Speciesa Producing Countryb Pinus elliottii Engelm P. massoniana D. Don, P. kesiya Royle ex Gordon P. pinaster Aiton P. merkusii Jungh. & Vriese P. roxburghii Sarg. P. oocarpa Schiede P. caribaea Morelet P. sylvestris L. P. halepensis Miller P. radiata D. Don Brazil, Argentina, South Africa, USA, Kenya People’s Republic of China Portugal Indonesia (Vietnam) India (Pakistan) Mexico, Honduras Venezuela, South Africa Russia Greece Kenya Note: a Only the major species tapped in a particular country is indicated. b List of countries is not exhaustive. Benguet pine (P. kesiya Royle ex Gordon) is known locally as alal in Zambales; baibo, booboo, bulbul, ol-ol, or saung in Benguet; parua in parts of Ilocos; and saleng in Bontoc, Abra, Nueva Ecija, Ilocos Norte, and Ilocos Sur. Benguet pine has been earlier reported as endemic to the Philippines (Brown, 1921) but was later found to be distributed in South East Asia, India (Khasya), and China. It is a medium- to large-sized tree normally reaching a height of up to 40 m and a diameter of 140 cm. The crown is conical when young and becomes dome-shaped when mature. Its lateral branches are weakly developed and its clear bole is about 15 m long and remarkably straight and cylindrical. Its bark is thick and flaky. Characteristically, the tree does not have pronounced buttress. Its needles, 8 to 10 cm long and 0.6 to 1 mm in diameter, are arranged in bundles of three per fascicle. The fruits are in cones. The female cones are produced at the tip of the growing shoots while the male are at the lateral sides of the lower branches. 2 The use of the term oleoresin in this case is restricted to the exudation from pine trees, which is different from oleoresin referring to preparation consisting essentially of oil holding resin in solution. Prepared oleoresin consists of extracts of spices that remain after the solvent is removed by evaporation and is mainly used in flavoring and to a lesser extent, in the pharmaceutical and perfumery industries. 50 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines The seeds, 5 to 7 mm long, are oval in shape, dark brown in color, and have deciduous wing (Brown, 1921; Florido and Reaviles, 1989). Other than being a source of resin, Benguet pine is also used to provide timber for construction, mines, posts, and furniture in the Philippines. Being a long-fibered species, its wood is also suitable for pulp and paper manufacture. The needles and cones are utilized for making decorative novelty items like jars, fruit bowls, wall decors, mirror frames, flower vases, and baskets. Recently, pine needles have found application as decorative mulch in landscaped areas. Small plants of this species have been popularly sold as ornamentals and Christmas trees. Mindoro pine (Pinus merkusii Jungh. & Vriese) is locally known as agu-u in Mindoro and as salit or tapulau in Zambales. It is a medium- to large-sized tree reaching a height of more than 20 m and a diameter of 90 cm. According to Brown (1921), it can be differentiated from Benguet pine by its needles that occur in groups of two rather than three. It produces more resin than Benguet pine. Almaciga Almaciga (Agathis philippinensis Warb.) of the Araucariaceae family is the main source of the resin commercially known as “Manila copal”. Copal pertains to a class of substances obtained from various trees or as fossil or mineral resin used for varnish manufacture. It is also used in making patent leather, sealing wax, and soap. Resin from almaciga is locally used as incense in religious ceremonies, for torches, caulking boats; and as smudge for mosquitoes and for starting fires (Brown, 1921). It was reported to be suitable as paper sizing material, but the extent to which this could be commercialized remains in doubt. Other reported uses are as components in the manufacture of varnishes, paints, lacquer, printing inks, linoleum, shoe polish, and in plastic water proofing materials. The resin from almaciga can be obtained from cutting the bark, which exudes resin when injured. They can also be found in forks of branches, or as mineral resin in the ground. Almaciga is locally known as adiangau in the Camarines provinces; alinsago in Benguet; almaciga in Mindoro, Bataan, Quezon, Benguet, Zambales, Palawan, certain parts of Camarines and Negros; as aninga in Isabela; anteng in Nueva Ecija; almaciga babae in Bataan; makau in Misamis; dadiangau in Sorsogon, Polillo, parts of Quezon and Negros; dadungoi in Albay and Sorsogon; pino in Samar; salong in Cagayan and Negros; and titan in Abra (Brown, 1921). It is a large-sized tree reaching 60 m tall and 300 cm in diameter at breast height (dbh). The bole is straight, cylindrical, sometimes tapering with markedly spiral grain. The crown is narrowly conical. The branches are radially oriented, may droop or turn at the ends. The branches prune naturally leaving a high clear bole. The bark is 1 to 1.5 cm thick, gray in color and is dippled flaky (Fernando et al., 2004). It does not have pronounced buttress but 51 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 the butt swells to a varying degree. It develops big, swollen, superficial roots (Brown, 1921; Florido and Arcillas, 1996). The leaves from fully exposed branches are 4 to 5 cm long and 1.5 to 2 cm wide and have rounded apex while the young ones are about 3 to 4 cm wide and at least 10 cm long. The cones, about 8 cm in diameter, are globular. The male cones are cylindrical and are borne in or slightly above the leaf axils. Scales of these cones are peltate, numerous, with 10 to 12 pollen sacs. Female cones are ovoid to globose with numerous woody cone scales. Each female cone bears a single large ovule and is borne at the terminal bud. The cones become massive and woody at maturity. The viable seeds are formed only in the center of the cone. Seeds are flattened-ovoid with one large wing. Sometimes the wings are smaller than usual. The ripe cones split while still attached on the tree (Cadiz and Modino, 1990). In more recent times, the occurrence of almaciga tapped for resin production has been reported in Quezon Province, Palawan, parts of the Bicol region and some other areas in Mindanao (Ella, personal communication). Almaciga wood, being glossy and fine textured, is one of the most expensive woods in the Philippines. It is commonly used in making panel and piano boards, guitar bodies, and engineering instruments. Canarium species Canarium is the main source of resin commercially known as Manila elemi or “brea blanca”. Elemi is a term applied to a variety of resinous products obtained from different countries and having different botanical origins (Brown, 1921). Canarium is one of the four genera of the family Burseraceae that are found in the Philippines. The name for the genus, Canarium, was derived from the Malay name “kanari” that includes about 100 species in tropical Asia and Malaysia with some 35 species in the Philippines (Coronel, 1998). The best quality “brea” is soft, sticky, opaque, slightly yellow in color, and odorous. The resin is an important material for the following uses: as an ingredient in the manufacture of plastics, printing inks for lithographic works, perfumes, medicinal ointment and plasters; to provide toughness and elasticity to lacquer varnish and paint products; as a material in producing a special kind of paper for window panes, a substitute for glass; and locally as varnish, for caulking boats, and as illuminant for torches (Brown, 1921). Piling liitan (Canarium luzonicum (Blume) A. Gray) is a medium- to large-sized tree reaching a height of 35 m and a diameter of 100 cm. Its leaves are pinnately compound, usually with three pairs of opposite leaflets and a terminal leaflet. The leaflets, 12 to 30 cm long, are smooth, pointed at the apex, and rounded or obtusely pointed at the base. Flowers are fairly small and are borne on large compound inflorescence. The fruits, about 3 cm long, are somewhat oval in shape, and contain a thick-shelled triangular, edible nut (Brown, 1921; Florido and Arcillas, 1996). Pili (Canarium ovatum Engl.) is a medium- to large-sized, buttressed tree reaching a height of 20 to 25 m and diameter of 100 cm or more (Fig. 2.17), which is native to the Philippines 52 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines (Coppen, 1996). It is a dioecious species. In the male and female trees, the flowers are borne on cymose inflorescences at the leaf axils of young shoots. The female inflorescence is about 7 cm long and has three to six female flowers while the male inflorescence is more than 9 cm long and has an average of 18 flowers. The fruit is commonly referred to as a nut but is botanically a drupe. It is oblong in shape, 4 to 7 cm long and about 2 to 4 cm in diameter. The fruit consists of a pulp, a shell and a seed. The pulp is composed of a thin skin or exocarp and a fibrous, fleshy, thick mesocarp. The exocarp is smooth and shiny, green when young and turns purple or nearly black when the fruit ripens. The shell or endocarp about 4.5 to 6 cm long and 1.5 to 2.5 cm wide, is carpellary in origin, elongated and trigonous but in Fig. 2.17 Pili (Canarium ovatum). transverse section is nearly triangular Photo courtesy of A.B. Ella, FPRDI, College, Laguna. with its corners rounded, with one of its sides being wider than the others. The basal end of the shell is pointed while the apical end is more or less blunt or obtuse. The seed is made up of a brown, papery seed coat surrounding the embryo, which has 2 white cotyledons called kernel. This kernel constitutes about 4 to 6% of the whole fresh fruit by weight (Coronel, 1998). The production of candies from the kernel of pili is a thriving industry in the Bicol region. Many different kinds of candy products have been developed from pili nuts, which include buding, molido, mazapan, salted pili, sugar-coated pili candy, and coconut jam with pili. The Philippines is the only country that commercially produces pili and is enjoying a monopoly of the foreign markets for processed pili products (Coronel, 1998). The pulp can also be eaten after boiling, while the shell could be used as cheap source of fuel. Pili farmers prefer to harvest the nuts than to tap the trees for resin, which is claimed to reduce fruit production. Pagsahingin (Canarium asperum Benth. syn. C. villosum) is a medium to large-sized tree reaching a height of 40 m and a diameter of 100 cm or more. The young leaves, branches and inflorescence are more or less covered with brown hairs. When mature, the leaves become nearly smooth. The leaves, 20 to 50 cm long, are pinnately compound with three pairs of leaflets and one terminal leaflet. The leaflets, 7 to 15 cm long, have rounded or somewhat heart-shaped base and pointed apex. The flowers, 4 to 5 mm long, are greenish white and hairy. The fruit, about 1 cm long, is rounded in cross section. The resin derived from pagsahingin is commonly known as pagsahingin resin or sahing. This sahing is used locally for fuel and light as well as for caulking boats (Brown, 1921; Florido and Arcillas, 1996). 53 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Dipterocarp species as sources of resin This group of tropical trees is much better known for their timber than for the other nonwood products that they can provide. Dipterocarp trees used to dominate the country’s primary rainforests, until excessive logging due to the lucrative raw material export business, buoyed up by a much-discredited national policy for instant dollar earnings, literally wiped out most of these valuable trees. Such policy was aggravated by the unilateral extension of parity rights to American investors, giving the former colonizers equal access and exploitation rights to the country’s natural resources. Dipterocarps have been very important in the timber trade, so the botanical characteristics of these species have been extensively described in many local and international publications on tropical timber (Martawijaya et al., 1986; PROSEA, 1993). The apitong group of Dipterocarps comprise of apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus Blanco), broad-winged apitong (D. kunstleri King), panau (D. gracilis Blume), malapanau (D. kerrii King) and palosapis (Anisoptera thurifera (Blanco) Blume). They produce a type of resin called “balau”. Balau is a thick fluid when fresh but hardens to a semi-plastic consistency after long exposure. It is locally used as illuminant, for caulking boats, as varnish, and sometimes as disinfectant, laxative, or stimulant. Damar (sometimes spelled dammar) is another kind of resin from Dipterocarp species, specifically the ones belonging to the genera Hopea and Shorea. This resin is partially soluble in alcohol. It is used in the manufacture of lacquer, fume proofs, enamels, plastics, printing inks, paper and wood varnishes and some paints, and for medication such as in ointment. However, the widespread availability of synthetic materials has resulted in declining demand for the natural resin. The Hopea species tapped for this particular resin are dalingdingan (Hopea malibato Foxw. and H. acuminata Merr.) while the Shorea species include almon (S. almon Foxw.), guijo (S. guiso (Blanco) Blume), malaanonang (S. polita Vidal), manggasinoro (S. assamica Dyer ssp. philipinensis (Brandis) Sym.), mayapis (S. palosapis (Blanco) Merr. synonymous with S. squamata Benth. & Hook. f.), red lauan (S. negrosensis Foxw.), tanguile (S. polysperma (Blanco) Merr.), white lauan (S. contorta Vid.), and yakal (S. astylosa Foxw.) (Brown, 1921; Florido and Arcillas, 1996). Dye and Tannin Producing Plants The Philippines is endowed with trees, shrubs, and other plant forms that are sources of natural colorants and dyes (Ella, 1995). Natural colorants and dyes from plants and even from the animal kingdom have historically provided most of the coloring materials for dyeing textiles and in preparing cosmetics and paints. They are likewise used to make foodstuffs more visually attractive. The production of natural colorants and dyes diminished in the latter part of the 1900s due to the invention of synthetic dyes that replaced the natural materials used in the textile, food and cosmetic industries (Green, 1995). Although Green (1995) contended that the dominance of synthetic dyes in the textile 54 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines industry was irreversible, some natural dyes still retained their position in the industry due to their unique qualities. Green (1995) further mentioned that the food sector was experiencing a revival of the use of natural colorants particularly in the developed countries, among health conscious consumers who prefer natural and organically grown products. In the Philippines, native textile makers in Mindanao, Pangasinan, Ilocos, and Cordillera still use dyes from indigenous, natural sources. According to Ella (1995), 65 plant species in the Philippines, representing 55 genera and 40 families, yield natural dyes. Some of the important and interesting Philippine dye and tannin producing plants in the different regions of the Philippines are shown in Annex Table E. Ella (1995) emphasized that only a few of these plants have been given much attention. The most popular and extensively used dye-producing plants in seven regions of the country that were surveyed include the following: achuete (Bixa orellana L.), antipolo (Artocarpus blancoi), bangkoro (Morinda citrifolia L.), bayok (Pterospermum diversifolium Blume), ipil (Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) O. Ktze.), kamachile (Pithecelobium dulce (Roxb.) Bentham), narra (Pterocarpus indicus L.), sibukaw (Caesalpinia sappan L.), tayum (Indigofera tinctoria L.), tuai (Bischofia javanica Blume), and luyang dilaw (Curcuma longa L.). Fernandez (1999), on the other hand, indicated that the potential of various species as sources of natural dye depend on their availability, abundance, distribution and applications. The species she identified included the following: anonang (Cordia dichotoma G. Forster), balinghasai (Buchanania arborescens (Blume) Blume), bulo-bulo (Melicope latifolia (DC) Hartley synonymous with Evodia bintoco), katmo (Vaccinium whitfordii Merr.), ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala (Lamarck) de Wit), and salago (Wikstroemia lanceolata Merr.). Brown (1921) listed several other plants that were used as sources of dye in the Philippines during the early 1900s. Among them was sibukaw, which produced dyes used in dyeing wool and cotton textiles as well as printing materials. It was once the most extensively used dyewood in the Philippines exported in considerable quantities to other countries like Hong Kong (Brown, 1921). Other notable species include payangit (Marsdenia tinctoria R. Br.), lago (Prunus grisea (C. Muell.) Kalkm. syn. Pygeum presli Merr.), tamarind or sampalok (Tamarindus indica L.), bayok (Pterospermum diversifolium Blume), and bitanghol (Calophyllum blancoi Pl. & Tr.). Tannins are water-extractable materials from certain plants that convert animal hide into leather. They are complex polyhydric phenols made soluble in water by their high degree of hydroxylation. They are characterized by an astringent taste and the ability to form colored solutions. They precipitate with iron and other metals, and are capable of combining with proteins to form insoluble substances. The astringent action involves shrinking tissues or tightening pores and contracting structural proteins on the skin. There are two general categories of tannins - condensed and hydrolysable tannins. Condensed tannins are referred to as polyphenols in more recent chemical literature, or 55 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 perhaps more precisely, as polyflavanoids as these are polymers put together from flavanoids as building blocks. Hydrolysable tannins, on the other hand, are formed as esters of the phenolic ellagic or gallic acid and certain sugars. Tannins serve as barrier to the entry of bacteria and fungi into plants. Aside from the traditional uses in leather manufacture, the preservation of fishing nets, mordants and to some extent, as dyes, there have been attempts to use tannins as adhesive particularly for assembled wood products such as plywood and particleboard. Tannins from quebracho (wattle) have been used successfully in glue formulation by adhesive experts in South Africa. O O OH OH OH HO O HOOC OH HO O OH Flavanoid ring Gallic acid O Ellagic acid As far as plants producing tannins in the Philippines are concerned, those growing in mangrove swamps had served as major sources, especially the bark of mangrove species. Such were used for preserving fishing implements and in making tuba from nipa. It should be noted that many of the dye- and tannin-producing plants have multiple uses or provide a variety of products. Described below are selected Philippine forest plants that produce dyes and tannins: Banato Banato (Mallotus philippensis (Lamk) Muell. Arg.) of the family Euphorbiaceae is locally known as banato-maliit in Bataan, buas or panguplasen in Ilocos Norte, dalunet or tafu in Cagayan, malatuba in Negros Occidental, panagisien in Apayao, parts of Cagayan and Isabela, parandang in Palawan, pikkal in Zambales, and as salab na pula in Batangas. It is a small to medium size tree reaching a height of 4 to 10 m (Brown, 1921), although Green (1995) noted that some plants could reach heights of up to 25 m. The small branches, 7 to 16 cm long, are alternate. The fruits, 6 to 8 mm in diameter, are somewhat rounded and have red pubescence which, when detached and pulverized, is known as kamala (crimson) powder. Kamala powder, when used in dyeing textiles such as wool and silk, produces an attractive bright orange color. Upon exposure to sunlight, this color gradually fades. Oil from the fruit seeds is used in India as fixative for cosmetics and as a cure to parasite infections on the skin (Green, 1995). Busain Busain (Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Savigny) of the Rhizophoraceae family is synonymous with B. conjugata (Linn.) Merr. It is locally known as pototan in Mindoro, Bataan, Quezon, 56 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines Negros, Leyte, Zamboanga, Basilan and Cagayan; as busa-ing in certain parts of Quezon; and as bakau in Tinago Island and Zambales (Brown, 1920). It is one of the largest trees of the true mangroves, reaching a height of 25 m and a diameter of 75 cm (Florido, 1994). The tree has an erect habit. It has thick-ridged, very dark, and almost black bark, which contains many large, brown, and corky pustules. At a short distance from the base of the trunk and extending out to a distance of 5 to 6 m are many air roots (pneumatophores) or knees, which are formed by roots bending upward and may extend 45 cm into the air. The leaves are oblong, pointed at the tip, with a shiny upper surface but dull subsurface. The flowers, 4 cm long, occur singly in leaf axils. The fruit is small, containing a single seed, which germinates in situ forming a cylindrical root 30 to 60 cm long (Brown, 1920; Florido, 1994). The bark produces dark brown dye (Green 1995) for coloring textile. Busain is one of the tannin-yielding mangrove species along with tangal (Ceriops tangal (Perr.) C. Robinson), bakauan-lalaki (Rhizophora apiculata Blume), bakauan-babae (R. mucronata Lam.), tabigi (Xylocarpus granatum Konig.) and langarai (Bruguiera parviflora (Roxb.) Wight er Armott ex Griffith). Tangal tanbarks are principally used for tanning purposes. In the Moluccas, the leaves and peeled hypocotyls of busain are eaten after being soaked in water and boiled while the fruits are used as astringent (Aragones-Fabellar, 1996). The inner bark is much of the same character and appearance as that of bakauan and contains about the same or a slightly higher amount of tannin (Brown, 1921). According to Florido (1994), the tannin content is about 13% of the total dry weight of the plant material. Kamachile Kamachile (Pithecelobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.), as it is known in Manila and Camarines provinces, is a member of family Fabaceae/Leguminosae. It is locally known as damortis in Bontoc, La Union, and Pangasinan; kamanchile in Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Manila, and Quezon; and komontres in Abra (Brown, 1921). It is a small tree reaching a height of up to 18 m and a diameter of 70 cm or more. The branches are armed with short, sharp spines found at the base of the leaves. The leaves, 4 to 8 cm long, are pinnately compound with four, 1 to 4 cm long leaflets. Inflorescence is formed in dense heads, numerously flowered. The flowers, about a cm in diameter, are greenish white in color. Pods, 10 to 18 cm long and about 1 cm wide are often twisted spirally, green in color when young but become yellowish red when ripened. The pods contain six to eight seeds. The seeds are covered with edible, whitish pulpy arils (Aragones-Fabellar, 1996). The bark of kamachile is one of the major local sources of tannin used for tanning leather (Aragones-Fabellar, 1996; Brown, 1921). The bark contains 31.8% tannin (Florido, 1994; Tongacan, 1973). It is a source of yellow dye as well (Green, 1995). The fruits are edible while its leaves, bark, and seeds have medicinal properties (Aragones-Fabellar, 1996). The seeds contain oil, which after refining and bleaching can be used for food and soap. The flowers yield good quality nectar and the wounded bark exudes a mucilaginous gum similar to gum Arabic. The fruit pulp is eaten raw or made into beverage similar to lemonade 57 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 (Florido, 1994). The plant is popularly cultivated as ornamental and shade tree and is responding well to shaping or topiary. Siar Siar (Peltophorum pterocarpum (D.C.) Backer ex K. Heyne) of the family Fabaceae/Leguminosae is a deciduous tree reaching a height of about 15 m or more and a diameter of about 50 cm. Leaves are pinnately compound, leaflets small, oblong in shape, rounded in both the apex and base. Its bark is gray to blackish in color. Flowers, about 2.5 cm in diameter, are yellow in color, fragrant particularly at night. Pods, 5 to 10 cm long, are flat thin winged, dark red in color and turn black when ripe. Each pod can contain 1 to 4 seeds (Aragones-Fabellar, 1996). The bark of siar is a source of red dye commonly used in coloring textiles (Green, 1995) or “batik” (Aragones-Fabellar 1996). Tangal Tangal (Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. Robinson syn. C. candolleana H. & A.), a member of the Rhizophoraceae family, is locally known as tungod in Negros, as tanghal, magtongod, or tangal-lalaki in Mindoro, tungud in Jolo, tongog in Masbate, tagasa in Bataan, pakat in Palawan, tonggui in Culion, tungog in certain parts of the Visayas, rongon in Zambales, and as rungon in Pangasinan (Brown, 1920). This species is a small tree growing in mangrove swamps, particularly the mouths of tidal streams, and reaches a height of 8 to 11 m and a diameter of 35 to 40 cm when fully grown. The stem has rather smooth, light gray or brown bark, which is perforated in many places by colored lenticels. The inner bark below the corky layer is more or less orange in color. This contains a high percentage of tannin, which according to Florido’s (1994) estimates, accounts for 31.3% of the weight of the plant material. The trunk flares at the base and at short distance, some of the roots bend upward to form small knees. The leaves, 5.5 to 7 cm long and 2 to 4.5 cm wide, are leathery in texture, oppositely arranged, and notched at the apex. The flowers, 6 mm long, are light greenish yellow, and borne on short stalks. The petals, 5 to 6 in number, are inserted at the base of a 10- to 12-lobed fleshy disk (Brown, 1921). Among mangrove species, the bark and sap of tangal yield red and black dyes for batik (Green, 1995) and for tanning leather. The dye from tangal bark is also widely used as flavoring and/or coloring material for tuba. Gum and Latex Producing Plants Gums and latexes, just like resins, are important groups of NWFPs that have high socioeconomic significance. Coppen (1995) defined gums from plants, generally known as vegetable gums, as solids consisting of mixtures of polysaccharides (carbohydrates), which are either water-soluble (absorb and swell up to form a gel or jelly when placed in water) or insoluble in oils or organic solvents like hydrocarbons, ether, and alcohol. The solid 58 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines mixtures are often complex, which on hydrolysis yield simple sugars such as arabinose, galactose, mannose, and glucuronic acid (chemical structures are shown below). CHO CHO CHO CHO H C HO C HO H C C OH H H C HO C HO OH HO C H H HO C H C H H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H OH H C OH HO C H H C OH H C OH C H H Arabinose Galactose H Mannose O OH Glucuronic acid Latexes, on the other hand, are fluids, usually milky white in color, which consist of tiny droplets of organic matter suspended or dispersed in an aqueous medium. Heating the latex to elevated temperatures results in a solid mass. The principal components of the coagulum are cis and trans polyisoprenes and resinous materials. If the polyisoprene is mainly cis, it confers elasticity to the solid and makes it rubber-like; if, on the other hand, it is mainly trans, the solid is non-elastic and hence, gutta-like (Coppen, 1995). The structure of the repeating unit in natural rubber polymer is illustrated below: CH3 H2 C C C H2 CH n cis-polyisoprene (natural rubber) Coppen (1995) further described gums as being produced by exudation, usually from the stem of a tree but in a few cases from the roots. The exudation is often considered to be a pathological response to injury to the plant, either accidental or caused by insect borers, or by deliberate injury or tapping. Latexes, on the other hand, are usually obtained by cutting the plant to bleed. Plants yielding latexes occur in fewer families than those that are gum and resin yielding. Gums and latexes are employed in a wide range of food and pharmaceutical products and in several technical preparations (Brown, 1921; Coppen, 1995). The most important latex product from natural sources in the Philippines is rubber obtained from para-rubber (Hevea braziliensis (Willd. ex A.L. Juss.) Muell.-Arg.) of the Euphorbiaceae family. Large plantations of para-rubber trees had been planted in Mindanao, particularly Basilan, perhaps the single largest source of the rubber latex in the Philippines. For vegetable gum, there are Palaquium species that exude gutta-percha (Brown, 1921; Coppen, 1995). Another source of gum is chico (Manilkara zapota (L.) Royen), which is grown primarily for its fruits in cultivated tree orchards. Both para-rubber and chico are introduced species 59 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 to the Philippines. Some of the native gum and latex producing species are listed in Annex Table F. A few examples of native gum producing plants include antipolo or gumihan (Artocarpus blancoi (Elm.) Merr.), a member of the Moraceae family. The gum hardens into somewhat brittle substance and is used as material for chewing gum. Locally, it is used in compounding birdlime and other sticky substances. The seeds of this species, which are edible, are used as cooking and hair oil. The fruit’s gummy pulp has a delicious tart flavor while the roasted seeds taste like peanuts (West and Brown, 1921). Another example is anubing (A. ovatus Blanco syn. A. cumingiana Trec.), also of the Moraceae family. Its gum is also used as an ingredient for chewing gum. Binunga (Macaranga tanarius Muell.-Arg.) of the family Euphorbiaceae yields sap from its bark that is used as glue for fastening together parts of musical instruments like guitars and violins. Detailed descriptions of these species can be found in Brown (1920 & 1921). Kalipaya Worthy of special mention in this section is kalipaya (Palaquium luzoniense (FernandezVillar) Vidal syn. Palaquium ahernianum Merr.), a member of the Sapotaceae family that in the early 1900s produced commercial quantities of gutta-percha from Mindanao and Tawi-tawi (Brown, 1921). Other local names for kalipaya are kalapia in Zamboanga, salikut in Surigao, and as salukut in Bukidnon. It is a large tree reaching a height of more than 30 m and a diameter of 150 cm. The leaves, 12 to 20 cm long, have green surface, velvety, and with rusty color underneath. They are simple, alternate, pointed at both ends, and wider toward the tip than near the base. The cauliflorous flowers occur singly or in groups of two or three wart-like growths on the stem. The somewhat rounded fruits, about 2.5 cm in diameter, contain only one seed (Brown, 1921). Gutta percha, the latex produced by many of the species of family Sapotaceae (Williams, 1962), is defined by Coppen (1995) as a coagulum which is non-elastic, becomes plastic when heated but retains its shape when cooled. Gutta percha resembles rubber but is more resinous. It changes little when vulcanized, and used as electrical insulation in submarine and underground electrical and communication cables because it has excellent insulating properties, which are retained under water (Brown, 1921; Coppen, 1995). It is also used for the manufacture of golf ball covers, in machine belting, and other molded products (Coppen, 1995), in dentistry, and for surgical appliances, funnels, bottles, and other products that are in frequent contact with acids (Brown, 1921; Tongacan, 1971). Owing to the destructive way by which the latex from kalipaya had been extracted from the plant, there has been no commercial production of the latex in recent years. The discovery of synthetic materials had also diminished the use of natural gutta percha materials (Coppen, 1995). Another species that can be tapped for gutta percha is payena (Payena leeri (Teysm. & Binn.) Kurz.) (West and Brown, 1921).This has properties very similar to those obtained from Palaquium species (Coppen, 1995; Tongacan, 1971). 60 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines Plants Producing Essential Oils Many tropical plants produce essential oils that have high commercial value and contribute to people’s livelihood. Plant-derived natural oils are volatile and odoriferous. The specific sources of these volatile oils are the bark, roots, leaves, flowers, fruits and even wood. Depending on the chemical constituents, natural essential oils can be used in the manufacture of various products that are highly sought after in the flavoring, fragrance and cosmetic industries. These include perfumes, toilet waters, scents or powders, essences or flavoring materials for confectionery and beverages such as lemonade and liquor. Annex Table G shows a list of plants growing in the Philippines that produce essential oils. A few of the important essential oil-producing species are described below: Ilang-Ilang Ilang-ilang (Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thoms.) of the Annonaceae family was reported by Brown (1921) as Canangium odoratum (Lam.) Baill. The plant is known as alangigan in Ilocos Norte and Sur, Abra, and Lepanto; alangilan in Mindoro; anangilan in Surigao; anangiran to the Manobos; burak in Leyte; and tangid or tangit in Camarines, Albay, and Sorsogon (Brown, 1921). The most widely used local name is Ilang-ilang, which is how the plant is called in many areas in the Philippines, from some parts of Ilocos in the North, Bataan and Zambales in Central Luzon, down to the Tagalog provinces, and even up to Davao and Surigao provinces in Mindanao. This Fig. 2.18 Ilang-ilang plant is an evergreen, medium-sized tree attaining (Cananga odorata) a height of 30 to 35 m and a diameter up to 80 cm (see Fig. 2.18). The trunk is crooked and the branches are somewhat drooping (Brown, 1921; Sangalang and Ros, undated). The leaves, 12 to 20 cm long, are alternate, elliptic, pointed at the apex, and usually rounded at the base. The flowers, in hanging clusters from older branches with leaves, are greenish but soon turn yellowish and are very fragrant (Brown, 1921; Sangalang and Ros, undated). Petals, 4 to 7 cm long, 0.5 to 1 cm wide, are star shaped and wavy. Fruits are in bunches of 4 to 12 from each individual flower, clustered on hardened receptacle, olive-like blackish, and several seeded. The fruit is fleshy, whose size and shape are similar to grape and exhibits dark maroon color when ripe (Sangalang and Ros, undated). The trunk has bast fibers that can be made into coarse rope. Traditionally, the flowers are made into leis and garlands, which serve as a source of livelihood in some communities in Laguna, Bulacan, and Pampanga. Similarly, the flowers are sources of two types of essential oils: a) ilang-ilang oil, the first portion of the distillate, extensively used in high class perfumery and cosmetics and 2) cananga oil, the remainder 61 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 of the distillate, used in cheap perfumery and for scenting soaps (Sangalang and Ros, undated). Essential oil from ilang-ilang has been exported from the Philippines since the Spanish colonial period. Other known uses of the oil are as a medicinal product. It is believed to have sedative effect on the nervous system, purportedly alleviating anxiety, tension, shock, trauma, fear, and panic. It can be used in vapor therapy to relieve problems associated with high blood pressure, rapid breathing and heartbeat, insomnia, depression, and stress. Because of claims that ilang-ilang has aphrodisiac quality, it has been suggested as a substitute for viagra to help deal with marital-related problems such as frigidity and impotence. The revival of interest in aromatherapy has also increased the niche for ilang-ilang, where fresh flowers are spread in baths or beds, or the oil mixed with massage oil to smooth the skin, stimulate the scalp, promote hair growth, or simply calm people and/or help them recover from physical exhaustion (Lawless, 1995). Patchouli Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin Benth.) of the Lamiaceae (Labiatae) family is locally known as kablin in Ilocos Sur, Abra, Bontoc, and the Tagalog provinces, kabiling in Pampanga; as kabling also in Ilocos Sur, Bulacan, Laguna, and Mindoro; kadlin in Batangas; kadling in Rizal; kadlom or kadlum in the Tagalog provinces, Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon, and Leyte; and sarok among Igorots (West and Brown, 1921). It is an erect shrub reaching a height of about 1 to 1.2 m, is well branched and pubescent. It has quadrangular stem. The leaves are simple, decussate, and pale to purplish green when grown in the open but bright green under shade. The petiole of the leaves is 7 to 10 cm long. The leaf shape is ovate, with serrations in the margin that are at equal distance, and a cuneate base. The flowers are pink-purple, crowded and borne in hairy, terminal axillary spikes 2 to 8 cm long and 1 to 1.5 cm in diameter. The calyx is about 6 cm long while the corolla is 8 mm long with obtuse lobes (Dichoso, 2000; Lanting et al., 1991). Just like the essential oil of ilang-ilang flowers, patchouli oil obtained from the leaves is an important component of expensive perfumes. Known worldwide as the “oil of patchouli”, it is one of the most sought-after by the perfume industry. The oil blends well with other essential oils like vetiver, sandalwood, paranium, and lavender. It is extensively used as fixative in a large number of high grade perfumes due to its unique quality. Fresh patchouli leaves when crushed with gogo and lemon grass are used as shampoo (Dichoso, 2000; West and Brown, 1921). Patchouli is also known locally and internationally for its medicinal value. The leaves and tops, when used in baths, have an anti-rheumatism action. An infusion of fresh leaves is given internally (1 cupful at a time) to allay painful menstruation and also as emmenagogue. In India, the leaves, flowering spikes or dried tops and roots as well as an infusion of fresh leaves are used as diuretic and carminative, generally along with Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (syn. Ocimum sanctum) seeds in case of scanty urine and biliousness. In Uruguay, an infusion of the leaves is recommended for nervous troubles; the roots are considered stimulant. The Chinese, Japanese, and Arabs, on the other hand, believe in 62 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines patchouli oil’s prophylactic properties. Crushed leaves and tops are used to repel cockroaches, forest leeches, and moths that attack clothing. In India, patchouli is used as an ingredient in tobacco. Vetiver Grass or Moras Vetiver Grass or moras (Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash syn. Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty) of the Poaceae or Gramineae family was reported by West and Brown (1921) as Andropogon zizanioides (L.) Urb. It is locally known as amoras, anias, or anias de moras in Ilocos Norte; ilib in Pampanga; anis de moro in Ilocos Sur and Abra; geron or giron in Iloilo; rimodas or tres moras in Capiz; rimora in Zambales; and as rimoras in Camarines (West and Brown, 1921). It is a densely tufted, perennial grass (Fig. 2.19). It has no running stolons but develops a large clump from multiple branched rootstocks. The culms, 0.5 to 1.5 m high, are erect. The leaves or leaf blades, 75 cm long and 8 mm wide, are relatively stiff, glabrous but rough along the edges. Panicles, about 20 cm long, are terminal, erect, narrow, acute, and flattened laterally with sharp spines (Brown, 1921; Perino, 1993). Oil obtained from the roots of this plant is known as vetiver or cuscus. It is used as a major constituent and fixative of high-grade perfumes and for blending in cosmetics and soap industry (Dichoso, 2000; West and Brown, 1921). A fixative makes the odors of perfumes less volatile and more lasting. Vetiver oil is also considered excellent for aromatherapy, with claims that the oil helps maintain emotional equilibrium, and enables people affected with trauma handle their anxiety and mental flashbacks. Other reported medicinal uses are as skin antiseptic against acne, cuts, and dryness; as antispasmodic to relieve muscle pains; rubefacient to help increase blood flow to sore muscles; and circulatory stimulant that fortifies red blood cells responsible for transporting oxygen. Fig. 2.17 Vetiver The roots of vetiver are used in Indonesia for making fragrant mats. In the Philippines and Fig. 2.19 Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) India, the roots are woven into expensive, fragrant-smelling fans sold as “sandal root fans” (Dichoso, 2000; West and Brown, 1921). The stalks can be used in making hats while the leaves can be used for thatching or as mulching materials (Perino, 1993). Vetiver grass is widely used as a bioengineering or vegetative erosion control measure for slope stabilization, for landscaping, as firebreaks, and to demarcate boundaries between farms. 63 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Aroma Aroma (Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.) is a member of the Mimosaceae family. No any other official common or local name was known (West and Brown, 1921). It is a large spiny shrub or a small tree reaching a height of 3 to 5 m. Branches are crooked with sharp spines. Leaves, 5 to 8 cm long, are bipinnate, usually with 8 to 10 pairs of leaflets, 4 to 7 mm long. Inflorescence is axillary, solitary or fascicled (Dichoso, 2000). Flowers, about 1 cm in diameter, are borne in dense, globose heads, numerous, yellow in color, and fragrant. Pods, 5 to 7 cm long and 1 to 1.5 cm wide, straight or curved, (West and Brown, 1921) are nearly cylindrical, smooth and brown when ripe. Seeds are embedded in dry spongy tissue (Dichoso, 2000; Florido et al., 1998). In France, aroma plant is grown for its flowers which produce fragrant oil known in international trade as the “oil of cassie”. The perfume processed from the oil has a fine odor resembling that of violets. It is used in preparing handkerchief bouquets and pomade (Dichoso, 2000; Florido et al., 1998; West and Brown, 1921). According to Dichoso (2000), aroma has uses other than as a source of oil for perfumery. The bark and pods of aroma are sources of tanning and dyeing stuffs. In the Philippines, a decoction of the bark is used in cleansing prolapsed rectum. A poultice of the tender leaves is applied to skin pores previously washed with the decoction. In tropical Africa, the root containing the gum is chewed for sore throat. In India, a decoction of the bark mixed with ginger serves as mouthwash for treating toothache and bleeding gums. In Java, the bark is used as an emetic (any agent that induces vomiting). Plants Producing Seed Oils Economically important oil accumulates in considerable quantities in the seeds of some plants found growing in the Philippine forests. Many of the seed oils are edible while others are useful for their medicinal value, the manufacture of paints, varnishes, soap, candles, and illuminants (Brown, 1921) or for use as biofuels (Quiñones and Bravo, 1996). Some of these seed oils are included among NWFPs because they are generally harvested from the wild. Many are used in various industrial applications. Aside from vegetable oil from the seeds, hydrocarbon-producing plants that bear these oils in other plant parts such as the leaves, trunks, bark, and sap are also being explored in the light of the impending depletion of fossil fuels. Tubang bakod, (Jatropha curcas L.) is now being widely cultivated in the Philippines for biodiesel production. The name “tubang gatong” is being popularized for the plant to promote its potential as a source of fuel. Other seed oil bearing forest plants that are being investigated for their potential as source of biofuel are bitaog (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) and bani (Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre). A list of seed oil-producing plants in the Philippines is given in Annex Table H. A few examples of seed oil producing plants are described below: Bani Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre, locally known in many parts of the Philippines as bani, is a deciduous tree belonging to the leguminous family. Other common names are balikbalik in the Tagalog area, baobao in Agusan, marokbarok in Camarines provinces, and 64 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines salingkugi in Zamboanga (Brown, 1920). It can grow up to 25 m tall and can attain a diameter of 60 cm. It has smooth, grayish bark; shiny, imparipinnate leaves comprised of 5-9 leaflets; bears fragrant, white to pinkish or purplish flowers born in racemes; and produces short-stalked, somewhat flattened, and oval-shaped pods that are 1-seeded; the seeds are thick and reniform (Allen and Allen, 1981, as cited by Duke, 1983). It is used as an ornamental plant for its fragrant flowers and as a host plant for lac insects. The seeds can contain as much as 27-36% oil by weight, which is used for tanning, soap, as liniment, and as illuminating oil (Burkill, 1966 as cited by Duke, 1983). Brown (1920) listed the species as a fiber-producing plant, the bark of which is used for making strings and ropes. According to Duke (1983), the tree reaches an adult height in 4 to 5 years, and begins to bear fruits at 4 to 7 years. Each tree is claimed to yield between 9 to 90 kg of seeds, and assuming 100 trees per hectare, this could mean a yield potential of 900 to 9000 kg of seeds for every hectare of plantation. In India, millers extract 24-27.5% oil from the seeds while village-level practitioners get between 18-22% oil. Apart from its use for illumination, the oil can also be used as a substitute for kerosene and for lubrication. Trials of the oil as diesel fuel showed good thermal efficiency (CSIR, 1948-1976, as cited by Duke, 1983). An oil mill in Powerguda village in India has an extraction capacity of 50 kilos of seeds per hour (Aguiba, 2007). Fig. 2.20 Bani (Pongamia pinnata); Bani seeds (inset). Bitaog Bitaog (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) is a member of the Guttiferae family. Bitaog as it is known in the Babuyan Islands, Abra, La Union, Zambales, Ilocos provinces, Bataan, Leyte and Agusan can also be found in many different places in the Philippines. Furthermore, it is known under different names where it could be found such as batarau in Cagayan and Batanes, bitaoi in Pangasinan, bitong or bittog in Bataan; butalau in Batangas; dagkalan in Isabela; dangkalan in Bataan, Quezon, Camarines provinces, Albay, Mindoro, Masbate, Negros, Capiz, Lanao, Zamboanga, Burias Island, Butuan, Cotobato, Palawan; dangkaan in Davao; palomaria in Mindoro, Quezon, Bataan, Zambales, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Cagayan, Manila, Cebu, and Zamboanga; palomaria de playa in Bataan, Laguna, Camarines, Mindoro, Misamis, Zamboanga, and Basilan; pamittaogen in Palaui Island; tambo-tambo in Jolo; and vutalau in Batanes (West and Brown, 1921). It is a medium to large-sized tree reaching a height of up to 20 m and a diameter of 80 cm. Its main bole is short and dense while its crown is wide spreading. The bark, 12 to 20 mm thick, is brown 65 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 in color with a yellow tinge, has a tendency to become ridged, often broken into irregular rectangular flakes. The inner bark is pink to yellowish in color and exudes a sticky yellowish sap. The leaves are simple and leathery. The flowers are pure white, snowy with yellow stamens, and fragrant. It has spherical fruits that are smooth, green or yellow, pulpy inside, with a thin shell covering that protects a hard, oily kernel (Florido et al., 1998; West and Brown, 1921). Bitaog seed oil is locally used for illumination. It is excellent for making soap and varnishes (West and Brown, 1921) and has good medicinal properties (Florido et al., 1997). In India, it is used as natural remedy for skin disease and rheumatism (West and Brown, 1921). The infusion from the leaf is used as eyewash and the balsam from bark is cicatrizant (Lugod and Pancho, undated). Hanga or Petroleum Nut Hanga or petroleum nut (Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl.) of the Pittosporaceae family is locally known as abkol, abkel, or langis in Benguet; dingo in the Mountain Province; and as sagaga in Abra. West and Brown (1921) described the species as a tree reaching a height of 25 to 30 m, with leaves that are 8 to 15 cm long, simple, smooth, and pointed at both ends. The flowers are 1.3 cm long, white, fragrant, and borne in clusters on the stem (cauliflorous). The fruits, 3 cm long, are somewhat rounded. In localities where hanga could be found, the fresh nuts are pressed, placed in bamboo tube, and lighted as torch that produces a sooty flame. The nuts are used directly as fuel (PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). Folk medicinal uses have likewise been reported for the species. The oil is used to heal wounds and skin diseases (Perry, 1980), and a decoction from boiled nuts relieves stomach aches and colds. When the oil is mixed with coconut oil, the concoction is used as a muscle pain reliever. Lumbang Lumbang (Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.) as it is known in the provinces of Rizal, Laguna, Zambales, and Batangas, is a member of the family Euphorbiaceae. Other local names for this species are biao in Misamis and Davao and lumbang-bato in Cavite (West and Brown, 1921). It is a medium- to large-sized tree that according to Florido et al. (1998) could Fig. 2.21 Lumbang grow as tall as 24 m, with a diameter of (Aleurites moluccana) 80 to 150 cm. The trunk is smooth and is normally curved, seldom straight (see Fig. 2.21). Leaves are simple, alternate, shining on the surface, have long petioles, and are golden underneath. Flowers are numerous and white in color. Fruits, 5 to 6 cm in size, are somewhat rounded and angled with fleshy 66 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines pericarp. The seed, somewhat circular, rather smooth but with numerous small ridges, has a hard, brittle shell about 0.5 mm thick. The seed shell contains a white, oily, fleshy kernel consisting of a very thin embryo surrounded by a large endosperm. This kernel, which is the source of the oil, is covered with a thin layer of secondary seed coat (Florido et al., 1998; West and Brown, 1921). Lumbang oil is a drying oil similar to linseed oil and Chinese wood oil (tung oil), making it highly suitable for the preparation of paints and varnish. The oil can also be used in the manufacture of soap and wood preservatives, likewise in making polishing material for straw hats, putty, manufacture of linoleum, printing, and stamping ink. The medicinal value of the oil has likewise been reported, and one such application is as a mild purgative (Quisumbing, 1951; West and Brown, 1921). Talisay Talisay (Terminalia catappa L.) of the family Combretaceae is known as such in many provinces all throughout the Philippines. Other names are dalisai in Cagayan; logo in Abra, Cagayan, Ilocos Norte and Sur, and La Union; salaisau in Benguet; salisai in Zambales and Bataan; savidug in Batanes; talisi in Basilan; and yalisai in Quezon. It is a medium tree reaching 25 m (Brown, 1921) in height and a diameter of about 80 cm (Florido et al., 1998). Its bark is smooth and light brown when young but becomes scaly and dark brown when mature (Fig. 2.22). The leaves, 10 to 25 cm long, are Fig. 2.22 Talisay (Terminalia catappa) simple, spirally arranged and have smooth, shiny surface and yellowish green underneath with prominent veins. Flowers and fruits are borne in rounded clusters. The flowers are greenish white, with foul smell. Fruits, 3 to 6 cm long, are flattened, ellipsoid, and permanently keeled along the side (Florido et al., 1998; West and Brown, 1921). The seed of talisay contains about 50% oil, known in trade as catappa oil, with a quality comparable to Indian almond oil in terms of flavor, odor and specific gravity, prompting West and Brown (1921) to suggest that it can be a promising substitute for similar oils in the food industry. The oil is also used for medicinal purposes. The kernel is edible while its bark yields a brown dye (Miller et al., 1912 as cited by West and Brown, 1921). Other seed oil-bearing trees Other prominent oil-bearing trees are botong (Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz.) and putat (Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Blume), both of which are members of family Lecythidaceae. Other forest trees that bear oil-rich seeds are bulala, or kapulasan (Nephelium mutabile Blanco), a member of Sapindaceae family, and pangi (Pangium edule Reinw.) of the Flacourtiaceae family. The oil from the seeds of these trees can be used as lamp oil for 67 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 illumination and for a host of other uses, like as ingredient in soap making (West and Brown, 1921). Plant Sources of Edible Fruits and Nuts Among the important botanical resources of Southeast Asia are plants that produce edible fruits and nuts. Many of these plants are perennial indigenous species that are either wild or have relatives that are in various degrees of domestication and commercial cultivation. Many of the edible fruits and nuts have special roles in the traditional culture and everyday life of people in the Philippines and Southeast Asia (Verheij and Coronel, 1992). Fruits and nuts from the wild have supplied the need for subsistence and nutrition of the indigenous people living within or adjacent to the forests. Some of the nuts and fruits are rich in either protein or energy or in both. Plants that are important to forest dwellers produce a variety of edible products in the form of starch food, grains, cereals, stem, leaf and flower vegetables, fruit and seed condiments, and beverages. Many of these plants belong to families Palmae, Euphorbiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Moraceae, Rutaceae, Lauraceae, and Myrtaceae. A lot of domesticated perennial species that are now widely distributed in the tropics originated from, and still have, wild populations in the forests. These include pili nut, mabolo, marang, bago, santol, jackfruit, jambolan, or makopa (Smith et al., 1992). Annex Table I lists some of the wild edible fruit and nut bearing plants in the Philippines (Jacalne, 1974a-c). Many people in the tropics rely on fruit and nut bearing plants for their food. Table 2.6 shows the yield of the commercially available edible fruit crops produced in 3 Southeast Asian countries. Most of the fruits are exported to other countries. Invariably, many plants have already undergone domestication to improve commercial production and meet increasing domestic and export requirements. Most fruit and nut bearing plants are multi-purpose and provide other important products. Some plant parts have medicinal value. Others have flowers and leaves that are relished as vegetables. Barks and fruits’ rinds are sources of dyes or tannins. These are gathered and sold by farmers to augment their income. Most fruit and nut-bearing plants are trees, although some are shrubs or herbs and a few are vines. Whether they are in the wild or cultivated, they are believed to provide ecological benefits. They help ameliorate the environment by protecting the soil from erosion. They also assist in the conservation of water and contribute to the hydrologic and nutrient cycle. 68 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines Table 2.6. Yield (in t/ha) for a number of fruit crops in three Southeast Asian countries based on 2007 FAO records*. Fruit Crops Avocado Banana Cashew nut Citrus, nes Mango, mangosteen, guava Oranges Papaya Pineapple Watermelon Peninsular Malaysia 20.38 1.86 5.45 3.92 6.0 10.0 33.02 20.95 Thailand Philippines 13.07 1.0 3.53 6.32 17.50 .11.91 26.75 14.40 4.73 15.85 4.10 9.71 5.35 2.70 16.93 36.82 16.97 *Source: FAO: http://faostat.fao.org/site/567 In addition to plants bearing fruits and nuts, there are also plants with edible tubers, roots, pith, and young shoots. Plants under this category include species belonging to the Gramineae, Dioscoreaceae, and Araceae families. In an earlier discussion in this chapter, some palms such as buri and ambolong, were cited for having stems with inner heart that is rich in starch or which can be prepared and eaten as vegetables. Bignay Bignay or bignai (Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng.) is a member of family Phyllanthaceae (Fernando et al., 2004). Bignay has fruits that are edible, which turn deep red to bluish violet when mature. It is locally known as bignai in Zambales, Manila, Rizal, Laguna, and Batangas; or as bignai-kalabau also in the vicinities of Manila; bugnai in Ilocos Sur, Abra, Cagayan, La Union, Nueva Ecija, Albay, Camarines, and Mindoro; bugnei in Bontoc; bunnai in Isabela; isip in Pampanga; and pagiruga in Cagayan (Brown, 1921). It is a small tree reaching a height of 4 to 10 m and a diameter of up to 40 cm. Its branches form a full, dense crown (Sotalbo, 2001). Ikalahans in Nueva Vizcaya, Northern Philippines use bignay for making wine and preserved fruits. However, its popularity as a medicinal plant, particularly bignay-lalake, has increased in recent years. A tea preparation from the bark of bignay-lalake, in combination with fruits, leaves, and branches is claimed to be effective for a number of serious ailments such as diabetes, impotence, and hypertension. Datiles The name Datiles (Muntingia calabura L.), a plant member of the Muntingiaceae family, is derived from the Spanish dates, and is known by such name in Tarlac, Pangasinan, Camarines, Albay and Capiz. Other local names for the plant are latris in Laguna, manzanitas in Ilocos Norte and Sur, Abra, Cagayan, La Union and Albay, and as ratiles in 69 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Bataan, Manila, Rizal, Batangas, Quezon, Camarines, Albay, Marinduque, Zamboanga, and Cuyo Islands (Brown, 1921). It is a small tree reaching a height of 5 to 10 meters with spreading, dense branches (Fig. 2.23). The leaves are hairy and sticky, 8 to 13 cm long, and oblong to ovate to broadly oblong-lanceolate in shape. The leaf margins are toothed. Fig. 2.23 Datiles (Muntingia calabura) The fruits, which can be eaten, are about 1.5 cm in diameter, round, pinkish to red and fleshy when ripe (Brown, 1921; Sotalbo, 2001). The flowers are used in some parts of the country to prepare an infusion against headaches and colds. The pliable bark of the tree produces fibers that can be used in making ropes. The tree also provides shade along roadsides. Kaong Kaong as it is known in Manila, Rizal, Cavite, and Laguna or internationally as sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.), is a member of the family Arecaceae. It is known by various names in the different Philippine provinces where it can be found as follows: as bagatbat in Negros Oriental, batbat, ebiok or ibiok in Bohol, habiok in Capiz, hibiok in Capiz and Negros Occidental, hidiok in Camarines, Albay, Antique, and Capiz, igok in Antique, irok in Zambales, Cavite, Quezon, and Mindoro, onau or unau in Misamis and Surigao, and rapitan in the Ilocos provinces (Brown, 1920). It is a large solitary palm, reaching a height of up to 15 m and a diameter of 30 to 60 cm (See Fig. 2.24). The leaves, up to 8.5 m long, bear about a hundred 1 to 1.5 m long leaflets. Furthermore, they are pinnate, with a green surface, whitish Fig. 2.24 Kaong (Arenga pinnata) underneath, lobed at apex, and auricled at the base. The flowers successively come out from the topmost bud toward the lower part of the plant until all the flower buds have bloomed. The plant dies afterward. Fruits are numerous in a bunch. They are green in color and then turn orange to lemon yellow when mature, then to black when overmature. Fruits are sessile, subtended by 3 bracts (Brown, 1920; Sotalbo; 2001). Each fruit, which can be up to 5 cm long and 3.5 cm in diameter, contains 2 to 3 seeds. 70 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines Kaong is prepared as a fruit preserve and is an important ingredient in making halo-halo, a favorite Filipino dessert made up of crushed ice, sweetened banana (saba variety) and camote, along with gelatin, sago, and many other ingredients. The peduncle of the inflorescence is cut to extract the sap for the production of sugar, vinegar, or for liquor making (De Guzman and Fernando, 1986). A rearing period similar to sap production in nipa, which involves beating the selected inflorescence stalk for about two to three weeks, is undertaken to induce sap flow. The unfermented sap can be made into sugar by boiling. Young shoot or “ubod” can be eaten raw or cooked and makes a fine salad. The starch from the main stem can be extracted and made into sago but this requires cutting the entire plant. The leaves are used as thatching material. Midribs of the leaflets can be used in making hard brooms. Its fiber is known as “cabo negro” and is used for rope making. The stiff fibers can also be used for making hair and horse brushes. The fiber is reputed to have high durability in salt water. Kamansi Kamansi (Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg syn. A. communis J.R. & G. Forster and A. camansi Blanco) belongs to the family Moraceae. In English, it is known as breadfruit. Another local name is kamongsi among the Tagalogs (Sotalbo, 2001) although plants that bear seedless fruits are also referred to as rimas (Fernando et al., 2004; Verheij and Coronel, 1992). It is a medium-sized tree Fig. 2.25 Kamansi (Artocarpus altilis). reaching a height of 20 m and a diameter of 60 cm (Fig. 2.25). The leaves, 30 to 100 cm long and 25 to 65 cm wide, are large, ovate, and oblong and are deeply incised into 5 to 11 blunt lobes. The fruit is made into a sweet delicacy in the Tagalog region, particularly in Batangas. Its cultivation is increasing because of its multiple uses. Animals and Animal Products Philippine animals that comprise NWFPs belong to different categories that exist and grow in the wild although some are grown in animal farms and harvested for a variety of reasons. For the most part, the animals that dwell in the wild are categorized as wildlife, for which many excellent reference materials are already available. Animals identified as sources of NWFPs include the crocodiles, snakes, birds, snails, monitor lizard, monkey, turtles, butterfly, honey bees, etc. End products from forest-based animals range from the animals themselves, either as experimental animal or as a collector’s item kept in zoos to attract 71 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 visitors or stuffed to be displayed as hunter’s trophy. The animal can also be a source of meat or of different animal organs, such as the skin and inner organs (animal gizzards) that are believed to have therapeutic value. Birds are collected and trapped in cages alive while those with attractive features (colorful feathers and long beaks) are stuffed and sold as prized collector’s items. The animals can, by themselves or with little human intervention, produce economically important products, such as honey from bees and silk from cocoons of silkworms (Rule, 1982). Other valuable animal products include the edible nest produced by swiftlets that rear their young inside the caves of El Nido islands of Palawan, the venom extracted from snakes and medicinal or energy/performance enhancing drugs from extracts of different animal organs. The bird’s nest is also reported to have curative effects for respiratory ailments such as asthma, sinusitis, bronchitis, and colds (Palis, 1999). Honey, on the other hand, is a natural sweetener believed to enhance resistance against common ailments. Beeswax is not far behind as it also gets manufactured into candle, polishes, lipsticks, shaving creams, cold creams, floor wax, pattern for casting, carbon paper, crayons, and electrical and lithographic products (Soniega, 1980). Crocodile skin is a highly prized source of leather, used in the manufacture of bags and shoes (Anonymous2, 1993). The skin from the belly is highly desirable in the fashion industry, having the smallest scales with no calcium carbonate deposits that can adversely affect end product quality (Bacallan, 1994). There is great potential for the export of novelty products from crocodile (Anonymous3, 1995). Aside from the crocodile, the skin of lizards and snakes are also being used to meet the fashion industry’s demand for exotic materials. Other animal parts that have found their way into human accessories or household decorative items include feathers, ivory from the trunk of elephants (not found in the Philippines), shells, and bones. As for food sources, crocodile meat is considered a good source of “bush meat” that has met the protein requirements in the countryside (Depth News, 1989). There is a farm in Palawan that grows crocodile for its meat and skin. An ostrich farm has also been established to supply demand for ostrich meat. Other sources are snakes, turtles (Anonymous4, 1980), monitor lizards, snails (Quiñones, 1994) and termite grubs. Even the larvae of silkworm, after they have been separated from the silk, can be converted into protein-rich “pulutan” (Telan and Briones, 2002). Some restaurants are using “meat products” from these animals as their main menu, attracting consumers for what are advertised as exotic dishes. 72 Chapter 2. Classification and Description of NWFPs in the Philippines References Aguiba, M.M. 2007. RP told to look into other biofuel plant source. Manila Bulletin (Feb. 4, 2007) http://www.bic.searca.org/news/2007/feb/phi/04b.html Anonymous1. No date. Common Weeds of the UPCF Campus. Anonymous2. 1993. Crocodiles full of cash. Phil. Lumberman 39:21-22. Anonymous3. 1995. DENR conservation eyes big bucks from crocodile exports. Phil. Lumberman 42 (6): 14. Anonymous4. 1980. Order to conserve marine turtles in the Philippines. Canopy International 6:15. Aragones-Fabellar, A. 1996. Some important Philippine tree species producing dye and tanning materials. Research Information Series on Ecosystems (RISE) Vol. 8 No. 3. Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College, Laguna, Philippines, 24 pp. Asian Development Bank (ADB). 1992. Non-Wood Forest Products. ADB Project Report. Forestry Master Plan Project, Bangladesh (TA No. 1355-BAN). 161 p. Bacallan, J.J. 1994. Crocodiles in Crisis. People and Nature 2:14-17. Baconguis, S.R. and I.A. Panot. 1991. Sago or lumbia palm (Metroxylon sagu Rottb). Research Information Series on Ecosystems (RISE). ERDB-DENR, College, Laguna, Philippines. Vol. 3 No. 11, pp. 1-12. Balbin, R. 2001. Personal communication. Borboran, L. C., S. D. Pasig and M. G. Dionglay. 1983. Bamban. Another promising raw material for our cottage industry. Canopy, March, 1983. pp. 13-14. Brown, W. 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Lugod, G.C. and Pancho, J.V. Undated. Medicinal Plants in the College of Agriculture Arboretum and Vicinity. College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines, College, Laguna pp. 47. Maligalig, B.B. and C.G. Abrenilla. 1985. The wonder and potentials of Anahaw. Canopy International. Forest Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna. 11(4): 12-13. Martawijaya, A., I. Kartasujana, K. Kadir, and S.A. Prawira. 1986. Indonesian Wood Atlas. Department of Forestry, Agency for Forestry Research and Development, Forest Products Research and Development Centre, Bogor, Indonesia. 165 pp. Master Plan for the Development of Bamboo as a Renewable and Sustainable Resource. 1997. A draft final report by the Cottage Industry Technology Center, Department of Trade and Industry, Marikina City, Philippines. McClure, F.A. 1996. The bamboos: A fresh perspective. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 347 pp. Mintilla, S.S. 1999. Miracle trees of the wilds. Philippine Daily Inquirer, February 26, 1999 p D-6. Olea, M.S., S.B. Katigbak, and F.M. Lauricio. 1984. Pandan cocooning frames: dollar saving technology. Forest Products Technoflow Series No. 1. Forest Products Research and Development Institute, College, Laguna. 8 pp. Pablo, N.R. and M.A. Polinag. 1990. Buri (Corypha elata Roxb.). Research Information Series on Ecosystems (RISE). Vol. 2 No. 5. Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College, Laguna, Philippines pp. 1-10. Pabuayon, I.M. 1991. Natural Resource Accounting: Rattan. Natural Resource Accounting Project Final Workshop. National Institute of Geological Sciences, U.P. Diliman, Quezon City, October 15, 1991 pp. 44. Palis, H.G. 1999. Edible birds’ nest of El Nido, Palawan. Canopy International 25(1): 67. PCARDD-DOST-RRDP. 1988. Profile of selected non-timber forest products. Book Series No. 67/1988. 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Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College, Laguna, Philippines, pp 2- 6. Perry, L.M. 1980. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia. MIT Press, Cambridge. PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-east Asia) No. 5(1). 1993. Timber trees: Major commercial timbers. (Soerianegara I. and R.H.M.J. Lemmens, eds.). Pudoc Scientific Publishers, Wageningen. 610 pp. Price, M.G. 1972. A summary of our present knowledge of the ferns of the Philippines. Kalikasan, Philippine Journal of Biology. 1:17-53. Quimbo, L.L. 1988. Nipa (Nypa fruticans Wurmb.) in retrospect. Diamond Jubilee Professorial Lecture delivered on June 30, 1988. UPLB College of Forestry, College, Laguna. 10 pp. Quimio, M. J. L. L. Gonzales and A. A. Piñol. 1997. Harnessing Sustainable Development from Non-Timber Forest Products: Gugo. Philippine Lumberman Vol. XLII No. II. pp. 18-20. Quiñones, N. C. and M.V.A. Bravo. 1996. 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Miraculous juice cures allergy and bone cancer. Philippine Daily Inquirer, April 10, 1999 p C-4. 78 III. CULTURAL MANAGEMENT OF NWFPs This chapter covers the cultural management of plants that are being tapped as sources of NWFPs. Cultural management practices for NWFPs include operations such as production of quality planting materials, site preparation, actual planting, care and maintenance of the planted stocks, protection from pests and diseases, as well as proper harvesting and collection methods. Publications that deal with the cultural management of NWFPs are numerous. This chapter is the first attempt to consolidate information on practices for managing NWFPs native to the Philippines to ensure their proper growth and development. When NWFPs reach maturity, they can be harvested using methods that can enhance regeneration, especially in natural forests. Management methods under both natural conditions, and artificially in plantation and man-made forests, are dealt with in this chapter. Ensuing discussions on cultural methods follow the sequence in which the various NWFPs were presented in the previous chapter. Propagation and Management of Plant Sources of Structural Materials and Fiber Products Sexual Propagation of Rattan Use of Seeds Seed collection. Fruits of most rattan species ripen starting August to September each year until November to December and thus, are ready for seed collection during the period. Fruits of rattan are green, but turn yellowish or yellow orange when ripened, depending on species. The adhering pulp or sarcotesta is fleshy in ripe rattan fruits. The fruits are collected before they start falling to the ground, preferably by climbing the palm and cutting from the stem with the use of a bolo, the infructescences bearing the ripe fruits. Most rattan species are single seeded except lituko (Calamus manillensis H. Wendl.), which bears two to three seeds per fruit. The size, weight, and number of seeds vary among species (Baja-Lapis, 1982). It is important that fruits are collected from good parent plants to ensure that good quality seeds are used in nursery stock production. Potential seed collection areas must be identified in every rattan production site. A set of criteria needs to be drawn and used as basis for areas to be selected, rogued, and permanently established as seed collection sites. If possible, a rattan seed orchard must be developed. Seed processing and storage. Seeds can be extracted by separating them from the scaly pericarp (cover) and the sarcotesta by manually crashing or macerating the fruits. The decomposed fleshy sarcotesta is removed immediately after seed collection to avoid seed Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 deterioration. Seeds are thoroughly washed, cleaned, and then a suitable fungicide is applied to avoid fungal attack. If not stored properly, most rattan seeds lose their viability 10 to 15 days after collection. To maintain a high level of seed viability, the seed moisture content must not fall below 50%. According to Bagaloyos (1988), rattan seeds must be sown immediately after collection. However, the viability (although in decreasing trend) can be maintained for as long as three months if the seeds are dried to no less than 50% moisture content, stored in an airtight container, and placed in cold storage at 4 to 6oC. Pre-germination treatment. The seeds of many rattan species exhibit dormancy. Early trials showed that more than 120 days are required for germination. Treatments to hasten germination include wrapping in wet and regularly watered gunnysacks, scarification of the seed coat, hydrochloric (HCl) acid treatment, stratification and many others. These treatments reduced germination period to a range of 39 to 90 days, indicating that different treatments have dissimilar effects on germination (Generalao, 1977). Removal of the seed hilar cover as a pre-germination treatment has been found effective in breaking the dormancy and in hastening uniform germination. Tests on palasan (C. merrillii Becc.) and limuran (C. ornatus Blume var. philippinensis Becc.) seeds (Agmata, 1985) proved that the seeds can be successfully germinated (97.5% of germination rate) in 2 and 8 to 14 days, respectively. To enhance the development of both the shoot and root of germinated rattan, particularly those of limuran, Agmata (ibid.) suggested the application of gibberellic acid (GA) at 100 ppm concentration. Seed sowing. Immediately after hilar removal, seeds can be sown in any of the following container: seed box, individual pot, or a seedbed (Fig. 3.1). Fungicides are applied since some seed-borne fungi such as Fusarium monoleforme, F. solani and F. dimerum were found associated with newly collected seeds (PCARRD, 1991b). Moreover, while under storage, seeds were infected with Aspergillus flavus, Peniccillium digitatum, and Fig. 3.1 Rattan seedlings in a seed box. P. italium. For better results, sowing in seed box lined with sterilized jute sack is recommended. After sowing, the seed box is covered with transparent plastic sheet to conserve moisture and maintain the temperature. The seed box is placed in a cool shaded place. In a matter of days, the shoots and roots emerge from the sown seeds (PCARRD, 1992a). 80 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Potting. The germinants are ready for potting in 13 × 15 cm plastic bags when their shoots and roots have grown to a length of 1 to 3 cm and while their primary leaves are still unopened (Fig. 3.2). The potting medium most suited for growing rattan seedlings consists of an equal mixture of river sand and topsoil/ordinary garden soil or humus and top soil (PCARRD, 1992a). Fig. 3.2 Potted rattan germinants. Use of Wildlings Rattan plantation development in the Philippines, using wildlings as planting materials, began as early as the 1930s. This was in a small rattan farm established in Panay that employed 10 to 40 cm tall wildlings of two rattan species: sumulid (D. ochrolepis Becc.) and biri (C. siphonospathus Mart.). A survival rate of 77.2% was recorded for sumulid and 72.3% for biri. Small wildlings were observed to have a higher survival rate in the field (Fernando and Palaypayon, 1988). From thereon, wildlings from a good rattan stand were recommended as alternative materials for the establishment of a rattan plantation. Lifting the wildlings. Wildlings with a height ranging from 10 to 15 cm and with two to three expanded leaves can be collected during the rainy season. They should be carefully lifted from the ground using appropriate tools to prevent root damage. Mud-puddling. The lifted wildlings are protected from drying by mud-puddling or wrapping the roots with moss and covering them with banana leaf sheaths. Potting. The collected wildlings are potted immediately upon reaching the nursery. Wildlings that cannot be potted immediately can be heeled-in or their roots immersed in water and placed under shade (PCARRD, 1992a). Asexual Propagation of Rattan Use of Suckers Many rattan species produce suckers, sideshoots, or plantlets arising from the nodes of the stem or base of the plant. Suckers with a height of 15 cm or even less, with at least three adventitious roots, can be collected during the rainy season. Immediately after detaching the suckers from the plant, it is necessary to trim from ¼ to ½ of the leaves. The suckers are soaked in water, mud-packed or the roots wrapped with moss, and the plants covered with banana leaf sheaths to minimize drying and conserve moisture (PCARRD, 1991b). 81 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Tissue Culture The mass production of high quality planting materials through tissue culture has been experimented on in the Philippines. The College of Forestry and Natural Resources (CFNR) and the Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB), both within the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), and the Los Baños-based Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau (ERDB) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) have made some progress on the tissue culture of rattan. At IPB, a method described as multiple shoot induction technique (Pateña et al., 1984) was proved successful for the in vitro mass production of lituku and limuran. This method consisted of the following steps: 1) In vitro germination of rattan seed in R medium; 2) Multiple shoot induction in vitro in Murashige and Skoog’s (MS) medium containing cytokinin. This step can be repeated until the desired number of shoots is obtained; and 3) Rooting in vitro of single shoots excised from clumps of shoots previously multiplied. The plantlets produced are then acclimatized in vitro, transplanted to a potting mix, and hardened under shade before out-planting. The CFNR, on the other hand, also used the MS basal medium (Garcia and Sanchez, 1990). It was found that different species required varying pH values and sugar concentrations in a medium suitable for callus formation. Success in tissue culture can enhance local capacity for meeting the demand for rattan poles through the development of thousands of hectares of land planted with tissue-cultured rattan. Care and Maintenance Nutrition. Growth of seedlings can be boosted by applying 5 to 7 g of complete fertilizer around the base of the potted materials (PCARRD, 1992a). Fertilizer application may be repeated to improve the health of the growing rattan plants. Watering and weeding. Water is vital to the normal growth and development of a plant and rattan seedlings are no exceptions. It is necessary, therefore, to water newly established rattan plantations at least once a day during relatively cool months and twice each day during the dry season. Likewise, the rattan plants should be free from competing weeds especially during the first six months of their growth and development. Shading. During the early stages of recovery and development of newly potted seedlings, wildlings or suckers, it is necessary to keep them under shade with about 50 to 60% transmitted light (PCARRD, 1992a). In a study conducted by de la Cruz (1987) on the light requirements of palasan and ditaan (C. mollis (Blanco) Merr.), it was found that the former had significantly higher survival in 0 and 25% sunlight than in 100% sun exposure. Similarly, ditaan performed better under the shade than in 100% full sunlight. The results indicated further that ditaan was more shade-tolerant than palasan. 82 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Hardening off. Planting materials survive better in the field if they are well hardened-off in the nursery. They are, therefore, slowly exposed to sunlight, reduced water, and applied with minimal doses of fertilizer. Total hardening period required in the nursery is five to eight months before out-planting (PCARRD 1992a). Prevention and control of pests and diseases. The success of field planting depends on the health of the planting stocks. They should, therefore, be protected from pests and diseases while in the nursery. To date, no serious pests attacking nursery stocks of rattan have been reported. However, palasan seedlings were reported to be attacked by Rhizoctonia sp., a white-leaf-blight-causing fungus, in one of the nurseries in Antipolo, Rizal. According to Bravo and Andin (1990), the proliferation of this fungus in the nursery was traced to either water logging or the close spacing of potted stocks. They suggested that its occurrence can be prevented by: a) improving drainage, b) reduced watering, and c) widening the spacing between seedlings. Moreover, application of fungicide on a weekly basis is recommended. Areas suitable for rattan plantation development In selecting sites for rattan plantation development, the following factors that interact with the site or habitat requirements of the species must be considered: physiography, climate, physical and chemical characteristics of the soil, and vegetative cover (PCARRD 1991b). Physiography. Rattan can be found growing in lowlands with zero elevation and in high areas such as the mossy forest. However, it is recommended that plantation areas be situated in elevations of not more than 800 m above sea level and with slopes that are not too steep. This enables better physical management of the sites, more efficient protection of the plantation, and easier-to-build access roads and other facilities. Climate. Rattan plants are well distributed throughout the country indicating their wide climatic adaptability. However, it has been shown that plantations established in areas having Type 2 climate, i.e., characteristically no dry season with pronounced maximum rain period from November to June, has advantages compared with those in areas having Type 1 and 3 climates (PCARRD, 1991b). The favorable soil and moisture condition and temperature enable the rattan to grow continuously and more vigorously. Soils. The best sites for growing rattan are areas having either sandy loam or clay loam soil with high moisture and organic matter content and pH ranging from 5 to almost neutral. Rattan, however, can also be planted in relatively poorer sites provided soil amendments like nutrient application, liming, and soil cultivation are performed. Vegetative cover. Rattan plants are naturally associated with trees. The trees nurse and support the climbing rattan. The study of Bravo and Andin (1990), for instance, showed that many rattan plants require from 50 to 70% relative light intensity (RLI). Thus, in choosing areas for growing rattan, it is important that the canopy of associated vegetation permits enough sunlight. If this does not occur naturally in the area, the canopy can be 83 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 silviculturally modified to suit the requirements of the planted rattan. Therefore, second growth forests, existing forest tree plantation areas, and brushlands with considerable stocking of trees and shrubs are potential areas for a rattan plantation (PCARRD 1991b). In the Philippine Master Plan for Forest Development (DENR, 1990), the following areas were identified as potential sites for rattan plantation development: a) Second growth forests that have enough trees but can provide 50 to 70% RLI. Forests of this type are viable areas for rattan growth and development because the trees therein can provide support and light intensity control. In most instances, it may even be necessary to reduce the number of trees to attain the required canopy opening. Moreover, the soil is not prone to degradation as the trees will help meet the moisture and nutrient content requirements. The only constraint, though, is competition for other land uses. b) Open and brush lands that are the subject of government reforestation. Fast-growing support trees can be planted two to three years ahead of rattan. These areas must be developed primarily for rattan although the support trees may be harvested later as a secondary crop. These areas are generally degraded and characterized to have thin topsoil, low organic matter, low pH, and low nutrient content. The soil usually lacks moisture needed for optimum rattan growth. These areas do not have enough trees to serve as support. However, fast growing tree species can be planted to later provide the physical support needed by rattan. Planting these areas with rattan along with fast growing trees maximizes the use of these otherwise, degraded areas. c) Industrial tree plantation (ITP) areas. The main crops in these areas are the trees while rattan will be a secondary crop. The trees and rattan species must be chosen carefully. For maximum returns, rattan harvesting must be timed with the tree crop harvest. The planting of rattan may also be integrated into agroforest farms and home gardens. Trees along the border of the farms can be used as support for rattan as practiced in some parts of the country like in Panay (Fernando and Palaypayon, 1988) and the Cordillera region. 84 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Site Preparation The activities undertaken in site and ground preparation for rattan plantation establishment include survey, mapping and planning, clearing, staking, and hole-digging. Survey, mapping, and planning. In areas designated for rattan plantation development, land survey and assessment are necessary to determine existing conditions of vegetation cover, particularly the presence or absence of rattan. Areas in need of planting can be easily mapped out to allow easier planning. It is good practice to subdivide the area into blocks of 10- to 25-hectare compartments for systematic development and easy management of the plantation. Clearing the site for planting. The method used is highly dependent upon the type of vegetation existing in the area. Spot clearing or strip brushing is normally recommended (PCARRD, 1991b). Crown thinning of existing trees in the area may be done if the canopy is too dense to allow illumination necessary for the growth of rattan. Spacing. Although there is no specific set of rules regarding this practice, it is important to consider the spacing between the existing support trees in the area. Different species of rattan respond to varying space regimes. The choice of spacing is critical since it dictates the number of plants in a given area and, in turn, influences the harvestable volume or yield of the rattan. If spacing were sparse, there will be less competition for space, nutrients, and light. On the other hand, competition ensues when spacing is too close, resulting in less vigorous growth of the planted rattan. In a study done in Mindanao, ERDB and the National Development Corporation (NDC) used a spacing of 5m × 5m for palasan while in one neighboring country, Indonesia, the practice with respect to sega or sika (C. caesius) was to space the plants by 5m × 5m to 7m × 7m (Master Plan for Philippine Forestry Development, DENR, 1990). For C. manan, C. subinermis and C. fissa in Sabah, a spacing of 3.3m × 6.7m was used. For C. tetradactylus in China, a spacing of 4m × 5m was reported, while for C. manan in Malaysia, 2.4m × 7.6m and 1.8m × 10.1m were tried (DENR, 1990). Experience in the Philippines showed that the 5m × 5m spacing was too close in good sites since each clump-forming rattan can produce as much as five or more suckers. To mark the spacing in the field and to have a guide in hole-digging and in future maintenance work, each spot or hill must be provided with durable stakes that can last for one to two years (PCARRD, 1991b). Field Planting In areas with well-pronounced dry and wet seasons (Types 1 and 3 climate), it is crucial to plant rattan seedlings at the onset of the rainy season to provide the plant with longer time to recover and grow. This helps the plant endure the harsh conditions during the dry months. In areas with no pronounced dry season (Type 2 climate), planting may be done 85 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 throughout the year except during El Niño or when there is a prolonged dry spell (PCARRD, 1991b). High quality planting materials must be dispatched for field planting. These are the plants that are at least 30 cm in height, possess compact root system, are healthy and vigorous i.e., free of pests and diseases, and with well-developed leaves. The plant must be set in a hole big enough to accommodate the root ball of the plant. The hole should be about 1 m away from the base of the support tree. It is advantageous to use humus and topsoil in filling up the remaining space in the hole during planting. Care and Maintenance Treatment of the canopy. Different rattan species require various light exposures in the field. In a study of a nine-year-old C. manan plantation in Malaysia (Supardi and Wan Rasali, 1987), a 65% RLI gave greater mean stem length than the 50 and 35% RLI. In the fifth year of the plantation, the mean stem length for a 65% RLI was 1.01 m, followed by 0.912 m with 50% RLI, and 0.617 m for 35% RLI. Internode length was also affected by light intensity. Another experiment in Malaysia (Aminuddin, 1987) showed that C. manan required 50% shade for establishment and then 20 to 40% canopy opening afterwards for better growth and development. For palasan and ditaan in the Philippines, better growth was observed in 75, 50, and 25% RLI than at 100% (de la Cruz, 1987). From the observations, therefore, it can be concluded that some modifications of the canopy of the support trees is needed to provide the rattan with the required RLI essential to promote its growth and development. Nutrition. Rattan, just like other plants, requires nutrients for their growth and development. Application of 20-10-5 NPK fertilizer at 6 g/hill was found by Ordinario (1975) to have stimulated the fast recovery and growth of rattan. Another study (PCARRD, 1991b) showed that growth in height and number of leaves and dry matter yields of palasan was highest under a one-half phosphorus (P) treatment but lowest without nitrogen. Nitrogen (N) deficient seedlings were spindly, stunted, and chlorotic while plants with potassium (K) deficiency showed yellowing of leaves. Seedlings that were given complete fertilizer treatment were healthy (dela Cruz, 1987). Application of complete fertilizer (1414-14) at the rate of 5 to 7 g/hill once a year for three consecutive years was recommended. The first application can be done at the beginning of the 2nd weeding schedule (PCARRD, 1992b). Weeding and mulching. It is necessary to liberate or release rattan from competing weeds that can potentially disrupt its growth and development. Weeding is done three months after out-planting and subsequently every four months thereafter (PCARRD 1991b). It is also important to cultivate the soil, mound the base of the plant, and mulch immediately after weeding. Mulch materials like cut grasses and available leaf litter in the area can be spread around the plant to conserve moisture and arrest the growth of weeds. 86 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Replanting. To maintain full stocking, all dead out-planted stocks must be immediately replaced. Replacements must be timed with the weeding schedules during the initial two years of the plantation. Protection. Particularly in drier areas, it is necessary to establish and maintain 10 m wide firebreaks and employ fire and/or protection crew. More importantly, the plantation must be protected from poachers or illegal rattan gatherers. Limuran and lituko for instance, bear edible fruits while palasan and other rattan species have edible shoots. The gathering of the fruits may damage the cane while gathering of the shoots can kill the plant. Growth of Rattan The growth of rattan species like palasan and limuran is characteristically slow at the start. They undergo the so-called "grass stage" up to the third year of establishment. Growth tends to accelerate when the plants are about a foot or more in height (Cadiz, 1987). The species start to develop a flagellum with which they cling onto trees for support and eventually produce canes at the average rate of 0.70 m per year. At this growth rate, it was estimated that by the 15th year of the plantation, canes that are at least 16 m long can be harvested from every plant and cut into 4 m merchantable poles. The yield of rattan canes may be sustainable for some species because of their suckering and/or clump-forming characteristic. An IDRC-PCARRD study, as cited in the Philippine Recommends for Rattan Production (1991b), showed that two suckers, on the average, can be produced from planted palasan and limuran within man-made forest plantations and secondary growth forests five years after establishment. Sucker production increases as the plantation matures. On the other hand, the harvesting and regeneration of solitary type of species like sika needs further studies as harvesting without planting can result in the complete loss of the species (personal communication with Garcia, 2003). OTHER IMPORTANT PALMS Buri Seeds are normally used to propagate buri (C. elata Roxb. syn. Corypha utan Lam.). A single-fruited palm can produce thousands of fruits and then eventually dies. Mature fruits are collected after they have fallen to the ground. Palm with mature fruits can also be cut for easier seed collection. The trunk can be used as low-cost construction material. To soften the pericarp, collected fruits are first sun-dried for a week, and then soaked in water. Afterwards, the fruits are macerated to extract the seeds. The seeds are sun-dried and stored in plastic bags or sacks for three to six months. Seed germination of buri is enhanced through hilar cover removal. After treatment, the seeds are placed in wet gunny or jute sack and then watered regularly to induce a more uniform germination within a shorter period. The seeds will germinate in two to three 87 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 weeks and will be ready for potting thereafter. Germinants are picked individually and potted in 6” × 9” poly-bags filled with a mixture of ordinary garden soil and compost. The seedlings are reared in the nursery for a year or more before field planting. The recommended spacing is 6m × 6m. The buri plantation is cared for, maintained, and protected during the first three years of establishment. Weeding is done once every three months. Depending on the kind of growth of the palm, inorganic or organic fertilizers are applied at desired dosages (Pablo and Polinag, 1990). Nipa Nipa (Nypa fruticans Wurmb.) can be propagated either by seeds or rhizomes. The seeds germinate before they fall from the bunch and usually are carried by water and deposited on land and later, establish on their own. Alternatively, mature fruits or carpels containing egg-sized seeds filled with hard, white albumen that dropped from the stalks are collected. These fruits or seeds are either directly planted in the field or sown in nursery beds with the larger apical portion buried under the ground. In the field, only half of the fruit’s or seed's entire length is buried, or just enough to prevent it from getting washed away by the tide (Cabahug and Llamas, 1990; PCARRDDOST-RRDP, 1988). The subterranean stems called rhizomes can be separated from the plant and likewise used as planting materials. They are usually planted directly in the field. Planting density for nipa depends on the purpose of the plantation. For the production of leaves or fronds intended for shingle making, a spacing of 2.5 × 2.5 m or 3 m × 3 m for block plantation can be done. However, since the areas suited and available for nipa are along rivers and other tidal estuaries, a single strip with a spacing of 2 m between plants and/or double strips with alternate spacing of 2 m between strips and plants is recommended (ADB, 1992). For the production of sap meant for alcohol, wine, and vinegar making, planting is done 1.7 to 2 m from each other (Cabahug and Llamas, 1990; and PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). Nipa reaches a height of 1.5 to 2 m in just one year after plantation establishment. After two years, they produce around seven to eight leaves. The plantation is ready for sap or leaf production four to five years after establishment. Dried, diseased, or damaged leaves should be regularly removed and periodic thinning of the palms must be done. About seven to eight leaves per palm is maintained at a time. During thinning, care must be taken not to injure any developing flower stalk. Injury or damage to flowers subsequently leads to the eventual death of stalks. Cutting-off of some roots is done to prevent continuous regeneration and to maintain the desired spacing (PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). Pest and diseases of nipa. Grapsid crabs cut or girdle the seedlings of nipa. Monkeys and wild pigs were reported to have seriously damaged a nipa plantation in North Borneo (PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). The incidence of bagworm in a nipa stand in the island of Bohol in Central Philippines has been observed since 1950. A major outbreak happened in 1982 but it was only officially reported in 1992 (Mitchell and Molina, 1995). 88 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Bagworm, according to Mitchell and Molina (1995), refers to a collection of Lepidopterans belonging to Psychidae family of the sub-order Frenatae. The bagworm can be easily recognized through its spindle-shaped bag measuring ½ to 1 inch long that dangles from the leaves. It feeds on the nipa leaflets and scarifies the tissues on both surfaces, then bores right through the stem. The eaten parts turn brown then shrink, giving the leaf a rugged appearance. Later, the whole leaf turns yellow and dries up leaving only the leaf bud, which may be attacked once it opens. Undoubtedly, the pest can be a cause for serious damage to a nipa plantation. The bagworms usually establish population in the central portion of the stand, which cannot be seen from the areas near roads and riverbanks. Manual rather than chemical control measures are preferable for economic and ecological reasons. These measures can be undertaken by collecting and crushing the larva inside the bag, cutting the heavily infested leaves, and removal of affected leaves from the site to avoid the spread of the pest. Biological control has been tried in the Malay Peninsula (Mitchell and Molina, 1995). The bagworm, specifically Mahasena corbetti Tams, is parasitized by a chalcid, which is a tachinid. In Thailand, the bagworm Tricholyga aberrans Strool is attacked by the tachinid Exovista quadrimaculata Baranov (Lever, 1969). Thus, the use of the parasitic tachinids as well as shalucids to control bagworms is recommended (Mitchell and Molina, 1995). Anahaw Like buri, anahaw (Livistona rotundifolia (Lam.) Mart. var. luzonensis Becc.) is propagated using seeds. Mature anahaw fruits are red-orange in color, making them attractive to bats that eat the fleshy pericarp and disperse the seeds. Fallen seeds are prone to decay and fungi attack. Thus, fruits from healthy and vigorous mother plants must be collected from the plant while attached to the fruit stalks. A combination of ladder, climbing spikes, and pole pruner or scythe can be used to gather the fruits. The fruits are placed in sacks and stored under shade for three to five days to allow the pericarp to soften. Thereafter, the fruits are soaked in water and mashed to separate the seeds from the pulpy pericarp or cover (DENR, 1997). The clean seeds can be sown the following day or stored for four to six weeks without losing their viability. The seeds must be kept in airtight containers, cans, or sealed plastic bags and placed in cold storage at a temperature of 5 to 8°C (Zuela and Reaviles, 1991). Conventional practices involve sowing the freshly de-pulped seeds in nursery beds and then mulched. After a month or so, the seeds germinate and produce 1 cm tall shoots and 1 cm long roots (DENR, 1997; Zuela and Reaviles, 1991). More recently, a pregermination treatment of seeds known as “hilar cover removal” has been found effective in inducing early and uniform germination. This is similar to the treatment done on rattan and buri seeds. The hilum or hilar cover is removed using a sterilized scalpel. The treatment enables the seeds to imbibe water and oxygen to enhance germination. 89 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 The experience of the Ecosystems Research and Development Service (ERDS) in Region V (1990) showed that hilar cover removal can shorten the germination period to only two to three days from sowing (DENR, 1997). The procedure included laying out the treated seeds on trays lined with tissue paper or sterilized jute sacks, application of 1 table spoonful of benlate per 2 L of water, and covering the tray with polyethylene sheet to conserve moisture and regulate temperature. Germinants with developed shoots and roots are potted in 4” × 6” poly-bags with pulverized top soil (DENR, 1997) or 1:1:1 mixture of top soil, sawdust, and sand as medium. Potted seedlings are reared in the nursery by providing the needed shade, water, weed removal, and inorganic or organic fertilizers to ensure normal growth and development. Three-, six- or nine-month-old seedlings are hardened in the nursery for three months to better prepare them for eventual out-planting. Anahaw prefers an area with an elevation ranging from 200 to 400 m above sea level, with humid climate and moist clay loam soils (DENR, 1997). The species can be planted along the farm boundary or within an agroforestry area, or in areas with existing forest cover. Spacing of 2 m × 2 m is recommended. The anahaw palms must be regularly freed from competing weeds during the first three years. Depending on the growth of the plant and the conditions of the soil, organic or inorganic fertilizers at suitable dosages can be applied. No serious pests and diseases of anahaw have yet been reported. Sporadically, a type of shoot borer attacks anahaw. This girdles or cuts off young shoots, which may result to stunting and in the worst case, eventual death of the plant (Zuela and Reaviles, 1991). Ambolong Suckers are commonly used in propagating ambolong (Metroxylong sagu Rottb.). Healthy suckers with a height of more than 3 ft and with exposed premature roots and open buds are selected for propagation. A bolo is used to carefully severe the suckers from the base of the main plant without damaging the roots of the suckers. These are then potted or allowed to stand vare-root in a shaded area until the roots grow (DENR, 1997; PCARRDDOST/RRDP, 1988). The following activities are considered important in the establishment and management of ambolong plantation for shingle production (DENR, 1997): Site preparation. The area selected for plantation establishment is freed from undesirable vegetation. This can be done either by complete, strip, or patch clearing. Holes for planting must have sufficient width and depth to accommodate the root balls of the suckers. Before setting the plant in the hole, 1 kg of organic fertilizer is applied. Planting. Suckers are planted in a slanting position using 6 m × 6 m spacing. Stakes are placed to support the sucker until such time that the plant has recovered and stabilized. Individual tree cages must be built around each planted sucker for protection against stray animals. 90 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Maintenance. Regular removal of unwanted and competing vegetation is necessary. Dead suckers must be immediately replaced to maintain the density of plants. The occurrence of pests and diseases must also be regularly monitored. Scale insects, leaf folders, and leaf chewers are known to infest natural stands of ambolong (DENR, 1997). Old plants that are more than 6 to 7 m high or about 10 to 15 years in age are cut to extract the starch, and the trunk used as construction materials. Dried or over-mature leaves are removed from time to time. BAMBOO Sexual Propagation Bamboo can be propagated sexually using its seeds. However, bamboo seeds are not always available due to the irregularity of flowering and fruiting of most species. Thus, for practical purposes, seeds are not relied upon in propagating bamboo. Flowering and fruiting. The flowering cycle of bamboos varies from 1 to 120 years (Banik, 1995; Blatter, 1930). Some species flower annually while others flower sporadically at frequent but irregular intervals. Gregarious flowering occurs naturally in some species (Roxas et al., 1999). Flowering of bamboo is characteristically very profuse. The whole plant sheds its leaves and the culm, from top to bottom, becomes covered with gigantic inflorescence. In species that exhibit sporadic flowering such as bolo (G. levis (Blanco) Merr.) and kawayan kiling (B. vulgaris Schrad.), the culms that bore the flowers die right after blooming. However, the other culms in the clump continue to grow and produce culms that have a slow rate of growth during the next growing season. Buho (Schizostachyum lumampao (Blanco) Merr.) and kawayan tinik (B. blumeana Schultes f.) on the other hand, flower gregariously but the clump dies within a year or two from flowering. Flowering of bamboos, particularly the gregarious type may be triggered by a lot of factors. These include nutritional imbalance, long dry season or drought or El Niño, over-cutting, fire or burning, as well as pest and disease attack (Blatter, 1930; McClure, 1996). Synchronous flowering of vegetatively propagated clumps along with the parent plant is well known (Bamboo Information Center-KFRI, 1992). Thus, it is important to anticipate the flowering of the parent clump when vegetative propagation is to be done. Premature death of newly planted bamboo, which flowered at the same time as the parents, is not unexpected. Collection of seeds. Fruits mature in three to four months after fruit setting. Preferably, the ground under the fruiting culms/clump must be kept clean to facilitate seed collection. For more efficient collection, a canvas is placed under the culms, which are then shaken to cause the seeds to drop. Rodents, birds, and other animals feed on bamboo seeds. Thus, fallen seeds should be collected immediately. 91 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Cleaning and storing seeds. After removing the dirt, seeds must be air-dried to moisture content (MC) of 8 to 10%. Seeds can be stored for three years or longer if dried to desired MC level, kept inside airtight containers and stored inside desiccators containing anhydrous calcium chloride at a desiccant to seed ratio of 1/10 (Bamboo Information Center-KFRI, 1992). Viability of the seeds can be further prolonged by keeping them in a deep freezer maintained at a temperature of –10 to 14°C. It is very important that the storage unit is provided with continuous power supply. Interruption of power supply will cause temperature fluctuation inside the storage unit resulting in frequent thawing and freezing of seed samples. This can adversely affect the storage life and viability of the seeds. Seed sowing and transplanting. Bamboo seeds can be sown directly in pots or in seed boxes. Two-month-old seedlings in the seed boxes can be transferred to individual pots containing ordinary garden soil mixed with sand and compost. If desired, slow release fertilizer or any commercial fertilizer like urea or complete fertilizer may be applied at suitable dosages. Out-planting. Six-month- to one-year-old seedlings can be out-planted preferably early into the onset of the rainy season. This gives the seedlings more time to recover from the shock of transplanting. For best results, the seedlings are hardened-off for a month or so before out-planting to ensure better survival and growth. Use of wildlings After gregarious flowering and fruiting, a dense regeneration of wildlings is observed around the original bamboo clump. In 1992, for example, widespread flowering occurred in a 2,000 ha buho stand in Abra. Farmers participating in the government’s Integrated Social Forestry Program (ISFP) collected the wildlings that emerged, which they directly planted in the field. Others reared wildlings either in pots or in transplant beds in the nursery before they were finally out-planted in the field (Roxas et al., 1999). Two- to three-month-old germinants or wildlings can be collected from the natural stands. They can be potted in 6 in × 9 in poly-bags using the same potting medium as the seedlings. Similar cultural practices may be applied for wildlings being reared in the nursery. After six months to one year, these nursery-reared wildlings are ready for out-planting. In Indonesia (Widjaja, 1980), wildlings of giant bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper (Schultes f.) Backer ex Hegre) were grown in transplant beds. These were then allowed to develop rhizomes, shoots or clumps, which were subsequently divided into two to three miniclumps. They were then re-grown in nursery beds until they were finally ready for outplanting. This was repeated several times in the nursery to produce a number of planting materials from a single wildling. 92 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Macro-Vegetative Propagation Bamboo seeds, as mentioned earlier, are generally not available when needed. Thus, the production of planting stocks on a regular basis using seeds is not practical and reliable. Several macro-vegetative propagation methods like offset, culm cuttings, branch marcottculm cuttings, and branch cuttings are recommended in lieu of propagating bamboo from seeds. These procedures are discussed in PCARRD’s Philippines Recommends Series No. 53-A (1991a) on “Bamboo Production”. Offset Method This technique is recommended for non-clump forming and loosely tufted bamboos as well as bamboos that do not produce prominent branches. A rhizome and a portion of the 1- to 2-year-old culm, referred to as offset, is separated from the parent plant during rainy season. Immediately after collection, the offsets can be directly planted in the field. They can also be potted in suitable poly-bags or transplanted in the nursery beds and reared in the nursery for three to six months before field planting. The offset method, however, has several limitations. Collection or extraction of offsets is laborious and difficult. During the process, damage may occur to the roots and rhizomes of the parent clumps. In addition, the number of offsets that can be collected from a clump is limited. Offsets are bulky, making hauling and transport rather costly (Bamboo Information Center-KFRI, 1992). Culm Cuttings As an alternative to the offset method, bamboo propagation from culm cuttings has been used and found to be a viable method. Culm cuttings consist of segments of culm bearing buds or fascicles of branches. These cuttings are produced from culms with the use of sharp knives or saws. Culm cuttings with two to four nodes are traditionally used as planting materials. After collection, the cuttings are directly planted in the field particularly when the source is very near the planting site. Sites used for planting bamboo in the rural areas include farm boundaries and areas prone to erosion such as river and stream banks. Direct planting of culm cuttings, however, is not applicable for large scale bamboo plantation development. One-Node Culm Cuttings Using two to four node culm cuttings is still a wasteful method. Thus, one-nodal, with two inter-node culm cuttings were tried and found to be feasible in propagating bamboo species with prominent branches like kawayan tinik (Palijon, 2000), giant bamboo, bolo, bayog, and kawayan kiling (Castillo, 1988) (Fig. 3.3). With the use of a sharp bolo and pruning saw, branches are collected during the rainy season. The top portion of the branch is cut, leaving a one-node branch stub with prominent basal portion or well-developed rhizomatous branch. 93 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 The use of culm cuttings in bamboo propagation is becoming a popular and acceptable practice in propagating bamboo (PCARRD, 1991a). Suggested factors for consideration in this method are as follows: a) age of the culm or material, b) portion of the culm where cuttings are to be taken, c) time of collection, and d) planting method. Fig. 3.3 Propagating bamboo using one-node culm cuttings. The appropriate culm age for propagation is from one to two years old (Banik, 1985; Palijon, 2000; PCARRD 1991a & 1998). Cuttings from young culms easily rot while those from very old ones do not root and sprout easily. The butt and middle portions are the best cutting locations. The cuttings, best gathered during the rainy season, can be potted or planted in nursery beds in a slanting position with the branch stub on the upper side of the node. A small portion of the culm internode and the branch must be exposed. Branch-Marcott Culm Cuttings Domingo Alfonso, an engineer from Pililla, Rizal developed the branch marcott-culm cutting method in the 1980s. It was included among the bamboo propagation technologies described in the PCARRD Philippines Recommends Series on Bamboo (No. 53-A, 1991a). Although generally similar to the one-node culm cutting method, the difference is that Alfonso’s method involves rooting the branches first while these are still attached to the plant before they are cut and used for propagation. The method is commonly applied in secondary culms, which are smaller than the fullygrown primary culms. It works best in culms with branches that are fully extended but whose leaves are not yet opened. Marcott bags filled with sphagnum moss, coir dust, or any similar water absorbing material are securely tied to cover the lower side of the base of the branch. When roots emerge through the rooting medium, usually after 15 days, the culm is cut. The resulting one-node culm segments with the rooted branch are prepared, potted, and nurtured in the nursery. Branch Cuttings One of the objectives of any planting stock production system is to produce materials of uniform quality at a minimal cost. As materials used for propagating bamboo, culm cuttings are relatively large and bulky, requiring big containers and more soil volume. These limitations led to studies on the use of branch cuttings in propagating bamboo. It was found that for giant bamboo, bayog, kawayan tinik, kawayan kiling, bolo, and other species that 94 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs produce prominent branches, the use of branch cuttings as propagating materials is feasible (Castillo, 1988; Palijon, 2000; PCARRD, 1991a) (Fig. 3.4). The first step in producing planting stocks from branch cuttings of bamboo involves the selection of well-developed branches, with swollen base and aerial root primordia. Then, using a sharp crosscut saw, 2- to 3node branch cuttings can be collected from 1- to 2-year-old culms. This is to be done during the rainy season. Care must be taken to ensure that the basal part of the branch and buds are not damaged during collection (Palijon, 2000). Fig. 3.4. Propagation of bamboo by branch cuttings. Enhancing rooting of culm and branch cuttings Technology for inducing cuttings to root and for nurturing the stocks in the nursery has already been developed (PCARRD, 1991a). Enhancing root formation can be done by treating the culm and branch cuttings with rooting hormone, starting in both mist and mistless propagation chambers, and in airponic propagation system (Bumarlong and Tamolang, 1980; Palijon, 2000). Treatment with rooting hormone. Cuttings can be treated with 100 ppm indole-butyric acid (IBA) or 100 ppm indole acetic acid (IAA) overnight before they are directly potted or placed in a propagation chamber (Palijon, 2000). The treatment of bamboo cuttings with 5 to 10% -naphthalene acetic acid (ANAA) for three to five minutes (Catral and Palijon, 2000) to induce root formation has also been tried. Mist propagation chamber. With sand as medium, the rooting of culm and branch cuttings can be easily stimulated using a mist spray. The mist can either be continuous or have spurts of 3 to 30 seconds at an interval of 5 to 15 minutes. Mistless propagation chamber. This utilizes a 2:1 mixture of sand and soil or just pure sand as medium. The rooting medium is placed in a chamber or box covered with polyethylene plastic sheets. The chamber with the cuttings is watered two to three times a day. Airponic plant propagation system (APPS). This can be done inside a state-of-the-art, computer-controlled greenhouse, which provides a system of accelerating the growth of plants in an oxygen-rich environment. No soil is involved. The roots are suspended in a growing chamber and intermittently pulse-misted with a nutrient solution. The system has been successful in propagating not only clones of bamboo but also forest and fruit tree species. Through this method, clones can easily produce extensive and numerically 95 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 superior shoots. This translates to a healthier and more aggressive plant growth that can help save both money and time (Maravilla, undated). Micro-Vegetative Propagation Tissue culture Tissue culture is a procedure in biotechnology that allows the development of new plants from excised plant tissues in an artificial medium under aseptic conditions. According to Zamora (1994), the twin advantages of this technology are that it requires relatively small space and just a few workers to mass-produce bamboo. Likewise, it lends itself to year-round production of planting materials as it could be performed inside a laboratory (Fig. 3.5). Fig. 3.5. Tissue culture of bamboo. Photo courtesy of A. Zamora, College, Laguna. Various approaches have been tried for bamboo tissue culture and these include the following (Zamora, 1994): a) callus establishment from seeds and excised embryos with subsequent plant regeneration; b) callus establishment from shoots, inflorescence, and internode tissues; c) node culture; and d) multiple plant formation from aseptically germinated seedlings. Of these techniques, seed and embryo culture is well developed for massive planting. Tissue culture using excised embryo has been demonstrated in the Philippines for S. lumampao, G. levis, and S. lima. Field trials were done in Bataan, Zambales, and Laguna (Zamora and Gruezo, 1999). The tissue culture protocol developed for G. levis by Zamora and Gruezo (2002) consists of the following steps: a) germinating isolated embryos from aseptic seeds in vitro, b) multiplying the seedlings in vitro through multiple shoot formation of lateral buds on node cuttings, c) use of growth regulators for multiple shoot formation and repeated microcuttings (1 to 2 node cuttings for sub-culture), d) induction of rooting in vitro of plantlets from multiple shoot formation, and e) potting of the well-rooted plantlets. Mini-clump division for tissue-cultured G. levis Zamora and Gruezo (2002) extended the multiplication of tissue-cultured materials into mini-clump division to optimize production of bamboo planting stocks of similar genetic quality. The method involves separation of 3- to 4-month-old plantlets from tissue-cultured 96 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs materials into individual stems or small clumps of 2 to 3 stems. The separations can be done at two- to three-month intervals. Combining tissue culture with mini-clump division has its advantages. First, it produces cheaper and more established plantlets. Thus, it has a lower cost of propagation than when only purely tissue culture technique is used. Another advantage is that the planting stocks are small, compact, and light for handling and transport, which again have a positive bearing on the cost. Field survival of the planted materials is unaffected by how it was generated while growth and development are comparable with other sexually and vegetatively propagated materials. Establishment and Management of Bamboo Farms or Plantations Site selection Bamboos grow in a wide range of site conditions. They can thrive in a variety of elevations, from sea level lowland areas up to 1,500 m above sea level. Most clump-forming species predominate in low and medium altitudes. They grow best in well-drained, sandy loam to clay loam soil that is high in organic matter content and with pH ranging from 5 to 6.5 (PCARRD, 1991a). In selecting the site for bamboo plantation development, a match between the requirements of the species and the site conditions or vice versa is important. Areas available for bamboo plantation development The Philippine government considers bamboo as an important species for reforestation. Thus, public lands consisting of areas not suited to agricultural production such as those found along streams and riverbanks, hillsides, and cogon lands can be used for bamboo plantation establishment. Site Preparation Depending on the conditions, the planting site is prepared either by complete clearing of vegetation, by clearing of strips (50 cm to 1 m wide), or of small spots or patches (50 cm to 1 m in diameter). Holes for planting should be wide and deep, enough to accommodate the planting materials. The hole may vary from 30 to 50 cm in width and depth depending on the size of the planting material and the kind of soil. For better results, the soil is loosened and the roots and rhizomes of the existing vegetation removed. A stake is used to mark the location of each planting hole and the transplanted material. Spacing Efficient space utilization and assurance of high productivity also depend on spacing or density and the arrangements of plants in a plantation. Spacing distances of 4  4 m to 4  5 m for clump-forming bamboo and 7 × 7 m to 10 × 10 m for large clump-forming species are recommended. Along farm boundaries, bamboo can be planted with 7 m × 7 m spacing 97 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 while closer spacing may be used for riverbanks or hillside rehabilitation (PCARRD, 1991a). Field Planting Bareroot bamboo stocks can be planted in a way that their roots are uncurled or are oriented downward inside the holes. The ball of earth must be kept intact or should not crumble when removed from the containers. The plant should be set in holes with the root collar, level with, or just slightly deeper than the ground level. Before planting, compost is added to fill the bottom portion of the hole. Topsoil is used to fill the remaining space within the hole once the stock has been planted. Complete fertilizer can be applied at a rate of 50 gm per plant. The soil around the newly planted bamboo is pressed firmly to ensure better root and soil contact and anchorage of the plant (Fig. 3.6). Fig. 3.6. Field planting of bolo (G. levis). Care and maintenance Giving adequate attention to the protection, care, and maintenance of bamboo is critical in the first two years following its establishment. Compared with other plants, however, bamboo can do well with less care and maintenance. Regular weeding or removal of competing vegetation like vines in a two-year-old bamboo or younger is recommended to ensure survival and better growth. Beyond the second year, weeding may be done when necessary. Fertilizer application. After applying compost and/or fertilizer during planting, succeeding applications in less fertile and unproductive areas are needed to further boost growth and development. The recommended rates of application per hectare are 20 to 30 kg N, 10 to 15 kg phosphate, and 10 to 15 kg K (PCARRD, 1991a). Locally available organic fertilizers such as cow dung, carabao or chicken manure, rice hull ash, and other decomposed organic materials can be used. Soil cultivation and mounding. Cultivation and mounding of soil at or around the bamboo plant is necessary and can be done along with fertilizer application. Mounding around the clumps enhances shoot production and protects the arising shoots. Protection. The bamboo plantation should be protected from fire or burning, browsing animals, rodents, shoot gatherers, and other pests and diseases. 98 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Thinning. In most cases, the growth of shoots is rapid and profuse. This leads to tight and close development of culms. Consequently, some of the culms in the clump develop into small, crooked, and otherwise defective or malformed poles. These culms must be thinned to create more space for succeeding shoot emergence and allow them to develop into healthy, superior quality culms. Thinning will likewise facilitate the harvesting of mature culms. Other Plant Sources of Fiber Forest Vines Nito Lygodium species are propagated using spores, wildlings, or suckers. These nito species are suckering or clump-forming. During the rainy season, the plant is dug from the ground and partitioned into individual planting stocks with at least two suckers each. These can be directly planted in the field or potted with humus-rich soil as medium and reared in the nursery for six months to a year before out-planting in the field. Lygodium, just like other ferns, produces a lot of spores. These spores are easily dispersed by wind and settle in any moist ground, germinate, and grow. They are actually weeds in the flower gardens. These naturally growing young plants (wildlings) can be collected, potted, and cared for in the nursery for six months to a year before they are finally planted in farms. Although not yet practiced for nito, germination from spores can potentially be used in stock production for mass planting. Fertile leaflets bearing the mature sporophores are cut and the spores collected by laying the leaflets on a half piece of tissue paper. The other half of the paper is then folded over the leaflet. This simple set-up is then allowed to stand in a dry place. In a few days, the spores resembling fine dust should break free from their capsules. The spores are then transferred into a pouch such as a small envelope. The spores can be sown after collection. The procedure described in the Reader’s Digest (1975) illustrated guide to gardening consisted of the following steps: Sowing the spores. A seed pan or a 3 ½- to 4-inch pot can be sterilized by pouring boiling water over it. Once dry, a perforated zinc disc is placed over the hole in the base to keep worms out. A ½- to ¾-inch deep layer of gravel is added to the pan, followed by compost or sphagnum moss. A piece of paper is then placed on top of the compost or moss and boiling water is then poured into the pan. Pouring should be continued until the pan is too hot to handle. As soon as the pan cools, the paper is removed and a sheet of clean glass is placed on top. When the compost is quite cold, a few spores are lifted from the envelope using the tip of a penknife. With the glass removed from the pan, the knife is tapped gently so that the spores fall evenly over the surface of the compost. The glass is replaced and the germination pan is then kept in a shaded area. All this time, the glass should cover the pan. If the compost or moss shows signs of drying out, it can be watered by placing the pan 99 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 in a bowl filled with a weak solution of permanganate of potash (i.e., a teaspoon of permanganate of potash to a gallon of water). This treatment is known to be effective in killing all organisms in the water. The prothalli. About two or three months after sowing, a green film appears on the compost or sphagnum moss. This is the prothalli, an intermediate sexual stage in the life cycle of the fern. In another three to four months, the prothalli become small, flat, heart-shaped growths. Nine months after sowing, tiny nito plantlets grow from the prothalli. When these plantlets reach a height of 1 to 1½ inch, they are transferred into a 6 × 8½ inch tray with almost the same sterilized medium used in the germination pan. A tray can accommodate about 35 plantlets. A small clump of nito is then dug out from the pan with a penknife and separated. Each division is inserted into the compost in the tray in a manner that would firmly cover the root system with the medium. The tray is allowed to stand in a container of water that reaches halfway up the side of the tray to fully moisten the compost. A propagating cover is then placed on the tray and kept in a cool, shaded place or green house. Watering of the compost is needed when it shows signs of drying. Six weeks later, the young ferns develop new fronds. Then in another two to three weeks, the glass is removed and in just a few days after, the plants are hardened off. Potting and caring for nito. The young nito is potted using a humus-rich soil. It should be watered thoroughly and the pots placed in the shade. The plants are reared for a year in the pot, hardened, and are ready for planting in the rainy season. Out-planting. Since nito is a climbing plant, areas with brush or shrubs that can serve as upholder or support is used for nito farming. Nito can be intercropped in tree coconut plantations and agroforest farms particularly if live support or durable stakes are provided. The plant must be protected from competing vines and other weeds. Soil cultivation and mounding are done to increase rhizome development and growth of stems. Other vines – Kilob and Hinggiw Kilob (Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.) Underw.) is quite abundant and even considered a weed in plantations, thus it is not normally propagated. Instead, the supply of kilob is obtained from natural stands. If there is a need to propagate the species, it can be done by using rhizome cuttings and spores. It is likely that the procedure for nito can be applied to kilob. The stand of kilob should be protected from fire during the dry season because dry organic materials that accumulate in the summer can easily burn. As noted in the previous chapter, there are two vine species that are named hinggiw, Streptocaulon baumi Decne. and Ichnocarpus ovatifolius A. DC. syn. I. volubilis (Merr.) of the family Apocynaceae. Neither one is propagated nor cultivated in farms or plantations. Currently, the source of the species is the natural growth in secondary forests. Both species can, however, be propagated using seeds and wildlings and can be intercropped in tree plantations and planted along the boundaries of agroforest farms. The 100 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs existing trees can be used as support and, therefore, the spacing between hinggiw plantings is dictated by the spacing of the trees. Plant Sources of Leaf Fibers Pandan Both karagomoi (Pandanus simplex Merr.) and sabotan (P. sabotan) can be propagated using seeds, wildlings, and suckers. The fruits of pandan are light green when young then turn orange when ripe, starting from the tip of the fruit. The seed falls to the ground and germinates when it remains uncollected. Thus, seeds are collected when they are starting to fall off. Or, the seeds that have fallen on the ground are collected and sown in pots, seed boxes, or nursery beds. More often, seeds are allowed to germinate naturally in the area and then the wildlings are collected. The wildlings are either directly planted in the field or reared in the nursery for about a year before out-planting. However, farmers do not favor the use of both seedlings and wildlings because their growth is slower than suckers (Guevarra, 1999). When using sucker-derived planting stocks, it is important that suckers be obtained from good quality parent pandan. Young suckers, 38 to 46 cm high and having five to seven leaves are collected. Leaf tops are pruned and the stock is out-planted directly in the field. Best results are obtained when planting is done at the onset of the rainy season. The suckers are planted in holes about 4 inches deep with spacing of 2 m × 2 m or 3 m × 3 m. Humusrich topsoil is recommended for use in filling up the holes after setting the plant. Pandan may also be inter-planted with coconut or among established fruit trees (DENR, 1997; Guevarra, 1999; PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). The plantation should be regularly liberated from competing vegetation. If possible, weeding must be done every three months for the first year, every six months thereafter up to the third year, and as the need arises from the fourth year onward. For the first two years, soil around the base of the plant should be cultivated every six months to promote aeration and enhance the growth and development of the root system and the whole plant. To enhance growth, organic fertilizers available in the area may be applied. Regular removal of dying, dead, deformed, or diseased leaves will help maintain the health of the plants, minimize the occurrence of fire during the dry season, and allow for easier human movement during cleaning and harvesting. Over-mature and unproductive stems and branches should be thinned out to favor the growth of young suckers (DENR, 1997). Tikog Artificial Plantation Development The demand for tikog (Fimbristylis globulosa (Retz.) Kunth) raw material by the mat weaving industry has prompted tikog-producing communities particularly in Basey, Samar 101 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 to establish a plantation. Listed below were the practices employed (Bautista and Germano, 1992; PCARRD 1994): Production of planting materials. Suckers of tikog are collected as propagules and used for planting. Young suckers with a height of 2 to 4 cm are collected from mature and healthy tikog clumps. The sucker (rhizome) division should have four to five mature stalks cut 15 to 20 cm from the base or root collar and must have two to three emerging tillers. These propagules are collected in areas nearest to the planting site for easy hauling and transport. Collection and preparation of the propagules are done on the same day or no more than a day before actual planting. The propagules are then bundled, mud-puddled, or heeled in shaded area if planting is to be done the following day. Selection of site for tikog plantation. Tikog prefers a well-drained marshy or swampy area with soil high in organic matter. However, the plant can also thrive in clay loam or sandy loam soil especially if there is adequate supply of moisture all throughout the year. The pH requirement ranges from 4.5 to 8 but tikog grows best in neutral soil. Abandoned rice paddies can be used for planting tikog. Site preparation for planting. Preparing the site for planting tikog is very similar to rice farming. The area is cleared of vegetation, plowed, harrowed twice or more to reduce weed growth and finally leveled in preparation for planting and to ensure better flow of irrigation water. Once plowing of the land is complete, it is necessary to subdivide the area into compartments similar to what is done for rice paddies. Dikes and canals are established to allow sufficient water to flow from one compartment to another and to divert and control the flow of water, respectively. All these will make management easier in so far as irrigation, drainage control, planting, harvesting, protection, and maintenance are concerned. It is important that water-logging be avoided because stagnant water warms up during the day and can stunt the growth of tikog. Planting. Out-planting can be done anytime of the year in irrigated areas or where water is available all year round. In rainfed areas, it is advisable to plant during the onset of the rainy season. A spacing of 25 cm × 25 cm maximizes utilization of land area, enhances growth, and produces more harvestable and longer stalks. Maintenance and protection. Weeding and soil cultivation are a must during the first two to three months of growth of newly planted tikog. These cultural treatments help lessen competition for nutrients, space, light, and moisture. Once the tikog plants have adequately established themselves and have profuse tillering, weeding is no longer needed. At this stage, the plant can effectively compete with weeds. However, it has been claimed (PCARRD, 1994) that it is important to retain some weeds and allow them to grow side by side with tikog because they act as support and enhance rate and height growth of the plant. Prevention and control of pests and diseases should also be given equal attention. Two major pests of tikog have been identified: the stem borer and golden snail or kuhol (Bautista 102 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs and Germano, 1992; PCARRD, 1994). The former is manifested in the yellowing of the leaves of tikog. Larvae feeding inside the stalks can be found, usually starting form the base of the clump. Once the stem borer is detected, either manual or chemical method of treatment is applied depending on the extent of infestation. Just like rice, tikog is susceptible to attack of golden snail. The snails like to eat and damage newly arising shoots or stalks. Since water is present in a tikog farm, growth in snail population is enhanced. Thus, to control snail population, it is necessary to reduce water or irrigation. If snail population growth appears uncontrolled by reducing water, chemical application is necessary. Production Practices in Natural Stands of Tikog The management of natural tikog stands did not receive a lot of attention until the tikogbased mat weaving industry in Regions VIII (Eastern Visayas) and X (Northern Mindanao) became popular. At first, there were no harvesting or cutting regimes being followed and neither were maintenance and protection from stray animals and fire being done in the stand. Consequently, the resource had been over-exploited and degraded (Doydora and Germano 1991). Tikog natural stands are typically associated with other sedges that compete with tikog for nutrients and sunlight. Ironically, these competing sedges support the stalks of tikog. Tikog that produces longer stalks are desirable for weaving. If growing singly and when spacing is wide, tikog tends to have stout and short stalks, which are not good for weaving purposes. Growth of tikog in a natural stand is sustained by providing good drainage to avoid waterlogging. This can be done by construction of dikes and trenches. Growth and yield Natural clumps of tikog vary in sizes from 7 to a maximum of 162 stalks/clumps. On the average, 148 clumps are found in a 10-m2 plot, which translates to 148,000 clumps/ha. A 50% harvesting intensity on a quarterly interval is considered the most appropriate harvesting regime for tikog natural stand. A clump can yield about 41 mature stalks having an average length of 102.8 cm. This translates to approximately 6,068,000 stalks per hectare per harvest. During the rainy season, harvesting can be done once every two months because of the fast growth and regeneration during this period. However, drying the leaves is a problem during the rainy season. It is important to harvest the stalks in a manner that can ensure continued growth and production of succeeding suckers (Doydora et al., 1990; Doydora and Germano, 1991). At four quarterly harvests in a year, a hectare of tikog natural stand can yield as much as 24,263,000 stalks (Doydora et al., ibid). A hectare of artificially planted tikog with a spacing of 25 cm × 25 cm can have 160,000 hills or clumps. From this stand, it is assumed that at the early harvest, 15 harvestable stalks can be cut from a clump or 2,400,000 stalks per hectare. At four quarterly harvests in a year, a hectare can yield 9,600,000 stalks. As the plantation matures, these harvests will 103 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 likely increase just like a natural stand particularly if managed intensively (PCARRD 1994). Thus, on the second year, the expected increase in production is 75% from the harvest of the previous year. On the third year, when the clumps have fully grown and expanded, the yield is expected to increase by 250% from the first year’s harvest (PCARRD 1994). Tiger Grass The government is promoting tiger grass (Thysanolaena latifolia (Hornem) Honda syn. T. maxima Kuntze) farming to boost the growth of the broom industry in the country. Tiger grass is available in almost all regions of the Philippines. Suckers are commonly used in propagating tiger grass. In DENR’s (1997) Sustainable Livelihood Options for the Philippines, the procedure in propagating and in establishing tiger grass farm or plantation is described as follows: Clump suckers from mature tiger grass are uprooted and carefully separated. To minimize water loss, the upper portion of the plant is cut so that only 10 cm of the vegetative part remain. About 2,500 rootstocks containing at least three emerging suckers are needed for a one-hectare block plantation of tiger grass with a spacing of 2 m × 2 m. A spacing of 4 m × 4 m is recommended if the tiger grass were to be inter-planted with other crops. Hillside slopes, logged-over, and agroforestry areas situated in medium to high elevation can be used for tiger grass farming. Total clearing is needed if the area is to be used solely for tiger grass production. Otherwise, spot clearing is sufficient if the grass will be interspersed with other agricultural crops. Holes, 30 cm deep and 30 cm wide, are dug. In sloping land, contour planting is practiced. Immediate planting of suckers is needed after collection. Hence, the site must be prepared prior to collection of planting stocks. Planting is done during the onset of the rainy season to ensure better recovery and good root and shoot development. Organic and/or inorganic fertilizers must be applied once a year, preferably before the rainy season starts, particularly on unproductive soil. Dead plants ought to be replaced before the rainy season ends to maintain the density of the stocks. Weeding once a year or as the need arises must be done to minimize competition for soil nutrients, water, and sunlight as well as to minimize hazards from fire. The area must also be protected from stray animals and other pests (DENR, 1997). Herbs, Shrubs, or Trees That Produce Stem or Bast Fibers Bamban Bamban (Donax cannaeformis (Forst.) K. Schum.) can be propagated sexually using seeds and asexually with the use of rhizomes and branch cuttings. When seeds are to be used, mature fruits that are whitish in color are first picked from the plant. The fruits are kept overnight in pandan bags, or immediately soaked in water for some time and then mashed 104 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs to separate the seeds from the pulpy pericarp. Seeds are sown in seed boxes or germination trays filled with a mixture of humus or compost and soil as medium. After a month, the germinants are potted in 4 in × 6 in poly-bags with a medium similar to that used in germinating the seeds. Three to six months or even up to one-year-old seedlings can be used for field planting during the onset of the rainy season. In most cases, only a few seeds can be collected from the bamban stand and growth of the seedlings derived from seeds is much slower than the rhizomes. Bamban can also be propagated using branch cuttings. The branches are rooted while still attached to the plant through marcotting. The base of the branch is wrapped with polyethylene sheet containing sphagnum moss. After a month, the top is severed from the plant by cutting the branch and then potted in 6” × 9” poly-bag with a mixture of humus/compost and soil as medium. Comparatively, the growth is faster than those from seedlings but the mortality is high. Rhizomes are more commonly used to propagate bamban. Rhizome cuttings are normally prepared by digging two suckers from the plant, which are then cut into foot-long stubs. During the rainy season, the cuttings are directly planted on the ground with a spacing of 1 m × 1 m or 2 m × 2 m. Bamban can be intercropped with trees in secondary forests, agroforest farms, along dikes in rice farms, farm borders, and other open marshy areas. Weeding, soil cultivation and mounding, and the application of organic fertilizers are cultural practices that can boost the growth and development of bamban in a plantation. No serious pest and diseases of bamban have been reported yet. However, some leaf folding and chewing insects that attack bamban had been observed but the damage was minimal (ADB, 1992). Salago Salago (Wikstroemia species) is very prolific. It flowers and fruits almost all throughout the year with May as the peak fruiting season. Since the seeds are always available, these are usually used in propagating salago. Maturing fruits are yellowish-red but turn red when fully ripe. These fully ripened fruits are collected, soaked in water, and macerated to separate the seeds from the pulpy pericarp. The seeds are washed and air-dried for two to three hours prior to storage (DENR, 1997). Seeds are recalcitrant and have short viability. Seeds are germinated in seed boxes with a sterilized mixture of sand and soil. From the seedbox, 20 day-old seedlings can be pricked and potted in bags with a medium composed of 1:1 top soil and river sand or ordinary garden soil and compost (DENR, 1997). Watering, adequate nourishing, and weeding are done to ensure the vigorous growth of the seedlings. Three- to four-month-old seedlings can be out-planted if the season is suitable. Areas that can be used for salago plantation may include open grasslands, thickets, or brush areas. A coconut or tree plantation may also be used if there is sufficient light illumination. An area dominated by grasses must be completely cleared of vegetation. Strip clearing is done in thickets and under a tree or coconut plantation. A spacing of 1 m × 1 m is appropriate for block salago plantation. During the first year, weeding of the plantation twice or thrice depending on the growth of weeds, and once every year thereafter up to the seventh year is necessary for an eight-year-old plantation intended for fiber production. 105 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 The salago plants are applied with complete fertilizers at a dosage that depends on the growth of the plants and the conditions of the soil. The plantation is protected from pests like aphids, locusts, and mind-bugs through chemical method. No serious diseases of salago have been reported yet. However, where coppicing is employed as regeneration method, it is important to observe sanitation. Tools used in cutting are sterilized and the cut portions of the stumps are applied with a wound-healing compound. Malaboho Malaboho (Sterculia oblongata R. Br.) can both be propagated by seeds and cuttings. However, there is no known established plantation of this species in the country. Their silvical and silvicultural management have yet to be studied. Other bast fiber producing species Anabo (Abroma augusta (L.) L.f. syn. A. fastuosa Jacq.) can be easily propagated by seeds. Not much has been reported as far as its nursery and plantation cultural requirements are concerned. In Mindanao where the plant is somehow cultivated, 2 m × 2 m spacing is used (Brown, 1921). With this stocking density, a hectare can produce more than 100 kilos of bast fiber. Just like anabo, kollokollot (Urena lobata L.) plants are not commonly propagated. The fibers are collected from a natural stand. Plantation trials in other countries like India and Bangladesh showed that a great part of the fibrous nature of the bark is lost when the plants are cultured and managed intensively (Hussein, 1992). Climbing aroids Presently, these climbing aroids are being cultivated as outdoor and indoor ornamental plants and as ground cover, but not for their root fibers. Aroids used by the handicraft industry are gathered from the wild. They are employed mainly as substitutes for other materials. As such, there appears to be no danger in losing these plants to over-exploitation. SELECTED MEDICINAL PLANTS Lagundi Lagundi (Vitex negundo L.) can be propagated both sexually and asexually. However, asexual propagation is more common because of the ease of rooting and faster growth of clones. Based on the personal experience of Palijon, carefully-selected pencil-sized branches about 20 cm long that have at least three nodes, and shoot cuttings with three to four pairs of leaves can be used as propagating materials. It is advisable to trim to half the leaves of shoot cuttings and treat the cuttings with rooting hormone before they are rooted in a mist propagation chamber. The hormone-treated cuttings can also be directly rooted in poly-bags, cans, or pots containing a mixture of ordinary garden soil, compost, or forest humus as medium. However, better rooting and survival of cuttings are observed when mist propagation is used. Nursery cultural practices like watering, weeding, fertilizer 106 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs application, shading from extreme sunshine, protection from pest and diseases, and hardening off are needed to produce high quality lagundi stocks. Backyard cultivation of lagundi requires a spacing of 1m × 1m while spacing in mediumto large-scale plantations can range from 1 m × 1.5 m to 1.5 m × 2 m. Semi-mechanized methods of planting and tending lagundi can now be used. Although lagundi can tolerate extreme conditions like drought and water-logging, the best site for production purposes must have loose and loamy soil, good drainage, high organic matter content, and a slightly acidic pH (6.0). The area must also be fully exposed to air and sunlight. Aside from these requirements, Quintana (1997) also suggested that the area for cultivation of medicinal plants like lagundi must be free from pollution and therefore away from a farm that heavily uses pesticides or road that is heavily traversed by vehicles. The soil should not contain heavy metals and must be low in microbial content. Also, water for irrigation must not be contaminated with microorganisms. Cultivators must also consider accessibility as well as peace and order for easy transport of produce. However, before farmers plant medicinal plants, a ready market for their crop must be ensured. In 1989, the Philippine Council for Health Research and Development (PCHRD) of DOST had prescribed proper silvicultural practices to ensure good yield from lagundi. These include watering by furrow method during the dry season and application of 0.5 to 2 kg green manure (fresh ipil-ipil leaves) and 10 to 40 kg complete fertilizer, the actual amount depending upon the age of the plant. It is also advised that a regular weeding or removal of competing weeds like kogon (Imperata cylindrical (L.) Beauv.) and makahiya (Mimosa pudica L.) during the first year of the plantation be done. Prevention and control of pests like Chrysomelid beetle, lace bug, leaf folder, cutworm, leafhoppers, mites and leaf miners, and diseases such as leaf spots caused by Cerospora species is also recommended. Sambong Sambong (Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC.) is best propagated using suckers that bear at least three leaves. Using a spade or bolo, separate the suckers with roots from the mother plant. Immediately after separation, trim half of each leaf on the suckers to reduce transpiration. Plant the suckers in poly-bags or in a tin can with ordinary garden soil mixed with compost or humus. After a month, out-plant the suckers in the field. Sambong prefers an open area with well-drained soil. The plant should be watered during the dry season to maintain vigorous growth (Quintana, 1997). Akapulko Akapulko (Cassia alata L. syn. Senna alata (L.) Roxb.), regularly produces viable seeds, hence is easy to sexually propagate. Mature pods, normally dark brown to black in color, are collected before they dehisce. Seeds are removed by opening the pods with bare hand or by laying the fruit on a sun-drenched canvass to enhance pod opening and release of the seeds. The seeds are submerged in water to discard the floaters, which are sterile and spoiled. The sinkers, on the other hand, are considered viable. Viable seeds are placed in a dry-and-cold storage for several months. Germination of akapulko seeds can be enhanced by soaking in cold tap water for one or two days or alternately in hot water for several minutes and in tap water overnight. Seeds are ready for sowing when they expand by as 107 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 much as 10% of their size. The seeds can be sown in a seed box with 1:1 mixture of sand and topsoil or can be directly sown individually in poly-bags. Germination can occur in one to two weeks. Seeds sown in seed boxes can be potted after 1½ to two months. Threeto six-month-old seedlings can be outplanted in the field especially when the weather conditions allow. Stem cuttings about 20 cm long and containing two to three buds can also be used as propagating material and can best be rooted in a mist propagation chamber. Sites having clay loam to sandy loam and well-drained soils are best for growing akapulko. A spacing of 2 m × 2 m is recommended. It is necessary to free the akapulko plants from weeds particularly competing vines and fast growing but undesirable plants. Organic and inorganic fertilizer application is also important to boost plant growth and development. Akapulko should also be protected from some leaf folders and skeletonizers that have been observed to infest the plant. Niog-niogan Mature branch cuttings from already fruiting well-selected plants are used in propagating niog-niogan (Quisqualis indica L.). The branch cuttings must be 20 cm long with two or more nodes (Quintana, 1997). The cuttings can be rooted directly in poly-bags with ordinary garden soil and compost, humus, or in a mist propagation chamber. It is necessary to provide niog-niogan with stakes, trellis, or fences as support. Tsaang Gubat Tsaang gubat (Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam.) is best propagated from cuttings. Branch cuttings, 20 cm long and bearing three nodes/buds, are collected and rooted. The cuttings can be directly rooted in poly-bags with ordinary garden soil mixed with compost or humus (PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). However, better rooting can be obtained in a mist propagation chamber. Tsaang gubat can be planted along yard boundaries as hedges or live fences. They can be established in farms at a spacing of 1 m between plants in a row and 2 m between rows. Treatments like weeding and watering during the dry season and organic fertilizer application are needed to sustain production of quality leaves. It is not advisable to use chemicals in preventing and controlling pests since this leaves some toxic residues on the plant (Quintana, 1997). Pruning or cutting to a height of about 60 cm from the ground helps rejuvenate older plants (PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). Bangkoro or Noni Bangkoro or noni (Morinda citrifolia L. var. bracteata (Roxb.) Hook. f.) is a very prolific plant. It flowers and produces fruits almost all throughout the year. The mature fruit, almost pale-yellow in color, can be harvested and placed inside a plastic bag or bucket overnight, then macerated to separate the seeds from the fleshy pulp. The water containing the pulp can be thrown away. The bucket is again filled with water so seeds are further washed and cleaned. The seeds can now be air-dried or immediately sown in seed boxes with 1:1 sand and soil mixture. The sown seeds are watered regularly. After a week or two, the seeds will start to germinate. When the seedlings developed a solid stem, they can be potted in individual containers with a size of 6 in × 9 in. 108 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Sites having clay and sandy loam soils are best for noni plants. Spacing ranging from 4 m × 4 m to 6 m × 8 m can be used depending on the quality of the site. No report is available as to the nutrient requirements of the plant. The plants can be protected from aphids and mealy bugs by applying a soap solution. Balanoy Balanoy (Ocimum basilicum L.) can be easily propagated both by seeds or cuttings. After collection, the mature seeds must be dried and sown in a seed box with sandy loam soil as medium. The seeds start to germinate three days or longer after sowing. After three to four weeks, the plants are transferred in individual poly-bags of desired sizes. If vegetative propagation is desired, shoots that are about 10 cm long and bearing about four to five pairs of leaves should be selected. The cuttings are collected, with the fifth pair of leaves at the bottom removed, and then rooted in individual containers with ordinary garden soil and compost as medium. Alternatively, these cuttings can be planted directly in the yard with open light condition (Quintana, 1997). Gogo Gogo (Entada rheedii Sprengel) can be propagated either sexually or asexually. However, the use of seeds is more advisable. Natural regeneration usually takes about one year or so. This is due to its hard seed coat, which prevents the seeds to absorb moisture. A new technology was developed to shorten germination period to about 10 to 15 days and with a viability rate of 98%. The technology involves the following steps (Piñol et al., 1997): 1) Collection of ripened or matured pods; 2) Removal of the seeds from the pods; 3) Pre-germination treatment done by making two small cuts on both sides of the hilum (approximately 0.7 mm) using a carpenter saw, ensuring that the cotyledon will not be injured; 4) Soaking the prepared seeds in tap water for 24 hours; 5) Scraping the hilum between the two cuts using a scalpel; 6) Treatment of the scraped portion with Captan WP to prevent fungal infection; 7) Placing the seeds in polyethylene bags (5 in × 6 in) containing pure wood sawdust; and 8) Placing the potted seeds under nursery palm shade, with morning and afternoon watering to keep the seeds moist. 109 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 PLANTS PRODUCING CHEMICALS AND EXTRACTIVE PRODUCTS Resin-Producing Plants Benguet Pine Site Requirements Benguet pine (Pinus insularis Endl. syn P. kesiya Royle ex Gordon) prefers well-drained, sandy clay, acidic to slightly acidic soils. It can tolerate poor quality soils. It grows best in areas with temperatures lower than 30ºC, with annual rainfall of 100 to 200 cm/yr and having an elevation from 700 to 1,500 m. It can adapt and grow well in areas with higher temperatures and elevations lower than its natural habitat. Seed Technology Seed collection. Because of differences in environmental conditions, the availability of mature cones varies with site or locations. In Benguet, collection of mature cones, which are brown in color, can be done from May to June and December to January. In Abra and Nueva Ecija, cone collection is done in February. Seed Processing. Seeds are normally extracted by sun drying or by long exposure of the cones to sunlight until the scales open up, which releases the seeds. Storage. Dried seeds are placed in plastic bags or bottles and stored under ordinary room condition or in cold storage. Seeds can be stored for as long as two years without appreciable loss of viability. Nursery Culture Seed sowing. Seeds can be sown directly in bags or in seed boxes or seedbeds with soil from pine stands. Seeds do not need any special treatment to enhance germination, which starts within two weeks after sowing. Potting medium. Soil collected from pine stands can be the best potting and sowing medium since it is naturally populated with mycorrhiza. Mycorrhizal inoculation. Just before they are sown or if the seedlings are at least onemonth-old, the planting materials are inoculated with mycorrhiza to ensure better survival and growth especially when the potting and sowing medium comes a different source. Potting or transplanting in bags. Five- to 10-cm-tall germinants are ready for potting. They can be initially potted in small bags and later repotted and allowed to grow to a size more desirable for out-planting. To ensure good quality seedlings, cultural practices like watering, weeding, nutrition, as well as pest and disease prevention and control should be provided to the plants. 110 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Plantation Establishment and Management Site preparation. Depending on the vegetation cover, the site or ground can be prepared through complete clearing, strip clearing, or spot clearing. Site preparation can be done in the late dry or early rainy season. Spacing. Whether for timber or resin production, the spacing normally used for pine is 2 m × 2 m or an initial density of 2,500 trees/hectare. Out-planting. Planting in the field is done during the onset of the rainy season when the soil is already saturated with moisture. Seedlings lifted from the nursery beds and to be planted bare-root must be wrapped in wet gunny or jute sack or banana leaf sheath to avoid drying. The seedlings must be planted in the field immediately. Weeding and soil cultivation. Regular removal of competing weeds is necessary during the first year up to the third year of the plantation. Nutrition. Depending on soil nutrient status and the plant’s health and vigor, a suitable type and quantity of fertilizers must be applied to sustain the normal growth of the plants. Application of 200 kg/ha of phosphorus can increase significantly the height and diameter growth of this species. Fire protection. Pine stands are very prone to fire. Thus, it is necessary to establish fire- or green-breaks that are effective in controlling the spread of fire. Plant species found suitable as green-breaks include sunflower that is quite common in Cordillera, lantana, maguey, and Japanese alder. Pest and disease prevention and control. Various pests and diseases attack the pine trees at various stages of their growth. Out-planted seedlings can be infected with brown needle blight and root rot. Spraying Bordeaux mixture (2-4 or 4-8 type) or emulsion of Maneb dithane (500 times diluted) at two-week intervals helps control and prevents the spread of needle blight. Common pests that attack the pine stands include six-spined engraver beetle (Ips calligraphus Germar.), pine tip moth (Petrova cristata Wals.), and pine shoot moth (Dioryctria rubella Hamp.). Prevention of the occurrence of these pests can be done by protecting the trees from stress or from fire. Once the health of the trees weakens, they become susceptible to attack by these pests. Chemical spraying helps control these pests. As for Mindoro pine, the cultivation and cultural management practices are similar with those applied for Benguet pine. 111 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Almaciga Site Requirements Almaciga (Agathis philippinensis Warb.) can thrive in areas with rocks and soils including podzolized sands, limestone, igneous, and sedimentary rocks. Almaciga also grows in clay loam to sandy loam and acidic (pH 4.5 to 5.0) soils. The species can be grown in the tropics and southern subtropics and from humid to seasonally dry climate. In the Philippines, they survive in wet regions having 10 ¼ months of rain and in arid regions with only 4 ½ rainy months. Propagation Almaciga is normally propagated sexually with the use of seeds. A recent study (Oporto, 1999) showed that almaciga can be propagated asexually using clones. Seed Technology Seed collection. In the Philippines, the dates and places of collection of almaciga seeds are as follows (Cadiz and Modino, 1990): Table 3.1 Place and time of collection of almaciga seeds. Places Collection Time Mindoro January Palawan (North) February to April Bataan March Davao August Palawan (South) June to September Zambales, Samar September Abra, Kalinga-Apayao, Lepanto, October to January Cagayan, Zamboanga Almaciga cones are considered mature when their color has changed from green to brown. These cones must be collected from the tree before they shatter and release the seed. Seeds are extracted by sun-drying on a canvass. The seeds are packed with a moisture holder medium such as moss, coconut fiber, or sawdust. The medium is moistened, squeezed dry, and then placed in a perforated box to allow ventilation. Pre-germination treatment. Almaciga seeds are viable only for a very short period. With the above-mentioned packaging and storing, viability may last for only 15 days. To enhance germination, the seeds must be soaked in cold water for 24 hours prior to sowing. Nursery Culture Use of seeds Sowing. Seeds should be immediately sown after collection. Seeds are sown flat or on their side 10 mm deep at close spacing in a shaded seedbed with sandy loam soil. The 112 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs seedbed is watered once or twice a day. Germination normally starts between 7 to 14 days from sowing. Potting. Seedlings about 10 cm tall are ready for potting in either 4 in × 9 in, 4½ in × 8 in, or 6 in × 9 in plastic bags (Gulmatico, 1980). Sandy loam soil is the best potting medium. Out-planting. Seedlings are ready for out-planting when they reach a height of 25 to 50 cm. Use of wildlings Wildlings in the natural stands are usually abundant. Due to the difficulty of gathering the seeds and their rather short viability, wildlings are normally gathered, reared in the nursery, and later used as planting stocks. To produce good quality wildlings, the forest floor or the natural seedbed around the selected mother trees in the stand is prepared during the fruiting season just before the seeds fall. Wildlings, 30 cm in height or those with fully developed first real pair of leaves, are selected and collected carefully with the root ball intact to ensure survival. The root ball of the lifted wildlings is wrapped with banana leaf sheath to avoid drying. Wildlings are potted immediately and placed in a lightly shaded area until they have fully recovered. They should be watered once a day and allowed to grow in the nursery for three to four months before they are out-planted in the field. Plantation Establishment and Management Areas that can be used for almaciga plantation establishment include secondary forests, tree plantations that are about to be harvested, brush lands, or even coconut plantations. Almaciga needs partial shade particularly during their early growth and development. Site preparation. Sites for plantation establishment can be prepared by patch or spot clearing of at least a meter in diameter, or by strip clearing more than a meter in width. Holes must be wide enough to accommodate the root ball of the planting stocks. Stakes must be provided in each planting spot for easy maintenance. Spacing. Recommended spacing is 4 m × 4 m and the seedlings should be intercropped with nurse trees. Out-planting. Almaciga must be out-planted during the onset of the rainy season. Care and maintenance. Out-planted stocks must be freed from competing undesirable vegetation particularly weeds and grasses. They must also be provided with appropriate nutrition. Dead plants must be replaced immediately. Protection from pests and diseases. Just like other plants, almaciga is attacked by pests and diseases. The more common pests and disease and their control measures are the following (Cadiz and Modino, 1990): 113 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 1) Seed-eating moth: Agathiphaga (Lepidoptera; Aglossata; Agathiphagoidea). The adult moth lays eggs in the female cones of Agathis. The larvae grow inside, become fully developed when the cones are mature, building a steel-hard larval cell of frass glued with the tree resin. Mature larvae make one to four holes in the testa. Infected cones develop into a distorted sphere, infecting seeds and seed scales, which result to abnormal swelling. Control Measure. Healthy, non-infected Agathis seeds are stored with desiccation followed by cold storage. Sub-zero temperature kills Agathiphaga while any developing imago is crippled by low temperature. Chilling of seeds will provide adequate control of this pest. 2) Hoop pine bark weevil (Aesiotes notabilis Pascoe) [Insecta, Coleoptera, Curculionidae]. These are endemic in the natural stand of Agathis as a wound parasite. The eggs are laid at the edge of the pruning wound. The larvae tunnel in the bark, retarding occlusion of the wound. Pupation occurs in the superficial layer of the sapwood. Heavy infestation may kill the host by girdling. Control Measure. Pruning should be limited while thinning should be done during the dry months. 3) Die-back caused by Phytophthora cinnamoi. This fungus enters through the fine roots and spreads upward. Infected roots appear darkened, wet and sour smelling. Discoloration may extend up to the stem. When most of the main roots have been killed, the tree wilts, the leaves turn yellow, and eventually the tree dies. Control Measure. The soil-inhabiting fungus can be controlled by drenching and fumigating the site. These treatments kill the fungus. 4) Butt rot, brown cuboidal rot Fomes pinicola (Fr. Cooke). The early stage of the decay is characterized by a faint, brownish discoloration, which later becomes a typical brown cuboidal rot. The roots and branches begin to shrivel and dry up from tip downward. Control Measure. Biological or chemical control measures have yet to be studied extensively. Sanitation and salvage cutting are practical control measures that can eliminate the causal pathogen/organism. Thus, infected trees that bear commercial size timber can already be cut and utilized. Canarium species Since pili (Canarium ovatum) is the most widely cultivated species among the sources of Manila elemi, its cultivation and cultural management is discussed here. Almost similar practices can be applied for the other species. 114 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Site requirements Pili can grow well in areas with well-distributed rainfall throughout the year although it can also thrive in areas with distinct dry and wet seasons. It prefers rich, porous and welldrained soils. Seed Technology The flowering of pili in the Philippines occurs from March to June (simultaneous with flushing). The flowers open in April to July. In the female trees, fruits set from May to July and then ripen in May to August of the following year. Simultaneously, while the fruits of the previous season’s flush are ripening, new fruits are setting and starting to develop (Coronel, 1996). The ripening of the fruits takes two months, at which stage the fruit skin color turns to dark purple or almost black. Pili trees from seedlings start flowering and fruiting 5 to 6 years after seed germination. The trees may live to more than 100 years. Female trees are usually smaller than the male trees of the same age due to exhaustion and the dwarfing effect of fruiting. Nursery culture Use of seeds Seed collection and extraction. Fully ripened fruits from standing trees should be collected if nuts are to be used for commercial planting or for use as rootstocks. Nuts are separated from the pulp by soaking the newly harvested fruits for 24 to 48 hours in water, until the pulp becomes soft and is readily separated from the nut by hand. Nuts must be rinsed to remove the slimy material that adheres to the shell. Floating nuts are not viable and are, therefore, discarded. Sun drying reduces viability of the nuts, so only air-drying is advised. Seed storage. Newly collected and processed nuts may be transported without moist packing. However, they should be sown immediately upon reaching the nursery. Pili seeds are recalcitrant and they lose viability quite rapidly even when kept at room temperature (Dalisay, 1961). Nuts immediately sown after harvest usually give higher germination (98%) than those sown 12 weeks after collection (only 19% germination) (Dalisay, 1961). Pre-germination treatment. Pili nuts or seeds that are sown without treatment contend with a marked delay in their germination (Coronel, 1966). The nut’s shell is thick and hard. This inhibits gas exchange and water absorption that are required for germination. Treatments to hasten germination include nicking, cracking or removing the shell. Such treatments can actually hasten germination but damage during treatment may also have the opposite effect of reducing the percentage of germination. Soaking of nuts in water for ten days is recommended (Florido et al., 1997). 115 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Seed sowing. Nuts are normally sown in seedbeds with very light porous soil such as sand, or an equal mixture of sand and garden soil (Coronel, 1966; Florido et al., 1997). Sawdust, coir dust and rice hull can also be used as germinating medium. The nuts are usually sown by laying them flat and at a depth of not more than 2 cm with a spacing of 1 to 2 cm between nuts in a row and between rows. The seeds start germinating 57 days after sowing (Operio and Coronel, 1980). Potting/transplanting. An equal mixture of sand, garden soil and compost is a good potting medium for pili. Seedlings at the cotyledonary-leaf stage or when the first pair of leaves has matured are ready for potting. Shading. Newly potted seedlings must be placed under shade for 1 week. Later, the seedlings must be gradually and fully exposed to the sun. Weeding and watering. Seedlings must be freed from weeds and should be watered regularly or as the need arises. Nutrition. Depending on the growth of the seedlings, they should be applied with desirable dosage of fertilizers, preferably every 2 months. Pest and disease prevention and control. Seedlings must be protected from pests and diseases to maintain the health and vigor of the plants. Nursery Culture Asexual propagation Pili can be propagated asexually through marcotting (aerial layering), grafting, and budding. Marcotting or aerial layering is the simplest method of propagating pili. This is quite a slow process and the number of plants that can be produced from mother plants is limited, although rooting is quite high. One of the drawbacks of this method is the high mortality of rooted marcots after they have been severed from the mother plant. Cleft or wedge grafting is a recommended method for commercial production of planting stocks. The seedling rootstocks should be established in 25 cm × 35 cm black poly-bags. They can also be established in the field. Scions must be collected from previously defoliated shoots. The chance of success is improved if cleft grafting is done during the cool and dry months of November to February. Patch budding or bud grafting is recommended for large-scale propagation (Coronel, 1994). The seedling stocks must likewise be well established in containers, or in the field. Previously defoliated budwoods are the best sources of buds. Young, healthy and vigorous pili trees must be selected as source of buds instead of the old, dormant trees. 116 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Out-planting. Seedlings produced during the nut-harvesting season of May to June are preferably planted during the onset of the rainy season in May to June of the following year. Well established/hardened seedlings perform better as planting materials than those with no adequate hardening. Spacing. If seedlings are to be used, the layout will be 12 m × 12 m spacing with two stocks to be planted at each tree position, 30 to 50 cm apart. This is because the possibility of getting male and female trees is 50%. Sex of the plants will manifest when they start flowering. Males have to be removed by thinning, leaving just a few to provide enough pollen. A ratio of one male to 20 to 25 female trees would be adequate (Coronel, 1996). If the stocks were asexually propagated, 8 m × 8 m spacing would be sufficient. A square or triangular layout of planting can be adopted. Inter-planting male pili trees is necessary to ensure better nut production. Watering in the orchard or plantation. The first dry season after planting is critical to the survival and establishment of the plant. It is, therefore, necessary to water the seedlings if there is a source of water nearby. Irrigation is particularly important for fruit-bearing trees particularly those grown in areas with distinct and long dry season. Nutrition. Based on studies of nutrient uptake of pili, an application of 3 kg ammonium sulfate, (20% N), 0.52 kg superphosphate (20% P2O5), and 1.23 kg muriate of potash (60% K2O) is recommended. Pest and diseases. No pests and diseases have yet been reported to seriously infest pili trees. However, trees growing along the Pili Drive in the UPLB Campus are observed to be prone to termite attack and to center rot. Fruit/Nut Harvesting and Yield. The productive age of the plantation starts, respectively at 4 to 5 years, 2 to 3 years and 3 to 4 years after establishment if seedlings, marcots and grafted/ budded stocks are used (Coronel, 1996). The nut-harvesting season extends over a long period, from May to October and has its peak in June and August. DYE AND TANNIN-PRODUCING PLANTS Banato Banato (Mallotus philippinensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg.) can be propagated by means of seeds and root suckers. Not much has been reported as to the cultural practices both in the nursery and in the field of this species. It is slow growing, thus, the use of root suckers from already fruiting genetically and phenotypically superior mother plants is more preferable than the use of seeds. Spacing of 3 m × 3 m or 4 m × 4 m can be used for this species if planted in a plantation. Cultural management practices like weeding, mulching, fertilizer application, pest and disease management, pruning, and thinning are important to ensure better survival, growth, development, and early flowering and fruiting of banato. 117 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Kamachile Kamachile (Pithecelobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.), another species whose bark is used as a source of tannin, can be easily propagated from seeds. However, little has been recorded of the cultural practices associated with this plant. GUM AND LATEX-PRODUCING PLANTS Anubing (Artocarpus ovatus Blanco syn. A. cumingiana Trec.) can be easily propagated from seeds. Ripe fruits, normally yellow-orange in color, can be harvested from the tree or immediately collected from the ground after fruit fall. Antipolo or gumihan (A. blancoi) can likewise be easily propagated by seeds. In general, it is not planted and is utilized more for its fruits that its gum. Binunga (Macaranga tanarius Muell.-Arg.) and kalipaya (Palaquium luzoniense (Fernandez-Villar) Vidal syn. P. ahernianum Merr.) are not normally propagated and cultivated. However, they can be easily grown from seeds. The production of gutta percha in Mindanao, particularly in Tawi-Tawi, has been mainly from the wild (Brown, 1921; Tongacan, 1971). PLANT SOURCES OF ESSENTIAL OILS Ilang-Ilang Ilang-ilang (Cananga odorata) is propagated by seeds (Florido et al., 1998; Sangalang and Ros, undated). It was reported that cuttings can be used if treated with root hormones (Florido et al., 1998). The plant flowers all year round thus, seeds can be available throughout the year. The mature fruits, black in color, are harvested and the pulpy pericarp is removed by maceration. Soaking the seeds in tap water overnight (Sangalang and Ros, undated) or in warm water for 24 hours (Florido et al., 1998) enhances germination. Treated seeds can be sown in seedbeds with a spacing of 15 cm or individually in polyethylene plastic bags filled with 1:1 mixture of sandy soil and compost. Four months after sowing in seedbeds, the young plants can be transferred in individual pots or plastic bags. They are cared for and maintained in the nursery by providing the usual nursery cultural practices like shading (50 to 25%), watering, weeding, fertilizer application, and protection from pests and diseases. The hardened stocks are planted in the field during the early rainy season with a spacing of 5 m × 6 m (Sangalang and Ros, undated). It is good practice to cover the planting hole with compost mixed with the topsoil. The plantation is weeded regularly particularly during the early stage of establishment. During dry season, watering the plants may be done. Fertilizer may be applied at desired dosage depending on the condition of the soil and the health and vigor of the plant. Dichoso (2000) recommended application of urea on the second year of plantation and combined urea and complete fertilizer every year thereafter. When the out-planted trees are already about 2 ½ to 3 m tall, pruning of the tops is done to induce the growth of the laterals. A low height should be maintained for easier flower 118 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs picking. The plant starts to bloom on the third year of the plantation. With proper management, the plantation can last from 25 to 50 years. Production, however, starts to decline after the 15th year. It is advisable to replace the plant every 12 to 15 years (Sangalang and Ros, undated). Patchouli Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin Benth.) is best propagated by vegetative means. The following procedure in propagating patchouli cuttings was reported by Lanting and coworkers (1991): (1) Cuttings are taken from healthy mother plants, preferably from the apical region and from fairly developed branches. Cuttings, ideally, must be four to five nodes in length with two to three leaves. The basal end of cuttings is cut obliquely from just about 1 cm below the node. To minimize desiccation, cuttings are prepared in the early morning or during cloudy condition. (2) Cuttings are rooted in nursery beds with a spacing of 5 cm or in polyethylene bags filled with soil that is either sterilized or treated with suitable insecticide or fungicide like carbofuran, at the rate of 26 kg/ha (active ingredient, 3%) or fensulfothion at the rate of 160 kg/ha (active ingredient, 5%), respectively. Aeration, partial shade, and regular watering are essential for early rooting. Normally, it takes about 30-35 days to fully root the cuttings in the nursery. (3) In establishing a patchouli plantation or farm, it is very important to thoroughly prepare the site. The soil should be well-disked and tilled, applied with suitable nematicides a few days before transplanting, and irrigated a day before transplanting. Patchouli can be successfully grown as an intercrop species with coconut and other suitable trees that provide adequate shade. Out-planting of patchouli stocks can be done anytime of the year, preferably early in the morning or during cloudy period, except during periods of heavy rains or in the hot summer. Out-planted seedlings droop initially but recover the following morning. Spacing of 20 cm between plants in a row and 40 cm between rows is commonly employed. Patchouli plants need adequate shade during the early stage. Proper nutrition management is necessary to ensure higher yield and better oil quality. Soil must be supplemented with the right dosage of fertilizers depending on the soil analysis and the state of health of the plants. Weeding and soil cultivation are done regularly to ensure higher survival and better growth of the plants. Vetiver Grass or Moras Vetiver grass or moras (Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty syn. Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash) is commonly propagated through clump division. The stocks are usually planted directly in the field. However, they can be raised in the nursery prior to field planting. Collection and field planting of the stocks are done during the rainy season. Two to three young and vigorous tillers per division are preferable. Cultural management practices like soil cultivation, weeding, and fertilizer application are necessary to sustain the survival, growth, and development of vetiver. Depending on the soil fertility status and vigor of the plant, application per hectare of 50 to 125 kg each of urea in three split dosages, at 45, 75, 105 days after planting, can boost plant growth. 119 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Aroma Seeds are commonly used in propagating aroma (Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.) plants. To hasten germination, the seeds are immersed alternately in high temperature water for 5 to 10 seconds and in tap water overnight. The seeds are sown in seedbeds or individually in polyethylene bags filled with compost or garden soil. Spacing in the seedbed should be 10 cm × 10 cm. In polyethylene bags, sowing 1 to 2 seeds per bag is recommended (Florido et al., 1998). Potting media must be sterilized. Shading, watering, weeding, fertilizer application, as well as prevention and control of pest and diseases are necessary care and maintenance practices to ensure production of high quality planting stocks. The seedlings must be hardened by gradual exposure to full sunlight and reduced watering two months before out-planting. It is important that the seedlings are out-planted at the onset of the rainy season to give the plants more time to recover, grow, and develop before the arrival of summer. Mulch is applied to conserve soil moisture, suppress growth of weeds, and protect the plant from withering. Regular weeding is needed. Fertilizer can be applied depending on the soil conditions in the site and the growth of the plants. PLANT SOURCES OF SEED OILS Bitaog Bitaog (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) is propagated from seeds. Seeds dried to 20% moisture content maintain their viability when placed in sealed bags under cold storage. Pre-germination treatment is done by breaking the seed coat and soaking the seeds in tap water. Treated seeds can be sown in seedbed, seed box, or in individual 4 in × 6 in polyethylene bags. Newly potted seedlings need shade for two weeks to one month or until they have shown signs of full recovery before they are transferred to the hardening beds. Nursery cultural practices like watering, weeding, and fertilizer application are necessary to boost and sustain the growth and development of the stocks. Lumbang Lumbang (Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.) is easily propagated from seeds. Germination is enhanced by nicking and fire treatment of the seeds. Treated seeds can be sown in prepared seedbeds, 1.2 m wide and 5 m long, with a mixture of loamy soil and compost as germination medium. The normal spacing in the seedbed is 5 cm between seeds within the row and 10 cm between rows while the sowing depth is equal to the average diameter of the seed. The seedbed is preferably mulched, 2 to 3 cm thick, with cogon, rice straw or hull, or other organic materials. A month-old seedling can be potted in individual polybags using a 1:1 mixture of ordinary garden soil and compost. Shading of about 50 to 25% is necessary during the early recovery period of the newly potted seedlings. Cultural practices like watering, weeding, prevention and control of pest and diseases, as well as nutrition management are needed. A month or two after potting, the seedlings can be gradually exposed to sunlight. Watering and fertilizer application are reduced to harden the seedlings before out-planting. 120 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Talisay Talisay (Terminalia catappa L.) is normally propagated from seeds. There is no special treatment required to enhance germination. Immediately after collection, however, the seeds are sown since their viability is very short. The seeds can be sown in seedbeds, seed boxes, or in individual 4 in × 6 in poly-bags filled with a mixture of ordinary garden soil and compost as medium. Newly potted seedlings need shading for two weeks to one month until they have shown signs of full recovery. Thereafter, they are transferred to the hardening beds. Nursery cultural practices like watering, weeding, and fertilizer application are necessary to boost and sustain the growth and development of the stocks. Other seed oil-producing plants Hanga or petroleum nut (Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl.), bulala or kapulasan (Nephelium mutabile Blanco), botong (Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz.), putat (Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Blume), and pangi (Pangium edule Reinw.) are the other seed oil-producing plants than can be propagated by seeds. PLANT SOURCES OF EDIBLE FRUITS AND NUTS Bignay Bignay (Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng.) can be easily propagated from seed as well as by stem cutting, marcotting, budding, and grafting. According to Verheij and Coronel (1992), marcots of 2 to 5 cm diameter normally produce roots in 95 days. Moderately mature budwoods, 3 to 4 cm long, smooth, green, petioled and lenticellate, are excellent for budding. A spacing of 6 m × 8 m for field planting is recommended. Male trees may not be needed since most female trees produce enough perfect flowers for adequate pollination. Trees derived from seeds bear fruits four to five years after planting. Asexually propagated plants start producing fruits within a couple of years. The fruiting season lasts for two months. Datiles Datiles (Muntingia calabura L.) is a volunteer species, capable of spreading spontaneously in an area. Normally, it is not cultivated but is known to grow in open spaces and eventually bear fruits. It can be easily propagated from seeds. A datiles tree starts to flower within two years from its emergence. The plant can be propagated by air layering but this is not usually done because of profuse growth by natural regeneration. Pruning can enhance proliferation of shoots needed for sustained fruit production. Apart from bats that feed on the fruits, no other serious diseases or pests have been reported for the species (Verheij and Coronel, 1992). Kaong Mature fruits of kaong (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) that have a lemon yellow color can be collected from the standing palm or from those that have fallen to the ground. They can be directly sown in a seedbed without need for any treatment. The germinating seeds 121 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 are pricked and planted in individual pots. By and large, wildlings or naturally growing seedlings are found strewn not far from the base of the palm. These can be collected, potted, and reared in the nursery. They can also be directly planted in the field during the rainy season. Kamansi Kamansi (Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg) can be easily propagated by seed. Its seeds are recalcitrant; they germinate readily and at a very high percentage rate. However, the seeds lose viability within a few weeks from collection. Therefore, freshly collected seeds need to be sown immediately. The seedless variety is traditionally propagated from root suckers. In addition, kamansi can be propagated by air layering, budding, and grafting. Stocks from suckers are prepared by cutting roots having a diameter of 2.5 cm or more into sections of 20 to 25 cm long. These are planted diagonally in a shaded nursery bed. High humidity is maintained until the cuttings form adventitious shoots and roots. This may take several months. Rooted cuttings are then potted in individual containers and are cared for under shade prior to planting in the field. Hardened planting stocks are out-planted at the onset of the rainy season. The spacing could be 6 m × 12 m or 8 m × 12 m, depending on the cultivar and growing conditions. Nurse plants that provide partial shade are necessary until the plants are well established (Verheij and Coronel, 1992). Supplementary watering or irrigation is desirable to sustain growth during the first two years of establishment. Mulching and regular fertilizer application as well as pest and disease prevention and control are needed to ensure better growth and development and fruit production. Pruning and bending of branches of young trees are necessary to improve tree shape and maintain the low height of the trees for easy harvesting of fruits. Diseases and pests Verheij and Coronel (1992) cited the occurrence of some diseases in the Pacific region, including the Pingelap disease, which was blamed for the large-scale dieback and death of kamansi trees since the 1950s. The causal organism is not known and no cure has yet been discovered. Typically the top branches die back first; after a while the lower branches wilt and the tree eventually dies. Other diseases of the breadfruit mentioned in the report were dieback (Fusarium, Pythium and Rosellinia), pink disease (Corticium and Pseudocercospora), soft rot of fruit (Phytophthora palmivora), fruit rot (Phytophthora, Phyllosticta, and Rhizopus), stem-end rot (Phomopsis, Dothiorella, and Phylospora), leaf blotch (Phyllosticta artocarpicola), leaf-spot (Pseudocercospora and Cercospora), leaf rust (Uredo artocarpi), and root rot (Phillinus noxius). The common insect pests of breadfruit are mealy bugs, scales, twig borers, and fruit flies. In spite of these fungi and insect-caused diseases, little or no crop protection is practiced for kamansi. 122 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs References: Agmata, A. 1985. Effects of physical scarification and growth regulator on seed germination of limuran (C. ornatus var. philippinensis). A paper presented during the 11th FORI Anniversary, College, Laguna. Aminuddin, B.M 1987. Effect of canopy manipulation on growth performance of Calamus manan, a Malaysian rattan. Proceedings of the International Rattan Seminar. Chiang Mai, Thailand. November 12-14, 1987. Asian Development Bank (ADB). 1992. Non-Wood Forest Products. Project Report. Forestry Master Plan Project, Bangladesh (TA No. 1355-BAN). 161 p. Bagaloyos, A.1988. Seed technology of some commercial rattan species. Annual Study Report, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna (Unpublished). Baja-Lapis. A. 1982. Gross morphological characteristics of 12 commercial Philippine rattans. M.S. Thesis. UPLB Graduate School (Unpublished). Bamboo Information Center – KFRI. 1992. Storage of bamboo seeds. KFRI Information Bulletin No. 12 (BIC Series 2J. Kerala Forest Institute, Peechi-680 653 Kerala, India 5 pp. Banik, R.L. 1985. Techniques of bamboo propagation with special reference to pre-rooted and pre-rhizomed branch cuttings and tissue culture. In: Recent Research on Bamboos. Proceedings of the International Bamboo Workshop. October 6-14, 1985. Hang Zhou, China. 393 p. Banik, R.L. 1995. Domestication and breeding of bamboo. RAS/191/1004. Working Paper No. 9. FAO, Los Baños, Philippines. Bautista, E.N. and E.M. Germano. 1992. Tikog planting density and harvesting frequency (Terminal Report). ERDS-DENR Region VIII, Tacloban City, Philippines. Blatter, E. 1930. Flowering of bamboos. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. 576 pp. Bravo, D. and N. Andin. 1990. How to establish and operate a rattan nursery and plantation. “How-to-Series” Volume 1, No. 3, Ecosystem Research and Development Bureau, College, Laguna. Brown, W. H. 1921. Minor Products of Philippine Forests. Vol. I. Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 22, DANR, Manila. pp. 192-205, 346-347, 365. Bumarlong, A. and F. Tamolang. 1980. Country report (Philippines). In: Bamboo Research in Asia. Proceedings of a workshop held in Singapore, May 28-30, 1980; pp. 69-80. 228 p. Cabahug, Jr., D.M. and C.F. Llamas. 1990. Nipa (Nypa fruticans Wurmb.) Research Information Series On Ecosystems (RISE).Ecosystem Research and Development Bureau, DENR College 4031, Laguna, Philippines, Vol. 2, No. 5, May 31, 1990 pp. 11-24. Cadiz, R.T. 1987. Growth assessment of rattan in existing natural stands and man-made plantations. Annual study report (unpublished). PCARRD-IDRC, Los Baños, Laguna. Cadiz, R and Modino, R. 1990. Almaciga (Agathis philippinensis Warb.).RISE Publication.. ERDB-DENR, Los Baños, Laguna Philippines. Vol. 2 No.4 pp 21. Castillo, M.L. 1988. Propagation of kawayan kiling (Bambusa vulgaris) by branch cuttings. Special problem for Master in Forestry (unpublished). UPLB College of Forestry, College, Laguna. 123 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Catral, C-A., A.M. Palijon. 2000. The start of something big: the TABARGA experience. Philippine Agroforestry Development News. Institute of Agroforestry, College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines, College, Laguna pp 3033. Coronel, R. E. 1994. History and current status of pili nut production in the Philippines. In Proceedings South Pacific Indigenous Nuts Workshop. Pot Vila, Vanuatu. Coronel, R.E. 1966. Let us save our dying pili industry. Philippine Farms and Gardens. 3(12):16-17, 28. Dalisay, A.R.1961. A preliminary study on the germination and storage life of pili nuts. BS Agriculture Thesis. University of the Philippines, Los Baños, College of Agriculture, Laguna, Philippines. Dela Cruz. L.U. 1987. Nutritional, light, and water requirements of some commercial rattan species. College of Forestry, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines. Project Report (Unpublished). DENR, 1990. Non-Wood Forest Plantations and Products (Rattan). Philippine Master Plan for Forestry Development. Asian Development Bank-Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines, 51 pp. DENR, 1997. Sustainable Livelihood Options for the Philippines. An Information Kit. Upland Ecosystem. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Visayas Avenue, Diliman Quezon City. 484 pp. Dichoso, W. 2000. Plant species with essential oil for perfume production. Research Information Series on Ecosystems (RISE). Vol. 12 No.1 January-April 2000. Ecosystem Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College 4031 Laguna, Philippines 24 pp. Doydora, U.B. and E.M. Germano. 1991. Management scheme for tikog (Fimbristylis globulosa (Retz) Kunth) in natural stand and established plantation in Sta. Rita, Samar. Ecosystems Research Digest. Vol. 2 No. 1, January-June 1991, pp. 7-12. Doydora, U.B.; E.N. Bautista and E.M. Germano. 1990. Production and management of tikog. ERDS-DENR Technology Transfer Series, Vol. 2 No. 1, January 1990. Fernando, E.S. and W.R. Palaypayon, 1988. Small scale rattan farming: Notes on a case study of two sites in Panay. Proceedings of the National Symposium-Workshop on Rattan, Cebu City. Florido, H.B., B. Avanzado and F.F. Cortiguerra. 1998. Some tree species Producing Essential Oil. Research Information Series on Ecosystems (RISE). Vol. 10 No. 2 MayAug. 1998. Ecosystem Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College 4031 Laguna, Philippines 18 pp. Florido, H.B., C.A. Roxas, F.F. Cortiguerra and B. A. Avanzado. 1997. Non-timber species useful for the cottage industries. Research Information Series on Ecosystems (RISE). Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, DENR, College, Laguna, Philippines, Volume 9 no. 2 May-August 1997, 11 pp. Garcia, M.U. 2003. Personal communication. Garcia, M and E. Sanchez. 1990. Tissue culture of rattan: progress and prognosis. Proceedings of the National Symposium/Workshop on Rattan. PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna 182 pp. 124 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Generalao. 1977. Effects of pre-treatment media on the germination of palasan and limuran. Sylvatrop: Philippine Forest Research Journal Vol. 2 No. 2 Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna. pp 5-8. Guevarra, D.M. 1999. Pandan (Pandanus simplex Merr.) production in Luisiana, Laguna. UPLB College of Forestry and Natural Resources. Unpublished undergraduate Thesis. 84 pp. Gulmatico, Conrado V. 1980. Responses of Almaciga (Agathis philippinensis Warb.) seedlings to different potting media and sizes of pots. MS Thesis (unpublished). UPLB-CF. 112 p. Hussein, M. 1992. Fibers from Urena species. Bangladesh Minor Forest Products. Bangladesh Forest Department. Project Report Document (Unpublished). IDRC-PCARRD, as cited in the Philippine Recommends for Rattan Production 1991 Lanting Jr., M.V.1991. Patchouli/kablin. Research Information Series on Ecosystems (RISE). Vol.3 No.9 Sept. 30, 1991.Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College 4031 Laguna, Philippines, pp. 1-10 (22 pp.). Lever, R.J.A.W. 1969. Pest of coconut palm. Maravilla, N.N. No date. Airoponic propagation system: an oxygen rich, nutrient fed nursery for asexual propagation of bamboos and plantation crops. A Leaflet Iloilo City, Iloilo, Philippines. McClure, F.A. 1996. The bamboos: A fresh perspective. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 347 p. Mitchell, J.L. and N. Molina. 1995. Nipa bagworm: information and control. Technology Transfer Series, Ecosystems Research and Development Service, DENR, Region VII, Banilad, Mandaue City. Vol. 6 No.1 Jan-Jun 1995 pp1-7. Operio, E.C. Jr. and R.E. Coronel. 1980. Further studies of germination of seeds and transplanting of seedlings of pili. Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines, Los Baños. Oporto, Dante A. 1999. Genetic conservation of Philippine Teak (Tectona philippinensis Benth & Hook) and Almaciga [Agathis dammara (Lamb.) L.C. Rich] through clonal propagation. Ph.D. Dissertation (unpublished). Forest Biological Sciences, College of Forestry and Natural Resources, UPLB. 59 p. Ordinario, F. 1975. Fertilization of rattan (lifted from the compilation of research results). A paper presented during the rattan R&D Seminar/Workshop, College, Laguna (Unpublished). Pablo, N.R. and M.A. Polinag. 1990. Buri (Corypha elata Roxb.). Research Information Series on Ecosystems (RISE), Vol. 2 No. 5 May 31, 1990. Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College 4031 Laguna, Philippines pp1-10. Palijon, A.M. 2000. Stock quality and field performance of IAA-treated nursery grown branch cuttings of spiny bamboo (Bambusa blumeana). Journal of Philippine Agricultural Scientist. University of the Philippines, Los Baños. Vol. 83 No. 3. pp. 229-235. Pateña, L., L. Mercado and R. Barba. 1984. Rapid propagation of rattan (C. manillensis) by tissue culture. Philippine Journal of Crop Science Vol. 9 No.1 pp 217-218. 125 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 PCARDD-DOST-RRDP. 1988. Profile of selected non-timber forest products. Book Series No. 67/1988. Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development, Department of Science and Technology, Los Baños, Laguna pp. 7-10. PCARRD. 1991a. The Philippines recommends for bamboo production. Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development, Los Baños, Laguna. (Philippine Recommends Series No. 53-A). 74 p. PCARRD. 1991b. Philippines recommends for rattan production. Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development, Los Baños, Laguna. (Philippines Recommends Series No. 55-A). PCARRD. 1992a. Seed technology and nursery techniques. Rattan how-to series No. 1. DOST-IDRC. pp. 10. PCARRD. 1992b. Plantation establishment, maintenance and harvesting. Rattan how-to series no. 2. DOST-IDRC. pp. 10. PCARRD.1994. The Philippines recommends for tikog production. PCARRD Philippine Recommends Series No. 78. DOST, Natural Resources Management Program. GOP Component. pp.45. PCHRD. 1989. Lagundi (Vitex negundo L.). Monograph Technical Report Series No. 6. Philippine Council for Health Research and Development, Department of Science and Technology (DOST). Bicutan, Taguig, Metro Manila. Piñol, Agustin A., Marcos J. Quimio Jr. and Lucas L. Gonzales. 1997. Mabilis na pagpapatubo ng gugo (Entada phaseoloides). How-to-Series. ERDB-DENR. College, Laguna. 7 p. Quintana, E.G.1997. Medicinal plants calendar. UPLB-DOH Medicinal Plants Garden. 14 pp. Reader’s Digest Illustrated Guide to Gardening. 1975. Reader’s Digest Association Limited. London, New York, Montreal, Sydney Capetown, .pp 370-379. Roxas, Cristina A., F.D. Virtucio and V.D. Sinohin. 1999. Flowering of bamboos: The Philippine experience. CANOPY International Volume 25 No. 6 p. 2. Sangalang, J.B. and E. C. Ros. Undated. Important spices and essential oil crops. Plantation Crop Division, Department of Horticulture, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College 4031 Laguna, Philippines pp. 64 to 71 (79 pp). Supardi, N.N. and M. Wan Rasali. 1987. The growth of a nine-year old rattan plantation. In: Proceedings of a conference held in Chiang Mai, Thailand, Nov. 12-14, 1987. Tongacan, A.L. 1973. Debarking, yield and tannin content of seven Philippine tanbark species. FORFRIDECOM Tech. Note. No. 13, 13 pp. Verheij, E.W.M. and R.E. Coronel (Eds). 1992. Edible Fruits and Nuts. Plant Resources of South East Asia No.2. PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia pp.446. Widjaja, E.A. 1980. Status of bamboo research activities in Indonesia. In: Proceedings of a workshop held in Singapore, May 28-30, 1980. International Development Research Center (IDRC) and the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO). 228 p. Zamora, A.B. 1994. Review of micropropagation research on bamboos. In Constraints to production of bamboo and rattan. International Network for Bamboo and Rattan research and the International Development Center. INBAR Technical Report No. 5245 pp. 126 Chapter 3. Cultural Management of NWFPs Zamora, A.B. and S. Gruezo. 1999. Micropropagation of bamboo through tissue culture technologies. Canopy international. ERDB-DENR, College, Laguna. Volume 25 No. 6 Nove.-Dec. 1999 pp 10-11. Zamora, A.B. and S. Gruezo. 2002. Tissue culture/Mini-clump division for Gigantochloa levis . Poster paper presented in a conference on reforestation strategies in the Philippines. April 2002. Green Tropics-FAO- College of Forestry and Natural Resources, College, Laguna. Zuela, C. and R. Reaviles1991. Anahaw (Livistona rotundifolia (Lam.) Mart. var. luzonensis Becc.). Research Information Series on Ecosystems (RISE), Ecosystem Research and Development Bureau, DENR, College, Laguna Vol. 3 No.8. August 31, 199 pp 1-8. 127 IV. PROPERTIES, HARVESTING, AND UTILIZATION OF NWFPs This chapter deals with the properties of NWFPs, as well as with the various methods, steps and procedures or techniques used in their harvesting, processing, utilization, and/or consumption. Harvesting is the intervening step between production and utilization. It is also considered an integral part of the cultural management system for any crop, although for purposes of this book, we find it more convenient to discuss harvesting along with the utilization practices. This is because the manner by which a particular NWFP is gathered or collected from the living plant is, to a large measure, governed by the intended use of the material. The importance of knowing the properties of the different NWFPs cannot be overemphasized. These properties dictate not only the end-use of NWFPs but also how they are processed. An understanding of these properties is, therefore, important to ensure proper utilization and avoid wastage. In plantations and even in natural stands, the harvesting method affects the ability of the residual plants to regenerate on their own or to produce the plant part that provides the valuable product or products. Where all the plant parts are completely harvested for use, the harvesting technique will also impact on the site preparation practices as well as the ability of the area to support new planting stocks during replanting. The quality of the harvested materials, which is likewise affected by how they are harvested, determines the nature and extent of the processing activities that will follow. Materials are damaged, discolored, or infected with decay organisms. Alternatively, they develop defects, either during their growth, harvesting or handling, which require additional steps to eliminate or hide. Some of these materials may altogether be discarded especially if the costs of making them conform to the quality requirements of the endproduct are more costly than not using them at all. Thus, harvesting methods that employ unskilled workers, antiquated machinery, and techniques that are destructive not only to the materials of interest but also to the residual vegetation, must be avoided. Processing adds value to NWFPs. As a developing country, the Philippines ought to put in place a policy that helps promote value adding at the source of the raw materials. This will help increase wealth in the rural areas or in the countryside where most of the NWFPs are extracted. Many of the NWFPs are perishable and therefore, subject to decay and other biological processes that can reduce their quality and value, especially during transport from farms or forests to the processing sites. It is important that some prophylactic treatment using suitable chemicals be performed to avoid infestation and to preserve the integrity and other natural characteristics of the raw materials. Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Plant Sources of Fibers and Structural Materials The harvesting of rattan In natural stands, rattan stems are deemed ready for harvesting on the 15th year of growth, when they have attained an average length of about 25 m or more (Ordinario, 1989). From a plantation, however, rattan poles can be harvested within 10 to 15 years after planting. Selective cutting of the canes at an interval of three to four years is recommended. Estimate of yield of the National Development Corporation-Paper Industries Corporation of the Philippines (NDC-PICOP) palasan plantation was placed at 640 pieces of 4 m poles/ha during the first harvest. Thereafter, harvesting was done every two years. The second cut was again estimated to have yielded 640 pieces of 4 m poles, just like the first harvest. It was estimated, though, that the yield doubled in the third and subsequent cuts. In a sixty-year old, small-scale palasan farm in Davao, the average yield per hectare was 625 poles. Harvesting was done every 2.5 years thereafter (DENR, 1990). Extreme care should be practiced and observed in rattan harvesting, especially the ones that have grown naturally. Rattan plants are climbers and as such, they can cling on to the stems, branches, or leaves of trees in the immediate surrounding. Generally, the poles are several meters long, with leaves covering the entire stem through the leaf sheaths. They have cirruses or flagella at the tip which hold on to the support trees. Harvesting begins by first clearing the area around the main stem, and then removing the spines or thorns on the stem by scraping with a bolo. The individual leaves are then cut as close to the stem as possible. Once the leaves are removed, the gatherer is ready for the major step of cutting the pole, which is done very close to the ground. To recover the full length of the stem, the gatherer manually pulls it down. But it is during this operation when the gatherer, if not careful enough, can inflict significant damage to the adjoining vegetation. Injury to the surrounding plants is minimized by cutting to disentangle the leaves of the rattan that hang on to the trees through their cirruses. However, this is possible only up to heights within practical reach by the unaided tree gatherers. The use of tall ladders as high as the topmost part of the rattan stems is advised although gatherers may consider them cumbersome especially if they have to walk great distances to reach the site. The leaf sheaths are then removed by pulling them off by hand or by scraping them off the pole surface with a sharp bolo. The poles may be cut to lengths of 4 to 6 m, then piled and bundled for easy transport to the loading site. Gatherers usually carry the rattan poles on their back when returning to the village with their harvests. Properties of rattan poles The following discussions on rattan properties are limited to canes that are used for commercial application, which comprise the primary material of economic interest derived from this NWFP. The other plant parts of rattan which are economically important are the 130 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs fruits, leaves, and shoots, and these can be put to a variety of uses depending upon the species. For those in the business of forestry or forest products, it is tempting to characterize rattan cane in a manner similar to wood because rattan is also a lignocellulosic structural material. Thus, one may look for visible physical features such as color, hardness, odor or taste, luster, reaction to splinter test, which are used to distinguish individual pieces of wood derived from different tree species. However, the reader may be disappointed to learn that most of these features are not useful as far as ascertaining the identity of rattan is concerned. Efforts to use the structural features similar to the grain and texture and the size of the pores in wood as a means to identify rattan are being developed. For these techniques, the patterns and sizes of the fibrovascular bundles as seen on the cross section of the rattan pole will be very helpful. Save for the diameter of the pole, and to some extent the internodal distance, the other “woody” features help little in making the identification of rattan poles, especially once the leaf sheaths are removed, an easy task. Thus, as much as possible, the rattan poles should be properly labeled immediately after harvesting, as the poles coming from different species become almost indistinguishable thereafter. The need for methods for the proper identification of rattan cannot be overemphasized as variations in the behavior of the poles during processing and in service can be explained by the differences in the properties of the individual species. As a species belonging to the palm family, the rattan pole has anatomical features similar to the more widely studied coconut trunk. Unlike the coconut trunk, however, the diameter of rattan is much smaller. It is not as rigid as the coconut trunk and the outer skin of the pole is not as hard or as thick as those of the coconut. The rattan pole has a very thin, outer covering, which is generally green. It is made up of cutin (PCARRD, 1985), which is similar to the covering found in the leaves of most plants. This is enough to make the rattan stem somewhat impervious to moisture and other extraneous materials, which is important in the living plant, but not enough to provide the pole with enough resistance to the entry of insects and microbial organisms. Underneath the skin of the rattan is the subdermal layer, which is made up of a dense collection of fibrovascular bundles, an anatomical characteristic which members of the palm family share with grasses. Each fibrovascular bundle contains both the xylem and phloem elements, which in woody plants perform the water and food conduction functions, respectively. The metaxylem or phloem is found in the central portion of the fibrovascular bundle, along with some fiber elements. The frequency of fibrovascular bundles decreases towards the inside core of the rattan stem, although they tend to increase in size towards the center of the stem. In the anatomy of rattans, the distribution and shape of the fibrovascular bundles are very important features in the proper characterization of the various species, especially those with commercial application. 131 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 The fibrovascular bundles are embedded in a matrix composed of fibers and parenchyma cells, which, taken together, comprise the bulk of the rattan pole. Fibers serve as the mechanical tissues (Abasolo et al., 2002), while the parenchyma cells serve no physical support function, but store the starch that the rattan stem produces in great abundance. The presence of starch constitutes a major problem in the utilization of the rattan poles, however. Rattan is attacked by fungi and beetles because of the starch that serves as food for these organisms. Rattan poles differ in their diameters depending upon the species. For commercial purposes, rattan have been classified into four different classes and given trade names based on diameter belonging to the particular class, as shown in Table 4.1. Table 4.1. Trade classification and characteristics of commercially-sold rattan species. Trade Name Color Diameter Size Node Distance Palasan whitish to yellowish about 200-300 mm Tumalim Sika light cream to cream bright yellow and glossy light cream to yellow normally 25 mm and above normally 15-30 mm normally 6-18 mm less than 15 mm - Panlis about 100-200 mm about 150 mm Processes involved in the manufacture of rattan products (Natividad, 1996; PCARRD, 1985). Scraping. This is done to remove smudges, sharp corners, and stains. It is performed on green or dry rattan, although green materials are easier to scrape. Tools used for scraping are sharp bolos or knives, spoke shave, metal scrapers, or cut glass. In small cottage operations, young children and women of all ages can perform this work (Fig. 4.1). Fig. 4.1 Scraping of rattan poles being done by women, young and old alike. 132 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs As a result of scraping, nodal bulges and the epidermal layer of rattan poles are removed. This results in faster drying of the poles. It also provides a smoother surface and appearance and a more uniform diameter. The ability of the pole to absorb preservatives or to undergo bleaching also improves with the removal of the outer skin. In large rattan manufacturing plants, the scraping operation can be performed in a sizing machine that removes the outer skin and nodal bulges and produces poles that have a uniform diameter throughout their length. There is a limitation in the use of the sizing machine, however, as it requires the prior straightening of the poles to be scraped. Drying. As in wood, the drying of rattan results in far better properties of the end products, than when the material is used and assembled in the green state. Among the advantages of dried rattan poles are: a) increased strength and dimensional stability; b) lower susceptibility to stain- and decay-causing organisms; c) lighter weight and lower transport costs; d) improved machining and finishing characteristics; e) better gluing and fastenerholding capacity; and f) ease of preservative application. The drying of rattan poles can be achieved outdoors or inside artificial dryers such as a kiln. The air-drying of rattan requires a long time (about two to three months) to reach moisture content of 15%, or even longer, depending on weather conditions. In remote villages, rattan poles are dried by allowing them to stand on one end and with the other end touching each other to form a teepee-like structure (See Fig. 4.2). For better results, poles can be air-dried by letting them Fig. 4.2 Air-drying of rattan poles. stand on the ground with the top portion leaning on a horizontal frame. The poles can be arranged alternately in such a way that one pole is placed on one side of the horizontal frame followed by another pole on the other side, looking like a long inverted-V formation. Kiln drying is done in an enclosed chamber where temperature, humidity, and air circulation can be controlled. The rattan poles are arranged horizontally inside the kiln, which can reduce an initial moisture content of 145% to 10% in 1 and 1/2 days. The Forest Products Research and Development Institute (FPRDI) has developed a portable rattan dryer consisting of a drum, a canvas, and bamboo poles or lumber used to support the canvas (like a teepee). The drum is filled with wood and other biomass fuels, which are then set to burn through a small hole at the bottom of the drum. Then the rattan 133 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 poles are placed around the drum to dry. The heat from the drum evaporates the moisture from the rattan canes. The canvas keeps the heat from dissipating into the surrounding. FPRDI claims that through this method, rattan canes could be dried from green moisture content to 12% within two to three days. Preservative treatment of rattan Stain control. For immediate control against staining of freshly cut rattan poles right at the harvesting site, a practical set-up can help protect poles from the attack of decay organisms. A pit is dug from the ground and then lined with plastic sheet. The pit should be long enough to accommodate the poles, and care should be taken to avoid piercing the plastic, resulting in unwanted holes that could lead to the loss of chemicals through leakage into the soil. The dipping solution can be mixed in the improvised dipping container. The freshly cut poles are dipped for a few seconds in the chemical solution of anti-stain agents. Table 4.2 lists the recommended anti-stain fungicides for dipping treatment of rattan poles. Table 4.2. Anti-stain fungicides with their compositions and concentration for rattan dipping treatment (PCARRD, 1985). Percent concentration Chemical Composition (kg/100 liters of water) Dowicide G 75% sodium pentachlorophenate 1.0 Super-Noxtane 30% sodium pentachlorophenate 5.2% sodium salts of other chlorinated phenols 1.1 Melsan 1.56% ethyl mercuric phosphate 37.5% sodium salts of pentachlorophenate 6.5% sodium salts of other chlorophenols 54.4% inerts 0.5 Lignasan 6.255 ethyl mercuric phosphate 93.75% inerts 0.25 Control against powder-post beetles. Drying and general hygiene in the factory help prevent attacks of powder-post beetles. Chemical treatment may also be done, provided safety precautions are observed. This can be accomplished by any of the following procedures: 134 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs 1) Dipping treatment. Rattan poles are dipped in 1% solution of either dieldrin or lindane, or in 5% pentachlorophenol in petroleum distillate fortified with 0.5% tributyltinoxide (TBTO). 2) Spraying or brushing treatment. Rattan poles that are bulk or closely-piled are sprayed or brushed with 1% lindane or dieldrin. A metal catchment may be needed to collect the drippings. 3) Varnishing. If no beetles have been detected in the inside portion of the poles yet, varnishing may be sufficient to provide protection. Detection of the beetles is easier said than done, however, as the eggs are difficult to see with the naked eye because of their microscopic size. 4) Pressure treatment. Colorless water-borne preservatives, such as boron compounds fortified with sodium pentachlorophenate, are used for this treatment. Pressure treatment involves the use of a treating cylinder where temperature and pressure can be controlled. The treating apparatus also has a mechanism for evacuating air from the cylinder, which results in a much deeper penetration of the preservative into the rattan canes. Bleaching. To remove stains and provide the rattan with a uniform whitish appearance, raw materials are subjected to a bleaching treatment. For round poles, this can be accomplished by soaking in aqueous solution of 3% sodium hypochlorite for two to three hours, followed by air-drying. Soaking of rattan cores and wickers in a heated solution of hydrogen peroxide, caustic soda and sodium silicate in water raised to a temperature of 40 to 60°C also produces bleached materials that can be used in making export quality furniture products. After soaking for two hours, the wickers may be removed from the bleaching solution followed by drying outdoors, which is done by hanging them along stainless wires, weather permitting. Bending and straightening. These are two conversion steps in the manufacture of rattan that produce reverse effects in the rattan cane. Straightening is performed before scraping, especially when sizing machines are used, or when the material is just about ready for assembly. A straight, cylindrical shape is desirable for certain components of rattan furniture such as the legs and framings. Straightening can be achieved by applying pressure at the curves that have been softened by flaming with a blowtorch or by steaming. Softening is necessary before straightening to avoid “spring-back” when the pressure is released. Care should be taken in softening the rattan pole by wrapping with damp cloth the portion to be bent. The blowtorch’s flame is then directed towards the cloth-wrapped portion, which is damp to avoid burning the rattan pole’s outer surface. Bending is the opposite of straightening and is usually performed on components of rattan furniture to be assembled into the final product. As in straightening, softening of the rattan cane is required. This is performed by flaming individual pieces with a blowtorch or by mass heating several canes inside a steaming chamber for a suitable period at 100°C under atmospheric pressure. The steaming period depends on the species, moisture content, diameter of the pole, and degree of curvature desired. As a rough guide, steaming period of ½ to 1 minute per millimeter of diameter produces satisfactory plasticization of stocks. However, poles have to be bent immediately before they cool down. 135 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Bending is done with the use of a pneumatic bending bench or manually operated moulding bench fitted with moulds of different types or sizes (PCARRD, 1992). To avoid springing back of bent canes, they are held firmly by tying to the mold and allowed to cool and dry in a bent position. This requires the use of bending forms that restrain movement of the poles. Exposing steam-heated poles to hot air dryers helps facilitate pole drying. The minimum time required for a single bend to set is 4 hours, although a much longer time may be needed for multiple bends or more complex shapes. Production of splits and cores. Rattan canes are split to produce materials used in the production of novelty products involving intricate designs, especially those that require woven parts. Split rattan can also be used as tying material. Large diameter canes can be split to smaller or more uniform derivatives. In general, rattan splitting is done manually by skilled workers who are equipped with specially designed hand tools. Increasingly, however, machines are becoming available to produce more uniform products at a much faster speed. A modification of the splitting process is coring, which results in round cores, usually from the central part of the cane, and in splits from the outer surface. High-speed coring machines make the task faster while producing better quality and more uniform products. Product design. A furniture making factory must have a trained designer or draftsman to make the sketches of any product, be it a piece of furniture, a basket, or a novelty item, to capture the specifications and other wishes of customers. The drawing is scaled to size, and then actual models are made to ensure that structural flaws in the design are avoided. The cost of the product is usually estimated after a model has been constructed and finished. Actual manufacture. When an order for a product is made, the component parts are usually prepared separately, sanded, then assembled with the use of metal fasteners such as nails, screws, staples, or with adhesives, strips of rattan (PCARRD, 1992) or with twines made from plastic. Considerable skill among weavers is required for products with woven parts, and weaving is usually done directly on the product. The finished product is then subjected to sanding (usually by hand with the use of sandpaper) before finishing materials are applied. In some factories, surfaces of woven and solid parts are flamed with a blowtorch to remove protruding fibers, before they are finally smoothened with fine sandpaper. In some cases, a furniture product is fitted with fabric or rubber foam, but this can be subcontracted if the factory has no facility for upholstery work. Finishing is the final step in furniture manufacture, which involves the application of lacquer varnish, oil or water-based stains, or enamel on the cane parts to impart the desired product appearance. 136 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs Some machines employed in the processing of rattan (Nomura Japan Corporation, undated). 1) Rattan splitting and round core making machine. This machine splits rattan into several pieces, and at the same time makes round core with the desired diameter by changing cutters. 2) Rattan rod shaving machine. This machine shaves the surface of round rattan efficiently and at high speed and produces rattan canes with more or less uniform diameter. For best results, a pole has to be straightened before it is fed into the machine. 3) Rattan rod polishing machine. This machine polishes rattan rods on contact, to any desired surface quality. The mesh size (from rough to fine) of an endless sand paper mounted on the machine can be changed as desired. Other Palms Buri (Corypha utan Lamk. syn. C. elata Roxb.) Extraction and processing of buntal fiber As mentioned in Chapter 2, the fiber extracted from the petiole of buri is more popularly known in commercial trade as buntal. The process of extracting buntal fiber begins with the proper selection of the petiole from the growing tree. There is some skill required for the selection of the petiole, and a rearing or culturing process is also needed to ensure that the buri tree would yield only good quality buntal fiber. According to Brown and Merrill (1920), petioles from young and immature palms, especially those with considerable sap flow are used for buntal fiber extraction. Perhaps, it also has to do with the height of the tree when the petioles are still convenient to gather. The selected petiole is then cut close to the stem to recover as much fiber as possible. The leaf is then removed by cutting with a sharp bolo. The black teeth on the margins of the petiole, which has an almost triangular cross-section, are removed by shaving them off with a sharp bolo. The petiole is then made to stand in an inverted position (with the leaf end facing down) at an angle against a support such as a small tree or post. It is held in place by tying to the support, with the basal portion of the petiole at waist level, while the opposite end is secured firmly on the ground. The skin of the basal portion is then removed by paring them off with a sharp bolo to expose the ends of the fibers. The person doing the extraction will then straddle himself against the petiole and grips a few fibers with his fingers. With one smooth, continuous stroke, the extractor pulls the fibers with his hands, removing several fiber strands from the petiole at a time (Fig. 4.3: a-f). This is repeated many times until the extractor feels satisfied that all the fibers from the petiole have been removed. It may be necessary to remove the skin midway down the petiole and start pulling fibers again from that point. This may add to the recovery of fibers, but the fibers removed are shorter and could fall under a lower grade. When all the fibers have been extracted, a “cleaning” operation of the fibers follows. This is done by making the fibers pass between 137 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 the inner faces of a wooden stick that is split in half, which through rubbing action would remove unwanted fibrous materials on the surface of the buntal fibers. (a) (f) (c) (b) (e) (d) Fig. 4.3 (a-f). Sequential process in extracting buntal fibers from the petiole of buri. The fibers are segregated according to size, bundled, and sold by weight to traders who supply the buntal fibers needed by hat weavers. To improve the color, buntal fibers are soaked for at least a few hours in aqueous solution containing vinegar (Fig. 4.4), and then are hanged to dry under the shade. Fig. 4.4 Soaking of buntal fibers in aqueous solution containing vinegar to improve fiber whiteness. The DENR requires buntal fiber gatherers to seek permission from the Community and Environment Office (CENRO) nearest the area. Many licensed buntal fiber extractors operate in Sariaya, Quezon. The buntal hat makers in Lucban, Quezon normally process the buntal fiber strips that they obtain from Sariaya. 138 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs The creativeness of the women in the province of Quezon is evident as they skillfully weave buntal and raffia fiber into hats and bags (Fig. 4.5). The province is famous for these products. Innovations in design contribute to making buntal and raffia products more attractive and competitive, both in the local and foreign markets. Countries like Australia, Japan, United Kingdom, United States of America, Spain, and Germany are the major importers of products made from buri fibers. Fig. 4.5 Weaving buntal hats. Aside from buntal hats, pansit habhab, and the Pahiyas Festival for which the municipality of Lukban is famous for, the town’s locally produced sausages called “longganiza” are also popular. A municipal ordinance requires that the sausages be tied at the ends with the use of buntal fibers presumably rejected by the hat weavers. The use of plastic straws for tying the local sausage is prohibited because of the health risks associated with the use of synthetic products. Raffia extraction and processing True raffia refers to the fiber obtained from the leaves of Raphia raffia, which is native to Madagascar. It is a short palm whose leaves are used for matting and tying. Because the properties of the fibers obtained from the leaves of buri are similar to the Madagascar plant, the term raffia has also been used to boost the commercial value of the Philippine fiber products. Raffia fiber from buri is obtained from young, unopened buri leaf. The process of extracting the fibers starts with splitting the leaf sheath to produce about four thin membranes per sheath. The membranes can be further split into narrower strips (DENR, 1997a). There are two methods for processing the raffia fiber, the cold method and the boiling method (DENRa, 1997). The procedures are basically the same, except that the boiling method entails a shorter period to obtain the desired whiteness and other qualities essential for raffia fibers. The cold method requires at least three soaking periods with no less than 10-minute interval between each soak. Overnight soaking may even be necessary. In the boiling method, the strips are boiled for 3 to 5 minutes in an aqueous solution of water and vinegar (1:0.5 v/v) or in soapsuds. The fibers are dried by hanging or spreading them out on clotheslines or fences (DENR, 1997a) (Fig. 4.6 a-b). The dried fibers are split using an improvised tool (Fig. 4.7), and then rolled (Fig. 4.8) for storage, which also makes it easier to handle by weavers who use the fibers to make bags, fans, and other novelty items (Fig. 4.9). As in buntal fibers, extractors must secure a license from the DENR to sell their products. 139 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Fig. 4.6 (a-b): (a) Drying raffia fibers by hanging on clothesline. (b) Photograph shows difference in raffia fibers produced using two methods, by boiling to give the bleached fiber effect and without boiling, resulting in darker fibers. In the province of Bohol, raffia fiber is popularly loom-woven into plain roll known in the locality as “saguran.” Initially, saguran was sold in the local market as plain crude roll, which was then made into mats or placemats, bags, wall covers, decors, and rugs. Due to increasing demand for raffia products, the loom-weaving industry has eventually become one of the leading export commodities in the province of Bohol and elsewhere (DENRa, 1997). Weaving Raffia Fibers A step-by-step illustrated guide for weaving buri fibers into hats and mats is provided by the DENR Information Kit on “Sustainable Livelihood Options for the Philippines” published in 1997. While the steps appear to be straightforward, it will take a lot of practice before one could acquire the skills to produce highly polished hats and mats from buri. Only simple tools and accessories such as a clipper and a molder are needed in hat weaving. Additional materials such as ribbons and glue are needed for making hats, zipper, and cloth linings for crafting bag products (DENR, 1997a). Fig. 4.7 (left). Splitting raffia from buri. Fig. 4.8 (top). Storing raffia from buri by winding into rolls. 140 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs Fig. 4.9 (left). Weaving raffia for bag making. Loom weaving is more sophisticated than hand weaving and requires additional steps to prepare the fiber. More tools, accessories, and working space are needed to make the endproduct, which is in the form of buri “cloth”. The procedure is also described and illustrated in the DENR Information Kit (1997a). The kit can be obtained upon request from the DENR. Nipa (Nypa fruticans Wurmb.) Production and Processing of Nipa Leaves into Shingles One of the most important uses of nipa palm is the production of shingles from its leaves. Shingles are the most common thatching materials used in rural areas in the Philippines. About 3 to 4 leaves every year can be harvested from a fully grown nipa, which is roughly equivalent to 14,000 to 16,000 leaves from a nipa stand (Cabahug and Llamas, 1990). The following are the steps involved in the harvesting and processing of nipa leaves into shingles (Cabahug and Llamas, 1990; DENR, 1997b; Melana, 1980).      Using a sharp bolo, first remove the dried and drooping leaves and then cut into suitable lengths, deposit at the base of the palm, and let decompose. To decongest the base, the leaves nearest the ground are the first to go so as to provide wider space for the full development and vigorous growth of the succeeding leaves. A sharp bolo is also used to collect the nipa leaves. Initial harvest from a plantation is done by collecting from nipa palms with no less than seven to eight leaves. Of interest in making shingles are the leaflets, which are carefully separated from the petioles. The leaflets should remain intact, without a break from the basal midrib. A frond can yield about 30 to 50 leaflets. While still fresh, the leaflets are immediately used because withered leaves tend to break when folded. Thereafter, the leaflets are folded to one third of their length (from the base side) over an inch width piece of bamboo. Each leaflet is placed in a manner that would make it just overlap with another, progressing from one end of the bamboo stick to the other. The leaflets are sewn with rattan splints or plastic straw to hold them tightly on the bamboo stick. The nipa shingles are then bundled into lots of 25 pieces. When piled, the bundled shingles are arranged such that the bamboo sticks in one bundle will be 141 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines  2009 opposite those below and above it. Once bundled, they are ready for transport by trucks to lumber stores or individual buyers. When used as roof, nipa shingles last four years if installed in an almost horizontal position, although their usefulness can span seven to eight years if installed at some angle or with a slight inclination. To protect the roofing material against strong winds and heavy rainfall, especially during tropical storms, roofs made of nipa shingles may be overlaid with chicken wire, split bamboo, or plastic mats. Nipa Sap Production Four years after its planting, nipa reaches the reproductive stage. Sap can then be extracted from developing flower buds. In a hectare of nipa stand with 2,000 to 2,500 palms, about 750 individuals can be selected to produce flower or fruiting stalks for sustainable sap production (Brown and Fisher, 1920; PCARRD-DOST-RRDP, 1988). Nipa sap extraction in Infanta, Alabat Island, and Lopez, all in the province of Quezon, had been documented and the procedure is summarized below (Melana, 1980; Quimbo, 1985): Before the season for sap gathering starts, the stalks are pretreated to encourage sap flow. This traditional treatment involves regular shaking, patting, or bending of the stalks from the time of flowering to the time of fruiting until the fruit bunch is removed from the stalk. Rearing involves a quick and feeble kick on the upper portion of the stalk so that it will bend down. The treatment and bending of the stalk is believed to improve sap flow due to the loosening of the silica and crystal-like deposits in the tracheary cells of the peduncle. Without such treatment, the sap flows only in small trickles or not at all. The "rearing practice" is done preliminary to the sap extraction activity and involves following a strict schedule that gradually increases in frequency as follows: Once a week during the first month, twice in a week on the second month, once every two days on the third month, and daily for 10 days on the fourth month. After the rearing period, the stalk is cut at its top. A two-node length bamboo container called "tukil" is attached to the end and made to stand vertically to collect the sap. The space between the nodes of the bamboo culm serves as the sap depository. A hole big enough to accommodate the cut end of the stalk is made on the upper end of the “tukil”. The palm being tapped is visited everyday to remove a thin membrane-like layer that would form on the exposed portion of the cut stalk. This maintains the wound’s “fresh” condition necessary for a continuous sap flow. In collecting the sap, the “tukil” is first detached from the stalk, and then its contents transferred to a bigger plastic container. The "tukil" is reattached to the stalk and the sap collector moves to the next hill. When the container is full, the collected sap is again transferred to bigger clay vats called "tapayan" which are then transported to the distillation plant. Sap flow from carefully selected flower stalks can last for about three months. A single nipa palm yields as much as 431 liters of sap in one harvesting season (Melana, 1980). Nipa sap is processed into wine, vinegar, and sugar. 142 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs Anahaw (Livistona rotundifolia (Lam.) Mart. var. luzonensis Becc.) Harvesting and processing of Anahaw leaves To help farmers realize maximum economic benefits from their anahaw plantation while ensuring its long-term sustainability, the DENR’s “Sustainable Livelihood Options for the Philippines” (1997a), prescribed harvesting and processing procedure for anahaw leaves: The harvesting of leaves intended for flower arrangement and fan making is allowed in a plantation about two to three years in age. Young leaves, about 30 cm to 1 m long, are preferred for fan making. One fresh leaf can be made into a single fan or it can be partitioned into small equal strips and then each woven into a fan of the desired shape. A fan handle made of buri palm is attached. The anahaw fan may be given a bleaching treatment if there is discoloration. The woven fan is sun-dried for eight hours to make it less prone to molds. Samples of anahaw fans being sold to tourists are shown in Fig. 4.10 below. At about four to five years of age, an anahaw tree can produce the same number of leaves bearing identical size as the parent palm. At this age, the leaves are already suited for roofing purposes. Anahaw produces an average of two new leaves every month. Thus, a maximum of two leaves can be harvested from each individual palm every month to maintain leaf quality and yield. It is also important that 9 to 11 leaves are left and retained in the palm. This allows the plant to maintain its normal physiological processes particularly photosynthesis that supplies the required energy for sustained leaf production. Fig. 4.10 Anahaw fans for sale. Mature anahaw leaves (Fig. 4.11) used for roofing purposes require assembly using bamboo splits and rattan ties. For sturdier anahaw thatch, an 8-inch vertical spacing between the split bamboo culm is recommended. The overlapping of anahaw leaves is varied from 7.5 to 12.5 cm or as desired. The rattan ties are used to secure the anahaw leaves on the bamboo splits. Fifty pieces of anahaw leaves should comprise one square meter of roofing. About 10 and 20 pieces of anahaw leaves are needed for every linear meter of gutter and roof ridge/hip line, respectively (DENRa, 1997). 143 Fig. 4.11 Anahaw leaves for sale as roofing material. Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Utilization of the trunk The trunk, marketed as palma brava, is commonly used as posts, poles in construction, and piles in fish pens. Characteristically, the anahaw trunk is hard, strong, and very durable, making it a favored material in rural house construction. The trunk is split into strips for flooring and sidings of houses. The strip is also commonly used as tool handle. The anahaw palm is also in great demand for landscaping purposes because of its attractive leaves (Maligalig and Abrenilla, 1985). Ambolong (Metroxylon sagu Rottb.) Fronds with mature leaflets are ready for harvesting three to five years after plantation establishment. At least four to five young fronds per plant should be left in the plant. Harvesting can be done every three to five months. The individual leaflets are separated from the main stalks and are bundled properly. The leaves of ambolong can be used as roofing or walls of houses, especially for the lowcost “bahay kubo” or for similar non-durable house construction. Thatches or shingles made of ambolong leaves can last for about 15 to 20 years. The procedure for making shingles from ambolong leaflets is the same as that of nipa, with the leaflets folded back to protrude by as much as 12 to 15 inches from a bamboo stick about 2 m long. A knot is tied after sewing the last leaflet at the end of the bamboo split. The shingle is sun-dried for one to two days before bundling. One bundle contains 10 shingles. The adjacent shingles are piled alternately (the side with the stick over the opposite side of the shingle below it) for an even drying. Sun-dried shingles are stored in a shaded area. The main stem of this species has rich deposits of starch, which has high food value. Traditionally, the starch commonly called “sago” has been used as substitute staple food in areas where this plant abounds. The starch serves also as substitute for flour. Some countries rich in sago, like Indonesia, export them. The trunk pith can also be roasted and eaten, although it has a somewhat bitter taste. The palm sap extracted from its flower bud can be made into vinegar, wine, or sugar. The traditional, manual method of extraction and processing of sago starch persists until today. The method, as described by PCARRD-DOST/RRDP (1988), involves the following steps: The stem is first felled, and then crushed mechanically. The pith is washed in troughs while the starch is carried in suspension in water, which is then allowed to settle. Washing and settling is repeated several times to maximize starch production. The starch is then dried, stored, and/or used. The pith sometimes is cut into strips and dried. The dried strips are pulverized in mortars and washed afterwards to recover more of the starch. 144 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs A group of Zamboanga peninsula inhabitants employs a somewhat modified method in extracting sago starch (Macaraeg, 1984). After felling the stem, it is bucked into three or four sections, which are then split into halves. After that, the split stems are laid on their flat side to expose the pith. Using a heavy wooden mallet, a worker pounds the spongy pulp inch by inch. The fleshy pith is crushed into a pulp to squeeze the starch out. The crushed pulp is washed and pressed repeatedly on an elevated platform with a floor that serves as sieve. The flooring is made of either sticks or split palm fronds laid parallel to each other. A mat made of woven rattan, nylon, or fabric is laid over the flooring. Portions of the crushed pith are placed little by little on the platform. This is generously watered and treaded on so that the starch is washed down into a container underneath. To produce high quality starch, clean water should be used and proper sanitation must be observed at all times. Bamboo The harvesting of bamboo Bamboo, as compared to forest trees, grows fast. A bamboo plantation is ready for harvest within a much shorter period than a tree plantation. If a market for small bamboo culms is available, harvesting can begin on the fourth year after plantation establishment. Normally, the culms that develop during the third year of growth reach a size similar to that of the mother culm. These culms fully mature after another three years. Thus, on the sixth to eighth year of plantation, harvesting using culm selection can be done. In this method, only mature, over-mature, and defective culms are harvested during the dry season. Harvesting of unmanaged Kawayan tinik culms is made more difficult by the presence of spines, which usually grow heavily at the base of the clump. Ideally, these are first removed before the mature poles become accessible to the cutter who should cut the culm as close to the ground as possible. In reality, many gatherers cut above 2-3 meters from the ground to avoid the tedious work of clearing the dense growth at the base. This practice leaves the thicker, more durable and therefore, more valuable portion of the pole behind, which are collected much later. Care has to be exercised in cutting so as not to damage the pole. Enough culms (about 20) are left standing after cutting to ensure regeneration of the clump and for protection of new growth, especially against strong winds and typhoons. The establishment of a bamboo plantation in an area is a one-time activity. With proper management, harvesting or production can continue year after year unless the bamboo plantation would reach the gregarious flowering stage, when most of the bamboo belonging to a single species would bear flowers all at the same time. After the flowering, all the existing culms die. One way of sustaining shoot production and development of culms is by leaving at least two to three full grown culms for every arising shoot within a clump. Likewise, culms should be cut close to the ground, as much as possible, to maximize utilization of quality portions of the culm (Brown & Fischer, 1920; Thammicha, 1989). 145 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Harvesting of bamboo shoots should take place during the beginning and middle of the growing season. This has to be done properly so as not to interfere with the culm yield. If one cuts for culms, the culm may be cut at ground level for leptomorph bamboos. Leptomorphs produce culms appearing on the ground at a certain distance; thus, newly grown culms take the single culm formation. In case of pachymorph (clump-forming) types, cutting normally takes place at 20 to 30 cm above ground. For thorny pachymorphs, cutting takes place at 2 to 3 m above ground because of the intricately woven thorny branches all over the bottom part of the clump. Cut small bamboo may be bundled, while individual larger culms are brought to the roadside before being transported to factory sites. Many countries require bamboo gatherers to obtain permits or licenses to harvest bamboo. Ancestral tribes and people living in forests are permitted by the government to harvest all the bamboo that they need (Sharma, 1980; Thammicha, 1989). Culm cutting during the growing or rainy season should be avoided since the cutting actually damages young shoots and will retard the growth and development of the residual culms. It is also inconvenient to cut bamboo culms during the rainy season due to weather conditions and poor accessibility. Culms harvested at this time have been found to be more susceptible to attack of molds, staining fungi, and powder-post beetles. This has been attributed to the high starch and sugar content of the culms during the rainy season. Thus, dry season harvesting is preferable since the starch content during this time is low and the harvested culms are less susceptible to attack of powder post beetle. For farmers in Abra and in Leyte, suitable cutting seasons for bamboo is in December and February each year. The “culm selection method” is used for managing bamboo forests in India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. The dead, dying and oldest culms are thinned out, care being taken so that one or two mature culms are retained adjacent to the new culms to give stability. In Indonesia, the management practice has been to restrict the removal of the most mature culms from the clumps only when the need arises. But bamboos for use in paper mills can be felled. In Japan, fellings are selective and carried out during autumn. The cutting cycle varies from three to five years for Phyllostachys reticulata and five to 10 years for P. edulis. A study on buho (Schizostachyum lumampao) natural stands in the Philippines recommends culm cutting age of three years and above, and a felling cycle of two years. With kawayan tinik (Bambusa blumeana), maximum sustained yield is obtained by harvesting culms four years old and above, and employing a felling cycle of two years (Sharma 1980; Virtucio et al., 1992). In India, the average yield per hectare from natural forests of bamboo varies from 2.5 to 4.0 tons per hectare. From artificially propagated forests, one can expect about 6 to 7.5 tonnes per hectare if managed properly. In Japan, bamboo forests normally contain 60007000 culms per hectare, and each year about 1000 culms are harvested (Sharma, 1980). 146 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs Properties of bamboo. Some of the general properties of bamboo that make it suitable and desirable for a lot of uses are the following: 1) It is a highly versatile material; 2) It can be easily and profitably grown on all types of soil, with virtually little effort and care, none or very little fertilizer, with almost no pests and diseases; 3) It has a short initial harvest cycle (3 to 5 years after planting) and a long productive life span; 4) Demand for bamboo products in the international market is increasing; 5) Bamboo is excellent for soil conservation because of its root structure; 6) Bamboo can be easily worked with using simple tools; and 7) Bamboo is strong for its weight (Brown & Fischer, 1920; Paculdo, 1992). The typical, commonly used species of bamboo in the Philippines consist of a culm wall surrounding a hollow central portion. This description pertains to the internode portion, while the nodal portions contain the solid cross wall called the diaphragm that provides interconnection in the transverse direction. The culm consists of an outer wall made up of epidermal cells, and just beneath the surface is a layer of sclerenchyma cells. Towards the inside of the culm wall is a central portion consisting of fibrovascular bundles embedded amongst parenchymatous tissue. The shape, size, frequency, and arrangement of vascular bundles can be helpful tools in the differentiation of several bamboo species. Like rattan, bamboo culms are difficult to identify once removed from the growing plant. The outer covering of bamboo, which is generally green in color, contains elongated cells and shorter cork and silica cells that make the bamboo impervious to water. These cells are made up of cellulose that is associated with cutin and pectin. Underneath the epidermis is a layer called hypodermis, made up of thick-walled sclerenchyma cells. Deeper towards the inside of the culm wall are the parenchyma cells that form the ground tissue surrounding the vascular bundles. The cells within this portion consist of 50% parenchyma, 40% fibers and 10% vessels and sieve tubes, comprising the conducting cells. Towards the top of the culm, fibers in both the nodes and internodes tend to be shorter, and those on the nodes are shorter than those in the internodes. With regard to the physical and mechanical properties of bamboo, studies made by the Forest Products Research and Development Institute (FPRDI) showed that the strength of bamboo generally increases to the top, which could be explained by the increase in its specific gravity as one moves from the butt to the tip of the culm. The diameter and thickness of the culm wall generally decrease from the base to the top, resulting in an increase in its relative density moving further up the culm. The moisture content at the uppermost sections is observed to be generally lower than that at the bottom. In terms of shrinkage from green condition to 12% MC and then to zero MC, experiments with S. lumampao and G. aspera showed higher values in samples taken from the butt portion than the middle and top portions of the culm. Protection of bamboo from decay and insect attack. As a plant-derived, lignocelullosic material, bamboo is like wood and rattan for being predisposed to decay and to other forms of deterioration mediated by microbial organisms. Bamboo is subject to fungal staining or molds, decay brought about by fungi, and powder-post beetle attacks. Obviously, they constitute the disadvantages of bamboo as a material, which could be overcome by 147 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 protecting bamboo against the agencies of decay through the so-called traditional and nontraditional methods. The traditional methods employed for the protection of bamboo are also called non-chemical methods and include the following (Liese, 1980): a) Soaking. In this method, the freshly cut (green) culms are put into stagnant or running water or mud for several weeks. Stones or heavy objects are put on the bamboos to keep them submerged. During the soaking period, the starch content of the parenchyma cells is reduced. Espiloy (1996) suggested submerging freshly-cut bamboo culms in running fresh or brackish water for 80 days to leach out the starch, but a study by Padillo (1996) indicated that a shorter period of time (about three days) was sufficient to significantly reduce starch content. Bamboo treated by soaking should be thoroughly dried before it is used, otherwise the moisture acquired during soaking would make the bamboo even more attractive to fungi. b) Curing. Culms that are cut at the bottom are left for some time with some branches and leaves on the clump. Because the assimilation of the leaves still goes on, the starch content in the culm is reduced and as a result, the resistance against infestation by the borers is increased. c) Smoking. The culms are stored above fireplaces inside houses for some time so that the smoke blackens the culm. This is thought to produce toxic agents that lead to some resistance in the culms. Heating also destroys the starch in the parenchyma cells. d) Whitewashing. This is a traditional treatment used primarily for its ornamental effect more than for its preservative value. Bamboo culms are painted with slaked lime [Ca(OH)2], which could delay water absorption and provide higher resistance against fungi. Chemical methods used for preserving bamboo are as follows (Liese, 1980): a) b) c) d) e) f) Fumigation with methyl bromide or some other chemical is applied in Japan for insect control. Prophylactic treatment by brushing and spraying. Butt treatment in which the bottom part of a freshly cut bamboo culm with branches and leaves is placed in a barrel containing a preservative. The transpiration of the leaves draws with it the solution into the vessels of the culm. Open tank treatment where properly sized culms or bamboo slats are soaked in a solution of a water-soluble preservative for several days. Split culms can be treated more easily than the round ones because the inner skin is a little more permeable than the outer wall (Fig. 4.10). Hot dipping or hot and cold method where the culms are first dipped in a solution of hot preservative then transferred to a container filled with cold preservative or allowed to cool in the original preservative. Boucherie method where the preservative is forced by gravity from a container placed higher than the stem or with the use of pneumatic pumps through pipes into the stem base. 148 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs Fig. 4.10. Bamboo slats being prepared for treatment by soaking in preservative solution. Utilization of Bamboo Table 4.3 lists some of the categories and examples of products that can be made from bamboo. The contents of the table are by no means exhaustive. The reader is invited to add to this list based on his own personal experience and field observations. Table 4.3 Categories and samples of products derived from bamboo culms. Furniture - dining sets - sala sets - beds - TV/VCR/ stereo stands - lamp shades - cabinets - chairs - plant holders - cribs Handicrafts - trays - brooches and other jewelry items - pen holders - wall decors - boxes, decorative baskets - vases - fans Baskets Fishing - baskets (for marketing) - baskets (for storage and transport of fruits and vegetables) - baskets (for drying noodles) - hampers - baskets for special occasions (weddings, religious feasts) - bird/animal cages - rafts - floats and traps - fish pens - boat outriggers and masts - fish shelters - stakes - fishing rods - spears Housing, construction & agricultural implements - posts - walls - beams and rafters - flooring - fences - trellises - woven mat (sawali) - thatching and roofing - water pipes - cordage - bridges - ladders and scaffolding - flagpoles Miscellaneous Uses - musical instruments - torches - pulp and paper - laminated panels - food - walking sticks - bows and arrows - mats - fuel - fodder - tool handles - toys - plyboo The Processing of Bamboo to its Various End-Uses Just like wood, pulp from bamboo can be obtained by “cooking” the bamboo in the form of chips in a solution of pulping chemicals such as “cold soda”, neutral sodium sulfate, and 149 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 sulfate cooking liquor. From the point of view of pulp strength, pulp yield, and acceptable level of silica content, Gigantochloa levis, G. aspera and Bambusa blumeana are suitable raw materials for kraft pulps. When blended with hardwood sulfate pulps, they were found suitable for wrapping papers. Bleaching is required to produce bond, airmail bond, onionskin, offset book, kraft wrapping, and bag papers from B. blumeana. For engineered and/or laminated bamboo, the culms are cracked, spread out, and flattened into sheets with suitable binding and filling materials; then the sheets are treated, combined, lapped, arranged, glued, pressed to the desired form, and then cut and trimmed to the desired size and shape and finally given finishing touches. In basket making, the traditional splitting of bamboo has been replaced with simple hand tools. Mechanical slicers have also become available. Fine basket weaving requires some training particularly in raw material preparation, especially in splitting of the material, application of coloring or dyes, and in weaving intricate designs. In furniture manufacture, the choice species are those with thick walls, preferably from mature culms. After cutting the desired length, bamboo skin is removed by scraping the bamboo surface with a sharp knife. These are then dried by letting them stand on end (Fig. 4.11) or by simply letting them lie down on the soil. Treatment with preservative prevents the attack of the powder-post beetles. Fig. 4.11. Air-drying bamboo by letting the poles stand on end. Fig. 4.12 Applying finishing touches on a newly-assembled bamboo sofa. 150 The preparation of the furniture joints is the most crucial step in the manufacture of furniture. Finishing is also a critical aspect, but the type of finish and techniques for application have been established for bamboo furniture (Tamolang et al., 1980; Tesoro, 1995). A bamboo furniture receiving finishing touches after assembly along the roadside going to Lucena City in Quezon province, one of the acknowledged local hubs of bamboo furniture and nipa hut production, is shown in Fig. 4.12. Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs Machines available for processing bamboo While traditional practices dominate the bamboo industry, more and more machines are being developed to do the job of human beings. The machines have the advantage of faster turnover, greater uniformity, and increased ability to conform to standard size requirements. The disadvantage of mechanizing bamboo utilization is that it displaces many workers, it requires the presence of electricity or power source in the rural areas, and requires maintenance and operating skills that will have to be developed. The machines designed for bamboo processing are (Nomura Japan Corporation, undated): a) Cross-cutting machine. This is used for cutting the bamboo across its length by pulling the circular saw downward at a predetermined location on the pole. Preliminary cuts are made to square the ends or remove defects from the base. The length depends on the intended final length of the end-product. The cut is smooth because a special kind of saw blade is used. It is recommended for cutting a fixed length of round bamboo such as in the case of skewers and chopsticks. Fig. 4.13 Bamboo cross-cutting machine. b) Automatic bamboo splitting machine. This machine splits round bamboo into 4 or more pieces, depending on the number of blades on the metal ring mounted on the machine’s far end. Splitting is done at a faster speed than manually, making the machine suitable for the mass production of different kinds of bamboo articles (Fig. 4.14). c) Bamboo slicing machine. This Fig. 4.14. Bamboo splitter. machine can be used for the mass production of sliced materials having uniform thickness. The machine can be adjusted to produce the desired thickness, which results from the removal of the culm’s outer skin and the soft inner culm wall. The sliced materials can be used for bamboo wares and product requiring uniform thickness, such as for laminated walls and floors, and for skewer or chopstick making. 151 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 d) Bamboo round skewer-making machine. This can be used for making round bamboo sticks for skewer, toothpick, etc. having the desired diameter by simply changing the blade. An end-shaving machine can be used side by side with this machine to sharpen one end of the round stick from the skewer-making machine. FOREST VINES Nito (Lygodium spp.) Mature stems of nito ranging from 1 to 3 m in length can be harvested for handicraft making (Florido et al., 1997). Two- to three-year old plantations can already produce stems of commercial size. Selection cutting of the mature stems is recommended. Utmost care must be observed during harvesting so as not to damage the entire clump. Harvesting in an area or block of farm, forest, or plantation can be done once every two years for sustained production. The harvested stem is then split into the desired size using an improvised splitter. These are woven into various products. The finished products are then seasoned properly. Kilob (Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.) Underw.) Harvested stems of kilob are immediately split and woven into desired products. The harvesting regime for nito can also be applied for kilob. Unlike nito, a small area of pure kilob stand can already produce a lot of stems. Hinggiw (Streptocaulon baumi Decne) and (Ichnocarpus volubilis Merr. syn. I. frutescens (L.) W.T. Aiton) According to the DENR (1997a), an area that is planted to hinggiw can be harvested by first subdividing it into blocks following natural boundaries like creeks, rivers, and ridges. One block will be harvested for the first year, followed by the second block during the second, and so on. This gives the plants enough time to regenerate before the farmers or gatherers return to the area for the next harvest. The mature vines, more or less 10 m long, are cut 1 m from the base using a sharp bolo. The leaves are first removed and the usable portion of the vine is cut. Shorter or younger vines are left uncut for future harvests. After cutting, new buds will sprout from the stump and develop into woody vines. The harvested vines are looped and bundled at a volume convenient for handling or manual carrying. These are transported using a sled drawn by a carabao or by any other available means. If harvested hinggiw stems will not be immediately processed, the raw materials are stored in a shaded area for three to five days. This allows the stems to shrink a little bit which helps in maintaining their firmness and toughness. The vines are further cut to desired lengths and classified according to size or diameter. Before weaving, especially during summer, the raw materials are soaked in water overnight to make them smooth. The design, size, and shape of the baskets to which hinggiw vines 152 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs are woven depend on the purchase order of the customers. Several steps are needed to form the basket as described by the DENR (1997a). The weaving process begins with the base, followed by the framework, and then the handle. Accessories such as flowers and ribbons may be added as ornaments to the final product. Four stem pieces arranged horizontally are used to form the base. An additional four pieces are interlaced with the first to serve as the main framework of the product. Another piece is woven horizontally, encircling the framework until the desired diameter at the base is reached. At this stage, the framework is bent inward. Two additional stems are woven into the framework, moving in an upward position to the required height. The excess portion of the frames is continuously woven along the basket’s mouth to make it firm. Meanwhile, two stems measuring 60 cm long are taken and entwined together. The resulting product is used to form the handle by intertwining both ends across the basket’s mouth. The product may be decorated with handmade flowers or ribbons to improve its appeal to customers. As for hagnaya, current major sources of stems from this vine are the natural stands. Mature stems are gathered, dried and bundled. These are then traded in raw form in Manila and in markets within fishing communities. The stems are also used for weaving. Plant Sources of Leaf Fibers Pandan (Pandanus spp.) The first crop of pandan leaves is ready for harvest from a plantation where suckers are used as planting materials. Leaves reach a length of about 3 to 5 m as the plantation becomes older. The preferred quality is that of middle-aged leaves having uniformly light green color along the entire length. These are carefully selected and harvested, usually at intervals of six to eight weeks. The average yield per plant is about three to five leaves per harvesting (Guevarra, 1999; PCARRD-DOSTRRDP, 1988). For easier handling and hauling and to prevent injury, the spines at the margin and midrib of the leaves are immediately removed with a specially designed knife. This is part of the tasks of the harvesters who later carry the leaves on their backs (Fig. 4.15) en route to the roadside or to households that make pandan handcrafted products. 153 Fig. 4.15 Manually transporting pandan leaves from the farm to the village for processing into woven products. Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 The harvested leaves are bundled and transported manually or on a horse, cart or any available vehicle to a destination that has a good shade. The leaves are stripped into desired sizes using an improvised metal stripper called “agpang” and then sun-dried. The length of the drying period depends on the weather. During hot sunny days, drying is complete within three to four hours. Strips to be used for hat-making require two hours of drying. During the rainy season, the split leaves are air-dried by hanging them in a shaded area for two to three days or even a week. Over-dried strips are brittle and unsuitable for weaving. Pre-pressing improves the quality of the leaves and prevents wastage. The flattening of the leaves is done using a heavy roller made of round timber having a diameter of 55 to 60 cm, one end of which rests on a concrete or large timber that serves as the platform upon which the leaves to be pressed are laid. Large, heavy rocks can be used to add to the weight by tying them tightly around the log. Sometimes the timber is cemented. This roller, which local folks call “ilohan” (Fig. 4.16), has a handle on both sides which rolls the log back and forth while the split leaves are pressed under the weight of the timber (Arevalo, 1976; Guevarra, 1999). The flattened and dried strips are woven into desired products. Women and children do the weaving. For hats, a “hulmahan” or mold is used. It is a rounded block of wood around which the top of a new hat is shaped. Depending on the weaver’s skill, either 15 bags, or 7 hats, or 1 mat can be produced per day. This can be accomplished for as long as no other chore is attended to (Guevarra, 1999). Fig. 4.16. Ilohan for flattening pandan leaves prior to weaving. Tikog (Fimbristylis spp.) A plantation of tikog is ready for the first harvest four to five months after establishment. Succeeding harvests may be done every three months thereafter. Harvesting of the stalks should be done during sunny days so that the stalks can be sun-dried immediately. Selection harvesting, meaning only mature stalks (the entire length of the stalk is still green but the tip or the base of the inflorescence is about to turn yellow) are harvested, is advised to ensure sustained supply of tikog. Harvesting is simple as it involves pulling out the mature stalks with bare hands. During harvesting, over-matured, deteriorated, defective, and damaged stalks should also be removed from the clump to enhance the production of quality stalks (Cacanindin 1990; Doydora and Germano, 1991). Tikog stalks are the main raw material used for mat weaving. However, a lot of other products can be made out of these materials. Local artisans in Regions VIII (Eastern Visayas) and X (Northern Mindanao) are engaged in cottage or home industries using tikog as raw material. The quality of the finished products, as in any other, determines the market 154 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs acceptability of their produce. The quality of harvested tikog, in turn, is not only dependent on how well the plantation is managed but also on how efficiently the materials were harvested and treated prior to processing. Post-harvest technologies include drying, sorting/grading, bundling and storing while processing involves dyeing, flattening, weaving, and embroidery (PCARRD 1994). Drying and storing Sun drying is the common practice for lowering stalk moisture levels in most tikog producing communities. This is done immediately after harvesting to prevent molds from impairing the quality and appearance of the stalks. The stalks are sun-dried by spreading them in available open spaces within the plantation or on a cemented Fig. 4.17. Air-drying tikog stalks. pavement, until they become pliant but not brittle (Fig. 4.17). Drying is normally done for three to five days depending on the weather. The tikog stalks being dried should be regularly turned until all portions are uniformly dried. Well-dried tikog stalks are whitish in color. In hot weather, well-dried stalks are kept in a cool dry place with intermittent sun exposure to avoid deterioration. During the rainy season, dried tikog stalks can be stored by wrapping them with blanket or a piece of cloth to avoid the re-entry of moisture. The quality of tikog stalks is also determined by their length and size. Stalks are sorted into various grades: primary, secondary, and tertiary corresponding to those having lengths of 2 m, above 1 m but below 2 m, and below 1 m, respectively. Before they are bundled, these grades are further sorted out according to diameter sizes: large, 3 mm and above; medium, 2 to 3 mm; and, small, 2 mm and below. Graded stalks are bundled by just tying the base, middle, and top portion tightly. These bundled stalks, segregated according to their respective grades, are ready for processing or direct sale to the market. Each bundle is suitable for a given set or type and size of woven products. For instance, secondary stalks are normally used to weave double-sized mats while the tertiary stalks are intended for single-sized mats. Dyeing and Weaving Dyeing is the process of coloring the tikog stalks and a dye called “grana” is used. When applied, the dye must penetrate through the material for durability and color-fastness. Tikog stalks must have been previously dried before the dye is applied, in accordance with the desired colors and design, which the weavers consider as potentially appealing to the consumers. 155 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 In dyeing tikog fibers, a wide-mouthed cooking vat is first filled to about three-fourths-full with water (about 4 to 5 liters) then brought to a boil. Grana dye and the coloring powder of the desired proportion is poured into the boiling water. The mixture is stirred and then left to boil for a few more seconds. Afterwards, bundled tikog stalks are submerged in the dye mixture and the cooking vat is covered for 5 to 10 minutes until all of the stalks are dyed. The dyed stalks are taken out of the vat with a large stick and then air-dried for two to three hours. Before weaving, the stalks are flattened using an instrument called “lag-ot.” This improvised instrument is sharpened on the sides and is made of either sliced wood or split bamboo, 5 to 12 in. long. The stalks are pressed several times against the instrument until the desired flatness is achieved. Well-flattened stalks are more convenient to weave into the desired products. Inside households, hand or manual weaving is the most common method employed. A wooden handloom can also be used. Early morning or late afternoon weaving is normally practiced specially during dry weather conditions. Weaving can also be done at daytime, whenever the temperature is cool, such as when the sky is overcast or during the rainy season. Tikog stalks become brittle when the temperature is hot and humidity is low. Such conditions render the stalks prone to breakage and splitting, making weaving more difficult and wasteful. Embroidery work on woven tikog products makes them more attractive and saleable to customers. Mats using colored stalks may also incorporate intricate designs that are integrated into the finished product. Tiger Grass (T. maxima Kuntze syn. T. latifolia (Hornem) Honda) The panicles of tiger grass are the plant parts of economic interest. The panicles develop from October to December each year and are ready for harvest in December to March. Highest yield is normally obtained on the sixth year of plantation. Tiger grass plants can produce panicles for a maximum period of 10 years. The panicles, including the stalk, are cut with a sharp scythe or bolo. They are gathered by hand and sun-dried for two to three days with regular turning for faster and more uniform drying. The dried panicles are slightly shaken or threshed against a stone or wood to get rid of the seeds. About 105 panicles are then bundled together into a single assembly for use in making one broom. To make a broom, the following materials are needed aside from the tiger grass panicles: bamboo or wooden stick, tie wire, and plastic string or split rattan. The procedure, as described by DENR (1997a), involves sorting of panicles to length, shaking of spikelets, tying to add body to the broom, bundling, and attaching in a fan-like form to a bamboo stick, then decorating the handle with plastic which can also be labeled to indicate the origin of the product. 156 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs Plant Sources of Stem and Bast Fibers Bamban (Donax cannaeformis (Forst.) K. Schum.) After three years of growth, a clump of bamban is expected to develop an average of 12 stems. At this stage, some of the youngest stems in the clump should have grown to a size similar to the more mature ones. Selection harvesting is recommended if a regular yearly production is desired. The cutting regime involves harvesting the “previous growth while the current growth is left to sustain the production of the succeeding shoots.” In good sites and well-managed plantations, bamban can produce commercial-sized main stem and dichotomous branches. This helps maximize production and increases profit for every hectare of bamban (ADB, 1992). The main stem has an average basal diameter of 2.5 cm with an average utilizable length of 1.33 m. The secondary stems (dichotomous branches) are less than 2.5 cm in diameter with an average length of 1 m. The utilizable secondary stems normally comprise 40% of the total stems that can be obtained from a plantation. Harvesting bamban is done manually with the use of a sharp bolo. Harvested bamban stems are bundled and hauled to the gatherer’s backyard. The stems are split into desired sizes using improvised tools. The split stems are sun-dried for about five days after which they are woven into the various handcrafted products (Borboran et al., 1983; PCARRD-DOSTRRDP, 1988) as mentioned in Chapter 2. Salago (Wikstroemia spp.) A plantation of salago can produce harvestable stems two years after its establishment. The stems are cut 3 to 4 cm above the ground with a slanting or diagonal cut using a sharp bolo or scythe. Stems and branches with a diameter of more than 1 cm are cut into 45 cm long sections. These are tied into bundles of 10 pieces each. Stems that are smaller than 1 cm in cross section are culled, dried, and used as firewood during fiber extraction. Salago bast is extracted either by hand or by the steaming method (DENR, 1997a; FIDA, 1996). In hand removal, half of the bark covering the stem is first peeled from the butt end. The same is done for the remaining bark. Using a blunt instrument, the scales attached to the fiber are scraped off until the fiber is clean. In the steaming method, a drum, with more than a 10-cm high platform of bamboo slats at the inside-bottom, is filled with water 10 cm in depth. The bundled stalks, 45 cm long, are arranged in this drum in an upright position. Then the upper portion of the drum is covered with banana leaves, with a plain G.I. sheet and a piece of wood or rock on top as weight. The drum is put over fire, and then the water is boiled to produce steam. Steaming is done for about two hours, making sure that the stems do not come in contact with the boiling water to avoid discoloring the fibers. When the scales on the salago stalks and branches become soft and easy to remove, steaming is discontinued. The outer scales are removed by firmly gripping the stalks using jute, abaca, or plastic sacks. The fibers are removed by scraping using a dull bolo or plastic net bag. After extraction, the fibers are sun-dried for one day and thereafter, bundled, and stored in draft-free room. 157 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Malaboho (Sterculia oblongata R. Br.) Malaboho is valued as a NWFP because of its bast fibers, which can be obtained from its bark and used for handicraft making. PCARRD-DOST-RRDP (1988) characterized the malaboho bast fiber-containing bark tissue as having an average thickness of 1.20 cm with around 20 distinct fiber layers. The fiber is 3.09 mm in length and the bast layer is 6.07 mm thick (0.001 in). It has a folding endurance of 97.20 average double fold tensile strength of 18.28 lb/6.5mm and elongation or stretch of 0.17 inch. The fiber tensile strength of malaboho was measured in an old study (King as cited by Brown, 1920) to be 398 kg per square centimeter. Most of the strips of bast are salmon-buff, some are tawny, and others are light salmon orange (Brown, 1920) or simply yellowish-white in color. Inherently, the bast fibers are silky and lustrous interlaced filaments that are pliable and strong and thus, a very useful material for various purposes. Still another advantage of malaboho bast fibers is that they can be easily dyed or bleached. As described in PCARRD-DOST-RRDP’s (1988) Profile of Selected Non-Timber Forest Products, the following harvesting and processing methods are involved: Harvesting of malaboho bast fibers is principally done in natural stands. The bark is carefully extracted from standing malaboho trees having diameters of at least 15 centimeters. Only about 1/5 to 1/4 of the circumference of the bark is stripped at any one time so that the health and proper functioning of the plant will not be impaired. The tree is left untouched for a number of years to allow callusing or the re-growth of a layer of bast fibers. After the bast layer has fully formed over the previously stripped area, only then can the other parts be stripped of bark for another extraction. The entire process is repeated in the second and subsequent harvests. The stripped barks are cut into desired lengths and widths. These are properly bundled and brought to a location suitable for retting. Retting is the process of separating the bast fibers from the other bark tissues. The bark is soaked in water that, through bacterial action, loosens the bast from the other tissues (The New Lexicon Webster’s Dictionary, 1991). The bark strips are soaked for several days in a retting tank, drum, basin, or in a pond or river with slow moving water until microbial action separates the fibers from the other tissues. The average retting period for malaboho is 26 days. Afterwards, the fibers are washed and cleaned of gummy substances and other elements. Water used in retting and washing should be at a temperature not lower than 80ºF, clean, and free of minerals particularly iron to avoid discoloring the fibers. Retting progress should be closely monitored. Under-retting normally makes extraction of fibers and separation of gummy substances that adhere to the fibers difficult. On the other hand, over-retting produces weak fibers. The fibers produced in both cases are inferior in quality and have poor market acceptability. Washed and cleaned bast fibers are air-dried under the shade either by hanging on bamboo/wooden frames or are laid on clean surfaces. It is not advisable to quickly dry the fibers fully exposed to the sun, under hot and intensely lighted condition because this causes discoloration and makes the fiber brittle. After drying, the bast fibers are sorted out according to texture and luster or gloss. This results in the classification of fibers as fine 158 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs and moderately fine, and into dull, lustrous, moderately lustrous, and highly lustrous fiber categories. Plant Sources of Root Fibers Climbing Aroids As with the other stems used as raw materials for furniture, handicrafts, baskets and other forest-based products, those obtained from climbing aroids undergo very similar processes that include cutting to desired lengths, cleaning of the surface, seasoning, and proper storage before they are used. Depending on the size and intended use, they are split, dried, and stored under suitable conditions to prevent the re-entry of moisture that may lead to molds and ugly discoloration. MEDICINAL PLANTS Harvesting and Utilization of Lagundi (Vitex negundo L.) for Volatile Oil Production An intensively managed lagundi plantation can be ready for harvest within seven to eight months after establishment. Harvesting of the leaves is repeated every three to five months thereafter. According to PCHRD-DOST (1989), leaves from flower-bearing plants of lagundi significantly yield more volatile oil than the non-flower bearing variety. Further, PCHRD-DOST also found that the volatile oil content of leaves from three-month-old plants do not differ from six-month-old plants. In harvesting lagundi, stems are cut from a height of 0.5 to 0.75 m from the ground, and the leaves are collected. Only mature, healthy leaves are gathered, while diseased and senescent ones are discarded. Air-drying for five days is required during continuous sunny weather but two to three weeks or longer is needed during the rainy season. The desired moisture content level is at 10%. The air-dried leaves placed in either polyethylene bags or in tin cans are stored in a cool, dry place under normal room temperature and away from direct sunlight. These can be maintained for about 1.2 to 3 months without appreciable loss of the volatile oil content, especially if the dried leaves are protected from cigarette beetle and molds. Different parts of lagundi are reported to cure various types of illnesses. More often, the leaves are used in combination with other plants like sambong (Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC.), damong maria (Artemisia vulgaris L.), gogo (Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merr.), kolokogo (Ocimum sanctum L.), tanglad (Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf), linga (Sesamum indicum L.), lantana (Lantana camara L.), suob-kabayo (Hyptis suaveolens (L). Poir.), and ikmo (Piper betle L.). Aside from the leaves, the other plant parts of lagundi such as the roots, fruits seeds, bark, and stem had also been used in combination with those of other plants (PCHRD, 1989). 159 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 The curative ability of lagundi could be explained in terms of its active constituents, which include chrysophenol D, luteolin and isoorientin, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (chemical structures are shown below). OH OH O OH OH O HO CH3 O chrysophanol OH OH OH luteolin OH COOH OH O OH HO O O HO p-hydroxybenzoic acid isoorientin OH OH O In the first 100 kg production run for Pascual Laboratories in Manila, it was reported that 400 kg of fresh lagundi leaves were needed to produce 100 kg of saleable powder. The leaves are milled to either a tea grade powder or to a fine 60-mesh talcum grade powder. A hammer mill type of machine was needed to grind the dried leaves into powder form. Sambong (Blumea balsamifera (L) DC.) Three to five months after establishment, sambong plants produce mature leaves for harvesting and utilization. The leaves are air-dried and stored just like other herbal plants. The chopped leaves are boiled with two glasses of water until half of the volume of water has evaporated. The remaining water in the boiler is strained. This decoction is divided into three parts, each to be taken by the patient at three different times during the day. The recommended dosages are as follows: for adults, 4 kg dried or 6 kg of fresh leaves while for children between 7 to12 years old, two dried or fresh leaves (Quintana, 1997). Akapulko (Cassia alata L. syn. Senna alata (L.) Roxb.) The effectiveness of the juice of akapulko leaves against fungal infections can be explained by the presence of natural products that have been proven to be inhibitory against Gram positive bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis, the Gram negative bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepacia, the yeast-like fungi Candida albicans and C. glabrata, and three dermatophytic fungi Microsporum canis, Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. rubrum (Mohtar and Shaari, 2000). Among the natural products present in the leaf extracts are kaempferol, luteolin, emodin and aloe-emodin, chrysophanic acid, rhein, 4,5-dihydroxy-2-hydroxyanthrone, -sitosterol, lectins (sugar binding proteins), dalbergin, and alatinone (WHO, 1999). The chemical structures of some of these compounds are shown below. 160 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs OH OH O OH O HO OH OH OH OH O O O kaempferol emodin OH O H3CO O OH dalbergin O Aloe emodin OH -sitosterol HO Ointment from akapulko used for the treatment of skin diseases can be made using common household utensils and readily available ingredients as follows. Fresh akapulko leaves are collected, and then soaked in water for three to five minutes. Leaves are chopped into smaller pieces then fried in vegetable oil until crisp at a ratio of 1 cup freshly cut leaves to 1 cup of oil. The oil used for frying is strained and grated candle wax is added. To melt all the wax, the blend is heated over low heat, with mixing. While still hot and melted, the mixture is poured into ointment jars till it cools and hardens. Niog-niogan (Quisqualis indica L.) Niog-niogan blooms and produces fruits once a year. Only ripe fruits that are normally golden in appearance are harvested for medicinal purposes. These fruits are air-dried and stored in a sealed can or glass jar. Mature, dried seeds are extracted from the fruit. The seeds are chewed and swallowed with water by the patient based on recommended dosage: 8 to 10 seeds for adults; 6 to 7 seeds for ages 9 to 12 years; 5 to 6 seeds for ages 6 to 8 years; and 4 to 5 seeds for ages 4 to 5 years (Quintana, 1997). Tsaang Gubat (Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam.) Mature and healthy leaves of tsaang gubat are plucked leaving behind enough leaves to sustain the plant’s continuous survival. Senescent leaves are discarded while the young leaves unintentionally picked during harvesting can be used as tea. Leaves collected on purpose are air-dried for four to five days up to 10% moisture content before they are stored in plastic bags or in colored jars. To utilize them, the leaves are first chopped, then boiled with a glass of water for 15 minutes to get a strong decoction that can be used to cure stomach ache and gas pain. It can also be used as mouthwash to make the teeth strong (Quintana, 1997). 161 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Bangkoro or Noni (Morinda citrifolia L.) Presently, the harvesting of noni fruits for juice production is confined to wild stands not only in the Philippines but in other countries as well. Perhaps, this has to do with the unverified claim that noni fruits collected from the wild produce high quality juice that are more efficacious (Solomon, 1998). Based on the authors’ experience, noni plants start to flower and produce fruits two to three years after planting. The use of the roots as dye can be partly explained by the composition of the natural products present in them. The pigments of bangkoro dyes comprise of a mixture of flavones related in structure to fustin and morin (Green, 1995). The various medicinal uses of noni juice mentioned in Chapter 2 are explained by the presence of certain chemical constituents such as proxeronine (precursor to xeronine whose structure has not been fully elucidated) believed to contribute to the proper functioning of body cells. After harvesting and washing of the noni fruits, the process of making juice from them is claimed to involve packing the fruits in sterile tanks to undergo an ageing or fermentation process that lasts for one to three months during which the juice seeps out naturally. The juice extract is then drained from the tanks, then pasteurized and bottled. However, because of the unpleasant taste of the juice, commercial preparations of noni juice actually comes as a mixture of the noni puree with grape juice and blueberry juice, which the manufacturer also claims as being organically grown. Balanoy (Ocimum basilicum L.) Two to three months after planting, the leaves of balanoy can already be harvested. The leaves can be air-dried and stored just like other herbal plants or they can be immediately processed and utilized. As recommended by Quintana (1997), gas pain can be treated by boiling one kg of chopped balanoy leaves with a glass of water for five minutes. The decoction is then strained, allowed to cool, and then taken orally. For cough, chopped balanoy leaves are boiled in two glasses of water for 15 minutes or until half of the water has evaporated. As for gas pain, the decoction is strained and cooled before being taken orally. For adults, the dosage is 4 kg dried or 6 kg fresh leaves while for 7- to 12 year-old children, only 2 kg dried or 3 kg fresh leaves are needed. The decoction is divided into three parts and consumed in a day. Gogo (Entada rheedii Sprengel) Gogo stems are gathered through the use of a picker or “kawit”. The bark of the stem is then removed and the exposed woody part is cut into pieces, 1½ ft long and 1 inch thick. Each piece is mashed with a large wood grinder or “halo” mounted on a smooth, level stone. The stem is continuously pounded until it is flat. It is then sun-dried for about one to two days, tied in bundles, and made ready for the market. To use the dried gogo stem as shampoo, it is first soaked in water and crushed. Water will remove from the macerated wood a substance known as saponin, which is the common 162 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs ingredient in shampoo preparation and the one that is responsible for the cleansing action on the hair and scalp. Commercially-available shampoo formulations containing gogo ingredients are shown in Fig. 4.18. Fig. 4.18. Bottles containing shampoo from gogo (left panel); advertisement for lauat, herbal shampoo containing ingredients from gogo (right panel). EXTRACTIVE PRODUCTS Naval Stores from Benguet Pine (P. kesiya Royle ex Gordon) and Mindoro Pine (Pinus merkusii Jungh. & De Vriese) Two methods of producing naval stores are possible for the pine species in the Philippines. The first method results in the so-called gum naval stores, which are obtained by tapping or wounding the living tree to cause some of the broken cells to exude oleoresin. The crude resin so obtained is a thick, sticky, but usually, still fluid material. It is opaque (due to the presence of occluded moisture), milky gray in color, and inevitably contains a certain amount of forest debris such as needles, insects, flowers, and cone parts (Coppen, 1995). The oleoresin is then fractionated by distillation to produce the gum turpentine and the gum rosin, at a ratio that reportedly varies from 1:4 to 1:6. During distillation, the lower boiling monoterpenes such as α-pinene that account for the bulk of the turpentine oil, β-pinene, βphellandrene (see chemical structures on the next page) along with other volatile compounds in smaller amounts, evaporate. The vapors pass through a condenser where they turn liquid again, then fall in drops and collected. The non-volatile portion consists of resin acids, mostly of the abietane type, and various pimarane type acids (see structures on the next page) (Anderson, 1966 as cited by Salud, 1971). 163 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines -pinene 2009 β-phellandrene β-pinene abietane pimarane The second method of producing naval stores applicable to Benguet or Mindoro pine results in the so-called wood naval stores. This employs as raw material the stumps longembedded in the soil after the tree has been felled. As the stump remains on the ground, the wood decays, leaving behind the resin that gets concentrated in the core and the remaining taproot. These stumps are dug up, comminuted, and used as the raw material for distillation. Wood turpentine and wood rosin are the products obtained from this process. The possibility of a third method, which yields the sulfate naval stores, is contingent upon the existence of a sulfate pulp mill that uses either Benguet or Mindoro pine as pulpwood. The sulfate pulping process involves the use of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide as chemicals, and gives rise to cooking vapors that contain turpentine coming from the resinous materials. The vapors are condensed and sulfate turpentine is recovered. The black liquor recovery process separates from the used cooking liquor, fats and resins originally present in the pulpwood by converting them into soap. The soap is skimmed off the spent liquor and further fractionated into tall oil rosin and fatty acids. Not all Benguet pine or Mindoro pine trees in a stand can be tapped to produce gum oleoresin. Taken into account in the choice of tree to be tapped are the age, health, and diameter of the tree. At least, a tree should have a diameter of 40 cm at breast height. An old method of tapping Benguet pine for its oleoresin can be found in West and Brown (1921). First, the portion to be tapped is scraped clean to remove loose barks and dirt. Tapping begins with boxing the trees during the rainy season, when loss due to evaporation is low. Boxing consists of chapping a cavity or “box” about 30 to 40 cm wide, 12 to 18 cm deep, and 6 to 8 cm from front to back roughly 30 cm from the ground (West and Brown, ibid.). The dimensions of the box as well as the number of boxes in a tree, which can be from one up to four, vary depending on the tree size. The box is meant to hold oleoresin as it exudes from the surface. The surface is chipped from time to time to remove resins that build up and obstruct sap flow. A triangular-shaped chip is removed from each corner to provide a smooth surface for resin exudation. Sap flow is stimulated by spraying the cut 164 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs with 50% sulfuric acid. Resin is removed from the box by means of a long-handled dipper and transferred into a collecting bucket as the worker moves from tree to tree. This is done at three- to five-week interval, for as much as seven to eight times during one season. Filled buckets are brought to a still for distillation. Studies reported by Brown (1921) on tapping the trunk of Benguet pine by boxing resulted in as much as 857 g of resin flowing out in 32 hours. According to Ella (2000), the preferred method of tapping Benguet pine entails the removal of bark. A suitable cup and gutter system is installed near the bottom of the tree, then a horizontal strip of bark 2 to 2.5 cm high is removed just above the gutter. Applying a chemical formulation containing sulfuric acid stimulates resin flow. Ella (2000) further mentioned the development of a specially designed plastic bag in Brazil that has been used to receive the resin by tucking the plastic just beneath the stripped portion and flush to the bark, effectively replacing the cup and gutter system. Almaciga (Agathis philippinensis Warb.) Ella, a forester-scientist at the Forest Products Research and Development Institute (FPRDI), recommends the following procedure for tapping almaciga resin, known worldwide as Manila copal (Personal communication, 2004): 1) Select trees with a diameter of at least 40 cm at breast height. 2) Initial tapping should be made on the basal portion of the trunk not lower than 30 cm from the ground. Tapping the roots can impair the life of the tree. 3) With a sharp bolo, a cut that is 30 cm long, 1 to 2 cm wide, is made on the bark. The cut should not extend to the cambium or beyond because only the bark exudes resin. If the cambium is destroyed, the wound may not recover and the life of the tree is endangered (See Fig. 4.19). 4) If a second cut is to be made on the same tree, it should be no closer than twice the width of the cut. The total length of the cuts made should be about 1/3 of the tree circumference. Fig. 4.19 Tapping the almaciga tree for Manila copal by making an incision on the bark (left panel); Collecting the resin that exuded from the incision (right panel). Photos courtesy of A.B. Ella, FPRDI, College, Laguna. 165 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 5) Collection of the resin is done two weeks after tapping. The resins collected are weighed. 6) After collection, a fresh cut is made right above the previous one. 7) The collected resin is made to pass through a sieve to remove chipped barks and other foreign matter. Manual picking can also be done to separate unwanted materials from the rest of the resin. Almaciga resin undergoes grading before they are traded. The grade is based on the hardness, color, size, and cleanliness of the resin. Those that are clear, pure, and have good solubility in alcohol will receive a higher grade and command a better price. Almaciga resin can also be collected as “fossil” resin, which accumulates at the stump of trees. Lumps of resin can be detected from the ground by tapping it with a stick to produce a sound. Fossil resins are located where large almaciga trees have formerly stood, which have died either naturally or by felling, leaving behind the mass of resin in the soil. In most cases, the resin collected in this manner is dirty and therefore, requires more cleaning. Fig. 4.20a shows crude samples of almaciga resin, i.e., no previous sorting or cleaning was done to improve the quality of the resin. Among the properties of the almaciga resin are the following: a refractive index3 of 1.538 to 1.540, melting point that ranges from 90 to 125ºC, specific gravity of 1.06 to 1.08, saponification value4 between 140 to 190, and iodine number5 from 113 to 125. It is soluble in alcohols and ketones, but insoluble in hydrocarbons and esters. It is a soft resin that emits a gentle and warm fragrance, making it suitable for use in incenses. (b)(b) (a) Fig. 4.20 (a) Crude Manila copal (almaciga resin); (b) crude Manila elemi (pili resin). (Resin samples courtesy of A.B. Ella, FPRDI, College, Laguna). 3 Refractive index is a measure of the amount of refraction (bending of light or energy wave) as it passes through a surface separating two media of different densities. 4 Saponification value refers to the amount of base taken up by the hydrolysis of an ester (the no. of mg KOH that reacts with 1 g of fat). 5 Iodine number expresses the percentage (g per 100g) of iodine absorbed by a substance and measures the proportion of unsaturated linkages present. 166 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs Canarium species The resin derived from Canarium species, particularly piling liitan (C. luzonicum), which is known in trade as Manila elemi or brea blanca, should be tapped using a set of guidelines prescribed by scientists (Ella et al., 1996) to prolong the life and maximize resin yield over the productive life of the tree. The set of guidelines includes the following: 1) Tap only trees with at least 30 cm diameter at breast height. 2) Clean and lightly scrape the portion to be tapped. 3) Start the first tapping at a point no more than 60 cm from the ground. Pili trees are known to have high buttresses. 4) Make a horizontal cut of about 2 cm wide and 15 cm long using a razor sharp knife or bolo. The cut or wound should not reach the cambium. A mallet or any suitable driving tool could be used to control the depth of cut. 5) Fasten a plastic receptacle just below the tapped portion. Cover the wound with a polyethylene sheet, and seal the top with plastic roofing cement to prevent water seepage and the entry of insects and other debris into the collecting bag. 6) Collect after a month and continue at weekly or two-week intervals until resin flow stops. 7) When exudation ceases, a fresh cut (re-chipping) of 3 to 5 cm wide immediately above the previous one, and to a similar length, can be made. 8) The tree can be tapped to a height that can be conveniently reached with a ladder. 9) When the highest possible point is reached, tapping can be repeated on the untapped side of the tree provided the previously tapped portion has completely healed. Oleoresin from the trunk of piling liitan oozes out in soft, fragrant, white oily masses from the wound, but gradually hardens when exposed due to the loss of the volatile constituents. It burns with a smoky flame and has a bitter taste (Toñgacan, 1972). Manila elemi is exported to different countries, with as much as 353,416 kg valued at US$947,000 being traded in 1996 (Ella, 2000). Manila elemi is classified into three grades for the domestic and export trade. Class I represents the palest and softest material, owing to its high essential oil content. Class II is harder and more yellowish, while Class III consists of a mixture of the two grades. Native torches from Manila elemi were prepared by beating with a piece of wood, collected resin on the ground to mix it with dirt that makes it stiff. It is then rolled into a slender cylinder and wrapped with anahaw leaf. Manila elemi torches made this way emitted brilliant, long-lasting light to guide people as they walked through the woods at night (West and Brown, 1921). Dipterocarp species as sources of resin Apitong and related dipterocarp species from which the resin balau is sourced had been traditionally tapped by boxing, with cuts extending halfway through the trunk and reexposing the cut by burning at frequent intervals. Because of the open wound on the tree, it becomes susceptible to decay-causing organisms that eventually kill the tree. To make full use of the tree after its resin-productivity has ceased, it should be felled before its wood 167 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 deteriorates. To minimize damage on Dipterocarp trees tapped for balau, FPRDI scientists recommended some guidelines to follow: 1) Tapping should only be done on trees that are at least 40 cm in diameter at breast height; 2) Incisions on the trunk should be made at least 50 cm above the ground, and never above the first branch; 3) Boxes or cavities are made on the trunk with sharp bolos, having widths that should not exceed 1/5 of the tree’s circumference; 4) Oil that will flow from the wound should be allowed to accumulate in the box. This should be removed every day to avoid wastes through overflow. Balau oil obtained from the distillation of the resin dries slowly, but gives tough, hard, and lustrous coatings when used in varnish. Balau does not dissolve completely in alcohol. As mentioned in Chapter 2, the Shorea spp. of the Dipterocarpaceae family are the world’s major sources of dammar. The tapping of dammar is similar to that of balau, although some in fossilized form can be collected from the ground. Torquebiau (1984) described the traditional procedure for tapping either cultivated or wild Shorea javanica trees in Sumatra to obtain damar as consisting of the following steps: 1) A tree should have a diameter of 25 cm (approximately 20 years old) before it is tapped; 2) Cuts in triangular form are made into the trunk using sharp knives, removing some wood in the process. The cut is a few cm initially, but becomes enlarged at every tapping to become circular holes as the tree ages, with a depth and width of about 15 to 20 cm; 3) Additional holes can be made by cutting new ones aligned in vertical rows with the lowermost holes; 4) The tapper can make higher holes by climbing, with the aid of a rattan belt, and using the lower holes as footholds. Thus, multiple cuts are possible on a single tree. For example, a tree about 30 m tall and 60 to 80 cm in diameter can have up to 9 to 11 holes in 4 to 5 vertical rows on the trunk; 5) Resin is allowed to dry on the tree before it is collected; 6) Refreshening of the cut once a week or once a month could be done, and the tree can be tapped for as long as 30 years unless it suffered decay. A fully productive tree, if tapped once a month, can yield about 4 kg of damar per tapping, or a total of 48 kg per year. Flowering and fruiting have been observed to lower resin production, however. Value added processing of damar to obtain “dewaxed” damar could be done by dissolving the resin in hydrocarbon solvent and precipitating and removing a high-melting, resinous fraction. The soluble fraction is more compatible with cellulose lacquers (Anon, 1959). It is worthwhile to mention at this point that in parts of Indonesia (specifically Pesisir Utara, Pesisir Tengah, and Pesisir Selatan districts of Western Lampung), damar forest as an indigenous forest management practice is being encouraged as a strategy for natural resources conservation (Gintings et al., 2003). In this practice, damar trees are planted in mixed gardens with fruit trees. The damar trees will produce resin for as long as 20 years by tapping them at 15 to 30 day intervals. 168 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs Dye and Tannin-Producing Plants Banato (Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Muell. Arg.) The major source of banato fruits is in the wild. The ripe fruits, normally reddish in color, are harvested. The pigmented glandular pubescence of the fruits is detached by first beating the fruits followed by manual sifting to produce the crude powder. Then, the fruits are placed in a bucket or any container with water, which is then stirred so as to remove the red glandular pubescence known as “kamala” (Green, 1995). This detached kamala that settled at the base of the container is recovered and dried. The yield of powder ranges between 1.5 to 4% of the fresh fruit weight. According to Green (1995), the pigments, present at about 10% by weight in this kamala powder, are fully soluble in hot water and in organic solvents and alkalis. The principal red pigment is the chromene compound, rottlerin (see structure below), which is somewhat unstable. Rottlerin has antihelminthic (de-worming) activity. The extracts are thus used for treating cattle to rid them of parasitic intestinal worms (Green, 1995). It has also been reported to reduce fertility in mammals. The fruit seeds contain about 20% of a “drying oil” similar in properties to tung oil from Aleurites species. O HO OH HO O Rottlerin O OH Plant sources of tanbarks A common feature among busain (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Savigny), tangal (Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Robinson syn. C. candolleana H. & A.), kamachile (Pithecelobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.) and siar (Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Backer ex K. Heyne) is the presence of dyes and tannins in their barks. Busain and tangal both thrive in mangrove swamps while kamachile and siar are both leguminous, lowland trees that are increasingly becoming cultivated as shade and ornamental plants (Aragones-Fabellar, 1996). Busain, along with two Rhizophora spp., (bakauan-lalake and bakauan-babae) are considered as mangrove species whose barks have the highest concentration of tannins, averaging 28 to 30% based on dry weight. The bark and sap of tangal yield red and black dye used principally for making “batik” (Green, 1995). The bark of kamachile has been extensively used as source of tannin, while siar produces bark that yields a brown dye and is also used for its medicinal value. This is a major component of Indonesian “soga” dye for batik (Green, 1995). 169 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 A cutch industry has never fully developed in the Philippines despite the rich tannin content of the barks of mangrove trees. This is regrettable because of the once large area covered by the mangrove swamps, which were exploited more for the low-value firewood than the tannins. The tanbarks and dye barks were traded in raw form, when it could have been more profitable if the tannins and dyes were extracted from barks removed from firewood. In Borneo, which had swamps where the species were similar to those in the Philippines, three cutch factories were in operation (Brown and Fischer, 1920). Citing the work of Bacon and Gana (1909), Brown and Fischer (1920) described the process used to obtain cutch from mangrove tanbarks. Tanbarks are ground to powder form, and the latter leached with cold water in a multi-stage, counter-current process. The new batch of barks is leached with water already containing a high tannin concentration while previously extracted barks are soaked in water just brought into the system. The resulting, highly concentrated aqueous solution is evaporated in vacuo to avoid burning the cutch. Fuel for the evaporators and dryers can come from the mangrove wood or used bark. In the case of tannins from kamachile, the procedure involves felling of the tree, followed by debarking to strip the bark off the stem. The bark is then air-dried, then ground to smaller pieces. This is followed by thrice soaking the ground bark in 60 to 80ºC water (at a ratio of 1:3 bark to water) for one hour each, with stirring every 15 minutes. The combined extract is then spray-dried to produce tannin in powder form. Sibukaw (Caesalpinia sappan L.) A dye is extracted from the heartwood of sibukaw. It is important, therefore, that the plants are allowed to grow and develop good heartwood before being harvested. According to Green (1995), harvesting for dye production should be carried out in six to eight years rotation or intervals. To extract the dye, sappanwood or the heartwood, is reduced to chips, placed in a tin container, and then sequentially boiled. The residue powder is moistened and then allowed to ferment, thereby encouraging oxidation of the brazilin and the other natural pigments. The yield is up to 20% of the heartwood on a moisture-free basis. Sappanwood has been most extensively used as a dyewood in the Philippines and in India (Brown, 1921a; Zerrudo, 1985). Originally, it was the source of one of the most important red dyestuffs for textiles in the Middle Ages until the end of the century when several new species were discovered to provide a superior red dye (Green, 1995). Sibukaw, just like other Caesalpinia species, have fruits rich in tannins and can be used for treatment of leather. The wood and bark are used in traditional medicine for treatment of diarrhea and a variety of other ailments (Quisumbing, 1951; Green, 1995). Due to its high coppicing ability and calorific value, sibukaw is used for firewood production (Serrano, 1984). 170 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs GUMS AND LATEX-PRODUCING FOREST PLANTS Kalipaya (Palaquium ahernianum Merr.) The old traditional practice of tapping kalipaya for gutta percha was entirely destructive. Fully-grown trees were cut. The branches were lopped off, and a number of wide cuts were made through the bark at intervals along the trunk (Coppen, 1995; West and Brown, 1921). Since the method wasted and over-exploited kalipaya, the survival of the species was threatened. This prompted the ban on the use of the method for gum production. A new technique in tapping gutta percha from living trees was developed. This technique, as described by Coppen (1995), involves making a series of V-shaped cuts in the bark of the tree about 20 to 30 cm apart, with a central, vertical channel. The latex exuding from the cuts then coagulates. The coagulant is rolled into small balls along the cuts and collected. The remaining latex flows into small cups fixed to the tree. A rest period of at least two years between successive tappings is recommended to sustain economic production. Recently, a much improved, more sustainable method of gutta percha extraction with the leaves of the trees as raw materials was devised. The leaves are harvested by plucking and collected along with other pruned materials that include twigs and branches (Coppen, 1995). These are then mixed and used as substrate for gutta percha extraction. The content of gutta percha from the leaves increases with leaf age. Coppen (1995) cited a report in the literature, which indicated that the yields of gutta percha are about 3% (dry basis) in young leaves, 8% in medium-aged leaves, and 10% in old leaves. Other sources of gum The gum of binunga (Macaranga tanarius Muell-Arg.) trees can be tapped from the bark by making V-shaped incision. The sap that oozes out of these incisions are immediately collected and used. The sap becomes useless if allowed to coagulate and turn sticky (West and Brown, 1921). ESSENTIAL OILS Ilang-ilang (Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook f. & Thoms.) Ilang-ilang blooms all-year-round but has its peak during summer months. It is best to harvest its mature, yellow flowers early in the morning for oil extraction since the scent is dissipated by heat. These flowers contain the maximum quantity and optimum quality of oil in about 20 days from the time it started to bloom. This is when the green color of the petals changes to yellow. According to Sangalang and Ros (Undated), a tree can yield an average of 5 kg of flowers annually starting on the fourth year and increases to 10 kg from the ninth to the fifteenth year. Thereafter, the yield gradually declines. A kg of fresh ilangilang flowers contains about 800 pieces, and each one weighs about 1.25 g. 171 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Oil from ilang-ilang flowers is extracted by steam distillation (Sangalang and Ros, undated) or by solvent extraction (Dichoso, 2000). Steam distillation is the preferred method because it avoids “burnt-off” odors and yields a larger fraction of extra grade oil, which is described below. Others claim that a higher total oil yield is possible with solvent extraction. However, if the flowers could not be immediately processed after harvest, fermentation should be avoided by spreading them thinly on a clean, concrete floor. The flowers are weighed and charged in a retort. In a 1,000 liter still, a charge of 100 to 150 kg is normal. The water in the retort, rising an inch or so above the false bottom, should already be close to boiling upon charging. Distillation lasts from 16 to 20 hours. Distillation of ilang-ilang produces oil in five forms or grades, namely: extra, first, second, third and complete (Sangalang and Ros, undated). The extra grade is the most expensive of these oils. The first fractions carried by the steam contain the most aromatic and valuable constituents of oil (esters and ethers), while the latter fractions consist chiefly of sesquiterpenes with a very low odor value. Separation into the different fractions is based on the time of distillation and perhaps the odor of the distillate. It is important that distillation is done at a uniform rate. Thorough cleaning of the parts of the still is needed between distillations. After distillation, the oil is dried by adding anhydrous sodium sulfate then filtered. The dried oil is kept in dark-colored bottles, sealed with paraffin and away from light and air lest it changes color and loses its fragrance. A still used for extracting essential oil from ilang-ilang flowers and other Fig. 4.21 Still for small-scale essential oil fragrant plant materials is extraction. shown in Fig. 4.21. Distillation results in yield of oil (volume/weight) that ranges from 2 to 2.25%. According to Dichoso (2000), producing a kilo of oil requires 300 to 500 kg of flowers. The essential oil of ilang-ilang contains between 40 to 55% of linalool. Among the other constituents found by Bisana and co-workers (2004) in the oil distillate from ilang-ilang produced in a steam distillation unit that FPRDI was reconfiguring for the Anao Ylang-ylang Multipurpose Cooperative (AYMC) of Anao, Tarlac were geranyl acetate, benzyl acetate, germacrene-d, and benzyl benzoate, among others (See structures on the next page). 172 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs O H3C H3C C CH2 CH CH CH2 H3C C CH2 H3C H3C C OH H3C linalool CH CH2 CH2 C CH O C C CH3 geranyl acetate O O CH2 O CH2 O CH3 germacrene C benzyl benzoate benzyl acetate Village-level production of essential oil from ilang-ilang started in the towns of Lubao, Floridablanca and Guagua in Pampanga, and Anao in Tarlac. Ilang-ilang production areas have likewise been established in Laguna, Batangas, and Quezon. Aside from steam distillation and solvent extraction, there are other methods of obtaining essential oils from plant sources. The method of choice depends on many factors such as the plant tissue and the preparation needed before it is processed, the sensitivity of the active components to heat and water, as well as the solubility and volatility of the various fractions that make up the oil. Some of these methods have been used in ancient times and have survived through generations, while others arose from developments in modern technology. Other methods of extracting essential oils from plants The other techniques for extracting essential oils, primarily for use in the perfumery industry, are by cold pressing, enfleurage, turbo-distillation, liquid carbon dioxide (CO2) extraction, and enzyme-mediated extraction. Extraction by expression in a cold press is used for citrus fruit oils such as lemon, lime, mandarin orange, and tangerine oils. In this process, the fruits are made to roll over a trough with sharp projections that penetrate the peel to pierce through the tiny pouches that hold the essential oils (Lawless, 1995). Enfleurage, on the other hand, involves placing the petals of flowers with very small amounts of heat-sensitive components such as jasmine, between trays of vegetable or animal fat, which absorb the essential oils. The oil is then separated from the oil-saturated fat by dissolution in suitable solvents. Turbo distillation is the preferred technique for hard-to-extract or coarse plant materials such as barks, roots, and seeds. The plant material is soaked in water as steam is percolated through the plant-water mixture, which brings with it the low-boiling oil components that have been forced out of the cells by the warm water. Liquid CO2 extraction, also known as supercritical CO2 extraction, uses carbon dioxide under extremely high pressure to extract essential oils. The oil-bearing plant tissues are placed in stainless steel tank, and as gaseous CO2 is injected to the tank, pressure builds inside it. The high pressure turns the CO2 gas into liquid, enabling it to penetrate the plant tissues and dissolve the essential oils. When 173 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 pressure is released, CO2 returns to gas along with the essential oils removed from the plant materials (Lawless, 1995). Finally, the National Institute of Biotechnology and Microbiology (BIOTECH) at UPLB has been experimenting with the use of an enzyme, pectinase, to aid essential oil extraction from oil-rich plants such as ilang-ilang, patchouli, and lemon grass. Pectinase attacks and degrades the pectic substances that enclose the oil globules, thereby releasing the essential oil. BIOTECH researchers claimed to have increased essential oil yield and quality from several plant materials tested (Espino et al., 2004). Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin Benth.) To ensure the sustainability and productivity of patchouli, the following guidelines should be observed in harvesting its leaves (Dichoso, 2000; Lanting et al., 1991): The crop can be initially harvested after about six months from outplanting. The stage at which the crop is harvested is very important for good yield and oil quality. It is harvested when the foliage becomes pale green to light brownish. Subsequent harvesting can be done after every three to four months depending on the local conditions and management practices. The crop can be maintained for about three years. The first two to three harvests of newly planted plantation give good yield and high oil quality. Harvesting is done with the help of small, sharp shears. The cut-tops should have lengths that range from 40 to 60 cm. While harvesting, it is necessary to leave four to six juvenile sprouting buds at the basal region for faster regeneration. The crop should not be harvested prematurely as this would result in lower yield and inferior quality oil. Before oil extraction, the leaves are first dried by spreading them out in thin layers under shade and turning them periodically to ensure proper drying/curing. The thorough curing of the leaves, which may take from three to six days depending on the weather, is important to get maximum yield and good quality oil. Poor quality oil is obtained from poorly dried materials. Leaves may undergo fermentation that causes a moldy odor. Air-dried leaves of patchouli could be distilled immediately or stored for some time. The oil is extracted from dried materials through steam distillation. Alternate high and low pressures of 1.4 to 3.5kg/cm2 produce better yield as more cell walls rupture in this process. The duration of distillation varies from 6 to 8 hours. Prolonged distillation gives higher yield and superior quality oil. The oil is found mainly in the leaves but is also present in small quantity in the tender parts of the stem. The yield of oil varies from 2.5 to 3.5% of the dry weight of the leaves. An average yield of 2.5% may be considered satisfactory in commercial distillation. The yield of fresh leaves per hectare per year from three harvests is about 8,000 kg. On shade drying, this volume reduces to 1,600 kg. On distillation, the yearly harvest per hectare produces about 40 kg of oil. When patchouli oil is stored after distillation, the free water must first be removed completely. The remaining traces of water are removed by adding anhydrous sodium sulfate at the rate of 20 to 30 g/l of distillate, with periodic stirring. The anhydrous sodium sulfate can remain in the oil for four to six hours after which the oil is filtered to remove the sodium sulfate and other sediments that may have been introduced during distillation. 174 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs Untreated oil develops high acid but low ester value, leading to deterioration of quality. Purified oil is stored in dry, clean aluminum containers, which should be free from chemicals and odor. The containers are filled to the brim to expel air that may lead to the deterioration of oil quality. The containers should be airtight when sealed. Rubber cork spoils oil quality; hence only pith or metal cork is used. The oil containers are kept in a cool, dry place. Vetiver Grass or Moras (Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash syn. Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty) From a well-managed vetiver farm, harvesting of roots for oil extraction is done three months after planting. Harvesting involves digging for the roots, washing, drying, and then slicing to smaller pieces. The roots undergo maceration before they are charged into the still to recover the oil by steam distillation. Six months after establishment may already be late, as the plants reach maturity and bear flowers. At this stage, the roots are already too heavy and the extractable oil may no longer possess the desired odor. The yield from the roots of over-mature plants is too low to make distillation economical. Vetiver oil contains various substances such as vetivenes, vetivenol (see structure below), vetivenic acid, vetivenyl acetate, and similar compounds (Semmler et al., 1912 as cited by West and Brown, 1921). vetivenol OH Aroma (Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.) Aroma plants flower from June to November. The mature, yellow flowers are gathered from the tree. West and Brown (1921) described the process of preparing “cassie” perfume as a pomade as follows: macerated flower heads, as many as can be covered, are placed in purified melted fat where the material is allowed to remain for several hours; spent flowers are removed and replaced by fresh ones. The process can be repeated up to 10 times until the grease acquired a sufficient richness of perfume. The melted fat is strained and cooled to provide the so-called cassie pomade. To separate the cassie extract from the pomade, the latter is cut into pieces and dissolved with alcohol using a proportion of 1:4 (1 gallon alcohol: 4 pounds pomade). The alcohol, which dissolved the oil from the fat, is filtered next. The fat residue contains residual cassie perfume that makes it suitable as hair pomade. The extracted aroma oil is greenish yellow and sticky. It contains benzaldehyde, benzyl alcohol, and a ketone having the odor of methone; anisic aldehyde, decylic aldehyde, and cumenic aldehyde (see structures on the next page). Salicylic acid methyl ester is a major component, comprising up to 30.9% of the oil (Florido et al., 1998). 175 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 H3CO H benzaldehyde C CH2OH O CH3 benzyl alcohol H3C H anisic aldehyde C O H H O C cumenic aldehyde decylic aldehyde O SEED OILS Bitaog (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) Quiñones and Bravo (1996) cited a report of the defunct National Science and Technology Authority or NSTA (1982), now the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) which found that 6 kg of fresh bitaog seeds yielded 1 liter of oil. Bitaog oil, when heated with caustic soda, yields a greenish resin of semi-liquid consistency that is soluble in alcohol. The fatty acids consist largely of palmitic, oleic, and stearic acid (see structures below). The bitaog oil is greenish-yellow in color, but has a bitter and pungent taste. It is not suitable as vegetable (edible) oil since it contains poisonous resin. CH3(CH2)14COOH CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH CH3(CH2)16COOH palmitic acid oleic acid stearic acid Hanga or Petroleum Nut (Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl.) According to Quiñones and Bravo (1996), citing separate works done by Halos (1980), Noble (1983), and Costales (1991), one fruit of hanga contains about 2 to 3 ml of oil with, n-heptane (C7H16) and a dihydroterpene (C10H18) as component hydrocarbon extracts. The tag of “petroleum” to the nut as well as the oil that can be extracted from it owes to its close resemblance to the odor of petroleum. The oil is sticky and resinous. When set on fire, it gives off light like real petroleum. Thus, it is a potential substitute for fossil fuel to provide the energy needed to run machines, vehicles, and generate electric power. Extracting the oil from the nut is a simple process. Collected fruits are split open to remove the black seeds. The combined pulp is then placed in between a cold press, and the oil is squeezed out of the pulp. To add to the recovery of oil, the cake residue may be grounded and subjected to steam distillation. An anonymous report (1981) claimed that a single tree from Mariveles, Bataan yielded 15 kg of green hanga fruits, which on pressing yielded 80 cm3 of oil. The ground residue produced an additional 73 cm3 on distillation. 176 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs Lumbang (Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.) Mature lumbang can be harvested from the tree or picked from the ground. The fleshy pericarp is removed to separate the seeds. The nuts may be stored for a year or more without any appreciable change in the amount or composition of oil. As reported by West and Brown (1921), the nuts are sun-dried to sufficiently loosen the kernel. After 5 to 10 days, the nuts are cracked and the kernels are removed. This method is quite tedious and slow. Another traditional method being employed in Laguna involves spreading the lumbang nuts in concrete for sun drying until the shells crack. The nuts can also be placed over fire for 72 to 120 hours. Cracked nuts are thrown against a hard object like large stones, and the impact forces the kernels out of the pericarp. These methods result in a brown kernel. An improved method involves heating the nuts in an oven at 95oC for three to four hours and then placing them in cold water overnight. Most of the shells burst the following morning making it easier to separate the kernels (West and Brown, 1921). One lumbang seed has about 34% kernel, which can yield 52% oil (NSTA, 1982 and Dating, 1979 as cited by Quiñones and Bravo, 1996). Talisay (Terminalia catappa L.) The components of the oil from the seeds of talisay, known as catappa oil, are similar to Indian almond oil, which is comprised of the following constituents: 51.2% fixed oil with 54% olein as well as palmitin and 46% stearin (Florido et al., 1998). Catappa oil is a bit more deeply colored than its almond counterpart (West and Brown, 1921; Florido et al., 1998). A very old procedure of obtaining catappa oil was mentioned by West and Brown (1921) based on a report of A.T. Smith (1843). The seeds were extracted from the fruits that were first dried for a few days so that the nut could be more easily broken with a hammer. This separated the kernel from the shell. The collected kernels were then passed through a mill that functioned similar to a mortar and pestle, squeezing the oil out of the seeds. Filtration separated the oil from other foreign matter. Other plant sources of seed oil The seeds of bulala or kapulasan (Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Leenh. syn. N. mutabile Blume) contain 29.2% of fat melting at 34oC (West and Brown, 1921). A more recent report claimed that the oil content was 64% of seed dry weight (NSTA, 1982 as cited by Quiñones and Bravo, 1996). The oil has been used traditionally as a lamp oil. Other plants such as botong (Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz.) and putat (Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Blume) of the family Lecythidaceae also yield oil that can be used as an illuminant. The same NSTA report (1982) also identified pangi (Pangium edule Reinw.) as a high oilyielding plant (with as much as 50% oil from its seeds). The fresh seeds are poisonous since they contain cyanogenic glycosides. Some of these pass into the oil during extraction but can be removed through prolonged boiling, rendering it to be edible. The oil is specifically called “pitjoeng” or “samaun” oil. Native residents of Java extract the oil by heating the dry seeds and passing the heated mass between boards. When so prepared, the oil becomes edible. 177 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 HARVESTING AND UTILIZATION OF FOREST FOOD PLANTS Bignay or bignai (Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng.) Bignay trees are prolific fruit-bearers. The fruit bunches are harvested from the tree by hand with the help of a bamboo pole, preferably with a net bag to collect the detached bunches. The ripe fruits of bignay can be eaten raw. Unripe berries are rather sour. The calciumand iron-rich fruits are often made into jam or jelly (Sotalbo, 2001). The juice of fully ripened fruit serves as a refreshing drink. Alternatively, bignay juice can be made to produce an excellent wine through fermentation. Indonesians prepare a sour fish sauce from the fruit. Young leaves are also used to flavor fish or meat stew. Both immature fruit and young leaves can be used as substitute for vinegar. The young leaves are also eaten in salads and cooked with rice (Verheij and Coronel, 1992). Datiles (Muntingia calabura L.) Ripe fruits of datiles are normally pinkish in color. Immediately after harvesting, the ripe fruits are consumed or processed into jam or preserved sweets. Ripe berries are sweet and eaten raw (Sotalbo, 2001; Verheij and Coronel, 1992; Brown, 1921b). Kaong (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) A recent survey by researchers from Cavite State University (Dimero et al., 2004) resulted in among others, a description of the harvesting practices for kaong. Before harvest, farmers climb kaong trees to obtain nut samples from each cluster to determine readiness of the fruits for harvest. A bunch of fruits is considered mature when the meat goes with a stick inserted into a fruit. If it slips off, the meat is still young and not due for harvest. Overripe fruits, however, give very hard meat when cooked. Harvesting of kaong is done early in the morning. The men climb bamboo ladders to reach to the taller trees. There is a belief among farmers that taller trees give better quality and larger sized meat. On average, six to eight nut clusters are harvested per tree, with each cluster bearing up to 15 kg of meat. The fruit stalk is cut and the cluster is simply allowed to drop freely to the ground. Women farmers separate individual bunches from each cluster and then strip the nuts from each bunch with a bolo. The farmers protect themselves from the irritating oxalate crystals in needles found on the peel of the nuts by wearing longsleeved shirts and by putting on hand gloves. The needles are removed from the surface of the nuts by submerging them in running water, like under a river or stream nearby. They are then placed in old cans to boil for one to two hours. The fruits are piled on banana leaves to cool. When sufficiently cold, individual nuts are cut crosswise near the base, thereby exposing the meat. The kernel can then be removed 178 Chapter 4. Properties, Harvesting and Utilization of NWFPs by scooping them out with a spoon or a blunt stick, taking special care not to damage the meat since whole, solid endosperms command a much better price. The extracted kernels are placed in clean plastic or stainless bowls or jar, and then sold or further processed into sweets by boiling in sugar syrup (Dimero et al., ibid). Sweet kaong production is an important source of additional income for uplanders in Cavite, Laguna, Quezon, and the Bicol provinces. Kamansi (Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg) Mature fruits that are normally yellowish in color are harvested. The harvesting of fruits while still green needs to be done with extreme care because the slightest injury can cause latex to flow. The fruits are better harvested attached to the tree than fallen on the ground. The harvested fruit is directly submerged in water or the stalk end is covered immediately to stop the bleeding of the latex. The fruits are collected in baskets and kept in a cool, shaded place. According to Verheij and Coronel (1992), fresh green fruit has a shelf life of 7 to 10 days. Shelf life may be extended by keeping the fruit in water; ripe fruit lasts for three to seven days. Fruits wrapped in polyethylene bags and kept at 12oC can be stored for about 20 days. Lower temperatures can cause chilling injury. The fruits may be preserved by cooking, fermentation in pits or pots, and dehydration in the sun or in an oven; the products can be kept until the next harvest season. 179 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 References Abasolo, W.P., H. Yamamoto, M. Yoshida, K. Mitsui, and T. Okuyama. 2002. Influence of heat and loading time on the mechanical properties of Calamus merrillii Becc. Holzfurschung 56:639-647. Anonymous. 1959. Dewaxed damar – A review. Paint, Oil and Colour Journal 11:215218. Aragones-Fabellar, A. 1996. 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ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FACING PHILIPPINE NWFPs The forestry sector has traditionally focused its economic activities on the extraction, processing, utilization, and consumption of timber as the major resource derived from the forests. This has resulted in many negative consequences, among them the overexploitation of timber as well as the neglect of other equally important forest products. NWFPs have been relegated as minor forest products and were traditionally used for subsistence and for local consumption, but the quantities extracted paled in comparison with the volume of timber removed from the forests. For the last two to three decades, this scenario has been changing. Worldwide, forests had been depleted of their timber forcing a shift towards greater use and consumption of nontimber resources. In the absence of a rational strategy in different countries including the Philippines for the exploitation of non-timber resources, NWFPs may face the same fate as timber. While it is recognized that NWFPs have already been used in the past and that a lot can be learned about indigenous production systems and uses for these products, increased market demand may overtake long-established practices that have ensured sustainability of these resources. Up until the early 1990s, NWFPs accounted only for less than Php3M or roughly 2% of forest charges collected from forest-derived products (Table 5.1). This has changed dramatically since then for two reasons – the increase in forest charges for all types of forest products, as well as the decline in the share of charges collected from timber. The trend reflects the increasing economic importance or contribution of NWFPs to the economy in terms of its growing share in forest charges, although overall, a steep reduction in the contribution of the forests to the economy has been experienced since the mid-1990s. Thus, at no other time in the history of Philippine forestry have NWFPs received as much attention as they do now. While they have been viewed as merely minor products in the past, largely consequential only to the more profitable timber extraction activities, it seems that the time has come for policy makers, economists, and natural resource managers to take a close look at NWFPs and possibly aim to bail them out from the much-undeserved label or status as “minor” forest products. Undeniably, there is great interest in NWFPs because of the perceived potential of the resource in addressing poverty in rural areas, particularly among indigenous people as well as those who have been driven to eke out livelihoods in the uplands for lack of better opportunities in the lowlands. Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Table 5.1 NWFPs in the Philippines and their significance/economic contribution.* Year Forest charges Forest charges Percent on logs (PhP) on NTFP (Php) of total (%) 2006 191,878,480 6,386,415 3.22 2005 127,183,000 9,194,200 6.74 2004 229,256,000 11,522,916 4.79 2003 215,110,000 7,441,017 3.34 2002 106,421,000 5,221,280 4.68 2001 164,301,000 9,307,995 5.36 2000 135,100,000 9,153,541 6.34 1999 165,200,000 8,898,043 5.11 1998 190,760,000 6,966,693 3.52 1997 189,659,000 12,173,894 6.03 1996 288,069,000 15,250,183 5.03 1995 574,500,000 10,403,158 1.78 1994 544,564,000 11,464,135 2.06 1993 497,385,000 12,172,343 2.39 1992 466,688,000 14,647,394 3.04 1991 806,154,000 2,177,343 0.27 1990 460,550,000 1,162,327 0.25 1985 91,440,000 1,182,058 1.28 1980 49,860,000 541,371 1.07 1976 6,384,000 60,111 0.93 *FMB-DENR. 2006. DENR uses the NTFP terminology for this group of products. NWFPs are taking center stage because the economic enterprises associated with them, as well as activities dealing with their regeneration and production, harvesting and utilization are seen to offer a better chance of directly benefiting the poor than timber. Years of exploitation of the latter, an activity that the poor cannot readily get into legally because of the high permitting and transaction costs and its large capital requirements, provided benefits that merely trickled down to them. Timber-based industries generated employment, made available wood products at affordable costs, helped develop infrastructure in rural areas, and provided educational and health services in far-flung locations. But real power over the timber and related natural resources in the concessions resided in the rich capitalists, most of whom had very little connection with the soil from which the timber were removed. On hindsight, there is this emergent notion that if such power had been vested in the hands of the people who traced their roots and had made the forest their abode and around which their culture and traditions had evolved, then much of the country’s original forests would have remained. Despite the promise that has been bandied about NWFPs’ ability to make a difference in the lives of the poor, the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR, 2003), citing more than 10 years of research that showed NWFPs were not providing enough income to help reduce poverty, had cautioned against putting too much reliance on these resources. 186 Chapter 5. Issues and Challenges facing Philippine NWFPs CIFOR claimed a strong correlation existed between NWFP dependence and rural poverty, asserting that NWFPs played merely the role of providing a safety net, that is, help people survive poverty, but never as means to advance themselves economically. Be that as it may, there is agreement among many sectors that utilization of NWFPs does present an opportunity to help address poverty in the uplands while insuring that the forests are not threatened nor wantonly destroyed. Getting to such a level requires a better understanding of the issues that impact the long-term use of NWFPs as well as the challenges that stand in the way of realizing the full potential of these resources. This chapter discusses these issues to provide a jumping board for a more holistic strategy for developing non-wood resources. It includes issues pertaining to the assessment of the availability of non-timber resources, a review of current commercial and entrepreneurial practices in use, including marketing channels or niches for NWFPs. It also presents some cases to show that investments in NWFP production and manufacturing can provide the returns that will make entrepreneurs want to temporarily part with their money in exchange for future higher returns from NWFP-based livelihood opportunities. The role of women and children in NWFP collection, processing, and in running a NWFP-based livelihood opportunity is likewise discussed. A final section was devoted to views on the potential of NWFPs to contribute to reducing carbon in the atmosphere. Obviously, the chapter deals with social, cultural and economic aspects of NWFPs, most of which fall outside of the present authors’ background and expertise. Thus, the readers are invited to take a second look at the references at the end of the chapter and to pore over the materials in the additional reading list for more depth and breadth about the various issues at hand. Neither is the choice of the present topics an exhaustive one, for there are many more than what have been put forward. For an introductory material on NWFPs in the Philippines, however, we maintain that we can present only the more urgent issues and challenges. It may probably take a second volume, tapping more experts from a wider array of academic or professional interests, to tackle the many important and more specialized issues on NWFPs. Resource Assessment Resource assessment, according to Wong and co-workers (2001), pertains to an evaluation of some aspects of the resource based on information gathered from a variety of sources. It can include socio-economic issues, market issues, or the quantity and quality of the resource. The importance gained by NWFPs in recent years is attributed by Wong and coworkers (2001) to the potential of NWFPs for: a) income generation for rural development, b) more equitable sharing of the benefits of the forests, and c) sharing forest management with local people. In order to harness NWFPs to meet such objectives, no less than a good set of information about their abundance, distribution, and reproductive biology is required. Thus, the imperative for adequate inventory based on statistically reliable tools, proper identification and characterization of the various NWFP species, and verifiable information 187 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 about traditional or indigenous NWFP uses, especially those that are availed of as medicine, food, and alternative energy sources. Knowledge residing among indigenous peoples about the regeneration, cultural management of, and collection practices for NWFPs must be learned, not only because they could prove to be more effective than newer methods that require infusion of alien, imported technology, but also because of the need for perpetuating such indigenous knowledge by effectively transferring them to the next generation. Indeed, how much of NWFPs do we really have all over the country? Where and in what quantity can they be found? Is there enough to sustain commercial production (for example, establishment of processing plants that use NWFPs as raw material) of the products derived from the various NWFP species? If utilized commercially, will the species run the risk of being threatened by over-exploitation? Is there existing information on the regeneration of the various NWFP species and have they been tried on a scale large enough to sustain the resource? Some of the problems that constrain the process of finding answers to the questions above, which contribute to the difficulty in getting a more accurate picture of the real situation of NWFPs in the Philippines are the following: a) lack of appropriate inventory methods to use, b) non-availability of adequately trained scientists and forestry workers, and c) huge resource requirements to carry out the work. The reader should be aware by now of the great diversity, number, size, and form of all the plant and animal species that are considered as NWFPs. How will all of these be captured in a single inventory meant to account for their presence in the forest? Referring to Wong and co-workers (2001) again, at best, NWFPs can be inventoried using three approaches. The first approach is to inventory for just a single species. This is costly, however, and the species must therefore be extremely valuable to justify the cost. Some of the reasons cited why this kind of inventory is done are: a) to provide knowledge on the consequences of harvesting a species, b) to assess if species can meet an increase in product demand, c) to assess potential of an area for viable harvesting of a product, d) to determine harvesting quota levels of a product under national or international regulation, and e) to satisfy academic interests (Wong et al., 2001). The second approach is to make an inventory for more than one species, and this kind of study is designed to provide information helpful in forest management planning. Because of the extent required by such surveys, they tend to be very expensive and can be effectively done only in very small areas. Lastly, NWFPs can be included in a multi-resource inventory (MRI), which is designed primarily for other purposes, for example in routine stock surveys of commercial logging areas or in routine forest inventory where selected NWFPs have traditionally been important (Wong et al., 2001). An example of such inventory was undertaken in the Philippines in 1987 (Serna, 1990) where rattan, palm, and bamboo plants were included. 188 Chapter 5. Issues and Challenges facing Philippine NWFPs A second problem associated with getting reliable information on NWFPs is the lack of adequately trained scientists and/or forestry workers who can undertake inventory work. Inventory, particularly of NWFPs, requires the ability to identify each and every species living in the forest that has use potential. These could mean all species of plants, animals and even non-plants nor animals such as fungal (mushrooms) and other microbial organisms. The actual task is therefore, a daunting one, and requires training in various fields of specialization such as botany, dendrology, entomology, pathology, and forestry. Undoubtedly, the resource requirements of a complete assessment of NWFPs in forestlands are enormous. This means that any realistic assessment can only be made in a relatively small area of forest that is reasonably representative of the forests within a given location. Additionally, it should be undertaken by people who have been adequately trained in the identification of all NWFPs, and who have been provided sufficient time and resources to come up with the desired results that will pass the rigor of statistical tests. It goes without saying that full NWFP assessment will be very difficult to accomplish. Unless their value is proved to be so high to enable recovery of all investments in NWFP research and development, it may not be practical to expect a very intensive assessment of NWFPs for a resource-poor country such as the Philippines, now or in the near future. Developing Markets for NWFPs While traditional methods of selling NWFPs in the domestic market remains (Fig. 5.1), the importance of expanding and finding new markets for NWFPs cannot be overemphasized. There is no point encouraging the development of NWFPbased livelihood among farmers if they cannot sell their products. This fact did not escape Pendleton (1992, as cited by Eastin, 1996), who identified at least five market-related functions for an NWFP activity to be successful: a) existence of an economically viable volume of products available in an area to be harvested, b) presence of markets (current or potential) for the products or their derivatives, c) accessibility for harvest and ready availability of NWFPs, d) an assurance for longterm supply of these resources, and e) the sustainability of NWFP harvesting operations. Fig. 5.1. Traditional selling of NWFPs on horse-carried carts. There are two conflicting points of view on the desirability of developing markets as a strategy for forest protection. One such view is that local and international markets for NWFPs must be developed so that people can be encouraged to protect forests and the NWFPs therein. This view considers the indigenous people as the ones who benefit most from marketing, especially if the promotion of NWFP-derived products appealed to consumers who consider the sustainability of forest resources as a major issue to be 189 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 adequately dealt with. To such markets, indigenous peoples are the ones who are in the best position to conserve the forests. These consumers generally assume that indigenous peoples know best how to use the forest within the limits of its carrying capacity. The opposite view is that developing markets for NWFPs may hasten destruction rather than help conserve forests. The contention is that the forests will go the same way they did when timber was the main produce from them, as people will be driven to the forests to harvest NWFPs without regard for their long-term sustainability. Besides, exploitation will not be limited to the indigenous people who may be the last to respond to, and perhaps to benefit from an international market expansion for NWFPs. The open access policy usually applies in the exploitation of NWFPs, implicitly inviting lowlanders with very little connection to the soil and regard for the sustainability of forests to go up the mountains and harvest NWFPs using improper and wasteful practices. A possible solution is to provide safety nets that may prevent over-exploitation of the resource should lucrative markets for NWFPs become available. These safety nets can include educational campaigns, crafting of appropriate policies that promote equitable sharing of benefits, more R & D on sustainable harvesting methods, and regeneration of NWFP resources as well as better infrastructure for transport of NWFPs to prevent wastage or product deterioration due to delays and poor material handling. Because enterprises in NWFPs are small in scale, the challenge remains whether product volumes are sufficient to meet demands developed through aggressive marketing. This problem can be overcome by linking with non-profit, environment-conscious, causeoriented groups in developed countries. Eastin (1996) contended that linkages with nonprofit organizations like the Cultural Services Enterprises and Conservation International may be instrumental to developing profitable, global market niches for NWFPs. Locally, how do products from NWFPs reach domestic consumers or the traders engaged in the export business? What is the flow of NWFPs starting from the source to the different intended markets for the products? And more importantly, do these products flow in a manner such that the gatherers and farmers get a fair share of the products’ market value? As already pointed out earlier, NWFPs are so diverse that no single product distribution channel could possibly be available that could provide the general pattern for most, much less all of the NWFPs. A few examples on how NWFPs are passed on from the gatherers to the consumers may suffice to highlight the differences in the product distribution flow of NWFPs. Marketing of Tikog (Fimbristylis spp.) Products In Samar and Leyte, tikog is sold either in the form of raw materials or as finished products. Bundled dried stalks are sold by weight. Each small bundle may weigh one-half kilo and 190 Chapter 5. Issues and Challenges facing Philippine NWFPs costs about Php4 regardless of grade. A bundle of tertiary grade (short-sized) stalks contains about 220 pieces while the primary grade has 200 pieces. Small shop owners usually buy unflattened and undyed bundled tikog stalks directly from the farmers in the countryside. There are also middlemen involved in the sourcing, buying, and selling of tikog-made products. Shop owners in the town or city enter into contracts with the farmers for the supply of semiprocessed tikog stalks like dyed woven mats. The buyer normally specifies the designs of the products, including color and sizes. Afterwards, the workshop operators would further process the tikog stalks into desired functional finished products. Semi-finished and finished products are sold in the town market by the shop owners. Occasionally, local producers are seen directly selling their products. Selling in bulk is normally done through middlemen who in turn bring the products to the major cities of the South. In some communities in Samar, Leyte, in Surigao del Norte in Mindanao, mat weavers’ cooperatives exist. The members are given weaving materials and their finished woven products are bought by the cooperative. The latter then sells the products to bulk buyers. Trading of Salago (Wikstroemia spp.) Fiber The case of salago, which has a more or less long history of trading in the export market, is different. Some small- and large-scale enterprises (e.g. FS Handmade Paper Handicraft) are engaged in making handmade paper, rope, and other handcrafted articles. These industries purchase salago fibers directly from the farmers/suppliers. However, they face stiff competition from large companies (e.g. Cebu Eastar Resources, Mancao Mercantile, and City Marketing) based in Cebu that are either engaged in processing and/or marketing of both raw fibers and finished products in the local and export markets like Taiwan, Thailand, and Japan (FIDA, 1996). Economic Benefits from NWFP-based Livelihood Enterprises It is a folly to engage in any enterprise if it does not improve the well-being of people and communities who have taken risks to put in capital, labor, and time to the business of their choice. The performance of an enterprise is usually measured in terms of the number of jobs generated and how much the workers are paid for. In the case of environmentally sensitive resources like NWFPs, engaging in their production and manufacturing must also create enough surpluses to encourage regeneration. The foregoing discussion raised important issues that the government must consider in making policies pertinent to the investment of scarce resources to spur further economic growth. For example, will government provide funds for feeder roads and related infrastructure for transport of raw materials or finished goods if such investment could not be recouped in terms of more jobs, more productivity, and increased dollar earnings for the country? Does it make sense to make these products more accessible, readily available, and more sustainable in the longer term if the money poured into them cannot even pay for the services of extension workers/community organizers tasked by the government to reach 191 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 out to the farmers? Will farmers be better off if they would engage in NWFP-based enterprise than doing something else? Some feasibility studies on a number of NWFPs appear to support the idea that farmers and entrepreneurs can manage to survive or even prosper on an enterprise using NWFPs as raw materials. A few such cases are shown below: Returns of making baskets from hinggiw Based on a study by the DENR, a skilled worker can engage in basket-making using hinggiw as raw material and earn an average of Php260/day. The calculation assumes that the raw materials and tools needed have been previously made available. The making of baskets must only be undertaken when a purchase order for the product has been negotiated. From October to December or as the holiday season draws near, the demand for the product is high. Baskets produced from hinggiw in the different regions of the country are brought to Manila for finishing touches and then traded in local and export markets. Good quality baskets are often exported to Taiwan as well as to European and Western countries including United States. Cooperatives are encouraged to link with big exporters and/or look for stable market outlets. Basket tray production is a viable livelihood as it can generate an annual net income of Php290,680, equivalent to more than Php24,000 a month (DENR, 1997). Returns of salago farming for fiber production Another livelihood opportunity that was financially evaluated by DENR (1997) is salago farming. With an investment of about Php19,000/ha and assuming the following estimates of salago fiber yield: 1st harvest at Year 2 = 5,000 kg; 2nd harvest at Year 4 = 5,250 kg; 3rd harvest at Year 6 = 5,512.5 kg; and, 4th harvest at Year 8 = 5,788.13 kg; and shrinkage and damage of fibers at 10%, and an average price of salago fibers at Php10 per kg, a net present value (NPV) of Php12,155 and Php7,631 is expected. The benefit/cost ratio (BCR) of 1.14 and 1.10 at 15 and 20% interest rates can also be realized. Overall, salago farming for fiber production is calculated to provide an internal rate of return (IRR) of 35.2%, which is enough to make banks look into a loan application for capital to start a salago farming business for fiber production. Returns of shingle production from ambolong Production of shingles from ambolong leaves is a profitable livelihood option being promoted by the DENR (1997) among upland farmers. A financial analysis of shinglemaking from ambolong done by DENR researchers showed that a farmer can earn as much as Php40,000 on the third year; Php64,000 on the fourth year; and Php88,000 on the fifth year of plantation. The net present values are Php84,848 and Php70,376 at discount rates of 15 and 20%, respectively. Table 5.1 shows the cost and return analysis of making shingles from a 1-ha plot planted to ambolong leaves (DENR, 1997). 192 Chapter 5. Issues and Challenges facing Philippine NWFPs The trading of shingles made from ambolong is quite common in Region VI. The shingles are sold at a price ranging from Php7-12 in the local market particularly in Kalibo, Boracay, and other neighboring areas where local color is used extensively to attract tourists. These tourist destinations feature native huts and houses to accommodate visitors/vacationers (Lustica, 1992). Table 5.2 Cost and return analysis of a 1 ha ambolong plantation used for shingle production (Source: DENR, 1997). Items A. Revenue/Benefits Year 1 Year 2 P5,930 P1,800 Year 3 P40,000 5,975 Year 4 P64,000 8,850 B. Production cost Plantation establishment 278 suckers at P10/suckers 2,780 2 bags organic fertilizer at P250/bag 500 2 pc bolo at P150/pc 300 1 pc spade at P350 350 Labor Land preparation, application of fertilizer, planting 5 man-days at P100/day 500 Maintenance and protection for 15 man-days 1,500 1,800 2,000 2,200 Harvesting Materials 15 pcs. bamboo poles at P25/pole 375 875 200 pcs. bamban at P0.50/pc 100 175 Labor Harvesting of fronds for 10 man-days 1,000 1,500 Thatching for 15 man-days 1,500 2,600 Drying, bundling and storing for 10 man-days 1,000 1,500 Net income (5,930) (1,800) 34,025 55,150 PV of net income at 15% = 84,848 Benefit/cost ratio at 15% = 5.0 PV of net income at 20% = 70,376 benefit/cost ratio at 20% = 4.8 Assumptions:  One shingle = P 8.00  Harvest: Year 3 = 5,000 shingles; Year 4 = 8,000 shingles; Year 5 = 1,000 shingles Year 5 P88,000 12,650 2,500 1,400 250 2,500 3,500 2,000 75,350 Returns from tikog plantation establishment From the results of the study conducted by Doydora (1992) as cited in PCARRD (1994), the net income that can be derived from a one-hectare tikog plantation was Php70,270 for the first year, Php251,606 for the second year, and Php557,839 for the third year. Using a 28% rate of interest, the incremental net benefits for each year resulted to a present worth for Year 1 of Php54,898, Php153,568 for Year 2, and Php266,005 for Year 3. The benefit/cost ratio (BCR) for the first year of plantation was calculated to be 1.23, for the second year it was 2.38, and for the third year, 2.73. 193 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Returns from tiger grass farming and broom making Tiger grass farming and broom making likewise provide considerable economic benefits to upland farmers in the Cordilleras and in other parts of the country like Bukidnon. Based on the economic analysis presented in DENR’s Sustainable Livelihood Options for the Philippines (1997), an expected ROI of 30% can be realized from this NWFP. An initial investment of only Php6,843 is needed to establish a hectare of tiger grass plantation at 2 × 2 meter spacing while annual revenue of Php14,665 can be obtained from the sale of 419 brooms at Php35 apiece. Below is the result of the financial analysis and assumptions made for the study: Table 5.3 Cost and return analysis of plantation establishment and production of soft broom from tiger grass per hectare at spacing of 2 m × 2 m (Source: Nobel and Songcuan, 1986 as cited by DENR, 1997). Items Value (in pesos) Annual revenue 419 brooms × Php35/pc Annual production cost Plantation establishment (10 man-days ×Php65/ manday) Planting (10 man-days) Replanting (1 man-day) Weeding / brushing (5 man-days) Fertilization (3 man-days) Harvesting and hauling (Php20/1000 panicles) Drying and cleaning (Php1.50/bundle) Material cost for plantation establishment Planting stock (Php1 + 20% mortality) Fertilizer (3 bags organic @ Php150/bag) Broom processing Labor Materials per broom (tie wire Php50; wood or kawayan stick Php10; plastic string/split rattan Php2.50) Marketing Cost Handling/transportation (Php1/broom) Net return Annual revenue Less: Annual production cost Return on investment = Net Return Annual Production Cost Assumptions  20% mortality of planted suckers  Fertilizer will be applied 194 Total value (in pesos) Php14,665 11,242 Php650 650 65 325 195 880 628 3,000 450 2,304 1,676 419 3,423 14,665 11,242 0.30 3,423 11,242 Chapter 5. Issues and Challenges facing Philippine NWFPs Apart from providing favorable financial returns to investments in NWFPs, manufacturing contributes towards the generation of employment opportunities. For a very populous country, the establishment of industries requiring high labor inputs is encouraged. Comparing productivity of labor in rattan furniture-making with their counterparts in wood furniture, Razal (1999) showed greater value-adding per unit of labor in rattan. This result has been shown in Table 1.2 in Chapter 1 of the present book. Trade in NWFPs Perhaps, it is unknown to many that the Philippines imports NWFPs despite their apparent abundance in the country. Table 5.4 shows the NWFPs imported to the country in 2005, coming from trading partners, some of which do not even have natural sources for the imported products (e.g., elemi from Korea) as well as bamboo and rattan from Singapore and Hong Kong). In 2001, we were also importing almaciga resin from Germany (FMBDENR, 2001). In the early 1900s, Brown and Merrill (1920) observed that some manufacturers of wicker products imported their rattan from Hong Kong. It was possible that some of the imported rattan could have originated from certain parts of the Philippines. Two important reasons may help explain why this remains so up to this day. One is the relatively higher cost of transporting materials from Mindanao to Manila, and second, the lack of local capacity for processing raw materials into higher value, and more readily usable forms of products. Table 5.4 Imports of NWFP (2005)*. Commodity/Countries of origin Gum, elemi Korea, Malaysia Bamboos China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand, Vietnam Rattan Pole China, Hongkong, Singapore Rattan Split and Core China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, USA Quantity (in net kg) 16,750 FOB (USD) 8,047 CIF (USD) 8,365 95,628 127,037 132,699 102,796 299,664 325,314 228,791 547,199 585,576 *Source: FMB-DENR (2005). FMB-DENR uses the terminology NTFP for this group of products. Philippine exports in 2005 (Table 5.5) comprised of products that were almost similar to the country’s imports. A saddening observation was that the imports exceeded exports of some items that the country should have a competitive advantage in, like bamboo and rattan, which grow naturally in the country’s forests. In the case of rattan, we import splits and cores that could have been processed easily at home. A bright spot is Manila elemi from Canarium species, which accounted for more than half of the total dollar value of 195 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Philippine NWFP exports in 2005, indicating its potential as an export winner. National economic planners and policy makers should pay attention to NWFPs such as elemi to further boost the products’ performance in the international market. Table 5.5 NWFP Exports (2005)*. Commodity/Country of Destination Value (in USD) Quantity Resin, Copal (almaciga) Taiwan, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Singapore Gum, elemi China, France, Germany, Hongkong, Japan Bamboos Belgium, Canada, China, Cyprus, Denmark, Germany, Hawaii, Jordan, Korea, Lebanon, Maldives, New Zealand, Singapore, Spain, United Arab Emirates, USA Rattan pole China, Hawaii, United States (in net kg) 190,500 154,375 165,288 237,308 74,587 73,334 4,052 8,789 * Source: FMB-DENR (2005). FMB-DENR uses the terminology NTFP for this group of products. Other than the products shown in Table 5.5, there were records of other NWFPs that had been previously exported from the Philippines such as salago fibers, edible bird’s nest, ilang-ilang essential oil, and dye from narra. Certification of NWFPs Certification has evolved as a non-tariff measure to increase global market access for forest products and improve sustainable forest management. It focused initially on timber and was meant to accommodate environmental concerns while demand for timber and other forest products and services are being met through global trade. There is an emerging global interest in the inclusion of NWFPs in the certification process. Some sectors argue that ignoring NWFPs in certification evaluations would provide an incomplete picture of the forest resources, biodiversity issues, and societal factors within the forest being certified. Relevant questions that certification organizations can ask of NWFPs from Philippine forests would most likely include the following (Pierce, 1999): a) What is the intensity of NWFP management and its overall effect on forest biodiversity? b) What are the advantages and disadvantages of natural forest systems versus plantation systems? 196 Chapter 5. Issues and Challenges facing Philippine NWFPs c) Are there adequate scientific data on which to base NWFP management decisions? d) Are mechanisms in place to trace products from well-managed forests to consumers? e) Are subsistence issues, particularly the impact of forest management on people who heavily depend on NWFPs for income, food or shelter - fairly and adequately addressed? f) Are the cultural and spiritual values local people hold toward NWFPs respected? g) What are the impacts of timber harvesting on NWFP resources and vice versa? It is obvious that it can be very complicated and challenging to carry out certification of NWFPs. However, certification is a market-based initiative and is likely to gain wider support in the future. The NWFP-based industries must be prepared to face the challenges of certification when the inevitable comes. Valuation of NWFPs How beneficial are NWFPs to the people and communities that are able to access these products from the forest? This is an important economic question to ask and in fact has received great attention from social scientists and economists. The literature on the valuation of NWFPs is extensive, covering a range of topics such as what NWFPs to include in the assessment, the techniques or methodology to use for estimating value, factors that affect the value of NWFPs, and how to interpret or use the information for policy and decision making purposes. There is divergence as well on whether it is the “stock” or inventory, or the actual quantity or flow of NWFPs that are actually collected by the people, which should be measured. Defining what constitutes NWFPs and how to classify them are important first steps in their valuation. The issues that are worth repeating from chapters 1 and 2 relative to this discussion include the nature of products that should be considered as NWFPs, the type of ecosystem or land use from which the NWFPs were gathered, and whether the NWFPs were cultivated or harvested from those growing in the wild. In the case of the Philippines, policies such as those pertaining to transport permitting procedures tend to be unfavorable towards resources gathered from state lands and public forests, or to products that are presumed to be naturally growing in them. Thus, investors and farmers interested in or are now engaged in propagating bamboo, rattans, and other commercially viable NWFPs would love to see these commodities stricken off the list of forest products because of the hassle in government regulatory procedures in transporting/marketing these products. The downside for the forestry sector, if these products are declassified as forest products, is that the share of forestry to the economy would be further reduced. Indirect victims will be the efforts to promote forest conservation and development. By themselves, these are already challenging responsibilities of government, and without public support or when only meager funds are available, these tasks become even more daunting. Because public support and funding are usually tied with how much value society attaches to the resource, then a vicious cycle ensues. 197 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Some NWFP valuation studies are done to determine how important these products are to the household. The level of importance is measured in terms of the share of NWFPs in household income. Calculation methods generally would account for all types of NWFPs gathered by all able-bodied individuals in the household, the quantity collected and how much is received for them (price) at the farm-gate, less the cost of labor for harvesting and transporting these products. Among households, differences in value of NWFPs arise from whether the household is a tribal or indigenous household or not, the location of the household relative to the forest (inside or at the periphery), and the availability of alternative income sources (Shylajan and Mythili, 2003). The share of NWFPs in household income also diminishes as higher levels of education are attained by household members. Differences are also noted among groups and regions on the importance and value they attach to NWFPs. The Role of Women and Children in NWFP-Based Livelihood NWFPs do not only help improve the lives of upland people. They empower the upland poor women as well. Timber extraction and processing save for a few positions in quality control activities of wood-based manufacturing factories appear to be the exclusive domain of male workers. A different scenario applies for NWFPs where women seem to outnumber male in most NWFP activities, particularly in the handicraft industry. Women workers participate in almost all of the harvesting, processing, and manufacturing activities related to NWFPs as described in the previous chapter. Thus, we find female workers, along with children, scraping rattan poles and weaving rattan derivatives into furniture, such as the seats and backs of chairs, sofas, and headboards. Women can also be found performing the tedious task of buri fiber extraction. They are also the ones who do most if not all of the weaving work for most NWFP novelty products, such as the buntal hats from buri, mats from tikog, disposable plates from nito, baskets from pandan, sawali from bamboo, fans from anahaw, and brooches or wreaths from vines. Preparatory work on the raw materials such as dyeing and drying of fibers and valueenhancing activities on the semifinished product such as embroidery, adding accents such as beads and flowers, and application of paints or varnish, are likewise almost dominated by women. Broom making from tiger grass also involves women, as well as garbling leaves from medicinal plants, cooking and Fig. 5.2. Mother and daughter bringing handicrafts to market on foot. making juice and jam from forest food plants, and in collecting and sorting almaciga resins. Many women are also the ones that bring to the local market raw materials or do personal selling of finished home-made handicraft products, which they squeeze in between household chores to augment family income, usually covering many kilometers on foot to reach the target traders or consumers (Fig. 5.2). 198 Chapter 5. Issues and Challenges facing Philippine NWFPs According to Ella (2004) who documented NWFP-based activities and enterprises in Palawan and in other parts of the Philippines in connection with an ITTO-funded project, women appear to specialize in the financial aspects of the NWFP business, although they fit with men workers in other activities such as in the collection of bamboo and rattan, in gathering anahaw leaves and vines, as well as in tapping resin from almaciga and pili. The social value of NWFPs for women cannot be ignored, not only Fig. 5.3. Women socialize while weaving because of the confidence built in being buntal hats. able to contribute to fending for their family needs, but also in enhancing interpersonal relations with their neighbors and clients. In Lucban, Quezon for example, women enjoy social hours together while weaving buntal hats in a designated household in the neighborhood, claiming they are more productive that way as the sharing of exciting stories and the accompanying banter prevent them from becoming drowsy or sleepy while weaving (Fig. 5.3). Many women also tend to shops that sell NWFP-based products, where they can lend finishing touches on the items being put on sale while waiting for the arrival of customers. NWFPs in Relation to Carbon and Climate Change Like the towering trees in the woods, NWFPs are forest-based plants whose biomass contains lignocellulosic materials rich in carbon. Carbon is found in the culms of bamboo, the stems of rattans, the aerial roots of aroids, as well as in the gums, resins, and latexes exuded by extractive-rich species. Like all other plants, photosynthetic activity enables NWFPs to trap carbon dioxide from the air which is used for the various metabolic functions and to increase the plants’ biomass. A few species of NWFPs like bamboo may even exceed the rate at which some woody perennials sequester carbon under similar conditions owing to the fast growth rate of this member of the grass family. Indeed, NWFPs can contribute to reducing carbon in the air if more planting of these species in forestlands were done. In our view, there is no apparent conflict between combining carbon objectives with livelihood generation from NWFPs. As pointed out in the early chapters, one difference between harvesting NWFPs and timber is that in NWFPs, the plants do not necessarily perish as the utilizable products are collected. In bamboo harvesting, culms are left behind in the clump to ensure regeneration. Rattans grow enough suckers per hill that survival of the plant is guaranteed after removal of the mature stem. Many other NWFPs provide economic benefits through the collection of some parts like stems, branches, leaves, flowers or fruits without need for “killing” the plant. Trees that produce valuable chemical compounds are tapped for their resin, latex, and gums, which are mostly carbon-rich natural products in excess of what the plants would normally need for their regular metabolic 199 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 functions. To some extent, tapping and collection induce the plant to sequester more carbon. At issue is whether the planting of NWFPs can be used under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) for carbon trade. NWFPs like bamboo are perceived to be short-lived, and therefore, cannot store carbon in the long-term, a function that forests planted with trees are expected to provide. Also, a number of bamboo species die after flowering gregariously which could lead to large-scale “loss” of carbon stock. There is likewise the need to reconcile the permanency requirements with the need of people for subsistence and even for cash income, a role that NWFPs has traditionally fulfilled for forest-dependent people and communities. As with trees, improper and abusive NWFP harvesting practices can destroy the plant sources and the forests. This is why it is important that gatherers understand that if they are not careful in their collection practice, there will be no more plants to return to for subsequent gathering activities. It should be clear to gatherers that excessive use endangers not only their own survival and the sustainability of their livelihood, but would also have serious repercussions that could be felt even by people and communities that are remotely associated with forests. The Philippines’ location and geography puts it at the receiving end of anomalous weather patterns that have arisen in view of climate change. No effort is too small towards reducing carbon and other undesirable gases in the air. People that subsist and or derive livelihood from NWFPs can play a meaningful role toward attaining this goal. 200 Chapter 5. Issues and Challenges facing Philippine NWFPs References Brown, W.H. and E.D. Merrill. 1920. Philippine Palm and Palm Products. In “Minor Products of Philippine Forests.” (Ed. Brown, W.H.). Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Bureau of Forestry. Vol. 1 Bulletin No. 22. pp. 127-248. CIFOR. 2003. Exploring the forest-poverty link. CIFOR (Center for International Forestry Research) Infobrief. May 2003 No. 7. 4 pp. DENR. 1997. Sustainable Livelihood Options for the Philippines – An Information Kit. Upland Ecosystem. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Visayas Ave., Quezon City. 484 pp. Eastin, I. 1996. The role of marketing in promoting a sustainable trade in forest products in tropical regions. Paper presented at the Workshop on “Forest Products Marketing,” UPLBCF, College, Laguna in September, 1996. Ella, A.B. 2004. Sustainable harvesting of non-timber forest products: the role of gender in the Philippines. Paper presented in the “Workshop on Forests for Poverty Reduction: Can Community Forestry Make Money?” held in Beijing, China from 1-2 September 2003. pp. 23-31. FIDA. 1996. The Philippine Salago Industry (mimeographed material). Fiber Industry Development Authority, Philippines. FMB-DENR. 2001. Philippine Forestry Statistics. (Forest Management BureauDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources). FMB-DENR. 2002. Philippine Forestry Statistics. (Forest Management BureauDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources). FMB-DENR. 2006. Philippine Forestry Statistics. (Forest Management BureauDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources). Lustica, A.L. 1992. Ambolong. Techno Transfer Series. Vol. 3 No. 5. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Region 6, Iloilo City, Philippines. Pp. 1-13. Pierce, A.R. 1999. The challenges of certifying non-timber forest products. Journal of Forestry, February issue. pp. 34-37. PCARRD. 1994. The Philippines Recommends for Tikog Production. PCARRD Philippines Recommends Series No. 78. DOST. Natural Resources Management Program GOP Component. 45 pp. Serna, C.B. 1990. Rattan resource supply situation and management. Paper presented in National Symposium/Workshop on Rattan held in Cebu City, Philippines on June 13, 1988. pp. 5-22. Shylajan, C.S. and G. Mythili. 2003. Community dependence on protected forest areas: A study on valuation of non-wood forest products in a region of India. Sri Lankan Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 5, No. 1. pp. 97-122. Wong, J.L.G., K. Thornber and N. Baker. 2001. Resource assessment of NWFP – experience and biometric principles. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations NWFP No. 13. Rome. 109 pp. 201 VI. PHILIPPINE POLICIES ON NWFPs This chapter deals with government laws, rules, and regulations that have an effect on the production, management, harvesting, processing, and utilization of NWFPs. They comprise official pronouncements and documents that the Philippine national government, through legislation, executive orders, and other issuances by the President, and include administrative orders or circulars given out by the appropriate executive agency such as the DENR and DTI. These policy issuances direct how people will plan, manage, and use NWFP resources. Resolutions or ordinances by provincial boards and municipal and/or city councils down to the barangays, provided they are consistent with national policies, and which people follow as guides in undertaking various human activities that have to do with NWFPs shape local policies on these forest-based resources. It is generally conceded that policies greatly impact the state of development of any resource, particularly on how they contribute to public welfare. Current concerns on NWFPs include how they can be harnessed to help reduce poverty, generate income, and provide livelihood opportunities, while insuring that the forests are not further degraded and the associated natural resources continue to be conserved and protected. As provided for in the Philippine Constitution of 1987, all natural resources, including forests, mineral resources, wildlife, flora and fauna, are owned by the State. Consequently, their disposition, development, and utilization are under the full control and supervision of the State. Thus, by their very nature, NWFPs require that all private individuals, corporations, non-government organizations, and even local governments desirous of availing themselves of the benefits derived from these resources will have to deal with at least one other government body to ensure that proposed activities dealing with NWFPs does not in any way violate this basic constitutional tenet. In the absence of a more recent legislative fiat on the country’s forest resources, Presidential Decree No. 705 issued in 1975 otherwise known as the “Revised Forestry Code” remains as the fundamental forestry sector framework that has to be consulted in the formulation of new and additional policies, as well as the crafting of specific rules and regulations on NWFPs. President Arroyo has issued Executive Order No. 318 entitled “Towards Promoting Sustainable Forest Management in the Philippines” to harmonize all government rules and regulations in forestry until such time Congress is able to pass the more comprehensive Sustainable Forest Management Act. The latter has never been a priority bill in both chambers since the late 1980s and has remained languishing in those halls to this day. None of the administrative and policy issuances of the DENR covers the entire range of NWFPs that can be derived from the forests. As can be seen in the previous chapters, the variety in the nature, properties, characteristics, and applications of NWFPs makes it difficult for government, particularly the DENR, to formulate a single issuance that will Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 encompass all kinds of NWFPs. At best, DENR has come up with issuances that deal only with a single commodity such as on bamboo, rattan, anahaw, and resins, among other things. Table 6.1 is a partial list of the policy issuances that are related to NWFPs. The discussion below covers policies for specific NWFPs, and is presented to demonstrate the wide spectrum of activities possible for their development and utilization and for which certain rules and regulations have already been prescribed by government. Table 6.1. Partial list of forest policy issuances on or related to NWFPs (from most current to oldest). Number Year 2000-64 2000-63 2000 2000 2000-29 2000 96-26 1996 94-19 1994 94-18 1994 94-07 1994 93-59 1993 93-57 1993 93-54 1993 93-18 93-15 1993 1993 93-11 1993 92-05 1992 89-04 87-58 1989 1987 86-37 85-02 1986 1985 Title Regulation in the cutting/gathering and/or utilization of Anahaw palms New rates of forest charges pursuant to Republic Act No. 7161 and based on the 1999 FOB market price of forest products Guidelines regulating the harvesting and utilization of forest products within CBFM areas Revised guidelines governing the harvest and transport of planted trees and NTFPs within social forestry areas Amending Section 2 of DAO No. 54 (Guidelines in the confiscation, forfeiture and disposition of conveyances, etc.) series of 1993, as amended Guidelines governing the cutting, gathering, and disposition of edible fruit-bearing trees Revised guidelines governing the issuance of certificate of origin of logs, timber, lumber, and NTFPs Revised rules and regulations governing the transport/shipment of logs, lumber, plywood, veneer, NTFP, and other forest based- products/commodities Amendment to DAO 18 series of 1993 regarding the revised schedule of forestry administrative fees Amending DAO No. 59 series of 1990, promulgating “guidelines in the confiscation and forfeiture and disposition of conveyances used in the commission of offenses penalized under Section 68, P.D. 705, as amended by E.O. No. 277, Series of 1987 and other forestry laws, rules, and regulations Prescribing the revised schedule of forestry administrative fees Evaluation and monitoring of the assessment of collection of forest charges and other administrative fees Guidelines for the imposition of application and licensee fees covering minor forest products which are exempted from payment of forest charges pursuant to RA 7161 Regulations in the identification, documentation and packaging of upland livelihood enterprises Revised regulations governing rattan resources Recall of telegram of Minister T.Q Pena re: suspension of the issuance of permits for the cutting, transporting, disposition and utilization of anahaw trunks or leaves and bamboos in Regions III, IV, and V. Banning the cutting of bamboo and anahaw in Laguna and Rizal provinces Regulations governing rattan resources Kind of Issuance DAO DAO DAO DAO DAO DAO DAO DAO DAO DAO DAO DAO DAO Memo Circular DAO MAO MAO BFD-AO Policies on Rattan Among NWFPs, rattan ranks first in terms of frequency and number of policy issuances by the DENR. This does not come as a big surprise since rattan is the next most exploited among forest products and as has been noted in earlier chapters, second only to timber in economic importance among the different forest-derived products. 204 Chapter 6. Philippine Policies on NWFPs The production and utilization of rattan are covered in the DENR Administrative Order (DAO) No. 04 series of 1989. It is a revised version of the defunct Bureau of Forest Development (BFD) Administrative Order 85-02 also known as “Regulations Governing Rattan Resources.” DAO No. 4 s. 1989 stipulates that the government’s objectives as far as rattan resources are concerned are: 1) To ensure the sustainable productivity, expanding availability, and access to rattan resources for the continuing support to dependent industries and the generation of employment opportunities and revenues; 2) To provide a system of rational harvesting, and gainful and efficient utilization of the resources; and 3) To rationalize the industries which are dependent upon rattan as their primary raw material. The administrative order provides a set of rules and regulations governing the renewal, harvesting and utilization of the rattan resources. These regulations are supportive of the policy and program agenda for the forestry and natural resources sector. They are designed to promote social justice (equal access to natural rattan resources), productivity of the resources, application of their true value (disposal of the resources only if their disposal generates enough funds for their renewal), and efficiency in resources conservation and/or utilization (Revilla, 1988). According to Umali (1988), the special features of DAO No. 04 Series of 1989 are the following: On resource extraction Mode of disposition. Rattan may be cut, gathered, transported, and disposed only through a license instead of permits issued by the DENR. The license has 10-year duration, renewable for similar period at the option of the Department Secretary. The renewal of such license may be done only upon proof that sufficient rattan plants are still available for harvesting to warrant a viable and economic operation. The renewal of the license is based on the satisfactory performance of the operators and their compliance with the terms and conditions set by the license. License to cut and gather naturally grown rattan from forest lands and other areas shall be granted only through a public bidding. Specific areas are separately allocated for bidding between and among the big entrepreneurs (with capitalization exceeding Php250,000) and between and among the small entrepreneurs (with a paid up capitalization of Php250,000 or less) to remove undue advantage of the former over the latter. 205 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Delineation and delimitation of production areas. This is to be done in areas where rattan resource extraction can be made with the aid of satellite imageries, aerial photographs, forest resources maps, and other appropriate technical data and references. Forest lands available for harvesting of rattan include all forest lands except in experimental forests, national parks, and equivalent reserves, wilderness areas, mossy forests, and such areas as may hereinafter be closed to rattan cutting and gathering. Public alienable and disposable (A & D) lands not subject of patent applications may also be available for harvesting of rattan. Authorized forest officers must inspect and inventory the area, following prescribed procedures and standards, before the area is advertised for disposition or grant of a license. The inspection report shall include, among others, the following: legal status of the area; forest cover; current land-use; rattan density per hectare and other relevant information that may be necessary to guide the DENR Secretary and prospective bidders. Areas previously identified as available for the harvesting of rattan shall be organized into production units or blocks of appropriate sizes. The delineation of rattan production units or blocks shall consider the natural boundaries. The DENR Secretary shall identify which production blocks are for big or small entrepreneurs. At least 55% of the rattan production area of any region shall be allocated to the small entrepreneurs while the remaining 45% to the big entrepreneurs. At least 10% of the region’s total production shall be reserved for local consumption/use where there are existing users of the product within the region. Recognition of the rights of indigenous cultural communities. In consonance with the Constitutional guarantees of social justice and the recognition of the rights of the indigenous cultural minorities, a provision was incorporated in the DAO “Special provisions for the processing of rattan applications within areas reserved/occupied by cultural communities” whereby the DENR Secretary may grant cutting licenses through negotiated contract instead of the bidding process, to individuals or associations of indigenous cultural communities/tribal groups over the area pre-dominated by such cultural groups. They are given the priority to apply for rattan cutting license in their area provided that their offer shall not be lower than the floor price for the rattan. The supplemental provisions of DAO No. 04-1 Series of 1989 stipulated that a rattan cutting license may be issued by the DENR Secretary or his duly authorized representative inside civil reservations, stewardship contract areas, and areas traditionally occupied by the indigenous cultural communities and for subsequent utilization, disposition, and transport of said forest products, in accordance with the following conditions: a) There should be consent from indigenous cultural communities concerned having the right to the exclusive use of civil reservations established by virtue of presidential proclamations. b) Rattan production blocks encroaching on the areas traditionally occupied by the indigenous cultural communities shall be modified pursuant to the constitutional mandate that these areas shall be protected by the State for these communities. 206 Chapter 6. Philippine Policies on NWFPs c) In case a rattan cutting license is issued over the above-mentioned areas to nonmembers of the indigenous cultural communities concerned, a compensation package should be provided and this has to be determined based on the felt needs of the indigenous cultural community. Maximum area under rattan cutting license. Individuals are qualified to apply for a cutting license in a rattan production area with a size of 5,000 ha. For corporations, partnerships, associations, cooperatives, the maximum area that can be granted is 30,000 ha. Licensees may avail of more than one cutting license located in different areas/regions; however, the aggregate area should not exceed the maximum area allowed corresponding to their classification. Sustained yield cut. The national production of raw rattan poles shall be regulated in order that it shall not exceed the annual sustained yield capacity of the rattan resource. The sustained yield cut that may be granted annually is determined using the following formula: SYC  A D ×f r where: SYC = A = D = r = f = sustained yield cut in lineal meters on annual basis forested area in ha average density per hectare in lineal meters rotation period for 15 years recovery factor, usually 85% Rattan Processing and Utilization Rationalization of the rattan industry. With this program, the establishment, continued operation and expansion of rattan processing plants are encouraged. However, the location, capacities, and types of the processing plants need to be regulated. Those which are inefficient, wasteful and uneconomical, perennially short in raw materials, or which are not responsive to the rationalization program may be phased-out, suspended, or cancelled by the Secretary. Rattan whether split or unsplit, produced by rattan cutting license holders who are not themselves processors shall dispose their production only to legitimate rattan processing plant license holders and/or users through a rattan supply contract/agreement approved by the Secretary or his duly authorized representative. Rattan processing plant license. The Administrative Order requires that the license for rattan processing plant should be issued by the Secretary or his duly authorized representative. The license has a tenure of five years, renewable for a similar period. 207 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Application for the expansion of capacities of rattan processing plants may, however, be approved by the DENR Regional Executive Director concerned. Prior to approval, a field evaluation/verification of the existing capacity of the plant should have been done and there should be proof of the availability of raw materials to sustain continuous normal operations. Rattan Plantation Establishment and Development Development of rattan plantations. To supplement the dwindling supply of rattan from the natural forests, and to cope with the high demand for, and take advantage of the economic profitability of rattan products in the international markets, it has become the policy of the government to encourage development of rattan plantations. Forests lands that are declared available for rattan plantation development include the following: a) Brush lands and open lands, recently logged-over forests; b) Second growth forests not scheduled for re-logging within the next 20 years; and, c) Inside forest tree plantation development projects or existing government reforestation projects. Aside from experimental areas, national parks, and other similar reserves, forest areas that contain more than 500 growing rattan wildlings or plants, more or less uniformly and widely spread over each hectare of forest lands, shall not be open for rattan plantation development. Rattan plantation lease. Forests lands made available for plantation development are given through a lease for 25 years, renewable for similar period. The size of the area that may be the subject of rattan plantation lease shall not be more than 30,000 ha, provided that the initial grant shall not be more than 5,000 ha. The lease has to be approved by the DENR Secretary upon the recommendation of the DENR Regional Executive Director concerned. The following may apply for a lease to establish and develop rattan plantations inside forest lands: a) Holders of either rattan processing plant permits or rattan cutting permits; b) Holders of timber license agreements or other timber licenses and industrial tree plantations, tree farms, and agroforestry farms, provided that the area applied for is within their respective concession area; and c) Filipino citizens who are residents of the community near, adjacent, or surrounding forest lands desired to be developed into rattan plantations and who possess the qualifications to lease forest lands. Again, as provided in DAO No. 04-1 s. 1989, the indigenous cultural communities may also avail of rattan plantation lease over areas within and adjacent to their 208 Chapter 6. Philippine Policies on NWFPs reservation/stewardship areas or areas traditionally occupied by them. No lease application by non-members of these communities shall be given due course without a clearance certifying that the consent of the affected indigenous cultural communities has been secured. Incentive for rattan plantation development. To encourage the establishment of rattan plantations, the holders of the lease are given the following incentives: a) The minimum rental fee of Php0.50 centavos per hectare shall be imposed provided that there will be no rental fee payments for the first year of the lease; b) Provision of rattan seedlings at production cost and free technical assistance by the DENR field personnel; c) Forest charges on the rattan cut out of the plantation shall be 50% of the regular assessment; and d) Rattan raised in plantation belongs to the lessee who shall have the right to sell, contract, convey, or dispose of the said rattan in any manner he sees fit, in accordance with forestry laws, rules, and regulations, provided that the exportation of raw rattan canes shall not be allowed. The DENR may enter into rattan plantation development contract with any interested and/or qualified individual or entity through joint venture or production sharing or any appropriate arrangement. Regulatory fees The old rates of fees stipulated in Chapter 5 of BFD Administrative Order No. 2-85 have been retained except for the rate of the license fee to operate rattan processing plants which shall be Php25 for every Php10,000 capitalization provided that the total license fee due is not less than Php1,000 and at most Php5,000 only. Rattan special deposit Collection of specific amount from holders of cutting licenses as Rattan Special Deposit (RSD) was introduced. This RSD will form a trust fund deposit to be treated in accordance with Section 65 and 66 of PD 705 as amended. It will be used for the replanting of areas with rattan pursuant to the conditions of the rattan-cutting license. Holders of the license can opt to subcontract to private parties or government entities duly accredited by the DENR Regional Executive Director or his authorized representative. These subcontracting parties will conduct replanting of rattan within the area covered by the license or within areas for rattan plantation development. The ensuing activities would be funded by special deposit and monitored and evaluated by the DENR Regional Executive Director or his duly authorized representative. 209 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Policies on Bamboo and Anahaw Banning and lifting of cutting and transporting of bamboo in some regions of the country The then Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR) that preceded the DENR issued Ministry Administrative Order (MAO) No. 37 dated September 1, 1986, pertaining with the ban on the cutting of bamboo in the Laguna and Rizal provinces. It was aimed at stopping illegal gathering of bamboo and all other activities related to bamboo cutting in the two provinces. DENR Administrative Order No. 58 dated August 5, 1987 recalled the telegram directive of then Minister Teodoro Q. Peña suspending the issuance of permits for the cutting, transporting, disposition, and utilization of anahaw trunks or leaves and bamboos in Regions 3 (Central Luzon), 4 (Southern Tagalog, and 5 (Bicol Region). This effectively lifted the restriction on the cutting, transporting, disposition, and utilization of bamboo poles and anahaw poles and leaves to ensure continuous supply of bamboo and anahaw trunks and leaves to cottage industries and fish pen operators and other end-users. Cutting/gathering and/or utilization of anahaw palms DENR Administrative Order No. 2000-64 dated July 31, 2000, pertains to the regulation in the cutting, gathering, and utilization of anahaw palms. This DAO was made consistent with the policy of the government to provide a sustained supply of anahaw products to endusers and encourage maximum utilization on a sustainable basis and wise use of non-timber products like anahaw palms. This regulation applies only to anahaw poles and leaves found within the forest lands and alienable and disposable public lands and titled private lands. In protected areas covered under Republic Act No. 7586 or the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act, no cutting or gathering of anahaw palms is allowed. NTFP permit (Anahaw palm). This permit, with tenure of one year renewable for another year, has to be secured from the DENR Regional Executive Director for the cutting/gathering and/or utilization of anahaw poles and leaves. Who are qualified to apply for NTFP permit? Any individual who is a Filipino citizen, of legal age, or a cooperative duly registered with the Cooperative Development Authority may apply for NTFP permit. As stipulated in this DAO, the applicant who is a resident of the area where the NTFP (anahaw palms) applied for is located shall have the priority in the issuance of the permit within the forestlands and A & D public lands. Inside CBFM areas, CBFMA holders may cut, gather and/or utilize anahaw poles and leaves within their area, provided that it is covered by an affirmed Resource Use Permit (RUP). In the case of titled private lands, only the owner of such lands may qualify to apply for and be granted a permit. 210 Chapter 6. Philippine Policies on NWFPs Area covered by the NTFP permit and annual allowable cut. Extent of the area inside forestlands to be granted to an individual shall not be more than 5,000 ha, while 30,000 ha may be granted to a cooperative. Prior to the granting of the permit with corresponding allowable cut, a registered forester must conduct a forest products (anahaw) inventory validated by the CENRO concerned. The latter shall submit his findings and recommendations to the issuing authorities through channels. Inside private lands, 100% sampling intensity is required while inside forestlands, at least 5% intensity is prescribed. A stand and stock table showing the diameter and height groupings must be prepared. All forest officers who conducted the inventory must submit a report to be subscribed and sworn to before a person authorized to administer oath. The annual allowable cut of anahaw poles within forestlands shall be determined using the formula below: NA AAC  15 where: AAC = N = A = 15 years = annual allowable cut number of anahaw palms per hectare Area, in ha harvesting cycle Inside private lands, cutting of all anahaw poles with a diameter at breast height (dbh) of 11 cm and above is allowed. For anahaw leaves, the cutting/gathering of a maximum of two leaves from a plant per month may be granted. The AAC shall be computed by multiplying the total density (number) of anahaw palms in the designated area by 24 leaves. Transport of anahaw palms. As for all other NWFPs, transport of anahaw poles and leaves shall be accompanied with a certificate of NWFP origin, tally sheets, delivery receipts/auxiliary invoice, and certificate of verification from CENRO (in case of those gathered from private lands). Penal provision. Just like other NWFPs, illegal cutting, gathering, and transport of anahaw palms are penalized under existing laws, rules, and regulations. Even forest officers issuing defective certificates of non-timber forest products origin and other documents shall be held administratively liable. Bamboo as a species to be used for reforestation and industrial forest development DENR Administrative Order No. 31 dated June 24, 1991, known as the “Revised guidelines for contract reforestation” has included bamboo as a reforestation species. The revised provisions included surveying, mapping, planning, and comprehensive site development; monitoring and evaluation; supplemental/alternative silvicultural treatment; 211 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 reforestation costs and budgets; contract management and penal provisions. It also prescribed the ceiling cost and other requirements of bamboo plantation on a per hectare basis at a minimum survival rate of 80%. In view of its commercial/industrial importance, the use of bamboo in the establishment and development of industrial forest plantations (IFP) is now an accepted practice. Available for industrial forest plantation development as specified in Chapter 2 of DAO No. 31 are the following: a) Bare, open, denuded, or grass-covered tracts of forest lands, brush lands, inadequately-stocked areas within or outside timber concessions provided that for areas within timber license agreement (TLA), such areas are not programmed for reforestation as required under TLA regulations. b) Portions and/or areas covered by grazing/pasture leases needing immediate reforestation provided that such areas shall be excluded from the lease. c) Government reforestation projects or portions thereof found to be more suitable for or can be better developed as industrial forest plantation in terms of benefits to the government and to the surrounding community. d) Areas of existing TLA and timber production sharing agreement (TPSA), which are converted to Integrated Forest Management Agreement (IFMA), provided that the area containing adequately stocked natural forest shall not exceed 50% of the total area of the proposed lease. e) Areas covered by cancelled TLA or portion thereof that are suitable for industrial forest plantation development. f) Private lands and other alienable and disposable areas by which DENR has issued authorization to harvest forest crops under an out-grower scheme or nucleus state approach. g) Adequately stocked logged over areas within timber concessions adjoining open and inadequately stocked areas may qualify for IFMA area provided that such areas shall be subject to sustainable management and protection. The minimum area for IFP is 100 ha and the maximum area shall be 20,000 ha. IFP and/or IFMA have duration of 25 years renewable for another 25 years provided that the terms shall be subject to future legislative action on the mode of disposition and scheme on the utilization and development of natural resources in accordance with pertinent policies. Policies on Edible Fruit-Bearing trees DENR Administrative Order No. 18 dated May 25, 1994, was issued to provide the guidelines governing the cutting, gathering and utilization of edible fruit bearing trees within forest areas. This DAO was meant to promote sustainable development of the country’s natural resources and provide for a healthy environment for the enjoyment of the citizenry. 212 Chapter 6. Philippine Policies on NWFPs Within forest lands, this DAO specifically prohibits the unauthorized cutting, for timber and firewood, of the following edible fruit bearing trees and shrubs: tampuy, makopa, yambu, alupag, mangosteen, pili, balobo, baluno, bulala, gumihan, marang, nangka, lanzones, mabolo (kamagong), alupag-amo, paho/pahutan, bayabas, durian, and other plants. The fruits of these plants can be used as food for human being and wildlife. The cutting, gathering, and utilization of the fruits inside forest lands, however, may be allowed, provided that the same is in accordance with the approved Integrated Annual Operations Plan (IAOP) or the Comprehensive Management and Development Plan (CMDP). Inside private lands, cutting, gathering, and disposition of the fruit-bearing trees for timber may be authorized under a Private Land Timber Permit (PLTP), provided that the land is not within the logging ban or moratorium area. Furthermore, the same is allowed provided that the requirements called for under existing rules and regulations have been properly complied with. Finally, the application to cut must be supported by a certificate from the Secretary of the Department of Agriculture or his duly authorized representative that the edible fruit bearing trees applied for may be cut. Other Policies Relevant To NWFPs Harvesting, utilization, and transport of other non-timber products within forest/timberland As provided for in Section 68 of P.D. No. 705, “Any person who shall cut, gather, collect, or remove timber or other forest products from any forest land, or timber from alienable and disposable public lands, or from private lands, without any authority under a license agreement, lease, license or permit, shall be guilty of qualified theft as defined and punished under Articles 309 and 310 of the Revise Penal Code.” Thus, any farmer, collector, or corporation interested in harvesting, utilizing and transporting NWFPs like pandan, buri, ambolong, nipa, tiger grass, wild fruits, salago, and forest vines like nito, hinggiw, and agsam should secure a permit from appropriate DENR offices. Usually, this is obtained from the CENRO that has jurisdiction over the area identified to be the source of the NWFPs of interest. Harvesting, utilization, and transport of NWFPs within Social Forestry and/or CBFM areas In Social Forestry areas To facilitate and regulate the harvest and transport of planted trees and non-timber products in duly established Social Forestry areas, DENR Administrative Order No. 96-26 was issued. Harvesting permit and tenure. This DAO provides that CENROs are authorized to issue harvesting permits to Integrated Social Forestry Program (ISFP) participants whose 213 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 stewardship areas contain mature and harvestable planted trees and non-timber products. Prior to the issuance of this permit, the application has to be received by the Social Forestry Desk Officer (SFDO) who will then undertake a 100% inventory over the area applied for within 10 days. If the area is a devolved ISF area, the inventory shall be jointly conducted by the SFDO and the Community Development Officer/Assistant (CDO/CDA) of the concerned LGUs. The duly certified inventory report shall be submitted to the CENRO within five days after the completion of the work, together with the endorsement/recommendations. The maximum period of the harvesting permit issued under this DAO shall not exceed six months, which can be renewed depending on the availability of planted trees and nontimber products to be harvested. Terms and conditions of the harvesting permit. Only mature planted forest trees and nontimber products duly inventoried shall be allowed to be harvested. The transport, disposition, and utilization of planted trees and non-timber products harvested from areas shall be in consonance with the existing forest and internal revenue laws, rules, and regulations. Violations of the terms and conditions as stipulated in this administrative order and other forest laws, rules, and regulations will serve as a basis for cancellation of permit and for penalizing the offenders. In CBFM areas To rationalize the utilization of forest products within areas covered by the CBFN program, DENR Administrative Order No. 2000-29 dated March 14, 2000, was issued. It provides the guidelines regulating the harvesting of forest products within CBFM areas. Scope and coverage. This order grants RUP to people’s organizations (PO) under the CBFM program. RUP covers utilization of naturally growing and/or planted forest resources, including non-timber resources. Requirements for the utilization of forest resources. The CBFM holders shall have an affirmed Community Resources Management Framework and Annual Work Plan, environmental compliance certificate (ECC) and RUP. Procedures and responsibilities. The order stipulates the procedures and safeguards needed to ensure that the harvesting of forest products will be done in the most economical and ecological manner. This DAO has also outlined the responsibilities of both the DENR and the PO or community concerned. Among others, a nationwide scheme establishing the Forest Stock Monitoring system in tandem with the local Multi-Sectoral Forest Protection Council shall be operationalized with the field offices to facilitate the monitoring of harvesting activities. The DENR 214 Chapter 6. Philippine Policies on NWFPs Regional offices, PENROs and CENROs together with the LGUs must be actively involved in these activities. The PO or the community that is granted with RUP is expected to: a) Develop and implement equitable benefit-sharing agreements among its members. b) Refrain from the use of heavy equipment and employ as much as possible laborintensive methods of harvesting. c) Be transparent and promote participatory management particularly in the handling of records of transactions and finances. d) Develop and implement mechanisms for the rehabilitation and development of areas subjected to harvesting operations. e) Pay forest charges on timber other than those harvested in plantations as well as other fees and charges required by the DENR. f) Submit monthly report to the CENRO, through the assigned Project Management Officer (PMO)/site coordinator, as to the progress of the activities and cooperate with the monitoring team that the DENR may send from time to time to determine compliance of the POs to the agreement. Marketing of Products. The RUP serves as the permit to sell logs, lumber, and other forest products (including NWFPs). As stated in the order, the Natural Resources Development Corporation (NRDC) shall assist in the processing, marketing, and disposition of forest products through a mutually agreeable arrangement with the POs. Furthermore, the POs are likewise encouraged to receive technical assistance to further develop and upgrade their materials into higher value finished products in order to maximize the profits. NWFP-based processing industries The establishment of NWFP-based industries needs business permit from DTI and concerned LGUs. In the case of fiber products like buri and salago, a transport permit must be secured from the Fiber Industry Development Authority (FIDA) and DENR. For processing of wild food products like kaong, pili nuts, mushroom, and others, a permit from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), formerly the Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD) and concerned LGUs is necessary for the operation of the business (DENR, 1997). Incentives for NWFP processing and plantation development NWFPs (for example, rattan and bamboo) plantation developers, like other firms registered with the Board of Investments (BOI), are entitled to certain fiscal incentives pursuant to the Omnibus Investment Code of 1989 (PCARRD-DOST and NPCO-DENR, 1991). These incentives may include: 215 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Income tax holiday. All registered enterprises engaged or proposing to engage in new and expanding projects may avail of the income tax holiday incentive. Availment of this incentive shall commence from the date of commercial operation by the applicant firm, the duration of which shall be six years for new pioneer projects, four years for new nonpioneer projects and three years for expanding project. The incentive may be extended for new projects for another year but in no case shall it exceed eight years for new pioneer project under any of the following conditions: a) If the ratio of the total imported and domestic capital equipment to the number of workers for the project does not exceed US$ 10,000 to one worker; b) If the average cost of indigenous raw materials used in the manufacture of the registered product is at least 50% of the total cost of raw materials for the preceding years prior to the extension unless the Board prescribes a higher percentage; and c) If the net foreign exchange savings or earnings amount to at least US$ 500,000 annually during the first three years of operation. In the case of a plantation project, commercial operation shall mean the period in which initial harvest from plantation shall have commenced. Tax and duty exemption on imported capital equipment. Newly registered or expanding enterprises may be authorized by the Board to import machinery, equipment and accompanying spare parts exempted from the tariff duties and taxes payable thereon to the extent of 100% subject to the following conditions: a) That the machinery or equipment to be imported is not manufactured domestically in sufficient quantity of comparable quality and at reasonable prices; b) That the machinery or equipment to be imported is reasonably needed and will be used exclusively by the registered enterprise in the manufacture of its product or in the operation of its registered activity; c) That the approval of the Board is obtained by the registered enterprise before the purchase order is made or before the corresponding letters of credits are opened; and d) The rated capacity of the machinery or equipment to be imported is within the registered capacity of the enterprise. Tax credit on domestic capital equipment. Registered enterprises shall be entitled on all purchases of domestically manufactured machinery, equipment, and accompanying spare parts, to a tax credit equivalent to the value of the tariff duties and taxes that would have been paid had the same been imported. Tax and duty-free importation of genetic materials. Within 10 years from date of registration or commercial operation, the exemption from payment of tariff duties and taxes on importation of genetic materials shall be available to registered enterprises, pioneer and non-pioneer. Such importation shall cover genetic materials necessary for expansion or improvement or for replacement of proven unproductive genetic materials. This incentive can be availed of under the following terms: 216 Chapter 6. Philippine Policies on NWFPs a) That the strains to be imported are not domestically available at reasonable price; b) That they shall be used exclusively by the registered producer for the improvement of the strains of its plants; and, c) That the prior approval of the Board must have been obtained by the registered enterprise before the opening of the corresponding letters of credit. Tax credit on domestic genetic materials. Within 10 years from date of registration or commercial operation, registered enterprises shall be entitled on all purchases of domestic genetic materials reasonably needed in its registered operation, to a tax credit equivalent to 100% of the value of the tariff duties and taxes that would have been paid had the same been imported. These incentives also apply to NWFP processing activities and in addition, would also enjoy an additional deduction for labor expense. Tax credit for incremental labor. For a period of five years from registration, a registered enterprise shall be allowed to deduct from its taxable income an amount equivalent to 50% of the wages corresponding to the increment in the number of direct labor for skilled and unskilled workers subject to the following conditions: a) That the ratio of imported and domestic capital equipment to the number of workers of the firm does not exceed US$10,000 to one worker; b) That the registered firm does not avail of this incentive simultaneously with the income tax holiday incentive; c) That the allowable deduction shall be based on the increment in the number of direct labor for skilled and unskilled workers in the year of availment as against the previous year; and d) That in the event the registered firm, except those engaged in mining and forestry based-projects, should be located in a less-developed area, it shall be allowed to deduct 100% of the wages mentioned previously. Forest Charges One of the sources of revenue of the government is the collection of forest charges from license/permit holders per unit volume, number, weight, or length of the forest products harvested from the forests. Rates of forest charges are adjusted from time to time to reflect the true value of the forest products and generate enough funds that can be plowed back for their renewal and sustainable management. Thus, the following rates of forest charges are officially required through DAO No.200063 dated July 31, 2000 (Table 6.2). This is pursuant to the provisions of Sections 3, 4, 5 of R.A. 7161 and based on the 1999 free on board (FOB) market price survey of forest products as submitted by the Regional Offices. 217 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 Aside from these, a reforestation deposit is required of NWFP licensees/permittees pursuant to DAO Nos. 1 and 4 Series of 1991 and 1989, respectively. The rationale for this imposition is to ensure sustainability of these resources. Table 6.2. Rates of forest charges on selected NWFPs as specified in DAO No. 2000-63 pursuant to R.A. 7161 and based on FOB market price of forest products. NWFP Forest charges 1993 (DAO Forest charges 1999 (DAO No. 39 dated May 25, No. 2000-63 dated July 1993) 31, 2000) Rattan unsplit (per lineal meter) 1.Palasan, calape, and kurakling a. Over 2 cm in dia. Php1.40 Php 0.80 b. 2 cm or less in dia. 0.95 0.50 2. Sika and arorog 0.10 3. Tumalim, limuran, ditaan, and other species a. Over 2 cm in dia. 1.40 0.80 b. 2 cm or less in dia. 0.80 0.50 Rattan-split (per kilogram) 3.50 5.50 Bamboo Per piece Per meter 1. Kawayan tinik, k. kiling 6.00 0.60 2. Bayog 3.00 0.30 3. Bolo/Buho 2.00 0.20 4. Other species of erect 1.50 0.15 bamboos 5. All climbing bamboos 0.50 0.10 Almaciga resin (per kg) 1.00 1.50 Manila elemi (per kg) 0.95 Other gums and resins (per 0.40 0.90 kg) Beeswax (per kg) 1.00 1.00 Gutta percha (per kg) 1.50 1.50 Transport/shipment of NWFPs/commodities Revised rules and regulations governing the transport or shipment of logs, lumber, plywood, veneer, and non-timber products, including finished or semi-finished wood and non-wood based forest products and commodities had been made through DAO No. 59 Series of 1993. These rules were made pursuant to P.D. 705 as amended, and Executive Order No. 192 dated 10 June 1987. 218 Chapter 6. Philippine Policies on NWFPs Certificate of Origin. Movement/shipment of any of the above-mentioned forest products or commodities, whether from natural forests or forest plantations within forest lands shall be covered with appropriate certificate of origin (CO). In the case of NWFPs, the required documentation is a certificate of NWFP origin or CNFPO. The CENRO is the one authorized to issue this certificate. The CNFPO shall be supported by the shipper’s tally sheet to be considered valid. A written request of the licensee/permitee or shipper is required prior to the issuance of CO. This request shall indicate the following information: a) b) c) d) e) f) Number of pieces/volume Date of transport/loading Point of loading Mode of transport/type of conveyances Name and address of consignee Point of destination Issuance of CNFPO shall be issued by the concerned CENRO or in his absence, by his duly authorized representative. The CNFPO is to be issued on a per truck basis for land transport, valid for 15 days from date of issuance. For domestic water transport, it should be on a per shipment basis, valid only for a period of 30 days from date of issuance or upon discharge at the point of destination. If for any valid reason or eventuality the said certificate expires before the cargo reaches destination or consignee, the same shall be extended by the nearest CENRO upon application. Confiscation, forfeiture, and disposition of conveyances used in the commission of forest offenses Guidelines and procedures in the confiscation, forfeiture, and disposition of conveyances used in the commission of offenses penalized under P.D. No. 705 as amended and other laws, rules and regulations were promulgated through DAO No. 59 Series of 1990. Specifically, DAO No. 59 Series of 1987 stipulates that all conveyances used in the transport of any forest product (that includes NWFPs) obtained or gathered illegally whether or not covered with transport documents and are found spurious or irregular in accordance with Section 68 of P.D. 705 shall be confiscated in favor of the government or disposed of in accordance with pertinent laws, rules, and regulations. Conveyances. As defined, these include any type or class of vehicle, craft, whether motorized or not, used either in land, water or air, or a combination thereof or any mode of transport used in the movement of forest products including all its implements and accessories. Transport agreement. The shipper/owner or their duly authorized representative shall have a transport agreement executed under oath before any forest product (includes NWFPs) 219 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 shall be transported. This will be the basis of the CENRO for the issuance of transport documents covering the forest products to be shipped or transported. The transport agreement shall contain the undertaking that the conveyance owner shall be held liable in case of illegally transported forest product. Disposition of conveyances. All conveyances found to have been used in the transport of any forest product (includes NWFPs) found illegal and/or covered by spurious documents shall be declared forfeited in favor of the government in accordance with Section 68-A of PD 705. Forfeited conveyances may be used, at the discretion of the DENR, in the forest protection and development activities or they may be disposed of through public auction in accordance with the existing policies and procedures for the disposition of government property. 220 Chapter 6. Philippine Policies on NWFPs References DENR. 1997. Sustainable Livelihood Options for the Philippines. Upland Ecosystem. An Information Kit. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, 484 pp. DENR Administrative Order No. 04 Series of 1989. Revised regulations governing rattan resources. Policies, memoranda and other issuances on the National Forestation Program. Volume III. DENR Administrative Order NO. 04-1 Series of 1989. Revised regulations governing rattan resources. Policies, memoranda and other issuances on the National Forestation Program. Volume III (Supplemental to DAO 04-89). Executive Order No. 318. Towards Promoting the Sustainable Management of Philippine Forest Resources. Signed June 8, 2004 by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. PCARRD-DOST and NPCO-DENR.1991. The Philippines recommends for bamboo production. Philippine Recommends series No. 53-A. Los Baños, Laguna. Revilla Jr. A. 1990. Assessment of policies on production and utilization. In “Rattan: Proceedings of the National Symposium Workshop on Rattan.” Ecotech Center, Lahug, Cebu City, June 1-3, 1988. PCARRD-DOST and IDRC Book Series No. 99. Umali, R.M. 1990. New Department of Environment and Natural Resources policies on rattan. In “Rattan: Proceedings of the National Symposium Workshop on Rattan.” EcoTech Center, Lahug, Cebu City, June 1-3, 1988. PCARRD-DOST and IDRC Book Series No. 99. 221 VII. THE FUTURE OF PHILIPPINE NWFPs Interest in NWFPs in government institutions and NGOs, among scientists and forestry professionals, and in the international arena is not expected to wane soon. On the contrary, NWFPs are expected to gain more attention and will become an integral part of policymaking in the forestry sector, in the advocacies of NGOs and funding institutions, and in the education of foresters and natural resources managers. Thus NWFPs will continue to be the foci of training programs and research endeavors of scientists, and new technologies will be developed to enhance their production and utilization. The 1990 Master Plan for Philippine Forestry Development has recommended the institutionalization of NWFPs through an office that would oversee the development of these products. DENR has been promoting the development of rattan plantations throughout the country. The CBFM program and similar government and non-government sponsored projects are also assisting villages in establishing livelihood that are based on the production, harvest and use of NWFPs. Government forest policy agenda will become more conducive to the further development of NWFPs as these resources will continue to be seen as means for generating income for the forest-dependent and poor upland dwellers, without unduly increasing the degradation rate of the forests. On the business side, the DTI, through its Cottage Industry Technology Center (CITC), promotes the establishment of cottage and small scale enterprises (SMEs), which encompass a great number of manufacturers in the GDH (Gifts, Decors, and House wares) sector, a major domestic consumer of NWFPs as raw materials. CITC provides technical assistance in product quality and productivity improvement of SMEs to make them become more globally competitive. DTI, on the other hand, sponsors trade missions and exhibits that enable SMEs to promote their latest products and designs. Manufacturers of NWFPbased handcrafted products have organized themselves into the Philippine Chamber of Handicraft Industries (PCHI), which helps them deal better with government and prospective big volume buyers of their products. The furniture makers also have their own Chamber of Furniture Industries of the Philippines (CFIP) and some other regional organizations such as the Cebu Furniture Manufacturers Association. In the Cordilerras, In-Hand Abra Foundation in the province of Abra supports communities through the provision of training and access to new technologies that can be harnessed to develop new products. It collaborates with various design centers, both in the government and private sector, to come up with product designs that communities use as models for crafting new products that will keep them competitive in the market. Leading the NGOs in the Philippines and in the region in taking up the cause of NWFPs and ensuring that forest dwellers especially indigenous peoples’ groups are able to benefit from the resources in their domain is the Non-Timber Forest Products Exchange Program (NTFP-EP). Registered as a non-profit organization in 2003, NTFP-EP is a collaborative network of over 40 NGOs and community-based organizations in the Philippines, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam and Cambodia (http://www.ntfp.org/). Their shared goal is “to empower forest-based communities to make use of and manage forest resources in a Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 sustainable manner.” To carry out its advocacy, NTFP-EP facilitates the exchange of expertise, experiences and approaches among its partner organizations, provides technical support and training, documents best practices and success stories on NWFPs, and promotes the marketing and sale of NWFP-based products of their partners and the upland communities that they assist. In 2007, it organized the NTFP Policy Forum “When ‘Non’ Means Everything” along with UPLBCFNR and other partner organizations to drumbeat support for the adoption of a draft administrative order designed to facilitate the access of indigenous peoples groups to NWFP resources in ancestral domain areas. Research, Information, Education, and Training on NWFPs Increased interest in NWFPs triggered changes in the thrusts and mandates of educational and research and development institutions in the country. In research, the FPRDI in Los Baños has expanded its research and development efforts to include inventory, management practices, marketing, and enhancement of collection and utilization technologies to maximize value and minimize wastes from NWFPs. Similarly, the Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau (ERDB) also located in Los Baños has made significant research in-roads into the propagation, regeneration, and cultural management of various NWFPs. Researchers at ERDB have likewise conducted studies dealing with the economics of NWFP production, harvesting, and utilization. A number of issues of ERDB’s “Research Information Series on Ecosystems” or RISE have focused on the propagation, management, and utilization of a variety of NWFP species. Research on medicinal plants is continuing and the commercial production of medicinal tablet from selected plants has proceeded with a great deal of success. The PCHRD spearheads research on medicinal plants in the country, while PITAHC has been mandated to promote alternative sources of medicine to help the poor cope with the rising cost of commercial drugs by developing and testing new formulations from locally available plant sources. Thus far, PITAHC has successfully produced capsules and syrup from lagundi and sambong, the technology for which has already been adapted by the private sector in their commercial production of doctor-prescribed medications for cough and related ailments. Likewise, at the UPLBCFNR, the curricula have been revised to incorporate developments in NWFPs. New courses on Non-Timber Forest Products and the Silviculture of NonTimber Forest Products have been instituted while others have been or are being revised to integrate NWFPs. Examples of the newly revised courses are Forest Products Harvesting which replaced the former Timber Harvesting course to de-emphasize timber as the main object of forest economic activity as well as to impart to students proper and more efficient techniques for the harvesting of NWFPs. The course Taxonomy of Forest Plants was also expanded and has since become the required course for all CFNR students instead of the traditional Dendrology class, the idea behind which is to expose students not only to the timber trees but also to the other important forest plants as well. Utilization courses that previously dealt solely with wood such as Wood Machining, Wood Preservation, and 224 Chapter 7. The Future of Philippine NWFPs Wood Seasoning have likewise been changed to Machining of Wood and Related Products, Preservation of Forest Products, and Seasoning of Forest Products, respectively, to serve as vehicles for the teaching of newly-developed technologies in the proper processing, machining, treatment, and drying of non-wood materials such as bamboo, rattan, and palm products. The Training Center for Tropical Resources and Ecosystems Sustainability (TREES) of CFNR has conducted in 2000 a training course on Non-Wood Forest Products attended by Bhutan forestry officers. Modules on NWFPs have been incorporated in various training courses offered by TREES and by the Institute of Agroforestry. The Human Resource Development Office (HRDO) of DENR has also been equipping its personnel with new knowledge and information on NWFPs. At least two batches of forestry field personnel have been sent to the Environment and Natural Resources Academy (ENRA) in Carranglan, Nueva Ecija for intensive three-week training on NWFPs. The course covers the entire spectrum of NWFPs, from proper identification, assessment, production and regeneration, utilization, as well as socio-economic and gender related issues. PCARRD used to have two commodity teams on NWFPs. These were the team on Bamboo and Rattan and the other on Minor (unfortunately, the mislabeling) Forest Plants. These teams set the direction for the research thrusts in these forest products and among the identified gaps for bamboo and rattan were as follows: a) resource inventory; b) training gaps in bamboo treatment, carpentry, finishing, and product development and design; and c) the lack of grading and processing standards (PCARRD, 2002a). In the case of “minor” forest plants, some of those identified as gaps were: a) lack of appropriate production technologies; b) the need to improve labor productivity; and c) great variability in the nature of the products, and hence the raw material requirements. (PCARRD, 2002b). Incidentally, PCARRD also maintains a Bamboo Infonet, which can be accessed through the internet by those who wish to obtain basic information on the various aspects of bamboo, e.g., properties, processing, agencies to be contacted for assistance, and markets, among other things. Globally, agencies and institutions have adopted NWFPs as an additional area of concern. The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) for example, has been funding research and development activities on NWFPs, perhaps in recognition of the contribution that these products can make in easing the pressure on forest trees. Interest in NWFPs as alternative materials from the forests will help ensure a longer-term supply of tropical timber. The International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) has added a sub-group on NWFPs under its Division 5 on Forest Products. FAO has been consistently pursuing activities related to NWFPs, especially on the aspects of increasing awareness of the existence and the potential of the resource, with its various publications on NWFPs such as the Non-Wood Forest Products series and Non-Wood News. The implication of NWFPs to sustainable forest management as well as its links to livelihood development especially among forest dwellers and other forest-dependent 225 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 communities has received attention from the scientists at CIFOR. The World Agroforestry Center or ICRAF has likewise been advocating the integration of medicinal plants, bamboo, rattan, and forest food plants in agroforestry systems. They have documented traditional agroforestry management systems where local people have incorporated the production and utilization of NWFPs in their age-old practices. In other countries, the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM) has likewise intensified its research on medicinal and other plant producing chemicals, having acquired the latest in instrumentation technology for the characterization of the active chemical principles that compose the natural products available from plants and even animals. Even in more developed countries such as the United States, the occurrence of a “quiet revolution” in American forests has been described (Jones et al., 2003), where “the image of the lumberjack is being replaced by that of a forager” in view of growing realization that a wide range of NWFP commodities such as wild mushrooms, maple sugar, and medicinal plants, other than timber, abound in the woods. In Canada where attention to the welfare of aboriginals and the preservation of their cultures have traditionally been strong, there are moves toward further integration of NWFPs into forest management systems because of their link with native cultures and traditions. No doubt, in view of these developments taking place all over the world, NWFPs being a buzzword in the forestry sector will remain so in many years to come. The potential of new technologies for enhancing sustainable use of NWFPs Is the development of new technologies the way to go to further advance the use of NWFPs while ensuring the sustainability of the forests that have nurtured them? This is being asked in view of the ambivalence of some sectors about the potential of NWFPs to contribute to livelihood generation and poverty reduction without them getting over-exploited at the same extent as timber, thereby contributing to increased forest loss and degradation. Corollary to this is the concern in developing countries that building upon new technologies for NWFPs, especially for their harvesting and processing, will only displace labor, and in the end defeat the purpose of making NWFPs a vehicle for emancipating the upland poor from despair, helplessness, and economic vulnerability. While these questions may give us enough reasons to pause, it may also be worthwhile to examine where we are now as far as technologies for NWFPs production and utilization are concerned. Beyond the traditional technologies that were mostly adopted from local people’s use of NWFPs, in reality there has been very little breakthrough in NWFP harvesting and utilization technologies. Take the case of buri fiber extraction for instance, which to this day is still done laboriously by hand. Many medicinal plants continue to be used without people really knowing the active components that make them work. There are also many cases of patients substituting medicinal plants for doctor-prescribed medications, at times without knowing the right dosage to take. In the case of rattan and bamboo, mechanization in raw material preparation for furniture making is also happening at a very slow pace, with age-old problems such as poor fastening quality of bamboo and rattan remaining unsolved. 226 Chapter 7. The Future of Philippine NWFPs When new technologies are to be developed, it is also important to predetermine whether the prospective technology is compatible with the employment, socio-cultural, and spiritual needs of the people who will use or be affected by them. The acceptability of the technology should be a foremost concern for scientists and technology developers. Development workers recognize the value of consulting people about their needs right from the very start, even at the stage when the germ of an idea for a specific technology is just being hatched. This way, people will know exactly what technological problems are being addressed. Involving the beneficiaries in technology development enables participation that eventually makes people accept the resulting innovation as their own. Subsequently, they become more open to contributing idea towards the development, and eventually ownership and use of the solution being afforded by the new technology. Finally, to encourage investments in technology development for NWFPs, it is also essential to ask if the market will reward innovations in NWFP technologies. For instance, will consumers prefer machine-made buri hats to the handmade ones? Would people think there is no difference between factory, mass-produced jams from wild fruits and the ones manually prepared by natives working in their respective households using ordinary home utensils and wood fuel-fired stoves? Will handicrafts made from NWFPs not lose their allure to environmentally conscious markets if the raw materials were harvested using high-speed tools and processed using electronically operated gadgets or instruments? Market feasibility studies that take into account niche market and end-user preferences are a must in NWFP technology innovations as they are for any kind of consumer product. 227 Non-Wood Forest Products of the Philippines 2009 References http://www.ntfp.org/ (NTFP Exchange Programme Website) Jones, E.T., R.J. McLain, and J. Weigand. 2003. Non-timber Forest Products in the United States. University Press of Kansas. 424 pp. PCARRD. 2002a. R&D Status and Directions (2000 and Beyond) - Bamboo and Rattan. Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development, Department of Science and Technology, Los Baños, Laguna. PCARRD. 2002b. R&D Status and Directions (2000 and Beyond) - Minor Forest Plants. Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development, Department of Science and Technology, Los Baños, Laguna. 228 ANNEX TABLES Annex Table A. Checklist of Philippine rattans. Genus/Scientific Name Common Name Distribution Endemicity Luzon, Samar, Biliran, Dinagat Is., Mindanao Luzon Luzon Batanes Mindoro E*** Genus Calamus Calamus aidae Fernando ulasi, ulisi, inhian C. arugda Becc. C. balerensis Fernando C. batanensis (Becc.) Baja-Lapis C. bicolor Becc. quwenluhuy, arugda rituuk valit sambunotan, lasi, rasi, obanan sika C. caesius Blume C. cumingianus Becc. C. diepenhorstii Miq. var. exulans Becc. C. dimorphacanthus Becc. var. dimorphocanthus var. montalbanicus Becc. var. zambalensis Becc. var. benguetensis Baja-Lapis var. halconensis (Becc.) BajaLapis *** ubut, dowung-dowung Abuan Palawan Also found in Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, Borneo & Southern Thailand Luzon/Mindanao E Luzon/Palawan and Polilio Is. E, variety is endemic Luzon, Panay E Luzon Luzon lambutan, umbanan, oban- Luzon oban Luzon, Mindoro, Panay, Mindanao E - Endemic 231 E E E E E E Genus/ Scientific Name C. discolor Mart. var. discolor var. negrosensis Becc. C. elmerianus Becc. Common Name kumaboi kumabaoi tagiktik, panlis, sababai, samanid C. erinaceus (Becc.) Dransf. var. erinaceus C. filispadix Becc. C. foxworthyi Becc. C. grandifolius Becc. C. javensis Blume Distribution Luzon Negros, Siargao Luzon, Dinagat, Mindanao Palawan pangan-panganan, nokut, Palawan kangnobnob Palawan saba-ong Luzon arorog Palawan C. jenningsianus Becc. C. malawaliensis J. Dransf. C. manillensis H. Wendl. litoko, giwi, lintukan C. marginatus (Blume) Mart. labsikan Mindoro Palawan Luzon, Dinagat Is., Mindanao Palawan C. megaphyllus Becc. C. melanorhynchus Becc. mabagaki, banakbo dalimban Leyte, Mindanao Mindanao 232 Endemicity E E Southern Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo E E E Southern Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Java E Also in Malawali E Also in Sumatra and Borneo E E Genus/ Scientific Name Common Name Distribution C. merrillii Becc. palasan, quwen, babuyan, Luzon, Masbate, Palawan, pasan, nanga, acab-acab Mindanao, Masbate var. merrittianus (Becc.) Becc. Luzon, Mindoro var. nanga Becc. nanga Mindanao C. meyenianus Becc. Pangasinan, N. Vizcaya C. microcarpus Becc. var. korayot, tandulang-gubat, Luzon, Polillo, Mindoro, microcarpus potian, obanon Leyte, Mindanao var. diminutus Becc. kamlis Luzon var. longiocrea Baja-Lapis cham-may, damayon Luzon C. microsphaerion Becc. var. kulakling, labit, pinpin, Luzon, Culion, Palawan microsphaerion siksik, sika-sika var. spinosior Becc. Palawan C. mindorensis Becc. tumalim Luzon, Mindoro C. mitis Becc. tevdas, matkong Batanes, Luzon, Babuyan C. moseleyanus Becc. sarani Mindanao, Basilan C. multinervis Becc. bugtungan, balala, ubli Mindanao C. ornatus Blume var. philippinensis limuran, quwen, Luzon, Polillo, Mindoro, Becc. gamangan, kalapi Negros, Mindanao var. pulverulentus Fernando mananga, borongan Palawan, Mindoro 233 Endemicity E E E E E Also in Borneo E E E E E E E Genus/ Scientific Name Common Name Distribution C. ramulosus Becc. C. reyesianus Becc. C. samian Becc. C. scipionum Lour. panlis apas, lukuan tagsa-on, samian bastonan Luzon Luzon, Mindanao Luzon, Mindanao Palawan C. siphonospathus Mart. var. siphonospathus var. dransfieldii Baja-Lapis var. farinosus Becc. var. oligolepis Becc. var. polylepis Becc. var. sublevis Becc. C. spinifolius Becc. C. subinermis H.A. Wendl. ex Becc. C. trispermus Becc. C. symphysiphus Mart. C. usitatus Blanco biri, tallawan Luzon C. vidalianus Becc. C. vinosus Becc. C. viridissimus Becc. Mindanao (Sulawesi) Luzon Luzon sukol Luzon sipay, papakin Luzon, Mindanao kurakling Luzon, Panay, Mindanao bugtung Palawan Luzon apas, bolanog Luzon, Mindanao tandulang-parang, talora, Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao tamarura butarak, taguiti, quwen, Luzon lantok Mindanao akal Mindanao Endemicity E E E Also in Southern Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra & Borneo E pasan-pasan 234 E E E E Also in Borneo E Also in Celebes Also in Borneo E E E Genus/ Scientific Name Genus Daemonorops Daemonorops affinis Becc. D. clemensiana Becc. D. curranii Becc. D. gracilis Becc. D. longipes (Griff.) Mart. D. loheriana Becc. D. margaritae (Hance) Becc. var. palawanica Becc. D. mollis (Blanco) Merr. D. ochrolepis Becc. D. oligolepis Becc. D. pannosa Becc. D. pedicellaris Becc. D. polita Fernando D. urdanetana Becc. Common Name bag-bag Distribution labsikan Mindanao Mindanao Palawan Palawan Palawan pin-pin Luzon Palawan pitpit, saranoi ditaan, quwe, mangnaw, Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao nanga, gatasan, sumulid sumulid, palaklakarin, Luzon, Polillo, Leyte, ditaan, nokot, taletol, Mindanao pagit, saroringan ragma Mindanao sabilog Mindanao hanamham, delot, logman, Leyte, Mindanao hiyod, oban-oban, rogman lapa-utong Mindanao, Zamboanga sahaan Mindanao 235 Endemicity E E E E Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo E Variety endemic; Species also found in South China E E E E E E Genus/ Scientific Name Genus Korthalsia Korthalsia laciniosa Mart. Common Name Distribution K. merrillii Becc. K. rigida Bl. danan, tambuanga, planug, Luzon, Polillo, Mindanao miling-piling buragat Palawan Palawan K. robusta Bl. kalalias Palawan kapnigid Mindanao ungang pason, panog, kalaanan, laanan, binting dalaga, paang dalaga Mindanao Palawan, Mindanao, Leyte K. scaphigeroides Becc. Genus Plectocomia Plectocomia elmeri Becc. P. elongata Mart. ex Bl. var. philippinensis Madulid Endemicity Also in SE Asia & Indonesia E Also in Southern Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo Also in Borneo & Sumatra E E The variety is endemic, also found in Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra Source: PCARRD, 1991. Philippine Recommends for Rattan Production. Philippine Recommends Series. Fernando, E.S. 2002. Checklist of Species in FBS 21 (Taxonomy of Forest Plants). 8th Edition. FBS-CFNR-UPLB. DENR. Undated. Master Plan for Forestry Development. Non-Wood Forest Plant Species and Products (Rattan). Draft Report. Asian Development Bank TA 993 PHI. 51 pp. and tables. 236 Annex Table B. Bamboo species found in the Philippines. Scientific Name Genus Arundinaria Arundinaria argenteostriata (Regel) Ohwi A. graminea (Bean) Makino A. pygmea (Miq.) Mitf. Genus Bambusa Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd. B. dolichoclada Hayata B. dolichomerithalla Hayata B. floribunda Nakai syn. Leleba floribunda Nakai B. glaucescens (Willd.) Sieb. ex Munro B. horsfieldii Munro B. merrillii Gamble B. oldhamii Munro B. blumeana Roxb. B. tulda Roxb. B. utilis Lin B. ventricosa McClure B. vulgaris Schrad. B. vulgaris Schrad. ex Wendl. cv Wamin (Brandis) McClure B. vulgaris Schrad. ex Wendl. var. striata (Lodd.) Gamble  Common Name Habit Origin E E E Native to Japan Native to Ryukyu Is. Native to Japan E E E E Introduced probably from India Endemic to China Endemic to Taiwan Probably native to Japan Buddha bamboo Kauayan kiling Wamin bamboo E E E E E E E E E Native, also Java Endemic Native to Southern China Introduced by Malay invaders Introduced probably from India Native to Taiwan Native to Southern China Introduced; Pantropic Native to Southern China Kauayan-dilau E Introduced probably from China Variegated dwarf bamboo Merrill bamboo Dwarf bamboo Indian bamboo Chinese bamboo Taiwan bamboo Chinese dwarf bamboo Lopa Merrill bamboo Oldham bamboo Kauayan tinik Spineless India bamboo E - Erect 237 Scientific Name Common Name Genus Dendrocalamus Dendrocalamus giganteus (Wall.) Munro D. latiflorus Munro D. merillianus (Elm.) Elm. Genus Dinochloa Dinochloa acutiflora (Munro) S. Dransf. D. elmeri Gamble D. luconiae (Munro) Merr. D. palawanense (Gamble) S. Dransf. D. pubiramea Gamble Genus Gigantochloa Gigantochloa aspera Kurz Habit E Origin Machiku E Bayog E Native to Burma, India and Thailand. Planted in Lucban, Quezon Native to Burma. Cultivated in India, Taiwan, China and Thailand. Newly introduced to the Philippines. Endemic Bikal Elmer bikal (suggested name) Bikal baboi Bagto Bakau (suggested name) C C Endemic Endemic C C C Endemic Endemic Native, also found in Borneo Giant bolo E Native to Northern Malaya and neighboring regions. Planted in Impasugong, Malaybalay Kayali Bolo E E G. atter Kurz (Hassk.) G. levis (Blanco) Merr. 238 Probably an introduced species; Sensu Merrill, compared critically with the Malayan species. Scientific Name Genus Phyllostachys Phyllostachys negripes Hayata P. nigra var. henonis (Mittf.) Stapf ex Wendle P. pubescens Mazel ex H. de Leh Genus Schizostachyum Schizostachyum curranii Gamble S. fenixii Gamble S. lima (Blanco) Merr. S. lumampao (Blanco) Merr. Syn: S. hirtiflorum Hack. S. luzonicum Gamble S. palawanense Gamble S. textorium (Blanco) Merr. S. toppingii Gamble S. zollingeri Steud. Genus Sphaerobambos Sphaerobambos philippinensis (Gamble) S. Dransf. Syn: B. philippinensis (Gamble) McClure (Formerly in Guadua. Reduced to Bambusa by McClure in 1973) Common Name Habit Origin Running bamboo Edible bamboo E E E Japan, China, Himalayas Introduced probably from China Native to tropical Asia Curran bikal Puser (suggested name) Anos Buho C C E E Endemic Endemic Endemic Endemic Luzon bikal Palawan bikal Kalbang Usiu Buhong dilaw C C E C E Endemic Endemic Endemic Endemic Native to tropical Asia Laak E Endemic Endemic, Davao 239 Scientific Name Genus Thyrsostachys Thyrsostachys siamensis (Kurz) Gamble Genus Yushania Yushania niitakayamensis (Hayata) Keng f. Common Name Habit Origin Thailand bamboo E Native to Burma and Thailand Utod E Native to Taiwan and Philippines (Luzon, Mindoro) Sources: a) Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development. The Philippines recommends for bamboo production. Los Baños, Laguna: PCARRD, 1991. 74 p. (Philippines Recommends Series No. 53-A). b) Rojo, J.P., C.A. Roxas, P.C. Pitargue Jr., and C.A. Briñas. 2000. Philippine Erect Bamboos. A Field Identification Guide. Forest Products Research and Development Institute, Department of Science and Technology, Philippines. 161 p. c) Andam, C.J. 1995. Production and Utilization of Bamboo in the Philippines.Philippine Technology Journal. Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 59-72. 240 Annex Table C. Bast Fiber Producing Species of the Philippines Family / Scientific Name Common Habit Name Annonaceae Goniothalamus amuyon (Blco.) Merr. Amuyong Tree Phaeanthus ebracteolatus (Presl) Merr. Kalimatas Tree Habitat/Distribution Of local occurrence and widely distributed at Cordage low altitudes in the Philippines Common and widely distributed in the Cordage Philippines Apocynaceae Parameria laevigata (Juss.) Moldenke Dugtong ahas Large woody Widely distributed in the Philippines syn. P. philippinensis Radlk. vine Bombacaceae Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott & Endl. Malabulak Large Tree At low altitudes throughout the Philippines Boraginaceae Cordia aspera G. Forst. syn. C. cumingiana Vid. Celtidaceae Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus calomala (Blanco) Merr. Gnetaceae Gnetum gnemon L. Gnetum sp. Anonang-lalaki Anabiong Uses Cordage Cordage, pillows Small tree Of local occurrence at low altitudes in Luzon Cordage Small tree In open and second growth forests at low altitudes throughout the Philippines Kalomala Tree Bago Kuliat Tree Small tree 241 Distributed from the Mountain Province, Luzon to southern Mindanao Cordage Cordage Cordage Cordage Family / Scientific Name Leguminosae/ Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Merr. syn. Milletia pinnata (L.) Panigrahi Malvaceae Abelmoschus multilobatus Merr. syn. A. manihot (L.) Medikus ssp. tetrapetalus (Roxb. ex Hornem) Borss. var. pungens (Roxb.) Hochr. Abroma fastuosa Jacq. syn. A. augusta (L.) Lif. Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Common Name Habit Kansasaga/ Prayer-bean Bani Vine Tree Common and widely distributed in the Cordage Philippines From Northern Luzon to Southern Mindanao Cordage Annabo a dadakkel Shrub From Ilocos Norte, La Union and Bataan Anabo American kapok or silk cotton tree Mamaued Columbia blancoi Rolfe. syn. Colona blancoi (Rolfe) Merr. Columbia lanceolata Warb.syn. Colona Kadiin lanceolata (Warb.) Burret Columbia mollis Warb. syn. Colona mollis Kaddeng (Warb) Burret Commersonia bartramia (L.) Merr. Kakaag Corchorus capsularis L. Pasau na bilog Diplodiscus paniculatus Turcz. Balobo Habitat/Distribution Uses Cordage Shrub or At low and medium altitudes in the settled small tree areas and brushlands of the Philippines Tree Cordage, fancy articles At low altitudes throughout the settled areas Cordage, of the Philippines pillows Small tree Only from Luzon Cordage Tree In second growth forests in Luzon Cordage Tree Occurs in Luzon Cordage Small tree At low altitudes throughout the Philippines Cordage Herb Widely distributed in the Philippines in open, Cordage low grasslands and waste places Tree In forests from northern Luzon to southern Cordage Mindanao 242 Family / Scientific Name Habit Grewia acuminata Juss. Common Name Amboi-uan Grewia bilamellata Gagnep. Grewia eriocarpa Juss. Benglareng Bariuan Tree Shrub or small Shrub or small tree Shrub Mediumsized tree Tree Small or mediumsized tree Annual Grewia multiflora Juss. Helicteres hirsuta Lour. Hibiscus camphylosiphon Turcz. var. glabrescens (Warb. ex Perk.) Borss. Hibiscus tiliaceus L. Kleinhovia hospita L. Malachra capitata Jacq. Malachra fasciata Merr. Melochia umbellate (Houtt.) Stapf Pterocymbium tinctorium (Blanco) Merr. Pterospermum celebicum Miq. Pterospermum diversifolium Blume Sida acuta Burm. f. Sida cordifolia L. Danglin Tree Habitat/Distribution From La Union Province in Luzon to southern Mindanao Uses Cordage Cordage Cordage Common and widely distributed in the Philippines At low altitudes throughout the Philippines From Luzon, Mindoro and Palawan Cordage Common throughout the Philippines At low altitudes throughout the Philippines Cordage Cordage Common in waste places throughout the Philippines Paang-baliwis Woody Herb Naturalized in the Philippines at low altitudes; abundant in wet places Labayo Small Tree In second growth forests throughout the Philippines Taluto Tree Virgin forests and on drier soils Bayok-bayokan Tree Widely distributed in the forests of the Philippines Bayok Tree Common and widely distributed in the Philippines Walis-walisan Shrub In waste places throughout the Philippines Albahaca Woody In open waste places; common and widely Shrub distributed in the Philippines Cordage Tongtongking Vidal's Lanutan Malubago Tan-ag Bakembakes 243 Cordage Cordage Cordage Cordage Cordage Cordage Cordage Cordage Cordage Family / Scientific Name Sida rhombifolia L. Common Name Habit Takling-baka Shrub Abundant in wet places throughout the Philippines Large Tree Widely distributed in the forests of Luzon Tree Widely distributed in the Philippines Sterculia macrophylla Vent. Tapinag Sterculia cuneata R. Br. syn. S. Malabonot rubiginosa Vent. Sterculia foetida L. Kalumpang Large Tree Sterculia luzonica Warb. syn. S. ceramica Malakalumpang Tree R.Br. Sterculia oblongata R. Br. Malaboho Small or mediumsized Sterculia philippinensis Merr. syn. S. Banilad Tree comosa Wall. Sterculia stipularis R. Br. (a form of S. Bonotan Mediumrubiginosa Vent.) sized tree Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. Marakapas Shrub Triumfetta rhomboidea L. Kulot-kulotan Annual Urena lobata L. Menispermaceae Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arm Moraceae Allaeanthus glaber Warb.syn. Broussonetia luzonica (Blanco) Bereau var. glabra (Warb.) Corner Habitat/Distribution Kollo-kollot Shrub Ligtang Vine Cordage Cordage Cordage Widely distributed in the Philippines Widely distributed in the Philippines Cordage Cordage Widely distributed at low altitudes in the Philippines Cordage In Luzon and the Visayan Islands Cordage Widely distributed at low altitudes Cordage In Luzon and the Visayan Islands It is naturalized in the Philippines. Also found in tropical Asia, Africa and Malaya In waste places throughout the Philippines Cordage Cordage Common and widely distributed in the Philippines Cordage Malambingan Medium-size From Northern Luzon to Basilan tree 244 Uses Cordage Cordage Family / Scientific Name Antiaris toxicaria (Pers.) Lesch. Common Name Lata / Upas Artocarpus blancoi (Elmer) Merr. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Antipolo Nangka Artocarpus rubrovenius Warb. Kalulot Ficus benjamina L. Salisi Ficus forstenii Miq. Balete Ficus pachyphylla Merr. syn. F. callophylla Blume var. leytensis Corner Ficus palawanensis Merr.syn. F. forstenii Miq. Muntingiaceae Muntingia calabura L. Sapindaceae Sapindus saponaria L. forma microcarpa Radlk. Thymelaeaceae Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. Phaleria perrottetiana (Decne.) Fernandez-Villar Wikstroemia indica (L.) C.E. Mey. Balete Balete Habit Habitat/Distribution Uses Tree Widely distributed in the Philippines but not Clothing common Tree Widely distributed in the Philippines Cordage Tree Distributed throughout the Philippines Cordage; Clothing Tree From northern to the southern limits of the Clothing Philippines Stranggling Distributed at low altitudes from nothern Cordage fig Luzon to southern Mindanao Strangling Distributed from northern Luzon to southern Cordage fig Mindanao Stranggling Distributed at low altitudes from nothern Cordage fig Luzon to southern Mindanao Large Throughout the Philippines at low altitude Cordage strangling fig Datiles Tree Native of tropical America but is naturalized Cordage in the Philippines Kusibeng Tree From Northern Luzon to Mindanao Tuka Small-leaf salago Cordage Tree In Camarines Cordage Small tree Distributed from northern Luzon to southern Cordage Mindanao Shrub Distributed from northern Luzon to southern Cordage Mindanao 245 Family / Scientific Name Wikstroemia lanceolata Merr. Wikstroemia lanceolata Merr. Wikstroemia meyeniana Warb. Wikstroemia ovata C.E. Mey. Wikstroemia spp. Urticaceae Boehmeria nivea Gaudich. Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd. Common Name Salagong gubat Habit Habitat/Distribution Shrub Cordage Salagong sibat Large-leaf salago Round-leaf salago Salago Shrub Shrub Widely distributed in Luzon and the Visayan Islands In northern and central Luzon Distributed from northern Luzon to southern Mindanao Distributed from Luzon to Mindanao Shrub Scattered in thickets throughout the Philippines Cordage Ramie/ China grass Alagasi Shrub Mountain region of Luzon Cordage; fabrics Tree From Luzon to Palawan Shrub Uses Cordage Cordage Cordage Sources: Brown, W.H. 1921. Minor Products of Philippine Forests. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources.Bureau of Forestry. Volume 1 Bulletin No.22. Bureau of Printing, Manila 473 pp. Common Weeds of the UPCF Campus. (undated) De Padua, L. S., G. C. Lugod and J. V. Pancho. 1977. Handbook on Philippine Medicinal Plants. Volume 1. Technical Bulletin Vol. II No. 3. Documentation and Information Section, Office of the Director of Research, University of the Philippines at Los Baños. 64 p. Fernando, E.S. 2002. Checklist of species in FBS 21 (Taxonomy of Forest Plants). 8 th Edition. FBS-CFNR-UPLB. Pancho, J.V. and S.R. Obien. 1995. Manual of Ricefield Weeds in the Philippines. Philippine Rice Research Institute, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines. 543 p. Quimbo, L. L. (undated) Laboratory List of Species in Dendrology. College of Forestry, UPLB. 246 Annex Table D. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Family / Scientific Name Acanthaceae Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anders. Common Name Medicinal uses Asistacia Juice- vermifuge; for rheumatism, and swelling; Decoction- enema for pregnant women to lighten childbirth. Leaves and root infusion for cough; Seeds - antidote for snake bite. Leaves and tops decoction - used for bathing febrile catarrh; Juice with milk - diaphoretic and expectorant. Plant decoction - antiblenorrhagic; Crushed leaves - vulnerary; Powdered leaves - vulnerary. Leaves – emollient poultice for ulcer on the hand; mashed leaves placed on stab wounds, especially those made by fish. Leaves – cure for gall stone. Plant decoction – checks excessive menstruation. Leaf juice – emetic cure for asthma and cough; bruised - for rheumatism. Plant boiled with milk – for carbuncle, diarrhea, dysuria. Barleria cristata L. Barleria prionitis L. Violeta Kolinta Blechum brownei Juss syn. B. pyramidatum (Lam.) Urb. Graptophyllum pictum (L.) Griff. Dayang Atay-atay Hemigraphis colorata (Blume) Hallier f. Dahon pula Justica gendarussa Burm. f. Kapanitulot Achariaceae Pangium edule Reinw. ex Blume Agavaceae Cordyline roxburghiana (Schult.) Merr. Cordyline terminalis (L.) Kunth. syn. C. fruticosa (L.) A. Chev. Polianthes tuberosa L. Aloeaceae Aloe barbadensis Mill. Pangi Oil from seeds – treatment for leprosy. Tigre Rooted leaves – emollient. Rhizome – cough remedy. Juice – clears phlegm in children. Red-leaf – antidysenteric. Rhizome – antidiarrhetic. Bark – good for inflamed gums. Bulb decoction – gonorrhea. Flowers – diuretic; also for spices. Sagilala Azusena Sabila Juice - anticonstipation; Plant- anthelmintic, purgative. 247 Family / Scientific Name Aizoaceae Trianthema portulacastrum L. Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. Aerva lanata (L.) Juss Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthus viridis L. syn. A. gracilis Desf. Celosia argentea L. Celosia aristata L. Common Name Toston Hanngod Apug-apugan Bungabunga Uray Kolites Kadayuhan Palong-manok Cyathula prostata (L.) Blume Dayang Amaryllidaceae Crinum asiaticum L. Bakong Crinum latifolium L. Lirion Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. Mangifera indica L. Semecarpus cuneiformis Blanco Spondias purpurea L. Kasoy Mangga Ligas Sineguelas Medicinal uses Root decoction – emmenagogue in small doses; abortive in large doses. Plant - emetic, laxative, dysenteric, stomachic, and toothache remedy. Decoction - for bladder affections; anthelmintic, vermifuge. Plant - galactagogue; antidote for snake bite, chalagogue, eye-wash Plant - lactagogue, sudorific, enema for piles. Plant - galactagogue; antidote for snake bite. Plant - antidote for snake bite; Roots - specific for gonorrhea. Flowers - antidiarrhetic; for menstrual excesses; Seeds - remedy for cough and dysentery. Plant decoction – remedy for cough and dysentery. Ashes – good for scabies. Leaves and bulbs – diaphoretic, emetic. Roots – used against lumbago, fever, swellings. Leaf juice – earache remedy. Toasted bulb – used for piles and abscesses. Oil from pericarp - anesthetic, insecticide, vermicide. Leaf decoction – antidiarrhetic. Ripe fruits – for constipation. Oil of pericarp – caustic for ulcer treatment. Sap – violent poison. Bark decoction – antidysenteric for stomatitis in babies. 248 Family / Scientific Name Annonaceae Anaxagorea luzonensis A. Gray Phaenthus ebracteolatus (Presl) Merr. Common Name Bagang aso Kalimatas Platymitra arborea (Blanco) Kessler Uvaria rufa Blume Apiaceae Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Takip kohol Apocynaceae Allamanda cathartica L. Alstonia macrophylla Wall. ex DC. Kampanilya Batino Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Asclepias curassavica L. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. Ervatamia pandacaqui (Poir.) Pich. syn. Tabernaemontana pandacaqui Lam. Parameria laevigata (Juss.) Moldenke Strophantus cumingii A. DC. Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. Araceae Acorus calamus L. Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) Schott Alocasia portei (Schott) Becc. & Engl. Kalay Hilagat Medicinal uses Pounded leaves - topical for articulate rheumatism. Bark juice – lowers blood pressure; macerated bark in water – conjunctiva. Boiled fruit - febrifuge; Decoction - emmenagogue, antidysentric. Tincture of root – ecbolic. Potential source of abutrine. Leaf decoction - diuretic; Leaves with Vaseline - poultice for skin diseases. Leaf infusion - remedy for colic; purgative; antidote for poisoning. Root decoction - remedy for high blood pressure; anticholeric, tonic, etc. Dita Plant - alternative, antimalarial, antidote for snakebite. Bulak damo Leaves – depurative; syrup from plant- vermifuge; Powdered rootsemetic, antidysenteric. Tsirtsirika Leaves - antidiarrhetic; Roots - depurative, vermifuge, remedy for toothache; Sap - for wasp sting. Pandakaki Leaves – cataplasm for inducing menstruation; decoction of bark and roots for intestinal affections. Tagulauai Decoction of bark – given after childbirth to shrink the uterus; emmenagogue. Abuhab baging Bark – source of strophanthin, for heart stimulation. Yellow oleander Juice – poison, vesicant. Bark decoction – febrifuge in small doses. Lubigan Biga Badyang Plant - carminative, oil and liniment, for asthma and rheumatism. Leaves - antidote for lipa sting; Aerial roots- rubefacient. Root decoction - hastens labor pain in childbirth. 249 Family / Scientific Name Amorphophallus campanulatus (Roxb. Blume ex Decne syn. A. paeoniifolium (Dennst.) Nicolson Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Cyrtosperma merkusii (Hassk.) Schott Homalomena philippinensis Engl. ex Engl. & Krause Pistia stratiotes L. Pothodium lobbianum Schott Araliaceae Schefflera odorata (Blanco) Merr. & Rolfe Araucariaceae Agathis philippinensis Warb. Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand. Streptocaulon baumii Decne. Aspleniaceae Asplenium nidus L. Asteraceae Artemisia vulgaris L. Elephantopus scaber L. Common Name Pongapong Medicinal uses Corm- antirheumatic, caustic, restorative for dyspepsia. Juice of petiole – antihemorrhagic. Tubers – digestive, diuretic, lactagogue, styptic. Galiang Spadix decoction – ecbolic and emmenagogue. Payaw / Alopayi Leaves – vulnerary. Rhizome – antirheumatic, applied in the form of embrocation. Kiyapo Plant – topical for boils, syphilitic and other skin eruptions. Bolong kahinai Pounded stem – antidote for centipede bite. Gabi Lima-lima/ Galamay-amo Leaves – antiscorbutic. Bark – cough remedy. Resin – vulnerary. Almaciga Resin - for varnish making and for liniment. Kapal-kapal Leaf juice - vermifuge; Root infusion - antiblennorrhagic. Hinggiw kalabaw Latex of this vine is vulnerary. Pakpak lawin lalake Damong-maria Dila-dila Plant - sedative and depurative. Leaves and flowers - carminative. Emmenagogue, antispasmodic, anthelmintic. Leaf decoction – emollient, febrifuge. 250 Family / Scientific Name Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. Athryiaceae Athyrium esculentum (Retz.) Copel.syn. Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Balsaminaceae Impatiens balsamina L. Common Name Medicinal uses Tagulinao Leaves and flowers – styptic for cuts; decoction – expectorant. Plant juice – wash for eye inflammation. Pako Rhizome decoction - for hemoptysis and cough. Kamantigi Poultice for felon. Flowers – for lumbago, neuralgia. Seeds – for difficult labor in childbirth. Yellow alder Roots – antisyphilitic, vermifuge and diuretic. Flowers – stomachache remedy. Bixaceae Bixa orellana L. Achuete Bark decoction - for febrile catarrh; Root bark - antiperiodic; powder which covers seeds is hemostatic. Boraginaceae Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. Anonang Leaves – topical for ulcer. Bark – antidyspeptic, febrifuge and remedy for boil. Leaves – antiscabies, pectoral. Seeds and roots – emmenagogue. Plant – for bath after childbirth. Leaf infusion – depurative; also antidote for snakebite. Bignoniaceae Tecoma stans (L.) HBK Heliotropium indicum L. Trichodesma indicum (L.) Sm. Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Burseraceae Canarium luzonicum (Blume) A. Gray Cactaceae Nopalea cochinellifera (L.) Salm-Dyck Buntot-leon Budo-buduan Pinya Fruit - anthelmintic, diuretic, digestive refrigerant. Piling-liitan Oleoresin from bark is stimulant, rubefacient, antirheumatic, stomachic and sudorific. Dilang baka Plant - joints-poultice for articular rheumatism, earache, toothache, erysipelas, etc. 251 Family / Scientific Name Cannaceae Canna indica L. Capparaceae Capparis horrida L.f.syn. C. zeylanica L. Capparis micracantha DC. Cleome spinosa Jacq. Cleome rutidosperma DC. Common Name Tikas tikas Medicinal uses Leaf infusion - diuretic; Rhizomes - demulcent, diaphoretic Halubagat-baging Leaves - counterirritant; cataplasm for boils and files Halubagat-kahoi Roots and wood - diuretic; remedy for bronchitis; Root decoction uterine tonic after childbirth. Botete Leaves – for headache; Plant – stomachic, vulnerary. Apoy-apoyan Seeds – anthelmintic, carminative. Bruised leaves – headache, earache, neuralgia, counterirritant. Caprifoliaceae Sambucus javanica Reinw. Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Sauko Plant – remedy for fatigue. Leaves and roots – for bone diseases. Papaya Leaf decoction - remedy for asthma; Flowers - febrifuge, emmenagogue, pectoral. Casuarinaceae Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. Agoho Leaves - anticolic, stomachic; Bark decoction - ecbolic, astringent, emmenagogue. Celtidaceae Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Commelinaceae Commelina diffusa Burm.f. Commelina benghalensis L. Compositae Ageratum conyzoides L. Bidens pilosa L. Anabiong Kolasi Alikbangon Bulak-manok Nguad Macerated wood- good as poultice for epilepsy. Bruised plant – poultice for boils, burns and itches. Decoction of plant – emollient, refrigerant, laxative, demulcent. Pounded leaves - carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, vulnerary, antidiarrhetic Leaf juice - good for eyesore; Plant decoction - good for cough; Flowers - antidiarrhetic 252 Family / Scientific Name Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC. Chrysanthemum sinense Sabine syn. C. morifolium Ram. Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk syn. E. prostrata (L.) L. Elephantopus tomentosus L. syn. E. prostata (L.) L. Helianthus annuus L. Mikania micrantha H.B.K. Sphaeranthus africanus L. Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. Connaraceae Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Leenh. Convolvulaceae Evolvulus alsinoides L. Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lamk. Common Name Medicinal uses Sambong Manzanilla Leaf decoction - antidiarrhetic. Decoction - enema for stomache; also as a tonic to preserve vitality; Flowers - colds, headaches, sore eyes Leaves – nutritious vegetable. Brewed leaves – for hepatitis. In decoction – elephantiasis. Leaves (crushed) – vulnerary. Plant decoction – diuretic, vermifuge. Hagis-manok Malatabaco Sun flower Uoko Boto-botonesan Tagulinaw liitan Leaves and flowers – for bronchitis. Seeds – expectorant, diuretic. Leaf decoction – cough remedy. Plant – antidote for scorpion bite. Leaves and tops – antiblenorrhagic and stomachic. Juice – remedy for colic and bronchitis; infusion – remedy for cough, eczema and herpes. Kamagsa Leaf decoction – cure for gastral troubles. Root decoction – hog and dog poison. Marakamote Kangkong Plant – alternative, febrifuge. Leaves – for asthma and bronchitis. Leaves – source of Fe, Ca, and P. Latex – purgative. Purple plant – antidiarrhetic. Leaves – corrective vegetable. Roots – laxative and good for diarrhea. Leaves – resolvent for boils, carbucles and pimples. Plant in decoction – alternative diuretic; also used in neuralgia. Juice from stem – anthelmintic, antidiarrhetic; also remedy for cough and sore eyes. Crushed leaves – poultice for burns, sores and scalds. Decoction – alternative and deobstruent. Pounded leaves – poultice. Leaf infusion – febrifuge. Kamote Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. Merremia emarginata (Burm. f.) Hallier f. Merremia peltata (L.) Merr. Malasandia Kupit kupit Bulakan Merremia umbellata (L.) Hallier f. Kalamitmit Merremia vitifolia (Burm f.) Hallier. f. Kalalaknit 253 Family / Scientific Name Operculina turpethum (L.) S. Manso Costaceae Costus speciosus (Koenig) Smith Crassulaceae Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurz Cucurbitaceae Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. Melothria indica Lour. Cycadaceae Cycas revoluta Thunb. Cyperaceae Cyperus iria L. Cyperus kyllingia Endl.syn. Kyllingia monocephala Rottb. Cyperus rotundus L. Fimbrystylis miliacea (L.) Vahl Dilleniaceae Dillenia indica L. Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burk Dioscorea hispida Dennst. Common Name Medicinal uses Kamu-kamutihan Root in tincture – purgative. Powdered root bark – cathartic and laxative. Tubang-usa Roots – astringent, digestive, depurative, anthelmintic, aphrodisiac. Katakataka Leaves - counterirritant for insect bites; juice with lard is used against diarrhea. Kondol Melon daga Leaves and seeds - purgative; Fruit syrup - diuretic, nutritive. Leaves – cure for aphtha in children; also for opacity of the cornea. Oliva Sudsud Boto-botones / Busikad Mutha Siau-sirau Fruit – expectorant and tonic. Stomachic, stimulant, tonic. Root decoction – malaria remedy. Rhizome with oil – dermatitis remedy. Corms – diuretic, tonic, vermifuge; also for dysentery. Leaves – poultice for fever. Katmon-kalabao / Aril of the fruit with caramel placed in the open at night is good for Handapara cough. Katmon Aril of fruit - laxative and cough remedy. Tugi Nami Plant decoction – diuretic, antirheumatic. Tubers – antiberiberi. Tubers – for myiasis of cattle; also, narcotic and poison in large doses. 254 Family / Scientific Name Ehretiaceae Ehretia microphylla Lam. Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus philippinnensis Perr. syn. E. triflorus Roxb. Euphorbiaceae Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. Endospermum peltatum Merr. Euphorbia heterophylla L. syn. E. cyathophora Murr. Euphorbia neriifolia L. Common Name Medicinal uses Tsang-gubat Leaves – cough remedy and antidiarrhetic; stomachic. Roots – antidote for vegetable poisoning. Alingaro Flowers – astringent, also for cardiac trouble. Fruits – for amoebic dysentery. Lumbang Gubas Leaves - antirheumatic; Seeds - purgative; Kernel - aphrodisiac Bark – poultice on abdomen in diarrhea; decoction – alternative and depurative. Stem juice – against erysipelas. Pintado Soro-soro Euphorbia pilulifera L.syn. E. hirta L. ex Klotzsch Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. Gatas-gatas Euphorbia tirucalli L. Konsuelda Homonoia riparia Lour. Lumanay Jatropha curcas L. Jatropha gossypifolia L. Jatropha multifida L. Macaranga grandifolia (Blanco) Merr. Pascuas Tubang-bakod Tuba-tuba Mana Takip-asin Leaf juice – relief for earache and paroxysm; also for asthma, piles and warts. Plant – sedative, diuretic, antidiarrhea, antidysenteric. Leaf decoction – lactagogue. Crushed leaves – poultice for erysipelas. Crushed stem – poultice for fractured bones. Juice – for colic, whooping cough, toothache, scorpion bite. Leaves – poultice for skin diseases. Roots - for stone in the bladder remedy. Leaves – lactagogue, diuretic. Roots – poultice for fractures. Seeds – purgative. Bark – emmenagogue. Seeds – emetic and purgative. Leaves – source of saponin. Roots – remedy for colic and indigestion. Resin – gargle for mouth ulcer. 255 Family / Scientific Name Macaranga tanarius (L.) Muell.-Arg. Melanolepsis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex Blume) Reichb. f. & Zoll. Flagellariaceae Flagellaria indica L. Guttiferae/Clusiaceae Calophyllum inophyllum L. Cratoxylum sumatranum (Jack) Blume Garcinia mangostana L. Iridaceae Belamcanda chinensis (L.) DC Eleutherine palmifolia (L.) Merr. Labiatae/Lamiaceae Hyptis capitata Jacq. Leucas zeylanica (L.) R. Br. Ocimum basilicum L. Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth Rosmarinus officinalis L. Common Name Medicinal uses Binunga Bark decoction – antidysenteric. Powdered roots – emetic, hemoptysis. Fruit – for making basi. Leaves – sudorific. Decoction – vermifuge. Alim Baling-uai Leaves – astringent, vulnerary. Roots – abortive, diuretic. Bitaog Paguringon Mangosteen Leaf infusion - eyewash; Balsam from bark is cicatrizant. Plant decoction – protective medicine after childbirth. chewed for cough relief. Leaves and bark – astringent. Roots – dysmenorrhea Abaniko Mala-sibuyas Rhizome - carminative, blood purifier, deobstruent, expectorant. Macerated bulb – topical for colic. Bulb decoction – anthelmentic. Leaves Boto-botonesan Leaf decoction – wound wash. Root decoction – amenorrhea. Plant – stimulant. Masibulan Juice – antirheumatic, stimulant. Roots and leaves – skin diseases. Plant infusion – insecticide. Balanoy Leaf infusion – carminative and stimulant. Plant diaphoretic. Flowers – cough remedy. Balbas pusa Plant decoction – diuretic and for catarrh of the bladder. Soft rice – chest and back poultice in cases of chronic cough and bronchitis. Rhizome decoction – used in anuria. Kablin Plant infusion – carminative, diuretic, and stimulant. Romero Plant infusion – bath for women in puerperal state. Also as stimulant and eyewash. 256 Family / Scientific Name Lamiaceae (formerly Verbenaceae) Callicarpa candicans (Burm.f.) Hochr. Clerodendrum intermedium Cham. Clerodendrum quadriloculare (Blanco) Merr. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lantana camara L. Leucas linifolia (Roth) Spreng. Lippia nodiflora (L.) Rich. syn. Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl. Tectona grandis L. f. Vitex negundo L. Vitex parviflora Juss. Lauraceae Cinnamomum mercadoi Vidal Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume Litsea sebifera Blume syn. L. glutinosa (Lour.) C. Robinson Common Name Tigaw Kasupangil Bagawak Medicinal uses Leaves- substitute for asthma cigarettes; also plaster for gastralia. Leaves – cataplasm to relieve pain in childbirth, colic and neuralgia. Leaves – topical for wounds and ulcer; also for tonic baths. Leaves – antirheumatic bath. Root decoction – appetizer and emmenagogue. Sapinit / Coronitas Leaf infusion – antidote for snake bite. Root decoction – for toothache gargle. Pansi-pansi Leaves – poultice for swollen wounds; leaves in decoction – anthelmintic, stomachic. Tsa-tsahan Leaf infusion – carminative. Plant – poultice for erysipelas and ulcer. Suob-kabayo Kandi-kandihan Juice – eyewash. Root decoction – abortive and vermifuge. Teak Leaf decoction – for menstrual disorders. Antihemorrhagic. Crushed leaves – vulnerary. Lagundi Leaves – lactagogue, emmenagogue and ulcer wash. Molave Bark decoction – antidiarrhetic. Wood decoction - protective medicine for woman after childbirth. Kalingag Kanela Sablot Bark- digestive, expectorant; remedy for flatulence, headache, and rheumatism. Leaves - poultice for bruises and sprains; Bark- antidiarrhetic. Leaves – poultice for boil. Root decoction – for intestinal catarrh. 257 Family / Scientific Name Common Name Persea gratissima Gaertn. syn. P. americana Mill. Lecythidaceae Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Blume ex DC. Avocado Leguminosae/Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. Adenanthera pavonina L. Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Bauhinia malabarica Roxb. Bauhinia tomentosa L. Caesalpinia latisiliqua (Cav.) Hattink Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Swartz Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Cassia alata L. syn. Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Cassia fistula L. Medicinal uses Leaves and bark – antiperiodic emmenagogue, pectoral and resolvent. Putat Bark decoction - stomachic; Leaf juice- antidiarrhetic; Fruits - for asthma, cold, and cough remedy. Saga Seeds - purgative, emetic,abortive, antidiarrhetic, aphrodisiac and tonic; Leaves- good for bladder affection Bark - emetic; Wood - toothache; Fruit - antidiarrhetic. Decoction - for gout, diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhage. Aroma Saghutan/ Malatanglin Kariskis/Langil Alibangbang Baho-baho Dawag/Kamot kabag Caballero Kadios Akapulko Golden shower Cassia tora L. syn. Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Balatong aso Crotalaria juncea L. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Benhal hemp Sulsulitok Bark - antidiarrhetic, antidysentric; ulcer wash. Leaves - antidysenteric; also for cough; juice is good for children. Dried buds and leaves - antidysenteric; Root decoction - vermifuge Leaf decoction – relief for asthma. Leaf infusion - good for cold, fever, skin diseases; abortive Roots - anthelmintic, expectorant, sedative, vulnerary; Flowers pectoral; Seeds - poultice for swellings. Plant - abortifacient, astringent, expectorant, aperient; remedy for bronchitis, stomatitis, and ringworm. Leaves – purgative, antirheumatic, good for ringworm; Pulp of fruit - mild purgative; Seeds - emetic, cathartic. Crushed leaves – for scabies, ringworm; aperient; Pods antidysenteric; used for ophthalmia. Leaves – emetic, abortive, emmenagogue, demulcent, purgative. Roots – aphrodisiac, diuretic, tonic, pectoral, and restorative. 258 Family / Scientific Name Cynometra ramiflora L. Dalbergia cumingiana Benth. Dalbergia ferruginea Roxb. Derris elliptica (Roxb.) syn. Paraderris elliptica (Wall.) Adema Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC Dolichos lablab L. syn. Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merr. Erythrina variegata L. var. orientalis (L.) Merr. Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.)Walp. Indogofera hirsuta L. Indogofera suffruticosa Mill. Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) O. Ktze. Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. Mimosa pudica L. Moghania strobilifera (L.) Kuntze Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Common Name Medicinal uses Leaves – antiherpetic. Roots – purgative. Seeds – lotion for skin diseases. Tahis labuyo Vine is used to cure stomach pain in children. Kulik manok Decoction of roots – emmenagogue in small doses; abortive in large doses. Tubli In small doses, root decoction is emmenagogue; large doses, abortive. Mangkit Plant – anticatarrh, vermifuge. Kaliskis dalag Leaves – galactagogue. Roots – carminative, diuretic. Batao Leaves poultice for eczema. Flowers – emmenagogue, for menorrhagia and leucorrhea. Gogo Seeds – remedy for swellings of the axilla, pains of loins and joints, also for cerebral hemorrhage and febrifuge. Dapdap Leaves – poultice for ulcer. Bark – toothache remedy; antidysenteric. Root decoction – for cough and asthma. Kakawate Crushed leaves – poultice for fractures and rheumatism. Pounded roots and bark – poultice for itches. Tayum-tayuman Leaf decoction – for yaws and cerebral disorders. Tayum Leaves – anodyne in warm baths; in decoction – sudorific. Ipil Bark – antidiarrhetic. Fruits – laxative. Ipil-ipil Root decoction – emmenagogue. Bark and roots – abortive. Makahiya Leaves – for pains in the kidneys and hips. Roots – emetic; poisonous in large doses. Payang-payang Leaves – topical for ulcer. Root decoction – protective medicine after childbirth. Leaf decoction – vermifuge. Roots – used in epilepsy. Lipay Root decoction – cleanser of kidney. Seeds – aphrodisiac, nervine tonic, etc. Balitbitan 259 Family / Scientific Name Pachyrrhizus erosus (L.) Urb. Parkia roxburghii G. Don syn. P. timoriana (DC.) Merr.) Phaseolus lathyroides L. syn. Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urban Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. Sindora supa Merr. Tamarindus indica L. Loganiaceae Strychnos nux-vomica L. Strychnos multiflora Benth. syn. S. minor Dennst. Lythraceae Lagerstroemia indica L. Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. Lawsonia inermis L. Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. syn. Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre Malvaceae Abroma augusta (L.) L.f. Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Common Name Medicinal uses Singkamas Half a seed – laxative; powdered seeds – hog and dog poison. Oil from seeds – purgative in dose of 40 g. Seeds – substitute for peppermint in colic treatment. Kupang Balatong-aso Plant - diuretic, febrifuge, dropsy, antirheumatic, stomachic. Kamachile Leaf decoction – cure for indigestion. Rain tree/Akasya Leaf decoction – antidiarrhetic. Bark decoction – antidysenteric. Katuray Leaf juice – remedy for nasal catarrh and headache. Bark – antidiarrhetic. Supa Oil – remedy for eczema, herpes and other skin diseases. Sampalok Leaf decoction – bath in puerperium and convalescence. ‘Malasibu” – for indigestion. Strychnine tree Bukuan Plant - emmenagogue. Seeds – nervine and cardiac stimulant. Plant – emmenagogue. As gargle – for throat trouble. Melendres Banaba Sinamomo Leaves, roots and flowers – purgative; in decoction – gargle. Leaf decoction – antidiabetic. Root decoction – mouth ulcer. Leaf decoction – for hoarseness; stomachache after chilbirth. Champaka Leaves – poultice for swellings. Juice – vermifuge. Anabo Roots - good for dysmenorrhea; emmenagogue. American kapok Leaf infusion - used against cough and intestinal catarrh; Bark- used in cases of stone in the bladder. 260 Family / Scientific Name Common Name Medicinal uses Leaf infusion – diuretic, demulcent, febrifuge, tonic. Seeds – purgative, antidiarrhetic. Corchorus capsularis L. Pasaw na bilog Leaves in infusion – good for chronic cystitis, colic and dysuria. Durio zibethinus Murr. Durian Leaves – medicinal bath for jaundice. Fruits – depurative and vermifuge. Hibiscus abelmoschus L. Kastuli Plant – diuresis; remedy for headache, gonorrhea, rheumatism and varicose vein. Hibiscus cannabinus L. syn. H. radiatus Indian hemp Leaf infusion – cough remedy. Flowers – remedy for biliousness and Cav. constipation. Hibiscus esculentus L.syn. Abelmoschus Okra Syrup – good for sore throat. Leaf and root decoction – syphilis esculentus (L.) Moench remedy. Seeds – antispasmodic. Hibiscus mutabilis L. Amapola Leaves and flowers – poultice for boils, wounds, burns and also for dysuria, amennorrhea. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gumamela Root decoction – emollient. Seeds – gonorrhea remedy. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Roselle Leaves – antiscorbutic, febrifuge, stomachic. Roots – aperitive, tonic. Seeds – for debility and dysuria. Hibiscus surattensis L. Ahimit Plant – emollient. Plant infusion is used against gonorrhea. Hibiscus syriacus L. Gumamelang asul Infusion of dried flowers – good for itches and diuretic. Bark and roots – antidiarrhetic. Hibiscus tiliaceus L. Malubago Leaves – laxative. Flowers – emollient. Roots – diuretic, febrifuge. Kleinhovia hospita L. Tan-ag Leaf decoction – antiscabies. Bark infusion – insecticides. Malachra capitata L. Lapnis Leaves – poultice for carbuncles. Decoction – wash for wounds. Melochia concatenata L. Bangkalanan Leaves – poultice for sores, smallpox and abdominal pains. Decoction – stops vomiting. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Kulot-kulotan Root decoction – remedy for intestinal ulcer; it hastens parturition. Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott & Endl. Malabulak Bark – astringent, demulcent, diuretic and tonic. Seeds – for catarrhal affections. Corchorus aestuans L. Saluyot 261 Family / Scientific Name Sida acuta Burm. f. Sida cordifolia L. Sida javensis Cav. Sterculia foetida L. Urena lobata L. Marantaceae Donax cannaeformis (G. Forst. f.) K. Schum. Maranta arundinacea L. Meliaceae Aglaia argentea Blume Aglaia odorata Lour. Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum (A. Juss.) Miq. Lansium domesticum Correa Melia azedarach L. Melia dubia Cav. (wild form of M. azedarach) Sandoricum koetjape (Burm. f.) Merr. Swietenia mahogani (L.) Jacq. Toona calantas Merr. & Rolfe Common Name Medicinal uses Leaves – poultice for ulcer. Root decoction – remedy for blood– vomiting. Bulak-manok Leaf decoction – diuretic, emollient. Roots – cardiac tonic. Hapunang-niknik Plant decoction – specific for gonorrhea. Kalumpang Bark decoction – aperient, antirheumatic and diaphoretic. Kollo-kollot Leaf infusion – good for intestine and bladder inflammation. Walis-walisan Root decoction – antidote for snake bite and poisoning. Stem with ginger and cinnamon bark – good for biliousness. Uraro/Arrow root Crushed roots – poultice for wounds. Sagu starch – nutrient and demulcent. Bamban Iloilo Sinamomong sonson Igyo Lansones Paraiso Bagalunga Santol Small-leaf Mahogany Kalantas Decoction colic remedy (in case of vomiting, apply cold towel to stomach). Leaves and roots - febrifuge, pectoral; for convulsion; Flower cool drink; Leaf infusion - remedy for excessive menses. Juice from bark – astringent, cough remedy; with wine, emmenagogue; with water; vermifuge. Bark – antidysenteric. Seeds – vermifuge. Dried rind – anticolic. Decoction – alternative, tonic. It may also relieve hernia. Fruit – ½ of fruit is a dose for colic. Juice of fruit with sulphur is good for scabies. Leaves – remedy for ringworm. Roots – antispasmodic. Bark – antipyretic, tonic; a substitute for cinchona. Powdered bark – antiseptic for gangrenous ulcer. 262 Family / Scientific Name Common Name Medicinal uses Memecylaceae Memecylon ovatum Sm. syn. M. edule Roxb. Menispermaceae Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. Sisirai Leaf infusion – for opthamia. Root decoction – for irregular menstruation. Ligtang Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr. Albutra Cissampelos pareira L. var. hirsuta (Buch. ex DC.) Forman Pericampyllus glaucus (Lam.) Merr. Kaalad Pericarp of Fruit - emetic; Fruit juice- ulcer remedy; Seedsinsecticide Plant decoction - good for itches and ulcer wash (tropical ulcer). Plant is also a germicide. Leaves – antiscabious; good for abscesses and wounds; antidote for snakebite; Roots- diuretic, pectoral, febrifuge. Leaves – remedy for asthma, cough and headache. Roots – antidote for snake bite. Stem decoction – internally, as a tonic, externally, parasiticide. Tinospora rumphii Boerl. syn. T. crispa (L.) Hook. f. Molluginaceae Glinus oppositifolius (L.) A.D.C. Moraceae Antiaris toxiocaria (Pers.) Lesch. Artocarpus altilis (Park.) Fosb. Artocarpus blancoi (Elm.) Merr. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Artocarpus ovatus Blanco Ficus benjamina L. Ficus elastica Roxb. Ficus minahassae (Teijsm & de Vr.) Miq. Ficus payapa Blanco syn. F. drupacea Thunb. Silong pugo Makabuhay Sarsalida Plant – aperient, antiseptic and stomachic; also cataplasm for dyspepsia in children. Upas Rimas Antipolo Nangka Anubing Salisi India rubber Hagimit Payapa Leaves and bark - febrifuge; sap poison (heart poison). Bark decoction - wound wash. Root decoction with Lipang Aso 2:1 is good for strangularia. Burned leaves - cicatrizant for ulcer and wounds. Bark decoction - remedy for stomach ache. Buds and young leaves – antidiarrhetic, antidysenteric. Aerial root decoction – vulnerary; latex for trichuriasis. Leaves – topical for rheumatism. Sap – astringent. Roots – when powdered, believed to be efficient vulnerary. 263 Family / Scientific Name Ficus pilosa Reinw. Ficus pseudopalma Blanco Ficus pumila L. Ficus septica Burm. f. Ficus stipulosa Miq. syn. F. caulcarpa Miq. Ficus variegata Blume Morus alba L. Streblus asper Lour. Common Name Sikir Niog-niogan Creeping fig Hauili Bogto Tangisang bayawak Mulberry Kalios Medicinal uses Root decoction – for irregular menstruation and swollen gums. Leaf decoction – antidiabetic.  Latex – anthelmintic. Leaves – carbuncles; dysentery. Root decoction – antidote for fish poison. Leaves – sudorific for headache. Root – pounded fresh, poultice for wounds. Young leaves – topical for boil. Bark decoction – antidysenteric. Leaves – galactagogue, diaphoretic, antidote for snakebite. Chewed bark – antidote for bite; in decoction – antidiarrhetic. Latex – for glandular swellings. Muntingiaceae Muntingia calabura L. Datiles Leaf decoction – antidiarrhetic. Flower infusion – antispasmodic. Bark decoction – emollient. Musaceae Musa errans (Blanco) Teodoro Butuan Unfolded leaves – topical for chest pains. Juice of corm – antituberculosis. Juice of roots – restorative. Pseudostem sap – antidiarrhetic. Musa sapientum L. var. cinerea (Blanco) Teodoro syn. Musa × paradisiaca L. ‘Latundan’ Musa × paradisiacal L. ‘Saba’ Myrsinaceae Ardisia squamulosa C. Presl Myrtaceae Melaleuca leucadendra L. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Latundan Saba Tagpo Cajeput tree Duhat Pseudostem sap – hemoptysis, otalgia. Leaves- vulnerary. Cajeput oil – for earache, headache, toothache; sudorific for wounds; antirheumatic. Bark decotion – antidiarrhetic; antidysenteric. Seeds – antidiabetic. 264 Family / Scientific Name Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & Perry Nelumbonaceae Nelumbium nelumbo (L.) Druce syn. Nelumbo nucifera Nyctaginaceae Mirabilis jalapa L. Pisonia grandis R. Br. Oleaceae Jasminum grandiflorum L. Jasminum multiflorum (Burm. f.) Andr. Jasminum sambac (L.) Ait. Onagraceae Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven Ophioglossaceae Helmintostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. Orchidaceae Dendrobium crumenatum Sw. Phalaenopsis schilleriana Reichb. f. Common Name Medicinal uses Tampui Makopangkalabaw Leaf infusion – febrifuge. Plant – digestive and remedy for toothache. Powdered leaves – for cracked tongue. Bark and roots – amenorhea. Alas-kuatro Bruised leaves – poultice for abscesses and boils. Leaf infusion – diuretic. Fresh leaves moistened with Eau–de Cologne will subdue elephantoid of leg. Maluko Jasmin Sampaguitangsongsong Sampaguita Leaves – skin diseasess. Flower infusion – eyewash. Leaves - poultice for ulcer. Flowers – lactifuge. Roots – emetic, emmenagogue. Leaf decoction – febrifuge. Flower infusion – pectoral. Sigang dagat Malapako Plant – antidysenteric, emollient and for skin diseases. Leaves – poultice for headache. Plant decotion – carminative. Tukod langit Plant – aperient, also vegetable. Rhizome – chewed with betel is good for whooping cough. Pigeon orchid/ Pajarito Dapong tigre/ Tiger orchid Juice of pseudobulb – for earache. Heated leaves – good topical for centipede bite. 265 Family / Scientific Name Oxalidaceae Averrhoa bilimbi L. Averrhoa carambola L. Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. Oxalis corniculata L. Palmae/Arecaceae Areca catechu L. Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr. Arenga tremula (Blanco) Becc. Cocos nucifera L. Corypha elata Roxb. syn. Corypha utan Lamk. Pandanaceae Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. Pandanus tectorius Soland. syn. P. odoratissimus L.f. Parkeriaceae Ceratopteris siliquosa (L.) Copd. syn. C. thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Passifloraceae Passiflora foetida L. Common Name Medicinal uses Kamias Balimbing Leaves, as paste - good for mumps, itches, pimples, rheumatism Leaf decoction - good for asthma and angina; Crushed leaves - for chickenpox and ring worm; Fruit – antiscorbutic. Makahiyang lalake Plant decoction - kidney stone remedy; Powdered seeds - vulnerary; Crushed plant - antivenom for scorpion bite. Taingang-daga Leaves – antiscorbutic; in decoction – antidysenteric. Juice – antidote for arsenic poisoning. Bunga Kaong Dumayaka Niog Buri Tender seeds - purgative; Ripe fruits - vermifuge; Ashes - dentifrice. Fuzz - hemostatic, cicatrizant; Roots – stomachic. Buds eaten in large quantities cause profound sleep. Coconut water – astringent, vermifuge. Flowers – antidiabetic; used in dysentery treatment. Brewed plant – febrile catarrh. Root juice – antidiarrhetic. Chewed roots – cough remedy. Pandan banguhan Floral oil – purgative, cardiotonic, cephalic; and for smallpox. Pandan dagat Prop root – diuretic, also for blennorhea; cabbage with salt – poultice for boils. Pakong roman Omok-omok Leaves- poultice for skin complaints; tonic, styptic. Leaf decoction – hysteria, asthma, biliousness and emmenagogue. 266 Family / Scientific Name Passiflora quadrangularis L.syn. P. Moluccana Reinw. ex Blume var. teysmanniana (Miq.) de Wilde Pedaliaceae Sesamum orientale L. Common Name Granadilla Linga Medicinal uses Fruit juice – antiscorbutic. Roots – emetic, diuretic. Pounded leaves – remedy for infantile diarrhea; juice of plant kills lice. Seeds – lactagogue. Phyllanthaceae Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng. Bignai Leaves - diaphoretic; eaten for syphilitic affections. Breynia rhamnoides (Retz.) Muell. Matang-hipon Smoke of dried leaves is good for tonsilitis; Bark astringent, Arg.syn. B. vitis-idaea (Burm. f.) CEC antihemorrhagic. Fischer Cicca acida (L.) Merr.syn. Phyllanthus Iba Leaves remedy for urticaria; Roots - purgative; poisonous in large acidus (L.) Skeels dose. Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd. Sampa-sampalukan Plant – emmenagogue, febrifuge. Pinaceae Pinus insularis Endl. syn. P. kesiya Royle Benguet pine Wood decoction – cough remedy. ex Gordon Piperaceae Heckeria umbellata Kunth. Kubamba Plant – anthelmintic, topical for abscesses. Juice – for conjuntivitis. Peperomia pellucida (L.) HBK. Pansit-pansitan Plant – used as warm poultice for abscesses and boil. Piper interruptum Opiz var. loheri (C. Litlit Chewed roots – colic remedy. Plant infusion – for dyspepsia. DC.) Quis. Pittosporaceae Pittosporum pentandrum (Blanco) Merr. Mamalis Bath for women after childbirth. Bark – general antidote. Plumbaginaceae Plumbago indica L. Plumbago Bark – antidyspeptic. Root juice – abortifacient, antidiarrhetic. Plumbago zeylanica L. Sangdikit Roots – digestive; promotes appetite, useful in dyspepsia and colic. 267 Family / Scientific Name Common Name Medicinal uses Poaceae/Graminae Apluda mutica L. Bambusa spinosa Roxb. Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. Coix lacryma-jobi L. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. Oryza sativa L. Paspalum conjugatum Berg. Paspalum scrobiculatum L. Phragmites communis Trin. syn. P. vallatoria (Pluk. Ex L.) Veldk. Saccharum officinarum L. Setaria palmifolia (Koenig) Stapf. Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash syn. Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty Zea mays L. Polygonaceae Polygonum barbatum L. Kawa-kawayan Kawayan-tinik Root decoction - febrifuge. Root decoction - good for anuria; Leaves - emmenagogue, anthelmintic. Kawayan kiling Root decoction - kidney trouble remedy; Juice - used against phthisis. Tigbi Roots – anthelmintic. Decoction – remedy for gonorrhea. Starch – restorative in convalescence. Kawad-kawaran Plant decoction – diuretic, demulcent, laxative. Krus-krusan Leaves – used for topical ulcer. Plan in decoction – remedy for dysentery and acute hemoptysis. Parag-is Crushed plant with gogo shampoo for dandruff; also for sprains. Cogon Runners – restorative, hemostatics. Root decoction – antidysenteric. Rice Soft rice – chest and back poultice in cases of chronic cough and bronchitis. Kulape Root and rhizome decoction – antidiarrhetic. Pagetpet Root and stem decoction – alternative after childbirth. Tambo Roots – regarded as cooling and diuretic. Tubo/Sugar cane Roots – emollient, diuretic. Refined sugar – good for dry cough and spleen trouble. Asahas/Ayas-as Decoction – corrective for irregular menstruation. Vetiver/Moras Root decoction – effective lithortriptic tonic bath, stomachic, refrigerant. Mais Cob decoction – stomachic; diuretic. Silk decoction – for urinary troubles. Subsuban Leaves – cicatrizant for wounds; wash for ulcer. 268 Family / Scientific Name Polypodiaceae Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm. Pontederiaceae Monochoria hastata (L.) Solms Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) Presl Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L. Pteridaceae Adiantum caudatum L. Adiantum philippense L. Rubiaceae Spermacoce hispida L. syn Borreria hispida (L.) K. Schum. Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Merr. Coffea arabica L. Gardenia jasminioides (L.) Ellis Hydnophytum formicarum Jack Common Name Kabkab Medicinal uses Leaves – poultice for hectic fever, phthisis and dyspepsia. Balballagot Gabing-uak Plant – alternative, tonic. Rhizomes – with charcoal, for scurvy. Leaf juice – cough remedy. Roots – for footache and liver trouble. Olasiman / Kulasiman Plant decoction – taken 3 times a day for cough. Pako Culantrillo Plant- aperitive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant. Decoction - antidysenteric, diuretic, stomachic. Ligad-ligad Leaf decoction - astringent; Root decoction - alternative; Seeds antidiarrhetic, antidysenteric.Leaves - vulnerary. Bark - febrifuge; Root - antidiarrhetic. Leaf infusion – good beverage. Bark decoction – uterine trouble. Flower infusion – antiophthalmic, and emollient. Swollen base decoction is remedy for liver and intestinal complaints. Sap – antiarthritic. Ripe fruit – antidiabetic. Leaves – emollient for chest affections; antidote for snakebite. Bark decoction – corrective for irregular menstruation. Malakape Kape Rosal Banghai Morinda citrifolia L. Mussaenda philippica A. Rich. Nauclea junghuhnii (Miq.) Merr. syn. N. subdita (Korth.) Steudel Oldenlandia biflora L. Bangkoro Kahoy dalaga Malabangkal Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb. Ulasiman-kalat Pisok Plant – poultice for wounds. Decoction – for gastric irritations, e.g., diarrhea. Plant decoction – biliousness, impure blood. 269 Family / Scientific Name Common Name Medicinal uses Kantotai Boiled and mashed leaves – applied on abdomen in urine retention; decoction solvent for vesical calculus. Bael Kahel Half-ripe fruit - digestive, antidiarrhetic, antidysenteric, stomachic. Leaves – pectoral, for bronchitis and swollen legs; Oil from rind – carminative. Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck Suha / Lukban Citrus hystrix DC Citrus macroptera Montr. Citrus madurensis Lour. Kabuyao Kabuyao Kalamunding Citrus nobilis Lour. Lunasia amara Blanco Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack Daranghita Apdong dagat Kamuning Leaves – sedative in nervous affections; useful in epilepsy and convulsive cough. Rind – tonic, vermifuge; Fruit – stomachic, stimulant Leaves – lotion for headache; Roots – decoction, for gonorrhea. Juice – refrigerant, deodorant, antiphlogistic; Oil from rind – carminative. Fruits – good source of vitamin C; Seeds – stimulant. Leaves and bark – antidote for snakebite; stomache. Crushed leaves – vulnerary. Leaf infusion – antidiarrhetic; also used as mouth wash. Leaves – stomachic bath. Decoction – for colic, diarrhea and wash for skin diseases. Paederia foetida sensu Merr., non L. syn. P. scandens (Lour.) Merr. Rutaceae Aegle marmelos Correa Citrus aurantium L. Triphasia trifolia (Burm.f.) P.Wilson Salicaceae Flacourtia rukam Zoll. & Mor. Sapindaceae Harpullia arborea (Blanco) Radlk. Sapotaceae Calocarpum sapota (Jacq.) Merr. Schizaeaceae Lygodium circinnatum (Burm.) Sw. Limoncito Bitongol Uas Chico-mamei Nitong puti Dried leaves – carminative, expectorant, tonic. Bark and fruit – poison to leeches. Seeds – antirheumatic. Sap - emetic; Anthelmintic; Seeds - for renal colic and dandruff. Plant decoction – protective medicine after childbirth. Rhizome – antidote for insect poison. 270 Family / Scientific Name Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. Scrophulariaceae Scoparia dulcis L. Smilacaceae Smilax bracteata Presl. Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Capsicum frutescens L. Cestrum nocturnum L. Datura metel L. Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. Physalis minima L. Physalis peruviana L. Solanum cumingii Dunal Solanum americanum Mill. Solanum mauritianum Scop. Taccaceae Tacca palmata Blume Thymelaeaceae Wikstroemia ovata C.A. Mey. Common Name Nito Mala-anis Hampas balang Siling malaki Medicinal uses Plant – expectorant, antihematuria and blenorrhea. Plant infusion – antigastralgia and good for indigestion. Rhizome decoction – emmenagogue and depurative. Plant paste - local stimulant and rubefacient. Siling labuyo Berries - when eaten, are digestive; Sili with vinegar is good for dyspepsia and cholera. Dama de Noche Plant extract – antispasmodic, especially in epilepsy; Fruit - for epilepsy. Talong punay Leaves and flowers – asthma cigarettes. Plant – narcotic, anodyne, antispasmodic. Kamatis-ligaw Juice – mild aperient, blood purifier. Fruits – rich in vitamins. Pantug-pantugan Root decoction – antidiabetic. Fruit – aperient, alternative. Lobo-lobohan Leaf infusion – enema. Leaves – anthelmintic. Tarambulo Leaves – resolvent. Seeds – sedative; used for toothache. Lubi-lubi Young leaves - when eaten cure boils. Fruit – antidiarrhetic. Ungali Root decoction – for removal of impurities through urine; also antidiarrhetic. Payong-payongan Rhizome – stomachic; for menstrual disorders. Salago Leaves – laxative, purgative. Bark tied around the neck relieves children of bronchial catarrh. 271 Family / Scientific Name Urticaceae Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich. Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew. Laportea meyeniana (Walp.) Warb. syn. Dendrocnide meyeniana (Walp.) Chew Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd. Pipturus arborescens (Link) C. B. Rob. syn. P. asper Wedd. Vitaceae Cissus quadragularis L. Leea philippinensis Merr. Tetrastigma harmandii Planch. Zingiberaceae Alpinia elegans (Presl) K. Schum. Common Name Amiray Medicinal uses Lipang aso Lipang kalabau Root decoction is recommended for cases of threatened miscarriage; also cooling, diuretic, resolvent, etc. Leaves – cure for carbuncles. Roots – decoction is diuretic. Rat poison; stinging hairs cause irritation. Alagasi Dalunot Root decoction – cough, gastralgia, headache and phthisis. Bark scrapping – cataplasm for boils. Sul-sulpa Leaves – remedy for indigestion; Roots - specific for bone fractures; also alternative. Plant decoction – vulnerary. Plant decoction – diuretic; also a good wash for scabies Kaliantan Ayo Tagbak Curcuma longa L. Dilaw Hedychium coronarium Koenig Kamia Pounded leaves – cataplasm for paralysis. Rhizome decoction – hemoptysis. Fumes of turmeric – for colds. Rhizomes – cordial, emmenagogue, carminative; also for smallpox. Stem decoction – tonsilitis gargle. Rhizome – antirheumatic, excitant. Plant decoction – puerperal bath. Crushed seeds - gastralgia. Languas haenkei (Presl) Merr. syn. Tagbak babae Alpinia haenkei C. Presl Sources: Common Weeds of the UPCF Campus (undated) De Padua, L. S., G. C. Lugod and J. V. Pancho. 1977. Handbook on Philippine Medicinal Plants. Volume 1. Technical Bulletin Vol. II No. 3. Documentationa and Information Section, Office of the Director for Research, University of the Philippines Los Baños. 64 p. 272 Lugod, G.C. and Pancho, J.V. Undated. Medicinal Plants in the College of Agriculture Arboretum and Vicinity. College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines, College 4031 Laguna pp. 47. Pancho, J.V. and S.R. Obien. 1995. Manual of Ricefield Weeds in the Philippines. Philippine Rice Research Institute, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines. 543 p. Quimbo, L. L. Undated. Laboratory List of Species in Dendrology. College of Forestry. Quisumbing, E. 1951. Medical Plants of the Philippines. DANR Tech. Bull. 16. Sulit, M. D. 1950. Possibilities of some Philippine Plants for Medicinal Uses. Jour. Phil. Phar. Assn. 434-448. _________. 1958. Medicinal plants by ethnic groups of the Philippines; their preparation and application. Jour. Phil. Phar. Assn. 275 – 284. 273 Annex Table E. Philippine Plant Sources of Natural Dyes. Family/ Scientific Name Common Habit Name Acanthaceae Peristrophe bivalvis (L.) Merr. syn. Deora Small bush P. roxburghiana (Schult.) Bremek. Apocynaceae Ervatamia pandacaqui (Poir.) Pich. Pandakaki Shrub syn. Tabernaemontana pandacaqui Lam. Marsdenia tinctoria R. Br. Payangit Vine Berberidaceae Mahonia philippinensis Takeda Bixaceae Bixa orellana L. Habitat & Distribution Uses Distributed from the Mountain Province Produces a yellow orange to to Mindanao. deep-red orange dye. Widely distributed in the Philippines in forests and open lands. The leaves are used as a bleaching agent. Distributed from Luzon to Mindoro. The leaves, when boiled, yield a light blue dye used in coloring cloth. Kunig Shrub Found in the Mountain Province, Luzon. Locally used as yellow dye. Achuete or Annatto tree Tree Widely distributed in Philippine villages The seeds are locally used for coloring food materials. Combretaceae Terminalia catappa L. Talisai Tree Distributed near the seashore from northern Luzon to southern Mindanao. The leaves are added to mud in dyeing straw black. Dilleniaceae Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe Katmon Tree Common and widely distributed in the Philippines. The bark produces red dye. Banato Tree Common and widely distributed in open Kamala powder, derived places and in second-growth forests in from the seeds, is valued as a the Philippines. fast dye and for its medicinal properties. Euphorbiaceae Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg. 274 Family/ Scientific Name Ricinus communis L. Guttiferae / Clusiaceae Calophyllum blancoi Pl. & Tr. Leguminosae/ Fabaceae Archidendron clypearia (Jack) Nielsen Caesalpinia sappan L. Common Habit Habitat & Distribution Name Tangan- Woody bush Cultivated in many parts of the country tangan or Castor oil plant Bitanghol Tree Tiagkot Tree Distributed from Luzon to Mindanao. Uses The leaves, when added to mud, produce a gray color on mats. The tree yields a red or yellow dye. Common and widely distributed from The leaves are used in giving Luzon to Mindanao. a gray color. Sibukau Small Tree Common and widely distributed in Used as dye. thickets in the Philippines. Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC. MangkitShrub Fairly common and distributed from Flowers are locally used for parang Luzon to Mindanao. dyeing purposes. Indigofera suffruticosa Mill. Tayung Shrub Widely distributed in the Philippines in Used as indigo (blue) dye. open and waste places. Indigofera tinctoria L. TayungShrub Widely distributed in thickets and waste Used as indigo (blue) dye. tayungan places. Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) O. Ktze. Ipil Tree Found scattered along the coast and Khaki shades are derived occasionally on low hills, and is common from its wood. and widely distributed from Luzon to Mindanao. Pterocarpus spp. Narra Tree Common in forest areas. Locally used as a red dye. Tamarindus indica L. Tamarind or Large tree Grown extensively in the Philippines due Leaves are used as a Sampalok to its fruit. bleaching agent in boiling water. Malvaceae Colona serratifolia Cav. Anilau Tree Common in forest areas The bark produces red dye. 275 Family/ Scientific Name Common Name Pterospermum celebicum Miq. Bayokbayokan Pterospermum diversifolium Blume Bayok Pterospermum obliquum Blanco. Kulatingan Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. Memecylaceae Memecylon ovatum Smith. syn. M. edule Roxb. Marakapas Kulis Menispermaceae Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr. Albutra Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Nangka Oenotheraceae = Onagraceae Jussiaea linifolia Vahl. syn. Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell Rosaceae Prunus grisea (C. Muell.) Kalkm. Pygeum glandulosum Merr. syn. Prunus marsupialis Kalkm. Habit Tree Tree Tree Habitat & Distribution Common in forest areas, at low to medium altitude. Common in forest areas, at low to medium altitude. Common and widely distributed from northern Luzon to Mindanao. Shrub Uses The bark is used for dyeing. The bark is used in dyeing fishing nets. The bark is used in dyeing cloth worn by fishermen. Flowers contain quercitin, a well-known dye of oak bark. The leaves are used in mordanting buri straw before dyeing it with sappanwood. Woody vine Fairly common and distributed from Luzon to Mindanao. Tree The stems are used locally as yellow dye. The wood is locally used in dyeing yellow shades. Tree Distributed in the Philippines in open, wet places. Used in making a black dye. Lago Tree Amugan Tree Very common and widely distributed in the Philippines. Very common and distributed from northern Luzon to the Visayas. The bark yields a dark greenish-brown dye. The species produces a dark, greenish-brown dye. 276 Family/ Scientific Name Rubiaceae Morinda citrifolia L. Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens L. Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. Common Name Bangkoro Habit Habitat & Distribution Small tree Widely distributed in the Philippines in thickets and second-growth forests. Uses Roots are used in dyeing reds, purples, and chocolate. Sili or Chile pepper Shrub Widely distributed in the Philippines. Used in producing green shades. Dilau or Turmeric Herb Locally abundant in the settled areas. Commonly cultivated and distributed from northern Luzon to Mindanao. Rhizomes are used for dyeing mats and as a condiment and coloring for food preparations. Source: Brown, William. 1921. Minor Products of Philippine Forests. Vol. II. Bureau of Printing: Manila. 277 Annex Table F. Gums and latex-producing plant species in the Philippines. Common Name Family/Scientific Name Habit Apocynaceae Chonemorpha elastica Merr. syn. C. Lisid Large, verrucosa (Blume) DJ Middleton (listed woody in Merril’s Enum. as Rhynchodia vine rhynchosperma (Wall.) K. Schum. Parameria barbata (Blume) K. Schum. Dugtung- Woody syn. P. laevigata (Juss.) Moldenke Ahas vine Boraginaceae Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. Anonang Small tree Euphorbiaceae Macaranga tanarius (L.) Muell.-Arg. Leguminosae/ Fabaceae Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. Sesbania grandiflora (L). Pers. Moraceae Artocarpus elastica Reinw. syn. A. sericicarpus Jarrett Artocarpus ovatus Blanco Habitat & Distribution Uses From Cagayan, Apayao, Benguet, Cavite, Mindanao, Basilan and Tawi-Tawi. Rubber Common and widely distributed in the Philippines. Rubber Common in low to medium altitude, open areas and secondary forests throughout the Philippines Paste Binunga Small tree Common and widely distributed in open and Glue for cementing second growth forests throughout the parts of musical Philippines. instruments. Aroma Small tree Common in grasslands. Widely distributed in waste places in the Philippines. Katurai Tree Common in cultivation in the Philippines. Half wild. Gumihan Tree Anubing Tree Distributed from Northern Luzon to Mindanao. Grown in plantations at Los Baños. Distributed from northern Luzon to Mindanao. 278 Gum Arabic Gum Arabic Bird lime Chewing gum Family/Scientific Name Orchidaceae Geodorum nutans (Presl) Ames. syn. G. densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. Common Name Kula Habit Habitat & Distribution Terrestrial Occurs in thickets and open places. Widely orchid distributed in the Philippines. Sapotaceae Manilkara zapota (L.) Royen Chico Palaquium ahernianum Merr. (a form of Kalipaya P. luzoniense (Fernandez-Villar) Vidal Tree Tree Grown in the Philippines for the fruits. Confined in Mindanao. Payena leerii (Teysm. & Binn) Kurz Tree In Mindanao and Tawi-Tawi. Edikoyan Source: Brown, William. 1921. Minor Products of Philippine Forests. Vol. II. Bureau of Printing: Manila 279 Uses Glue for cementing mandolins, guitars and other musical instruments. Chewing gum Gutta-percha for insulation of submarine and underground electrical cables. Gutta-percha Annex Table G. Essential oil producing species of the Philippines. Family/Scientific Name Annonaceae Cananga odorata (Lamk.) Hook f. & Thoms. Araceae Acorus calamus L. Compositae Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC. Gramineae/Poaceae Andropogon citratus DC. syn. Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf Andropogon nardus var. hamatulus Hack. syn. Cymbopogon tortilis (C.Presl) A.Hitchc. Common Name Habit Habitat & Distribution Uses Ilang-ilang Mediumsized to large tree Native and found throughout the Philippines; cultivated and wild; occurs at elevation of at least 700 m. Ilang-ilang oil is extensively used in the perfumery industry. Lubigan or Sweet flag Rhizome Introduced and occurs throughout the Philippines as cultivated plants. The oil is used for the aromatic cordials and liqueurs, for flavoring beer and in making perfumes. Sambong Herb Grows abundantly in grass areas and waste places in the Philippines. Used locally for poisoning fishes and medicinally. Tanglad or Lemon grass Grass Planted throughout the Philippines. Citronella Grass The grass is used for medicinal and flavoring purposes, while the oil is used in making perfumes. Distributed from northern Luzon to southern The oil is used for limits of the Philippines. The variety perfuming cheap soaps occurs locally. and also as a protection against insect bites. 280 Family/Scientific Name Andropogon zizanioides (L.) Urb.syn. Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Lantana camara L. Ocimum basilicum L. Ocimum sanctum L. syn. O. tenuiflorum L. Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. Lauraceae Cinnamomum iners Reinw. Cinnamomum mercadoi Vidal Common Name Vetiver or Moras Habit Grass Habitat & Distribution Abounds in all parts of the archipelago. Lantana / Coronitas Balanoi or Sweet Basil Sulasi or Holy Basil Patchouli or Kablin Shrub Grows abundantly and luxuriantly, common in waste places of the Philippines. Common and widely distributed from the Batanes islands to southern Mindanao. Found throughout the Philippines and occasionally spontaneous in waste places. Found throughout the Philippines in cultivation. Cinnamon Small to large tree Reported from Mindoro, Palawan, Samar, Mindanao and Tawi-tawi. Kalingag Small to mediumsized tree Small tree Widely distributed and well known. Small Tree In waste places and common in early stages of the invasion of grasslands by secondgrowth forests. Cinnamomum mindanaense Mindanao Elmer syn. C. burmanni cinnamon Blume Leguminosae/ Fabaceae Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. Cassie Flower or Aroma Herb Herb Herb Only known from Mindanao. 281 Uses The oil is used as an aromatic, carminative and diaphoretic; and perfume fixative. Used in making mignonette extract. Used in perfumery. Highly valued for the perfume oil. The bark is commercially sold as cinnamon. The bark is locally used as medicine and a good ingredient for root beer. The bark is sold as cinnamon of commerce. The oil is mixed with other substances and sold as perfumes, fixed oils, pomades, or extract of cassie. Family/Scientific Name Common Name Kingiodendron alternifolium Batete (Elmer) Merr. & Rolfe Magnoliaceae Michelia x alba DC. syn. Champakang-puti Magnolia x alba (DC) Figlar & Noot. Michelia champaca L. Champaka Rutaceae Citrus macroptera Montr. Kabuyau Citrus micrantha var. microcarpa Wester. Citrus sp. Clausena anisum-olens (Blanco) Merr. Toddalia asiatica (L.) Kurz Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. Samuyau Habit Tree Habitat & Distribution Distributed from central Luzon to Mindanao. Uses Used for incense. Medium sized tree Occasionally cultivated in Manila. Oil is used as a perfume. Small tree Small Tree Shrub Oil is used as a perfume. Common and widely distributed in forests throughout the Philippines. Abundant in Cebu and other islands of the Bisaya group. Gurong-guro Kayumanis Dauag Dilau or Turmeric Small tree Native of the Philippines and widely distributed and abundant in some places. Woody vine Common in virgin and second-growth forests. Herb Locally abundant in the settled areas. Commonly cultivated and distributed from northern Luzon to Mindanao. 282 Oil resembles that of bergamot. Useful as perfumery oil and for cleansing hair. Used as shampoo when mixed with gogo. Locally used in preparing anisado, alcoholic beverage among Filipinos. Valuable as low-grade perfume oil. The rhizomes are used extensively as a condiment and for food coloration and as an ingredient of curry. Family/Scientific Name Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. Zingiber officinale Rosc. Common Name Barak or Zedoary Habit Herb Habitat & Distribution Common and widely distributed in thickets and open places in the settled parts of the Philippines. Ginger / Luya Root Cultivated in all parts of the Philippines. Source: Brown, William. 1921. Minor Products of Philippine Forests. Vol. II. Bureau of Printing: Manila. 283 Uses Rhizomes used in perfume in India, while the root is used medicinally. Used as a condiment and as a flavoring agent, also employed medicinally. Annex Table H. Seed oil-producing species of the Philippines. Family/Scientific Name Achariaceae (Flacourtiaceae) Pangium edule Reinw. ex Blume Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. Apocynaceae Cerbera manghas Linn. Burseraceae Canarium ovatum Engl. Celastraceae Celastrus paniculatus Willd. Combretaceae Terminalia catappa L. Dipterocarpaceae Shorea balangeran (Korth.) Dyer sensu Merr. (1923) syn. S. falciferoides Foxw. ssp. falciferoides Common Name Habit Pangi Tree Distributed from southern Luzon to Used as an illuminant, soap southern Mindanao. making and for cooking. Kasoy or Cashew nut Small tree Cultivated and widely distributed in Used in making a savory the Philippines. nut candy and for chocolate adulteration. Baraibai Tree Pili Tree Langitngit Habitat & Distribution Uses Used for illumination purposes. Abundant in southern Luzon. Confectioneries Woody vine Distributed from northern Luzon to For medicinal purposes. Mindanao and Palawan. Talisai Tree Distributed near the seashore from northern Luzon to southern Mindanao, and cultivated as shade tree. Gisok Tree Distributed in the Philippines from Used for manufacturing Luzon to Mindanao. candles, for cooking purposes, and for lubricating machinery. 284 Oil is edible and can be used for medicinal purposes. Family/Scientific Name Euphorbiaceae Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. Common Name Habit Habitat & Distribution Lumbang Large tree Croton tiglium L. Croton oil plant Small tree Jatropha curcas L. Tubang bakod or physic nut Small tree Distributed from northern Luzon to Mindanao and Palawan and planted in great numbers in Cebu. Found wild from northern Luzon to southern Mindanao. Naturalized and widely distributed throughout the Philippines. Jatropha multifida L. Mana Shrub Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg. Banato Tree Bagilumbang Tree Reutealis trisperma (Blanco) Airy Shaw Ricinus communis L. Guttiferae/Clusiaceae Calophyllum inophyllum L. Tangan-Tangan or Castor oil plant Uses For paints, varnishes and linoleum, illumination, soap, wood preservation Used in pharmaceutical preparations. Oil used as an emetic and purgative, and for illuminating purposes. For illuminating purposes. Occasionally cultivated and is distributed from Luzon to Mindanao. Common and widely distributed in For medicinal purposes. open places and second-growth forest in the Philippines. Native in the Philippines. Bagilumbang oil Woody bush Cultivated in the Philippines. Used medicinally as purgative. Also used in soap making, as lubricant for airplane engines, as preservative of leather, and other purposes. Bitaog or Palomaria Medium-sized Occurs on sandy beaches throughout Used for illumination, soap de la Playa tree the islands. Distributed in all parts making, varnish and of the Philippines bordering the medicinal purposes. coasts. 285 Family/Scientific Name Hernandiaceae Hernandia ovigera L. Lecythidaceae Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Blume ex DC. Leguminosae/ Fabaceae Arachis hypogaea L. Common Name Koron-koron Botong Putat Habit Small to Distributed from Luzon to medium-sized Mindanao, but is not common. tree Used in lamps and making candles. Distributed along the seashore Used for illumination. throughout the Philippines. Shrub or Small Found throughout the Philippines in Used for illumination. tree open lowlands and thickets near the seashore. Legume Pachyrrhizus erosus (L.) Urb. Singkamas Pithecelobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Kamachile Herbaciuos vine Tree Bani Tree Sampalok or tamarind Large tree American kapok Tree Malvaceae Ceiba pentandra Gaertn. Uses Tree Mani or Peanut Pongamia pinnata (L.) Merr.syn. Milletia pinnata (L.) Panigrahi Tamarindus indica L. Habitat & Distribution 286 Extensively grown in the Philippines. Naturalized throughout the Philippines and common in thickets. Common and widely distributed in the Philippines. From northern Luzon to southern Mindanao. Grown extensively in the Philippines. High grade oils used for salad, as substitute for olive oil, while lower grades are used for soaps or for burning. Limpid oil Kamachile oil For illumination and medicinal purposes. For culinary purposes, varnishes and paints, illumination. Commonly cultivated, along the Used for the manufacture highways and towns, in all parts of of soap and substitute for the Philippines. cotton-seed oil. Family/Scientific Name Sterculia foetida L. Meliaceae Chisocheton cumingianus (C. DC.) Harms. ssp. cumingianus Chisochetom pentandrus (Blanco) Merr. ssp. pentandrus Xylocarpus moluccensis Lam. Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Palmae/Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L. Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Common Name Kalumpang Habit Tree Balukanag Tree Katong matsing Tree Piagau Tree Malunggai or Horse-raddish tree Small tree Niog Palm African oil palm Palm 287 Habitat & Distribution Found throughout the Philippines. Uses Used for illumination, as paints, and useful for culinary purposes. Distributed from northern Luzon to Used as illuminants. Mindanao. Distributed throughout the Locally used for hair Archipelago. cosmetics. Used as hair oils and for burning purposes. Grows in poor soil and widely Oil is used for salads and distributed in the Philippines and in culinary purposes, and as the tropics. illuminant. Planted throughout the Philippines. High grade oils used for making edible fats and artificial butter. Low grades are for soaps and candles. Also used for cooking, lotion, salves and hair cosmetics. Cultivated in the Philippines. In Oil for soap and candles. large plantations in Sumatra and Kernel oil used for (high Malay Peninsula. grade) vegetable butter and (low grade) soaps. Family/Scientific Name Pedaliaceae Sesamum orientale L. Pittosporaceae Pittosporum pentandrum (Blanco) Merr. Common Name Sesame or Linga Habit Tree Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl. Petroleum nut Tree Sapindaceae Ganophyllum falcatum Blume. Arangen Tree Usau or Rambutan Tree Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Bulala/Kapulasan Leenh. Tree Sapotaceae Madhuca betis (Blanco) Macbr. & Merr. Palaquium philippinense (Perr.) C.B. Rob. Simaroubaceae Samadera indica Gaertn. syn. Quassia indica (Gaertn.) Noot. Uses Annual herb Widely cultivated in the Philippines Used for margarine, soap and is occasionally spontaneous. making, illumination and lubrication purposes, and for medicinal purposes. Mamalis Nephelium lappaceum L. Habitat & Distribution Betis Tree Malakmalak Tree Manunggal Tree Common and widely distributed in Petroleum the Philippines, especially in thickets and second-growth forests. Widely distributed and found on Petroleum high mountain ridges. Distributed from northern Luzon to For illuminating purposes. Mindanao. In the Philippines, occurring wild For illuminating purposes. only in Palawan and Basilan. Distributed from northern Luzon to For illuminating purposes. southern Mindanao and very common in Luzon. Distributed from Luzon to Mindanao. Common and widely distributed in the Philippines. Distributed from Luzon to Mindanao Manunggal oil and Palawan but is apparently rare. Source: Brown, William. 1921. Minor Products of Philippine Forests. Vol. II. Bureau of Printing: Manila. 288 Oil is locally used as an illuminant. Used in food and as an illuminant. Annex Table I. Edible Fruits and Nuts in the Philippines. Family/Scientific Name Common Name Habit Anacardiaceae Dracontamelon edule (Blanco) Skeels Lamio Medium tree Mangifera caesia Jack Baluno Large tree Mangifera indica L. Mangga Large, Erect or spreading tree Mangifera odorata Griff. Huani Medium size Semecarpus cuneiformis Blanco Ligas Small tree Semecarpus longifolius Blume Manalu Medium tree Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz Libas Medium tree Distribution In primary forests at low altitudes. Fruit Characteristics Fruits - rounded, yellow, having edible pulp around the seed. Propagated from seeds. Forests at low altitudes, Fruit - resembles the mango. sometimes semicultivated. Propagated from seeds. Fruits -one of the most delicious of all tropical fruits. Propagation inarching or grafting, budding and by seeds. Cultivated or semiFruits - similar to mango. cultivated for its fruits. Propagated from seeds. In dry thickets and Fruit - resembles cashew in form but second growth forests smaller. The drupe is ovoid, oblique at low altitudes. and is borne on a fleshy, purple receptacle. Propagated from seeds. In forests at low and Fruits - deep purple, fleshy, juicy, medium altitudes. edible but somewhat astringent. Can be propagated by seeds. In primary forests at Fruit - rounded, yellow, with a low and medium finely flavored, edible pulp. altitudes, distributed from Luzon, but not common. 289 Uses Fruits and seeds are edible. Fruits are edible. Flesh is made into fruit preserve and juice. Fruits are edible. Fruits are edible. Leaves and fruits - sour and used for stews. Family/Scientific Name Annonaceae Platymitra arborea (Blanco) Kessler Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Baill. Uvaria purpurea Blume. syn. U. grandiflora Roxb. Apocynaceae Ochrosia oppositifolia (Lam.) K. Schum. Telosma procumbens (Blanco) Merr. Arecaceae (Palmae) Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr. Common Name Habit Bolon/Kalay Medium size Biriba Small tree Hinlalaki saging Woody vine Ginlin Large tree Dukep Woody vine Kaong or sugar palm Palm Distribution Forests at low and medium altitudes. Fruit Characteristics Fruits - rounded or somewhat oval. Uses The fleshy pulp of the seeds is edible, sweet, with a good flavor. Introduced Fruits - large, juicy, delicious, resemble that of cherimoya. Propagated by seeds. In thickets at low and Fruits - borne in clusters from a disk- Fruits - aromatic medium altitudes. like structure. and edible. Rare. Found in Mindanao and Basilan, along the seashore. In thickets and secondary forests at low altitudes. Fruit - contains edible seeds. Abundant in some forested areas, generally planted in most islands and provinces. Fruits are in bunch, green when young and turns yellowish when mature. Propagated by seeds. 290 Young fruits cooked and eaten as vegetables. The flesh of the young fruits makes a delicious dessert and the sap made to vinegar, etc. Family/Scientific Name Nypa fruticans Wurmb. Burseraceae Canarium williamsii C.Robinson syn. C. vrieseanum Engl. forma williamsii (C.Robinson) Leenh. Capparaceae Capparis horrida L.f. syn. C. zeylanica L. Combretaceae Terminalia microcarpa Decne. Dilleniaceae Dillenia megalantha Merr. Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe Common Name Habit Nipa Palm Gisaw Small tree Halubagat baging Thorny woody vine Distribution Fruit Characteristics Along tidal streams Fruits are in bunch, brown in color. in brackish swamps Propagated by seeds and suckers. throughout the Philippines; in favorable habitats gregarious over large areas. Primary forests at low altitudes in Mindanao and neighboring islands. Uses Flesh of the young nuts make good dessert or may be eaten raw. Nuts - similar to pili nut. Propagated by seeds. In thickets at low and Fruits - rounded with an edible pulp medium altitudes. which has a poor flavor. Kalumpit Large tree In primary forests at low altitudes. Fruit - smooth, dark red, fleshy and acidic. Fruit - eaten raw or made into preserves. Katmon-bayani Large tree In primary forests at low altitudes. Fruits suitable for preserves. Katmon Medium tree In forests at low and medium altitudes. Fruits - large and rounded. The edible part is green, fleshy, and juicy with an acid taste. Fruits - rounded and contain soft, fleshy, green pulp, with a flavor resembling that of an apple. 291 Fruits - used for flavoring fish and make an excellent sauce or jam. Can be eaten raw. Family/Scientific Name Common Name Habit Katmon-kalabau Medium tree Mabolo/ kamagong Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus philippinensis Perr. syn. E. triflorus Roxb. Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus calomala (Blanco) Merr. Dillenia reifferscheidia Fernandez-Villar Ebenaceae Diospyros discolor Willd. syn. D. blancoi A.DC Ericaceae Vaccinium myrtoides (Blume) Miq. Vaccinium whitfordii Merr. Fagaceae Castanopsis philipensis (Blanco) Vidal Distribution Fruit Characteristics Uses Most abundant at medium elevations. Fruit - green, fleshy and about the size of a small apple. The edible part is green, juicy, acid resembling that of the apple. Fruit - eaten raw and makes an excellent sauce or jam. Medium size In primary and secondary forests at low and medium altitudes. Fruits - large, rounded and fleshy with a disagreeable odor and contains a few large seeds. Can be grown from seeds and by marcottage. Fruits - edible with good flavor. Aliñgaro Shrubby vine Thickets and forests at low and medium altitudes, ascending to 1,500 m. Fruits (ripe) - sweet Fruits are edible Kalomala Medium tree In primary forests at low altitudes. Fruits - edible, oval, red; containing a single large, rough seed. Inner bark used for rope making. Gatmo Shrub Katmo Shrub Common in Benguet, Luzon. In thickets and forests at about 1,000 to 2,400 m elevations. Fruits - blue berry having an Fruits make fine excellent taste. preserves. Fruits - small, black, juicy, sub-acid sweet, and of good quality; produced singly in the axils of the leaves. Bating / Philippine chestnut Medium size Forest at medium altitudes. Fruit grows on spikes and contains an edible oblong nut. 292 The flavor of the nut resembles that of chestnut. Family/Scientific Name Common Name Habit Bago Medium-size Kariis Small tree Kamandiis Small tree Garcinia venulosa (Blanco) Choisy. Gatasan Medium size In primary forests at low altitudes. Garcinia binucao (Blanco) Choisy. Binukau Medium tree Primary forests at low altitudes. Gnetaceae Gnetum gnemon L. Guttiferae Garcinia mindanaensis Merr. Garcinia rubra Merr. Garcinia mangostana L. Hydrocharitaceae Enhalus acoroides (L.f.) LC Rich. ex Steudel Distribution Forests at low and medium altitudes. In forests at medium altitudes. In primary forests at low altitudes. Mangosteen Lamon In shallow waters of sheltered bays along the seashore. 293 Fruit Characteristics Uses Fruits are in small clusters, rounded, Fruits (boiled or green when young, turns yellowish roasted), to red when ripe. flowers and leaves are edible. Fruit is edible. Fruits – edible, fleshy, yellowish to red somewhat rounded but flattened. Propagated by seeds. Fruit - sour, rounded but flattened. The edible portion is surrounded by a hard rind and contains several flat seed but seldom cultivated. Fruits - yellowish, rounded with firm outer covering and contain an acidic pulp and several seeds. Propagated by seeds. Fruits – globular, puplish-brown, Part eaten is the smooth, about the size of an apple. delicate, snow white, melting, juicy pulp adhering to the seed. Fruits - contain 8 to 9 green seeds. Seeds - eaten raw or cooked. Family/Scientific Name Common Name Habit Kamachile Small to medium tree Katurai Medium tree Balukok Small tree Kamuling Small tree Diplodiscus paniculatus Turcz. Balobo Large tree Durio zibethinus Murr. Durian Grewia eriocarpa Juss. Bariuan Leguminosae / Fabaceae Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. Malvaceae (Tiliaceae) Grewia edulis Merr. (G. philippinensis Perk.) Grewia stylocarpa Warb. Shrub or small tree Distribution Fruit Characteristics Uses Naturalized in the Philippines growing at low and medium altitudes. Commonly found in the settled areas at low and medium altitudes. The pods contain 6 to 8 seeds surrounded by whitish, sweet, edible pulp of good flavor. Propagated by seeds or cuttings. The young fruits are eaten like the string beans. The flowers are cooked as a vegetable. Forests at low altitudes. Common and widely distributed in primary forests at low and medium altitudes. Primary forests at low and medium altitudes. Propagated by seeds but not in cultivation. In low moist country up to 2,000 feet and luxuriates in deep, alluvial or loamy soil. Fruits - yellowish Fruits are of good flavor. Fruits - with edible pulp. Fruits, small, rounded, light green when young, turns brown when mature. Starchy seeds when boiled have a good flavor. Pulp - white custard-like, is highly relished. Described as resembling "balme-mange, delicious as the finest cream". Can be propagated by seeds, which should be sown fresh. Forests along streams Fruits - small, round, bluish at low altitudes. 294 Fruits are edible Family/Scientific Name Sterculia foetida L. Sterculia oblongata R. Br. Meliaceae Aglaia everettii Merr. Aglaia glomerata Merr. syn. A. tomentosa Teysm. & Binn. Aglaia harmsiana Perk. syn. A. elliptica Blume Lansium domesticum Correa Common Name Habit Distribution Kalumpang Large tree Seeds - flavored like cacao. Propagated by seeds. Malabuho Medium sized tree Common in most or all islands and provinces along the seashore and in semiopen forests at low and medium altitudes. In secondary and open forests at low and medium altitudes. Bulog Medium size Fruits - oval, red containing an edible pulp. Propagated by seeds. Karamiras Medium tree Malatumbaga Medium tree Primary forests at low and medium altitudes. In primary forests at low and medium altitudes. In primary forests at low and medium altitudes. Lanzones Lansium dubium Merr. syn. Mamata-babae Reinwardtiodendron humile (Hassk.) Mabb. Small tree Fruit Characteristics Seeds - edible with purgative effect, also used to adulterate cacao. Fruits - red, inflated, hairy, with a Nuts - eaten by thick leathery covering, containing a the people of number of nuts. the Mt. Province. Fruits - red, velvety, fairly jiucy, and edible. Propagated from seeds. Thrives up to 2,000 feet in moist places. Fruits - rounded, red to russet colored with hard outer cover containing a single seed. Can be propagated from seeds. Propagated by seeds and by marcottage. In primary forests at low and medium altitudes. Fruits - edible, rounded, brownish yellow surrounded by hard outer covering containing a single seed. 295 Uses The pulp around the seed has a good flavor. Family/Scientific Name Moraceae Artocarpus altilis (Park.) Fosb. Common Name Habit Kamansi/ Rimas Artocarpus elastica aucH.non Reinw. syn. A. sericicarpus Jarett Gumihan Large tree Artocarpus odoratissimus Blanco Marang banguhan Medium tree Is-is Shrub or small tree Malanangka Medium tree Ficus ulmifolia Lam. Parartocarpus venenosa (Zoll. & Morr.) Becc. ssp. papuana (Becc.) Jarrett Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Malunggai or Horse-radish tree Distribution Fruit Characteristics Can grow up to about Can be propagated by root-suckers, 2,000 feet. layering and from seeds when available. In forests at low and Fruit - heavy and covered with medium altitudes. brownish hairy appendages. Seeds embedded in whitish, more or less gummy pulp of delicious tart flavor; size and flavor of peanuts. Fruit - large, flesh white, sweet, very rich, juicy and aromatic. Propagated like nangka. Common in open Fruits (mature) - soft and fleshy. places and in thickets at low and medium altitudes, ascending to 1,500 m. In forests at low and Fruit - rounded which contains medium altitudes. chestnut-like seeds. Planted throughout Propagated by either seeds or the settled areas of cuttings. the Philippines at low and medium altitudes. 296 Uses Fruits - edible and have good flavor especially when eaten with sugar and cream. Seeds - eaten either roasted or boiled. The leaves, flowers and immature fruits are cooked and eaten as vegetables. Family/Scientific Name Common Name Habit Distribution Fruit Characteristics Kamanla Medium tree In primary forests at low and medium altitudes. Fruits - rounded, yellow and edible. Kalubkob Large tree Fruits - greenish and edible with a good flavor. Lipote Medium tree Manangkil Big tree Syzygium polycephaloides (C.B. Rob.) Merr. Maigang Large tree Syzygium xanthophyllum (C.B. Rob.) Merr. Olacaceae Anacolosa luzoniensis Merr. syn. A. frutescens (Blume) Blume Malatampoy Medium tree In thickets and forests at low and medium altitudes. In primary forests at medium altitudes. In primary forests at low and medium altitudes. In primary forests at low and medium altitudes. In forests at low and medium altitudes Galo Medium size Bo-o or Pangungan Spiny shrub Myrtaceae Eugenia aherniana (C. Robinson) syn. Jossinia aherniana (C. Robinson) Merr. Syzygium calubcob (C.B. Rob.) Merr. Syzygium curranii (C.B. Rob.) Merr. Syzygium mananquil (Blanco) Merr. Ximenia americana L. Forests at low altitudes ascending to 1,200 m. in Benguet. In thickets immediately back of the beach along the seashore. 297 Uses Fruit - small but edible. Fruits - red, fleshy and acidic, good flavor, and borne in large numbers. Fruits - rounded, similar in color and Fruits - make a flavor to that of duhat, but are less delicious tart sweet and juicy. jelly. Fruits - small but edible. Nut - good quality and flavor. Apparently rare and never cultivated. Fruits - tastes like sour apples, and either eaten fresh or pickled; yellow and egg-shaped. Nuts - purgative when cooked and powdered; they are mixed with sago to make bread. Family/Scientific Name Phyllanthaceae Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng. Common Name Habit Bignai Small tree Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn. Binayuyu Antidesma pentandrum (Blanco) Merr. Bignai pugo Cicca acida (L.) Merr. syn. Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels Rosaceae Rubus elmeri Focke Rubus moluccanus L. Rubus pectinellus Maxim. Iba In thickets, open places and second growth forests in the vicinity of towns and settlements, occasional in forests. Small tree Common in open cogonals at low and medium altitudes. Shrub-like or In thickets at low and small tree medium altitudes, ascending to 1,800 m. Small deciduous Widely distributed, tree occasionally cultivated for its fruits. Bunut Scrambling shrub armed with few small spines. Kinubot Scrambling shrub, armed with medium sized spines Trailing plant with heartshaped leaves. Atibulnak Distribution Grows in open slopes at about 1,300 to 2,200 m. elevation and is reported only in Mt. Province. In forests at medium and higher altitudes, in wet regions; also at low altitudes. Mossy forest on the highest mountains 298 Fruit Characteristics Uses Fruit - red, ovoid, fleshy, acid and edible. It contains a single seed. Propagated by seeds and by marcottage. Fruits - small; sour and edible when ripe Fruits - small, in clusters, sour but edible when ripe Fruits - rounded greenish-white, fleshy, acid, edible and contain a hard bony stone. Propagated by cuttings or seeds. The orangeyellow berry is edible and wellflavored. Berries are small and similar with strawberry. Fruits - bright red, juicy, sub-acid and with good quality and flavor. The red berries are edible with an insipid flavor. Family/Scientific Name Rubus rolfei Vidal Rubus rosifolius Sm. Rutaceae Citrus limonia Osbeck Citrus macroptera Montr. Toddalia asiatica (L.) Kurz Common Name Habit Dutung Scrambling shrub Init Spiny shrub Lemon Small tree Kabuyau Dauag Spiny woody vine Distribution In mossy forest on the highest mountains. In thickets and forests at low and medium altitudes ascending in some regions to 1,900 m. Fruit Characteristics Berries - yellowish, fleshy and wellflavored. Fruits - red, occur singly or in clusters, juicy but rather insipid. Leaves - somewhat astringent. Grows freely at Propagation - by budding or layering medium and high and by seeds. elevations and requires conditions of climate and soil like the orange. Secondary and Propagated by seeds. primary forests, sometimes in or near settlements at low and medium altitudes. In second growth and virgin forests and in thickets at low and medium altitudes, ascending to 1,700 m. 299 Uses Leaves - eaten both raw and cooked. Fruits - largely used for flavoring in confectionery and to prepare beverages, etc. Rind - yields valuable oil used for making candle lemon peel. Fruits - used to flavor many dishes; and as a tonic for the stomach, and to prevent fevers. Family/Scientific Name Salicaceae Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch. Flacourtia euphlebia Merr. Synonymized with F. rukam Zoll. & Mor. Flacourtia rukam Zoll. & Mor. Sapindaceae Cubilia cubili (Blanco) Adelb. Euphoria nephelioides Radlk. Hedyachras philippinensis Radlk. syn. Glenniea philippinensis (Radlk.) Leenh. Litchi chinensis Sonn. ssp. philippinensis (Radlk.) Leenh. Common Name Habit Governor's plum Shrub or small tree Lanagon Bitongol Kubili Buli Hedyachras Alupag Distribution Dry thickets at low altitudes. Fruit Characteristics Fruit - smooth, rounded, purple or nearly black. Tree-like shrub In forests up to an altitude of about 900 m. Medium size Forests at low and medium altitudes Fruit - edible, occurs singly or in small clusters in the axils of the leaf. Medium tree Fruit - oval and covered with very numerous pointed projections. It contains a nut of good quality. In primary forests at low altitudes, distributed from Luzon to Mindanao. Medium size Forests at low altitudes, and can only be found in Basilan. Small to medium In thickets and forests size along streams at low altitudes. Medium size Found in all islands and provinces, common in hill forests at low and medium altitudes. Rarely cultivated, and if so by seeds. 300 Uses Pulp - fleshy, edible with an agreeable flavor. Fruits - small, violet colored, fleshy, sub-acid, good flavor. Pulp around the seed is edible. Fruits - shaped like peach, yellow, smooth, thin-skinned, fleshy, subacid, and contain two large seeds. Fruits - edible though a trifle astringent. Fruits -greenish, very rough and occur in loose cluster similar in appearance to the Chinese litchi. Flesh - whitish, sweet, juicy, good flavor. Family/Scientific Name Common Name Nephelium mutabile Blume syn. N. ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Leenh. Bulala Habit Distribution Medium size Primary forests in low and medium altitudes. Sapotaceae Madhuca obovatifolia Merr. Dulitan or Nato syn. Ganua obovatifolia (Merr.) Assem Small tree Only in Camarines. Mimusops elengi L. Bansalagin Large tree Palaquium philippinense (Perr.) C.B. Rob. Malakmalak Large tree Vitaceae Ampelocissus martini Planch. Tetrastigma harmandii Planch. Bika Ayo Large, woody vine with conspicuous tendrils. Woody vine Fruit Characteristics Uses Fruits - red, completely covered with numerous rather soft projections. Flesh - white, abundant, juicy and of very good flavor, surrounds a single rather large seed. Fruits - like chico but twice larger; light colored, thin and rough, but its color, consistency, flavor and seeds are similar to chico. Can be propagated by seeds. Widely distributed in Fruits - oval, with a firm outer all of the provinces. covering and contain a single seed In forests at low surrounded by fleshy, aromatic, altitude, in the beach edible pulp. along the seashore. In forests at low and Fruits - oval containing the edible medium altitudes, seeds. widely distributed in the Philippines. Fruits - borne in grape-like clusters, greenish salmon in color, fleshy, acid and of fairly good flavor. Thickets at low and Fruits - smooth and fleshy medium altitudes. Can be propagated by cuttings and is occasionally cultivated for ornamental purposes. 301 Sour leaves and fruits are used for flavoring Family/Scientific Name Common Name Tetrastigma loheri Gagnep. Bariuatwat / Loher’s ayo Habit Woody vine Distribution Fruit Characteristics Thickets and forests Fruits - round and fleshy, edible. at low and medium altitudes ascending to 1,400 m. Uses Sour leaves are used for flavoring. Source: Fernando, E.S. 2002. Checklist of species in FBS 21 (Taxonomy of Forest Plants). 8th Edition. FBS-CFNR-UPLB. Jacalne, D. 1974a. Edible fruit bearing trees ad other plants in the Philippines, Forestry Digest. DFE-CF-UPLB College, Laguna. Vol.1 No.1, pp 51-59. Jacalne, D. 1974b. Edible fruit bearing trees and other plants in the Philippines, Forestry Digest. DFE-CF-UPLB College, Laguna. Vol.2 No.1, pp 65-72. Jacalne, D. 1974c. Edible fruit bearing trees and other plants in the Philippines. Forestry Digest. DFE-CF-UPLB College, Laguna. Vol. 3 No.1, pp 64-6. 302 Glossary Abortifacient Absorbent root Acclimatize Acuminate Acute Adhesive Adventitious Aeration Agpang Agroforestry Air layering Airponic propagation Albumen Alienable and disposable (A&D) lands Alternate An-an Anesthetic Anthelmintic Antiarthritis Something, which induces abortion. Insensitive to light but responds markedly to the gravity; usually straight and have uniform diameter. To accustom to a new climate or new conditions. Pointed, tapering to a point; ending in a narrowed, tapering point with concave sides. Having sharp tip. A substance capable of holding materials together by surface attachment. It includes cements, mucilage, paste, and glue. Occurring sporadically or elsewhere than is normal; not in the usual place, e.g. roots on stem, or buds produced in other than terminal or axillary positions on stem. Impregnating or charging with gas or air. Local name of an improvised metal stripper used for splitting leaves into the desired sizes. A strategy for land management that increases overall productivity by properly combining agricultural crops and/or livestock with forest trees. See marcotting. Process done inside a state-of-the-art computer controlled greenhouse, which provides a system of accelerating the growth of plants in an oxygen-rich environment. No soil is involved. The roots are suspended in a growing chamber and intermittently pulse-misted with a nutrient solution. The nutritive material stored within the seed, and in many cases surrounding the embryo. This refers to lands of the public domain which have been delimited, classified and declared as such and available for disposition. When used with leaves, pertains to leaves being inserted at different levels along the stem. In Tagalog, it refers to skin infection caused by the fungus Tinea sp. Substance that produces the loss of normal perception of pain. A drug or agent that destroys or causes expulsion of intestinal worms. Substance that provides relief from arthritis, the inflammation of a joint or joints. Anti-diarrhetic Antidote Antigastralgic Substance that provides relief from diarrhea, unusually frequent passage of loose, watery stools. A remedy counteracting a poison. Substance that provides relief from pain in the stomach. Antihemorrhagic Antiscorbutic An agent against hemorrhage, or excessive or profuse bleeding. A substance that is effective against scurvy. Antiseptic Antispasmodic Counteracting the putrefying effect of bacteria in a wound or cut. An agent that prevents or relieves spasms or involuntary muscular contractions. Apex In plants, the growing point of the stem or root. Aphrodisiac Arabinose Aril A food or drug that increases sexual desire. A pentose sugar of the aldose group commonly found in plants. An outer coating to some seeds, often bright in color. Aroid Aromatherapy See climbing aroid. Healing or treatment of physical or mental illness with the aid of plants that give off pleasant odor. With a sharp or pleasant smell. Aromatics refer to plants, drugs or chemicals that contain pleasant smell, like that of spices. Free from bacterial infection. Absorbing food or nutrients into the body system. Aromatic Aseptic Assimilation Asthma Astringent Athlete’s foot A chronic disorder characterized by paroxysms of the bronchi, shortness of breath, wheezing, a suffocating feeling, and labored coughing to remove tenacious mucus from the air passages. Something that acts on the tissues of the skin, causing its tightening, or the mouth to feel dry. A contagious skin disease, most common between the toes. Auricle Axil An ear-like growth. The upper angle between the leaf and the stem on which it is borne, where a bud usually develops. Axilla The cavity beneath the junction of the anterior appendage; it contains the axillary artery and vein. Relating to an axil; buds with leaves arising from the axil. In a plant, the main or central line of development. Axillary Axis Bagworm Collection of Lepidopterans belonging to Psychidae family of the sub-order Frenatae; can be easily recognized through its spindleshaped bag; it feeds on Nipa leaflets and scarifies the tissue on both surface. 304 Bahay kubo Balau Balsam Bamboo Bambusetum Banca Bareroot Bark Bast fiber Batik Benefit-cost ratio Berry Biliousness Biological control Biological diversity Biotechnology Bipinnate Birdlime Blowtorch Boil Bole In Tagalog, it refers to a small, native house made of perishable materials such as bamboo, anahaw and nipa. When fresh, it consists of thick fluid obtained from trees, particularly dipterocarps but hardens to a semi-plastic consistency after long exposure. A mixture of resins in volatile oils, often used in medicines or perfumes. Tall grass growing in the tropics or subtropics, usually with hollow stems; belongs to the Graminae or Poaceae family. A plantation established for the collection of bamboo species to increase the number of species in a locality and encourages the introduction of living specimens of exotic species. Local name for a boat carved out of a log. Refers to seedlings where the soil is totally removed from the roots; usually done to minimize the cost of transportation during outplanting. Outer layer of the woody stem or roots, external to the cambium. Flexible fibrous bark commonly used for tying. Fabric printed by coating fabric with wax any parts to be left undyed, the wax being boiled off after the dyeing process. In economics, it refers to the ratio of benefits to the costs of a venture or activity, with both benefit and cost measured at the same time horizon. A juicy indehiscent fruit with the seeds immersed in pulp; usually several-seeded without a stony layer surrounding the seeds. Having an excess of bile due to a liver disorder. Control of pests and diseases by making use of their natural enemies or by artificially upsetting their life cycle. Variability among living organisms, including diversity within species, between species and ecosystems. The field of study involving the development and improvement of industrial and agricultural processes using biological systems. Having leaflets growing in pairs on paired petioles. An extremely adhesive viscid substance usually made from the bark of holly and from other plants. A device for obtaining a high-temperature flame by burning a mixture of liquefied fuel vapor forced out of a nozzle by pressure and air. Localized inflamed swelling of the skin caused by a bacterium. The trunk of a tree. 305 Bolo Boucherie method Bract Branch Brea blanca Bronchitis Brush Brushlands Bud Locally-made knife, which has multiple uses, such as for hacking or splitting wood, grass or stem cutting, and other farm and domestic uses. Process of applying water-borne preservative to green, unpeeled poles, which involves attaching liquid-tight caps to the butt ends of the poles. A leaf in whose axil a flower grows. A stem growing out from the trunk or a bough of a tree or from the nodes of the bamboo culm. Another term used for the resin derived from Canarium species. An inflammation of the mucous membrane in the bronchial tubes. Small trees and shrubs, or land covered with thicket. Areas characterized by discontinuous cover of shrubby and nonwood vegetation including grasses, usually as a result of repeated clearing and burning of the original forest cover. A much condensed, undeveloped shoot end of the axis composed of closely crowded young leaves. Budding The process of inserting the scion, which consists of the bud in a leaf axil on a shield of rind, with or without the small piece of wood attached, into a plant (rootstock) with the intention that it will unite and grow there, usually in order to propagate a desired cultivar. Patch budding is where a square or rectangular patch of rind is removed from the rootstock and replaced with a similar patch, plus a bud, taken from the stick of scion-wood; used for plants whose bark will not permit shield budding. Chip Bud refers to a bud shield that contains a sliver of wood, not just rind. Ring bud is similar to patch bud, except that a complete ring of rind is removed from the rootstock and replaced with a ring from the scion wood. Buding Budwood Bicol confectionery made from pili nuts. Wood consisting of strong young shoots bearing buds suitable for propagation. A cluster of leaves or flowers growing together. Term for the fibers derived from the petiole of buri leaves. General term for meat obtained from animals in the wild, which provides a source of protein for forest dwellers, hunters and gatherers. A non-pressure method of preservative treatment of poles and posts, which is performed by allowing the pole to stand on its butt end in a vessel containing the preservative. Bunch Buntal Bushmeat Butt treatment 306 Buttress Cabo negro Callus Calyx Cambium Cane Canopy Carbonization Cardiac Carminative Carpel Cassie perfume Catappa oil Catarrh Cauliflorous Caulk Cephalic Certificate of non-wood forest products origin (CNFPO) Certification A ridge of wood developed in the angle between a lateral root and the butt of a tree, which may extend up the stem to a considerable height. Highly durable fiber of kaong that is used for rope making. Thickened area of skin or plant tissue; mass of cells from plant tissue grown in vitro. The outer envelope of the flower, consisting of sepals, free or united. A layer of nascent tissue between the wood and bark, adding elements to both the wood and the bark. Plural, cambia. Long, hollow stem of plants such as bamboo, or stem of soft plants, usually used for furniture, baskets, etc. The uppermost leafy layer of a tree or of a forest. The process of converting wood by slow combustion into coke or charcoal. Pertaining to the heart. Drug or other agent having the property to relieve flatulence by helping expel gas from the stomach and intestines. Part of the structure of the flowers of seed plants. Carpellary refers to the fruit. Produced from the “oil of Cassie” derived from the fragrant flowers of Aroma (Acacia farnesiana). Seed oil of Talisay (Terminalia catappa); similar to Indian oil, which comprises of the following constituents: 51.2 percent fixed oil, 54 percent olein as well as palmitin and 46 percent stearin. An inflammation of any mucous membrane, especially that of the nasal passages, usually accompanied by discharge from the membrane. Floral buds (flowers) borne on the trunk and larger (older) branches in position where the leaves have already been shed. To stop up and make watertight the seams of a ship. Pertaining to the head. Document that accompanies the movement/shipment of non-wood forest products to indicate whether the shipment is derived from natural forest or forest plantations within forestlands. A license or enfranchisement of a public-utility concern as prerequisite to the operation; a non-tariff measure to increase global market access for forest products that are produced in sustainablymanaged forests. 307 Chalcid Chilling injury Chlorosis Cicatrizant Cis Civil reservation Class Classification Clayloam Clearing Cleft grafting Climbing aroid A member of Chalcidae, a family of hymenopterous insects resembling wasps. Injury sustained from cold temperature. An abnormal condition in plants characterized by absence of green pigments, due to magnesium or iron deficiency. Chlorotic is the adjective form. An agent that helps in the healing of wounds. In chemistry, it refers to having equivalent atoms attached to the same side of a carbon-to-carbon double bond. An area of forestland, which has been reserved by law for civilian purposes. A group; a system of division. The process of arranging into groups systematically because of common characteristics or properties. A type of soil mixture dominated by fine clay with some coarse sand particles that is ideal for cultivation. The process of making land free from trees or other vegetation. Patch or spot clearing refers to removal of unnecessary weeds in a particular area, while strip clearing is removal of weeds from a designated, long narrow area with a given measurement in a particular field. See grafting. Monocotyledonous vine belonging to the family Araceae that clings on many tropical trees and characterized by having prominent, stout aerial roots that often extend from the top of tall trees down to the ground. Climbing roots Any of the adventitious roots that develop from the stem of certain plants, and serve to attach the plant to its support; often insensitive to gravity, show great negative heliotropism, cling closely to the stem of the support tree, and can creep into the bark crevices. Clone A population of genetically identical cells or individuals. Clump Clustering A group of trees, flowers, stems or branches growing together. Similar things, such as branches, leaves or flowers that tend to grow or gather close together. Cocoon Covering which the larvae of many insects spin about themselves for protection during the pupa stage. To subject to pressure without heating. Chemical solution used for pulping. Spasms accompanied by abdominal pain; occurring in infants, especially in the first few months of life. Cold pressing Cold soda Colic 308 Complete fertilizer Concave Concession Concoction Condensed tannins Cone Confectionery Conical Conifers Control measures Conveyance Cooperative Copal Coppicing Coppicing ability Cordage Coring Cork (14-14-14) Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium Curving inwards like the inside of a sphere. Refers to an area of forestland that government bestows, through a time-bounded agreement, upon a private individual or corporation, for the purpose of allowing the latter to harvest the timber or nontimber resources therein. A preparation consisting of a mixture of ingredients. See tannins. In conifers, it comprises spirally arranged ovules and lignified ovuliferous scales. Candy; the work of a manufacturer or shopkeeper selling candies. Having the shape of a cone. Largest and most widely distributed order of gymnosperms. Silvicultural practices applied in established and managed forest plantations to protect the planted trees or crops from pests and diseases. Refers to any vehicle, vessel, device or animals used in transporting forest products. An association for producing goods, marketing in which members are consumers who share in providing the capital and in the profits in the form of dividends for purchases made. Pertains to a class of substances obtained from various tropical trees or as fossil or mineral resin, used for varnish manufacture. A form of woodland management in which trees are cut back to ground level regularly to encourage growth of numerous adventitious shoots from the base. The ability to form adventitious shoots after cutting the stem. Ropes, especially those used for ship’s rigging. In rattan manufacture, the process of producing derivatives from the inner part of the rattan stem. The compact protective tissue that replaces the epidermis as the outer cellular layer in plants with secondary growth. Corolla The collective term for the petals. Cosmetic Cost and return analysis Designed to beautify the complexion, eyes, hair, lips, nail, etc. A formalized accounting of cost and return of a particular project including its annual revenue, annual cost, net return and return of investment in production. The first leaf or leaves of embryo in seed plants. Cultivated produce of grain, fruits, etc. Cotyledon Crop Culm Jointed stem of members of the Gramineae and Cyperaceae, usually hollow or pithy. 309 Culm selection method Cultural community Cultural management Cuneate Cutch Cutin Cutting regime (harvesting regime) Cyanogenic glycoside Cymose Cytokinin Damar (dammar) Dark red Philippine mahogany Date palm Deciduous Decoction Decussate A method of harvesting bamboo poles based on culm age or maturity. This system of harvesting can be applied both in bamboo plantations or natural stands. See indigenous cultural community. Practices that include the production of quality materials, site preparation, actual planting, care and maintenance of the planted stocks, protection from pests and diseases, as well as proper harvesting and collection methods of trees and non-timber plants. Describing leaves that are wedge-shaped; triangular, with the narrow end at the point of attachment, as the bases of leaves or petals. Tanning extract from various barks of Borneo and the Philippines. A mixture of complex macromolecules forming the waxy cuticle that covers the aerial parts of most higher plants; contains long chain fatty acids and polyhydroxy derivatives of these acids, crosslinked with ester bonds to form a large interlinking matrix that is relatively impervious to water and gases. A regular pattern or occurrence of harvesting and/or cutting of timber and non-timber resources. A class of glycoside, or compound formed by the reaction of a pyranose sugar with a nonsugar molecule, that releases hydrogen cyanide on hydrolysis. Refers to inflorescence in which the apical tissues of the main stems and laterals lose their meristematic capacity and differentiate into flowers. Any of a group of growth substances whose primary effect is to stimulate cell division. A kind of resin from Dipterocarp species, specifically the ones belonging to the genera Hopea and Shorea; soluble in alcohol. See Philippine mahogany. Phoenix dactlifera, family Palmae, widely cultivated for its fruit, which is highly nutritious; The tree also yields fibers used in making mats, thatch, hats etc. Describing woody perennial plants that shed their leaves before the winter or dry season. Boiling to extract some substance. Refers to leaf arrangement in which the leaves arise in pairs at each node, where each pair is at right angles to the pairs above and below it. 310 Dehiscent Demulcent Dermatophytic fungi Desiccant Diabetes Diaphoretic Diaphragm Diarrhea Dichotomies Dichotomous Dieback Dioecious Dipterocarp Distillation Diuretic Domestication Dormant Dropsy Drupe Duty-free Dye Dyestuff Splitting open along predetermined lines of certain plant organs, such as anthers, spore capsules, and fruits to release their contents, as the spontaneous opening of fruits when ripened. Medicine or ointment having a soothing or emollient effect on inflamed body surfaces. Fungi living parasitically on the skin of people or animals. A drying agent. Disease relating to the body’s inability to handle glucose, characterized by excessive amounts of sugar in the urine. A substance or agent that induces perspiration. In bamboo, it refers to the solid cross wall of the nodal portion that provides interconnection in the transverse condition. An abnormal evacuation of the intestines characterized by watery and frequent stools. Repeated forking into two, parting by pairs. Describes the system of branching where each division is into two equal parts. A condition found in shrubs or trees in which branches wither from the tip downward; caused by disease, injury or wrong pruning. Refers to plants in which the female and male reproductive organs are separated on different individuals. Tropical trees that are members of family Dipterocarpaceae. Process of evaporation and condensation for purification or fractionation. Steam distillation extracts highly volatile essential oils by percolating steam at high temperature through the oil-bearing plant tissue. An agent or medicine that increases or promotes urinary discharge. Adaptation of plants previously existing in the wild to life that is in intimate association with, and to the advantage of man. Plant or plant part unable to grow or to leaf out even under favorable environmental conditions. A condition characterized by generalized accumulation of fluids in the tissues and cavities. A fleshy one-seeded, indehiscent fruit with the seed enclosed in a strong endocarp. Free of customs or excise (tax) duty. A substance capable of coloring materials, e.g. textiles, paper, generally applied in solution or dispersion, sometimes with the aid of a mordant. Mordant is the substance that fixes colors in dyeing, by combining with the dye to form an insoluble compound. A substance use as, or yielding, a dye. 311 Dysentery Dyspepsia El Niño Elemi Ellipsoid Elliptic Embryo Emergence Emetic Emmenagogue Endemic Endocarp Endosperm Enfleurage Entire Epidermis Essential oil Ester Ether Ethno-medicine Evergreen Any of a group of intestinal disorders characterized by inflammation and irritation of the colon, with diarrhea, abdominal pain, and the passage of mucus or blood. The condition of disturbed digestion or indigestion. Unusual weather condition characterized by long period of low rainfall. Any of fragrant oleoresins obtained from tropical trees of family Burseraceae and used in inks, varnishes, lacquers etc. Solid having the shape of a surface produced by the rotation of an ellipse around one of its axis. Having the form of an ellipse; oval-shaped. The rudimentary plant within a seed, developed from a zygote (sexual) or from other nuclei in the embryo sac or cells of the nucellus or integuments (apomictic). Coming out, developing or becoming noticeable. An agent that induces vomiting. A medicine that stimulates menstrual functioning. Exclusively native to a specified or comparatively small region. The innermost layer of the pericarp of an angiosperm fruit. The storage tissue in the seeds of most angiosperms. Process of placing the petals of sweet smelling flowers with very small amount of heat-sensitive components, between trays of vegetable or animal fat, to absorb the essential oils. Describing a leaf, petal or sepal margin that has a smooth undivided outline. The outermost cells of the primary plant body, whose main function is to protect the underlying tissues from excessive water loss, and to some extent, from physical injury and attack from pathogens. Any of the volatile oils secreted by aromatic plants that give them their characteristic taste or odor. A class of organic compounds that on hydrolysis yield one or more molecules of an acid and one or more molecules of an alcohol; often fragrant liquids used as constituents of perfume and as flavoring materials. One of a class of organic compounds of the general constitution RO-R’. Refers to medicine as traditionally practiced by primitive people. A woody perennial plant that retains its foliage throughout the year by continuously shedding and replacing a few leaves at a time. 312 Excise Exocarp Exotic Expectorant Extraction Extractives Fascicle Febrifuge Fermentation Fiber Fibrovascular Finishing Firebreak Fixative Flagellum Flavones Flowering cycle Foliage Food supplement Forage Forest Forest benefits As a noun, it refers to a tax duty levied on the manufacture, sale, or consumption of a certain commodity within a country. As a verb, it means to cut away, or to remove. The outermost layer of the pericarp of an angiosperm fruit. Describing an organism that has originated from another region and is not native to the area in question. An agent having the quality of liquefying sputum or phlegm. Process of obtaining an essence, juice etc. by pressure, distillation, evaporation or treatment with a solvent. Refer to the materials that are extracted, or extractible, from various plant parts. A cluster of flowers, leaves etc., arising from the same point. An agent serving to reduce fever. Industrial process of producing alcoholic beverages and certain pharmaceuticals that involve chemical reactions using enzymes. Relatively long sclerenchyma cells, often with inconspicuous simple pits that are usually differentiated directly from meristematic cells. Fibers are of great economic importance in the textile industry and for making rope and baskets. In plants, this refers to the vascular system consisting of xylem and phloem, in association with fibers. Putting the final touches, such as paintwork, application of decorative surface and other refinements. Consists of less flammable or fire resistant tree species with dense/thick foliage planted around the plantation to protect such plantations against forest fire. Any of various substances to make something more permanent. A whip-like climbing organ derived from an inflorescence, bearing reflexed spines. A group of flavonoid pigments the members of which contain an unaltered flavonoid nucleus. An interval of time during which a recurring succession of flowering is completed. The leaves of a plant or tree. Commercial food or drug products, usually marketed as healthpromoting or curative for certain ailments, but with no proven clinical trials. Food for horses and cattle. Community of species characterized by the predominance of trees that interact freely and harmoniously with their habitat. Goods and services derived from the forest. 313 Forest charges Forest conservation Forestlands Forest production Forest products Forest reserve Forest services Forest utilization Fracture Frass Fronds Fruit setting Fumigation Fungicide Furfuraceous Furrow method Galactose Genotype Genus (pl. genera) Germinant Refers to the levy imposed and collected by the government on timber and other forest products cut, harvested, or gathered from the forestlands and from A&D lands in accordance with the law. Wise utilization of forest resources so as to get their best and maximum use. Refer to lands of the public domain, which have been classified as such by law and all unclassified lands of the public domain. Refers to the sustainable production of timber and non-wood forest products to a particular forestland. All usable materials derived from the forest including the associated water, fish, game, scenic, historical, recreational and geologic resources. Refers to those forestlands of the public domain that have been the subject of the present system of classification and determined to be needed for forest purposes. The use of forest ecosystems for recreation, nature reserves, water catchments, carbon sequestration, etc. Economical production of timber and non-timber resources, including their harvesting, processing into, and the consumption of, usable finished products. A break or rupture, especially in a bone. A mixture of sawdust and excrement used by insects in a homebuilding effort. A large leaf or leaf-like structure frequently used for the divided leaves of ferns, palms or cycads. A young plant or rooted cutting ready for setting out. Process of subjecting to smoke or fumes, especially in order to disinfect or kill insects. Substance, which destroys fungi. Covered with flaky scales. Silvicultural practice that involves the continuous supply of water during the dry season; the use of narrow channel or groove; plowed land or field. An aldohexose sugar commonly found in plants, normally not in the free state but as a polymer. The genetic makeup of an organism comprising the sum total of its genes, both dominant and recessive; a group of organisms with the same genetic makeup. A group of animals or plants within a family, closely connected by common characteristics. Germinated seeds; sprouts. 314 Germination Girdle Glabrous Glandular Globose Glucuronic acid Gonorrhea Grafting Gram negative bacteria Gram positive bacteria Grana Greenbreak The physiological process in the first stages of growth of seed or pollen grain. In seed germination, resumption of active growth in the embryo of a seed is demonstrated by the protrusion of the radicle. In seed testing (ISTA definition), resumption of the active growth in an embryo which results in its emergence from the seed and development of those structures essential to normal plant development. To make a ring around the tree by cutting away the bark. Describing a surface that is devoid of hairs or other projections. Refers to one or more cells whose main function is to secrete specific chemical substance or substances. Spherical or nearly so. Sugar acid derived from glucose, where the carbon atom carrying the primary hydroxyl group is oxidized to a carboxyl group; a common constituent of gums and mucilage. A venereal disease characterized by inflammation of the mucous membrane of the genitourinary tract and a discharge of mucus and pus. The process of inserting a scion, which consists of a piece of stem and two or more buds of the plant to be propagated, into another plant (rootstock) with the intention that it will unite and grow. Cleft grafting or wedge grafting refers to grafting a decapitated rootstock by inserting a scion with a wedge-shaped base in a cleft cut into the surface of the rootstock. When subjected to staining with a basic dye, such as gentian violet or crystal violet and adding a mordant such as iodine or picric acid, they lose the violet color and on counterstaining with a red dye, such as carbol fuschin or neutral red, will take up the red color. Cell walls contain more lipids and amino acids than gram-positive bacteria. When subjected to staining with a basic dye, such as gentian violet or crystal violet and adding a mordant such as iodine or picric acid, they form a complex that cannot be removed by decolorizing agents such as acetone or alcohol, and retain the violet color on counterstaining with a red dye; more exacting in their nutritional needs and more susceptible to antibiotics but more resistant to plasmolysis. A local term that refers to the dye used for coloring tikog leaves designed for woven products. Consists of less flammable or fire resistant tree species with dense/thick foliage planted around a plantation as a protection against forest fire. 315 Gregarious flowering A flowering occurrence of certain bamboo species in which the whole population flowers over a period of 2-3 years and then dies, although sometimes the rhizome remains alive. Gross domestic product (GDP) Gross national product (GNP) Gross national product (GNP) minus net property income from abroad; used frequently to evaluate a nation’s economy. The total market value of all goods and services produced by a nation’s economy in a given period, usually a year. Ground tissue Parenchyma cells that is present in great numbers, in which the other tissues can be embedded. A maggot, caterpillar or any similar insect larva. Sticky liquid that exudes from the stem or roots of some trees and shrubs, dissolves in water and hardens in air, and used as an adhesive or thickening agent in making emulsions, cosmetics and food preparation. Vegetable gum is the specific term used for plant-derived gums. An odorless, tasteless gum widely used as an adhesive, derived from a few wild species of Acacia, e.g. Acacia arabica and A. senegal. Supplies for a navy excluding arms, especially resinous substances, e.g. pitch and tar, derived from secretion following the tapping of trees. Mixture of essential oils derived by distilling the oleoresins secreted by coniferous trees. Coagulum which is non-elastic, becomes plastic when heated but retains its shape when cooled; resembles rubber but more resinous and with less change when vulcanized obtained from Malayan trees of genera Payena and Palaquium; used especially in dentistry and as electrical insulation in submarine cables. Grub Gum Gum arabic Gum naval stores Gum turpentine Gutta-percha Habit Habitat Hallucinogen Halo-halo Handicraft Hardening Harrow Harvest index Harvesting regime In biology, it refers to a characteristic mode of growth and appearance or occurrence. The area in which an organism or group of organisms lives. A drug, which induces hallucinations. A food preservation consisting of crushed ice mixed with milk and sweet ingredients, usually served as dessert of snack food. Trade or occupation that engages in the manufacture and sale of products made by hand. The gradual exposure of plants to increasingly less favorable conditions to increase their chance of survival when planted out. A cultivating implement with spikes, spring teeth, or disk and used primarily for pulverizing and smoothing the soil. The total harvestable produce as a fraction of the total biomas produced by the crop in a given year. See cutting regime. 316 Heel Heeled-in Heliotropism Hemorrhage To tilt or lean to one side. Immersion of the roots of seedlings in water and then placing them under the shade. Another word for phototropism, implying plant movement in response to sunlight rather than artificial light. Heavy bleeding. Herb Herpes Any vascular plant with no persistent, woody parts. A disease of the skin or mucous membrane caused by a virus and characterized by the appearance of small blisters. Hilar cover Hilum Cover located near the hilum The scar left on a seed indicating its point of attachment. Hormone A substance that has a marked and specific effect on plant growth and that produces this effect when present in very low concentrations. Mold used as a pattern in weaving hats and baskets using flattened and dried strips of pandan or buntal fiber as materials. A measure of the amount of water vapor in the air. The soft moist amorphous black or dark brown organic matter in soil derived from decaying plant and animal remains (especially leaf litter) and animal excrement. See tannins. Hulmahan Humidity Humus Hydrolyzable tannins Hypertension Hypocotyl Hypodermis Igneous rock Illuminant Ilohan Imparipinnate Impotence Abnormally high blood pressure in the arteries and often accompanied by nervousness, dizziness and headaches. The region of the stem derived from the part of the embryo between the cotyledons and the radicle. Layer of cells underneath the epidermis; made up of thick-walled sclerenchyma cells. Rock formed by the cooling and recrystallization of molten magma. Substance used in lamps for lighting up. A heavy roller made of round timber having a diameter of 55 to 60 cm, with heavy rocks attached around the log; used as a platform upon which leaves are laid to be flattened by pressing. Refers to a pinnate leaf having a centrally located unpaired terminal leaflet. The quality or state of being able to perform the sexual act. 317 In vacuo In a vacuum. In vitro In glass; an experiment performed in an artificial environment such as a test tube or culture media. Incense A mixture of gums, spices, etc. which when burned emit perfumed vapor, used in religious ceremonies. Income tax holiday Incentive in the form of reduced or zero income taxes, given to registered enterprises engaged in, or proposing to venture in new and expanding projects. Indigenous Native to given areas, as opposed to an introduced or exotic species. Indigenous Refers to a group of people or tribe of indigenous Filipinos as cultural defined or described in the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA). community (also indigenous people) Indigestion Difficulty in digesting food. Industrial Forest Production sharing contract entered into by and between the Management DENR and a qualified person, whether natural or juridical, Agreement wherein the former grants to the latter the exclusive right and (IFMA) responsibility to invest in, develop, manage, and protect a defined area of the production forestland. Industrial forest Any tract of either public or private lands planted to timber plantation producing species, including rubber and durian trees and/or nontimber species such as bamboo and rattan primarily to supply the raw materials requirements of forest-based industries, energygenerating plants, and related industries. Inflorescence The arrangement and mode of development of the flowers on the floral axis. Infructescence Infusion A ripened inflorescence in the fruiting stage. Liquid resulting from soaking of leaves in liquid that has boiled so as to extract the flavor. Inoculate Introduce a disease into an organism by transmitting the agent which causes it; also to introduce microorganisms into soil. Agent or substance that drives away insect. In the natural environment; In situ conservation refers to conservation of the ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties. In between or in the midst of cropping period or system. Interest earned by an investment; the interest calculated when the stream of returns or benefits from an investment is made equal to the costs and disbursements at a given point in time. Insectifuge In situ Intercrop Internal rate of return 318 Internode Inventory Iodine number Kamala Kawit Keel Keeled Kernel Ketone Kiln Kraft pulp (also sulfate pulp) Lacquer Lactagogue Lag-ot Lanceolate Large tree Lateral bud Latex Laxative Layer Layering Leaf blotch Leaf rust The portion of the stem between two nodes in the culm of bamboo, rattan and other plants with jointed stems. To take stock of resources available in a given area of forestland. It expresses the percentage (g per 100g) of iodine absorbed by a substance and measures the proportion of unsaturated linkages present. Red glandular pubescence of the fruits of Banato (Mallotus philippinensis). Curved knife mounted on a long handle used for picking fruits, flowers, and leaves from tall trees. (Carina); a ridge like the keel of a boat; the two anterior and united petals of a papilionaceous corolla; the principal vein of a sepal or glume. (Carinate); having a keel or carina. The soft, usually edible, innermost part of a seed. An organic compound with the general formula R-CO-R. In forest products, a chamber used to dry lumber, bamboo culms or rattan poles. Pulp obtained from the sulfate pulping process, which contains sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfate in the pulping liquor, and is used to make strong brown paper for wrapping and paper bags. A hard, glossy varnish derived from shellac, colored and applied to wood and to some metals for decoration or protection. A substance that stimulates the mammary glands to secrete milk. Instrument for flattening of stalks before weaving. Lance-shaped; much longer than broad being widest at the base and tapering to the apex. Trees measured 60 m in height and 300 cm in diameter. Bud that develops in the axil between a petiole and a stem. Fluid produced by higher plants, usually milky white in color, which consists of tiny droplets of organic matter suspended or dispersed. A drug that makes the bowels loose and relieves constipation. A branch that is made to root while still connected to the parent and used for propagation (layering). A type of vegetative reproduction that arises from living, lowhanging branches that have been buried in moist organic matter. Another term for leaf spot. Any on numerous destructive diseases of plants produced by fungi and characterized by reddish brown pustular lesions. 319 Leaf spot Leaflet Leguminous Lenticel Lenticellate Leprosy Leptomorph Liberate License Light intensity Light red Philippine mahogany. Lignocellulosic Limbahon Liming Linoleum Linseed oil Lithographic Lobe Log A plant disease in which the principal symptom is limited areas of necrosis on the leaves which can be caused by mineral imbalance, insects, weather conditions, viruses, bacteria, and fungi. A distinct and separate segment of a leaf; an individual unit of a compound leaf. Like or belonging to legumes, why are plants that have dry, dehiscent fruits that split along the suture of the single carpel. A small elliptical pore containing loosely packed cells that is the means of gaseous exchange in the periderm of plant axes. Having lenticels. An infectious disease caused by a microorganism, once believed to be incurable, marked by a gradual onset of symptoms such as general malaise, headache, chilliness, mental depression, numbness in various body parts, ulcerations, tubercular nodules and loss of fingers and toes. A term coined especially to designate a slender, elongated type of rhizome. To cut for the purpose of freeing the crop trees from the older, overtopping individuals; a silvicultural operation made in a stand past the sapling stage. A right formally granted in writing by an authority. Refers to the degree or strength of light present in an environment. See Philippine mahogany. Describes woody stems as consisting of an intimate association between lignin and cellulose. The red variety of Buri palm. To spread lime, a caustic and highly infusible solid consisting essentially of calcium oxide, on a field. A floor covering made by coating canvas with oxidized linseed oil mixed with resins and fillers. A drying oil obtained from linseed, the seed of flax, used in making linoleum, paint, and printing ink and for oiling woods. Pertaining to the lithography, which is the art or process of printing from a smooth surface, on which the image to be printed is ink-receptive. Any projection or division of a leaf or other organ A long and heavy piece of the trunk or a branch of a tree, usually cut and trimmed but otherwise unshaped, and with the bark still on. 320 Loin Lopped off Lotion Lupisan Macerate Machining Macrovegetative propagation Mangrove Manila Mannose Marcotting Margin Mazapan Medicinal plant Medium tree Mesocarp Metaxylem Midrib Mind-bug Minor Forest Products The area in a man or quadruped on either side of the spinal column between the hipbone and ribs. Eliminated or cut-off undesirable branches or twigs severed from woody plants. A liquid medicinal or cosmetic preparation applied to the skin. The white variety of Buri palm. To soften and separate by soaking. In the manufacture of forest products, this pertains to working with lumber, bamboo, or rattan using machinery. A propagation technique suitable for seed-producing species wherein the seedlings are multiplied through cuttings, rhizome separation, and the use of other vegetative plant parts. Area at the mouth of rivers and along coasts, over which the tide flows daily, leaving the mud bare at low water. Capital, chief port and commercial center of the Philippines; when used to describe products, it indicates the quality and not necessarily the origin. An aldohexose sugar; in some plants, mannose rather than glucose is the monosaccharide building block for reserve polysaccharides. Air layering; a form of layering in which the soil is brought to the branch to be layered; the ball of soil in a polyethylene cover is wrapped along the girdled branch; after adventitious roots grow out above the girdle, the layer can be separated. The outer limiting edge of a leaf. Baked product made from a mixture of flour, milk, and nuts or fruits. Plant whose parts or extracts thereof have properties that heal or treat diseases. A tree that measures 20m in height and up to 100cm in diameter. Middle wall of an angiosperm fruit, which is almost always thicker than the exocarp; the middle layer of the pericarp or fruit wall, which is often fleshy or succulent. Late primary xylem; it completes its elongation after the organ has ceased elongation and therefore, its tracheary elements are not destroyed. The main vein of a leaf that is a continuation of the petiole. A common insect pest of Salago plants. Products derived from the forest that are considered to be of minor economic significance compared to timber; include all forest products except timber and pulpwood. The use of minor to describe these products is now being discouraged. 321 Mist propagation chamber Mistless propagation chamber Molido Chamber equipped with a mechanized system of spraying water onto material being propagated, which maintains a film of water on the plant species, using sand as medium; the rooting of culm and branch cuttings can easily be stimulated using continuous mist spray. System of propagation where rooting medium is placed in a chamber box covered with polyethylene plastic sheets and watered two to three times a day; uses a 2:1 mixture of sand and soil as medium. Candy preparation from pili, generally hard and made of groundnuts in caramelized sugar. Monocarpic Flowering and fruiting only once. Monocotyledonous Angiosperms having a single cotyledon or seed leaf. Monopodial Type of rhizome system wherein rhizome is long and slender and usually hollow, and the apex extends and grows horizontally. Each internode has a solitary bud, giving rise to either a culm or a rhizome. Monoterpene Low molecular weight terpenoid compound containing two isoprene units or 10 carbon atoms. Mordant See dye. Morel Edible fungi of genus Morchella, family Helvellaceae. Mossy forest Characterized by steep topography rising to peaks; soil is shallow or nearly absent; dwarf trees caused by too much wind exposure; trunks, branches and leaves are covered with mosses, liverworts, ferns, and orchids. Mounding The cultivation of soil around the plants to enhance shoot production and protects the arising shoots. Mucilaginous gum A gelatinous substance that is similar to gums, swells in water without dissolving and forms a slimy mass. Mud-puddling Protecting the lifted wildlings by wrapping the roots with moss or placing the roots in a slimy mixture of soil. Mulching The process by which organic materials are placed above seedbeds immediately after sowing until the start of germination; spreading a layer of wet straw, leaves, grass mowing, bark, compost, over the roots of plants or trees to conserve moisture. Multiple shoot A tissue culture procedure, done in-vitro for the mass production of Induction high quality planting materials. Multi-resource Inventory designed primarily for purposes such as: routine stock inventory surveys of commercial logging areas or in routine forest inventory where selected Non-Wood Forest Products have traditionally been important. National Accounts System It is system of macro-economic accounts intended for use of both national and international statistical agencies, and it reinforces the central role of national accounts in economic statistics; prepared by the auspices and joint responsibility of the organizations: 322 National park Natural colorant commission of the European Communities – Euro stat, International Monetary Fund, Organization for Economic Cooperation and development, United Nations and the World Bank. An area of the public domain essentially natural, wilderness, scenic, or historic in character which has been withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or any form of exploitation except in conformity with an approved management plan and set aside exclusively to conserve the area or preserve the scenery, the natural and historic objects, wild animals, and plants therein mainly for the purpose of biodiversity conservation and/or human enjoyment. Naturally extracted coloring materials from plants used for preparing cosmetics and paints. Natural forest Areas that remain undisturbed by human activities and remain in their natural state thus maintaining biodiversity and ecological processes. Naval stores Refer to resinous products obtained from conifers, especially pines, and used for caulking ships. Gum naval stores are obtained by tapping the tree. Sulfate naval stores are recovered from black liquor used during the sulfate pulping process. Wood naval stores are extracted from the wood gathered from tree stumps. Nerve A strand of strengthening and/or conducting tissue running through a leaf, which starts from the midrib and diverges or branches throughout the blade. Nervine Any species known for their reputed tonic properties; having the quality of affecting the nerves; soothing nervous treatment. The point on the stem or branch at which a leaf or lateral is borne; part of the stem which normally has a leaf or a whorl of leaves. Include small products made of ligneous (or woody) materials such as wooden stools, masks, drums or other handcrafted items that are not industrial timber or pulp. Node Non-Timber Forest Products Non-Wood Forest Products Nursery Nut Obovate Obtuse Offset Ointment Consist of goods of biological origin, other than wood, derived from forests, other wooded land and trees outside forests. A place where young plants or trees are grown for subsequent transplanting. One-seeded indehiscent fruit with a hard dry pericarp or shell. The reverse of ovate; having the narrow end attached to the stalk. Blunt or rounded at the end. A short shoot that arises from an axillary bud near the base of the stem and gives rise to a daughter plant at its apex. An unguent used externally for healing or cleansing the skin. 323 Olein A glyceride of oleic acid. Oleoresin Natural product that exudes from resinous trees due to natural or man-made injury, as when tapping the tree. Describes a form of leaf arrangement in which the leaves arise in pair at each node; can also be used to refer to branches that are borne at the same node on opposite sides of the stem. Inflammation of the eyeball. Almost circular and flattened. Liquid, carbon containing substance, e.g. ethanol, ether, acetone, that is capable of dissolving other substances. A plant that is grown primarily to add beauty. Opposite Ophthalmia Orbicular Organic solvent Ornamental plant Orthotropic Outplant Outrigger Ovate Ovoid Ovule Oxalate crystals Pachymorph Pahiyas Festival Pakaskas Palm Palma brava Palmate Palmitin Panicle Having a more or less vertical direction of growth. To lift seedlings from the nursery area for planting in the field. Projecting floating device at one or both ends of some canoes or a banca, to prevent upsetting. Describing an organ, such as a leaf, that is egg shaped, with the broadest part nearest the point of attachment. A solid object, which is egg-shaped. The female gamete and its protective and nutritive tissue, which develops into the seed after fertilization in seed plants. These are found in many plants, which arise from oxalic acid forming salts with various cations, e.g. calcium, sodium and potassium. A term coined especially to designate a short, thick type of rhizome. Celebration characterized by merrymaking and lavish decoration of houses, held on May 15 each year in certain towns of the Quezon Province, Philippines, in honor of the feast of San Antonio. Candies from Buri sap that are considered specialty products, and which have found their way into the export market. A monocotyledonous plant, belonging to family Palmae or Arecaceae. Nickname given for the wood from the trunk of anahaw that is strong, durable and suitable for construction purposes. Describing a compound leaf having four or more leaflets arising from a single point; lobed or divided like the palm of the hand. A glyceride of palmitic acid occurring in palm oil and other fats. A racemose inflorescence in which the flowers are formed on stalks (peduncles) arising alternately or spirally from the main axis. 324 Pansit habhab Paraglara Parallel medicine Paralysis Parenchyma Parent plant Paranium Parity rights Particleboard Patch clearing Patent Pathogen Pectin Peduncle Peltate Perennial Perfumery Pericarp Permanganate of potash A noodle preparation in the municipality of Lucban in Quezon, which is served on a banana leaf and designed to be eaten without the aid of utensils. Local name in the Visayas for the weavers of tikog. The use of herbal medicine as an alternative to pharmaceutical medicine. Inability to move a muscle or group of muscles, often coupled with lack of sensation in the affected area. Relatively unspecialized tissue composed of more or less isodiametric polyhedral cells with thin nonlignified cellulose walls and living protoplasts; undifferentiated live cells. Parenchymatous tissue is characterized by having predominantly this type of cells. A pollen donor and/or ovules producer. Essential oil added to patchouli oil in perfumery. Having equality in status as the natives in the access to, exploitation and use of natural resources. Generic term for a material manufactured from wood particles or other lignocellulosic materials and a synthetic resin or other suitable binder. See clearing. An official paper conferring a right or privilege guaranteeing an inventor and his heirs’ exclusive rights over an invention or process for a given length of time. A disease-producing microorganism like bacteria, small fungi or virus, but not e.g. insects. Any of a group of polysaccharides occurring in plant tissues especially in fruits, solutions of which readily form a gel. It is rich in (1→4) linked galacturonic acid residues, though other sugars, e.g. rhamnose, are present in small quantities. Pectinase are enzymes that can break down pectin. The stalk of an inflorescence or partial inflorescence. Shield-shaped, as a leaf attached by its lower surface to a stalk instead of by its margin. A plant living for many years and usually flowering each year. Perfumes, collectively; a place where perfumes are manufactured or the technique or business of making perfumes. Fruit wall; the wall of the ripened ovary or fruit whose layers may be fused into one, or may be more or less divisible into exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Salt of permanganic acid with potassium. 325 Permit Pesticide Petiole Pharmaceutical product Phenol Phenotype Philippine mahogany Physiography Pigment Piles Pimarane Pink disease Pinnate Pinus Pitch Pith Privilege granted by the Government to a person to utilize limited forest and wildlife resources, or to undertake specified forestry activity inside forestlands, which may or may not include any right of possession thereof and occupation therein; or to establish and operate a plant or mill for processing timber, non-timber, or other forest products. A substance used for destroying pests. The stalk of a leaf. Medicinal drugs. Simplest phenolic compound, containing a benzene ring with directly substituted with one hydroxyl group. The physical or external appearance of an organism as distinguished from its genetic constitution (genotype); a group of organisms with similar physical or external make-up. Trade name for a select group of Philippine dipterocarp timber. Dark red Philippine mahogany comprise of Shorea negrosensis, S. polysperma, and S. agsaboensis. Light red Philippine mahogany includes S. almon, Parashorea malaanonan, S. palosapis, and S. contorta. A description of the factors that affect the prevailing conditions within a habitat and the distribution of the plants and animals. Coloring substance of the plant. Long, heavy timbers, round or square, that are driven deep into the ground to provide a secure foundation for structure built on soft, wet or submerged sites. See resin acids. Serious bark disease caused by the fungus Corticum salmonicolor producing a pink covering of hyphae on the stems and branches Describing a compound leaf in which the leaflets (pinnae) are arranged in two rows, one on each side of the midrib. One of the most widely distributed genera of coniferous trees in the northern hemisphere, extending from the polar region to the tropics. A dark-colored, sticky, resinous substance, liquid when heated, hard when cold, which is a residue from the distillation of tars or turpentine, and occurring naturally as asphalt and is used for proofing wood or fabric. A region of parenchymatous tissue found in the center of many plant stems to the inside of the stele. 326 Pitjoeng oil Plantation Plywood Pneumatic Pneumatophore Poaching Pod Podzolized sand Pollen sac Polyhydric Polyisoprene Samaun oil; similar to oil extracted from Pangi by heating the dry seeds. Any tract of either public or private lands planted to a specific crop. A glued wood panel made up of relatively thin layers of veneer with the grain of adjacent layers at right angles. Operated by pressure of air. Also referred to as aerophore, breathing root or respiratory root. An erect root that protrudes some distance above soil level. The illegal taking of logs from the forest. A dry dehiscent fruit containing one or more seeds. Zonal soil that develops in a moist climate especially under coniferous or mixed forest and have an organic mat and a thin organic-mineral layer. A chamber in which pollen grains are formed in the angiosperms and gymnosperms. Containing many water molecules. Polymers made from several isoprene units. An isoprene unit has H C H2C the following formula: CH2 C CH3 . Potting medium An intermediate means, channel or tool used in planting. Pouches Poultice Bag-like plant parts, e.g. the seed vessel of certain plants. A soft, usually heated and sometimes medicated mass spread on cloth and applied to sores or other lesions. High-value timber, with superior quality grain and texture. Any substance that, for a reasonable length of time, is effective in preventing the development and action of wood-rotting fungi, borers of various kinds, and harmful insects that deteriorate wood. Any process of treating wood in a closed container whereby the preservative or fire retardant is forced into the wood under pressure greater than 1 atmosphere. A mark or shallow hole made by a pointed instrument. A sharp, relatively stout outgrowth from the outer layers. Any immature part of a plant destined to differentiate into a certain cell, tissue or organ. Premium species Preservative Pressure treatment Prick Prickle Primordium (pl. primordia) 327 Private land Production sharing agreement Profuse flowering Prolific Prop roots Propagate Propagule Prophylactic treatment Protected area Prothallus (pl. prothalli) Pseudostem Pubescence Public lands Pulp Pulpwood Pulutan Land belonging to a particular person or group and not shared with others in any way. Contract between the government and a person, whether natural or juridical, wherein both parties exercise the right to manage, develop, and utilize forest resources within a specific area of production forestlands and period of time with the person providing the financing, technology, management, personnel, marketing and other inputs necessary for the implementation of the agreement and both parties sharing the benefits under the terms and conditions set forth in the agreement. Exhibiting great abundance of flowers. Reproducing rapidly and in large numbers; abundant. Aerial roots. To cause to multiply by natural reproduction. Asexual propagation in plants is propagation without sex, or the union of male and female germ cells, such as through cuttings, marcotting and budding. Sexual propagation, on the other hand, involves the union of male and female germ cells, such as propagating from seeds. Another term for a seedling, cutting or graft; a part of a plant that becomes detached and grows into a new plant. Application of chemicals to wood as a preventive or protective measure prior to further processing. Areas defined and designated as such pursuant to RA No. 7586 (NIPAS Act). An intermediate sexual stage in the life cycle of the fern. An axis with the appearance of the stem but made up of other organs. To be covered with soft short hairs. Land belonging to the state; all forestlands. A mixture made by mechanical or chemical treatment of wood, consisting of water and cellulose fibers, and used as the raw material in papermaking. Also, a soft moist mass of vegetable matter, such as a part of a fruit. Logs, relatively short, to be converted into pulp. Pertains to food that is served along with alcoholic beverages. Purgative Pustule A medicine causing vigorous evacuation from the bowels. A pimple, blister or small wart or swelling on a leaf, either natural or caused by parasitic influence. Raceme An inflorescence in which meristematic activity continues at the apex of the main stem and primary laterals and flowers are developed from the axillary meristems. 328 Rachis Radicle Raffia Rafter Rainfed Rationalization program Rattan The principal axis of an inflorescence or a compound leaf. The embryonic root, i.e. the part of the seed embryo that develops into the primary root. Fiber obtained from the leaves of Raphia ruffia, low-growing palm of Madagascar; used for matting, tying up plants, etc. One of the sloping beams forming the framework of a roof. Irrigated with rain water. The organization of a business or industry using principles, systems and procedures to attain stability, efficiency, and productivity of operation. Climbing palm, with a viny habit; member of the Palmae or Arecaceae family; characterized by the presence of thorns or spines, hairs, and bristles in the plant parts. Rearing Process of cultivating a crop or tending a plant to produce desired results such as improved fiber or higher sap yield. Recalcitrant A term used to describe seeds that cannot survive drying below 3040% moisture content, which is still relatively high, and for tropical species, that do not tolerate low temperature. The seeds rapidly lose their viability and cannot be successfully stored for long periods. Receptacle The expanded region at the end of a peduncle to which the floral parts are attached; also the point on a leaf where reproductive organs are borne. Reforestation All land use activities directed towards the restoration, establishment, and sustained management of diversified vegetation on denuded, degraded, and/or marginal lands. Reforestation Money paid and reserved for the restoration, establishment, and deposit sustained management of diversified vegetation on denuded, degraded, and/or marginal lands. Refractive index It is a measure of the amount of refraction (bending of light or energy wave) as it passes through a surface separating two media of different densities. Regenerative Capable of growing a new part to replace a lost or injured one. Release Act of emitting, emptying or dumping of any materials in the forest. Reniform Kidney-shaped. Reproductive stage Refers to the stage in the life cycle of organisms when new individuals of a species are formed to perpetuate the species. Residual forest Trees left after logging particularly the marked trees for purposes of determining the condition, extent and causes of damage/injury on the root system, buttress, trunk and crown, and the area totally damaged resulting from the harvesting of merchantable trees. 329 Resin Resin acids Resource assessment Resource use permit (RUP) Retort Retting Return on investment (ROI) Rheumatism Rhizome Rice paddy Rind Ringworm Rogue Root collar Rootball Rootstock Rosin A mixture of high molecular weight compounds, mainly polymerized acids, esters, and terpenoids exuded by certain plants particularly when wounded. Terpenoids that contain four isoprene units. Abietane type consists of resin acids that bear the abietic acid structure while pimarane type resin acids derived their structure from pimaric acid. Pertains to an evaluation of some aspects of the resource based on information gathered from a variety of sources. It includes socioeconomic issues, and the quantity and quality of the resources. Permit given to people’s organizations that have been awarded with community-based forest management agreements to develop, harvest, utilize and sell products derived from their area. Cylinder used for the preservative treatment of wood, bamboo and rattan. Soaking of flax, bast, and other fibrous materials in water in order to loosen the fibers from the woody tissue by the action of bacteria. The yield from an investment, expressed as a percentage of the amount invested. Any of various painful conditions of the joints and muscles. An underground stem that is distinguished from a root by the presence of nodes with buds and leaves or scales. Subdivision of a rice planting area into compartments; serves as footpath in a rice field. Peel. Any of various contagious diseases of hair, skin and nails caused in man and domestic animals by fungi, marked by ring-shaped patches of discoloration in the skin. To remove from an area, any plant that varies from the rest of the crop and is consequently not wanted. The junction of the stem and root in a seed plant. Root as a whole. See budding. Solid residue or solid portion derived from the distillation of the oleoresin of pines, with the volatile turpentine already removed. Rottlerin A salmon-colored crystalline compound, C33 H30 O9, the active principle of kamala. Rubber Elastic substance obtained from the latex of many tropical plants, especially Hevea brasiliensis and Ficus elastica. An agent that reddens the skin. Rubefacient 330 Sago (sagu) A starch extracted from the pith of certain tropical plants, especially Metroxylon, used as a food and for textile finishing. Saguran In the province of Bohol, this is a local name for the raffia fiber that is popularly loom-woven into a plain roll. Sahing Local term that refers to the oleoresin exuded by members of the Burseraceae family. See Pitjoeng oil. Fragrant, close-grained wood of Santalum album. The liquid, consisting of mineral salts and sugar dissolved in water that is found in xylem and phloem vessels; also used for the fluid in the cell vacuole. It is the amount of base taken up by the hydrolysis of an ester (the number of mg KOH that reacts with 1 g of fat). Any of a class of bitter-tasting glycosides in which the aglycone portion is a steroid alcohol. Samaun oil Sandalwood Sap Saponification value Saponin Sappanwood Sarcotesta Sawali Scale insect Scalpel Scarification Scion Sclerenchyma Scraping Scythe Secondary forest Sedative Used as dyewood; a source of one of the most important red dyestuffs for textiles. The fleshy outer seed coat. A non-permanent construction material that is woven from the stems of thin-walled bamboo, used for ceiling, walls, and other temporary structures. Any of numerous small but very prolific insects of the family Cocidae (order Homoptera); a bark louse; the young of both sexes that suck the juices of plants. A small, very sharp precision knife that is normally used in surgery. The abrasion or chemical treatment of the surface of a hard seed to make it permeable to water and hasten germination. See budding, grafting. Strengthening tissue composed of relatively short cells with thick, often lignified, cell walls and usually lacking a living protoplast at maturity. The process of removing the skin of bamboo culms and rattan poles to remove smudges, make the diameter more uniform, and increase moisture loss. A long curved blade with a sharp edge on the inner side of the curve, fitted to a long wooden handle, used by a person standing up to cut long grass or as a pole pruner. Forest, which has been altered by human activities and have changed its natural biodiversity. Tranquilizer; an agent allaying irritability or excitement. 331 Sedge Any of several members of Cyperaceae, a family of coarse, solidstemmed grasses growing in swampy places. Sedimentary rock Rock formed from fragments of other rocks, by precipitation from solutions, or by organic secretion. The reproductive unit formed from a fertilized ovule, consisting of embryo and seed coat, and, in some cases, also endosperm. A bed of soil in which seedlings are raised. Any rectangular compartment with flat bottom filled with soil where seedlings are raised. Substance extracted from the seeds of certain plants like Bitaog, Hanga, Lumbang, Talisay, etc., which is useful for its medicinal value, the manufacture of paints, varnishes, soap, candles and illuminants or used as biofuel. Systematic removal of the mature, over mature and defective trees in such a manner as to leave an adequate number and volume of healthy residual species necessary to assure the future crops of timber and other non-timber forest resources. Refers to plant tissue nearing the point between maturity and death, where the endpoint is usually abscission from the plant. A terpenoid product containing 3 isoprene units or 15 carbon atoms. Unstalked, as a leaf with no petiole or a stigma without a style. Seed Seed bed Seed box Seed oil Selective cutting Senescent Sesquiterpene Sessile Sexual propagation Shalucid See propagation. Shingle Palm leaves arranged in a manner as to lend their use as a roofing material. Sheet attached to a shipment of goods and a common carrier. Shipper’s tally sheet Shoot Shrub Sieve tubes Silica Silvical Silviculture Simple leaf Sinusitis Sizing machine Biological control of bagworm pests. A young growing branch or twig; the ascending axis; it becomes a stem when segmented into dissimilar members. A woody plant, which branches from the base, all branches being equivalent. A continuous longitudinal tube composed of numerous sieve tube elements. Silicon dioxide, one of the commonest minerals. Of or pertaining to silvics A branch of the science of forestry dealing with the development, cultivation, and reproduction of forest trees. A leaf, of one blade, not divided into leaflets. Inflammation of a sinus. Machine designed to bring a product’s size or thickness to the desired dimension. 332 Skeletonizer Skewer Small tree Smudge Social Justice Solitary Solvent extraction Sowing Spacing Spadix Sphagnum moss Spices Spike Spikelet Spine Spiral Sporadic Spore Spot clearing Springback Staking Stalk Stand Any small moth whose larva eats the parenchyma of the leaves, leaving the skeleton of veins and the upper or lower epidermis. A metal pin or wooden stick for holding meat together while cooking by roasting. Tree reaching 4 to 10m in height and up to 40cm in diameter. Dirt or mark on a surface. Equity. Growing separately; not forming a cluster. Process of removing chemical compounds of interest by soaking in organic or aqueous liquids. Planting seeds for growth. Refers to the distance between plants in establishment of plantation that affects harvestable yield in the area, competition of nutrients and light of plants. Unbranched, indeterminate, inflorescence with flowers embedded in the rachis. Moss belonging to Sphagnum, a genus of soft mosses, whose remains form peat with other plant debris. Vegetable substances, mostly plant parts from which the essential oils have not been extracted, used to impart their strong and aromatic flavors to food. A racemose inflorescence in which the flowers are sessile and born on an elongated axis. A secondary spike, one of the units of which the inflorescence is made in grasses, consisting of one or more florets on a thin axis, subtended by a common pair of glumes. A modified leaf or part of a leaf forming a short but stiff, straight sharp-pointed structure. When describing leaf arrangement, the leaves ascend through the stem with a continuing change of plane along a curved axis. Widely dispersed or scattered; irregular in time. When the individual plants of a given generation of bamboos (from seeds of a common origin) enter the reproductive phase at different times or at irregular intervals, the flowering is said to be sporadic. A simple asexual unicellular reproductive unit. See clearing. Describes rattan pole that returns to the original form, size, or shape after bending or straightening. To fasten up or support (as plants) with stakes. The main stem of an herbaceous plant; also refers to the petiole and/or peduncle. A standing growth, especially of trees. 333 Stand and stock table Steam distillation Stearin Table showing the number, basal area and volume of trees per hectare by diameter class of a particular forest. See distillation. An ester of glycerol and steric acid. Sterilize To render incapable of producing offspring; likewise to rid instruments, work area, etc. of living microorganisms Contract entered into by and between the forest occupant and community, the forest management association and cooperative and the Government allowing the farmer land tenure and the right of peaceful occupation, development and management over the designated area. A drug or other agent that temporarily increases the activity of an organ or some vital processes. A stalk, especially the part of a thallus of certain algae joining the lamina to the holdfast. Stewardship contract Stimulant Stipe Stipule Stock (rootstock) Stocking Stock density Stolon Stratification Strip sampling Strip clearing Stump SubSub-orbicular Subsistence consumption Succulent Sucker One of a pair of leaf-like structures, spines, glands, scale-like or leaf-like appendages at the base of a leaf petiole. See grafting. Indication of the number of species in a stand as compared to the desirable number for best growth and development. The total number of materials of uniform quality; density of scion, which consists of a piece of stem and two or more buds of the plant to be propagated, into another plant (rootstock) with the intention that it will unite and grow. A long branch that is unable to support its own weight and consequently bends down to the ground; capable of producing roots and shoots at its nodes. The operation of burying seeds in alternate layers in a moist condition such as sand. Sampling method in the forest resources inventory at the operable second growth forest. See clearing. A short piece of the trunk of a felled or fallen tree projecting from the ground. A prefix implying somewhat or slightly. Slightly flat with more or less circular pattern. Producing and consuming all the bare necessities that the family needs. Having tissues full of juice or sap. A shoot, usually originating from adventitious buds on the roots or basal stem parts. 334 Sulfate naval stores Sustained yield See naval stores. Harvesting of the timber crop equivalent to the growth of increment that the forest, as a capital, may produce. Sympodial Refers to a stem in which the growing point either terminates in an inflorescence or dies, growth being continued by a subtending lateral growing point. Synchronous Flowering of newly planted species occurring at the same period flowering of time as the parents. Synonym In plant nomenclature, a synonym is a rejected taxonomic name. Tall oil A resinous by-product from the manufacture of chemical wood pulp used esp. in making soaps, coatings and oils. Tanbark Bark used in tanning. Tannins Water-extractable materials derived from certain plants; have astringent taste and the property to precipitate the gelatin of animal hides as an insoluble compound, changing the hide to leather. Condensed tannins are polyphenols or perhaps more precisely, as polyflavanoids as these are polymers put together from flavanoids as building blocks. Hydrolyzable tannins are formed as esters of the phenolic ellagic or gallic acid and certain sugars. tapayan Clay pot used for as a collection or cooking vessel. Tapering Describes a tree stem that gradually narrows from bottom to top. Tapping Opening of a hole or wound on a tree so that liquid sap or latex can flow out. Taproot The primary descending root, forming a direct continuation of the radicle. Tariff Duty imposed by a government on imported or exported goods. Tax credit An incentive which is equivalent to the value of the tariff duties and taxes that would have been paid had the domestically manufactured machinery, equipment, and accompanying spare parts been imported, also applies to purchases of domestic genetic materials. Taxonomy The study of the principles and practices of classification. Tendril A modified leaf, leaflet, branch, or inflorescence of a climbing plant that coils around suitable objects, and helps support and elevate the plant. Terminal Growing at the end of a branch or stem. Testa The protective outer covering of a seed, derived from the integuments of the ovule after fertilization. Thatching Roofing material made from palm leaves and similar plants, used for houses and animal shelter. Thicket Thick growth of small trees and undergrowth. Thinning A silvicultural practice that reduces the number of trees in a stand. Threatened species A general term to denote species or subspecies considered as critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable or other accepted categories of wildlife whose population is at risk of extinction. 335 Tiller A shoot that develops from axillary or adventitious buds at the base of a stem, often in response to injury of the main stem. Timber Standing trees in a forest; also cut stem of a tree that is used in the original round form. A privilege granted by the State to a person to utilize forest products within a forestland with the right of possession and occupation thereof, to the exclusion of others except the Government, but with the corresponding obligation to develop, protect, and rehabilitate the same in accordance with the terms and conditions set forth in the said agreement. A solution, usually in alcohol, of a medicinal substance. Timber license agreement Tincture Tissue culture Procedure in biotechnology that allows the development of new plants from excised plant tissues in artificial medium under aseptic condition. Tonic A medicinal preparation believed to have the power of restoring normal activity. Topiary Topsoil Relating to the art of clipping or training shrubs, trees, hedges, etc. The upper few inches of the soil in which worms, beneficial bacteria, and naturally accumulating humus are to be found. Tracheary Tachinid Pertaining to xylem element or series of xylem elements. Grayish or black flies whose parasitic larvae are often important in the biological control of insect pests. The act of engaging in the exchange, purchase, or sale of forest products locally or internationally. Methods of applying preservative to wood that do not involve the use of pressure to force liquid into the cells of wood or other lignocellulosic materials. Trade Traditional methods of preservation Trans- In chemistry, it refers to having equivalent atoms attached to the different sides of the carbon-to-carbon double bond. Transpiration The loss of water by evaporation from a plant surface. Tree A perennial woody plant with an evident, persistent trunk. Trellis A flat, light frame consisting of wooden, bamboo or metal lattice like strips crossing one another in various patterns, for plants to climb on. Trigonous Trunk Triangular. The main stem of the tree. Tuba Fermented drink from the fresh sap of flower buds of buri, nipa or coconut. A swollen part of a stem or root, usually modified for storage, and lasting for one year only. Tuber 336 Tuffy stem Stem resembling a rock, composed of finer kinds of detritous, usually more or less stratified parts. Tufted Bearing flowers in dense clusters; having a bunch or cluster of hairs. Two-node length bamboo used as container in the collection of the sap of nipa. Tukil Tung oil Turbo distillation Turpentine Tympanites Type I climate Type II climate Type III climate Ubod Unguent Urolithiasis Utilitarian Valuation Oil extracted from the seeds of any of several Chinese trees of genus Aleurites, used mainly in the manufacture of paints, varnishes. Preferred technique for hard-to-extract or coarse plant materials such as barks, roots, and seeds; plant material is soaked in water as steam percolates to the plant-water mixture, which brings with it the low-boiling oil components that have been forced out of the cells by the warm water. Essential oil, chiefly pinene, derived by distilling the oleoresin secreted by pine trees; used as solvent or thinner. Swelling of the abdomen caused by accumulation of gas or air, especially in the intestine. Characteristically with two pronounced seasons, dry from November to April and wet the rest of the year. Characteristically no dry season with pronounced maximum rainfall from November to January Seasons not very pronounced; relatively dry from November to April and wet the rest of the year. Young shoot of coconut, rattan, and other palms, used in the preparation of vegetable dish. An ointment. Inflammation of the urinary tract due to the presence of calculus. Stressing utility, defined as the contribution to the greatest good of the greatest number, of an action. Estimation of the worth, value, cost, or price of forest goods and services. Variant One of two or more alternatives of a plant. Variety A botanical variety that is a subdivision of a species; an agricultural or horticultural variety is referred to as cultivar. See gum. Also referred to a vegetative reproduction. A form of asexual reproduction in which specialized multicellular organs formed by the parent become detached and generate new individuals. The pattern formed by the veins of a leaf, as viewed from above or below. Vegetable gum Vegetative propagation Venation 337 Vermifuge Vessel A drug serving to destroy or expel parasitic worms of the intestine. A continuous longitudinal tube composed of relatively advanced tracheary cells. Viable When used to describe seeds, it means these are capable of growth and development. Plants whose stem requires support and climbs by tendrils or twining, or creeps along the ground; produce long yet flexible stems that make them suitable for novelty hand-made items. Vines Virgin forest Forest which has not been altered by human activities and remains its natural biodiversity; also referred to as old growth forest. Viscid Volatile oil Vulcanize Sticky; having adhesive quality. Another term used for essential oil. To treat (rubber) with sulfur at high temperature so as to increase its strength and elasticity. Wart Waterlogged Wax Tumorous growth on the skin; small, usually hard. Soaked or saturated with water. Any of numerous mixtures that differ from fats in being harder and less greasy and that are principally constituted from higher fatty acids in the form of esters. See grafting. Term that denotes the removal of all plants competing with the crop species, regardless of whether their crowns are above, beside or below those of the desirable trees To wash, treat or cover with white liquid composition. Describing a form of leaf arrangement in which three or more leaves arise at each node. Constituting of, or made of twigs or osiers plaited to make baskets, chairs, mats, etc. Propagated and growing without man’s intervention. An uninhabited and uncultivated region. Wild forms and varieties of flora and fauna. Wedge grafting Weeding Whitewashing Whorled Wicker Wild Wilderness Wildlife Wildlings Wood Wood naval stores Xylary These are natural forest seedlings or root suckers used for planting when nursery stock is either too small or in short supply during planting season. Technically, the xylem. The hard fibrous substance beneath the bark, comprising the largest part of the stems and branches of trees and shrubs. See naval stores. Pertaining to the xylem. 338 339 Index of scientific plant names Abroma augusta (L.) L.f. syn. A. fastuosa Jacq. 106 Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. 64, 120, 175 Agathis philippinensis Warb. 8, 51,112, 165 Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. 66, 120, 177 Alium sativum L. 43 Anisoptera thurifera (Blanco) Blume 1, 54 Antidesma bunius L. 69, 121, 178 Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. 70, 121, 178 Artemisia vulgaris L. 159 Artocarpus altilis Park. Fosb. syn. A. communis J.R. & G. Forster and A. camansi Blanco 71, 122, 179 Artocarpus blancoi (Elm.) Merr. 55, 60 Artocarpus ovatus Blanco syn. A. cumingiana Trec. 60, 118 Bambusa blumeana Schultes f. 29, 30, 146, 150 Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. 29 Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss 30 Bambusa olhami Munro 30 Bambusa utilis L. 30 Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz. 67, 121, 177 Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Blume 67, 121, 177 Bauhinia integrifolia (Roxb.) subsp. cumingiana (Benth. K. & S.S. Larsen) L. 33 Bischofia javanica Blume 55 Bixa orellana L. 55 Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC. 43, 45, 107, 160 Bruguiera conjugata (Linn.) Merr. 56 Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Savigny 56, 169 Bruguiera parviflora (Roxb.) Wight er Armott ex Griffith 57 Buchanania arborescens (Blume) Blume 55 Caesalpinia sappan L. 55, 170 Calamus andamanicus 25 Calamus burckianus 25 Calamus caesius Blume 23 Calamus castaneus 25 Calamus dimorphacanthus Becc. 23 Calamus filispadix Becc. 23 Calamus javensis Blume 23, 25 Calamus longispathus 25 Calamus manillensis H. Wendl. 79 Calamus merrillii Becc. 23, 24 Calamus microsphaerion Becc. 23 Calamus mindorensis Becc. 23 Calamus ornatus 25 Calamus ornatus var. philippinensis Becc. 23 Calamus scipionum Lour. 23 Calamus siphonophatus Mart. 23 Calamus tonkinensis 25 Calospatha scortechinii 25 Calophyllum blancoi Pl. & Tr. 55 Calophyllum inophyllum L. 64, 65, 120, 176 Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook f. & Thoms. 61, 118, 171 Canarium asperum Benth. syn. C. villosum 49, 53 Canarium luzonicum (Blume) A. Gray 49, 52, 167 Canarium ovatum Engl. 8, 49, 52, 114 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. 33 Carmona retusa Vahl (Masam.) 43, 46, 108, 161 Cassia alata L. syn. Senna alata (L.) Roxb. 45, 107, 160 Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. Robinson syn. C. candolleana H. & A. 57, 58, 169 Cordia dichotoma G. Forster 55 Corypha elata Roxb. 2, 24, 25, 26, 28 Corypha utan Lamk. 137 Curcuma longa L. 55 Cymbopogon ciratus (DC.) Stapf 159 Daemonorops didymophylla 25 Daemonorops fissa 25 Daemonorops grandis 25 Daemonorops ingens 25 Daemonorops leptopus 25 Daemonorops mollis (Blanco) Merr. 23 Daemonorops ochrolepis Becc. 23 Daemonorops oligolepis Becc. 23 341 Dendrocalamus asper (Schultes f.) Backer ex Hegre 29, 30, 92 Dendrocalamus giganteus (Wall.) Munro 30 Dendrocalamus latiflorus Munro 30 Dendrocalamus merrillianus (Elm.) Elm. 29 Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.) Underw. 34, 100, 152 Dipterocarpus gracilis Blume 54 Dipterocarpus grandiflorus Blanco 54 Dipterocarpus kerrii King 54 Dipterocarpus kunstleri King 54 Donax cannaeformis (G. Forst.) K. Schum. 32, 39, 40, 104, 157 Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. 1 Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merr. 33, 159 Entada rheedii Sprengel 33, 48, 109, 162 Epiprenum pinnatum (L.) Engl. 41 Fimbristylis globulosa (Retz) Kunth 37, 101 Fimbristylis spp. 154, 190 Fimbristylis umbellaria (Lamk.) Vahl 37 Fimbristylis utilis Elm. 37 Flagellaria indica L. 33, 35 Gleichenia linearis (Burm.) Clarke 34 Gigantochloa atter (Hassk) Kyrz 29 Gigantochloa aspera Kurz 147, 150 Gigantochloa levis (Blanco) Merr. 29, 150 Guadua angustifolia Kunth 30 Hevea braziliensis (Willd. ex A.L. Juss.) Muell.Arg. 59 Hopea acuminata Merr. 54 Hopea malibato Foxw. 1, 54 Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poir. 159 Ichnocarpus ovatifolius A. DC. syn. I. volubilis Merr. syn. I. frutescens (L.) W.T. Aiton 35, 100, 152 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. 107 Indigofera tinctoria L. 55 Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) O. Ktze. 1, 55 Korthalsia rigida 25 Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. 43 Lantana camara L. 159 Leucaena leucocephala )(Lamarck) de Wit 55 Livistonia rotundifolia (Lam.) Mart. var. luzonensis Becc. 5, 11, 24, 27, 89, 143 Lygodium auriculatum Willd. 34 Lygodium circinnatum (Burm.) Sw. 33, 34 Lygodium flexuosum (Linn.) Sw. 33 Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw. 34 Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br. 34 Macaranga tanarius Muell-Arg. 60, 171 Mangifera indica L. 8 Mallotus philippensis (Lamk) Muell.-Arg. 56, 117, 169 Manilkara zapota (L.) Royen 59 Marsdenia tinctoria R. Br. 55 Melicope latifolia (DC) Hartby 55 Mentha cordifoilia Opiz. 43 Metroxylon sagu Rottb. 2, 24, 28, 80,144 Mimosa pudica L. 107 Miscanthus sinensis Anders. 32 Momordica charantia L. var. Makiling 43 Morinda citrifolia L. var. bracteata (Roxb.) Hook. f. 47, 55, 108, 162 Muntingia calabura L. 69, 70, 121, 178 Musa sp. 1 Musa textilis Nees 2 Nephelium lappaceum L. 8 Nephelium mutabile Blanco 68, 121, 177 Nypa fruticans Wurmb. 8, 24, 26, 85, 141 Ocimum basilicum L. 48, 109, 162 Ocimum sanctum L. 159 Palaqium ahernianum Merr. 171 Palaquium luzoniense (Fernandez-Villar) Vidal syn. Palaquium ahernianum Merr. 60 Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. 37 Pandanus odoratissimus L.f. 37 Pandanus sabotan Blanco 37, 101 Pandanus simplex Merr. 37, 101 Pangium edule Reinw. 68, 121, 177 Parashorea malaanonan (Blanco)Merr. 1 Payena leeri (Teysm & Binn) Kurz. 60 Peltophorum pterocarpum (D.C.) Backer ex K. Heyne 58, 169 Peperomia pellucida L. 43 Persea gratissima Gaertn. 8 Pins caribaea Morelet 50 Pinus elliottii Engelm 50 Pinus halepensis Miller 50 Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon syn. Pinus insularis Endl. 49, 50, 110, 163, 164 Pinus massoniana D. Don 50 Pinus merkusii Jungh. & Vriese 49, 51, 163, 164 Pinus oocarpa Schiede 50 342 Pinus pinaster Aiton 50 Pinus radiata D. Don 50 Pinus roxburghii Sarg. 50 Pinus sylvestris L. 50 Piper betle L. 159 Pithecelobium dulce (Roxb.) Bentham 55, 57, 118, 169 Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl. 66, 121, 176 Plectocomiopsis geminiflora 25 Pogostemon cablin Benth. 62, 119, 174 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 64 Pothos hermaproditus (Blanco) Merr. syn. P. longifolius 42 Pothos scandens L. 42 Pothoidium lobbianum Schott 42 Prunus grisea C. Muell. 55 Psidium guajava L. 10, 43 Pterocarpus indicus L. 1, 43, 55 Pterospermum diversifolium Blume 55 Pygeum presli Merr. 55 Quisqualis indica L. 43, 46, 108, 161 Raphia raffia 139 Raphidophora merrillii Engl. 41 Rhizophora apiculata Blume 57 Rhizophora mucronata Lam. 57 Sandoricum koetjape (Burm. f.) Merr. 8 Schizostachyum dielsianum (Pilger) Merr. 29 Schizostachyum fenixii Gamble 30 Schizostachyum lima (Blanco) Merr. 30, 31 Schizostachyum lumampao (Blanco) Merr. 30, 31, 91, 146, 147 Scindapsus curanii Engl. & Krausse 41 Scirpus globulosa (Retz.) Kunth 37 Sesamum indica L. 159 Shorea agsaboensis Stern syn. S. ovata Dyer ex Brandis 1 Shorea almon Foxw. 1, 54 Shorea assamica Dyer ssp. philippinensis (Brandis) Sym. 54 Shorea astylosa Foxw. 1, 54 Shorea contorta Vid. 1, 54 Shorea guiso (Blanco) Blume 54 Shorea negronensis Foxw. 1, 54 Shorea palosapis (Blanco) Merr. syn. S. squamata Benth. & Hook. f. 1, 54 Shorea polita Vidal 54 Shorea polysperma (Blanco) Merr. 1, 54 Sphaerobambos philippinensis (Gamble) S. Dransf. 30 Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.) Bedd. 33, 35 Sterculia oblongata R. Br. 41, 158 Streptocaulon baumi Decne. 33, 35, 100, 152 Tamarindus indica L. 55 Terminalia catappa L. 67,121, 177 Thysanolaena latifolia (Hornem) Honda 104 Thysanolaena maxima Kuntze 38, 156 Urena lobata L. 106 Vaccinium whitfordii Merr. 55 Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash syn. Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty 63, 119, 175 Vitex negundo L. 44, 106, 159 Vitex parviflora Juss. 1 Wikstroemia indica (L.) C.E. Mey. 40 Wikstroemia lanceolata Merr. 40 Wikstroemia meyeniana Warb. 40 Wikstroemia ovata E. Mey. 41 Wikstroemia spp. 105, 157, 191 Xylocapus granatum Konig. 57 343 Index of vernacular plant names Abaca 2, 11 Achuete 55 Agpoi 33 Agsam 33, 34, 213 Almon 1, 54 Almaciga 8, 11, 49, 51, 112, 113, 165, 166, 195, 196, 198, 199, 218 Akapulko 43, 45, 46, 107, 108, 160, 161 Ambolong 2, 24, 28, 36, 69, 86, 144, 192 Amlong 41, 42 Ampalaya 43 Anabo 106 Anahaw 5, 9, 11, 24, 27, 28, 36, 89, 90, 143, 144, 203, 204, 210 Anonang 55 Anos 30, 31 Antipolo 55, 60 Anton 34 Anubing 60 Apitong 49, 54 Aroma 64, 120, 175 Arorog/Arurog 23, 218 Avocado 8 Bagtikan 1 Bakauan-babae 57 Bakauan-lalaki 57 Balanoy 48, 109, 162 Balinghasai 55 Balongkahinai syn. Bolong kahinai 42 Bamban 32, 39, 40, 105, 157 Banana 8 Banaba 43 Banato 56, 117, 169 Bangkoro 47, 55, 108, 162 Bani 64, 65 Bawang 43 Bayog 29, 93, 94, 218 Bayok 55 Benguet pine 49, 50, 51, 110, 111, 163, 164, 165 Bignay 69, 121, 178 Bikal baboi 29 Binunga 60, 171 Biri 23 Bitanghol 55 Bitaog 64, 65, 66, 120, 176 Bolo 29, 93, 94, 218 Botong 67, 121, 177 Broad-winged apitong 54 Buho 30, 31, 91, 92, 218 Bulo-bulo 55 Buri 11, 24, 25, 26, 28, 36, 69, 87, 88, 89, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 213 Busain 56, 57, 169 Calape 218 Chico 59 Dalingdingan 1, 54 Damong maria 159 Dao 1 Datiles 69, 70 121, 178 Diliman 11, 33, 35 Ditaan 23, 218 Dugtong 42 Giant bamboo 29, 30, 92, 93, 94 Gogo 33, 48, 62, 109, 159, 161, 163 Guava 43, 69 Guijo 54 Hanga/Petroleum nut 66, 121, 176 Hinggiw 11, 33, 35, 100, 101, 152, 153, 213 Ilang-ilang 21, 61, 62, 118,171, 172, 173, 174 Ikmo 159 Ipil 1, 55 Ipil-ipil 55 Kalipaya 60, 171 Kamachile 55, 57, 118, 169, 170 Kamansi 71, 1122 Kaong 70, 71, 121, 178, 179 Kapulasan 67, 121, 177 Karagomoi 36, 37, 101 Katmo 55 Kawayan kiling 29, 30, 91, 93, 94, 218 Kawayan tinik 29, 30, 91, 93, 94, 218 Kayali 29 Kilob 33, 34, 35, 100, 152 Kogon 107 Kollokollot 106 Kolokogo 159 Kurakling 218 Putat 67, 121, 177 Raffia 21, 26, 139, 140, 141 Rambutan 8 344 Laak 30 Lago 55 Lagundi 44, 106, 107 Lance leaf salago 40 Langarai 57 Lantana 159 Large leaf salago 4 Limuran 23, 24, 80, 82, 87, 218 Linga 159 Lituko 79 Lukmoy 41, 42 Lumbang 21, 66, 67, 120, 177 Luyang dilaw 55 Malaanonang 54 Malaboho 41, 158 Malacca cane 23 Malapanau 54 Manggasinoro 54 Mango 8 Makahiya 107 Mayapis 1, 54 Mindoro pine 49, 51, 163, 164 Molave 1 Narra 1, 43, 55 Niog-niogan 43, 46, 108, 161 Nipa 7, 8, 10, 11, 27, 30, 36, 39, 56, 71, 88, 89, 141, 142, 144, 150 Nito 33, 99, 100, 152, 198, 213 Nitong hapon 34 Nito-nitoan 34 Pagsahingin 49, 53 Palasan 23, 24, 80, 130, 132, 218 Palosapis 1, 54 Panau 54 Pandan 32, 36, 101, 105, 153, 154, 213 Pangi 68, 121, 177 Panlis 132 Pansit-pansitan 43 Para-rubber 59 Patchouli 62, 63, 119, 174 Payangit 55 Payena 60 Pili 8, 10, 49, 68, 114, 115, 116, 117 Piling liitan 49, 52, 167 Red lauan 1, 54 Rogman 23 Round leaf salago 41 Sabotan 37, 101 Salago 11, 40, 41, 55, 105, 157, 191, 192, 196, 213 Sambong 43, 45, 107, 159, 160 Sampalok 55 Santol 8, 68 Siar 58, 169 Sibukaw 55, 170 Sika 23, 132, 218 Sika-sika 23 Sumulid 23 Small leaf salago 40 Suob-kabayo 159 Tabigi 57 Tagiktik 23 Talisay 67, 121, 177 Tandulang gubat 23 Tangal 57, 58, 169 Tanglad 159 Tanguile 1, 54 Tayum 55 Tiaong 1 Tiger grass 36, 38, 104, 156, 193, 194, 198, 213 Tikog 32, 36, 37, 38, 101, 102, 103, 104, 154, 155, 156, 190, 191, 193, 198 Tuai 55 Tumalim 23, 132, 218 Tsaang gubat 43, 46, 108, 161 Vetiver grass/Moras 62, 63, 119, 175 White lauan 1, 54 Yakal 1, 54 Yerba buena 43 345 ABOUT THE AUTHORS RAMON A. RAZAL, Ph.D. is a professor in the Dept. of Forest Products and Paper Science (FPPS) of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources (CFNR) and was dean of the College from January 2002 until January 2008. He served as President of the Forests and Natural Resources Research Society of the Philippines, Inc. (FORESPI), 2008, Chair of the Editorial Board of the Ecosystems and Development Journal (2007-2009), and Vice Chair of the Asia Pacific Association of Forestry Research Institutions (2003-2006). Currently, he is program leader of PCARRD-DOST Research Program on Bamboo S&T Program: Mainstreaming the Philippine Bamboo Industry for Construction and Furniture apart from a UPLB Basic research project on biofuels from bani (Pongamia pinnata (Pierre) L.), and a Foundation for Philippine Environment (FPE) project on “Forest Charges: Boon or Bane to Forest Conservation and Development?” He has authored “Mga Produktong Gubat at Agham Kahoy” and several scientific and popular articles, as well as chapters in books and training manuals. He has recently completed a GTZ-consultancy project on the “Value Chain Study for Plantation Wood, Rattan and Bamboo in Leyte Island.” The courses he instituted include “Non-Timber Forest Products,” “Fundamentals of Wet End Chemistry in Paper Making” and “Forest Products Biotechnology.” He was one of UPLB’s distinguished alumni awardees during the October 2008 Loyalty Day celebration and the PCARRD Scholars’ Association Inc. Instruction Award recipient in the same year. ARMANDO MANITO PALIJON, Ph.D. is a professor at the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources (IRNR), College of Forestry and Natural Resources, UPLB. Professor Palijon is involved in research, development and extension activities on the silviculture of non-wood forest products. Currently, he is component leader of the ITTO Philippine-ASEAN Rattan Project and Project Leader of PCARRD-UPLB funded research on thinning of Gmelina arborea for the production of quality wood material for the furniture industry. His professional and scientific network includes the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) and the European Bamboo Commission where he has projects on sustainability, livelihood, biodiversity and environmental conservation. Dr. Palijon’s distinguished accomplishments include a number of articles published in ISI refereed journals, proceedings of conferences, and various books or chapters therein. He has also written popular articles, monographs, manuals, bulletins on arboriculture, urban forestry, and silviculture of non-wood forest products particularly that of bamboo. He received one of UPLB’s distinguished alumni awards during the October 2008 Loyalty Day celebration and the PCARRD Scholars’ Association Inc. Instruction Award in 2006.

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