Population Ecology of Moringa peregrina growing in Southern Sinai, Egypt

A. A. Moustafa

Several threats affect Moringa peregrina populations and lead to high mortality, low recruitment, and poor survival rates. To conserve M. peregrina, understanding the populations’ dynamics is fundamental. Four Wadis in Southern Sinai, Egypt, representing the known local geographic distribution were surveyed and selected for the study. Age of cross-cuts were identified and used to establish the linear regression age-radius relationship. The estimated ages (based on their radii) of sampled trees were used to determine the age distribution and construct a static life table. The age structure of populations consisting of multiple cohorts was used to estimate the survival patterns of the various age groups. Tree size distribution and relation with age structure were studied also. The results showed that the growth rings can be taken as regular time markers and the tree size can be used to expect the age class of the tree. The study revealed that M. peregrina grows very slowly and that th...

The Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori is a neglected super-food plant with tremendous medicinal properties, naturally growing at shorelines of the Red Sea region. Limited information is available about the genetic resources and diversity of this tree, which is under threat due to severe biotic and abiotic factors in the region. The search for genetic diversity within a species usually depends on the geographical distribution studies for such plant species. This study aims to explore the variation and diversity found within the progeny of Moringa peregrina, based on the size and shape of its seeds. Collected wild-type Moringa peregrina seeds were assorted according to its size and shape, analyzed for its moisture, protein, oil, minerals, total phenols, total flavonoids, protein, and germination rates. Germinated plants were evaluated for phenotypic characters and tissues, including leaves, roots, were analyzed for its minerals, protein, total phenols, and total flavonoids content. Tissues were subjected to callus generations, rooting, and shooting micro-propagation experiments and DNA RAPD marker analysis. Analyzed plant tissues have shown qualitative and quantitative variations in their minerals, oil, and phytochemical contents, which are statistically significant and correlated with the seed size and shape. Moreover, germination, plant height, leaf morphology and clonal response to growth regulators were also variant according to seed size and shape. The molecular RAPD marker analysis has shown that the genetic material had similarities and distances among the seeds of different sizes and shapes. Variation and diversity within wild-type Moringa peregrina species are found in its progeny, where seed size and shape are considered as indicator traits for genetic variation and diversity.

India is one of the fastest developing countries in the world. Presently India has the largest livestock population in the world. With the increase in the human population, to meet the present and future demands of this population, certain new strategies are to be adapted to meet the input requirements and also to enhance the production potential of Indigenous as well as crossbred cattle and other class of livestock for production, reproduction and they are by-products. Current work about the compilation of review works presented by various research works depicts the status and factors responsible for under utilization of Moringa oleifera (M. oleifera). Especially with respect to the knowledge on taxonomy, distribution, diverse utilizations, nutritional value, socioeconomic importance, morphological and genetic diversity, domestication, propagation and management of M. oleifera is concerned. For fulfilling the Knowledge gaps, research and development avenues, we were suggested and discussed for improved valorisation. Since M. oleifera contains most of the nutrients which are required for all classes of livestock including poultry and fish, and even in human moringa leaves are used as tea powder, as a leafy vegetable etc. M. oleifera is also a good source of minerals and essential amino acids. The use of moringa can be extended in the pig as well as rabbit reproduction also. Therefore, the characteristics of Moringa make it be considered as one of the world's most useful trees. Better nutritional quality and high biomass production, especially in dry period support its significance as livestock fodder.

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299507706 Population Ecology of Moringa peregrina growing in Southern Sinai, Egypt Research · March 2016 DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3984.8087 READS 50 3 authors, including: Mohamed Zaghloul Suez Canal University 21 PUBLICATIONS 20 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Mohamed Awad Dadamouny University of Greifswald 10 PUBLICATIONS 9 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Available from: Mohamed Awad Dadamouny Retrieved on: 21 August 2016 Abdelraouf A. Moustafa Mohamed Saad Zaghloul Mohamed A. Dadamouny Population Ecology of Moringa peregrina growing in Southern Sinai, Egypt Botany Department, Faculty of Science (Ismailia), Suez Canal University, Egypt 2012 Table of Contents Subject I. II. III. IV. Page Title- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Table of Contents -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - List of abbreviations - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - List of species authors - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - List of Tables- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - List of Figures - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Abstarct - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Background - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. Nomenclature - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2. Systematic position - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3. Morphology - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4. Anatomy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5. Chemistry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6. Seed Viability and germination- - - - - - - - - - - 7. Habitats- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8. Medicinal Uses - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9. Other Uses - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.1 As plant growth hormone - - - - - - - - - - - 9.2 As green manure - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.3 As a food - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.4 As water purifier - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9.5 As a good source of oil - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10 Phenological aspects - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11 Distribution - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I II VI VIII Review of Literature - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Study Area - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 18 31 II XI XIII XV 1 5 5 5 6 8 9 10 10 12 13 13 13 13 15 15 16 16 V. 1. Geology and Geomorphology of South Sinai - - - 2. Locations - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I. Wadi Agala - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II. Wadi Feiran - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III. Wadi Zaghra - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV. Wadi Me'ir - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3. Climate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.1. Rainfall - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.2. Temperature - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.3. Relative humidity and evaporation - - - 3.4.Wind speed - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4. Hydrological aspects - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5. Vegetations - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6. History of land-use and human activity - - - - - - - - 31 33 36 36 40 41 43 44 48 51 51 52 53 57 Materials and Methods - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I. Field Survey - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II. Estimation of Age structure - - - - - - - - - - - - - a. Cutting cross sections - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - b. Age-radius relationship and age dating - - - c. Age structure and static life table - - - - - - - d. Survivorship curve - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III. Determination of size structure - - - - - - - - - - a. Field measurements - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - b. Height, annual increment and circumference /height ratio - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - IV Soil characteristics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. Physical characteristics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.1. Soil texture - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.2. Moisture content - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2. Chemical characteristics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 61 61 64 64 64 66 68 69 69 III 69 70 70 70 70 72 VI. 2.1. Soil Organic matter - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.2. Soil pH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3. Soluble salts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.1. Soil EC and salinity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.2. Water soluble anions - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.3. Water soluble cations - - - - - - - - - - - - 4. Total and available phosphorus - - - - - - - 5. Total Nitrogen - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - V. Soil and relationship with tree age and size - - VI. Data treatment - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72 72 72 72 73 74 75 75 76 76 Results - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I. Environmental parameters - - - - - - - - - - - - - II. Age structure of Moringa populations - - - - - a. Bark thickness, tree radius and number of rings of cross sections - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - b. Bark, radius & no. of rings of sampled trees c. Static life table - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - d. Survivorship Curve - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III. Size structure of Moringa populations - - - - - IV. Soil characteristic - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. Nature of soil surface - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2. Physical characteristics - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.1. Soil texture - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.2. Moisture content - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3. Chemical characteristics - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.1. Soil Organic matter - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3.2. Soil pH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4. Soluble salts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5. Total, available phosphorus and total nitrogen 77 77 80 V. Soil and relationship with tree age and size - - IV 80 85 91 94 95 101 101 101 101 106 106 106 107 107 107 111 IV. Associated species - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 113 VII. Discussion - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Recommendations- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 114 146 148 VIII Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IX References - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - X. Appendices - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 150 154 192 V List of abbreviations AD : Anderson-Darling normality test. AA : Alpha Amylase. AP : Available Phosphorus. a.s.l : Above sea level. ax : Number of individuals that survive to the age x. C/H : Circumference/height ratio. CAG : Circumference at ground level. CC : Correlation coefficient. Cum : Cumulative. DBH : Diameter at breast height. Dm : Drought monitor. DF : Defatted flour. dx : The number of individuals that die during stage x. EC : Electrical conductivity. EEAA : Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency. ex : Probability of living 'x' number of years beyond a given age. FFA : Free Fatty Acids. Frq : Frequency. G : Gebel. GEF : Global Environmental Facility. GLC : Gas Liquid Chromatography. GPS : Geographic position system. IVPD : In vitro protein digestibility. LOI : Loss on ignition lx : Survivorship; proportion of original cohort surviving to age x. VI Lx : Average proportion alive at the age x. MDF : Moringa Defatted flour. meq/L : ml equivalent/Liter. Mt : Mountain. NSS : Nature of soil surface. Nx : Number of individuals living in age x. PC : Protein concentration. PER : Protein efficiency ratio. PVA : Population viability analysis. Qx : Age-specific mortality rate (chance of death). r2 : Proportion of variation in the responses of regression. SCU : Suez Canal University SOM : Soil organic matter SPSS : Statistical Package for Social Sciences. SD : Standard Deviation. SE : Standard Error. TA : Trypsin Amylase. TN : Total Nitrogen. TP : Total Phosphorous. TSS : Total soluble salts. Tx : Total number of living individuals at age class x and beyond. UNDP : United Nations Development Program. UNESCO : United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. W : Wadi. X : Age entered by time of census in life table. VII List of species authors Species Author abbreviation Author Name Acacia ehrenbergiana Acacia nilotica subsp. Indica Acacia raddiana Acacia tortilis subsp. Raddiana Acacia tortilis subsp. Tortilis Aerva javanica Aerva javanica v. bovei Amygdalus conumunis Anabasis articulata Anogeissus dhofarica Anthemis psaudocotula Artemisia judaica Blepharis persica Blepharispermum hirtum Boscia senegalensis Calotropis procera Capparis deciduas Capparis sinaica Capparis spinosa. Ceratonia oreothauma subsp. Chrozophora oblongifolia Chrozophora plicata Citrullus colocynthis Citrus aurantium Citrus limon Citrus mobilis Cleome Arabica Cleome droserifolia Commiphora habessinica Cucumis prophetarum Diplotaxis acris Fagonia Arabica Fagonia mollis Hayne (L.) Willd. Ex Delile (Miller) Savi (Frossk.) Savi (Forssk.) Hayne Friedrich Gottlob Hayne Carl Ludwig von Willdenow (Philip Miller) Gaetano Savi (Peter Forsskål) Gaetano Savi (Peter Forsskål) (Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schult. (Nicolaas Laurens Burman) (Brum. f.) Juss. ex (Webb.) N.L. Burman, Philip Barker Webb L. (Forssk.) Moq. Scott. Lam. L. (Brum. F.) Kuntze Oliv. (Pers.) Lam. ex Poir. (Ait.) Ait. f. (Forssk.) Edgew. Veill. L Hillc., Lewis & Verdc. (Delile) Spring. Carl Linnaeus (Peter Forsskål) Heinrich Wilhelm Schott Jean-Baptiste Lamarck Carl Linnaeus (Nicolaas Laurens Burman) Daniel Oliver (Christiaan Hendrik Persoon) William Aiton (Peter Forsskål) Michael Dominique Villars Carl Linnaeus John Hill, Meriwether Lewis, (Vahl) A. Juss. ex Spreng. (Martin Vahl) (L.) Schrad. L. (L.) Burm. f. Lour. L. (Forssk.) Delile (O. Berg) Engl L. (Forssk.) Boiss. L. Del. (C. Linnaeus) Heinrich Adolph VIII (Alire Raffeneau Delile) Antoine Carl Linnaeus (Linnaeus) Nicolaas L. Burman João de Loureiro Carl Linnaeus (Peter Forsskål) (Otto Karl Berg) Heinrich Carl Linnaeus (P. Forsskål) Pierre E.Boissier Carl Linnaeus Alire Raffeneau Delile Farsetia aegyptia Ficus carica Ficus cordata subsp. salicifolia, Francoeuria crispa Haloxylon salicornicum Hyoscymus muticus Iphiona scabra Juniperus excelsa subsp. polycarpos Launaea spinosa Lavandula stricta Lawsonia inermis Leptadenia pyrotechnica Lindenbergia sinaica Lycium arabicum lygos raetam Maerua crassifolia Mentha longifolia spp. Typhoides Moricandia sinica Moringa aptera ---> M. peregrina Moringa arborea Moringa borziana Moringa concanensis Moringa drouhardii Moringa erecta ---> M. oleifera Moringa hildebrandtii Moringa longituba Moringa moringa --> M. oleifera Moringa octogona --> M. oleifera Moringa oleifera Moringa ovalifolia Moringa parvifolia --> M. oleifera Moringa peregrina Moringa polygona --> M. oleifera Turra. L. Thunb. (Vahl) C.C. (Forssk., Cas) R.Br. (Moq.) Bunge ex Boiss. L. Dc. M. Bieb. (K. Koch) Dawson Turner (Forssk.) Sch. Bip ex Kuntze (P. Forsskål) Carl Ernst Otto Kuntze Del. L. (Frossk.) Deene (Decne.) Benth. schwieinf.ex Boiss Forssk., L. Forssk. F. Alire Raffeneau Delile Carl Linnaeus (Peter Forsskål) George Bentham Georg August Schweinfurth Peter Forsskål, Linnaeus Peter Forsskål (L.) Huds., (Briq.) Harley William Hudson, (John Isaac (Boiss.) Boiss. Pierre Edmond Boissier Gaertn --> (Forssk.) Fior. Joseph Gaertner , Adriano Fiori Verdc. Matt. Nim. ex Dalz. & Gibs. Jum. Salisb ---> Lam. Engl. Engl. (L.) Small --> Lam. Stokes --> Lam. Lam. Dinter ex Berger Noronha --> Lam. Forssk. ex Fiori. DC. --> Lam. Bernard Verdcourt Johannes Mattfeld Nimmo, Nicol Alexander Henri Lucien Jumelle Richard Anthony Salisbury, Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler Moringa pterygosperma --> M. oleifera Gaertn., nom. illeg --> Joseph Gaertner , J.B. Lamarck Moringa pygmaea Verdc. Bernard Verdcourt IX Carl Linnaeus Carl Peter Thunberg (Martin (Forsskål) Alexandre Henri Gabriel (Christian Horace Bénédict Carl Linnaeus Augustin Pyramus de Candolle Friedrich August Marschall (Linnaeus) John Kunkel Small, Jonathan S. Stokes, J.B. Lamarck Jean-Baptiste Lamarck Ernst Friedrich Berger J.B. Lamarck (Peter Forsskål) A.P. de Candolle, J.B. Lamarck Moringa rivae subsp. Longisiliqua Moringa rivae subsp. Rivae Moringa ruspoliana Moringa stenopetala Moringa zeylanica --> M. oleifera Ochradenus baccatus Olea europaea Otostegia fruticosa Peganum harmala Periploca aphylla Pesidium guajava Phoenix dactylifera Pituranthos tortuosus Prumus domestica Prunus Arabica Prunus armeniaca Prunus persica Pulicaria arabica Punica granatum Pyrus conumunis Pyrus malus Reseda sp. Retama raetam Rhus somalensis Senna italica Sideroxylon mascatense Solenostemma arghel Sorghum sp. Teucrium polium Trigonella foenum-graecum Vicia faba Vitis vinifera Zilla spinosa subsp.spinosa Zygophyllum coccineum Zygophyllum simplex Chiov. Chiov. Engl. (Baker f.) Cufodontis Pers. --> Lam. Del. L. (Frossk.) Penz. L. (Dcne.) Rech. f., L. L. Desf., L. (Oliv.) Meikle. L. (L.) Batsch (Forssk.) Oliv. L. L. L. L. (Frossk.) Webb & Engl. Mill. (A. DC.) T.D. Penn. (Delile) Hayne L. L. L. L. L. (L.) Prantl L. L. X Emilio Chiovenda Emilio Chiovenda Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler (Edmund Gilbert Baker) (Christiaan Hendrik Persoon) Alire Raffeneau Delile Carl Linnaeus (Peter Forsskål) Georg Carl Linnaeus (Joseph Decaisne) Karl Heinz Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus René Louiche Desfontaines Carl Linnaeus Daniel Oliver Robert Desmond Meikle Carl Linnaeus (C. Linnaeus) August Johann (Peter Forsskål) Daniel Oliver Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus Philip Barker Webb & Sabin Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler Philip Miller Leigh Humboldt Pennington (Alire Raffeneau Delile) F. Hayne Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (Linnaeus) Karl Anton Eugen Prantl Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus List of Tables Table : Moringa classess 1 2 3 4 5 6 Page 11 Nutritional Analysis of M. peregrina pods, fresh raw : leaves, and dried leaf powder per 100 grams of edible portion. 14 : Available meteorological data of St. Catherine and El-Tor stations in Southern Sinai, Egypt, compiled from different sources. 33 : Mean rainfall (mm), relative humidity (%), temperature (ºC), and wind speed (m/s) recorded in Saint Catherine from 2004 to 2007. 39 : Annual rainfall at some stations in South Sinai, compiled from different sources (Abd El-Wahab, 1995 and 2003). : Four wadis of the study area in which M. peregrina 45 46 8 trees were recorded. : Minimum and Maximum temperature of Feiran Oasis (Altitude 660m). : The slope degree and scale. 9 : The percentage of soil constituents in soil surface 63 10 : Parameters of a static life table used in estimation of survival and mortality rate of M. peregrina tree. : Summary table of environmental setting data for the sites in which M. peregrina was recorded. : Descriptive statistics of average radii, bark thickness and no of rings for M. peregrina cross-section. : Descriptive statistics of average radii, bark thickness and no. of rings for all sampled M. peregrina trees. : Age structure of M. peregrina populations in the 7 11 12 13 14 XI 49 63 67 78 81 87 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 : : : : : : : studied four wadis (W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir) and pooled population. A static life table for M. peregrina populations at the four studied wadis (W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir) and pooled population. The descriptive statistics of the vegetative parameters of M. peregrina populations in South Sinai. Size structure of M. peregrina populations in the studied four wadis (W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir) and pooled population. Pearson correlation and linear regression between size and age of M. peregrina tree. Descriptive data and analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) of nature of soil surface (N.S.S.) and soil parameters Pearson correlation between age, size and soil characteristics of M. peregrina tree. Alphabetical species list of associated species with M. peregrina populations in South Sinai. : Summary table of age and size structures of M. peregrina growing in South Sinai. XII 89 92 96 99 100 102 112 113 126 List of Figures Figure Page 1 : Moringa peregrina tree growing in W. Zaghra S. Sinai. 7 2 : Morphology of Moringa peregrina tree. 7 3 : Annual rainfall of Saint Catherine and El-Tor (1971 - 2000) and the mean value. 4 : Climatic diagrams of Saint Catherine and El-Tor stations in Southern Sinai. 5 : Location map of the four wadis of study area. 6 : The sites map of Moringa peregrina populations at the four studied wadis in South Sinai. 7 35 37 37 : M. peregrina tree and nature of soil surface in Wadi Agala, South Sinai. 8 34 42 : Population of M. peregrina tree and nature of soil surface in W. Feiran, South Sinai. 42 9 : Population of M. peregrina trees at W. Zaghra, S. Sinai. 49 10 : Population of M. peregrina trees at W. Me'ir, South Sinai. 50 11 : Photos of annual rings counting to estimate the age of M. peregrina trees growing in South Sinai. 12 65 : Soil analysis, (a) sample collection under the crown cover of M. peregrina tree. (b) on the depth 15 - 25 cm, (c) EC meter, (d) Flame Photometer, and (e) Auto-analyzer 71 Spectrophotometer. 13 : The elevations of M. peregrina in the four studied wadis represented in meter above sea level. 14 79 : The slope degree of the sites at the four studied wadis represented in degree. 79 15 : The measurements of sampled M. peregrina cross-cuts. 16 : Normality test for (a) radius, (b) bark thickness (cm) and number of rings in sampled M. peregrina cross-cuts. XIII 82 83 17 : Linear regression equation (a) between bark thickness (cm) and radius, and (b) between radius and number of 84 annual rings of sampled M. peregrina cross-cuts. 18 : Normality test of radii (a) and estimated age for 404 trees of M. peregrina in the studied four wadis. 19 86 : Age structure of M. peregrina tree (a) in pooled 90 population and (b) in the studied four wadis. 20 : Survivorship curve of Moringa peregrina populations. 21 : Size structure of M. peregrina tree populations (a) tree 94 height (m) (b) crown cover (m2), and (c) circumf./height in South Sinai. 22 97 2 : Size structure [height (m), crown cover area (m ), circumference (cm), and tree volume (m3)] of pooled population of M. peregrina trees in South Sinai. 23 : Variations of the mean values of nature of soil surface (N.S.S.) of the four wadis of the study area. 24 110 : Variation in the mean values (±SE) of total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) in the soil of the four wadis 31-40 109 : Variations of the mean values (±SE) of soil salinity and available phosphorus (ppm) in the four studied wadis. 30 108 : Water soluble cations of the pooled studied soil samples (a), and the mean values (±SE) per wadi (b). 29 108 : Variations of the mean values of water soluble anions in the soil of the four studied wadis. 28 106 : Variations of the mean values of soil pH (a) and electrical conductivity (mS/cm) (b) per wadi. 27 105 : Variations of the mean values of moisture and organic matter content (%) in the four studied wadis. 26 104 : Variations of the mean values of soil texture (sieving method) of the four wadis of the study area. 25 98 : Appendices photos 110 193 XIV Abstract Several threats affect the existence of Moringa peregrina (Forssk. ex Fiori) tree in South Sinai, such as over-cutting for different uses, overgrazing, and extremes of drought. The unmanaged utilization of this valuable tree is very short-sighted and lead to high mortality, low recruitment, and poor survival of seedling. To conserve M. peregrina populations, it is necessary to understand the tree dynamics. The present work aims to study the population dynamics of M. peregrina tree during estimating the age structures and to reveal the relationship between the size and age structures of its populations, in them in response to birth, aging and mortality rate. The study was carried out in four wadis of South Sinai; W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir. Forty-one sites include 404 M. peregrina trees were surveyed in these wadis; 4 sites in W. Agala (40 trees), 5 sites in W. Feiran (47 trees), 6 sites in W. Zaghra (82 trees) and 26 sites in W. Me'ir (235 trees). In each site some physiographic parameters were determined by GPS, and soil texture, soil analyses for twenty soil samples around the trees were analysed. The linear regression between radius (excluding the bark) and number of growth annual rings in ninety-three cross-cuts was used to estimate the age structure. The estimated ages were used to determine the age distribution and construct a static life table. The age distribution of the studied populations was used as a predictive tool to determine if the M. peregrina populations in Southern Sinai are healthy or not. The age structure of populations consisting of multiple cohorts was used to estimate the survival patterns of the various age groups in the static life table. In addition, vegetative parameters were measured as tree height (m), crown cover area (m2), XV trunk circumferences (cm), and circumference/height ratio to find out the size structure and its relation with the age distribution. The results of the linear regression showed a highly significant relationship between the tree radius and growth rings which means that the growth rings can be taken as regular time markers and could be used for dating M. peregrina trees. The results suggest that M. peregrina in Southern Sinai grows very slowly and the estimated oldest tree is about 382 years old. The static life table of M. peregrina revealed that M. peregrina trees ≥ 180 years old in W. Agala, ≥ 100 years old in W. Feiran, ≥ 260 years old in W. Zaghra, and ≥ 240 years old in W. Me'ir have an 100% chance of death (qx = 1.00). The survivorship curve of M. peregrina populations in South Sinai represents type III of survivorship curves due to the high rate of mortality among the young and the old trees. The Pearson correlation and linear regression analysis revealed that the size (especially height and circumference/height ratio) can be used to expect the age class of M. peregrina tree in the studied wadis. The age structure results showed unhealthy shrinking populations of M. peregrina trees with sharp decline in the last 20-40 years. The study came out with a conclusion that unless conditions change, these populations will permanently disappear. Based on these results and looking for the future of the M. peregrina populations in the studied area, conservation of this tree is highly recommended. Keywords: South Sinai, Moringa peregrina, population dynamics, life table, age structure, survivorship curve. XVI I. Introduction Moringa is the sole genus of Moringaceae, with thirteen species distributed throughout the dry tropics of the world (Al Kahtani and Abou-Arab, 1993). M. peregrina (Forssk. ex Fiori) in Egypt and in Saudi Arabia called “Yassar” or "Al-Ban". It contains seeds that considered as a good source of oil. The oil is extracted by boiling seeds with water and collecting the oil from the surface of the water. The extracted oil is called “Al-Yassar”. M. peregrina is one of the most endangered trees in world due to over-cutting for different uses, however it is an important source of browse, wood fuel and timber, and Over-grazing, where M. peregrina has high quality as an animal fodder. In fact, grazing as well as unmanaged human activities represent a great disturbance for natural vegetation and threatening some rare species of extinction, disappearance of pastoral plant communities (Moustafa, 2000a). Threats affecting the existence of M. peregrina in Egypt, especially in South Sinai includes: climatic aridity, especially in last two decades, flower and seed-feeding insects, both are a dangerous limiting factor in seed production and density of seedling of many species such as Moringa tree grown in South Sinai (Abd El-Wahab, 1995), in addition to the infection of the old trunks. The fatal factor which leads to completely disappear of M. peregrina is the failure 1 of its regeneration and establishment as young trees or young populations. It is very hard to find any seedling of Moringa, so the study of its population dynamics is very important. Furthermore, it has high mortality rate, and low establishment, therefore the present study focus on the study of its population dynamics. The current situation is that M. peregrina consider a vulnerable species, occurs under several threats. The partial conservation of this tree is apparently difficult, due to overriding in its use, since it has variable values as palatable crop to livestock. In addition, they are not hesitating to destroy the trees for fuel, as well as over-consuming of Moringa seeds in the folk medicine. The conservation of M. peregrina tree is very necessary, to overcome it's consuming by animals and Bedouins in South Sinai. Zaghloul (1997) confirmed that measurements for protecting and managing of the threatened species in South Sinai should be preceded by intensive and extensive or long-term studies. Moreover, over-grazing, over-cutting and all bedouin's activities in Southern Sinai should be managed. Zaghloul (1997) recommended that restoration of the endangered, threatened species by soil seed bank and transplanting should be studied. Since the age and size of M. peregrina trees in a population may influence the function of the species in the ecosystem (Milton and Dean 1995, 1999), any decline in scattered mature trees may have serious implications for species diversity in the Southern Sinai. 2 In fact, there are no information on the demography of the species (Wiegand et al., 1999; and Moustafa et al., 2001). Therefore, a better understanding of the tree dynamics is fundamental to conserve it and enjoy the benefits of sustainable management of its populations. Therefore, demographic studies have been shown to be useful in understanding the regulation of population numbers (Silvertown, 1982), But for the plant populations with overlapping generations, mortality, survival and reproduction tend to vary with age or size of the individual plants (Goldstein et al., 1985; Harper and White, 1970; Harper, 1980). Furthermore, the survivorship curves reflect the mortality rate of flower buds, flowers, seeds, and juveniles (Deevey, 1947). According to Zaghloul et al., (2008), such relationships enable determination of the age class distribution of the population and consequently the dating of successful regeneration events, which can then be related to record of climate and/or anthropogenic practices, especially the climatic variations, soil properties, natural and human-induced disturbance, and biological interactions determine the rates of establishment, growth and mortality of the different species in the community (Van Valen, 1975; Archer, 1994). As confirmed by Moustafa et al., (2001) and according to Springuel & Mekki (1994), Egypt has many problems when its resources are abused through mismanagement rather than nurtured through effective management. Effective and precise system of 3 management which can help to protect the left over of our natural resources and let us have chance to find out the disappeared species while they are being used, and consequently providing the foundation for sustainable development. The present study focuses on M. peregrina as one of the most rarely species in South Sinai, which has high medicinal value and biological importance as one of its biota. Why this species occurs under threats? How to conserve it? What about its population dynamics? What about the present status of M. peregrina populations aging and sustainable use studies? Therefore, the present work aims to study the population dynamics of M. peregrina tree through: 1- Determining the actual demographic status by estimating the age structures of M. peregrina populations in South Sinai. 2- Determining the size structures and reveal the relationship between the size and age structures, along with the spatial and temporal changes in them in response to birth, aging and mortality rates. 3- Providing a static life table of M. peregrina populations in South Sinai. 4- Investigating the distributional behavior of M. peregrina populations in the study area. 5- Evaluating the threats which affect the establishment of M. peregrina in its natural habitats. 4 II. Background 1. Nomenclature Moringa peregrina belongs to the phenotypically varied groups of angiosperms due to its size. It is the sole genus of Moringaceae with thirteen species distributed throughout the dry tropics of the World. Moringa spans a vast range of life forms (habit). Moringa has different names; in Philippines, the leaves of Moringa are cooked and fed to babies, it is called mother’s best friend and "malunggay". Other names include the benzolive tree (Haiti), horseradish tree (Florida) and drumstick tree (India) (Somali et al., 1984). Its vernacular name (Arabic) is Habb ElYassar (El-Hadidi et al., 1991). According to Boulos (1999), the synonyms of Moringa peregrina (Forssk. Fori) are Hyperanthera peregrina Forssk., Moringa aptera Gaertn., Fruct., and Moringa arabica (Lam.) Pers. 2. Systematic Position According to Boulos (1999) and the system by Melchior (1964), adapted than system of Engler, Moringa is classified as follows: Division: Angiospermae Subdivision: Dicotyledoneae Class: Archiclamydeae Order: Papavarales Family: Moringaceae Floristic category: Afro-oriental, S. Arabian domains of Sudano-Zambezian region with extension to the middle and SaharoSindian sub-regions (El-Hadidi et al., 1991). 5 3. Morphology Moringa peregrina (Forssk. Fori) is a medium sized tree, 5-15 m tall (Duke, 1983; Boulos, 1999). It is deciduous, perennial tree and its main root is thick. Its branches and stem are brittle with corky bark, (Figure 1). Its trunk is erect, terete, branched, and branches is divaricated or ascending, slender, forming avoid or abavoid crown, green-glaucaus (El-Hadidi et al., 1991). The leaves of M. peregrina are feathery, pale green, compound tri-pinnate, 30-60 cm long with many small leaflets, 1.32.5 cm and 0.3-0.6 cm wide (Boulos, 1999). The leaflets are early deciduous, simple, petiolate, glabrous on both surfaces, the blade is ovate- oblanceolate, margin entire, and apex obtuse, sometimes mucronate (Duke, 1983; El-Hadidi et al., 1991). When M. peregrina seedlings start out, they have broad leaflets and a large tuber. Through many dry seasons, the shoot dies back below ground to the tuber. As the plant gets older, the leaves get longer and longer, but the leaflets get smaller and smaller and more widely spaced. Adult trees produce leaves with a full complement of tiny leaflets, only to drop them as the leaf matures (Olson, 1999). Flowers of M. peregrina are fragrant, with white, creamy, pinkish to pale, 2.5 cm in diameter, born in sprays, with five at the top of the flower and stamens are yellow (Figure 2.a). 6 Figure (1): Moringa peregrina tree growing in Wadi Zaghra (South Sinai). (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure (2): Morphology of M. peregrina (a) flowering buds and flowers, (b) green fruits in W. Zaghra (South Sinai), (c) dry pods and (d) seeds. 7 In addition, flowers are panicles or pedicellate. The sepals are oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, whitish. The color of the petals is white-pinkish to pale (El-Hadidi et al., 1991). The fruits (Figure 2.b) or pods of M. peregrina are pendulous ridged, brown, triangular. The pod (Figure 2.c) splitting lengthwise into 3 parts containing about 20-25 trigonous seeds embedded in the pith. Pods are tapering at both ends, 9-ribbed. The seeds of M. peregrina are dark brown with 3 papery wings (Figure 2.e) (Duke, 1983). Zahran and Willis (2009) stated that the pendulous pods ripen in October. The angled nut-like white seed (behen nut) are bitter-sweet nauseous taste and rich in oil (ben-oil) (Täckholm, 1974). 4. Anatomy Based on the gross appearance, the genus of Moringa is divided into four classes; bottle trees, slender trees, sarcorhizal trees and tuberous trees. In case of slender trees (e.g. M. peregrina), the stem is characterized by a preponderance of libriform fibres that show little seasonal variation in shape with little axial parenchyma. This pattern does not show variation, but in favorable season, the early wood libriform fibres are sometimes replaced by confluent aliform paratracheal parenchyma (Carlquist, 1988). As in the arboreal life forms, the slender trees shows alternating bands of liberiforms fibres and paratracheal axial parenchyma, however in this slender trees, the parenchyma bands 8 are never wider than adjacent bands of fibres. This predomination of liberform fibers makes the roots of the toughest in the genus. In the trans- and radial sections, fibres of different shapes in slender tree (e.g. M. peregrina) do not appear to occur in marked bands as in most of other arboreal species. The fibres of M. peregrina may occur in rings separated by aliform to the confluent aliform parenchyma. Rays are differing through life forms mainly in size and proportion of upright to square to procumbent cells. The shortest multi-seriate rays were found in the slender trees (Olson and Carlquist 2001). Tyloses were observed in all Moringa species. Storing can be observed in all Moringa species but is most apparent in area of extensive axial parenchyma or short libriforms fibres (Olson and Carlquist 2001). Based on gross appearance in the field, Moringa was divided into four habitat classes, (Table 1). In case of slender tree (e.g. M. peregrina) the stem characterized by a preponderance of libriform fibres that show little seasonal variation in shape with little axial parenchyma. Through this pattern does not show some variation, in favourable season early wood libriform fibres are sometimes replaced by confluent aliform paratracheal parenchyma. 9 Table (1): Shows the main classes of Moringa tree (i) Bottle trees (iii) Slender tree 1- M. drouhardii 7- M. peregrina 2- M. ovalifolia 8- M.oleifera 3- M. hildebrandti 9- M. concanensis 4- M. stenopetala (iv) Tuberous shrubs 10- M. borziana (ii) Sarcorhizal tree 5- M. arborea 11- M. longituba 6- M. ruspoliana 12- M. pygmaea 13- M. rivae 10 5. Chemistry Moringa peregrina kernel (seed) contains 1.8% moisture, 54.3% oil, 22.1% protein, 3.6% fiber, 15.3% carbohydrate and 2.5% ash. Moreover, the composition and characteristic of the extracted oil were determined by Somali et al. (1984). Gas-liquid chromatography of methyl esters of the fatty acids showed the presence of 14.7% saturated fatty acids and 84.7% unsaturated fatty acids. The fatty acid composition explains as follows: Palmitic (9.3%), Palmitoleic (2.4%), Stearic (3.5%), Oleic (78.0%), Linoleic (0.6%), Arachidic (1.8%) and Behenic (2.6%). Moreover, M. peregrina is the uppermost for antioxidant (Yang et al., 2006a and b). 6. Seed viability and germination The soaking of M. peregrina seeds in diluted tetrazolium salt (0.007 gm/L) showed that all seeds are viable (Abd El-Wahab, 1995). Although M. peregrina has hard woody testa, the highest percentage (92%) of germination was obtained when M. peregrina seeds were pre-soaked in water up to 24 hours (Abd El-Wahab, 1995). The seeds of M. peregrina gave a rapid and high germination percent in few days without any pretreatment. After ten days at 25ºC, 90 % of M. peregrina seeds were germinated. 7. Habitats Ranging from subtropical dry to moist through tropical very dry to moist forest life zones, Moringa is reported to tolerate annual 11 precipitation of 4.8 to 4.3 dm (mean of 53 cases =14.1) annual temperature of 18.7 to 28.5˚С (mean of 48 cases = 25.4) and pH of 4.5 to 8.0 (mean of 12 cases = 6.5) thrives in subtropical and tropical climates, flowering and fruiting freely and continuously. Thus, M. peregrina trees grow better on a dry sandy soil (Duke, 1983). Moringa is adapted to a wide range of soil types but it does grow in well-drained loam to clavoloam. It does not withstand prolonged waterlogging. It is observed to prefer a neutral to slightly acidic soil reaction, but it has recently been introduced with temperature ranges from 26 to 40c and annual rainfall at least at least 500 mm. It grows well from sea level to 1000 m in elevation. (VonMaydeU, 1986; and vonCarlowitz et al., 1991). 8. Medicinal uses The roots, leaves, flowers and seeds of M. peregrina are used in folk remedies for tumors (Hartwell, 1967, 69, 70 and 71). Pods act as a de-wormer and treat liver and spleen problems and pains of the joints. Due to the high protein and fiber content of pods, they can treat malnutrition and diarrhea. The root of M. peregrina is used for dropsy, and its juice is applied externally as rubefacient or counter-irritant. Moreover, roots are bitter as a tonic to the body and lungs, and are emmenagogue, expectorant, mild diuretic and stimulant in paralytic afflictions, epilepsy and hysteria (Duke, 1983). 12 The leaves of M. peregrina are applied as poultice to sores, for headaches, and said to have purgative properties and stop bleeding. There is an anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory effect when applied to wounds or insect bites. Leaf tea treats gastric ulcers and diarrhea. Bark, leaves and roots are acrid, pungent, and are taken to promote digestion (Duke, 1987; Freiberger et al., 1998). The flower juice of M. peregrina is useful for urinary problems. Moreover, it improves the quality and flow of mothers’ milk. The seed oil is used for diarrhea and conversely it has a laxative effect. Reported from the African and Hindustani Centers of Diversity, Moringa was reported to tolerate bacteria, drought, fungus, laterite, and mycobacteria, (Duke, 1978; Ramachandran et al., 1980). 9. Other uses 9.1. as plant growth hormone Juice from M. peregrina leaves can be used to produce an effective plant growth hormone, increasing yield by 25-30% for nearly any crop. One of the active substances in M. peregrina leaves is Zeatin. It is a plant hormone related to the cytokinines. This foliar spray should be used in addition to other fertilizers, watering and agricultural practices (Fuglie, 2001a). 13 9.2. as green manure Using M. peregrina as a green manure can significantly enrich agricultural land. In this process, the land is first tilled, Moringa seed is then planted 1-2 cm deep at a spacing of 10x10 cm (about one million seed per hectare). After 25 days, the seedlings are plowed into the soil to a depth of 15 cm. The land is prepared again for the crop desired. Seed can be done mechanically if the seed is first de-hulled. Planting kernels will reduce germination time by up to three days. A simple method of seedling is to firstotill the soil to a depth of 10 cm, then scatters seed over the soil and rototills again to a depth of 2-3 cm (Fuglie, 2001b). 9.3. as a food Nutritional analysis indicates that the leaves and pods of M. peregrina contain wealth of essential and disease preventing nutrients, as well as, all essential amino acids (Verma et al., 1976; Freiberger et al., 1998) (Table 2). 14 Table (2): Nutritional Analysis of M. peregrina pods, fresh raw leaves, and dried leaf powder per 100 grams of edible portion (Price, 1985; Freiberger et al., 1998). Pods Fresh Leaves Dried Leaf Powder 86.90% 26.0 2.5 0.1 3.7 4.8 2.0 30.0 24.0 110.0 259.0 3.1 5.3 10.0 137.0 75% 92.0 6.7 1.7 13.4 0.9 2.3 440.0 24.0 70.0 259.0 1.1 0.7 101.0 137.0 7.50% 205.0 27.1 2.3 38.2 19.2 2003.0 368.0 204.0 1324.0 0.6 28.2 0.0 870.0 Nutritional Analysis Moisture (%) Calories Protein (g) Fat (g) Carbohydrate (g) Fiber (g) Minerals (g) Calcium (mg) Magnesium (mg) Phosphorous (mg) Potassium (mg) Copper (mg) Iron (mg) Oxalic acid (mg) Sulphur VITAMINS CONTENTS Vitamin A - B carotene (mg) 0.1 6.8 16.3 Vitamin B – Choline (mg) Vitamin B1 – Thiamin (mg) Vitamin B2 – Riboflavin (mg) Vitamin B3 – Nicotinic Acid (mg) Vitamin C – Ascorbic Acid (mg) Vitamin E –Tocopherols Acetate (mg) 423.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 120.0 - 423.0 0.2 0.1 0.8 220.0 - 2.6 20.5 8.2 17.3 113 AMINO ACIDs CONTENTS Arginine (mg) Histidine (mg) Lysine (mg) Tryptophan (mg) Phenylanaline (mg) Methionine (mg) Threonine (mg) Leucine (mg) Isoleucine (mg) 360.0 110.0 150.0 80.0 430.0 140.0 390.0 650.0 440.0 406.6 149.8 342.4 107.0 310.3 117.7 117.7 492.2 299.6 1325 613 1325 425 1388 350 1188 1950 825 Valine (mg) 540.0 374.5 1063 15 9.4. as water purifier Seed powder of M. peregrina can be used as a quick and simple method for cleaning dirty river water. The powder joins with the solids in the water and sinks to the bottom. This treatment removes 90-99% of bacteria contained in water. Using M. peregrina to purify water replaces chemicals such as aluminum sulphate, which has dangerous effects on people and the environment, and is expensive (Jahn et al., 1986; VonMaydeU, 1986; and Fuglie, 1999). 9.5. as a good source of oil Moringa oil deserves to be an important part in our diet. It is a concentrated source of food energy and nutrients. The seeds of M. peregrina were the source of "Bean oil" used by the Egyptians since old and middle kingdoms (300-200B.C). The refined oil obtained from Moringa seeds has a yellowish color, a sweet taste and odorless, for this reason it was much estimated for preparing cosmetics (Lucas, 1962). The bright yellow oil with a pleasant taste has been compared in quality with olive oil. The kernel contains 3540% by weight of oil (Folkard & Sutherland, 2005). Moringa seed has a fairly soft kernel, so the oil can be extracted by hand using a screw press. The seed is first crushed, 10% by volume of water is added, followed by gentle heating over a low fire for 10-15 minutes, taking care not to burn the seed (e.g. 11 kg of kernels yielded 2.6 liters of oil, or 52 kg of seeds yielded 12.5 liters of cold pressed oil using a motor-driven screw-type). In some countries (e.g. Oman), they soak the seed overnight to allow the oil 16 to separate from the water. After the oil is extracted, the rather bitter tasting presscake still has all the properties of fresh seed in treating and cleaning water. With 60% protein content, it may be used as a soil fertilizer and further studies are looking at how it could be used as part of animal and poultry feed, (VonMaydeU, 1986; Folkard & Sutherland, 2005). 10. Phenological aspects M. peregrina becomes flowering in March and April. Unripe fruiting period occurs from April to June. Ripe pods can be collected in the end of June and July. Mature tree produces about 150 pods of 10 to 15 seeds per each (1700 seeds/1 kg.), December and January are the dry period of M. peregrina tree (Abd El-Wahab, 1995). 11. Distribution M. peregrina is native to India, Arabian Peninsula, and possibly Africa and as far north as the Dead Sea (Duke, 1983; Fuglie, 1999). It is recorded from Ethiopia and Somalia, northwards to the Sudan and eastwards to Arabia. It is also recorded in Palestine and Jordan (Fuglie, 1999). Globally, it grows in Northeast Africa and Southwest Asia (Boulos, 1999). In Egypt, M. peregrina grows into the Red Sea region, according to Kassas and Zahran (1962), M.Peregrina is confined to the feet of the mountains that are higher than 1300-1500m., it 17 extending from Gebel Abou-Dukhan (lat. 27º 20′ N) to Gebel ElFaryid (lat. 23º 30′ N) (El Hadidi et al., 1991). Zahran and Willis (2009) stated that M. peregrina is confined to the upstream parts of wadis draining the slopes of the higher mountains. Moreover, M. peregrina scrub is represented by patches that cover limited areas of the upstream runnels of the drainage systems. These are runnels collecting water at the foot of the higher mountains. Thus M. peregrina is a desert species; its occurrence in Egypt is restricted to the mountains of the Red Sea and south Sinai. The ground where M. peregrina grows is usually covered with coarse rock debris, characterizes the upstream runnels at the mountain bases and slopes (Kassas and Zahran, 1971). Zahran and Willis (2009) stated that M. peregrina is present on the higher zones of the north-facing slopes of the mountain of the Red Sea coast, especially Gebel Shindodai, it is also present within the mountains of Samiuki, Nugrus and Shayeb groups. The ground where M. peregrina grows is usually covered with coarse rock detritus. The restriction of M. peregrina to the foot of the higher mountains indicates that the high altitude leads to greater water resources. It is also recorded in South Sinai in limited area at Feiran Oasis Mountains. It grows in crevices and rocky slopes of mountains. Its wild populations have been reduced to a few populations distributed in South Sinai, the Eastern Desert and Gebel Elba in southeastern Egypt (Abd El-Wahab, 1995). Moreover, the west-facing escarpments of Gebel Serbal are rich in M. peregrina trees, which grow on rocky slopes near springs (Danin, 1999). 18 III. Review of Literature Kjaer et al., (1979) studied the isothiocyanates in myrosinasetreated seed extracts of Moringa peregrina. They discovered that M. peregrina seeds treated with myrosinase produce 2-propyl, 2-butyl and 2-methylpropyl isothiocyanate, in addition to 5,5-dimethyloxazolidine-2-thione. All of these compounds are new to the family, but known as natural derivatives from other sources. On the other hand, 4-(4'-O-Acetyl-alpha-L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl isothiocyanate together with substantial quantities of its non-acetylated counterpart, earlier recognized as a component in hydrolysed seeds of M. oleifera, constituted the additional mustard oils observed in M. peregrina seeds (Kjaer et al., 1979). In 1984, Somali et al., studied the chemical composition and characteristics of M. peregrina seeds and seeds oil. They revealed that M. peregrina kernel contains 1.8% moisture, 54.3% oil, 22.1% protein, 3.6% fibres, 15.3% carbohydrate and 2.5% ash. Composition and characteristics of the extracted oil were determined. GLC of methyl esters of the fatty acids shows the presence of 14.7% saturated fatty acids and 84.7% unsaturated fatty acids. Fatty acid composition is as follows (%): palmitic 9.3, palmitoleic 2.4, stearic 3.5, oleic 78.0, linoleic 0.6, linolenic 1.6, arachidic 1.8 and behenic 2.6. M. peregrina therefore has potential as a new source of fat and protein. 18 The trail of find out M. peregrina seeds in a seed bank was studied by Prendergast (1994a and b) during four expeditions to Oman (two for the southern province of Dhofar and two for the mountain ranges of Jebel Akhdar and Eastern Hajar). Moreover, seed germination was studied by Moustafa et al. (1996). According to them, seeds of M. peregrina and Salvadora persica showed rapid and high germination. After ten days at 25ºC, all seeds of Moringa peregrina were germinated (Abel Wahab, 1995). The role of seed as water purifier had been articulated by Jahn (1981, 1984 & 1986) and Jahn et al. (1986), who described Moringa as the tree that purifies water; cultivating multipurpose Moringaceae in the Sudan. This article tabulates the uses and locations for the most important six Moringa species (M. peregrina, M. oleifera, M. stenopetala, M. longituba, M. drouhardii and M. ovalifolia). Jahn (1986), experimented water treatment with traditional plant materials from Sudan including seeds of five Moringa species (M. peregrina, M. oleifera, M. stenopetala, M. longituba and M. drouhardii), two bean species (Vicia faba and Faba fona) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum); bark of the tree Boscia senegalensis; and dried stalks and fruits of the herb Blepharis persica. Three clays (or 'rauwaq' = clarifier) from different regions in the Sudan, and alum, were also tested. The best coagulants/clarifying agents were M. peregrina seeds and B. senegalensis bark; these often had efficiency similar to alum. 19 Madsen et al. (1987) studied an effect of water coagulation by seeds of Moringa on bacterial concentrations. Morover, Kalogo et al. (2000) studied the effect of a water extract of Moringa seeds on the hydrolytic microbial species diversity. Moringa peregrina seed oil (53.9%) was investigated and compared with crude soybean oil by Al-Kahtani (1993). Oils were easily extracted by several solvents but the extraction rate of M. peregrina oil with hexane was slightly faster than that of soybean oil. All physico-chemical constants but free fatty acids (%FFA) were lower in M. peregrina oil. The highest transmittance for calor measurement was at 575 nm for M. peregrina oil and at 600 nm for soybean oil. Total lipids consisted of 90.5% and 91.8% neutrallipids (NL), 7.9% and 5.5% glycolipids (GL), and 1.6% and 2.7% phospholipids (PL), for M. peregrina and soybean oils, respectively, and their fatty acid composition was determined. NL consisted mostly of triacylglycerols in both oil; with absence of mono-and diacylglycerols in M. peregrina oil. Separation patterns of GL and PL were nearly identical and at least five phospholipids were identified. Phosphorus levels by nephelometry (turbidimetry) were 129.7 and 421.8 ppm for M. peregrina and soybean oils, respectively. Much lower levels of alpha, gamma and delta tocopherols were present in M. peregrina oil and consequently its oxidative stability was lower during 30-day incubation period at 100ºC. 20 Anatomical studies are very few, it needs further investigation. Al-Gohary & Hajar (1996) studied the stems and leaves of M. peregrina at different levels of soil moisture content within the range between permanent wilting percentage and moisture equivalent. The diameter of stem gradually increased with increase of water supply which generally led to progressive formation of vascular elements as well as cortical and pith tissues. In arid region, M. peregrina showed tendencies towards xerophytic adaptation. The leaves are covered with remarkedly dense trichomes, relatively increased in the values of stomatal frequency and index, and a reduction in the proportion of the air spaces in Mesophyll tissue. Such decrease in coefficients of mesophytic characteristic of the species gradually disappeared with the increase of the soil moisture content. The variation in water supply led only to quantitative changes of the micro-morphological attributes of the species but no qualitative modifications took place (Al-Gohary & Hajar 1996). Moreover, the epidermal cells of M. peregrina are tangentially and radially elongated. Trichomes are eglandular and unicellular. Mesophyll is a dorsoventral type. Palisade tissue of 1-2 layers which are discontinuous adaxially at the midrib region. Medvein is crescent-shape and surrounded by parenchymatous sheath. Mechanical tissue of collenchyma was recorded abaxial and adaxial at the midrib region. 21 It is obvious that various anatomical changes were obtained in stems and leaves of M. peregrina in response to variation of available soil moisture content. The diameter of stem increased gradually as water supply increased. Such factor is usually a feature concomitant to increase of soil moisture (Al-Gohary & Hajar 1996). During the course of their study, the number of parenchymatous layers of cortex progressively increased with increase in available moisture from the lowest level (0-5%) to the highest (95-100%) also gradually increased of sclerenchymatous mass of pericycle, phloem, xylem elements, as well as the diameter of pith was observed to accompany the elevation in the soil moisture content. Furthermore, xylem and phylum were in the form dictyostele with much reduced medullary rays in the stem of plants growing under low moisture level (0-5%) (Al-Gohary and Hajar, 1996). Olson and Carlquist (2001) studied stem and root anatomical correlations with life form diversity, ecology, and systematics in Moringa. A study was conducted to examine the variation in stem and root anatomy associated with habit in thirteen species of Moringa to test the assumption that habitat differences are associated with anatomical differences. Moringa species are classified into four types according to the gross appearance; bottle trees, sarcorhizal, slender trees, and tuberous shrubs (Olson and Carlquist 2001). They revealed that the slender trees (such as M. peregrina) have slender trunks at maturity and tough, fibrous roots with smoother, spongier and more fragile bark than the stem. 22 Jahn (1986) studied the germination and cultivation techniques of Moringa tree. She describes the uses of Moringa as a multipurpose species. The status of Moringa in its country of origin is outlined and an account given of its introduction to the Sudan. Cultivation experiments on the species in Sudanese nurseries were described in detail and include germination studies, the development of seedlings to fruit-bearing trees (planting, tending, flowering, fruiting), and vegetative propagation from cuttings and air layering. The results of Sudanese experiments on the propagation of M. peregrina and four wild species (M. oleifera, M. stenopetala, M. drouhardii and M. longituba) are discussed. An account is given of insect pests of Moringa in relation to defoliation, damage to buds and fruit, damage to the trunk and to cuttings. The seeds of M. peregrina require little or no pretreatment prior to germination with viability rates for fresh seeds having been reported to be up to 80% reducing to approximately 50% after 12 months storage. Seeds may be sown directly or in seed beds with transplanting after two to three months. The best time of year for sowing is reported to be at the beginning of the wet season. If planted out during the dry season half-shade should be provided and watering should be carried out regularly until the tree is established. Watering every other day has been reported to increase the drought tolerance of the tree, (Jahn et al., 1986). 23 M. peregrina is easy to propagate by seeds. Seedlings of M. peregrina were transferred from Petri-dishes to seed bed containing the mixture of equal volumes of sand and clay (Abd El-Wahab, 1995). Establishment of M. peregrina particularly showed a low percent of success especially when the plants out of the nursery. Abd El-Wahab (1995) confirmed that this problem needs further studies and experiments. Olson (2002) combined the data of DNA sequences and morphology for a phylogeny of Moringaceae. He showed that with just thirteen species, Moringa is for its size one of the most phenotypically varied groups of angiosperms. It ranged from huge "bottle trees" to tiny tuberous shrubs, and spanning the range from radial to bilateral floral symmetry. Moringa is currently divided into three sections, but because of the basal grade, it cannot be divided into useful monophyletic infra-generic taxa. The phylogeny-based informal terms "bottle tree grade", "slender tree clade", and "tuberous clade" are suggested as alternatives. Relationships within Moringa species were found to be largely congruent with a previous study of wood anatomy. According to Duke (1983); the Moringa leaves contains 7.5 H2O, 6.7gm protein, 1.7gm fat, 1.3gm total carbohydrates, 0.9 gm fiber, 2.3 gm ash, 440 mg Ca, 70 mg P, 7 mg Fe, 110 μg Cu, 5.1 μg I, 11.300 IU vitamin A, 120 μg vitamin B. On the other hand, Das (1965) showed that M. peregrina leaves on ethanolic extraction yielded a number of amino acids (aspartic acid, glutamic acid, 24 serine, glycine, threonine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, histidine, lysine arginine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, cysteine and methionine). The later nine amino acids present in the flowers and in the fruits. The flowers contained both sucrose and D-glucose, whereas the fruits showed the presence of sucrose only. The leaves contain 0.8 mg nicotinic acid, 220 mg ascorbic acid, and 7.4 mg tocopherol per 100 gm (Duke, 1983). Estrogenic substances, including the anti-tumor compound, β-sitosterol, and a pectinesterase are also reported Moreover, Duke (1983) studied the chemistry of the pods. It can be summarized as follows: each 100 gm contain 86.9 gm H2O, 2.5 gm protein, 0.1gm total carbohydrates, 4.8gm fiber, 2.0gm ash, 30 mg ca, 110 mg P, 5.3 mg Fe, 184 IU vitamin A, 0.2 mg niacin, and 120 mg ascorbic acids, 310 μg Cu, 1.8μg I. In 1993, Al-Kahtani and Abou-Arab studied the physical, chemical, and functional properties of M. peregrina and soybean proteins. According to their study, the young seeds of M. peregrina are eaten like peas and the mature seeds are fried or roasted like groundnuts. Flours of M. peregrina and soybeans were individually defatted and fractionated into protein concentrate and protein isolate. M. peregrina flour contained more oil than soybean flour but was lower in proteins, carbohydrates and ash. Furthermore, M. peregrina protein concentrate also contained less protein and more carbohydrate. 25 M. peregrina proteins were somewhat less soluble than soybean proteins, even at higher pH values. Emulsion capacity of M. peregrina products was generally higher than that of soybean products at all pH values, while emulsion stability of soybean products was generally higher, particularly at pH 2 and 10. Maximum increase in foam volume was observed at pH 2. At pH 46, the foam stability of M. peregrina protein isolate was greater, but the foam stability of its protein concentrate was lower than soybean proteins. Soybean protein concentrate absorbed significantly more water, while M. peregrina products absorbed more oil (Al-Kahtani and Abou-Arab, 1993). Al-Kahtani (1995) studied the antinutritional factors in M. peregrina and soybean products. M. peregrina and soybean defatted flours, protein concentrates and isolates were assayed for trypsin (TA) and alpha-amylase (AA) inhibitor activities, phytic acid, tannin and chlorogenic acid contents, and in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD). TA in M. peregrina defatted flour (MDF) was lower (P<0.05) but more heat resistant than in soybean. AIA in MDF was lower than in soybean and inhibited pancreatic amylase more than bacterial amylase. Some M. peregrina products were higher in phytic acid but lower in chlorogenic acid than soybean. Tsaknis (1998) studied the oil content of M. peregrina seeds from Saudi Arabia which was 49.8%. Characteristics of the oil included: density at 24°C 0.906; refractive index at 40°C 1.460; smoke point 199°C; acidity (as oleic acid) 0.30%; saponification 26 value, 185 mg KOH/g oil; iodine value, 69.6 g iodine/100 g oil; and peroxide value, 0.4 m-equivalent O2/kg oil. The predominant unsaturated fatty acid was oleic acid (70.52%) followed by gadoleic acid (1.5%). The predominant saturated fatty acid was palmitic acid (8.90%) followed by stearic acid (3.82%). The main sterols were beta-sitosterol (27.28%), stigmasterol (26.79%), campesterol (25.47%) and Delta-5- avenasterol (10.18%). Other sterols present included 24-methylene cholesterol, brassicasterol, campestanol, Delta-7-campestanol, clerosterol, Delta-5-, -2-4-stigmastadienol, Delta-7-stigmastanol & Delta-7-avenasterol. The oil contained 145 mg alpha-tocopherol/kg, 58 mg gamma-tocopherol/kg and 66 mg delta-tocopherol/kg. Induction period (at 120° C) of the oil was 10.2 h; this was reduced to 8.1 h after degumming (Tsaknis, 1998). Tsaknis (1998) revealed that the high resistance of M. peregrina oil to oxidative rancidity is related to its high tocopherol content. It is concluded that M. peregrina oil might be an acceptable substitute for highly monounsaturated edible oils such as olive oil. On the other hand, in 1998, Abu Tarboush investigated the effects of gamma-irradiation (1.0-10 kGy) on trypsin, chymotrypsin and alpha-amylase inhibitors of soyabean and M. peregrina seeds on tannin of Sorghum, gossypol of cotton seed, and in vitro digestibility of soyabean. A dose of 10.0 kGy caused decreases in 27 trypsin (by 34.9%) and chymotrypsin (by 71.4%) inhibitor activities in soyabean defatted flour, whereas its in vitro digestibility increased from 79.8 to 84.2%. The alpha-amylase inhibitor activity of M. peregrina was decreased by 43.6 and 47.8% on treatment with 7.0 and 10.0 kGy, respectively. Doses of 10.0 and 7.0 kGy significantly reduced the tannin content in Shahlla sorghum but not in Hemaira sorghum. Total and free gossypol contents were slightly reduced by irradiation. Furthermore, Al-Othman et al (1998) studied the effect of seed oils of M. peregrina on the plasma lipid of Rates. Al-Hussain and Al-Othman (2003) studied the amino acid composition of Al-Ban (M. peregrina) seed products; also they studied the effects of antinutritional factors and toxic elements on biological evaluation of M. peregrina seed protein. The first study detected on presence of anti-nutritional factors (e.g. proteinase inhibitors, tannins and phytic acid) and toxic elements (e.g. lead, mercury and arsenic) in M. peregrina seeds. It also aimed to determine protein digestibility and protein efficiency ratio (PER) in mice fed with these seeds and to evaluate the effect of feeding M. peregrina seeds on the liver tissues of mice. Al-Hussain and Al-Othman (2003) also found that the protein percentages in M. peregrina defatted flour (DF), protein concentrate (PC) and protein isolate (PI) were 59.7, 67.3 and 80.0%, respectively. The trypsin inhibitor activities of DF, PC and PI were 11.72, 9.74 and 6.85 inhibitor unit/mg protein, respectively. The 28 phytic acid levels were 1.90, 1.92 and 1.81%, respectively. Soaking of Al-Ban seeds in water, followed by boiling, effectively reduced trypsin inhibitor and phytic acid levels. The amounts of arsenic, mercury and lead found in Al Ban seeds were < 0.30, < 89 and < 0.25 µg/g, respectively. Specific studies related to conservation are carried out since 1995, starting with a reproductive ecology, studying of wild endangered trees and shrubs in South Sinai (Abd El-Wahab, 1995). He aimed to help in regeneration and rehabilitation of the destructive vegetation, soil protection, and reduction of dangerous effects of floods throughout the area. The vegetation potentially and the aspects of ecological destruction in Saint Catherine mountains area was studied by Ramadan (1995). He devoted a special emphasis to the endangered plant species, whether as endemic and/or rare populations, (Zaghloul, 2003). M. peregrina is one of seven species studied by Moustafa et al., (1996). Their study aimed to investigate the relationships between the distribution of the species and physical environmental factors. They indicated that altitude, nature of soil surface and soil texture, which all act on the amount of available moisture, and salinity, were the main physical factors controlling the distribution of woody plant communities. Zahran and Willis (2009) stated that Moringa peregrina community contains the following xerophytic associated species: 29 Acacia raddiana, Aerva javanica, Artemisia judaica, Capparis cartilaginea, C. decidua, Chrozophora plicata, Cleome droserifolia, Fagonia mollis, Francoeuria crispa, Hyoscyamus muticus, Launea spinosa, Lavandula stricta, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Lindenbergia sinaica, Lycium arabicum, Ochradenus baccatus, Periploca aphylla, Zilla spinosa, and Zygophyllum coccineum. 30 IV. The Study Area 1. Geology and Geomorphology of South Sinai The southern part of Sinai is generally composed of a broad belt of dark-colored purplish or reddish sandstones. To the south, there is a triangular mass of mountains formed of igneous and metamorphic rocks chiefly granites. This mass of mountains is intensively rugged and dissected by a complicated system of deep wadis with different landforms and irregular topography (Moustafa, 1990; and Said, 1990). In addition, some of wadis in South Sinai reach a considerable length e.g. Wadi Feiran (one of the studied wadis in this study area) and some are shorter, narrow, steeper and represent tributaries of the main wadis (e.g. Wadi Sa'al) (Shabana, 1988). Progressing inland, the wadis become deeper and the igneous hills become higher. In the triangular southern mass of mountains, the igneous complex has been relieved of its sandstone overburden and so manifests the characteristics of a true mountain range (Said, 1990). This range is divided into four clusters of peaks; Serbal Mount in west (2070 m a.s.l.), Mousa Mount (2285 m a.s.l.), Catherine Mount (2641 m a.s.l.) as a group in the center and Um Shomer Mount (2586 m a.s.l.) in south. It represents a series of mountains at different elevation with four large valleys (Said, 1990; Moustafa, 1990). Due to the Massif Mountains in the center, South Sinai has a wide range of altitudinal variation. The altitudinal gradient decreases from Saint Catherine area going eastward till Gulf of Aqaba and westward till Gulf of Suez (Abd El-Wahab, 2003). 31 The geomorphology of Sinai was summarized as a plateau tiling upwards the south (Zohary, 1973; Said, 1990). Hammad (1980) divided Sinai into seven main geomorphologic districts; the southern elevated mountains part, the central paleaux, the hilly area, the north and north-most coastal plain, the marshy and sabakhas, the alluvium coastal plains, and lakes. The geomorphology of the study area forms a part of highly rugged mountains with acid plutonic and volcanic rocks. These rocks belong to the Precambrian basement complex of the southern part of Sinai which is dissected by a numerous incised wadis that are everywhere showing signs of down-cutting (Said, 1990). Due to the high altitude of Sinai Mountains, the southern section receives ample rainfall which has produced wadis (Zahran and Willis, 2009). For example, W. Feiran and W. Me'ir are wide and relatively rich in vegetation. The landscape of the study include many landform types; slopes, gorges, and wadi-bed. Slopes comprise all land surfaces, ranging from the horizontal to vertical (Holmes, 1984; Moustafa and Klopatek, 1995). They originate by a combination of tectonic and erosion activity, thus uplifting or faulting provides slopes. Georges originate from joints or faults. Joints are fracture surfaces along which there has been unpredicted movement, and along adjacent slabs and masses of bedrock join (Davis, 1984). The term wadi designates a dried riverbed in a desert area (Kassas, 1954). A wadi may be transformed into a temporary watercourse after heavy rain (Kassas, 1954). Wadi bed is covered with alluvial deposits with different thickness and structure from location to another. The soil 32 is usually composed of the same composition as the parent rocks and varied in texture from fine silt or clay to gravels and boulder (Kassas, 1952 and 1954; Kassem, 1981). 2-Locations The study area is located between 33o 30' to 34o 26' E, and 28o 23' to 28o 47' N (Figure 3). During these geographical boundaries, it is described as predominantly smooth-faced granite outcrops forming mountains such as Gebel Serbal, Gabel Catherine and Gabel Mousa. These mountains may affect the distribution of M. peregrina in South Sinai (Zahran and Willis, 2009). The present study is carried out in four main localities of South Sinai; (1) Wadi Agala, (2) Wadi Feiran, (3) Wadi Zaghra and (4) Wadi Me'ir (Table 3). During the course of this study (20032008), M. peregrina tree was recorded in forty-one sites (Figure 4). Each site was separated than another one by a distance (about 5-10 m) or according to change of landform type (George, slope, etc). The maximum elevation above sea level at which M. peregrina tree is recorded was 800 m. a.s.l in W. Feiran. Table (3): Four wadis of the study area in which M. peregrina trees were recorded. Sites Wadis of Max. Elevation Study Area m. a.s.l. No. From To trees 1 W. Agala 764 4 1 4 40 2 W. Feiran 800 5 5 9 47 3 W. Zaghra 642 6 9 15 82 4 W. Me'ir 728 26 16 41 235 No. 33 No. of Suez Nakhel Taba Nuweiba W. Feiran W. Agala W. Zaghra St. Catherine Dahab W. Me'ir El-Tor Sharm El- Figure (3): The location map of the four wadis of study area of South Sinai. 34 Mediterranean Sea 30ºN Sinai Western Desert 33º30' E Red Sea 25ºN 34º30' E N EGYPT 5 36ºE 31ºE 26ºE 6 W. Feiran 7 28º40' N 1 8 9 2 W. 3 Agala 4 W. Zaghra 12 11 15 14 13 10 2070 m G. Serbal Figure (4): The sites map W. Me'ir 22 19 18 20 21 17 39 41 40 16 of Moringa peregrina populations at the four 32 29 30 31 3334 35 36 2641 m G. 38 23 252627 28 24 2285 m G. Mousa Dahab Katherine studied wadis in South Sinai. El-Tor 28º15' N 10 20 30 40 Km 28º15' 33º30' E 34º30' E 35 I. Wadi Agala Wadi Agala runs parallel to W. Aliyat and drains into W. Feiran. Wadi bed here is narrow (about 40 m width, and 4 Km long), however the water channel is only 10 m width. Its surface consists of rocky substrate near the edges and gravel in the main water channel (Abdel-Hamid, 2009). M. peregrina in this wadi grows on foot-hills and at the both sides of water stream, and it is highly affected with over-collection and over-grazing (Figure 5). II. Wadi Feiran Wadi Feiran represents one of the longest broadest wadis in South Sinai. It is bounded by igneous and metamorphic mountains with different varieties of dykes. M. peregrina grow in-between the rock crevices at high elevations. It has three main tributaries (W. ElSheikh, W. Solaf and W. EL-Akhdar) at cultivated Feiran Oasis tending west till it pours into the Gulf of Suez (Kassem, 1981). The surface of Feiran basin (1675 km2) is occupied by high mountains and a widely distributed drainage system. The high mountains and hills form great catchment areas receiving high quantities of precipitation in the form of rainfall, and on the highest peaks, some storms of snow (Kassem, 1981). The igneous and metamorphic mountains are formed in the Precambrian era. Both types are invaded by a wide range of varieties of dykes with various trends and ages. The sedimentary rocks belong to the PaleozoicCenozoic eras (Said, 1962). These sediments include Nubian sandstones, lacustrine deposits, some limestone and Gypsum (Figure 6). 36 Figure (5): M. peregrina tree and nature of soil surface in Wadi Agala, South Sinai. Figure (6): Population of M. peregrina tree and nature of soil surface in W. Feiran, South Sinai. 37 W. Feiran rises from the high mountains surrounding the monastery of Saint Catherine at 2500 m above sea. It descends steeply to the north, then turns to the west until it terminates in the Suez gulf about 165 km south of El-Shatt (Zahran and Willis, 2009). The downstream part of W. Feiran extends for about 20 km, covered by sediments of rock, boulders and fragments in a sandyclay matrix, Hammada elegans dominates in this habitat, growing in distantly spaced patches forming huge hummocks. In addition trees of Acacia raddiana are widely spaced on gullies and rocky slopes. Common associates include Anthemis psaudocotula, Artimisea judaica, Cleome arabica, Diplotaxis acris, Fagonia arabica, Farsetia aegyptia, lygos raetam, Mentha longifolia spp. typhoides, Pituranthos tortuosus, Zilla spinosa, and Zygophyllum simplex, Moricandia sinica is rare in this xeric habitat. About 22 km east of the wadi mouth, fine sandy-clay soil constituents increase. Here, Aerva javanica v. bovei, appears in addition to the abovemention common associates. Feiran oasis is about 43 km east of the mouth of W. feiran and appeared as a deep, fertile extension of the wadi surrounded by high red mountains crowded with trees (Acacia radiana, phoenix dactylifera, Tamarix aphylla). The oasis extends over a distance of 10 km. Abundant ground water and deep sandy-clay deposits (wadi terraces), as well as the natural protection of the locality against wind, favour the utilization of the oasis as a productive area, e.g. to cultivate fruit trees (Zahran and Willis, 2009). 38 In W. Feiran, along the main wadi from Oasis to the Gulf, there are tributaries including Wadi Nesrin, Wadi Tarr and Wadi Mekatab. The nature of the main wadi and their tributaries are rocky, broad with a range of width between 200 and 400m (Abd ElWahab, 1995). The annual rainfall in Wadi Feiran is around 50mm till the end of 1970. From 1980 till now, it has been subjected to hard aridity and the annual rainfall decreased. The cumulative rainfall in the top of mountain that comes from the drainage of Feiran tributaries causes the most famous floods in Sinai, (Abd El-Wahab, 1995). The floods of Wadi Feiran usually come and carry down stones, cobbles and gravel causing strong damages and carry and may change a dry valley into a mighty river for some time. Wadi Feiran is the hottest wadis in Southern Sinai especially in the period between June and August (Table 4). Ramadan (1988) recorded that the minimum temperature in Feiran Oasis keeps above zero in winter (7 oC and the maximum is 42 oC in June). Table (4): Minimum and Maximum temperature of Feiran Oasis (Altitude 660m) (Ramadan, 1988, Abd El-Wahab, 1995). Month Sep – Oct 1983 Oct – Nov Nov – Dec Dec – Feb 1984 Feb – June June – July Max. Temp. Min Temp. (oC) 39 36 28 28 42 38 20 13 9 7 23.5 25 39 III. Wadi Zaghra This wadi is located as north-east of Saint Catherine at 28°39' 45"N and 34°19'44"E, as revealed in location map. It is about (100 m) width and (65 km) long. Its surface consists of stones and rocky substrates. The mountains of this wadi are dark color. M. peregrina trees grow on the foothills of mountains. Wadi Zaghra is rich in Capparis spp. and Citrullus colocynthesis in association with Moringa trees. Total plant cover ranges between 1-5% in the main wadi-bed while at foothills it reaches 5-10% where Acacia sp. and M. peregrina are found. Recorded species in Wadi Zaghra include 9 threaten species, only one of them is endemic; Origanum syriacum. These threatened species include Solenostemma arghel, Capparis spinosa, Cleome droserifolia, Moringa peregrina (Figure 7), Pulicaria arabica, Zygophyllum coccineum, Artemisia judaica, Senna italica, Cucumis prophetarum, Citrullus colocynthis, and Hyoscyamus muticus (Moustafa, 1999). In Wadi Zaghra, although there is low density of Bedouin families, the plants are subjected to a number of threats, for instance over-collection for medicinal uses. The medicinal and economic plants such as Solenostemma arghel and Cleome droserifolia are suffer from over-collection for trade and exported abroad. Signs of over-collection of Moringa and Acacia for fuel wood and construction were noticed during the visits of households. The other species are also subjected to high over-collection such as Haloxylon 40 salicornicum, Artemisia judaica, and Ochradenus baccatus. Overgrazing were recognized in many species specially Crotalaria aegyptiaca, Ochradenus baccatus, and Panicum turgidum (Moustafa, 1999). IV. Wadi Me'ir Wadi bed of W. Me'ir is about (140 m width, and 30 Km long), it is located as north-east of El-Tor. Wadi Me'ir is rich in Moringa trees; grow on foot-hills and at the edges of water stream in wadi bed (Figure 8). It has a large wadi bed surrounded with series of mountains. Its surface also consists of stones and rocky substrates. Generally, in W. Me'ir, the total plant cover ranges between 15% all over the wadi and 20-30% at some tributaries at the middle of the wadi. This area is characterised by 50 plant species including one endemic and 26 medicinal species. Eleven threatened species range between endangered and rare species. The associated plants species recorded with M. peregrina in W. Me’ir include Hyoscyamus muticus, Cleome droserifolia, Capparis sinaica, Capparis spinosa, Acacia tortilis, Acacia negavensis, Ochradenus baccatus, Fagonia mollis, Retama raetam, Artemisia judaica, Pulicaria arabica, Citrullus colocynthis and Cucumis prophetarum (Moustafa, 1999). 41 Figure (7): Population of M. peregrina trees at W. Zaghra, South Sinai. Figure (8): Population of M. peregrina trees at W. Me'ir, South Sinai. 42 3. Climate Generally, Sinai lies in the arid to extremely arid belt of North Africa and belongs to the Saharan-Mediterranean climate area. Moreover, Sinai (excluding the mountains) is marked as extremely arid (P/EP< 0.03), where P is the annual precipitation and EP is the potential evapotranspiration calculated according to Penman's formula (Ayyad and Ghabbour, 1986). The mountains in Saint Catherine area receive higher amounts of precipitation calculated 50mm or more a year as rain and snow. The climate of study area is extremely arid, with a long hot and rainless summer and mild winter (Migahid et al., 1959; Batanouny, 1981; Zohary, 1973; Issar and Gilad, 1982; Danin, 1983 and 1986). The climate of South Sinai is influenced by the orographic impact of the high mountains and the tropical influence along the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba (Danin, 1986). Orographic precipitation predominates in South Sinai and it felts on the summits, cliffs and gorges of the mountains and is then transposed to the upstream tributaries of the wadi system (Kassas and Girgis, 1970). Available meteorological data (rainfall, temperature, relative humidity, and evaporation) of South Sinai collected from the Egyptian Meteorological Authority, Water Research Center, and Saint Catherina Research Center is summarized in tables 5 and 6. According to UNEP (1992), arid and semi-arid environments occupy around 37 % of the land on the earth. Sixty-four percent of 43 the global drylands and 97 % of hyper-arid deserts are concentrated in Africa and Asia. 3.1. Rainfall Most of the precipitation in South Sinai occurs during winter and spring. Considerable precipitation occurs as a result of convective rains that are very local in extent and irregular in occurrence. The number of convective rains per season is unpredictable. Only rare and heavy showers cause floods, which contribute effective moisture for the vegetation in the wadis. The maximum amount of rainfall during one day was 76.2 mm in November 1937 (Dames and Moore, 1982; Abd El-Wahab, 2003). Precipitation may occur as snow on the high peaks of South Sinai Mountains. Winter snow lasting two to four weeks has been observed on the northern slopes of Gebel Catherine. In some years more than one snowfall may occur, while in others snow may be absent. Precipitation, which falls as rain in the valleys of South Sinai, may occur as hail on the high peaks. Water derived from melting snow or hail is likely to infiltrate the desert soil. 44 Table (5): Available meteorological data of St. Catherine and El-Tor stations in Southern Sinai, Egypt, compiled from different sources (Abd El-Wahab, 2003). Month Rainfall (mm) Relative Humidity (%) Mean Max. Temp. (oC) Mean Min. Temp. (oC) Jan Feb Mar 1.5 28.0 -11.7 -15.0 1.4 30.0 12.3 14.7 10.0 20.0 20.6 -5.3 Sep Oct Nov Dec Mean 0.0 22.0 25.8 6.6 0.0 17.0 25.8 5.3 4.6 30.0 21.9 1.9 22.0 40.0 17.2 -0.2 7.0 36.0 12.4 -8.9 5.5 25.3 18.5 0.5 0.1 30.1 28.7 16.2 13.7 0.0 28.1 27.7 13.6 11.7 0.7 31.9 26.1 11.5 10.4 0.9 34.2 20 6.8 7.2 2.7 42.7 16.3 4.3 6.1 1.6 34.1 23.4 9.6 11.1 0.0 61.0 34.8 23.8 11.8 0.0 63.0 32.6 22.8 10.4 0.7 58.0 29.6 18.5 8.0 1.7 58.0 26.6 14.7 7.4 3.6 56.0 22.5 10.8 7.0 0.9 60.1 28.3 17.2 9.5 0.0 64.3 33.4 24.7 11.9 0.0 67.9 31.2 23.3 10.1 0.8 61.6 28.1 19.1 8.6 0.7 57.1 25.0 14.4 8.7 3.8 55.2 21.9 11.5 7.4 0.5 59.1 27.9 17.7 10.3 Apr May Jun Jul Aug Saint Catherine (1934 - 1937) 7.9 17.0 23.1 -4.6 6.0 23.0 24.6 -0.3 Trace 18.0 24.8 3.9 0.0 23.0 24.7 7.9 Saint Catherine (1979 - 1992) Rainfall (mm) Relative Humidity (%) Mean Max. Temp. (oC) Mean Min. Temp. (oC) Evap. (mm/day) 5.9 49.8 14.3 1.4 5.7 1.9 43.3 15.1 1.4 7.2 6.0 39.4 17.7 4.6 9.3 0.5 28.6 24.4 9.0 12.6 Rainfall (mm) Relative Humidity (%) Mean Max. Temp. (oC) Mean Min. Temp. (oC) Evap. (mm/day) 1.5 57.0 21.1 9.0 7.0 1.3 55.0 21.7 9.7 7.8 1.2 53.0 24.2 12.6 9.2 0.2 56.0 27.9 16.5 10.2 Rainfall (mm) Relative Humidity (%) Mean Max. Temp. (oC) Mean Min. Temp. (oC) Evap. (mm/day) 0.0 56.1 21.6 10.2 7.7 0.5 54.4 23.9 11.0 9.7 0.4 53.4 24.5 13.9 10.7 0.0 58.9 27.7 17.1 12.0 0.4 24.9 28.3 12.5 15.2 0.0 27.2 30.8 16.3 17.7 0.0 28.8 31.8 17.5 16.2 El-Tor (1919 - 1967) 0.2 85.0 30.7 20.5 11.1 0.0 59.0 33.5 23.3 12.5 0.0 60.0 34.6 24.5 11.9 El-Tor (1984 - 1988) 0.0 59.1 31.4 20.2 12.5 0.0 60.7 32.4 23.1 13.4 45 0.0 60.8 33.2 23.8 11.4 Table (6): Mean rainfall (mm), relative humidity (%), temperature (ºC), and wind speed (m/s) recorded in Saint Catherine from 2004 to 2007 (Ali, 2009). Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun (2004) Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mean Rainfall (mm) Relative Humidity (%) Mean Temp. (oC) Wind speed (m/s) 2.4 45.0 9.0 7.3 9.0 44.0 10.0 14.0 10.6 39.0 13.8 11.2 4.0 53.0 19.7 10.4 1.0 57.0 19.9 9.3 0.0 60.0 24.7 8.1 0.0 44.0 24.0 7.2 0.0 38.0 23.6 7.6 0.0 40.0 20.3 6.8 0.0 52.0 13.2 8.1 0.0 51.0 8.7 6.3 2.3 49.2 17.6 8.8 Rainfall (mm) Relative Humidity (%) Mean Temp. (oC) Wind speed (m/s) 1.0 50.0 10.0 9.7 9.0 62.0 10.7 11.1 10.6 60.0 14.7 12.4 4.0 42.0 18.9 9.9 1.0 32.0 19.4 9.5 0.0 48.0 24.6 7.8 0.0 58.0 26.1 7.8 0.0 48.0 22.7 8.1 0.0 38.0 16.9 0.0 0.0 34.0 12.5 5.5 0.0 38.0 17.2 7.7 2.1 45.5 18.1 8.2 Rainfall (mm) Relative Humidity (%) Mean Temp. (oC) Wind speed (m/s) 0.0 51.0 7.5 7.8 6.0 56.0 9.2 9.1 1.2 48.0 12.4 9.6 1.0 54.0 16.2 10.8 0.4 39.0 20.4 8.1 0.0 51.0 22.9 8.6 0.0 54.0 25.4 6.5 0.0 44.0 22.7 6.5 0.0 45.0 18.8 9.6 0.0 50.0 11.2 5.5 0.0 40.0 7.4 8.3 0.7 48.5 16.5 8.2 Rainfall (mm) Relative Humidity (%) Mean Temp. (oC) Wind speed (m/s) 2.6 47.0 6.8 7.5 8.0 53.0 9.3 13.7 1.0 50.0 11.7 9.2 5.8 48.0 16.4 11.4 0.0 44.0 22.8 9.0 0.0 54.0 24.3 8.7 0.0 51.0 24.5 7.2 0.0 43.0 21.6 6.4 0.0 39.0 20.1 6.6 0.0 43.0 13.9 5.5 0.0 44.0 10.4 5.5 1.5 47.3 17.1 8.2 Month 0.0 67.0 24.0 9.6 (2005) 0.0 36.0 23.0 9.0 (2006) 0.0 50.0 24.4 7.5 (2007) 0.0 51.0 23.8 7.6 46 The mean annual rainfall during the period (1934 - 1937) was 5.5 mm at Saint Catherine. It was 0.9 mm at El-Tor (Table 5). Moreover, during the period (1979 - 1992) in Saint Catherine and (1984 - 1988) in El-Tor, the mean annual rainfall decreased into 1.6 mm and 0.5 mm respectively (Table 6). On the other hand, the mean annual rainfall during the period (1971- 2000) was 38.9 mm at Saint Catherine, 6.42 mm at El-Tor (Figure 9). During the periods (1970 - 1980), it was 9.95 mm at Dahab (Table 7). Although rainfall is low in the study area, the topographic irregularities play a great role in the collection and redistribution of the runoff water. Low areas as regards the local topography receive much more resources than the measured rainfall (Ramadan, 1988). The rainfall curve in the climatic diagrams underlies the temperature curve throughout the year. In Saint Catherine, the humid period is decreased in period (2004 - 2005) than the previous period (1979 - 1992) (Figure 10a and b). In El-Tor, the humid period almost disappeared in the climatic diagram (1984 - 1988) (Figure, 10c). Rainfall of South Sinai is characterized by extreme variability in both time and space. The rainfall data have revealed the occurrence in the historical past and recently of climatic cycles manifested by periods of rainy years alternating with droughty ones, with a general trend toward more aridity (Figure 9). The spatial variability is prominent in that one locality may have amount of rainfall that resulted in floods, and at the same time 47 there is no rainfall in another locality distance few kilometers. Rainfall data recorded from two different stations at Saint Catherine demonstrates this variability. The first station (1550 m a.s.l.) recorded 72.6 and 119 mm for year 1993 and 1994 respectively, while the other station (1350 m a.s.l) recorded 47.2, and 48.1 mm for those years respectively (Abd El-Wahab, 2003). In Saint Catherine area the temperature ranges is 11 to 13°C and the rainfall ranges is 70 to 100 mm (Danin, 1978a). 3.2. Temperature Due to the wide range of altitude, South Sinai is characterized by a wide range of variation in air temperature. During the period (1979 - 1992), the lowest monthly mean minimum temperature ranges from 1.4 to 17.5°C at Saint Catherine and from 9.0 to 24.5°C at El-Tor. On the other hand, the highest monthly mean maximum temperature varies from 14.3 to 31.8°C at Saint Catherine, and from 9.0 to 24.5°C at El-Tor (Table 5). Moreover, the mean annual temperature in Saint Catherine during the period (2004 - 2007) ranges from 16.5 to 18.1°C (Table 6). In fact, Saint Catherine is the coolest area in Sinai and Egypt as a whole due to its high elevation (1500 - 2641 m a.s.l.). The lowest mean minimum temperature is recorded in January and February (1- 4°C), while the highest mean maximum temperature in June and July (30.8 - 31.8°C, respectively) (Abd El-Wahab, 2003). 48 130 120 110 100 Rainfall (mm) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 0 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Mean 10 St. Catherine El-Tor Figure (9): Annual rainfall of Saint Catherine and El-Tor (1971 - 2000) and the mean value. Table (7): Annual rainfall at some stations in South Sinai, compiled from different sources (Abd El-Wahab, 1995 and 2003). Station Period No. of years Annual rainfall (mm) St. Catherine St. Catherine St. Catherine El-Tor El-Tor El-Tor Dahab 1934-1937 1971-1997 1934-1997 1920-1966 1971-1993 1920-1993 1970-1980 4 27 31 42 18 60 11 60.4 42.6 44.9 11.4 9.7 10.9 10.0 49 Saint Catherine (1979 - 1992) 35 70 º 30 60 25 50 20 40 15 30 10 20 5 10 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Monthly Rainfall (mm) Mean Temperature ( C) (a) 0 Dec Month Saint Catherine (2004 - 2007) 35 70 º 30 60 25 50 20 40 15 30 10 20 5 10 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Monthly Rainfall (mm) Mean Temperature ( C) (b) 0 Dec Month El-Tor (1984 - 1988) 35 70 30 60 25 50 20 40 15 30 10 20 5 10 º 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Monthly Rainfall (mm) Mean Temperature ( C) (c) 0 Dec Month Monthly Mean Temperature (ºC) (oC) Monthly Rainfall (mm) Figure (10): Climatic diagrams of Saint Catherine and El-Tor stations in Southern Sinai, (a) St. Catherine (1979 - 1992), (b) St. Catherine (2004 - 2007), and (c) El-Tor (1984 - 1988). 50 On the other hand, the low elevation wadis are warmer. The lowest mean minimum temperature recorded at El-Tor was 9.0°C in the period 1919-1967 (in January). On contrast, the highest mean maximum temperature in El-Tor in the period 1919-1967 (in August) was 34.8°C. Moreover, the coastal strip along the Gulf of Aqaba is much warmer than that along of Gulf of Suez (Abd ElWahab, 2003). 3.3. Relative humidity and evaporation The relative humidity in Saint Catherine area ranges between 24.9 % in May and 49.8 % in January, while in El-Tor is 53 % in March and 85 % in May. The evaporation is greater during summer than winter, with maximum of 17.7 mm in Saint Catherine and 13.5 mm in El-Tor in June, and minimum of 5.7 mm in January in Saint Catherine and 7.4 mm in December and 7.7 mm in January in ElTor (Table 5). 3.4. Wind speed The wind is another factor affect the existence of plants as it plays an important role in seed dispersal or as it destroys or uproots the plant individuals. The mean values of wind speed in Saint Catherine ranges from 8.2 to 8.8 m/s. The winds reach the maximum speed in February, it was 14 m/s in the year of 2004 and 13.7 m/s in 2007 (Table 6). 51 4. Hydrological aspects In Sinai, there are three indigenous water sources; rainfall, surface and ground water (Anonymous, 1985; Zahran and Willis, 2009). Therefore, the water resources in South Sinai are the function of rainfall, springs, and ground water supplies. In Sinai, the amount of groundwater decreases southward (25mm/year) (Hammad, 1980). The ground water bearing formations in South Sinai include: a) the basement complex, b) the Nubian sandstone exposed on the surface overlying the basement rock, c) the limestone of Mesozoic and Tertiary, d) the Miocene formation, and e) the alluvial deposits (Quaternary) that occupy the alluvial plains, which are parallel to the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba (Hammad, 1980). The southern part of Sinai is occupied by basement complex which is composed of highly fissured igneous and metamorphic rocks. As these rocks are highly elevated, their water forms a considerable pressure feeding the northern water-bearing formations (Hammad, 1980; El-Rayes, 1992). The hydrologic system of the basement rocks of South Sinai has three hydrologic systems: a) the main aquifer units have high joint density and good hydraulic prosperities; b) the leaky aquitard unit has low joint density and is underlying the main aquifer unit. It acts as a basal semi-barrier restricting the fast vertical of the stored water in the upper main aquifer unit, and c) the local aquifers represent by the fault zones, alluvial deposits and by the jointed areas adjacent to basic dykes (El-Rayes, 1992). The ground water in 52 the basement rocks of South Sinai is mainly controlled by the amount of rainfall and evaporation rate, the prevailing topographic parameters and the geologic structures (El-Rayes, 1998). Most water sources in the study area appear on the fissured rocks due to the free passage of ground water through the interconnected open fissures in the granitic rocks giving rise to many small springs (El-Rayes, 1992; Ghodeif, 1995). The water courses issuing from the mountains excavate deep ravines with steep gradients. Their floor consists of bare rock, and their path is frequently obstructed by falls or cataracts. The beds seem to have originated in lakes, which were formed as a result of the damming of these watercourses by resistant porphyry dykes. The dikes acted as barriers to the ground water flow and helped from the ground water body of the famous oasis of Feiran. Generally, the mountains dissected by faults and joints play an important role in the movement of ground water (Kassem, 1981). 5. Vegetation Floristically, Sinai may be distinguished into five phytogeographical territories mainly determined by climate, geomorphological formation and nature of soil surface (Danin, 1978a; and Moustafa & Klopatek, 1995). Three of these phytogeographical territories are Saharo-Arabian complex ones, where Saharo-Arabian species dominate the list of species in all of them (Danin and Plitman, 1987). The first one is that of the Mediterranean in the northern strip of Sinai Peninsula where the Mediterranean species represent the 2nd highest frequency. 53 The second includes the Irano-Turanian chorotype and found in limestone and chalk anticlines of north Sinai and Gebel El-Igma. On the other hand, the third is the Irano-Turanian region and mainly represented at the cool and relatively wet high altitudinal upper Sinai massif including Saint Catherine area. The fourth is the Sudanian chorotype and confined along the warm Gulf of Aqaba and Snafir islands (Danin, 1986; Shabana, 1988). Prominent Sudanian species such as Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana occurs in the magmatic massif of southern Sinai even at high elevations. The fifth region (rest of Sinai) belongs to the Saharo-Sinidian (Shabana, 1988). The Saharo-Sinidian flora has been derived from the Mediterranean, the Sudanian, and to lesser extent from the Irano-Turanian stock (Eig, 1931 and 1932; Zohary, 1962, and Davis & Hedge, 1971). Zahran and Willis (2009) stated that vegetation of Sinai, being a bridge between Africa and Asia, reflects the influence of three phytogeographical regions; Saharan type, Irano-Turanian, and Mediterranean. The estimated number of species in different habitats of Sinai ranges between 942 (Zohary, 1973), 1247 (Täckholm, 1974), 687 (Abdullah et al., 1984), 886 (Danin, 1972; Danin et al., 1985), 984 (El-Hadidi et al., 1991), and 1262 (Boulos, 1995). Notably, the high mountains in the Southern subregion and particularly the central subregion support a richer flora than the northern subregion, particularly the rock types. 54 In general, South Sinai has exceptionally rich flora (Danin, 1986). The edaphic factors that are assumed to be related to the floristic richness of these districts seem to be more important than the climatic ones (Danin, 1978b; Abd El-Wahab, 2003). The southern part of Sinai Peninsula is characterized by triangular mass of mountains, 7500 m2 in surface area; these mountains are highly rich in their flora. The flora of Southern Sinai comprises nearly 900 species in 250-300 associations (Danin, 1983 and 1986). The vegetation of South Sinai is characterized by dominance of four families; Compositae (Asteraceae), Labiatae (Lamiaceae or Minit family), Leguminosae (Fabaceae), and Cruciferae (Brassicaceae). The vegetation is also characterized by sparseness of plant cover of semi-shrubs, restricted to wadis or growing on slopes of rocky hills and in sand fields and paucity of trees (Danin, 1986). South Sinai Mountains represent a great harbor of endemism (Moustafa, 1990) where the area has wetter climate than most of Sinai and characterized by having large outcrops of smooth-faced rocks which support rare species (Danin, 1972, 1978a, 1983 and 1986). Moreover, Hassib (1951) recognized that the total number of species in the flora of Sinai was 532, as follows: 38 nanophanerophytes, one stem succulent, 95 chamaephytes, 142 hemicryptophytes, 27 geophytes, 10 hydrophytes and halophytes, 216 therophytes and 3 parasites (Zaghloul, 1997; Zahran and Willis, 2009).. 55 El-Hadidi (1969) stated that in Sinai, there are about 36 endemic species, most of which are confined to the mountain region and belong to Irano-Turanian element. Only a few endemics belong to the Sahro-Scindian element. On the other hand, more than 65 % of the endemic species in Egypt (41) occur in Sinai; 25 species in Sinai only and 16 species in Sinai and other region of Egypt. Most of endemic species in Sinai (> 70 %) are recorded in the southern mountains (Boulos, 2002; Zahran and Willis, 2009). Boulos (1995, 1999, 2000, 2002, and 2005) stated that the total number of endemic species in the tree subregions of Sinai was 41 species. Moreover, most of these endemics (about 65 %) were present in the Southern montane country; the other two subregions contain 35 % of the endemics of Sinai; 32 % in the central subregion and 3 % in the northern subregion. Besides, more than 65 % of the endemic species in Egypt occur in Sinai. Most of endemic species in Sinai (> 70 %) were recorded in the southern mountains (Zahran and Willis, 2009). South Sinai is characterized by arid climatic variation, sparseness of vegetation, and paucity of trees. Meanwhile, this sparse vegetation is subjected to depletion by overgrazing, overcutting and uprooting for fuel and medicinal uses. These severe impacts lead to a great environmental deterioration including disappearance of pastoral plant communities, dominance of ungrazed (unpalatable) communities, lack of vegetation cover and soil erosion, (Abd El-Wahab 1995). Therefore, more studies should be 56 focus on the regeneration of destructed vegetation; soil protection and how to overcome the risks affect the establishment of its vegetation in future. 6. History of land-use and human activity The oldest rocks in Egypt are Archaean, covering at present about 10% (about 93 000 km2) of the area of Egypt. They constitute the most rugged section of the country, including the highest peaks in the Red Sea Mountains, and mountains of South Sinai (Zahran and Willis, 2009). The history of land-use in Sinai could be differentiated into distinctive periods (Zohary, 1973 & Danin, 1983). From lower Paleolithic period, at least 300,000 years ago, until the Neolithic period, communities of hunters and gatherers lived in Sinai (Zaghloul, 1997). The Epipaleolithic and Neolithic periods (15th to 4th millennia B.C.E.) witnessed a major change in human culture and land use in the Middle East area. Agriculture was developed in the region as documented by the remains of domesticated cereals and legumes. Agriculture developed rather with the establishment of large permanent forming communities and domestication of many fruit trees during the Chalcolithic period (4000 - 3100 B.C.E.) and through the Bronze period (3100 - 2200 B.C.E.). In the Chalcolithic, the nomads exerted considerable pressure on the vegetation through grazing and by cutting woody plants for 57 fuel, while in the Iron age and up to the end of the Byzantine periods (1200 B.C.E.- 640 C.E.) sophisticated techniques for the diversion and control of run-off water from winter rains was used to cultivate the valleys. By beginning of the 20th century, a simple permanent agriculture among the Bedouins was developed with a destructive impact on the natural vegetation. The Bedouins burned (and still burning) lignified plants for heating and as cooking fuel, a practice that led to the decline of woody plants in the vicinity of their encampments. Also, the Bedouins had large herds of goats that grazed the diffuse vegetation in the high mountains and in Feiran Oasis. Nowadays, the Bedouins in Southern Sinai largely practice dry farming on loess soils. Shallow plowing disturbs only the surface crust, thereby increasing the roughness of the soil surface, and reducing run-off by building terraces. Wells waterfalls, and pools are common throughout the area to provide water for agriculture. The war of 1973 and the peace agreement of 1979 were landmark points that changed the way of life in Sinai. Before 1973, the human settlements were few and their life was mainly of a rural characters. The main activity of Bedouins was, and still is, to take care of grazing animals (camel, sheep, goats and donkey), as shown in photo (16, 17, 18, 19), on all wadis of study area. They also 58 gather plants for firewood (Ramadan, 1988; & Abd El-Wahab, 1995). After the year 1973, many attempts of modern urbanization were made. Also projects for land reclamation and settlement of Bedouins have been started in different parts of Sinai to establish more people in places of available fresh water resources. Opening of schools, construction of roads, and availing public traffic, resulted in a close contact between Sinai and the rest of Egypt and made many sites and localities in Sinai more easily accessible. This urbanization movement has mixed edges; the bad one is the destruction of natural ecosystems. Utilization of the relatively sparse vegetation of the desert in Sinai is one of the more impressive aspects of Bedouins adaptation to environmental conditions there. Bailey and Danin (1981) encountered no plant that was not useful to the Bedouins in one way or another. Some plants provide them with medicine for the illness of man and beast. Others are utilized in a variety of manufactures. Some of these are essential to their daily existence. Pasture for goats and camels are the most extensive use of plants. The prominence of desert plants in Bedouin life is reflected in various less tangible aspects of Bedouin culture. It also led the Bedouins to identify many places in the desert according to some botanical landmarks, whether it is abundance of a certain plant species or even their unique but prominent presence. The distinctive 59 qualities of some plants have become proverbial (Bailey and Danin, 1981). In the study area, the Bedouins have many wells to irrigate their fruit trees and vegetables. They have established many gardens (especially the few years ago) of fig trees (Ficus carica), in W. Feiran, peach (Prunus persica), pear (Pyrus conumunis), apple (Pyrus malus), almond (Amygdalus conumunis), olive (Olea europaea), orange (Citrus aurantium), mandarin (Citrus mobilis), lemon (Citrus limon), plum (Prumus domestica), guava (Pesidium guajava), pomegranate (Punica granatum), apricot (Prunus armeniaca), and dates (Phoenix dactylifera), as well as grapevine (Vitis vinifera), (Ramadan, 1988 & Moustafa, 1990). Human resources in South Sinai are diversified with Bedouin pastoralists especially in this stripe. Urban dwellers are related mainly to part cities touristic villages and oil fields in coastal areas. The supporting jobs come from transportation means and few protected areas (Kassas et al., 2002). 60 V. Materials and Methods I. Field Survey During this study, M. peregrina trees were recorded in four wadis; W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir (Figure 4). Forty-one sites were selected; four sites at W. Agala, five sites at W. Feiran, six sites at W. Zaghra and twenty-six sites at W. Me'ir. Totally four-hundred and four M. peregrina trees were surveyed at these four wadis; forty at W. Agala, forty-seven at W. Feiran, eighty-two at W. Zaghra and two-hundred and thirty-five at W. Me'ir for measuring vegetative parameters and collecting seeds. Moreover, associated plant species were recorded in each site. The identification of associated plant species with M. peregrina trees in the studied four wadis was carried out according to Boulos (1995, 1999, 2000, and 2002). In each site, the geographical position (GPS reading); elevation in meters above sea level, slope degree, and exposure degree were measured. Exposure is north-facing or south-facing; (1) North (315º - 45º), (2) East (45º - 135º), (3) West (225º - 315º) and (4) South (135º - 225º). A south-facing slope in north temperate latitudes always experience greater total insolation than the northfacing slope of the same region, and so south-facing slopes have warmer air and soil (Barbour, et al., 1987). 61 The slope degree was determined as shown in Table (8). On the other hand, elevation categorized according to Zaghloul (1997) as low altitude (<1500m-1700m a.s.l), medium altitude (<1700m1900m a.s.l), high altitude (<1900m-2100m a.s.l) and very high altitude (<2100m a.s.l.). Landform type was determined according to Moustafa & Klopatek (1995) as; gorge, slope, wadi and outcrop of smooth-faced rock, or terraces. Nature of soil surface (N.S.S.) was described as shown in Table 9, and using the following scale; fine fraction (>2 mm equivalent diameter), gravel (2 - 75 mm), cobbles (75 - 250 mm), stones (250 - 600), and boulders (<600mm) (Hausenbiuller, 1985). During monthly field visits, the grazing intensity was assessed (subjectively) as degree of browsing and the number of observed camels. It can be explained as follows: severe with presence of camels at the time of assessment, providing the highest stocking rate (scale is 4), severe without presence of camels at the time of assessment and with high feces content (scale is 3), moderate (scale is 2), low (scale is 1) and no browsing (0) (Abd El-Wahab, 2003). Human interferences (e.g. cutting, damage, firing, etc.) were recorded as presence/absence signs. The status of cutting in M. peregrina trees was evaluated using the following scale: high degree of cutting (3), middle (2), low impact (1), and no cutting (0). 62 Table (8): The slope degree and scale (Zaghloul, 1997). Slope degree Type gentle medium steep very steep precipitous wall Degree (0o- 5o) (<5 o- 20o) (<20 o- 45o) (<45o- 70o) (<70o) 1 2 3 4 5 Scale Table (9): The percentage of soil constituents in soil surface (Zaghloul, 1997) Nature of soil surface (N.S.S.) % Low Medium High Very high Fine fraction Gravel Cobbles Stones Boulders Bare rock 0-5% 0 - 15 % 0 - 15 % 0 - 15 % 0 - 50 % >5 - 15 % >15 - 30 % >15 - 50 % >15 - 60 % >50 - 80 % > 15 % >30 - 70 % 0 - 10 % >10 – 30 % > 30 % > 50 % > 60 % > 80 % > 70 % 63 II. Estimation of Age structure a. Cutting cross sections For dendrochronological studies, ninety-three of cross-cuts in M. peregrina trees representing the four wadis populations were carried out during the field survey. Due to the importance of individual trees in this arid region of South Sinai, samples were taken from dead trunk or dead tree branches. In the laboratory, cross-cuts were further cut into thin sections and surfaced with sandpaper from both sides for better resolution. The final polishing ensured that fine scratches could not be confused with marginal parenchyma (Figure 11). The age of each sample was obtained directly by counting the annual rings. b. Age-radius relationship and age dating The data were treated as a linear regression relationship between the tree radius (excluding the bark thickness) and the number of counted growth rings in the sampled ninety-three crosscut sections. The linear regression relationship between the tree radius and bark thickness in ninety-three cross-cut sections was also determined. The radius (r) was assessed as a mean of eight measurements of sample diameter. Anderson-Darling test was used to test significant departures from normality in measured parameters; number of rings, radius, and bark thickness. Simple Linear Regression Analysis was applied to calculate the equation and figure out the relationship between the radius of cross-cut sections and the number of annual rings using Minitab 14 computer software (Zaghloul et al., 2008). 64 Figure (11): Photos of annual rings counting to estimate the age of M. peregrina trees growing in South Sinai. 65 The regression was forced to pass through the origin as a logic biological fact. The ages of the studied 404 trees were then estimated based on their wood radii, using the resultant age-radius relationship. There are some serious limitations associated with this approach (Zaghloul et al., 2008). Because of the considerable uncertainties involved in determining the age of individual trees, an unavoidable error is built into the age-radius model. Therefore, the skewness from the normality of the resultant age distribution was assessed by Anderson-Darling normality test to figure out the magnitude of this error. Variation in estimated trees ages between the sampled four wadis was evaluated using one-way ANOVA. c. Age structure and static life table The estimated trees ages were used to determine the age distribution and construct a static life table (Barbour et al., 1987). The age distribution of the studied populations was used as a predictive tool to determine if M. peregrina populations in South Sinai are healthy or not. The age structure of populations consisting of multiple cohorts was used to estimate the survival patterns of the various age groups in a static life table (Sharitz and McCormick, 1973). Once the age classes at the time of census are represented by x, some parameters are required to construct the static life table of M. peregrina populations (Table 10). 66 Table (10): Parameters of a static life table used in estimation of survival and mortality rate of M. peregrina tree. Symbol Description x Age interval (class) entered by the time of census. Nx Number of individuals trees living in age class x. ax Number of survivors at beginning of age interval x. (number of survivors to age x, it plots a survivorship curve). lx Proportion of original cohort surviving to age x Lx Average proportion alive at the age x. Tx Total number of living individuals at age class x and beyond. ex Probability of living ' x ' number of years beyond a given age x. dx Number of individuals that die during age class x. qx Proportion of individuals that die during age x and find out which ages have the highest risk of death. The various statistics can be derived from lx values, (Silvertown, 19982; Bengon and Mortimer, 1986; Bengon et al., 1996; Molles & Manuel, 2002) as: Survivorship lx = ax/a0 Lx = (1) lx + lx+1 (2) 2 Tx = ∑ Lx – x-1 (e.g. T6 = L6 + L7 + L8 + ....+ Lmax) (3) Number of individuals that die during intervals dx = lx – lx+1 (4) Tx ex = (5) lx Age-specific mortality rate qx = dx/ax 67 (6) On the other hand, two important assumptions are necessary for the static tables: 1) the population has a stable age structure – that is, the proportion of individuals in each age class does not change from generation to generation, and 2) the population size is, or nearly, stationary. Age-specific mortality rate (qx = chance of death) was calculated as the percentage of the population dying during a particular age class (Zaghloul et al., 2008). d. Survivorship Curve A survivorship curve summarizes the patterns of survival in population. Survivorship curve of M. peregrina trees was produced by plotting the lx at each age interval against time. Based on studies of survival by a wide variety of organisms, survivorship curve fall into three major categories (Molles and Manuel, 2002): 1. Type I survivors ship curve: a relatively high rate of survival among young, middle-aged individuals, followed by a high rate of mortality among the aged. In this type, juvenile survival is high and most mortality occurs among older individuals. 2. Type II survivorship curve: constant rates of survival throughout life produce the straight-line pattern of survival. Individuals in this type die at equal rates, regardless of ages. 3. Type III survivorship curve: is one in which a period of extremely high rates of mortality among the young is followed by a relatively high rate of survival. 68 III. Determination of population size a. Field measurements To study the tree size distribution and its relation with age structure of M. peregrina, certain vegetative parameters were measured for each tree. The tree height (in meter) was measured using graduated long bar and meter. Crown cover area calculated from the average of two dimensions of crown diameter. As well as the trunk circumference (cm) at ground level (CAG) was measured using meter. The tree diameter was calculated based on circumference measurements as made by Franklin et al. (1988). In addition, a sketch map was drawn for each site to help in monitoring of M. peregrina trees in the studied wadis. Variation in size values (height, crown cover, and trunk circumference) between the sampled four wadis (W. Agala W. Feiran, W. Zaghra, and W. Me'ir) was evaluated using one-way ANOVA. Tukey’s pairwise comparisons were done to discriminate between different wadis. b. Height, annual increment and circumference/height ratio The annual increment was estimated by dividing the radius of the sample by its estimated age, (Zaghloul et al., 2008). The circumference/height ratio was simply estimated by dividing the circumference (cm) by the height (cm). The correlation between the tree height, the area of crown cover, and circumference/height ratio with the age of the tree was evaluated used Pearson linear correlation. Simple Linear Regression 69 equation that describes the relationship between the age and size (height, crown cover) was developed. This regression also was forced to go through the origin as a logic biological fact. IV. Soil characteristic Twenty soil samples (15-25 cm depth and 2-3kg each) were collected represent the forty-one sites in the studied four wadis for some physical and chemical analyses (Figure 12.a & b). Three soil samples were collected from W. Agala, three from W. Feiran, five from W. Zaghra and nine soil samples from W. Me'ir. In laboratory, soil samples were dried in air as recommended by Hausenbiuller (1985), and then passed manually through 2 mm diameter sieve to remove the gravel. 1. Physical characteristics 1.1. Soil texture (Particle size distribution) Soil texture was evaluated by sieving method (Richards, 1954). In this method, the fine soil fractions were determined using the following sieve meshes: gravel (<2mm), coarse sand (0.59), medium sand (0.25), fine sand (0.063mm) and silt+clay (>0.063mm). 1.2. Total moisture content Soil samples were collected for gravimetric determination of soil moisture. A Soil sample is weighed in an aluminum container, placed in an oven and dried to constant weight at 105ºC, then the sample is reweighed and the content of moisture is expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry weight (Pansu and Gautheyrou, 2006). 70 (b) (a) (c) (d) (e) Figure (12): Soil analysis, (a) sample collection under the crown cover of M. peregrina tree. (b) On the depth 15-25 cm, (c) EC meter, (d) Flame Photometer, and (e) Auto-analyzer Spectrophotometer. 71 2. Chemical characteristics 2.1. Soil organic matter (SOM) The organic matter content of soil samples were determined by loss on ignition (LOI) at high temperature. This method gives quantitative oxidation of organic matter (Nelson and Sommers, 1996). Ten grams of 2 mm-mesh sieved, air-dried soil, are placed in a tared porcelain crucible and dried at 105ºC for 24 hours to estimate the soil weight without water. The crucible with dry soil ignited in an electric muffle furnace at 550ºC for about three hours. The crucible is placed in a desiccator, cooled to room temperature and re-weighed. The loss is calculated in percent of the oven-dried sample (Margesin and Schinner, 2005). 2.2. Soil reaction (pH) After sieving the soil with 2mm sieve, the pH values of water extracts of soil samples were determined with a pH meter (Hanna, Model 60648, Cole Parmer) using a soil-water extract of (1:2.5) according to Pansu and Gautheyrou (2006). 3. Soluble salts Salt solution of 2mm sieved soil was carried out to determine EC, water soluble anions, and water soluble captions as follow: 3.1. Electrical conductivity (EC) and salinity Electrical conductivity (EC) was measured by conductivity meter (Model 4510, Jenway) (Figure 12.c) in extract (1:1) as described by (Pansu and Gautheyrou, 2006). Salinity was calculated in extract (1:5) according to Jackson (1967) as in the equation: 72 Salinity (ppm) = EC x 640 and the total soluble salts (TSS) was calculated as: TSS (%) = EC x 0.32 3.2. Water soluble anions (CO32-, HCO3-, Cl- & SO42-) Soil water-soluble carbonate and bicarbonate were determined in extract (1:1) according to Baruah and Barthakur (1997) by acidimetric titration method, using 0.01N sulphuric acid (H2SO4) in the presence of phenolphthalein as indicator for CO32- (pH ≥ 8.5) and methyl orange for HCO3- (pH < 6). Phenolphthalein gives a pink colour as long as CO32- remains. It will be discharged as soon as all CO32- is converted into HCO3- (Baruah and Barthakur, 1997). Chloride (Cl‾) determination was based on the formation of nearly insoluble silver salt. It was estimated in soil-water extract (1:5) according to Baruah and Barthakur (1997). It titrated with 0.02 N silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution in presence of potassium chromate indicator (K2CrO4) forming a reddish brown precipitate of Ag2CrO4 which indicates the end-point of the reaction. Soil sulphate (SO42-) was estimated in soil extract (1:5) according to Jackson (1967), using the precipitation method. In this method, concentrated HCl is added if the filtrate was alkaline then boiled and barium chloride (BaCl2) was added to convert SO42- to BaSO4. The precipitation washed to remove chloride ions and ignited in a muffle at 600ºC for half hour, cool in a desiccator and weight of residue is the weight of barium sulphate (Anonymous, 1980). 73 3.3. Water soluble cations (Na+, K+, Ca++ & Mg++) Water soluble Na+ and K+ were measured in soil extract (1:5) according to Sparks et al. (1996) using Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Corning 410, Figure 12.d). Samples were introduced into a hot flame, provides absorbance value based on the amount of the element present. When it compared to generated standard curve, the element measured can be quantified. Ca++ and Mg++ were measured in soil water extract (1:5) according to Baruah and Barthakur (1997). For determination of Ca++, 5 ml of 10 % NaOH solution + 0.05 gm ammonium purpurate (Murexide) as indicator were added to 10 ml of soil extract (V1). Titration was run against 0.01 EDTA till colour changed from pink to purple. However, for determination of Mg++, pH was adjusted to 10 using buffering solution (NH4Cl + NH4OH) and then 0.05 gm of erichrome black (EBT) was added to 10 ml of extract. Titration against 0.01 EDTA was carried out till the colour changed from red to bright blue. Calculations of Ca++ and Mg++ were done according to Sparks et al. (1996) as: meq. of Ca2+ = (V2 – V3) x 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (I) meq. of Ca2+ + Mg2+ = (V2 – V3) x 0.01 - - - - - - - - - - - - (II) meq. of Mg2+ = meq. of (Ca2+ + Mg2+) ‫ ـــ‬meq. of Ca2+ - - (III) Where V2 is the volume of EDTA used for the sample (titrevalue) and V3 is the volume of EDTA used for blank. 74 4. Total and available Phosphorus Total phosphorus (TP) was extracted according to Jackson (1967) using concentrated H2SO4 and H2O2 in digestion, and then the samples concentration were estimated based on the wavelength by Auto-analyzer Spectrophotometer (Model 5023, Finland). Available phosphorus was estimated according to Olsen's method (Olsen et al., 1954). The extraction was made using 0.5M sodium bicarbonate (pH 8.5) (Tiessen and Moir, 1993). Exactly 2.5g of air-dry soil and 50 ml of sodium bicarbonate was shacked for 30 min. The available P was measured in the soil extract filtrate using Ammonium molybdate and stannous chloride as indicator. The blue colour was measured using Spectrophotometer at wavelength 690nm 5 to 6min and before 15min (Robertson et al., 1999). 5. Total Nitrogen The digestion of 0.5g of soil sample was carried out according to Jackson (1967) using 10 ml concentrated H2SO4 and heated at 350ºC for half hour then cooled. H2O2 was added up to the end of effervescence and the sample became colourless. The concentration was estimated based on the wavelength recorded by Auto-analyzer Spectrophotometer (Model 5023, Finland) at wavelength 590nm according to Robertson et al. (1999). 75 V. Soil characteristic, age and size relationships Finally, significance of variations in values of soil characteristics between the four studied wadis was evaluated using one-way ANOVA. It was necessary to investigate the influence of soil characteristics as one of the most important environmental factors on age and size distribution of M. peregrina trees. The correlation between soil parameters with the tree age and size (height, crown cover area, and circumference/height ratio) was evaluated using Pearson linear correlation to find out the relationship between these parameter and age and size. VI. Data treatment Several computer systems for data analysis have been developed. Among the systems currently in widespread use are SPSS 17 and Minitab 14 (2007). Statistical evaluation has been done by using, descriptive statistics, Anderson-Darling normality test, Pearson correlation analysis and simple linear regressions. On the other hand, the significance of data of each factor was tested using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Thus data are subjected to the simplest kind of ANOVA. This means that the groups of samples (environmental parameters) are classified by only a single criterion (Zar, 1984). 76 VI. Results I. Environmental parameters The environmental parameters (landform type, slope degree, elevation, and exposure aspect) are shown in Table (11). Moringa peregrina trees were recorded on slopes as the main landform at the highest elevation (800 m. a.s.l) in W. Feiran, while the lowest elevation (560 m. a.s.l) for M. peregrina was recorded in W. Zaghra (Figure 13). The highest slope degree (about 60º) in W. Feiran, while the lowest slope degree (5º) in W. Me'ir (Figures 14). During recording of associated species with M. peregrina tree, it was found that narrow wadis and gorges support the richest assemblage of plants, followed by the high-elevation slopes and terraces, respectively. Outcrops of smooth-faced rocks function as refuge for more mesophilic plants. Wadi bed is medium cover or high cover percent. Finally the gorge is very high cover percent. The majority of M. peregrina trees are located in South-facing (Table 11) due to the increase of temperature. However, the most noticeable field observation was that almost all reproductive trees grow on south-facing slopes and crevices of metamorphic rocks. At the same wadi, trees growing on north-facing slopes are without flowers, (non-productive). This may indicates the importance of the light and temperature as reflected by slope exposure as a limiting factor for growth, flowering and fruiting of M. peregrina trees. 77 Table (11): Summary table of environmental setting data for the sites in which M. peregrina was recorded Location Site No. of No. trees 1 11 2 Slope Landform Elevation Exposure aspect Grazing/Browsing Interferences degree type (m) Mean Facing Feces Scale Firing Cutting Slope 50 very steep 764 145 South-facing (+) 4 (-) 1 7 George 40 steep 684 145 South-facing (+) 3 (+) 1 3 6 Slope 45 steep 690 180 South-facing (+) 4 (+) 2 4 16 Slope 48 very steep 625 205 South-facing (+) 4 (+) 3 Total 4 40 W. Feiran 5 4 Slope 60 very steep 725 175 South-facing (+) 1 (-) 3 6 14 George 55 very steep 800 39 North-facing (-) 1 (-) 2 7 7 Slope 40 steep 735 140 South-facing (+) 1 (-) 3 8 15 Slope 45 steep 610 195 South-facing (+) 1 (-) 2 9 7 Slope 48 very steep 715 220 South-facing (-) 0 (-) 2 Total 5 47 W. Zaghra 10 13 George 50 very steep 560 156 South-facing (+) 1 (-) 1 11 15 Slope 35 steep 610 215 South-facing (-) 0 (+) 2 12 24 Slope 40 steep 590 185 South-facing (-) 0 (+) 1 13 2 Slope 40 steep 573 205 South-facing (-) 1 (-) 1 14 12 Slope 45 steep 630 195 South-facing (+) 1 (+) 1 15 16 Slope 45 steep 642 220 South-facing (+) 1 (+) 3 Total 6 82 W. Me'ir 16 12 Slope 30 steep 710 140 South-facing (+) 1 (-) 1 17 9 Slope 45 steep 718 155 South-facing (+) 3 (-) 2 18 10 Wadi-bed 5 gentle 620 38 North-facing (+) 2 (-) 1 19 5 Slope 5 gentle 620 42 North-facing (+) 1 (-) 1 20 14 Slope 42 steep 725 44 North-facing (+) 4 (-) 2 21 7 Slope 48 very steep 635 168 South-facing (-) 0 (-) 1 22 3 Wadi-bed 8 medium 578 186 South-facing (+) 3 (-) 3 23 6 slope 50 very steep 618 196 South-facing (+) 2 (-) 1 24 16 George 50 very steep 736 158 South-facing (+) 1 (-) 1 25 14 Slope 44 steep 570 215 South-facing (+) 1 (-) 2 26 6 Wadi-bed 8 medium 565 155 South-facing (+) 1 (-) 0 27 8 Slope 42 steep 642 194 South-facing (+) 2 (-) 1 28 15 George 52 very steep 728 186 South-facing (+) 1 (-) 0 29 2 Wadi-bed 5 gentle 638 320 North-facing (+) 3 (-) 2 30 9 Slope 46 very steep 708 195 South-facing (+) 2 (-) 1 31 5 Slope 35 steep 672 207 South-facing (+) 2 (-) 1 32 6 Wadi-bed 10 medium 585 189 South-facing (+) 4 (-) 3 33 12 Slope 25 steep 647 218 South-facing (+) 1 (-) 3 34 8 Slope 28 steep 705 178 South-facing (-) 0 (-) 3 35 10 Slope 35 steep 680 192 South-facing (+) 3 (-) 2 36 9 Wadi-bed 5 gentle 593 184 South-facing (+) 4 (-) 1 37 17 Slope 40 steep 654 210 South-facing (+) 3 (-) 1 38 12 Slope 35 steep 620 185 South-facing (+) 4 (-) 2 39 7 Slope 22 steep 575 148 South-facing (+) 1 (-) 0 40 10 Slope 30 steep 615 173 South-facing (+) 1 (-) 0 41 3 Slope 20 medium 635 186 South-facing (-) 0 (-) 1 Total 26 235 T. wadis 41 404 W. Agala 78 Elevation ranges 850 Elevation (m a.s.l.) 800 750 700 650 600 550 500 W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra Min Max W. Mei'r Mean Figure (13): The elevations of M. peregrina in the four studied wadis represented in meter above sea level. Slope ranges 60 Slope degree 50 40 30 20 10 0 W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra Min Max W. Mei'r Mean Figure (14): The slope degree of the sites at the four studied wadis represented in degree. 79 The highest grazing intensity was recorded in W. Agala, then in W. Me'ir. Human interferences (e.g. cutting, damage, firing, etc) confirm that W. Feiran (the most crowded with Bedouins) is subjected to over-cutting and firing and followed by W. Agala. II. Age structure of Moringa populations a. Bark thickness, radius and number of rings of cross sections The mean for the measurements of radius and bark thickness of ninety-three of M. peregrina cross-cuts were 4.1 cm (± 0.81) and 0.5 cm (± 0.2), respectively (Table 12 & Figure 15a). The mean values of radius after excluding the bark and counting of annual rings of these cross-cuts were 3.6 (± 0.7) and 20.8 (± 5.0) respectively (Figure 15b). The normality test (Anderson-Darling test) proved that the measured parameters in the cross-cuts (radius, bark thickness and number of annual rings) are significantly departed from normality (P = 0.030, <0.005, and <0.005; consequently (Figure 16). The data of ninety-three sections of M. peregrina were used to attain the regression equation. The relationship between the bark thickness and radius was estimated from the significant (P = 0.000, r2 = 0.187, Figure 17a) linear regression equation as: [Bark thickness (cm) = 0.121 Radius] ---------------- I The results of the linear regression significantly (P = 0.000, r2 = 0.271, Figure 17b) showed that relationship between the tree radius (excluding the bark) and the number of counted growth rings in the cross sections is governed by the equation: [No. of rings = 5.68 Radius] --------------------------- II 80 Table (12): Descriptive statistics and of average radii, bark thickness and number of rings for M. peregrina cross sections. Location W. Agala Total W. Feiran Total W. Zaghra Total W. Me'ir Total Pooled samples Site No. Number of sampled Number cross- Min Radius (cm) Max Mean StD Min 1 2 3 4 4 2 2 2 5 11 2 2 2 6 12 3.66 3.63 2.75 3.71 2.75 5.58 4.03 3.98 4.68 5.58 4.62 3.83 3.36 4.17 4.05 1.36 0.28 0.87 0.32 0.67 0.45 0.59 0.43 0.46 0.43 0.47 0.63 0.56 0.80 0.80 0.46 0.61 0.49 0.61 0.57 0.01 0.02 0.10 0.15 0.12 28 21 11 14 11 32 25 20 25 32 30 23 16 18 21 2.83 2.83 6.36 3.93 6.07 5 6 7 8 4 3 4 3 1 11 6 4 4 1 15 3.27 3.51 3.43 3.79 3.27 5.15 5.04 5.53 3.79 5.53 4.30 4.38 4.25 3.79 4.27 0.80 0.78 0.90 0.32 0.39 0.42 0.56 0.32 0.74 0.96 1.01 0.56 1.01 0.47 0.76 0.73 0.56 0.62 0.16 0.27 0.25 16 14 15 30 14 30 22 21 30 30 22 18 18 30 20 5.89 3.86 2.65 10 11 12 14 15 5 3 3 12 4 1 23 4 7 21 6 1 39 2.76 3.74 2.68 2.11 4.53 2.11 4.25 4.29 5.60 5.59 4.53 5.60 3.31 3.97 4.13 4.15 4.53 4.03 0.66 0.19 0.78 1.14 0.20 0.24 0.26 0.23 0.51 0.20 0.41 0.52 0.64 0.98 0.51 0.98 0.28 0.36 0.38 0.42 0.51 0.38 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.28 15 18 14 16 28 14 24 26 31 20 28 31 19 22 23 19 28 22 4.43 2.87 5.09 1.60 16 17 18 19 21 24 26 31 33 37 10 23 3 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 6 3 23 68 3 2 3 1 2 2 1 2 8 3 27 93 3.29 3.84 2.96 2.98 3.20 5.26 5.05 4.14 3.45 2.76 2.76 2.11 5.39 4.16 5.90 2.98 3.83 5.32 5.05 4.32 5.88 5.21 5.90 5.90 4.16 4.00 4.80 2.98 3.52 5.29 5.05 4.23 4.00 3.81 4.16 4.11 1.10 0.23 1.61 0.60 0.34 0.44 0.36 0.34 0.41 0.64 0.73 0.26 0.46 0.26 0.20 0.83 0.54 0.74 0.36 0.64 0.42 0.64 1.03 0.84 1.04 1.04 1.04 0.70 0.44 0.59 0.36 0.49 0.41 0.64 0.88 0.53 0.66 0.58 0.50 0.11 0.14 0.15 15 20 18 19 19 17 21 16 10 14 10 10 24 24 30 19 26 19 21 20 30 19 30 32 19 22 23 19 23 18 21 18 18 17 19 21 4.51 2.83 6.24 0.74 0.77 0.45 0.04 0.13 0.79 1.26 0.94 0.80 81 Bark thickness (cm) Max Mean StD 0.24 0.14 0.21 0.01 0.21 0.17 0.33 0.20 0.20 Min No. of rings Max Mean StD 5.33 4.61 4.95 1.41 2.83 6.69 2.52 4.81 5.06 Histogram (with Normal Curve) of Radius & Bark thickness (cm) Radius (cm) 1.05 0.75 0.90 0.45 0.60 0.30 0.15 Normal Bark thickness (cm) Radius (cm) Mean 4.115 StDev 0.8012 N 93 14 20 Frequency 12 15 Bark thickness (cm) Mean 0.4991 StDev 0.2026 N 93 10 8 10 6 4 5 2 0 6.0 5.0 5.5 4.0 4.5 3.0 3.5 2.0 2.5 0 (a) Histogram (with Normal Curve) of Radius (- bark) and No. of rings Normal 12 18 Radius (cm) Frequency 20 24 No. of rings 20 16 14 16 28 32 Radius (cm) Mean 3.614 StDev 0.7351 N 93 No. of rings Mean 20.83 StDev 5.058 N 93 15 12 10 10 8 6 5 4 2 0 0 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 (b) Figure (15): The measurements of sampled M. peregrina cross-cuts (a) radius and bark thickness and (b) radius excluded bark and number of rings. 82 Probability Plot of Radius Normal 99.9 Mean StDev N AD P-Value 99 Percent 95 90 3.614 0.7351 93 0.833 0.030 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 1 0.1 1 2 3 4 Radius (cm) 5 6 (a) Probability Plot of Bark Normal 99.9 Mean StDev N AD P-Value 99 Percent 95 90 0.4991 0.2026 93 2.163 <0.005 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 1 0.1 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 Bark thickness (cm) 1.00 1.25 (b) Probability Plot of Rings Normal 99.9 Mean StDev N AD P-Value 99 Percent 95 90 20.83 5.058 93 1.154 <0.005 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 1 0.1 5 10 15 . 20 25 No of rings 30 35 40 (c) Figure (16): Normality test for (a) radius, (b) bark thickness (cm) and number of rings in sampled M. peregrina cross-cuts. 83 Line Fit Plot 1.0 Bark thickness = 0.121 * Radius (cm) Bark thickness (cm) r2 = 0.19 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0 1 2 3 Radius (cm) 4 5 6 (a) Line Fit Plot 35 No of rings = 5.68 * Radius (cm) 30 r2 = 0.27 No of rings 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 Radius (cm) 4 5 (b) Figure (17): Linear regression equation (a) between bark thickness (cm) and radius, and (b) between radius and number of annual rings of sampled M. peregrina cross-cuts. 84 b. Bark thickness, radius and number of rings of sampled trees ANOVA results revealed that there is a high significant variation (P = 0.000) in estimated trees ages between the four wadis. The histograms of the estimated radii and hence age distribution significantly departed from fit to normal distribution (Figure 18). Anderson-Darling normality test showed that the skewness from normality is associated with the extreme radii (lower than 7 cm and higher than 28 cm (Figure 18a). This means that estimated ages less than 40 years and higher than 160 years may be under-estimated (Figure 18b). The age structure of M. peregrina populations (Figure 19) confirms that the majority of trees located in the interval [41 - 60] years. It followed by the interval [60- 80] years. Based on the regression equation, the age structure of M. peregrina can be summarized as follows: (1) the estimated oldest M. peregrina tree is 382 years old, while the youngest tree is 13 years old at W. Zaghra. (2) The oldest M. peregrina tree in W. Me'ir is 285 years old, while the youngest tree is 26 years old. (3) The oldest M. peregrina tree in W. Agala is 192 years old, and the youngest tree is 20 years old. (4) The oldest M. peregrina tree in W. Feiran is 119 years old, and the youngest tree is 15 years old. In addition to (6) the highest mean age of the trees recorded in W. Zaghra is 82.3 (± 62.9) followed by W. Me'ir is 73.2 (± 42), W. Agala is 52.3 (± 38.9), and W. Feiran is 43.75 (± 26.9) with an overall mean of 69.5 (± 47) in pooled population (Table 13). 85 Probability Plot of Radius (R) Normal 99.9 Mean StDev N AD P-Value 99 Percent 95 90 13.93 9.424 404 18.023 <0.005 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 1 0.1 0 20 40 Radius (R) 60 80 (a) Probability Plot of Age (2007) Normal 99.9 Mean StDev N AD P-Value 99 Percent 95 90 69.54 47.06 404 18.025 <0.005 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 1 0.1 -100 0 100 200 Age (2007) 300 400 (b) Figure (18): Normality test of radii (a) and estimated age for 404 trees of M. peregrina in the studied four wadis (b) 86 Table (13): Descriptive statistics of radii bark thickness and no. of rings for all sampled M. peregrina trees. Location W. Agala Total wadi W. Feiran Total wadi W. Zaghra Total W.wadi Mei'r Total wadi Pooled Site No. Number of trees Min Radius (cm) Max Mean StD Bark thickness (cm) Min Max Mean StD Min 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8 9 5 10 11 12 13 14 15 6 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 26 41 11 7 6 16 40 4 14 7 15 7 47 13 15 24 2 12 16 82 12 9 10 5 14 7 3 6 16 14 6 8 15 2 9 5 6 12 8 10 9 17 12 7 10 3 235 404 5.0 4.3 4.0 4.8 4.0 6.1 4.3 4.9 4.1 3.0 3.0 2.5 4.8 3.2 11.8 5.6 6.4 2.5 6.7 5.9 6.7 5.6 6.4 6.1 9.3 5.9 6.6 5.1 8.1 6.8 6.4 9.1 8.4 11.5 11.5 8.6 7.6 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.4 5.9 6.8 12.6 5.1 2.5 17.8 10.7 10.4 38.5 38.5 10.0 23.7 15.4 23.1 7.3 23.7 20.4 37.6 51.8 37.4 33.6 76.4 76.4 21.3 22.4 30.3 18.0 25.7 51.8 14.1 22.0 29.3 21.8 25.5 25.2 27.1 16.5 23.2 43.0 34.6 34.6 48.2 49.0 49.1 34.9 28.6 12.3 23.8 22.0 51.8 76.4 3.6 2.7 2.2 10.1 7.8 1.9 6.7 4.2 5.4 1.6 5.4 5.0 11.5 13.0 18.1 7.4 16.9 12.6 4.6 5.4 7.1 5.2 6.0 14.6 2.6 6.1 7.8 5.8 6.3 6.8 5.5 5.2 5.2 13.5 8.4 7.7 15.2 12.5 13.4 6.4 7.6 2.1 6.0 5.0 8.5 9.4 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.4 1.4 0.7 0.8 0.3 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7 1.1 0.7 0.8 0.6 1.0 0.8 0.8 1.1 1.0 1.4 1.4 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 1.5 0.6 0.3 25.2 21.5 19.9 23.9 19.9 30.6 21.5 24.6 20.7 15.1 15.1 12.7 23.9 15.9 58.8 27.8 31.8 12.7 33.4 29.4 33.4 27.8 31.8 30.6 46.5 29.4 32.9 25.4 40.5 34.2 31.8 45.3 41.7 57.2 57.6 42.9 38.2 34.2 34.2 34.2 31.8 29.4 33.8 62.8 25.4 12.7 7.8 6.9 6.5 15.4 10.5 7.7 10.4 10.2 9.0 4.1 8.8 7.4 17.9 19.3 24.6 14.2 18.9 16.5 13.6 14.1 14.8 10.0 12.9 23.6 11.1 14.2 15.9 10.7 15.7 13.8 11.3 16.5 13.9 23.6 20.7 18.0 26.3 14.4 15.9 12.9 12.4 8.6 13.2 16.3 14.7 13.9 F = 9.53 , P = 0.000 87 2.2 1.3 1.3 4.7 4.7 1.2 2.9 1.9 2.8 0.9 2.9 2.5 4.5 6.3 4.5 4.1 9.2 9.2 2.6 2.7 3.7 2.2 3.1 6.3 1.7 2.7 3.5 2.6 3.1 3.1 3.3 2.0 2.8 5.2 4.2 4.2 5.8 5.9 5.9 4.2 3.5 1.5 2.9 2.7 6.3 9.2 0.9 0.8 0.8 1.9 1.3 0.9 1.3 1.2 1.1 0.5 1.1 0.9 2.2 2.3 3.0 1.7 2.3 2.0 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.2 1.6 2.9 1.3 1.7 1.9 1.3 1.9 1.7 1.4 2.0 1.7 2.8 2.5 2.2 3.2 1.7 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.0 1.6 2.0 1.8 1.7 0.4 0.3 0.3 1.2 0.9 0.2 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.7 0.6 1.4 1.6 2.2 0.9 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.7 1.8 0.3 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 1.6 1.0 0.9 1.8 1.5 1.6 0.8 0.9 0.3 0.7 0.6 1.0 1.1 No. of rings Max Mean 89.0 53.3 51.7 192.4 192.4 50.1 118.5 77.1 115.3 36.6 118.5 101.8 187.6 258.4 186.8 167.7 381.6 381.6 106.5 111.7 151.1 89.8 128.4 258.4 70.4 109.7 146.3 108.9 127.5 126.0 135.2 82.3 116.1 214.7 172.5 172.5 240.5 244.5 245.3 174.1 142.7 61.2 118.9 109.7 258.4 381.6 38.9 34.5 32.5 76.8 52.3 38.6 52.1 50.9 44.9 20.3 43.8 36.7 89.6 96.6 122.8 70.8 94.5 82.3 68.0 70.3 73.8 49.8 64.6 118.0 55.4 70.9 79.1 53.6 78.3 69.0 56.5 82.3 69.3 117.6 103.4 89.6 131.2 71.9 79.2 64.3 62.1 42.8 65.7 81.4 73.2 69.5 StD 18.0 13.4 10.9 50.3 38.9 9.3 33.5 21.1 27.0 7.8 27.0 24.8 57.5 65.1 90.5 37.1 84.4 63.0 22.8 27.1 35.3 26.0 30.2 72.9 13.0 30.4 38.9 28.8 31.5 33.7 27.4 26.1 25.7 67.4 41.8 38.3 76.0 62.4 66.9 32.0 37.9 10.4 29.7 24.9 42.3 47.1 Based on the age structure of M. peregrina in the studied wadis of South Sinai, one can found that 50 % of the trees in W. Agala, 40.4 % in W. Feiran, 76.8 % in W. Zaghra, 81.7 % in W. Me'ir, and 72.8 % for the pooled population are older than 40 years (Table 14). Individuals born before the last 20 years are not exceeding 2.5 % in W. Agala, 8.5 % in W. Feiran, 7.3 % in W. Zaghra, 2.7 % in the overall population, and there is no newborn in W. Me'ir (zero %) during this interval. Therefore, in W. Me'ir, no single tree was recorded with age under 20 years (Table 14). In other word, there is no new individual in last 20 years in both wadis (W. Agala and W. Me'ir), and there is no single tree in last 15 years in both wadis (W. Feiran and W. Zaghra). It means that these populations are very sharply decline with almost no regeneration and most probably will face extinction. The age structure shows the very unhealthy status of M. peregrina populations due to the rapidly shrinking in both sides of the curve (Figure 19). The shrinking phase started around 60 – 80 years ago with sharp decline in the last 20-40 years. This figure suggests that if the current situation unchanged, the populations of M. peregrina trees will not persist, that the older trees are not being replaced by young trees. 88 Table (14): Age structure of M. peregrina populations in the studied four wadis (W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir) and pooled population. Age Rank 1 Class [≤20] 2 W. Agala Freq. W. Feiran % Cum. % Freq. W. Zaghra % Cum. % Freq. W. Me'ir % Cum. % Freq. Pooled Populations % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. % 1 2.5 39 97.5 4 8.5 43 91.5 6 7.3 76 92.7 0 0.0 235 100.0 11.0 2.7 393.0 97.3 19 47.5 20 50.0 24 51.1 19 40.4 13 15.9 63 76.8 43 18.3 192 81.7 99.0 24.5 294.0 72.8 3 [41-60] 10 25.0 10 25.0 9 19.1 10 21.3 16 19.5 47 57.3 71 30.2 121 51.5 106.0 26.2 188.0 46.5 4 [61-80] 4 10.0 6 15.0 5 10.6 5 10.6 16 19.5 31 37.8 42 17.9 79 33.6 67.0 16.6 121.0 30.0 5 [81-100] 2 5.0 4 10.0 2 4.3 3 6.4 12 14.6 19 23.2 30 12.8 49 20.9 46.0 11.4 75.0 18.6 6 [101-120] 2 5.0 2 5.0 3 6.4 0 0.0 5 6.1 14 17.1 24 10.2 25 10.6 34.0 8.4 41.0 10.1 7 [121-140] 0 0.0 2 5.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 12 14.6 9 3.8 16 6.8 11.0 2.7 30.0 7.4 8 [141-160] 0 0.0 2 5.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 11 13.4 4 1.7 12 5.1 5.0 1.2 25.0 6.2 9 [161-180] 0 0.0 2 5.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 5 6.1 6 7.3 6 2.6 6 2.6 11.0 2.7 14.0 3.5 10 [181-200] 2 5.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 3.7 3 3.7 0 0.0 6 2.6 5.0 1.2 9.0 2.2 11 [201-220] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 3.7 2 0.9 4 1.7 2.0 0.5 7.0 1.7 12 [221-240] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 3.7 0 0.0 4 1.7 0.0 0.0 7.0 1.7 13 [241-260] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 1 1.2 4 1.7 0 0.0 6.0 1.5 1.0 0.2 14 [261-280] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2 15 [281-300] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2 16 [300-320] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2 17 [321-340] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2 18 [341-360] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2 19 [361-380] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 40 100 47 100 82 100 235 100 404 100 20 [>380] Total 89 Histogram of Estimated Age (2007) Normal 140 Mean StDev N 120 69.54 47.06 404 Frequency 100 80 60 40 20 400 360 380 320 340 280 300 240 260 200 220 160 180 120 140 80 100 40 60 0 20 0 Estimated Age (year) (a) Histogram of Ages by Wadi (2007) Normal W. Agala 20 W. Feiran W. Agala Mean 52.34 StDev 38.89 N 40 12 15 9 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 180 200 140 160 100 120 80 40 0 60 3 0 0 5 30 W. Feiran Mean 43.75 StDev 26.97 N 47 6 20 Frequency 10 W. W.Me'ir Meir W. Zaghra 60 W.Meir Me'ir W. Mean 73.18 StDev 42.33 N 235 45 20 30 10 W. Zaghra Mean 82.27 StDev 62.96 N 82 15 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 0 0 (b) Figure (19): Age structure of M. peregrina tree (a) in pooled population and (b) in the studied four wadis. 90 The annual increase of tree radius has been estimated to be 1.76 mm. As the estimated age is a function of the radius and the annual increment was estimated by dividing the radius by the estimated age. The annual increment estimation turns to be the reciprocal of the slope in age regression equation (1/5.68) and hence constant to all cross-cuts. c. Static life table Based on the age structure and static life table of M. peregrina in South Sinai, the old trees (≥ 180 years old trees in W. Agala, ≥ 100 years old in W. Feiran, ≥ 260 years old in W. Zaghra, and ≥ 240 years old in W. Me'ir) have a 100% chance of death (qx = 1.00) (Tables 15). These death-facing trees represent 5 %, 6.4 %, 1.2 %, and 1.7 % of populations at W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra, and W. Me'ir respectively. Life table (Table 15) shows that there is decline in population number in young individuals in the last 20 years. Moreover, lifespan of M. peregrina at which the highest risk of death was recorded in trees older than 100 years old (represent 10 %, 6.4 %, 23.2 %, and 20.9 % of W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir populations, respectively) . 91 Table (15): A static life table for M. peregrina populations at the four studied wadis (W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir) and pooled population. X = age entered by time of census, Nx = number of individuals living in age x, ax = number of individuals that survive to the age x, lx = proportion of original cohort surviving to age x, Lx = the average proportion alive at the age, Tx = the total number of living individuals at age class x and beyond, ex = the probability of living 'x' number of years beyond a given age, dx is the number of individuals that die during stage x, and qx = proportion of individuals entering age x that die during age x. Age Class Wadi Agala Nx ax lx Lx Tx Wadi Feiran ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx Wadi Zaghra ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex Wadi Mei'r dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx Pooled Population ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex dx qx [≤ 20] 1 40 1.00 0.99 2.68 2.68 1 0.03 4 47 1.00 0.96 2.20 2.20 4 0.09 6 82 1.00 0.96 4.10 4.10 6 0.07 235 1.00 1.00 3.69 3.69 0 0.00 11 404 1.00 0.99 3.50 3.50 11 0.03 [21-40] 19 39 0.98 0.74 1.69 1.73 19 0.49 24 43 0.91 0.66 1.24 1.36 24 0.56 13 76 0.93 0.85 3.13 3.38 13 0.17 43 235 1.00 0.91 2.69 2.69 43 0.18 99 393 0.97 0.85 2.51 2.58 99 0.25 [41-60] 10 20 0.50 0.38 0.95 1.90 10 0.50 9 19 0.40 0.31 0.59 1.45 9 0.47 16 63 0.77 0.67 2.29 2.98 16 0.25 71 192 0.82 0.67 1.78 2.18 71 0.37 106 294 0.73 0.60 1.66 2.29 106 0.36 [61-80] 4 10 0.25 0.20 0.58 2.31 4 0.40 5 10 0.21 0.16 0.28 1.30 5 0.50 16 47 0.57 0.48 1.62 2.82 16 0.34 42 121 0.51 0.43 1.11 2.16 42 0.35 67 0 188 0.47 0.38 1.07 2.29 67 0.36 [81-100] 2 6 0.15 0.13 0.38 2.51 2 0.33 2 5 0.11 0.09 0.12 1.10 2 0.40 12 31 0.38 0.30 1.14 3.01 12 0.39 30 79 0.34 0.27 0.69 2.04 30 0.38 46 121 0.30 0.24 0.68 2.28 46 0.38 [101-120] 2 4 0.10 0.08 0.25 2.51 2 0.50 3 3 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.50 3 1.00 5 19 0.23 0.20 0.83 3.60 5 0.26 24 49 0.21 0.16 0.41 1.99 24 0.49 34 75 0.19 0.14 0.44 2.38 34 0.45 [121-140] 0 2 0.05 0.05 0.18 3.53 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 2 14 0.17 0.16 0.63 3.71 2 0.14 9 25 0.11 0.09 0.26 2.42 9 0.36 11 41 0.10 0.09 0.30 2.94 11 0.27 [141-160] 0 2 0.05 0.05 0.13 2.45 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 1 12 0.16 0.15 0.47 2.97 1 0.08 4 16 0.07 0.06 0.17 2.50 4 0.25 5 30 0.08 0.07 0.21 2.74 5 0.17 [161-180] 0 2 0.05 0.05 0.08 1.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 5 11 0.13 0.10 0.32 2.41 5 0.45 6 12 0.05 0.04 0.11 2.17 6 0.50 11 25 0.06 0.05 0.14 2.26 11 0.44 [361-380] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0 1 1 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.50 0 0.00 92 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.50 0 0.00 Table (15): continue Age Class Wadi Agala Nx ax lx Lx Tx Wadi Feiran ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx Wadi Zaghra ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex Wadi Mei'r dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx Pooled Population ex dx qx Nx ax lx Lx Tx ex dx qx [181-200] 2 2 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.50 2 1.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 3 6 0.07 0.05 0.22 3.00 3 0.50 0 6 0.03 0.03 0.07 2.83 0 0.00 5 14 0.03 0.03 0.09 2.64 5 0.36 [201-220] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 3 0.04 0.04 0.16 0.00 0 0.00 2 6 0.03 0.02 0.05 1.83 2 0.00 2 9 0.02 0.02 0.06 2.83 2 0.00 [221-240] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 3 0.04 0.04 0.13 3.50 0 0.00 0 4 0.02 0.02 0.03 1.50 0 0.00 0 7 0.02 0.02 0.04 2.50 0 0.00 [241-260] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 2 3 0.04 0.02 0.09 2.50 2 0.00 4 4 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.50 4 1.00 6 7 0.02 0.01 0.03 1.50 6 0.00 [261-280] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.07 5.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.02 6.50 0 0.00 [281-300] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.05 4.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.01 5.50 0 0.00 [300-320] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.04 3.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.01 4.50 0 0.00 [321-340] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.03 2.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.01 3.50 0 0.00 [341-360] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.02 1.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.01 2.50 0 0.00 [361-380] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.50 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.50 0 0.00 [>381] 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 1 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1 1.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 1 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 1 1.00 Total 40 47 82 235 93 404 d. Survivorship Curve Based on the survivorship values (lx) in life table, the survivorship curve of M. peregrina populations in South Sinai represents type III of survivorship curves due to the high rate of mortality among the young and the old trees. At the age class [2140], the value of lx was declined in the three wadis (Agala, Feiran and Zaghra), while in W. Me'ir, it declined at the age class [41-60] referring to that the highest mortality rate starting in small ages (Figure 20). 1.2 W. Agala W. Feiran 1 W. Zaghra Pooled population 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 Age Class (years) Figure (20): Survivorship curve of the main populations of Moringa per peregrina peregrina 94 [≥ 381] [361-380] [341-360] [321-340] [300-320] [281-300] [261-280] [241-260] [221-240] [201-220] [181-200] [161-180] [141-160] [121-140] [101-120] [81-100] [61-80] [41-60] [21-40] 0 [< 20] Survivorship Survivorship (lx) (lx) W. Me'ir III. Size structure of Moringa populations The output results of size structure of M. peregrina populations showed that the mean values of tree height is 6.9 m (± 3.5), crown cover area is 17.7 m2 (± 20.2), circumference at ground level (CAG) is 87.5 cm (± 59.2) and circumference/height ratio is 0.13 (±0.07) (Table 16 & Figure 21). The highest mean values of the tree height (8.1 m), crown cover area (25.8 m2), circumference at ground level (103.5 cm) were recorded in the trees of W. Zaghra (Table 16).The minimum value of tree height (1 m) was recorded in W. Zaghra, while the highest value (17 m) in W. Me'ir. The minimum value of crown cover (0.3 m2) was recorded in W. Feiran, while the highest value (203.5 m2) in W. Zaghra. At the same time, the minimum value of circumference (16 cm) and the highest value (480 cm) were recorded in W. Zaghra (Table 16 & Figure 22). ANOVA (one-way) results revealed that there is highly significant variations (P = 0.000) in the measured tree size (height, crown cover area, and trunk circumference) between the four wadis. Moreover, significant variation (P = 0.029) was in circumference/height ratio between the studied wadis (Table 16). Comparing height, cover, and circumference, Tukey test could only discriminate between trees at W. Agala and wadis (Feiran, Zaghra, and Me'ir), and between trees at W. Feiran and trees at both (W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir). Finally, it couldn't discriminate between trees at W. Zaghra on one side and W. Me'ir on the other. 95 Table (16): The descriptive statistics of the vegetative parameters of M. peregrine populations in South Sinai. Location Site Crown cover area (m2) Tree height (m) Circumference (cm) Circumference/height ratio No. Min Max Mean StD. Min Max Mean StD. Min Max Mean StD. Min Max Mean StD. W. 1 3.5 8.2 6.0 1.6 2.4 19.2 10.0 5.2 31.7 112.0 49.0 22.6 0.05 0.15 0.08 0.04 Agala 2 3.2 6.2 4.4 1.1 1.8 11.9 6.9 4.6 27.0 67.0 43.4 16.8 0.04 0.20 0.11 0.06 3 3.0 7.3 4.8 2.0 2.4 14.2 8.6 4.6 25.0 65.0 40.9 13.7 0.05 0.12 0.09 0.02 4 1.7 12.0 5.3 2.8 0.6 32.2 12.7 8.9 30.0 242.0 96.6 63.3 0.09 0.30 0.19 0.07 Total 1.7 12.0 5.3 2.2 0.6 32.2 10.3 7.0 25.0 242.0 65.8 48.9 0.04 0.30 0.13 0.07 W. 5 3.8 6.2 4.8 1.0 8.8 14.9 11.9 3.0 38.5 63.0 48.5 11.7 0.08 0.12 0.10 0.02 Feiran 6 2.3 10.5 4.8 2.7 0.3 43.0 9.0 12.5 27.0 149.0 65.6 42.2 0.08 0.29 0.14 0.06 7 2.0 8.0 5.6 2.2 1.7 34.2 17.9 11.8 31.0 97.0 64.1 26.5 0.08 0.18 0.12 0.04 8 1.8 11.4 6.2 3.1 1.1 40.1 11.5 10.9 26.0 145.0 56.5 34.0 0.05 0.17 0.10 0.04 9 1.7 5.2 3.2 1.2 0.6 27.8 6.4 9.6 19.0 46.0 25.6 9.7 0.04 0.12 0.09 0.03 Total 1.7 11.4 5.1 2.6 0.3 43.0 11.0 11.1 19.0 149.0 55.0 33.9 0.04 0.29 0.11 0.05 W. 10 2.5 8.5 6.0 2.3 1.0 35.8 11.4 11.0 16.0 128.0 46.2 31.2 0.04 0.18 0.08 0.04 Zaghra 11 4.3 15.8 8.2 3.8 8.3 203.5 46.5 54.2 30.0 236.0 112.7 72.3 0.07 0.30 0.14 0.08 12 2.3 14.0 8.9 3.2 0.6 52.1 27.7 15.4 20.0 325.0 121.5 81.9 0.03 0.43 0.14 0.08 13 12.0 12.5 12.3 0.4 11.6 47.2 29.4 25.1 74.0 235.0 154.5 113.8 0.06 0.20 0.13 0.10 14 1.0 14.0 9.1 3.4 1.0 37.9 21.1 11.6 35.0 211.0 89.1 46.7 0.06 0.35 0.12 0.08 15 4.0 10.5 7.2 1.8 5.5 34.7 18.4 8.3 40.0 480.0 118.9 106.1 0.08 0.56 0.16 0.12 Total 1.0 15.8 8.1 3.2 0.6 203.5 25.8 27.6 16.0 480.0 103.5 79.2 0.03 0.56 0.13 0.09 W. 16 3.5 14.5 9.5 3.5 2.4 50.9 23.2 17.2 42.0 134.0 85.5 28.7 0.06 0.17 0.10 0.03 Me'ir 17 2.5 15.5 8.9 4.6 2.7 53.4 25.1 17.0 37.0 140.5 88.4 34.1 0.07 0.20 0.12 0.05 18 3.0 14.5 8.2 4.3 2.7 116.4 28.6 36.8 42.0 190.0 92.8 44.4 0.09 0.16 0.12 0.02 19 1.9 12.5 6.4 4.2 0.6 39.0 18.0 17.5 35.0 113.0 62.6 32.7 0.06 0.18 0.12 0.05 20 1.5 15.0 5.5 3.5 1.3 26.0 10.1 8.6 40.0 161.5 81.3 37.9 0.06 0.31 0.17 0.06 21 6.0 17.0 11.1 4.3 11.6 107.5 48.2 33.1 38.5 325.0 148.4 91.7 0.06 0.25 0.14 0.07 22 2.0 8.0 5.8 3.3 3.3 18.5 11.9 7.8 58.5 88.5 69.7 16.4 0.07 0.31 0.17 0.13 23 3.0 16.0 9.3 6.1 1.3 105.6 53.2 53.4 37.0 138.0 89.2 38.3 0.08 0.21 0.12 0.06 24 3.0 10.5 6.0 2.2 1.3 25.5 10.7 7.7 41.3 184.0 99.5 48.9 0.08 0.33 0.17 0.07 25 2.0 15.5 6.3 4.1 0.8 64.3 16.2 18.0 32.0 137.0 67.5 36.2 0.08 0.17 0.12 0.03 26 2.6 14.0 7.6 4.2 2.1 30.7 14.1 10.1 51.0 160.3 98.5 39.6 0.11 0.20 0.14 0.04 27 2.5 16.0 10.9 4.7 3.6 87.4 22.2 27.8 43.0 158.5 86.8 42.4 0.05 0.17 0.09 0.04 28 1.5 11.8 5.2 3.3 1.1 39.0 9.7 9.8 40.0 170.0 71.1 34.4 0.05 0.27 0.16 0.05 29 2.6 10.0 6.3 5.2 5.9 20.0 13.0 10.0 57.0 103.5 80.3 32.9 0.10 0.22 0.16 0.08 30 3.5 16.3 8.3 4.5 2.3 36.3 16.9 9.9 52.5 146.0 87.2 32.4 0.09 0.19 0.12 0.04 31 4.7 14.8 9.6 3.6 9.3 47.2 28.6 15.3 72.0 270.0 147.9 84.8 0.06 0.26 0.16 0.09 32 4.7 9.5 7.4 2.0 8.6 20.4 13.2 5.0 72.5 217.0 130.0 52.5 0.11 0.23 0.18 0.05 33 1.8 8.5 5.8 2.5 1.5 30.7 11.6 8.6 54.0 217.0 112.8 48.2 0.14 0.30 0.21 0.06 34 2.0 12.5 7.2 3.9 1.6 42.4 16.6 16.0 48.0 302.5 165.0 95.6 0.15 0.38 0.23 0.07 35 3.0 10.5 6.0 2.2 3.3 37.9 12.5 10.1 43.0 307.5 90.5 78.5 0.09 0.29 0.14 0.06 36 2.8 9.6 5.9 2.2 1.7 20.8 10.7 6.4 43.0 308.5 99.6 84.1 0.09 0.32 0.15 0.07 37 3.0 12.5 6.3 2.2 2.4 39.6 13.0 8.6 43.0 219.0 80.8 40.3 0.08 0.18 0.13 0.03 38 2.3 9.5 5.1 2.2 2.7 21.6 10.1 7.0 40.0 179.5 78.1 47.7 0.11 0.25 0.15 0.04 39 4.0 7.0 5.6 1.1 5.5 14.2 10.1 2.6 37.0 77.0 53.9 13.0 0.07 0.12 0.10 0.02 40 5.5 14.5 9.0 3.1 5.9 47.2 21.2 13.6 42.5 149.5 82.6 37.4 0.06 0.19 0.10 0.04 41 4.5 7.0 6.0 1.3 12.9 37.4 23.7 12.5 79.0 138.0 102.3 31.4 0.12 0.31 0.19 0.11 Total 1.5 17.0 7.1 3.7 0.6 116.4 17.5 19.1 32.0 325.0 92.1 53.2 0.05 0.38 0.14 0.06 Pooled population 1.0 17.0 6.9 3.5 0.3 203.5 17.7 20.2 16.0 480.0 87.5 59.2 0.03 0.56 0.13 0.07 F-value 11.26 8.36 P 0.000 0.000 96 9.53 3.05 0.000 0.029 Tree Height (m) Normal W. Agala W. Feiran W . A gala Mean 5.253 StDev 2.176 N 40 8 8 6 6 W. Zaghra 15 12 10 11 8 9 6 W.Me'ir Meir W. 30 20 7 4 5 2 3 0 0 1 2 0 12 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Frequency W . Feiran 5.121 Mean StDev 2.615 N 47 4 4 W . Zaghra Mean 8.067 StDev 3.172 N 82 W Meir W.. Me'ir Mean 7.088 StDev 3.669 N 235 20 10 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 0 0 (a) Crown cover area (m2 ) Normal W . A gala W . Feiran 10.0 7.5 9 200 140 120 40 40 45 30 35 20 25 10 W . Zaghra Mean 25.79 StDev 27.58 N 82 W. W .Me'ir Mei r Mean 17.49 StDev 19.10 N 235 0 10 20 0 180 15 0 160 30 10 100 20 60 45 80 30 20 60 15 32 24 28 16 20 8 4 W . Zaghra 40 Me'irr WW. . Mei 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 0 5 0.0 W . Feiran 10.98 Mean StDev 11.09 N 47 0 3 12 6 2.5 0 5.0 0 Frequency W . A gala Mean 10.30 StDev 6.976 N 40 12 (b) Circumference/height Normal W . Feiran 0.35 0.40 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.00 W . Zaghra Mean 0.1288 StDev 0.08632 N 82 0.35 0.40 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.10 0.00 W . Me' ir Mean 0.1423 StDev 0.06160 N 235 0.05 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.30 0 0.35 15 0 0.20 30 20 0.25 40 0.10 45 0.15 60 0.00 W . Me' ir 60 0.15 W . Zaghra 80 W . A gala Mean 0.13 StDev 0.06958 N 40 W . Feiran Mean 0.1126 StDev 0.04503 N 47 0.05 0.54 0.48 0.42 0.30 0 0.36 0 0.18 4 0.24 8 2 0.12 12 4 0.00 6 0.06 16 0.05 Frequency W . A gala 8 (c) Figure (21): Size structure of M. peregrina tree populations (a) tree height (m) (b) crown cover (m2), and (c) circumference/height in South Sinai. 97 Size structure of pooled population in South Sinai Normal Height (m) Crown Cover (m2) Height Mean 6.876 StDev 3.466 N 404 160 120 30 80 15 40 0 0 Crown Cover Mean 17.70 StDev 20.19 N 404 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 45 Circumference (CAG) (cm) Circumference/height Circumference (CAG) Mean 87.47 StDev 59.19 N 404 0.56 0.48 0.32 0.40 0.24 0.16 0.08 Circumference/height Mean 0.1348 StDev 0.06707 N 404 0.00 480 400 440 320 0 360 0 240 15 280 20 160 30 200 45 40 80 60 120 60 0 80 40 Frequency 60 Figure (22): Size structure [height (m), crown cover area (m2), circumference (cm), and circumference/height ratio] of pooled population of M. peregrina trees in South Sinai. The comparison between the size structures of the four wadis showed that 90 % of M. peregrina trees in W. Agala, 72.3 % in W. Feiran, 91.5 % in W. Zaghra, and 87.2 % W. Me'ir are more than 3 m height. Moreover, 32.5 % of M. peregrina trees in W. Agala, 29.8 % in W. Feiran, 17.1 % in W. Zaghra, and 52.3 % in W. Me'ir are more than 6 m height. On the other hand, 2.5 % of M. peregrina trees in W. Agala, 12.8 % in W. Feiran, 7.3 % in W. Zaghra, and 24.7 % W. Me'ir are more than 9 m height (Table 17). There are only 2 trees in W. Zaghra (2.4 %) and 8 trees in W. Me'ir (3.4 %) more than 15 m height. Therefore, the height of M. peregrina trees in the pooled population showed that 86.6 % are more than 3 m height and 53.5 % are more 6 m height. Furthermore, 22 % of population is more than 9 m height, and 9.7 % is more than 12 m 98 Table (17): Size structure of M. peregrina in the four wadis (W. Agala, W. Feiran, W. Zaghra and W. Mei'r) Class W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Mei'r Pooled Populations % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. % Freq. % Cum. % [1 - 3 ] 4 10.0 36 90.0 13 27.7 34 72.3 7 8.5 75 91.5 30 12.8 205 87.2 54.0 13.4 350.0 86.6 [3.1 - 6 ] 23 57.5 13 32.5 20 42.6 14 29.8 9 11.0 14 17.1 82 34.9 123 52.3 134.0 33.2 216.0 53.5 [6.1 - 9 ] 12 30.0 1 2.5 8 17.0 6 12.8 42 51.2 6 7.3 65 27.7 58 24.7 127.0 31.4 89.0 22.0 [9.1 - 12 ] 1 2.5 0 0.0 6 12.8 0 0.0 15 18.3 0 0.0 28 11.9 30 12.8 50.0 12.4 39.0 9.7 [12.1 - 15 ] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 7 8.5 0 0.0 22 9.4 8 3.4 29.0 7.2 10.0 2.5 [15.1 - 18 ] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 0 0.0 8 3.4 0 0.0 10.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 [1 - 20] 36 90.0 4 10.0 37 78.7 10 21.3 38 46.3 44 53.7 166 70.6 69 29.4 285.0 70.5 119.0 29.5 [20.1 - 40] 4 10.0 0 0.0 8 17.0 2 4.3 31 37.8 13 15.9 50 21.3 19 8.1 85.0 21.0 34.0 8.4 [40.1 - 60] 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 4.3 0 0.0 11 13.4 2 2.4 10 4.3 9 3.8 23.0 5.7 11.0 2.7 [60.1 - 80] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 3 1.3 6 2.6 3.0 0.7 8.0 2.0 [80.1 - 100] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 2 0.9 4 1.7 2.0 0.5 6.0 1.5 [100.1 - 120] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 4 1.7 0 0.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 [120.1 - 140] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 1.0 0.2 1.0 0.2 [140.1 - 160] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2 [160.1 - 180] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2 [180.1 - 200] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.2 [200.1 - 220] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 [0.01 - 0.1] 18 45.0 22 55.0 23 48.9 24 51.1 42 51.2 40 48.8 72 30.6 163 69.4 155.0 38.4 249.0 61.6 0.11 - 0.2] 17 42.5 5 12.5 22 46.8 2 4.3 31 37.8 9 11.0 130 55.3 33 14.0 200.0 49.5 49.0 12.1 [0.21 - 0.3] 5 12.5 0 0.0 2 4.3 0 0.0 5 6.1 4 4.9 27 11.5 6 2.6 39.0 9.7 10.0 2.5 [0.31 - 0.4] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.4 2 2.4 6 2.6 0 0.0 8.0 2.0 2.0 0.5 [0.41 - 0.5] 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 1.0 0.2 1.0 0.2 [0.51 - 0.6] Total 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 40 100 47 100 82 100 235 100 404 100 Tree height (m) Crown cover area (m2) Circumference/ height ratio W. Agala Freq. 99 height, and only 2.5 % of M. peregrina population is more than 15 m height. The tree height of M. peregrina trees in 10% of population in W. Agala, 27.7% in W.Feiran, 8.5% in W. Zaghra and 12.8 % in W. Me'ir was (1-3) m. The majority are trees are located in height class (3.1 – 6) m; 57 % of population in W. Agala, 42.6 % in W. Feiran, and 34.9 % in W. Me'ir. On the other hand, 51.2 % of trees in W. Zaghra are located in the height class (6.1–9). The results of crown cover area of M. peregrina showed that 10 % in W. Agala, 21.3 % in W. Feiran, 53.7 % in W. Zaghra, and 29.4 % W. Me'ir are more than 20 m2. There is no tree in W. Agala more than 40 m2, while 4.3 % of trees in W. Feiran, 15.9 % in W. Zaghra, and 8.1 % W. Me'ir are more than 40 m2. This means that there are no small sizes of M. peregrina trees in the studied wadis where there is only one tree in W. Zaghra more than 200 m2 in crown cover area. The Pearson correlation coefficient showed that there is a highly significant positive linear relationship between tree size and estimated tree age. Based on this correlation and the output results of the linear regression analysis the size (especially height, and circumference/height ratio) can be used to expect the age class of M. peregrina tree (Table 18). Table (18): Pearson correlation and linear regression between size and age of M. peregrina tree. Correlation Linear regression C.C P r2 P 1) Height (m) 0.580 0.000 0.36 0.000 Age (year) = 9.66 height (m) 2) Crown Cover (m2) 0.529 0.000 0.28 0.000 Age (year) = 2.41 Crown Cover 3) Circumf. / Height 0.580 0.000 0.36 0.000 Age (year) = 494 Circumf./height 100 equation IV. Soil characteristics 1. Nature of soil surface (NSS) The results of nature of soil surface in quadrate (5 x 5m) revealed that the highest mean value of fine fractions (8.57 ± 3.78 %), gravel (19.3 ±4.5 %), and cobbles (28.57 %) were recorded at W. Me'ir. On the other hand, the highest mean value of stones (43 ± 7.58 %) in W. Zaghra, boulders (38.3 ± 22.55%) in W. Agala (Figure 23). Bare rocks appear only in the quadrates of both W. Agala (10 %) and (3.3 %) in W. Feiran (Table 19). 2. Physical characteristics 2.1. Soil texture Based on the results of nature of soil surface, W. Me'ir has the highest mean value of fine fractions (8.57 % ± 3.78). Moreover, the soil surface of W. Agala and W. Zaghra has the highest mean value of rocky fragments (stones = 43 % ± 7.58 in W. Zaghra, and boulders = 38.3 % ± 22.55 in W. Agala). Soil of W. Agala and W. Feiran characterized by sandy soils, on the other hand, soil texture was sandy loamy to sandy in W. Zaghra and in W. Me'ir. The highest mean value of gravels (28.67 ± 1.53 %) was recorded in soils collected from W. Feiran (Figure 24a). The results of mechanical soil texture by sieves methods showed that the highest mean of coarse sand (50.47 ± 11.22 %) was recorded in W. Agala. However, the soil of W. Zaghra showed the highest mean of medium sand (29.14 ± 9.71) (Table 19). Moreover, the soil of W. Me'ir showed the highest mean values of fine sand (32.18 ± 10.43 %) and silt + clay (20.1 ± 6.19) (Figure 24b). 101 Table (19): Descriptive data and one-way ANOVA of soil conditions. W. Agala Min Max Mean St. Dev. 0.00 5.00 3.33 2.89 10.00 25.00 16.67 7.64 10.00 20.00 15.00 5.00 10.00 30.00 16.67 11.55 15.00 60.00 38.33 22.55 0.00 30.00 10.00 17.32 16.50 35.00 27.50 9.73 40.00 62.32 50.47 11.22 22.17 27.69 24.41 2.91 3.59 15.38 9.56 5.90 5.80 23.95 15.56 9.15 0.43 2.37 1.21 1.03 2.11 3.41 2.77 0.65 W. Feiran Min Max Mean St. Dev. 0.00 10.00 5.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 11.67 2.89 10.00 45.00 28.33 17.56 10.00 40.00 21.67 16.07 25.00 40.00 30.00 8.66 0.00 10.00 3.33 5.77 27.00 30.00 28.67 1.53 38.36 43.57 41.63 2.85 23.57 26.71 24.98 1.60 18.57 23.70 21.37 2.59 10.56 14.29 12.03 1.98 0.36 0.81 0.54 0.23 1.44 3.67 2.71 1.15 W. Zaghra Min Max Mean St. Dev. 5.00 10.00 6.00 2.24 5.00 25.00 12.00 8.37 15.00 20.00 18.00 2.74 35.00 55.00 43.00 7.58 15.00 30.00 22.00 7.58 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 18.00 36.00 28.50 7.63 28.57 54.81 42.70 9.89 20.74 43.29 29.14 9.71 12.80 22.73 18.00 4.14 5.49 13.64 10.16 3.29 0.39 2.30 0.95 0.77 1.57 3.12 2.60 0.65 W. Mei'r Min Max Mean St. Dev. F-value P-value 5.00 15.00 8.57 3.78 1.84 0.187 15.00 25.00 19.29 4.50 1.83 0.188 20.00 40.00 28.57 7.48 2.79 0.079 15.00 40.00 27.14 8.09 5.38 0.011 5.00 25.00 16.43 6.27 3.27 0.053 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.71 0.210 10.00 36.50 23.28 8.65 .66 0.591 13.70 31.50 20.57 6.87 15.37 0.000 17.28 49.32 27.16 9.83 0.25 0.858 12.91 43.68 32.18 10.43 7.44 0.002 10.00 26.77 20.09 6.19 3.74 0.033 0.15 1.10 0.59 0.31 1.22 0.335 1.08 3.65 2.25 1.03 0.39 0.764 Locations Statistic Gravel Fine F Gravel Cobble Stones Boulders Bare % % % % % rock 102 Coarse Med. Fine Silt + % sand Sand Sand Clay % % SOM Sieving method Moist. % N.S.S Table (19): continue EC Salinity TSS Locations Statistic pH mS/ cm (ppm) % W. Agala Min Max Mean St. Dev. 7.86 8.24 8.00 0.21 1.06 4.64 2.53 1.87 135.7 593.9 323.8 239.9 W. Feiran Min Max Mean St. Dev. 7.31 7.68 7.51 0.19 2.67 3.80 3.37 0.61 W. Zaghra Min Max Mean St. Dev. 6.95 7.25 7.13 0.12 W. Mei'r Min Max Mean St. Dev. F-value P-value 6.18 8.14 7.54 0.57 2.69 0.081 Water soluble anions (meq/L) Water soluble cations (meq/L) Phosphorus avaialble TP Nitrogen TN CO32- HCO3- Cl- SO42- Na+ K+ Ca++ Mg++ ppm % % 0.07 0.30 0.16 0.12 - 3.50 5.75 4.58 1.13 0.92 4.27 2.34 1.73 0.27 4.09 1.74 2.06 0.19 0.77 0.47 0.29 0.77 4.18 2.26 1.75 0.48 3.44 1.49 1.69 0.57 1.12 0.77 0.30 0.34 3.78 2.11 1.72 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.07 0.15 0.12 0.04 341.8 486.4 431.4 78.3 0.17 0.24 0.22 0.04 - 2.75 6.25 4.25 1.80 2.75 3.20 2.90 0.26 1.63 2.98 2.40 0.70 0.77 1.27 1.06 0.26 1.17 2.38 1.76 0.61 0.69 1.31 1.03 0.32 1.81 2.94 2.29 0.58 2.25 2.83 2.46 0.32 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.08 0.34 0.22 0.13 4.85 10.70 7.63 2.89 620.8 1369.6 976.4 370.2 0.31 0.68 0.49 0.19 - 2.75 15.00 11.10 5.47 3.21 10.98 6.86 3.57 3.56 7.47 5.74 1.78 1.60 7.43 4.16 2.54 2.62 4.75 3.46 0.89 1.86 6.36 3.86 1.96 2.08 5.10 3.35 1.23 1.81 3.32 2.58 0.69 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.20 0.51 0.29 0.13 0.91 12.38 4.06 4.13 1.97 0.158 116.5 1584.0 519.9 528.7 1.98 0.158 0.06 0.79 0.26 0.26 1.99 0.157 - 2.75 13.75 5.42 3.68 3.21 0.051 0.57 7.98 3.08 2.77 2.71 0.079 0.31 8.07 2.72 2.87 2.58 0.090 0.11 5.45 1.40 1.76 3.78 0.032 0.39 12.21 3.10 3.73 0.31 0.818 0.38 3.83 1.27 1.04 4.57 0.017 0.28 8.89 2.23 2.74 0.99 0.421 1.10 3.83 2.26 0.83 0.22 0.883 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.01 0.94 0.444 0.06 0.49 0.26 0.14 1.33 0.299 103 50 45 43.0 40 38.33 35 30.00 30 28.6 28.33 25 22.00 21.7 20 16.7 15 16.43 12.0 11.7 5 19.3 18.0 16.7 15.0 10.00 10 8.57 6.00 5.00 3.33 27.1 3.33 0.00 0.00 0 W. Agala W. Feiran Fine fractions Gravel W. Zaghra Cobble Stones Bolders W. Agala Bare rock Figure (23): Variations of the mean values of nature of soil surface (N.S.S.) of the four wadis in the study area. 104 (a) Gravel % 35 30 25 % 20 15 10 5 0 W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Me'ir (b) Soil texture (Sieving method) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 W. Agala W. Feiran Coarse Sand W. Zaghra Medium Sand Fine Sand W. Me'ir Silt+ Clay Figure (24): Variations of the mean values of soil texture in the four studied wadis (a) gravel % and (b) soil particles using sieving method. 105 2.2. Moisture content The results of moisture contents that collected from the four studied wadis showed that the highest mean values of moisture content (1.21 ± 1.03 %). 3. Chemical characteristics 3.1. Soil organic matter (SOM) The highest mean of soil organic matter (2.77 ± 0.65) were recorded in W. Agala. One of the most common observations in the field was that the highest wadi subjected to over-grazing and presence of cultivated plants by Bedouins of the area was W. Agala (Figure 25). Moisture content (%) 2.0 SOM (%) 4.0 (b) (a) 3.5 3.0 1.5 2.5 % 2.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 W. Agala W. W. Feiran Zaghra W. Me'ir W. Agala W. W. W. Feiran Zaghra Me'ir Figure (25): Variations of the mean values of moisture and organic matter content (%) in the four studied wadis. 106 3.2. Soil pH The soil of the four studied wadis is slightly alkaline; the highest mean value of pH (8 ± 0.21) was recorded in W. Agala (Figure 26a). The highest mean value of electrical conductivity (7.63 ± 2.89 mS.cm-1), and hence salinity (976.4 ± 370.2 ppm) and total soluble salts (0.49 %) was recorded in W. Zaghra (Table 18 and Figure 26b). 4. Soluble Salts The highest mean values (meq/L) of water soluble anions HCO3- (11.1 ± 5.47), Cl- (6.86 ± 3.57), and SO42- (5.74 ± 1.78) were recorded in soil of W. Zaghra (Table 19 and Figure 27). At the same time the highest mean values of water soluble cations Na+ (4.16 ± 2.54), K+ (3.46 ± 1.96), Ca++ (3.86 ± 1.23) and Mg++ (3.35 ± 1.23) recorded in W. Zaghra (Table 19 and Figure 28). 5. Total, available phosphorus and total nitrogen Moreover, the highest mean value of available phosphorus (2.58 ± 0.69 ppm), and total nitrogen (0.29 ± 0.13 %) were recorded in soils collected from W. Zaghra. The values of the total phosphorus (TP) were almost the same, where the highest mean value (0.037 %) was recorded in the soil of W. Feiran (Table 19 and Figures 29, 30). The results of one-way ANOVA showed that the variation in stones, boulders, and silt + clay between the four studied wadis is statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05). While, coarse and fine sand are statistically highly significant (P ≤ 0.000). The rest of physical 107 characters (fine fraction, gravel, bare rock, medium sand, moisture and organic matter) showed nonsignificant variation between them. The differences in water soluble anions and cations (except K+ and Mg++) are highly significant between the studied wadis (Table 18). Soil pH Electrical Conductivity (EC) (a) 8 (b) 9 8 7 7 6 5 4 4 3 mS/cm 6 5 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Me'ir W. Agala W. W. Feiran Zaghra W. Me'ir Figure (26): Variations of the mean values of soil pH (a) and electrical conductivity (mS/cm) (b) per wadi. Bicarbonates (HCO3-) 7 9 12 meq/L Sulphate (SO42-) Chloride (Cl-) 14 10 8 6 7 5 6 8 4 5 6 3 4 3 4 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 W. Agala W. W. W. Feiran Zaghra Me'ir W. Agala W. W. W. Feiran Zaghra Me'ir 0 W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Me'ir Figure (27): Variations of the mean values of water soluble anions in the soil of the four studied wadis. 108 ++ Histogram Normal Curve) of+,Na; K; ++Ca Histogram (with (with Normal Curve) of Na K+, Ca && MgMg Normal Frequency Na K 8 10.0 6 7.5 4 5.0 2 2.5 0 Na Mean 1.903 StDev 2.138 N 20 K Mean StDev N 0.0 0 1 2 3 4 Ca 5 6 7 8 0 2 4 6 Mg 8 10 12 8 6 4 4 2 2 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6.0 (a) 5.0 Na+ K+ 4.5 5.0 4.0 3.5 4.0 meq/L Ca Mean 1.914 StDev 1.706 N 20 Mg Mean 2.300 StDev 2.044 N 20 8 6 2.866 2.595 20 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 Na+ 5.0 4.5 Ca++ Mg++ 4.0 4.0 3.5 meq/L 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 W. Agala Ca++ W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Me'ir (b) Figure (28): Variations of water soluble cations of the pooled studied soil samples (a), and the mean values (±SE) per wadi (b). 109 Available P (ppm) Soil salinity (ppm) 1200 (a) (b) 1050 3.0 900 2.5 750 ppm 3.5 2.0 600 1.5 450 1.0 300 150 0.5 0 0.0 W. Agala W. Feiran Available W. P Me'ir W. Zaghra Figure (29): Variations of the mean values (±SE) of soil salinity and available phosphorus (ppm) in the four studied wadis. 0.05 Total Nitrogen (%) Total Phosphorus (%) TP 0.50 TN 0.45 0.04 0.40 0.35 0.03 % 0.30 0.25 0.02 0.20 0.15 0.01 0.10 0.05 0.00 0.00 W. Agala W. Feiran W. Zaghra W. Me'ir Figure (30): Variations of the mean values (±SE) of total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) in the soil of the four studied wadis. 110 V. Soil and relationship with tree age and size The values of Pearson correlation between tree age and nature of soil surface showed that there is a highly significant positive linear relationship with fine fractions percentage and significant negative relationship with bare rock. The values of correlation coefficient between tree size (especially height, and crown cover area) and soil properties showed a highly significant positive linear relationship with stones percentage. Circumference/height ratio showed significant positive linear relationship only with gravel percentage (Table 20). The Pearson correlation between tree age and soil parameters showed that there is a highly significant positive linear relationship with medium sand percentage, EC, Cl-, Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++ in addition to total nitrogen. Moreover, correlation between tree age and soil parameters showed a significant negative relationship with coarse sand percentage and pH (Table 20). Based on the correlation between tree size (height and crown cover area) and soil parameters, there is highly significant positive linear relationship with HCO3-, Cl-, and Na+. Moreover, the tree height showed significant positive linear relationship TN, while the crown cover showed significant positive linear relationship EC, SO42-, and Ca++ (Table 20). 111 Table (20): Pearson correlation between ages, size of M. peregrina tree and soil characteristics Soil parameters (N.S.S) Correlations Age Height C.C P Fine Fractions 0.427 Gravel 0.163 Cobble Crown cover C.C P 0.048 0.173 0.469 -0.311 -0.146 0.515 Stones 0.351 Boulders Circumf./height C.C P C.C P 0.442 0.092 0.683 0.364 0.096 0.159 -0.285 0.199 0.509 0.015 0.066 0.772 -0.187 0.406 -0.180 0.423 0.109 0.560 0.007 0.546 0.009 -0.247 0.268 -0.172 0.445 -0.311 0.159 -0.059 0.795 0.150 0.504 Bare rock -0.467 0.028 -0.364 0.096 -0.334 0.128 -0.196 0.391 Gravel -0.227 0.286 -0.212 0.321 0.031 0.885 -0.261 0.219 Coarse sand -0.356 0.088 -0.294 0.164 -0.079 0.715 -0.314 0.135 Medium Sand 0.353 0.091 0.344 0.100 0.169 0.431 0.096 0.656 Fine Sand 0.247 0.245 0.331 0.115 0.180 0.400 0.076 0.726 Silt + Clay -0.040 0.853 -0.308 0.143 -0.325 0.121 0.452 0.027 Moisture 0.170 0.427 -0.052 0.809 -0.020 0.926 0.249 0.240 SOM -0.176 0.410 -0.270 0.202 -0.214 0.315 -0.091 0.673 pH -0.456 0.025 -0.272 0.198 -0.290 0.170 -0.308 0.144 EC 0.538 0.007 0.289 0.172 0.390 0.060 0.326 0.120 HCO3- 0.292 0.166 0.368 0.077 0.364 0.080 -0.062 0.774 Cl- 0.535 0.007 0.387 0.062 0.504 0.012 0.198 0.355 SO42- 0.576 0.003 0.274 0.195 0.411 0.046 0.326 0.120 Na+ 0.563 0.004 0.370 0.075 0.482 0.017 0.259 0.221 + 0.446 0.029 0.103 0.632 0.114 0.595 0.494 0.014 Ca 0.536 0.007 0.320 0.127 0.531 0.008 0.260 0.220 Mg++ Available P ppm TP 0.323 0.124 0.205 0.337 0.225 0.290 0.124 0.565 0.378 0.069 0.150 0.484 0.050 0.817 0.351 0.093 -0.150 0.483 -0.224 0.293 -0.312 0.137 0.230 0.279 TN 0.391 0.059 0.440 0.031 0.203 0.342 0.112 0.601 K ++ 112 VI. Associated species The recorded associated species with M. peregrina trees in the studied four wadis belong to fourteen families. The identification or nomenclature of recorded species is done according to Boulos (1995, 1999, 2000, and 2002) (Table 20). Table (21): Alphabetical list of associated species with Moringa peregrina populations in South Sinai. Family Species Name Amaranthaceae Asclepiadaceae Aerva javanica ((Burm. F.) Juss. ex Schult. Solenostemma arghel (Delile) Hayne Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. f. Capparis sinaica Veill. Capparis spinosa L. Anabasis articulata (Forssk.) Moq. Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bunge ex Boiss. Cleome droserifolia (Forssk.) Delile Artemisia judaica L. Iphiona scabra Dc. Launaea spinosa (Forssk.) Sch. Bip ex Kuntze Pulicaria arabica (Forssk.) Oliv. Zilla spinosa (L.) Prantl subsp.spinosa Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad Cucumis prophetarum L. Chrozophora oblongifolia (Delile) Spring. Otostegia fruticosa (Frossk.) Penz. Teucrium polium L. Acacia tortilis (Frossk.) Hayne Retama raetam (Frossk.) Webb & Berthel. Senna italica Mill. Ochradenus baccatus Del. Reseda sp. L. Hyoscymus muticus L. Fagonia mollis Delile Peganum harmala L. Capparaceae Chenopodiaceae Cleomaceae Compositae Cruciferae Cucurbitaceae Euphorbiaceae Labiatae Leguminosae Resedaceae Solanaceae Zygophyllaceae Life form 113 Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Ann. Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Per. Ann. Per. Per. Per. VII. Discussion The most obvious and universal characteristic of desert vegetation is scarcity of plant growth and nearly lack of trees (Moustafa, 2000a; Moustafa and Zaghloul, 1996). The unique geomorphological formations of South Sinai led to wide variations in its climate and vegetation than elsewhere. Meanwhile, this sparse vegetation is subjected to depletion by continuous over-grazing, over-cutting and uprooting for fuel and medicinal uses (Moustafa and Klopatek, 1995; Moustafa, 2001). These severe impacts lead to great environmental deterioration including; disappearance of pastoral plant species, dominance of unpalatable (un-grazed) species, the paucity of trees and shrubs, reduction of vegetation cover and soil erosion (Kassas, 1955, Zahran and Willis, 1992, Helmy et al., 1996). Therefore, more studies should be focus on the regeneration of destructed vegetation; soil protection and how to overcome the risks affect the establishment of South Sinai vegetation in future (Abd El-Wahab, 1995). There are many threats affecting the existence of Moringa peregrina populations in South Sinai such as over-cutting for different uses, for instance fuel-wood (Abd El-Wahab, 1995). According to NAS (1980, 1983a, b and c) and Brewbaker et al. (1984), most tree legume species are potentially suitable for fuelwood production, providing that the wood is not fire retardant and these levels of sparks, smoke, odors and tastes are acceptable. Moreover, the woody plants are very palatable (Owen and Cooper, 1987). In fact, over-cutting and over-grazing as well as unmanaged 114 human activities represent a great disturbance for natural vegetation and threatening some rare species of extinction (Zaghloul, 1997). The problem of over-grazing that it does not give some plant species (e.g. M. peregrina) the chance to increase the productivity or growth rate. In addition, it decreases the pre-reproductive and reproductive age periods. This may lead to a decrease of birth rate according to the grazing intensity (Moustafa, 2002). In agreement with Abd El-Wahab (1995) and as confirmed by Moustafa (2000a and b), over-grazing is a destructive factor in regeneration of M. peregrina. It must be protected against overgrazing and over-cutting. In order to the conservation of M. peregrina in South Sinai, the present work aimed to study the population dynamic of M. peregrina tree through: (1) determining the actual demographic status, (2) determining the size structures of M. peregrina and reveal the relationship between the size and age structures, in response to birth, aging and mortality rates, (3) Providing a static life table for M. peregrina populations in South Sinai, (4) investigating the distributional behavior of M. peregrina populations in the study area and (5) evaluating the threats which affect the establishment of M. peregrina in its natural habitat. The threatened populations of M. peregrina tree in the studied wadis of South Sinai may disappear if the mentioned threats are not restricted. As confirmed by Molles and Manuel (2002), it is difficult to keep track of everything going on as occurring in the populations; the distributions may change, the numbers may 115 increase for some time and then fall precipitously. A new population of a previously unrecorded species may suddenly appear in an area, persist for a season or a decade, and then disappear. In addition, individuals of different ages and sexes may make different contributions to population dynamics and must be followed separately. Population studies hold the key to solve practical problems such as saving endangered species, and controlling the others. Generally, the physical environment limits the geographic distribution of species (Molles and Manuel, 2002). Abd El-Wahab (1995) found that most of M. peregrina populations grow in between rock crevices, also on cliffs and at the base of hills with very rugged topography. The elevation of this hills ranges between 700 to 800 m a.s.l. During the course of present study, it was found that M. peregrina located at the highest elevation (610–800 m a.s.l.) at W. Feiran in between rock crevices, followed by the trees in Wadi Agala (625–764 m a.s.l.). Moreover, the elevation of M. peregrina trees in W. Zaghra was ranged between (560–642 m a.s.l.), while the elevation of M. peregrina trees in W. Me'ir (565–736 m a.s.l.). The most noticeable field observations were that (1) the highest grazing intensity (subjectively) was recorded in W. Agala and in W. Me'ir, especially number of camels were observed in W. Agala and most of M. peregrina trees in W. Me'ir located at low elevations or at wadi bed; (2) The majority of M. peregrina trees in higher elevations are dry and non-productive. (3) The altitude and 116 the exposure aspect may affect the distribution of M. peregrina in South Sinai. The majority of M. peregrina trees are located in south-facing, due to the increase of temperature (Zaghloul, 1997). Furthermore, almost all reproductive trees grow on south-facing, while nonreproductive trees grow on north-facing, where most of these trees survive without formation of flowers. This indicates the importance of the light and temperature reflected by slope exposure as a limiting factor for growth, flowering and fruiting of M. peregrina trees. Young (1984) confirmed that the solar irradiation increases the floral development rates. This explains the reason for which exposure of the carrying-flowers tree is South-facing. Many studies (e.g. Batanouny, 1979 and 1983; Schlesinger et al. 1990; Beymer and Klopatek, 1991; Milchunas and Lauenroth, 1993 and Olsvig-Whittaker et al. 1993) showed the deterioration effects of grazing on vegetation and soil of desert ecosystems. On the other hand, few studies (Bailey and Danin, 1981; Heneidy, 1996; Zaghloul, 1997; Moustafa, 2000 a & b) have been done in South Sinai regarding the impact of over-grazing on the population dynamics. Bedouins depend on animal husbandry as a resource of income; therefore South Sinai is subjected to high grazing intensity as showed by Heneidy and Halmy (2009). They reported that Panicum turgidum in South Sinai subjected to a high grazing pressure as it has high palatability, especially in summer when annuals disappear and shortage in natural forage occurs. The same 117 situation was observed with M. peregrina tree as it is a good fodder for Bedouins' camels. Generally, tree fodder is richer in crude protein (CP), minerals and digestible nutrients than grass fodder (El-Kady, 1987, Topps, 1992, Heneidy, 2000). It was observed that the camels prefer M. peregrina pods and its green branches, especially pods and branches are high palatable and without spines as in other wild trees (e.g. Acacia sp.). The use of tree legume fodder as supplement has improved intake, digestibility and animal performance (Norton, 1994) and this explains why the Bedouins depend on browse of M. peregrina in animal husbandry. Zahran and Willis (2009) stated that water resources and human interferences are among the most important factors controlling the plant life in the desert. On the other hand, browsing in combination of drought has a negative effect on the growth rate and productivity of M. peregrina in the studied wadis. This returns to destroy of the tree crown. Bruna and Ribeiro (2005) reported that canopy destroy strongly influences the diversity and dynamics of both tropical and temperate forests. It is often viewed as inherently beneficial for understory plants, primarily because growth and flowering are enhanced when light is no longer a limiting resource. It can also be detrimental as in case of M. peregrina trees; however trees can be damaged by falling crowns or branches. 118 For more understanding the population dynamics of M. peregrina trees, and consequently their sustained management, information on their age and growth rates are required (Gourlay and Grime, 1994). Age measurements are usually used to determine the age-class distribution of a tree population, from which inferences on the dynamics of that population can be drawn (Fritts and Swetnam, 1989). Therefore, the study of age structure and size distribution of M. peregrina in South Sinai was very essential. To organize the exploration of population dynamics, the patterns of survival in populations or decrease in size should be in considered, and the quantitative tools for perceiving such changes are required (Molles and Manuel, 2002). Tree growth rings are widely applied in ecological studies for determining tree ages, investigating changes in growth rates and elucidating their causes (Fritts and Swetnam, 1989). The structure of a population of plants can be described in terms of ages, sizes and forms of the individuals that compose it (Harper, and White, 1974). Since the fecundity and survival of plants is often much more closely related to size than to age, it necessary to study the size distribution (Harper, 1977; Caswell, 1986; Weiner, 1985; Shaltout and Ayyad, 1988). Some researchers (Werner and Caswell, 1977; Kirkpatrick, 1984; Caswell, 1986) argued that it is better to classify the life history of plants by size rather than age which are the most widely 119 used in classification of organisms. Size differences may be return to the differences in growth rates, age differences, genetic variation, and heterogeneity of resources, nutrition, and competition (Weiner, 1985; Caswell, 1986). Population dynamics of M. peregrina trees in the present study is based on size and age structures. According to Emslie (1991), it is necessary to study woody vegetation at a size class as well as at a species level. Since age class data are unreliable for savanna areas, (Lilly, 1977), analysis of population structure is restricted to size classes, (Shackleton, 1993). Size classes are considered to be better indicators of reproductive output than age classes, (Werner and Caswell 1977; Knowles and Grant 1983). On the other hand, the study of tree age dating is essential to identify the age and/or the exact year of an event or formation of an annual ring by application of cross dating which involves both ring counting and ring-width pattern matching (Fritts, 1976; Schweingruber, 1988). In the meantime, the knowledge of age and growth rates of trees is necessary for an understanding of tree recruitment patterns and woodland management (Jacoby, 1989 and Suarez et al., 2008). Numerous studies (Mitchell, 1979; Siewniak and Kusche, 1994; Henry and Aarssen, 1999; Szczepanowska, 2001; Isik and Li, 2003; Weber and Mattheck, 2005) used many methods (Pressler increment borer, Resistograph, increment cores, radiocarbon, tree 120 age tables, log volume tables, and age-dbh correlation) to determine the tree age. White (1998) presented a noninvasive method of age determination, combining elements of tree age tables with dendrochronological calculations. He related the size of trees to the type of site in which the trees grow. The uses of tree ring measurements to determine the tree age and in climatological studies were well proven in temperate countries (Schweingruber, 1988). However, in comparison fewer conclusive studies exist for tropical areas (Ogden, 1981). In the arid areas of the tropics, the abrupt transition from wet to dry season produces new leaves shortly after the onset of the rain, and fast-growing cambium (Alvim, 1964 and Gourlay, 1995). Studying the relationship between number of annual growth rings and tree radius of M. peregrina tree is required to understand its population dynamics as confirmed by Liang et al. (2001). Treering analysis including age structure proved to be a useful tool in the study of stand dynamics and ecological history of trees populations (Lorimer, 1985, Foster, 1988; Cherubini et al., 1996; Abrams et al., 1998; Rozas, 2001; Liang et al., 2003). Quantitative analysis of tree rings gives information on the frequency of droughts and floods beyond the limited period of hydrological records. Moreover, in most trees, the annual ring appears as narrow bands of marginal parenchyma filled with long crystal chains. The number of bands formed annually corresponded to the number of 121 peaks in the annual rainfall distribution. Ring widths were highly correlated with total annual rainfall (Gourlay, 1995). On the other hand, tree rings are the most geographically widespread entity that can provide actual year-to-year dating of current and prehistoric environmental changes (Jacoby and Wagner, 1993). Annual growth rings provide a fairly good method to determine the exact age of trees, especially in temperate regions. The tree rings have been shown to be a reliable means of estimating tree age and growth rate (Ogden, 1981; Schweingruber, 1988). Many researchers (Schweingruber, 1988; Abrams et al., 1995; Kaennel and chweingruber, 1995) confirmed that the analysis of annual rings can be used to study ecological aspects such as population dynamics, disturbance effects and influence of present atmospheric changes on growth. In order to date any tree by means of dendrochronology, it is essential to assume that one growth ring can be equated with one year's growth. Angiosperms frequently produce anomalous growth patterns and rings which are not necessarily annual. For example, a stress period may occur during a growing season and cause more than one growth layer to form within that year (Fritts and Swetnam, 1989). Alternatively, when conditions are extremely limiting, growth cannot occur and no ring is produced (Steenkamp, 2000). Certain regions of the cambium may not divide at all giving the appearance of a missing ring (Fahn, 1974, Fritts, 1976; Lilly, 1977; and Walker et al., 1986). 122 The problems associated with using stem diameter to predict age were discussed by Ogden (1981); Norton and Ogden (1990), Wyant and Reid (1992). During the course of present study, it was found that in case of M. peregrina tree, one growth ring is an annual event. Tree age distributions can be used in prediction of history of the population, as confirmed by Kuuluvainen et al. (2002). Daniels et al. (1995) showed that the relationship between age and diameter can be derived from a regeneration equation for some samples, and a general equation can be used to estimate all tree ages. In the present study, sampling was based on dead and broken branches of M. peregrina, while sampling that made by Daniels et al. (1995) was restricted to the tree layer, since their study was conducted on cutover areas. Stumps with a diameter ≥ 7.5 cm were assumed to be part of the tree layer (Luttmerding et al., 1990). At all stumps, they measured the diameter including the bark (cm) and the uphill and downhill vertical distances (cm) from the upper surface of the stump to the ground, to calculate mean stump height. Thus the present study is in disagreement with them in the method of estimation, and in agreement with them that the shape of age distribution of trees is affected by number of factors like the variation in site characteristics, soil variations, degree of impact, and climate changes which control the regeneration of the tree. Whitford (2002) during his estimation the ages of jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) and marri (Corymbia calophylla) trees showed that growth rings can be counted on tree stumps. The cross123 sections were cut from a fallen tree, or from cores that removed from the tree bole. But he confirmed that the core method is technically difficult and does not work well on large trees (diameter >40cm) as a core was very difficult to collect and extract the central growth ring, moreover it damages the tree (Douglass, 1941a and b). Age dating of M. peregrina tree in the present study was based on tree ring analysis in cross sections of dry and broken branches. Linear regression equation finds the relation between growth rings count and trunk radius. During the course of this study, it was found that M. peregrina rings are visible because regular seasonal variations in the density of wood grown onto the outer edge of the tree provide a visible banding of annual growth rings. One of the well-known studies in the field of age dating was developed by Douglass (1929) that defined and illustrated crossdating as an initial process in dendrochronology or tree-ring work by which accurate ring chronologies may be built for dating purposes (Nash, 1999), for climatic information (Fritts, 1976), or for certain ecological problems (Douglass, 1940). Another study which described the uses of the rings for measuring the age of trees was developed by Yamaguchi (1986), which focused on the method for cross-dating increment cores from the living trees. It described the uses of the annual rings formation for the measurement of the trees age, which is essential to identify the exact age based on the formation of annual rings in increment cores taken from living trees. Matching ring-width pattern occurred 124 in trees sampled over extensive area owing to year of the climatic variation (Fritts 1976; Schweingruber, 1988). However, no studies carried out on age dating and size structure of M. peregrina tree, thus the present work is a pioneer step to focus on population dynamics of this tree as an endangered species in South Sinai. The obtained results of the linear regression showed a highly significant relationship (P = 0.000, r2 = 0.27) between the tree radius (excluding the bark) and the number of counted growth rings which means that the growth rings can be taken as regular time markers and could be used for dating the trees. Based on this regression equation, the results suggest that M. peregrina tree in Southern Sinai grows very slowly and its age ranges between 13 and 382 years at W. Zaghra with a mean of 69.5 ± 47 years (Table 22). The obtained results indicate the dominance of mature individuals of M. peregrina over the juvenile ones. This means that there is no establishment for new individuals in the studied wadis and then declining in population number when the old trees are not replaced by young individuals. This returns definitely to stresses which affect the existence of M. peregrina population. The main stresses on M. peregrina are over-cutting, over-collection, overgrazing, aridity of the climate, discontinue of flowers formation, and fail of juveniles to establish in its habitats. The later problem needs further studies. 125 Table (22): Summary table of age and size structures of M. peregrina growing in South Sinai. Ages (year) Tree height Crown cover area (m2) Circumference (CAG) (cm) W. Agala W. Feiran Zaghra W. Me'ir Min 20 15 13 25 Max 192 119 382 258 Mean 52 44 82 73 Min 1.7 1.7 1.0 1.5 Max 12.0 11.4 15.8 17.0 Mean 5.3 5.1 8.1 7.1 Min 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.6 Max 32.2 43.0 203.5 116.4 Mean 10.3 11.0 25.8 17.5 Min 25.0 19.0 16.0 32.0 Max 242.0 149.0 480.0 325.0 Mean 65.8 55.0 103.5 92.1 W. Comments W. Zaghra is a protected area, it is the lowest wadi subjected to anthropogenic effects, and therefore it has the highest stability in population that led to aging of trees and therefore the oldest tree is recorded in this wadi. W. Me'ir and W. Zaghra are the lowest wadis subjected to overcutting and overgrazing give the old trees the chance to grow and increase the tree height. As the highest browsing intensity is recorded in W. Agala, its trees are the lowest in canopy area. Grazing in this case has a negative effect, where it reduces the tree size and then declining its growth rate. Moreover, it decreases or prevents the chance of flowers formation. On contrast in forests the grazing has a positive effect that it improves or stimulates the growth when it decreases the competition between the tree branches for light and water (Salmon et al., 2007) The majority of M. peregrina trees in W. Feiran located at high elevation with small circumference as these trees are younger than Moringa trees in other wadis. 127 The age structure of M. peregrina populations confirmed that 26.2 % of trees located in the class (41 – 60) years. At the same time 72.8 % and 46.5 % of M. peregrina trees in the pooled population are older than 40 and 60 years old respectively. Moreover, 30 % of trees in the pooled population are older than 80 years old. At the same time, 2.2 % of M. peregrina trees are older than 200 years old. High age estimations are rendered credible by tree characteristics that are often associated with great longevity such as its great ability to resprout and its investment in defensive characters, hardwood impregnated with resins and crystals (Loehle, 1988; Bond, 2003). Moreover, the age structure showed very unhealthy status of M. peregrina populations in the studied wadis of South Sinai. It suggests that if the current situation unchanged, the populations of M. peregrina trees will not persist, that the older trees are not being replaced by the young trees as the same circumstances for Acacia trees (Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana) in the same area (South Sinai) as recommended by Zaghloul et al. (2008). The obtained results showed that M. peregrina growing in the studied wadis of South Sinai has a very low growth rate with an annual increment of 1.76 mm. Age structure results showed unhealthy shrinking populations of M. peregrina trees in Southern Sinai with sharp decline in the last 20-40 years. The age-class distribution shows that the regeneration of M. peregrina tree in the area is severely limited. Although many of the individuals in 127 populations may be producing flowers and fruits, no seedlings have been successfully established and establishment is interrupted for at least the last 20-40 years. Unless conditions change, these populations will permanently disappear. On contrast, if the different age classes are represented in the population with the largest numbers in the youngest ages, this ensures a continuous and uninterrupted population dynamics (Harper and White, 1974; Solbrig, 1980; and Parish and Antos, 2004). The results of the present study in agreement with Zaghloul et al. (2008), especially they stated that establishment of Acacia trees (Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana) in South Sinai was interrupted for at least the last 25-50 years. The life table is a key summary tool for assessing and comparing mortality conditions prevailing in populations (Chiang, 1984). According to Luke (1993), a life table typically consists of a series of columns presenting age-specific information on various aspects of mortality. Static life table of M. peregrina shows a cohort in life span as it reveals the survival and age-specific mortality rate at the time of census. According to (Wilgon, 1990), birth and death rates provide basic information about populations. When these rates are specific to age and environment, they encapsulate much of the dynamics of a population and help reveal the mechanisms controlling population size. Unfortunately, most methods for estimating demographic 128 parameters, including cohort and current life table analysis, are inadequate for studying the long-lived tree species. Pielou (1977) showed that static life tables are constructed from short-term observations of the births and deaths of an entire, multi-aged population. Age classes of M. peregrina life table are located in 20 intervals (≤ 20 and ≥ 381 years). On the other hand, constructing cohort life tables requires following individuals born within the same time interval throughout each of their lifetimes, and it is difficult not only for M. peregrina tree but also for all trees. Thus, only short-lived organisms are suitable for study as cohorts (e.g. Leverich and Levin, 1979; Mack and P1ke, 1983 and Silvertown, 1985). The results of static life table of M. peregrina in the studied wadis of South Sinai revealed that ≥ 180 years old trees in W. Agala, ≥ 100 years old in W. Feiran, ≥ 260 years old in W. Zaghra, and ≥ 240 years old in W. Me'ir have a 100% chance of death (qx = 1.00). In agreement with Crawely (1997), species conservation should begin when a species is found to be declining in numbers but is not yet threatened with extinction. Sometimes, if the decline is very rapid and a species is well known, concern for its survival is felt before it is endangered. Based on the obtained results, M. peregrina populations are dominated by adult individuals and the seedling recruitment is extremely limited. However, survival and fecundity are the basic components of demography and therefore have a strong influence 129 on population dynamics (Maria et al., 2008). The survivorship curve of M. peregrina populations in the studied wadis of South Sinai represents type III of survivorship curves, due to the high rate of mortality among the young and the old trees. Gignoux et al. (2001) reported that the best measure of tree size is probably basal circumference for adult trees, especially if the trunks are rarely straight and branch at a low height as in case of M. peregrina tree. The present study estimated the tree diameter and hence radius based on circumference measurements as made by Franklin and DeBell, (1988) and by Agren and Zackrisson (1990), Franklin et al. (1988) and Gignoux et al. (2001), but Daniel (1994) and Daniel et al. (1995) calculated DBH (Diameter at breast height) from mean stump height and diameter measurements using conversation table as revealed by (Demaerchalk and Omule 1978). According to Fritts (1974), Kirkpatrick (1984) and Franklin et al. (1988), the tree diameter is the most accurate method to estimate the tree age, and analysis of tree-ring can be used to predict the changes in the population of old growth trees. Plant size determines the potential investment into reproductive structures (Colas et al., 2001). Moreover, size structure in some plants can be used as indicator for age (Kirkpatrick, 1984; Agren and Zackrisson, 1990; O'brien et al., 1995; Niklas, 1997; Sano, 1997; Stoneman et al., 1997; Suarez et al., 2008). Although Grice et al. (1994) concluded that size is not a good indicator of age and that it is unreliable to identify cohorts of the tree by examining 130 size-class frequency distribution, they achieved estimate of the tree age by using age-size regressions with known-age trees and changes in tree sizes determined from aerial photographs (Sinclair, 1995). The size structure in the present study was based on tree height, crown cover area and trunk circumference. The obtained results of size structure showed that the mean height is 6.9 m (± 3.5), crown cover area is 17.7 m2 (± 20.2), circumference at ground level (CAG) is 87.5 cm (± 59.2) and circumference/height ratio is 0.13 (±0.07). W. Zaghra has the lowest tree height (1 m) and W. Me'ir has the highest tree height (17 m). W. Feiran has the lowest crown cover area (0.3 m2), while W. Zaghra has the highest crown cover (203.5 m2). Moreover, W. Zaghra has the minimum trunk circumference (16 cm) and at the same time, it has the highest trunk circumference value (480 cm). Moreover, the obtained results confirm the dominance of large individuals over the smaller ones. This may be return to the decrease of establishment rate (Abd El-Wahab, 1995); even small trees are completely consumed by the animals in the area. Therefore, it should be ring the sounded alarm that the studied populations of M. peregrina are in declining status. ANOVA (one-way) results showed that there are highly significant variations (P ≤ 0.000) in the measured tree size (especially height, crown cover area, and trunk circumference) between the four studied wadis which may reflect different environmental factors and/or levels of human stress. Tukey test 131 could only discriminate between trees at W. Agala and wadis (Feiran, Zaghra, and Me'ir), and between trees at W. Feiran and trees at both (W. Zaghra and W. Me'ir). It couldn't discriminate between trees at W. Zaghra on one side and W. Me'ir on the other. The comparison between the size structures of the four wadis showed that 90 % of M. peregrina trees in W. Agala, 72.3 % in W. Feiran, 91.5 % in W. Zaghra, and 87.2 % W. Me'ir are more than 3 m height. Moreover, 32.5 % of M. peregrina trees in W. Agala, 29.8 % in W. Feiran, 17.1 % in W. Zaghra, and 52.3 % in W. Me'ir are more than 6 m height. On the other hand, 2.5 % of M. peregrina trees in W. Agala, 12.8 % in W. Feiran, 7.3 % in W. Zaghra, and 24.7 % W. Me'ir are more than 9 m height. Only 2 trees in W. Zaghra (2.4 %) and 8 trees in W. Me'ir (3.4 %) are more than 15 m height. Therefore, the height of M. peregrina trees in the pooled population showed that 86.6 % are more than 3 m height and 53.5 % are more 6 m height. Furthermore, 22 % of population is more than 9 m height, and 9.7 % is more than 12 m height, and only 2.5 % of M. peregrina population is more than 15 m height. The results of crown cover area of M. peregrina showed that 10 % in W. Agala, 21.3 % in W. Feiran, 53.7 % in W. Zaghra, and 29.4 % W. Me'ir are more than 20 m2. There is no tree in W. Agala more than 40 m2, while 4.3 % of trees in W. Feiran, 15.9 % in W. Zaghra, and 8.1 % W. Me'ir are more than 40 m2. This means that there are no small sizes of M. peregrina trees in the studied wadis 132 where there is only one tree in W. Zaghra more than 200 m2 in crown cover area. According to Whitford (2002), a common mistake made in estimating the age of trees was using the average growth rate. Stoneman et al. (1997) discussed this problem confirming that the largest trees on a site are typically the fastest growing trees (Nock et al. (2009). On the other hand, Ahmed et al. (2009) reported that growth rate and age of trees are frequently used in silviculture, forestry, ecology and population dynamics studies. They study the relationship between the ages and sizes of different mature stands of thirty-nine gymnosperms based on simple ring count and DBH measurements. They showed that the largest tree is not necessarily the oldest tree. The highest overall growth rate (2.65 ± 0.19 y/cm) was recorded in Cedrus deodara from south-facing slopes while the lowest growth was observed in Taxus wallichiana from east-facing slope. Except in Pinus roxburghii, DBH and age showed nonsignificant relation. However in the present study, the Pearson correlation coefficient showed that there is a highly significant positive linear relationship between tree size and estimated age of M. peregrina tree. The correlation and linear regression analysis revealed that the size (especially height and circumference/height ratio) can be used to expect the age class of M. peregrina tree. A similar finding has been arrived by Ferguson (1951) and O'brien et al. (1995). 133 O'brien et al. (1995) measured the diameter, height, crown shape, and crown area of 23-42 trees, ranging in size from saplings to large adults for each of eight common dicotyledonous tree species in a Neotropical forest in Barro Colorado Island, Panama. But the crown shapes in their study were measured by the coefficients of variation of the eight crown radii, and age-diameter relationships were estimated from diameter growth increments over an eight years period. They predicted that canopy mass to trunk mass ratio should remain constant during tree growth. They concluded that one can use the age-size relationships in the studied canopy species. Correlation coefficient (CC) between height and tree age in the present study is 0.58 and age of M. peregrina tree can be estimated from the regression equation [Age (year) = 9.66 height (m)]. However, correlation coefficient (CC) between crown cover area (m2) and age is 0.53 and Age (year) = 2.41 crown cover (m2). On the other hand, the relationship between the circumference (m)/height (m) ratio and estimated tree age is significant and correlation coefficient (CC) is 0.58. The obtained regression equation was [Age (year) = 494 Circumference/height]. Based on these results and in agreement with Lieberman et al. (1985), agesize relationship can be used to expect the age or size of M. peregrina tree. The present study was focused on studying the relationship between age and size distributions with the soil characteristics. 134 Several studies have described in details, the chemical and physical composition of the soil supporting the plant species growing in South Sinai (Danin, 1978a and 1983; Moustafa, 1986 and 1990; Moustafa and Zaghloul, 1993 and 1996; Zaghloul, 1997; Abd ElWahab, 2003). These studies showed that soils of South Sinai, as desert soils, are characterized by spatial heterogeneity, where soil properties vary quite small distances. Based on the results of nature of soil surface, W. Me'ir has the highest mean value of fine fractions (8.57 % ± 3.78). Moreover, the soil surface of W. Agala and W. Zaghra has the highest mean value of rocky fragments (stones = 43 % ± 7.58 in W. Zaghra, and boulders = 38.3 % ± 22.55 in W. Agala). W. Agala and W. Feiran characterized by sandy soils. It was sandy loamy to sandy in W. Zaghra and in W. Me'ir. ANOVA showed that the variation between the four studied wadis in stones, boulders, coarse sand, fine sand and silt + clay is statistically highly significant (P ≤ 0.000). The soil of the studied four wadis showed non-significant variation in the rest of physical characters. Moreover, the differences between the studied wadis in water soluble anions and cations (except K+ and Mg++) are highly significant. The results of one-way ANOVA showed that the variation in stones, boulders, and silt + clay between the four studied wadis is statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05). While, coarse and fine sand are 135 statistically highly significant (P ≤ 0.000). The rest of physical characters (fine fraction, gravel, bare rock, medium sand, moisture and organic matter) showed non-significant variation between them. This result refers to that all studied wadis may be subjected to the same conditions. The differences in water soluble anions and cations (except K+ and Mg++) are highly significant between the studied wadis and this may be return to variation in analyzed debris content per each wadis, as well as the composition of its parent rocks. The actual moisture content of the soil fluctuates depending upon the composition of the soil, topographic location, and climatic variation. Moisture in the form of rainfall is the most decisive factor controlling productivity, plant distribution and life form in arid lands (Zohary, 1973). Slopes and gorges are covered by large outcrops of smooth-faced rocks that maximize the availability of every shower to plant growing among rocks and concentrate run-off water in crevices and soil pockets (Danin, 1972). Generally, all M. peregrina trees in South Sinai suffer from extreme drought due to high temperature and no rainfall. Based on the analysis results of the collected samples of soil collected from the four studied wadis, W. Agala has the highest mean value of moisture content (1.21 ± 1.03 %). This may be return to the increase of vegetation in this wadi such as Acacia trees which act as a pump of underground water and increase the soil humidity, moreover, Bedouins activities in raising the underground water for 136 cultivations. The lowest moisture content was recorded in the soil of W. Me'ir as an open wadi. According to Moustafa and Zaghloul (1993) and Moustafa and Zayed (1996), soil moisture availability which is a function of slope degree, nature of soil surface and soil texture is the most limiting factor in the distribution of plant communities in general and M. peregrina in particular at gorge and fan habitats in South Sinai. The effect of nature of soil surface on moisture availability is related to its capacity of water storage. This depends not only on the volume of water resources, but also on depth of surface deposits; the shallow deposits are the lowest capacity of moisture storage (Abd El-Wahab, 2003). Available moisture also increases with increasing of the coarseness of surface such as cover of cobbles conserves more moisture than the cover of gravels, (Hillel and Tadmor, 1962). It is well-known that the presence of surface gravel serves not only to protect the underlying soil from water and wind erosion but reduces moisture losses. The gravel slow down water movement across the surface, which results in more water penetrating the soil, and also reduce the amount of soil surface exposed to evaporation (El-Ghareeb and Shabana, 1990). Soil organic matter influences many soil properties, including the capacity of soil to supply N, P, and S and trace metals to plant; inflation and infiltration and retention of water; degree of aggregation and overall structure that affect air and water relationships; cation exchange capacity; and soil color, which in turn affects temperature relationships (Nelson and Sommers, 1996). 137 W. Agala showed the highest mean value of moisture content and soil organic matter (2.77 ± 0.65). This may be return to increase the grazing intensity. The effect of grazing, wild and domestic, is among important factors of the desert habitats, ranking perhaps second to the water factor (Kassas, 1953). Abd El-Wahab (2003) recognized a positive correlation relationship between grazing intensity and number of soil properties including silt and clay, SOM, TN, available P, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, and cation exchange capacity. The soil of the four studied wadis is slightly alkaline; it ranged between 6.18 and 8.24 within the studied samples. However, slight decrease in pH values is observed in soil of W. Me'ir. The highest mean value of pH (8 ± 0.21) was recorded in W. Agala. Electrical conductivity (EC) is a numerical expression of the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an electric current. It is generally related to the total solute concentration and can be used a quantitative expression of dissolved salt concentration (Rhoades, 1996). Measurement of electrical conductivity is the most widely used soil salinity test (Rhoades and Miyamoto 1990; Shirokova et al., 2000). When EC measured at the same time as pH, measurement of conductivity is a good indicator of soil quality (Smith and Doran 1996). The highest mean value of electrical conductivity (7.63 ± 2.89 mS.cm-1), and hence salinity (976.4 ± 370.2 ppm) and total soluble salts (0.49 %) was recorded in W. Zaghra. Salinity and 138 drought are two environmental constraints that often occur simultaneously in arid regions (Lichtenthaler, 1996). The increase of salinity in the studied soil samples was due to the increase of K+ content in soil. The increase of K+ may return to the hydrolysis of the parent rock around the root of M. peregrina and decay its pods and leaves in the soil especially the leaves are rich in potassium content. Based on this result, salinity has a negative effect on growth of M. peregrina in the studied wadis. On the other hand, Bresler et al. (1982) showed that salinity problems are most pronounced in arid and semi-arid regions because of insufficient annual rainfall to flush accumulated salts from the crop root zone. The most sources of salts in arid and semiarid regions are rainfall, mineral weathering, salts and various surface waters and groundwaters which redistribute accumulated salts, often as a result of Bedouins' activities. And according to Garcia et al. (1993), the high stress caused by a combination of high salinity levels and high air temperature resulted in hyper-arid conditions, act as an ecological filter that resulted in reduced species richness in these habitats. Inorganic carbon in soil is usually present as carbonates of calcium or magnesium. The carbonate minerals exert a dominating influence on soil because of their relatively high solubility and alkalinity and buffering properties (Sparks et al., 1996). The highest mean value of soil bicarbonate HCO3- (11.1 ± 5.47 meq/L) was recorded in soil of W. Zaghra as it showed lowest pH (7.13 ± 0.12). The obtained results showed that the behavior of chloride (Cl-) is 139 similar to sulphate (SO42-). However, the soil of W. Zaghra showed the highest mean value of chloride content (6.8 ± 3.57 meq/L), it has also the highest sulphate content (5.7 ± 1.78 meq/L). The most common soil minerals of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) are albite (NaAlSi3O8), orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), other feldspars and micas. Soil K exists in four forms in soils: solution, exchangeable, fixed, and structural or mineral. The structural form of K+ represents 89 % of the total K in soil. Only 1-2 % of the total soil potassium is readily available, exchangeable, and soil solution forms. Meanwhile, potassium is a macronutrient for plants; sodium is not essential element for plants. The content of soluble and exchange sodium is important parameters in the management of saline and sodic soil (Helmke and Sparks, 1996). Calcium (Ca++) and magnesium (Mg++) are abundant elements in soil and also are among the essential elements for plant growth (Suarez, 1996). Calcium (Ca2+) is essential for membrane permeability, solute transport and maintenance of cell integrity. Magnesium is required for many cellular functions including production of chlorophyll, protein synthesis, regulation of cellular pH and cation-anion balance (Marschner, 1986). Based on the results of the present study, W. Zaghra showed the highest mean values of water soluble cations Na+ (4.16 ± 2.54), K+ (3.46 ± 1.96), Ca++ (3.86 ± 1.23) and Mg++ (3.35 ± 1.23). 140 The availability of soil phosphorus to plants varies greatly depending on the reaction, mineralogical composition, type of colloids present, and content of organic matter of the soil (Wilde et al., 1972; Allen, 1972 and Baruah and Barthakur, 1997). Phosphorus is a major element in soil organic matter. In natural terrestrial ecosystems, it is derived from the weathering of minerals in parent rock material. It is the second most limiting nutrient for terrestrial primary production (after nitrogen) (Robertson et al., 1999). Sandy soils are generally poor in P, having 300-500mg kg-1 total P and 3-5mg kg-1 P extracted by the NaHCO3 method. In the alluvial soils these values are about 1000 and 12-15mg k respectively (Balba, 1995). Most of the phosphorus compounds found in soils are unavailable for plant uptake, often because they are highly insoluble (Brady and Weil, 1996). According to Balba (1995), sandy soils contain low organic fraction as little as 0.008 - 0.015%, therefore their total nitrogen content is also low (0.0015 – 0.002%). Based on the result of soil analysis; W. Zaghra showed the highest mean value of available phosphorus (2.58 ± 0.69 ppm) and total nitrogen (0.29 ± 0.13 %). Moreover, the soil of W. Feiran showed the highest mean value (0.037 %) in TP percentage. In agreement with Heneidy and Halmy (2009), the soil texture of the studied wadis in South Sinai is loamy sand to sandy. Moreover, some soil parameters (sand, silt, clay, pH, K+, HCO3- and P content) of the present study are shared with their study as high values. 141 Pearson correlation between tree age and nature of soil surface showed that there is a highly significant positive linear relationship with fine fractions percentage and significant negative relationship with bare rock. The correlation between tree size (especially height, and crown cover area) and soil prosperities showed a highly significant positive linear relationship with stones percentage. Circumference/height ratio showed significant positive linear relationship only with gravel percentage. Therefore, it seems that the variations in age and size distribution between wadis are most probably affected by anthropogenic effects (e.g. over-cutting, grazing) which are somewhat more disturbing in W. Feiran and W. Agala than in W. Me'ir and than in W. Zaghra. In fact, human impact has a negative effect on distribution of M. peregrina species. Many rare species are threatened by habitat fragmentation; however, less is known about effects of fragmentation on common species, despite their potential role in ecosystem productivity and functioning. Due to habitat destruction, increasing urbanization, and intensive agricultural practices (as in W. Agala), many widely distributed plant species occur in highly fragmented (semi-) natural habitats, surrounded by human-altered environments (Fabinne & Triest, 2006). Due to the very limited seedling recruitment of M. peregrina in the studied wadis of South Sinai, conservation efforts should be directed mainly to the established individuals. Efforts should be made to minimize the uncontrolled exploitation of the species by local people. In situ and 142 ex-situ conservation of M. peregrina populations are strongly recommended. Integrated conservation planning using autecology, demography, and genetic diversity data provides the greatest chance of assuring the long-term survival of rare and endangered species (Rebecca et al., 1999). On the other hand, understanding the processes determining the commonness or rarity of plant species can provide information necessary for effective conservation of rare species (Münzbergova, 2005). The fitness characters and heterogeneity of M. peregrina tree are in need to more studies to evaluate the genetic diversity between the studied populations and to overcome the threats affect its existence. According to Holt (1984) in agreement with Hamilton and May (1977), Comins et al. (1980), Motro (1982), and Hastings (1983), each species of organism has a characteristic pattern of variation in abundance over space. As M. peregrina tree has low establishment (Abd El-Wahab, 1995) and subjected to different threats (grazing, cutting, drought, etc), its distribution in the studied wadis of South Sinai is limited. Understanding the factors responsible for the manifest diversity in distributional patterns is a classic goal of ecology (Elton, 1927; Andrewartha and Birch, 1984; Krebs, 1978; Brown and Gibson, 1983). A growing body of evidence suggests that dispersal is important in setting the mean abundances and patterns of 143 fluctuations of many natural populations (Connor et. al., 1983; Gaines and McClenaghan, 1980). These empirical findings have stimulated much theoretical work on the effects of dispersal and spatial heterogeneity in population dynamics (Levin, 1976; Okubo, 1980; Hastings, 1982; Kareiva, 1982; Vance, 1984). Dispersal is also widely recognized to be important in the evolution of species, both directly as a component in life history strategies (Horn and Rubenstein, 1984), and indirectly as a determinant of geographical distributions, patterns of gene flow, and effective population sizes, (Endler, 1977). According to Teague and Danckwerts (1989), management of an area to a large extent depends on condition of the vegetation. Constant monitoring and studying of vegetation of an area is thus of the most importance in order to provide the information on changes in condition of the area. Based on the obtained result in the present work, the distribution of M. peregrina in studied wadis indicated the dominance of mature individuals over the juvenile ones. This distribution characterizes declining populations; because the population has a large proportion of larger individuals than smaller ones. Moreover, M. peregrina must be evaluated seasonally rather than annually. Zaghloul (1997) reported that the measurements for protecting and managing of the endemic species in South Sinai should be preceded by intensive and extensive or long-term (autecological) studies. Moreover, over-grazing, over-cutting and all Bedouins 144 activities in South Sinai should be managed. Zaghloul (1997) also recommended that restoration of the endangered species by soil seed bank and transplanting should be studied. Based on the obtained results in the present study, M. peregrina populations in the South Sinai are declining and their survival cannot be ensured without conservation measures. Therefore conservation efforts should be directed mainly to the recognized individuals. In agreement with Zaghloul (1997), over-collection coupled with grazing pushed many species of plants to extinction. In the last twenty years unmanaged human activities have threatened and rare species with extinction, resulted in disappearance of pastoral plant species, and have caused an increased dominance of unpalatable plant species, in lower wadis and around settlements. In addition to over-collection has a dangerous impact on M. peregrina populations as it is used by Bedouins for medicinal purposes that may lead to extinction. Zaghloul (2003) confirmed that the key to learning the status of a rare species of special concern is to census the species in the field and monitors its populations over time. By repeating censusing a population on a regular basis, changes in the population over time can be determined (Simberloff, 1988; Primack and Hall, 1992; Schemske et al., 1994; and Primack, 1998). Long-term census records can help to distinguish long-term population trends of increase or decrease, possibly caused by human disturbance, from short-term fluctuation caused by variations in weather or 145 unpredictable natural events (Pechmann et al., 1991; and Primack and Miao, 1992). On the other hand, Zaghloul (2003) recommended where, habitats are in immediate danger of destruction, the collection from the wild of plant material (e.g. seeds, clonal fragments) and its maintenance in botanical gardens become necessary. Here the input from genetic becomes even more important both at the sampling stage and where attempts are made at controlled breeding (Brown and Briggs, 1991). Anonymous (1987) stated that environmental stress has often seen as the result of growing demand on scarce resources. Accordingly, conservation and sustainable development of natural resources should ideally be directed towards a common goal: the rational use of the earth's resources to achieve the highest quality of living for mankind (Zahran and Willis, 2009) Conclusion: In a conclusion, the obtained results showed a highly significant relationship between the tree radius and the number of counted growth rings and it can be used as regular time markers for dating M. peregrina trees. Age of M. peregrina is located inbetween 13 and 382 years old with a mean of 69.5 ± 47 years. Moreover, the number of trees under 20 years old was only 11 individuals in all population. This means that during the last 20 years, no new population appeared. 146 Both (W. Feiran and W. Agala) are the most wadis subjected to threats that affect the existence of M. peregrina tree, followed by W. Me’ir then W. Zaghra. The results showed that the growth rate of M. peregrina in the studied wadis is very low with an annual increment 1.76mm in radius. On the other hand, age structure results showed unhealthy shrinking populations of M. peregrina trees in Southern Sinai with sharp decline in the last twenty years. If the current situation unchanged, the populations of M. peregrina trees will not persist, that the older trees are not being replaced by young trees, and then all populations will permanently disappear. There is highly significant positive linear relationship between tree size and estimated age of M. peregrina. This means that size can be used to expect the age, although there are no significant differences between the four studied wadis in soil characteristics. Thus variations in age and size distribution between wadis are most probably affected by anthropogenic effects (e.g. over-cutting, damage, grazing) which are somewhat more disturbing in W. Feiran and W. Agala than in W. Me'ir and than in W. Zaghra. This study suggests that the current unmanaged anthropogenic practices compose a drastically stress on M. peregrina tree in South Sinai. Unless the Bedouins activities been managed, the ultimate fate of the current populations is extinction. As the current study depended on static sampling, more accurate modeling of the populations' structure would require data for growth and mortality over a long time period especially during 147 the climatic stresses that probably have a major influence on population structure for a number of years. Also, population viability analysis (PVA) is urgently needed to identify the factors (natural and human-made) that are important in dynamics of M. peregrina populations and management options precisely. The recommended PVA will help in building up a model by combining the existing information into predictions about the persistence of species under different assumptions of environmental conditions and under different conservation and management options. Recommendations Based on the previous results and looking for the future of the M. peregrina populations in the studied area, one can suggest the following points: (1) Formulating the conservation plans in-situ and ex-situ to save the present populations of M. peregrina trees in Southern Sinai (starting with the most exploited trees in W. Feiran and the lowest stress-facing ones in W. Zaghra). (2) Supporting the idea of fencing which play an important role in decreasing of the threatening intensity and increasing of the productivity of M. peregrina populations. The necessity to construct the enclosures around M. peregrina trees especially in W. Feiran as the most exploited trees and in W. Zaghra as the best ones. 148 (3) It is necessary to manage the Bedouins behaviors against their activities of over-cutting and over-grazing, and increase their awareness in time and rate of plants collection. Moreover, encourage Bedouins to develop means of increasing revenue generation of M. peregrina in South Sinai; such as cultivation of this important plant in its habitats and in botanical gardens. (4) Thus, care efforts should be directed to M. peregrina trees in South Sinai during establishment and growth periods to avoid its extinction. (5) Genetic diversity and heterozygosity of M. peregrina populations in Southern Sinai are in need to more studies. 149 VIII. Summary As Moringa peregrina is one of medicinal, economically and valuable tree, it is the most endangered species due to over-cutting, over-grazing, and extremes of drought. It was necessary to study its population dynamic to conserve it. The unmanaged utilization of this valuable tree is very short-sighted leading to high mortality, low recruitment, and poor survival of seedling. Therefore the present work aimed to estimate the age structures and its relation with size structures of M. peregrina populations, along with the spatial and temporal changes in them in response to birth, aging and mortality rate. A total 404 of M. peregrina trees were surveyed at 41 sites in four wadis of South Sinai; W. Agala (40 trees), W. Feiran (47 trees), W. Zaghra (82 trees) and W. Me'ir (235 trees). In each site some parameters were determined such as elevation, soil texture, soil analyses for some soil samples around the trees. Ninety-three cross sections represent the four wadis were collected. 8 diameters per sample were measured to determine the radius. The bark thickness also measured, and linear regression between radius and bark was carried out to avoid the error in growth rings-radius relationship. The linear regression between radius (excluding the bark) and no. of growth annual rings in these cross sections was used to estimate the age structure. The estimated ages were used to determine the age distribution and construct a static life table. The age distribution of the studied populations was a predictive tool to determine if the M. 150 peregrina populations in Southern Sinai are healthy or not. The age structure of populations which consisting of multiple cohorts was used to estimate the survival patterns of the various age groups in the static life table. Size structures (height, crown cover area and trunk circumference) were determined during the field measurements which involved the tree height (m), crown cover (m2), trunk circumferences (cm). Circumference/height ratio was calculated to find out the relation of size with age distribution. The results of the linear regression showed a highly significant relationship (P = 0.000, r2 = 0.27) between the tree radius (excluding the bark) and number of growth rings. This means that the growth rings can be taken as regular time markers and could be used for dating of M. peregrina trees. Moreover, M. peregrina tree in Southern Sinai grows very slowly and its age ranges between 13 and 382 years at W. Zaghra with a mean of 69.5 ± 47 years. 26.2 % of trees located in the class [41 - 60] years. At the same time, 72.8 % and 46.5 % of M. peregrina trees in the pooled population are older than 40 and 60 years old respectively. Moreover, 30 % of trees in the pooled population are older than 80 years old. In addition, 2.2 % of M. peregrina trees are older than 200 years old. The age structure reveals very unhealthy status of M. peregrina populations and suggests that if the current situation unchanged, the populations of M. peregrina trees will not persist, that the older trees are not being replaced by young trees, and without change of these conditions, all populations will permanently disappear. 151 The result of static life table of M. peregrina in South Sinai revealed that ≥ 180 years old trees in W. Agala, ≥ 100 years old in W. Feiran, ≥ 260 years old in W. Zaghra, and ≥ 240 years old in W. Me'ir have a 100% chance of death (qx = 1.00). The survivorship curve of M. peregrina populations in South Sinai represents type III of survivorship curves due to the high rate of mortality among the young and the old trees. ANOVA (one-way) results revealed that there are highly significant variations (P = 0.000) in the measured tree size (height, crown cover, and trunk circumference) between the four studied wadis which may reflect different environmental factors and/or levels of human stress. The Pearson correlation revealed that the size (especially height and circumference/height ratio) can be used to expect the age class of M. peregrina tree. ANOVA showed that the variation in stones, boulders, coarse sand, fine sand and silt + clay between the four studied wadis is statistically significant. On the other hand, there is no significant variation between the studied wadis in rest of physical characters. The differences in water soluble anions and cations (except K+ and Mg++) are highly significant between the studied wadis. Pearson correlation between tree age and nature of soil surface showed that there is a highly significant positive linear relationship with fine fractions percentage and significant negative relationship with bare rock. The correlation between tree size (especially height, and crown cover) and soil prosperities showed a 152 highly significant positive linear relationship with stones percentage. Circumference/height ratio showed significant positive linear relationship only with gravel percentage. Therefore, it seems that the variations in age and size distribution between wadis are most probably affected by anthropogenic effects (e.g. over-cutting, grazing) which are somewhat more disturbing in W. Feiran and W. Agala than in W. Me'ir and than in W. Zaghra. In a conclusion, this study suggests that the current unmanaged anthropogenic practices compose a drastically stress on M. peregrina tree in South Sinai. Unless these activities been managed, the ultimate fate of the current populations is extinction. As the current study depended on static sampling, more accurate modeling of the populations' structure would require data for growth and mortality over a long time period especially during the climatic extremes that probably have a major influence on population structure for a number of years. In addition, population viability analysis (PVA) is urgently needed to identify the factors (natural and human-made) that are important in dynamics of M. peregrina populations and management options precisely. The present study recommend to put in consider the conservation strategies (in-situ and ex-situ) to save the present populations of M. peregrina trees in Southern Sinai (starting with the most exploited trees in W. Feiran and the lowest stress-facing ones in W. Zaghra). 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Agala. 194 Figure (34): The green pods and branches of M. peregrina are the most favorable forage for animals in Wadi Feiran. Figure (35): The impact of drought on Moringa trees, no green branches, no flowers, no pods, and no life. 195 Figure (36): Long drought and winds actions breakdown M. peregrina trees in Wadi Feiran. 196 a b c d Figure (37): The decrease of vitality and productivity of M. peregrina trees growing at high altitude (a & b) than the lower one (c & d) in Wadi Feiran. 197 Figure (38): The infected old trunks of M. peregrina growing in Wadi Zaghra and W. Me'ir. 198 Appendix III. The old Moringa trees b a d c Figure (39): Two of the old M. peregrina trees in W. Zaghra (a & b) and in W. Me'ir (c & d). 199 Appendix IV. Associated plant species (b) (a) (c) (d) (e) (f) Figure (40): Associated species with M. peregrina trees in South Sinai, (a) Acacia tortilis, (b) Aerva javanica, (c) Capparis sinaica, (d) Citrullus colocynthsis, (e) Calotropis procera, and (f) Hyoscyamus muticus. 200 This book addresses the ecology, age dating, and demography of Moringa peregrina, as an important but threatened medicinal plant species growing in Sinai, It is one of the most important trees in Bedouin’s life in deserts of Egypt and Middle East. natural populations of M. peregrina suffer multiple stresses lead to decrease in their sizes and number. This book include a very inclusive background and review on Moringa and a description of climate and land use of Sinai where M. peregrina naturally growing. age dating of the trees in different wadi systems in Sinai is addressed. Attention was paid also to the different environmental factors controlling the growth of M. peregrina and its main habitats in the Southern Sinai. the work is supported with a species list of associating species and a number of photos showing the threats affecting the occurrence of the tree. Knowledge gained from this work is very helpful in bringing this valuable species into cultivation on large scale in desert ecosystems. Prof. Abdelraouf A. Moustafa Professor of plant Ecology in Suez Canal University, MSc 1986, PhD, SCU in cooperation with Harvard University (USA) in 1991. Chairman of Botany Department (2003–2009), member of environmental council affairs 2012, founder of Egyptian Society for environmental Sciences, Editor of CATRINA Journal. Research interest: Conservation of medicinal plants. ISPN: 978-3-659-31924-2 201

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