Plant Pathology (2012)
Doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3059.2012.02674.x
Review
Grapevine trunk diseases: complex and still poorly
understood
C. Bertscha, M. Ramı́rez-Sueroa, M. Magnin-Robertb, P. Larignonc, J. Chonga,
E. Abou-Mansourd, A. Spagnolob, C. Clémentb and F. Fontaineb*
a
Laboratoire Vigne Biotechnologie et Environnement EA 3391, Université de Haute-Alsace, UFR Pluridisciplinaire Enseignement
Professionnalisant Supérieur, 33, rue de Herrlisheim, 68000 Colmar; bLaboratoire de Stress, Défenses et Reproduction de Plantes
URVVC EA 4707, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UFR Sciences Moulin de la Housse, BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2;
c
Institut Français de la Vigne et du Vin Pôle Rhône- Méditerranée, Domaine de Donadille, 30230 Rodilhan, France; and dPlant
Biology Department, University of Fribourg, 3 rue Albert Gockel, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
This review presents an overview of eutypa dieback, esca and botryosphaeria dieback, the predominant grapevine trunk
diseases worldwide. It covers their symptomatologies in the trunk, leaves and berries; the characteristics of the different
fungal species associated with them; and host–pathogen interactions. Here, the host–pathogen relationship is defined at the
cytological, physiological and molecular levels. Currently available experimental tools for studying these diseases, both
in vitro and in the field, are discussed. Finally, a progress report on their control, which, since the ban of sodium arsenite,
comprises chemical, biological and ⁄ or sanitation methods, is presented.
Keywords: Botryosphaeriaceae, esca, Phaemoniella chlamydospora, Phaeoacremonium, Vitis vinifera
Introduction
Eutypa dieback, esca and botryosphaeria dieback are
three significant grapevine trunk diseases that involve one
or several xylem-inhabiting fungi (Larignon & Dubos,
1997; Mugnai et al., 1999; Larignon et al., 2009). Phaeomoniella (Pa.) chlamydospora (Crous & Gams, 2000),
Phaeoacremonium (Pm.) aleophilum (Crous et al.,
1996), Eutypa lata (Rappaz, 1984), Fomitiporia mediterranea (Fischer, 2002) and several members of the
Botryosphaeriaceae are the main species that have been
associated with these diseases worldwide (Moller &
Kasimatis, 1978; Larignon & Dubos, 1997; Graniti et al.,
2000; Fischer, 2006; Larignon et al., 2009; Úrbez-Torres,
2011).
These three diseases, described as early as the end of the
19th century, mainly attack the perennial organs of the
grapevine (Vitis vinifera), leading to leaf and berry symptoms and death. As a result, grapevine trunk diseases are
detrimental to the resilience of the wine-growing heritage
(Larignon et al., 2009). Moreover, no grapevine taxa,
either cultivated or wild, are known to be resistant to
trunk diseases (Surico et al., 2006; Wagschal et al., 2008;
*E-mail: florence.fontaine@univ-reims.fr
ª 2012 The Authors
Plant Pathology ª 2012 BSPP
Larignon et al., 2009). Over the past few decades, the
frequency of symptoms of these diseases has increased
considerably worldwide. For example, disease incidence
values that were estimated over 4 years in approximately
700 French vineyards, including affected trunk disease
and dead plants, showed that approximately 10% of productive plants were affected (Grosman, 2008; Grosman
& Doublet, 2012). Sodium arsenite was the sole treatment that had a potential effect against these diseases,
especially esca (Fussler et al., 2008; Larignon et al.,
2008), but it has been prohibited, beginning in 2000,
because of its toxicity both to the environment and to
humans (Bisson et al., 2006; Spinosi & Févotte, 2008).
The lack of strategies for fighting the diseases, new pruning practices and the necessary protection of the environment could exacerbate the situation (Chiarappa, 2000;
Graniti et al., 2000).
Because these pathogens have never been isolated from
the leaves of infected plants, it was hypothesized that the
leaf and berry symptoms are actually caused by extracellular compounds produced by fungi in the discoloured
woody tissues of the trunk and which are then translocated to the leaves through the transpiration stream (Mugnai
et al., 1999). A variety of metabolites biosynthesized by
these fungi have been already identified in eutypa dieback
(Renaud et al., 1989; Tey-Rulh et al., 1991; Andolfi et al.,
2011), esca (Evidente et al., 2000; Tabacchi et al., 2000;
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C. Bertsch et al.
Abou-Mansour et al., 2004; Bruno et al., 2007) and botryosphaeria dieback (Martos et al., 2008; Djoukeng
et al., 2009; Evidente et al., 2010). The esca disease name
derives from the Latin for ‘tinder’. In early 1900, the term
‘esca’ was used by grapegrowers in southern Italy for
referring to apoplexy (Surico, 2009), probably because of
the presence of rotted trunk wood noted mainly in apoplectic plants, which was in fact used as tinder. The association of apoplexy and ⁄ or rotted trunk wood with
particular foliar discolorations led, with time, to the use
of ‘esca’ for the latter, even in absence of apoplexy and ⁄ or
rotted trunk wood. Although results of many research
studies have led to esca being defined as a complex of diseases (esca disease complex), the term ‘esca’ is still commonly used to refer to most of the diseases forming the
complex. The characterization of grapevine trunk diseases is crucial, not only for studying their phytotoxic
properties, but also because their detection in grapevines
represents a useful tool for an early diagnosis of trunk diseases (Fleurat-Lessard et al., 2010). Numerous studies
have dealt with various aspects of these diseases and the
fungi associated with them (i.e. epidemiology, pathogenicity and host–pathogen interactions), but the causes of
symptom development remain elusive (Larignon et al.,
2009; Surico, 2009; Camps et al., 2010).
Eutypa dieback, esca and botryosphaeria dieback are
slow perennial diseases, the symptoms of which usually
appear on mature grapevines (i.e. 7 years and older).
Year to year, an unpredictable discontinuity in the
expression of symptoms is a characteristic trait of
these diseases (Mugnai et al., 1999; Surico et al., 2000;
Wagschal et al., 2008), which can occur alone or together
on the same plant.
This review presents the current knowledge of: (i)
symptomatologies in trunks, leaves and berries; (ii) the
characteristics of the disease-associated fungi; (iii) host–
pathogen interactions; and (iv) disease management
strategies. It also focuses on recently developed experimental tools which help to convey a better understanding
of both host–pathogen interactions and the mechanisms
involved in symptom expression.
Eutypa dieback
Fungi implicated
Eutypa lata (Rappaz, 1984) (Ascomycota, Diatrypaceae)
is the causal agent of eutypa dieback (Carter, 1988), also
referred to as eutypiosis, and could also be associated
with processes leading to the degradation characteristics
of esca (white rot) as a pioneer fungus (Larignon & Dubos, 1997). It is frequently found in vineyards that receive
more than 250 mm of rainfall per year (Carter, 1988).
Eutypa lata has a wide host range, occurring on more
than 80 woody host species (Carter, 1991). This fungus
produces perithecial stroma on diseased grapevine wood
(Carter, 1988). Ascospores are released throughout the
entire year (Pearson, 1980; Trese et al., 1980) and are
disseminated with each rainfall >0.5 mm (Moller & Car-
ter, 1965). Their liberation begins 2–3 h after the onset of
rain and stops 24 h after the rain stops (Pearson, 1980).
Ascospores penetrate the plant by infecting susceptible
pruning wounds during winter dormancy. Studies of
genetic variability suggest that E. lata has reproduced
only in its sexual form (Péros et al., 1997).
Associated with eutypa dieback, Eutypella vitis (synonym E. aequilinearis) was first described in Michigan
(Jordan & Schilder, 2007). Other diatrypaceous species
have been observed on eutypa dieback-affected plants,
including Diatrype stigma, Diatrype whitmanensis,
Cryptosphaeria pullmanensis and Cryptovalsa ampelina
(Trouillas & Gubler, 2010; Trouillas et al., 2010).
Recently, new species have been described in Australia
(Eutypella microtheca, Eutypella citricola and Diatrypella vulgaris; Trouillas et al., 2011) and in Chile (Eutypella
leprosa; Diaz et al., 2011).
Disease
Symptoms are characterized by stunted shoots with
shortened internodes, and small, chlorotic, cupped, tattered leaves with marginal necrosis and dead interveinal
tissue (Fig. 1a,b; Moller et al., 1974). Foliar symptom
expression is mainly detected during the spring. Most
flowers dry before opening, and berries that develop from
an infected spur position usually appear small and straggly. After infection in the pruning wounds and colonization of the trunk vascular tissues and cordons, a brown,
wedge-shaped necrosis usually develops (Moller et al.,
1974; Fig. 1c). The type of wood decay that is caused by
E. lata is classified as a soft rot (Rudelle et al., 2005;
Rolshausen et al., 2008).
Anatomical studies on the leaves of E. lata-infected
grapevines showed changes in tissue ultrastructure
including chloroplast degradation, lengthened thylakoids, cytoplasm lysis, bulked plastoglobules and endomembrane breakdown in severely affected leaves
(Philippe et al., 1992; Valtaud, 2007). The decline of the
photosynthesis system could be responsible, at least in
part, for plant death. In addition, E. lata infection leads to
both a decrease in leaf water content and an accumulation of abscisic acid. These changes may reduce the membrane permeability of the plant cell and, as a
consequence, modify exchanges with the environment,
which could intensify the dehydration of developing
affected leaves (Koussa et al., 2002). The limitation of gas
exchanges results in stomatal closure, higher concentrations of abscisic acid in the guard cells and effects on plant
vascular tissues. Rifai et al. (2005) observed the capability of E. lata to affect polyamine metabolism, suggesting
that the decline of specific free polyamines in the leaves of
Eutypa-infected grapevines could be involved in the
expression of foliar symptoms.
The degradation of the wood has been characterized by
the death of vessel-associated cells (Rudelle et al., 2005).
Analyses of naturally and artificially infected wood
revealed that non-structural (mostly stored starch) and
structural (hemicellulosic) glucans are the primary targets
Plant Pathology (2012)
Grapevine trunk diseases
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
3
(i)
(g)
(h)
(j)
(k)
Figure 1 Typical symptoms of eutypa dieback, esca and botryosphaeria dieback in leaves and wood of Chardonnay grapevines. (a–c) Eutypa
dieback; (a, b) typical symptoms of Eutypa lata, including stunted shoots; (c) wood cross-section showing a wedge of discoloured tissue. (d–f)
Esca; (d) typical tiger-like necrosis and chlorosis; (e) apoplectic (severe) form, characterized by dieback of one or more shoots and leaf drop;
(f) trunk cross-section showing white rot. (g–k) Botryosphaeria dieback; (g) yellowish-orange spots on the margins of the leaves; (k) leaf
desiccation and fall accompanied by (j) desiccated fruits; (h) brown streaking under bark; (i) wood cross-section showing a grey rotted
sector. All pictures were taken from Sauvignon grapevine except for h, from Cabernet-Sauvignon grapevine.
of E. lata (Rudelle et al., 2005; Rolshausen et al., 2008).
Woody tissues often contain stored starch reserves, which
in grapevines are stored in xylem parenchyma cells and
rays (Rudelle et al., 2005). Moreover, the results from in
vitro tests showed the complete depletion of starch
reserves after 18 months of fungal activity (Rolshausen
et al., 2008).
A transcriptomic study on Cabernet Sauvignon leaves
was performed to improve the knowledge of grapevine
responses to E. lata. In response to the host–pathogen
interactions, genes involved in carbon and amino acid
metabolism were up-regulated, while several genes
involved in lipid metabolism were down-regulated
(Camps et al., 2010). Another important part of this
Plant Pathology (2012)
study identified genes that were more specifically associated with the asymptomatic phase of eutypa dieback. The
most abundant genes that were regulated during the
symptomless phase were associated with energy metabolism, especially with the light phase of photosynthesis
(Camps et al., 2010). The up-regulation of these genes
suggests that the plant efficiently prevents the appearance
of eutypiosis symptoms by stimulating chloroplast
electron transport.
Others studies on the changes in physiological processes (e.g. the reduction of energy charge through the
inhibition of photosynthesis and respiration or the
decrease of assimilate uptake) showed that the dwarf
shoots and leaf symptoms are caused by the presence of
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C. Bertsch et al.
Eutypa toxins (Deswarte et al., 1996; Octave et al.,
2006).
Secondary metabolites isolated from Eutypa lata
Eutypa lata produces secondary metabolites, mainly
acetylenic and heterocyclic compounds (Fig. 2). Eutypine
1,4-hydroxy-3-(3-methylbut-3-ene-1-ynyl)
benzaldehyde, which is secreted by E. lata, possesses an unusual
five-carbon acetylenic side chain. Eutypine was isolated
and identified from a strain of E. lata (Renaud et al.,
1989) and was determined to be the main phytotoxin
produced by this fungus based on bioassays performed on
excised leaves and leaf protoplasts (Tey-Rulh et al.,
1991). Several structurally related metabolites bearing a
pentenyne side chain ortho to the hydroxyl group were
also isolated from in vitro cultures of Eutypa species,
mainly eutypinol, siccayne, eutypinic acid, their cyclization products, the epoxidized chromanones and eutypoxide B (Fig. 2) (Renaud et al., 1989; Jiménez-Teja et al.,
2006). The phytotoxicity of E. lata probably results from
this suite of structurally related compounds, with each
compound having a different level of toxicity and
different molecular targets within the plant cell
(Molyneux et al., 2002).
Eutypine exhibits weak acid properties and a marked
lipophilic character. The toxin penetrates cells through a
passive diffusion mechanism and tends to accumulate in
the cytoplasm as a result of an ion-trapping mechanism
that is related to the ionization state of the molecule
(Amborabé et al., 2001). In grapevine cells, eutypine is
metabolized into eutypinol with no protonophoric activity through enzymatic reactions (Colrat et al., 1999). It is
believed that eutypine uncouples mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and decreases the ADP ⁄ O ratio in
grapevine cells by increasing proton leaks, which it
accomplishes by means of a cyclic protonophore mechanism (Deswarte et al., 1996).
Recently, it was demonstrated that a polypeptidic
compound secreted by in vitro cultures of E. lata acts at
various sites of plant cells through the modification of ion
fluxes and the inhibition of H+-ATPase at the plasmalemma through the inhibition of respiration and photosynthesis, the induction of NADH oxidase and the
inhibition of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL)
(Octave et al., 2006).
Esca disease complex
Fungi implicated
The esca disease complex commonly comprises five syndromes (Surico et al., 2008). Its main causal agents are
considered to be the tracheomycotic agents Pa. chlamydospora (Chaetothyriales, Herpotrichiellaceae) and Pm.
aleophilum (Diaporthales, Togniniaceae), and several
basidiomycetes species (Fischer, 2006), among which the
most common is Fomitiporia mediterranea, which was
previously named Phellinus punctatus and F. punctata. In
addition to Pm. aleophilum, several other Phaeoacremonium species could be involved in the aetiology of the esca
disease complex (Dupont et al., 2000; Mostert et al.,
2006; Essakhi et al., 2008; Gramaje et al., 2009). Moreover, E. lata and Stereum hirsutum could also play roles
in the esca disease complex (Lehoczky & Szabolcs, 1983;
Larignon & Dubos, 1997; Reisenzein et al., 2000;
Armengol et al., 2001). The sexual stages of Pa. chlamydospora are unknown, while Togninia minima was
identified as the teleomorph of Pm. aleophilum (Mostert
et al., 2003). Phaeomoniella chlamydospora and
Pm. aleophilum are widely distributed in many grapegrowing regions worldwide (Edwards et al., 2001;
Figure 2 Metabolites isolated from Eutypa lata: eutypine (1), eutypinol (2), siccayne (3) and eutypinic acid (4), their cyclic homologue
compounds (5–8), the epoxide eutypoxide B (9) and chromanones (10–11). The main pentaketides isolated from Phaeoacremonium
aleophilum and Phaemoniella chlamydospora: scytalone (12) and isosclerone (13).
Plant Pathology (2012)
Grapevine trunk diseases
Groenewald et al., 2001; Essakhi et al., 2008; Gramaje
et al., 2010), while F. mediterranea is especially common
in Europe (Fischer, 2002). Furthermore, Pm. aleophilum
has been isolated from a large number of woody hosts,
such as Salix sp., Prunus pensylvanica, Actinidia chinensis (Hausner et al., 1992; Di Marco et al., 2004a) and
F. mediterranea from Corylus avellana, Olea europaea,
Lagerstroemia indica, Actinidia chinensis, Acer negundo
(Fischer, 2002) and Citrus spp. (Kalomira et al., 2006)
(Farr & Rossman, 2011). Fischer & Kassemeyer (2003)
reported that several different fungal species have been
associated with wood rot in grapevine, including Pleurotus pulmonarius, Trametes hirsuta, Trametes versicolor,
Fomitiporia polymorpha (Fischer & Binder, 2004) in
North America and Fomitiporia australiensis (Fischer
et al., 2005) in Australia. These fungi have also been isolated from wood rot of grapevines without foliar symptoms (Fischer, 2006).
Because Pa. chlamydospora, Pm. aleophilum and
F. mediterranea are considered the main causal agents of
the esca complex, several studies focusing on their life
cycles have been conducted. Phaeomoniella chlamydospora and Pm. aleophilum are characterized by their
aerial dispersal (Larignon & Dubos, 2000; Eskalen &
Gubler, 2001). The spore liberation of Pa. chlamydospora is correlated to rainfall, while for Pm. aleophilum it
occurs during the vegetative period without any link to
rainfall (Larignon & Dubos, 2000; Eskalen & Gubler,
2001). Spores of Pa. chlamydospora and Pm. aleophilum
penetrate the plant through pruning wounds (Larignon
& Dubos, 2000; Eskalen et al., 2007a; Serra et al., 2008).
The sources of inoculum and pycnidia for Pa. chlamydospora and perithecia for Pm. aleophilum have been
observed on protected wood surfaces inside deep cracks
(Edwards et al., 2001; Rooney-Latham et al., 2005).
Phaeomoniella chlamydospora and Pm. aleophilum can
also be spread through vine propagation material (Larignon & Dubos, 2000; Fourie & Halleen, 2002; Halleen
et al., 2003; Whiteman et al., 2007). In nurseries, the
presence of Pa. chlamydospora has been confirmed in
hydration tanks by PCR detection analyses and on grafting tools and the substrates used for callusing (Ridgway
et al., 2002; Retief et al., 2006; Edwards et al., 2007a;
Aroca et al., 2009). It has also been detected in infected
commercial plants (Bertelli et al., 1998; Giménez-Jaime
et al., 2006).
Regarding genetic variability, Pa. chlamydospora populations show low genetic variability (Péros et al., 2000;
Comont et al., 2010; Smetham et al., 2010). With F. mediterranea, genetic variations were found within a single
vineyard and among different vineyards (Jamaux-Despréaux & Péros, 2003). Variation within species may be
related to the geographic location of the isolates. It has
been suggested that F. mediterranea spreads by means of
airborne basidiospores and regularly outcrosses in nature. In Pm. aleophilum, several genotypes can be found
within a single vineyard (Borie et al., 2002). These studies
indicate that F. mediterranea and Pm. aleophilum
reproduce sexually; therefore, basidiocarps and perithePlant Pathology (2012)
5
cia, respectively, may represent sources of inoculum in
the field (Cortesi et al., 2000; Borie et al., 2002; JamauxDespréaux & Péros, 2003; Rooney-Latham et al., 2005).
Disease
The five described syndromes of esca complex are brown
wood streaking (mostly affecting rooted cuttings), Petri
disease, young esca, esca and esca proper (Surico et al.,
2008). Phaeomoniella chlamydospora and Pm. aleophilum are associated with brown wood streaking, Petri disease and young esca, whereas esca (white rot occurring in
the trunk and branches of mature standing vines; Fig. 1f)
is caused by F. mediterranea and ⁄ or other basidiomycetes. Esca proper, usually encountered in mature
vineyards, indicates the co-occurrence of young esca and
esca on the same plant.
Symptoms associated with Pa. chlamydospora and
Pm. aleophilum occur either only internally (wood symptoms), as in brown wood streaking, or both internally
and externally (symptoms in the wood and on the crown),
as in Petri disease and young esca. The most common
wood symptoms (observable in mother vine stocks,
rooted cuttings or the trunk and branches of standing
vines) comprise several forms of discoloration, among
which black streaking involving single or several xylem
vessels and areas with darkened or brown necrosis
circumscribing the pith are most commonly observed. No
specific symptoms have been described in the roots (Surico et al., 2006). External symptoms of Petri disease, which
affects very young vines (from 1 year), include the complete cessation of growth, leaf chlorosis, loss of yield and
a decline in vigour. External symptoms of young esca are
characterized by spots that appear between the veins or
along the edges of the leaves and that expand and become
confluent to finally result in chlorotic and necrotic strips
with only a narrow green stripe along the midrib
(Fig. 1d). In most cases, the affected leaf finally assumes a
‘tiger stripe’ appearance (Surico et al., 2008). Characteristic spotting in the berry skin, described as ‘black measles’ in the USA, is also observed (Mugnai et al., 1999).
Foliar symptoms of young esca are not directly associated
with those in the wood (Surico et al., 2008). Indeed, they
usually appear several years after a grapevine has become
infected and the wood symptoms have already developed.
Moreover, even after their first appearance, foliar symptoms do not develop systematically and cannot be predicted from year to year, indicating that several factors
are probably involved in their development.
A symptom that is often observed, especially on young
esca- and ⁄ or esca-affected vines, is apoplexy, which is
characterized by the dieback of one or more shoots and is
accompanied by leaf drop and the shrivelling and drying
of fruit clusters (Mugnai et al., 1999) (Fig. 1e). Healthy
leaves can dry up within a few days. Usually, this violent
event occurs in midsummer, particularly when dry, hot
weather follows rainfall (Mugnai et al., 1999; Surico
et al., 2006). After such an event, the affected vines can
resume growth in the following season or even in the
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C. Bertsch et al.
current one, but they can also ultimately die. Because of
its association with young esca and ⁄ or esca, apoplexy is
regarded as a severe form of these diseases (Surico et al.,
2008; Letousey et al., 2010).
On the basis of data obtained by many research groups
worldwide, some modifications of disease terminology
have recently been proposed (Surico, 2009), including: (i)
the replacement of the term ‘young esca’ with ‘grapevine
leaf stripe disease’ (GLSD), which would lead to an association of the term ‘esca’ only with white rot (esca) and
esca proper (i.e. esca sensu Viala; Surico, 2009); and (ii)
grouping the three tracheomycotic syndromes (brown
wood streaking, Petri disease and grapevine leaf stripe
disease) under the name of phaeotracheomycotic complex to emphasize the involvement of the same fungi
(Pa. chlamydospora and ⁄ or Pm. aleophilum) in the three
symptomatically different diseases.
Indeed, characterizing the impact of esca in grapevine
physiology represents a key step in obtaining accurate
knowledge of physiological mechanisms that lead to disease development and the appearance of symptoms. In
vineyards, leaf photosynthesis is greatly altered in cases
of grapevine leaf stripe disease (Petit et al., 2006). Compared to leaves of symptomless canes, foliar symptoms
are associated with: (i) a decrease in CO2 assimilation; (ii)
a significant increase in intercellular CO2 concentration;
(iii) a significant drop in both the maximum fluorescence
yield and the effective photosystem II quantum yield; and
(iv) a reduction of total chlorophyll (Petit et al., 2006). A
gradual decline of net photosynthesis (Pn) was observed
in the symptomless leaves of canes with symptoms (Petit
et al., 2006; Magnin-Robert et al., 2011). Moreover, the
alteration of the photosynthetic apparatus was detected
2 months before the appearance of foliar symptoms in
Cabernet Sauvignon (Christen, 2006). In accord with a
decline in Pn, anatomical studies highlighted damage to
the organelles and a decrease in starch grains in symptomless leaves of canes with symptoms. In the green parts of
leaves with symptoms, strands of less dense cytoplasm
separated the large translucent areas of the cells. Plastids
contained small starch grains and underdeveloped grana,
and thylakoids were elongated. Additionally, the damaged intracellular structures were more extensive in the
chlorotic parts of the leaves with symptoms, as the tonoplasts were disrupted (Valtaud et al., 2009a). Taken
together, these observations show that alterations to the
leaf cells occur before the development of visible symptoms (Valtaud et al., 2009a).
Apoplectic forms of esca are often correlated with an
excess of water in the soil combined with hot weather,
leading to a dramatic imbalance between foliar transpiration (stomatal aperture) and root absorption (Surico
et al., 2006). In vineyards, considerable declines in both
gas exchange and water use efficiency were observed in
visually healthy leaves of GLSD-affected grapevine
7 days before an apoplectic event. Additional analysis
indicated that photosynthesis disturbance was mainly the
result of non-stomatal factors because stomatal closure
decreased as internal leaf CO2 concentrations increased
(Letousey et al., 2010). In contrast, Edwards et al.
(2007b,c) observed an increase in leaf stomatal conductance, which led directly to a water deficit (estimated by
lower water potentials), in response to Pa. chlamydospora infections in 3-year-old potted grapevines maintained in greenhouse conditions. A comparison of
transient fluorescence in esca-affected and droughtstressed plants revealed two different functional behaviour patterns of photosystem II, suggesting that GLSD
infection cannot simply be interpreted as a water deficit
(Christen et al., 2007; Letousey et al., 2010). Additionally, significant declines in chlorophyll fluorescence and
photosynthesis-related gene expression in leaves were
also observed 7 days before the apoplectic event (Letousey et al., 2010).
Canes of plants with symptoms reduce their carbohydrate reserves during the winter rest, whether they exhibit
symptoms of GLSD or not (Petit et al., 2006). During the
first year of symptom development, the decrease in CO2
assimilation may reduce the synthesis of carbohydrate
and also its export to sink organs (Calzarano et al.,
2001). The lower pool of reserves might contribute to a
significant decrease in plant development and vigour during the subsequent year.
Secondary metabolites isolated from esca pathogens
Several secondary metabolites have been reported from
Pm. aleophilum and Pa. chlamydospora (Evidente et al.,
2000; Tabacchi et al., 2000; Abou-Mansour et al., 2004;
Andolfi et al., 2011) (Fig. 2). Scytalone and isosclerone,
the two main naphathalenone pentaketides that have
been isolated, along with related naphthoquinine compounds, are precursors that result from the secondary
pathway of DHN-melanin and are found in a number of
pathogens (Wheeler & Stipanovic, 1985).
Scytalone, isosclerone and pullulan, a polysaccharide
polymer of maltotriose units, are produced in culture by
Pm. aleophilum and Pa. chlamydospora and have been
extensively studied. Their toxic effects in detached leaves
have previously been reported (Bruno & Sparapano,
2006a,b; Bruno et al., 2007). It has been hypothesized
that these types of metabolites may intervene in the development of the disease, although their mode of action at
the cellular level has not yet been accurately determined.
No research using reliable analytical methods has
reported the isolated compounds in infected tissues.
However, the absence of these phytotoxic compounds is
not surprising considering their high chemical reactivity
and their strong tendency to undergo further oxidation,
reduction or enzymatic reaction in vivo.
A recent study reported a polypeptide fraction secreted
by Pa. chlamydospora and Pm. aleophilum that triggered
the death of grapevine 41BT cells in culture, induced the
membrane depolarization of cells, induced the activation
of plant secondary metabolism, predominantly anthocyanin synthesis, and acted on key enzymatic reactions that
are known to participate in the elicitation process,
namely NADPH oxidase and phenylalanine ammonia
Plant Pathology (2012)
Grapevine trunk diseases
lyase (PAL). This led to the hypothesis that the toxic polypeptides of the two fungi modified the plant cell metabolism through different pathways (Luini et al., 2010).
In addition to phytotoxins, many phytopathogenic
fungi secrete enzymes that degrade macromolecules of
the host plant tissues. Valtaud et al. (2009a) showed that
Pm. aleophilum possessed all of the extracellular enzyme
activities implicated in the degradation of polysaccharides, such as xylanase, exo- and endo-b-1,4-glucanase
and b-glucosidase. However, no ligninase activity was
observed. In contrast, Pa. chlamydospora showed none
of these enzyme activities. Chemical analysis in damaged
wood fragments 6 months after inoculation with
Pm. aleophilum in vitro showed that the fungus preferentially modified cellulose and hemicellulose, whereas it
degraded lignin poorly. Oxidative enzymes are of primary importance because of their ability to catalyse the
oxidation of phenols into phytotoxic quinones and to
inactivate plant proteins and hormones. Laccase
enzymes, predominantly produced by wood rot fungi,
oxidize and decompose lignin (Lindeberg & Holm,
1952). Mugnai et al. (1999) did not find laccase activity
in Pa. chlamydospora and Pm. aleophilum in culture, but
they did discover it in F. mediterranea. In contrast, Santos
et al. (2006b) detected such activity in the solid growing
medium of Pa. chlamydospora and Bruno & Sparapano
(2006a) induced laccase production by the addition of
resveratrol to the culture medium. Finally, a 60-kDa laccase that was able to oxidize several natural phenolic and
polyphenolic compounds was isolated from a culture of
F. mediterranea, the main causal agent of white rot in
grapevines (Abou-Mansour et al., 2009). The impacts on
secondary metabolites of these oxidative enzymes that
are secreted by the successive invading fungi remain a
crucial issue to be investigated.
7
(Cesati & De Notaris, 1863; Slippers et al., 2004b)
(anamorph Fusicoccum aesculi; Corda, 1829) and Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Griffon & Maublanc, 1909;
Punithalingam, 1976) (teleomorph Botryosphaeria
rhodina) (Phillips, 2002; Luque et al., 2009; ÚrbezTorres, 2011). Among these, the first three species
have been commonly isolated in France (Larignon
et al., 2001; Larignon, 2010). In addition to grapevine, they infect several varieties of fruit trees, inducing a large number of decays (Slippers & Wingfield,
2007; Slippers et al., 2007; Farr & Rossman, 2011;
Úrbez-Torres, 2011).
Little information is available about the life cycle of
Botryosphaeriaceae. Pycnidia develop on infected wood
or on pruning shoots. Airborne inoculum is present, especially during rainfall (van Niekerk et al., 2010; ÚrbezTorres et al., 2010a) or during overhead sprinkler irrigation (Úrbez-Torres et al., 2010a). Thus, aerial inoculum
was observed during the winter in California (Úrbez-Torres et al., 2010a), while it was mostly detected during the
vegetative period in France (Kuntzmann et al., 2009).
Nevertheless, spore dissemination may occur without
rainfall, suggesting that other environmental factors are
also involved (van Niekerk et al., 2010; Úrbez-Torres
et al., 2010a).
The method these fungi use to penetrate the grapevine
remains unclear, but the most obvious approach appears
to be through pruning wounds in plants (Úrbez-Torres &
Gubler, 2009). The susceptibility of pruning wounds was
highest when inoculations were conducted immediately
after pruning and decreased significantly as the interval
between pruning and inoculation increased (Úrbez-Torres & Gubler, 2011). These fungi are also propagated by
infected mother plants or during propagation processes
in the nurseries (Halleen et al., 2003; Giménez-Jaime
et al., 2006; Gramaje & Armengol, 2011).
Botryosphaeria dieback
Disease
Fungi implicated
Among the 21 different species in the Botryosphaeriaceae (Ascomycota) that are presently associated with
botryosphaeria dieback (Úrbez-Torres, 2011), the
most common species isolated from grapevine-growing regions worldwide are Diplodia seriata (teleomorph Botryosphaeria obtusa; Shoemaker, 1964)
(Cristinzio, 1978; Rovesti & Montermini, 1987; Castillo-Pando et al., 2001; Larignon et al., 2001; Phillips et al., 2007; Savocchia et al., 2007; Úrbez-Torres
et al., 2008), Diplodia mutila (teleomorph Botryosphaeria stevensii; Shoemaker, 1964) (Lehoczky, 1974;
Taylor et al., 2005), Neofusicoccum parvum (Crous
et al., 2006) (teleomorph Botryosphaeria parva; Pennycook & Samuels, 1985), Neofusicoccum australe
(Crous et al., 2006) (teleomorph Botryosphaeria australis; Slippers et al., 2004a), Neofusicoccum luteum
(Crous et al., 2006) (teleomorph Botryosphaeria
lutea; Phillips et al., 2002), Botryosphaeria dothidea
Plant Pathology (2012)
Black dead arm (BDA) was first described in 1974 in the
Tokaj grape-growing region of Hungary as being associated with D. mutila (Lehoczky, 1974). However, in 1978
(Cristinzio, 1978) and later (Rovesti & Montermini,
1987; Larignon et al., 2001, 2009), other Botryosphaeriaceae species, namely D. seriata and N. parvum, were
also shown to be associated with the disease. A number of
taxa included in the Botryosphaeriaceae family (Crous
et al., 2006) have been isolated from grapevine; thus,
Úrbez-Torres (2011) and Úrbez-Torres et al. (2012) proposed the disease name botryosphaeria dieback to
include all of the symptoms caused by Botryosphaeriaceae species on grapevine. To date, at least 22 Botryosphaeriaceae species are regarded as potential wood
pathogens to V. vinifera (Luque et al., 2005; van Niekerk
et al., 2006; Damm et al., 2007; Martin & Cobos, 2007;
Úrbez-Torres et al., 2007, 2010b, 2012; Aroca et al.,
2009; Carlucci et al., 2009; Billones et al., 2010; ÚrbezTorres, 2011).
8
C. Bertsch et al.
The name BDA was coined by Lehoczky (1974) to distinguish the symptomatology associated with D. mutila
from that of dead arm disease, which is attributed to
Phomopsis viticola. The distinctive characteristic of BDA
sensu Lehoczky is the wood necrosis of the trunk and
arms of infected vines. Moreover, foliar symptoms
associated with the disease have also been reported
(Lehoczky, 1974; Cristinzio, 1978; Rovesti & Montermini, 1987; Larignon et al., 2001). The form of BDA
described by Larignon et al. (2001) is characterized by
particular foliar symptoms that are reminiscent of those
of young esca (Surico et al., 2008). That similarity has
generated some controversy, as many authors have considered it difficult to distinguish between the foliar symptoms of GLSD and those of BDA sensu Larignon et al.
(2001) (Lecomte et al., 2006; Surico et al., 2006). However, the BDA foliar symptoms described by Larignon
et al. are characterized by some peculiar features. Yellowish-orange (white cultivars) or wine-red (red cultivars)
spots develop on leaf margins and the blade (Fig. 1g) well
in advance of what is generally observed for young esca,
usually from May to June instead of late June or early July
in the northern hemisphere. As the disease progresses,
these spots merge to finally form large interveinal necroses. Another symptom reported by Larignon et al. as typical of that form of BDA is a brown streaking on the wood
under the bark (Fig. 1h). This symptom is often associated
with a grey sector of rotted wood (Fig. 1i). Similarly to the
symptoms observed in young esca- and ⁄ or esca-affected
vines, BDA apoplexy is characterized by the dieback of
one or more shoots and leaf drop (Fig. 1j,k). Moreover,
the shrivelling and drying of inflorescences or fruit
clusters are also observed.
Many published studies have investigated GLSDaffected grapevines, whereas few studies on BDA are
available. This dearth of reports on BDA could be
explained by the fact that the distinction between the two
diseases is problematic. Nevertheless, anatomical studies
on leaves with BDA symptoms revealed that affected cells
have fewer starch grains than healthy ones and than those
in vines that exhibit young esca symptoms (Valtaud,
2007).
Secondary metabolites isolated from botryosphaeria
dieback pathogens
The production of phytotoxic metabolites by the Botryosphaeriaceae species that colonize grapevine wood
has also been reported (Martos et al., 2008; Djoukeng
et al., 2009; Evidente et al., 2010; Andolfi et al., 2011).
A bioassay-guided fractionation of culture filtrate of
D. seriata led to the isolation of four dihydroisocoumarins, namely mellein, cis- and trans-4-hydroxymellein,
and the new 4,7-dihydroxymellein (Fig. 3; Djoukeng
et al., 2009).
In another study, five Botryosphaeriaceae species,
namely F. aesculi, D. seriata, Dothiorella viticola (Luque
et al., 2005), N. parvum and N. luteum, were shown
to produce phytotoxic metabolites, although the metabo-
Figure 3 Metabolites isolated from Diplodia seriata: the
dihydroisocoumarins: mellein (14), its hydroxylated diastereoisomers
(15–16), and dihydroxylated 4,7-dihydroxymellein (17). Metabolites
isolated from Neofusicoccum parvum: (14–16). Metabolites isolated
from the confrontation zone between Eutypa lata and D. seriata:
o-methylmellein (18) and the hydroxy diastereoisomers (19–20).
lites were not identified (Martos et al., 2008). All of these
fungi produced hydrophilic high-molecular-weight
phytotoxins that were identified as exopolysaccharides in
N. parvum. Additionally, N. luteum and N. parvum
produced lipophilic low-molecular-weight phytotoxins.
A recent study reported the identification and biological
activity of four lipophilic phytotoxins that were produced
by N. parvum, which were identified as cis- and trans-4hydroxymellein isosclerone and tyrosol (Fig. 3; Evidente
et al., 2010). The complexity of the confrontation zones
between E. lata and D. seriata that were grown on solid
media in Petri dishes was investigated, and the following
compounds were identified: o-methylmellein, 4-hydroxy8-o-methylmellein and 5-hydroxy-8-o-methylmellein.
Grapevine defences against trunk diseases
The perturbation of primary metabolism, such as
photosynthesis disturbance, is often associated with the
induction of defence reactions. For example, a down-regulation of photosynthesis-related genes and a simultaneous up-regulation of defence-related genes have been
described for various plant–pathogen interactions, e.g.
Botrytis cinerea in tomato plantlets (Berger et al., 2004)
and Pseudomonas syringae in Arabidopsis thaliana
(Bonfig et al., 2006). Little information is available on the
responses of grapevines after xylotroph pathogens
attack, although this knowledge is very important for
elucidating the potential defence mechanisms that are
developed by the plant against the wood-colonizing
fungi.
During the infection of grapevines, the degradation of
hemicellulose and lignin by E. lata has been reported
Plant Pathology (2012)
Grapevine trunk diseases
(Rudelle et al., 2005; Rolshausen et al., 2008). In addition, the resulting looseness of the GLSD-infected tissues
leads to protrusions into the lumen of the vascular bundles by the protoplasm of adjacent parenchymatic cells
(Del Rio et al., 2004). Although they are a product of the
maceration of the grapevine xylem by the esca invaders,
the tyloses formed provide effective protection against
further propagation of the pathogens (Del Rio et al.,
2001). In addition to tylose accumulation, an accumulation of polysaccharides and phenolic compounds, socalled gummosis, is also observed (Catesson et al., 1976).
Gummosis is known to block the xylem vessels in
response to wood-decaying esca fungi (Graniti et al.,
2000; Del Rio et al., 2004). The formation of the gummosis structure in the wood is the cause of the black spotting
observed in the trunk of GLSD-affected plants (Mugnai
et al., 1999). Examinations of field-grown grapevines
demonstrated that infections reduced xylem function by
16% for each 1% increase in gummosis-blocked vessels,
indicating that vessel blockage is not solely responsible
for the loss of xylem function (Edwards et al., 2007d).
Furthermore, the cells surrounding the blocked xylem
were shown to contain more phenolic compounds than
the cells of intact xylem (Del Rio et al., 2001).
In addition to biochemical barriers, the host reacts to
the penetration of the fungal hyphae by forming polyphenol-rich reaction zones known as papillae (Cottral
et al., 2004). These papillae could play a role in inhibiting the progression of the pathogens. Tannins were also
shown to accumulate in the vacuoles of the foliar cells
of GLSD-affected grapevines (Valtaud et al., 2011).
This accumulation began in the symptomless leaves
arising from GLSD-affected canes and became more significant as the symptoms appeared (Valtaud et al.,
2011). The leaves of BDA-affected plants showed
higher tannin content than the leaves that exhibited
GLSD symptoms (Valtaud et al., 2011). Phytoalexins
were also shown to accumulate in the brown-red wood
of GLSD-diseased grapevines, including resveratrol, eviniferin and two other resveratrol oligomers (resveratrol dimer and resveratrol tetramer A; Amalfitano et al.,
2000; Martin et al., 2009). Resveratrol and other phenolic compounds were also detected in leaves and berries from plants that were affected by GLSD (Calzarano
et al., 2008; Lima et al., 2010). Genes encoding two
phenylpropanoid biosynthesis enzymes, PAL and stilbene synthase (STS), were strongly expressed in leaves
without symptoms before the appearance of the apoplectic form (Letousey et al., 2010). PAL and STS are
two important enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway that lead to the production of stilbenic phytoalexins (resveratrol and various oligomers) and of lignin
elements. Application of resveratrol showed a direct
antifungal effect by inhibiting the in vitro growth of
E. lata, S. hirsutum and F. mediterranea (Mazzullo
et al., 2000; Coutos-Thévenot et al., 2001). Stilbenic
polyphenols are also able to scavenge reactive oxygen
species (ROS) and thus protect the plant cells from oxidative stress after pathogen attack.
Plant Pathology (2012)
9
Other inducible defence responses are characterized by
the accumulation of ‘pathogenesis-related’ (PR) proteins.
A fungitoxic activity has been described for many PR
proteins (van Loon et al., 2006). The expression of PR
proteins was shown to be up-regulated in the leaves of
grapevines affected by eutypa dieback and GLSD (Valtaud et al., 2009b; Camps et al., 2010; Letousey et al.,
2010; Magnin-Robert et al., 2011; Spagnolo et al.,
2012). These PR proteins include PR1 (unknown function), osmotin, thaumatin, anionic peroxidase, chitinase,
b-1,3-glucanase and ribosome-inactivating proteins
(PR10). Moreover, genes encoding PR proteins were differentially regulated according to the kinetics of GLSD
symptom development (Valtaud et al., 2009b; Letousey
et al., 2010).
Early events during plant–pathogen interactions are
characterized by the oxidative burst and the production
of ROS, which could play a role in the induction of
defence-related gene expression. ROS produced at the
site of infection could contribute to the destruction of
pathogens and induce lignin synthesis in the cell walls.
Reactive oxygen production is also associated with various mechanisms that regulate and protect the plant cell
against oxidative stress. Glutathione S-transferase (GST)
and superoxide dismutase (SOD) are two important
enzymes in detoxification processes and oxidative stress
resistance (Bowler et al., 1992; Marrs, 1996). In symptomless leaves prior to the appearance of the apoplectic
form, GST expression was induced, while SOD was
clearly repressed (Letousey et al., 2010). The repression
of SOD expression in the foliar tissues of GLSD-affected
grapevines might indicate a lack of oxidative stress control by SOD enzymes, which could be lethal for the plant
and consequently strengthen symptom expression (Letousey et al., 2010). Cellular glutathione status is important in relaying oxidative signals (Foyer et al., 1997; May
et al., 1998), and glutathione (GSH) protects plant cells
against oxidative stress (Maughan & Foyer, 2006). Valtaud et al. (2009b) showed that GLSD modified glutathione metabolism in a systemic way. The glutathione pool
decreased in the leaves before the appearance of visible
GLSD symptoms. Simultaneously, the expression levels
of three genes encoding GSH-biosynthetic enzymes were
successively strongly induced in symptomless leaves and
repressed in leaves with symptoms (Valtaud et al.,
2009b). Three other genes involved in the redox balance
in leaves of eutypa dieback-affected grapevines: peroxiredoxin, thioredoxin peroxidase and glutaredoxin, were
up-regulated (Camps et al., 2010). A proteomic analysis
on green stem tissue showed the up-regulation of a GST
phi-class protein and the repression of a SOD protein,
respectively, in stems with symptoms on apoplectic and
esca proper-affected vines (Spagnolo et al., 2012). Considering the relative perturbation of the antioxidant system; ROS regulation is critical during symptom
expression and could be used as stress markers for
infections by grapevine trunk disease agents.
A microscopic examination of grapevine wood
infected by Pa. chlamydospora showed that the fungus
10
C. Bertsch et al.
spreads slowly in the wood tissues and requires 9 months
to colonize up to 25–35 cm above the site of infection
(roots, 10 cm from the root collar), moving mainly along
the vessels (Lorena et al., 2001). This spread appears to
be related to plant defence responses, including the production of tylose and the accumulation of phenols and
stilbene-like substances in the cell wall surrounding the
infected cells (Lorena et al., 2001). The relatively long
latency times encountered in GLSD, botryosphaeria and
eutypa dieback could be an example of the power of preformed and inducible defences of grapevine to restrain
the propagation of the pathogens in the wood tissues.
Consequently, the invader remains in a nearly dormant
stage or is restricted to a small number of host cells. It produces no obvious symptoms and can only be detected
through cultivation or molecular techniques (Scheck
et al., 1998; Spagnolo et al., 2011).
Inducible defence responses tend to strengthen the
plant cell wall, maintain the osmotic and redox balance,
destroy the fungal cell walls and resist pathogen infection.
However, these defence responses are unable to prevent
the pathogenic infection and the expression of disease
symptoms because they are often expressed too late or at
insufficient levels for an effective defence response, as
reported in the works cited above.
Experimental tools: reproduction of
symptoms in in vitro and field experiments
Although grapevine trunk diseases are relatively well
described under natural conditions, accurate knowledge
of host–pathogen interactions poses certain problems,
including: (i) determining the seasonal influence of the
homogeneity of field-collected data; and (ii) distinguishing pathogen effects in grapevines from effects in
response to other biotic agents in the field. To gain a better understanding of the mechanisms involved in symptom expression, it has been artificially reproduced
through individual or combined inoculations of pathogenic fungi or by the use of simplified grapevine models
(e.g. cuttings, grapevine vitroplants, or cultured grapevine cells) under controlled conditions.
Eutypa dieback symptoms, including the stunting of
new shoots with small cupped, chlorotic and tattered
leaves, were reproduced on greenhouse cuttings infected
with E. lata ascospores or mycelium plugs (Petzoldt et al.,
1981; Péros & Berger, 1994, 1999; Sosnowski et al.,
2007a) and on field-grown grapevines (Moller & Kasimatis, 1978). Eutypa dieback symptoms also appeared
7 weeks after inoculation in grapevines in vitro (Camps
et al., 2010). Symptoms on green stem and in the wood
were also observed after Eutypella vitis infection, but the
virulence was weak compared to E. lata infection (Jordan
& Schilder, 2007). A significant reduction of growth was
observed in grapevines inoculated in vitro with either
Pa. chlamydospora or Phaeoacremonium angustius (Santos et al., 2005, 2006a) and in greenhouse plants inoculated with Pa. chlamydospora (Chiarappa, 2000). In
addition, co-culturing these fungi in vitro with plantlets
induced symptoms in leaves (Sparapano et al., 2001a).
The inoculation of detached healthy grape berries with
Pa. chlamydospora and Pm. aleophilum also led to the
appearance of typical GLSD lesions (measles) within 4–
5 days (Gubler et al., 2004). In addition, because these
fungi were inoculated individually or in combination,
several symptoms, such as wood streaking and foliar
chlorosis, were shown to be commonly produced by a
group of four fungi (Pm. aleophilum, Pa. chlamydospora,
E. lata and Pm. angustius), while others are characteristically induced by just one class, e.g. black goo and black
measles induced by ascomycetes (i.e. Pa. chlamydospora ⁄ Pm. aleophilum) and white rot by basidiomycetes
(i.e. F. mediterranea ⁄ S. hirsutum) (Larignon & Dubos,
1997; Sparapano et al., 2000b, 2001b). The capacity of
F. mediterranea to induce wood rot has already been
studied in the field by inoculating both adult and young
healthy grapevines with F. mediterranea via wounds.
Wood decay symptoms, including white rot, developed
within 2 years of inoculation, but the first signs of wood
rot (spongy wood) were observed as soon as 6 months
after inoculation on both tested cultivars (cvs Sangiovese
and Italia) (Sparapano et al., 2000a). Regarding the pathogenic fungi involved in botryosphaeria dieback, some
discoloration of woody tissues and canker formations are
commonly observed in cuttings, detached woody shoots
or field-grown grapevine shoots that have been inoculated with D. seriata (Castillo-Pando et al., 2001; Larignon et al., 2001; van Niekerk et al., 2004; Savocchia
et al., 2007). Some discoloration of woody tissues was
also observed in cuttings inoculated with D. mutila
(Taylor et al., 2005; Whitelaw-Weckert et al., 2006) and
N. parvum (Phillips, 1998; van Niekerk et al., 2004;
Luque et al., 2009; Úrbez-Torres & Gubler, 2009).
In vitro grapevine models (e.g. plantlets, calli and
liquid-cultured cells) are also used to determine the accurate physiological or molecular changes that take place
during the plant–pathogen interaction. In vitro cultures
are excellent tools for studying host–pathogen
interactions, as the organisms are grown in well-controlled conditions. Co-culturing grapevine calli with
Pa. chlamydospora, Pm. aleophilum, Pm. angustius and
F. mediterranea has been shown to reduce callus growth,
increase plant cell lipid peroxidation, and induce browning and necrosis (Sparapano et al., 2000c, 2001a; Santos
et al., 2005, 2006b; Bruno & Sparapano, 2006a). As with
calli, both reductions in growth and increases in lipid peroxidation were observed in grapevine plantlet leaves in
response to Pa. chlamydospora and Pm. angustius (Santos et al., 2005; Oliveira et al., 2009). Infections by GLSD
fungi also reduced chlorophyll content and fluorescence
in plantlet leaves (Santos et al., 2005; Oliveira et al.,
2009). In parallel, a decrease in osmotic potential, loss of
membrane integrity, perturbations in macronutrient
accumulation (K, P, Ca, Mg) and nutritional disorders
(such as reductions in total sugars, glucose and uronic
acids) were observed in the leaves of in vitro Pa. chlamydospora-infected grapevine (Oliveira et al., 2009). Santos
et al. (2005) showed that the fungal strain most virulent
Plant Pathology (2012)
Grapevine trunk diseases
to in vitro plants was also the most virulent to calli,
revealing a similarity in the pattern of responses between
cultured cells and plants in these grapevine genotypes.
The accumulations of total and recurring phenols were
analysed in calli and in the leaves of various grapevine
genotypes in response to infections by Pa. chlamydospora, Pm. aleophilum and F. mediterranea. The ability
to produce phenolics appeared to be correlated with a
lower susceptibility to GLSD (Bruno & Sparapano,
2006a,b). Cultured grapevine cells were previously used
as a model to study biochemical changes during the first
stages of interaction between the plant and the pathogenic fungi. Co-culturing Pa. chlamydospora with cultured cells showed the presence of a biphasic oxidative
burst that was dependent on Ca2+ influxes and was associated with NADPH oxidase and peroxidase activities
(Lima, 2009). Under the same conditions, the expression
of seven defence-related genes encoding the PR proteins
PAL, STS and lipoxygenase was induced with a biphasic
pattern. Moreover, the infection of cultured grapevine
cells with Pa. chlamydospora induced the production of
three phenolic compounds, namely e-viniferin-2-glucoside, e-viniferin-glucoside and a polymer that consisted of
two e-viniferin molecules (Lima, 2009).
Disease control
The control of esca and botryosphaeria dieback is difficult because sodium arsenite, the sole effective fungicide,
was banned because carcinogenic effects in humans and
high toxicity to the environment were reported (Decoin,
2001; Bisson et al., 2006; Larignon et al., 2008; Spinosi
& Févotte, 2008). Consequently, a wide range of methods of control, including chemicals, biological control
agents, natural molecules and sanitation methods, have
been tested against grapevine trunk diseases. Despite
these efforts, the effectiveness of a single method of control seems to be limited, and management strategies that
combine two or more of these methods must be applied to
reduce disease incidence.
Several authors have compiled all the research data
that have been published until now on management and
control of fungal grapevine trunk pathogens. They
describe in detail the potential stages of grapevine trunk
disease propagation. These potential stages should be
carefully monitored in nurseries to improve the quality of
the planting stock that will be delivered to grape producers (Stamp, 2001; Hunter et al., 2004; Waite & Morton,
2007; Gramaje & Armengol, 2011). In 1998, the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization
(OEPP ⁄ EPPO, 2008) established a standard that
describes the production of pathogen-tested materials of
grapevine varieties and rootstocks.
Chemical control
Chemical control is based on protecting pruning wounds,
usually with fungicides, to avoid grapevine infection and
to limit fungal expansion in the plant. Chemical treatPlant Pathology (2012)
11
ments that often contain more than one fungicide are frequently applied to the soil (injector pole), the trunk
(trunk injections) and pruning wounds (painted pastes or
liquid formulations) (Table 1). However, these applications can be expensive, impractical and ⁄ or washed off by
rainfall (Calzarano et al., 2004; Sosnowski et al., 2004;
Rolshausen & Gubler, 2005).
Sprayed formulations are usually the most practical,
but they are easily washed off by rainfall. Paintbrush
applications and trunk injections are impractical and
expensive, but are cost-effective when applied in highvalue vineyards (Di Marco et al., 2000; Rolshausen et al.,
2010). Applications of fungicides in vitro, in the greenhouse or in the field have been reported to reduce mycelial
growth and ⁄ or conidial germination of grapevine pathogens. Nevertheless, their efficacy in reducing pathogen
incidence is very variable and species-dependent (Bester
et al., 2007; Rolshausen et al., 2010; Amponsah et al.,
2012). Experiments in vitro and on rooted grapevine cuttings were perfomed by Bester et al. (2007), who tested
efficacy of fungicide wound dressings against several Botryosphaeriaceae species. These experiments showed that
tebuconazole, flusilazole, benomyl and prochloraz reduced pathogen incidence. In other experiments
in vitro, Gramaje & Armengol (2011) reported an inhibition in the mycelial growth of E. lata and other Diatrypaceae species associated with grapevine trunk diseases by
carbendazim, tebuconazole, prothioconazole + tebuconazole and fluazinam. Amponsah et al. (2012) tested 16
fungicides in order to determine their inhibitory effect on
mycelial growth and conidial germination of N. australe,
N. luteum and D. mutila; carbendazim, procymidone,
iprodione, flusilazole and mancozeb were effective in all
cases, but flusilazole was the most effective against pathogen recovery when some of the fungicides were tested on
vineyards of 12-year-old cv. Chardonnay grapevines artificially infected by N. luteum. Other fungicides that were
reported to be effective to a lesser degree in this experiment were carbendazim, tebuconazole, thyophanate
methyl, mancozeb, fenarimol and procymidone. The
authors concluded that the results of in vitro and field
experiments seemed to corroborate each other.
Another issue is the effectiveness of these treatments
under different conditions. Rolshausen et al. (2010)
tested a thyophanate-methyl treatment (Topsin M), a
wound-sealing paste with 5% boric acid (Biopaste), a
pyraclostrobin treatment (Cabrio EG) and a cyproconazole + iodocarb treatment (Garrison) in the field. All
these treatments showed effectiveness against grapevine
pathogens, despite there being variations in efficacy
between species. Topsin M was overall the most efficacious fungicide. Until recently, commercial preparations
with carbendazim (Bavistin, Solucuivre) were quite
effective against E. lata in the field (Bourbos & Barbopoulou, 2005; Sosnowski et al., 2005, 2008). However,
in 2010 the use of carbendazim on grapevines was
restricted in Australia and in Europe because of health
and safety concerns (http://www.apvma.gov.au/news_
media/chemicals/carbendazim.php).
C. Bertsch et al.
12
Table 1 Chemical control of grapevine trunk diseases in field
Treatment and results
Esca
Foliar treatment
Foliar treatment
Foliar treatment
and trunk injections
Paint-treated
Trunk injection
Trunk injection
Injector pole and
syringe infection
Eutypa dieback
Paint-treated (paste),
spray-treated
(pneumatic sprayerpruning shear)
Spray-treated
Spray-treated
Spray-treated
Spray-treated
Spray-treated (liquid) and
paint-treated (paste)
Paint-treated
Esca and eutypa
dieback
Spray-treated
Trunk injections
Fosetyl-Al foliar treatment. Results on esca-infected vineyards have been unsatisfactory (S. Di Marco, Istituto
di Biometeorologia, Bologna, Italy, personal communication)
Foliar fertilization using bioactivators and nutrients: iron-humate, microelement-humate ‘S’ activator, Ca-Mg-B
solution, ‘S’ bioactivator. All of these treatments had negative effects (Calzarano et al., 2007)
Commercial formulations of fosetyl-Al in combination with mancozeb and cymoxanil and ⁄ or copper
oxychloride. In field experiments fosetyl-Al treatments reduced incidence of esca and mortality of vines (Di
Marco & Osti, 2005)
Topsin M (thiophanate-methyl), Garrison (commercial tree wound paste formulated with cyproconazole and
iodocarb), Biopaste (5% boric acid in a wound-sealing paste) and Cabrio (pyraclostrobin formulation) were
the best wound protectants. Prevam (citrus fruit extract formulation) was less efficient (Eskalen et al., 2007b)
Fosetyl-Al, cyproconazole and tetraconazole. Cyproconazole was the most effective. This compound is
associated with temporary curative activity and high cost (Calzarano et al., 2004)
Propiconazole, difenoconazole, thiabendazole, propiconazole + thiabendazole
Difenoconazole + thiabendazole were the most effective. No phytotoxic results were seen (Dula et al., 2007)
Cyproconazole (Atemi, 10 WG), flusilazole (Nustar, 20 DF), penconazole (Topas, 10 EC) fosetyl-Al, fosetyl-Ca
(Aliette Ca) and tetraconazole (M 14360, 10 EC). Two holes made in soil along the row of vines where
fungicides are delivered by the injector pole equipped with a water meter. Syringe infection was carried out
with two simple and specially designed syringes are applied in the trunk of each plant. Most of the trials
had negative results when applied to 17-year-old diseased vineyards. Significant reduction in the severity of
foliar symptoms on vines was seen at the first appearance of esca (Di Marco et al., 2000)
Benomyl, fenarimol, flusilazole, myclobutanil and triadimefon. Benomyl and flusilazole were the most effective
(90% wound reduction) (Munkvold & Marois, 1993a)
Bavistin 50 WP (carbendazim), Ohayo 50 SC (fluazinam) and the biological product Promot (Trichoderma
harzianum and T. koningii). All of the tested products were effective (i.e. reduced incidence of sections of
infected wood) but in different conditions: Bavistin was applied once or twice, Ohayo was applied twice and
Promot was applied twice in combination with the fungicides (Bourbos & Barbopoulou, 2005)
Benomyl (5%), flusilazole (5Æ5%) and biological treatments: Bacillus subtilis, Trichoderma formulations A, B
and C. Flusilazole and benomyl (banned) were the most effective against Eutypa lata and to a lesser extent
against Phaeomoniella chlamydospora. Flusilazole also reduced infection by Phomopsis. The Trichoderma
treatments were less effective, while B. subtilis was not effective at all (Halleen & Fourie, 2005)
Liquid fertilizer Brotomax, which stimulates the synthesis of phenolic compounds, alleviated foliar symptoms
and increased yield was applied to leaves and trunk by spray applications. A significant yield increase was
noted, but foliar symptoms were not reduced (Sosnowski et al., 2007b)
One trial with artificial inoculation was performed. Biological products tested: Bacillus subtilis isolate EE,
T. harzianum T77 (with and without Bio-Stabiliser), Trichoseal spray and Bio-Tricho. Chemical products
tested: benomyl and flusilazole. Chemical products were the most effective. Another trial with natural
infection was reported. Products tested: Vinevax (Trichoseal spray) and Eco77 (T77). Both treatments
reduced incidences of E. lata and other grapevine trunk disease pathogens (Halleen et al., 2010)
Bioshield (5% boric acid + suspension of Cladosporium herbarum) and Biopaste (5% boric
acid + commercial paste). Both reduced disease in field trials. Boron did not accumulate in the leaves and
shoots of treated vines, but they suffered some bud failure (Rolshausen & Gubler, 2005)
Fungaflor (imazalil sulphate), Scala (pyrimethanil), Cabrio (pyraclostrobin), Bayfidan (triadimenol),
Teldor (fenhexamide) and Topas (penconazole) were less effective. Bavistin (carbendazim), Solucuivre
(copper and carbendazim), Garrison (cyproconazole and iodocarb in paste) and ATCS Tree Wound
Dressing (acrylic paint) were more effective (Sosnowski et al., 2005). In field trials, benomyl (Benlate) was
effective in preventing infection, but has been withdrawn from the market. Bavistin (carbendazim) was the
most effective. Shirlan (fluazinam), Scala (pyrimethanil) and Cabrio (pyraclostrobin) were less effective.
Acrylic paint with or without fungicides and Garrison (commercial paste with fungicides) also protected
wounds (Sosnowski et al., 2008)
Thiophanate-methyl and myclobutanil. Applied on grapevine pruning wounds was effective against
Phaecremonium aleophilum and Phaeomoniella chlamydospora. Myclobutanil was also effective against
E. lata (Herche, 2009)
Propiconazole, difenoconazole and the elicitor 2-hydroxybenzoic acid. Triazole fungicides had phytotoxic
effects. No treatment had a sustaining effect. Results were unsatisfactory (Darrieutort & Lecomte, 2007)
Plant Pathology (2012)
Grapevine trunk diseases
13
Table 1 Continued
Treatment and results
Botryosphaeria
dieback
Not specified
Esca, eutypa dieback
and botryosphaeria
dieback
Grapevine rootstock and
scion cuttings soaked in a
product
Painted-treated or
spray-treated
Painted-treated or
spray-treated
Chitosan was applied to control Botryosphaeriaceae fungi and Phomopsis viticola. Effectiveness was
compared with that of the conventional fungicides azoxystrobin and pyraclostrobin + metiram used to
control dead arm-like symptoms under vineyard conditions (Rego et al., 2010)
Several products were tested: Trichoflow-T (Trichoderma), Bio-Steriliser (hydrogen peroxide) and Chinosol (8hydroxyquinoline sulphate. Results were inconsistent. Benomyl, Sporekill (didecyldimethylammonium
chloride formulation) and Captan were the best treatments (Fourie & Halleen, 2006)
Fungicides: 1% Cabrio EG (pyraclostrobin), 1% Topsin M (thiophanate-methyl), Biopaste (5% boric acid in a
polyvinyl paste) and Garrison (cyproconazol). Inefficient control of the entire spectrum of pathogens was
reported. Topsin M was overall the most efficacious product (Rolshausen et al., 2010)
Several fungicides and Vinevax (Trichoderma spp.) tested: Folicur (tebuconazole), Shirlan (fluazinam),
Bavistin (carbendazim) were more effective against Botryosphaeriaceae and E. lata (Pitt et al., 2010) than
others
Table 1 shows other chemical products tested in the
field for control of grapevine trunk dieases. This table
regroups some treatments, their application type and field
results. Some authors reported efficacy of the fungicide
benomyl (Benlate) in preventing and reducing incidences of fungal grapevine trunk diseases. However, this
product was withdrawn from the market because of its
toxicity and possible carcinogenic effects (Halleen &
Fourie, 2005; Fourie & Halleen, 2006; Sosnowski et al.,
2008).
Other products that can be effective treatments for
reducing disease incidence are based on tebuconazole
(Folicur, BacSeal, Greenseal), combinations of fosetylAl with other fungicides, cyproconazol (Garrison),
formulations of didecyldimethylammonium chloride
(Sporekill), N-trichloromethylthio-cyclohexene-1,2dicarboximide (Captan) and flusilazole. Nevertheless,
their success depends on several factors, such as the mode
and the number of applications on grapevines, the persistance of the product and the species of fungus treated
(Di Marco & Osti, 2005; Halleen & Fourie, 2005;
Sosnowski et al., 2005; Fourie & Halleen, 2006; Pitt
et al., 2010; Rolshausen et al., 2010).
Control with biological agents and natural molecules
Trichoderma species have been tested to protect cut pruning wounds against pathogens of esca, BDA and eutypa
dieback (Hunt et al., 2001; Di Marco et al., 2004b; John
et al., 2004). As shown in Table 2, Trichoderma-based
treatments have decreased incidence of fungi involved in
grapevine trunk diseases when applied in vitro or in nurseries. To extend the effect of protection of Trichoderma
spp., healthy vines should be inoculated with these fungi
to colonize the woody tissues of the cordon and trunk to
provide a ‘vaccination effect’ against pathogens. This
was demonstrated by John et al. (2001), who found that
Trichoderma harzianum AG1 from Vinevax (a product
Plant Pathology (2012)
registered as a wound protectant for eutypa dieback) can
live in association with the pith parenchyma cells of
healthy vine tissues (John et al., 2001; Hunt, 2004). Pitt
et al. (2010) reported that Vinevax reduced the incidence of colonization of D. seriata on 1-year-old canes of
standing vines. The effectiveness of protection based on
Trichoderma spp. treatments depends on the ability of
these fungi to colonize grapevine pruning wounds
(John et al., 2008). They usually need a period of time
for a complete colonization, during which the pruned
grapevine is susceptible to infections and ⁄ or to washing off by rainfall. However, these Trichoderma-based
approaches still require more tests in the field in order
to be accurately evaluated and could possibly be
optimized by a combination of other management
strategies (such as combination with other biological or
chemical products, remedial surgery, reducing the
number and size of pruning wounds and application of
sanitation methods).
Other biological agents (e.g. Bacillus subtilis, Fusarium lateritium, Erwinia herbicola, Cladosporium herbarum, Aureobasidium pullulans and Rhodotorula rubra)
and natural molecules (e.g. chitosan and cysteine) have
also been reported to be effective against grapevine trunk
disease agents, alone or in combination with fungicides
(Tables 1 & 2), although some of them have only been
tested in vitro or in nurseries.
Sanitation methods
For many years, sanitation measures have remained the
most widely used approach to controlling the spread of
trunk diseases in the vineyard. Quality of planting material, disinfection of nursery propagating materials and
application of hot water treatment (HWT) are crucial for
obtaining commercial plants in good sanitary conditions.
HWT is generally performed at 50C for 30 min, but it is
stressful for the plant; if not applied correctly, it can result
14
C. Bertsch et al.
Table 2 Some biological agents reported in the literature for combating grapevine trunk diseases
Systems
Esca, eutypa dieback,
botryosphaeria dieback
In vitro
In nurseries
In field
Greenhouse
In vitro and nurseries
Eutypa dieback
In field
In vitro
In vitro
In field
In vitro
Name of treatment and results
Esca, eutypa dieback, botryosphaeria dieback
Trichoderma-based products.
Isolation of fungi responsible of grapevine trunk diseases decreased by 85% 8 months after pruning
(Hunt et al., 2001)
Esca
Trichoderma harzianum treatments reduced occurrence of Phaeomoniella chlamydospora and
Phaeoacremonium spp. (Fourie et al., 2001)
Grapevine rootstock and scion cuttings soaked with T. harzianum (Trichoflow-T) prior to cold storage,
prior to grafting and prior to planting in field nurseries yielded inconsistent results (Fourie & Halleen,
2006)
Trichoderma harzianum T39 (Trichodex) and T. longibrachiatum (strain 6). Post-callusing treatment with
Trichoderma was effective for reducing necrosis produced by Pa. chlamydospora on the rootstock (Di
Marco et al., 2004b)
Cysteine
Antifungal action on Eutypa lata (complete fungal inhibition at 10 mM) was observed, but with a lower
efficiency against fungal species associated with other grapevine diseases (esca, black dead arm)
(Octave et al., 2005)
Chitosan
An in vitro study was conducted using Petri dishes with PDA and different concentrations of chitosan.
Mycelium plugs of different fungi were transferred to the centre of each plate. A fungicidal effect on
Botryosphaeria sp. (EC50 1Æ56), E. lata (EC50 3Æ26), P. chlamydospora (EC50 1Æ17) and Fomitiporia sp.
(EC50 1Æ55) was observed. (EC50: effective concentration of chitosan which reduced mycelial growth by
50%)
In a greenhouse study in which chitosan was sprayed on leaves, Pa. chlamydospora colonization was
reduced significantly compared with unsprayed controls. No significant differences were observed
between fungicides and chitosan (Nascimento et al., 2007)
Trichoderma harzianum: spores or commercial formulations (Trichoseal and Vinevax) and Fusarium
lateritium. Fresh pruning wounds were treated with spores of T. harzianum, F. lateritium or the product
Vinevax. Recovery of E. lata was reduced, especially with application 2 weeks before E. lata inoculation
(John et al., 2005)
Bacillus subtilis was sprayed on pruning wounds before inoculation with E. lata. Infection was reduced
significantly compared to the unsprayed, inoculated control (Ferreira et al., 1991)
Bacillus subtilis B1a and Erwinia herbicola JII ⁄ E2 with formulation additives.
Significant growth inhibition of six different E. lata isolates on wood was reported (Schmidt et al., 2001)
Fusarium lateritium inhibited Eutypa armeniacae (Carter & Price, 1974)
Fusarium lateritium and Chlamydosporum herbarum were the most effective, and results were not
significantly different than those from benomyl (fungicide). Aureobasidium pullulans and Rhodotorula
rubra also reduced infections compared to the E. lata control but to a lesser extent than C. herbarum,
F. lateritium and benomyl (Munkvold & Marois, 1993b)
Salicylic acid
Antifungal activity was observed at 2 mM or higher concentrations and acidic pH (Amborabé et al., 2002)
in the loss of the plant material. Vitis vinifera varieties
have different degrees of sensitivity to HWT. For
example, in decreasing order of sensitivity, Pinot Noir is
more sensitive than Chardonnay, Merlot and Riesling
(moderately sensitive), Paulsen (sensitive) and Cabernet
Sauvignon (least sensitive) (Waite et al., 2001; Crocker
et al., 2002). Moreover, the range of temperatures used
depends on the pathogens that need to be controlled.
Temperatures of 45–47C have been reported to eliminate Pa. chlamydospora, while temperatures of 51–53C
are necessary to eliminate pathogens more resistant than
the Petri disease ones. Two different HWTs can also be
performed: one at 54C for 5 min to control external
pests and pathogens and another at 50C for 30–45 min
to control internal pests and pathogens (Waite &
Morton, 2007; Gramaje et al., 2009).
Double pruning or prepruning is favoured by growers
to speed up final pruning and to reduce disease incidence
in spur-pruned vineyards (Weber et al., 2007). Sanitation
methods are often complemented with the protection of
pruning wounds from frost or biotic attack by the application of fungicides, biological formulations or both in
rotation. The infected parts of a plant and the infected
dead wood from soil should also be removed to lower
inoculum loads in vineyards (Carter, 1991; Di Marco
et al., 2000).
Plant Pathology (2012)
Grapevine trunk diseases
15
Table 3 Susceptibility levels of some grapevine cultivars to trunk diseases
Disease
Susceptibility
Cultivars
Slow form of esca
(Graniti et al., 2000)
Susceptible
Cabernet Sauvignon, Cinsaut, Mourvèdre, Sauvignon blanc, Trousseau,
Ugni blanc
Carignane, Merlot, Pinot noir, Roussanne
Cabernet franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Sauvignon blanc
Merlot
Cabernet Sauvignon, Chasselas, Chenin, Cinsaut, Mauzac, Muscadelle,
Négrette, Sauvignon, Ugni blanc
Alicante Bouschet, Chardonnay, Chenin, Cinsaut, Gewürztraminer,
Jurançon
Cabernet franc, Carignane, Colombard, Duras, Gamay, Malbec,
Mourvèdre, Pinot Meunier, Portugais bleu
Aligoté, Merlot, Sémillon, Sylvaner, Grolleau, Petit Verdot
Botryosphaeria dieback
(Larignon & Dubos, 2001)
Eutypa dieback
(Dubos, 1999)
Moderately susceptible
Susceptible
Moderately susceptible
Highly susceptible
Susceptible
Moderately susceptible
Tolerant
All of the above-described treatments can lose effectiveness as a result of factors such as stress in extreme climatic conditions that could predispose the vines to an
infection. For example, warm and rainy summers favour
the expression of GLSD and BDA symptoms, while hot
summers, strong winds and drought favour the apoplectic
form of GLSD (Surico et al., 2000). Other factors include
age, cultivar susceptibility (Table 3) and the stage and
degree of the infection (Boyer, 1995; Di Marco et al.,
2000). Although Table 3 shows different degrees of susceptibility of some grapevine cultivars, this classification
can vary with region and year, so is not absolute (Mimiague & Le Gall, 1994). Moreover, the costs of
hand ⁄ mechanical pruning, double pruning and the small
number of registered products with their different ranges
of action against pathogens can be expensive in low-value
vineyards. Thus, multiple factors contribute to the fact
that it is not possible to control grapevine trunk diseases
effectively.
Conclusions
Over the past few decades, the incidence of grapevine
trunk diseases, eutypa dieback, esca and botryosphaeria
dieback has increased considerably worldwide. In 1999,
the International Council on Grapevine Trunk Disease
(ICGTD) was created to facilitate the exchange of useful
data on pathogen identification, detection, host–pathogen interaction, epidemiology and disease management
concerning grapevine trunk diseases.
In the research community, there is good overall
knowledge of the symptomatologies in trunk, leaves and
berries for eutypa dieback, esca and botryosphaeria dieback. The characteristics of the fungi associated with
these dieases are also well documented. Host–pathogen
interactions, especially grapevine defences against trunk
diseases, have been described under natural conditions
and by the use of simplified grapevine models under controlled conditions. Regarding host–pathogen interactions, the general response of grapevine organs affected
by trunk diseases is characterized by a strong perturbation of primary metabolism associated with an induction
Plant Pathology (2012)
of stress ⁄ defence reactions. The latter has been observed
in foliar or lignified organs of grapevines infected by the
fungal agents, but no scientific work has reported the
response at the whole-plant level. Most knowledge concerns leaves and green stems, where the presence of the
pathogenic fungi has not been reported. No hypothetical
relationships have yet been proposed for the following
aspects of grapevine–fungus interactions: the alteration
of photosynthesis or gas exchange, the induction of
detoxification system, the stimulation of defence
response and the presence of fungal toxins. Apart from
the accumulation of phenolic compounds and starch
depletion in the wood, there is generally a lack of
knowledge concerning the response of functional
grapevine wood to trunk diseases. As grapevine trunk
disease agents are lignicolous, particular attention must
be paid to the responses of the infected woody tissues.
In the future, bioinformatic analysis might be useful
for comparing the expression of various sets of genes
in infected woody tissues, including (i) biotic and abiotic stress-related genes involved in general plant
response to pathogen infection, (ii) plant primary
metabolism genes, and (iii) fungal genes required for
pathogenicity. The combination of data on plant
responses and fungal activity in compatible interactions
could give important information about the mechanisms developed by the fungi to colonize grapevine and
the protective responses induced by grapevine to limit
fungal progression. Such work presents difficulties
because grapevine is a perennial plant cultivated all
around the world and in various environmental conditions. A priority is probably to optimize and validate a
simplified model of artificial inoculation of grapevines
under controlled conditions. With such a tool, understanding of the interactions between grapevine and
trunk disease agents could progress, and such a model
may represent a first step towards testing management
solutions against these diseases.
Attempts to control these fungal diseases are currently
based on the employment of biological agents, natural
molecules, chemical compounds and sanitation methods,
used alone or in combination. Nevertheless, they are not
16
C. Bertsch et al.
yet completely effective. Therefore, control strategies are
urgently needed to prevent and ⁄ or reduce incidence of
grapevine trunk diseases, and worldwide, researchers are
working to find means to eradicate this significant
problem for the industry.
In conclusion, despite the fact that the relationship
between wood necrosis and the presence of several
fungi is well documented, the causes of the development
of the typical foliar symptoms are still elusive. Fungal
extracellular compounds, changes in vine behaviour,
climate or microbiological equilibrium, and the presence
of undiagnosed pathogens, are all thought to influence
the expression of disease symptoms and remain to be
investigated in depth.
Acknowledgements
This research was financed by the national programme
CPER (Contract Project État-Région) of the ChampagneArdenne region, the CASDAR programme (Compte
d’Affectation Spéciale au Développement Agricole et
Rural) and the Alsace region.
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