Mycologia, 96(2), 2004, pp. 219–225.
q 2004 by The Mycological Society of America, Lawrence, KS 66044-8897
Succession of fungi on dead and live wood in brackish water in Brunei
S.C. Fryar 1
INTRODUCTION
Centre for Research in Fungal Diversity, Department of
Ecology & Biodiversity, The University of Hong Kong,
Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
Ecological succession is the process of temporal
change in community composition (Morin 1999).
However, to emphasise the importance of the mycelium of fungi, mycologists often have referred to fungal succession as ‘‘the sequential occupation of the
same site by thalli (normally mycelia) either of different fungi or of different associations of fungi’’
(Rayner and Todd 1979). When wood falls onto the
forest floor or into a stream or river, environmental
conditions in and around the branch change and it
is exposed to a new assemblage of fungi. The fungi
already present in the branch may or may not be able
to live in the branch under these new conditions and
in the face of new competitors (Bärlocher 1980), mycoparasites (Howe and Suberkropp 1993) or mycophagous insects (Bärlocher 1985). The substratum
and its surroundings change significantly; this disturbance initiates the process of resource succession.
The mechanism of falling might influence the sequence of species colonization. When a branch dies
and decays while still attached to the tree, the wood
likely will differ significantly from a recently living
branch that has snapped off in a strong wind. The
aim of this study, therefore, was to observe the assemblages of species in live and dead branches that were
still attached to a tree and to observe the different
successional pathways once the branches were cut
and submerged in the river.
A number of studies have been conducted on succession of fungi in aquatic habitats on seedlings
(Newell 1976), leaves (Chamier and Dixon 1982, Tanaka 1991, Raghukumar et al 1995, Iqbal 1996), cut
wood (Vrijmoed et al 1986a, Sivichai et al 2002) and
mangrove wood (Tan et al 1989, Hyde 1991, Leong
et al 1991). Various studies have found that colonization of wood by fungi in aquatic habitats is influenced by competitors (Fryar et al 2001), host (Vrijmoed et al 1986a, Tan et al 1989, Leong et al 1991,
Sivichai et al 2002), fouling organisms on the surface
of the wood (Vrijmoed et al 1986b), presence or absence of bark (Shearer and Webster 1991, Gönczöl
and Révay 1993), wood block size (Sanders and Anderson 1979) and season (Willoughby and Archer
1973, Kirk and Brandt 1980, Vrijmoed et al 1982, Sarma and Vittal 2000). In addition, fungi have been
found to interact with other organisms in wood. For
J. Davies
W. Booth
School of Biology, Universiti Brunei Darusalam,
Brunei Darusalam
I.J. Hodgkiss
K.D. Hyde
Centre for Research in Fungal Diversity, Department of
Ecology & Biodiversity, The University of Hong Kong,
Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
Abstract: We observed the sequence of fungi appearing on submerged wood of Hibiscus tiliaceus that
initially was either dead or alive. Branches that were
dead, but still attached to the tree, and live branches
were cut from H. tiliaceus in the riparian vegetation
in a brackish habitat on the Tutong River, Brunei.
Branch segments were connected to the riverbank
using monofilament line. Samples were examined for
fungi before the branches were placed in the river
and after the branches had been submerged 3 or 6
mo. Fifty taxa were found on the samples. Before being placed in the water different fungal assemblages
were found on live as compared to deadwood.
Branches that were alive when cut supported a distinctly different fungal assemblage after 3 mo in the
water. Dead branches after 3 mo and both dead and
initially live samples after 6 mo had been colonized
by a fungal assemblage that is typical at this site. It is
unknown whether the differences in colonization of
dead and initially live wood can be attributed to differences in the substratum (i.e., the presence or absence of bark), inhibitory substances in more recently live wood or to assembly rules resulting from the
different fungi that already were present in dead and
live branches.
Key words: aquatic, ascomycetes, brackish, colonization, fungi, ecology, Hibiscus tiliaceus, hyphomycetes, succession
Accepted for publication August 25, 2003.
1 Corresponding author. E-mail: scfryar@bigpond.com
219
220
MYCOLOGIA
TABLE I. Number of samples on which each species occurred in each treatment. N 5 total number of individuals, S 5 total
number of species
Dead
Live
Series 1
Time (months)
Ascomycetes
Annulatascus velatisporus
Anthostomella sp.
Aquaticola longicolla
Ascotaiwania pallida
Bruneiapiospora sp.
Ceratosphaeria sp. 2
Ceratosphaeria sp. 3
Chaetosphaeria sp.
Fluviatispora boothii
Fluviatispora reticulata
Lasiosphaeria immersa
Lasiosphaeria sp. 1
Lasiosphaeria sp. 2
Leptosphaeria australiensis
Lulworthia spp.
Massarina rubi
Massarina tetraploa
Nectria haematococca
New genus
Orbilia sp.
Phaeosphaeria sp.
Sungaiicola brachydesmiella
Swampomyces triseptatus
Total Ascomycetes N
S
Anamorphs
Arthrobotrys oligospora
Berkleasmium sp.
Beverwykella pulmonaria
Brachysporiella gayana
Cancellidium applanatum
Coleodictyospora cubensis
Conioscypha sp.
Excerticlava vasiformis
Graphium putredinsis
Helicomyces sp.
Intercalispora nigra
Lasiodiplodia sp.
Monodictys pelagica
Monodictys sp. 1
Papulospora sp. 1
Papulospora sp. 2
Penicillium sp.
Phaeoisaria clematidis
phoma-like sp.
Spacidoides sp.
Sporidesmium cf anglicum
Sporidesmium crassisporum
Sporidesmium sp. 1
verticillium-like
Series 2
Series 1
Series 2
0
3
6
0
3
6
0
3
6
0
3
6
—
—
6
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
1
—
—
—
1
1
—
1
11
6
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
3
3
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
6
6
2
9
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
15
—
38
5
—
—
3
2
1
—
1
1
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
1
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
11
8
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
3
5
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
8
—
18
5
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
3
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
1
—
5
3
—
—
1
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
20
—
—
—
—
—
22
3
—
1
—
—
—
—
2
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
4
3
1
—
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
2
12
—
—
2
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
20
7
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
24
—
—
—
—
—
24
1
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
8
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
10
3
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
1
1
2
—
—
—
4
1
—
—
—
—
2
1
13
—
1
—
4
—
—
4
—
1
—
—
—
—
—
19
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
2
—
—
3
—
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
30
—
—
4
—
1
—
—
—
2
—
4
—
5
—
—
—
—
—
—
16
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
2
1
—
2
—
—
—
—
4
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
24
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
3
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
15
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
1
—
1
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
14
—
—
8
2
1
1
2
—
1
1
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
4
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
2
1
—
6
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
15
—
—
6
—
—
—
—
1
—
1
8
—
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
—
6
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
1
6
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
11
—
—
2
—
—
—
—
—
—
2
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
4
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
FRYAR
TABLE I.
ET AL:
SUCCESSION
221
OF FUNGI
Continued
Dead
Live
Series 1
Time (months)
Series 2
Series 1
Series 2
0
3
6
0
3
6
0
3
6
0
3
6
Xylomyces chlamydosporopsis
Xylomyces giganteus
Xylomyces sp.
Total anamorphs N
S
—
—
—
33
11
3
—
1
29
6
—
—
—
47
7
—
—
—
27
7
—
1
1
31
6
—
—
2
21
6
—
—
—
33
11
—
—
5
19
6
—
—
2
35
8
1
—
—
17
7
—
1
1
18
6
—
—
—
5
2
Total N
Total S
44
17
26
9
85
12
38
15
49
11
26
9
55
14
23
9
55
15
41
8
28
9
6
3
example, fungi precondition wood for colonization
of marine borer larvae (Grasso et al 1985).
The influence of the state of the wood on fungal
assemblages before submergence has not been studied. Many studies on wood succession have used either sawn timber (e.g., Vrijmoed et al 1986a) or
branches that have been split into segments (e.g.,
Tan et al 1989, Leong et al 1991). When a branch
falls into the water, it usually falls intact, apart from
the spot where it broke from the tree. We therefore
chose to submerge branch segments intact, except at
the ends. Most studies of the succession of colonization of wood have been conducted either in the open
sea or in mangroves. Therefore, we chose to investigate the process in a brackish habitat.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area.—Sungai Kelakas is a tributary of the Tutong
River, Brunei. At the site (048 49.89 N, 1148 42.19 E), Sungai
Kelakas is approximately 20 m wide and 2 m deep in the
deepest part. The tributary is tidal, with salinity and temperature ranging respectively from 0–12% and 26–30 C.
During the study, dissolved oxygen in the tributary was low
(20–45%, 1.5–3.5 mgL21) and acidic (pH 4.8–6.0). The tributary is bordered by a riparian strip approximately 50 m
wide. The strip is inundated to a maximum depth of 0.5 m
at high river volume (when the water is fresh) and during
high tides. The vegetation is a mixture of Barringtonia cf.
racemosa, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Cerbera odallam, Ficus cf.
microcarpa, Gluta velutina, Heritiera globosa, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Nypa fruticans and Sonneratia caseolaris.
Experimental design.—Branches that were dead but attached
and live branches of a Hibiscus tiliaceus tree at the site were
cut down and removed. Those branches were high in the
tree and would not have been submerged by water at any
stage. The branches were cut into 10 cm lengths, and holes
were drilled into each end of each branch segment. The
branch segments ranged from 0.5 to 3 cm diam and randomly were divided into six groups (30 dead and 30 live
per group). One group was taken to the laboratory and
incubated immediately. Other groups were placed in the
stream using the following design. Monofilament line was
threaded through each of the branch segments so that the
30 samples from each group formed two ladders of 15 samples each. Samples were submerged in the Tutong 16 Aug
1998 (Series 1 exposure). This design was repeated 3 mo
later at the same site, using the same tree, and the samples
were submerged 27 Oct 1998 (Series 2 exposure). Samples
were positioned 0.1–1 m deep so that they would not be
exposed at low tide.
Samples were recovered after 3 and 6 mo. The samples
taken immediately were not submerged. Thirty dead branch
segments (D) and 30 segments cut live (L) from each of
the two experimental series were recovered at each sampling time by randomly taking three branch segments from
each of the ladders. It was intended that the remaining samples would be recovered after 18 mo. However, the site was
disturbed and the samples were lost before samples could
be collected.
Samples were washed briefly to remove any mud, then
put individually into sterile 10 3 10 cm plastic bags, labeled,
sealed and returned to the laboratory to be incubated at
27 C, which represented the average temperature of the
river, under a 12 hr light/12 hr dark cycle to induce sporulation. Five mL of sterile distilled water was added to each
bag. Specimens were examined under a 4003 dissecting
microscope after 2 wk of incubation. Fruiting bodies appearing on the surface of the wood were identified and
cultured. Specimens were lodged in the HKU(M) herbarium. Cultures were lodged in HKUCC.
Data analysis.—Two-way ANOVA was used to detect difference in the number of species per branch in each between
samples.
Multivariate analysis.—Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) (Kent and Coker 1992) was used to detect differences in species abundance between sample sets.
MultiVariate Statistical Package (MVSP) (www.kovcomp.
com/mvsp) was used.
RESULTS
Decomposition of samples.—At the time the samples
were submerged, both dead and live-cut branches
222
MYCOLOGIA
FIG. 1. Average number of species found on each set of
samples. Error bars 5 6S.E.M.
were intact, except at both ends of each. After 3 and
6 mo in the water, some of the dead branches either
had lost bark or the bark was loose; in some the bark
was intact. Live-cut branches had not lost bark after
6 mo in the water.
Species.—A total of 23 ascomycetes and 27 anamorphic fungi were found on the samples (TABLE I).
Overall, the most common taxa were Cancellidium
applanatum (N 5 122), Haematonectria haematococca
(N 5 44), Sungaiicola brachydesmiella (N 5 26) and
Lasiosphaeria sp. 1 (N 5 22). Cancellidium applanatum was common on all samples after submergence.
Haematonectria haematococca occurred only on livecut branches before submergence. Sungaiicola brachydesmiella was found mostly on dead branches after
submergence.
Live-cut branches frequently were inhabited by
Graphium putridensis, Lasiodiploda sp., Haematonectria haematococca and a Phoma-like species. After submergence for 3 mo, live-cut branches mainly supported Cancellidium applanatum, Papulospora sp. 2
and various other species that did not tend to occur
on branches before submergence.
Dead branches frequently were inhabited by Aquaticola longicola, Arthrobotrys oligospora, several Monodictys species and Sporidesmium cf. anglicum before
submergence. After 3 mo in the water, dead branches
supported Cancellidium applanatum, Lasiosphaeria
immersa, Sungaiicola brachydesmiella, Papulospora sp.
2 and various other species that did not tend to occur
on the branches before submergence.
After 6 mo in the water, Cancellidium applanatum,
Exserticlava vasiformis, Fluviatispora boothii, F. reticulata, Lasiosphaeria immersa, Lasiosphaeria sp. 1, Sungaiicola brachydesmiella and Papulospora sp. 2 were
frequent colonizers of both dead and live-cut samples. These and other species also occurred on submerged dead branches after 3 mo.
FIG. 2. Plot of axis1 versus axis 2 scores from Detrended
Correspondence Analysis including samples that were not
placed in the water.
An average of 1.42 species sporulated on each sample. However, there was considerable variation between samples (SD 5 0.62). Eighty-six samples (22%)
had no fungi at all, whereas some samples contained
up to six species. Two-way ANOVA demonstrated a
significant interaction in the number of species per
sample between the time of submergence and whether the branch sample was live cut or dead (FIG. 1, F1,2
5 7.4, P 5 0.001). Live-cut samples supported fewer
species after 3 mo of exposure, but the number of
species per sample increased after 6 mo. Dead samples initially supported fewer species than live-cut
samples, but unlike the live-cut samples, the number
of species did not decrease after 3 mo. The number
of species recovered from the dead samples, however,
did increase after 6 mo.
Correlations among species.—The occurrence of each
species on each branch was tested for correlation
with all other species in that sample. No negative correlations we found. Most positive correlations were
found between pairs of species in which at least one
occurred only once in that sample. These correlations are not reliable and, therefore, are not shown.
Further observations of these species would be needed to establish a connection between the two species.
The only correlation that involved more than one
occurrence of each species were Cancellidium applanatum and Excerticlava vasiformis on dead samples in
Series 1 exposure collected after 6 mo (1–6 D).
Multivariate analysis.—In the Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA), the first two axes explained
36% of the variation in the samples. Unsubmerged
live-cut branch samples (1-0L and 2-0L) grouped together as did unsubmerged dead branch samples (10D and 2-0D) (FIG. 2). All other samples clustered
together, but with live-cut branch samples collected
after 3 mo (1-3L and 2-3L) slightly toward the outside
of the group. When the samples taken before any
time had elapsed were removed from the dataset, two
FRYAR
ET AL:
SUCCESSION
FIG. 3. Plot of axis1 versus axis 2 scores from Detrended
Correspondence Analysis exluding samples that were not
placed in the water.
sample sets (1-3L and 2-3L) were distinctly separate
from the other samples (FIG. 3). In ecological terms,
there were different assemblages of fungi on unsubmerged live-cut and deadwood samples at the beginning of the experiment. After 3 mo in the water, livecut branches had a different assemblage of fungi,
compared to dead branches. After 6 mo of submergence, dead and live-cut branches tended to have
similar assemblages, which were similar to the assemblage on dead branches after 3 mo.
DISCUSSION
As expected, there was a succession of species colonizing the samples placed in the river. The fungi present before submergence usually disappeared or were
found infrequently after 3 mo in the water. Generally,
none of the original fungi were present after 6 mo.
There were exceptions; a few specimens of some species survived (e.g., Arthrobotris oligospora, Monodictys
sp. 1, Monodictys pelagica, Papulospora sp. 1, Phaeoisaria clematidis). This is consistent with previous
studies where nonaquatic fungi were found in wood
after 2 mo in the water but not after 6 mo (Shearer
and Webster 1991).
After 3 mo in the river, a marked difference was
noted between the fungal assemblage on dead
branches and that on live-cut branches. This difference might be attributed to the differences in substratum rather than the assemblage of fungi already
present in the sample. Some dead-branch samples
lost their bark after time in the river, which might
have contributed to differences in fungal assemblages. For example, Gönczöl and Revay (1993) found a
slightly different assemblage of fungi colonizing twigs
with and without bark. However, inhibitory substances in fresh plant tissue might affect fungal assemblag-
OF FUNGI
223
es. Gessner et al (1993) found that fresh leaves were
colonized more slowly by aquatic fungi than dead,
dry leaves; the difference was attributed to inhibitory
compounds in fresh leaves.
It is interesting to note that the two sets of live-cut
samples collected after 3 mo carried different fungal
assemblages even though they originally had similar
fungal assemblages. The cause is unknown, although
seasonal differences might have played a part.
After 6 mo, dead and live-cut branches carried similar fungal assemblages. This assemblage was very
similar to the fungi found on naturally occurring
samples at the same site (Fryar unpubl). For example, Sungaiicola brachydesmiella and Cancellidium applanatum were common on all samples. Colonization
of dead branches tended to be similar to this assemblage after only 3 mo. Colonization by these fungi
might not have occurred on live-cut branches for the
reasons discussed above.
Although the succession of colonization could be
caused by differences in the substratum, it is possible
that the differences could be due in part to the fungi
on samples before submergence. It has been shown
that pre-inoculation of wood by fungi can influence
the colonization of that wood by subsequent fungi
(Shearer 1995, Fryar et al 2001). However, the fungi
in these experiments were from an aquatic habitat
and therefore would be expected to be competitive
in that environment. It is unknown whether nonaquatic fungi pre-existing in a piece of wood can influence the colonization by aquatic fungi once the
wood has fallen into the water.
Fungal succession studies in aquatic habitats have
had a recurring problem. Some studies have used the
techniques of stringing ladders of branch segments
together or placing samples together in mesh bags.
However, only one string or bag of samples were removed per sampling (e.g., Willoughby and Archer
1973, Tanaka 1991, Raghukumar et al 1995, Iqbal
1996). This means that there was only one replicate
per sampling time. Different samples on the same
ladder would be pseudoreplicates (see Hurlbert
1984, Underwood 1997). Some other studies (including this one) have avoided this problem by removing
only one or a few samples from each ladder or bag
per sampling (e.g., Newell 1976, Vrijmoed et al
1986a, Tan et al 1989, Leong et al 1991, Garnett et
al 2000) or by removing multiple replicate ladders or
bags per sampling (e.g., Gessner et al 1993). Methods
to study aquatic fungal succession are discussed by
Pointing et al (2000) and Fryar (2002).
Seasonality has been known to influence the colonization of substrata by aquatic fungi (Willoughby
and Archer 1973, Kirk and Brandt 1980, Vrijmoed et
al 1982). In this study two parallel experiments were
224
MYCOLOGIA
run, starting at different times of the year. Although
differences were found between the two experimental series, no inferences can be made with regard to
seasonality. Differences simply might be due to natural variation.
Haematonectria haematococca was found commonly
on live samples before before submergence but not
after. Shearer and von Bodman (1983) also found
Nectria haematococca (5H. haematococca) on samples
that were submerged (but also had been cut recently
from a live tree or recently had fallen). Willoughby
and Archer (1973) found Nectria lugdunensis on
twigs that had been submerged 1–4 mo but did not
find it after that time, while Ho et al (2002) found
several species of Nectria to be early colonizers of submerged wood. Species of Nectria sens. lat. are common terrestrial fungi, often growing on other fungi,
bark and wood (Samuels 1976) and do not appear
to survive well in the aquatic habitat.
Cancellidium applanatum was common on all samples placed in the water and also on samples in a
general survey conducted simultaneously (Fryar unpubl). This aero-aquatic hyphomycete originally was
described from balsawood test blocks from a lake in
Japan (Tubaki 1975). However, it since has been recovered from submerged decaying leaves in Malaysia
(Webster and Davey 1980) and Queensland, Australia
(Shaw 1994). It had not been recorded previously in
Brunei.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank the Department of Forestry, Brunei,
for allowing collection of wood samples. This work was completed under a University of Hong Kong Postdoctoral Fellowship and financing was provided by a CRCG grant
(Hong Kong University).
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