Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
DOI 10.1007/s10658-014-0460-3
Analysis of genetic and virulence variability of Stemphylium
lycopersici associated with leaf spot of vegetable crops
Abbas Nasehi & Jugah-Bin Kadir & Mehdi Nasr-Esfahani & Farnaz Abed-Ashtiani &
Mui-Yun Wong & Siti-Khadijah Rambe & Elham Golkhandan
Accepted: 26 May 2014 / Published online: 1 June 2014
# Koninklijke Nederlandse Planteziektenkundige Vereniging 2014
Abstract Stemphylium lycopersici (Enjoji) W. Yamam
was initially described from tomato and has been reported to infect different hosts worldwide. Sequence analyses of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions 1 and
2, including 5.8S rDNA (ITS-5.8S rDNA) and
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (gpd) gene,
random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and
inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR), as well as virulence studies were conducted to analyze 46
S. lycopersici isolates. Stemphylium lycopersici isolates
used in this study were obtained from diseased tomato
(Solanum lycopersicum L.), eggplant (Solanum
A. Nasehi (*) : J.<B. Kadir (*) : F. Abed-Ashtiani :
M.<Y. Wong : E. Golkhandan
Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture,
Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
e-mail: abbasnasehi@yahoo.com
e-mail: kaju@upm.edu.my
M. Nasr-Esfahani
Isfahan Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center,
Plant Pests and Diseases Research Institute,
Isfahan, Iran
melongena L.), pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) from major vegetable growing
regions of Malaysia, including the three states of Pahang, Johor and Selangor between 2011 and 2012.
Phylogenetic analysis of a combined dataset of the
ITS-5.8S rDNA and gpd regions indicated that all isolates were clustered in the sub-cluster that comprised
S. lycopersici, and were distinguished from other
Stemphylium species. Cluster analyses using the
UPGMA method for both RAPD and ISSR markers
grouped S. lycopersici isolates into three main clusters
with similarity index values of 67 and 68 %. The genetic
diversity data confirmed that isolates of S. lycopersici
are in concordance to host plants, and not geographical
origin of the isolates. All S. lycopersici isolates were
pathogenic on their original host plants and showed leaf
spot symptoms; however, virulence variability was observed among the isolates. In cross-inoculation assays,
the representative isolates were able to cause leaf spot
symptoms on eggplant, pepper, lettuce and tomato, but
not on cabbage.
Keywords gpd . ISSR . ITS-5.8S rDNA . Phylogeny .
RAPD
M.<Y. Wong
Laboratory of Plantation Crops, Institute of Tropical
Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
Introduction
S.<K. Rambe
Laboratory of biodiversity and conservation Institute of
Tropical Forestry and Forest Product (INTROP), Universiti
Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
The genus Stemphylium (anamorph: Pleospora,
Dothideomycetes) was proposed by Wallroth (1833)
with Stemphylium botryosum Wallr. as the type species.
The number of described Stemphylium species is
262
estimated to be 150 (Wang and Zhang 2006). Most of
these species are saprophytic (Ellis 1971; Simmons
1969; Wang et al. 2009), but various Stemphylium species, including S. botryosum, S. lycopersici (Enjoji) W.
Yamam, S. solani G.F. Weber and S. vesicarium (Wallr.)
Simmons have been reported to be common pathogens
on vegetable crops causing severe disease in almost all
regions where these crops are grown (Ellis 1971; Farr
and Rossman 2014). Yield loss due to Stemphylium leaf
spot (SLS) can be high and in some cases is 100 % when
proper disease control measures are not adopted
(Cedeño and Carrero 1997). Stemphylium lycopersici
was first described from tomato in 1931 (Solanum
lycopersicum L., Solanaceae, Enjoji 1931). Since then,
this fungus has been reported to be the causal agent of
leaf spot in more than 30 host genera worldwide, including Malaysia (Ellis and Gibson 1975; Farr and
Rossman 2014). The hosts of this pathogen include
tomato (Ellis and Gibson 1975; Min et al. 1995; Enjoji
1931), eggplant (Cho and Shin 2004; Gannibal 2012;
Yu, 2001), pepper (Blazquez 1969; Cho and Shin 2004;
Kim et al. 2004; Yu 2001) and lettuce (Anonymous
1979; Sawada 1959).
In recent years, molecular markers have been widely
adopted to identify and characterize Stemphylum species
in diverse environments (Câmara et al. 2002; Inderbitzin
et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2010). Molecular approaches
based on multi-locus phylogenetic analyses of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions 1 and 2, including
5.8S rDNA (ITS-5.8S rDNA) and glyceraldehyde-3phosphate dehydrogenase (gpd) gene have robustly defined the monophyly of Stemphylum in the ascomycete
family Pleosporaceae, and revealed five distinct clades
(A-E) (Câmara et al. 2002). Later, Inderbitzin et al.
(2009) introduced S. lancipes (Ellis et Everhart)
Simmons as a new distinct clade (F).
The efficacy of control strategy on the plant pathogen
populations are inhibited by limited information on
genetic variability (McDonald and Linde 2002). The
most common adopted effort is the use of fungicides
and resistant cultivars. However, Milgroom and Peever
(2003) expressed their concern as the efforts directly
may alter genetic variability. Hence, understanding genetic variations within the pathogen populations is imperative and should be considered as one of the first
steps for the delineation of disease management programs (McDonald and Linde 2002). Genetic variation in
populations of Stemphylium species has been characterized by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
(Chaisrisook et al. 1995; Mehta 2001). Recent studies
have suggested that virulence testing should be used in
conjunction with other molecular diagnostic tools to
establish relationships within Stemphylium species
(Köhl et al. 2009). In Malaysia, genetic diversity and
virulence variability of S. lycopersici populations remains unknown due to the absence of studies for
assessing the genetic variation among isolates. Therefore, the main objective of the present study was to
estimate the virulence and genetic variability among
S. lycopersici isolates associated with vegetable crops
in Malaysia, including tomato, eggplant, pepper, and
lettuce.
Materials and methods
Fungal isolates
Forty-six isolates of Stemphylium spp. were obtained
from the Plant Pathology Laboratory, Plant Protection
Department, University of Putra Malaysia (UPM). The
isolates were collected from infected vegetable crops,
including tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), eggplant
(Solanum melongena L.), pepper (Capsicum annuum
L.) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) showing leaf spot
symptoms from major vegetable growing regions of
Malaysia, including the three states of Pahang, Selangor
and Johor between 2011 and 2012 (Table 1). All isolates
were purified using a single spore isolation technique
(Ricker and Ricker 1936) prior to further studies.
Fungal DNA extraction
Pure cultures of 46 Stemphylium spp. isolates were subcultured by placing mycelial plugs (5 mm2), taken from
actively growing margins of 10-day-old cultures, at the
center of potato dextrose agar (PDA) media. The PDA
media were incubated at 25±2 °C with 12 h photoperiod
conditions. When the mycelia covered the PDA plates
(after 12–14 days), sterile distilled water containing
0.05 % (v/v) Tween-80 was added into the plates and
mycelia were collected by gently scrubbing with a sterile spatula and transferred to 1.5 ml micro tubes. The
micro tubes were centrifuged at 3,000×g, at 4 °C for
5 min and the supernatant were discarded and pellets
with about 100 mg mycelia were obtained. Total genomic DNA was extracted from all isolates using the 3 %
SDS method as described by Gonzalez-Mendoza et al.
Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
263
Table 1 Origins of Stemphylium lycopersici isolates, reference Stemphylium isolates and A. tenuissima used in the study
No.a,b,c Isolate
ITS Acc. No. gpd Acc. No. Species
Host
Location
Year
1
SSN-T01
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
Solanum lycopersicum
Lojing, Pahang
2011
2
SSN-T02
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Lojing, Pahang
2011
3
SSN-T03
KF483117
KF483121
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Lojing, Pahang
2011
4
SSN-T04
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Bertam, Pahang
2011
5
SSN-T05
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Bertam, Pahang
2011
6
SSN-T06
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Bertam, Pahang
2011
7
SSN-T07
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Boh Road, Pahang
2011
8
SSN-T08
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Kampo Raja, Pahang
2011
9
SSN-T09
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Kampo Raja, Pahang
2011
10
SSN-T10
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Keama Farms, Pahang
2011
11
SSN-T11
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Keama Farms, Pahang
2011
12
SSN-T12
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Tanah Rata, Pahang
2011
13
SSN-T13
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Tangkak, Johor
2012
14
SSN-T14
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Tangkak, Johor
2012
15
SSN-T15
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. lycopersicum
Serdang, Selangor
2012
16
SSN-E01
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
Solanum melongena
Lojing, Pahang
2011
2011
17
SSN-E02
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Lojing, Pahang
18
SSN-E03
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Bertam, Pahang
2011
19
SSN-E04
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Bertam, Pahang
2011
20
SSN-E05
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Boh Road, Pahang
2011
21
SSN-E06
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Boh Road, Pahang
2011
22
SSN-E07
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Keama Farms, Pahang
2011
23
SSN-E08
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Keama Farms, Pahang
2011
24
SSN-E09
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Tanah Rata, Pahang
2011
25
SSN-E10
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Tangkak, Johor
2012
26
SSN-E11
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Tangkak, Johor
2012
27
SSN-E12
KF483118
KF483122
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Tangkak, Johor
2012
28
SSN-E13
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Serdang, Selangor
2012
29
SSN-E14
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
S. melongena
Serdang, Selangor
2012
30
SSN-P01
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
Capsicum annuum
Lojing, Pahang
2011
31
SSN-P02
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
C. annuum
Bertam, Pahang
2011
32
SSN-P03
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
C. annuum
Bertam, Pahang
2011
33
SSN-P04
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
C. annuum
Boh Road, Pahang
2011
34
SSN-P05
KF483119
KF483123
S. lycopersici
C. annuum
Boh Road, Pahang
2011
35
SSN-P06
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
C. annuum
Tangkak, Johor
2012
36
SSN-P07
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
C. annuum
Tangkak, Johor
2012
37
SSN-P08
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
C. annuum
Tangkak, Johor
2012
38
SSN-P09
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
C. annuum
Tangkak, Johor
2012
39
SSN-P10
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
C. annuum
Serdang, Selangor
2012
40
SSN-L01
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
Lactuca sativa
Lojing, Pahang
2011
41
SSN-L02
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
L. sativa
Boh Road, Pahang
2011
42
SSN-L03
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
L. sativa
Keama Farms, Pahang
2011
43
SSN-L04
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
L. sativa
Keama Farms, Pahang
2011
44
SSN-L05
KF483120
KF483124
S. lycopersici
L. sativa
Tangkak, Johor
2012
264
Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
Table 1 (continued)
No.a,b,c Isolate
ITS Acc. No. gpd Acc. No. Species
Host
Location
Year
45
SSN-L06
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
L. sativa
Tangkak, Johor
2012
46
SSN-L07
This study
This study
S. lycopersici
L. sativa
Serdang, Selangor
2012
47
EGS 46-001 AY329216
AY317020
S. lycopersici
Lycopersicon esculentum
Dominican Republic
-
48
EGS 17-137 AY329206
AY317010
S. xanthosomatis Xanthosoma sagittifolium New Caledonia
49
EGS 41-135 AY329214
AY317018
S. solani
50
EGS 36-138 AY329169
AY316969
51
EGS 37-067 AY329212
AY317016
52
EGS 08-069 AY329168
53
54
a
-
Solanum lycopersicum
USA
-
S. herbarum
Medicago sativa
India
-
S. vesicarium
Medicago sp.
South Africa
-
AY316968
S. botryosum
Asparagus officinalis
USA
-
EGS 46-182 AY329203
AY317007
S. lancipes
Aguilegia sp.
Auckland, New Zealand -
EGS 34-015 AF347032
AY278809
A. tenuissima
-
-
-
Stemphylium lycopersici isolates collected from vegetable crops in Malaysia (1 to 46)
b
Reference Stemphylium isolates used in this study (47 to 53)
c
Alternaria tenuissima served as the out-group taxon (54)
(2010). A NanoDrop spectrophotometer (ND-1000,
LMS Co., Ltd., Tokio, Japan) was used to check the
quality and concentration of Genomic DNA.
sequencing service provider (First Base Laboratories
Sdn. Bhd., Selangor, Malaysia).
Sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis
PCR amplification and sequencing
PCR amplification of the ITS-5.8S rDNA and gpd regions of all Stemphylium spp. isolates were conducted
using universal primers ITS5 and ITS4 (White et al.
1990) and gpd1 and gpd2 (Berbee et al. 1999), respectively. PCR amplification was carried out in a 25 ml
volume containing 0.5 μM primer, 2.5 μl of a 10x buffer
(200 mM Tris–HCl, 500 mM KCl), 1.5 mM MgCl2,
0.2 mM of each dNTP, 1 U Taq DNA polymerase
(Fermentas Co. Biosyntech Sdn Bhd, Selangor, Malaysia) and 2 μl of DNA template (10 ng). PCR amplification for both regions was conducted in a thermocycler
(DNA Engine® Peltier Thermal Cycler PTC-200, MJ
research, USA) programmed with the following parameters: 35 cycles of 94 °C for 1 min denaturing, 55 °C for
40 s annealing and 72 °C for 2 min extension. The initial
denaturing at 94 °C was extended to 4 min and final
extension was at 72 °C for 10 min. PCR products were
resolved in 1 % agarose gel under 1 ×TAE buffer
(40 mM Tris, 20 mM Acetic acid and 1 mM EDTA) at
70 V for 45 min at room temperature, stained with
ethidium bromide, and visualized under UV light.
PCR products were purified using Gene JETTM commercial PCR Purification Kit, according to the manufacturer’s instructions, and sequenced by a commercial
DNA sequences of each isolate were refined using
BioEdit sequence Alignment Editor (Hall 1999), in
which the sequences obtained from reverse primers
were transformed to the reverse complement orientation
and aligned with the sequences obtained from forward
primers to obtain consensus sequences. BLASTn alignment (Altschul et al. 1997) was conducted to identify
and analyze homologous sequences with those of
Stemphylium species deposited in the GenBank by
Câmara et al. (2002) and Inderbitzin et al. (2009). To
analyze the relationship of the isolates to known
Stemphylium species, the 46 sequences from this study
and sequences of seven reference Stemphylium species
(Inderbitzin et al. 2009; TreeBASE study S9931;
Table 1) were initially aligned using the Clustal W
Multiple alignment (Thompson et al. 1994), checked
visually, and improved manually where necessary. Phylogenetic analysis of combined dataset of the ITS-5.8S
rDNA and gpd regions using the Maximum Likelihood
method was performed with Jukes-Cantor model in
MEGA 5.0 (Tamura et al. 2011). Branch support of
the trees obtained from the maximum likelihood analysis was assessed by boot-strapping with 1,000 replications to estimate the reliability of inferred monophyletic
groups. All positions containing gaps were treated as
Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
265
missing data. Alternaria tenuissima (Nees) Wiltshire
served as the out-group taxon in the analysis.
Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis
Seven primers OPA-03, OPF-20, OPG-05, OPJ-20,
OPJ-21, OPX-04 and OPY-02 (Operon Technologies
Inc., Alameda, CA) with high polymorphism and reproductive profiles were chosen among 19 primers to perform RAPD analysis on S. lycopersici isolates based on
the results of initial screening against a set of representative studied isolates (Table 2). The primers were synthesized by First BASE Laboratories Sdn Bhd, Malaysia. PCR amplification of RAPD loci was carried out in
a 25 ml containing 0.5 μM primer, 2.5 μl of a 10x buffer
(200 mM Tris–HCl, 500 mM KCl), 1.5 mM MgCl2,
0.2 mM of each dNTP, 1 U Taq DNA polymerase
(Fermentas Co. Biosyntech Sdn Bhd, Selangor, Malaysia) and 2 μl of DNA template (10 ng). RAPD analysis
was carried out as described by Pryor and Michailides
(2002). PCR amplification was conducted in a
thermocycler (DNA Engine® Peltier Thermal Cycler
PTC-200, MJ Research, USA) programmed with the
following parameters: 45 cycles of 94 °C for 1 min
(denaturation), 35 °C for 1.5 min (annealing) and
72 °C for 2 min (extension) with the initial denaturing
of 94 °C for 4 min and final extension of 72 °C for
10 min. All PCR reactions were performed in three
replications to confirm the consistency of amplification.
Inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) analysis
Two microsatellite primers ([ACA]5 and [CCA]5) and
two minisatellite primers (M13 and T3B) with high
polymorphism and reproductive profiles were chosen
among 18 studied primers based on the results of initial
screening against a set of representative studied isolates
(Table 2). The primers were synthesized by First BASE
Table 2 RAPD and ISSR primers utilized to identify and assess interspecific genetic diversity among Stemphylium lycopersici isolates
RAPD
primersa
Sequence
Referencesb
ISSR
primers
Sequencea
Referencesc
OPA-01
CAGGCCCTTC
This study
_
(AAG)6
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPA-02
TGCCGAGCTG
Mehta (2001)
_
(AC)8 T
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPA-03*
AGTCAGCCAC
Mehta (2001)
_
(ACA)5*
Park et al. (2008), Vitale et al. (2011)
OPA-04
AATCGGGCTG
This study
_
(AG)8 TA
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPA-05
AGGGGTCTTG
This study
_
(AG)8 TC
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPA-07
GAAACGGGTG
This study
_
(CAA)5
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPA-09
GGGTAACGCC
This study
_
(CCA)5*
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPA-11
CAATCGCCGT
This study
_
(CTC)4
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPA-13
CAGCACCCAC
This study
_
(GA)6GG
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPF-20*
GGTCTAGAGG
This study
_
(GA)8C
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPG-05*
CTGAGACGGA
This study
_
(GA)8 T
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPG-07
GAACCTGCGG
This study
_
(GACA)4
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPJ-17
ACGCCAGTTC
Mehta (2001)
_
(GAG)4GC
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPJ-20*
AAGCGGCCTC
Mehta (2001)
_
(GT)6CC
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPJ-21*
ACGAGGGACT
This study
_
(GTC)6
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPK-01
CATTCGAGCC
Mehta (2001)
_
(GTG)5
Vitale et al. (2011)
OPX-04*
CCGCTACCGA
Mehta (2001)
M13
GAGGGTGGCGGTTCT*
Park et al. (2008), Vitale et al. (2011)
OPY-02*
CATCGCCGCA
Mehta (2001)
T3B
AGGTCGCGGGTTCGAATCC*
Park et al. (2008), Vitale et al. (2011)
OPY-03
ACAGCCTGCT
Mehta (2001)
_
_
_
a
Primers with an asterisk (*) were utilized to identify and assess interspecific genetic diversity among Stemphylium lycopersici isolates
b
Eight RAPD primers with larger numbers of bands as described by Mehta (2001) were selected for this study. Other primers were used in
this study
c
All ISSR primers used by Vitale et al. (2011), including three primers with high polymorphism and reproductive profiles as described by
Park et al. (2008) were selected for this study
266
Laboratories Sdn Bhd, Malaysia. PCR amplification of
ISSR was carried out in a 25 ml containing 0.5 μM
primer, 2.5 μl of a 10x buffer (200 mM Tris–HCl,
500 mM KCl), 1.5 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM of each dNTP,
1 U Taq DNA polymerase (Fermentas Co. Biosyntech
Sdn Bhd, Selangor, Malaysia) and 2 μl of DNA template (10 ng). ISSR analysis was carried out as described
by Park et al. (2008). PCR amplification was conducted
in a thermocycler programmed with the following parameters: 45 cycles of 94 °C for 1 min denaturing, 55 °C
for 1.5 min annealing and 72 °C for 2 min extension.
Initial denaturing at 94 °C was extended to 5 min and the
final extension was at 72 °C for 10 min. All PCR
reactions were performed in 3 replications to confirm
the consistency of amplification.
Gel electrophoresis and staining
PCR products of RAPD and ISSR analyses were sizeseparated in 1 % agarose gel under 1×TAE buffer
(40 mM Tris, 20 mM Acetic acid and 1 mM EDTA) at
70 V for 45 min at room temperature. Gels were stained
with ethidium bromide, visualized under UV light and
photographed using a gel documentation system
(GeneSnap Ver 6.03, Syngene Laboratories, Cambridge,
United Kingdom). The sizes of amplified and digested
DNA fragments were estimated using GeneTools (Ver
3.00.13, Syngene Laboratories) by comparison with a 2Log DNA Ladder (0.1–10 kb) marker (Fermentas Co.
Biosyntech Sdn Bhd, Selangor, Malaysia).
RAPD and ISSR analyses
Monomorphic and polymorphic bands for both RAPD
and ISSR analyses were considered as binary characters
and were scored as 1 for presence and 0 for absence of
DNA bands. The scores were then entered into a matrix
for analysis by the numerical taxonomy and multivariate
analysis system, NTSYS-pc 1.8 program (Applied Biostatistics Inc., Setauket, NY, USA) (Rohlf 1993). The
similarity matrix was calculated using Jaccard’s similarity coefficient. Clustering was performed using the unweighted pair group method using arithmetic averages
(UPGMA) to generate the dendrogram.
Virulence and cross-inoculation assays
Two sets of experiments were carried out to test the
virulence and cross-inoculation of S. lycopersici isolates
Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
using the detached leaf technique (Pryor and
Michailides 2002; Sujatha et al. 1997). All isolates were
used to determine their virulence on detached leaves of
tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. cv. 152177-A), eggplant (Solanum melongena L. cv. 125066-X), pepper
(Capsicum annuum L. cv. BBS010) and lettuce
(Lactuca sativa L. cv. BBS012) (provided by MARDI,
Malaysia) as original hosts. For the cross-inoculation
assays, one representative isolate with high virulence
obtained from each host was used to inoculate the other
host plants, and cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. cv.
BBS040) as a non-host plant. All the experiments were
arranged in a completely randomized design in four
replications. Each replication consisted of six detached
leaves of each tested crop. The 20-μl drops of conidial
suspension (105 conidia ml−1) containing 0.05 % of
Tween 20 were used to inoculate the detached 45-dayold leaves at three spots per leaf. The inoculated leaves
were placed on moist filter paper in petri dishes and
incubated in humid chambers at 25±2 °C with 95 % RH
and a 12 h photoperiod. Control leaves were inoculated
with sterile distilled water under the same conditions as
the inoculated leaves. Seven days after inoculation, disease rating was scored based on a modified scale of 0–4
points described by Pryor and Michailides (2002),
where: 0=no lesion, 1=lesions<1 mm in diameter, 2=
lesions 1 to 5 mm in diameter, and 3=lesions>5 mm in
diameter. The experiments were repeated twice. Koch’s
postulate was fulfilled by re-isolation of the inoculated
fungi. Percent disease severity (PDS) in each replication
was calculated using the following formula proposed by
Kempe and Sequeira (1983).
Percent disease severity ðPDSÞ ¼ ðSum of numerical levelÞ
=ð6 3Þ 100
In this formula: number 6 is the number of leaves
observed in each replication and 3 is the highest level of
infection.
Results
Sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis
PCR amplification of the ITS-5.8S rDNA and gpd regions of all isolates produced fragments of size 567 and
591 bp, respectively. BLASTn queries based on the ITS5.8S rDNA and gpd regions indicated that sequences of
Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
all isolates were 100 % identical to those of
S. lycopersici, and nearly identical (100 and 99 %, respectively) to those of S. xanthosomatis B. Huguenin
available in the GenBank. Sequences of the ITS-5.8S
rDNA and gpd regions for the representative isolates
obtained from each host (SSN-T03, SSN-E12, SSN-P05
and SSN-L05) were deposited in the GenBank (Table 1).
Phylogenetic analysis inferred from a combined dataset
of the ITS-5.8S rDNA and gpd regions indicated that all
isolates were clustered in a distinct cluster which included S. lycopersici and S. xanthosomatis with a strong
bootstrap value of 100 %, and the isolates were clustered
in the sub-cluster that comprised S. lycopersici (Fig. 1).
The isolates were distinguished clearly from other
Fig. 1 Phylogenetic tree generated from maximum likelihood
analysis of combined dataset of ITS-5.8S rDNA and gpd sequences of the 46 isolates from this study, and reference
Stemphylium isolates (Inderbitzin et al. 2009; TreeBASE study
267
Stemphylium species used in this study. Alternaria
tenuissima was phylogenetically distant to Stemphylium
and clustered as the sister taxon.
RAPD analysis
A total of 65 consistently amplified DNA bands were
generated from seven RAPD primers, in which 55.38 %
were polymorphic. The average number of bands per
primer was 9.2 which ranged in size from approximately
100 to 3,000 bp. The dendrogram produced from
UPGMA analysis based on Jaccard's coefficient
grouped 46S. lycopersici isolates into three main clusters (Fig. 2). Cluster A included 29 isolates from tomato
S9931). The tree was rooted with Alternaria tenuissima. Numbers
of bootstrap support values≥50 % based on 1,000 replicates. The
bar indicates nucleotide substitutions per site
268
Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
Fig. 2 UPGMA dendrogram generated by RAPD fingerprint
analysis of Stemphylium lycopersici from different vegetable crops
using a combination of seven primer sets (OPA-03, OPF-20, OPG-
05, OPJ-20, OPJ-21, OPX-04 and OPY-02). Clusters A, B and C
indicate the three groups of S. lycopersici. Isolate numbers and
hosts are shown
and eggplant. This cluster was split into two sub-clusters
(A1 and A2). Sub-clusters A1 contained 15 isolates
from tomato, and A2 comprised of 14 isolates from
eggplant. Clusters B contained 10 isolates from pepper,
and C was comprised of seven isolates from lettuce. The
similarity index was calculated at 67 % between all
S. lycopersici isolates. The isolates in sub-clusters A1
and A2 showed approximately 84 % similarity, and the
isolates in clusters B and C exhibited approximately
70 % similarity.
clusters (Fig. 3). Cluster A included 29 isolates from
tomato and eggplant. This cluster was split into two subclusters (A1 and A2). Sub-clusters A1 contained 15
isolates from tomato, and A2 comprised of 14 isolates
that were obtained from eggplant. Clusters B and C
contained the isolates from pepper and lettuce, respectively. The similarity index was calculated at 68 %
between all S. lycopersici isolates. The isolates in subclusters A1 and A2 showed approximately 80 % similarity. The isolates obtained from lettuce had the lowest
similarity of 68 % compared to the rest of the isolates
examined.
ISSR analysis
A total of 47 consistently amplified DNA bands were
generated with the four ISSR primers, in which 69.23 %
were polymorphic. The average number of bands per
primer was 11.7 which ranged in size from approximately 100 to 2,500 bp. The dendrogram produced from
UPGMA analysis based on Jaccard’s coefficient
grouped 46 S. lycopersici isolates into three main
Virulence and cross-inoculation assays
All S. lycopersici isolates were pathogenic on their
original host plants and showed leaf spot symptoms;
however, virulence variability was observed among the
isolates. The spots began to appear 1–2 days after inoculation of detached leaves of the four vegetable crops
Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
269
Fig. 3 UPGMA dendrogram generated by ISSR fingerprint analysis of Stemphylium lycopersici from different vegetable crops
using a combination of four primer sets (M13, T3B, [ACA]5 and
[CCA]5). Clusters A, B and C indicate the three groups of
S. lycopersici. Isolate numbers and hosts are shown
examined. After 7 days, symptoms similar to those
observed in infected fields and greenhouses developed
on the inoculated leaves. No symptoms were observed
on control leaves inoculated with sterile distilled water.
Stemphylium lycopersici isolates with the same molecular characteristics were re-isolated from inoculated
leaves, but not from control leaves. Therefore, the results of this experiment confirmed that S. lycopersici
isolates were the causal agent of leaf spot on tomato,
eggplant, pepper and lettuce. In the cross-inoculation
assays, detached 45-day-old leaves of tomato, eggplant,
pepper and lettuce as original host plants, and cabbage
as a non-host plant were separately inoculated in all
possible pairwise combinations with highly virulent
isolates originally obtained from each host (SSN-T12,
SSN-E06, SSN-P07 and SSN-L07). The crossinoculation assays revealed that the representative isolates were able to cause leaf spot symptoms on tomato,
eggplant, pepper and lettuce, but not on cabbage as a
non-host plant (Table 3). All isolates used in this study
were highly virulent (>50 % PDS) on the four host
plants. No symptoms of the disease were observed on
cabbage leaves as the non-host plant inoculated with the
representative isolates. Control leaves also remained
healthy without symptoms of the disease.
Discussion
Molecular markers have been widely adopted to determine the genetic characteristics of fungi, plants and
animals. Molecular techniques based on detection, such
as sequencing of different DNA genes have been used as
alternatives to morphological identification of
Stemphylium species (Câmara et al. 2002; Inderbitzin
et al. 2009; Mehta et al. 2002; Zheng et al. 2008). The
ITS-5.8S rDNA sequence is being widely used to identify phylogenetic relationship among fungal taxa, especially at the generic and lower levels (Callac and
Guinberteau 2005; Sotome et al. 2009; Wyk et al.
2009). However, the relatively high level of variability
in the gpd sequence (Smith 1989) makes this gene more
270
Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
Table 3 Cross-inoculation assays and percent disease severity of representative Stemphylium lycopersici isolates (SSN-T12, SSN-E06,
SSN-P07 and SSN-L07) on different vegetable crops by artificial inoculation
Isolate
Origin
Disease severity on different vegetable cropsa,b,c
Tomato
Eggplant
Pepper
Lettuce
Cabbage
SSN-T12
Tomato
HV
HV
HV
HV
NV
SSN-E06
Eggplant
HV
HV
HV
HV
NV
SSN-P07
Pepper
HV
HV
HV
HV
NV
SSN-L07
Lettuce
HV
HV
HV
HV
NV
Control
…..
NV
NV
NV
NV
NV
a
Cross-inoculation of representative Stemphylium lycopersici isolates on vegetable crops 7 days after inoculation
b
Virulence was rated based on percent disease severity (PDS) recorded on different vegetable crops (Santha Lakshmi Prasad et al. 2009).
non virulent (NV), no symptom; weakly virulent (WV), < 20 % PDS; virulent (V), 20 to 50 % PDS; highly virulent (HV), > 50 % PDS
c
PDS for all isolates were 100 %, except for isolates SSN-L07 on tomato (PDS=95.5 %), SSN-E06 and SSN-P07 on eggplant (PDS=99.5
and 95.2 %, respectively), SSN-T12, SSN-P07 and SSN-L07 on pepper (PDS=61.2, 98.6 and 64.2 %, respectively)
*
PDS was calculated based on the lesion diameter on leaves using standard formula; (Sum of numerical level)/(6×3)×100; number 6 is the
number of leaves observed in each replicate and 3 is the highest level of infection
appropriate for phylogenetic comparison at the species
taxonomic level (Berbee et al. 1999). In this study,
phylogenetic analysis inferred from combined dataset
of the ITS-5.8S rDNA and gpd regions confirmed
the identification of all isolates as S. lycopersici. The
isolates differed from S. xanthosomatis by substitution in one locus at position 126 (A/G) at the gpd
gene. These results also revealed that sequences of
the ITS-5.8S rDNA and gpd could not differentiate
46 S. lycopersici isolates obtained from different host
plants and geographical origins, as the isolates were
clustered in the same subclade that comprised reference S. lycopersici obtained from tomato in the
Dominican Republic. This result is in agreement
with a previous study that was conducted by Câmara
et al. (2002).
RAPD and ISSR markers are extremely powerful
tools to separate individuals having intraspecific and
interspecific variability. These markers provided comprehensive information regarding the intra and inters p ec i f i c v a r i a t i o n s i n S t em p h yl i um s p e c i e s
(Chaisrisook et al. 1995; Mehta 2001), and other plant
pathogenic fungi (Achenbach et al. 1996; Nghia et al.
2008; Park et al. 2008; RuiQian et al. 2009; Sharma
et al. 2013; Zhou et al. 2001). To the best of our
knowledge, there is no report on the use of ISSR
markers to analyze intraspecific and interspecific
variability in the Stemphylium genus, and this is the
first report on the use of RAPD markers to analyze
S. lycopersici isolates from different hosts and
geographical regions. Mehta (2001) analyzed 33
Stemphylium spp. isolates obtained from cotton and
tomato plants in Brazil using RAPD markers, in which
two S. lycopersici isolates associated with tomato from
the same geographical region (Location: Botucatu) were
clustered in a distinct clade from S. solani isolates.
Several researchers have reported correlations between
RAPD and ISSR groups and features of isolates such as
virulence, geographical origin and host plant genotype
from which the isolates were collected (Atan and Hamid
2003; Köhl et al. 2009; Lourenço et al. 2011; Mehta
2001; Silva et al. 1998; Silva et al. 2003), but some
others have found no correlation (Darmono et al. 1996;
Romruensukharom et al. 2005; Sharma et al. 2013). The
advantage of the ISSR technique compared to RAPD
lies in the effective multilocus markers used for diversity
analysis, fingerprinting and genome mapping. They are
easy to employ and are highly reproducible (Goldwin
et al. 1997). In the present study, 55.38 % and 69.23 %
of the bands generated using RAPD and ISSR respectively, were polymorphic, which reflects the relatively
high level of genetic variation that exists among the
isolates. Genetic diversity was observed among all isolates using both markers with the identification of three
main RAPD and ISSR profiles. The results suggested a
relatively low similarity index value among the isolates
collected from the various vegetable crops (67 and 68 %
for RAPD and ISSR markers, respectively). The clustering based on RAPD and ISSR markers showed concordance with host plants of the isolates originating
Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
from tomato, eggplant, pepper and lettuce, which were
represented in distinct clusters. The results between
RAPD and ISSR markers were congruent. However,
the effective multilocus marker ratio and subsequent to
that the number of private alleles was greater with ISSR
markers. The results of ISSR markers were very similar
with RAPD markers, and with both markers, the isolates
obtained from tomato and eggplant were clustered in a
distinct cluster, and the isolates obtained from pepper
and lettuce were grouped into other distinct clusters.
This separation of the isolates obtained from tomato
and eggplant into a distinct cluster with high values of
similarity index (approximately 84 and 80 % in RAPD
and ISSR, respectively) implies that this group of isolates belongs to the near-physiological group compared
to the isolates collected from pepper and lettuce. Based
on RAPD and ISSR markers, S. lycopersici isolates
obtained from various vegetable crops originating
from the three states of Pahang, Johor and Selangor in
Malaysia showed no geographical variation. The high
level of polymorphism within the isolates may, however
be attributed to the fact that the isolates were obtained
from different host plants, thus reinforcing the
hypothesis of diverse hosts being more important than
geographical regions. This result is in agreement with
the results of Mehta (2001) and Köhl et al. (2009), who
did not observe any clear relationship between genetic
variability and geographical origin of Stemphylium
species, while the isolates represented host
specialization. Köhl et al. (2009) indicated that the variation among S. vesicarium isolates obtained from different hosts was high (approximately 30 % similarity
index), and the variation showed significant concordance with host plants. Mehta (2001) also revealed that
S. solani isolates obtained from cotton and tomato in
Brazil had a high variation (approximately 60 % similarity index), and the variation was according to host
plants, not geographical origin of the isolates.
Virulence assays revealed that all isolates were pathogenic on the original hosts and leaf spot symptoms
were observed on the detached leaves of tomato, eggplant, pepper and lettuce similar to those observed in the
infected greenhouses and fields, 7 days after inoculation. Re-isolation of the fungus with the same morphological characters described earlier on potato dextrose
agar (PDA) confirmed Koch’s postulates. Thus, the
results of the present study confirmed that
S. lycopersici isolates were the causal agents of leaf spot
on the four vegetable crops. In the cross-inoculation
271
assays, the representative isolates with high virulence
selected from each crop were able to cause leaf spot on
the inoculated leaves of the four host plants found in this
study, but not on cabbage as a non-host plant. This
finding suggested that S. lycopersici can spread between
these four economically important crops, and hence a
comprehensive management is required to manage this
disease. These results are in agreement with previous
reports on the pathogenic ability of S. lycopersici to
infect different hosts (more than 30 host genera) all over
the world (Farr and Rossman 2014).
In conclusion, both RAPD and ISSR markers proved
to be useful in differentiating S. lycopersici isolates.
However, the effective multilocus marker ratio and subsequent to that the number of private alleles was greater
with ISSR markers. Moreover, the current outcome
indicated that the makers are able to respond onto the
limitation of molecular sequence method. This study
also confirmed that isolates of S. lycopersici existing in
Malaysia are in concordance to host plants, and not
geographical origin of the isolates. Hence, it is recommended that for better control of the pathogen each
vegetable crop be investigated separately. The data of
RAPD and ISSR markers could also be expanded for a
wider genetic diversity of S. lycopersici on different host
plants from different geographical regions.
Acknowledgments We are thankful to the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) for kind
collaboration in this study. We acknowledge Laboratory assistants
and co-workers in the Plant Protection Department of University
of Putra Malaysia (UPM) for valuable field trip arrangements and
assistance during field samplings.
References
Achenbach, L. A., Patrick, J. A., & Gray, L. E. (1996). Use of
RAPD markers as a diagnostic tool for the identification of
Fusarium solani isolates that cause soybean sudden death
syndrome. Plant Disease, 80, 1228–1232.
Altschul, S. F., Madden, T. L., Schäffer, A. A., Zhang, J., Zhang,
Z., Miller, W., et al. (1997). Gapped BLAST and PSIBLAST: a new generation of protein database search programs. Nucleic Acids Research, 25, 3389–3402.
Anonymous (1979). List of plant diseases in Taiwan. Plant protection society, Republic of China, 404 p.
Atan, S., & Hamid, N. H. (2003). Differentiating races of
Corynespora cassiicola using RAPD and internal transcribed
spacer markers. Journal of Rubber Research, 6(1), 58–64.
Berbee, M. L., Pirseyedi, M., & Hubbard, S. (1999). Cochliobolus
phylogenetics and the origin of known, highly virulent
272
pathogens, inferred from ITS and glyceraldehyde-3phosphate dehydrogenase gene sequences. Mycologia, 91,
964–977.
Blazquez, C. H. (1969). Occurrence of gray leaf spot on peppers in
Florida. Plant Disease Report, 53, 756.
Callac, P., & Guinberteau, J. (2005). Morphological and molecular
characterization of two novel species of Agaricus section
Xanthodermatei. Mycologia, 97, 416–424.
Câmara, M. P. S., O’Neill, N. R., & van Berkum, P. (2002).
Phylogeny of Stemphylium spp. based on ITS and
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene sequences.
Mycologia, 94, 660–672.
Cedeño, L., & Carrero, C. (1997). First report of tomato gray leaf
spot caused by Stemphylium solani in the Andes region of
Venezuela. Plant Disease, 81, 1332–1332.
Chaisrisook, C., Skinner, D. Z., & Stuteville, D. L. (1995).
Molecular genetic relationships of five Stemphylium species
pathogenic to alfalfa. Sydowia, 47, 1–9.
Cho, W.D., & Shin, H.D. (2004). List of plant diseases in Korea.
Fourth edition. Korean Society of Plant Pathology, 779 p.
Darmono, T.W., Darussamin, A., & Pawirosoemardjo, S. (1996).
Variation among isolates of Corynespora cassiicola associated with Hevea brasiliensis in Indonesia. In: Proceeding
workshop on Corynespora leaf fall disease of Hevea rubber
Medan, Indonesia, pp. 79–91.
Ellis, M. B. (1971). Dematiaceous hyphomycetes. Kew: Common
wealth Mycological Institute. 608 p.
Ellis, M.B., & Gibson, I.A. S. (1975). Stemphylium lycopersici.
CMI Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria, No.
471.
Enjoji, S. (1931). Two diseases of tomato (2) (in Japanese).
Journal of Plant Protection, 18, 48–53.
Farr, D.F., & Rossman, A.Y. (2014). Fungal databases, systematic
mycology and microbiology laboratory, ARS, USDA. Retrieved
January 12, from http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/.
Gannibal, P. B. (2012). First report of Stemphylium lycopersici
from Far East Russia: a new record and new host.
Mycotaxon, 121, 371–374.
Goldwin, I. D., Aitken, A. B., & Smith, L. W. (1997). Application
of Inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR) markers to plant
genetics. Electrophoresis, 18, 1524–1528.
Gonzalez-Mendoza, D., Argumedo-Delira, R., Morales-Trejo, A.,
Pulido-Herrera, A., Cervantes-Diaz, L., Grimaldo-Juarez, O.,
et al. (2010). A rapid method for isolation of total DNA from
pathogenic filamentous plant fungi. Genetics and Molecular
Research, 9, 162–166.
Hall, T. A. (1999). BioEdit: a user-friendly biological sequence
alignment editor and analysis program for Windows 95/98/
NT. Nucleic Acids Symposium Series, 41, 95–98.
Inderbitzin, P., Mehta, Y. R., & Berbee, M. L. (2009). Pleospora
species with Stemphylium anamorphs: a four locus phylogeny resolves new lineages yet does not distinguish among
species in the Pleospora herbarum clade. Mycologia, 101,
329–339.
Kempe, J., & Sequeira, L. (1983). Biological control of bacterial
wilt of potatoes: attempts to induce resistance by treating
tubes with bacteria. Plant Disease, 67, 499–501.
Kim, B. S., Yu, S. H., Cho, H. J., & Hwang, H. S. (2004). Gray leaf
spot in peppers caused by Stemphylium solani and
Stemphylium lycopersici. The Plant Pathology Journal, 20,
85–91.
Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
Köhl, J., Groenenboom-de Haas, B., Goossen-van de Geijn, H.,
Speksnijder, A., Kastelein, P., de Hoog, S., et al. (2009).
Pathogenicity of Stemphylium vesicarium from different
hosts causing brown spot in pear. European Journal of
Plant Pathology, 124(1), 151–162.
Lourenço, V., Jr., Rodrigues, T. T., Campos, A., Bragança, C. A.,
Scheuermann, K. K., Reis, A., et al. (2011). Genetic structure
of the population of Alternaria solani in Brazil. Journal of
Phytopathology, 159(4), 233–240.
McDonald, B. A., & Linde, C. (2002). Pathogen population genetics, evolutionary potential, and durable resistance. Annual
Review of Phytopathology, 40, 349–379.
Mehta, Y. R. (2001). Genetic diversity among isolates of
Stemphylium solani from cotton. Fitopatologia Brasileira,
26(4), 703–709.
Mehta, Y. R., Mehta, A., & Rosato, Y. B. (2002). ERIC and REPPCR banding patterns and sequence analysis of the internal
transcribed spacer of rDNA of Stemphylium solani isolates
from cotton. Current Microbiology, 44(5), 323–328.
Milgroom, M. G., & Peever, T. L. (2003). Population biology of
plant pathogens. The synthesis of plant disease epidemiology
and population genetics. Plant Disease, 87, 608–617.
Min, J. Y., Kim, B. S., Cho, K. W., & Yu, S. H. (1995). Grey leaf
spot caused by Stemphylium lycopersici on tomato plants.
The Plant Pathology Journal, 11, 282–284.
Nghia, N. A., Kadir, J., Sunderasan, E., Abdullah, M. P., Malik,
A., & Napis, S. (2008). Morphological and inter simple
sequence repeat (ISSR) markers analyses of Corynespora
cassiicola isolates from rubber plantations in Malaysia.
Mycopathologia, 166(4), 189–201.
Park, M. S., Romanoski, C. E., & Pryor, B. M. (2008). A reexamination of the phylogenetic relationship between the
causal agents of carrot black rot, Alternaria radicina and
A. carotiincultae. Mycologia, 100(3), 511–527.
Pryor, B. M., & Michailides, T. J. (2002). Morphological, pathogenic, and molecular characterization of Alternaria isolates
associated with Alternaria late blight of pistachio.
Phytopathology, 92, 406–416.
Ricker, A. J., & Ricker, R. S. (1936). Introduction to research on
plant diseases. St. Louis: John Swift Co.. 117 p.
Rohlf, E.J. (1993). NTSYS-pc: Numerical taxonomy and multivariate analysis system, version 1.80. Applied Biostatistics
Inc., Setauket, New York.
Romruensukharom, P., Tragoonrung, S., Vanavichit, A., &
Toojinda, T. (2005). Genetic variability of Corynespora
cassiicola population in Thailand. Journal of Rubber
Research, 8(1), 38–49.
RuiQian, L., Rui, H., YueBing, Z., YuMei, X., & JianMing, W.
(2009). Establishment of ISSR reaction system of Fusarium
and its analysis of genetic diversity. Science Agriculture
Sinica, 42(9), 3139–3146.
Santha Lakshmi Prasad, M., Sujatha, M., & Chander Rao, S.
(2009). Analysis of cultural and genetic diversity in
Alternaria helianthi and determination of pathogenic variability using wild Helianthus species. Journal of
Phytopathology, 157(10), 609–617.
Sawada, K. (1959). Descriptive catalogue of Taiwan (Formosan)
fungi. XI. Special Publications College of Agriculture
National Taiwan University, 8, 1–268.
Sharma, P., Deep, S., Sharma, M., & Bhati, D. S. (2013). Genetic
variation of Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacc., causal agent
Eur J Plant Pathol (2014) 140:261–273
of dark leaf spot of cauliflower and mustard in India. Journal
of General Plant Pathology, 79(1), 41–45.
Silva, W. P. K., Karunanayake, E. H., Wijesundera, R. L. C., &
Priyanka, U. M. S. (2003). Genetic variation in Corynespora
cassiicola: a possible relationship between host origin and
virulence. Mycological Research, 107(5), 567–571.
Silva, W. P. K., Deverall, B. J., & Lyon, B. R. (1998). Molecular,
physiological and pathological characterization of
Corynespora leaf spot fungi from rubber plantations in Sri
Lanka. Plant Pathology, 47(3), 267–277.
Simmons, E. G. (1969). Perfect states of Stemphylium. Mycologia,
61, 1–26.
Smith, T. L. (1989). Disparate evolution of yeasts and filamentous
fungi indicated by phylogenetic analysis of glyceraldehydes3-phosphate dehydrogenase genes. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America, 86, 7063–7066.
Sotome, K., Hattori, T., Ota, Y., Lee, S. S., Vikineswary, S.,
Abdullah, N., et al. (2009). Taxonomic study of Asian species
of Echinochaete (Polyporaceae, Basidiomycota) and description of E. maximipora sp. nov. Mycological Progress, 8, 123–
132.
Sujatha, M., Prabakaran, A. J., & Chattopadhyay, C. (1997).
Reaction of wild sunflowers and certain interspecific hybrids
to Alternaria helianthi. Helia, 20, 15–24.
Tamura, K., Peterson, D., Peterson, N., Stecher, G., Nei, M., &
Kumar, S. (2011). MEGA5: Molecular evolutionary genetics
analysis using maximum likelihood, evolutionary distance,
and maximum parsimony methods. Molecular Biology and
Evolution, 28, 2731–2739.
Thompson, J. D., Higgins, D. G., & Gibson, T. J. (1994). Clustal
W: improving the sensitivity of progressive multiple sequence alignment through sequence weighting, positionspecific gap penalties and weight matrix choice. Nucleic
Acids Research, 22, 4673–4680.
273
Vitale, S., Santori, A., Wajnberg, E., Castagnone-Sereno, P.,
Luongo, L., & Belisario, A. (2011). Morphological and molecular analysis of Fusarium lateritium, the cause of gray
necrosis of hazelnut fruit in Italy. Phytopathology, 101(6),
679–686.
Wallroth, F.G. (1833). Flora Cryptogamica Germaniae, pars. post.
Nuremberg: J.L. Schrag. 923 p.
Wang, Y., & Zhang, X. G. (2006). Tree new species of
Stemphylium from China. Mycotaxon, 96, 77–81.
Wang, Y., Fu, H. B., O’Neill, N. R., & Zhang, X. G. (2009). Two
new species of Stemphylium from Northwest China.
Mycological Progress, 8(4), 301–304.
Wang, Y., Geng, Y., Pei, Y. F., & Zhang, X. G. (2010). Molecular
and morphological description of two new species of
Stemphylium from China and France. Mycologia, 102, 708–
717.
White, T. J., Bruns, T., Lee, S., & Taylor, J. (1990). Amplification
and direct sequencing of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for
phylogenetics. In M. A. Innis, D. H. Gelfand, J. J. Sninsky, &
T. J. White (Eds.), PCR protocols: a guide to methods and
applications (pp. 315–322). New York: Academic Press.
Wyk, M. V., Wingfield, B. D., Clegg, P. A., & Wingfield, M. J.
(2009). Ceratocystis larium sp. nov., a new species from
Styrax benzoin wounds associated with incense harvesting
in Indonesia. Persoonia, 22, 75–82.
Yu, S. H. (2001). Korean species of Alternaria and Stemphylium.
Suwon: National Institute of Agricultural Science and
Technology. 212 p.
Zheng, L., Huang, J., & Hsiang, T. (2008). First report of leaf
blight of garlic (Allium sativum) caused by Stemphylium
solani in China. Plant Pathology, 57, 380.
Zhou, S., Smith, D. R., & Stanosz, G. R. (2001). Differentiation of
Botryosphaeria species and related anamorphic fungi using
Inter Simple or Short Sequence Repeat (ISSR) fingerprinting.
Mycological Research, 105(8), 919–926.