Bamboo biodiversity Africa, Madagascar and the Americas Nadia Bystriakova, Valerie Kapos, Igor Lysenko Bamboo biodiversity Africa, Madagascar and the Americas Nadia Bystriakova, Valerie Kapos, Igor Lysenko UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 219 Huntingdon Road Cambridge CB3 0DL United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0) 1223 277314 Fax: +44 (0) 1223 277136 Email: info@unep-wcmc.org Website: www.unep-wcmc.org International Network for Bamboo and Rattan No. 8, Fu Tong Dong Da Jie, Wang Jing Area Chao Yang District, Beijing 100102 People’s Republic of China Postal address: Beijing 100102-86 People’s Republic of China Tel: +86 (0) 10 6470 6161 Fax: +86 (0) 10 6470 2166 Email: info@inbar.int Website: www.inbar.int Director: Mark Collins Director General: Ian Hunter THE UNEP WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE is the biodiversity assessment and policy implementation arm of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the world’s foremost intergovernmental environmental organization. UNEP-WCMC aims to help decision-makers recognize the value of biodiversity to people everywhere, and to apply this knowledge to all that they do. The Centre’s challenge is to transform complex data into policy-relevant information, to build tools and systems for analysis and integration, and to support the needs of nations and the international community as they engage in joint programmes of action. THE INTERNATIONAL NETWORK FOR BAMBOO AND RATTAN (INBAR) is an international organization established by treaty in November 1997, dedicated to improving the social, economic, and environmental benefits of bamboo and rattan. INBAR connects a global network of partners from the government, private and not-for-profit sectors in over 50 countries to define and implement a global agenda for sustainable development through bamboo and rattan. UNEP-WCMC provides objective, scientifically rigorous products and services that include ecosystem assessments, support for implementation of environmental agreements, regional and global biodiversity information, research on environmental threats and impacts, and development of future scenarios for the living world. Authors Acknowledgements N. Bystriakova1,2 V. Kapos2 I. Lysenko2 1 International Network for Bamboo and Rattan Beijing, China 2 UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre Cambridge, UK The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support from the International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) and the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). UNEP-WCMC and the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, are thanked for providing working facilities. We thank Chris Stapleton for providing useful technical input and access to key literature. We are grateful to Ian May for providing extra help with mapping and data management. © UNEP-WCMC/INBAR 2004 Additional photo credits Citation: Bystriakova, N., Kapos, V. & Lysenko, I. 2004. Bamboo Biodiversity. UNEP-WCMC/INBAR. Page 7 (left to right): INBAR, INBAR C. Petersen/UNEP/ Topham, INBAR, Jorg Stamm; page 8: Ron Surratt; page 9: Bruno Locatelli; page 18: Jorg Stamm; page 20: Chris Hagen URL: http://www.unep-wcmc.org/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_series/19.htm A Banson production Printed in the UK by Swaingrove Imaging The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNEP, INBAR or contributory organizations. The designations employed and the presentations do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP, INBAR or contributory organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. 2 Bamboo biodiversity Contents Foreword 4 Preface 5 BAMBOO BIODIVERSITY 7 References Annex I: 21 Subtribes and genera of woody bamboos occurring naturally in Africa, Madagascar and the Americas 24 Annex II: Bamboo species on the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants 25 Annex III: Useful native species of bamboo in Africa, Madagascar and the Americas 26 2 Annex IV: Woody bamboo species of Africa, Madagascar and the Americas with <20 000 km of forest remaining within their ranges 28 Annex V: Maps of potential distributions of woody bamboos in Africa, Madagascar and the Americas 31 3 Bamboo biodiversity Foreword T he bamboo plant supports an international trade, which (even according to our currently imperfect trade statistics) amounts to well over US$2 billion per year. International trade, however, forms only a part of bamboo usage, with domestic use estimated to account for at least 80 per cent of the total. Bamboo is thus a major world commodity. Despite this, very little is known about the distribution and resources of bamboo. Certain bamboo species (e.g. Chinese Moso bamboo, Phyllostachys edulis) have formed the basis of major industrial development and have been domesticated into plantations. Perhaps 50 or 100 bamboo species are preferred for use and are undergoing some degree of domestication. However there are estimated to be nearly 1 500 species in total and the vast majority of these occur only in their native ranges, and many may have uses of local or wider significance that have yet to be documented. Unfortunately, as obligate components of forested ecosystems, their futures are bound up with the survival of their forest habitats. This work indicates that as forest ecosystems shrink under human pressure the 4 survival of many potentially important bamboo species may be threatened. This work is a first step towards quantifying existing resources of bamboo. Knowledge of the magnitude and distribution of these resources is a necessary precursor to planning and implementing conservation and sustainable management of bamboos in the wild. The innovative approach used here can be applied to the study of other species associated with mapped ecosystems. This study would not have been possible without collaboration between INBAR and UNEP-WCMC. It was the detailed map-based databases of UNEP-WCMC that made the development of the methodology possible. This study thus represents an excellent example of two organizations working together to combine their strengths. Ian Hunter Director General International Network for Bamboo and Rattan Bamboo biodiversity Preface W herever they occur, woody bamboos are of direct importance to people. They are used for everything from construction to irrigation systems, from musical instruments to food and fuel. Their greatest economic importance is in the Asia-Pacific region, but they are also fundamental to local economies in other regions of the world. Despite their value to humanity, we still know relatively little about most bamboos in the wild. Bamboos are an ancient group of plants that play a distinctive role in the forest ecosystems of which they are a part. For example, they support a range of specialized and rare species, such as the greater bamboo lemur of Madagascar. This report (like its companion volume for the bamboos of the Asia-Pacific region) applies innovative approaches and analytical tools to expand our understanding of the ecological role of bamboos substantially. The authors have generated a revealing overview of the distribution of bamboos in Africa, Madagascar and the Americas, which provides the first sound basis for a description of their importance and an analysis of their conservation needs. This work directly supports the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, adopted under the Convention on Biological Diversity, which expressly recognizes the need for more knowledge on distribution and threats as a basic requirement for effective conservation measures. A Global Partnership for Plant Conservation has recently been formed to help implement the Global Strategy, and UNEP-WCMC is pleased to be one of its founding members. By assessing conservation status, identifying areas important for bamboo diversity and in situ conservation of threatened species, and providing information on the use of wild species, this report contributes directly to implementation of the Global Strategy and achievement of its targets. Conserving such genetic resources as wild bamboos is an essential step towards solving the problems of poverty alleviation and sustainable development. Because of their many uses, bamboos exemplify the connection between biodiversity and livelihoods very clearly. This report will help range states to recognize, and value, the bamboo genetic resources on their own doorsteps, and to conserve them for future generations. I welcome this opportunity to collaborate with INBAR, the world’s bamboo and rattan trade network. I hope that our first analyses will form the basis for future in-depth assessments of bamboo resources and their conservation status. Bamboos are a fascinating group of plants that bring benefits to people everywhere; they should be conserved as an important resource for all our futures. Mark Collins Director UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 5 Bamboo biodiversity Bamboo biodiversity B amboos are distinct and fascinating plants, with a wide range of values and uses. Although their diversity and their importance are highest in, and have been best documented for, the Asia-Pacific region, they are also important in continental Africa, Madagascar and the Americas. Worldwide they are associated with unique elements of biodiversity, many with great conservation significance. They are important in local cultures and economies, and contribute to soil and water management. The purpose of the present study is to synthesize existing knowledge to provide an overview of the richness and distribution of woody bamboos in Africa, Madagascar and the Americas. It shows that a number of bamboo species in these regions are potentially threatened by the destruction of natural forest cover. Conservation and sustainable management of wild populations of bamboo should be a priority, especially where diversity is high or deforestation is a significant threat. Bamboos are plants of global interest because of their distinctive life form, their ecological importance and the wide range of uses and values they have for humans. Woody bamboos are an ancient group of forest plants, which evolved in the lowland tropics of Gondwanaland during the Tertiary (Clark 1997). Bamboos are a significant structural component of many forest ecosystems and play a major role in ecosystem dynamics through their distinctive cycles of mass flowering and subsequent die-off, which may increase the importance of fire (Keeley and Bond 1999). Inhabiting moister, more benign habitats in old-growth forests, bamboos are often associated with threatened plants, and there are many specialized animal species that depend upon them. There are also many little-known invertebrates specially adapted to the environment within hollow bamboo culms. These specialized relationships, which reflect a long history of co-evolution between bamboos and other species, can shed light on evolutionary and ecological processes. Bamboos are multipurpose crops, with over 1 500 documented uses. Their most important traditional uses include housing, food and material for handicrafts. Worldwide, over 2.5 billion people trade in or use bamboo (INBAR 1999). Globally, domestic trade and subsistence use of bamboo are estimated to be worth US$4.5 billion per year, and export of bamboo generates another US$2.7 billion (INBAR 1999). The many uses and the economic importance of bamboo mean that it plays a considerable role in improving the livelihoods of rural poor people. The 7 Bamboo biodiversity potentially threatened bamboos outside the Asia-Pacific region. In this work, we extend the approach used by Bystriakova et al. (2003a,b) to Africa, Madagascar and the Americas, to synthesize existing knowledge on bamboo distribution and identify bamboo species in the three focal regions that may be of conservation concern. In East Africa the ‘Endangered’ mountain bongo (Tragelaphus euryceros ssp. isaaci) relies on montane bamboo thickets for food and shelter during the dry season. rural poor, especially women and children, harvest much of the bamboo used. The extensive rhizome system of bamboos lies primarily in the top layers of soil, so bamboos often play a major role in stabilizing soils on slopes and river banks, preventing erosion and land slips. This also makes them important in securing the hydrological function of catchments and rivers. Many forest bamboos are characteristic of high-altitude ecosystems on steep slopes in zones of high seismic activity, so their role in soil stabilization may be critical. The scientific, environmental, economic and social importance of bamboos means that it is essential that strategies be developed for their sustainable management. However, knowledge to support such planning is limited. Bamboos are of conservation significance in their own right and may also serve as indicators of high biodiversity in other groups. As most bamboo species are forest plants, they are intrinsically vulnerable to deforestation. The vulnerability of some species is increased by the simultaneous flowering and subsequent death of entire populations in cycles of 20-120 years. A recent study (Bystriakova et al. 2003a,b) showed that around 40 per cent of bamboos in the Asia-Pacific region are potentially threatened due to the small amount of forest cover remaining within their natural ranges. Other authors have suggested that many bamboos in the Americas may be of conservation concern (Judziewicz et al. 1999), and the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants contained 12 species of woody bamboo from the Americas and one from Africa (Gillet and Walter 1998). However, there has as yet been little systematic evaluation of 8 STATE OF KNOWLEDGE OF BAMBOOS, BAMBOO RESOURCES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT Despite their importance, very little is known about bamboo distribution and resources, especially in natural forests. As a non-timber forest product, bamboo is not routinely included in forest inventories. According to the FAO (2001), statistical data on bamboo are available for the period 1954 to 1971 only. Today, very few countries monitor non-timber forest product (NTFP) supply and utilization at the national level. The difficulty of assessing bamboo (and other NTFP) resources and their use arises from: • uncertainty associated with their taxonomy (see below); • the large number of, and wide variation in, their uses at local, national and international levels; • the fact that many bamboo products are used or marketed outside traditional economic structures; • the lack of common terminology and units of measurement (FAO 2001). The description of bamboos is an ongoing process; not only do new species remain to be discovered and described, many earlier descriptions and classifications of species are being revised. According to Ohrnberger (1999), the subfamily Bambusoideae (of the family Poaceae, or Gramineae) comprises both woody and herbaceous bamboos with 1 575 species altogether. In the most recent (and narrower) classification (Grass Phylogeny Working Group 2001) the subfamily Bambusoideae includes two tribes and approximately 1 200 species. Although some bamboos have been the subject of a great deal of research, the majority of species are poorly known and much of their biology is incompletely understood. Resources to study bamboos scientifically have been and remain severely limited. Most international research funding and effort has focused on a relatively small set (38) of ‘priority species’ of bamboo that are commercially important and widely distributed (Williams and Rao 1994; Rao et al. 1998). Of these, most are native to the Asia-Pacific region, one (Oxytenanthera abyssinica) is an African species, none occurs in Madagascar and one (Guadua angustifolia) comes from South America. Consequently, research on biodiversity and conservation of forest bamboos has been especially limited in the three regions considered here. Bamboo biodiversity Perhaps because of their great regional economic importance, the bamboos of the Asia-Pacific region have been more thoroughly investigated than those of other regions. The current understanding of their distribution and conservation status was summarized by Bystriakova et al. (2003a,b). Although those publications cover the majority of the world’s 1 200 bamboo species, around 400 bamboo species and subspecies occur in other regions of the world and are less well known. The purpose of the present study is to synthesize existing knowledge to provide an overview of the richness and distribution of woody bamboos in Africa, Madagascar and the Americas. In these three regions the economic potential of bamboo has not yet been explored and the role of bamboo resources in national economies is negligible. The uses of bamboo are mostly in the domestic field and small-scale construction. As a result, in the majority of African and American countries, information about bamboo resources, and their current and potential uses, is incomplete. Against a background of poor knowledge of bamboo identification and distribution it is inevitable that the vast majority of bamboos have not been evaluated at all in terms of conservation status, and data deficiencies may limit the value of any ad-hoc assessments that have been made. Despite the growing importance of bamboos, few studies of the conservation status of individual species have been undertaken. The data compiled in this study are used to provide a preliminary assessment of their possible conservation status and are discussed in the light of the importance of bamboos for both conservation and human use. SCOPE AND METHODS To determine likely present distributions of bamboo species and to estimate the total area of remaining forest potentially containing bamboo, we compiled information on the distribution of bamboo species in each of the three study regions (Africa, Madagascar and the Americas) from the relevant taxonomic and floristic literature. This information was combined with regional data on remaining forest cover in the same process as used by Bystriakova et al. (2003a,b) for the bamboos of the AsiaPacific region. The resulting maps for individual species were combined to show regional patterns of potential bamboo species richness. This study was confined to woody bamboos, as these are most significant from the socio-economic point of view. We gathered data on nearly 400 species, belonging to 37 genera, which occur naturally in the three study regions. For each species bibliographic sources were searched to acquire data about its distribution. These data Bamboo has many domestic and agricultural uses, ranging from musical instruments to construction of homes and of agricultural structures like this irrigation system in Madagascar. were principally political units (country, province, locale), altitudinal range and forest type. They were entered into an Access database containing 13 fields and multiple records for each species (a total of 1 180 records). Although the information available in the bibliographic sources was variable, 966 records (82 per cent) contain information about altitudinal range (minimum and maximum altitude), and 952 records (81 per cent) have data about species distribution at the provincial level. For each species in the database a single potential distribution map was generated using ArcView Geographic Information System (GIS) software to combine data on political units, altitude and forest type according to the information about natural distribution of the species. The information about the distribution of existing forest cover provided by UNEP-WCMC (Iremonger et al. 1997; UNEPWCMC 2000) was used as a mask to eliminate areas not forested. When multiple data on altitudinal range existed for the same species, the broadest range was applied. The individual species maps were combined to generate maps of potential species richness and potential generic richness for each of the three study regions. In an effort to validate the distributions obtained in this way, a limited number were compared visually with the point-distributions generated from herbarium specimen data held in the VAScular Tropicos (VAST) nomenclatural database of Missouri Botanical Garden (VAST 2003). In most cases, e.g. Chusquea pohlii (Map 3.23), Arthrostylidium venezuelae (Map 3.11) and Chusquea scandens (Map 3.24), the potential species distribution ranges generated by this study matched the maps of point locations very well. This suggests that this approach to modelling based on political units, altitude and forest is an 9 Bamboo biodiversity appropriate way to generate potential species distribution maps where data are limited. However, for a minority of species, e.g. Guadua amplexifolia (Map 3.28) and Otatea acuminata (Map 3.41), the range of point locations was larger than predicted by potential species distribution maps, suggesting that the source data on political units need verification. It is important to recognize that this study does not address the persistence of many bamboo species outside forests and in cultivation, or the potential beneficial effects of forest disturbance for some woody bamboo species (Judziewicz et al. 1999). We gathered data on 388 species and subspecies that occur in Africa, Madagascar and the Americas, and mapped the potential current distributions of 379 individual bamboo species within natural forest. Thirtyseven genera occurring naturally in these regions were included in this study (Annex I). BAMBOOS IN AFRICA The lowest diversity of woody bamboos is found in Africa, where five species representing five genera occur (Table 1). Tanzania has the largest number of species followed by Malawi, Uganda and Zambia (Table 2). The greatest potential bamboo richness (two co-occurring species) is in East Africa, especially around Lake Victoria, and in southern Africa in Zambia and Zimbabwe (Figure 1), while the countries of West Africa have only a single species of woody bamboo (principally Oxytenanthera abyssinica). Table 1. The five species of woody bamboo occurring in Africa, and the total area of forest within their range SPECIES AREA OF POTENTIAL OCCURRENCE (KM2) Hickelia africana Yushania alpina Oreobambos buchwaldii Oxytenanthera abyssinica Thamnocalamus tessellatus 1 174 202 019 527 789 7 117 915 89 260 The low diversity of bamboo species in mainland Africa, compared with Asia, Madagascar and the Americas, may relate to past climatic variation on the continent. The ancestral woody bamboos are thought to have arisen in the wet forests of Gondwanaland (Clark 1997). It is possible that after the break-up of Gondwanaland isolated the African genera (Clayton and Renvoize 1999), climate and vegetation patterns in Africa have provided limited opportunities for their expansion and radiation within forest habitats, in contrast to genera on other continents. Table 2. Numbers of species of Bambuseae occurring in the countries of Africa COUNTRY/TERRITORY NUMBER OF NATURALLY COUNTRY/TERRITORY OCCURRING SPECIES Tanzania Malawi Uganda Zambia Cameroon Congo Democratic Republic of Congo Ethiopia Sudan Zimbabwe Angola Benin Burundi Central African Republic Comoro Islands Source: Ohrnberger 1999. 10 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 NUMBER OF NATURALLY OCCURRING SPECIES Côte d’Ivoire Eritrea Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya Mozambique Nigeria Réunion Rwanda Senegal Sierra Leone South Africa Togo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Bamboo biodiversity Potential species richness: tribe Bambuseae Number of species Existing forest cover with no records of Bambuseae Figure 1. Map of potential bamboo species richness in Africa, derived by integrating the distributions of the five woody bamboo species that are native to the continent. Conservation and biodiversity importance Of the African bamboos mapped, only Thamnocalamus tessellatus has been listed by IUCN as of conservation concern (Annex II) (Gillet and Walter 1998; Hilton-Taylor 2000). According to our analysis, it currently has 89 260 km2 of potential forest habitat remaining. Potentially of great concern but not presently red-listed, is Hickelia africana, which is especially limited in its current extent (Table 1), having little more than 1 000 km2 of forest remaining within its range. Despite their lack of diversity in Africa, bamboos play an important role in ecology and biodiversity conservation. In many places, especially at high altitude, African bamboo species form vast pure stands (Chihongo et al. 2000; Kigomo 1988), which provide important shelter and resources for some key species of conservation interest. For example, the eastern or mountain bongo (Tragelaphus euryceros ssp. isaaci) of the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya is considered by IUCN to be ‘Endangered’ (Antelope Taxon Advisory Group 2003). This large forest antelope spends the wet season in cloud forests lower down the mountains, but migrates to spend the dry season in the dense Yushania alpina thickets and open moorland 1 000 m further up the slopes. Effective protection of the surviving remnant populations of the mountain bongo in Kenya is critical to its survival in the wild. The conservation of bamboo forests is a vital part of such protection given their key role in sheltering the mountain bongo during the dry season. Another close dependence between an endangered mammal and bamboo occurs with the eastern mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei). Mountain gorillas, which are classed as ‘Endangered’ (IUCN 2002), inhabit montane and bamboo forests in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and southwestern Uganda (IGCP 2003). They eat large amounts of vegetation from more than 70 different plant species, including bamboo (Fossey and Harcourt 1977). When the bamboo plant sprouts in June and November, bamboo shoots can make up to 90 per cent of a gorilla’s diet. An adult male can eat up to 35 kg of bamboo each day, and females about 18 kg (WWF 2003a). Uses of bamboo In terms of utilization, the most important African species are Oreobambus buchwaldii, Oxytenanthera abyssinica and Yushania alpina (Annex III and Annex V: Maps 1.1, 1.2 and 1.4). These are mostly harvested from the wild. For example, in Kenya only 0.6 per cent of total bamboo harvested is produced on farms (Ongugo et al. 2000). African bamboos have not been exploited in pulp and paper production, or in any other large-scale bamboo 11 Bamboo biodiversity industry. The economic value of trade in bamboo products in Africa is negligible. Since the products are traded locally, statistics do not enter the national accounting systems (Chihongo et al. 2000). Although there is little cultivation of bamboo and little or no international trade in bamboo from Africa, many bamboo products are used domestically and can be very significant in both household and local economies. Key bamboo uses include small-scale construction, handicrafts, residential fencing, horticultural flower farming, water pipes, farm props for banana plantations, furniture, and other minor cottage industry products like basketry and toothpicks (Chihongo et al. 2000). According to the results of a survey carried out in several Ethiopian states (Kelbessa et al. 2000), the majority of rural families were entirely dependent on raw bamboo for construction, household furniture and as a source of domestic energy. Where collecting and processing bamboo provides income, as for example in the production of toothpicks and incense sticks in Kenya, women are mainly involved in processing whereas men are involved in harvesting, transportation and processing (Ongugo et al. 2000). In some parts of Africa, bamboo is also a source of food and drink. In Tanzania and Uganda, young shoots and seeds of Oxytenanthera abyssinica, a medium-size bamboo reaching 8-16 m in height, are consumed as food. The principal use of this species in Tanzania, however, is in the production of bamboo wine, also known as ulanzi (Chihongo et al. 2000; Kigomo 1988). Tips of young shoots are cut off and the stem portion bruised every morning and evening for about a week. The exudate from the bruises is collected and allowed to stand for two days to ferment. The resulting ulanzi, which is 5-5.5 per cent alcohol, is one of the principal forms of alcohol consumed in some areas (Willis 2003). . Other roles of bamboo The role of bamboo in conserving soil and protecting watersheds is also substantial in Africa. For example, in Kenya, Yushania (formerly Arundinaria) alpina is receiving attention from the government especially for catchment rehabilitation, regulation of water-flow and erosion control (Ongugo et al. 2000). Conservation and management The importance of bamboos and their products in local economies has led to overexploitation and a decline in the supply of bamboo from natural stands in some parts of Ethiopia and Tanzania (Chihongo et al. 2000). Approaches to reverse these trends have included efforts to establish introduced species. The Kenya Forestry Research Institute has introduced several bamboo species from Asian 12 countries both to forest areas and on farmlands on an experimental basis (Ongugo et al. 2000; Kigomo 1999). A number of species, among them Bambusa bambos, B. tulda, B. vulgaris, Dendrocalamus asper, D. brandisii, D. membranaceus, D. strictus, Phyllostachys pubescens and Thyrsostachys siamensis, have been established successfully in several ecological zones. Regulation has also been used as a means to ensure continued supply of bamboo in parts of Africa. In Uganda bamboo harvesting is allowed in some areas, but collectors have to obtain permits from the Forestry Department. In Kenya bamboo in state forests is protected, although controlled harvesting is allowed in places (Ongugo et al. 2000). A government ban on cutting bamboo was proclaimed in 1982 to control further indiscriminate cutting and to allow the overcut areas to regenerate to their full potential. Bamboo harvesting from state forests was allowed only with a special licence. However, regulation is not always a successful approach. Even in Ugandan forest reserves with no legal public access, illegal harvesting of bamboo occurs (Esegu et al. 2000). Implementation of the government ban in Kenya has resulted in conditions that have encouraged corruption and made the bamboo resource unavailable to poor entrepreneurs. A rough comparison of the figures for the bamboo actually used and the official figures for harvested bamboo shows a difference of 88 per cent, which means that a large part of the bamboo used in Kenya is harvested illegally (Ongugo et al. 2000). Further work is needed to identify appropriate mechanisms and regimes for managing bamboo resources, ensuring conservation of native bamboo populations and maintaining their roles in forest ecosystems. BAMBOOS IN MADAGASCAR Information about bamboos in Madagascar is far from complete. Although bamboos began to be described in Madagascar in 1828, there was a long hiatus during the latter half of the 19th century. Limited collection during the early 20th century permitted the description of a total of 27 species up to 1960. New collections between 1987 and 1996 permitted recent revisions of Hickelia and Decaryochloa and descriptions of three new genera, Valiha, Cathariostachys and Sirochloa (Dransfield 2000; Dransfield 2002). It is likely that additional revisions and some new species descriptions may be produced in the future. At present, Madagascar is considered to have 33 species of woody bamboo and is therefore strikingly more rich in species than continental Africa. Thirty-two of those species are endemic and a single species, Bambusa vulgaris, is pantropical in distribution. As this last species is found principally near villages and along rivers, it is Bamboo biodiversity Number of species Existing forest cover with no records of Bambuseae Figure 2. Map of potential species richness of woody bamboos in Madagascar, derived by integrating the distributions of the 33 native woody bamboo species, all of which are endemic to Madagascar. possible that it is introduced. The richness and endemism of the woody bamboo flora of Madagascar reflects the island’s long (c. 140 million years) isolation from other land masses and the resulting unique evolutionary pathways that have led to extremely high levels of endemism in both flora and fauna. The majority of the native woody bamboos of Madagascar are found on the eastern escarpment where remnants of rainforest still exist (Figure 2). Some species also occur in the drier vegetation of the west. The maximum potential species richness in Madagascar identified by the present study was seven co-occurring species. Conservation and biodiversity importance In addition to being endemic, a number of Madagascar’s woody bamboos have limited amounts of forest remaining 10 10 88 Number of species Potential species richness: tribe Bambuseae within their quite localized ranges. Twenty-five of the Madagascan species have less than 20 000 km2 of forest remaining within their ranges and as many as ten species have less than 2 000 km2 of forest available to them (Figure 3 and Annex IV). Although the former criterion might be considered analogous to the threshold extent of occurrence used by IUCN as a basis for inclusion in the Red List, none of Madagascar’s woody bamboos is currently listed by IUCN as a plant species of global conservation concern (Gillet and Walter 1998; HiltonTaylor 2000). Besides their endemism and potentially threatened status, a number of Madagascar’s woody bamboos are fundamental to the survival of other species. The most extreme case may be that of the bamboo lemurs. There are three recognized species of bamboo lemur, each occupying a different habitat in Madagascar: the grey bamboo lemur (Hapalemur griseus), the greater bamboo lemur (Hapalemur simus) and the golden bamboo lemur (Hapalemur aureus). All these species are characteristic of forest with a high proportion of bamboo, and various parts of bamboo plants make up a large part of their diets. The grey bamboo lemur lives on the new shoots, leaf bases, and sometimes pith of several bamboo species (Garbutt 1999; Mittermeier et al. 1994). The rare greater bamboo lemur primarily consumes the pith of the giant bamboo, Cathariostachys madagascariensis, which contains high levels of cyanide (Garbutt 1999; Dransfield 2000). The golden bamboo lemur eats leaf bases and new shoots of the same bamboo species, as well as other nonwoody bamboos (Garbutt 1999). 66 44 22 00 <2 2-5 5-10 10-20 20-25 25-50 < 50 2 Area of forest in range ('000 km ) Figure 3. Number of bamboo species in Madagascar with different areas of forest remaining within their geographical ranges. Species that are dependent on 2 forest and have less than 20 000 km of forest in their ranges should be considered as threatened in any preliminary assessment of conservation status. 13 Bamboo biodiversity Although the bamboo lemurs are threatened by rainforest destruction, at least one group, the western grey bamboo lemur, may actually benefit from low levels of forest disturbance, which increase the density of bamboo. The grey bamboo lemurs are at relatively low risk (the eastern subspecies is classified as ‘Lower Risk’, and the western as ‘Vulnerable’), but both the other two species are ‘Critically Endangered’ (Hilton-Taylor 2000). Other animals besides lemurs are dependent on bamboo. There is a community of rainforest organisms that rely on so-called bamboo wells, cavities in fallen bamboo culms that fill with rainwater. Some use them for reproduction, others for shelter and to escape from potential predators. Mantella laevigata, a species of poison frog endemic to northeastern Madagascar, breeds in water-filled tree holes or broken bamboo. The frogs are found in association with Bambusa vulgaris, Valiha diffusa and other native bamboo species. The frogs’ eggs often become food for other animals. For instance, crane flies (Limonia renaudi) lay eggs in the water of the same bamboo wells, and their larvae feed on the eggs of Mantella (Heying 2001). The bamboo forests in the drier western part of Madagascar are the habitat of one of the most endangered reptiles in the world, which is also the rarest tortoise, the angonoka or ploughshare tortoise (Geochelone yniphora) (WWF 2003b). Conservation and management The destruction of native vegetation in Madagascar is a major problem, which has been recognized for a number of years. According to IUCN (1992), at least 80 per cent of the land surface of the island no longer has significant native woody plant cover. Green and Sussman (1990) calculated that all but 34 per cent of the eastern rainforests had been lost by 1985, and high rates of deforestation have continued. Conservation International estimates that less than 10 per cent of the original vegetation of Madagascar remains (Myers et al. 2000). The expansion of small-scale agriculture and the harvesting of wood for charcoal production and forest fires continue to threaten the remaining forests. These alarming figures help to explain why so many of Madagascar’s endemic woody bamboo species have little forest habitat remaining within their ranges. While some bamboos persist and may even proliferate in disturbed landscapes, others are less resilient and many of the species that depend on bamboos require a forest environment. Improving management of the 3 per cent of Madagascar currently officially protected (Conservation International 2003) should help to conserve many of the endemic bamboos. However more direct attention is needed to determine the conservation status of bamboo species and identify the priority actions for ensuring their conservation in situ. Uses of bamboo Bamboos are also extremely important to local communities in Madagascar. Nearly half of all households use bamboo domestically (Ferraro 2001): for construction and for items ranging from handicrafts to musical instruments. For example, the culms of Valiha diffusa are used for the construction of walls and roofs; they are split on one side and flattened, then woven into large panels. Bamboo is also used for flooring and fencing, and in irrigation systems. Water containers, fishing traps and poles, darts, baskets and storage containers are all made from a number of bamboo species. Culms of Valiha are used to make the traditional musical instrument, the tube zither or valiha, and those of another endemic genus, Cathariostachys, are used for making flutes (Dransfield 2000). Much of the bamboo used domestically comes from secondary forests, and there are some plantations in and around villages. However, in some areas villages have depleted the available supply of bamboo nearby and residents must travel greater distances to obtain resources (Ferraro 2001). Bamboo is traded domestically in Madagascar on a small scale, but not internationally. BAMBOOS IN THE AMERICAS The Americas are collectively much richer in bamboo species than either continental Africa or Madagascar, but have lower diversity than the Asia-Pacific region (Bystriakova et al. 2003a). There are currently 20 recognized genera of woody bamboos that are confined to the New World. Only Arundinaria occurs in both the Old and New Worlds. There are approximately 430 species of New World woody bamboos, of which more than 40 per cent belong to a single genus, Chusquea (Judziewicz et al. 1999). The greatest diversity of bamboos in the New World is in South America. Brazil has nearly twice as many bamboo species as Venezuela and Colombia, which are in turn nearly twice as rich as the richest Mesoamerican countries (Costa Rica and Mexico; Table 3). The United States has only a single woody bamboo species, as do many Caribbean island nations. Previous studies have identified the areas of highest bamboo diversity and endemism in the New World as Brazil, the northern and central Andes and Mexico, along with the still poorly known Guyana Highlands (Judziewicz et al. 1999). The results of our study confirm this and identify São Paulo state as the area with the 14 Bamboo biodiversity Table 3. Numbers of species of Bambuseae occurring in the countries of North, Central and South America COUNTRY/TERRITORY NO. OF NATURALLY COUNTRY/TERRITORY OCCURRING SPECIES Brazil Venezuela Colombia Ecuador Costa Rica Peru Mexico Bolivia Panama Chile Cuba 134 68 56 41 36 35 32 20 19 14 13 NO. OF NATURALLY COUNTRY/TERRITORY OCCURRING SPECIES Argentina Guatemala Honduras El Salvador Haiti Nicaragua Trinidad and Tobago Dominican Republic Paraguay Guyana Puerto Rico 12 12 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 5 5 NO. OF NATURALLY OCCURRING SPECIES Uruguay Suriname Belize Bahamas Dominica French Guiana Guadeloupe Jamaica Martinique United States Virgin Islands 5 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Potential species richness: tribe Bambuseae Number of species Existing forest cover with no records of Bambuseae Figure 4. Map of potential species richness of woody bamboos in the Americas, derived by combining the distribution maps for 341 species native to the region. 15 Bamboo biodiversity Conservation and biodiversity importance Currently, the IUCN Red List of ‘Endangered’ bamboos in the Americas comprises 20 species, among them 12 woody bamboos (see Annex II) (Gillet and Walter 1998; Hilton-Taylor 2000). The present study has identified nearly 200 New World woody bamboo species with less than 20 000 km2 of forest remaining within their potential ranges (Annex IV). Ninety-five of these species occur where there are less than 2 000 km2 of forest (Figure 5). Throughout the Americas, woody bamboos are an important part of forested ecosystems and occur in almost homogeneous stands in some places. Bamboodominated areas in the Amazon region occupy between 121 000 and 180 000 km2 (Nelson 1994; Judziewicz et al. 1999). This vegetation, which is dominated by bamboos of the genera Guadua, Elytrostachys and Arthrostylidium, is dense and often impenetrable because of the thorns of the bamboo. In northern South America, especially Colombia and Ecuador, the ‘guadual’ – dense bamboo forest dominated by Guadua angustifolia – is an important vegetation type at low to mid-altitude. This is often an important refuge for wildlife species from surrounding native hardwood forests that are being destroyed (Judziewicz et al. 1999). The mechanism by which bamboos become dominant in these areas is unclear, though it is likely that clonal growth following disturbance by wind, fire and 16 100 100 80 80 Number of species largest number of potentially co-occurring woody bamboo species (35) (Figure 4). At generic level, woody bamboo diversity appears to be concentrated in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais (nine co-occurring genera), whereas other authors have reported higher generic diversity of all bamboos (woody and herbaceous combined) in the coastal state of Espírito Santo (Burman and Filgueiras 1993). Of the five monotypic genera in the Americas (Arundinaria, Actinocladum, Athroostachys, Criciuma, Eremocaulon), four coincide in an area covering the states of Mato Grosso, Bahia and Minas Gerais, Brazil (Arundinaria is distributed solely in the United States). This confirms the importance of the Atlantic Forest region for the diversity of woody bamboos in South America. To a large degree, these patterns may reflect the state of knowledge as a result of the distribution of collecting effort (Burman and Filgueiras 1993), and the true pattern may yet prove to be somewhat different. However, they are consistent with suggestions that the Atlantic coastal zone may have provided diverse habitats that fostered bamboo evolution and/or facilitated bamboo survival during cold glacial maxima (Judziewicz et al. 1999). 60 60 40 40 20 20 00 < 2 5 0 5 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2- 5-1 0-1 5-2 0-2 5-3 0-4 0-5 0-6 0-7 -10 -15 -20 -40 -80 80 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 70 00 50 00 00 > 1 1 2 4 2 Area of forest in range ('000 km ) Figure 5. Number of bamboo species in the Americas with different areas of forest remaining within their geographical ranges. Species that are dependent on forest 2 and have less than 20 000 km of forest in their ranges should be considered as threatened in any preliminary assessment of conservation status. landslips plays an important role. It has been suggested that bamboos may also significantly increase the potential for some types of natural disturbances (Keeley and Bond 1999). According to this hypothesis, mass mortality in bamboos after fruiting generates a widespread and synchronous fuel load that significantly increases the potential for wildfire. The resulting canopy disturbance both increases resources for seedling recruitment and resets the successional cycle to favour persistence of the new clones. The dense and rapid growth of woody bamboos may suppress the regeneration of other woody species (Clark 1995). The aggressive growth strategy of such species as Guadua weberbaueri and G. sarcocarpa can alter the normal forest succession process following small or large-scale forest disturbance. This may contribute to the high levels of endemism and species diversity evident in some regions where these species are prominent (Kirkby 2003). In some areas, woody bamboos have become invasive and dominate forest succession in abandoned cultivation, excluding regeneration of native tree species (WWF 2003c). Bamboos therefore play an important role in determining forest structure and dynamics. Throughout the Americas, bamboo stands provide habitat and food for a wide range of mammals, birds, amphibians and invertebrates, many of which are of conservation concern. In South America, especially at higher altitudes and in the Atlantic Forest zone, several important mammals feed on bamboo. The spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus), which is classified as ‘Vulnerable’ by IUCN (Hilton-Taylor 2000), feeds opportunistically on Bamboo biodiversity young shoots of bamboo (Judziewicz et al. 1999). ‘Endangered’ mountain tapirs (Tapirus pinchaque) eat considerable amounts of grasses, bamboo, sedges and bromeliads in their high-altitude habitats (Downer 1996). The ‘Vulnerable’ lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), which feeds on grasses and aquatic plants in the Amazon, consumes substantial amounts of bamboo leaves and twigs in the Atlantic Forest (Rodrigues et al. 1993). At least four South American rodent species known as bamboo rats (Dactylomys dactylinus, D. peruanus and D. boliviensis in Amazonia and Kannabateomys amblyonyx in the Atlantic Forest) use bamboo patches as their principal habitat and also eat bamboo (Nowak 1995; Haemig 2003a,b). At least 4-5 per cent of all the bird species that occur in Amazonia are dependent on bamboo, and 34 bird species are reported to be confined to bamboo thickets in at least one of the regions of Amazonia (Haemig 2003a). In the Atlantic Forest, which extends along the coast of eastern Brazil into neighbouring parts of Argentina and southeastern Paraguay, at least 27 bird species were reported to be confined almost entirely to large stands of bamboo, or most abundant where bamboo is common, or to forage most extensively on bamboo (Haemig 2003b). In at least one case, that of the uniform finch (Haplospiza unicolor), the life cycle of a bird species is synchronized with that of mast-seeding bamboos (Chusquea spp.), so that this finch breeds in the austral autumn rather than the austral spring (Haemig 2003b). Of the Atlantic Forest bird species associated with bamboo, 11 are of conservation concern (Table 4). The water that accumulates in bamboo internodes provides important habitat for numerous invertebrates (Judziewicz et al. 1999) and some amphibians. Furthermore, evidence is emerging of complex ecological relationships between forest bamboos and ant species that inhabit their internodes and defend them from attack by herbivores (Davidson et al. 2003). Canebrakes, dense stands of Arundinaria gigantea, were once widespread throughout the southeastern portion of the United States, where they provided shelter and resources for rare species such as the ‘Critically Endangered’ Bachmann’s warbler (Vermivora bachmani) and the now ‘Extinct’ Carolina Parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis) (Judziewicz et al. 1999). Other species that rely on canebrakes include at least five species of butterfly, which require the cane as food during the caterpillar stage (Hendershott 2002). These important habitats have been much reduced by development, drainage and suppression of the fire regime that was important to their maintenance, with resulting adverse effects on the species that depend on them. Table 4. Threatened bird species of the Atlantic Forest associated with bamboo IUCN RED LIST STATUS (HILTON-TAYLOR 2000) SPECIES ‘Endangered’ Purple-winged ground-dove (Claravis godefrida) Fork-tailed tody-tyrant (Hemitriccus furcatus) Wied’s tyrant-manakin (Neopelma aurifrons) ‘Vulnerable’ Canebrake groundcreeper (Clibanornis dendrocolaptoides) White-bearded antshrike (Biatas nigropectus) Buffy-fronted seedeater (Sporophila frontalis) Temminck’s seedeater (Sporophila falcirostris) ‘Low Risk’/ ‘Near Threatened’ White-browed foliage-gleaner (Anabacerthia amaurotis) Rufous-tailed antbird (Drymophila genei) Spotted bamboowren (Psilorhamphus guttatus) Blackish-blue seedeater (Amaurospiza moesta) Source: After Haemig 2003b, IUCN http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/ search/species_search.html. Uses of bamboo The Americas have never had a ‘bamboo culture’ in the way that Japan and China may be said to have had. The exploitation of native bamboo in Latin America is limited to the local use of species found close by. It is only in Colombia, Ecuador and Brazil that bamboo plays a more conspicuous role in the local economy (Londoño 2001). Nonetheless, bamboo is of local importance throughout the region, and many species are used. The most useful species in Latin America are found in the genus Guadua, and there are several others in the native genera of Apoclada, Aulonemia, Chusquea, Elytrostachys, Otatea and Rhipidocladum. Bambusa, which has been introduced from Asia, is also extensively used. Cultivation of bamboos on a commercial scale is limited to only a few native (Guadua angustifolia, G. 17 Bamboo biodiversity German architect Jorg Stamm has successfully implemented several construction projects in Colombia. Among them is a bamboo bridge with a span of 52 m. amplexifolia) and introduced (Bambusa vulgaris, B. tuldoides, Phyllostachys aurea) species (Londoño 2001). Bamboo has a long history of use in construction in Central and South America, where it is a common part of the vernacular architecture. This is particularly widespread in southern Colombia and northern Ecuador, where bamboo (mostly Guadua angustifolia) has been extensively used in houses that have stood for 50-100 years on unstable sites such as steep slopes, earthquakeprone regions or swampy coastal areas that are frequently inundated (Gutierrez 2000). Contemporary architects are also increasingly using bamboo. Through new techniques, bamboo has been combined with modern materials like reinforced concrete or steel to create some extraordinary structures including luxury housing, bridges and observation towers. These architects have made a deliberate attempt to increase social acceptance of bamboo and promote its adoption as an inexpensive and environmentally friendly building material among both rich and poor (Gutierrez 2000). Prefabricated panels made of flattened Guadua culms are distributed in Ecuador as part of low-cost housing programmes (Judziewicz et al. 1999). Studies have been undertaken to explore the use of native South American bamboos for making paper, but the two Guadua species (G. angustifolia and G. amplexifolia) examined proved to have fibre lengths much inferior to Bambusa vulgaris. More than 100 000 ha of this introduced species are cultivated for paper production in Brazil, which is the only New World country to use bamboo for making paper (Judziewicz et al. 1999; Itapagé 2003). Throughout the Americas indigenous people use woody bamboos to make handicrafts and musical instruments. Baskets, fans, utensils, toys, furniture and 18 agricultural supports are all made from bamboos of different types. Musical instruments ranging from flutes to drums are also produced from bamboo. In particular, the pan pipes and quena flutes so characteristic of Andean music are made from cloud-forest bamboos, either Aulonemia queko or Rhipidocladum harmonicum (Judziewicz et al. 1999). Though to a much lesser extent than in Asia, bamboos are a source of food both for humans and for livestock in the Americas. Indigenous groups eat the fruits and seeds of several species, and some use of bamboo shoots as food has been reported (Judziewicz et al. 1999). The bamboo of North American canebrakes has long been recognized as an especially rich forage and was much prized for this purpose by both aboriginal and colonial pastoralists (Hendershott 2002). Annex III provides a summary based on published literature of the most used woody bamboos of the Americas and the purposes to which they are put in different parts of the region. Conservation and management In many parts of the New World, forest ecosystems were destroyed long ago or are currently under threat. The forests of the southeast United States were severely depleted during colonial times and reached their minimum extent around 1860. The rapid rate of forest loss in the Amazon has been well publicized in recent years. While vast tracts of forest still remain, the rate of deforestation has recently increased again (INPE 2002). The Atlantic Forest has been reduced to less than 8 per cent of its original area and is under continuing threat (Burman and Filgueiras 1993; Myers et al. 2000). These trends help to explain the high proportion of American bamboos that now have very limited areas of forest within their ranges. These results suggest that many woody bamboos in the Americas are potentially threatened if they depend on forest habitat for their survival, and that carefully planned and implemented conservation measures are needed to ensure the continued survival of many bamboo species. Bamboo-dominated ecosystems need to be carefully assessed and monitored to ensure that their status is thoroughly understood and that measures are taken to protect them where needed. For example, forested canebrake communities in the United States are now listed as ‘Critically Rare’ by the National Biological Survey and as ‘Globally Rare’ by the Nature Conservancy (Hendershott 2002), prompting increased efforts for their protection and restoration. In other cases, the ecology of native bamboos as invasives in disturbed landscapes needs further investigation as does their role in Bamboo biodiversity Potential generic richness: tribe Bambuseae Number of genera 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-9 Existing forest cover with no records of Bambuseae Figure 6. Distribution of potential generic richness of woody bamboos across the three study regions, derived by combining the distributions of 37 genera, and showing the strong concentration of generic diversity in eastern Brazil. Potential species richness: tribe Bambuseae Number of 1-3 4-10 11-25 26-35 species Existing forest cover with no records of Bambuseae Figure 7. Distribution of potential species richness of woody bamboos across the three study regions, derived by combining the distributions of 379 species, and showing a pattern similar but not identical to that of generic richness. 19 Bamboo biodiversity conservation and management targets of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (CBD 2002). The actions needed to progress towards such a sound information base include: 1. Refining and validating species distributions based on (a) comparisons with the rapidly increasing digital resources of herbarium specimen data, and (b) incorporating climatic and soil data to improve species distribution models. 2. Strengthening the Red List assessments of bamboo species status, prioritizing the assessment of those species with the smallest estimated geographical ranges and least remaining habitat. The bamboo forests in western Madagascar are home to the world’s rarest tortoise, the ‘Endangered’ angonoka or ploughshare tortoise (Geochelone niphora). maintaining the dynamics and diversity of natural forests in this region. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER WORK This study has shown that many woody bamboos in Africa, Madagascar and the Americas may be of conservation concern, despite the fact that they are not presently included in global Red Lists. It has highlighted the richness and distinctiveness of the bamboos of Madagascar and the even greater richness of the Americas at both generic and species levels (Figures 6 and 7). The study has also made it clear that significant further effort will be required to assemble an accurate overview of the magnitude and distribution of woody bamboo resources in these regions. Such information is needed to support wise policy-making and management decisions, and to facilitate progress towards the 20 3. Extending the global list of priority bamboo species (cf. Rao et al. 1998) to take account of the utility and/or economic importance of bamboos from Africa, Madagascar and the Americas. 4. Filling information gaps, including taxonomic inconsistencies and inadequate knowledge of the distribution of woody bamboo species, and clarifying the ecological roles of woody bamboos, through research-based, national capacity-building and international collaboration. 5. Developing appropriate methods for assessing bamboo resources and the pressures on them, and incorporating these methods into NTFP elements of national forest inventories. 6. Assessing the value of existing reserves and reserve networks for conserving the biological diversity of bamboos. Bamboo biodiversity References Antelope Taxon Advisory Group 2003. BONGO, Tragelaphus eurycerus. http://www.csew.com/antelopetag/ Professional%20Site/Prof%20Bio% 20Facts/Bongo/bongo.htm (accessed 22 October 2003). 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Walker’s Mammals of the World Online. The Johns Hopkins University Press. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/ walkers_mammals_of_the_world/ prep.html (accessed October 2003). Rao, A.N., Rao, V.R. and Williams, J.T. (eds) 1998. Priority Species of Bamboo and Rattan. IPGRI-APO, Serdang, Malaysia. Willis, J. 2003 Alcohol in East Africa, 1850-1999. http://www.dur.ac.uk/ History/web/makingit.htm (accessed 22 October 2003). Rodrigues, M., Olmos, F. and Galetti, M. 1993. Seed dispersal by tapir in southeastern Brazil. Mammalia 57: 460-461. WWF 2003a. Gorillas. http://www.worldwildlife.org/ gorillas/natural_history.cfm (accessed 22 October 2003). UNEP-WCMC 2000. Global Distribution of Current Forest Cover. http://www.unep-wcmc.org/ forest/global_map.htm UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK (accessed 22 October 2003). WWF 2003b. Madagascar Dry Deciduous Forests (AT0202). http://www.worldwildlife.org/ wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/at/ at0202_full.html (accessed 22 October 2003). 3 Ohrnberger, D. 1999. The Bamboos of the World. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands. VAST 2003. w Tropicos. http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/ Search/vast.html (accessed 22 October 2003). Ongugo, P.O., Sigu, G.O., Kariuki, J.G., Luvanda, A.M. and Kigomo, B.N. 2000. Production-toConsumption Systems: A Case Study of the Bamboo Sector in Kenya. INBAR Working Paper No. 27. International Network for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing, China. Williams, J.T. and Rao, V.R. (eds) 1994. Priority Species of Bamboo and Rattan. INBAR Technical Report No. 1. International Network for Bamboo and Rattan, and International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India. WWF 2003c. Southwest Amazon Moist Forests (NT0166). http://www.worldwildlife.org/ wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/ nt0166_full.html (accessed 22 October 2003). 23 Bamboo biodiversity Annex I: Subtribes and genera of woody bamboos occurring naturally in Africa, Madagascar and the Americas Subtribe Genus Arundinariinae Thamnocalaminae Arundinaria Thamnocalamus Yushania Bambusa Oreobambos Oxytenanthera Cephalostachyum Ochlandra Schizostachyum Decaryochloa Hickelia Hitchcockella Nastus Perrierbambus Criciuma Eremocaulon Guadua Olmeca Otatea Chusquea Neurolepis Actinocladum Alvimia Apoclada Arthrostylidium Athrostachys Atractantha Aulonemia Colanthelia Elytrostachys Glaziophyton Merostachys Myriocladus Rhipidocladum Bambusinae Melocanninae Hickelinae Guaduinae Chusqueinae Arthrostylidiinae No. of species as in Ohrnberger, 1999 1 2 6 1 1 1 5 2 3 1 4 1 12 2 1 1 37 2 2 138 22 1 3 3 22 1 5 33 7 3 1 34 13 19 Distribution North America South Africa and Madagascar Tropical Africa and Madagascar Madagascar Tropical Africa Tropical Africa Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar Tropical Africa and Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar South America South America Central and South America Central America Central America Central and South America Central and South America South America South America South America Central and South America South America South America Central and South America South America Central and South America South America Central and South America South America Central and South America Source: according to Ohrnberger (1999). Dransfield (2000, 2002) has distinguished a further three genera from Madagascar. 24 Bamboo biodiversity Annex II: Bamboo species on the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants Species name Chusquea aperta Chusquea bilimekii Chusquea fernandeziana Chusquea latifolia Chusquea longiligulata Chusquea pohlii Cryptochloa decumbens Cryptochloa dressleri Froesiochloa boutelouoides Guadua calderoniana Olmeca recta Olmeca reflexa Olyra filiformis Olyra latispicula Pariana parvispica Pariana strigosa Rhipidocladum clarkiae Rhipidocladum maxonii Rhipidocladum pacuarense Streptochaeta angustifolia Thamnocalamus tessellatus Status Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Endangered Vulnerable Endangered Vulnerable Vulnerable Endangered Endangered Indeterminate Indeterminate Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Endangered Extinct* Rare Distribution Mexico Mexico Juan Fernandez Colombia Costa Rica Costa Rica Panama Panama French Guiana Brazil Mexico Mexico Brazil Brazil Costa Rica Panama Costa Rica Costa Rica Costa Rica Brazil South Africa Type Woody Woody Woody Woody Woody Woody Herbaceous Herbaceous Herbaceous Woody Woody Woody Herbaceous Herbaceous Herbaceous Herbaceous Woody Woody Woody Herbaceous Woody * Taxa that are known no longer to exist in the wild after repeated searches of the type localities and other known or likely places. Source: Gillet and Walter 1998. 25 Bamboo biodiversity Annex III: Useful native species of bamboo in Africa, Madagascar and the Americas Table A. Useful native species of bamboo in Africa and Madagascar SPECIES NAME Bambusa vulgaris Cathariostachys madagascariensis Hickelia madagascariensis Oreobambos buchwaldii Oxytenanthera abyssinica Valiha diffusa Yushania alpina 26 USES Multiple uses Water containers Baskets Construction (80%), weaving (20%) Wine (85%), construction (15%) Construction, musical instruments Weaving (70%), construction (20%), furniture (5%), household items (5%) DISTRIBUTION Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar Africa, East Africa Madagascar Africa, East Bamboo biodiversity Table B. Useful species of bamboo in the Americas SPECIES NAME Actinocladum verticillatum Apoclada simplex Arthrostylidium venezuelae Arundinaria gigantea Aulonemia longiaristata Aulonemia patula Aulonemia queko Chusquea culeou Chusquea longifolia Chusquea nelsonii Chusquea pittieri Chusquea scandens Elytrostachys clavigera Elytrostachys typica Guadua amplexifolia Guadua angustifolia Guadua chacoensis Guadua glomerata Guadua latifolia Guadua longifolia Guadua macrostachya Guadua paniculata Guadua sarcocarpa Guadua superba Guadua tagoara Guadua trinii Guadua velutina Guadua weberbaueri Merostachys spp. Neurolepis aperta Otatea acuminata Otatea fimbriata Rhipidocladum geminatum Rhipidocladum harmonicum Rhipidocladum racemiflorum USES Forage for cattle, skewers for barbecues, arrows by Indians Construction, forage Basketry, crafts Fishing rods, basketry, mats, scaffolding, fodder Basketry Construction, crafts Ceiling rafters, musical instruments, crafts Horticulture n/a n/a Christmas decorations Crafts Weaving Ceiling rafters Construction Construction Construction Crafts Crafts Various purposes Construction Ceiling rafters Construction Construction Ceiling rafters Construction Construction Ceiling rafters Handicrafts, basketwork, small-scale construction Roof-thatching Crafts n/a Crafts Musical instruments Crafts DISTRIBUTION Brazil Brazil Brazil, Costa Rica, Venezuela United States Colombia, Ecuador Colombia, Ecuador Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador Argentina, Chile Guatemala Guatemala Costa Rica Colombia, Ecuador Costa Rica Colombia Colombia, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Venezuela Central and South America Argentina, Paraguay French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname Mexico Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname Bolivia, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay Peru Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru Brazil Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay Mexico French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname Brazil Colombia Mexico Honduras Colombia, Ecuador Bolivia Colombia, Ecuador n/a: no information available Source for both tables: Burman and Filgueiras 1993; Chihongo et al. 2000; Dransfield 2000; Judziewicz et al. 1999; Londoño 2001; Ohrnberger 1999; Rao et al. 1998. 27 Bamboo biodiversity Annex IV: Woody bamboo species of Africa, Madagascar and the Americas with <20 000 km2 of forest remaining within their ranges 2 0-500 KM FOREST REMAINING WITHIN RANGE Arthrostylidium angustifolium Arthrostylidium banaoense Arthrostylidium longiflorum Arthrostylidium obtusatum Arthrostylidium reflexum Aulonemia chimantaensis Aulonemia hirtula Aulonemia humillima Aulonemia laxa Aulonemia patriae Aulonemia purpurata Aulonemia steyermarkii Chusquea amistadensis Chusquea caparaoensis Chusquea deflexa Chusquea effusa Chusquea fernandeziana Chusquea inamoena Chusquea linearis Chusquea longiligulata Chusquea loxensis Chusquea perligulata Chusquea riosaltensis Chusquea spathacea Chusquea straminea Chusquea subtessellata Chusquea subtilis Chusquea tomentosa Chusquea tonduzii Chusquea virgata Chusquea vulcanalis Guadua glaziovii Hickelia perrieri Merostachys polyantha Myriocladus distantiflorus Myriocladus involutus Myriocladus neblinaensis Myriocladus paludicolus Myriocladus purpureus Myriocladus steyermarkii Myriocladus variabilis Myriocladus wurdackii Nastus tsaratananensis Neurolepis asymmetrica Neurolepis diversiglumis Neurolepis laegaardii Neurolepis stuebelii Neurolepis tessellata Neurolepis villosa Rhipidocladum clarkiae Rhipidocladum longispiculatum Rhipidocladum panamense Schizostachyum perrieri Yushania humbertii Yushania madagascariensis Yushania marojejyensis 2 501-1 000 KM FOREST REMAINING WITHIN RANGE Arthrostylidium judziewiczii Aulonemia pumila Aulonemia viscosa Chusquea deficiens Chusquea maclurei Chusquea talamancensis Nastus ambrensis Neurolepis nana Neurolepis pittieri Rhipidocladum maxonii 2 1 001-5 000 KM FOREST REMAINING WITHIN RANGE Alvimia auriculata Alvimia gracilis Alvimia lancifolia Arthrostylidium distichum Arthrostylidium ekmanii 28 Arthrostylidium fimbriatum Arthrostylidium merostachyoides Arthrostylidium pinifolium Atractantha falcata Atractantha radiata Bamboo biodiversity Aulonemia amplissima Aulonemia clarkiae Aulonemia herzogiana Aulonemia jauaensis Aulonemia longiaristata Aulonemia robusta Aulonemia subpectinata Aulonemia ulei Cephalostachyum peclardii Chusquea albilanata Chusquea angustifolia Chusquea barbata Chusquea bilimekii Chusquea delicatula Chusquea depauperata Chusquea erecta Chusquea foliosa Chusquea huantensis Chusquea ibiramae Chusquea leonardiorum Chusquea ligulata Chusquea neurophylla Chusquea nudiramea Chusquea palenae Chusquea pohlii Chusquea polyclados Chusquea pulchella Chusquea scabra Chusquea smithii Chusquea tarmensis Chusquea tuberculosa Chusquea wilkesii Criciuma asymmetrica Colanthelia rhizantha Decaryochloa diadelpha Elytrostachys typica Guadua calderoniana Hickelia africana Merostachys argyronema Merostachys filgueirasii Merostachys glauca Merostachys kleinii Merostachys latifolia Merostachys pauciflora Merostachys pilifera Myriocladus affinis Myriocladus churunensis Myriocladus confertus Myriocladus exsertus Myriocladus gracilis Myriocladus longiramosus Myriocladus maguirei Myriocladus simplex Nastus decaryanus Nastus humbertianus Nastus lokohoensis Nastus manongarivensis Nastus perrieri Neurolepis acuminatissima Neurolepis angusta Neurolepis aristata Neurolepis fimbriligulata Neurolepis glomerata Neurolepis mollis Neurolepis petiolata Neurolepis rigida Neurolepis virgata Neurolepis weberbaueri Ochlandra perrieri Rhipidocladum martinezii Rhipidocladum pacuarense Rhipidocladum prestoei Yushania ambositrensis Yushania perrieri 2 5 001 - 10 000 KM FOREST REMAINING WITHIN RANGE Arthrostylidium cubense Arthrostylidium excelsum Arthrostylidium urbanii Arthrostylidium youngianum Aulonemia gueko Aulonemia radiata Aulonemia ramosissima Aulonemia setigera Cephalostachyum perrieri Chusquea abietifolia Chusquea andina Chusquea breviglumis Chusquea falcata Chusquea glauca Chusquea latifolia Chusquea lehmannii subsp. Lehmannii Chusquea longipendula Chusquea lorentziana Chusquea nutans Chusquea patens Chusquea sclerophylla Chusquea sneidernii Chusquea spadicea Chusquea urelytra 29 Bamboo biodiversity Chusquea wettsteinii Guadua longifimbriata Guadua ribbentropii Hickelia alaotrensis Merostachys retrorsa Myriocladus paruensis Nastus emirnensis Nastus madagascariensis Perrierbambus madagascariensis Rhipidocladum geminatum 2 10 001 - 15 000 KM FOREST REMAINING WITHIN RANGE Apoclada cannavieira Arthrostylidium haitiense Arthrostylidium schomburgkii Aulonemia effusa Chusquea exasperata Chusquea grandiflora Chusquea lehmannii subsp. farinosa Chusquea leptophylla Chusquea longifolia Chusquea muelleri Chusquea peruviana Chusquea purdieana Chusquea subulata Chusquea tenuiflora Merostachys magellanica Myriocladus cardonae Nastus elongatus Olmeca recta Schizostachyum parvifolium 2 15 001 - 20 000 KM FOREST REMAINING WITHIN RANGE Arthrostylidium ecuadorense Aulonemia haenkei Aulonemia parviflora Cephalostachyum madagascariense Cephalostachyum viguieri Chusquea anelytroides Chusquea aspera Chusquea cumingii Chusquea londoniae Chusquea nelsonii 30 Chusquea repens Colanthelia macrostachya Merostachys abadiana Merostachys burchellii Merostachys caucaiana Merostachys fischeriana Merostachys kunthii Merostachys scandens Ochlandra capitata Bamboo biodiversity Annex V: Maps of potential distributions of woody bamboos in Africa, Madagascar and the Americas Nine maps (highlighted purple) show potential distributions within remaining forest and species richness of selected genera. The remaining maps are of species that are useful (highlighted green), on current global Red Lists (brown), representative of 2 monotypic genera, or have <20,000 km of forest remaining within their ranges. Where more than one of these categories applies it is indicated in the comments column of the list. Map no. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Genera/Species Oreobambos buchwaldii Oxytenanthera abyssinica Thamnocalamus tessellatus Yushania alpina Region Africa Africa Africa Africa Comments Useful Useful IUCN Red List Useful 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Nastus Bambusa vulgaris Cephalostachyum viguieri Decaryochloa diadelpha Hickelia madagascariensis Hitchcockella baronii Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar Genus Useful 2 Less than 20 000 km of remaining habitat 2 Monotypic genus, less than 20 000 km of remaining habitat Useful Monotypic genus 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 Arthrostylidium Aulonemia Chusquea Guadua Merostachys Myriocladus Neurolepis Rhipidocladum Actinocladum verticillatum Apoclada simplex Arthrostylidium venezuelae Arundinaria gigantea Athroostachys capitata Aulonemia longiaristata Aulonemia patula Chusquea aperta Chusquea culeou Chusquea latifolia Chusquea longifolia Chusquea longiligulata Chusquea nelsonii Chusquea pittieri Chusquea pohlii Chusquea scandens Criciuma asymmetrica Elytrostachys clavigera America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Useful Useful Useful Useful Monotypic genus 2 Useful, less than 20 000 km of remaining habitat Useful IUCN Red List Useful IUCN Red List 2 Useful, less than 20 000 km of remaining habitat IUCN Red List 2 Useful, less than 20 000 km of remaining habitat Useful IUCN Red List Useful 2 Monotypic genus, less than 20 000 km of remaining habitat Useful 31 Bamboo biodiversity 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 3.34 3.35 3.36 3.37 3.38 3.39 3.40 3.41 3.42 3.43 3.44 3.45 3.46 32 Eremocaulon aureofimbriatum Guadua amplexifolia Guadua angustifolia Guadua glomerata Guadua latifolia Guadua longifolia Guadua macrostachya Guadua paniculata Guadua tagoara Guadua trinii Guadua velutina Neurolepis aperta Olmeca recta Olmeca reflexa Otatea acuminata Otatea fimbriata Rhipidocladum clarkiae Rhipidocladum harmonicum Rhipidocladum maxonii Rhipidocladum pacuarense America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America America Monotypic genus Useful Useful Useful Useful Useful Useful Useful Useful Useful Useful Useful IUCN Red List IUCN Red List Useful Useful IUCN Red List Useful IUCN Red List IUCN Red List Bamboo biodiversity 33 Bamboo biodiversity ^ 34 Bamboo biodiversity 35 Bamboo biodiversity 36 Bamboo biodiversity 37 Bamboo biodiversity 38 Bamboo biodiversity 39 Bamboo biodiversity 40 Bamboo biodiversity 41 Bamboo biodiversity 42 Bamboo biodiversity 43 Bamboo biodiversity 44 Bamboo biodiversity 45 Bamboo biodiversity 46 Bamboo biodiversity 47 Bamboo biodiversity 48 Bamboo biodiversity 49 Bamboo biodiversity 50 Bamboo biodiversity 51 Bamboo biodiversity 52 Bamboo biodiversity 53 Bamboo biodiversity 54 Bamboo biodiversity 55 Bamboo biodiversity 56 Bamboo biodiversity 57 Bamboo biodiversity 58 Bamboo biodiversity 59 Bamboo biodiversity 60 Bamboo biodiversity 61 Bamboo biodiversity 62 Bamboo biodiversity 63 Bamboo biodiversity 64 Bamboo biodiversity 65 Bamboo biodiversity 66 Bamboo biodiversity 67 Bamboo biodiversity 68 Bamboo biodiversity 69 Bamboo biodiversity 70 Bamboo biodiversity 71 Bamboo biodiversity 72 Bamboo biodiversity 73 Bamboo biodiversity 74 Bamboo biodiversity 75 Bamboo biodiversity 76 Bamboo biodiversity 77 Bamboo biodiversity 78 Bamboo biodiversity 79 Bamboo biodiversity 80 Bamboo biodiversity 81 Bamboo biodiversity 82 Bamboo biodiversity 83 Bamboo biodiversity 84 Bamboo biodiversity 85 Bamboo biodiversity 86 Bamboo biodiversity 87 Bamboo biodiversity 88 Bamboo biodiversity Africa, Madagascar and the Americas Bamboos are distinct and fascinating plants, with a wide range of values and uses. They play a significant role in biodiversity conservation, are important to ecosystem dynamics, and contribute to soil and water management. They play an increasing role in local and world economies. This study used an innovative approach to map potential current distributions of nearly 400 individual bamboo species that occur naturally within the remaining forests of Africa, Madagascar and the Americas. The maps were also combined to generate regional maps showing potential species and generic richness. By quantifying the area of forest cover remaining within each species’ range, this analysis shows that over half the species studied are potentially threatened by the destruction of natural forest cover. The situation is particularly alarming in Madagascar, where the woody bamboos are all endemic and 75 per cent of them have only very small amounts of forest remaining within their ranges. Conservation and sustainable management of wild populations of bamboo should be a priority in all three regions, especially where diversity is high or deforestation is a significant threat. This report contributes to implementation of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, which aims to halt the current and continuing loss of plant diversity. Front cover/title page: Bill Love/Blue Chameleon Ventures Above: INBAR www.unep.org International Network for Bamboo and Rattan Beijing 100102-86 People’s Republic of China Tel: +86 (0) 10 6470 6161 Fax: +86 (0) 10 6470 2166 Email: info@inbar.int Website: www.inbar.int UNEP-WCMC Biodiversity Series No. 19 ISBN: 92-807-2383-9 W2106 UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DL, United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0) 1223 277314 Fax: +44 (0) 1223 277136 Email: info@unep-wcmc.org Website: www.unep-wcmc.org April 2004 United Nations Environment Programme P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +254 (0) 20 621234 Fax: +254 (0) 20 623927 Email: cpiinfo@unep.org Website: www.unep.org