BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION ELSEVIER Biological Conservation 85 (1998) 287-295 Status of the flora and plant conservation in the sultanate of Oman Shahina A. Ghazanfar* Department of Biology, Sultan Qaboos University, PO Box 36, Al-Khod 123, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman Received 21 August 1997; received in revised form 22 September 1997; accepted 1 October 1997 Abstract Increasing threats to plant diversity in Oman include loss of habitat through increased livestock holdings, lack of regeneration, spread of invasive species, a requirement for more land for housing, industry, roads and cultivation. In order to identify species at risk and threatened and vulnerable habitats, a list of the threatened flora is prepared using the IUCN Red List Categories. The threatened flora constitutes 4.6% of the total species, 80% of which occurs in the southern region of Oman. 0.7% of the flora is Critically Endangered, 0.2% Endangered, and 2.0% Vulnerable. 1.5% of the total species are placed in the Low Risk category and 0.3% which lack complete data on distribution and population status, in the Data Deficient category. The endemic flora constitutes 4.7% and the regionally endemic flora, 3.2% of the total species. Endemism is highest in the southern region where 46% of the endemic and regionally endemic species are threatened. In order to conserve the biological diversity of Oman, the need for more nature reserves, especially in the southern region is highlighted. © 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Conservation; Endemism; Oman; Plant diversity; Threatened habitats 1. Introduction The Sultanate of Oman, like other oil producing countries in the Middle East, is developing rapidly. Asphalt roads, housing and other amenities are being built to fulfill the needs of a growing nation. The most serious threat to plant diversity is overgrazing, which has resulted from an increase in stocking goats, camels and cattle throughout rural Oman. In former times, plant utilization was regulated by herding in selected areas on a rotational basis in order to let grazing areas regenerate (Anon., 1982). Grazing was also controlled in selected areas by the traditional hema system, where plants were cut for fodder when grazing was poor (Lancaster and Lancaster, 1990). These practices are rarely used now and as a consequence, together with the increase in domestic livestock holdings, rangelands are over utilized. This has resulted in the lack of regeneration of palatable species and a dominance of unpalatable species more or less throughout Oman (Anon., 1982). Feral donkeys, used as beasts of burden until recently, but now replaced by motorized trucks, have also added to grazing pressures. In addition, roads are being built to most villages and scenic areas thus * Corresponding author: Tel/Fax: +968 513263; e-mail: mirage@ gto.net.om increasing access to rare plant sites. The spread of introduced species, such as Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) DC. from places where they have been used in recent years for landscaping, is also a matter of concern (Ghazanfar, 1996a). Regional developmental reports, especially for the southern region of Oman record concern over loss of floral diversity as a result of overgrazing, road building and other developmental projects. Miller in Clarke (1986) used the IUCN threat categories and listed two species as threatened and eight species of 'special concern' (species not threatened but judged to be of significance in designing nature conservation areas). Ghazanfar et al. (1995) listed 61 species which are threatened and qualified under the IUCN Red List Categories (1994), version 2.1. In this paper, an updated list of the threatened plant species (including those which are endemic and regionally endemic) is given for the Sultanate of Oman and their areas of distribution. The IUCN Red List Categories (1994), version 2.2 are used to designate the threat categories. The objective in making this list is to make available ready information on the status of individual threatened plant species, and to provide information on regions of high endemism, vulnerable or threatened areas, and areas of special biological interest. This information is indispensable for the formation and 0006-3207/98/$19.00 © 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0006-3207(97)00162-6 288 S.A. Ghazanfar/BiologicalConservation85 (1998) 287-295 management of nature reserves and the formulation of conservation strategies. 1.1. Floristics There is as yet no detailed flora for Oman. Preliminary country-wide floral lists (Ghazanfar, 1992a) and published regional lists (Mandaville, 1977, 1985; Radcliffe-Smith, 1980; Cope, 1988; Miller and Morris, 1988; Ghazanfar and Rappenh6ner, 1994) indicate a total of 1204 species of vascular plants. Of these, 1182 species are angiosperms, comprising 568 genera in 119 families, 4 species are gymnosperms and 22 species are vascular cryptogams. Amongst the angiosperms families, Poaceae (201 spp.), Asteraceae (ca. 98 spp.), Fabaceae (81 spp.), Euphorbiaceae (39 spp.) and Scrophulariaceae (38 spp.) have the highest number of species. There are 39 families represented by one species per family, 372 monospecific genera, two genera with more than 20 species and 14 genera with 10 or more species. The southern and northern mountains of Oman are the most floristicaUy diverse areas. The highest number of species are found in Dhofar, which contains about 72% of the total species, with about 5% restricted to the area. The northern mountains contain about 60% of the total species and the central plains and deserts < 25% (Ghazanfar, 1991b). Biogeographically, the flora of southern Oman is a part of the Somali-Masai centre of endemism, and that of northern O m a n a part of the Nubo-Sindian centre of endemism (Leonard and White, 1991; Ghazanfar, 1992b). 1.2. Local centres of endemism There are 55 endemic (excluding about 10 undescribed species) and 39 regionally endemic taxa. Regionally endemic species are those whose main area of distribution lies in Oman but which extends beyond the political boundaries into neighbouring countries. Most of the regionally endemic species are distributed in the western region of Dhofar (southern Oman) and eastern Yemen. The endemic taxa are concentrated in three areas recognized as local centres of endemism (Miller and Nyberg, 1991). These are: (i) the escarpment woodlands of Dhofar, where 63 taxa are endemic or regionally endemic, and two regionally endemic genera, Cibirhiza and Dhofaria are recorded; (ii) the limestone plateau of central Oman, where 12 species are endemic; and (iii) the mountains of northern Oman (including the Musandam mountains), where 16 taxa are endemic. 2. Methods (Clarke, 1986) and Ghazanfar et al. (1995) were used as the basis for the present list. Populations of rare and threatened species, and critical habitats under developmental threat, were visited and their status assessed. Full data on each species are maintained on a database. 3. Results Table AI lists the species which qualify under the IUCN Red List Categories. The list also includes the threatened endemic and regionally endemic species. General areas of distribution are given for all species. Based on present-day threats and developmental trends in the Sultanate, six areas were selected, which should be given priority for conservation. These areas are included amongst several in the country which have been identified for conservation (Clarke, 1986). Within the six selected areas, 10 sites were identified which must hold top priority for conservation. The selection of these sites is based on the number of endemic or regionally endemic plant species present, the number of threatened plant species present, species richness and other relevant features for conservation such as rare mammal populations, archeological sites, wilderness value and scenic beauty (Table 2 and Fig. 1). 3.1. The threatened flora Fifty-nine taxa in the flora of Oman are identified as threatened (Table A1). Of these, 29 species are endemic or regionally endemic. Nine species are placed in the Critically Endangered category, all distributed in the escarpment mountains of Dhofar. Of these, 8 belong to the family Asclepiadaceae, predominantly of the succulent genera Caralluma and Pachycymbium. Two species, Aloe whitcombii (Aloaceac) and Rhytidocaulon fulleri (Asclepiadaceae) are endemic to Dhofar. All of the nine species have a restricted distribution range and are at threat from road building, clearings for housing, over-grazing and collection by amateur naturalists. Two species, Caralluma adenensis and Dorstenia foetida (Moraceae), both distributed in Dhofar, are placed in the Endangered category. Both have a restricted and patchy distribution and are at threat from access by recently built roads to the localities where they occur. Twenty-six species are placed in the Vulnerable category with the majority Table 1 Number of plant speciesplaced under the different IUCN Red Data List categories. CR, Critically Endangered; EN, Endangered; VU, Vulnerable; LR, Low Risk; DD, Data Deficient IUCN Red Data List categories A list of endemic and threatened plants made for a report on proposals for nature reserves in Oman No. of species CR EN VU LR DD 9 2 26 19 3 289 S.A. Ghazanfar/Biological Conservation 85 (1998.) 287-295 (B) ~a ~ P IA) _2OH__ + 15N 0 100 Kilometers (mE Fig. 1. A. The physical position of Oman. B. Oman, showing location of sites for high priority conservation listed in Table 2. The northern and southern mountains are shown by the 500m contour. 1. Musandam: Jabal Harim and surrounding areas; 2. Western Hajar: Jabal Shams and Hail Juwari; 3. Eastern Hajar: Jabal Bani Jabir; 4. Wahiba Sands: Prosopis woodlands; 5. Coastal areas of Barr al Hikman peninsula and Masirah Island; 6. Central Oman: Jiddat al Harasis; 7. Dhofar: Jabal Semhan; 8. Dhofar: Jabal Qara, Wadi Hina; 9. Dhofar: Jabal Qara, Wadi Darbat, Darbat Falls and Khawr Rawri; 10. Dhofar: Wadi Sayq and western Jabal Qarnr incl. Mughsayl area. distributed in Dhofar. Most of the species in this category are trees, succulent asclepiads and sea grasses. The trees included are heavily browsed and lopped for fodder and show little or no regeneration in their natural habitats. These include the endemic Ceratonia oreothauma subsp, oreothauma (Fabaceae: Caesalpinioideae) in the mountains of northern Oman, the regionally endemic Anogeissus dhofarica (Combretaceae) in the mountains of Dhofar, the mangrove Avicennia marina (Verbenaceae) in the coastal areas of Dhofar and northern Oman, Dracaena serrulata (Agavaceae), Boscia arabica (Capparaceae) and the frankincense tree, Boswellia scara (Burseraceae) in Dhofar. Nineteen species are placed in the Low Risk category, seven of which are endemic or regionally endemic to Dhofar. Terrestrial orchids and juniper are included in this category. Three grass species lack full data on their status and are therefore placed in the Data Deficient category. Several species of grasses in Oman are known only from a single or at most a few collections. These are relatively shortlived species which germinate soon after rain and can easily be missed out by plant collectors. Since their true status cannot be determined, they are not included in the present list. Ghazanfar et al. (1995) listed a single species, Delphinium penicillatum Boiss., as extinct. This species was described by Boissier (1841) based on a collection by Aucher-Eloy apparently from northern Oman. Despite several excursions to the type locality by myself and other plant collectors, this species has not been collected since. I have studied Aucher-Eloy's plant collections from Oman and his personal field notes which he maintained during his excursion to Oman and Iran, and I believe that the label on the holotype (located at the Natural History Museum, Paris) is incorrect (Ghazanfar, 1996b; see also Tan, 1984). It is possible that the specimen was collected from SE Iran where Aucher-Eloy also collected during the same excursion and where D. penicillatum occurs. Since this record remains doubtful, D. penicillatum is excluded from the present list. 3.2. Threatened habitats 3.2.1 Northern Oman: western and eastern Hajar and Musandam mountains The northern mountains of Oman are classified as a local centre of plant endemism (Miller and Nyberg, 1991). In the central range of the Western Hajar mountains, 290 S.A. Ghazanfar/BiologicalConservation85 (1998) 287-295 Table 2 Areas of high priority conservation in the Sultanate of Oman Sites No. of endemic species No. of threatened species Other features Musandam: Jabal Harim and surrounding areas ca. 12 ca. 8 Western Hajar: Jabal Shams and Hail Juwari ca. 12 ca. 5 Only example of Artemesia steppe; high diversity of annuals and geophytes including Gladiolus, Iris, Ixiolirion and Muscari; refuge for the endemic goat Hemitragusjayakari; archeological features Well developed Juniperus woodland; good example of Nubo-sindian phytochorion vegetation and one of the two richest areas of extra tropical vegetation in the Arabian Peninsula Eastern Hajar: Jabal Bani Jabir ca. 16 ca. 6 Site of Ceratonia; refuge for the endemic mountain goat H. jayakari; archeological features 1 1 2 3 Site of dense Prosopis woodland; example of fog desert; lichens on tree bark; diversity of reptiles and invertebrates Sea grass beds; highest diversity and only location of rare species of lichens on rocks; highest diversity of migratory shore birds, turtle nesting beaches Central Oman: Jiddat al Harasis ca. 12 5 Plant and lichen diversity in a hyper-arid region; example of fog desert; refuge for large mammals and birds incl. the re-introduced Arabian oryx and the endangered houbara bustard; area of wilderness Dhofar: Jabal Semhan ca. 20 ca. 11 Last remnants of a relatively well-preserved deciduous tropical woodland; last refuge, for several large mammals including the Arabian Leopard and Nubian Ibex; area of wilderness Dhofar: Wadi Darbat and Darbat Falls and Khawr Rawri ca. 22 ca. 9 Permanent fresh water pools; wooded slopes and tall grassland; bird diversity; natural scenic beauty Dhofar: Wadi Hina ca. 10 ca. 13 Only site of Adansonia digitata; fig and tamarind trees; scenic beauty Dhofar: Wadi Sayq and western Jabal Qamr incl. Mugsayl area ca. 30 ca. 32 Highest plant diversity including most of the succulent asclepiads; highest number of threatened species incl. Rhytidocaulon and Aloe sp.; site of Dracaena serrulata; diversity of shorebirds Wahiba Sands: Prosopis woodlands Coastal areas of Bar al Hikman peninsula and Masirah Island f r o m 2 1 0 0 m to the summit at 3000m, isolated populations o f Juniperus excelsa, subsp, polycarpos f o r m an open w o o d l a n d , often c o - d o m i n a n t with Olea europaea L. (Ghazanfar, 1991a). A p a r t f r o m a few locations where the w o o d l a n d s are well-developed, the juniper trees are generally in a p o o r condition and regeneration is minimal. Below 2400 m, the trees are either dead or in very p o o r condition and regeneration is virtually absent (Fisher and Gardner, 1995; G a r d n e r and Fisher, 1996). The juniper w o o d l a n d s o f O m a n are unique to the A r a b i a n Peninsula, present elsewhere in the highlands o f southern Iran, Baluchistan and Turkey. The occurrence o f juniper and associated vegetation in the m o u n tains o f O m a n m a y be a result o f plant migrations f r o m SE I r a n across the A r a b i a n G u l f (Kiirschner, 1986). D u r i n g the last 20000 years BP, there is evidence to suggest that sea levels fell to 1 2 0 m below present levels and that a land bridge existed between Asia and A r a b i a across the A r a b i a n G u l f (SanlaviUe, 1992, and references therein). D u r i n g this time, plant migration could have been possible across the A r a b i a n Gulf. Juniperus excelsa subsp, polycarpos and its associated plant communities, which occur on b o t h sides o f the Gulf, occur only in O m a n in the A r a b i a n Peninsula. The Eastern H a j a r m o u n t a i n s are unique in the distribution o f the endemic tree species Ceratonia oreothaurna subsp, oreothauma, and o f Prunus arabica (Oliv.) Meikle, the latter restricted in its distribution ( M u s a n d a m m o u n t a i n s only) in the Sultanate (Ghazanfar, 1994). B o t h species are absent f r o m the Western Hajar. Elsewhere, C. oreothauma occurs in Somalia (subsp. somalensis HiUcoat, Lewis and Verdc.) and Y e m e n (Thulin, 1993) and P. arabica in southern Iran, Baluchistan, Iraq, north-western Saudi A r a b i a and Jordan to Turkey. Several other species such as the I r a n o T u r a n i a n Otostegia persica, Dalechampia parviflora Lam., and the A f r o - A r a b i a n Sarcostemma viminale (L.) R. Br. subsp, stipitaceum (Forssk.) Meve and Leide are also present on the Eastern range but absent f r o m the Western range, m a k i n g the species composition there diverse and different f r o m that o f the Western Hajar. S.A. Ghazanfar/Biological Conservation 85 (1998) 287-295 The Musandam mountains are an important link between the floras of south-eastern Iran and the mountains of northern Oman. The occurrence of species such as Artemesia sieberi Besser, Ephedra pachyclada Boiss. and Astragalus fasciculifolius Boiss. in Musandam suggests that the southern Iranian highlands are an important centre of origin for the mountain flora of Oman (Mandaville, 1985). However, the high-altitude genera of the western Hajar, Monotheca, Olea and Juniperus, are absent from the Musandam mountains, possibly a result of topographical and long-term climatic factors. The greatest threat to the vegetation of the mountains of northern Oman is from over-browsing and grazing by camels, goats and feral donkeys. Young branches, especially those of Olea are cut and fresh leaves lopped for fodder. Young pods of leguminous trees such as Ceratonia and Acacia species are also lopped for fodder, hence reducing recruitment. Cutting trees for fuel is not as serious a threat as it is in other Arabian countries (Rappenhrner, 1989) since legislation in Oman bans the cutting of live trees. However, more recently, clearings for houses and road building pose an equally grave threat to vulnerable sites and species rich habitats. 3.2.2 The Prosopis woodlands of Wahiba Sands These woodlands at the edge of a large dune desert, Ramlat Wahiba, are relicts of a formerly more extensive woodland cover in the eastern region of northern Oman. Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce is the dominant tree species, occasionally associated with Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne, A. ehrenbergiana Hayne and Calligonum comosum L'Herit. Dew fall and fogs in the Wahiba Sands are a supplemental source of moisture both for the flora and fauna (Anderson, 1988). Nomadic pastoralists herd large numbers of camels and goats in this area. The greatest threat to the survival of the woodlands is the absence of regeneration of the trees as a result of over-browsing by camels and lopping of their young pods for fodder. 3.2.3 Coastal areas of Bar al Hikman Peninsula and Masirah lsland These coastal habitats are unique both in their floral and faunal features and support a rich population of halophytic shrubs including the endemic Suaeda moschata A.J. Scott. The southwestern coastal areas of Bar al Hikman supports dense stands of mangroves. Several species of sea grasses are present in shallow bays and tidal lagoons. The most serious threat to the coastal areas is indiscriminate development of fishing sites, waste disposal and off-road driving. 3.2.4 The limestone plateau of Central Oman The central limestone plateau, known as al Jiddat al Harasis, is an hyper-arid ecosystem at 150 m asl, which receives a large proportion of its moisture from dews 291 and fogs. From November to March, dense fogs are formed over the Jiddat (Stanley-Price et al., 1988), providing sufficient moisture for the development of a sparse vegetation cover and lichens on tree bark and stones. The plateau is included in the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary which was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994. It is an important site for wildlife, including the re-introduced Arabian oryx, Oryx leucoryx, houbara bustard Chlamydotis undulata, gazelle Gazella gazella cora and the Nubian Ibex, Capra ibex nubiana. The plateau is also classified as a local centre of plant endemism (Miller and Nyberg, 1991), with 12 endemic species including the commonly distributed Ochradenus harsusiticus. The area is inhabited by nomadic pastoralists who herd camels and goats. During the last 15 yrs, the bedouin Harsusi have purchased pick-up trucks for easy transportation. As a consequence, their livestock holdings have increased with access to supplemental feed and water. Trees and shrubs are over-grazed, leaving large areas dominated by unpalatable species such as Tephrosia apollinea (Del.) Link. After rain, which is irregular from year to year (Fisher, 1994), the annuals are grazed quickly, allowing little recruitment. Even though the Jiddat is a protected area, as yet, no protection is given to its plant life. Overgrazing and indiscriminate off-road driving are the greatest threats to the biodiversity of this area. 3.2.5 Dhofar The fog-affected escarpment mountains of southern Arabia, which include the Dhofar mountains and the surrounding desert (the Nejd), are classified as a centre of plant diversity in the Arabian Peninsula (Miller, 1994). This region has the highest number of endemic species in Oman and contains some of the most speciesrich habitats. The escarpment mountains of Dhofar come under the influence of the south-west monsoon from mid-June to mid-September when an up-welling off the Dhofar coast causes the formation of dense fogs on the seaward facing slopes of the escarpment mountains. The influence of the fogs is limited, extending to the summit areas of the mountains but not reaching inland or to the northernmost parts of the mountains. The fog moisture adds significantly to the annual precipitation, allowing the development of a tropical deciduous woodland on the escarpment mountains. The mountains are inhabited by tribal pastoralists who herd cattle, camels and goats. During the last decade, as a result of improved road access, availability of fresh water from bore holes, government subsidized supplement feed for livestock and improved veterinary services, livestock holdings have increased to levels far above the forage capacity of the mountains. This has led to severe environmental degradation, and in some areas a sharp decline in populations of most palatable species, especially those of grasses (Ghazanfar et al., 1995). 292 S.A. Ghazanfar/Biological Conservation 85 (1998) 287-295 Over-browsing has caused lack of a regeneration of trees, and it was suggested that if the present trend continues, the rangelands will be deforested and weed infested with an irretrievable loss of species richness within 20-30yr (Fisher et al., 1997 and references therein). 3.2.6 Coastal lagoons (khawrs) of Dhofar The coastal khawrs of Dhofar are brackish water lagoons which are fed by underground (and overground) fresh water from the escarpment mountains on the landward side and by sea water seepages on the seaward side. They form a unique ecosystem which harbours a rich faunal and floral diversity (Anon., 1993; Ghazanfar, 1993). Several khawrs have stands of mangroves. Threats to the khawrs include severe damage to the mangroves and associated vegetation from overbrowsing and trampling by camels, cutting young shoots for fodder, waste disposal and indiscriminate local development. 4. Discussion The nature reserves and protected areas of Oman have all been designated primarily for the protection of mammals, turtle breeding sites, coral reefs or nesting migratory birds (IUCN, 1992). So far, no area has been designated primarily for the protection of the flora or for the conservation of plant diversity. The l0 sites of concern highlighted here (Table 2 and Fig. 1), have a relatively diverse flora and form a representative selection of the flora of Oman. The flora of all l0 sites is urgently in need of protection. The most threatened region in the Sultanate is Dhofar where severe overgrazing, coupled with fast-growing development is leading to the rapid degradation of most habitats, in particular to the rangelands. The four sites that are selected there encompasses a wide range of habitats and each is specific in its biological significance and merits conservation. Further degradation to these sites will result in the irretrievable loss of floral diversity. Measures have to be taken to restrict grazing, livestock holdings have to be limited and access to sites of rare endemic species discouraged. If rangelands are allowed to regenerate properly and grazing controlled in selected areas, conservation can be achieved and the long-term stability of the pastoral life-style can be enhanced. Acknowledgements I am grateful to the Department of Biology, Sultan Qaboos University, for providing research facilities, to David Insall for discussions and information on conservation issues, to Martin Fisher and two anonymous referees for their helpful suggestions on modifications of this paper. Information relevant to this paper in the cited unpublished reports can be made available to readers on request. 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Notes Regional Botanic Garden Edinburgh 42 (1), 17-20. Thulin, M., 1993. Fabaceae. In: Thulin, M. (Ed.), Flora of Somalia, Vol. 1. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, pp. 356-357. 294 S.A. Ghazanfar/Biological Conservation 85 (1998) 287-295 Appendix Table A1 The threatened flora of Oman and its IUCN Red Data List categories Species (general distribution in Oman) IUCN Red Data List Category *Aerva artemisioides (Vierh.) O. Schwartz subsp, batharitica A.G. Miller (S. Oman) Adansonia digitata L. (S. Oman) LR(nt) VU (D,2) *Aloe whitcombii Lavranos (S. Oman) CR (B,1) *Anogeissus dhofarica A.J. Scott (S. Oman and E Yemen) Arundinella nepalensis Trin. (S. Oman) Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. (N. and S. Oman) VU (B,1 + 2ce) DD VU (A, lc) *Blepharispermum hirtum Oliv. (S. Oman and E Yemen) LR (nt) *Boscia arabica Pest. (S. Oman and Yemen) Boswellia sacra Fleuck. (S. Oman) VU (B,1 +2ce) VU (A,1 +cd) *Campylanthus mirandae A.G. Miller (S. Oman) VU(D,2) *Campylanthus sedoides A.G. Miller (C. Oman) Caralluma adenensis (Deft.) Berger (S. Ornan) VU(D,2) EN (B,1) *Caralluma aucheriana (Decne.) N.E. Br. (N. Oman) Caralluma dodsoniana Lavranos (S. Oman) Caralluma edulis (Edgew.) Hook. f. (S. Oman) VU (2a) CR (B,1) CR (B,1) *Carallumaflava N.E. Br. (N. and S. Oman, UAE, Yemen) VU (2a) *Caralluma hexagona Lavranos (S. Oman, Yemen) Caralluma penicillata (Deft.) N.E. Br. (N. Oman) Caralluma quadrangula (Forssk.) N.E. Br. (S. Oman) CR (B,1) VU (2a) VU(D,2) *Caralluma tuberculate R. Br. (S. Oman, Yemen) CR (E) *Ceratonia oreothauma subsp, oreothauma Hillcoat, Lewis and Verd. (N. Oman) Ceratopteris cornuta (P. Beauv.) Lepr. (S. Oman) Chloris quinquesetica Bhide (S. Oman) VU (A, lc) LR (nt) DD *Chrysopogon macleishii Cope (S. Oman) VU (K1) *Cibirhiza dhofarensis Bruyns (S. Oman, Yemen) VU (D,2) *Cocculus balfourii Schweinf. (S. Oman) VU (A, lc) *Convolvulus oppositifolia AI Alawi (C. Oman) VU(D,2) *Dicanthium micranthum Cope (S. Oman) Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight and Arn. (S. Oman) Dorsteniafoetida (Forssk.) Schweinf. (S. Oman) Dracaena serrulata Baker (S. Oman) LR (nt) DD EN (B,1) VU (A) *Echidnopsis scutellata (Deft.) A. Berger subsp, dhofarensis Bruyns (S. Oman) Eulophia guineensis Lindl. (S. Oman) Eulophia petersii (Reichb.f.) Reichb. f. (S. Oman) VU (D,2) LR (nt) LR (nt) *Euphorbia orbiculifolia S. Carter (S. Oman) Halodule uninervis Boiss. (C. Oman) Halophila ovalis (R. Br.) Hook. f. Habenaria malacophylla Reichb. f. (S. Oman) Hibiscus scindicus Stocks (N. Oman) Juniperus exselsa M. Bieb. subsp, polycarpos (C. Koch.) Takhtajan (N. Oman) Kalanchoe glaucescens Britten (S. Oman) Kleinia odora (Forssk.) DC. (S. Oman) LR(nt) VU (D,2) VU (D,2) LR(nt) LR(nt) *Kleinia saginata P. Halliday (S. Oman) *Lindenbergia arabica (S. Moore) Hartl. (N. Oman) VU (2a) v u (B,1) *Maytenus dhofarensis Sebsebe (S. Oman, Yemen) VU (B, 1 + 2ce) LR (nt) LR (nt) LR (nt) (continued) S.A. Ghazanfar/Biological Conservation 85 (1998) 287-295 Table AI (continued) Species (general distribution in Oman) IUCN Red Data List Category Melhania philppsiae Baker (N. Oman) Nervillea crociformis (Zoll. and Mor.) Seidenf. (S. Oman) LR (nt) LR (nt) *Ochradenus gifri Thulin (S. Oman) LR (nt) *Ochradenus harsusiticus A.G. Miller (C. Oman) Olea europaea L. (N. and S. Oman) Otostegia persica (Burm. f.) Boiss. (N. Oman) LR (nt) LR (nt) VU (D,2) *Pachycymbium luntii (N.E. Br.) Gilbert (S. Oman, Yemen) Pachycymbium wissmannii (Schwartz) Gilbert (S. Oman) Pistaciafalcata Beccari ex Martelli (S. Oman) CR (B,1) CR (B,1) LR (nt) *Pulicaria pulvinata Gamal-Eldin (C. Oman) VU(D,2) *Raphionacme arabica A.G. Miller and J.A. Biagi (S, Oman) CR (B,I) *Rhytidiocaulonfulleri Lavranos and Mortimer (S. Oman) Sehima ischaemoides Forssk. (S. Oman) Sporobolus minimus Cope (N. and S. Oman) CR (B,1) v u (B,1) v u (B,I) CR, Critically Endangered: (B,1) severely fragmented or known to exist at a single location, (E) quantitative analysis showing that the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50% within 10yr; EN Endangered: (B,1) extent of occurrence estimated to be < 5000 km 2, severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations. VU Vulnerable: (A, lc) a decline of at least 20% of the population over the last 10yr or 3 generations, decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and quality of habitat, ( + cd decline in quality of habitat and actual or potential levels of exploitation; (B, 1) extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20 000 km 2, severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than ten locations, ( + 2ce) continuing decline in the number of mature individuals; (C,2a) population estimated < l0 000 mature individuals and a continuing decline, observed or projected or inferred in a number of mature individuals and population structure and severely fragmented, (D,2) small restricted population and prone to the effects of human activities. LR Low Risk: (LR, nO those which do not qualify for Conservation Dependent, but which are close to qualifying for Vulnerable. DD Data Deficient. * Endemic and regionally endemic taxa and their general distribution. Authorities follow Ghazanfar (1992a). 295