See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267452704 Mangrove fungi of the Indian Peninsula Chapter · January 2009 DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4184.7445 CITATIONS READS 2 81 1 author: K. R. Sridhar Mangalore university 343 PUBLICATIONS 3,490 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Myriapodology View project Diversity of micro- and macrofungi View project All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately. Available from: K. R. Sridhar Retrieved on: 22 November 2016 Frontiers in Fungal Ecology, Diversity and Metabolites (edited by K.R. Sridhar), I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2009. 3 Mangrove Fungi of the Indian Peninsula K.R. Sridhar Microbiology and Biotechnology, Department of Biosciences, Mangalore University, Mangalagangotri, Mangalore 574 199, Karnataka, India (E-mail: sirikr@yahoo.com) Introduction The ‘obligate marine fungi’ has been defined as the fungi that grow and sporulate in marine or estuarine habitat, while ‘facultative marine fungi’ are derived from the freshwater or terrestrial substrates but grow and possibly sporulate in marine habitat (Kohlmeyer, 1974). The first facultative (Phaeosphaeria typharum) and obligate (Halotthia posidoniae) marine fungi have been described in 1849 and 1869 (see Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer, 1979). Development of marine mycology was initiated by Barghoorn and Linder (1944), who described 25 species from submerged wood in New England and California. By 1970, about 100 new species were described from Germany, United States, and Great Britain (Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer, 1979). In 1961, the first monograph on marine mycology ‘A Treatise on Fungi in Oceans and Estuaries’ was published by Johnson and Sparrow. Subsequently, Hughes (1975) summarized the contributions on marine mycology since 1961. Taxonomic and ecological monograph by Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer (1979) lists 209 filamentous fungi, which was increased up to 321 in the first decade (Kohlmeyer and Volkmann-Kohlmeyer, 1991) and up to 444 species in subsequent decade (Hyde and Pointing 2000). The latest review of literature by Schmit and Shearer (2003) reveals the occurrence of 625 fungal species (meiosporic and mitosporic) from different mangrove habitats. About 200 species have been considered as obligate marine fungi and 131 species are belonged to sediments or mangrove peat is not totally restricted to marine environments. The present chapter provides current status of mangrove mycology of the Indian Subcontinent with emphasis on major gaps in our knowledge on filamentous mangrove fungi. A checklist of higher mangrove fungi of the Indian Subcontinent has been furnished. Mangrove Fungi of the Indian Peninsula 29 Mangroves Mangroves are wetland forests established at the intertidal zones (estuaries, backwaters, deltas, creeks, lagoons, marshes and mudflats) of tropical and subtropical latitudes. Approximately 25% of the world’s coastline is dominated by mangroves distributed in 112 countries and territories encompassing an area of about 181,000 km2 (Spalding et al., 1997). Up to 41.5, 26.5 and 22.6% mangroves are found in South-East Asia, America (including Caribbean) and Africa respectively. Among marine ecosystems, in terms of productivity and sustained tertiary yield, mangroves constitute the second most important ecosystem after coral reefs (Qasim and Wafar, 1990). Mangrove flora have been classified into three major categories (Field, 1995; Tomlinson, 1986): (i) True mangroves (about 80 tree and shrub species, which are restricted to intertidal areas between high water levels of neap of spring tides); (ii) Minor species (inconspicuous elements of vegetation and rarely form pure communities); (iii) Mangrove associates (salt-tolerant plant species not found exclusively in the vicinity of mangrove and occur only in transitional vegetation landwards and seawards). More than 100 mangrove tree species have been listed by Chapman (1976). Out of 80 species of true mangrove trees and shrubs, 50-60 species make significant contribution to the structure of mangrove forests (Field, 1995; Tomlinson, 1986). Highest mangrove plant species diversity is seen in South-East Asian region (two-thirds of all species) (Field, 1995). Mangrove vegetation has adapted to harsh conditions (high salinity, tidal extremes, high wind velocity, high temperature and anaerobic clayey soils) and possesses pneumatophores, prop roots and viviparous seedlings (Chapman, 1976). Mangrove forests are great traditional, ecological, economic and social significance (Bandaranayake, 1995, 1998; Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). Mangroves are detritus-based, thus considerable amount of detritus such as leaf litter, twigs, bark, wood, inflorescence and other detritus accumulate on the forest floor (Wafar et al., 1997). The productivity of mangrove waters depends on the extent of mangrove canopy and supply C, N and P (Wafar et al., 1997). In Peninsular India, mangrove forests spread over 7000 km2 consisting of 70, 18 and 12% at the east coast, Andaman Nicobar Islands and West Coast respectively (Krishnamurthy et al., 1987; Natarajan, 1998). The total area of the Indian mangroves is estimated to be about 7% of the world mangroves (Untawale, 1987). Mangrove Fungi Mangroves constitute ‘hotspots’ of fungal diversity. Mangrove fungi are decomposers of dead organic materials and act as intermediaries of nutrient flow from organic matter to the higher trophic levels. They are second largest group next to fungi on marine intertidal woody litter among the marine fungi (Hyde, 1990). Cribb and Cribb (1955) reported mangrove fungi in Australia for the first time followed by Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer (1979). Detritus and live 30 Frontiers in Fungal Ecology, Diversity and Metabolites parts of mangrove vegetation (tree species, mangrove associates, ferns and palms) have been surveyed for the occurrence of higher fungi. Considerable fungal population is involved in detritus processing due to their enzyme equipment and hence special attention is necessary to assess them. Several factors contribute to the diversity of fungi in mangroves (e.g., substrate diversity, salinity, intermittent inundation) and daily changes in water level due to tides (provide further niche differentiation). Substrates beyond the high tide level will be exposed to air and direct sunlight and occasionally exposed to brackish water. The substrates deposited below the high tide zone are less exposed to air and sunlight and occasionally or always be inundated. Studies on fungal communities along the tidal gradients have shown differences in species composition and abundance (Hyde, 1988, 1990). There is a considerable difference in the sexual state of fungi found on different mangrove substrates. Woody materials are commonly colonized by meiosporic ascomycetes and basidiomycetes (Kohlmeyer and VolkmannKohlmeyer, 1991), while leaves and fine roots in sediments by mitosporic fungi (Schmit and Shearer, 2003) and oomycetes (Halophytophthora) are frequent on freshly fallen leaves (Newell, 1996). Ascomycetes show specific adaptation to the marine ecosystem in the production of appendages and these appendages help in buoyancy of spores, entrapment and adherence to the surfaces (see Fig. 1). Extensive surveys have been carried out at the Caribbean and Pacific Islands (Kohlmeyer 1984; Volkmann-Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer, 1993) and in SouthEast Asia (Sarma and Hyde, 2001). Maximum mangrove-associated fungi have been reported from South-East Asia than other parts of the world (Schmit and Shearer, 2003). It is not clear yet this is due to uneven sampling or high diversity of mangrove plant species of South-East Asia. So far, 72 plant species have been reported as hosts for mangrove fungi (Schmit and Shearer, 2003). The monographs written by Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer (1979), Kohlmeyer (1984), Kohlmeyer and Volkmann-Kohlmeyer (1991), Hyde and Sarma (2000) and Sharma and Vittal (2004) are the major source to identify higher marine fungi. A pictorial identification key for marine fungi has been developed by National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, India, is highly useful source (http://www.indianocean.org/bioinformatics/fungi/Micro-cd/main.htm) (Sarma et al., 2000) Diversity and Distribution The global distribution of mangrove fungi has been dealt recently by Shearer et al. (2007). This report reveals the geographic distribution and number of known species of mangrove-associated meiosporic ascomycetes/mitosporic ascomycetes and basidiomycetes/other fungi (Shearer et al., 2007). Mangrove fungi are known from the North Temperate (55/51/11), Tropics (79/60/13), Asian Temperate (25/ 17/8), Tropical Africa (21/14/3), Madagascar (0/1/1), Temperate Africa (29/11/ 1), Middle East (20/9/0), Tropical Asia (225/190/33), Australasia (67/11/11) and Pacific Islands (47/56/18). Among different geographic locations, Tropical Asia clearly showed the highest number of fungi. Although studies on mangrove Mangrove Fungi of the Indian Peninsula 31 Fig. 1. Asocospores of representative mangrove fungi of the mangroves of Karnataka (west coast of India): A, Aigialus mangrovei; B, Aniptodera mangrovei; C, Ascosalsum cincinnatulum; D, Corollospora pulchella; E, Dactylospora haliotrepha; F, Littispora ratnagiriensis; G, Passeriniella mangrovei; H, Savoryella lignicola; I, Verruculina enalia fungi have been initiated in India during early 1970s, intense investigations have been performed from 1980 onwards. Considerable floristic studies have been conducted from the mangroves of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh (see Table 1 and 2 for references), mangroves of rest of the coasts (Gujarat, Kerala, Orissa and West Bengal) are less explored and some are virtually unexplored for mangrove fungi. Studies on the mangroves 32 Frontiers in Fungal Ecology, Diversity and Metabolites Table 1. Check-list of higher mangrove fungi of the Indian Peninsula up to 2006 (core-group fungi: frequency of occurrence, >10% given in bold face) Fungus Location Ascomycetes Acrocordiopsis patilii Borse et Hyde Aigialus grandis Kohlm. et Schatz Aigialus mangrovei Borse Aigialus parvus Schatz et Kohlm. Aigialus rhizophorae Borse Aniptodera chesapeakensis Shearer et Miller Aniptodera haispora Vrijmoed, Hyde et Jones Aniptodera indica Ananda et Sridhar Aniptodera mangrovei Hyde Antennospora quadricornuta (Cribb et Cribb) Johnson Antennospora salina (Meyers) Yusoff, Jones et Moss Anthostomella leptospora (Lev. et Sacc.) Francis Arenariomyces parvulus Koch Arenariomyces trifurcates Hö hnk Ascochyta salicorniae Magnus Ascocratera manglicola Kohlm. Ascosalsum cincinnatulum (Shearer et Crane) Campb., Anderson et Shearer Asterosphaeriella mangrovis (Kohlm. et Vittal) Aptroot et Hyde Bathyascus avicenniae Kohlm. Bathyascus grandisporus Hyde and Jones Bathyascus mangrovei Ravikumar et Vittal Belizeana tuberculata Kohlm. et Volkm.-Kohlm. Biatriospora marina Hyde et Borse Biflua physasca Koch et Jones Caryosporella rhizophorae Kohlm. Ceriosporopsis cambrensis Wilson Ceriosporopsis halima Linder Ceriosporopsis sundica Koch et Jones Chaetomastia typhicola (Karst.) Barr Corollospora angusta Nakagiri et Tokura Corollospora cinnamomea Koch Corollospora intermedia Schmidt Corollospora maritima Werdermann Corollospora pulchella Kohlm., Schmidt et Nair Coronopapilla mangrovei (Hyde) Kohlm. et Volkm.-Kohlm. Cryptosphaeria mangrovei Hyde Dactylospora heliotrepha (Kohlm. et Kohlm.) Hafellner Dictyosporium pelagicum (Linder) Hughes Didymella avicenniae Patil et Borse Didymosphaeria lignomaris Strongman et Miller Etheirophora blepharospora (Kohlm. et Kohlm.) Kohlm. et Volkm.-Kohlm. Etheirophora unijubata Kohlm et Volkm.-Kohlm. Eutypa bathurstensis Hyde et Rappaz Halographis runica Kohlm. et Volkm.-Kohlm. Halorosellinia oceanica Whalley, Jones, Hyde et Laessøe Halosarpheia fibrosa Kohlm. et Kohlm. Halosarpheia hamata (Höhnk) Kohlm. Halosarpheia marina (Cribb et Cribb) Kohlm. Halosarpheia minuta Leong Halosphaeria cucullata (Kohlm.) Kohlm. Heleococcum japonense Tubaki Helicascus kanaloanus Kohlm. Heliscus konaloanus Kohlm. Julella avicenniae (Borse) Hyde Kallichroma tethys (Kohlm. et Kohlm.) Kohlm. et Volkm.-Kohlm. Kirschsteiniothelia maritima (Linder) Hawksw. Lautispora danica (Berl.) Schatz Lautospora gigantea Hyde et Jones 2,9 1,2,6,7,9 2,4,6,7,9 1,2,6,7,9 2 2,3,4,5,7,9 7 2,3,4,5 2,3,4,5,7,8,9 1,2,4,6,9 1,9 7 4,8 4 2 2,4,6,7,9 2,4,5 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,9 6,7,9 9 6 6,9 2,6,9 4 4,8,9 2 2 4 7 4 4 4,6 14,5,8 2,3,4,5,7 4,9 7 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 2 2,4,6 4 9 4 1,3.4,5,7 4 1,2,3,4,5,7,9 2,4,5 6 2,5,6,7 7,9 6 6,7 2 9 1,2,7,9 1,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 7 4 5,7 Mangrove Fungi of the Indian Peninsula 33 Lecanidion atratum (Hedw. Ex Fr.) Endl. Leptosphaeria australiensis (Cribb et Cribb) Hughes Leptosphaeria marina Ellis et Everhart Leptosphaeria obiones (Crouan et Crouan) Saccardo Leptosphaeria oraemaris Linder Leptosphaeria peruviana Speg. Leptosphaeria salvinii Catt. Lignincola laevis Höhnk Lignincola tropica Kohlm. Lindra marinera Meyers Lineolata rhizophorae (Kohlm. et Kohlm.) Kohlm. et Volkm.-Kohlm. Littispora abonnis (Kohlm.) Campb., Anderson et Shearer Littispora ratnagiriensis Patil et Borse Lulworthia grandispora Meyers Lulworthia kniepii Kohlm. Lulworthia lindroidea Kohlm. Lulworthia medusa (Ellis et Everh.) Cribb et Cribb Marinosphaera mangrovei Hyde Massarina armatispora Hyde, Vrijmoed, Chinnaraj et Jones Massarina thalassiae Kohlm. et Volkm.- Kohlm. Massarina velatospora Hyde et Borse Mycosphaerella apophlaeae Kohlm. Mycosphaerella pneumatophorae Kohlm. Mycosphaerella salicorniae (Auerswald) Petrak Mycosporella staticicola (Patouillard) Dias Nais glitra Crane et Shearer Natantispora retorquens (Shearer et Crane) Campb., Anderson et Shearer Neptunella longirostrias (Cribb et Cribb) Pang et Jones Ophiodeira monosemeia Kohlm. et Volkm.-Kohlm. Panorbis viscosus (Schmidt) Campb., Anderson et Shearer Passeriniella mangrovei Maria et Sridhar Passeriniella obiones (Crouan et Crouan) Hyde et Mouzouras Passeriniella savoryellopsis Hyde et Mouzouras Payosphaeria minuta Leong Pedumispora rhizophorae Hyde et Jones Quintaria lignatilis (Kohlm.) Kohlm. et Volkm.-Kohlm. Rhizophila marina Hyde et Jones Saccardoella marinospora Hyde Saccardoella rhizophorae Hyde Salsuginosa ramicola Hyde Savoryella lignicola Jones et Eaton Savoryella longispora Jones et Hyde Savoryella paucispora (Cribb et Cribb) Koch Splanchnonema britzelmayriana (Rehm.) Boise Swampomyces armeniacus Kohlm. et Volkm.-Kohlm. Tirispora mandoviana Sarma et Hyde Torpedospora radiata Meyers Trematosphaeria lignatilis Kohlm. Trematosphaeria striatispora Hyde Tubeufia setosa Sivanesan et Hsieh Verruculina enalia (Kohlm.) Kohlm. et Volkm.-Kohlm. Zopfiella latipes (Lundqvist) Malloch et Cain Zopfiella marina Furuya et Udagowa Basidiomycete Halocyphina villosa Kohlm. et Kohlm. Anamorhic fungi Alternaria chartarum Preuss Anguillospora marina Nakagiri et Tubaki Arthrobotrys oligospora Fresen. Ascochyta salicorniae Magnus Bactrodesmium linderi (Crane et Shearer) Palm. et Stewart Brachysporella gayana Batista Camarosporium palliatum Kohlm. et Kohlm. 7 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 2 2 4,6 4,6,7 4 2,3,4,5,7,9 4,5,7 4,8 1,4,6,7,9 2,5,7,9 2,4,5,7,9 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 4,5 4 2 7,9 3,4,9 2,6,7,9 1,2,3,4,6,7,9 4 6,7 4 4 6,7,9 2,4,5 2,3,4,5,6,7 7 4,7 4,5 7 9 9 7 1,6,7,9 3,4,5,7,9 7 7 9 2,3,4,5,7,8,9 4,5 2,3,4,5,9 7 6,9 3,4 1,2,3,4,8 2,6 9 7 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 1,2,4,7 7 1,2,4,5,6,7,9 4 4 4 1 2, 4,5,7 4 2 34 Frontiers in Fungal Ecology, Diversity and Metabolites Camarosporium roumeguerii Sacc. Cirrenalia basiminuta Raghukumar et Zainal Cirrenalia fusca Schmidt Cirrenalia macrocephala (Kohlm.) Meyers et Moore Cirrenalia pseudomacrocephala Kohlm. Cirrenalia pygmea Kohlm. Cirrenalia tropicalis Kohlm. Cladosporium oxysporum Berk. et Curt. Clavatospora bulbosa (Anast.) Nakagiri et Tubaki Corynespora cassicola (Berk. et Curt.) Wei Cumulospora marina Schmidt Curvularia geniculata (Tracy et Earle) Boedijn Custingophora olivacia Stock, Hennebert et Klopotek Cytospora rhizophorae Kohlm. et Kohlm. Delortia palmicola Pat. Dictyopolyschema pirozynskii Ellis Dictyosporium zeylanicum Petch Dicyma pulvinata (Berk. et curt.) von Arx Diplocladiella scalaroides Arnaud ex Ellis Ellisembia vagum (Nees et Nees) Subram. Emericellopsos terricola van Beyma Endophragmia alternata Tubaki et Saito Epicoccum nigrum Link Epicoccum purpurascens Ehrenb. et Schlecht. Fusarium oxysporum Schl. et Fries Helicoma muelleri Corda Helicoma roseus Link Menispora ciliata (Johnson) Jones Monodictys pelagica (Johnson) Jones Monodictys putredinis (Wallr.) Hughes Myxotrichum chartarum Kunze Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. et Br.) Petch Periconia prolifica Anastasiou Phaeoisaria clematides (Fuckel) Hughes Phomopsis mangrovei Hyde Stachybotrys oenanthes Ellis Strachylidium bicolor Link Taeniolella stricta (Corda) Hughes Tetraploa aristata Berk. et Br. Trichocladium achrasporum (Meyers et Moore) Dixon Trichocladium alopallonellum (Meyers et Moore) Kohlm. et Kolkm.- Kohlm. Trichocladium melhae Jones, Abdel-Wahab et Vrijmoid Zalerion maritimum (Linder) Anastasiou Zalerion varium Anastasiou Zygosporium gibbum (Sacc., Rouss. et Bomm.) Hughes Zygosporium masonii Hughes 1,2,7 3,4,6,7 4 2,4,6,7 4,8,9 1,2,4,6,7,9 4,5,6,7,9 4 2,3,4,8,9 7 4 4 4 1,4,7,9 4 4 7 4 4 7 4 4 4 7 4 4 4 4 3,4,6,8,9 4 4 4 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 4,5 1,7,9 4 4 4 4,5 1,2,4,5,6,7,9 1,2,4,6,7,8,9 4 1,2,3,4,5,8 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 7 4 Location: 1. Gujarat: Borse et al., 2000; Patil and Borse, 2001 2. Maharashtra: Borse, 1984, 1987a-e, 1988; Borse and Hyde, 1989; Borse and Shrivastava, 1988, 1994; Borse et al., 1988; Hyde and Borse, 1986a, b; Kohlmeyer and Vittal, 1986; Maria and Sridhar 2002b; Patil and Borse, 1983, 1985a, b; Shrivastava, 1989, 1994. 3. Goa: Hyde et al., 1992; Chinnaraj and Untawale, 1992; Maria and Sridhar, 2002b; Raghukumar et al., 1988; Sarma and Hyde, 2000. 4. Karnataka: Ananda and Sridhar, 2001a, 2001b, 2003, 2004; Ananda et al., 2007; Chinnaraj and Untawale, 1992; Hyde et al., 1992; Maria and Sridhar, 2002a, b; 2003a; Sridhar and Kaveriappa, 1988; Sridhar and Maria, 2006. 5. Kerala: Maria and Sridhar, 2002b 6. Tamil Nadu: Raghukumar, 1973; Ravikumar and Purushothaman, 1988a, b; Ravikumar and Vittal, 1987, 1991, 1996. 7. Andhra Pradesh: Sarma and Vittal, 2000, 2002, 2004; Vittal and Sarma, 2005 8. Minicoy Island: Ananda and Sridhar, 2003 9. Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Chinnaraj, 1993 Mangrove Fungi of the Indian Peninsula 35 of the islands adjacent to Indian coast are also meager. Fourteen new species including three new genera have been described from the mangroves of Peninsular India (Table 2). Most of the new fungi were described from mangroves of Maharashtra. Table 2. New genera and new species of mangrove fungi described from the mangroves of Indian Peninsula (*New genera) Fungus Mangrove Ascomycetes Reference *Acrocardiopsis patilii Borse et Hyde Aigialus mangrovei Borse Aigialus rhizophorae Borse Aniptodera indica Ananda et Sridhar Asterosphaeriella mangrovis (Kohlm. et Vittal) Aptroot et Hyde Bathyascus mangrovei Ravikumar et Vittal *Biatriospora marina Hyde et Borse, Didymella avicenniae Patil et Borse *Julella avicenniae (Borse) Hyde Malvan (Maharashtra) Borse and Hyde, 1989 Dabhol (Maharashtra) Dabhol (Maharashtra) Udyavara (Karnataka) Borse, 1987e Borse, 1987e Ananda and Sridhar, 2001a Bombay (Maharashtra) Kohlmeyer and Vittal, 1986 Pichavaram (Tamil Nadu) Revadanda (Maharashtra) Revas (Maharashtra) Ravikumar and Vittal, 1991 Revas (Maharashtra) Pichavaram (Tamil Nadu) Kundapura (Karnataka) Borse, 1987b; Hyde, 1992 Kohlmeyer and Vittal, 1986 Chorao Island (Goa) Maharashtra Hyde, Vrijmoed, Chinnaraj and Jones, 1992 Hyde and Borse, 1986b Udyavara (Karnataka) Maria and Sridhar, 2002a Chorao (Goa) Sarma and Hyde, 2000 Massarina armatispora Hyde, Vrijmoed, Chinnaraj et Jones Massarina valatospora Hyde et Borse Passeriniella mangrovei Maria et Sridhar Tirispora mandoviana Sarma et Hyde Hyde and Borse, 1986a Patil and Borse, 1985b Hyde, Vrijmoed, Chinnaraj and Jones, 1992 Anamorphic fungus Cirrenalia basiminuta Raghukumar et Zainal Orda (Goa) Raghukumar, Zainal and Jones, 1988 In spite of many floristic studies available from the Peninsular India, a few studies provide quantitative data (e.g., Ananda and Sridhar, 2004; Borse, 1988; Borse et al., 2000; Chinnaraj and Untawale, 1992; Maria and Sridhar, 2002b; Patil and Borse, 2001; Ravikumar and Vittal, 1996; Sarma and Hyde, 2000; Sarma and Vittal, 2000; Sridhar and Maria, 2006). Among the 36 species recovered in Maharashtra, the dominant species were Aigialus grandis, Massarina valatospora and Verruculina enalia (Borse, 1988). Ravikumar and Vittal (1996) from the Pichavaram mangroves, Tamil Nadu, recovered 48 species on the wood, prop 36 Frontiers in Fungal Ecology, Diversity and Metabolites roots and seedlings of Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata with a maximum species (44) on proproots. In their study, Aigialus grandis, Asterosphaeriella mangrovis, Cirrenalia pygmea, Halocyphina villosa and Verruculina enalia were most dominant. From the Krishna and Godavari deltas (Andhra Pradesh), Sarma and Vittal (2000) examined the decaying wood, proproots and seedlings of Rhizophora apiculata and recorded 63 species with a maximum on proproots (61) followed by wood (24) and seedlings (21). Sarma and Vittal (2000) also studied the occurrence of mangrove fungi on the wood, roots and pneumatophores of Avicennia officinalis and A. marina of Krishna and Godavari deltas and recorded 65 species with a maximum of 61 species on wood. On both Rhizophora and Avicennia spp. Verruculina enalia was the most frequent fungus. Detritus of nine host plant species of mangroves of Godavari and Krishna also revealed the highest fungi in R. apiculata (Sarma and Vittal, 2001). A seasonal study was carried out at Godavari and Krishna deltas by Sarma and Vittal (1998-1999) and found maximum fungi during the monsoon season, but no definite seasonal trend was evident. There seems to be a drastic difference in the fungal assemblage and their frequency of occurrence between the West Coast and the East Coast of India. The dominant fungi of West Coast (Aniptodera mangrovei, Cirrenalia pygmea, Lignincola laevis and Savoryella lignicola) (Maria and Sridhar, 2003a) are not common in the mangroves of East Coast (Sarma and Vittal, 2001). Likewise, the dominant fungi on the wood of Rhizophora spp. (Asterosphaeriella mangroves, Dactylospora haliotrepha and Verruculina enalia) of the East Coast (Sarma and Vittal, 2000; Ravikumar and Vittal, 1996) are not dominant on Rhizophora mucronata wood of the West Coast (Maria and Sridhar, 2003a). Similarly, dominant Eutypa bathurstensis and Verruculina enalia on wood of Avicennia spp. from the East Coast (Sarma and Vittal, 2000) were not dominant on Avicennia officinalis wood of the West Coast (Maria and Sridhar, 2003a). These variations presumably due to the differences in the mangrove habitats between the East (deltaic) and the West Coast (backwater-estuarine). Being deltaic, the East Coast mangroves are more diverse in vegetation than the mangroves of West Coast. Differences in the fungal communities between mangroves of the West Coast of India are also seen. In the mangroves of Maharashtra, Aigialus grandis, Dactylospora haliotrepha, Halocyphina villosa, Massarina velatospora and Verruculina enalia were dominant (Borse, 1988). Out of them, except for H. villosa and V. enalia rest of the fungi are not dominant in the mangroves of Karnataka (Maria and Sridhar, 2003a). The dominant fungi of Gujarat mangroves (Aigialus parvus, Dactylospora haliotrepha, Julella avicenniae, Kallichroma tethys, Lulworthia grandispora and Periconia prolifica) (Borse et al., 2000; Patil and Borse, 2001) are not frequent in mangroves of Karnataka with an exception of L. grandispora (Maria and Sridhar, 2003a). These observations clearly indicates the necessity of further investigations to link the differences in fungal assemblage and diversity between East and West Coast mangroves and within mangroves of East and West Coast of India. A few studies are available from the Islands of the Indian Subcontinent. Andaman and Nicobar consist of about 350 islands and seem to be rich in Mangrove Fungi of the Indian Peninsula 37 mangrove mycoflora. The dead and decayed parts of six mangrove plant species yielded 49 ascomycetes, one basidiomycete and 13 anamorphic taxa (Chinnaraj, 1993). The highest number of species was recorded on Rhizophora mucronata (53 species). The most dominant fungi include Verruculina enalia and Halocyphina villosa. On the dead woody litter of mangroves of Minicoy Island (Lakshadweep), 15 fungal species comprising 11 ascomycetes, one basidiomycete and three mitosporic fungi were recorded (Chinnaraj, 1992). Another study at Minicoy Island revealed 20 species (12 ascomycetes, 8 mitosporic fungi) on mangrove woody litter with an average of 1.7 fungi per wood (Ananda and Sridhar, 2003). Corollospora maritima was the most frequent species (33.9%) followed by Torpedospora radiata, Verruculina enalia, Zalerion varium, Kallichroma tethys, Lulworthia grandispora and Clavatospora bulbosa (19.6-10.7%). The updated checklist of mangrove fungi of the Indian Subcontinent reveals 165 species: 111 ascomyctes, 1 basidiomycete and 53 anamorphic taxa (Table 1). Most studies are confined to the mangroves of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Keraka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Fungi possess frequency of occurrence of 10% or more have been considered as core-group fungi. These fungi are mainly responsible for driving the ecosystem as they compete efficiently through their growth and sporulation on the substrata. Based on the quantitative data, in Indian mangroves 35 mangrove fungi have been identified as core-group fungi (Table 1). Potential of these fungi can be exploited as they are common and abundant in many Indian mangroves. Pattern of Colonization Mangrove detritus (e.g., fallen leaves, twigs, proproots, pneumatophores) support a variety of fungal communities. Senescent mangrove leaves released from the plants reach distinct habitats: (a) Trap in canopy above the water, which is not accessible for tides and reach water due to storm in dried state; (b) Float on the surface as dried or fresh; (c) Reach the mangrove floor under low tide; (d) Entrap at some depth below the water surface; (e) Settle or bury in sediment. Similarly, the dried twigs and branches also detach during monsoon storm and trap in canopy or water with or without bark, settle or trap in sediment. The twigs, stems, proproots and pneumatophores remain attached to plants undergo decay. These specific conditions of substrates influence the diversity and functions of mangrove mycoflora. The lower fungi usually follow the ‘substrate-capture’ strategy, while higher fungi adapted to ‘mass-accumulation’ strategy (Newell, 1996). It is suspected that periodical wet and dry regime of mangrove litter leads to higher fungal activity (Newell and Fell, 1997). Some fungi are commonly confined to bark of Rhizophora apiculata (e.g., Hypophloeda rhizospora, Phomopsis mangrovei, Rhizophila marina), while others confine to woody tissues (e.g., Caryosporella rhizophorae) (Hyde et al., 1993). Eutypa bathurstensis was confined to the Avicennia wood (Sarma and Vittal, 2000). A recent study (Sridhar and Maria, 2006) addressed the pattern of colonization and diversity of filamentous fungi on naturally deposited and introduced Rhizophora mucronata wood during monsoon 38 Frontiers in Fungal Ecology, Diversity and Metabolites and summer in a southwest mangrove of India and compared overall occurrence with three species co-occurrence. Out of 66 fungi recovered, naturally deposited wood showed higher fungi during monsoon than summer (48 vs. 24), so also among 40 fungi on wood possessing three fungal co-occurrence (21 vs. 18). Percent frequency of occurrence of fungi was not significantly different between wood types and seasons in overall occurrence and three species cooccurrence. Overall, seventeen fungi belonged to the core-group (≥10%). Although Aigialus mangrovei, Cirrenalia pygmea, C. tropicalis, Halosarpheia cincinnatula, Lulworthia grandispora, Passeriniella mangrovei, Verruculina enalia and Zalerion maritimum are typical mangrove fungi, they belonged to core-group on deliberately introduced wood in monsoon season indicates their high colonization activity on wood even under low salinity. Many terrestrial anamorphic taxa (Alternaria, Arthrobotrys, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Phoma and Tetracrium) were common during monsoon season. Ananda et al. (2007) studied the colonization of fungi on dried and fresh leaves in mangroves of Udyavara, Karnataka. The number of fungi was greatest after 2-4 weeks of exposure and more species were recovered from dried than fresh leaves. Several terrestrial fungi (e.g., Arthrinium, Aspergillus) initially common on leaves were subsequently replaced by mangrove fungi. Animal remains of mangroves also support a variety of fungal flora. Higher fungi have been recovered from a wide variety of animal substrata (corals; shells of snails, balanids, bivalves, foraminifers; hydrozoan exoskeletons; tunicates, shipworm tubes; cuttlefish endoskeletons; feathers; snake skin; crab exoskeletons; beetle wings; bryozoan skeleton; horse hair and teredinid tunnels (e.g., Kohlmeyer and Volkmann-Kohlmeyer, 1990, 1991, 1992; Rees and Jones, 1985; Rosello et al., 1993). Up to 77% of the cuttlefish endoskeletons of the West Coast of India harboured marine fungi (Ananda et al., 1998). Bivalve shells and cuttlefish endoskeletons showed abundant arenicolous fungi (Ananda et al., 1998). Corollospora intermedia was the most frequent fungus particularly on calcareous shells and crab exoskeletons (Ananda and Sridhar, 2001b). Prolonged period of incubation was required for the animal remains of the beaches than mangroves to assess colonized fungi (Ananda and Sridhar, 2001b; Ananda et al., 1998). Litter Decomposition Litter production in mangroves of the world ranges between 0.01 and 23.69 tons per hectare per annum (Abbey-Kalio, 1992; Bunt, 1995; Chale, 1996; Clarke, 1994; Ghosh et al., 1990; Golley et al., 1962; Gong et al., 1984; Lu and Lin, 1990; Lu et al., 1988; Mall et al., 1991; Slim et al., 1996; Wafer et al., 1997; Woodroffe et al., 1988). The decay coefficient (k) per day and half-life (t50, days) of mangrove leaf litter decomposition ranges from 0.00234-0.0516 and 15-70, respectively (Ashton et al., 1999; Boonruang, 1978; Dick and Steever, 2001; Fell et al., 1975; Robertson, 1988; Steinke and Ward, 1987; Tam et al., 1990, 1998). Makey and Smail (1996) showed a perfect linear relationship between mangrove leaf decomposition (t50) versus latitude. Three important phases of leaf litter decomposition Mangrove Fungi of the Indian Peninsula 39 of Rhizophora apiculata was identified by Raghukumar et al. (1995) in Indian mangroves: (i) Rapid loss of detritus mass with reduction of organic constituents (proteins, carbohydrates, reducing sugars, phenolics and cellulose); (ii) Elevated fungal biomass and rapid decline of organic constituents (along with C/N ratio) to the lowest levels within three weeks; (iii) Decline in fungal and bacterial biomass after three and five weeks respectively followed by decline in cellulose and lignin. Leaf litter of Rhizophora mucronata decomposed in the laboratory and field showed a decline in organic carbon and ash, while increase in total nitrogen, organic matter, protein and calorie (Sumitra et al., 1980). The patterns of fungal colonization, mass loss and biochemical changes during the decomposition of dried and fresh leaves of Rhizophora mucronata at the mid-tide zone were studied in a southwest mangrove of Karnataka (Udyavara) up to 14 weeks (Ananda et al., 2007). Ergosterol and nitrogen levels peaked between 4 and 8 weeks of exposure, subsequently ergosterol declined, while nitrogen was stable in dried leaves and declined in fresh leaves. The dynamics of leaf mass remaining for the first 8 weeks of exposure were described by a double-exponential decay model. Subsequently, the decay rate accelerated and the second phase was best described by a single exponential decay model. The leaf breakpoint coincided with an increase in the salinity of the mangrove swamp. Further study on the pattern of leaf degradation in mangroves need to be followed on introducing the leaf litter in different seasons. The richness and diversity of mangrove fungi are dependent on chemical composition of wood, presence or absence of bark and period of incubation (Hyde and Lee, 1995; Jones, 2000; Nakagiri, 1993; Prasannarai and Sridhar, 1997). Maria et al. (2006) studied the breakdown of dead twigs of Avicennia officinalis and R. mucronata up to 18 months in a southern mangrove of Karnataka (Udyavara). The twig decay was slow during the first 10-12 months and accelerated subsequent six months. Nitrogen increased in both substrates with a peak around 120 days and declined thereafter. Phosphorus rapidly declined in the first two months and then gradually elevated. Fluctuations in phenolics of the twigs were best described by an exponential loss of function. Among water parameters (temperature, pH, oxygen and salinity), only salinity fluctuated between 1.1‰ during monsoon (due freshwater inflow) and 34.1‰ during dry season (due to decrease of freshwater inflow). Future wood decomposition studies should distinguish the pattern of wood decomposition on introduction at different seasons. The crude lipid of Rhizophora mucronata leaves incorporated at 0.5, 1 and 2% (w/w) to a basal diet (protein, 42%; lipid, 10%; carbohydrates, 4%; vitamins and minerals, 2%) of prawn (Penaeus indicus), promoted the growth as well as efficiency of assimilation (Ramesh and Kathiresan, 1992). Prawns, crabs and fishes were attracted towards the decomposing leaves during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon when senescent leaves of Rhizophora apiculata and Avicinnia marina were introduced (Rajendran and Kathiresan, 1999). Incorporation of leaf litter of Acanthus ilicifolius, Avicennia officinalis and Rhizophora mucronata along with rice bran increased the assimilation efficiency of Metapenaeus manoceros up to 86% (Ramadhas and Sumitra- Vijayaraghavan, 1979). 40 Frontiers in Fungal Ecology, Diversity and Metabolites Endophytic Fungi Endophytic fungi invade the tissues of living plants throughout or part of their life cycle and cause asymptomatic infections without disease symptoms (Wilson, 1995). Foliar endophytes of mangrove plant species of the East Coast of India have been extensively studied (Kumaresan and Suryanarayanan, 2001, 2002; Suryanarayanan et al., 1998; Suryanarayanan and Kumaresan, 2000). Single species dominance in foliar endophytes was seen in many mangrove halophytes: Avicennia marina (Phoma sp.), Bruguiera cylindrica (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), Rhizophora apiculata (Sporormiella minima), Rhizophora mucronata (Sporormiella minima) and Suaeda maritima (Camarosporium palliatum) (Kumaresan and Suryanarayanan, 2001; Suryanarayanan et al., 1998; Suryanarayanan and Kumarsean, 2000). Root endophytes of mangrove plant species of the West Coast of India (Avicennia officinalis, Rhozophora mucronata and Sonneratia caseolaris) revealed multiple species dominance (Ananda and Sridhar, 2002). Multiple species dominance was also seen in the leaves of palm and deciduous trees (Fisher and Petrini, 1990; Frölich et al., 2000). Acremonium sp., Alternaria sp., Cladosporium sp., Colletotrichum sp. and Fusarium sp. were common foliar endophytes in mangrove plants (Kumaresan and Suryanarayanan, 2001, 2002; Suryanarayanan et al., 1998; Suryanarayanan and Kumaresan, 2000), seagrass (Devarajan et al., 2002) and beach halophyte (Fisher and Petrini, 1987). Dominant endophytic fungi differed on host plants of mangrove community of the East Coast of India (Kumaresan and Suryanarayanan, 2001). Typical marine fungi were not dominant in roots of mangrove plant species (Ananda and Sridhar, 2002), mangrove associates (Maria and Sridhar, 2003b) and coastal sand dune halophytes (Beena et al., 2000) and legumes (Seena and Sridhar, 2004) of the West Coast of India. Colletotrichum spp. is the most frequent endophyte in mangrove plant community of India (Acanthus ilicifolius, Arthrocnemum indicum, Sesuvium portulacastrum, Avicennia marina, Bruguiera cylindrica, Ceriops decandra, Excoecaria agallocha and Lumnitzera racemosa) (Kumaresan and Suryanarayanan, 2001; Suryanarayanan and Kumaresan, 2000) and tropical plant species of Hong Kong and Australia (Brown et al., 1998). Both Acremonium and Colletotrichum were dominant in senescent standing herbaceous wood of Acanthus ilicifolius and they may switch over to saprophytic life style as endophytes in senescent mangrove leaves (Kumaresan and Suryanarayanan, 2002). Phomopsis spp. and Phyllosticta spp. were common foliar endophytes of mangrove plants (Kumaresan and Suryanarayanan, 2001, 2002; Suryanarayanan et al., 1998; Suryanarayanan and Kumaresan, 2000). Similarly, Phomopsis spp. was also common root endophyte of Avicennia officinalis and Rhizophora mucronata of the West Coast mangrove (Ananda and Sridhar, 2002). Twenty-five endophytic fungi comprising three ascomycetes, 20 anamorphs and two sterile fungi were recovered from two mangrove associates (Acanthus ilicifolius and Acrostichum aureum) of the West Coast mangrove (Maria and Sridhar, 2003b). Overall colonization by endophytes ranged between 74.5% Mangrove Fungi of the Indian Peninsula 41 (A. ilicifolius) and 77.5% (A. aureum). Out of four tissues screened, species richness and diversity were high in stems of A. ilicifolius and roots of A. aureum. Colletotrichum sp. was the most dominant endophyte in prop roots of A. ilicifolius and yeast sp. in rhizomes of A. aureum. Acanthus ilicifolius showed single species dominance by Colletotrichum sp., while multiple species dominance in A. aureum (Acremonium sp., Penicillium sp. and yeast). Cumulospora marina was the only typical marine anamorphic fungus recovered from the roots of A. ilicifolius. Terrestrial Fungi Terrestrial fungi are common in waters, mud (Chowdhery et al., 1982; Garg, 1983), leaves (Raghukumar et al., 1995), wood (Sridhar and Maria, 2006), seagrasses (Devarajan et al., 2002), animal remains (Ananda and Sridhar, 2001b) and rhizosphere (Nair et al., 1991; Salique et al., 1985; Venkatesan and Natarajan, 1985) of Indian mangroves. Terrestrial fungi have been isolated from mangrove leaves (Raghukumar et al., 1995) and rhizosphere (Avicennia officinalis and Rhizophora mucronata). Pichavaram mangrove consists of several terrestrial fungi (Venkatesan and Natarajan, 1985; Salique et al., 1985). Mangrove mud, rhizosphere, rhizoplane and non-rhizosphere zones of Sunderban mangrove swamps also yielded many terrestrial fungi (Garg, 1983; Chowdhary et al., 1982). Rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soils (Avicennia officinalis) of Maharashtra yielded several terrestrial fungi (Nair et al., 1991). Mangrove mud at Vellar Estuary, Cochin backwaters and Andaman Nicobar Islands consists of terrestrial fungi (Misra, 1986; Prabhakaran and Gupta, 1990; Silique et al., 1985). In Cochin backwaters mangrove, leaves, stem, roots and pneumatophores of Avicennia and Acanthus yielded terrestrial fungi along with mangrove fungi. Chandralata (1999) and Raghukumar and Raghukumar (1998) interpreted that adaptation and activity of terrestrial fungi under mangrove ecosystem refers to facultative or indwellers or residents. Seasonal sampling of the leaf litter from the Nethravathi estuary also revealed the occurrence of many freshwater hyphomycetes and a typical mangrove fungus, Clavatospora bulbosa (Sridhar and Kaveriappa, 1988). It is clear that terrestrial and freshwater fungi involve in plant detritus degradation in mangrove habitats under certain conditions and seasons. For instance, leaf, bark and wood decay in mangrove canopies or decomposition of pneumatophores, prop roots and twigs on mangrove floor during low saline (or rainy season) or air-water interphase by terrestrial fungi cannot be ruled out. Similarly, aquatic hyphomycetes will be active during low saline conditions of mangroves and backwaters (Sridhar and Kaveriappa, 1988). Metabolites Mangrove fungi proved to be important sources of new bioactive compounds including enzymes (Grant et al., 1996; Pointing and Hyde, 2000; Pointing et al., 1998). Pointing et al. (1998) showed the cellulolytic activity of marine fungi throughout the salinity range (0-34‰). For additional information on marine 42 Frontiers in Fungal Ecology, Diversity and Metabolites fungal metabolites and techniques, see Chapter 4. A few studies have been carried out on the enzymatic capabilities of mangrove fungi in India. Extracellular enzyme potential of foliar endophytic fungi of Rhizophora apiculata has been studied by Kumaresan and Suryanarayan (2002) and linked their involvement in litter degradation during senescence and death. Several mangrove fungi showed laccasepositive activities (Kumaresan and Suryanarayanan, 2002, Raghukumar et al., 1994, 1999). Cellulase-free xylanase or xylanase with low cellulase activity are effective in bleaching paper pulp, biopolishing of textiles and application of such enzymes considerably reduce the use of chlorine compounds for bleaching purposes. Flavodon flavus and Podospora anserina of marine origin produced many enzymes those modify lignin (Raghukumar et al., 1999). Flavodon flavus decolourizes and degrades a variety of polymeric dyes. Such decolorization of dyes even in the presence of artificial seawater is advantageous since industrial effluents usually contain high quantity of salts (e.g., chlorides and sulphates). Seven endophytic fungi were assessed for extracellular enzymes (amylase, cellulase, chitinase, laccase, lipase, protease and tyrosinase) by culture plate method (Maria et al., 2005). Cellulase and lipase activity was seen in all fungi, amylase and protease activity was confined to a few, while they were devoid of chitinase, laccase and tyrosinase activity. Enzyme production by Pestalotiopsis sp. (cellulase by submerged fermentation; xylanase, pectinase and protease by solid substrate fermentation) at pH 7 and pH 9 during 3-15 days of fermentation was assessed. The cellulase activity was low at 9th day at pH 9, while xylanase was highest reveals the potentiality of endophytic Pestalotiopsis sp. in the production of high xylanase and low cellulase. Lignocellulolytic activities of mangrove fungi and their ability to degrade the colored paper and pulp industrial effluents have been reviewed by Chandralata (2005). Amount and type of lignin degrading enzymes production by a mangrove basidiomycete (NIOCC #2a) was dependent on the type of nitrogen source used (D’Wouza-Ticlo et al., 2006). The amount of extracellular peroxidases increased many folds in the presence of industrial effluents, while absence of the effluent resulted in negligible production of enzyme. A few new isozymes of laccase were induced in the presence of industrial effluents. Efficiency of decolorization of effluents by the concentrated culture filtrate obtained from the media containing different nitrogen sources proved the importance of the type of nitrogen milieu in decolorization of coloured effluents of industries. Antimicrobial potential of 14 endophytic fungi isolated from Acanthus ilicifolius and Acrostichum aureum of Nethravathi mangrove cultivated through solid substrate fermentation were tested against selected bacteria and fungi (Maria et al., 2005). All test bacteria were inhibited by sterile isolate MSI 1 as well as Aspergillus spp. Cumulospora marina and Pestalotiopsis sp. showed considerable antagonistic effect on Gram-positive as well as Gram-negative bacteria. The crude ethyl acetate extracts of four endophytes (grown under submerged fermentation) partially purified by TLC revealed several fluorescent fractions. Two such fractions of Aspergillus sp. showed high antimicrobial activity. One Mangrove Fungi of the Indian Peninsula 43 of the fractions of Pestalotiopsis sp. exhibited high inhibitory activity against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans. Conclusions and Outlook Conservative estimate of the world’s fungal resource based on plant/fungus ratio is about 1.5 million species (Hawksworth, 1991). In temperate locations, plant/ fungus ratio has been predicted as 1:6, while 1:26 in tropics (Hyde, 1996). The ratio in tropics has been updated as 1:33 based palm fungi in Australia and Brunei Darussalam (Fröhlich and Hyde, 1999). Over three decades of studies on mangrove/marine fungi in India confined mainly to floristic with a few studies on application of these fungi. Although east coast of India comprises of 70% of mangrove cover of the Indian Subcontinent, mycological studies on these mangroves are inadequate. Several cryptic species might have adapted to the local habitats of mangroves. As the mangrove flora of Indian Subcontinent is diverse, intense survey may reveal many cryptic species. In addition to leaves and wood, sediments and animal remains need to be explored for fungi. Duration of incubation of mangrove substrata and intervals of screening in the laboratory has to be considered as an important aspect of diversity studies. Usually, incubation of leaf and woody litter up to eight weeks results in dominance of terrestrial fungi, sporulating marine fungi reaches a peak at about 16 weeks, while arenicolous (sand-inhabiting) fungi appear after 16 weeks (Ananda and Sridhar, 2004). If the interval of observation is too long, there are chances to miss many sporulating anamorphic taxa. Overlap between terrestrial, freshwater and marine fungi is common in mangroves. As many so-called terrestrial fungi isolated from mangrove habitats are important source of metabolites, their documentation and exploitation should not be ignored. In the new millennium, studies on mangrove fungal diversity should accompany with their exploitation for industrial and health applications. If the mangrove host plant is endemic, fungi associated may also have a restricted distribution (e.g., endophytic fungi). Loss of such plant species results in total elimination of host-specific fungi from the ecosystem. For instance, Kandelia candel (Rhizophoraceae) has been recorded only in two locations of the West Coast, while Heritiera fomes (Sterculiaceae) and Nypa fruticans (Palmaceae) in one location of the East Coast of India (Blasco and Aizpuru, 1997; Rao and Suresh, 2001; Sarma, 2007). As mangroves are highly threatened by human interference, endemic plants needs conservation and special attention should be focused on mycological survey. Many saprophytic fungi carry out different functions simultaneously and attained important position in the food web possibly serve as keystone species (Hawksworth, 1991). For example, some marine/mangrove fungi also lead endophytic life with mangrove or coastal sand dune plant species (Ananda and Sridhar, 2002; Beena et al., 2000; Seena and Sridhar, 2004). Possibly these fungi are important in defence or nutrition of mangrove or coastal sand dune flora. A large number of endophytic fungi of mangrove plant speciess did not 44 Frontiers in Fungal Ecology, Diversity and Metabolites sporulate on the semi defined media (Ananda and Sridhar, 2002; Kumaresan and Suryanarayanan, 2001; Suryanarayanan et al., 1998). Such fungi should not be ignored to test for bioactive metabolites. Mangrove fungi are usually alkaliphilic and possess several metabolites of industrial and environmental importance. The lignin-degrading enzymes of mangroves will be immense value in bioremediation of industrial wastewaters or effluents with high chlorides and sulphides or dyecontaining effluents (Chandralata, 2005) or effluents with heavy metals. 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