Acacias for Rural, Industrial, and
Environmental Development
'71
Proceedings of the second
meeting of the Consultative
Group for Research and
Development of Acacias
(COGREDA) held in
Udom Thani, Thailand,
February 1518, 1993
Acacias for Rural, Industrial,
and Environmental Development
p, oceedings of the secondmeeting of
the Consultative Groupfor Research and
Development ofAcacias (COGREDA)
held in Udorn Thani, Thailand,
February1518, 1993
edited by
Kamis Awang and David A. Taylor
Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Research
and the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
1993
Bangkok, Thailand
This proceedings is published jointly by the Forestry Research Support Programme for Asia
Pacific (FORSPA), the Forest Tree Improvement Project (FORTIP) of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the Forestry/Fuelwood Research and Development
Project (F/FRED) of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and Winrock
International.
FORSPA, an FAtexecuted regional programme, enhances tie capacity for forestry research in
AsiaPacific countries. FORTIP supports activities for longterm improvement of forest genetic
resources for use by countries in the Asia region. h administering the USAIDfunded F/FRED
Project, Winrock International supports research and training on do:velopment of multipurpose
trees, primarily for smallfarm use.
Correct citation
Awang, Karnis and David A. Taylor, e&s. 1993. Acaciasfor Rural, !ndustrial,and Environmental
Developren,. Proc. of the second meeting of the Consultative Group for Research and
Development of Acacias (COGREDA), held in Udorn Thani, Thailand, Febniary 1518, 1993.
Bangkok, Thailan,: Winrock International and FAQ. 258 + v pp.
ISBN 0933595830
Cover: (top) Acacia mnangiun, seedlings in a nursery for industrial plantation in South
Kalimantan, Indonesia; (middle) a woman in Lampang, northern Thailand, cuts A. catechu into
prces for extracting kutch in a cottage industry process; (bottom) an A. inangiutm plantation
reclaims grasslands formerly dominated by weedy hnperatacylindricain Kota Belud, Sabah,
Malaysia. Photos: Enso Forest Development, Co., Ltd.; Wanida Subsansenee; and Kamis
Awang.
Winrock InternationalF/FRED
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fax: 662/2800445
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fax: 1703/5228758
Printed by Viscom Center, Ltd.
ii
Contents
Introduction
Summary
v
1
Country Papers
China Zheng Haishui and Yang Zengliang
India
B.S. Nadagot;dar
Indonesia: Tree Improvement of Acacia mangium for
Industrial Plantations Hendi Suhaendi
Laos
Bounphom Mounda
Maliysia
Darus Ahmad and L.H. Ang
Myanmar
U Saw Kelvin Keh
Nepal Jay B.S. Karki and Madhav Karki
Pakistan
Raziuddin Ansari, A.N. Khanzada and M.A. Khan
Papua New Guinea P.B.L. Srivastava
Sri Lanka
K. Vivekanandan
Thailand
Suree Bhumibhamon
Vietnam
Nguyen Hoang Nghia and Le Dinh Kha
15
21
33
43
46
50
53
63
71
73
80
86
Theme Papers
Genetic Resources
Genetic Resources of Fifteen Tropical Acacias
Khongsak Pinyopusarerk
Early Growth of Provenances and Progenies in Acacia mangium
Seed Production Areas in North Queensland, Australia
C.E. Harwood, G. Applegate, K. Robson, and E.R. Williams
94
113
Rural Development
Acacias and Rural Development
H. ArocenaFrancisco
123
Acacias in Agroforestry
Goran Adjers and Tuk Sasmito Hadi
134
Acacias for Fuelwood and Charcoal
Kovith Yantasath, Somchai Anusontpornperm, Thanes Utistham,
Wirachai Soontornrangson and Sutta Watanatham
144
iii
Utilization of Acacia catechu Willd. in Thailand:
Improving a Cottage Industry
Wanida Stibansenee, Pannee Denrungruang, NuchanartNilkamhaeng,
and Prachoen Sroithongkham
Industrial Development
Acacias in Industrial Development: Experience in Sumatra
C.Y. Wong
153
170
Recent Developments in Acacia Improvement at Sabah Softwoods
Edward Chia
179
Acacias for Nonwood Products and Uses
HsuHo Chung
186
Innovations in the Utilization of SmallDiameter Trees, Particularly Acacias
Razali AbdulKader
192
Environmental Conservation and Development
Acacias for Environmental Conservation
Reynaldo E. Dela Cruz
198
Diseases of Acacias: An Overview
Lee Su See
225
Choosing Acacias for Rural, Industrial, and Environmental Development
Sompetch Mungkorndin
240
Appendices
Summary of the First Meeting of COGREDA
Field Trip Summary
Participants
Index
iv
246
251
253
257
Introduction
Acacia species, many of which are
native to Australia and Asia, have shown
fast growth on a wide range of sites and
have various uses. The Consultative
Group for Research and Development of
Acacias (COGREDA) was formed to
provide a means for researchers working
on various aspects of acacias to
exchange information, assess research to
date and future directions, and plan ways
of filling knowledge gaps. Comprised
primarily of Asian scientists, the Group
emerged from a recommepdation by the
Multipurpose Tree Species Research
Network of the Forestry!FueIwood
Research and Development (F/FRED)
Project.
The first COGREDA meeting in June
1992 prioritized research needs for:
species assessment and improvement;
silviculture for industrial, agroforestry
for rural development, and site
reclamation purposes; utilization; and
economic assessment (see Appendix 1
for summary). It also finalized tasks for
producing a monograph on Acacia
mangium, to be published by F/FRED in
the coming months. F/FRED is also
supporting several of the research
proposals identified at the first meeting.
The Group's second meeting, in
Udon Thani, Thailand, February 1518,
1993, examined more closely the
contribution of acacias to the three
broad areas of rural, industrial, and
environmental development,
Specifically, it reviewed the extent to
which acacias are being used in the Asia
Pacific region for these purposes,
identified relevant research needs, and
planned for further synthesis of results
on several of the most researched
species. The meeting included greater
representation of countries growing
acacias in semiarid and arid environments, and the Group welcomed broader
participation in the course of its growth.
In sponsoring this meeting, F/FRED
was joined by the ASEANCanada Forest
Tree Seed Centre in Thailand, the
Australian Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organization
(CSIRO), the FAO Forestry Research
Support Program for AsiaPacific
(FORSPA) and Forest Tree Improvement
Project (FORTIP), and the Finnish
International Development Agency.
This range of cosponsorship
suggests the potential for COGREDA to
continue in its role of assessing research
progress from several enduser
perspectives, synthesizing the results, and
coordinating regional research
initiatives. At the meeting in Udon
Thani, the Group members endorsed the
proprosal that this might best be
achieved through affiliation as a working
group of the International Union of
Forestry Research Organizations
(TUFRO).
The meeting c.rganizers would like
to thank the Udorn Thani Provincial
Forest Office, particularly Mr. Sanan
Siriwatanakarn and Mr. Prayuth
Saipankaew, for their hospitality. The
editors thank the F/FRED staff members
Ms. Sopapan Varasirin, Ms. Apinya
Chaivatanasirikul, and Ms. Leela
Wuttikraibundit for their assistance.
v
Meeting Summary and Recommendations
The Group's discussions started
from the baseline of species assessment
and improvement, silviculture, and
utilization research and priorities
identified at thc first COGREDA meeting
in June 1992 (see appendix for
summary).
The second meeting pursued these
with a more indepti view of the role
that acacias can play in Asia. Rural,
industrial, and environmental
development will all be increasingly
important in AsiaPacific countries as
rural populations continue to grow
and face problems of poverty and
inadequate resources. Failure to
address their needs for tree
products and livelihood can lead
to destabilization of [he natural
resource base, not to mention
further deterioration in their living
standard.
" economic growth in these
countries depends on the ability of
governments to encourage
sustainable industrial growth to
meet the increasing international
market demand for tree products.
environmental sustainability,
already much at risk, will be
important in maintaining long
term benefits from the first two
areas, as well as in responding to
increasing internal and external
pressure for an "environment
friendly" forest industry,
These three catgories provide a
useful framework for the following
discussion. "he factors are interrelated,
however, and research addressing them
should recognize this with an integrated
approach that suits the enduse
objectives.
The assessment of national problems
and priorities below is offered as a step
toward identifying overlapping areas for
regional collaboration.
The Group recognizes that some of
the recommendations below are
ambitious, but in viewing past efforts
sees some use in setting such goals, as
they provide guideposts for longterm
objectives, even if they cannot be met
with the Group on its own.
Acacias in Rural Development
Discussion leader: H.A. Francisco
Rapporteur: B.S. Nadagoitdar
This discussion provides general
indications as assessed by the group;
more detailed and serious consideration
of priorities for rural development will
of course need to proceed on a more
sitespecific basis, in consultation with
farm communities.
Policies affecting treeplanting by rural
communities
Many countries in the AsiaPacific
region already have national policies that
encourage tree planting by communities.
While these have been put into practice
Promising acacias for rural
development (with strike rates as a rough
gauge of their relative regional
importance) are:
through a variety of community forestry,
social forestry, and agroforestry
programs, there remains a lack of
adequate legislative measures that
provide farm communities with adequate
land and tree tenure to ensure their
greater involvement in tree planting.
In some countries, the government
has given this issue serious consideration
and has partially solved land and tenure
problems. However, there is now an
urgent need for national governments to
reexamine these policies, as farm
forestry and agroforestry will assume
greater importance in the years to come.
Acacia auriculiformis
A. mangium
A. crassicarpa
A. aulacocarpa
A. leptocarpa
A. holosericea
A. cincinnata
A. catechu
A. inearnsii
A. senegal
A. nilotica
A. tortilis
A. leucophloea
A. planiformis
A. insuavis
A. confusa
Status of acacia planting in farm
communities
The most common of the many
systems and intended uses for planting
acacias in the AsiaPacific region are:
37
36
31
30
28
21
15
13
6
6
6
4
4
4
4
I
Potential systems for acacia planting
are reviewed in Table 1.
While there is economic data
available on industrial planting, gauging
the socioeconomic contribution of tree
planting to local communities is still
difficult for any tree genus. The
framework proposed in the paper by
H.A. Francisco, using the criteria of (1)
contribution to local income generation,
(2) contribution to greater equity, and
(3) contribution to the environment for
sustainable economic benefits, could be
refined for this purpose. Table 2 offers
an estimate of the current contribution
of acacias to rural development in each
country.
homestead trees
other agroforestry systems
farm woodlots
fodder plantings
wasteland development plantings
river, streambank, and roadside
plantings
aesthetic and home environment
enhancement
medicinal purposes
nonwood products and uses
2
Table 1.
Potential planting systems involving acacias. by country.
System
India
Ind'sia
Laos
Mal.
Myan.
Nepal
Pak
PNG
Phil.
ROC
S. L Thai. Viet
Agroforestry
living ferces
hediges
windbreaks
afley cropping
wide row intercrop
shade/nurse trees
support trees
homegardens
ornamentals
taungya
fadder banks
pasture improv.
agrisilvipast oral
3
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
3
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
1
1
0
2
2
1
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
3
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
2
1
1
0
2
2
2
I
2
2
1
3
2
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
3
2
2
2
1
0
3
1
3
0
3
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
0
0
1
Soil conservation
Soil fertility improvement
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
0
0
1
1
2
2
2
3
1
3
3
1
1
1
3
3
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
3
Community plantations
Industrial plantations
Private plantations
2
3
2
2
3
1
0
1
0
1
3
3
0
1
0
3
3
3
2
3
2
2
1
3
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
0 = no significance; I = low potential; 2 = medium potential; 3
important.
Table 2. Estimated current status of socioeconomic contribution of acacia planting in rural communities.
Criteria
India
H
Enployment generated
from industrial plantations
Income generation
sale of tree products M
L
processing of
acacia food prod.
Subsistence production
L
energy products
(fuelwood. charcoal)
nonwood products H
L
Medium for equity
enhancement
Enviromental value
M
soil enrichment
in agroforestry
M
soil conservation/
erosion control
Shade and aesthetic value NI
Ind'sia
Laos
Mai.
Myan.
Nepal
Pak
PNG
Phil.
ROC
S. L
Thai. Viet
H
L
H
L
L
M
H
L
I
M
L
L
H
M
M
I
M
L
N1
L
L
0
NI
1
L
L
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
M
I
H
L
L
L
L
H
H
L
I
L
L
L
M
M
M
L
L
L
L
0
I
M
M
M
L
I
L
I
I
I
L
I
I
L
I
M
M
M
L
I
M
H
M
I
M
L
M
M
M
M
M
I
M
I
M
H
M
L
M
L
L
H
M
I
M
I
L
H
L
L
L
0 = none; I = insignificant; L = low; M = medium; H = high
Acacias for fuelwood and charcoul
facilitation of marketing of these
nonwood products by
government and/or nongovernment organizations
The importance of fuelwood and
charcoal is clear from the fact that about
80% of total wood used in the region
goes to these products. Table 3 suggests
Acacia species for these uses, by country
(see also the paper by Yantasath et al.).
Table 4 indicates the status of nonwood product and use potentials for
acacias in each country.
Nonwood products and uses
Research and development priorities
iHAighvalue, nonwood products and
uses can play a large role in farmer
adoption of treegrowing technologies
(see the paper by H.H. Chung). Their
importance should be recognized
through:
Table 5 suggests priority topics for
research and development of acacias
aimed at meeting needs of rural
populations.
" technology improvement or
development for high valueadded
gains (see the paper by Wanida
Subansenee et al.)
" governmentprovided incentives
for establishing local, smallscale
processing centers
Promoting treegrowing options in
communities
Research and exploration of
community interest in treeplanting
concerns should go hand in hand. Table
6 suggests promising ways for making
treefarming options available and
adaptable to comiaunities.
Table 3. Potential fuelwood and charcoal species, by country.
Species
S. L
Thai. Viet
India
Ind'sia
Laos
Mal.
Myan.
Nepal
Pak
PNG
Phil.
ROC
1
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
3
1
0
3
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
3
1
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
1
2
2
0
3
1
1
1
1
3
2
2
2
0
3
2
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
3
3
2
0
3
1
0
0
1)
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
0
Humid/Subhumid
A. auriculiformiv
A. uzngium
A. aulacocarpa
A. crassicarpa
A.toincntosa
Semiarid
A.
A.
A.
A.
nilotica
catcchu
holosericea
senegal
0 = no significance; I = low potential; 2 = medium potential; 3 = important.
Table 4.
Indication of importance of nonwood products and uses,* by country.
Product
Bee honey
Chemicals**
Fodder
Food
Handicrafts
Others
India
2
3
3
0
2
3
Indonesia Laos
1
2
1
0
1
1
1
3
0
0
0
1
Mal.ay. Myanmar Nepal
2
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
*excluding charcoal and fuelwood
"including gum arabic, tannin, extractives, etc.
0 = no significance; I = low potential; 2 = medium potential; 3 = important.
0
2
3
1
1
1
Pak.
Philipp. ROC
2
1
3
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
S. Lanka Thai. Viet.
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
Table 5. Research and development priorities for meeting needs
of rural populations.
Goals
R&D Topic
Activity
Maintain biodiversity
Explore indigenous acacias through
Identify seed origin and seed
of acacias
involvement of local communities
sources
Conduct onfarmi trials of native and exotic
acacias with other promising MPTS
(species cure provenance trials)
Select suitable species and provenances based on site
qualities and local preferences
Develop systems for
breeding
Study flowering and seed crop of native
and exotic az:acias
Collect good seeds; in sufficient
amounts to meet rural demand
Mass produce planting
materials
EAplore suitable propagation techniques
Produce sufficient goodquality
planting stock for rural demand
Refine suitable planting
systems
Refine agroforestry systems involving acacias
Conduct sitespecific research
to tIeet local needs
Maximize wood and nonwood
production according to dernand
Investigate intensive itanagement practices
according to desired products and techniques
Deteritine sound silvicultural
practices
control of biotic
and abioticandpests
Maintain sustainable
production systems
Exanine the costeffectiveness of rhizobium
inoculation and longterm nutuient cycling
Develop suitable selection,
growing, and inoculation
tethods
Promote acaciagrowing options as
alternatives to shifting cultivation
Conduct feasibility studies of incentive progrants
for government and international agency support
Develop appropriate technology transfer and
nmonitortng program
Pronote trce,rowing on degraded
forests, cornrinity lands for fuel
wood, charcoal and olier products
Identify geritplasin adapted to extretue site requireients
and adoptable ihanagetoent regimes
Adapt rtefllo s for suitable technology transfer
Increase contribution of acacias to
rural household income
Quantify and evaluate econoniic uses in rural communities
Assess market potentials of wood and nonwood products
l)evelop nonwood uses with significant market potential
Develop/upgrade processing techniques
Study the effects of policies on produclion and marketing
of specific products
Increase participation by local
communities in tree growing
t'rorote tree cultivation on
wastelands for environmental
atielioration (of grasslands,
tin tailings, etc.)
Exatine ways to facilitate NGOs and government agencies
in working constructively with coinitunities
Examine policy iteasures for proioting NGO work in tree growing
Quantify and value benefits froi soil attielioration by trees
Provide economic and tenure incentives for treegrowing in these areas
Establish detnonstration tree farnts for technology adaptation ani transfer
Distribute planting itaterials through governitent agencies and NGOs
Table 6. Means for promoting treefarming options in farm communities, by counry.
Policy incentives
subsidies
(e.g., seedlings)
lowcost credit
secure tree tenure
land tenure
tax incentives
Marketing support
R&D support for
product development
Price information
support
Ind.
Ind'sia
Laos
Mal.
Myan.
Nepal
Pak
Phil.
PNG
ROC
S. L
Thai. Viet
3
3
3
0
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1
2
3
1
3
0
3
2
3
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
1
0
3
2
2
2
3
2
2
1
3
3
3
1
3
0
0
1
3
0
0
1
3
2
2
1
3
1
2
1
3
1
2
2
3
2
2
2
1
3
2
3
3
1
2
3
2
3
1
1
2
1
3
1
3
3
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
2
3
3
3
1
2
3
3
3
2
3
3
3
2
2
3
2
3
3
0
2
3
Empowerment of communities
2
cooperative system/
social organization
3
training
2
3
2
2
1
1
Technology transfer
nurseries
soil management
seed procurement
logistical support
extension
1
2
2
2
3
2
2
1
2
2
2
0
3
2
2
1
1
1
0
1
2
2
3
3
2
0 = no significance; 1 = low potential; 2 = medium potential; 3 = important.
2
1
1
3
3
3
1
2
3
3
2
3
0
1
0
1
3
2
2
2
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
1
2
2
2
3
Acacias In Industrial Development
drawing on the experience of the rubber
industry and technological advances in
processing smalldiameter logs to
develop a range of composite products
tha meet international standards. The
industry is exploring new products with
its current markets and new export
markets in the Middle East and
elsewhere.
The Australian Tree Seed Centre
makes available seeds from natural
stands of acacias to research and
development efforts, and has set up seed
production areas of several acacias to
meet the growing demand and to start
genetic improvement. Similar seed
production areas have been set up in
Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand to
produce seeds for sale locally and
export.
Nonwood products also represent
important and potentially important
industries; for example, gum arabic
tapped from acacias for pharmaceutical
and other industrial uses. The uses of A.
catechu extractives for tannin, dye, and
as a traditional aftermeal digestive in
South Asian countries contribute to
several important cottage and largescale industries.
Discussion leader: Chin Y. Wong
Rapporteur: Sompetch Mungkorndin
As natural forests in the region
disappear and utilization technologies
adapt to smalldiameter logs from
plantations, fastgrowing acacias are
playing a growing role in supplying
largescale export demand. In the Asia
Pacific region, this is particularly true in
Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.
Current level of plantation forestry
using acacias
The Indonesian government has set a
target of 6.2 million ha of industrial
plantation by the year 2000; this is
independent of private industrial
planting already ongoing at a rate
approaching 20,000 ha per year in
Sumatra. A. mangium is a priority
species in both cases. For Sabah,
Malaysia, the planling targets of the
three major plantation organizations
(including a heavy reliar ,ce on Acacia
mangium) total 260,0(X)3 10,000 ha.
Thailand is also encouraging plantations,
although policy clarification is needed;
its current target is for 15% of the land
area to be 'economic forests' of fastgrowing species, including A. mangium.
Laos and Vietnam are also now entering
into largescale plantation forestry using
acacias. In Australia, however, industrial
plantations consist primarily of
eucalypts, nct acacias.
Local socioeconomic impact
Countries differ in their emphasis of
this aspect relative to site reclamation
and other objectives. In Indonesia, both
government and private sectors are
putting a major effort to rehabilitate
grasslands infested by the weed Imperata
cylindrica; this provides employment
opportunities directly or indirectly to
local peopie. In Sabah, Malaysia and the
Philippines, the concept of tree farming
has been introduced to farmers near
pulp and paper mills. Farmers are
encouraged to grow trees through free
Product development and marketing
In Indonesia, primary industrial
products from acacias are pulp, paper,
and rayon, building material, furniture,
and fuel. Laboratories in Malaysia are
9
distribution of seedlings and/or
guaranteed purchase of their harvest. On
the other hand, the Sabah Forest
Development Authority's project for
wasteland rehabilitation uses the "forest
village" concept to involve local
inhabitants,
Species and provenance trials
The main acacias currently evaluated
for block plantation in both
humid/subhumid and arid/semiarid
areas of AsiaPacific are: A. mangium,
A. auriculiformis,A. crassicarpa,A.
aulacocarpa,A. cincinnata,A. mearnsii,
A. holosericea,A. polystachya, A.
melanoxylon, A. leptocarpa,A. difficilis,
A. flavescens and A. shirleyi.. The
humid/subhumid species are being
studied mainly in Southeast Asia and the
Pacific; the semiarid acacias are mainly
evaluated in South Asia and drier parts
of Myanmar and Thailand.
So far, most trials by private industry
have focussed on A. mangium.
Companies in Sumatra, Indonesia have
identified good provenances from Papua
New Guinea, Queensland Cape York
(Australia), Irian Jaya (Indonesia), and
Sabah. The other principal acacias
being tested are A. crassicarpa,A.
auriculiformis,A. aulacocarpa,and A.
cincin.ata. The Indonesian government
has sponsored trials of these species at
various sites in :is national network since
1981, as well as of A. silver, A. oraria,
and / leptocarpa. Plus tree selection
and halfsib progeny tests are underway
there.
In Malaysia, the Forestry
Departments and private industry are
conducting species and provenance trials
of A. inangium, A. auriculiformis,A.
crassicarpa,A. aulococarpa,and A.
cincinnata.
In Thailand, government agencies
and private industry have been
evaluating more than 25 species, and as
many provenances of some of those
species, for more than 10 years.
Myanmar, Laos, and Vietnam have
begun species and provenance trials of
A. mangium, A. auriculifor'misand other
acacias more recently.
Provenance testing of the semiarid
acacias are comparatively less extensive,
although various varieties of A. nilotica
are well known.
Growth and yield
Research on growth and yield has
been conducted in most countries.
Volume tables for A. mangium and A.
auriculiformishave been developed in
Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. The
MAI for volume of acacia in3 Indonesia3
and Malaysia is about 15 m and 20 m
respectively.
Intensive management practices
Practices vary by country. In
Australia, plantation management
includes mechanical site preparation,
fertilizer application, and chemical
weeding. On the other hand, minimal
stand management is practiced in
Mvanmar and Thailar.d due to the
refatively small scale of the plantations.
In the large plantations in Indonesia
and Malaysia, provenances with many
seed parents are commonly used, and
block plantings include a number of
species to prevent rapid spread of pests
and diseases. Where a species is grown in
monoculture, a broad range of
provenances is selected and the
plantation is bounded by natural forest
reserves for the same purpose. Circle
weeding and interrow slashing are
10
usually done manually, and Lhinning,
pruning, and singling are practiced
depending on the end product. Imperata
sites demand intensive weed control,
although the return on investment is
lower than on better sites, at least at first.
Fire control measures are practiced in
the dry season.
Agroforestry practices
Intercropping of acacias with other
cash crops is being practiced in several
countries (for example, with A. mearnsii,
A. mangiurn and A. aurictdiformisin
Indonesia, and A. mangium in Malaysia).
Biotechnological research
Clonal forestry of acacias will play a
growing role in plantation forestry in the
coming years. The potential
contribution of tissue culture is not yet
clear for lack of field tests of tissuecultured plantlets vs. seedlings. Table 7
shows biotechnological research, by
certain countries.
Policies affecting industrial planting
Policies vary by country. Indonesia
and Malaysia both have strong
government plantation programs that
rely heavily on Acacia mangium for
meeting future demand. Indonesir. is
supporting this through a large program
of tree improvement research. The
Malaysian government provides
plantations with (1) tax incentives, (2)
longterm leases with slidingscale rent
rates until plantation establishment, and
(3) incentives for research and
development. In Thailand, while certain
incentives are helping, a clearer land
rights policy is needed, and fewer
bureaucratic obstacles to harvesting of
exotic species. A number of countries
like Laos and the Philippines now make
available areas for replanting to either
communities or lat'gescale growers
through longterm leases.
Table 7. Biotechnological research by four countries in the region.
Research area
Micropiopagation
A. inangium
A. auriculiformnis
natural hybrid
Isozyme studies
Chromosome studies
Molecular biology
(A. n,'telanoxy'on)
Australia
Indonesia
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Malaysia
x
x
x
x
x
Thailand
x
x
Myanmar, on the other hand, trained and
experienced researchers are in short
supply and there is an urgent need for
more technical cooperation from other
countries. In between these two
extremes are countries like Thailand,
where researchers have made good
progress in narrowing the choice of
species to suit the country's various site
conditions. In such a situation the
constraint is lack of funds and support
for further largescale field tests arid
pilot plantations.
Incentives
Most national governments offer
incentives for plantations. In Indonesia, a
levy of US$ 10 is collected from every
cubic meter 6f mixed tropical hardwood
harvested for reforestation purposes.
This fund (US$1,000/ha) is distributed to
reforestation projects over a threeyear
period.
Malaysia offers four general
incentives: (1) no land tariff is applied
to reforestation projects; (2) an
industry's development costs are not
subject to taxation during the first five
years; (3) land is leased at a low fee; and
(4) a royalty is imposed on exports of
mixed tropical hardwoods that generally
come from natural stands.
Thailand also provides a low leasing
rate. However, in response to pressure
from communities and NGOs, the
government in 1991 suspended granting
concessions for industrial plantations.
Acacias and the Environment
Discussion leader: P. Srivastava
Rapporteur: Si See Lee
In view of the large effort already
invested in research and establishiment of
acacias in the AsiaPacific region, it is
timely to consider their impact on the
environment. As noted in (he paper by
Reynaldo dela Cruz, the role of acacias
in the environment might be considered
in terms of their effects on:
ResearcL and development constraints
and needs
Scarce funding for research is a
perennial constraint in the private sector,
as is availability of germplasm for
planting and improvement. Further seed
collections of acacias are needed from
lesstested natural sources, including
sources in Irian Jaya. Field performance
of trees from stem cuttings and hybrids
require further evaluation. Nutrition
studies are needed !o assess the ability of
acacias to reclaim degraded sites (for
example, Imperata grasslands) for
cultivation of highervalue species.
In countries like Indonesia and
Malaysia, many government and private
sector agencies are involved in forestry
research. In such cases the need is for
coordination. In countries like
*
•
0
*
the soil (erosion control,
conservation of riicroflora,
nutrient storage and cycling)
water resources
conservation of carbon dioxide
(the trees' role as carbon sink)
microclimate amelioration
Table 8 shows the Group's
recommended priorities for
environmental studies under the
COGREDA umbrella. While many
acacias hold multiple benefits to growers,
there are also adverse effects associated
with planting acacias, as with any
activity. The research priorities are
therefore grouped according to
12
'Table8. Priority research topics for determining the environmental effects of acacias.
Potential Beneficial Environmental Effects
Potential Adverse Effects
Rehbilitation of catchment areas
Site degradation due to site preparation for
plantations
Soil conservation and erosion control
Adverse changes in the water ",;Ie
(aridlsemiarid areas)
Inproved fallow in shifting cultivation
Effects on hnni and animal health (e.g.,
Nutrient cycling (storage and release), and development pollen allergies)
of soil microorganism populations
Reduced biodiversity ov exforest sites
Site reclamation for: acid sulphate soils, saline
Effects of native vs. exotic acacias
alkaline soils, grasslands, sand dune stabilization,
windbreaks and firebreaks. mine spoils and tin tailings,
shallow sites, iturse ,,ropfur moredemanding species Effects of monospecific plantations
compared with mixcdspccies plantings
Urban plantings (roadsides, housing estates, sound
scrccning, shade, live fences)
Potential danger of weediness
Role as carbon sink
Allelopathic effects (for example, with
wheat)
Positive effects on the water table (humid areas)
Amelioration of microclimate
beneficial and adverse environmental
effects. The topics are not ranked as to
priority, as priorities will vary from
country to country and information on
this variation is not yet available. It was
Finally, all acacia planting projects
involving more than 1,00 ha of
plantation should be preceJed by a
formal, written environmental and
social impact assessment. Some
fell that the studies would result in more
countric
open examination of options by not
listing them in relation to srpcific
technologies, such as agroforestry.
in the region already require
this (for example, Thailand (tor more
than 2(W) ha) and Malaysia (for 500 ha
and more).
13
Future COGREDA Activities
collaborative regional research
Proposals on a range of technical
and socioeconomic topics could be
considered and funded, depending
on funding support received. Four
areas that might be supported by the
FAQ Forestry Tree Improvement
Project (FORi'IP) are:
Following the trend of the first two
COGREDA meetings, the Group looks
forward to broader participation by
geographic regions. The Group
emphasizes the rieed to distinguish
between nationial and regional problems,
as at this meetii'g: national problems
must be assessed first before shared
problems and areas of interest can be
identified for regional or subregional
collaboration.
One option for longterm continuity,
already approved by the Steering
Committee of the MPTS Research
Network, is affiliation of the group with
IUFRO as a working group. This
proposal wvs welcomed by the Group.
Over the long term, the group expressed
interest in four types of activities. The
first three are:
seed exploration, collection, and
distribution of A. mangium and A.
auriculifonnisand provenance
and progeny trials of A.
crassicarpa
• establishment of a regional seed
orchard program
*
*
further working meetings
promotion of research and
development of hybrids
promotion of clonal forestry
using proven species and their
hybrids
Future meetings could involve subgroups on more specialized topics,
such as quantitative genetics,
silviculture, and utilization,
The fourth activity suggested was to
organize a meeting with donor agencies
to gauge their interests in funding
various COGREDA initiatives.
The venue of the next meeting was
proposed to be either Indonesia or
Australia in February 1994.
monographs
Further monographs would bring
together the wide range of acacia
research on given topics. Three
species monographs were proposed
on A. auriculiformis, A. nilotica, and
A. catec'hu.
14
Acacias for Rural, Industrial, and
Environmental Development in Southern China
Zheng Haishui and Yang Zengjiang
Introduction
species began to be introduced,
including A. mangium, A. cincinnata, A.
aulacocarpa,A. crassicarpa,A.
consurrens, and A. mearnsii. A.
auriculiformis,A. nmn gitni, A.
cincinnata, A. cunninglhamii, A.
mearnsii, and A. dealbata emerged
successfully from elimination trials,
showing high adaptability, fast growth,
high yields, and multiple uses. A.
aitricuhiforn is, A. inangiun, A.
cunninglianii, and A. holosericea have
been planted on a large scale, now
covering about 60,(X)070,(XX) ha. Other
acacias are under study.
Initially, acacias were introduced as
ornamental or greening species for
planting around houses and along
roadsides and riverbanks. Later they
came to be used as wa;er and soil
conservation forests, for fuelwood and
limber plantations, or in mixed plantings
as sheiterbelts. Gradually the people in
the region have become familiar with
acacias' characteristics.
The arf'a of Southern China (below
latitude 23.5'N) covers about 480,000
km 2. Annual mean temperature is 20'C
(maximum 380 C, minimum 5°C);
annual ra!nfall is about 1,5(X) mm
mainly occurring in the rainy season
from March to July on the mainland,
and June to October on Hainan Island.
Typhoons occur frequently from August
to September, and the overuse of land,
particularly deforestation, has caused
serious soil erosion and ecological
degradation. Depletion of forest
resources has caused shortages of timber,
firewood, forage, and green manure,
Some acacias are native to Southern
China but only Acacia confusa is
suitable for poor sites. Since the 1960s,
about I(X) tree species of Acacia have
been introduced into Southern China
from Australia and Papua New Guinea,
and species elimination and provenance
trials have been established in
Guangdong, Hainan, Guangxi, Fujian,
and Yunnan provinces.
A. auriculiformis was first introduced
into the Botanic Garien of Southern
China in 1961. Experimental planta
tions were established in the Guangdong
Forestry Institute and Zhaoqing Forestry
Experiment Station in 1964. Its good
performance has attracted attention of
the local people and forestry workers
and as a result, A. auriculiformis has
been widely used in reforestation
programs since the 1970s.
At the same time, 80 other Acacia
Acacias for Rural Development
Growth Performance
Growth performance of the more
than 100 introduced Acacia species is, of
course, quite variable in Southern China.
In general, however, the mean annual
increment (MAI) of the superior speries
or provemn.,. :, is about 23.5 cm in
DBH, 1.83.8 m in tree height, and 2030 tons in biomass per ha. Tables 14
15
Table 1. Growth performance of some acacias in Ilainan province.
Species
Age Survival
(%)
(y)
DBII
(cm)
Height
(m)
Volume
(m/ha)
Biomass
(t1a)
A. cunninghamii
A. auriculiformis
5
5
72.5
74.3
8.49
8.63
10.87
11.83
93.81
91.89
99.16
110.20
A. mangiumn
A. concurrens
5
5
57.5
43.8
11.13
8.46
10.68
8.59
101.36
44.33
107.83
51.22
Table 2. Comparison of growth for five acacias at different sites, at 4 years of age.
Species
DBIl (cm)
Tree height (m)
Oionghai
Suixi
Oionghai county**
Suixi county*
Mean
Max.
Mean Max. Mean Max.
Mean Max.
A. auriculiformis
A.crassicarpa
A. aulacocarpa
4.28
6.18
3.85
4.82
6.57
5.11
A. leptocarpa
4.03
5.90
A. cincinnata
2.25
2.74
8.60
10.70
7.80
4.37
6.10
3.41
5.11
6.37
5.00
7.33
9.92
5.51
7.85
8.20
4.04
4.07
7.50
7.60
4.65
4.90
1.81
2.33
3.26
3.50
8.20
9.78
5.60
8.60
10.80
8.17
*Guangdong Province **I lainan province
timber in five years after planting. Trees
of larger diameter can he used as poles;
smaller trees can be used as live fences
and small stick; topwood and the
branches are used for firing lime, brick,
tile, pottery, and chinaware, and as fuel
for tea manufacture.
show the growth performance of some
acacias.
Acacias for Agroforestry
Introduction of acacias has been
successful but it is still early and stands
are still young; the growing habits of the
trees are not yet fully understood and
techniques for utilization are still being
developed. The major uses of acacias in
the countryside are as fuelwood, farm
tools, fertilizer, and honey.
Fertilizer
A. auriculiformisleaves in particular are
rich in nitrogen and are used as green
manure by the people of Southurn
China. Where used in fields with rice
and sweet potato, the leaves enhanced
crop yields by 810% and 20%,
respectively. In planting Pintts elliottii
plantations, the leaves were used as a
Fuelwood and timber forfarm tools
Fuelwood can be obtained from
acacias in three years, and farm tool
16
Table 3. Growth performance at 4 years of Acacia mixed with Eucalyptus in Ilainan Island.
Treat
Species ment
No.of Survival
Plants/ha (%)
Mean
D
(cm)
Mean
fit.
(m)
Biomass(t/ha)
Fuelwo(od
(pole, branch) Total
Volume
(m/ha)
A
C
AxC
3333
3333
70.5
94.5
6.22
6.35
11.03
9.80
24.37
4.40
32.1
60.5
49.17
75.53
A
C
2AxC
4444
2222
67.0
95.6
5.34
6.65
9.67
9.61
22.52
36.34
29.1
46.1
43.18
53.94
B
C
BxC
3333
3333
66.4
92.4
5.99
6.10
9.97
9.65
18.36
36.66
24.8
48.5
32.89
61.44
B
C
2BxC
4444
2222
73.3
92.4
5.21
6.27
9.28
9.28
22.49
24.20
30.3
32.5
38.56
40.60
A = Eucalvptus leizhou No. 1. B = E. exserta C = Acacia auriculiformnis. Source: Forest
Research 1(6):572.
Table 4. Biominss of Acacia mixed with Eucal.vPtus and its components, at 4 years.
Treat
Species ment
Total
biomass
Stein
kg/ha
%
Branch
kg/Ia
%
Le.af
kg/ha %
Root
kg/ha
%
A
C
AxC
32004.0
60534.2
22671.3 70.7
38144.8 63.0
1699.5 5.3
10253.4 16.9
2509.7
3079.0
7.8
5.1
5183.5
9057.0
16.2
15.0
A
C
2AxC
29063.4
46144.6
19910.1 68.5
27242.1 59.1
2007.0 9.0
9l10).2 19.7
1935.6
3440.7
6.7
7.5
4610.7
6331.6
15.8
13.7
B
C
BxC
24801.9
48485.0
17053.9 68.7
31031.4 64.0
1310.6 5.3
5633.1 11.6
1436.7
3796.2
5.8
7.8
5(X)0.7
8024.3
20.2
16.6
B
C
2BxC
29965.6
32458.3
19996.9 66.7
20505.0 63.2
2492.6 8.3
3690.2 11.4
1715.7 5.7
3308.5 10.2
5760.4
4954.6
19.3
15.3
A = Eucalyptus leizhou No. 1.B = F. exserta C = Acacia auriculformis. Source: Forest
Research 4(5):546
17
Table 5. Principal acacias used for environmental functions in southern China.
Species
A.auriculiformis
A. confusa
A. cunninghamii
A.holosericea
A. mangium
A.podalyrifolia
Soil
improvement Shade
x
x
x
Windbreak
x
x
x
x
Erosion
control
Aesthetic
value
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Fujian, and Yunnan provinces. Some
factories have been built for tannin
extraction in the center of the production area.
A confusa has been widely planted in
fuelwood plantations; its timber is
extensively used for farm tools, furniture, and house building.
basic manure, and resulted in 30%
greater tree height than control one year
after planting.
Honey
Acacia flowers are very good honey
sources. Development of bee culture is
increasing but the area planted to acacias
is still too small and scattered for largescale honey production.
Environmental Functions
Table 5 shows the main species used
in southern China for environmental
functions and their niches.
IndustrialDevelopment
A. mangium and A. holosericea now
occupy about 50,000 ha as fuelwood
plantations, timber stands, and mixed
forest. Wood processing and timber
utilization of A. auriculiformis are still
being studied. Techniques for making
pulp with A. auriculiformisand A.
mangium have been successfully
developed, but such utilization is so far
restricted by the limited availability of
harvestable timber. Most of the timber
at present is used for fuelwood, farm
tools, and furniture.
A. mearnsii has bark rich in tannin
and is now widely planted as a resource
for tannin extract in Jiangxi, Zhejiang,
Soil and Water Conservation
Because of the abundant rainfall in
Southern China, once the forest cover
was destroyed severe soil erosion
occurred immediately. For soil and water
conservation in uplands, about 20,000 ha
cf A. auriculiformisand A. holosericea
have been planted, as well as A. confusa.
In many places erosion has been
reduced by 2030%, and in Wuhua
county of Guangdong province, where
water and soil erosion was most severe,
planting of acacias reduced water and
soil losses by more than 50%.
18
Shade
Windbreaks and Shelterbelts
In coastal areas subject to typhoons,
acacias have been mixplanted with
Casuarinaby state farms and local
farmers as protective forest belt for the
protection of farmland and the rubber
tree plantation. According to one study,
these shelter belts have reduced
windthrow and windbreak of rubber
trees by 510%, saving more than five
million yuan Renminib (RMB)(1RMB =
US$0.17). In late winter and early
spring, the shelterbelts also help to
protect crops from cold damage and can
increase yields of rice (by 10%), rubber
(by 1020%), and fruit trees (10%).
Aesthetic Value
In Southern China, A. confusa was
used as a shade tree in tea gardens.
Other acacias also provide a fine
environment for growing tea. On
Hainan Island, many people build their
cattle shelters under the crown of acacia
plantations.
Soil Fertility Improvement
In Southern China, extensive land
use, especially on hiliv land and steep
slopes, resulted in severe soil and water
losses. Soils became very poor.
According to one investigation, species
ofAcacia can provide up to 510 tons of
forest litter per annum. Acacia leaves are
rich in nutrition (Table 6) and
decompose quickly, and tle roots
nodulate with symbiotic soil bacteria that
can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere
and increase soil fertility. Observations
of Acacia plantations show that after
three years the topsoii color and texture
have begun to improve. The change of
soil in different age of stand is shown in
Table 7.
People in southern China consider
that A. auriculiformis, A. mangium, A.
confusa and A. podalvriifoliahave
beautiful tree shapes and dense crowns,
They are fond of planting such trees in
their courtyards or along the sides of
their homes, along roadsides and around
the villages. They not only beautify the
environment but also provide shade for
people and livestock.
Table 6. Nutrient content (%)of litter in A. auriculiforinis and
A. mangium
Spccies
N
P
K
A. auriculiformis 1.81
A. niangiumi
2.21
0.10
0.08
Water
Ash
Rawfat Fiber
Protein Carbon
0.82
6.14
3.62
6.01
31.52
12.23
7.93
0.48
6.99
4.69
4.70
27.42
17.74
5.47
19
Table 7. Variation of nutrition in different forest soil
Treatment
Before planting
Humus Total N
3yearold
Humus Total N
6earold
Humus Total N
E. leizhou No.1
A. auriculiformis
E.+ A.
0.98
1.03
0.08
1.06
1.80
1.54
1.11
1.96
1.81
0.06
0.08
0.07
Conclusion
Acacias have been extensively
planted in various habitats in Southern
China but the exotic species are still new
to the area and many of their biological
and ecological habits are not yet well
understood. Elimination and provenance
trials should be strengthened and
research should focus on utilization of
acacia timber and its byproducts. As
the scale of acacia planting increases,
control of pests and diseases must be
taken seriously to prevent serious
problems. In these areas, we sincerely
look forward to the technical and
funding support and collaboration of
international organizations and
developed countries.
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Dr. Kamis
Awang and the other organizers of this
meeting for the opportunity to present
this paper, and the U.N. Food and
Agriculture Organization for providing
financial support.
0.04
0.09
0.07
0.07
0.09
0.08
Long Dong, Guangzhou 510520,
Peoples Republic of China.
References
Pan Zhigang and Yang Minquan. 1986.
Australian Acacias in the People's Republic
of China. In AustralianAcacias in
Developing Countries, ed. J.W. Turnbull;
136138. ACIAR Proceedings No. 16.
Canberra: ACIAR.
Yang Minquan, Bai Jiayu and Zeng Yutian. 1989.
Tropical Australian acacia trials on lainan
Island, People's Republic of China. In Trees
for the Tropics: Growing Australian
Multipurpose Trees and Shrubs in
Developing Countries, ed. D.J. Boland; 8996. ACIAR Monograph No. 10. Canberra,
Australia: ACIAR.
Zheng Ilaishui and Cai Mantang. 1988.
Promising nitrogen fixing tree species for
fuelwood in Southern China. In Multipurpose Tree Production S'ystems. Joint
IHFRO P1.0900 and International Poplar
Commission, FAt, Adhoc Committee on
Biomass Production Systems Workshop, ed.
C.P. Mitchell; 9395. Beijing, China.
Zheng llaishui, Cai Mantang and lIe Kejing.
1988. Stt,dy of silvicultural techniques of
fast growing fuelwood crops in Tropical
China. InMultipurpose Tree Production
Systems, ed. C.P. Mitchell; 9698. Beijing,
Zheng Ilaishui and Yang Zengjiang are
with the Research Institute of Tropical
Forestry Chinese Academy of Forestry,
China.
20)
Acacias for Rural, lndusrial, and
Environmental Development in India
B.S. Nadagoudar
Introduction
upper Himalayan region. A. catechu is
found in the tropical region of the
Garhwal Himalyas (Uttar Pradesh)
comprising Doon Valley and Shiwalik
ranges up to 1,290 m elevation.
Evergreen or semievergreen deciduous
forests characterize this area (Paliwal
1988; Gupta 1986). In the natural
forests of Bundelkhand region (Uttar
Pradesh), the different acacias found are
A. catechu, A. leticophloea, and A.
nilotica (Srivastava 1981).
A. nilotica and A. senegal are
important among other tree species of
arid zone of Rajasthan in the north
(Solanki et al. 1990). A. nilotica, A.
leticophioea and A. planifrons are
common in peninsular plains of India
(up to 650 m altitude).
Acacias are important indigenous
species throughout India, particularly in
arid and semiarid areas. In rural areas,
acacias are used for fuelwood, fodder,
small limber, agricultural implements,
rural house construction, tannin
extraction, tooth brushes, gum as human
food, ayurvedic medicines, and
shampoo. In industry, they are used
mainly for tannin in leather dying and,
in the case of A. catecht, as an edible
product katha. There is also some use
for timber. Acacias are particularly
important in India's drive to recover
wastelands and provide fuelwood. This
paper attempts to illustrate the role of
acacias in rural, industrial and
environmental development in India.
Table I lists the 18 most commonly
found Acacia species in India.
Environmental Development with
Acacias
Distribution
Acacias help to protect wastelands
from being further degraded and
tolerate industrial pollution.
Indigenous acacias are found
throughout India, except in the mid and
21
'Fable 1. Common acacia species in India.
Scientific name
Common names (language)
A. albida
African kikar (Hindi)
A. auriculifornis
Bangali jyali or haladi meese (Yellow mustach) (Kannada), bangali babul,
sona jhuri, (Hindi), Akashmoni (Bengali)
A. canophylla
Blue wattle (English)
A. catechu
Kachu, kaggali (Kannada), cutch, khair (Hindi, Marathi & Punjabi), khadira
(Sanskrit), kachu, kadiramu, sundra (Telagu), kadiram, karungalli (Tamil),
kadori (Marathi), khayar (Bengali), kheriobaval (Gujarathi), khoiru
(Oriya), khoria (Assamee)
A. concina
Seege (Kannada), shikakai (Hindi)
A. dealbata
Exotic silver wattle (English) pahadi babool (Hindi)
A. decurrens
Peek jyali (Kannada), green and silver wattle (English), hara babul (Hindi)
A.farnesiana
Exotic cassie flower (English), gandh babul, dar babul (Hindi)
A.ferruginea
Banni (Kannada), shami (Sanskrit), khor (Hindi), ansandra (Telagu), kaigu,
khaiger (Gujarathi), khair, pandhra (Marathi), velvelam (Tamil)
A. leucophloea
Bela or toppale or bili jyali (Kannada), safed babul, saefed kikar, raunj,
rhea, rinj (Hindi), reru (Punjabi), arunjroong (Rajastl:ni), haribaval
(Gujarathi), hewar, runj, orinja (Marathi), patacharyamaram (Malayalam),
safed babul (Bengali), tellatumma (Telagu), velvayalam (Tamil), vilayati
babul (Hindi Madhya Pradesh)
A. mnearnsii
Exotic black wattle (English)
A. inelanoxylon
Exotic Australian black wood (English), kali lakadi (Hindi)
A. modesta
Phulahi (Punjabi,, phulai (Hindi)
A. nilotica
Kari jyali, gobbli (Kannada), babul, kikar desi, kikar (Hindi, Punjabi), godi
babul, vedi babul, babhul (Marathi), babla (Bengali), balsari,, baval
(Gujarathi), baubra, bambuda (Oriya), karuvelamaram, karuvelei (Tamil,
karuvelun, khadiram (Malayalam), nellatumna, tLmma (Telagu)
A. nilotica
var. cupressiforinis
Ramakati (Hindi)
A. planifrons
Kode mul~u (Kannada), udai (Hindi)
A. tortillis
Israeli babul, Israeli kikar (Hindi)
Hire jyali (Kannada), kumata, kheri (Hindi), kumta (Rajasthani and Punjabi),
goradiobabul (Gujarathi), khor (Punjabi), svetkhadira (Sanskrit)
122
A. senegal
Table 2. Recommended acacias for different types of degraded lands.
Species
Coastal, Saline
sandy soils soils
A. auriculifonnis
A. nilotica
A. tortilis
A.catechu
A. !eucophloea
A. mearnsii
A. albida
A. farnesiana
A. pennatula
x
x
x
Clayey
soils
Ravines Uplands
Dry
S"dic
areas soils
Alkaline
soils
Waterlogged
soils
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x*
x
x
x
x
x
X
x
x
*va'. cupressiformis
Sources: lHegde (1988), Tyagi (1986), Pathak (1988), and Jain (1984), Vimal
and Tyagi (1986), Yadav (1981), Gosh (1984)
Role in Wasteland Development
tortilis are recommended for
development of arid and semiarid
wastelands (Tokey and Chaudhary
1987). In social forestry plantations, A.
nilotica and A. auriculiformisare used in
barren lands of Madhya Pradesh (Prasad
and Chadhar 1990).
A. t.'rtilis and A. canophylla with
grasses are few examples of most viable
silvipastoral systems in shifting sanddune areas (Tokey 1988). For
afforestation of semiarid tracts with
partial shifting sand dunes A. nilotica,A.
tortilis are more promising.
Development of wastelands (saline,
alkaline, waterlogged, and highly eroded
soils; ravines; degraded forests; steeply
sloping areas) is a priority issue in India.
In 1985, when the National Wasteland
Development Board was established, the
Government planned to reforest nearly 5
million ha ot wasteland every year.
Acacias are playing a large role in this
effort (Tab* 2).
In calc, eous soils (alfisols) under
arid conditions (Jhansi), A. tortilis
survives better than A. nilotica (Anon.
1988a; Pathak and Gupta 1990).
Summarizing studies at the Central
Arid Zone Research lnr:titute (CAZRI),
Shankarnarayan and Dass (1986) note
that A. tortilisis very hardy, can
withstand harsh climates, and is bet for
fuelwood in Western Rajasthan. Fuel
yield varies from 4053 ions per ha (air
dried) after 12 years. A costbenefit
ra'io of 1:2 has been observed in entire
plintations.
A. albida, A. auricidiformis,A.
mearnisii, A. senegal, A. seyal, and A.
Soil Improvement and Conservation
Trces improve soil fertility by
adding organic matter and releasing
nutrients through litter fall. A. senegal
was found to increase organic carbon of
surface soil by 93% and nitrogen by
95% in deserl soils (Agarwal and Lahiri
1977).
Studies made in vertisols of
Karnataka, India, have shown that a strip
of trees acr(.ss a slop considerably
reduces runoff. Rainwater runoff loss
was least when A. auriculifortmiswas
23
extracted from A. catechu is edible one
and is eaten as an astringent along with
betelvine leaves and areca nut. A small
piece of catechu (tannin) is used with
cinnamon and nutmeg to treat
toothaches and loss of voice.
Information on acacias' commercial
exploitation for industrial timber is also
scanty.
used, followed by A. nilotica and A.
catechu (Itnal 1986).
A. nilotica appears to improve soil
properties (soil pH, EC, organic carbon,
available N and P20 5 ; cation exchange
capacity, or CEC; bulk uensity; and field
capacity) more quickly than A. tortilis
(Hazra 1990).
Tolerance of Industrial Pollution
Rural Development
Degraded environment, air and water
pollution, and acid rain have been highly
debated issues around the world since
the 1980s. Although industrialization
has many benefits, effluents released in
manufacturing processes are hazardous
to both biotic and abiotic components of
the ecosystem. Finding a balance
between a modern industrial
environment and a healthy natural
environment involves a search for
pollutionresistant tree species. A.
nilotica finds a place in the list of
pollutiontolerant species prepared by
Sharma et al. (1987), ant. Acacia spp.
more broadly have been cited by
Sharma (1984).
At the Centre for Application of
Science and Technology for Rural
Development (CASTFORD) in Pune,
Maharashtra, A. auriculiformis
performed well with 95% survival using
sewage water for irrigation (Das and
Kaul 1992). Other species
recommended for waste water or
industrial effluents are A. mangium, A.
nilotica spp indica, and A. tortilis
Like in many developing countries,
firewood is the major source of energy
in Indian households, accounting for
nearly 80% of energy use. in Tamil
Nadu, in southern India, three acacias
contribute nearly 35% of all the annual
fuelwood requirements (4.88 metric
tons): A. nilotica (23%), A. planifrons
(7%), and A. leucophloea
(5%)(Venugopal 198)).
AgroforestrY Practices
Agroforestry in various forms has
long been practiced by farmers in India.
Traditionally, farmers use acacias
(particularly in vertisols of arid and
semiarid zones) along field borders,
bunds, in wastelands, and along streams
and river banks. According to Singh
(1990), farmers in Madhya Pradesh
prefer to grow A. nilotica on bunds and
field borders; after live years, they
remove the side branches every year for
sheep and goat fodder, fuel, field
fencing, and agricultural implements.
On an average each tree yields about
400 kg per year.
In the 3undelkhand region of Uttar
Pradesh, A. nilotica accounts for nearly
40% of the trees found in farmers' fields.
In dry areas only 8 trees pei oa are seen
as against 14.5 trees in irrigated areas
Industrial Uses
Tannin extracted from acacias is
used in the leather industry, but specific
Information on their tannin quantity,
quality, and uses is lacking. Tannin
24
(Tiwari and Sharma 1990).
In the evergreen forests of Sikkim,
Eastern Himalaya, acacias are not found
either in natural forests or in traditional
agroforestry system,. Instead, large
cardamom (Amomum subulatum) a
traditional plantaticn crop, is grown
(Venugopal 1986).
produces leaves and .'ds for fodder
(Anon 1988). Although that report
observes that its shade slightly reduces
the total forage prduction by the
grasses and legumes, Shankarnarayan
(1984) claims that the species does not
affect grass yields
A. tortihs also forms an important
component of silvipastoral systems in
uncultivable wastelands (very poor soils
and low rainfall) of Bihar. There,
fuelwood yield at 6 years was 22.69 tons
per ha; fodder yield was 0.91 tons per ha
(Srivastava 1986).
Role in Recommended Agroforestry
Practices
Recommendations based on research
results suggest that A. nilotica grown on
an eightyear rotation along field
boundaries assures good profit to the
farmer (Pathak 1988).
Wind and Soil Protection
Arid regions of India experience
high winds during the postmonsoon
period (7.3 km/hr in December, up to 20
km/hr in May), causing damage to
standing field crops. In terms of wind
resistancc, Tewari et al. (1989) grade
acacias as A. tortilis > A. nilotica > A.
senegal.
For agroforestry systems designed to
improve soil productivity and land
sustainability. A. ferrugineaat low
densities is found to increase the yield of
undercrop significantly (Nadagoudar
1990; Sin~gh and Osman 1987).
In Gujarat, under sandy saline soil
conditions A. nilotica performed better
than A. auriculiformis while in Karnataka
under shallow gravelly soils over basaltic
rock A. auriculiformiswas better. In
loamy sands of Maharashtra (Pune) A.
nilotica var. cupressiformis performed
better (Hegde ct al. 1990).
In red soils of Bundelkhand (Uttar
Pradesh) for silvipastoral systems, A.
tortilis again appears to be better suited
than other species based on its survival
(98.6%) and overall assessment (Singh
and Pathak 1990). In the arid areas of
Rajasthan, also, the species holds promise
o.a wide range of soils and rainfall, and
Silvipastoral
In silvipastoral systems, critical
appraisal of the treegrass compatibility
is essential for a viable system. In
Avikanagar (Rajasthan), A. nilotica
yields 6.56 kg top feed per tree with two
cuts a year (Sabnis et al. 1989).
Palatability ratings for leaves are higher
in A. nilotica than A. senegal.
In silvipastoral systems for
wastelands, A. tortilis,A. senegal, A.
albida,A. niiotica (var. cupressiformis)
are promising in arid western plains of
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarath and
semiarid regions of Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka. A. nilotica gave
a benefit:cost ratio of 1.56 in
silvipastoral systems in highly eroded
ravines of the arid zone
(l)hruvanarayana and Ram Babu 1984).
For arid areas, )eb Roy et al. (1980)
also suggest A. tortiliswith grasses
(Cenchrus ciliaris,Lasiurns sindicus)
and legumes (Atylesia sp. and Siratro ).
A. tortilissurvives better than other tree
species, with higher mean annual height,
collar diacter and dbh increment, and
25
shown that A. nilotica can yield 30 tons
ovendry biomass per ha at 18 months,
and 85 tons per ha at 36 months; A.
tortilis yielded only 18 tons per ha at 18
months and 87 tons per ha at 36 months
(Ukkira Moorthy and Swaminathan
1986). Under semiarid conditions, after
10 years of planting A. tortiliscan yield
up to 12 tons wood per ha (Desai and
Patil 1986).
With regard to calorific value of fire
wood as observed in Rajasthan: A.
tortilis gives 4,333 kcal per kg and a
mean annual increment (MAI) for
height of 95.7 cm; A. nilotica spp indica
gives 4267 kcal per kg, with height MAI
of 89.8 cm (Dass and Shankamarayan
1984).
on a wide range of soils and rainfall, and
for a wide range of purposes (social
forestry, village fire wood and fodder
plantati s, dune stabilization, shelterbelt
plantations)(Bhati 1984; Son 1984;
Muthana 1984).
For Punjab, Sidhu (1986)
recommended A. catechu, A. nilotica, A.
modesta, A. tortilisand A. auriculiformis
as suitable species for agroforestry in
different agroclimatic zones.
Diversity of Ground Vegetation under
Acacias
In plantations and natural
regeneration, mixtures of different
species provide a wider range of benefits
and biomes. In sevenyearold
plantations, A. auriculiformishad a
ground flo'a of an average of six
species; the highest number of species
per square meter was obtained with
Grevellea robusta (15) and the lowest
was with Eucalyptus tereticornis
(3)(Bhaskar and Dasappa 1986).
Forage production and ground flora
are both important for a successful
silvipastoral system. Although the
ground flora was in no way inferior
under A. senegal (Agarwal et al. 1976),
forage production was very low (Ahuja
et al. 1978).
Role in Apiculture
Acacias play a role in honey
production also. A. auriculiformisand
A. catechu have nectar and pollen
ratings of N3 and P3; A. senegal has N2
P2 ratings (Mishra 1988; Mishra and
Kumar 1987).
Wood Properties of Some Acacias
Anatol.ny is a helpful tool for
understanding the economic utility of
timber, in addition to phylogeny and
physiological processes. A. nilotica has
approximately three times more
heartwood than sapwood at age 9.5 years
(Kaushik et al. 1984). The wood is
composed of wood fibers and less
moisture throughout the year (Ghouse
and Iqbal 1982), making it suitable for
firewood and agricultural implements.
Wood properties of acacias require
further study to make the trees more
useful.
Bioenergy Production
In energy plantations, close planting
and early harvesting is a purposive
method known as "shortrotation
forestry." Species like A. auriculiformis,
A. nilotica,A. senegal and A. tortilis can
be used in bioenergy production
(Vimal and Tyagi 1984). Studies in
Tamil Nadu (assured rainfall area) have
26
Tree Improvement
Agroforestry Research under ICAR
Provenance tests are a part of tree
improvement work and involve
screening the available range of natural
genetic variation in a species to
determine the best material for use and
breeding at a specific site. In a study at
Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh), A. niltica ssp.
indica from Banaskantha (Gujarat)
showed better height, diameter, number
of nodes and branch length than other
provenances from Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh (Shivkumar and Banerjee
1986).
In 1983, the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) started a
large agroforestry research program,
coordinated throughout the country.
ICARsupported work is now in progress
at 31 locations in 5 regions. As seen in
Table 3, one or another of the
indigenous Acacia species is being tested
in every region except for the
Himalayan region (comprising Jammu
Kashimir, Himachal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Sikkim, Manipur, Assam and parts of
Uttar Pradesh)(Anon. 1990, 1992).
Table 3. Acacias studied in the AllIndia Agroforestry Research Programme.
Region
States included
Acacias studied
Gangetic plains
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
A. nilotica,A. catechu,A. auriculiformis
Humid and
subhumid
Tripura, Orissa, West Bangal
and Southern Bihar
A. auriculiformis
Arid and
semiarid
Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujrat,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh and Southern
Utta Pradesh
A. nilotica,A. leucophloea, A.tortilis,
A. senegal
Tropical Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil A. leucophloea, A. planifrons,
Nadu, Coastal and Eastern
A. auriculiformis,A. nilotica
Maharashtra, Andaman and Nicobar
Agroforestry have started germplasm
collection and tree improvement of
acacias, in addition to management of
acacias in agroforestry systems.
Even in the Himalayan region, where
acacias do not do well, A. auriculiformis
is promising among 4 species tested at
Jorhat (Assam) and 16 species tried at
Shillong (Meghalaya)(Anon. 1992), and
has been found suitable for different
agroforestry systems in Meghalaya
(Chauhan and Dhyani 1990).
In addition to the ICAR work on
agroforestry systems, research on
germplasm collection and improvement
is also in progress at the following
centers:
Discussion Notes
Comment: Regarding germplasm
improvement, note the need to improve
exotic species as well as indigenous ones.
For example, A. auriculiformishas
deteriorated in some stands in Itdia.
Further collection from the native ranges
of desired species would be desirable.
" Mettupalayarn (Tamil Nadu) A.
leucophloea
" Parbhani (Maharashtra) A. nilotica
var. cupressiformis
" Rahuri (Maharashtra) and Ludhiana
(Punjab) A. nilotica
" Agartala (Tripura) A.
auriculiformis
" Fatehpur (Uttar Pradesh) A. tortilis
Question: Are any other acacias
besides A. catechu used in ayurvedic
medicine?
Answer:
No.
Q: In the reforestation of semiarid and
arid areas, are end uses considered?
A: Yes, fuelwood being the priority use,
followed by soil conservation and
fodder.
Summary
Acacias play a large role in Indian
agriculture and other landbased
biological activities. The 20 most
commonly seen species include A.
nilotica, A. tortilhs, A. catechu, A.
leucophloea and A. planifrons An
exotic species, A. auriculiformisis
becoming common. They play
important role in wasteland development,
agroforestry, soil improvement and
conservation, apiculture, bioenergy
production, and are environmentfriendly. Research is needed on wood
properties and preservation, and tree
improvement of indigenous species.
With the support of Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, agroforestry
research centers of the AflIndia Co
ordinated Research Project on
Comment: It is interesting that A.
auriculiformisappears to do well on
saline soils; in Pakistan it has not
performed well on saline soil.
Q: Is there any information on the
extent of existing use for nonwood
uses? Or on the involvement of
communities in treeplanting?
A: Regarding your first question, no, I
have no information on amounts of
sheep and goat fodder used. On your
second question: social forestry and its
programs in India are now more than 10
years old. Locally preferred species are
pianted in common lands by the
28
communities. In plantations, Forest
Department staff plant the seedlings and
turn management over to local people,
who receive one half of the profit from
the tree harvest. The other half goes to
the Government.
and ecological changes under five twelveyearold desert tree species of western
Rajasthan. Indian Forester 102(12):853872.
Ahuja, L.D., C.M.Verma, S.K. Sharma, and T.R.
Lamba. 1978. Range management studies
on the contribution of ground storey (grass)
in afforested areas in arid regions. Annals of
Arid Zone, vol. 3: 304?10.
Anonymous. 1988. Sixth Annual Report of
IDRC Silvipasture OperationalResearch
Projectfor Bundelkhand Region. Jhansi,
India: Indian Grassland and Fodder Research
Institute.
Anonymous. 1988a. IGFRI Annual Report.
Jhansi, India: Indian Grassland and Fodder
Research Institute.
Anonymous. 1990. Proc. IV Biennial Workshop
Q: Is A. arabica a synonym for A.
nilotica?
A: Yes.
Q: I gather that A. mangium is not
important in India? Any work on its
hybridization?
A: Generally, the species demands too
much moisture for wide use in India.
Paper mills in the South (the more
humid area of the country) are doing
some work with A. mangium. But I
know of no systematic analysis of its
hybridization.
and Symposium on Agroforestry. New
Delhi: ICAR.
Anonymous. 1992. ICAR Annual Progress
Report (1990.91). New Delhi: ICAR.
Bhaskar, V. and B. Dasappa. 1986. In
Eucalyptus in India - Past, Present and
Future, eds. J.K. Sharma, C.S. Nair, S.
Kedarnath and S. Kondas; 213224. New
Delhi: ICAR.
Bhati, T.K. 1984. Grasscomponent in silvipastoral systems with special reference to
Indian arid zone. In Agroforestry in Arid and
SemiArid Zones, ed. K.A. Shankarnarayan;
150155. Jodhpur, India: Central Arid Zone
Research Institute.
Chauhan, D.S. and S.K. Dhyani. 1990.
Multipurpose trees suitable for agroforestry
systems in Meghalaya. In Multipurpose Tree
Species for Agroforestry Systems, eds. P.S.
Pathak, R. Debroy and P. Singh; 4952.
Jhansi, India: Range Management Society
of India.
Das, D.C. and R.N. Kaul. 1992. Greening
wastelands through wastewater. Delhi:
National Wastelands Development Board.
Dass, H.C. and K.A. Shankarnarayan. 1984.
Plant resources for wastelands of Rajasthan
for bioenergy. In Proc. BitoEnergy Society
Q: What is the importance of nonwood
products for rural communities in
economic terms?
A: Because most of this information is
in the form of unaccounted trade, there
is no systematic account to date.
B.S. Nadagoudar is Senior Scientist
Agroforestry, University ofAgricultural
Sciences, Dharwad 580005, India.
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32
Tree Improvement of Acacia mangium for
Industrial Forest Plantation Development in Indonesia
Hendi Suhaendi
Introduction
Industrial forest plantation
development is a priority program in
Indonesia, in accordance with efforts to
increase the potential of production
forest areas. The main objectives are to
provide a stable and longterm supply of
raw materials for wood and wood
working industries, wider employment
opportunities, and increased foreign
exchange. For the 15year period that
began in 1984, the government has
planned to establish a total area of 6.2
million ha. With existing forest
plantations, largely on Java, amounting
to about 1.8 million ha, this means that
4.4 million ha are to be established by
1999/20(X). The total annual yield at the
harvest time is expected to be 90 million
n1 3 per year (based on assumed
productivity or mean annual increment
of 15 m3/ha/year).
For this intensive effort, highly
productive forest stands need to be
established, requiring highquality
seed/propagules/planting materials and
intensive silvicultural practices. The
former can be obtained from a series of
tree improvement activities.
Acacia maniwni Willd. is a priority
species for the Industrial Forest
Plantation program, since it grows in
Indone.0,i in natural forests as well as
plantations. Its main industrial uses are
for (1)pulp, paper and rayon, (2)
building material and furniture, and (3)
energy.
This paper presents tree
33
improvement activities of the Industrial
Forest Plantation development on Acacia
mangium.
Distribution
Acacia mangium grows naturally in
eastern Indonesia, in Maluku and Irian
Jaya. In Maluku, it is found in Trangan
and Ngaiber (Aru Island), Sula, Taliabu
and Tege islands, Kairatu and Waesalam
(Scram Island) and the southern part of'
Maluku. In Irian Jaya, it is found in
Manokwari, Sedai, along the Digul River,
Fakfak, and Merauke (Sindusuwarno
and Utomo 1980). As a priority
industrial plantation species, A. mangium
has been planted widely in Sumatra, Java,
Kalimantan, and Sulawesi.
The National Tree Improvement
Program
Early in 1990, the Forest Research and
Development Centre (FRI)C) in Bogor,
one of two Centres under the Agency for
Forestry Research and Development
(AFRD), drew up a National Tree
Improvement Program for Supporting
Industrial Forest Plantation Development
in Indonesia (Suhaendi 1990). Its
objectives of the program are to:
(i) increase the productivity of
industrial forest plantations and
improve the quality of forest
products through the supply of
highquality seeds/propagules/
planting materials of selected, fast
growing and highly productive
tree species suitable on sites
throughout Indonesia
UGM began another acacia trial testing
four species at Wanagama I, Yogyakarta,
in 1984. A. mangium grew the fastest,
with an average height at two years of
7.9 m, followed by A. auriculiformis
(4.6 m), Acacia silver (4.1), and Acacia
oraria(2.6m)(Hardiyanto et al. 1992).
At Subanjeriji, Palembang, South
Sumatra, combined species and
provenance trials (five provenances of A.
mangium, one provenance of A.
crassicarpa,one provenance of A.
cincinnata, and two provenances of A.
auriculiformis)were begun by the
Directorate General of Reforestation and
Land Rehabilitation (DGRLR) in
December 1983. The trials used a
randomized complete block design with
ten blocks, nine treatments
(provenances), and fourtree plots per
seedlot (PT Inhutani 1 1990). These
combined trials have not yet been
evaluated.
The Centre for Reforestation
Technology (CTRB) in Banjarbaru,
South Kalimantan, under AFRD, has also
conducted species trials in pure Imperata
cylindrica (alangalang) sites since the
19861987 planting season. One year
after planting (Vuokko and Hadi 1988),
the promising species were A. mangium,
A. auriculiformis,A. crassicarpa,A.
leptocakpa, Paraserianthesfalcataria,
Anthocephalus chinensis, Cassia siamea,
Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Gmelina
arborea,and Leucaena leucocephala.
Two years after planting (Hadi and
Adjers 1989), the most promising
species were A. crassicarpa,A.
mangium, A. leplocarpa,A. cincinnata,
A. auriculiformis, and Paraserianthes
falcataria.
Two years after planting (Hadi et al.
1990). Acacia spp., Cassia siamea,and
Gmelina arboreacan be planted on
(2) coordinate all tree improvement
research in Indonesia
To fulfill these objectives, the
following research has been proposed:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
species trials
provenance trials
selection of plus trees
halfsib progeny tests
establishment of seed orchards
and clone banks
phenological studies and
controlled pollination
conventional vegetative
propagation techniques
tissue culture techniques
isozyme analysis
breeding for pest and disease
resistance
Tree Improvement
Species Trials
Matching species and sites is the first
stage in successful plantation
establishment. Species trials provide
basic information on which this decision
can be made. In late 1983, the
University of Gadjah Mada (UGM)
established fuelwood species trials in
Patiayam, Central Java. These trials
tested 23 species, including A. mangium
and A. auriculiformis. At three years of
age, both A. auriculiformisand A.
mangium had good height and diameter
growths (Table 1). The calorific values
of the wood from this trial still need to
be determined.
34
Table 1. Growth of the bestperforming 15 species in fuelwood species
trial at Patiayam, Central
j'fy .tthree years.
Rank Species
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Sesbania grandiflora
Eucalyptus urophylla
Gmnelina arborea
Acacia auriculiformis
Acacia inangium
Eucalyptus alba
Eucalyptus deglupta
Cassiasiamea
Gliricidiasp.
Leucaena leucocephalaK72
Leucaena leucocephala K67
Leucaena leucocep/hala K29
Sarnanea saman
14.
Adenanthera sp.
15.
Albizia procera
Height
Diameter
(i)
(cm)
9.4
9.3
9.0
8.3
8.0
7.9
7.9
7.6
7.2
6.7
6.6
6.5
5.7
14.1
10.9
20.2
10.5
9.1
9.9
9.5
9.5
8.3
9.4
9.4
9.4
8.7
5.6
9.4
5.5
Source: Ilardiyanto et al. (1992)
alang sites, with less intensive weeding
than required for Paraseriantihes
falcataria.
8.4
with the Morylyan Bag, Queensland
provenance performing best (33.4 cm),
and the Iriomo River, PNG worst (17.8
cm). All provenances showed multistem
growth. Still, each provenance also had
singlestem individuals (Hardiyanto et al.
1992).
Research from CTRBAFRD in
Banjarbaru showed that the best
provenance for Riam Kiwa (Banjarbaru)
was Claudie River (Queensland), which at
2.5 years old reached an average height
of 11.1 m with mean annual increment
(MAI) of 38 m 3/ha/year; the worst
provenance was SangaSanga (East
Kalimantan), wiich at the same age
attained 7.5 m, with MAI of 11.1
m3/ha/year. At 5 years, the Claudie River
provenance reached 20.0 m (MA'I 58
m3 /ha/year), while SangaSanga was only
Provenance Trials
Provenance trials of A. mangium
have also been established, especially by
AFRD, DGRLR, the State Forest
Enterprises, and 1he University as
presented in Table 2. In general, the
trials in Table 2 have not yet been.
evaluated. The trial at Wap.agama I (no.
6), containing 12 provenances (Papua
New Guinea3, Queealsland7, and
Indonesia2) showcd no differences in
height and diameter growth among
provenances at 17 months (Na'iem et al.
1985). At six years, only diameter
growth showed significant differences,
35
HalfSib Progeny Test
12.7 m (MAI 17.5 m3/ha/year)(Schildt
1992).
Other tests in Banjarbaru showed that
at 35 months, provenances from Papua
New Guinea showed height growth of
14.9 m with MAI of 43 m3/ha/year, and
the SubanjerijiPalembang provenance
grew only 13.1 in(MAI of 27
m 3/ha/year)(Schildt 1992).
A provenance trial in Nanga Pinoh
(no. 7) containing 14 provenances, all
from Queensland, showed that at 3 years
height did not show any significant
differences among provenances.
Differences in diameter, however, were
significant. Another provenance trial in
Riam Kiwa (no. 8) using 30 provenances
(Queensland16, Maluku2, Irian
Jaya3, Sabah4, and East
Kalimantan2) showed that differences
among provenances for both height and
diameter were nonexistent at two years
(Hardiyanto et al. 1992).
Selection of Plus Trees
The first halfsib progeny test,
containing 30 openpollinated families,
was begun by PT INHUTANI I in
Rebang Ds., Lampung Province, in 1987,
using a randomized complete block
design with five blocks (replications), 30
families and 5line tree plots (Suhaendi
1991).
Another halfsib progeny test,
containing 200 openpollinated families,
was conducted by the Centre for Seed
Technology under AFRD in Parung
Paniang, about 70 km from Bogor. A
randomized complete block design was
used with 7 blocks, 200 families, and 5line tree plots. Planting was done in
February 1992 at a spacing of 3 x 3 m.
Other halfsilb progeny tests of Acacia
spp. have been carried out by UGM in
Wanagama I, Yogyakarta.
Establishment of Seed Orchardand
Clone Banks
For seedling seed orchards and
clonal seed orchards, the following have
been selected:
An evaluation of halfsib progeny tests
containing 30 openpollinated families
in Rebang Ds, Lampung showed that the
genetic inheritance pattern of total
height is very strong, with this character
controlled by genetic factors as much as
77% at 0.5 years and 86% at 1.5 years
(Suhaendi 1991). By contrast, the
genetic inheritance pattern of stem
diameter proved very weak, as much as
89% (0.5 years) and 96% (1.5 years)
environmentally controlled. It seems
that total height could be used as a
roguing criterion to convert a halfsilb
progeny test plantation into a seedling
seed orchard.
(1) 145 plus trees in Subanjeriji
plantation forest, South Sumatra
(PT Inhutani 1 1988)
(2) 55 plus trees in Benakat
plantaition forest, South Sumatra
(Salim 1992, pers. comm.).
(3) 35 plus trees in Banjarbaru
plantation, South Kalimantan
(Faidil 1992, pers. comin.).
Selection of plus trees in natural
forests has not yet been c ..rried out.
36
Table 2. Some A. mangium provenance trials established in Indonesia.
No.
Year of
planting
Location
Number of provenances
and replications
Executing
agencies
3 provenances
5 replication
DGRLR and
PT Inhutani I
1.
80/81
2.
81/82
Subanjeriji
4 provenances
DGRLR and PT Inhutani I
3.
82/83
Subanjeriji
3 provenances
DGRLR and PT Inhutani I
4.
83/84
Subanjeriji
5 provenances
10 replications
DGRLR and
PT Inlutani I
5.
84/85
Subanjeriji
12 provenances
4 replications
DGRLR and
PT Inhutani I
6.
83/84
Wanagama I
(Yogyakarta)
i2 provenances
UGM
7.
85/86
Nanga Pinoh
14 provenances
(West Kalimantan)
8.
86/87
Riam Kiwa
30 provenances
(South Kalimantan) 4 replications
9.
88/89
Riam Kiwa
4 provenances
4 replications
CTRBAFRD
10.
88/89
Benakat
5 provenances
3 replications
CTRBeAFRD
6 provenances
5 replications
Perhutani
Subanjeriji
(South Sumatera)
(South Sumatera)
11.
88/89
Majalengka
(West Java)
DGRLR
CTRBAFRD
DGRLR = Directorate General of Reforestation and Land Rehabilitation; PT. Inhutani = A State Forest
Enterprise, working outside Java; UGM = University of Gadjah Mada; CTRBAFRD = Centre for
Reforestation Technology inlBanjarbaru. under the Agency for Forestry Research and Development;
CTRIBeAFRD = Centre for Reforestation Technology in Benakat; Perhutani = Perum Perhutani, a state
forest enterprise (public enterprise), working especially in Java. Sources: PT Inhutani (1990/1991)
and Suhaendi (1992)
37
was faster, with many starting to flower
before one year of age.
Under the supervision of Dr. Garth
Nikles from the Queensland Forest
Research Institute, Queensland Forest
Service, an excellent seed orchard will be
established in Banjarbaru, South
Kalimantan, by CTRBAFRD. Figure 1
shows the flow chart of planned seed
orchard development.
The establishment of clone banks
has just begun.
Conventional Vegetative Propagation
Vegetative propagation by air layering
carried out by FRDC using plus trees in
Subanjeriji yielded only 30% success,
due to problems in implementation and
the scarcity of skilled climbers.
However, vegetative propagation through
air layering seems to be cf limited
application in establishment of largescale clonal forestry, since only a limited
number of airlayered materials can be
produced from each tree.
An alternative to air layering is
micropropagation of explants, especially
by tissue culture.
Vegetative propagation
(macropropagation) tested by FRDC is
attempting to fos.er sprouting by
girdling (in which the cambium is
partially removed) close to the ground
level. Preliminary results show that this
species sprouted vigorously, and on the
bottom part of partly removed cambium
sprouted abundantly, and could be used
as rooted cutting materials. The sprout
produced is juvenile, so for better sucess
and survival IBA hormone is applied at
suitable concentrations. This technique
has proven successful at P.T. lndah
Kiat's concession in Pekanbaru, Riau
Province.
Controlled pollination between Acacia
mangium x Acacia auriculiformis
continues at FRDC and SEAMEO
BIOTROP, both in Bogor, but the result
is not yet satisfactory.
PhenologicalStudies and Controlled
Pollination
Djapilus and Adjie (1992) have
obser'ed flower morphology and
fruiting of Acacia mangium in
Lampung. They found that:
1) Abundant flowers on the crown
did not depend on direction, but
on the amount of sunlight
absorbed by the crown. The part
of crown facing east bore the
most flowers. Terrain also
affects the amount of light
hitting the tree crown.
2) Flowers open simultaneously
with sunrise, reaching a
maximum opening at midday,
between 9.00 and 11.30 a.m.
This is correlated to increasing
temperature, or is affected by
weather.
3) Pistil (female organ) position is a
bit higher (11.5 mm) than
anther (male organ).
In Subanjeriji, South Sumatra,
natural hybrids of A. niangium x A.
auriculiformisshowed clear promise.
The growth was faster than A. inangium,
the wood quality was similar to A.
auriculiformis, and the flowering period
Tissue Culture
FRDC research on tissue culture of A.
rangium has not been successful due to
browning symptoms. However,
38
Cycle 1
Cycle 2
6ASE POPULATION OF
uNPEDIGREED STANDS
OF A FEW PROVENANCE
p.EGONS (eac:n base
representing a~oul 00
original seed Darens)
Selez. 100
superior trees
Scions
OP seed
4
Nurery
Graft in
Pon
field at
nurserybased
orchard
se~s)
Assess;
useImproved
info.
Unculled CSOI
to cul
cso
seed or operational planting
1
|
(1COclones)
L''" -( " ulled CSO(I
(20
" clones)
OPR seed of each
of 100 clones
. wFuriherimproved seed for operational planting
Seedlots from
sorces of me
other g
regions
ov.
same pr
I
Nursery -0
I
Improved seed
, Unculled CSOIlI
.P OF. . ,
, I RST O
S elect 100 supe ,or t ee s :
FAMILIES AT
RIAM KIWA AND
ELSEWHERE
ELSWHER
collec,
(10 0 clo ne s)
ions; graft
*
"
"
.
.
(20 clones) Much improved seed
Collect OP seed (:or progeny
10tests)
Nursery
OPR seed of each
of 100 clones
Figure l. Flowchart showing the first and part of the second part of the cycle ofsystem forbreeding
and seed production recommended for A. mangium in South Kalimantan. 'BP' means breeding
population ; 'OPR' stands for openpollinated families ; 'OPCSO'stands for openpollinated clonal
seed orchard.
39
SEAMEOBIOTROP has successfully
established a field test of A. mangium
from tissue culture (Umboh 1986).
Setiawan et al. (1990/1991) studied
the growth and rooting system of A.
mangium plantlets produced by tissue
culture, with the following results:
SEAMEOBIOTROP collected 5
different A. mangium clones, 5 natural
hybrid clones of Acacia, and about 40
artificial hybrid clones, consisting of 31
hybrid clones of Am x a (female parent
of A. mangium). It is hoped that from
among these 50 clones, individuals
resistant to identified pests and diseases
can be found and used in breeding for
resistance (Umboh et al. 1992).
(1) Height and diameter growth after
2.5 years of field test was better
for A. mangium trees produced
by tissue culture than for
seedlings.
Discussion Notes
(2) The root system of A. mangium
plants produced by tissue culture
is very compact, massive, and has
many secondary roots.
Although there is no tap root,
three to four adventitious roots
developed vertically and
assumed the function of tap root.
Due to competing land uses, industrial
forest plantations must be established on
marginal land (grassland, bare land,
'critical' land, and 'unproductive' land).
So far 1.8 million ha is under plantation
in Java.
One constraint is the availability of
quality seed for planting stock.
Planting stock production from in
vitro clones of A. mangium plus trees
and hybrid A. mangium x A.
auriculiformiscontinues at SEAMEO
BIOTROP. BIOTROP's next fiveyear
plan calls for identification of desired
genotypes and the silvicultural
manipulation of clones in plantations
(Umboh et al. 1992).
Q: Is there a marketing plan for this
program?
A: Marketing is not a problem in view
of the existing demand from fiber
companies and the international market.
Q: Why haven't acacia plantations
been established in the eastern islands,
where the species are indigenous?
Isozyme Analysis
A: This hss been proposed by research,
but decision makers have judged other
factors more important.
As part of its biotechnology
program, SEAMEOBIOTROP has
conducted isozyme analysis on A.
mangium and hybrid A. mangium x A.
auriculiformis(Umboh et al. 1992)
Q: Will FRDC's program involve rural
people?
Breeding for Pest and Disease
Resistance
A: The main goal is to substitute
extraction from the natural forest in
response to increased international
pressure on Indonesia. The response
requires vast areas of land and a huge
Breeding for pest and disease
resistance has just started. Recently
40
effort; hence the commercialscale
References
approach.
Q: Regarding marketing again, there is
a great difference in wood quality
between plantationgrown trees and
natural forest stands. How will Indonesia
ensure that the plantationgrown trees
can be utilized by the plywood industry?
A: By relying on three species with
which the industry has the most
experience: A. mangium, Eucalyptus
urophylla, and Paraserianthes
falcataria.
Comment: Building material for low
quality material is based on composites.
Regarding market and local use,
indigenous species can and should be
used for local consumption, while fiber
companies can use the exotics that they
know better and for which they are sure
of an international demand.
Q: You mentioned ongoing breeding
efforts against pests and diseases; which
pests and diseases are you breeding for?
A: That depends on the diseases and
pests found at each of the nine regional
institutes where seed is collected.
Q: Is there any plan to collect from plus
trees in natural stands?
A: Yes, Mano p. institute in Irian Jaya is
doing this, and we are interested in
collaborating with other agencies
internationally.
Hendi Shdiaendi works with the Forestry
Research and Development Centre, I.
Gunung Batit 5, P.O. Box 66, Bogor
16610, Indonesia.
41
Djapilus, A. and M. Adjie. 1992.
Pengamatan morfologi bunga dan buah jenisjenis Acacia miangium, Eucalyptus urophylla
dan Shorea leprosula di Tanjungan,
Sumberjaya dan Way Itanakau di Propinsi
Lampung. Interim Report. (In Indonesian.)
Hadi, T.S. and G. Adjers. 1989. Species and
provenance selection for alangalang sites.
In Proc. of a Seminar on Develop, .znt of
Reforestation Techniques in South
Kalimantan Achieved by the ATA267
IndoncsiaFinland Mechanized Nursery and
Plantation Project, Jakarta, October 21,
1989; 2152. Jakarta: Ministry of Forests,
FINNIDA, and FNSO Forest Development,
Pty., Ltd.
Iladi, T.S., R.Vuokko and G. Adjers. 1990.
Species elimination trial in an Imperata
cvlindrica site: result from 52 species two
years after planting. Technical Report I/IV,
March 1990. South Kalimantan:
Mechanized Nursery and Plantation Prject
(ATA267).
Ilardiyanto, E.B., 0.11. Suseno and S.
Danarto. 1992. Tree improvement programs
in Indonesia. In Prosiding Seminar Nasional
Status Silvikultur Di Indonesia Saat lni,
Wanagama I, Yogyakarta, April 2729,
1992; 6378. Yogyakarta, Indonesia:
Departemen Kehutanan, Asosiasi Pengusaha
Hutan Indonesia dan Fakultas Kehutanan
Universitas Gadjah Mada.
Naiem, M., 0.11. Suseno, S. Suginingsih and
W.W. Wienarni. 1985. Some observations
on Acacia nmangium Willd. at Wanagama I,
Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta. In Appendix of
proc. of the ASEANAustralia Workshop on
Forest 'free Improvement, held August 79,
1985, Bangkok, Thailand. Sponsored by
ASEANAustralia Forest Tree Improvement
Programme (AAFIIP). 9 pp.
tanaman hutan. In Prosiding Diskusi
Terbatas "Beberapa Aspek Pembangunan
Hutan": Menelusuri CaraCara Inovatif
Reboisasi di Indonesia, 9 January 1986,
Jakarta; 175186. Jakarta: P.T. Inhutani.
Umboh, I., 1. Situmorang, S.A. Yani and E.
Sunami. 1992. Produksi bibit asal klon in
vitro pohonpohon seleksi A. mangium dan
hibrid A. inangium x A. auriculifornis
(Planting stock production from in vitro
clones of selected trees of A. mangiun x A.
auriculiformis). In Prosiding Seninar
Nasional Status Silvikultur Di Indonesia Saat
lni, Wanagama , Yogyakarta, 2729 April
1992; 457472. Yogyakarta: Departemen
Kehutanan, Asosiasi Pengusaha Hutan
Indonesia dan Fakultas Kehutanan
Universitas Gadjah Mada.
Vuokko, R. and T.S. lladi. 1988. Species
and provenance trial in Riam Kiwa, 1986
1988. Penerbitan No. 29. East Kalimantan:
Balai Teknologi Reboisasi Banjarbaru.
PT. Inhutani I. 1988. Rencana Karya
Tahunan pengelolaan sumber benih tanaman
hutan di Subanjeriji, Propinsi Dati I Sumatera
Selatan, Tahun 1988/1989. (In Indonesian.)
_
1990. Rencana Karya Tahunan
pengelolaan sumber benih tanaman hutan di
Subanjeriji, Propinsi Dati I Sumatera
Selatan, Tahun 1990/1991. (In Indonesian.)
Schildt, Y. 1992. Reforestation of tropicai
grassland with fast growing tree species,
using modem seedling production and
planting technology. Paper presented at the
IndonesiaFinnish S6minar on Sustained Use
of Forest Resources, February 45. 1992,
Jakarta.
M.I. Umboh and Supriyanto.
Setiawan, I.,
1990/1991. Growth and rooting system of
Acacia mnangiun, obtained by tissue culture.
BIOTROPIA 4:18.
Sindusuwarno, D.R. and D.I. Utomo. 1980.
Acacia ,nangiun jenis pohon yang belum
banyak dikenal. Majalah Kehutanan
Indonesia 6(2):3841.
Suhaendi, H. 1990. National tree
improvement programs for supporting the
Industrial Plantation Forest development in
Indonesia. In Report on First Meeting of the
Seed Origin and Genetic Resources Working
Group, March 2631, 1990, Chiang Mai,
Thailand. Muak Lek. Thailand: ASEAN
Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre.
Studi pola pewarisan
_ 1991.
genetik dalam pertamanan uji keturunan
Acacia inangium Willd. (Genetic
saudara tiri
inheritance pattern study in the halfsib
piogeny test plantation of Acacia mangium
Willd.) Buletin Penelitian Hutan 544:1726.
(In Indonesian with English summary.)
Forest tree improvement
_ 1992.
(breeding) in Indonesia. Paper presented at
the Meeting of IndonesiaThailand Senior
Officials in Forestry, held in Jakarta,
February 1621, 1992. Jakarta: Ministry of
Forests.
Umboh, 1. 1986. Perkembangan tcrakhir
"tissue culture" dalam penyelenggaraan
42
Acacias for Rural, Industrial, and Environmental
Development in Laos
Bounphom Mounda
Introduction to Laos
temperature is 18*C and maximum
temperature is 28"C.
A nationwide reconnaissance forest
survey made in 1992 estimated total
forest area at 11,168,000 ha, around
47% of the total country area. Forests in
Lao PDR are classified into eight forest
types (Table I).
Lao PDR (Latitude 1422.5"N,
Longitude 100107.5"E) is a landlocked
country between China, Cambodia,
Vietnam, Thailand and Myanmar, with a
total area of 236,800 km2 and an
estimated 4,200,000 inhabitants as of
1990. Eightyfive percent of the
population depends on agriculture and
forestry, and 60% of the population is
concentrated in the limited lowland area
of the Mekong River basin, which
comprises only about 20% of the
country's area.
The climate is tropical to monsoon
subtropical with a rainy season from
April to September and annual rainfall
of 1,2002,3(X) mm. The minimum
Forest Plantations
In the last quarter of 1990, the forest
inventory and management office,
Department of Forestry, conducted a
nationwide survey of forest plantation in
Laos. It revealed that of the total 6,250
ha plantation area, only 3,(X)0 ha could
be classified as goodquality, sustainable
Table 1. Forest types found in Lao IPDR, with area covered (,000s of ha) in each region.
Type of Forest
Northern
Central
Southern
Total
Dry l)ipterocarp 1)1)
l.ower Dry Evergreen WI)E
Upper I)ry Evergreen IADE
lower Mixed )eciduous LMI)
Upper Mixed Deciduous UMI)
Gallery Forest GE
Coniferous S
Mixed coniferous/Broadleaved MS
54.9
0.0
104.2
0.4
3345.4
19.0
13.0
25.6
69.9
49.1
654.2
308.3
2338.7
25.0
93.5
200.5
1081.7
36.4
302.6
557.4
1764.8
43.5
25.7
54.3
1206.5
85.5
1061.0
866.1
7448.9
87.5
132.2
280.4
Total
3562.5
3739.2
3866.4
11168.1
43
Table 2. Species composition of forest plantations in Lao PDR.
Scientific name
Vernacular name
Tectona grandis
Pterocarpusmacrotarpus
Afzelia xylocarpa
Eucalyptus sp
Alstronia scholaris
Others*
May sak
May dou
May Tekha
May Vick
May Tinpet
Proportion (%)
47.0
19.5
16.5
6.0
4.0
7.0
*includes: Xylia, Dalbergia,Terninalia,Swietenia, Leucaena,Albizzia, Acacia, Dipterocarpus,
Pinus, Gmelina, Cassia, Hevea, Anacardium,Melia, Styrax, Sterculia,Protium,Anisoptera,and
Sindora.
plantation. Most plantations have been
established by State Forest Enterprises
and provincial Forest Sections; some
minor forest plantations organized by
farmers and communities are found in a
few provinces. Of the 30 species
planted, leak (Tectona grandis) is the
most common, representing nearly 50%
of the plantation area (Table 2).
The Government's aim is to increase
forest cover to 70% to ensure adequate
production of tree products for
economic development as well as
environmental balance. To meet this
aim in realistic reforestation work, we
must ask, Which tree species should be
planted and utilized in the short and
long run, and what suitable techniques
and methods shall be used to reach the
objectives for our country?
Since 1988, Namsouang Silviculture
Research Center, under the LaoSIDA
Forestry Program, has established species
and provenance trials of both native and
exotic species.
Introduction and Testing of Exotic
Acacias
A. auriculiformiswas first introduced
to Laos more than 15 years ago, and is
mainly used for shading and ornamental
purposes. Using acacias for fuelwood is
a practice still unfamiliar to Lao people.
In 1988 species/provenance trials of
six acacias were established on 2.5 ha at
3 x 3 in spacing and measured annually.
The trials tested seedlots of A.
auriculiformis (4), A. crassicarpa(3),
local Afzelia zylocarpa (1), Acacia
mangium (3), A. aulacocarpa (1), and
A. leptocarpa (1). The trial was
damaged at age 16 months by fire.
Further tests were suggested for A.
mangium, A. crassicarpa, A. leptocarpa,
and A. auriculiformis.
In 1989, species/provenance trials
were established for A. crasicarpaand A.
mangium using different seedlots than
the first trial, but again difficulties were
experienced.
In 1990, a third set of Acacia
species/provenance trials were
established, again at 3 x 3 in spacing, on
44
2.5 ha with 5 species: A. auriculiformis
(6 seedlots), A. mangium (5), A.
aulacocarpa(2), A. holosericea (2), and
A. crassicarpa(3). The trial was weeded
by discing and manual hoeing around
each seedling, and seedlings were
fertilized one month after planting using
NPK 151515.
In 1992, under LaoACIAR Project
9115, species/provenance trials of acacias
were established on 5 ha to test 4 Acacia
species and 4 Eucalyptus species, using a
split randomized complete block with 4
replications.
Acacias and Rural, Industrial, and
Environmental Development
According to the Government's
strategy, reforestation and forest
development must be linked with the
living and food requirements of the Lao
people. To this end, the Community
Forest Plantation Section, l)epartment of
Forestry, has since 1991 supported
farmers to grow their own minor forest
plantations, either as pure plantations or
in agroforestry systems for food
production. The support is provided in
the form of seedlings, fl(rcst technicians,
and some fencing materials.
In the last two years, 525 ha of
farmers' plantations have been
established in 8 provinces; 30iha were
planted to Acacia auriculifornisand
Acacia mangiutm. Theso species are
gradually becoming more familiar to
Lao farmers.
Recently, many private companies
Discussion Notes
Q: Any information on indigenous
species? For example, A. insuavis?
A: Not really; A. insuavis is found in
homegardens grown for vegetable use.
Q: Is there a plan for a pulp/paper mill
in Laos?
A: Two companiesBorapan, a
Swedish firm, and the LaoFinn
Companyare exploring the potential
for establishing mills in the future.
Currently, the important market is the
mill in Khon Kaen, Thailand.
Q: In what parts of the Government's
plan have local people shown most
interest?
A: In growing small plantations (0.160.24 ha) or combined plantings with
agricultural crops, particularly
agroforestry.
Q: Is land owned by the Government or
by individuals?
A: Most land is government owned, but
the new policy calls for sharing of land
rights. There are many squatters on
forest land who must be recognized.
Also, to encourage industrial plantations,
the government can provide 20year
leases.
have become interested in investing in
Bounphiom Mounda works in the
industrial plantations of acacias and
eucaiypts in Laos. Some have already
started to establish plantations; the
economics and market trends for acacias
is under investigation now.
Division of Forest Plantation,
Department of ForestrY, Vientiane Lao,
P.D.R.
45
Acacias for Rural, Industrial, and
Environmental Development in Malaysia
Darus Ahmad and L.H. Ang
Introduction
Acacias for Rural Development
Although 850 of the approximately
1,100 species in the genus Acacia occur
in Australia, Papua New Guinea and
Indonesia (Boland et al. 1984), acacias
ae exotic to Malaysia. Nine species have
been introduced: A. inangium, A.
auriculiformis,A. crassicarpa,A.
aulacocarpaA. holosericea,A.
cincinnata,A. farnesiana, A.
podalyriaefolia,and A. richii. Of these,
only A. mangium Wilid. and A.
auriculiformisA. Cunn. ex Benth. are
considered significat for rural, industrial,
and environmental development in
Malaysia.
A. mangium was introduced to
Sabah, Malaysia in 1967 from Mission
Beach (Queensland). About 570 plants
from these seeds were raised at two sites,
Sibuga (2(X) plants) and Ulu Kukut (370
plants). At Ulu Kukut, the seedlings were
planted as firebreaks in a pine plantation
(Pinso and Nasi 1991). Currently A.
mangium is being intensively planted in
Malaysia in a largescale planting
program.
Like A. mangium, A. auriculiformis
occurs naturally in Australia, Indonesia,
and Papua New Guinea. It was first
introduced to Malaysia in 1932 from
Thursday Island for use as boundary
markers in plantation plots of the Forest
Research Institute (Corner 1952; Yap
1987). Now it is commonly found in
lowland areas, especially degraded lands
such as tintailing and BRIS (raised sand
beaches) soil.
A. auriculiformisis widely planted
for fuelwood in rural areas in
Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Pakistan,
the Philippines, Nepal, and Thailand
(National Research Council 1983;
Suttijed 1985). In Malaysia, rubber
wood is the more commonly used
fuelwood. However, among farmers on
the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, A.
auriculiforniswood is popular for
drying tobacco leaves (Ang and Yusof
1991).
Acacias for Industrial Plantations
Commercial establishment of
plantation forests in Malaysia began in
1957 with the planting of Tectona
grandis in the northern states. In the late
1960's and early 1970's, plantation
development in Peninsular Malaysia
shifted toward establishment of
fastgrowing tropical pines. To date,
about 6,754 ha have been planted,
mainly with Pinus caribaeaand
Araucaria species. However, the planting
of these species were stopped in the late
1970's due to difficulties in obtaining
good quality seeds.
In the early 1980s, the Government
of Malaysia embarked on a new
reforestation scheme known as the
Compensatory Forestry Plantation
Project (CFPP). Its main aim is to grow
A. mangium for sawlog production to
meet the timber demand in Peninsular
46
Malaysia. This will provide a steady
source of raw material to the woodbased
industries when the supply is depleted.
Likewise in Sabah, in East Malaysia,
commercial A. mangium forest
plantations were developed by the state
government and semiprivate agencies in
the early 1980's, mainly for production
of pulpwood and reconstituted products.
Presently, in Peninsular Malaysia. the
CFPP has established a total of 50,249 ha
of A. mangium plantation of the targeted
100,000 ha (Table 1). In Sabah, a total
of 56,100 ha has been planted with
mainly A. mangium and other fast
growing species. The Forestry
l)epartment is responsible for the
development of forest plantations in
Peninsular Malaysia, while in Sabah, the
Sabah Forestry l)evelopment Authority
(SAFODA), Sabah Forest Industies (SFI),
and Sabah Softwoods Sdn. Bhd. (SSSB)
are the three main agencies involved in
establishing A. mangiwni plantations.
Table 1. Total area plantced with A. mangium
in Peninsular"Malaysia.
in__PeninsularMalaysia._Wong
Locality
Area (la)
Johor
Pahang
N.Sembilan
Selangor
Perak
Kelantan
'l'ereiigganu
18,101
"'otad
50,249
16,757
3,779
8,401
2,741
270
200
21 m3/ha from thinning at 45 years, 60
m3/ha from thinning at 89 years, and
180 m 3/ha at final harvest at 15 years.
Utilization of A. mangium Timber
Reconstituted Wood
A. mangium wood has good
mechanical and working properties and
is quite suitable for low and mediumdensity particleboards, mediumdensity
fiberboard (MI)F), and cementbonded
particleboard (CBP)(Chew and Jaalar,
1986 and Rahim el al. 1989). According
to Meico Chipboard Co. Sdn Bhd.,
chip/particleboard made with A.
mtungium comforms with the
requirements of British Standard of
Type 1 board. Tomimura et al. (1987)
noted that the properties of MI)F of A.
mangium were superior to those from
Japanese softwood chips/mixture.
Veneer
et al. (1988) reported that the
decorative panels using A. mangitum
sliced veneers as the face veneers
appeared
attractive
andand
were found to be
suitable for
panelling
furniture
making. In general, the veneers were
smooth and acceptable quality.
Pulp and Paper
A. mangiun wood has been found
quite suitable for pulp and paper. Peh et
al. (1982) reported that sulphate pulping
was easy, giving high yields and good
strength properties.
Thang and Zulkifli (1992) reported
that an A. mangiun plantation in
Peninsular Malaysia is expected to yield
47
A: At that site, it is due to nutrient
deficiency and can be addressed in
management. Three types of tin tailings
are sand, slime, and mixed. On slime,
mangium grows well and appears to
nodulate, although growth stops when
roots reach liquid slime. Soil
amendment testing found organic matter
to be the constraint. On slime tailings,
mangium ptcrformed better than A.
auriculiformis. On sandy tailings, with
their higher temperatures, the species
may do more poorly.
Acacias for Environmental
Development
Acacia species generally show wide
adaptability to a wide range of
environmental and soil conditions. In
Malaysia, both A. auriculiformisand A.
inangium are suitable for rehabilitating
and revegetating difficult sites, such as
tin tailings and areas infested by the
noxious weed Inperala cylindrica.A
total of 6,924 ha of A. mangium
plantation have been established in
degraded Imperata areas in Bengkoka,
Sabah.
A. auriculiformis is widely planted
on tin tailings, and is commonly planted
in open areas of new housing estates to
stabilize slopes as well as for aesthetic
value (Zakaria and Kamis 1991).
A. mangium is also used to reclaim
compacted sites, including decking and
primary logging roads in loggedover
forests. Normally these species are
planted when logging activities are
completed. This has been successfully
done in Semangkok F.R., Selangor and
Jengka F. R., Pahlang.
Q: Could you provide an update on the
status of heart rot on A. mangium?
A: In Peninsular Malaysia (PM), 3090% of plantations appcar to be infected,
although the volume affected is only
about 5% or less. This effect, then,
depends on intended end use. In PM,
the main planting objective was for sawn
timber; in Sabah, for pulp and paper.
In mid1992, the Minister suspended
further A. mangium planting unless the
objective of the P1M plantations was
changed to pulp, for which no intensive
silviculture is needed. Discussions
continue with the private sector and at
the Ministry level. (See also the paper
by Lee Su See in this volume.)
Conclusion
A. mangium continues to be a very
important plantation species in Malaysia.
The potential of A. auriculiformisfor
timber and other products, however, has
not yet been fully exploited in Malaysia.
This species has great potential for wood
production and can be easily planted in
degraded areas.
Q: Has there been a survey of heart rot
infection on Sabah?
A: Yes, conducted by Edward Chia for
SSSB; but differences in survey methods
make comparison with the Peninsular
Malaysia survey difficult.
Discussion Notes
Q: Any conclusion regarding the cause
of the heart rot?
Q: From your slides, A. mangium
doesn't appear to do well on sandy soils.
A: About 25 fungi may work together
to cause the disease. Pruning is one
48
contributing factor, due to the slow
recovery of wounds on A. mangium.
DarusAhmad andAng LH. work at the
ForestResearch Institute Mlaysia
(FRIM), Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
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tree species for afforestation of raised sand
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N. lall, B.P.M. lyland, R.D. Johnston,
D.A. Kleining, and J.D. Turner. 1984.
Forest Trees of Australia.Canberra,
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Chew, L.T. and A. Jaafar. 1986. Particleboard
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National Research Council. 1983. Mangium and
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Peh, T.B., K.C. Khoo, and T.W. Lce. 1982.
Sulphate pulping of Acacia mangium and
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Forester45(9): 404418
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of Acacia mangiul x Acacia auriculifonnis
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49
Rahim Sudin, Chew, L.T. Khozirah Shaari and
Zakaria Mohd. Amin. 1989. Cementbonded
particleboard from some plantation species
in Malaysia. Paper presented at the Symposium on Recent Developments in Tree
Plantations of Hlumid/subhumid Tropics of
Asia. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia,
Serdang Selangor.
Suttijed Chantrasiri. 1987. Fastgrowing
nitrogen fixing trees MPTS for fuelwood and
charcoal on small farms. Paper preserted at
the symposium on Multipurpose Tree
Species for SmallFarm Use, held November
in Pattaya, Thailand.
Thang, H.C. and Zulkifli Mokhtar. 1992.
Management practice of Acacia mangiun
plantation in Peninsular Malaysia. Paper
presented at the International Symposium on
Harvesting and Silviculture for Sustainable
Forestry in the Tropics, October 59, 1992,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Tomimura, Y., K.C. Khoo, and I. Suzuki. 1987.
Manufacture of mediuin density fiberboard
from Malaysian Acacia inangiun. Mokuzai
Gakkaishi 33(4):335338.
Wong, W.C., K.S. Io, and C.N. Wong. 1988.
Acacia inangium from Sab.h for plywood and
decorative panel manufacture: initial trial.
J. Trop. For. Sci. 1(1):4250.
Yap, S.K. 1987. Introduction of Acacia species
to peninsular Malaysia. In Australian
Acacias in Developing Countries, ed. J.W.
Turnbull; 151153. ACIAR Proceedings No.
16. Canberra: ACIAR.
Zakaria Ibrahim and Kamis Awang. 1991.
Comparison of floral morphology, flower
production and pollen yi.'ld of Acacia
mnangium and A. auriculiformis.In Advances
in Tropical Acacia Research, ed. J.W.
Turnbull; 2629. ACIAR Proceedings No.
35. Canmberra: ACIAR.
Acacias for Rural, Industrial, and
Environmental Development in Myanmar
USaw Kelvin Keh
Myanmar is still basically an agricultural
country, with about 80% of the
population residing in rural areas and
engaged in agriculture. Many peasants
in the dryzone areas earn their living by
manufacturing catechu or cutch from A.
catechtu Willd. Timber from A. catechu
is used to make agricultural tools and
bows, as well as for fuelwood
(particularly the branches) and charcoal.
The bark produces a good tannin. A.
(ralica Willd. (known locally as sha)
has also been tapped for guni arabic for
industrial use for the Burma
Pharmaceutical Industry (BPI)(Khin
Myo New 1981; Thet Wai 1981).
Other indigenous acacias in
Myanmar are A. letcophloea Willd.
(tanaung), A. nvaingii Lace. (suniagyi),
and A. mnicrocephala Grah. (shatanaung). They are used for fuelwood
and their bark provides tannin. The root
of A. farnesiana Willd. (nanlonkyaing)
is also used an aphrodisiac.
Introduction
As a country's population increases,
there is a greater need fbr better rural,
industrial, and environmental conditions,
making the best use of the country's
natural and human resources, and
cooperating with other countries for
scientific and technological exchange
and improvement. Better management
and utilization of trees can greatly
contribute to such improved conditions,
especially for countries endowed with
large forest areas and a variety of
species.
All over the world, foresters and
political leaders are awakening to the
need to integrate forestry into rural,
industrial, and environmental
development in new ways. In Myanmar,
the government of the United States is
working in cooperation with the
Government of Myaniar to eradicate
poppy production by people along the
border with China with replanting of
Acacia auriculifornis,A. mangiuni,
Eucalypltus camaldulensis, and some
cereals as staple food for the Border
Area nationals. Many government
ministries and private agencies outside
forestry have suddenly become
interested in rural devlopment.
conservation, and community services,
Exotic Acacias
Trial plantings of A. auriculiformis
have been carried out in the dry zone by
the Forest Research Institute in Yezin
(Gyi 1991). The objective was to
identify a fastgrowing fuclwood species
that can establish in adverse arid
conditions and meet the needs of the
local population for scarce fuelwood.
The results are not very promising,
possibly due to the aridity and/or poor
soil of the trial site. Still, the species is
Utilization of Indigenous Acacias
Although Myanmar is now
becoming industrialized in some ways.
50
extensively and successfully planted in
urban and other rural areas of the
country, where people greatly appreciate
its fast growth, yearround greenness,
shade and shelter for humans and
livestock, soil rehabilitation, and good
fuelwood and charcoal. It is also
successfully used in the Frontier Areas
Development, as well as in national
development, to provide these products
and uses on otherwise unproductive sites,
The flowers of A. auriculiformisare
readily bought by urban and local
people for use as altar flowers. The
flowers resemble those of Plerocarpus
macrocarpus, P. indica, and P.
dalbergoides, which are local favorites
for offerings. Edible fungi can also be
grown on the species' wood (NFITA
1987).
Acacia inangium is also planted in
Myanmar, both for ornamental and
aesthetic purposes in urban areas. A.
auriculiformis hybridizes naturally with
A. mangitim, and there is great potential
to exploit the vigor of the hybrid in the
near future.
Gum arabic has also been tapped
and analyzed from trial plantatJions of
imported A. senegal (L.) Willd. The
gum quality from Senegal sha meets the
U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP) specifications
(Aung 1987. 1992), and is stu(able for
other industrial uses, such as
confectioneries, dairy products, baked
goods, flavor fixatives and
emulsification, beverages, medicines,
cosmetics, adhesives, paints, inks,
lithography, and textiles.
Environmental Facto.
There are indications of health
hazards caused by !argescale planting
of A. auriculifcrmis in urban areas. In
51
Yezin, in the semiarid region, the area is
seemitigly flooded with A. auriculformis
plantings, as Yezin residents prefer the
species above all others. After seven or
eight years, however, instances of asthma
have increased considerably. Pollen
counts in the area shoo., ' that 8085% of
the pollen are from A. auriculifornis.
When the pollen is breathed into the
human trachea, they adhere to the mucus
there and cause throat irritation and
repeated coughing, and can ultimately
lead to asthma in susceptible individuals.
Policies Related to Tree Growing
As part of the National Plan for
combatting the c, intry's acute
fuelwood shortage, the Government has
recently abolished the 1902 Burma
Forest Act and replaced it with a New
Forest Act, which permits local peasants
and farmers to "possess" forest land
adjoining their villages on a longterm
lease. They can plant or cultivate any
kind of plant or tree, although
preference is given to fastgrowing
fuelwood species. They can freely
market the produce after paying a
revenue fixed by the Government.
Conclusion
Possibilities are bright for further
extensive planting and use of A.
aturiculiformis and A. senegal for rural,
industrial, and environmental
development in Myanmar. Further
research shouid test and explore the
vigor of the hybrid cross between A.
auriculiformisand A. mangium.
Discussion Notes
Q: Is gum obtained from A. catechu?
Q: Regarding sale of A. auriculiformis
flowers, are they sold in branches?
A: No.
A: Yes, in the same way as P. indicafor
which it substitutes.
U Saw Kelvin Keh works with the Forest
Department,Ministry of Forestry,East
Q: Where are A. arabican.nd A. senegal
grown in Myanmar?
Gyogon, Yangon, Myanmar.
A: In the north near the Ciinese border,
using seed sources from Yezin.
References
Aung, Tun. 1987. Preliminary
studies on the
quality and yield of gum from Acacia
senegal(L.) Willd. Yezin, Myanmar:
Forest Research Institute.
. 1992. Study on the quality of
gum from Acacia senegal. Yezin,
Myanmar: Forest Research Institute.
Gyi, Ko Ko. 1991. Trial planting of Acacia
senegalandAcacia auriculifornisin the
Q: Have acacia plantations been
established?
A: Not yet, as research is still at the field
trial stage.
Q: Can you offer any estimate on the
extent of cottage industries using
acacias?
central dry zone of Myanmar. Yezin,
Myanmar: Forest Research Institute.
Khin Myo New, Mi. 1981. Studies of gum
arabic from Subyu tree (Acaciaarabica
Willd.). Unpublished thesis. Yangon,
Myanmar: Chemistry Department,
Yangon University.
NFTA. 1987. Acacia auriculiformis.
Nitrogen Fixing Tree Highlights.
Waimanalo, Hawaii, U.S.A.: Nitrogen
Fixing Tree Association.
Thet Wai. 1981. Utilization of Acacia orabica
Willd. for preparation of industrial gum.
Yangon, Myanmar: Botany Departr.,i,
A: No data are available, but commun
ities in the drier areas in central
Myanmar use A. catechu for tannin and
fuelwood.
Q: There is a weed common to areas of
India and Myanmar, Eupadorium
odoratumhow do acacias in Myanmar
respond?
A
: Inareas
the North,
there is no problem. In
other
(for example,
the southwest)
it can be a problem.
Q: Is the use of gum arabic you
mentioned significant economically?
Rangoon University.
A: It is used mainly in the
pharmaceutical industry, and locally
grown trees supplement amounts
imported for that use.
52
Acacias for Rural, Industrial, and
Environmental Development in Nepal
Jay B.S. Karki and Madhav Karki
Introduction
longer able to keep up with the
requirements of the rapidly growing
population.
Forests and forest products play an
important role in supporting agriculture
in the hills, industrial development in the
urban areas, and environmental harmony
throughout the country (Karki 1983;
Karki 1989; Karki 1992b). Fuelwood,
timber, fodder, and leaf liter are the
most important forest products required
by the rural people. Forests also provide
a vital environmental service by
stabilizing the fragile hilly slopes and
also affording watershed protection
functions. Afforestation programs favor
native species over exotics due to their
low vulnerability to diseases and proven
adaptability to the diverse ecosystem. In
Nepal, a few native species have
dominated plantation and agroforestry
programs: Dalbergiasissoo, Pinus
roxburghii, Eucalyptus carnaldudensis,
and a few fodder species. Acacias have
so far failed to attract the attention of
foresters, technicians, and farners. Still,
most acacias are known to produce good
firewood and some also are used as
excellent fodder and therefore have the
potential to become a viable tree
component of Nepal's complex farming
systems for these products as well as
shade, shelter, bedding material, and soil
improvement. Acacias also fix nitrogen,
and many of them grow quickly.
Of a number of indigenous acacias,
only A. catechu (Khayer)is
socioeconomicall), environmentally, and
commercially important in Nepal. It is
The rapid decline in Nepal's forest
resources over the last four decades,
especially in the Tarai and Inner Tarai
regions where they have been
overexploited to meet basic needs of
fuelwood and fodder, has raised serious
social, economic, and environmental
concerns (Karki and Pokhrel, in
preparation; Wallace 1988). ?Poor
government forest policy, population
pressure, human neglect, and
inappropriate development interventions
have resulted in the gross misuse of
natural forests (Karki 1992a).
The emphasis on agricultural
development has been primarily based
on the unsustainable conversion of forest
land to crop land (LRMP 1987, Mahat
1987). Yields of major food crops have
either declined or stagnated at levels
attained in the early 1960s (APROSC
1986). One reason for this decline is the
widespread use of cow dung cake as
domestic fuel instead of its traditional
use as soil improver for Tarai soils. The
increase in arable land through forest
clearing has so far allowed the country
to meet its food production needs,
However, no more significant forests
remain for such agricultural expansion.
Total forest area is estimated to be 37%
of the total land area, but most of that is
degraded (LRMP 1987; Nield 1985;
Wallace 1988). The carrying capacity of
the resource baseespecially in the
Hills, where up to 16 people depend on a
single hectare of arable landis no
53
native to the riverain ecosystem of the
Tarai and the Inner Tarai and is found at
elevations up to 900 m. Rural
communities use it for fuelwood, small
timber, and fodder; and both urban and
rural people use the katha (masticatory)
and cutch (tanning and lubrication)
made from it. Foresters and soil
conservation workers are increasingly
using this species to stabilize fragile,
hilly slopes. Although there are several
provenances, no systematic evaluation
has been carried out to compare them
with exotic species. However,
provenance evaluation of different
Australian acacias has been carried out,
resulting in a short list of potential
species.
Acacia Research in Nepal
Research conducted in Nepal has
been provenance evaluation trials. A
systematic provenance trial of exotic
acacias began in the late 1970s (Joshi
and WyattSmith 1982) with A.
baileyana,A. flavescens, A. mearnsii, A.
pendula, and A. victoriae. Only A.
mearnsiishowed promise in the
Kathmandu Valley (Joshi and Wyatt
Smith 1982). Trials conducted by the
Forestry Research Project and by the
IDRCfunded Farm Forestry Project
(FFP) in the Bhabar Tarai and Inner
Tarai regions tested A. aneura,A.
auriculiformis,A. crassicarpa,A.
dealbata,A. decurrens, A. mangium, A.
pendula, and A. polystacha (Neil 1990;
FFP 1988). Table I shows the results.
A. auriculiformisshows the best
overall survival rates among exotic
acacias (Figure 1). Although it is a poor
fodder, it provides fuelwood, soil
conservation, and other uses. It is known
54
to have some allelopathic effects on the
germination properties of agroforestry
crops (Neil 1990) but so far no serious
problems have been reported. In a
green manure evaluation trial involving
three acacias, Acacia dealbatagave the
best results with corn yield of 1.06
ton/ha followed by Acacia auriculiformis
(0.8 ton/ha) (FFP 1988). Acacia
crassicarpagave nearly the same result
(0.77 t./ha).
Acacia crassicarpashowed the best
growth at sites in the Tarai, reaching a
height of 4.5 m. in one and half years at
one site. Acacia catechu is the slowest
of the prominent acacia species, but
because it is native to the area it is much
more widely found and used than the
others.
Acacia nilotica (babul), which may be
indigenous to Nepal, has performed
poorly in trials at Adabhar (central
Nepal) by the Forest Research Division
and at Butwal and Dang (western Nepal)
by collaborating researchers in the
Multipurpose Tree Species Research
Network. At !5 years of age, the mean
height was only 17.4 m and survival was
only 56% (Table 2). Still, further
research should evaluate other
provenances in other ecological zones.
Good growth has been observed on
farms and homesteads at site near
Bhairahawa in western Tarai, where this
species is known to grow naturally.
Farmers there report that they collect
seedlings from beneath mother trees and
transplant them. Farmers also allow this
species to grow anywhere it appears on
farm land; A. nilotica trees are often
protected in rice fields, where few other
tree species are permitted. Table 2
shows growth information from a typical
village site in western Nepal.
'fable 1. Performance of promising acacias at
four sites in Nepal.
Species
CSIRO No.
Adabhar (Bhabar Tarai, 250 m asl)
A. auriculiformis
15477
A. auriculiformis
13191
A. crassicarpa
15283
A. leptocarpa
14966
A. crassicarpa
13681
Panchkhal (Lower Middle Mountains, 1000 m)
A. auriculiformis
15477
A. crassiocarpa
15283
A. torulosa
14183
A. tumida
14661
A. auriculiformins
15477
A. brassii
15480
A. crassicarpa
15283
A. difficilis
14619
A. holosericea
13879
A. lepocarpa
14966
A. pellita
17068
A. shirleyi
14622
Thulo Sirubari (middle mountains, 1400 m)
A. adunca
A. deanii
A. finbrita
14736
A. podalyriifolia
A. aulacocarpa
13865
A. auriculiformtis
15477
A. brassii
15480
A. crassicarpa
15283
A. difficilis
14619
A. holosericea
13879
A. irrorata
17145
A. leptocarpa
14966
A. inelanoxylon
14766
A neriifolia
14735
/ pellita
17068
A. simsii
14862
A. stenophylla
14670
Age
Mean Ht. (m)
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
70
60
56
24
48
3.5
3.8
3.6
3.1
4.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
83
70
63
66
81
84
84
59
78
90
87
53
1.4
1.0
1.4
1.2
0.9
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.5
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
55
Survival (%)
50
72
50
67
54
87
66
66
54
100
66
87
74
62
66
54
95
1.2
0.8
1.0
2.3
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.5
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.5
Table 1 continued.
Age
CSIRO No.
Species
Survival (%)
Mean Ht. (m)
Kadambas (middle mountains, 1600m)
13771
A. holosericea
14766
A. melanoxylon
1.5
1.5
65
70
0.5
0.6
Syaule (middle mountains, 2050)
A. dealbata.
A. falciformis
A. filicifolia
A. mnearnsii
A. dealbata
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
89
53
77
75
91
1.0
0.5
0.9
0.5
0.8
17123
15502
14990
14771
14772
composting materials, and timber.
Acacias can play an important role in
Table 2. Acacia niloticagrowth at Moti Pur
farm site, near Dhairahawa.
Age
dbh (cm)
5
7.0
14.0
16.5
10
15
sustaining soil fertility and thereby
increasing agricultural productivity. In
particular, acacias have potential to meet
the
for: needs of rural farmers and artisans
Height (m)
7.0
14.1
1. fuelwood with high calorific value
that can substitute for farmyard
manure and increase agricultural
productivity
17.0
Source: Data collected as reported by farmers
More recently, donorfunded
projects have included acacias in
agroforestry and farm forestry
plantations. Out of several species tested
A. auriculiformisand A. mangium have
shown comparable performances. Table
3 and Figure 2 show performance
reported by the IDRCfunded FFP at its
various Tarai locations,
2. straightstemmed tim',er good for
poles and lumber
3. raw materials for paper and pulp
industries
4. soil and water conservation on
poor sites (sloping areas and
degraded riversides)
Acacias and Rural Development
Fodder
In Nepal, "rural development"
essentially means development of the
agriculture and forestry sectors to
increase the production capacity of rural
resources. Rural Nepal today faces acute
shortages of fodder, fuelwood,
Among acacias tested in Nepal, A.
auriculiformis has shown the best
potential for production of woody as
well as leafy biomass. A study
56
Table 3. Performance of eightyear old acacias at FFP sites, with other popular species.
A. auriculiformis
E camatfldutlens
D. Ssso.
L leucocepla
dbh
(cm)
Ht.
(m)
dbh
(cm)
Ht.
(m)
dbh
(cm)
Ht.
(m)
dbh
(cm)
Ht.
(m)
Tamagarhi
Rampur
Pokhara
18.5
13.6
9.6
9.8
7.6
6.5
16.1
21.5
11.5
12.4
12.6
7.6
12.6
20.5
16.4
8.6
8.4
7.6
13.4
11.5
14.4
11.6
12.4
9.8
Average
13.9
8.0
16.3
10.8
16.5
8.2
13.1
11.2
HEIGHT GROWTH COMPARISION BY SITES
Sp.: Acacia auriculiformis
Herinl ("1
A .WflC0,IOrC,
. ctasscer:
5POC.;03
A coallzal
Sito
IMAdQt
r
.2
acrrr
nn
=
TrP'ao
Figure 1. Height growth comparison of three acacias at three sites (1988 data).
COMPARISION OF ACACIA PERFORMANCE
With Other MPTS
30
'
40
A eaIcu11(,Ms
0
'.ro oal
DatpGag! 55CU
'
E.J
Fueoo
a (t/ra)
EcOaIO
tot
1)05,5
J
C.o
(I/nat
Figure 2. Comparison of acacia performance with other MPTS (1988 data).
57
Table 4. Nutrient contents (%)of different acacias in Nepal.
Species
Calcium
Moisture
CP
Ether Acidinsoluble
ash
extract
11.8
8.4
8.0
19.4
14.4
16.3
4.05
5.2
6.16
0.06
0.8
0.20
A. auriculiformnis
A. catechu
A. crassicarpa
20.2
13.1
27.1
Crude
fiber
0.50
1.50
0.55
Acacias and the Environment
conducted by FFP shows that a 4.5year
old A. auriculiformis plantation with an
Nepal's current forest development
approach is basically oriented to meeting
community needs, but an additional
focus should be placed on improving the
deteriorating environment, especially in
the hills and mountains. A major
constraint in reforesting the degraded
hills in Nepal is the lack of a range of
species that can grow on problem sites.
in such sites, species selection is often
decided by local people. Traditionally,
villagers have grown slowergrowing
average height of 6.8 m can produce
226 kg of green biomass (FFP 1988).
Table 4 shows the fodder nutrient
analysis of three acacias' foliage,
Fuelwood
The fuelwood situation continues to
worsen. Nepal as a whole faces both
fuelwood and timber deficits; fodder is
said to be relatively more abundant
(Table 5).
Table 5. Supply and demand for forestry products in Nepal.
Item
198586
199091
200001
201011
Fuelwood
(m tons)
Supply
Demand
Balance
9.2
11.3
2.1
9.7
12.6
2.9
12.1
15.2
3.1
15.5
16.9
1.4
Timber
(m m3)
Supply
Demand
Balance
0.9
1.1
0.2
1.0
1.5
0.5
1.4
2.5
0.5
2.2
3.3
1.1
Fodder
(m tons)
Supply
Demand
Balance
6.6
6.1
+0.5
6.7
6.4
+0.3
7.4
7.2
+0.2
8.3
8.5
0.2
25.9
158.8
741.3
1464.6
Forest area required
Source: MPFS (1988)
58
native species.
However, fastgrowing species are
increasingly in demand. Leucaena
leucocephala became popular mainly
due to its ability to grow fast and
produce multiple products, but with that
species' infestation with Heteropsylla
cubana (leucaena psyllid), farmers and
foresters have looked for alternative
species, without much success,
Dalbergia sissoo and Eucalyptus
carnaldulensisare also popularly grown.
Acacias, with their precocious seed
production and proven ability to grow
on problem sites, have potential to
supplement these planting options
(Figure 3, Table 6).
Recommendations for Research
Regarding indigenous A. catechu,
studies should be directed at improving
its regeneration and utilization.
Currently, farmers use it only for fodder
and timber, but it is also very valuable in
the katha and cutch industries. Studies
on improved marketing and utilization
strategies would help improve farm
household earnings.
Based on results obtained so far, the
following exotic acacias show strong
potential: A. a'iriculiformis,A. dealbata,
A. holosericea, A. mearnsii, and A.
podalyrifolia. A. auriculiformnis, A.
crassicarpa, and A. holosericea are
specifically recommended for the Tarai
and Inner Tarai regions. A. dealbata, A.
mearnsii, A. podalyriifolia, A.
holosericea, and A. decurrens are
suggested for the middle hills and
mountains. A. auriculiformis is already
widely planted in the Tarai, Inner Tarai,
and Midhills. Appropriate provenance
selection continues, but is constrained by
the scarcity of good quality seeds. Most
seeds are imported from India and have
a limited genetic base. Sources in
Hawaii and Australia are recommended
but growers in Nepal find the high costs
of these sources prohibitively expensive.
Research on silviculture,
management, and utilization of these
exotic acacias will be increasingly
important with the rising demand for
agroforestry and environmental
plantations. Suitable silvicultural and
management prescriptions for alley
cropping and farm forestry are urgently
needed. For A. auriculiformis, studies in
Nepal are needed on its dieback and
stunting problems. One hypothesis
emerging from plantation studies in the
midhills is that this species is sensitive to
Acacias and Industrial Development
Forest industries in Nepal arc not
well developed. Most of the traditional
industries are timber based. However,
many new industries have recently been
set up for producing pulp and paper,
plywood, cutch, resin, and turpentine,
These industries lack adequate raw
materials, particularly the pulp, paper,
and plywood industries. The endemic
fuelwood shortage affects industrial
ventures by diverting raw materials to
meet domestic energy demands. Several
industries have looked into the feasibility
of using A. auriculifo:,nis to meet their
raw material needs. A. catechu, a
traditional raw material for cutch, paint
and tannin products, is always in very
high demand; many logs are illegally
smuggled to India. The practice of
harvesting this species at a young age is
placing it under severe pressure and
disrupting its natural regeneration.
59
Table 6. Comparison of Acacia auriculiformis,Eucalyptus camaldulensis, and indigenous Dalbergiasissoo for fuelwood.
Sagarnath
4
Adabhar
Species
1
2
3
5
6
A. auriculiformis
2.5
1,250
87
10.6
4.2
Dalbergia sissoo
5.0
1,600
89
36.6
7.3
E. camaldulensis
3.35 1,425
91
44.6
16.5 25.4
3
4
5
6
1
2
5.5
1,600100 4.1
1.5 2,500 99 5.2
3.5
1.5 6,250 97
10.5
1
Chitrepani
2
3
4
5
6
3.5 -
0
11.8
15.1
I = Age; 2 = Initial Stocking; 3 = Survival %; 4 = Total Fuelwood (tons/ha); 5 = Fuelwood MAI (tons/ha); 6 = OB Volume
MAI (m3 /ha/yr).
a calcium layer in the C horizon, as well
as to nitrogen deficiency.
Finally, multilocation onstation and
onfarm trials involving both native and
exotic species is recommended as a first
step towards expanding acacia plantation
in
Nepal.
Discussion Notes
Q: Regarding your comparison showing
Dalbergia sissoo's and Eucalyptus
camaldulensis outperforming A.
auriculiformis, is there still a place for
that acacia in Nepal'? What is the
response of farmers to acacia planting?
References
APROSC. 1986. Perspective Land Use Plan
(1986-2005). Kathmandu, Nepal:
AgricultralP
Agricultural
Projects Services Center,
Path.
FarmRamshah
Forestry Project.
1998. Final report
of
the first phase (19831987) activities.
Hetauda, Nepal: Tribhuvan University,
Farm Forestry Project.
Joshi, M.R. and J. WyattSmith. 1982.
Some preliminary indications from
research for forest management guidance in
the hills of central Nepal. NEFI7B 7:722.
Karki, . . 1992. Forest and foder: de
A: Yes, these results are shortterm and
longterm research continues to be
needed. Furthermore, eucalyptus has
different site requirements than A.
auriculiformis that may make the latter
species better adapted on some sites,
Regarding your second question,
farmers still prefer indigenous species
for fodder and fuelwood.
social dimension, a case andysis of Mid
lill of Nepal Experience. The Nepal
JournalofForestry 7(2):85 90.
Karki, J.B. and Redesh Pokhrel. In
preparation. Tree and land tenure in
eastern Nepal: G 1Z report. Pokhara,
Nepal: Institute of Forestry.
Karki, M.B. 1992. Improved fodder tree
management in the agroforestry system of
Q: Have there been fodder tests of these
acacias?
central and western Nepal. Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation. Michigan State
University, East Lansing, Michigan.
. 1982. An analytical approach to
natural resources planning in Phewa Tal
watershed of Nepal. Master's Thesis, Colorado
State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.
1989. Historical perspectives of
ecological changes in die hill forests of
Nepal a case study of Kaski District,
Nepal. Mimeo, IOFf'UT. Pokhara,
Nepal: IOF.
LRMP. 1987. Adraft land use and land
capability report. Baneswar, Kathmandu,
Nepal: Land Resources Mapping Project.
A: A. auriculiformis, A. catechu, and A.
crassicarpahave been tested but not yet
in an onfarm situation,
Jay B.S. Karki and Madhav Karki work
at the Instittute of Forestry, P.O. Bor
206, Pokhara, Nepal.
61
Mahat, T.B.S. 1985. Human impact on
forests in the middle hills of Nepal.
Ph.D. Thesis, Australian National
University, Canberra. 490 pp.
Master Plan for Forestry Sector. 1988.
Master Plan for Forestry Project, Ministry
of Forests and Soil Conservation, Babar
Mahal, Kathmandu, Nepal. 168 pp.
Neil, P.E. 1990. Preliminary results from
trials of exotic acacias. Banko Jankari,
FRP 2(3):213219.
Nield, R.S. 1985. Fuelwood and fodder problems and policy working paper for the
Water and Energy Commission
Secretariat, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Wallace, M.B. 1985, Community forestry in
Nepal: too little, too late? Research
Report Series No. 5. Kathmandu, Nepal:
Winrock International.
.• 1988. Forest degradation in
Nepal: institutional context and policy
alternatives. Mimeograh. Kathmandu,
Nepal: Winrock International.
62
Acacias for Rural, Industrial, and
Environmental Development in Pakistan
Raziuddin Ansari, A.N. Khanzada and M.A. Khan
Introduction
Pakistan's climate varies from the
mild to very hot (temperature often
reaching 45"C) coastal areas to the
northern hilly areas where temperatures
dip below freezing. The vegetation varie,
accordingly (Table 1). Coniferous
forests prevail in northern and other cool
areas, the coasi is dominated by
mangroves, and the drier areas generally
have range lands and scrub vegetation
(Anon. 1988). Tree planting is restricted
to riverain forests and irrigated
Only 3.2% of Pakistan's total land
area of about 80 million ha is under
forest cover. Continuous efforts and
massive campaigns are launched each
year to plant more trees, and the forest
departments in the country's four
provinces distribute seedlings at low cost;
these measures help to maintain the area
under forest at a constant level, but the
situation needs improvement,
Table 1. Vegetation types in the provinces of Pakistan (thousands of ha).
Punjab Sind
NWFP Balochistan
Total
Coniferous
Irrigated plantation
Riverain
Shrub
Coastal
Mazri lands
Linear Planting
Rangelands
25
136
54
302
2723
82
241
10
345
489
1105
115
24
159
150
787
1261
218
300
569
345
24
159
414
Total
3240
1167
1553
1065
7021
Protected areas
2726
862
617
378
4583
Net area under forests
514
305
936
687
2442
Area under fruit cultivation
280
81
25
42
428
Total tree cover
794
386
961
729
2870
Source: Anon. (1988)
63
131
5
142
accounts for about 10,000 ha of the
estimated total of 36,000 ha of A.
nilotica plantation (Sangi 1987).
The cost:bencfit ratio with hurries
has been calculated at 1:1.72, compared
to 1:1.52 for most agricultural crops.
For selfemployed hurries farmers who
can save on labor costs and have access
to their own seed source, this ratio may
be even better (Wagan 1989). Hurries
usually occupy marginal lands as part of
a rotatioal fallow system with agricultural
crops, often cotton. In the last yca: of
the cotton (or other) crop, A. nilotica
seed is scattered over the plot amid the
cotton and receives an initial irrigation.
After that, it receives only runoff from
adjoining plots. The thick tree cover is
thinned to a tree spacing of about I in
apart. Still tightly spaced, the trees grow
for 56 years and are then harvested and
sold at a reasonable price for mine
props, with roots sold for charcoal
production. The cleared land is then
returned to agriculture for the next few
years.
With systematic rotation of trees and
crops, an intelligent farmer can maintain
the productivity of his entire land for
better production of annual crops with
minimum inputs. The trees not only
meet his fuelwood and fodder needs, but
also provide insurance against
emergencies, representing capital to fall
back upon in times of need or in a year
of bad harvest. Considering these
benefits, incentives should be provided
to make hurries more widespread.
plantations, where acacias form an
important component.
Classification and Distribution
Acacias belong to the family
Leguminosae, one of the three largest
families of angiosperms. Acacia is the
largest genus in the subfamily
Mimosoideae. Acacias are mostly trees,
many of which are xerophytes found in
Southern Africa, Central and Southern
America, Australia, South and South East
Asia (Lawerence 1964; Rendle 1959).
Nasir et al. (1972) record some 25
indigenous and exotic species of Acacia
in various parts of Pakistan (Table 2).
The most popular species among these is
A. nilotica;its ssp. nilotica, indica, and
cupressifonnis are widely scattered.
Because the species withstands extremes
of temperature ( 1 to 50YC, although
frostsensitive when young), it occurs
from sea level to over 500 m and is
found in nearly all parts of' Pakistan
from Karachi to P'eshawar. It is very
thorny, has bright yellow flowers and
dark indehiscent xads. Flowering is
profuse and may occur repeatedly in a
season, but seed set is very poor, only
about 0.1% (Tybirk 1989).
Hurries, Traditional Block Plantations
of A. nilotica
The popular practice of farmers
planting A. nilotica, particularly in Sind
province, dates back to 1858 when
farmers were provided land free of
charge for block plantation of A.
nilotica, with none of the taxes normally
levied on agricultural lands. The
practice, known as "Hurries," is still
strotng in Hyderabad Division, where it
Uses of A. nilotica
Every part of A. nilotica trees from
roots to crown is useful in some way. In
summer, the trees provide shelter and
serves as an effective fence, protecting
64
Table 2. Acacia species found in Pakistan.
Species (Synonym)
Origin
Distribution in Pakistan
Acaciaaneura
A. auriculiformis
A. catechu (Mimosa catechu)
Australia
Australia
A. cornigera (A. spadicigera,
Mimosa coraigera)
A. decurrens
Mexico
Cultivated in gardens
Cultivated in gardens
Scattered on foothiils up to 4000'
Peshawar, RawalpindI, Swat
Lahore
Australia,
Fasmania
A. ebrunea (Mimosa eburnea)
A. farnesiana(Mimosafarnesrana) Tropical America
A. filicina, A. filicioideg
Tropical America
A. gageana
A. honwlophylla
Australia
A. hydaspica
A. jacquemontii
A. leucophloea (Mimosa leucophloea)
A. mnearnsii
Australia
A. nelanoxylon
Australia
A. mellifera (Mimosa mellifera)
Africa, Arabia
A. nodesta
A. nilotica (Mimosa nilotica, M. arabica,Acacia arabica)
ssp. nilotica
Sahelian Africa
ssp. hemispherica
ssp. cupressiforinis(A. arabica var. cupressiformnis)
ssp. indica (A. arabicavar. indica) .
'.
ssp. astringen (ssp. adansonii) ssp. subalata (A. subalata)
A. saligna(Mimosa saligna)
S.W. Australia
A. senegal(M. senegal)
A. seyal (Acaciafistula)
Africa
A. sieberana
Africa
A. splaerocephala,A. veracruzensis Mexico
A. torta (Mimnosa torta)
A. tortilis (Mimosa torttis)
N. Africa, Arabia
Source: Nasir ct ad. (1972)
65
var. decurrens - Abbotabad;
var. mollis Muzaffarabad
Sind, Salt range, Punjab
Plains and hills upto 4000'
Lahore
Jammu, Some parts of Pakistan
Gardens
Peshawar, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Turbat
Sind, Punjab, Balochistan
Nagar Parker hills, Punjab
BUM
Cmalens
D. I. Khan
Dir, Swat, Jhelum, Salt range
Scattered
Karachi, near coast Paradise Point
Punjab, Sind
Ly:dlpur, Jhelum, Lahore, Hala forest,
J,,mshoro, Thatta, Gharo
Karachi, Malir, Kotri, Ghulamullah,
Gharo, Thatta
Karachi
Rawalpindi, Peshawar
Karachi, Dadu, Sukkur, Tharparkar
'var.seyal and fistula D.I.Khan
D.. Khan
Lahore
Kotri, Jammu
ChangaManga, Lahore
is rnsistant to termites and impervious to
water. It is hence ideal for furniture, boat
building, oars, carts, and is good for
carving and turning.
It is an important source of shellac
and gum arabic, with properties similar
to the gum now obtained from A.
senegal. The gum is used to
manufacture matches, inks, paints, and
confectionery. The bark and pods are
widely used in the leather industry, with
tannin content varying from 1220%.
Honey is a valuable byproduct from the
plantations.
The charcoalmaking sector relies
mainly on A. nilotica, using not only the
portion of the tree aboveground but
also roots and stumps, as mentioned
above. The charcoal burns slowly with
intense heat and little smoke.
crops from livestock as well as
dessicating winds. Because of its narrow
crown, the subspecies cupressiformisis
becoming a more popular wind break
than other varieties.
Land Rehabilitation
A. nilotica tolerates saline and sodic
soils and helps maintain vegetative cover
on these areas. Its tap roots open the soil
and improve leaching of nutrients, while
litter fall adds organic matter. The
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen further
improves fertility. Ongoing research at
the Atomic Energy Agricultural
Research Centre (AEARC) is studying
these aspects.
Wood
The dark brown wood is nearly twice
as hard as teak, durable, and shock
resistant. It is used as poles, posts, mine
props, railway sleepers, and tool handles.
It is an excellent fueiwood (a scarce
commodity in Pakistan's rural areas) with
a high calorific value of 4,950 kcal/kg
(Fagg 1992).
Other Acacias of Interest
In an effort to make the large tracts
of saline waste lands throughout Pakistan
productive for farmers by use of trees, a
number of Australian acacias have been
introduced in Pakistan in the past five
years. These efforts are at present
restricted to AEARC in Tandojam, the
Punjab Forest Research Institute in
Faisalabad, the Nuclear Institute for
Agriculture and Biology in Lahore, and
the Pakistan Forest Institute in Peshawar.
Among the species tested at Tandojam
(Table 3), A. ampliceps, A. stenophylla,
and A. machanochieanashow potential.
Species being tested at Peshawar on a
limited scale for salinity and/or drought
tolerance include: A. tortilis,A. radiana,
A. aneura, A. cyclops, A. sclerospertna,
A. albida, A. modesta, and A. adsurgens
(Hussain 1991; Sheikh and Shah 1983;
Sheikh, personal communication). Some
of these species are also under trial at
Fodder
Cattle relish twigs and pods of A.
nilotica, and goats are particularly expert
at picking the leaves from the thorny
branches. Pods are a rich source of
protein, and so provide an easy means,
generally practiced by farmers, of
obtaining seed for sowing from the
animal dung in pens (Shekh 1989).
Seeds collected in this way need no
further pretreatment.
IndustrialUses
The hard, finetextured, totoh wood
66
Table 3. Growth of Acacia species on highly saline soil at
9, 12, and 15 months at Tandojam.
12 months
15 months
Survival Height Survival It.
Basal Survival Height Basal
DBH
(%)
(an)
(%)
(an)
diameter (%)
(cm)
diameter (cm)
Species
A. ampliceps
(14668)
(15741)
(15769)
(15734)
33
39
33
32
110
152
79
116
32
39
33
32
148
188
102
148
3.63
4.94
2.67
3.93
33
39
32
32
162
211
122
169
4.58
5.91
3.23
4.91
3.52
3.75
2.20
2.84
A. nachonochieana
(14676)
23
97
22
116
2.34
21
124
2.65
1.05
102
142
16
26
119
169
2.12
2.62
16
26
139
189
2.37
3.83
1.48
1.83
A. stenophylla
(14670)
(15736)
15
26
A. auriculiformnis (16484)
A. salicina
-
(16648)
A. victoriae
11
96
10
129
2.17
10
135
(17209)
A. nilotica
2.52
1.55
11
56
5
57
0.68
4
161
3.91
2.96
Source: Ansari et al. (1992)
Lahore under saline but more sodic
conditions than at Tandojam (Islam,
personal communication).
production of uniform, goodquality seed
3. Determination of optimum nursery
techniques
4. Nutrition/fertilizar studies
Research Needed on Acacias in
General, and A. nilotica in
Particular
5. Studies of rhizobia and mycorrhizal
relationships
1. Provenance selection for suitability
in a range of environments
6. Cultural practices (spacing,
2. Seed orchard establishment for
pruning, pollarding)
67
Table 4. Wood production and imports in
7. Breeding for better characteristics
Pakistan.
Concluding Remarks
Prodnct
Qty.
With more than 70% of Pakistan's
population in rural areas and a meager
forest cover, farming and forestry are
still often viewed as separate activities.
Boundaries between agricultural
scientists and foresters are clearly
marked and trespassing is not viewed
favorably. This is unfortunate, as "like
the separation of husband and wife, it
creates many more problems than it
solves" (Evans 1988). These views are
changing but :,uch remains to be done.
Farmers of annual crops may not be
interested in exclusive tree cover except
where land ha., degraded to a point
where planting agricultural crops is no
longer viable. But there is definitely a
need for having trees sidebyside with
crops.
Because acacias dominate the
riverain and irrigated plantations, they
can play a major role in these situations.
Many industries depend on wood, but
local production falls short of demand.
In 198687, Pakistan produced
950,(X) m3 of timber and firewood
(v, ued at 887 million rupees) but spent
2.388 billion rupees (Table 4) on
imports of wood and wood
manufacturing material (Anonymous
1988).
(000s M3 )
Value
(millions Rps)
Domestic production*
Timber
Firewood
Total
407
543
950
810.0
77.0
887.0
Imports of wood and wood products**
limber (round and saw)
142.4
Wood and woxd manufacture
17.8
(Veneer, plywood, etc.)
Pulp and paper board
2164.0
Miscellaneous items
64.6
(Resin, Cork, Bamboos etc )
Total
2388.8
*198687;**198788 Source: Anon. (1988)
Imports are generally more costly
and involve more bottlenecks than local
supplies. A steady supply from local
sources would benefit the relevant
industries, but the ultimate beneficiary
would be the farmer, on whose welfare
depends rural prosperity and in turn the
country's development.
Discussion Notes
Q: Hurries depend on irrigation, and
the seed used in them is still
unclassified. How will these situations
be improved in the future?
68
A: These topics need work; there is a
large degree of variability within a
single seed source, as you note.
References
Anonymous. 1988. AgriculturalStatistics of
Q: It is interesting to note the whole
tree concept of utilization for A. nilotica
as you have presented. Regarding its
use as fodder, are there available
comparisons?
A: Such studies are now underway
with Australian support, comparing
different species and their suitability as
fodder for sheep, goats, or buffalo.
Pakistan,198788. Islamabad: Ministry
of Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives,
Government of Pakistan.
Ansari, R., A.N. Khanzada and M.A. Khan.
1992. Australian woody species for saline
sites of South Asia. Annual Report,
ACIAR8633. Tandojam, Pakistan:
AEARC.
Evans, J. 1988. Overview of tree planting on
small farms in the tropics. In
Multipurpose Tree Speciesfor Small
Farm Use, eds. D. Withington, K.G.
MacDicken, C.B. Sastry, and N.R.Adama;
2630. Arlington, Virginia, USA:
Q: Has A. holosericeabeen tested?
A: No, it was not received among the
seedlots from CSIRO to be tested.
Winrock International.
Fagg, C.W. 1992. Acacia niloticapioneerfor
dry lands. NFT Highlights 9204.
Q: There would appear to be no
Hussain, A. 1991. Selection of suitable tree
significant difference between cost
benefit returns ofA. niloticaand those
of agricultural crops. Why then would a
farmer grow the trees, which take
species for saline and waterlogged areas.
Pak. J. For.41:3443.
LawrencL, G.Il.M. 1964. Taxonomy of
VascularPlants. New York: Macmillan.
longer before this return is realized?
Nasir, E., S.I. Ali and R.R. Stewart. 1972.
Flora of West Pakistanand Kashmir.
A: Your analysis is right; tree planting
Karachi, Pakistan: Fakhri Printing Press.
in mixed agroforestry systems therefore
may be a more suitable planting system.
In the case of hurries, though, the tree
crop does not replace an agricultural
crop, but is used as a fallow
Rendle, A.B. 1959. The Classificationof
Flowering Plants. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Sangi, M.A. 1987. Survey of hurries
plantings in Hydembad District, Sind.
improvement crop for 45 years.
Term paper, B.Sc.(Forcstry), Forest
Education Division, P11, Peshawer,
Pakistan.
Sheikh, M.I. 1989. Acacia nilotica (L.) Wild.
ex Del.: Its production, nanagententand
Raziuddin Ansari, A.N. Khanzada and
M.A. Khan work with the Atomic Energy
AgriculturalResearch Centre,
Tandojam, Pakistan.
utilization in Pakistan.Field document
No. 20, Regional Wood Energy
Development Progranme in Asia,
69
GCPIRAS/III/NET. Bangkok: FAO
RAPA.
Sheikh, M.I. and B.H. Shah. 1983.
Establishment of vegetation with pitcher
irrigation. Pak. J. For.33:7581.
Tybirk, K. 1989. Flowering, pollination,
seed production of Acacianilotica. Nordic
J. Bot. 9: 375381.
Wagan, R.A. 1989. The hurries: block
plantation of Acacia nilotica. Term paper,
B.Sc. (Forestry), Forest Education
Division, PFI, Peshawer, Pakistan.
70
Update on Acacias in Papuc New Guinea
P.B.L. Srivastava
In view of the recent summaries
included in the proceedings of last year's
COGREDA meeting (Srivastava and Yelu
1992) and in the forthcoming
proceedings of the national MPTS
research meeting held in Lae in 1992,
this presentation will not recapitulate that
information,
Given the large number of acacias
native to Papua New Guinea, one can see
why Papua New Guinea (PNG) is a main
seed source for acacias, particularly
provenances of A. auriculiformis,A.
aulacocarpa,and A. mangium.
Rural Development
Environment
The only serious environmental
problem in PNG is the reclamation of
former mining areas; PNG is the world's
fourth largest producer of tin. Two trials
of acacias on tin tailings are assessing
their promise for this purpose in PNG.
Discussion Notes
Q: What seed production areas are
active in PNG presently?
A: Seed production areas established in
PNG began to yield seed in the last 23
years. Each of the several sites is 25 ha.
Only A. mangium has shown some
potential for local use in PNG. As an
agroforestry crop, it is still on a trial
basis. A principal constraint to acacias'
wider use in this way is the lack of
marketoriented farmsmost PNG
farmers are small gardens, in which
traditionally grown species (for example
Casuarinaoligodon in the highlands)
are preferred.
Q: PNG is rich in forest resources; why
does it plant acacias?
A: Because the two companies active in
the country have already logged their
concessions of natural forest, the
Government requires them to maintain
that land through reforestation.
Industry
Q: Of the 2 million m3 harvested
annually in PNG, how much is acacia?
Two companies are active In forest
plantation in PNG: Japan New Guinea
Timber Pty. Ltd. and Stettin Bay
Lumber Co. While Eucalyptus deglupta
is native and wellresearched, A.
mangium appears better, with 90%
incidence of single stems. As a result,
both companies are replacing E.
deglupta with A. mangium in their new
planting efforts.
A: So far, almost nil. Acacia harvests
began only three years ago. But by
1997, all wood harvested will come from
plantations. Landowners now find sales
of seed more profitable than timber.
Q: Have studies compared the wood
production of acacias with that of.
Leucaena leucocephala?
71
A: No, since leucaena is grown mainly
as a shade crop.
Comment: Recently in PNG there has
been evidence of A. mangitwn heart rot,
as in Malaysia. Since its main use is for
chipping, however, this appears to cause
little concern.
P.B.L Srivastava is Director, PNG
Forest Research Institute, Lie, Papua
New Guinea.
Reference
Srivastava, P.B.L. and W. Yelu. 1992.
Acacias in Papua New Guinea: current
and future research. InTropical Acaciasin
East Asia and the Pacific,eds. K. Awang
and D.A. Taylor; 4449. Proc. of a first
meeting of the Consultative Group for
Research and Development of Acacias
(COGREDA), held June 13, 1992, in
Phuket, Thailand Bangkok: Winrock
International.
72
Experience with Acacias in Sri Lanka
K. Vivekanandan
Introduction
the dry zone of Sri Lanka: A. ebrunea,
A. leucophloea, A. planiformis,and A.
sundra. A. ebrunea is used as
fuelwood. A. leucophloea shows good
growth on saline sites. In 19891990,
Sri Lanka embarked on trials with
Acacia senegal, mainly for gum
production.
Acacias are as important as
eucalypts in the plantation forestry of
Sri Lanka, and during the pioneering
years these two genera featured
prominently in upland planting
programs. Australian acacias were first
introduced to Sri Lanka in the late
1860's. Initially, Acacia decurrens and
Acacia melanoxylon were introduced
for use as windbreaks, fuelwood
plantings, and as ornamentals. Later,
A. dealbataand A. mearnsiiand others
were introduced.
The main purpose of planting
acacias in the uplands was to produce
fuelwood for the tea industry and the
railway. In 1915 the Forest Department
embarked on largescale planting of
eucalypts and acacias to meet the
increasing demand for firewood. These
two species were planted as mixtures,
with A. decuruens planted under
Eucalyptus. In 1928, the pace of
planting slowed as the railway switcied
to coal for its energy needs. A.
rnearnsiiwas planted for production of
tannin, an industry which flourished in
the 1880s but which was gradually
phased out due to increasing production
costs.
Since 1980, the Forest Department
has conducted field trials with several
Australian acacias. This experience is
summarized below. In addition to these
exotics, four acacias grow naturally in
Experience Before 1980
Acacia decurrens
From its introduction by tea
planters, this species has a long history
in Sri Lanka, and is widely used above
1000 m as hedges, shelterbelts, shade
trees, green manure, and fuelwood.
Early experience with its rapid growth
and abilities to grow in poor soils and
tolerate grass competition (8 m in 1.5
years, 12 m in 4 years) encouraged
wide cultivation of the species for
fuelwood. It was a major component
of government fuelwood plantations
until 1936, when plantation activities
above 1500 m elevation were siopped
(Streets 1962; Champion 1935).
Streets (1962) recorded ;, fuelwood
production of 378 rm3 ha at year 15.
As a source of tannin, the species is
second only to A. mearnsii,which
grows more slowly but is higheryielding. Macmillan (1914) records a
yield of 7.9 t tanning bark/ha after 8
years at a spacing of about 4 x 4 m.
73
produce tanbark in the upcountry,
where conditions for its growth above
1,200 m are ideal. Although A.
decurrens grew faster and yielded
acceptable tannin levels, these tannins
contained undesirable coloring agents,
and so A. mearnsii was favored. It
grows well on grasslands and enjoys
welldrained soils. Growth is rapid
with heights of 56 m reached in 32
years. Although this species is not
currently exploited for tannin
production, the past experience
described by Macmillan (1946) is of
interest. The tanbark is ready for
harvesting 78 years after planting and
yields of about 17 t/ha can be expected.
Besides the bark, the tree yields
useful poles, small timber, and
fuelwood. Weeraratne (1964)
estimated that I,000 ha of pure A.
mearnsii plantations would meet Sri
Lanka's projected annual needs for
tannin extract of 600 t. Sri Lanka
annually imports 390 t of tannin extract
and extracts of vegetable origin, with
total values of imported tannin extract
and tanning chemicals of about Rs. 9
million (about US$320,(XX)) in 1985.
Acacia melanoxylon
This species was introduced in the
late 1860s and is very common in the
hills at an elevation of 1,4002,000 m.
It grows very well, becoming a large
tree in better soils and when protected
from wind. Its main use is as lumber
for general construction purposes,
fuelwood, and amenity plantings.
Initial growth is fast (3 m in the first
and second years). Laumans et al.
(1983) recorded average growth in
arboretum plots of 2428 m height and
4857 cm diameter, at age 36 years.
Similar growth of 4953 cm diameter at
45 years was recorded by Sutter
(1969).
Acacia dealbata
Introduced at about the same time as
A. decurrens,A. dealbataenjoyed an
early popularity for its attractive flowers
and habit, rapid growth, and successful
early establishment. Its aggressive
production of root suckers and its
ability to dominate a site encouraged a
note of caution to widespread use. This
habit and its ability to tolerate weed
competition could be exploited in
afforestation of marginal lands, but it
was largely overshadowed by the
success of other bipinnate acacias like
A. decurronsand A. mearnsii.
Experience Since 1980
With the emergence of fastgrowing
Australian acacias, field trials with
Acacia mangium andAcacia
auricuiformiswere undertaken at
different locations with very
encouraging results.
A. mangium is now planted on a
regular basis in the lowland wet zone
and highlands with remarkable success.
Acacia mearnsii
A. mearnsiiwas introduced to Sri
Lanka around 1890 as a fastgrowing
fuelwood species and windbreak. It
later gained attention for its potential to
74
To date, i o serious problems have been
encountcvAd except the observation that
they are more prone to fire damage than
Pinuscaribaea, which is planted on
sites with similar climatic and edaphic
conditions, and which has greater
tolerance to fire.
A. auriculiformishas become a
popular species for reforestation,
especially in the dry zone where its
performance has surpassed indigenous
species in terms of adaptability,
growth, and survival. Its only
disadvantage is the poor form which
precludes its use for quality poles and
sawn timber.
In 1989, the Research Division of
the Forest Department embarked on
multilocational trials of Acacia senegal
in the dry zone and the performance
was good. It was planted mainly for
producing gum arabic.
Results of Growth Trials
The Research Division has been
conducting a series of trials to evaluate
the relative performance of different
acacias, casuarinas and commonly used
indigenous
and exotic plantation
species
The following trial in the dry
intermediate zone illustrates the
inpermeite one
Aaiutrats
e
A.
superiority of A. auriculiforinisand A.
mangium. The data are adapted from
Weerawardena (1989).
75
The trial was conducted in the
Meegahakiula area, 28 km from
Badulla, at an elevation of about 450 m,
where annual rainfall is about 1,650
mm. Seeds were sown into seedbeds
previously sprayed with an aqueous
solution of NPK fertilizer. Most acacia
seeds were pretreated with boiling
water, but some (Acaciaflavescens,A.
orariaandA. rothii)were nicked
instead, and sown directly into
polythene tubes.
Other seedlots were sown without
any pretreatment. Planting took place
in December 1984, using a randomized
complete block design, with three
replicates. Each plot was a line of 15
trees. A marker plant of Melaleuca
viridiflora at the end of each plot
separated the plots. The perennial
grasses that covered the site were
uprooted before planting. After
planting low slashing and strip weeding
were done, as required, to control
weeds. Assessments were made at 6,
18, 30, and 42 months after planting.
Tables 13 present the results.
The tree height at 42 mnonlhs were
analyzed statistically and the results are
presented in Table 2.
The greatest dbh was rccorded For A.
mangium.
The
was for A.
auriculiformis. second
Other species
having a
large diameter were A. crassicarpaand
E. tereticornis (loc:.,.
The differences
for these four species were not
significant.
Table 1. Growth and survival (means) from a trial at Meegahakiula.
CSIRO
Seedlot Species
13846
13862
13681
13653
13871
13654
13588
Field
12944
i3349
Field
12848
13707
13400
12966
13515
Field
Field
Local
Local
Local
30 mos,
1ms.
6 mos.
ht.
survival height survival height dbh
(cm)
(can)
(%)
(cm)
(cm) (%)
99
Acacia mangium
A. auriculiformis 130
73
A crassicarpa
89
A. lepfocarpa
39
A. polystachya
34
A. o.'aria
Euc. melanophloia 63
120
E. tereticornis
80
E.tereticornis
E. canaldulensis 147
102
E. orelliana
79
E. inicrotheca
65
E. crebra
15
E. alba
17
E. alba
98
Casuarina
cunninghamiana
212
Calliandra
calothyrus
158
Leucaena
leucocephala
Tainarindus indica 41
Terininaliaariuna 17
Azadirachtaindica 199
42 mos.
height df
(cm)
(cm)
91
80
60
82
69
57
34
27
20
27
36
61
53
73
77
66
283
386
312
250
135
105
184
356
384
498
279
164
160
263
211
260
79
78
53
75
62
47
29
24
20
24
33
60
44
56
77
64
655
650
650
465
315
255
300
625
655
715
490
305
435
400
435
323
7.6
7.9
7.2
4.5
2.1
2.7
2.1
4.8
5.1
4.9
6.3
1.8
3.2
3.5
3.2
2.2
1006
1034
943
670
416
474
481
1162
932
973
665
451
683
818
763
453
11.1
10.0
8.6
5.0
3.2
5.3
3.4
8.4
7.3
6.4
7.0
5.2
5.2
6.8
5.7
4.5
95
385
86
560
5.3
673
6.2
80
542
78
730
6.6
897
8.1
98
00
100
170
000
295
88
11
100
138
1.5
320
2.7
418
5.0
518
6.7
Source: Werawardena (1989)
76
Table 2. Ranking of mean heights (cm) at
Table 3. Ranking of mean dbh (cm) at 42
42 months.
months.
Seedlot
Field
13862
13846
13849
13681
12949
Field
13400
12966
13707
Field
13653
Field
Local
13588
13654
13515
12848
Local
13871
Local
Species
Eucalyptus tereticornis
Acacia auriculiformis
A. mangium
E. camaldulensis
A. crassicarpa
E. tereticornis
Leucaena leucocephala
E. alba
E. alba
E. crebra
Calliandra calothyrsus
A. leptocarpa
E. torelliana
Azadirachta indica
E. melanophloia
A. oraria
C. cunninghamiana
F. inicrotheca
Terminalia arjuna
A. polystachya
Tantarindus indica
Height
Seedlot
Species
dbh (cm)
1162
1034
1006
973
943
932
897
818
763
683
673
670
665
518
481
474
453
451
420
416
320
13846
13862
13681
Field
Field
12944
Field
13400
Local
13849
Field
12966
13654
12848
13101
13653
13515
Local
13588
13871
Local
A. mangium
A. auriculiformis
A. crassicarpa
E. terelicornis
L. leucocephala
E. tereticornis
E. torelliana
E. alba
Azadirachta indica
E. camaldulensis
Calliandra calothyrsus
E. alba
A. oraria
E. microtheca
E. crebra
A. leptocarpa
C. cunninghamiana
Terninalia arjuna
E. mnelanophloia
A. polystachya
Tatnarindus indica
11.1
10.3
8.6
8.4
8.1
7.3
7.0
6.8
6.7
6.4
6.2
5.7
5.3
5.0
5.2
5.0
4.5
4.3
3.4
3.2
2.7
Source: Wecmwardcmt (1989)
Source: Weerawardena (1989)
Based on the data in the tables, the
following were identified as promising
for reforestation:
A. mangium and A. auriculiformis
show the best performance in terms of
growth increment for the dry
intermediate zone areas. A. crassicarpa,
which is new to Sri Lanka, showed
promising results and merits testing of
different provenances in future trials.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Acacia mangium (13846)
A. auriculiformis (13862)
A. crassicarpa (13681)
Eucalyptus tereticornis
E. tereticornis (12944)
Leucaena letcocephala
E. camaldtdensis (13849)
E. alba (12966)
E. torelliana (local)
Future Research
1.
77
Identify good provenances,
especially those of A. auribuliformis
with better form.
Discussion Notes
2. Broaden the genetic base of A.
mangiuji and examine closely the
wood properties, especially wood
decay.
Q: What leads to the classification
'degraded' land in Sri Lanka?
3. Conduct multilocational trials with
hybrids (in particular, A.
auriculiformisx A. mangium).
A: Shifting cultivation, mainly in the
southeastern part of the island, leaves
Imperata grasslands and shallow soils.
CSIRO seed lots have been planted on
these areas in tests.
4. Establish pilot plantation trials of
other promising acacias.
Q:
5. Establish seed orchards.
Are indigenous species planted?
A: Despite their performance on saline
soils, indigenous species generally aren't
plantedthey are considered too slowgrowing.
6. Establish pilot clonal plantations.
International Linkages
Q: From an interest in matching
production to demand, who decides on
national priorities and uses in FORTIP?
It would be unfortunate to repeat the
rubber experience of not considering
other possible end uses at the start of an
improvement program and thus delay
benefits by years when uses are
identified later in the process.
As part of the strategy to address
these needs, international linkages will be
pursued, including:
1. Strengthening linkages with F/FRED
and COGREDA to expand ongoing
activities.
2. Establishing link with the proposed
twinning arrangement to be
organized by the FAO/UNDP Forest
Tree Improvement Programme
(FORTIP)
A: National meetings were held,
involving the full spectrum of
government, private sector, and NGO
participants.
K. Vivekanandan is currently Project
Director,FAO/UNDP Regional Project
on Forest Tree Improvement (FORTIP),
Ecosystems Research and Development
Bureau, P.O. Box 157, College, Liguna
4031, Philippines.
Acknowledgement
This paper is based on one prepared by
the author in 1986 and on a publication
available from the Research Division of
the Sri Lanka Forest Department. The
author is grateful to Mr. N.D.R.
Weerawandene for his assistance.
78
References
Champion, H.G. 1935. Report on the Management
and Exploitation of the Forest of Ceylon.
Colombo: Ceylon Government Press.
Laumans, P., .. Sayers, ant G. Dabre. 1983. Note
on upco'nt'y exotic tree species trials.
Unp ibi,
bed manuscript. Nuwara Eliya, Sri
Lank. Division Forest Office. 32p.
Macm;llan, iH.F. 1914. Tropical Planting and
Gardening. Second edition. Londong:
Macmillan & Co.
.. 1946.
Tropical Planting and
Gardening. Fourth Edition (reprint). London:
Macmillan & Co.
Midgley, S.J. and K. Vivekanandan. 1986.
AustralLin acacias in Sri Lanka. In Australian
Acacias in Deve.cping Countries, ed. J.W.
Turnbull; 132L33. ACIAR Proc. No. 16.
Canberra: ACIAR.
Streets, M.A. 1962. Exotic Forest Trees in the
British Commonwealth. Oxford: Clarendon
Press.
Sutter, I. i969. Inventory of the upcountry
plantations. In Forest Reso.urces and
Management: Final Report. Preinvestment
study on forest industries development, Vol. 2.
Colombo: FAO.
Trimen, H. 1895. Handbook of the Floraof
Ceylon. Part IVI. London: Dalav and Co.
Weeraratne, W.G. 1964. Tanr'!,s from or wattles
(Acacia spp.) for the Icather industry. Ceyh,.
Forester6(4):7380.
Weerawardene, N.D.R. 1989. Growth and survival
of some tree sp ,cies in the dry intermediate
zone, mid, ountry lov"er elevalions. Sri Lanka
ForesterVo. XIX (l&2):5963.
79
Acacias for Rural, Industrial, and
Environmental Development in Thailand
Suree Bhumibhamon
smallscale tree farming, farm woodlots,
and agroforestry. Multipurpose troe
species can be suitable for marginal
areas and provide farmers with
multipurpose products. In Thailand,
farmers grow bamboo, mango, jackfruit,
coconut, and other fruit trees whose
wood can be used for f'Nelwood and
household uses. Acacia catechu and A.
insuavis are also commonly grown on
private land, mainly for personal use.
Background
The continued destruction of forest
resources in Thailand has depleted the
growing stock through illegal cutting,
slashandburn practices, conversion of
forest area for farm practices,
infrastructure development, and
settlement. This overexploitation has
caused a shortage of wood for industrial
and household uses. The most serious
consequences of deforestation are soil
erosion, expansion of saline soil areas,
water shortages in the dry season, flash
floods in tie rainy season, and reduced
biodiversity and minor forest products.
[his has caused society serious
economic and environmental constraints,
Enrichment planting and tree planting in
all forms are greatly needed.
Tree planting has been carried out
by government ag. ncies and state
enterprises. Farmers have planted fruit
trees in homesteads and home gardens.
In the last decade, the private sector has
started to establish industrial plantations.
This development *as encountered the
problem of scarce land available for tree
planting, particu!arly for those who
would like to lease state land for large
scale plani.ng. Nongovernment
organizations (NGOs) in general have
confronted attempts to make state lands
available in this way, but are weak in
suggesting alternativc by which
sufficient wood can he supplied to meet
the needs of Thaiiand's households and
wood industry. Selfreliance on tree
products can be promoted through
Acacias in Rural Development in
Thailand
Rural communities rely heavily on
wood and minor forest products
gathered :iom natural forests. The
scarcity of these products is mainly
caused by population and road density,
poverty, agricultural crop yields, distance
to the market, and wood prices.
Conversion of forest to farmland has
increased considerably during the last
three decades and has been an important
factor in the depletion of forest
products. The Thailand Forestry Sector
Master Plan has projected the forest
cover for the year 2(XX) and predicts
more loss of forest resources in most
parts of the country. To p)revent this, a
landuse policy must be established, the
cultivation of cash crops must be
abolished, land ,enure must b-given and
agricultural credit expander, birth
control must be promoted more
vigorously, and more trees need to be
planted.
80
Bhumibhamon (1992) identified 13
Acacia species native to Thailand.
Among them, A. catechu is grown
mainly in the central and northeastern
parts of the country. It is planted as a
shelterbelt, often mixed with bamboo.
A. insuavis (or seesiat nuea in Thai) is
grown in homesteads as a source of
food. Table I shows 13 key native and
exoUc Acacia species.
the young shoot is cooked in the form
of an omelette and eaten with chili paste.
The young leaf of A. concinna (or som
poi) is used to flavor food.
As a source of medicine, the
concoction of young leaves of A.
concinna boiled and mixed with honey
is used as a diuretic (Pongpangan and
Poobrasert 1991). Pods of this species
are sold locally as shampoo. They are
also used as a mild cathartic and emetic
(McFarland 1944).
Seeds of A. catechu are used to
control skin disease. The tree bark has
catechol, gallic acid, and tannin. Boiled,
it serves as local medicine to control
diarrhea, and dysentery
(Thiengburanatam 1989). The
heartwood is called cutch. Pure cutch is
used for chewing. When powdered and
dissolved in hot water, it can be used as a
medicine to control diarrhea. In some
countries, the tree's tannin is used for
dyeing dark leather, cotton and silk.
The Thai rural community uses
acacia woods for farm tools, fuelwood,
charcoal, and tannin extraction. A.
catechu wood is red or reddish, very
durable, and suitable for making hand
tools and cartwheels.
A. pennata (or ham han) is another
useful medicinal plant which grows in
open areas throughout tho country. The
leaves are made into a poultice and
applied to the head for curing
hieadaches. The boiled roolt is applied as
a poultice for rheumatism or rubbed
over the body for smallpox. Sometime,
the root is used to treat coughs. The
tannin can be used for staining fishing
nets (McFarland 1944).
A. leucopholoea (or cha laeb
daeng) is now rarely found in Thai
villages. It is a mediumsized or large
tree which can be used for house and
bridge construction, and for furniture.
T.,ble 1. Key native and exotic Acacia
species in Thailand.
Native
Exotic
Acacia calechu
A.farnesiana
A. concina
A. auriculiforinis
A. insuavis or A. pennala A crassicarpa
A. leucophloea
A. mangium
A. pennata
A.aulacocarpa
A. tomentosa
A. holosericea
A. dificilis
Of exotic acacias, A. farnesiana(or
kam tai) was reportedly introduced from
Cambodia or India during the fourteenth
century A.D. The shoo! and pod can be
used as a vegetable.
A. auriculiformiswas introduced to
Thailand from Australia by Tan Khun
Narong a few decades ago. It is found
to grow well in many villages as a
decorative tree and fuelwood source.
A. mangium has recently been
introduced into homesteads and private
farms as a potential tree to grow for
wood. A. crassicarpais still in research
station trials, and may be introduced to
private farms in the near future.
As a source of food, young shoots of
A. insuavis are used in cooking, either
eaten raw or soaked in hot water. Often
81
Bhumibhamon et al. (1992) found a
high degree of family variation in
heartwood formation. Progeny testing
and seed improvement are being
conducted under a cooperative tree
improvement program between Kasetsart
University and the Thai Plywood Co.
Due to the species' good productivity
under plantation conditions, the species
has gained favor among tree farmers in
central Thailand. Like A. auriculiformis,
A. mangium flowers well and is suitable
for honey production.
Preliminary results indicate that A.
crassicarpais an excellent choice for
industrial use in Thailand. Species and
provenance trials are underway at
various sites in the country.
Formerly, the heartwood was also used
for tannin extraction,
A. catechu and A. auriculiformis are
commonly used in rural areas for
fuelwood. The calorific values of
fuelwood of A. auriculiformisis 4,600
calories per gram; for A. catechu, the
"valueis 7,523 calories per gram, and for
A. siamensis,4,792 calories per gram.
When processed to charcoal, calorific
value increases considerably.
Acacias in Industrial Development
A. farnsianahas fragrant flowers
and is used in France in the perfume
industry. This use is little known in
Thailand. A. catechu has no current
industrial use except for charcoal
production (however, see the paper by
Wanida Subsansence et al. in this
proceedings).
Tannin from A. auriculiformis bark
is used in tanning leather. Due to poor
tree form, its wood can be used only for
the parquet industry, and it is not
commonly used as industrial wood for
pulp and paper due to the imited
supply. The Thai Plywood Co. uses this
species as raw material for fiberboard.
The product is good but the bark's high
chemical content requires more chemical
treatment of the waste water than other
species.
Trials of 28 provenances of A.
auriculiformis, established with support
from F/FRED, found that although tree
form is relatively poor, it can be
improved through individual tree
selection. The species flowers profusely,
which raises the possibility of apiculiure
for honey production.
Wood of A. mangium has been tested
in private sawmills in Buriram and is an
excellent source of sawn timber.
Acacias in Environmental Development
A number of acacias grow well on
degraded land, and can be suitable to
grow as alternatives to shifting
cultivation. A. catechtu grows well in
droughtprone areas and resists forest
fire. It is an excellent pioneer species
and can coppice well. A. auriculiformis
grows well in most sites in Thailand, and
could be used to establish green areas. It
also .grows well in poor sites, particularly
on former tinmining sites in the South.
A. mangiuni is suitable for growing
in Imperata infested grassland. If
planted at a spacing of 3 x 3 ni, the
canopy of A. mtangium will close in two
years and suppress the Imperata grass.
In urban areas, A. mangium is now
popular for growing in golf courses,
gasoline stations, and along roadsides.
82
Trends In Research and Development
Research needs
A summary of prospects for acacia
prospects in rural, industrial, and
environmental development is suggested
in Table 2. Potential research on acacias
in Thailand include:
Exploration
Seed collectionA. catechu (by RFD,
ACFTSC)
A. mangium (RFD,
ACFTSC, Thai Plywood
Co.)
A. auriculiformis(RFD,
ACFTSC)
1. Species cum provenance trials in
problem soils in various parts of
the country, in view of the fact
that land available for tree
planting is mostly on marginal
sites
Planting
2. Studies of growing acacias as an
alternative to unsustainable
shifting cultivation, including
degraded sites
A. catechu (as living
fence, on degraded land)
A. auriculiformis(on
degraded land)
A. mangium (by farmers
for industrial processing)
Comment:
Nutrient cycling is a
research area that should also be
considered; in second rotation Alnus
plantings, for example, nutrient
deficiences were discovered. Sure, most
acacias fix nitrogen, but nitrogen is not
the only nutrient needed for trees or
other crops.
3. Hybridization studies
4.
A. catechu, A. tomentosa
Physiological studies for
selection of clones and families
5. Tests of growth and production
under agroforestry, to introduce
the trees to farm areas
Q: What incentives are there for the
private sector to become involved in
plantations?
Discussion Notes
Thailand's list of reserve species
includes 240 species. Seventytwo native
species are currently planted, including
A. catechu (I million trees in the past 90
years); 27 exotic species are planted,
.,cluding A. auriculiformis(only in test
plantings so far) and A. mangium
(grown by farmers for sale to industry).
With the current logging ban, saw
mills in Thailand are closing and tree
growing is hard to encourage. Cutting
rights linked to planting must be
offered.
A: Soft loans, which haven't worked in
Thailand due to the high interest rate
(12%, vs. 3% in other countries), and
land leasing, which was banned in recent
years due to instances in which
community forest lands were leased for
plantation without consultation. The
Plantation Act of 1991 did not provide
adequate incentive, because it mainly
dealt with the reserve species, mostly
indigenous, which are less known in
terms of properties and markets.
83
Table 2. Prospects for acacias in Thailand.
Species
Fuel
Acacia aulacocarpa
A. auriculiformis x
x
A. catechu
Rural Development
Tannin Medicine Food
Industry
Sawnwood Fiberboard Other
x
x
?
x
x
parquet
cutch
Environment
Enrich Degraded Urban
mentplarting land forestry
x
x
x
x
a
x
A. concina
A. crassicarpa
A. farnesiana
A. insuavis
A. leucophloea
A. mangium
A. pennata
A. tomentosa
perfume
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
pulp, paper, veneer
x
Suree Bhunibhamon is Associate
Professor ofSilviculture at the Faculty of
Forestry,Kavetsart University, Bangkok
10900, Thailand.
References
Bhumibhamon, S. 1992. Potential for growing
Acacias in Thailand. In TropicalAcacias in
East Asia and the Pacific,eds. Kamis Awang
and D.A. Taylor; 1517. Proc. of a first
meeting of the Consultative Group for
Research and Development of Acacias
(COGREDA), held in Phuket, Thailand,
June 13, 1992. Bangkok: Winrock
Intermational.
Bhumibhamon, S., V. Thavorn, and R.
Swasdipakdi. 1992. Family variation in
heartwood formatin of Acacia inangiun.
MPKIS Research Notes 2(3):12.
McFarland, G.B. 1944. ThaiEnglish
Dic:ionar.. Palo Alto, California: Stanford
University Press.
Pongpangan, S. and S. Ploobrasert. 1991. Edible
andPoisono,!s Plantsin Thai Forests.
Bangkok: Science Society of Thailand under
the Patronage of IIM the King.
Thiengburanatam, V. 1989. A Dictionary of
ThaiMedicinal Plants. Bangkok: Odeon
Store.
85
Acacias for Rural, industrial, and
Environmental Development in Vietnam
Nguyen Hoang Nghia and Le Dinh Kha
Introduction
donnaiensisGagnep and A. intsia Willd.
A. intsia is widely planted on farms in
the northern part of the country, and its
leaves are used in cooking soups. In
general, though, these acacias are small
trees, shrubs, or climbing plants, and
have not been included in any
reforestation program.
In the 1960s in southern Vietnam,
many exotic acacias were introduced for
trial and planting (Table I). Of these, A.
podalyriifolia(also A. podalriaefolia,or
"mimosa") and A. auriculiformisare the
two most widely known. A.
podalyriifoliahas brilliant silver leaves
and yellow flowers, and is prized as an
ornamental tree, especially in Dalat city,
LamDong province. A. auriculiformis
was one of the early planting species
introduced into Vietnam, and is
particularly common in southern
Vietnam. At the Forest Research Centre
of southeastern Vietnam (Trang Bom,
Thong Nhat, DongNai province), some
older trees (about 30 years old) of A.
auriculiformishave an average height of
about 20 m and diameter of 4060 cm.
The largest trees have diameters of 80
cm.
At about the same time, A. confusa
was also introduced from China into the
northern provinces of Vietnam.
Vietnam has a total area of about
330,000 km 2 of which 19 million ha is
forest and forest land (about 60% of the
country's area). At the end of 1989,
natural forest was estimated at 8,686,700
ha, forest plantation at 629,000 ha, and
land without forest at 9,315,700 ha
(Ministry of Forestry 1991). The area
under forest can be classified into three
utilization categories: productive forests,
protected forests, and special forest.
Vietnam's government has
established an action plan for greening 5
million ha of bare hills and denuded
land in the next 10 years to supply wood
for the pulp and paper industry, sawn
wood, mine poles, fuelwood, and other
forcst products. Acacia species occupy
an especially important place in this
reforestation program, particularly for
supplying raw material for pulp and
paper for export, and for environmental
protection.
Native and Introduced Acacias
According to the plant classification
work of Lecomte (1908), Vietnam has
two native Acacia species: Acacia
86
Table 1. Acacias introduced in 1960s in
southern Vietnam, according to documents
maintained.
Year of
No
Species
introduction
I Acaciaaneura
1964
2 A. angolacocarpa
1964
3 A. aulacocarpa
1964
4 A. auriculiformis
1964
5 A. bracatinga
unknown
6 A. corymbosa
7 A. decurrens
8 A. excelsa
more recent introductions, A. mangium
has become the preferred Acacia
species. Vietnam's imports of seed of
this species went from 80 kg in 1989 to
800 kg in 1990 (Ministry of Forestry
1991). In the action plan for planting
1.51.6
of productive forests
(out of amillion
total 5 ha
million
ha to be
reforested) by the year 2000, 10% of
this area is intended for planting Acacia
species (i.e., about 130,000150,000 ha).
1964
1964
1964
9 A. harpophylla
10 A. iongifolia
II A. melanoxylon
12 A. nodosa
13 A. pendula
14 A. podaiyriaefolia
15 A. retinoides
AcaciaPlanting Programs in Vietnam
1964
1964
1967
The Government's new policy on
forest and forest land allocation provides
1964
a good basis for farmers who are
1964
interested and invested in reforestation.
1960, 1961
unknown
In the plains, A. auriculiformisand A.
mangium have been planted widely
along roads as ornamental trees that
also
yield wood and fuelwood for farmers.
In mountainous areas, people have been
also encouraged to plant acacias with
eucalypts for forest rehabilitation and
soil and environmental protection.
Beside productive forests, there is a
large area of protected forests and riverhead forests to be maintained, preserved
and covered with trees. Among the
many tree species used for this purpose,
are some acacias, pincipally A.
After 1975, A. auriculiformisbecame
a popular tree species in northern
provinces as well, and so has been
planted widely throughout the country.
According to the Ministry of Forestry
(1991), the area of A. auriculiformnis
plantation and local supplies of seed
used in recent years are as follows:
Area (ha) Seed qty (kg)
1986
1015
not available
1987
2324
1988
1989
1990
800
836
620
800
786
500
600
auriculiformis ard A. mangium. The
World Food Program (WFP)
Reforestation Project No. 4304 aims to
plant 125,000 ha with plantations in
19931997 in 13 coastal provinces.
provides reeds, seedlings, and funds It
directly to families. Acacia species
occupy a high priority in that program.
There is a new trend in Vietnam to
use wood of Acacia species for pulp and
paper rroduction. The area planned for
planting acacias for this purpose is
increasing to about 10,00015,000 ha
Since 1980, with assistance from
projects and international organizations,
seeds of many promising tropical acacias
have been put in trials and planted on a
large scale, including A. auriculiformis,
A. mangium A. crassicarpa,A.
aulacocarpa,A. cincinnata, A.
melanoxylon, and A. mearnsii. Of these
87
annually, but it is a longterm task. In
some woodprocessing factories, acacia
wood has been used for furniture. Wood
of A. auriculiformishas been exported.
Although the export price is only half
that for eucalypts, acacia's superior
characteristics in soil and environment
protection has prompted the
Government to favor acacia planting
over eucalyptus.
Planting trees on denuded land can
give good prospects for rural and
economic development. It is hoped that
the case of A. mnangium on acid sulphate
soil can be a good example of this.
plantings. Also, on newly established
banks with more fertile soil, A. mangium
growth is ( ;te good (height
measureme s taken for main stem only)
but tends toward a multistemmed habit:
93% of the trees have more than one
stem, with an average of more than 3
stems per tree.
A. auriculiformisand A. mangium
have proven to be promising for this
ecological region. With these two
species planted widely on this acid
sulphate soil, the great potential of these
areas could be exploited for better
population distribution, employment,
rural development, and production of
raw materials for the pulp and paper
industries.
A. mangium on acid sulphate soil
About one million ha of acid
sulphate soil in southern Vietnam is not
productively used. Although the soil is
quite fertile (Table 2), the low p1l (3.2
3.5 KCI), waterlogging in the rainy
season, and high sulphate potential make
it very difficult to cultivate agricultural
crops there.
For planting trees in these soils, a
new technique should be applied by
which soil is dug to make banks or
raised beds (0.5 m high and 24m wide)
and a canal system to adjust the water
level between them.
Acacias and eucalypts have been
planted on banks and along roads in
these areas. Table 3 shows growth data
of A. mangium planted in trial at Tan
Tao Station (Ho Chi Minh City). In
these areas, lowdensity plantings show
better growth than highdensity
Species and Provenance Trials
In the early 1980s, provenances of
A. mangium, A. auriculiformis,A.
crassicarpa,and A. aulacocarpawere
put in trial in areas such as Da Chong
(Ha Tay province, 1982), Hoa Thuong
(Bac Thai, 1984), and Dai Lai (Vinh
Phu, 1985) (Le Dinh Kha and Nguyen
Hoang Nghia 1991; Nguyen Hoang
Nghia 1992). Some research and
pioduction organizations have also
conducted trials and plantings in their
locality. The trials conducted by the
Forest Science Institute of Vietnam have
shown particularly promising growth
potential of A. niangiun, followed by A.
auriculiformisand A. crassicarpa. Only
A. aulacocarpashowed both slow
growth and multistem habit (average 3
Table 2. Features of soil samples taken from banks in Tan
Soil layer
Humus
N
P20 5
(cm)
(%) (%)
(%) Mim./100
0 10
10.2
0.27
1.6
1525
12.5
0.31
1.5
30 60
7.2
0.24
1.7
(Ho Chi Minh City).
JKTao 0Station
J pH
g)
(KCI)
88
2
21.6
41.3
20.9
3.2
3.3
3.5
Table 3. Mean annual increment of A. mangium (Seedlot 0407, Dendros, Australia) planted at
Tan Tao Station.
Age
(years)
4.3*
4.3**
3.3*
2.3*
1.5***
Spacing
Ht (m)
Dia (cm)
Stems per
(m)
4 x6
1.5 x 1.5
4 x6
4 x6
/year
2.6
2.1
3.1
4.4
/year
3.4
2.1
3.9
5.2
tree
1.6
1.3
1.2
1.5
1.5 x 3.0
3.6
4.1
3.1
*planted along road; **planted on old bank; ***planted on new bank
4 stems/tree, with 7997% of trees having
more than one stem).
%Singlestemmed trees
50
70
80
67
7
Species and provenance trials
Thirtynine provenances of 5 Acacia
species were put in trials at Da Chong
(Ha Tay province, 1990), Dai Lai (Vinh
Phu, 1991), Dong Ha (Quang Tri, 1991),
and La Nga (Dong Nai, 1991), with
details as follows:
Provenance trials of A. mangium
In the late 1980s, some provenance
trials were established for the most
promising Acacia species namely A.
mangium. Data collected from 4 trials
carried out in 3 sites, Dai Lai (Vinh Phu
province, 1988), Bail Bang (Song Be,
1988), and LaNgea (Dong Nai, 1989
and 1990), are shown in Table 4.
Other A. inangium provenances are
also in trial at Bau Bang and La Nga, but
for comparative purposes, Table 4
includes only those which were also in
the trial at Dai Lai.
It clear that on the dry, bare hills in
the midlands of northern Vietnam, of
which the Dai Lai trial site was
considered representative, height growth
of A. mangiwn (about 1.2 m/year) was
much lower than at sites in southern
Vietnam (Bau Bang, La Nga; 2.22.5
m/year). Promising provenances from
these trials are Cardwell (especially in
southern Vietnam), Kennedy, Hawkins
Creek, and Kuranda (all from
Queensland, Australia).
A.
A.
A.
A.
A.
aulacocarpa(5 provenances)
auriculiformis (13 provenances)
cincinnata (3 provenances)
crassicarpa(9 provenances)
mangium (9 provenances)
Tables 5 and 6 show growth data at
27 months. Compiled by species, mean
growth data is:
Ht (in) Dia (cm)
A. crassicarpa
4.8
6.7
A. auriculiformis 4.8
6.8
A. mangium
4.3
6.9
A. aulacocarpa 3.2
4.8
A. cincinnala
3.1
5. 1
The most promising provenances
appear to be Pongaki E.M. of A.
mangium; Coen River and Kings Plains
of A. auriculiformnis;and Pongaki E.M.,
Gubam and Mata Prov. of A.
crassicarpa.
89
Table 4. Ranking of A. mangium provenances in some trials by height growth (m).
Dailai, 36 months
Bau Bang, 36 months La Nga, 20 months
La Nga, 9 months
Seedlot Ht (m)
Seedlot
Ht (m)
Seedlot
Ht (m)
Seedlot
Ht (m)
31 1
3.8
27 I
3.3
34 1
3.3
0407
3.2
0515
2.8
271
2.8
33 1
2.6
26
2.4
3011
Seedlot
26; 15700
271; 2711
3011; 0517
0515; 15367
31 1
33 I
34 1
0407
341
26
31 1
27 1
7.0
6.2
6.1
5.4
26
31 1
341
0515
33 1
0407
6.1
5.9
5.7
5.7
5.6
5.1
26
0515
2711
15367
15700
0517
1.2
1.1
1.1
0.9
0.8
0.8
1.6
Provenance
Cardwell
Kuranda
Ingham
Mossman
Hawkins
Bronte
Kennedy
Dendros Seed Suppliers
Conclusion
largescale planting and establishement
of local seed stands. Research on
breeding A. mangium and A.
auriculiformishas already begun.
In addition to research, new efforts
should be made to disseminate
information widely on these trees' uses
and processing technologies, so that
there is a good information and market
basis for developing their production
and use in the country.
Three Acacia speciesA. mangiumn,
A. auriculiformis, and A. crassicarpa
show promising results. Beside quite
rapid growth, acacias also show good
ability to protect soil and fix nitrogen
for increased soil fertility and
environmental protection. In the
coming years, the promising
provenances will be determined for
90
Table 5. Height and survival of 27monthold Acacia provenances, Da Chong (Multiple Range Test).
Seed
lot
16589
16599
16142
16597
13681
16485
16484
16106
16605
16148
16152
16602
15677
13680
16107
16163
16598
16154
16113
15u78
16683
16151
13682
16586
16158
16681
16684
16679
15367
16112
13621
15694
15691
16128
13864
15365
13866
13865
16180
Mean Ht
Species
Provenance
A. mangium
Pongaki E.M.
A. crassicarpa
Pongaki E.M.
A. auriculiformis Coen R.
A. crassicarpa
Gubam Village
A. crassicarpa
Mata Prov.
A. auriculiformis Kings Plains
A. auriculifornis Morehead R.
A. auriculifonnis Mibini
A. crassicarpa
Derideri
A. auriculifonnis Manton R.
A. auriculiformis E.Alligator R.
A. crassicarpa
Dimisisi V.
A. mnangiutn
Iron Range
A. crassicarpa
Wemenever
A. auriculifonnis Old Tonda V.
A. auriculiformis Elizabeth R.
A. crassicarpa
Bimadebun
A. auriculiformnis Goomadeer R.
A. aulacocarpa
Keru to Mata
A. mangium
Helenvale
A. auriculiformnis Morehead R.M
A. auriculiformis Mary R.
A. crassicarpa
Oriomo
A. mangium
Gubam
A. auriculifornis Gerowie Creek
A. inangium
Ingham
A. auriculiformis Bensbach
A. mangiurn
BloomfieldAyton
A. inangium
Mossman
A. aulacocarpa
Morehead
A. inangiun
Piru, Ceram
A. mangium
Townsville
A. cincinnata
Julatten
A. crassicarpa
Jardine R.
A. cincinnata
Shoteel L.A.
A. cincinnata
Mossman
A. aulacocarpa
Gaioch
A. aulacocarpa
Buckley L.A.
A. aulacocarpa
Maningride
Survival
(%)
(i)
5.6
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.1
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.7
4.7
4.7
4.6
4.6
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.0
4.0
3.9
3.7
3.4
3.4
3.3
3.3
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.4
1
1
11
1
1 11
1 11
1 11 1
1 11 1
1 11
1 11 1
111 1
111 1
1 11 1
1 11 1
1 11 1
1 11 1
1 111
1 111
I 1 1
11 1
11 1 1
11 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
11 1
11 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
91
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
11
11
11
11
11
11
1
82.9
74.1
78.1
76.9
72.6
89.1
87.1
85.7
75.5
90.9
97.9
54.8
78.5
72.9
96.1
89.7
63.3
89.8
86.4
83.6
90.0
89.2
83.6
70.5
87.7
81.5
80.2
89.3
77.6
81.5
75.0
78.9
82.7
87.2
81.2
77.8
42.8
67.1
61.9
Table 6: Diameter growth of 27monthold Acacia provenances, Da Chong (Multiple Range Test).
Seedlot Species
16589
13681
16142
16597
16681
15677
16485
15678
16605
16154
16152
16106
16586
16148
16599
15367
16602
16163
16484
16158
15694
16683
16679
16598
16151
16107
13682
1368(0
16684
16112
15961
16113
13864
13865
16128
13621
15365
13866
16180
A. mangium
A. crassicarpa
A. auriculiformis
A. crassicarpa
A. mangium
A. mangium
A. auriculiformis
A. mangium
A. crassicarpa
A. auriculifornmis
A. auriculifbrmis
A. auriculiformis
A. mnangiumn
A. atriculiformis
A. crassicarpa
A. inangium
A. crassicarpa
A. auriculiformis
A. auriculifonnis
A. auriculifonnis
A. mangium
A. auriculifornmis
A. manyiunm
A. crassicarpa
A. auriculifornnis
A. auricuiliformnis
A. crassicarpa
A. crassicarpa
A. auriculifornis
A. aulacocarpa
A. cincinnata
A. aulacocarpa
A, cincinnala
A. aulacocarpa
A. crassicarpa
A. mangiwm
A. cincinnata
A. aulacocarpa
A. aulacucarpa
Mean Dia (cm)
Provenance
Pongaki E.M.
Mata Prov.
Coen R.
Gubam Village
Ingham
Iron Range
Kings Plains
Helenvale
Derideri
Goomadeer R.
E.Alligator R.
Mibini
Gubam
Manton R.
Pongaki E.M
Mossman
Dimisisi V.
Elizabeth R.
Morehead R.(Q)
Gerowie Creek
Townsville
Morehead R.
'loomficldAyton
Bimadebun
Mary R.
Old Tonda V.
Oriomo
Wemenever
Bensbach
Morehead
Julatten
Keru to Mata
Shoteel L.A.
Buck!ey L.A.
Jardine R.
Piru, Ceram
Mossnan
Gerioch
Maningrida
92
8.3
7.8
7.7
7.6
7.4
7.2
7.2
7. I
7. I
7.1
7.1
7.0
7.0
7.0
6.9
6.9
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.7
6.7
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.4
6.3
6.3
6.3
6.0
5.7
5,6
5.5
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.8
4.4
3.8
3.8
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I 1
1
1
1
I
1
I
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I I
1
1 1
1
1 1
Discussion Notes
Nguyen Hoang Nghia and Le Dinh Kha
work with the Research Centrefor Forest
Tree Improvement, Forest Science
Institute of Vietnam, Hanoi, Vietnam.
Q: What is the cause of the acidic soil
conditions in southern Vietnam?
A: They occur naturally due to the
Mekong delta. When this land that was
originally under sea level became
exposed, sulphate results. The problem
in reforesting these acid sois is the high
investment cost, particularly for small
farmers.
References
Le Dinh Kha and Nguyen Hoang Nghia.
Le
Kha
1.
of sme Ho a Nghi.
1991. Growt of some Acacia species in
Vietnam. InAdvances in TropicalAcacia
Research,ed. J.W. Turnbull; 173176.
ACIAR Proceedings No. 35. Canberra,
Australia: ACIAR.
Lecomte, M.H. 1908. FloreGdndrale de
l'IndoChine,Tome II; 7684. Paris,
reprinted in Hanoi.
Ministry of Forestry. 1991. Thirty years
contruction and development of forestry,
19611990. Hanoi, Vietnam: Statistical
Commelnt: This is the same obstacle as
in Taiwan, where the investment required
made it unfeasible for individual
farmers.
Q: Regarding your mention of the
higher price for eucalypts, why should
farmers invest in acacias?
Publishing House.
Nguyen Hoang Nghia. 1992. Acacia Species.
Hanoi: Ministry of Forestry.
Turnbull, J.W., ed. 1987. AustralianAcacias
in Developing Countries. ACIAR
Proceedings No. 16. Canberra, Australia:
ACIAR.
A: That is a policy decision by the
Government.
Comment. A. mangium has a doubtful
future on waterlogged soils.
Comment: Still, some acacias do tolerate
waterlogging. For example, A.
auriculiformis has survived 23 months
of waterlogging. Planting on mounds
helps the trees to establish. Eucalypts
survive waterlogging because their roots
spread laterally, not down. This
probably happens with acacias also. At a
trial near Nakhon Ratchasima, both E.
camaldulensisand A. mangium survived
3 months of waterlogging.
Comment: However, in the situation
presented in Vietnam, the trees would
have to tolerate sulphate as well as
waterlogging, a difficult demand.
93
Genetic Resources of Fifteen Tropical Acacias
Khongsak Pinyopusarerk
have known or potential value for rural,
industrial and environmental developmcnt.
Table I includes information on their
geographic occurrence and ecological
range. Figures 113 show the generalized
distribution of these species. General
information dealing with natural
distribution has been discussed in
Tumbull (1986) and Thomson (1992a)
and is reproduced here.
Some nacias with wide geographic
distributions extending over a range of
environmental conditions are likely to
have high levels of genetiz diversity.
Genetic variation studies of species now
being used or with a high potential for use
in plantations are needed to provide a
basis for selecting the most suitable seed
sources for planting and for developing
appropriate strategies and base
populations for tree breeding and
conservation. Some progress has already
been made in exploring intraspecific
variation in the genus Acacia, especially
insome of the species listed in Table 1.
Introduction
The genus Acacia comprises more
than 1,000 species widely distributed in
Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Australia.
Acacias occupy a wide variety of habitat
types, ranging from arid zones to
rainforest fringes, and occuc in both
tropical and temperate zones. Individual
species vary from prostrate shrubs less
than I m tall to large forest trees attaining
35 m in height and I m in diameter.
Many acacias from the
humid/subhumid trcpics (e.g., A.
mangium, A. auriculiformis,A.
crassicarpa,and A. aulacocarpa)are
suitable reforestation species for wood
production for pulp, sawn timber, and
fuelwood (Awang and Taylor 1992).
Other acacias from dry tropical
environments (e.g., A. ampliceps and A.
holosericea) are useful for rehabilitation
programs. Some lesserknown species,
including A. leptocarpaand A. cincinnata,
have shown potential fer use in
agroforestry.
The first meeting of the Consultative
Group for Research and Dcvelopment of
Acacias (COGREDA), held in Phuket,
Thailand in June 1992, reviewed past
work and experience with acacias in the
humid and subhumid tropics of East Asia
and the Pacific (Awang and Taylor 1992).
The meeting also identified a range of
Acacia species with potential value for
rural, industrial, and environmental
development. This paper reviews the
genetic resources of the 15 species in
Table I that have main geographic
occurrence in Australia. These species
Seed Availability
Current availability of provenan1ce
seed collections of these species held at
the Australian Tree Seed Centre (ATSC)
is given in Table 1.ATSC is the principal
supplier of research seed for these Acacia
species. Singletree collections have also
been made, allowing the study of variation
at the within and betweenprovenance
levels. The Centre's staff usually collect
the seed from natural stands themselves,
but sometimes private seed collectors are
94
Table 1. Characteristics of some tropical Acacia species with potential for rural, industia"l and environmental development.
Species
Country/
Stale
Latitudinal
range (OS)
Altitudinal
range (m)
Rainfall
range
(mm)
A. ampliceps
NT. WA
1426
0400
200800
sandy/
clay
alkaline
A.
aulacocarpa
IND, I'NG,
NT, QLD,
WA, NSW
630
01000
5003000
sandy
clay
acid
alkaline
A.
PNG, IND,
auriculiformis NT, QLD
517
0400
7503000
sandy
clay
acid
alkaline
A. brassii
QLD
1114
0200
5001800
sandy
acid
A. cincinnata
QLD
1628
150750
7503500
sandyclay
acid
Soil
Texture
Soil PH
alkaline
A. colei
QLD, NT,
WA
PNG, IND,
QLD
5003500
sandy
clay
saitdyc!ay
acid
alkaline
acid
alkaline
0200
4501500
sandyclay
acid
neutral
1124
0750
2501600
sandy
loam
acid
alkaline
large shrub/small
tree, 49 m.
826
0550
3501750
sandyclay
acid
small shrub/tree, 3
12 m.
0750
2501000
820
0700
QLD. NT,
WA
1118
A. holostricea QLD, NT,
WA
A. leprocarpa
A. difficilis
QLD, NT,
WA, PNG,
IND
spreading large
shrub/small tree, 3
9 m.
small shrub or tree
to 10 m in dry sites
but large tree up to
35 m on moist sites
more commonly
short crooked stem
tree 820 m but
superior
provenance grows
to 2539 tn with a
straight stem on
favcurable sites
small tree!shrub, 4
10 m.to 5.m, but
tree
smaller <10 m on
drier sites
large shrub/small
tree, 39 m
large tree to 30 m
but small shrub/tree
520 m on le'.
favourable sites
large shrub/smal
tree. 10 m.
1423
A.
crassicar".
Tre," form and
height
Primary Utilization
Availability
of seed from
natural rang
(ATSC)
fuelwood,
reclamation of saltaffected sites
cabinet timber,
general constuction,
pulp
good
fuelwood, pulp.
aesthetic, erosion
control, small sawn
wood eg. window
frames
good
fuelwood, low
shelter
fuelwood. cabinet
timber
fair
fuelwood, human
food potential
fuelwood, general
ccnstnmction
good
fuelwood, low
shelter, erosion
control on sandy
soils
fuelwood,
rehabilitation
mining area, sand
dune fixation,
human food
potential
fuelwood,
agroforestry
poor
good
fair
good
good
poor
NSW = New South Wales; NT = Northern Territory; QLD = Queensland; WA = Western Australia; IND = Indonesia; PNG = Papua New Guinea
Table 1 continued.
Species
A. mangium
Country/
State
Latitudinal
range (0S)
Altitudinal
range (m)
Rainfall
range
(mm)
PNG, IND,
QLD
118
0800
10003000
sandy
loam
acid
alkaline
large tree to 30 m.
1419
0750
3501250
neutral
spreading shrubby
tree, 36 m
spreading
shrub/tree to 15 m.
Soi!
Texture
Soil pH
Tree form and
height
A. oraria
IND, QLD
822
0700
9002150
sandy
loam
sandyclay
A.
plectocarpa
WA, NT
1128
0300
3001600
sandy
acid
shrub/small tree, 3
10 n1.
A..
polystachya
QLD
1019
0500
5002150
sandyclay
z.cid
alkaline
small shrub 34 m,
into tree 25 m.
A. neurocarpa WA, NT
acid
alkaline
Primary Utilization
Availability
of seed fom
natural range
(ATSC)
fuelwood, general
construction, pulp,
revegetation of
grassland
fuelwood, human
food potential
fu:lwood.
reclamation of
grasslands
fuelwood
good
fuelwood
poor
poor
poor
poor
NSW = New South Wales; NT = Northern Territory; QLD = Queensland; WA = Western Australia; IND = Indonesia; PNG = Papua New Guinea
commissioned. Priority is generally given
to species for which the demand for seed
is high. Comprehensive collections have
been made for A. mangium, A.
auriculiformis, A. aulacocarpa, and A.
crassicarpa. Other species (including A.
brassii, A. plectocarpa, and A.
polystachya) are not well represented.
Seed of some Australian acacias that
have been long established as exotics
(particularly A. mangium and A.
auriculiformis)is also available from ex
situ sources. A. auriculiformis seed has
been supplied from India and Thailand.
Sabah Softwoods Sdn. Bhd. in Malaysia
has been a major supplier of A. mangium
seed since the 1980s. Improved quality
seed of A. auriculiformiscan now be
obtained from seed orchards established in
northern Australia by ATSC. Seed orchard
seed of A. mangium, A. aulacocarpa,and
A. crassicarpais expected to be available
in the near future.
The natural occurrence of A.
ampliceps is between latitude 14 and 26"S
in northwestern Western Australia and the
Northern Territory (Plate 1). It is also
scattered throughout arid and semiarid
inland areas in the southern Kimberleys
and northern part of the Northern Territory
(Turnbull 1986). Altitudinal range is from
sea level to about 400 m. The performance
of this species as reported in Fiji,
Indonesia, Pakistan, and Thailand
warrants further investigation of the
genetic resources. Current seed
availability at ATSC is considered
adequate for such studies.
A. aulacocarpa
A. aulacocarpais one of the largest
acacias, reaching 35 m with a diameter in
excess of I m on moist sites associated
with tropical rainforest. On drier sites it
occurs as a shrub or small tree 410 m.
There are also differences in the shape and
color of phyllodes between populations
distributed in the moist and dry areas. This
morphological variation is the focus for
current taxonomic attention.
A. aulacocarpahas a very wide
distribution, with a latitudinal range of 630°S and an altitudinal range from near
sea level to 1,000 m (Turnbull 1986). It is
found from southern Papua New Guinea
(PNG) to northern New South Wales. The
northern occurrence is in the Western
Province of PNG and the adjoining area of
southeastern Irian Jaya. In Australia it has
two disjunct occurrences: the main
population extends along the east coast
from Cape York Peninsula to northern
New South Wales; the second area is in
the northern part of the Northern Territory
with extensions into Queensland and
Western Australia (Plate 2).
Compared with A. mangium or
Natural Distribution
A. ampliceps
A. ampliceps is a spreading large
shrub or small tree up to 9 m tall, useful
for rehabilitating sand dune aund salt
affected sites. It has survived and grown
well in saltaffected areas in Thailand and
Pakistan (Marcar et al. 1991), and has
performed well on alkaline Foils in Timor,
Indonesia (McKinnell and Harisetiono
1991). At the Nacula fuelwood trial in
Fiji, measurement at 3.5 years after
planting showed that A. ampliceps had the
fastest height growth and highest survival
rate, outperforming A. crassicarpa,
Paraserianthesfalcataria,
and
Eucalyptus. camaldulensis (Kubuabola et
al. 1992).
97
PAPUANEWGUINEA
.11. N
W,,,
Wet~
e
-98
,,,
~Srh
A.$WflU
W1em
I
I
Figure 1. Natural distribution of A. ampliceps.
.
I
I
INDONrAA
I
4
W.1009
AAs*,l4l
41,N90T.M0y
Sou hA.IWrIl
Figure 2. Natural distribution of A. aulacocarpm
98
O*.,l
N.e ,So
GUINEA
\ I N EW
l
W01.
Plate 1. A stand of A. ampliceps in Western Australia. Plate 2. A.aulacocarpa
in arainforest in
Queensland.
A. auriculiformis, A. aulacocarpa is
relatively untried. Nevertheless,
provenance trials with alimited number of
seed sources revealed considerable
variation in growth and form
(Pinyopusareik 1989). PNG provenances
grew faster and had good stem form, while
Queensland provenances grew slower and
had a multistemmed form. Seedling seed
orchards have been established in
Thailand and Queensland using seed from
PNG provenances.
The present coverage of germplasm of
A. 'zulacocarpa isgood compared with
other species but further exploration and
coliections are r6quired, particularly in the
tropical rainforests of north Quee~island.
A. auriculhformis
A. aluriculiformnis is a well known
species, especially in Asia where it is
grown for fuelwood, erosion control, and
revegetation of wasteland. The species has
disjunct distribution in three broad
geographic areas: in the north of the
Northern Territory, on Cape York
Peninsula, Queensland, and in the Western
99
and Central Province of PNG extending
across the border into the eastern Irian
Jaya (Boland et al. 1990). In most
locations, the species grows in narrow
strips along river banks or streams,
including areas immediately behind
mangroves along saline estuaries. In PNG,
it is found on the edges of monsoon vine
forests and seasonally inundated sites.
A. auriculiformnis shows considerable
variation in the wild, from singlestemmed
trees over 30 m tall (Plate 3) to 10in
stunted trees with less than I m in bole
length (Gunn and Midgley 1991). Field
provenance trials in many countries show
that PNG provenances are best for
biomass production, and Queensland
provenances are best for form while the
Northern Territory provenances are
inferior in both growth and form
(Luangviriyasaeng et al. 1991; Yang and
Zeng 1991; Harwood et al. 1991).
Geogrrphic variation in seedling
morphology has also been demonstrated in
a glasshouse study by Pinyopusarerk et al.
( 199 1); there are three distinct groups of
provenances which are in accord with the
three major occurrences of the species in
area where A. brassii occurs is in the hot
humid and subhumid climatic zone. The
mean maximum temperature of the hottest
month reaches 30°C (Turnbull 1986).
Although A. brassiihas received little
attention so far, it warrants consideration
for shade and shelterbelt planting under
harsh conditions. It has survived and
grown well in areas with a long dry season
in Thailand (Pinyopusarerk 1989). Seed
availability of this acacia is sufficient for
species introduction trials.
A. cincinnata
A. cincinnatagrows up to 25 m tall in
moist tropics but is a small tree less than
10 m on drier sites. The natural occurrence
is confined to the east coast of Queensland
between latitude 1628°S, in north
Queensland from Cairns to Mackay and in
the south from Fraser Island to Brisbane
(Turnbull 1986).
Although not as wellknown as A.
mangium or A. auriculiformis,A.
cincinnatahas a range of potential uses,
including fuelwood and sawn timber. Its
tendency to produce a single stem with
good form gives it potential for
agroforestry.
A seedlot of A. cincinnatafrom
Shoteel, Queensland has shown
considerable variation in tree form in field
trials in Thailand, varying from
multistemmed to singlestemmed trees
with good stem form. At the Longdong
Forest Farm in Guangzhou, China, A.
cincinnatagrows well, with form suitable
for posts and poles (Yang et al. 1989). As
a result, a seedling seed orchard has been
established at the Longdong Forest Farm
with genetic material from the species'
northern occurrence. Very few provenance
collections have been made to date.
Priority should be given to obtaining a
Plate 3. Straightboled A. auriculiformisin
Papua New Guinea.
PNG, Queensland, and the Northern
Territory. The results of the trial suggested
that Queensland provenances were more
closely related to the Northern Territory
than to PNG. Patterns of genetic diversity
examined over the range of A.
auriculiformisusing isozyme analysis
techniques also revealed three distinct
clusters of populations corresponding to
the three geographic distributions, with the
PNG populations having the highest levels
of genetic diversity and the Northern
Territory the lowest (Wickneswari and
Norwati 1991).
A. brassii
A. brassiiis a small tree or shrub with
potential for fuelwood or low shelter on
infertile, sandy sites. It has a restricted
distribution in northeastern Cape York
Peninsula north of Princess Charlotte Bay,
between latitude II and 14°S. Most of the
100
INDONESIA
.
P
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
D-
AUSTRALIA
. Bnb.,
SouthAutam
NmwSouthWales
MI
ri
II
II
Figure 3. Natural distribution of A. auriculiformis.
INDONESIA
.p 00
PAPUANEWGUINEA
M u,
AUSTRALIA
SouthAustrAka
Figure 4. Natural distribution of A.brassii.
101
u
z,
NwSouthWalesA,
much wider range of genetic material to
allow the potential of this species to be
properly assessed.
genetic variation in this species has not
been fully explored. Available information
to date is based on field trials of a limited
number of provenances. In general,
populations from PNG have been found to
outperform those from Queensland
(Harwood 1992). Recent seed collections
of this species by ATSC, CSIRO have
focused on PNG areas.
A. crassicarpa
A. crassicarpais fastgrowing and
widely adaptable. It is a small to medium
tree 1020 m tall but occasionally reaching
30 m. Its wood is suitable for heavy
construction. Its growth rate has been
reported to be twice that of A. inangium on
poor sites (Sim 1992).
A. crassicarpais widespread in the
Western Province of PNG (Plate 5) and in
the adjacent area of Irian Jaya, Indonesia.
The species is the most vigorous colonizer
on degraded soils following slash and burn
cultivation in PNG (Gunn and Midgley
1991). In Australia it occurs only along
the east coast in north Queensland from
north of latitude 20°S to the tip of Cape
York Peninsula. It is also found around
Weipa on the west coast of the Peninsula,
extending almost to the high tide level. As
with A. aulacocarpa, the amount of
A. difficilis
A. difficilis, a potentially useful
species for fuelwood and erosion control
in sandy soils, is a spreading large shrub
or small tree up to 10 m in height. It has a
compact occurrence in the north of the
Northern Territory. It also extends into
Western Australia and the extreme
northwestern comer of Queensland.
Latitudinal range is between II18°S and
altitudinal range is from near sea level to
200 m.
The species is one of the lesser known
and information on its performance is
restricted to that obtained from a number
of species screening trials in Thailand. It
has shown adaptability to a range of
climatic and soil conditions. It not only
survives and grows well on fertile sites
with annual rainfall of 1,3001,500 mm,
but also performs satisfactorily on infertile
sites with annual rainfall below 1,000 mm
and a prolonged dry season
(Pinyopusarerk 1989; Chittachumnonk
and Sirilak 1991). This species will be an
excellent tree for amenity plantings,
especially oil sandy soils.
A. holosericea
A. holosericea is a species with high
potential for fuelwood, soil improvement,
and stabilization, and has shown rapid
early growth in field trials in Thailand
(Pinyopusarerk 1989) and Africa (Gwaze
Plate 4. A. crassicarpa in Papua New Guinea,
with clear bole up to half its height.
102
Figure 5. Natural distribution of A. cincinnata.
Figure 6. Natural distribution of A. crassicarpa.
........
Figure 7.Natural distribution of A. difficilis.
103
c..,4_
czZa
.
INDUNNSIA
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
A.
..
je00
-6oJ
Westen AuSlIala
ou4eomland
Noihem Temtory
L
AUSTRALIA
A. M
m
/
A.
,
o." ...
We;Som Au$laha
k
u......
"
.'
,. ,
No
°
,wp...
oeenstand
eiAr
lheN
[ d..
AUSTRALIA
I
AUSTRALIA
o
o South W 211jo
~aN A
o utth
S slra
Vclooxa
.
Io
OCEE
I,0vvL140oc
I
I
I!C
I
t
Figure 8. Natural distribution of A. holosericea, A. colei (ms), and A. neurocarpa.
104
1992). It is used to revegetate land after
surface mining in northern Australia
(Langkamp et al. 1982). More
interestingly, seed of A. holosericea has
been used for human consumption in
Niger, Africa (Rinaudo and Thomson
1991), where it has begun to be developed
as a significant new food source (House
and Harwood 1992).
A. holosericea has a transccntinental
distribution in the subtropical dry zone of
northern Australia, extending from
northern Western Australia to northeastern
Queensland. Provenance trials in
Zimbabwe showed variation in growth
and phyllode color between inland and
northern material (Gwaze 1992). Ar
investigation of the amount of genetic
variation using starchgel electrophoresis
revealed three distinct isozyme forms
(Moran et al. 1992). Chromosome exam
ination showed that the three isozyme
forms corresponded to three different
ploidy levels, i.e. diploid (2n=26),
tetraploiu (4n=52), and hexaploid (6n=78)
(Moran et al. 1992). These results have led
to the recognition of three different taxa:
the diploid is referred to as A. neurocarpa,
the hexaploid is described as a new
species A. colei, and the tetraploid remains
as A. holosericea (Maslin and Thomson
1992). Populations of A. neurocarpa
extend from the west coast of Kimberley
region in Western Australia eastward to
the Queensland border within the
Northern Territory. A. holosericea
(tetraploid) occurs in populations that are
widespread in northern Australia from
Western Australia through the Northern
Territory into Queensland. The hexaploid
A. colei MS extends from Western
Australia through the Northern Territory
to northwestern Queensland with a
generally more southerly distribution than
the other two species. These three species
have different climatic and edaphic
105
preferences with the hexaploid A. colei
being the most drought tolerant (Thomson
1992b). Figure 8 shows the main area of
the species' distribution (reproduced from
Maslin and Thomson 1992).
Results obtained from field trials in
the Sahelian countries of Africa have
shown that A. colei and A. holosericea
have a potential for fuelwood production
or environmental protection
(Souvannavong and de Framond 1992).
Both species are currently used by
development projects in Sahelian
countries.
A. leptocarpa
A. leptocarpa is a fastgrowing small
tree to 12 m with great potential for rural
forestry. Its propensity to produce a single
stein with light crown makes it especially
suitable for agrolorestry.
A. leptocarpa occurs in Australia and
in the Western Province of PNG (Plate 5).
It is also found in the Irian Jaya. In
Australia, it occurs in a coastal belt from
central Queensland to Cape York. It has a
.
.
Plate 5. A. leptocarpa inPapua New Guinea.
genetic variation in this species has not
been fully explored. Available information
to date is based on tield trials of a limited
number of provenances. In general,
populations from PNG have been found to
outperform those from Queensland
(Harwood 1992). Recent seed collections
of this species by ATSC, CSIRO have
focused on PNG areas.
A. oraria
A. orariais a freelybranched shrub
with dense foliage up to 5 m tall or
widelybranched tree of 1015 m. It has
shown great potential for planting on
Inperata grassland.
It occurs naturally in northeastern
Australia and on the Indonesian islands of
Flores and Timor. The main distribution in
Australia is from Princess Charlotte Bay
to Bowen in Queensland. Some coastal
occurrences (e.g., at Port Douglas,
Queensland) extend virtually to the high
tide level. In Timor it is found at up to 300
m above sea level, and it is recorded up to
700 m in Flores.
A. orariahas not been tested
extensively but two Australian
provenances differed in their height
growth in ACIAR trials in Thailand; a
seedlot from Lakeland Downs grew faster
than one from Cairns (Pinyopusarerk
1989). Of special note is the high survival
rate (>80% in both provenances) and its
ability to compete successfully with the
notorious weed, Inperatacylindrica.
Planted at 2 x 2 m spacing, both
provenances totally suppres ed the grass
within two growing seasons. It is thus a
species highly recommended for
reclamation of grassland, particularly oni
land abandoned after shifting cultivation
in the humid tropics. A wider range of
seedlots should be obtained to permit
exploration of the species' full potential.
A. mangiun
A. mangium is the most widely
planted acacia, with major areas in
Indonesia and Malaysia. It is planted for a
variety of purposes including pulp and
timber, erosion control and reclamation of
grassland (Awang and Taylor 1992).
A. mangium has a fragmented natural
distribution that stretches from Indonesia
(where it occurs on the islands of Sula,
Ceram and Aru) to Irian Jaya, the Western
Province of PNG and northeastern
Queensland in Australia (Plate 6).
Provenance trials established with seed
collected in the early 1980s revealed
significant differences among provenances
in growth performance (Harwood and
Williams 1992); PNG provenances grew
f'aster than Queensland provenances while
Indonesian provenances grew slowest. Of
the Queensland provenances, material
collected from Claudie River has shown
most promise. Isozyme analysis, however,
indicates a low genetic diversity in the
species despite its disjunct distribution
(Moran et al. 1989), probably because
only a small subset of the genome was
tested. ATSC has made additional seed
collections in PNG and Queensland in
recent years (Gunn et al 1989; Morse et al.
1991). These have included singletree
collections from several hundred parent
trees, thus providing an opportunity for
the study of variation at the family level.
A. plectocarpa
A. plectocarpais a small slender ttee
which can grow up to 10 m in height,
useful for agroforestry or as a fuelwood
tree along farm boundaries in the hot,
semiarid climatic zone.
106
o
a
I
Ira
Ja
INDONLIA
PAPUA NEWGUINEA
W
tAo-
NonhCnTe,
,,s
AUSTRALIA
S-- A.,SUj
N. .SN thWi.$
IVc--_S
Figure 9. Natural distributioni of A. teptocarpa.
---
I
I
i
r
W.I0ClflAWIA .
O
I
"APUA
TOry
F,n
NEWGUINEA
te,lard
AUSTRALIA
S.1hAM4
Figure 10. Natural distribution of A. mangiwm.
107
.
KewS.rh We
from a single provenance, Bridle Landing,
Queensland, has been included in species
screening trials in Thailand. Growth was
slow compared to that of A. auriculiformis
or A. crassicarpa,but survival rate was
comparable to that of A. auriculiformis
and higher than A. crassicarpa
(Chittachumnonk and Sirilak 1991). In
general the trees developed multistems
from near ground level, very often up to
10 stems of more or less the same
diameter size. Of special note is the
performance of A. polystachyarecorded at
Ratchaburi, ThaiL d, where the dry
season lasts at least 6 months, with high
temperatures (absolute maximum up to
400C) in summer. During the dry season
some acacias including A. audacocarpa
and A. crassicarpashowed sign of yellow
phyllodes and shed considerable amounts
of phyllodes due to water stress. By
contrast, A. polystachya was not affected
by the high temperature apd water stress
and retained healthylooking, dark green
phyliodes throughout the same period.
A. polystachya is another
lesserknown acacia that should be further
tested. At present, seed of this acacia is
out of stock and priority should be given
to make new collections.
The natural occurrence of A.
plectocarpais mainly in northern
Australia in the Kimberley region of
Western Australia and in the adjacent
northern part of the Northern Territory
between latitude 11 and 18'S.
A. plectocarpais a lesserknown
acacia which has not been tried
extensively. It has shown better
adaptability than A. auriculiformisto
infertile sandy soils and prolonged dry
season in a field trial in northeastern
Thailand (Bo!and and Pinyopusarerk
1987). In that trial, A. auriculiformis,
widespread in the area, was stunted in
growth and severely attacked by
defoliators while A. plectocarpagrew
healthily without insect damage. There
was also a considerable humus layer
accumulated from litter fa!l. Thus it too
deserves further exploration, especially for
revegetation of infertile sites. Additional
collections of genetic material are needed,
as the current stock held by ATSC
consists of only one provenance.
A. polystachya
A. poystachya is a fastgrowing tree
and is adaptable to a range of infertile
soils in the humid and subhumid tropics. It
will be a good species for fuelwood and
erosion control.
Its natural occurrence is confined to
north Queensland, from Cape York to near
Cairns, mainly on lowlands near the sea. It
is also found on offshore islands from the
Palm Island near Ingham to Moa Island in
Torres Strait. There have buen no reports
of the species in PNG.
In its natural habitat, A. polystachya
varies in form from a bushy shrub 34 m
tall in open settings to a tall tree 25 m tall
in closed forests. It has not been tried
extensively and very little is known of the
species' performance as an exotic. Seed
Conclusion
Acacia species are a major source of
wood and other products for industrial and
rural development and also have a
particular role in environmental
protection. The full potential of many
acacias described in this paper has not yet
been tested and warrants further
exploration. This can be implemented
through existing research networks, such
as the Multipurpose Tree Species
Res.arch Network supported by the
108
2'
Figure 11. Natural distribution of A. orria.
Figure 12. Natural distribution of A. plectocarpa.
I
,
l . .
<4
Figure 13. Natural distribution of A. polystachya.
109
.
"-
Acknowledgments
F/FRED Project and the network
supponed by ACIAR projects.
The genetic material of many Acacia
species mentioned here need to be
sampled more thoroughly. Although
ATSC has plans to undertake seed
collections of these species, it has existing
commitmenats to supply seed of other
genera. Financial support from
international aid agencies to set up
particular collections may be the solution.
The seed collections of A. mangium
supported by the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
in 1982 (Tumbull el al. 1983) and the joint
F/FREDATSC c31lections of A.
auriculiformisin 1987 (Gunn et al. 1988)
made possible the evaluation in
international provenance trials of these
two important acacias. FAO and AIDAB
provided financial support in 1991, which
enabled collections of dryzorie acacias,
including A. holosericea,A. plectocarpa,
and A. difficilis to be made.
Many of the tropical humid Acacia
species reported in this paper occur in
Australia, PNG, and Indonesia. Clearly,
the Indonesian genetic resources of these
species are the leest represented, as most
of the genetic material obtained to date
has come from Australia and PNG. There
would be advantages for Indonesia in
participating in future collaborative seed
collection and evaluation projects.
Access to remote natural populations
of these species is often difficult, and so
seed from natural populations is not
always avai!able. Establishment of seed
orchards should be considered seriously.
Seed orchards not only ensure a secure
supply of genetically improved seed but
also serve as longterm conservation of
valuable genetic resources.
Most of the distributioii maps are
reproduced from Turnbull (19 6) except
those of A. holosericea, A. colei, and A.
neurocarpawhich are from Maslin and
Thomson (1992). I wish to thank Fiona
Chandler for preparing the maps and Chris
Harwood and Brian Gunn for their
comments on the manuscript.
Discussion Notes
Q: Could you tell us more about the
hexaploid A. colei? Why was that
identified as a separate species from A.
holosericea?
A: A. colei mainly occurs in western
Australia and the Northern Territor,, in an
overlapping but distinct range from the
other two species. It is a stable cross of a
2x polyad and another species. Isozyme
analysis confirms the determination.
Q: Could you give more information on
the potential of A. leptocarpaand A.
crassicarpain the humid tropics?
A: A. crassicarpa doesn't adapt well to
long dry seasons (for example, in Chiang
Mai, in northern Thailand), but it is good
for rapid growth given adequ.te rainfall
and has a high wood density (0.63). We
will know more about its performance as
an exotic after observing its growth for
another 23 years.
A. leptocarpa is a small tree. In
Sisaket, Thailand, it has shown a
superficial root system that requires
trenching near agricultural crops. It
hybridizes easily with A. auriculiformis,
and the resulting hybrid is vigorous.
110
Comment: Generally, it is my
observation that fastgrowing Australian
acacias have aggressive lateral roots,
unlike Faidherbia(formerly Acacia)
albida.
Gunn, B.V. and S.J. Midgley. 1991. Exploring and
accessing the genetic resources of four selected
tropical acacias. In Advances in Tropicat
Acacia Research, ed. J.W. Turnbull; 5763.
ACIAR Proceedings No. 35. Canberra,
Australia: ACIAR.
Gwaze, D. 1992. Species/provenance trials in
Zimbabwe. ACIAR Forestry Newsletter No.
13. Canberra, Australia: ACIAR.
Khongsak Pinyopusarerkworks with the
CSIRO Division of Forestry, P.O. Box
Harwood, C.E. 1992. Spotlight or" ":.cies: Acacia
crassicarpa.Farm Furestr) Vews 5(3).
Virginia, U.S.A.: Winrock International.
Harwood, C.E., A.C. Matheson, N. Gororo, and
M.V.Haines. 1991. Seed orchards of Acacia
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112
Early Growth of Provenances and Progenies
in Acacia mangium Seed Production Areas
in North Queensland, Australia
C.E. Harwood, G. Applegate, K. Robson, and E.R. Williams
Introduction
Australian International Development
Assistance Bureau's "Seeds of Australian
Trees" project. The main aim of the
plantings was to enable secure and
continuing production of highquality
seed of superior provenances of these
species to help CSIRO's Australian Tree
Seed Centre (ATSC) and the Queensland
Forest Service to meet international
demand for this seed. Results of the prethinning assessment of growth and form
of A. auriculiformis mixedprovenance
stand have been published in Harwood et
al. (1991). This paper reports the
establishment and early growth of A.
mangium seed production stands, and
considers their implications for trial
management and genetic improvement.
Some of the best natural
provenances of fastgrowing tropical
Acacia species are located in remote
areas of northern Australia, Papua New
Guinea (PNG), and Indonesia. For
example, two provenances of Acacia
mangium from Western Province, PNG,
and Claudie River, Cape York, north
Queensland consistently performed best
among provenances in an international
series of provenance trials of this species
(Harwood and Williams 1992). They
grew significantly faster than more
accessible provenances from the Cairns
Townsville, Queensland area, and two
outlying provenances from western Irian
Jaya. Similarly, PNG provenances of A.
aulacocarpaand A. crassicarpahave
consistently outperformed Queensland
provenances in trials in Thailand
(Chittachunionk and Sirilak 1991).
Collecting seed from remote natural
provenances is difficult and expensive,
and not al .vays successful (Gunn and
Midgely 1991).
During the period 19881991, a total
of 25 ha of planted seed production
areas (SPA)(footnote: As the stands
have been established using unselected
individualfamily seedlots from the wild,
the term seed production area is used
rather than seed orchard(cf. Zobel and
Talbert 1984).) of Acacia atlacocarpa,
A. auriculiformnis, A. crassicarpa,and A.
mangium was established in northern
Australia, with funding from the
Experiment Sites
Stands were established at three
planting sites in the general vicinity of
Cairns, Queenland (Table 1). Soils at
Kuranda are red podzolics; those at
Cardwell are yellow and red earths; and
at Lannercost, grey earths. Original
vegetation was open forest to 25 m high,
dominated by various Eucalyptus
species. A. mangium occurs naturally in
the area, along some rivers and alt the
margins of small areas of rainforest, but
generally not within 500 m of the
plantir p sites, which are separa, 'd from
each
r by at least 200 m of Pinus
caribaeaplantation or natural forest.
This relative isolation is expected to
113
Table 1. Location and climatic conditions* at the three planting sites.
Site
Altitude Latitude
(S)
(in)
Mean
annual
Longitude temp
(C)
(E)
Mean max Mean min
T, hottest T, coldest
month
month
(C)
C)
Mean
annual Dry
rainfall season"
(mm) (months)
Kuranda
380
16"45'
145"30'
23
33
12
1740
4
Cardwell
20
18"24'
146"06'
24
32
14
2110
4
Lannercost
90
18"38'
145"52'
24
33
13
1690
4
*calculated using the BIOCLIM computer progiam (Booth et al. 1988)
"*consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall
minimize A. mangium pollen inputs to
individual SPAs from external sources.
Sites were cleared, windrowed, and
burned in 19871990, then strip
mounded by deep plowing. All
plantings reported here employed a
spacing of 3 m between mounds and 1.8
m between trees along mounds.
Randomized complete block designs
with 20 replications and singletree plots
were used in all cases. Two external
perimeter rows were planted around each
SPA. Areas of individual SPAs,
including perimeter rows, varied from
0.61.3 ha.
PNGN:
PNGSE:
PNGSW:
FNQ:
QCR:
Genetic Resources
PNG north of the Fly
River
PNG south of the Fly
River and east of
longitude 142 0E
PNG west of the Fly
River and west of
longitude 142°E
Far North Queensland
(Cape York north of
latitude 13'S)
Queensland, Cairns
Region (latitudes 1519S)
The two Queensland provenance regions
and PNG are separated be major
discontinuities in the species' natural
distribution, whereas the three PNG
provenance regions are subdivisions of
the more or less continuous distribution
in the southern part of Western Province,
PNG (Gunn and Midgley 1991).
CSIRO seedlot numbers do not
always equate with particular, distinct
local provenances. In a numer of cases,
two or more seedlots are collections
The approach selected was to
establish separate SPAs, each containing
a large number of families, defined here
as trees raised from seed collected from
a single parent tree. The families are of
course openpollinated. Each stand
incorporated one or more families from
each of several CSIRO seedlots from
within one of five broad provenance
regions, as follows:
114
from the same local provenance in
different years (for example, seedlots
17701, 16678, 15677, and 16932 are all
samplings of the Claudie River
provenance). Because of this, the term
CSIRO seedlot is used, rather than
Oprovenance' or 'local provenance,' in the
following discussion,
Table 2 summarizes the genetic
resources used to establish six A.
mangium seed production stands in
1991. Four other stands (two of the
FNQ provenance region on of PNGN,
and one combining PNGSE and PNG
SW) were established in 1990 but are not
discussed here.
Establishment
Seedlings were raised in the
Queensland Forest Service nursery at
Ingham, near Lannercost, to a height of
25 cm before outplanting in AprilMay
1991. Initial field survival was good. A
small number of refills (no more than 30
at any one site) were planted in April,
June, July, and September at the various
sites. The external perimeter rows used
surplus A. mangium stock of the relevant
provenance region.
"Grazon" and "Roundup CT"
herbicides were used to control weeds at
the Cardwell sites, and "Roundup CT" at
Lannercost. No herbicide was needed at
Kuranda. All sites received fertilizer,
with 100 kg/ha elemental phosphorus as
superphosphate. The Cardwell and
Lannercost sites also received 5 kg/ha
copper as copper sulphate and 5 kg/ha
boron as borax. Fertilizer was applied as
individual tree applications in a circle of
30 cm radius around the stem I
3months after planting, except at
Kuranda, where half the fertilizer was
applied by tractor/spreader I month
before planting.
115
Prethinning Assessment
Assessments were carried out in
September 1992, 1617 months after
planting, when average tree heights were
around 3.54 m. Tree height and bole
length to the first major fork were
assessed for five stands. Forking was
sc:ored as having occurred when a
competing leader was more than half the
stem diameter of the main leader. The
sixth stand, representing the QCR region,
grew more slowly than the others and
was not assessed in 1992.
Data Analysis
Height data were analyzed using the
statistical package GENSTAT Version
5.2. For each site, plot (that is, single
tree) data were analyzed using a fixedeffects model (replicates and families
fixed) to estimate family mean heights.
The set of family means was then
analyzed for significant differences
between the CSIRO seedlots. A
restricted maximum likelihood (REML)
analysis was carried out on the plot data
using a mixed model with seedlot and
replicate as fixed effects and families
random, to estimate family and residual
variance components. These values were
used to calculate individualtree
heritabilities, using the formula (Zobel
and Talbert 1984, p. 255):
h2i =
4 x family variance component
(family + residual variance components)
Mean heights at Kuranda and
Lannercost of the 44 FNQ families
common to both sites were subjected to
an acrosssite analysis of variance using
the methods described by Williams and
Table 2. Provenance regions, CSIRO seedlots, and families used in A. mangiun seed production areas,
and mean heights of CSIRO seedlots.
SPA location,
provenance region,
and CSIRO
seedlots
Lat.
(S)
Long.
('E)
Kuranda,
16592
16585
15642
15644
16992
PNGSE
Mai Kussa R.
Bimadebun
Boite
Or;omo
Bimadebun
8 59
838
8 40
850
8 38
142 15
142 03
142 00
143 08
142 03
SPA total
6
5
15
9
15
50
Kuranda,
16938
16939
16931
PNGN
Kini
Duaba
Makapa
142 58
142 58
142 35
SPA total
62
3
5
6 8
Kuranda,
17701
16933
?.6678
15677
15684
15683
16135
16932
16677
FNQ
Claudie River
Claudie River
Iron Range
Iron Range
Olive River
Dulcie Creek
Dulcie Creek
Claudie River
Shelburne Bay
143 17
143 20
143 17
143 14
142 57
142 33
142 33
142 16
142 54
SPA total
28
1
2
10
1
1
1
10
6
60
143 17
143 20
143 17
143 14
142 57
142 33
142 16
142 54
SPA total
26
1
1
15
1
1
10
5
60
Lannercost, FNQ21
17701 Claiidie River
16933 Claudie River
16678 Iron Range
15677 Iron Range
15684 Olive River
15683 Dulcie Creek
16932 Claudie River
16677 Shelburne Bay
8 05
8 13
7 56
12 45
12 37
1245
12 43
12 11
12 02
12 02
12 44
11 59
12 45
12 37
12 45
12 43
12 i
12 02
1244
11 59
No. of
families/
CSIRO seedlot
Seedlot mean
heights at
1617 months
(m)
mean
3.98
3.84
3.81
4.10
3.91
3.92
mean
3.16
3.39
3.07
3.16
mean
3.08
2.69
3.19
3.03
3.03
3.27
2.84
3.02
3.03
3.05
mean
2.93
2.43
2.89
2.80
2.79
2.98
2.90
2.98
2.88
I The FNQ provenance region was planted in SPAs at two locations, Kuranda and Lannercost. 44 of the
FNQ families were planted at both locations, with an additional 16 planted only at Kuranda and a further
16 planted only at Lannercost.
116
Table 2, continued.
SPA location,
provenance region,
and CSIRO
seedlots
Lannercost, QCR
15687 S.E. Daintree
15690 Murray River
15693 Lannercost
15692 Arnot Creek
15678 S. llelenvale
15689 S. Edmonton
15694 N. Townsville
16681 N.W. Ingham
16879 NW Kuranda
15700 SCardwell
15691 Ellerbeck Rd.
16676 S.W. Cairns
17703 TullyMission
Beach
Lat.
(.S)
16
18
18
18
15
16
18
18
16
18
18
17
17
16
04
37
34
54
16
57
34
44
32
14
08
55
No. of
families/
CSIRO seedlot
Long.
('E)
145 22
145 53
145 54
146 11
145 21
145 22
146 17
146 03
145 30
146 05
145 57
145 45
146 05
SPA total
5
4
10
5
3
4
9
3
9
10
8
1
27
9 8
Seedlot mean
heights at
1617 months
(m)
(not yet
assessed'
Cardwell, PNGSW
17550 Bensbach
8 53
16587 Bandaber
858
16584
BensbachBalamuk8 53
15643 Wemenever
843
16590 Dimisisi
8 31
16586 GubamBoite
837
16990 Derideri
8 42
16997 Boite
837
16991 Guban
837
16589 Pongaki
8 40
141 17
23
4.01
141 19
3
4.13
141 17
6
4.09
141 29
8
4.16
141 13
7
4.37
141 55
6
4.28
141 52
9
4.30
141 58
12
4.14
141 54
15
4.21
141 50
15
4.30
SPA total
104
mean
4.18
I The FNQ provenance region was planted in SPAs at two locations, Kuranda
and Lannercost. 44 of the
FNQ families were planted at both locations, with an additional 16 planted only at
Kuranda and a further
16 planted only at Lannercost.
Luangviriyasaeng (1989) and Williams
Results and Discussion
and Matheson (in press). A composite
anova table, incorporating the pooled
Table 2 shows mean heights for the
residual mean squares from the two
CSIRO seedlots at the five assessed
familylevel analyses, was used to test the
significance of site*family interaction,
planting sites. Early height growth is
about 2.5 m per year, with the fastest
117
clearly the most effective testing
environment for height. The
betweenCSIRO seedlot differences have
been excluded from the family variance
component of the heritability estimates
(c.f. Atipanumpai 1989). The
numerator in the formula used to
calculate heritability is the inverse of the
average genetic relationship within
families. The value used, 4, assumes
families are halfsibs. This assumption is
unlikely to be correct: selfing and
neighborhood inbreeding in natural
stands, and fullsib matings within
individual pods (Muona et al. 1991) all
lead to relatedness among the male
parents making up an openpollinated
family. A value of somewhat less than 4
would be appropriate, and this would
reduce estimated heritabilities.
The acrosssite analysis of 44
families common to the two FNQ
plantings showed that the interaction
between families and sites was not
significant (Table 4). This means that
family rankings were stable across the
two sites. For the FNQ provenance
region, families of CSIRO seedlot no.
16677 (Shelbourne Bay) grew as well as
those from several seedlots collected in
the wellknown Claudie River
growth experienced at the Cardwell site.
The growth rates are slower than those
observed in many Southeast Asian
plantings (Sim and Gan 1991; Harwood
and Williams 1992). Evidently the
intensive site preparation and
fertilization used in north Queensland do
not compensate for the poorer growth
environment, particularly the long dry
season and iow winter temperatures.
Betweenfamily differences (that is,
between families within CSIRO seedlots)
were highly significant for all
provenance regions (Table 3). The
analyses of variance of family values
showed that there were significant
differences between CSIRO seedlots for
the PNGSE and PNGSW provenance
regions, but not the others (Table 3).
Single standard errors for SPAs, to test
the significance of individual
comparisons between pairs of CSIRO
seedlots, cannot be presented because the
numbers of families per CSIRO seedlot
varied.
Individualtree heritabilities for the
five SPAs ranged from 0.230.55 (Table
3).
The SPA with the highes, heritability
value, PNGSE at Kuranda, had the
smallest residual mean square and was
Table 3. Significance of betweenCSIRO seedlot and betweenfamily differences in height and
individualtree heritabilities.
CSIRO
Seedlots
Site and provenance region
Kuranda, PNGSE
Kuranda, PNGN
Cardwell, PNGSW
Kuranda, FNQ
Lannercost, FNQ
n.s. = not significant;
Fanilies
**
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
** =
P<0.01;
=
<.001
118
h2i
SE
0.55
0.23
0.28
0.36
0.25
0.13
0.07
0.07
0.09
0.08
Table 4. Composite ANOVA table for joint analysis of heights of 44 FNQ region families at
two sites.
d.f.
site
family
site.family
pooled residual
1
43
43
1634
s.s.
m.s.
v.r.
fprobability
0.5793
3.8313
0.7056
0.5793
0.0891
0.0164
0.0178
32.54
5.00
0.92
n.s.
n.s. = not significant; ** = P<0.01; *** = P<.001
provenance some 70 km away, which
comprised all but 23 of the other
families tested in these two SPAs. This
suggests that material from elsewhere in
the FNQ provenance region would be
worth including in breeding programs
that feature Claudie River.
Although it must be kept in mind
that these measurements were made on
trees only 34 m high, these iesults are
encouraging for tree breeders, as they
indicate a substantial and stable genetic
component in height growth variation of
the young trees.
Stem form in these plantings has
been poor. More than half of the
individual trees are multistemmed at
breast height. The same A. mangium
seedlots have been observed to yield
mostly singlestemmed trees in a number
of plantings in Southeast Asia (Harwood,
observations). Clearly, stem form is very
strongly affected by the environment of
the young plants. Some component of
either nursery or site environment, or
both, induces forking shortly after
planting out. Poor stem form is not
directly a consequence of a site having
good growth potential, as the Southeast
Asian plantings with good form show
much faster growth rates than those
reported here. Mead and Miller (1991)
noted in Peninsular Malaysia a higher
119
incidence of multistemmed individuals
for A. mangium planted on ashbeds
derived from burned windrows than for
trees planted on the areas between the
windrows, and related this to higher
phosphorus levels in the trees planted on
the windrow sites.
In these plantings, it became clear
that the initial spacing of 3 x 1.8 m was
too dense to allow the trees to reach
sufficient size for accurate selection
prior to thinning. An initial spacing of 5
x 2 m would appear satisfactory for A.
man gium, as it would allow effective
selection and access by a "cherrypicker"
(a trailermounted elevating hoist)
between rows for easy seed collection, a
necessity in Australia because of high
labor costs.
Also, the singletree plot design used
in these plantings was judged inferior to
line plots of 45 trees. The use of line
plots allows efficient withinfamily
selection in the first thinning (by simply
retaining the best tree in the line, chosen
visually). This ensures retention of all
families unless some are purposely
removed, and simplifies the thinning of
the stand to the planned final density of
some 150 stems per ha. Use of line plots
enables estimation of the withinplot
variance, which of course cannot be
obtained from singletree plots, and
when line plots are laid out in
incomplete block designs, precise
ranking of families is possible.
Still, some genetic improvement in
the seed produced by these SPAs may be
anticipated relative to seed from natural
populations for two reasons:
Separation of the plantings into
provenance regions and retention of
maternal identity within stands will
enable better control of coancestry by
other groups using the seed in genetic
improvement programs. It would be
desirable to establish one or more stands
in which families from different
provenance regions are combined, to
take advantage of possible gains from
interregion heterosis (Nikles, in press).
This can now be done using retained
seed of selected superior families, or
clonally propagated material of the best
individuals identified in the analyses
reported here.
1. Reduced levels of inbreeding,
Each SPA brings together trees
descended from many different
families from several CSIRO
seedlots, some (but not all) of
which are separated by distances
of 1050 km and may be regarded
as different local provenances.
Individual familes were collected
in the field at distances of at least
100 m from one another, and are
therefore unlikely to be close
relatives. The SPAs have been
established such that progeny
from the same family are never
adjacent. These factors should
reduce the level of neighborhood
inbreeding below that of natural
stands.
Acknowledgments
Funding of the SPAs was provided by
the Australian International
Development Assistance Bureau as a
component of the "Seeds of Australian
Trees" project, with additional inputs
from the CSIRO Division of Forestry
and the Queensland Forest Service.
From CSIRO, Peter Burgess assisted with
data analysis and Tom Jovanovic
calculated BIOCLIM climatic parameters
for the three planting sites. From the
Forest Service, Garth Nikles assisted with
planning and design, and Lester Perkins
and assistants raised the stock and
planted and managed the SPAs at
Cardwell and Lannercost. Garth NikIes
and Colin Matheson (CSIRO Division of
Forestry) pro' ided helpful comments on
an earlier draft of this paper. Also
appreciated is the longstanding
cooperation with agencies in Papua New
Guinea in seed collection.
2. Removal of inferior phenotypes by
selective thinning. Selective
thinning of the stands at 50%
intensity, retaining large, fine
branched trees, was carried out
shortly after the assessments
reported here. The prevalence of
multistemming reduced the
effectiveness of selection for form.
The first seed collections from the
stands are anticipated in late 1994,
and further selective thinnings will
be made on the basis of progeny
performance. Large genetic gains
from selective thinning are not
anticipated because selection
differentials are expected to be
small.
120
Discussion Notes
Gunn, B.V. an. ..J. Midgley. 1991. Exploring
and accessing the genetic resources of four
selected tropical acacias. In Advances in
tropicauacaciaresearch, ed. J.W. Tumbull;
5763. ACIAR Proceedings No. 35.
Canberra: t..'IAR.
Harwood, C.E., A.C. Matheson, N. Gororo, and
M.W. Haines. 1991. Seed orchards of
Acacia auriculifornisat Melville Island,
Northern Territory, Austra.', In Advances
in TropicalAcacia Research, ed. J.W.
Turnbull; 8791. ACIAR Proceedings No.
Comment: As Mr. Khongsak noted ir
the discussion following Mr. Wong's
paper, plowing seems to correlate with
multistemmed form for A. mangiwn.
Q: Will seed produced be made
available to scientists in developing
countries?
A: As mentioned above, A. mangium
will start producing in 1994; A.
auriculiformishas just started; the others
are expected to start late in 1993.
35. Canberra: ACL.R.
Harwood, C.E. and E.R. Williams. 1992. A
r.,iew of provenance variation .in the growth
of Acacia mangium. Ii Breeding
Technologies for Tropical Acacias, eds. L.T.
Research quantities will be available free
of charge; for reforestationscale
amounts of seeds, CSIRO will request
Carron and K.M. Aken; 2230. ACIAR
payment.
Proceedings No. 37. Canberra: ACIAR.
Mead, D.J. and R.A. Miller. 1991. The
establishment and tending of Acacia
mangium. In Advances in Tropical Acacia
C.E. Harwood and E.R. Williams wu :'k
with the CSIRO Division of Forestry.
Research, ed. J.W. Turnbull; 116122.
P.O. Box 4008, Queen Victoria Terrace,
Canberra 2600 ACT, Australia. G.
Applegate and K. Robson work with the
Queensland Forest Service, P.O. Box
ACIAR Proceedings No. 35. Canberra:
CSIRO.
Mucae, 0., G.F. Moran and J.C. Bell. 1991.
Hierarchical patterns of correlated mating in
Acacia mielanorylon. Genetics
127:619626.
Nikles, D.G. In press. Breeding methods for
production of interspecific hybrids in clonal
selection and mass propagation programs in
the tropics and subtropics. In Proc.
FAO/UNDP Symposium held in Bogor,
Indonesia, December 1992. Los Bahios,
Philippines: Forest Tree Improvement
Project of FAOJUNDP.
Sim, B.L. and E. Gan. 1991. Performance of
Acacia species on four sites of Sabah Forest
Industries. In Advances in TropicalAcacia
Research, ed. J.W. Turnbull; 159165.
ACIAR Proeedings No. 35. Canberra:
ACIAR.
210, Atherton 4883, Australia.
References
Atipanumpai, L. 1989. Acacia mangium: studies
on the genetic variation in ecological and
physiological characteristics of a fast
growing plantation species. Acta Forestia
Fennica206.
Booth, T.H., H.A. Nix, M.F. lutrifinson, and T.
Jovanovic. 1988. Niche analysis and tree
species introduction. For.Ecol. and
Management 23:4759.
Chittachumnonk, P. and S. Sirilak. 1991.
Performance of Acacia species in Thailand.
In Advances in tropicalacacia research,ed.
J.W. Turnbull; 153158. ACIAR
Proceedings No. 35. Canberra: ACIAR.
121
Williams, E.R. and V. Luangviriyasaeng. 1989.
Statistical analysis of tree species tirals and
seedlotsite interaction in Thailand. In Trees
for the Tropics, ed. D.J. Boland; 145152.
Canberra: ACIAR.
Williams, E.R. ad A.C. Matheson. In press.
Design and Analysis of ForestryField Trials.
Canberra: ACIAR.
Zobel, B.I. and J.T. Tflbert. 1984. Applied
Forest Tree Improvement. New York: Wiley
and Sons.
122
Acacias and Rural Development
H. ArocenaFrancisco
Introduction
When I was asked to prepare this
paper, I accepted thinking that there
were sufficient materials and cases in the
Philippines for me to draw on. I found
the task more difficult than I anticipated;
after a full month of my research
assistant's time and some of my own, I
am still unable to define in concrete
terms the role of acacias in rural
development,
My literature search revealed that
available references on acacias (most on
A. mangium and, to a lesser extent, A.
auriculiformis)dealt with silviculture,
tree improvement, and growth and yield
studies, with very limited discussions of
utilization and economics. Quite a
number of materials discuss the potential
uses of acacia, but I do not see much
point in exanining the importance of
this genus on the basis of potential uses
alonethat would amount to preaching
to a group already converted,
Unable to find much of relevance to
the topic at hand, I explored another
means of gathering information:
interviews with people somchow involved
or familiar with the extent to which
acacias are cultivated in rural
communities. The limited investigation I
was able to conduct in the time allowed
led me to conclude that acacias can
indeed play an important role in rural
development; there are testimonies that
bear witness to this. However,
documentation of the experierces of
rural communities in tree planting
projects is very much lacking in the
123
Philippines, and I will venture to guess in
other counries in the region as well.
Suci studies are important for spreading
information on benefits derived by
farmers from treefarming projects with
acacias. Documentation of the process
by which farmers' cooperation and
interest are obtained and sustained would
also have relevant lessons for design of
future treeplanting projects.
A second difficulty that I realized in
preparing this paper relates to the
specification of genus and the different
ways that different disciplines organize
their work. It would have been easier to
write on the topic, "Tree Farming and
Rural Devtopment" or MPTS and Rural
Levelopment" than focus on any specific
genus. The basic difficulty stems from
the fact that a focus on a particular
genus implies a comparison of that
genus with other tree species available to
the grower. Beyond the local level, this
is not an easy job. I decided instead to
propose a very simple framework which
could be used to evaluate any tree
species' contribution to rural
development. Using this framework
should make it easier to evaluate a tree
species or compare several tree species in
terms of how well the conditions of their
growth and use meet the criteria for rural
development as contained in the
framework.
The first part of this paper briefly
discusses the potentials of acacias in
rural communities of Southeast Asia and
in the national economics of some Asian
countries. Second, it presents examples
that point to the realization of these
potentials. From this, tlh. paper proposes
a framework for evaluating the role of
any MPTS in rural development,
Finally, the role of acacias in rural
development is evaluated using the
proposed framework.
is a good species to use against soil
erosion and in land rehabilitation, and is
widely planted in watershed or water
catchment areas. Both mangium and
auriculiformis are good materials for
pulpwood.
Given that many farmlands are now
considered marginal due to intensive
cultivation of even steeply sloping areas
for agriculture, acacias are receiving
increased attention for their nitrogenfixing ability and its implications for
plant nutrition of nearby agricultural
crops. Lack of soil nitrogen is found to
limit crop growth, lower the quality of
grain or fodder, and even result in crop
failure or losses (Brewbaker 1990).
Industrial scale plantation of A.
mangium started in the Philippines in the
early 1980s, about the same time as in
Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia
(Warren 1990). In the Philippines, the
industrial cultivation of A. mangium
started in the Mindanao region with the
electric posts market as the primary end
user although some trees are intended as
pulpwood. In Indonesia, planting has
been concentrated in the lowlands
(mainly below 300 m elevation) and is
intended mainly for pulpwood and some
sawn timber.
Acacias have known potential also as
fuel wood, particularly A. auriculiformis.
Household use of fuelwood can be
considered as a form of noncash
income, since its availability on the farm
or in nearby farmlots frees farmers from
having to purchase it or spend more time
in fuelwood collection. The assumption
is that time saved in collecting fuelwood
can instead be used for productive
economic activity.
Rapid forest depletion caused by use
of the forest as a fuelwood source for a
growing population has been frequently
documented. Montalembert and
Use of Acacias in Rural
Communities of Asia
Papers on Acacia species suggest the
advantages of growing this crop for the
courntry's economy, rural communities,
and ecology. Commonly cited attributes
of acacias include their wide adaptability
to different tropical environments,
varying soil types, and degrees of land
degradation. Their ability to fix
nitroged in the soil through interaction
with symbiotic bacteria (Dela Cruz and
Garcia 1992) improves soil fertility, and
thus suggests potentiAl in a mix of
agroforestry crops. The most visible
advantage of acacias lie3 in their various
uses, ranging from timber, pulpwood,
and tannin in industry to fuelwood,
fodder, food, and shade for rural
communities. These products can be
obtained in a relatively short time sxnce
given acacias' fast growth.
Of the many species in the genus, the
most wellknown are A. mangium and A.
auriculiformis. A. mangium can have
straight, light bole suited to industrial
demands for furniture, timber, and
electric posts. A. auriculiformiscan also
be used as construction material,
although its tendency (at least in the
Philippines) to form crooked stems
makes it less preferred for timber.
A. auriculiformishas a 'vide
branched habit well suited to meet rural
fuelwood requirements. Since this
demand can be met by cutting the
branches without removing the stems, it
124
Clement (1983) estimated that if present
trends in population growth, depletion of
forest resources, and levels of planting
programs continue unchanged, the
number of rural people facing fuelwood
shortages globally will increase from
about 1.15 billion in 1980 to nearly 2.4
billion in the year 2000. Greater farmer
participation in fuelwood;fowing can
be achieved, however, if tree planting is
shown to beprofitable as well as a means
of meeting fuelwood requirements (FAO
1985). A. auriculiformis seems to be a
good candidate for this role, given its
value as fuelwood and its industrial uses
such as pulpwood.
Ameng other nonwood uses, acacias
have potential for honey production, in
which they provide pollen, the main
protein source for beehive nutrition,
This could be a valuable source of rural
income (Kleinschmidt 1990) but its
extent remains unrecorded,
consider environmental protection in
efforts to achieve economic growth.
With environmentalism growir.g
throughout the world, rural development
programs can no longer aim at shortterm objectives that may benefit only the
current generation. These programs are
under increasing pressure to consider the
future users of the resource; increasing
food production and attaining better
access to resources and basic services no
longer have the same appeal as before
unless attainment of these objectives can
be proven to be sustainable. Assuming
other things are constant, sustainability
of project benefits can be ensured only
if the resource base is kept intact or is
protected from degradation.
In short, rural development strategies
must now be linked to a realistic
philosophy of conservation compatible
with the goals of poverty alleviation and
equitable distribution of wealth. These
three necessary elements of rural
development
programs (poverty
Framework of Analysis: Role of
MPTS in Rural Development
alleviation, improvement in access to
resources, and environmental protection
and/or enhancement) can be found in
tree farming projects.
The following statement by Hanks
(1984) speaks to (he role of tree farming
in rural development:
Income Earning Potential of
Tree Farming
The overall goal of rural
development programs should be
the reduction of poverty,
unemployment, malnutrition and
inequity. An integral part of all
these programs is the introduction
of a positive rural land use
strategy, which recognizes the
prime importance of food
production, but at the same time
safeguards the soil and
representative areas of natural
ecosystems.
This stresses the urgent need to
Much has been written about the
success of the treefarming project
initiated by the Paper Industries
Corporation of the Philippines (PICOP).
In this project, farmers are developing
pure stands of Paraserianthesfalcataria
on their own. PICOP is investing
millions of pesos in purchases of
farmers' harvest of logs for pulpwood.
In 1990, the project established 40,348
ha forest plantation, 13,500l ha of
agroforestry with 4,400 farmers, and
125
3,240 ha of social forestry farms
involving 1,109 farmer families (Chinte
1992).
primary use of the tree can be as fodder.
A recent article in Farm Forestry
News by Dove (1992) provides evidence
from Pakistan that show that for most
farmers there, fuelwood is the most
important use of trees. Highervalue
uses came in second or third in terms of
importance. The author concluded that
tree programs should not always assume
that farmers are interested in growing
trees only for the market, but should
focus on subsistenceoriented cultivation
of multipurpose tree species. My
experience with a regional study on
farmers' treebreeding objcctives echoes
the observation that most farmers see
trees as sources of fuelwood (Francisco
1992). Nonetheless, I tend to disagree
with the conclusion that, just because
farmers' primary use of trees is for
fuelwood, they will be willing to grow
trees mainly for that use. Although
fuelwood is their primary tree use, they
can still source fuelwood from elsewhere
(even if they have to spend greater time
doing itif there is family labor to spare
for it, this is not seen as a problem).
Again, farmers may welcome the
fuelwood as a secondary product but not
feel motivated to plant trees for their
own fuelwood consumption. A market
for fuclwood, however, may provide
enough incentive to grow trees primarily
for fuelwood. This reinforces the view
that a primary motivating factor for
farmers to engage in tree farming is the
availability of a sure or potential market
for their harvest.
The Farm Forestry Program in
Gujarat, India is reportedly one success
story where what was intended as a treegrowing project on degraded lanCs was
adopted even on fertile agricultural
farmlands once farmers realized that
there were markets for construction
poles and fuelwood.
The PICOP experience shows that where
farmers are linked to a market they will
see incentives for investing in tree farms,
even if returns from their investment can
be realized only after some time. It also
shows that farmers' choice of species is
closely linked to the existence of a
particular market or end user, and can be
dictated by the (potential) buyers. This
further shows that tree farming can make
a better contribution to the welfare of
rural communities if they are first
convinced of its market potential.
Although it cannot be denied that
increasing fuelwood supplies available to
rural households is as important in tree
programs as increasing household
income, experience suggests that
focusing treegrowing programs on
fuelwood alone have had limited success
(FAO 1985). The Wood Energy
Program in Malawi provided farmers in
areas with perceived wood scarcity with
seedlings of fastgrowing and high
yielding species. Few farmers became
interested in the program, however; only
10% of the seedlings were planted.
An analysis of the problem reveals a
discrepancy on the notion of scarcity.
To the farmers, fuelwood is not scarce as
long as there are places (state forests or
communal farms) where fuelwood can
still be collected rather than grown.
Farmers are not generally interested in
planting trees primarily for fuelwood
produciton. However, if fuelwood is
produced as a secondary productwith
highervalue products, such as
construction poles and furniture
materials of primary importancethen
farmers will take advantage of the
situation. In Nepal the preferred
126
Tree farming offers a number of
advantages that may not yet be fully
appreciated by many farmers. In the
long run, tree crops can be more
profitable than shortterm cash crops,
particularly on marginal soils. Trees are
also less sensitive to management and
market changes since farmers enjoy
more flexibility in the decision of when
to harvest. Unlike farmers of perishable
cash crops, tree farmers can choose to
harvest when market conditions and
labor availability are favorable. Of
course, one disadvantage is that farmers'
capital is tied up in trees, which many
small farmers cannot afford.
Nonetheless, there are different ways to
encourage even small farmers to engage
in tree farming. Market linkage with
companies requiring tree products is the
most effective way of encouraging small
farmers to grow trees, with financial
support in the form of credit.
In general, one can say that a
farmer's response to market conditions
depends on the magnitude of the
expected returns from tree farming
compared with those from other
opportunities, the resources available to
the farmer, and the set of other
incentives that go with tree farming (for
example, fuelwood supply as a
secondary product, or special tree
farming credit).
Income Redistribution through Tree
Fai'ming?
Income redistribution is a top
priority of rural development programs.
In most developing economies, the
growing disparity in economic status
between the relatively wealthy minority
and the poorer majority is bringing
increasing pressure to empower the rural
127
poor. Where this growing disparity is
resulting in environmental degradation,
greater equity is particularly important.
This means increasing the access of the
rural poor to resources and basic services
such as education, health facilities, credit,
and infrastructure. It also means
providing the poor with greater
opportunities for better income by
involving them as active partners in the
process of development.
The heading above is posed as a
question because there seems to be a
greater tendency for treefarming
projects to benefit relatively larger
farms. Studies have shown that
participation in treefarming schemes is
highly positively correlated to size of
farm. This is understandable, since trees
are usually introduced as part of a
fanning system that includes cash crops
and livestock. Usually, the cash crops
are planted on the better soils, while tree
crops are planted on marginal sites. On
smaller landholdings, fewer trees can be
planted.
There are of course mechanisms that
can ensure greater participation of small,
marginalized farmers. One is the
pooling of resources (for example,
farmland) by groups of farmers in order
to meet the minimum farm size for
participation and program benefits.
Program implementors may also
package incomegenerating projects with
treefarming programs so that farmers
can afford to devote more of their land
to trees. Credit and other support
incentives can encourage small farmers
to participate in a project. These
mechanisms point up the need to make
extra efforts to involve small farmers in
tree programs in which income
redistribution is a goal, since greater
equity is not a necessary consequence of
treefarming projects.
improved soil conditions and enhanced
productive capacity. In general, tree
farming contributes more to resource
enhancement or appreciation than cash
crop cultivation. Environmental
enhancement benefits not only the tree
farmers onsite, but also society at large,
even offsite. This is especially true
where trees are planted on critical
watersheds and on areas subject to heavy
soil erosion.
While some tradeoffs between
environmental concerns and economic
considetaiiosis may occui initially, these
should be shortterm and temporary. In
the long run, increased profitability of
the farm can only be sustained if the
resource base is maintained or is
appreciating.
Environmental Consequences
of Tree Farming Projects
Earlier we mentioned that successful
rural development programs provide
sustained increase in productivity and
incomes to lowincome rural workers
and households. One way of achieving
this is through allocation of resources
available to the farmers, which can
include not only labor and manmade
capital assets, but also natural resource
assets.
A conventional income accounting
system charges depreciation expense for
the use of capital assets. This is done to
ensure that at the end of the project life
of these assets, there will be some
amount available for purchasing new
assets. The main concern is to ensure
the sustainable flow of goods and
services provided by these assets. The
recognition is growing that we should
have treated natural assets in the same
manner; that is, depreciation charges
against their use should be made if we
want to maintain the resource stock (or
its capacity to produce natural
commodities).
Depreciation of natural assets like
farmland can be defined in physical
terms as the loss in the productive
capacity of the soil resulting from
human landuse practices. This loss is
normally associated with improper land
use practices or cultivation of crops that
exhaust nutrients without a
corresponding natural or artificial
replenishment. As natural assets
depreciate, the car,acity of the resource
base to sustain productivity is impaired.
As a result, whatever initial success may
accrue from rural development
programs may be short lived.
Conversely, the resource could
appreciate if the land use leads to
Assessing the Role of Acacias in Rural
Development: Empirical Evidence
Tho franework above is rather
general; it simply says that rural
development programs must 15e
evaluated in terms of their contribution
to the goals of income generation, equity
in access to resources, and environmental
protection. Another desirable goal is
employment generation, which comes
under the broader goal of income
generation.
Now we will evaluate acacia treeplanting projects on their ability to meet
these rural development goals. This
section will not be exhaustive; other
papers in this volume address different
types of projects in greater detail (see the
papers by Chung, Adjers, and
Subsansenee).
Andin (1980) notes about II(X)
Acacia species, found mostly in the dry
savannas and arid regions of Australia,
Africa, India, and the Americas. In
128
Southeast Asia, Indonesia and Malaysia
have the major A. mengium planting
programs. In 14 years, that species
grows up to 30 m tall with a diameter at
breast height (dbh) of 30 cm. Trial plots
have been established in many countries.
Now, with many plantations and farmlan
trees nearing harvestable age, it would be
useful to assess how acacia plantations
have contributed to rural development
under varying environmental and
institutional conditions. As Chung
(1992) has suggested, the many acacia
plantations in Asia may already be
facing marketing constraints that could
limit the realization of benefits.
Table I. Cost and returns estimates (USD)
for I haAcacia nangiun, 1991 (discounted
values at 12% and 24% over 12 yrs).
Expens
Costs
Material Costs
Labor Costs
Net Returns
Data on the economic profitability
of acacias is almost nonexistent in the
B/C Ratio
manager of a private acacia farm in
IRR
literature. A personal interview with the
Musuan, Bukidnon, Philippines revealed
24%
Grcss Returns
Revenue from sale 57,033
of trees as electric
posts, US$20/tree
TOTAL
Employment and Income Derived
From Acacia Tree Farms
12%
16,814
481
784
434
523
1,265
958
55,768
15,857
45:1
18:1
64%
_
the cost and returns information in Table
1 (see Appendix for details).
The 12ha private farm is owned by
a small electric company that services the
power requirements of Iligan City in
Mindanao. The A. mangium plantation
are land rent and harvesting costs, which
are not significant enough to affect the
expected high profitability. Even if
farmers in villages near the power plant
were to p!ant only a few trees in their
began in August 1991. After 1012
years, based on growth in Mindanao, the
firm expects to meet some of its electric
post requirements. As of 1993, the firm
was buying treated posts at US$240280
and untreated posts for about US$1(X)
per tree. They expect prices of A.
mangium to be about $240 per tree after
12 years.
The financial analysis in Table I
shows that investing in A. mangium for
electric posts in Mindanao is a very
profitable venture, with an estimated
return on investment of 64% at 12% and
24%. Excluded in the cost calculations
backyards, they could benefit from the
ready market for their produce.
My informant noted that in that area,
aroun 3004() ha of A. mangium have
been planted by a number of treefarming cooperatives. This needs
verification. Is the demand for electric
posts sustainable? My informant stated
that the electric plant changes the electric
posts every 1012 years, creating a
perentiial demand for acacia posts.
Another key informant from the
National Power Corporation Office in
Musuan, Bukidnon reported that they
have planted A. mangium in watershed
129
communities through tree farming and
creation of income generating projects
(IGP)." There are 350 families in 8
farmer cooperatives participating in the
program (at least 43 members per
cooperative). The program covers 700
ha (2 ha per family); 600 ha are planted
with A. mangium and 100 hectares to
Eucalyptus deglupta and agricultural
cash crops.
Farmercooperators receive funding
assistance in the form of grants through
their cooperatives. The support covers
cost of materials (seedlings, farm tools,
and labor). Disbursement follows
PICOP's "living tree concept," which
finances only trees that are alive at
inspection. All of these expenses are to
be repaid by the farmers to the
cooperative at harvest and placed in what
is called a "wood bank" facility. The
funds will then be made available to the
same farmers (for only 50% of their
requirements) and to new farmers for
redevelopment and expansion of tree
farms until they are selfsufficient.
Participating tree farmers also must save
5% of their earnings as a form of capital
buildup in the cooperative.
Knowing that farmers will have to
wailt a long time before they realize
retirns from their efforts, the program
also supports the cooperatives to
establish incomegenerating projects in
which members can participate.
It is still too early to assess the
program's success. Still, the fact that it
specilically addresses the conditions of
marginalized farmers on degraded land
speaks of the potential role acacias can
have in effecting redistribution of
income in upland communities.
reforestation projects and have given
free seedlings to nearby communities.
She noted that the high price of A.
mangium seeds (US$240/kg) could limit
small farmers' willingness to plant the
traes unless mey are provided free. Both
informants noted that small farmers are
already planting the species even along
farm borders. There is also limited
cultivation of A. auriculiformis,mainly
for pulpwood and household fuelwood.
Acacias and Equity/Access
to Recources Issues
Acacias, like any other promising
multipurpose tree species, can he
intrumental in achieving income
redistribution if treeplanting programs
ensure participation of the marginal and
disadvantaged members of farming
communities. Since they are financially
handicapped to be active partners in
development projects, they will need
financial assistance early in the project.
However, this should only be for a
limited time period since the desired
outcome is their selfreliance.
The Philippines has an example of a
tree planting program with a strong
equityenhancement component, in
which A. mangium is the predominant
tree species. The program is the
Livelihood Enhancement in
Agroforestry (LEAF) Program, started in
1991 as a collaborative undertaking by
the Andres Soriano Foundation Inc.
(ASF), PICOP, and the U.S. Agency for
International l)evelopment (USAII)).
The program is specifically
targetting the kainginerosof eight
upland villages in denuded farlands of a
town in MidEastern Mindanao, one of
the poorer regions of the country. Its
expressed goal is to "improve the socioeconomic condition of upland
130
Acacias and the Environment
The role of acacias in improving
soils and forest conditions may be
beyond question, for the soil
improvement role mentioned earlier,
Because of this soil enhancement
characteristic, acacias are much favored
on marginal lands. Given that, at least in
the Philippines, most upland areas are
degraded to varying degrees, acacias
appear to be suited to the uplands.
Another point that suggests an
increasing recognition of acacias' role in
environmental protection is their
growing use in reforestation projects, as
in the Philippines where they are being
used to reforest critical watersheds,
especially those which provide water to
hydropower plants and irrigation
systems.
Concluding Statements
This paper has suggested a simple set
of criteria by which tree species'
contribution to rural development may
be assessed:
1. Do the species contribute to
realization of higher income
(cash and noncash) by the farm
families?
2. Are they being used to
redistribute income to the rural
poor?
Based on the review of literature and
interviews of key informants, evidence
tends to support the view that acacias
play an important role in rural
development. Quantifying the
magnitude of this contribution requires
greater documentation on the results of
programs that have used acacias, as well
as the processes by which they have
pursued rural development objectives.
Discussion Notes
Q: How practical is the goal of equity as
a gauge for forestry in rural
development, particularly given the lack
of success in other development areas
where this has been a goal, and the
national need for wood supply that some
might say overrides the needs of local
communities?
A: The rural poor constitute a growing
portion of many countries' population;
any economic growth pattern that
overlooks their needs is bound to be
shortlived and entail a more
confrontation when the issue is finally
addressed. In upland areas of the
Philippines, the rural poor are already
occuping forest areas and their presence
and interrelationship with the resource
cannot be denied. A continued pattern
of inequity endangers the stability of
that resource base and its future
sustainable use.
Q: The return cited for A. mangium
trees is far greater than that obtained in
Malaysia. How can that be accounted
for?
3. Do they enhance the
environment to ensure
sustainable realization of
whatever economic benefits are
obtained from the tree farms?
A: A specialized market (the electrical
authority for poles) and the wide
variability in internal rates of return that
131
FAO. 1985. Tree Growing by Rural People. FAO
Forestry Paper No. 64 Rome: FAO.
Francisco, H.A. 1992. Farmers' treebreeding
objectives in two villages of Mountain
Province, Philippines. In Research on
Farmiers' Objectivesfor Tree Breeding, eds.
l.B. Raintree and D.A. Taylor; 3241.
Bangkok: Winrock International.
Hanks. J. 1984. Conservation and rural d
evelopment: towards an integrated
approach. The Environmentalist4,
Supplement No. 7.
Kleinschmidt, G.T. 1990. Apiculture Production
and Research. Brisbane: Queensland
Agriculture College.
Montalembert, M.R. and J. Clement. 1983.
Fuelwood Supplies in the Developing
Countries. FAO Forestry Paper #42. Rome:
exist. As Dr. Chung notes, in Sabah
sources cite an IRR of 90%; others
suggest IRRs of 20%. It varies greatly
with locality. It also varies from country
to country, depending on the demands
of that society.
Comment: A. mangium can be treated
as poles, but still the pricing is puzzling.
Cost of chemical treatment is usually
calculated per In3, and amounts to only
34% of the total; labor also normally
represents a small portion.
H. ArocenaFranciscolectures in
Natural Resource Economics at the
College of Economics and Management,
FAO.
Universityof the Philippinesat Los
Bafios, College, Laguna 4031,
Scherr, S.J. and E..Mueller. 1989. What happens
in agroforestry development projects?
Agroforestry Today (1)4.
Warren, M. 1991. Plantation development of
Acacia inangiumn in Sumatra. In Advances in
Tropical Acacia Research, ed. JW. Tumbull.
ACIAR Proceedings No. 35. Canberra:
ACIAR.
Philippines.
References
Andin, N. 1980. Acacia Mangium: a resource to
be developed. Canopy 6(10) October.
Brewbaker, 1. 1990. Nitrogen Fixation and the
Nitrogen Fixing Trees. NFTRes. Rpts.
Chinte, F. Sr. 1992. Business aspects of
forestry. The Philippines Lumberman,
JanuaryFebruary.
Chung, llsullo. 1992. Research on economics
and marketing of acacias. In Tropical
Acacias in East Asia and the Pacific, eds.
Kamis Awang and D.A. Taylor; 9295.
Bangkok: Winrock International.
Dela Cruz, R.E. and M.U. Garcia. 1992. Nitrogen
fixation and mycorrhizae in acacias on
degraded grasslands. In Tropical Acacias in
East Asia and the Pacific.eds. Kamis Awang
and D.A. Taylor: 5971. Bangkok: Winrock
International.
Dove, M. 1992. Farmer behavior and forester
belief: unraveling the misconceptions.
Farin Forestry News (5)4:14.
132
Appendix:
Cost and Return Estimates for 1 ha of A. Mangium, 1991
Cost Data (P25 = about USD1):
Year 1
Seedlings at PI0/
seedling at 3 x 3 spacing (1,111 pcs)
11,100
0
0
0
Seedlings during
replanting, 15%
1,665
fertilizers (10 bags organic manure @P70/bag 700
0
0
0
0
0
0
13,465
0
0
0
1,400
100
445
556
84
500
2,500
0
0
0
0
0
500
2,500
0
0
0
0
0
2,500
2,500
0
0
0
0
0
2,500
2,500
5,585
3,000
2,500
2,500
19,050
3,000
2,500
2,500
0
19,050
0
3,000
Total Material Costs
Labor Costs
Land Preparation (2x at P700@)
Layout (1 manday)
Hole digging at P0.40/hole
Planting and fertilizing at P0.50/hole
Replanting at P0.05/hole
Maintenance Cost at P500/yr for 5 yrs
Farm Manager(part time)
Total Labor Costs
Total Costs
RETURNS
Sales
NET RETURNS
PRESENT VALUES
Material Cost
Labor Cost
Total Cost
Gross Returns
NET RETURNS
B/C Ratios
IRR
atr= 12%
at r= 24%
12,022.32
19,596.36
31,619.68
10,858.87
13,085.78
23,944.65
1,710,996.17
1,679,377.49
504,434.85
480,490.21
53.113458432
67%
Years 25 Years 611
20.066704963
133
Year 12
0 6,666,000
2,500 6,666,000
Acacias inAgroforestry
Goran Adjers and Tjuk Sasmito Hadi
Introduction
(taungya). Systems in which trees are
planted to improve the soil during fallow
periods in shifting cultivation can also be
classified as agroforestry systems, since
crops and trees are planted in the same
piece of land over time.
Silvipastoralsystems integrate trees
(timber, food, or fodderproducing
species) with pasture and livestock. Treegrowing livestock systems can be
classified either as fodder banks or
pasture improvement. Fodder banks are
intensive plantings of fodder trees
spaced to maximize leaf production.
Trees with nutritious foliage can be
planted alone or intercropped wilh other
fodder plants (grasses, for example).
Trees in pastures can enhance
livestock production by: increasing
grass production in the field; providing
fodder directly (from leaves and pods);
and providing shade to the livestock, as
they digest food more efficiently when
shade is available.
Agrisilvipastoralsystems combine
food crops with trees (for timber, food
or fodder) and/or "service" trees and
livestock, with or without pastures.
In all agroforestry systems, choosing
the proper tree and agricultural crop
species is very important. The following
criteria are worth considering fo
planting frees in agroforestry systems
(Hegde 1989):
There are many definitions of
agroforestry,but for this paper it is
defined as the deliberate combination of
trees with agricultural crops or pastures,
or both, in an effort to optimize the use
of accessible resources to satisfy the
objectives of the producer in a
sustainable way. The aim of an
agroforestry technology is to create an
architecture of the ahoveground
biomass that imitates the climax
vegetation of the tropics (that is, a multi
strata forest)(Torres 1989).
Agroforestry systems are commonly
categorized by their components
agrisilvicultural, Lgrisilvopastoral, or
siivipastoral.
Agrisilviculturalsystems combine
concurrent production of
food/agricultural crops and trees. In
terms of planting niches in the system,
trees are located:
"
along farm borders (as hedges,
living fences, and windbreaks)
"
in crop fields (in alley cropping,
widerow intercropping, and as
shade, nurse, and support trees)
"
around the home (homegarden,
shade/ornamental)
There are also agrisilvicultural
systems that include pure stands of trees,
in which crops are iniercroppd with
young trees for one or more cropping
seasons until the canopy closes
i. Noninterference with arable
crops
2. Easy establishment
3. Fast growth and short gestation
period
134
4. Nonallelophatic effects on arable
crops
5. Ability to fix atmospheric
nitrogen
6. Easy decomposition of litter
7. Ability to withstand frequent
lopping
8. Multiple uses and high returns
9. Ability to generate employment
Because it is extremely difficult to find
species capable of fulfilling all these
criteria, species selection always involves
identification of priorities and
conipromise.
Acacias
Acacia is the largest mimosoid genus
of the Leguminosae family, with
800900 species widely spread in
tropical and subtropical regions of the
Old and New Worlds (Allen and Allen
1981). Habitats range from arid areas of
low or seasonal rainfall to moist forests
and river banks. Acacias grow on all soil
types and occur in all sizes, from small
bushes to large trees.
Despite the large number of species
in the genus, only about 75 have proven
economic value (as recorded in the
literature), and of these, only 50 are
cultivated. Acacias provide a wide range
of commodities, as described in other
palers in this volume.
With so many species in the genus,
there are differences in wood
characteristics, but in general, acacia
woods are coarsegrained, with densities
of 640800 kg/cm 3 , highly durable and
respond satisfactorily to finishing
treatments. A disadvantage is that they
are difficult to work. The wood is used
for furniture, construction timber, pulp
and paper, fuelwood and charcoal,
135
Examples of species with potential for
pulp are: A. auricaliformis, A. decurrens,
A. mearnsii, A. mangium, and A.
mollissima (FAO 1980; NFTA 1987). A.
mangium is extensively planted in
Imperata cylindrica grasslands in
Southeast Asia because its rapid growth
can quickly suppress the grass.
In agroforestry systems, a main
advantage of acacias (and other
legumes) is their ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
Nitrogen is often a limiting factor for
crop growth in tropical soils, so the
ability to improve the soil in this factor is
beneficial in al! cropping systems.
The foliage of many acacias can be
grazed and can be an economically
important cattle feed. However, pods and
leaves of some acacias contain
considerable amounts of substances
toxic to livestock (Allen and Allen
193 1). Some species of acacia produce
leaves, pods, or flowers that can be eaten
by people, as demonstrated by the
Australian wattle cookies and coffee and
Thai A. insuavis tasted here at this
workshop.
Due to the wide range of
commodities they produce and their
wide distribution, Acacia offers a
broader range of cultivation options,
including agroforestry systems, than
many other genera.
Examples of Agroforestry Practices
using Acacias
Acacia mearnsii
Acacia mearnsii(black wattle) is
native to Australia, mainly occurring in
Tasmania and Victoria, where the mean
annual temperature is 1013C (with a
maximum of'20°C) and rainfall is 750-
1000 mm/year (Berenchot 1986).
A. mearnsiiis extensively grown in
Central Java, Indonesia. In 1922, it was
introduced in the tobaccogrowing
region of Wonosobo, Central Java, at an
elevation of 14002,100 m asl where
temperature varies from 1912'C and
annual rainfall is 3,4003,800 mm. For
more than a hundred years, this region
has been one of the most fuelwood
demanding areas on Java. Besides its fast
growth A. mearnsii'sadvantages are its
tanninproducing bark (average yield is
3539% of the airdried bark), nitrogen
fixing root nodules, and leaves that can
be used for fodder and green manure.
A.mearnsii was quickly accited and
valued by Javanese farmers, ani its
cultivation was soon adopted by farmers
on a rotational system with agricultural
crops. Beside tobacco, associated crops
include maize, potato, sweet potato, bean,
cassava, cabbage, pumpkin, and onion.
By 1939, this practice waE already
widespread.
In Central Java, A. mearnsiiseedlings
are usually gathered from existing stands
(wildlings) and established:
• scattered on the outskirts of the
dry agricultural land (legalan),
usually mixed with Casuarina
spp., Schima wallichii, and
Calliandracalothyrsus
Fuelwood is the farmers' main benefit of
A. mearnsii , used mainly for household
purposes (cooking and tobaccocuring).
The bark's tannin gives additional
income. Some farmers compost A.
mearnsli leaves to fertilize annual crops.
When used as a fallow crop, A. mearnsii
has a soil improving effect. Soil samples
taken under A. mearnsii cultivation
showed an increase in nitrogen
(Berenschot et al. 1988).
Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd.
Acacia nilolica (babul) occurs
widely on drylands from the Atlantic
coast of Alhica across the Sahel to East
Africa, thr'ugh the Arabian Peninsula
and into northwestern India and
Pakistan, where it is one of the most
important species. It withstands extreme
temperatures (I to 50°C), although it is
frost sensitive when young. An annual
rainfall of 250250() mm is required
(FAG 1989).
A. nilotica and agricultural crops are
commonly planted together in a variety
of systems on marginal lands. The most
famous is the old practice known as
hurries in Pakisan, where it is grown on
salteffected lands (FAG 1989; see also
the paper by Ansari in this volume).
The rotations used for A.
niloticavaryconsiderably. A common
rotation in Pakistan is 56 years, but if
there is a great demand for the wood the
rotation can be shorter (FAG 1989). The
tree can reach an age of 3040 years, but
becomes susceptible to rotting after
about 25 years. Annual height growth in
* in temporary plots where the tree
is used as a fallow crop, followed
by agricultural crops for at least as
many years as the tree rotation
" in semipermanent plots, with only
one or two years of annual crops
between tree rotations. This
practice is especially found on
steep slopes where annual crops
cause severe erosion
" in permanent plots
136
dry areas is generally about 60 cm (Kaul
1970), but varies depending on site, with
maximum mean annual increments of
13 m3 at 20 years old and 10.53 ms at
30 years.
In India, the Forest Department has
arranged with farmers to plant babul in
taungyatype systems. Farmers lease
land for 3 years, growing cottcn in the
first two years cottc i, and sowing babul
in rows with cotton in the third. After the
third year the land reverts to the Forest
Department.
A. nilotica 's products include mine
timber and pit props, fuelwood, charcoal,
tannin, gum, medicine, fiber, and fodder,
The species can grow on saline soils if
given sufficient water. If the soil is kept
moist until the roots reach the
groundwater, the trees can survive even
severe drought.
Acacia mangium
The "Reforestation and Tropical
Forest Management Project" in South
Kalimantan, Indonesia is developing
methods for reforesting Imperata
cylindrica grasslands. A. mangium has
been one of the main species used by the
project, so far on a limited scale,
The experiences mertioned here
were obtained from three trials. All three
were established in pure Imperata sites
by mechanical soil cultivation. The soil
was plowed twice and harrowed or
rotavated once before planting and
sowing, and the trees were planted in a 2
x 4m spacing.
The first trial showed that A.
mnangium height growth at 30 ri. onths
after planting was slightly beter when it
was intercropped with watermelon
compared to no agricultural crop (251
vs. 256 cm) (Adjers and Luukkanen
1993). Intercropping with peanut
137
yielded shorter seedlings of A. mangium
compared with no agricultural crop (220
vs. 251 cm).
In the second trial A. mangium was
intercropped with corn, peanut, and
watermelon in combination with two soil
preparation treatments: total mechanical
cultivation and herbicide spraying.
Figure 1 shows A. mangium growth in
the different treatments.
Yields for both trees and agricultural
crops were better in the mechanically
cultivated soil. But the experiment
showed that spraying also has potential
as a land preparation technique. A.
mangium grew tallest when intercropped
with maize, followed by the peanut and
watermelon plots.
Survival of A. mangiurn was high in
both trials (>95%) and the stand
established itself quickly; crown closure
occurred at about one year (Adjeis and
Luukkanen 1993).
The third agroforestry trial aimed to
(1) document the effect of intercropped
crops on the tree growth, (2) measure
yields of the intercrop and (3) assess
changes in the nutrient status of the soil
(Sabarnurdin and Riswan in press). Four
tree species, i.e., A. mangium, Peronema
canescens, Eucalyptus urophylla and
Paraserianthlesfalcatariawcre
intercropped with rice, maize, peanut,
and control (no crop).
A. mangium ,;howed the best tree
growth, followed by P.falcataria,E.
urophylla and Peronema canescens.
Table I shows the height and diameter
of A. mangium in combination with the
different crops.
120 Height,
em
100
O
80
BD
... ..
... ....
.....
..........
........................
....
.... . .. .................................
40
0
I
4
3
2
1
Plant.
I
Age, weeks
UP
4
UK
MW
4
IVmE
M0E
Figure 1.Height of Acacia mangium in mechanically cultivated (M) and herbicidesprayed (H)plots with intercrops of peanut (P), maize (M), and watermelon (W).
The effect of the tree species to the
crop yield is another important result of
this trial (Table 2). A. mangium seemed
to decrease the yield of rice and maize.
All other treecrop combinations gave a
better yield than the control. With
peanut, however, the plot with A.
mangiurn yielded the second best result
after P. falcataria.
Although seven months is not
enough time to make any conclusions
Table 1. Average growth of A. mangium at 7
months in three combinations, and control.
Treatment
Height
(cm)
Diameter
(cm)
No crop (control)
Rice
Maize
Peanut
239
262
293
326
2.7
3.4
4.1
4.7
about soil properties, the soil properties
showed a tendency to improve.
138
Table 2. Yields of rice, maize, and peanut
intercropped with four tree species.
Crop
Rice
Tree species
use. The leaves can be used as fodder
and green manure.
Planting A. auriculiformis at the
border
of dry agricultural land and in
homegardens
kg/ha
with Cocos nucifera,
Cassia siamea, Tectona grandis,
Swietenia macrophylla, Arthocarpus sp,
Dalbergiasp., Bambusa sp, Musa sp.
and agricultural crops like cassava,
beans, and herbs is very common in
Central Java (Schreuel and Stegeman
1986).
Acacia mangium
1140
Peronemnacanescens
2150
Eucalyptus urophylla
2065
Paraserianthesfalcataria 1955
Control (no tree)
2250
Maize*Acacia mangium
1900
P.canescens
2185
E. urophylla
1965
Paraserianthesfakcataria 2010
Control (no tree)
2350
Peanut Acacia mangium
Peroneniacanescens
Eucalyptusurophylla
Paraserianthesfalcataria
Control (no tree)
* calculated
1860
1625
1400
1900
1675
from I plot only
Acacia auriculiformnis
A. auriculifonisis a lowland species
occurring naturally in Australia, Papua
New Guinea, and in the eastern islands of
Indonesia. It is generally a tropical
humid and subhumid species that is very
adaptable to a wide range of
environmental conditions, and has been
cultivated as an exotic in Asia, Africa,
and South America for more than 50
years. It has been used in all kinds of
tree planting programs, including
agroforestry.
In agroforestry systems A.
auriculiformisappears to be used mainly
for fuelwood. Its dense wood and high
calorific value make it popular for this
139
Other Acacias with Potential for
Agroforestry
Much intensive research has been
conducted on acacias, both
independently and through
organizational collaboration in species
and provenance trials conducted in
Australia, China, Indonesia, Kenya,
Malaysia, Pakistan, Republic of China
(Taiwan), Shri Lanka, Thailand, and
Zimbabwe. These have strongly
emphasized Australian acacias.
From an ecological point of view (in
terms of preventing epidemics like
leucaena psyllid) and from the
perspective of local markets and cultural
practices, indigenous species of acacias
should be promoted in agroforestry
systems. So far, however, native acacias
have generally received low priority in
research. Acacias are indigenous to
China, for example, but have not been
made commercially important (Wang
and Fang 1991). Instead, about 100
Australian Acacia species have been
tested there, with A. mearnsii,A.
auriculiformis, A. mangium, A. dealbata,
and A. crassicarpaexpected to have the
greatest potential for both forestry and
agroforestry (Wang and Fang 1991).
Thailand has 13 native acacias; only
line. Furthermore, grains of wheat plants
less than 4 m from the trees were
significantly smaller, and grain yield
increased with distance from the tree
line. Yield was significantly greater at
>15 m and significantly less at <4 m. In
a study in India, A. ni/lica inhibited
mustard crop growth more than
Ziphyphus spp., Azadirachta indica, or
Eucalyptus terelicornis (Dalal et. al.
1992). The species' root system
competes hard for moisture with nearby
crops, a factor that is especially
important drier areas.
In Bangladesh, farmers often keep
5060 trees/ha of A. nilotica in sugar
cane fields, saying that the trees make
the sugarcane grow taller and increase
yield. This same tree density reduces
yields of rice and wheat, however, so in
fields where these crops are grown, the
farmers keep only 2030 trees/ha
(Abedin and Quddus 1991).
It may be that, as Harwood notes (see
discussion following paper by
Pinyopusarerk), Australian acacias (and
perhaps others) have aggressive lateral
roots that compete with crops more than
species like Faidherbia (formerly
Acacia) albida.
Growth and yield, litter production,
and nutrient cycling for acacia forests
and plantations are little understood
(lire 1992). This is even more true
about these relationships with
agricultural components in a farm
system.
A. catechu and A. pennata are planted
(Bhumibhamon 1992), but these two are
popular and produce marketable
products (see the paper by Subsaii,,encc
et al.).
Fodder is particularly important in
arid and semiarid areas, where trees can
be lopped to feed the cattle during the
dry season when other green fAIIJer is
scarce. In addition toA. ni/otiLi, A.
leucophloea and A. planifrons provide
excellent fodder (Singh 1992).
Knowledge is still lacking for many
acacias. Available information on acacias
in agroforestry can be obtained from the
sources listed in the appendix. Streets
(1962) also describes a wide range of
species grown in the British
Commonwealth. NAS (1979) is an
excellent source of information on
legumes. Other NAS publications focus
on more specific topics (NAS 1980,
1983). FAO (1963) contains
information on fuelwood species.
Turnbull et al. (1986) describes 54
lesserknown Australian species for
fuelwood and agroforestry.
Effect of Acacias on Agricultural Crops
Trees and crops planted near each
other in agroforestry systems will
interact, with the effect varying
depending on the species combination,
soil nutrient status, competition for water
and nutrients, and management system.
'iie effect can be either positive or
negative.
The effect of A. nilotica on nearby
wheat crops was studied by Sharma
(1991). Nineyearold A. niloica
planted in a single row 4.75 in apart
appeared to have no significant effect on
crop height and shoot number, but ear
length was greater 815 m from the tree
Conclusion
Agroforestry is complicated and
involves many components. The
selection of tree species, crop, livestock,
and cultivation system gives many
alternatives. The interaction between
140
these components widens the scope of
agroforestry research even further,
Professionals with different
backgrounds tend to emphasize the
aspect of the system closest to their
specialization; a forester is likply to be
interested in the tree yield, while an
agriculturist is interested in the crop
yield. To obtain the best possible
solution, however, all interests should be
considered and the system viewed as a
whole.
Economic analyses can perhaps help
establish the optimal output of the
system, but the local people's
participation, preferences, and culture
also have to be considered. Many local
factors affect decisions about
agroforestry practices, and so systems
must be evaluated locally. It is a big
challenge for research to study all these
factors, and requires the involvement of
several science disciplines,
Acacias are only a small piece of the
agroforestry puzzle But given the large
number of species, wide distribution, and
their ability to grow on many types of
soil, the Acacia genus offers huge
potential for agroforestry. Local Acacia
species, as well as other indigenous
nitrogenfixing trees, offer a range of
alternatives.
While the Acacia genus has been
studied intensively (particularly for
industrial plantations) and the
availability of information about them
makes them attractive alternatives in
species selection, the role of acacias in
agroforestry still requires much research
and development.
Even for
species
like A. mntgiumn
andbetter
A. known
speieslikoreii infmani acn
auriculiformis information islacking in
this respect. For example, spacing and
thinning practices for these species in
agroforestry systems are still poorly
known.
141
For lesser known acacias, species and
provenance trials and selection must be
done, and their role in agroforestry
decided later.
Discussion Notes
Comment: Acacia catech is an
example of an indigenous species with
many niches (see paper by Wanida).
Q: Just a thought: for foodproducing
tree species, like some (tryzone acacias,
does simply growing the tree count as
'agroforestry,' since they provide both
food and tree benefits?
Comment: Regarding the need for
involving various disciplines, I would
like to note that in India, only
multidisciplinary approaches are used to
study agroforcstry, and involve
horticulturists, silviculturists, breeders,
and social scientists.
Goran Adjers and Tjuk Sasmito Hadi
work with 1he Reforestation & Natural
Forest Management Project,do Balai
Teknologi Reboisasi, Banjarbarn, P.O.
Box 65, .11. Sei Uin No. 28 B, 70711
Banjararu, Kalimantan Selatan,
Indonesia.
Adin.
MY..
MA
nd Q
adlas.
with
Agroforestry
systems
in Bangladesh
with
particular reference to economics and tenurial
issues. In Agrofor'str, in Asia and the
Pacific. eds. W.Mellink, ''.S. Rao, and K.G.
Macl)icken;1333. Bangkok. Thailand:
FAORAPA
1987. Nitrogen Fixing Trees A Training
Guide. RAPA publication 1987/15.
Bangkok: FAORAPA.
. 1989. Acacia nilotica (L) willd. Ex. Del.:
Its Production,Management and Utilization
in Pakistan. Regional Wood Energy
Development Programme in Asia, Field
Document No. 20. Bangkok: FAORAPA.
Hegde, N.G. 1989. Agroforestry to meet the
community needs. In Agroforestry: Selected
Readings, eds. N.G. Hegde and V.D. Kelkar.
Pune, India: BAIF Development Research
Foundation.
Kaul, R.N., ed. 1970. Afforestation in Arid
Zones. Den Haag.
Lim, M.T. 1992. Research on growth and yield,
litter production, and nutrient cycling in
acacias. In Tropical Acacias in East Asia and
the Pacific,eds. Kamis Awang and D.A.
Taylor; 7275. Proc. of a first meeting of the
Consultative Group for Research and
Development of Acacias (COGREDA) held in
Phuket, Thailand, June 13, 1992. Bangkok:
Winrock International.
National Academy of Sciences. 1979. Tropical
Legunes: Resourcesfor the Future.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
. 1980. Firewood Crops: Shrub and Tree
Species for Energy Production. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press.
. 1983. FirewoodCrops: Shrub and Tree
Species for Energy Production,Volume 2.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
NFTA. 1987. Acacia mangium A fastgrowing
tree for the humid tropics. NFT Highlights
NFTA 8704. Waimanalo, Hawaii: Nitrogen
Fixing Tree Association.
Sabarnurdin, S. and A. Riswan. In press. The
effect of tumpangsari on growth of trees,
crop yield and soil nutrient status. In
Forestationof Imperata cylindrica Grassland:
Lessons from South Kalimantan,eds. S.
Sabarnurdin, G. Adjers and ii. l:;wantoro.
South Kalimantan, Indonesia: Reforestation
and Tropical Forest Management Project.
Adjers, G. and 0. Luukkanen. 1993. Agroforestry
as a method for afforestation in Imperata
cylindrica grassland. Reforestation and
Tropical Forest Management Project.
Technical Report. FINNIDA. In preparation.
Allen, O.N, and E.K. Allen. 1981. The
Legumiwsae: A Source Book of
Characteristics,Uses, and Nodulation.
Madison, Wisconsin: University of
Wisconsin Press.
Berenchot, L.M. 1986. An agroforestry system
with Acacia mearnsiiin its socioeconomic
context: a case study in the rural uplands of
Central Java. Fonc Project Communication
No.19869. Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Faculty
of Forestry, University of Gajah Mada.
Berenchot, L.M, BM. Filius and S.
Hardjosoediro. 1988. Factors determining
the occurrence of the agroforestry system
with Acacia mearnsiiin Central Java.
Agroforestry Systems 6:119135.
Bhumibhamon, S. 1992. Potential for growing
acacias in Thailand. In TropicalAcocias in
East Asia andthe Pacific,eds. Kanmis Awang
and D.A. Taylor; 1517. Proc. of a first
meeting of the Consultative Group for
Research and Development of Acacias
(COGREDA) held in Phuket, Thailand, June
13, 1992. Bangkok: Winrock
International.
Dalai, M.R., D.S. Dahiya, M.K. Sharmah and S.S.
Narwal. 1992. Suppression effects of
aridzone trees on plant and growth of crops.
In Allelopathy in Agroecosystems
(Agriculture and Forestry),proc. First
National Symposium, February 1214, 1992;
eds. P. Tauro and S.S. Narwal. Ilisar, India:
CCS Haryana University.
FAO. 1963. Tree PlantingPracticesfor Arid
Zones. Rome: FAO.
• 1980. Pulp and paper making properties of
fastgrowing plantation species. FAO
Forestry Paper 19/2. Rome: Forestry
Industries Division, Forestry Department,
FAQ.
.
142
Schreuel, 1.and G.T. Stegeman. 1986. Growth of
Acacia auriculiformis in Yogyakarta
Province. Fonc Project Communication
No.198611. Yogyakarta, Indonesia:
Faculty of Forestry, University of Gajah
Mada.
Sharma, K.K. 1992. Wheat cultivation in
association with Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd
ex. Del. field bund plantation a case study.
Agroforestry Systems 17(1):4351.
Singh, R.V. 1992. Agroforestry in Support of
Animal Production in the Asia and Pacfic
Region. RAPA Monograph 1992/13.
Bangkok: FAORAPA.
Streets, M.A. 1962. Erotic Forest Trees in the
British Comnonwealth. Oxford: Clarendon
Press.
Torres, F. 1989. Agroforestry: concepts and
practices. In Agroforestry: Selected
Readings, eds. N.G. llegde and V.D. Kelkar.
Pune, India: BAIF Development Research
Foundation.
Turnbull, J.W., P.N. Martenz and N. Hall. 1986.
Notes on lesserknown Australian trees and
shrubs with potential for fuelwood and
agroforestry. In Multipurpose Australian
Trees and Stuhi,.. L.ser Known Species for
Fuelwood and Agroforestry, ed. J.W.
Tiurnbull. ACIAR Monograph No.l.
Canbena, Australia: ACIAR.
Wang, II.R. and Y.L. Fang. 1991. The history of
acacia introduction to China. In Advances in
Tropical Acacia Research, ed. JW.Turnbull.
ACIAR Proceeding Series No. 35. Canberra:
ACIAR.
Appendix: Primary information sources on
agroforestry species
Organization Information source
ICRAF
Multipurpose Tree and Shrub
Database
Library Database
Agroforestry Systems Inventory
Agroforestry Today
Agroforestry Systems
FAO/AGRIS Database on world agriculture
CAB
Bibliographic database on
agroforestry and related topics
Agroforestry Abstracts
NFTA
NFT Highlights (fact sheets)
Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research
Reports (joumal)
USDA/
Computerized database covering
AGRICOLA the holdings of the U.S.National
Agriculture Library of the USA
143
Acacias for Fuelwood and Charcoal
Kovith Yantasath, Somchai Anusontpornperm, Thanes Utistham, Wirachai
Soontornrangson and Sutta Watanatham
Introduction
Wood is the primary biomass energy
source for over onethird of the human
population who use wood as fuel and
charcoal for cooking and heating.
Nearly 90% of wood consumption in
developing countries is for fuelwood. An
estimated 50 million ha of additional
plantation worldwide is required to
ensure fuelwood needs by the year 2(XX)
(World Bank 1980).
In Thailand, over 80% of wood
consumption is used as fuel by rural
people. Moreover, there is a fuelwood
shortage in the industrial sector,
particularly in smallscale industries
where wood energy is still cheaper than
modern energy (i.e., petroleum
products). A survey by the Royal Fore,t
Department (RFD) indicated that
residental wood energy consumption in
1990 was 2,216 ktoe fuelwood and
1,946 ktoe charcoal (conversion factor
lor ktoe:fuelwood = 0.37848; charcoal
= 0.68364; 1 cu.m. of fuelwood = 0.6
ton; 5 tons fuelwood = I ton charcoal).
Another survey in 1992 indicated a
fuelwood consumption in the industrial
sector of 10,8(X),223 m3 of wood. An
estimated wood energy requirement for
the years 19902(XX) is about 22 million
tons of wood annually (unpublished data
from Thai Forestry Sector Master Plan
Meeting in Bangkok 1992 Royal Forest
Department).
Treeplanting programs have
become major development tasks for
governments in many countries, with
144
much effort dedicated to identifying and
developing tree species and management
techniques for establishment and
management of fuelwood plantations.
Species Selection for Fuelwood and
Charcoal
NAS (1980) described many
fuelwood species by climatic zone. For
the humid tropics, many acacias are
suitable. Acacia auriculiformis,for
example, merits largescale testing as a
fuelwood species because it can produce
good fuelwood on poor soils, even ir.
areas with extended dry seasons. For
tropical highlands, A. ,nearnsii,also a
native to Australia, is recommended for
poor soils, although it cannot tolerate
calcareous soils.
For arid and semiarid regions with
more serious fuclwood problems, A.
brachystacliva,native to vast areas of
arid and semiarid Australia, is
considered a superior firewood species,
as well as A. cambagei. A. cyclops can
grow in areas with an annual
precipitation of less than 300) mm and
tolerates salt spray, wind, sandblast, and
salinity. However, this species and A.
saligna have both proven extremely
weedy. In parts of tropical Africa and
the Asian subcontinent, A. nilotica is a
valuable source of fuel, small timber,
fodder, tannin, and honey. The plant is
exceedingly drought tolerant and
survives on many difficult sites, but it is
also extremely thorny. A. senegal, which
although not a fastgrowing tree
produces excellent fuelwood, is found
throughout the Sahelian zone of Africa
from Senegal to Somalia.
Research on Acacias in Thailand
Thailand has 13 native acacias: A.
caesia oxyphylla, A. catechu
catechoides, A. comosa, A. craibii, A.
harmandiana,A. leucophloea, A.
macrocephala siamensis, A.
megaladena, A. oxvphylla sulonuda, A.
pennata, A. podalyriaefolia, A. rugada,
and A. tomentosa. Of these, A. calechu
catechoides and A. pennata are among
the more promising planted by rural
poor (Bhumibhamon 1992).
With the Australian Centre for
International Agriculture Research
(ACIAR), the Royal Forest Department
introduced Australian tree species for
fuelwood and agroforestry testings to
several trial sites in Thailand, as well as in
other countries in Asia and Africa
(Boland and Turnbull 1989). Results
from trials planted in 1985 and 1986
showed good potential of A. crassicarpa,
A. auriculiformis, A. torulosa, and A.
julifera in terms of fast growth.
Provenance variation has been noted for
some species; for example, northern
provenances of A. crassicarpa and A.
aulacocarpa grew faster than southern
provenances. Some species differed in
tree from between different sites (e.g., A.
polystachya and A. holosericea)
(Pinyopusarerk 1989).
Research of the Thailand Institute
for Scientific and Technological
Research (TISTR), supported by
BOSTID, U.S. Academy of Sciences,
showed that A. auriculiformis and A.
mangium had outstanding adaptability to
acid sandy soil. They produced wood of
145
highcalorific value and great quantities
of biomass (Yantasath et al. 1987,
1992a). Further research by TISTR
(Yantasath et al. 1992b) identified
droughttolerant species and
provenances tested: A. leptocarpa, A.
auriculiformis, A. crassicarpa, A.
plectocarpa, A. holosericea, and a few
provenances of A. mangium. At the
driest of the four sites, in northern
Thailand, A. leptocarpa, A.
auricidiformis, and A. holosericea
performed best. Under the wet
conditions in the south, A. mangium, A.
crassicarpa, A. auriculifornis, A.
leptocarpa, and A. difficillis performed
better.
Fuelwood and Charcoal Studies
by TISTR
The calorific values of several tree
species, including some acacias, have
been reported by Harker et al. (1982).
Yantasath et al. (1985, 1992a) studied
physical characteristics and heating
values of several multipurpose tree
species (MPTS) including acacias.
Described below are results of additional
studies of physical properties and
calorific values for nine Acacia species
recently introduced and planted at
TISTR's experimental trials (Yantasath et
al., 1992b). These nine acacias (A.
difficilis, A. plectocarpa, A.
auriculiformnis, A. mangium, A.
polystachya, A. holosericea, A.
aulacocarpa, A. crassicarpa, and A.
leptocarpa) were tested for their
fuelwood and charcoal heating values as
well as for their burning properties.
Wood samples at 4 years of age were
collected from different sections of the
treesbasal, middle, and top: Physical
properties and heating values were tested
at TISTR's Energy Research Laboratory.
The carbonization temperature used for
laboratory charcoal preparation was at
400450'C.
values of the different woods were also
in the same range (45104715 kcal/kg).
A. holosericeahad the highest ash
content (1.71%); A. difficilis and A.
aulacocarpa had the lowest (0.64 %).
A. holosericea burned fastest; A.
aulacocarpaand A. crassicarpaburned
the slowest (Table 3). After burning, A.
holosericea had the highest ash content
(1.71 %); A. difficilis and A. aulacocarpa
had the lowest (0.65 %). From the
laboratory testing, A. plectocarpa,A.
auriculiformis,A. m. ngium, A.
holosericea,A. crassicarpa,and LEPI
showed less than 1% of unburned parts;
the others left about 1.52%.
Wood Tests
Tables 1 and 2 show a wide range of
wood density values for the nine acacias
(0.30.7 g/cm 3 based on dry weight). A.
plectocarpa had the highest values
(0.714 g/cm 3); A. mangium and A.
crassicarpa had the lowest densities
(0.32 and 0.37 g/cm 3).
All the species had similar
percentages of volatile matter and fixed
carbon (70.777.7%). The heating
Table 1. Physical properties and wood calorific values of nine acacias (based on samples delivery).
Species
A. difficilis
A.plectocarpa
A. attriculiformis
A. nwngiun,
A.polystachya
A.holosericea
A.auacocarpa
A.crassicarpa
A. leptocarpa
Moisture
(%)
39.04
28.68
35.45
57.87
38.87
36.59
39.59
52.83
39.92
Volatile matter
(%)
46.09
50.44
47.94
31.73
47.55
47.06
45.34
34.05
45.57
146
Fixed carbon
(%)
Ash
(%)
Ileafing value
(kcal/kg)
14.48
20.12
15.91
9.95
13.06
15.27
14.68
12.59
13.93
0.39
0.76
0.70
0.45
0.52
1.08
0.39
0.53
0.58
2770
3340
3040
1960
2760
2890
2710
2220
2810
Table 2. Physical properties and calorific values of nine Acacia woods (dry weight).
Volatile matter Fixed carbon
(%)
Species
A. difficilis
A.plectocarpa
A. auriculiformis
A. mangium
A. polystachya
A. holosericea
A aulacocarpa
A crassicarpa
A. leptocarpa
75.60
70.72
74.27
75.33
77.79
74.22
75.05
72.18
75.85
Ash
(%)
23.76
28.21
24.65
23.60
21.36
24.07
24.31
26.69
23.18
Heating value
(kcal/kg)
0.64
1.07
1.08
1.07
0.85
1.71
0.64
1.13
0.97
4550
4680
4715
4655
4510
4560
4490
4710
4680
Density
(g/cm 3)
0.653
0.714
0.604
0.320
0.648
0.600
0.510
0.373
0.495
Table 3. Wood burning properties.
Species
Burning Heating while Heating
Moisture time
burning
(dry wt)
(%)
(min)
(Kcal/kg)
(Kcal/kg)
A. difficilis
A.plectocarpa
A. auriculiformnis
A. mangium
A. polystachya
A. holosericea
" aulaeocarpa
A crassicarpa
A. leptocarpa
9.7
9.0
11.1
10.9
11.6
10.9
10.7
9.7
10.2
2.9
2.8
3.3
3.3
2.6
2.1
3.4
3.4
2.7
4110
4260
4190
4150
3990
4060
4010
4250
4205
4551
4681
4715
4655
4511
4561
4494
4707
4682
147
Ash
(%)
Unburned
portion
(%)
Heating
efficiency
(%)
1.1
1.24
1.42
1.7
1.56
1.56
0.82
1.0
1.6
1.96
0.18
0.18
0.9
0.28
0.28
1.6
0.5
0.23
20.6
25.3
19.3
32.6
19.5
23.0
18.6
16.1
21.4
tested, with volatile matters ranging
19.2722.74% and fixed carbon of
74.879.2%. As seen in Table 5, the
better charcoals with higher ash contents
were A. leptocarpa(3.24%) and A.
crassicarpa(2.11%). These two
charcoals burned faster; A. difficilis and
A. plectocarpaburned slowest (Table 6).
After burning, both A. leptocarpa
and A. plectocarpahad the highest ash
contents, whereby A. mangium and A.
aulacocarpahad the lowest. The test
showed that A. difficilis charcoal had the
most unburned part (14 %). Other
species charcoal had unburned parts of
1.17.1%.
CharcoalStudies
A. difficilis and A. plectocarpa
showed the highest charcoal density by
(0.640.62 g/cm 3)(Tables 4 and 5). A.
holosericea produced mediumdensity
charcoal (0.49 g/cm 3 ) and the lowest
density charcoals were from A.
auriculiformis,A. mangium, A.
polystachya,A. aulacocarpa,A.
A. leptocarpa(0.20.4
crassicarpa,and
g/cm 3).
The volatile matters and fixed
carbon percentages of the charcoals were
generally similar for all the species
Table 4. Charcoal physical properties and calorific values (based on sample delivery).
Species
Volatile
Moisture matter
(%)
(%)
A. difficilis
A.plectocarpa
A.auriculiformis
A. mangium
A.polystachya
A. holosericea
A.aulacocarpa
A.crassicarpa
A.leptocarpa
2.72
2.65
2.12
2.24
1.93
2.13
1.99
2.78
1.66
21.06
22.13
20.51
19.89
18.90
21.06
20.59
19.i9
20.19
Fixed
carbon
(%)
Ash
(%)
Heating
value
(kcal/kg)
Density
(g/cm 3)
74.82
72.90
76.11
76.22
77.71
75.01
76.16
75.98
;4.97
1.40
2.32
1.26
1.65
1.46
1.80
1.26
2.05
3.18
7355
7110
7550
7550
7560
7445
7560
7450
7450
0.653
0.714
0.604
0.320
0.648
0.600
0.510
0.373
0.495
148
Table 5. Charcoal physical properties and calorific values (based on dry weight).
Species
Volatile
matter
(%)
Fixed
carbon
(%)
Ash
(%)
Heating
value
(kcal/kg)
Density
(g/cm3)
A. difficilis
A.plectocarpa
A. auriculiformis
A. mangium
A. polystachya
A. holosericea
A.aulacocarpa
A.crassicarpa
A. leptocarpa
21.65
22.74
20.96
20.34
19.27
21.52
21.01
19.74
20.53
76.91
74.88
77.75
77.97
79.24
76.65
77.70
78.15
76.23
1.44
2.38
1.29
1.69
1.49
1.83
1.29
2.11
3.24
7560
7300
7710
7730
7710
7610
7710
7670
7580
0.646
0.622
0.404
0.317
0.385
0.494
0.459
0.229
0.364
Table 6. Charcoal burning properties.
Species
Moisture
(%)
Burning Heating while Heating
time
burning (dry w)
(min)
(Kcal/kg) (Kcal/kg)
Ash
(%)
A. difficilis
A.plectocatpa
A. auriculiformnis
A. mangium
A. polystachya
A, holoserixa
A aulacocarpa
A.crassicarpa
A. leptocarpa
2.72
2.65
2.12
2.24
1.93
2.13
1.99
2.78
1.66
3.9
4.0
3.6
3.8
3.4
3.0
3.2
2.9
2.7
3.0
4.4
3.3
2.3
2.6
3.5
2.3
3.0
4.4
7356
7109
7547
7554
7565
7446
7559
7454
7450
149
7560
7302
7711
7726
7713
7608
7713
7667
7576
Unburned Heating
portion efficiency
(%)
(%)
14.1
5.6
1.4
1.9
4.1
4.2
7.1
1.1
2.1
26.5
27.6
28.0
26.3
27.1
30.2
27.7
26.5
28.3
Carbonization yields of acacias
under 3 hours with temperature
maintained at 400450°C (Figure 1)
showed that A. plectocarpahad the
highest yield (40%).
Kovith Yantasath, Somchai
Anusontpornpern, Thanes Utistham,
Wirachai Soontornrangsonand Sutta
Watanatham work with the Thailand
Institute of Scientific and Technological
Research, 196 Phahonyothin Road,
Bangkhen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand.
Conclusion
The tested woods with fastburning
properties were A. au'iculiformis,A.
polystachya, an" A. :eptocarpa,followed
hy A. difficilis, A. plectocarpa,A.
.nangium,A. aulacocarpa,and A.
References
Bhumibhamon, S. 1992. Potential for growing
acacias in Thailand. In Tropical Acacias in
EastAsia and the Pacfic,eds. K. Awang and
D.A. Taylor; 1517. Proc. of a first meeting
of the Consultative Group for Research and
Development of Acacias (COGREDA), held
in Phuket, Thailand, June 13, 1992.
Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock International.
Boland, D.J. and J.W. Turnbull. 1989. Australian
tree species for fuciwood and agroforestry in
China, Kenya, Thailand and Zimbabwe. In
Trees for the Tropics: Multipurpose Trees
and Shrubs in Developing Countries,ed. D.J.
Boland; 1330. ACIAR Monograph No.10.
Canberra, Australia: ACIAR.
Harker, A.P., A. Sandels and J. Burley. 1982.
Calorific values for wood and bark and a
bibligraphy for fuclwood. London: Tropical
Products Institute.
National Acadamy of Sciences. 1980. Firewood
crassicarpa.Slow and complete burning
of woods resulted in high fuelwood
efficiency. Wood with higher ash content
gave higher calorific value than wood
with lower ash. Charcoal from A.
holosericeashowed highest heating
efficiency (30.2%) compared to other
species. A. mangium charcoal had lowest
heating efficiency, with 26.3%.
Compared with other MPTS used
for fuelwood, these acacias show high
calorific values and high biomass
production. Furthermore, they adapt
well to most acid, poor tropical soils and
thus could play an important role in
addressing the increasing demand for
fuelwood in tropical countries.
Crops : Shrub and Tree Speciesfor Energy
Production.Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press.
Pinyopusarerk, K. 1989. Growth and survival of
Australian tree species in field trials in
Thailand. In Treesfor the Tropics:
Multipurpose Trees and Shrub in
Developing Countries, ed. D.J. Boland;
109127. ACIAR Monograph No. 10.
Canberra, Australia: ACIAR.
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Countries. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Yantasath, K., W. Supatanakul, I. Ungvichian, S.
Chamsawad, S. Chantrasiri, S. Patanawibul,
C. Hyakitkosol, S. Prompetchara, N.
Discussion Notes
Comment:
Markets for fuelwood
and charcoal can be rigid for reasons of
local preference, as well as stacking, heat
release, etc. For this reason,
marketability should always be viewed
from the outset, and opportunities
should be explored for improving
species already used for these purposes
locally.
150
50
40
X,<
[V)
0
30
wN
D
10 /,
/
7
AN
MOISTURED
_
N
MOISTURE FREE
Figure 1. Carbonization yields at 400340C, maintained for 3 hours.
/N
Pithakarnop and P. Chalermklin. 1985. 1.
Species trials of nitrogenfixing trees. II.
Spacing trials of nitrogenfixing trees. III.
Determination of biomass production of NFT
using allometric regressio1 equation. IV.
Tissue analysis and heating parameters of
NFT V. pulping and papermaking
characteristics of fast growing trees.
NFTRes. Rp '. 3:4856 (May 1985).
Waimanalo, Hawaii, U.S.A.: NFTA.
Yantasath, K. 1987. Field trials and testing of
selected species of fastgrowing
nitrogenfixing trees. In Australian Acacias
in Developing Countries, ed. J.W. Turnbull;
176179. ACIAR Proceedings No. 16.
Canberra, Australia: ACIAR.
Yantasath, K., S. Patanawibul, W. Supatanakul, 1.
Ungwichian and S. Chantrasiri. 1992a. Field
trials and multipurpose testing of selected
fastgrowing, nitrogenfixing trees in
Thailand. Thai J. Agri. Sci. 25:141169.
Yantasath, K., P. Buranasilpin, W. Supatanakul,
S. Tanpanich, S. Chantrasiri, S. Patanawibul
and S. Jitanawasan. 1992b. Research on
acacias and their potential. In Tropical
Acacias in EastAsia and the Pacific, eds. K.
Awang and D.A. Taylor; 5058. Proc. of a
first meeting of the Consultative Group for
Research and Development of Acacias
(COGREDA), held in Phuket, Thailand, June
13, 1992. Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock
International.
152
Utilization of Acacia catechu Willd. inThailand:
Improving a Cottage Industry
Wanida Subansenee, Pannee Denrungruang, Nuchanart Nilkanhaeng,
and Prachoen Sroithongkham
Introduction
The nonwood forest products
available from tropical forests are often
hidden or neglected. This paper
describes a research project that aimed to
improve the value of nonwood products
from Acacia catechu in Thailand in view
of their value in India. The authors and
the U.N. Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), which funded this
research, hope that this paper will serve
not only as a technical guide for A.
catechu utilization, but also as an
example of how the value of nonwood
forest products can be highlighted
through improvement and development
of processing techniques. Production of
valueadded products, as cottage
industries and on a large scale, can help
people realize the value of tropical
forests and lead to more realistic
conservation of tropical forests and
sustainable rural development,
A. catech is valued in India for the
role its heartwood in making katha and
cutch, two commercially important
products. Katha is a key ingredient of
pan and pan masala, which in South Asia
are traditionally chewed after meals.
Cutch is used as: a tanning agent for
leather; a cheap dye for canvas, fishing
nets, mail bags, etc.; and in oilwell
drilling as a viscosity modifier of
drilling mud. Consequently, A. catechn
wood is considered an important
industrial material and fetches as much
as US$240 per m 3 in India.
153
A. catechu also grows in natural
forests and plantations in Thailand. But
there its utilization falls far short of the
potential. Although the wood can be
used in making furniture and is an
excellent source of fuel and charcoal, its
price is much lower than in India, and is
consumed mostly as fuel sold at 150300 Baht/m3 (US$612). Only a small
portion of the country's A. catechu
resource is used in the extraction of
crude cutch by small cottage industries
in northern Thailand, where the
indigenous technique and method of
extraction is still inefficient compared to
that in India. The extract is not purified,
and receives only 20 Baht per kg
(US$0.80) in the market. The more
refined cutch that serves as a tanning and
dying chemical is also extracted in
Thailand, mainly for dying fabrics a
black or brown color, or staining wood,
but also as a tannin, and medicinally as
an astringent for diarrhea and soar throat
because it contains gum catechin,
catechu tannin acid, catechu red and
quercetin.
In view of the proven market
potential of A. catechu products in
South Asian countries, the Nonwood
Forest Products Research Section of the
Forest Products Research Division in
RFD aimed to explore appropriate and
advanced technology to improve the use
of the A. catechu resources in Thailand.
Specifically, RFD aimed to improve the
domestic production system for higher
quality crude cutch in the rural cottage
Forest Resources Officer of FAO/RAPA,
providing technical and operational
support.
This work earned the RFD research
team an honorable award for "most
significant research work of the year
1988." given by the Director General of
RFD. Research has continued, and
though results have been presented in
academic forums, only recently have the
complete results been prepared as an
FAO publication (Subsansenee et al
1992). it is hoped that this work will
encourage pilotplant studies and the
establishment of industrialscale
utilizatioh of A. catechii, as well as
improvement of the domestic cottage
industry. Together these could make an
important contribution to rural and
economic development.
industry, and also to encourage
establishment of a largescale extraction
factory for katha, cutch, and other
promising products.
The RFD scientists consulted Dr.
Y.S. Rao, then Regional Forestry Officer
of the FAO Regional Office for Asia and
the Pacific (FAO/RAPA) in Bangkok,
and with his strong support and
guidance launched an FAO Technical
Cooperation Project (TCP) called
"Chemical Processing and Utilization of
Acacia catechu (TCP/THA/6769)",
under the spirit of Technical
Cooperation between Developing
Countries (TCDC). The project sought
to transfer appropriate technology from
India to Thailand.
RFD and FAO agreed to conduct
basic investigations and exploratory
experiments on a laboratory scale before
initiating pilot plant studies. A
nationwide A catechu resource inventory
was carried out, which included
ecological and silvicultural studies. The
cottage industry practiced in Lampang
province in northern Thailand for
extracting crude cutch was investigated.
Also, an RFD A. catechu plantation in
Nakhon Ratchasima province in the
Northeast was selected to study growth
patterns and proportion of heartwood of
trees of different sizes and ages. This
plantation also provided materials for the
experiments in RFD's laboratory.
The inventories, field work, and
laboratory work took time. Dr. K.S.
Ayyar, an Indian chemical researcher,
visited Thailand for several months to
provide the Thai researchers with
technical skills. Two Thai researchers
also travelled to India for further
training and field visits. All the
substantial technical and financial
assistance was provided by the FAO
project, with Mr. M. Kashio, Regional
Basic Facts About A. catechu
Bota',ical Description
Acacia catechu, commonly called
"cutch tree" or "catechu tree" (Table 1),
is a moderatesized, dec'duous or semideciduous leguminous tree. It attains a
cylindrical stem up t,. 50150 cm in
girth with a 6m bole and 1015 m total
height. It has a clean crown and sharp
thorns on its stem and branches. The
Table 1. Common names of A. catechu.
Common names in Thailand
Trade names
Sache (Shan Mae Hong Son) Cutch tree
Catechu tree
Seesiat (Northern Thailand)
Khair
Seesiat kaen (Ratchaburi)
Seesiat nuea (Central Thailand) (in India)
Seesiat lueang (Chiang Mai)
154
dark grayish brown bark is nearly 1 cm
thick, exfoliating in long narrow strips,
the backside of which is brown or red in
color. The leaves are bipinnate, 917 cm
long, with numerous small, sessile
leaflets. The stipules are often modified
into pairs of thorns at the base of the
petiole. The small yellow or pale yellow
flowers are auxiliary cylindrical spikes,
510 cm long. The calyx is bellshaped
and divided into five lobes as well as
corolla. The stains are free and
numerous. The fruit is in long, straight,
flat pods 510 cm long, smooth and
pointed at both ends. The mature pod is
dark brown and longitudinally dehiscent,
with 310 seeds.
The sapwood is creamy white in
color. The heartwood is brown and
turns black on exposure. It is very
heavy and odorless. In some trees one
can see white powdery deposits known as
keersal.
Ecology and Distribution
A. catechu occurs widely in the drier
areas of India, Myanmar (Burma), and
Thailand. In the forests of India, A.
catechu is a small tree, 1215 m in
height (a bole of 23 m and usually
crooked) and 6090 cm in girth, with a
light feathery crown and dark brown,
glabous, slender, thorny, shining
bran ilets. There, three main varieties
are recognized:
var. catechu, which predominates
in Jammu, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and as far
south as Andhra Pradesh and
Orissa, but has never been found
in the Eastern Himalayas
155
@var. catechuoides, which
predominates in the Eastern
Himalayas
• var. chundra (syn. sundra),
confined to southern India
Thus, A. calechu is widely
distributed throughout most of India
except the most humid and driest
regions. It is common in the sub
Himalayan tract and outer Himalayas
ascending from 900 m to 1,200 m from
Jammu to Assam.
Resources in Thailand
In Thailand, A. catechu occurs in
mixed deciduous forests, and grows best
in open, dry places. It prefers light and
good drainage, b,,t can grow on almost
any soil, even on environmentally poor
sites where few other species survive.
including arid, shallow, stony soils, and
even on sheet rock. The tree coppices
well.
Natural stands of A. catechu have
become very scarce in Thailand, mainly
because it has been overutilized. Large
mature trees and even small ones are cut
or destroyed by fire. Natural
regeneration is rare due to a shortage of
seed trees, degraded soils, and other
environmental changes unfavorable to
this species.
In 1959, the Thai Government began
to plant A. catechu for fuelwood supply
and medicinal uses. According to a
nationwide inventory carried out under
this project, A. catechu plantations cover
some 3,470 ha in the provinces of Chai
Nat, Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Chonburi,
Kanchanaburi, Lampang, Loei, Nakhon
Table 2. Estimated plantation resource of A. catechu in Thailand.
Age classes
Number
Area
Province
(years)
of tires
(ha)
Chai Nat
1 5
610
1115
10,000
9,000
84,000
48
24
64
Chiang Mai
6
Chiang Rai
1620
Chonburi
6 10
Kanchanaburi
1115
i 5
610
1115
1620
Lampang
Loei
582
10
500
3,100
6 10
Ratchaburi
Saraburi
1.6
5.6
65
0.2
2,750
22.4
1,800
1,500
750
16
14.4
11.2
120
0.2
2,400
8
26,100
24
610
1115
2130
115,767
22,000
156,450
256
96
1,264
16 20
11 15
26,600
396,755
278.4
713.9
1620
Nakhon Ratchasima
6.4
1 5
1620
21
30
72,400
211.2
128,400
392.8
1,500
9.6
1,062,539
3,467.9
> 30
Total
Source: Provincial Forestry Offices, RFD, 19881989.
Utilization in India
Ratchasima, Ratchaburi, and Saraburi
(Table 2). All these plantations are on
government land. There are also some
small, privately owned plantations in
Chiang Rai province in northern
Thailand that produce crude cutch.
As mentioned earlier, the heartwood
of A. catechu is the raw material for
making katha and cutch. Highquality
katha (or "cutchfree" katha) is light
brown even after prolonged exposure,
and fetches the highest price in the
Indian market (about US$15.2015.60
per kg). The price decreases as the color
deteriorates to dark brown or black, with
156
inferior quality katha fetching only
about US$2.40 per kg. The price of
cutch is about US$0.80 per kg.
How the Resource is Managed
Due to its high value locally, A.
catechu is carefully managed using
silvicultural treatments. In moist forests,
the size preferred for katha manufacture
is 3035 cm in diameter. Exploitable
diameters of 30 cm for bhabar forests
and 35 cm for tarai forests of Uttar
Pradesh State are often prescribed, with a
felling cycle of 1030 years. In the dry
peninsular forests of Uttar Pradesh,
working under selection felling, the
exploitable diameter is as low as 10 cm.
Branches having a heartwood
diameter of at least 2.5 cm are also used
to obtain katha. Freshly felled trees give
the highest yields; dead trees are
unsuitable as their katha content is less
than that of freshly felled trees of the
same age. Gnarled and crooked trees are
believed to give better katha yields,
Extracting Katha in the Indian Cottage
Industry in the Forests
Cottage industry operations in the
forests of India continue to produce
katha and cutch, although there are now
a number of largescale factories in the
country that manufacture these products.
The main operations in the cottage
industry are:
The first two operations are done
simultaneously, usually in earthen pots
arrangd. in parallel rows on a long
shallow fireplace, or bhatti (Plate 1).
The pots in the side rows are used for
extraction, while concentration is carried
out in the central rows. The concentrate
is transferred into wooden vats and the
katha is left to crystallize. The filtration
of the separated katha takes place in
huge pits lined with gunny bags. The
"mother liquor" containing cutch
gradually soaks into the earth, leaving
katha as a semisolid mass in the gunny
bag filters. Subsequently, the semisolid
katha is dried on sand beds, cut into
small cubes with wooden knives, and
allowed to dry in the shade. In the
Indian processing method, cutch is not
isolated from katha and totally wasted.
This traditional process for producing
katha has been improved by the Forest
Research Institute at Dehra Dun.
The largescale factories that
produce katha follow the same principles
of production employed in the cottage
industry, except that the operations are
mechanized. Most of these factories can
process 20 tons of chips per day.
The Situation in Thailand
Traditional Uses by Communities
As mentioned earlier, A. catechu
wood is sold in local markets in Thailand
as fuelwood and as material for charcoal
making, at a price of 150300 Baht/m3
(US$612). The bark is sold for
medicinal purposes at a price of about
US$0.32 per kg and is used as an
antidysentary and antidiarrheal, and also
for healing wounds. The seeds are used
as an antibacterial medicine.
(1) extraction of the wood with water
(2) concentration of the extract to
crystallize katha
(3) filtration of katha
(4) drying of katha
(5) preparation of cutch
157
Crude Cutch Production
by Family Operations
1 small paddle
1 fireplace
1 stick lac
1 hand axe
1 bamboo basket
In northern Thailand, crude cutch is
produced in familyrun cottage
industries under the following
conditions, using trees purchased at a
price of US$1214 per M3 :
Processing Method and Techniques
The chips are extracted in the
shallow 601 iron alloy vessel. It is set
directly over a fire, then coated with the
resinous lac to a thickness of about 0.5
mm. The bamboo cylinder (Plate 2) is
then set in the center of the vessel, with
about 45 kg of chips packed around it,
up to 23 cm from the edge. The chips
are heaped in a conical shape from the
pceriphery of the iron vessel to the top of
the bamboocylinder. Put 30 1of water
in the vessel and cover the top of the
chips with the raintree planks.
The iron vessel is heated until the
volume of water decreases to 10 1. Any
type of fuel may be used, including
sapwood or small branches of cutch
trees. The hot extract is removed and
put into the second shallow vessel of 40 1
capacity (Plate 3). This is repeated seven
times, and takes about nine hours. The
whole extraction operation, including the
time needed to attain the correct
consistency, takes a total of 11 hours.
Obtaining the correct concentration is a
tricky operation that requires
experience. It is not controlled by any
scientific measurement or the specific
gravity.
The concentration extract is cooled,
rolled into balls, and dried (Plate 4).
There are two sizes of balls: 2.5 cm and
5 cm in diameter. The smaller size is for
the Thai market, and the larger is for
export to India and Palistan. The
exhausted chips are sometimes burned as
an insect repellent to protect the family's
cattle.
1. Site and Area:
The cottage industry is run in private
homes and requires only a small
area.
2. Seasouiality:
Five months from December to April
(from the middle of the cool season
through the hot, dry season).
3. Raw Materialsand
Transportation
The operation uses catechu trees
growing near the home, either in the
natural forest or in plantations. The
trees are transported from the forest
by carts, which can normally carry
only about two logs. Because of the
short distances, however, transport
cost is estimated at about US$1.60
per cartload.
4. Labor Requirement:
The entire work is done by family
members (usually two persons). No
external labor is employed,
5. Equipment/Materials:
2 shallow vessels made of an alloy
pan, capacities of 60 and 40 1
1 longhandled knife
Planks of rain tree (Albizia saman),
c. 15 cm wide x 2.5 cm thick
I bamboo cylinder almost conical in
shape (open at both ends, and
about 15 cm in diameter)
I dipper
158
Plate 1. The shallow fireplace, or bhati , in
which the the first two stages of katha and
cutch extraction take place in the Indian cottage
industry.
Plate 2. The cylinder made of bamboo strips.
'/
Plate 3. In the Thai cottage industry, two
metal pans are used: one is for boiling the
extract, the second is for cooling the
concentration.
•so
Plate 4. The concentration extract is cooled,
rolled into balls, and dried.
159
$2.80 = $2.00. The ratio of net returns
over investment per extraction is as high
as 71.4%.
CostBenefit Analysis
A simple costsandreturns analysis
was made to assess the economics of the
crude cutch cottage industry in
Lampang. The result is summarized in
the following.
Quality of the Crude Cutch
Dechatiwongse and
Jewvachdamrongkul (1986) analyzed
the quality of the crude cutch produced,
commonly called "black catechu" in
Thailand. They collected four samples
of black catechu: one from a local
factory in Lampang province, and three
others from shops in Bangkok. As
shown in Table 3, the quality of the
black catcchu from Lampang met
medicinal standards (Indian Standard
Institution 1964, 1967, 1969). The three
samples from the shops in Bangkok did
not meet these requirements, indicating
that the quality of black catechu
currently produced and marketed in
Thailand is not consistent for medicinal
purposes.
Production Costs (per extraction):
a) 45 kg of chips
(a half wood of
6080 cm in girth):
US$0.70
b) Transportation cost
of the wood mentioned
US$0.40
above:
c) Fuel for extraction:
US$1.22
d) Water for extraction
US$0.40
(10 Baht/2(X) 1):
e) the depreciation of
equipment and other
incidentals:
US$0.08
Total
US$2.80
Returns: About 6 kg of crude cutch
is extracted at one time. Since the
selling price of crude cutch is US$0.80
per kg, the total sale from one extraction
is: US$4.80
Net Returns: The net returns for
Determiningthe ThresholdAge for
Extraction
Before embarking on largescale
each extraction are, therefore, US$4.80 -
exploitation of A. catechu for katha,
Laboratory Studies on Processing
Table 3. Quality of crude cutch (black catechu) in Thailand.
Ash
(%)
Insoluble
in alcohol
Insoluble
in water
Catechol
tannin
Lampang factory 6.49
3.02
20.99
14.82
21.50
Standard
<3**
<6*
<40*
<25*
:30**
>20**
Sample origin
Loss in
(rying (%)
<12*
*The Pharmacopo~eia of India; **Yunnan Provincial Standardization of Pharmaceutical Products
160
crude cutch, and cutch, availability of
raw materials must be assured for at least
25 years. Investigations need to
establish the minimum age or girth class
of the tree for economical returns, and to
identify which parts of the tree can be
used in the extraction of the three
products
The results show that the portion of
total extractives obtained from differentaged trees is more or less the same (8.48.6% yield for one extraction).
Extractive yield therefore varies directly
with wood volume. The older the tree,
the higher the yield per unit area of
land. Tenyearold trees are not suitable
for extraction due to their low
percentage of heartwood and the
difficulty in peeling the bark to obtain it.
Trees selected for extraction should be
older than 10 years old. Selection of
trees would also depend on the
manufacturing costs determined in a
pilotplant operation.
Selecting Trees for Extraction
To ascertain the quantity of
heartwood and its katha and cutch
contents for trees of different age and
girth classes, A. catechu trees of three
classes (five trees each of 10, 15, and 20
years old) selected at random from the
RFD plantation in Pangasoke District,
Nakhon Ratchasima province. The total
extractives of each tree were determined.
Chips of each tree (50 g) were extracted
in boiling water (chips:water ratio of
1:2.5) for 2.5 hours and filtered while
hot into a volumetric flask. After it had
cooled to room temperature, water was
added up to 250 ml. Then 20 ml of the
solution was pipetted into a porcelain
dish and evaporated on a water bath. It
was heated in an airoven at 1100 C until
the weight became constant. After that
its yield was calculated (Table 4).
Determining the Optimum Conditions
for Extraction
Laboratory experiments set out to
determine the optimum conditions of
product extraction, in terms of:
•
concentration of the extract
*
crystallization, filtration and
drying of katha
°
preparation of cutch from the
filtrate
Table 4. Wood and extractive levels for differentaged trees.
Age
Average Number Wood volume
girth
of trees per tree
(cm)
/ha*
(cm 3)
10
15
20
47
66
82
481
219
119**
41,34-1
109,093
246,252
Wood volume
per rai
(M3 )
Heaiwood
(%)
3.18
3.82
4.75
27.1
36.1
41.0
Percentage of
total extractives
(one extraction)
8.4
8.6
*Survival of trees planted at 4 x 4 m spacing; **Thinned at 10 years; ***Insufficient for extraction
161
Toward this end, the experiments set out
to standardize the parameters for:
1.
2.
3.
4.
water level was marked on the beaker,
and the amount lost by evaporation was
compensated for by frequent additions
of boiling water to keep the water level at
150 ml. While still hot, it was filtered
into a volumetric flask of 250 ml
capacity and cooled to room
temperature. It was once again carefully
filled with water to the same mark, and
shaken well to obtain uniform
concentiatioi,. Next, 20 ml of the
solution was pipetted into a porcelain
dish of known weight. The water in the
dish was evaporated completely by
heating on a water bath. Then it was
heated to a constant weight in an air
oven maintained at 110' C and the
weight of the dish with the contents was
recorded (Table 5).
Size of chips
Chips to water ratio
Extraction time
Number of extractions from the
same batch of chips
Equipment Used
1. Wood chipper
2. Vacuum evaporator
3. Vacuum oven
4. Vacuum
5. Oven
6. Refrigerator
7. Electronic balance
8. Spray dryer
9. Hot plate and gas burner
10. Hydrometer (sp. 1.01.2)
11. Beaker
12. Stainless steel extraction pot
(capacity 10 1)
13. Porcelain basin
14. Funnel and buchner funnel
15. Cotton and filter paper
16. Flask and volumetric flask and
pipette
Table 5. Variation of yield by thickness of
chips (8090C for 2 hours).
Size of Chips
Extraction is more efficient with
thinner chips because of greater water
penetration, but very thin shavings
occupy more volume in the extractor
than an equal weight of thicker chips.
The experiment aiming to identify the
best compromise thus involved
determining the total solids obtainable
using a known quantity of water.
Chips of different thicknesses (0.42,
0.48, 0.61, 0.80, 1.01, 1.05, 1.58, 1.84,
and 2.19 cm), but of the same length
(1.0 cm) and width (1.0 cm), were boiled
in 150 ml of water for 2 hours. The
Thickness
Tine
(cm)
Yield
i
(%)
0.42
0.48
0.61
0.80
1.01
1.05
1.58
1.84
2.19
5.35
5.45
5.27
4.48
4.36
4.28
3.82
3.44
3.64
In this experiment, total solid present
in the extract = (W 2 W 0 x 250/20, where
W = weight of the empty dish, and W =
weight of the dish with residue after
evaporation.
The percentage of the extractive that
can be obtained under the conditions of
162
the experiment is calculated by the
Table 6. Variation of yield by chips/water
formula:
ratio (8090"C for 2 hours).
%of extract = (W2W) x 250/20 x 100/W
Chips:water
(wlv)
Yield
M%
1:1
3.82
Chips to Water Ratio
1:1.5
1:2
3.97
4.61
The greater the quantity of water
used, the more materi2 is extracted from
the chips. However, Iie bulk of the
extract obtained hac to be ultimately
concentrated into d solution of the
1:2.5
1:3
1:3.5
1:4
1:5
4.98
5.02
5.33
5.14
5.40
where W = the weight of the moisture
free chips, used for the extraction.
optimum specijc gravity required for
the crystalliation of katha. This would
mean wastage of time and energy. The
extract normally comes to two to three
times the weight of the chips taken for
extraction.
This experiment aimed to determine
the highest percentage of extractives
obtainable from chips using different
chips to water ratios. Since extraction
can be carried out using just enough
water to immerse the chips, a larger
chips:water ratio would be justified only
if this experiment identified a significant
increase in the extractive yield,
Extraction was carried out with a known
quantity of chips (50 g) of the optimum
thickness (0.5 cm, determined by the
previous experiment). These were
boiled in vater for 2 hours using
chips:water ratios of 1: 1, 1:1.5, 1:2,
1:2.5, 1:3, 1:3.5, 1:4, 1:5, and 1:6. The
water level was marked and the water lost
due to evaporation was compensated by
frequent additions of boiling water to
keep the water at the original level,
After two hours, it was filtered while still
hot into a suitable volumetric flask and
the total solid present in the filtrate was
estimated (able 6).
Extraction Time
With a longer extraction time,more
katha and cutch is extracted from the
chips. At first, the extraction rate is high,
but as time passes the rate decreases to a
point at which further extraction is
uneconomical. The optimum length of
time for extraction was determinedby
immersing a known quantity (50 g) of
chips of optimum size (0.5 cm) in a
beaker with iust enough water to cover
the chips. The water level was marked,
and it was heated to boiling. As in the
earlier experiments, the water lost by
evaporation was compensated f)r by
frequent addition of boiling water. After
varying extraction times (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3,
3.5, 4, and 5 hours), the substance was
filtered into a suitable volumetric flask
and the total solid present in the filtrate
estimated as before. The results were
plotted on a graph. Optimum extraction
time was considered to be reached when
the increase in extractive yield is
insignificant compared to the time of
extraction (Table 7).
163
imm.',se the chips. The water level was
maintained as in earlier experiments, and
the extraction was continued for the
predetermined optimum time.
filtered
wastotal
Afterward,
solidinto a
and the
flaskextract
volumetric the
present in the extract was determined as
before.
The chips were then transferred back
into the beaker, fresh water was added to
immerse the chips, and extraction was
repeated and filtrate determined for
seven extractions. After the seventh
extraction the yield seemed insignificant
(Table 8).
Table 7. Variation of yield by extraction
time (8090C).
Time
(hours)
Yield
(%)
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
5
3.67
4.77
5.10
5.79
5.18
5.72
6.33
6.29
Table 8. Variation of yield by times of
extraction (8090"C for 2.5 hours).
Number of Extractions
per Batch of Chips
Extraction No.
Next, the research aimed to establish
h:w many extractions could efficiently
be made from the same batch of chips.
The quantity of extractive increases with
the volume of water used for the
extraction, but more total extractive can
be obtained from repeated extractions
with a smaller volume of water than from
a single extraction with the amount of
Yield (%)
Fifth
5.49
2.72
1.51
0.96
0.70
Sixth
Seventh
0.56
0.40
First
Second
Third
water equal to the total v,.,s' used for
the repeated extractions. In other words,
extracting 100 g of chips three times
(200 ml of water each time) yielded
more extractive than a single extraction
with 600 ml of water. The yield was
greatest from the first extraction and
decreased with each subsequent
extraction. After a few extractions, the
yield becomes uneconomical. The
optimum number of extractions from a
batch of chips was determined
experimentally as follows.
A known quantity (50 g) of chips of
optimum size (0.5 cm) was placed in a
beaker filled with just enough water to
From these experiments, the
optimum conditions for extraction
appear to be:
1.
2.
3.
4.
164
0.420.61 mm
Chip thickness
1:2.5
Chips:water ratio
2.5 hours
Extraction time
Number of extractions 2
Determining Yields of Katha and Cutch
Experiment I
Extractions were conducted by
immersing batches of 1.5 kg of chips in
3.0 1of boiling water three times, two
hours each time. The combined extract
was concentrated in a rotary flask
evaporator to a specific gravity of 1.07.
It was cooled to room temperature and
then kept at OoC overnight in a
refrigerator. The katha, which had
crystallized as a light brown solid, was
filtered using a buchner funnel and
washed with icecold water to remove the
adhering cutch extract. As much as
possible, water was removed from the
cake of katha on the buchner funnel by
suction and by pressing the cake
between sheets of filter paper under a
screw press. It was dried at 40oC in a
vacuum oven. '.The color of the katha
(yield 3.6%) was as good as that of the
sample from the factory in India.
The filtrate obtained was used to
prepare cutch. In the first experiment,
the filtrate was evaporated from a china
dish heated on a boiling water bath to a
highly viscous solution which solidified
on cooling. The solid obtained was
powdered in a grinder. In another
experiment, the filtrate was concentrated
to 30% and spraydried using the Spray
Dryer of the Department of Chemical
Technology, Faculty of Sciences,
Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok.
The cutch yield was 8.5% based on the
weight of heartwood taken.
Experiment 2
The 1,000 g of chips (optimum size
0.5 cm) obtained from a 30yearold
tree in the experiment station in Nakhon
Ratchasima were placed in just enough
boiling water to immerse them for about
2 hours. The extract was filtered three
165
times, combined, and concentrated to a
specific gravity of 1.07 using a rotary
evaporator. The concentrated extract
was transferred to a beaker or conical
flask and cooled to room temperature
first, then refrigerated overnight. As
before, any katha that had crystallized
was and washed three times to remove
any adhering cutch solution. After
being dried by suction for a time, it was
kept at room temperature under shade
until it became nonsticky, and then it
was moved in a vacuum oven at 40oC.
After the weight of the dry katha had
become constant, its yield based on
weight of wood used for extraction was
calculated on a waterbath until it was
semisolid and then cooled to room
temperature. The yield was 3.6% katha
and 8.5% cutch.
Determining Properties
of Katha and Cutch
The 2,000 g of chips obtained from
a 20yearold tree were placed for about
2.5 hours in enough boiling water to
immerse the chips. The extract was
filtered and the chips were boiled once
more in fresh water and then lifted out.
The second filtrate was used to
extract the fresh chips (2,00() g). They
were extracted once more. Afterwards
the extracts were combined and
concentrated to a specific gravity of 1.04
using a rotary evaporator, transferred
into a flask and cooled to room
temperaiure. The katha crystallized in a
refrigerator overnight. Next, the katha
was filtered using a buchner funnel and
washed with cold water until the solution
was clear, and dried in shade.
The filtrate containing cutch
obtained after filtering the katha was
dried using a waterbath until it was a
semisolid. It was cooled to room
the tree, smaller trees yielded more or
less the same percentage of extracts as
larger trees. That is to say, the yield
from a 30yearold tre:
,sabout
12.1% (3.6% katha + 8.5% cutch) and
that from a 20yearold tree was about
11.8% (3.3% katha + 8.5% cutch).
Trees younger than 10 years old are
unusable, for the reasons mentioned
earlier.
After the experiment, katha samples
were sent to the Ganesh Katha Factory in
Haldwani, India for an assessment of the
product's quality and price. The factory
classified the katha quality as fairly
good, and offered US$12.60/kg for it
(compared to $15.2015.60 obtained for
highest quality). This confirms that
further processing of the crude cutch to
produce katha and cutch can
significantly increase the value of the
catechu tree in Thailand.
Factoryscale manufacturing costs of
katha in Thailand may differ from those
in India due to different production cost
factors. These can be assessed only
through a pilot plant operation, which
could determine the most suitable size
and age of catechu trees for factoryscale operations. (Such a pilot project
should consider trees over 15 years old
at the beginning.)
In view of the catechu tree's abilities
to grow well in most soil types, coppice
well from a mature stump, and provide
various uses from all parts at both a
cottageindustry scale and (presumably)
at an industrial scale, government
agencies should provide technical
guidance in utilization and marketing
assistance. This would serve to
encourage A. catechu planting
throughout Thailand.
temperature and weighed. This
experiment yielded 3.3% katha and
8.5% cutch. Both samples were
analyzed according to the Indian
Standard specifications: IS:29621964
(method of sampling and test for katha),
IS:39671967 (for cutch), and IS:4369
1967 (for katha). From Table 9 it is
evident that the catechin content, which
is the main criterion fr grading katha
quality, was as high as 54.42% in the
katha sample. Tannin content of the
cutch is 63.36% and can be used for
tanning leather.
Table 9. Properties of katha and cutch.
Characteristic
Katha
Loss orn drying
Catechin content
Matter insoluble in rectified spirit
Insolubes in boiling water
Waterinsoluble solid at
room temp. (330C)
Total ash
Acidinsoluble ash
Cutch
Tannins
Nontannins
Moisture content
Total solubles
Percentage
by weight
11.21
54.42
3.05
0.34
52.66
0.23
0.01
63.36
27.42
8.20
90.78
Summary
Although the percentage of A.
catechu heartwood varies with the size of
166
Recommendations
To optimize the value of catechu
trees in Thailand, two programs should:
• aim to improve the existing, small
scale local cottage industry, and
" develop a largerscale cutch
industry.
Largescale hidustry
Goodquality catechu products
large potential export markets in thehave
countries of South Asia. Before
establishing a largescale katha and
cutch industry, however, it is essential to
study the demand, market trends, and the
resource situation. These studies might
include the following strategy:
I. Assess the type and amount of
raw materials needed
Smallscale Cottage Industry
The indigenous method of cutch
extraction should be promoted by:
2. Assess the demands and trends of
catechu products in the
international market
I. Encouraging rural communities
where the raw materials are
available to extract crude cutch,
thus contributing to their
economy through employment
and sales of products,
3. Study utilization of cutch in the
manufacture of tannins, including
(a) cutch blending with other
tannin materials, (b) cutch
refining with oxalic acid, sodium
metabisulphite, sodium
hydrosulphide, and a mixture of
sodium metabisulphite and
sodium hydrosulphide
2. Improving the indigenous
method in terms of productivity
and quality by introducing
suitable equipment and skills
3. Encouraging rural communities
to plant catechu trees for the
cottage industry and (once
industrialscale production is
shown to be feasible) as raw
material for a largerscale
industry
4. Study the potential use of crude
catechin presently imported. Its
use as coloring and flavoring
agent in food and alcoholic
beverages has great potential.
5. Investigate the costbenefit of
production and decide the
operational parameters for
factoryscale production of all
products
4. Encouraging villagers to form
cooperatives to help them obtain
better prices with local traders in
the katha and cutch industry, and
even deal directly with exporters
6. Standardize the optimum
conditions for industrialscale
extraction of katha, cutch, and
crude catechin
In addition to benefitting local
economies, such a program might gain
for Thailand as a nation substantial
foreign exchange from the export of
products.
167
7. Investigate possible collaboration
by government and private
agencies and industries
A: A variety of sites in different regions,
with soils ranging to bare rock and
rainfall to low.
Studies 14 have been partially
conducted by this project, but more
detailed work remains, and should be
completed by RFD. Along with the
results (including the investigation of
#7), RFD will prepare a clear proposal
for pilot plant studies.
B.S. Nadagoudar, from India, confirmed
that katha is widely consumed in India,
traditionally eaten after lunch and
dinner, especially on feast days, at an
estimated 10 g per day per persona
huge national demand. It is also used to
help quit smoking.
Q: What is done with the chips left over
after extraction? In Khon Kaen, perhaps
they could be used in the MDF
manufacturing plant.
Acknowledgment
Our work could not have been
completed without the supervision,
advice, and encouragement of these
persons: Dr. H. Tsutui, former Deputy
Regional Representative, Dr. Y.S. Rao,
former Regional Forestry Officer, and
Mr. M. Kashio, Regional Forest
Resources Officer of the FAO Regional
Office for Asia and the Pacific
(FAO/RAPA). I)r. K.S. Ayyar, Scientist
SE, Chemistry of Forest Products
Branch, Forest Research Institute, Debra
Dun, India provided essential technical
input as a consultant of the project
"Chemical Processing and Utilization of
Acacia catechu (TCPTHA/6769)". We
express our gratitude to these people and
to FAO for its financial support of this
work.
A: They are usually burned as mosquito
repellent. Generally little is left over.
Q: The cost and return figures are per
extraction. How long does one
extraction take in the cottage industry?
A: Three exuactions can be done every
two days by two persons.
Q: Do these results differ with similar
studies in India, for example in terms of
tree age?
A: Yes, they differ both for the cottage
industry and for yields per tree.
Wanida Subansenee, Pannee
Denrungruang, Nuchanart
Nilkamhaeng, and Prachoen
Sroithongkham work with the NonWood
Forest ProductsResearch SubDivision,
Forest Products Research Division,
Royal Forest Department, Phaholyothin
Road, Bangkok 10900, Thailand.
Discussion Notes
Q: Katha is also produced in Nepal, with
65% smuggled into India. What kind of
site does A. catechu grow on in
Thailand?
168
References
Beri, R.M. and N.P. Dobhal. 1982. Storage
studies on katha. Indian Forester
108(5):369373.
Dechatiwongse, T. and Y. Jewvachdamrongkul.
1986. Quality determination of catechus.
Bull. Dept. Med. Sci. 28(1):7991.
Dobhal, N.P. and R.M. Beri. 1981. A note on
the katha content of Acacia catechu Willd.
growing in thick and open forests. Indian
Forester 107(4):252254.
Indian Standard Institution. 1964. Indian
standard methods of sampling and test for
katha IS:29621964. Manak Bhavan, New
Delhi, India: ISI.
. 1967. Indian standard
specification for cutch IS:39671967.
Manak Bhavan, New Delhi, India: ISI.
_ 1967.
Indian standard
specification for katha 1S:43591967.
Manak Bhavan, New Delhi, India: ISI.
_ 1969.
Indian standard
methods of test for vegetable tanning
materials IS:54661969. Manak Bhavan,
New Delhi, India: ISI.
Nierenstein, M. 1930. The catechins of the
cutchproducing acacias. J. Indian Chem.
Soc. 7:27985.
Subansenee, W., P. Denrungruang, N.
Nilkamhaeng, and P. Sroithongkham. 1992.
Chemical processing and utilization of
Acacia catechu Willd. RAPA Publication
1992/19. Bangkok: FAORAPA.
169
Acacias in Industrial Development: Experience in Sumatra
C.Y. Wong
Operations on Sumatra
Sites
P.T. Indah Kiat Pulp and Paper
(IKPP) Corporation's sister companies
manage some of the largest pulpwood
plantations of Acacia mangium in
Indonesia, located in the lowland Riau
province (0"40' N, 101"36' E), Central
Sumatra. A total area of 143,000 ha of
plantation, managed over seven years or
less, will be developed to meet the
pulpwood demand of the company's
mill. The present pulp mill uses mixed
tropical hardwoods to produce 300,000
airdried tons of pulp per year. Annual
production will rise steeply to 863,0000
airdried tons per year in 1994. The
mill also manufactures quality printing
and writing paper, with an annual
capacity of 344,000 tons per year.
Sites on which IKPP plantations are
established vary considerably among
three main types: recently clearfelled
rain forest, degraded Imperata cylindrica
grassland, and drained peat swamps.
The topographical variation of the area
ranges from moderately undulating
through terraces to tidal swamp. Flat
sites with slope less than 3% often
require drainage for plantation
establishment, as the water table tends to
be high even during drier periods.
Elevation in these areas is 2102 m
above sea level. Soil texture ranges from
sandyloam to sandyclay. Soil pH is
generally low (4.05.2), particularly in
the drained peat swamp, where it is 3.5.
Rooting depth is adequate (50 cm or
more).
Climate
Plantation Development
The climate in these lowland areas is
typically warm and wet, with a mean
monthly minimum temperature of 22'C
and a maximum of 32"C. The mean
annual rainfall is 2,044 mm with 101
rain days. The wettest periods occur
between September and )ecember (due
to northeasterly tradewinds) and again in
AprilMay (due to southwesterly trade
winds). The wettest month is October,
with an average of 294 mm rainfall and
12.1 rain days. There is no distinct dry
season, although June is usually the
driest month, with an average 99 mm
rainfall and 5.9 rain days.
Pilot trial plantation at IKIP
commenced in 1983 with Acacia
mangium, A. auriculiformis, A.
crassicarpa, Leucaena leucocephala,
Eucalyptus alba, E. camaldulensis, E.
deglupta, E. pellita, E. tereticornis,E.
grandis, E. urophylla, and
Paraserianthesfalcalaria. By l)ecember
1992, a total of 56,096 ha pulp
plantations had been established. IKPP
has established 49% of its plantations
(27,409 ha) on loggedover rain forest
sites that were replanted for the mill.
The other 51% (28,688 ha) are planted
on scrublard and former shifting
170
cultivation areas. Most c these
plantations were established in the past
four years. The species breakdown and
annual planting area appear in Figure 1.
Top priority species for plantation
establishment are A. mangium, A.
crassicarpa,E. pellita,and Gmelina
arborea. The current annual planting
target is 25,000 ha to meet iie planned
expansion of the mill. The first acacia
plantings are now mature and have been
harvested since late i992.
capable of producing 2427 million
plants per year. An intermittent mist
system was installed in the nursery for
producing both acacia seedlings and
cuttings. The tubes are placed in trays
on raised steel production lines. The
ridges in the tube encourage the main
roots to grow downward; roots are airpruned at the base of the tube to avoid
root coiling.
Establishment Practices
Seed Sources
Most of IKPP's older A. mangium
stands are of Queensland provenances
(Cassowary, Jullaten, and Mossman) and
Indonesian provenances (Piru, Ceram;
SangaSanga, East Kalimantan; Sidei,
Irian Jaya; ex sit Subanjeriji, South
Sumatra). Seed collected from the F,
and subsequent generations in
Subanjeriji are also used for plantations.
The growth is variable. There are many
spontaneous hybrids of A. mangium and
A. auriculiformisin these older
plantations.
Since 1989, good genetic quality
seed from Papua New Guinea (PNG),
Queensland Cape York, certain other
Queensland provenances, Irian Jaya, and
Sabah Softwoods seed stands and
seedling seed orchards have been used
for plantation establishment. Both PNG
and Queensland A. crassicarpa
provenances have been tested in the
IKPP plantations,
Nursery Techniques
A centralized nursery using 50cm 3
plastic roottrainer tubes was constructed
to replace the polybag system. It is
171
It is IKPP policy to keep 20% of its
total forest concession as natural forest
reserve (Wong 1992). The policy is to
leave a 50200 m band on either side of
the major river systems or ravines to
preserve water quality, reduce siltation.
and maintain the environment. In the
drained peat swamp, the proposed plan is
to isolate 400600 ha of plantation with
50 to 100mwide strips of rain forest.
Trees on designated planting areas
are felled manually, although some
mechanical logging is practiced on
flatter terrain. A good burn is essential
to kill weed seed and remaining
competing vegetation and thus reduce
the need to weed later. Burning also
improves access for followup
operations.
On flat or rolling terrain, mechanical
cultivation using a Vshaped blade
attached to a bulldozer is carried out,
mainly on Imperata grassland and open
scrub land. This operation improves
access for planting, reduces weed growth,
and stimulates tree growth. On
compacted soils of logging tracks, log
dumps, and temporary campsites, the soil
is ripped, mounded, and fertilized using
bulldozers. Veeblading and ripping are
carried out on the contour to reduce
erosion and encourage water infiltration.
Plantation area (ha.) (Thousands)
20
15
10
50~
83/84 84/85 85/86 86/87 87/88 88/89 89/90 90/9! 91/92
92
Planting year
1993
A. mongiurn
A. crassicorpo
E. uroohyllo
E. Deito
A. ouriculiformis
Ll
Eucalyatus sp.+other
Dec..1992
Figure 1. Planting area of PT Indah Kiat Pulp and Paper Corporation, 19831992.
,.cacias are planted at 2.5 m inrow
spacing and 3 m between rows, giving a
stocdng density of 1,333 trees per ha.
On undulating slopes, trees are planted
along the contour.
Quality Control and Manpower
Development
Weeding and Tending
All trees are kept weedfree within
the planting circle in the first 12 months.
In the exrain forest dryland site, one
round of circle weeding (by uprooting
and circle spraying) is carried out during
the first 6 months. Two to three rounds
of interrow hand weedings are carried
out in the first 18 months. Noxious
weeds are also spotsprayed with Roundup. Weedier sites such as crub land and
peaty areas require an additional blanket
spray. l)ischarrow weeding between the
planting rows, followed by hand weeding
within the row, is also practiced on flatter
sites previously veebladed. Except on
former rain forest sites, all planting sites
are fertilized with phosphate
Acacia trees often produce several
stems, especially on a productive site.
IKPP's current practice is to single to
one leader at 46 months of age. The
aim of singling is to increase the piece
size at harvest. Larger individual trees
reduce logging waste and overall
harvesting and logging costs. Early
singling is cheaper and the wound heals
faster,
A nothinning regime is used on all
pulpwood plantations. The planned
rotation length is seven years on exrain
forest sites and 810 years on scrub land
and former shilling cultivation sites.
173
To maintain an efficient and highyielding forest plantation, IKPP has
engaged a qualitycontrol team to check
each field operation. A computerized
program has also been installed for
scheduling and costing each operation.
Regular meetings and inhouse training
programs for field staff provide skills in
aspects of forest plantation management.
Overseas training for senior staff
strengthen their expertise in this area.
Species Performance
Acacia mangium
Growth and Properties
A. mangium has adapted and grown
well on a large scale in IKPP pulpwood
plantations. It is the least sitedemanding species. However, its poor
stem form and multiple stems warrant
intensive selection and breeding. Multistemmed A. mangium is largely due to
site quality, preparation, and manuring
policy rather than genetic control. In a
replicated provenance trial, A. mangium
is grown on exrainforest dryland (5,142
stems per ha) and open scrub land
(1,198 stems per ha). The trees on the
open scrub land are mostly singlestemmed. Both trial siies were
mechanically raked, mounded, and
manured beft: establishment. There
was no significant difference between
provenances for number of stems per
tree at 6 months of age.
For A. mangium at IKPP's
plantation, measurement of permanent
sample plots indicates a mean annual
increment (MAI) of 1045 m 3 overbark
volume. MAI volume peaks early at 34
wide range of soil and pH conditions in
Sumatra. On exrain forest wetlands
where the soil is sandyloam, the species
also shows superior growth compaied to
A. mangium and eucalyptus species. In
peaty sites with soil pH of 3.3, it has
outgrown A. mangium and E. pellita.
The provenance from Mata, PNG can
also tolerate alkaline soils; the Coen
provenance from Queensland does less
well in West Timor (McKinnell and
Setijono 1991). A. crassicarpafrom
PNG has shown significantly better and
DBH than Queensland provenances.
Its basic density is 638 kg/m 3 (Clark
et al. 1991). At Kappa number of 20.5,
pulp yield and alkali requirements of
15monthold plantationgrown A.
crassicarpaare 45.4 and 16%,
respectively. For A. crassicarpaof
unknown age growing in natural forest
near Kuranda, Queensland, Australia,
Clark et al. (1991) reported a screened
pulp yield of 47.2% at Kappa number
20.3.
years, depending on stocking level. In
Sabah, where the species is planted on
marginal sites, MAI for underbark
volume is 1527 M3 . In dominant
height, the species has an MAI of 2.6
3.3 m and in DBH, 23 cm over eight
years.
Basic density of A. mangium is 420
kg/m 3 . Plantationgrown trees have
excellent pulping qualities, good
bleachability, and high yield. At Kappa
number ot 21, the screened pulp yield
and alkali requirements of 9yearold A.
mangiuw. are 52.3% and 14%,
respectively (Logan and Balodis 1982).
The species' opacity is exceptionally
high.
Diseases
Heart rot is common in A. mangium,
even in stands where singling is not
carried out. In !evenyearold stands,
the portion of damaged trees ranges
from 2156%. except for one stand
where 81% of the trees were affected. In
terms of volume losses per tree, damage
is negligible (0.73%) in the
Compensatory Forestry Plantation
Project in Peninsular Malaysia (Thang
1992).
Spodoptera sp. and Euproclis sp.
often defoliate 2 to 12monthold A.
mangium stands. Fortunately, the
damage occurs in isolated stands and
trees recover quickly. Seedlings are also
susceptible to a charcoal root disease
caused by Macroph.9mina sp. (Ahmad
1985). In isoi,1,ted stands of plantations
three years old or older, a brown root
disease caused by Pliellinus noxius is
alse found.
Pests
Ambrosia beetle (Platypus sp.) is
found on 17monthold A. crassicarpa,
although initial incidence of damage is
minimal.
A. auriculifornis
Growth and Properties
This species shows tremendous
variation in tree vigor and stem form
among provenances, with 1PNG and
Queensland provenances substantially
taller than seedlots from the Northern
Territory and Thailand (Harwood et al.
1991). Anriong PNG provenances, there
is a strong positive correlation between
DBH and bole length. Northern
Territory provenances also show more
multiple stems than Queensland and
A. crassicarpa
Growth and Properties
A. crassicarpahas adapted well to a
174
PNG provenances. Although A.
auriculiformisshows slower growth than
A. mangium, it has some desirable
characteristics that could be used to
produce F t hybrids with A. mangium
and A. crassicarpa.
A. auriculifornishas a basic density
of 497 kg/m 3 (Logan and Balodis 1982).
At Kappa number of 19.9, pulp yield
was 55.0% and alkaii requirements were
13% for sevenyearold trees (Logan
and Balodis 1982).
Diseases
A gall rust diseases has been found
on A. auricidiformisleaves in the nursery
and in plantation, but the damage is not
economically important at this stage.
is too slow to warrant serious research at
this stage. Its basic density is 580 kg/m3,
and its screened pulp yield at Kappa
number of 20.6 is 53.1% for 10yearold trees growing in native forest near
Kuranda (Clark et al. 1991).
Wind Damage
Although wind damage to acacias is
generally minimal, A. mangium trees are
occasionally snapped off or even
uprooted. A. crassicarpabranches are
more friable and susceptible to wind
damage, as are many heavilyforked
A.aulacocarpa trees.
Research and Development
A. aulacocarpa
Growth and Properties
This species also shows high
provenance variation in growth, Iree
form, and leaf shape, which ranges from
oval to lanceolate. In Sumatra, PNG
provenances outgrow thos from
Queensland and the Northern Territory.
The bleached kraft pulp from A.
Since 1990, IKPP has conducted
fbrestry research, including a
comprehensive series of replicated
provenance trials, progeny trials, and
clonal tests. Table I summarizes the
acacias and number of provenances/
families/clones included in these trials.
Seed stands and seedling seed
orchards have been established to service
acacias, followed by A. crassicarpaand
A. cincinata.. Its basic density is 598
kg/m 3 . At Kappa number of 19.3, the
screened pulp yield is 55.4% for a 12
crassicarpa,and A. attriculiformis base
subpopulations began in 1989 as the
basis for selection of phenotypically
superior plus trees for the first
atulacocarpa is the strongest of the
plantation development. A. mangium, A.
yearold A. aulacocarpta growing in its
generation breeding subpopulation.
native forest near Kuranda (Clark et al.
1991). Despite its good pulping
characteristics, however, the future
potential of this species ar IKPP is
uncertain.
With recent advances in vegetative
propagation of A. mangiumr, A.
auriculiformis, and their hybrid by
cuttings (Wong et al. 1991; Haines et al.
1991), IKII is embarking on an
ambitious breeding program for
selection and cloning of acacias with
desirable growth, tree form, and wood
properties. So far, sonic 4,5(X) ha of
cuttings derived from naturalseed stand
A. cincinnala
Growth and Properties
Although this species shows good
slem form and fine branches, its growth
175
Table 1. Summary of provenance trials, progeny trials, and clonal tests in IPT. lndah Kiat
plantatio: companies, 199093.
Number of
families
Number of
provenances
Species
Acacia inangium
A.crassicarpa
A. auriculiformis
A.audacocarlxa
A. cincinnata
Spontaneous hybrids of
A. nuingiun and A. auriculiforinis
236
121
84
295
43
14
16
18
5
Number of
clones
183
42
121
0
•
seeds of superior provenances have been
established. The aim is to produce A.
mangium trees with MAI volume of 4(0
m 3/ha on better sites and 25 m3/ha on
marginal sites in the first generation of
breeding work, for maximum
pulp/ha/year per cost on a sustainable
basis. Work has begun in both selection
of phenotypically superior plus trees in
the base population and controlled
pollination,
*
0
pest and disease control
harvesting
transport systems
utilization research (particularly
wood and paper properties)
Additional seed collections in Lake
Murray in PNG and Muting in Irian Jaya
are warranted to ensure a continuous
improvement in productivity and wood
quality. A symposium to bring together
latest information on ';pc.ies and
provenances would he useful, with
recommendations forwarded to various
international organizations for funding
consideration.
Conclusion
Although acacias have grown well at
the commercial scale compared to
eucalypts and other genera, there
remains a need for continued research
and development in:
Discussion Notes
Q: What is the economic return of
plantations on Imperata grasslands
compared to that of former rain forest
sites'?
tree improvement (particularly
the breeding systems of tropical
acacias)
silviculture
nutritional studies (including the
use of acacias on Imperata
grasslands as soil conditioners
for moredemanding trees
species, such as dipterocarps)
A: Plantations on former grasslands
have much lower productivityI(2()
m3 MAIand require more intensive
weeding and fertilization to establish.
For IKPP, however, land area for
176
plantation is scarce, and so the former
grasslands are used.
Q: Regarding work wlti the A.
mangium x A. auriculiformis hybrid: (a)
what is :, performance in Sumatra, and
(b) what other research is planned?
A: 'he hybrid is very straight and at six
m, "ts shows improved performance
over its parents. ).s mentioned above,
121 clones have been selected ,or
further rcsearch and improvement,
Q: Of the five species grown in Sumatra,
what are the relative proportions in
planting?
A: A. mang,um makes up about 70
80% of !he plantations, with A.
crassicarpaafter that, and Eucalyptus
pellita forming about 5%.
Comment: It would be good to know if
discharrowing damages the root system
in any way.
Q: Is there any difference in wood
density between trees raise;: , n fori. '.
Imperata grassland and those grown on
former forest sites? Any added risk of
fire?
A: Diierences in wood density have not
yet been investigated, as the trees on
grassland sites are still young.
Regarding fire risk, no serious problems
have been experienced so far. The
drained peat swamp sites pose a potential
problem.
Q: Is A. mangitom's multistemmed
habit affected in cloning?
A: Clones are selected from trees with
superior form (as well as vigor and wood
quality), so the clones show the same
form as the stock material.
Q: You say that the Imperata sites are
unpioductive in the first rotaion, but
what about once the crown has closed?
Is it better?
Q: Are farmers in the area planting trees
as well?
A: Yes, but lack of topsoil on those sites
is also a constraint to growth, even after
crown closure,
A: The company encourages small
farmerrun plantations through
agreements by which the company
agrees to buy timber produced.
Q: What is the experience regarding
relative performance of cloned p1a:1s vs.
seedlings?
C.Y. Wong works with PT. Indah Kiat
Pulp and Paper Corporation,P.O. Box
1135, Pekanbaru, Sumatra, Indonesta.
A: Trials now at 12 months are
compaing cutting and seed!ing
performance. Both appear equally fond
Fr this stage. Cloning will play a major
role in the filure at IKPP.
Acknowledgment
Comment: Still, refinements, Fuch as
clu ijal position, need further work.
The i,,ihor wishes to thank Mr. T.G.
Widjaya, President Director of Indah
Kiat Pulp and Paper Corporation, for
permission to publish this paper.
177
References
Ahmad, Noran, 1985. Current potentially
Wong, C.Y. 1992. Current status of plantation
dangerous diseases of plantation trees and
silviculture and management at PT. Indah Kiat
ornamental trees in Malaysia. Paper presented
Pulp Wood Plantation. Paper presented at the
at the seminar on Forst Pests and Diseases in
workshop on Development of Fastgrowing
Southeast Asia. BIOTROP Special Publication
Plantations in Southeast Asia: Problems and
No. 26. Bogor, Indonesia: BIOIROP.
Strategies, May 11i6, 1992, Taipei. Taiwan
Ciark, N.B., V. Balodis, Guigan Fang and Wang
Forestry Research Institute.
Jingxia. 1991. Pulping properties of tropical Wong, C.Y. and R. ilaines. 1991. Multiplication
acacias. In Advances in Tropical Acacia
of families of Acacia nangium and Acacia
Research, ed. J.W. Turnbull; 138144. ACIAR
auriculifornisby cutting from young
Proceedings No. 35. Canberra: ACIAR.
seedlings. In Breeding Technologiesfor
Harwood, C.E., A.C. Matheson, N. Gororo and
TropicalAcacias, eds. L.T. Carron and K.M.
M.W. Gaines. 1991. Seed orchards of A.
Aken; 112114. ACIAR Proceedings No. 37.
auriculiforrnisat Melville Island. Northerr,
Canberra: ACIAF
Teritory, Australia. In Advances in Tropical
.AcaciaResearch, ed. J.W. Tumbull; Si91.
ACIAR Proceedings No. 35. Canberra:
ACIAR.
laines, R.. C.Y. Wong and E. Chia. 1991.
Prospects for the mass propagation of superior
selectionage phenotypes of Acacia
inangiumandAcacia auriculiformon. In
Breeding Technologies for I ropicalAcacias,
eds. L.T. Carron and K.M. Aken; 115118.
ACIAR Proceedings No. 37. Canberra:
ACIAR.
Logan, A.F. and V. Balodis. 1982. Pulping and
papermakioi characteristics of plantationgrown A. mangium from Sabah. Malaysia
Foreste45(2):217236.
McKinnell. F.I. and lari eetijono. 1991. Testing
Acacia species on alkaline soils in West Timor.
In Advances in TropicalAcacia Research, ed.
J.W. Turnbull; 183188. ACIAR Proceedings
No. 35. Canberra: ACIAR.
"harg. H.C. 1992. Management practices of
Acacia mangium plantations in Peninsular
,Malaysia. Paper presented at the international
sympasium on larvesting and Silviculture for
Sustainable Forestry in the Tropics, October 59, 1992, Kuala .,mpur, Malaysia.
178
Recent Developments in Acacia
Improvement at Sabah Softwoods
Edward Chia
The theme of this meeting correctly
addresses the wideranging uses of
Acacia species. Th.s paper refers to the
few acacias commonly grown in the
humid tropics: A. mangium, A.
auriculiformis,A. oulococarpa,A.
crassicarpa,and A. cincinntat.
One of the oustanding
characteristics of these species is their
almost unique ability to thrive well on
poor and degraded sites (Yap 1986).
Their versatile tolerance of poor sites
makes them suitable not only as
plantation species, but also for
socioeconomic and environment
conservation projects. In Sabah, social
forestry has been incorporated into the
reforestation progiams of both the
Sabah Forest l)evelopment Authority
(SAFODA)(Shim, pers. comm.) and
Sabah Forest Industries (SFI) (Sim, pers.
comm.; Nykvist 1993).
As a multipurpose genus, Acacia has
attracted great interest, especially by
industry. As a result of feasibility studies,
improvement work is proceeding to
enhance these species' performance and
productivity, especially for production
of chips, pulp and paper. According to
analyses by Clark c, al. (i991) and
Logan (1986), the acacias commonly
planlcd in the tropics are suitable for
pulp and paper production. However,
acaciasin particular A.
mangiumhave not become primary
sawlog species due to their fluty stems
and susceptibility to punky knot and
heart rot. In Sabah, punky knotnot
heart rotis the more serious problem.
179
Acacia Improvement Work
Conventionally, acacia planting
depends very much on the halfsib
family of open pollinated seeds, either
from seed stands or seed orchards.
Recently, with the increasing demands
for acacias as main industrial species,
planting efforts have emphasized
selected and improved material showing
superior growth. T,he primary aim is to
avoid inbred and contaminated material
from open pollination plots. There is
therefore a need to explore the
possibility of establishing clonal
plantation through vegetative
propagation in order to maintain the
quality of improved materials.
Vegetative Propagation
Cuttings
One way to propagate acacias
vegetatively is by cuttings. Experiments
with acacia cuttings by Sabah Softwoods
Sdn. B.d. (SSSB) started in the early
1980s, but not much progress was
achieved until the middle of the decade.
Aspects of cuttings studied included:
percentage of rooting, nodal position,
number of node3, leaf size, hormonal
preferences, number of roots per cutting.
The results showed that successful
rooting of cuttings involves the
following basic conditions:
*
Table 1. A. mangium rooting percentage at
21 days, for three replications.
physiologically juvenile cutting
material (from a young seedling)
or material rejuvenated from
coppices of mature trees
Node
No.
* one node per cutting
*
use of the third, fourth or fifth
node
"
leaf size reduced to onehalf or
onethird of its original size
"
application of rooting hormone
of Seradix 3 or IBA 2000
(0.2%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Replication Number
3
2
1
13.3
50.0
73.3
73.3
73.3
46.7
26.7
21.7
65.2
78.3
84.0
67.9
60.0
66.7
66.7
90.2
84.3
70.6
76.5
65.2
68.6
Average
33.9
68.5
78.6
76.0
72.6
57.3
54.0
However, there are some clonal
variations. Some clones are more
difficult to root than others. Before
using a clone for mass propagation,
therefore, one should first test its
capability to root.have assessed the
Experiments
multiplication rates of acacia cuttings
from generation to generation for
several generations. These experiments
studied the number of roots per cutting
and rooting percentage per generation,
with the aim of providing useful
information to forest plantations
regarding the number of cuttings needed
for the establishment of clonal
plantations.
The results indicated that, for A.
mangium, rooting percentage, root
number, and vigor all start to decline
after the sixth generation. A.
auriculiformis,however, can be sustained
through the eighth generation without
much decrease. The hybrid seems to
follow the trend of A. mangium.
Other cutting experiments
established recently include studies of
the field performance of A. rnangium
cuttings:
Under these conditions, rooting
success with A. mangium cuttings is, on
average, 7080% (assuming that the
cuttings are placed under the right
conditions in the mist propagation
chamber); for A. auriculiformis, the
percentage is even higher. Table 1 shows
the results of one looting experiment
studying nodal position using A.
mangium. In this experiment, cutting
material was obtained from A. mangium
coppices in the ficid and replicated three
times. Each coppice is capable of
producing a minimum of seven cuttings.
The conditions were as described above.
Assessment was carried out after 21
days.
In addition to A. mangium, rooting
experiments were also carried out on A.
auriculiformisand the hybrid of these
two species. A. auricuiformisshowed the
highest rooting percentage, achieving an
average of up to 90% success, followed
by the hybrid and A. mangium.
180
on good and poor sites
" from ortets of different height.;
* from various nodal positions
"
These experiments are aimed at
obtaining the best planting materials with
which to establish a clonal plantation in
the future.
tissuecultured material in observation
plots showed that deformation and
stunted growth can occur, for no known
reason. Therefore, further study on
tissueculturing techniques and the field
performance of planting materials
produced by this method is very much
needed.
Tissue Culture
The other technique for vegetative
propagation is the tissue culture method,
but this technique is still uncertain for
mass propagation of acacias for
commercial planting. Generally,
materials used in tissue culture are dther
sexual and asexual. Usually, the sexual
method is aimed to perfect the culturing
technique by using seeds as the
propagation material.
Asexual propagation of acacias is
carried out by using selected and
improved materials obtained from
coppices in the open field. The main
constraint experienced by SSSB with
asexual propagation is the problem of
contamination. This probably results
from imperfect sterilization. The
common contaminants found in the
tissuecultured samples are budding
yeast, filamentous yeast bacteria,
Penicillium sp., Nodulisporium sp., and
Aspergillus sp. The sterilization
technique needs to be improved,
With complications arising from
contaminants, production of tissue
cultured plantlels can be quite costly,
especially with coppice materials. A
good alternative might be to use the
cutting method to further propagate
valuable materials from tissue culture.
As mentioned earlier, the
performance of tissuecultured materials
in commercial forest plantations is still
unrefined. So far, the performance of
181
The Acacia Hybrid
The hybrid cross between A.
mangiurn and A. auriculiformis also
shows promising growth. Although
naturallycrossed acacia hybrids in
Sabah were first noted in the late 1970s
(FAO 1982), the hybrid did not receive
much study until the late 1980s, when
collaborative research began with the
Australian Council for International
Agricultural Research (ACIAR).
The acacia hybrid possesses a
number of attractive characteristics much
sought in tree improvement. Generally, it
has better growth, straight bole, less
persistent branching, and more
cylindrical stem (without prominent
flute) than its parents. A wood
utilitization study showed that the
average density of the hybrid is higher
than A. rniagiwm , but slightly lower
than A. auriculifornis (Laurila 1992).
The percentage of hybrid from an
openpollinated scedlot can be
determined by both isozyme
(Wickneswari and Norwati 1992) and
seedling morphoiogy identification
(Rufelds 1988). An observation plot was
established using materials supplied by
the Forest Research Institute Malaysia
(FRIM) under the ACIAR Project 8630.
Instead of discarding the seedlings at the
end of the study, they were planted out
for observation with two replications in
randomized complete block design
Table 2. Average heights (in)of one year old A. mangium, A. aurict4iformis, and hybrid
seedlings.
Rep
A
B
Average
A. mangium
3.95
3.66
3.81
A. auriculiformis
Hybrid (Aa)
5.38
5.33
5.36
3.33
3.25
3.29
Hybrid (Am)
4.93
5.55
5.24
(Aa) = A. auriculiformismother. (Am) = A. nangium mother. SD = 0.895
is a tedious and impractical exercise.
Therefore the most reliable means of
mass propagation for producing truetotype planting material is probably
vegetative propagation of cuttings, or
alternatively establishment of a biclonal
orchard.
(RCBD). Each replicate consisted of
four species treatments: A. mangium, A.
auriculiformis, Hybrid (Am), and Hybrid
(Aa). In each plot, there were 16
assessment trees.
Table 2 shows the results of the
observation plot in terms of average
height of oneyearold hybrid seedlings
compared with A. mangium and A.
auriculiformis. Obviously, the hybrid
trees at this early stage outperformed
both parents in terms of height growth.
Biclonal Orchards
In order to produce a sufficient
amount of naturally crossed hybrid
seeds for largescale planting, biclonal
orchards must be established, using
selected and improved A. mangium and
A. auriculiformisat isolated sites to avoid
contamination.
Recently, seeds lrori synchronously
flowering branches of both parents were
harvested from biclonal orchards.
Seeds harvested from each parent were
kept separate. To assess the hybrid
percentage, the seeds were sown in five
replications with 100 seeds each. Hybrid
seedlings were assessed using Rufelds'
method. Scedling morphological
identification revealed that when
hybridization occurred with A. mangium
as mother, seedlings would have the
mother's characteristics. The
preliminary results (Table 3)showed
great variation in terms of hybrid
percentage, which conflicts with the
The Acacia Hybrid as Commercial
PlantingMaterial, and Constraints
With its superior growth perf:rm
ance and attractive characteristics, the
acacia hybrid is quite promising for
adoption by industrial planting
programs. However, openpollinated
hybrid seeds are unreliable, as they can
be contaminated by undesirable parents
if not properly controlled. This is the
constraint to producing hybrid seeds for
commercial planting.
Therefore, quality hybrid seeds must
come from proven parents of superior A.
mangium and A. auriculiformis.This is
possible through controlled pollination,
especially with the recently developed
controlled pollina:ion method (Sedley et
al. 1992). However, due to the tiny size
of acacia flowers, controlled pollination
182
properties of acacias as outcrossing
species,
Hybridization did not occur on A.
auriculiformisin biclonal orchards R
and C, and A. mangium in biclonal
orchards F and H, but the reasons for
this are unclear. These are only
preliminary results; further monitoring
of the hybrid percentage for several
more seasons will be needed before any
conclusions can be drawn,
auriculifonniscan be very tedious, its
importance cannot be overlooked.
Despite the fact that controlled
pollination may not be a feasible method
for producing large quantities of seeds, it
can be used to produce specific hybrids
for further testing and eventual largescale planting through vegetative
propagation.
Besides being tedious, controlled
pollination of acacias poses the
constraint in storage of pollen. This is
due to the variation in the flowering
patterns
of both species. Without a good
knowledge
of pollen storage, production
of
manipulated hybrids will remain
limited.
Table 3. Percentage of hybrid seed found in
SSSB's biclonal orchards,
Orchard
flybrid %
B
C
F
H
1.7
2.28
64.31
6.56
(Am)
(Am)
(Aa)
(Aa)
Concluding Remarks
Improvement works on acacias in
recent years have made these species
popular for both social and industrial
purposes. Techniques developed for
vegetative propagation (by cuttings and
tisstue culture), hybrid verification
(isozyme analysis and seedling
morphology identification), and
controlled pollination have contributed
greatly to the increased use of the genus.
Generally, most acacia work has
focussed on A. mangium, A.
auriculiformis,and their hybrid. It is
high time for further studies on A.
crassicarpaand A. aulococarpa, which
are known to be even more sitetolerant
(Sim and Gan 1991). A. cincinnala also
merits more studies, as its growth has
been found to be better than A.
auriculiformis(Anuar 1986).
Assessment of the field performance
by materials produced from cuttings and
tissue culture is essential, as it will
provide a useful guide for establishment
of clonal plantations. To date, no large-
Probably the unsynchronized
flowering pattern of A. mangium and A.
auriculiformisposes the main constraint
in the production of natural hybridized
seeds. Normally, A. mangium flowers
earlier than A. auriculiformis. In most
cases, the overlapping period (if any) is
riot until the end of A. mangium's
flowering season.
Therefore before matching both the
two parents (Am x Aa) in the biclonal
orchard, it is important to study the
flowering pattern of both parents to
ensure optimum synchronous flowering.
A detailed phenology study of both
parents is crucial before establishment of
biclonal orchards.
ControlledPollination
Although controlled pollination
work with A. rnungium and A.
183
scale acacia clonal plantations have been
established by either cuttings or tissue
culture.
Extra effort should be devoted to bi
clonal orchards, particularly on the
phenological aspects of A. mangium and
A. auriculiformis. Perhaps the plants can
be manipulated to optimize synchronous
flowering of the two parents. For
controlled pollination, studies should
focus on pollenhandling techniques in
order to facilitate production of specific
hybrids.
may not be feasible for private
companies to undertake.
Q: Within two years from establishment,
A. mangium can seed heavily for use in
propagation, without the risks imposed
by the narrowe genetic base involved in
clonal production. What, then, is the
significant advantage of clonal
propagation over seeds'?
A: Greater control of standing crop
characteristics. Also, with continual
infusion of other provenances as they
are collected, clones can continue to be
improved without further narrowing the
genetic base.
Discussion Notes
Q: Partial self.incompatibility has been
detected in both A, mangium and A.
auricudiformis. Has this been used to
advance hybrid seed orchards?
Q: What potential do you see for use of
A. mingiuim as saw logs'?
A: New technologies using fingerjoints
may get around the problem of punky
knots. Again, in Sabah the main
commercial production objective is
chips, so heart rot is not a problem.
Comment: From Table 3, it appears
that the best percentage of hybrids
obtainable was only 64%, which is not
very good. More selfincompatible
individuals need to be found before this
can be used effectively, and the search is
complicated by the need to select for
economically desiable traits.
Comment: Regarding saw logs, A.
aldacocarpain natural stands is valued
for saw logs in Australiait is more or
less exchangeable with A. melanoxv'lon,
one of Australia's most valuable saw
timbers.
A: It is true thai selfincompatibility
should be a factor in selection, not
merely compatibility with the other
parent species. Regarding controlled
pollination, sometimes tile xd forms
without seeds; controlled pollination can
introduce a fungus that causes the x)d to
abort.
Isozyme studies of natural
populations have shown outcrossing
rates of 8590%. hut in plantations where
a narrower gene pool is available, the
species seem to be able to self more
readily. This requires more research that
Edward Chia works with Sabah
Softvwoods Sdn Bhd, P.O. Box 137,
91007 TAWAU, Sabah, Malaysia.
184
References
Wickneswari, R. and M. Norwati. 1991.
Techniques for starch gel electrophoresis of
enzymes from acacias. In Breeding
Technologies for Tropical Acacias, eds. L.T.
Carron and KM. Aken; 99110. ACIAR
Proceeding No. 37. Canberra: ACIAR.
Anuar, M. 1986. Growth of acacias on logged
over forest in Sabah. In Australian Acacias
in Developing Countries, ed. J.W. Turnbull;
167169. ACIAR Proceeding No. 16.
Canberra: ACIAR.
Clark, N.D., V. Balodis, Fung Guigan and Wang
Jingxia. 1991. Pulping properties of
tropical acacias. In Advances in Tropical
Acacia Research, ed. J.W. Turnbull: 138
144. ACIAR Proceeding No. 35. Canberra:
ACIAR.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO). 1982. Variation in A.
mangium willd., based on the work of
Pedley, L. Consultant Report No. 8. Sabah,
Malaysia: Seed Sources Establishment and
Tree Improvement Project (FAO/UNDP MAIJ78/009).
Laurila, R. 1992. Utilization potential of
reforestation tree species in Kalimantan.
Unpublished report. University of Helsinki.
Logan, F. 1986. Australian acacias for pulpwood.
In Australian Acacias in Developing
Countries, ed. J.W. Turnbull; 8994. ACIAR
Proceeding No. 16. Canberra: ACIAR.
Nykvist, N. 1993. An even better compromise!:
an interesting agroforestry system used by
Sabah Forest Industries in Malaysia.
Forests,Trees and People Newsletter 20:15.
Rufelds, C.W. 1988. Acacia mangium, A.
auriculifonnis and I lybrid A. auriculifornis
seedling morphology study. FRC
Publication No. 41. Sepilok, Sandakan,
Malaysia: Forest Research Centre.
Sedley. M., J. ll'rbard and R.M. Smith. 1992.
llybridisation techniques for acacias. ACIAR
Technical Report No. 20. Canberra: ACIAR.
Sim. B. 1. and E. Gan. 1991. Performance of
acacia species on poor sites of Sabah Forest
Industries. In Advances in Tropical Acacia
Research, ed. J.W. Turnbull; 159165.
ACIAR Proceeding No. 35. Canberra:
ACIAR.
185
Yap, S.K. 1986. Introduction of Acacia species
to Peninsular Malaysia. In Australian
Acacias in Developing Countries, ed. J.W.
Turnbull; 151153. ACIAR Proceeding No.
16. Canberra: ACIAR.
Acacias for Nonwood Products and Uses
HsuHo Chung
Introduction
fodder, and animal and animal products
other than food (Rao 1991). The
present definition also includes charcoal
and firewood, but will not he treated here
as this subject is covered elsewhere in
this voluoi.e (see the paper by Yantasath
ct l.).
"Service" functions (amenity value,
conservation functions, etc.) are not
considered as NWIU here. Except for
bee honey, animal products (see Rao
1991 ) are also excluded since in most
cases their production is not relevant to
acacias.
In recent years there has emerged a
genuine, worldwide concern for the
wellbeing of tropical forests and the
forestdwelling communities who derive
their livelihood there. This concern has
provided a driving force fo~r the
integration of nonwood products/uses
(NWPU) as a component in sustainable,
multipurpose forest systems that enhance
rural welfare as well as the ecosystem's
structure and functions. Much
information exists on NWIU, but most
of it is based on observations of
traditional production/uses and is highly
diffuse. Technical information based on
welldesigned studies are scarce; this is
particularly true of acacias. It is
therefore difficult to give an account of
NWPU from acacias, but this paper will
attempt to do so briefly.
Existing and Potential
NWPU of Acacias
There are over I,(XX) Acacia species
worldwide; in Australia alone, over 9(X)
acacias have been recorded (Booth
1987). Each acacia undoubtedly has
some existing and/or potential uses as
NWPU, and so to prioritize a list of
acacias for NWPU is difficult. This
paper will focus on the 12 priority
species identified for silvicultural and
utilization research in the AsiaPacific
region at the first meeting of the
Consultative Group for Research and
I)evelopmcnt of Acacias in 1992
(Awang and Taylor 19921. Table I is a
summary of the oxisting and potential
NWI1U of these 12 acacias, bhased on a
personal effort at an exhaustive literature
search; however, certainly much
information is missing from it.
Similar tables using different
approaches and formats were prepared
NonWood Products/Uses Defined
In this paper, 'nonwood
products/uses' is defined as all renewable
and tangible bio logical materials (other
than industrial roundwood and derived
sawn limber, wood chips, and
woodbased pulp) that can be extracted
from forests (either natural stands,
managed plantations, or otherwise) and
utilized in the household, marketed, or
have social or cultural significance
(Wickens 1991). NWPU thus includes
extractive products (gums, resins, latex,
tans and dyes, essential oils), medicines.
plant food products, fiber products,
186
Table 1. Summary of reported nonwood products/uses of priority acacias identified at COGREDA's
first meeting.
Species
Product/Use
Humid/Subhumid Species
A. inangium
Bee honey
Adhesive
Fodder
Comments/Relevant Reference
Commercialscale production studies recommended (Hanover
1988). See also the papers by Nadagoudar and Zheng and Yang in
this volume.
Marketing studies recommended (Mohd. Nor. et. al. 198).
Further evaluation warranted (Vercoe 1986, 1988).
A. auriculiformnis Craft (Dye)
Further technical studies warraoted (Hanover 1988).
Gum, Protein/tannin Further technical studies warranted (Abdul Razak et. al. 1981).
Fodder
See A. inangiun.
A. auklcocarpa
Fodder
Other NWPU
A. crassicarpa
Further studies not suggested; digestability <40% (Vercoe 1986).
Information not available.
Information not available.
A. leptocarpa
Fodder
Other NWPU
Further evaluation warranted (Vercoe 1986, 1988).
Information not available.
A. oraria
Fodder
Other NWPU
Not known to have fodder value (Turnbull et. al. 1986).
Information not available.
A. cincinnata
A. confusa
Semiarid
A. nilotical
A. arabica*
A. catechu
A. pennata
Information not available.
Medicine
Other NWPU
Leaf extracts, minor importance (Kan 1977).
Information not available.
Species
Tannin
Extracted from both bark and pods; produced at commercial scale.
Gum arabic
Commercially valuable.
Fodder
Has potential; recommended for further evaluation.
Medicine
Bark extracts can have medicinal uses; further studies suggested.
Molluscides/
Have been proven effective; recommended for further evaluation
algicides/fungicides(For all three of these see Fagg and Greaves 1990).
Honey
Further evaluation recommended (Hanover 1988).
Medicine
Katha is commercially produced (Hanover 1988).
Dye
Black cutch. See Suksansenee et al. in this proceedings.
Food coloring agent. Further technmcal studies warranted (Kamik et al. 1973).
Honey
Recommended for further evaluation (Mishra and Kumar 1987).
Information not available.
*in most literature on nonwood products/uses, A. nilotica and A. arabica are synonyms.
187
Prospects
by Hanover (1988) and Rao (1991).
Table 1 differs greatly from those in that
those papers present species already
either wellknown for nonwood
products or at least for having proven
potential in that regard; on the other
hand, the primary uses of most species in
Table I are woodoriented. While
NWPU of A. nilohica(syn. arabica)for
gum arabic/tannin and of A. calecht. for
katha/tannin production are well
documented, such information is simply
not available (or to a very limited extent)
for other acacias. This suggests needs
and opportunities for further research.
Other than bee honey, Table 1 does
not cite acacias for food production.
This topic is well covered in a recent
proceedings (House and Harwood
1992). None of the Australian acacias in
Table I were mentioned in that
proceedings as promising for human
food because they are more
humid/subhumid species. However, a
highvalue plant food product, shiitake
(Lentinus edodes) has been successfully
cultivated from A. mangium for
commercialscale production (Huang et
al. 1988). Another edible mushroom,
Tylopilus felleus, is common in
plantations of A. auriculiformisin
Thailand (Pinyopusarerk 1990).
Finally, except for some potential
uses as dye, Table I does not mention
acacias for craft use. There is no
question that acacias may have a limited
potential as handicraft material for
development in local industries,
Handicraft products of A. confusa, for
example, have been produced in Taiwan,
but they do not appear to appeal to
either tourists or overseas ethnic markets
due, to a great extent, to the poor quality
and color of the wood (researchers at
Taiwan Handicraft Research Center,
personal interviews).
In general, many of the research
needs and prospects identified by
Hanover (1988), De Beer and
McDermott (1989), FAO (1991), and
Rao (1991) apply to most forest plants,
including acacias, for NWPU. The
following are some specific (and perhaps
highly biased) observations with respect
to acacias in AsiaPacific.
1. Research should set out to fill the
information gaps identified in Table 1.
2. Research and development (R&D)
should be participatory, with active
involvement of farmers, forest managers,
and others who will be implementing the
research findings. This is of critical
importance in sometimes conservative
rural communities, in order to guarantee
that research findings will be consistent
with the rural end users' needs and
preferences and thus adoptable.
In Taiwan, for example, researchers
developed the use of leaf biomass from a
Cinnamomnu sp. as mushroom
substrate, but farmers were reluctant to
plant the species. TFRI persuaded the
Taiwan Sugar Co. to establish the new
variety on its large wasteland areas as a
demonstration for farmers. This
demonstration convinced farmers of the
tree's value; however, acceptance would
be much faster if farmers were involved
from the start (for an example of
concurrent assessment of species growth
performance and product acceptability,
see Rakouth 1991).
3. R&) programs should be tailored
according to various options, depending
on the situation:
188
NWPU improvement vs.
development: Since in most cases,
the production and utilization of
NWPU are traditional and highly
localized, research is often needed to
evaluate the existing local
technology in view of recent
technological developments for
quantitative and qualitative
improvement. A similarly broad
comparative approach should also be
applied in developing new NWPU
parlicularly in the case of
valueadded, highly marketable
ones.
NIVPU researchfor smallfirmers vs.
research for large industries: Where
small farmers are the end users of
the findings, NWPU research should
aim to improve farmers' income
through production of the highest
marketable value of NWiPU from
their limited farm land. This may
entail breeding for several options
(i.e., several varieties for different
primary end uses), rather than
breeding one variety for all uses.
Feasibility studies should focus on
establishing small, local enterprises
and/or NWIPU processing centers.
Furthermore, studies should assess
policy effects and the role of non
government organizations (NGOs) in
safeguarding farmers' interests in
marketing their produce.
Research for large industries should
emphasize improvement of
quantitative pioduction and
processing efficiency of NWIU,
particularly if these arc considered
"byproducts" of other (for example,
woodbased) management
operations.
189
NWPU research on manmade forest
systems vs. research on natural
forests: The former aims for
optimum production/uses through
intensive management of plantations,
farm forest operations, homegarden,
etc. It should therefore be more
processoriented to produce highqualities and/or quantities of NWPU,
and be marketoriented.
On the other hand, NWPU research
in natural forest systems should
consider sustaining and enriching
resources of useful/pxtential acacias
so that local forest communities do
not suffer from their shortage,
particularly in times of hardship
such as famine. For example, in
Papua New Guinea, loggers leave
Terminalia sp. standing to provide
continued fruit harvests for local
inhabitants.
Future research vs. researchfor the
future: Many of the 'future research
needs' identified and proposed for
NWPU deal with improvement of
their existing production/uses (see
3.1. above). The paper by
Subsansenee et al. in this
proceedings provides an example of
a systematic approach for this.
With the rapid socioccono.nic
change in the Asia regi,,a
(particularly in humid/subhumid
areas), managers of R&l) programs
for NWIPU should recognize such
social and technological transition
and adjust the path of their program
accordingly to produce the NWPU
Ihat will be needed by a rapidly
changing society. R&D projects for
some traditional NWIPU may have to
be phased out as consumer habits
change or products are substituted;
and new NWPU for which there will
be societal demand in the future
should be anticipated and developed.
References
In other words, research project
managers should consider (perhaps
several) future scenarios of product
use and needs. For example, in
Taiwan, A. confusa was studied in the
194050s for use as charcoal; 1518
years ago, however, Taiwan started
using natural gas, on which it is now
completely dependent. The 20,W00
plants. Malaysian Forester 44:8192.
Awang, Kamnis and D.A. Taylor, eds. 1992.
Tropical Acacias in EastAsia and the Pacfic.
Abdul Razak, M. A., C. K. Low and A. Adu Said.
1981. Determination of relative tannin
contents of the barks of some Malaysian
Proc. of a first meeting of the Consultative
Group for Research and l)evelopment of
Acaias (COGREDA), held June 13, 1992, in
Phuket, Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand:
Winrock International.
Booth, T.I. 1987. Selecting Acacia species for
testing outside Australia. In Australian
Acacias in Developing Countries, ed J.W.
ha of A. confusa now stand useless,
unmanaged, and a fire hazard.
Anticipation of changes in energy
technology and in Taiwan's role as
markeu'producer might have
prevented this.
Turnbull; 7476. ACIAR Proceedings No.
16. Canberra: ACIAR.
and MJ. McDermott. 1989. The
De Beer, J.ll.
lconomic Value oJ NonTimber Forest
Productsin South East Asia. Amsterdam:
Netheiland Committee for ItCN.
Fagg, C.W. and A. (Creaves, compilers. 1990.
Acacia nilotica: Annotated Bilhliographv
No. F42. Oxford: CAB International,
Oxford Forestry Institute.
Hanover, J.W. 1988. Feasibility study on
Discussion Notes
As a mushroom grower, Dr. Chung sees
a future in mushroom produclion for
domestic and export using A. mangium.
Currently farmers in ROC harvest
US$15,600 per ha from 7yearold A.
inangium plantations.
smallfarm production of gums, resins,
exudates, and other nonwood products.
MPI'S Research Series Paper No 4.
Bangkok: Winrock International.
louse, A.P.N. and C.E. larwood, eds. 1992.
Australian DryZone Acacia.sftr Hiuman
Food. Proc. workshop held at Glen Ilelen,
Northern Territory, Australia. August 710.
1991. Canberra: ('SIRO Division of
Forestry and Australian Tree Seed Centre.
lluang, S.G., J.C. Shieh. CV. Son and S. Cheng.
Q: Are fastgrowing species more
suitable for mushroom cultivation than
longerrotation trees'? On what basis'?
A: The ideal remains slowgrowing trees
in the family Fagaccac, but for faster
returns, acacias are suilable.
1988. Wood of different fastgrowing tree
species on shiitake production and quality.
Forestry Research Institate, 53 NanHai
Bull. Taiwan For. Res. mist. New Series
5(2):2527. (In Chinese with English
summary.)
Road, Taipei 100, Taiwan, Republic of
Kamik. MG.. O.. Sharma and N.I'. )oblhal.
HsuHo Chung works with the Taiwatn
1973. Note on catechin of Acacia 'atechu
China.
190
and effect of some food additives on its color
solutions. Indian Forester 99(3):149151.
Kan, W.S. 1977. Pharmaceutical Botany.
Taiwan: National Research Institute of
Chinese Medicine. (In Chinese.)
Mishn , R.C. and J. Kumar. 1987. Importance of
beekeeping in social forestry. In Social
Forestry for Rural Development, eds. P.K.
Khosla and R. K. Kohli; 189206. Solan:
Indian Society of Tree Scientists
Mohd. Nor, M. Y., L. T. Chew, M. A. Abdul
Razak and N. M. Nasir. 1989. The adhesive
properties of Acacia mangium. J. Trop. For.
Sci. 2(2): 104109.
Pinyopusarerk, K. 1990. Acacia auriculiformis:
an annotate.' bibliography. Bangkok:
Winrock InternationalF/FRED and ACIAR.
Rakouth, B. 1991. Malagasy Leguminosae:
assessment for fuelwood and reforestation
uses in Madagascar. In Research on
Multipurpose Tree Species in Asia, eds. D.A.
Taylor and K.G. MacDicken; 148158.
Bangkok: Winrock International and
Intcrnational Foundation for Science.
Rao, Y.S. 1991. Nonwood forest products in the
AsiaPacific Region: in overiew. Forest
News V(4):516.
Turnbull, I. W., P. N. Martensz and N. Hall.
1986. Notes on lesserknown Australian
trees and shrubs with potential for fuelwood
and agroforestry. In Multipurpose Australian
Trees and Strubs, ed. i.W. Turnbull; 81313.
Canbe'ra: Australian Center for
International Agricultural Research.
Verco , T.K. 1986. Fodder potential of selected
Australian tree species. In Australian Acacias
in Developing Countries, ed. J.W. Turnbull;
95100. ACIAR Proceedings No. 16.
Canberra: ACIAR.
_ 1989. Fodder value of selected Australian
tree and shrub species. In Trees for the
Tropics, ed. D.J. Boland; 187192.
Canberra: ACIAR.
Wickens, G.E. 1991. Management issues for
development of nontimber forest products.
Unasylva 42(165):38.
191
Innovations in the Utilization of
SmallDiameter Trees, Particularly Acacias
Razali Abdul Kader
Introduction
attention to equipment and its
operations, Risbrudt and Kaiser (1981)
obtained a further 3% increase in lumber
recovery with two to three times greater
value due to increased volume and more
clear boards recovered from each log.
In addition, the SDR (saw, dry and
rip) method of ',vesawing used in North
America for smallsize logs has also
been used with rubberwood (Hevea
brasiliensis)in this region. The SDR
technique combines the attributes of
sawing geometry and drying technique
to solve the problem of warp in young
woods. This technique of lumber
conversion should also be tested with
acacias: Tong (1990) provides a detailed
description.
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL), an
engineered product, is another important
solid wood product with potential as
highquality s.ructural building material
Advances in veneer peeling technology
have made it possible to extract more
veneer for conversion into LVL from
smalldiameter trees. LVL from A.
nangium with all plies and grain parallel
to the length is being tested. Salim
(1992), Sasaki et al.(1990) and Wang et
al. (1990) have shown that it can meet
the mechanical requirements of the
Japan Agricultural Standard for LVL.
Although plantation stock shows
a high incidence of knots, which reduce
the potential for structural applications,
engineered panels such as LVL could be
used as lumber to increase the wood's
value. This is possible because the knots,
Acacia mangium is widely planted
commercially in Southeast Asia; in fact,
it could well be the major source of
general utility timber and fiber for paper
and engineered panel products in future.
Other acacias are also being tested in
plantations.
Utilization of plantation timber
species needs to be well planned and,
above all, efficient, because they are
different from the indigenous woods
from natural forests around which
processing and conversion machineries
and technologies have evolved,
Plantation speci,s are available in large
volume and have small diameters and a
high percentage of knots and juvenile
wood. Despite these characteristics, they
can still be converted into conventional
products such as lumber, panels, pulp,
and paper to satisfy consumer demand.
Table I summarizes the use of wood
elements in diminishing dimensions.
This paper focuses on the potential uses
of smallsized acacias in the forms of
solid wood and composites.
Solid Wood Products
Stateoftheart processing
machinery with relevant supporting
devices and their operations are available
for converting smalldiameter (30 cm
and less) logs into lumber with good
economic returns (Razali 1992). With
192
Table 1. The wood elements in a series of diminishing dimensions. Figures indicate inches;
figures in parentheses indicate mm.
Element
Length
Lumber
Glued
Products
Width
Thickness
48240
(1,0006,000)
412
(100300)
0.512
(10300)
Beams and arches
Veneer
4872
(1,0002,500)
448
(1001,200)
0.020.5
(0.5 10)
Plywood and laminated veneer
lumber (LVL)
Wafers
13
(2575)
13
(2575)
0.0250.05
(0.51)
Waferboard
Flakes
0.53
(1075)
0.53
(1075)
0.0100.025
(0.250.6)
Flakeboaid
Strands
0.53
(1075)
0.253
(575)
0.0100.025
(0.250.6)
Oriented strandboard
Splinters
0.53
(1075)
0.0050.025
(0.150.6)
0.0050.025
(0.150.6)
Splinterboard
Particles
0.050.5
(1.10)
0.0050.25
(0.151)
0.0050.025
(0.150.6)
Particleboard
Fiberbundles 0.050.5
(110)
Fiber fibrils
0.020.5
(0.510)
Cellulose/
lignin
0.0010.010 0.0010.010
(0.030.3)
(0.030.3)
0.000010.001 0.000010.001
(0.00030.03) (0.00030.03)
Molecular dimensions
Source: Marra (1983)
193
Fiberboard
Paper
Plastics, films, filaments
splits, checks, and other natural strength
reducing defects are cut out or are
dispersed throughout the panels. Figure
I illustrates some of the uses of LVL, by
itself and in combination with other
wood products.
The value of lumber produced from
acacias can be increased further by
simple processing into moldings. Short
materials are fingerjointed, molded, and
veneerwrapped as necessary. Otherwise,
these moldings are painted to suit buyer
preference. LVL can also be molded
and laminated for specific needs. In
1986, the export of wood moldings by
the ASEAN member countries amounted
to US$258 million FOB, and in 1990 the
figure rose to US$460 million, indicating
the market's readiness to accept more
moldings.
boards could be overlaid with wood
veneer, paper, or plastic overlays to
provide desirable faces in case the
natural dark color of acacia wood is not
preferred by the market.
Other highvalue panel products are
waferboard and oriented strand board
(OSB). Waferboard is a structural board
made of wood wafers that are cut to
predetermined dimensions, randomly distributed and bonded with phenolic resin
adhesive. OSB is made of flakes or
strands that are narrower than those
generally prepared for waferboard. The
resin coated strands are hotpressed into
threelayer panels composed entirely of
oriented strand layers (although the core
may sometimes be random) purposely
aligned in the machine direction. This
makes the panels stronger, stiffer, and
improves their dimensional properties.
Such panels are intended for use as
sheathing and/or for combination
subfloor/underlayer, depending on the
thickness. The panels are subjected to
bending stress and concentrated static
and impact loads. Further, they should
also provide racking resistance to the
floor. There is continuing strong
demand for these strctural board
products; the raw material supplies are
changing, and traditional panels like
softwood plywood are getting more
expensive.
Particle/Fiberbased Wood Panels
Thinnings from acacia plantations
and logs not suitable for lumber
conversion can be processed into various
board products. Some are manufactured
for structural applications, others are not.
Builders today have access to a variety of
new structural and nonstructural
building materials. It is therefore up to
the manufacturers to produce
consistently quality panel products that
are performance oriented, i.e., designed
to meet specific needs. Razali (1992)
has earlier proposed the manufacture of
some of these products, such as
particleboard and medium density
fiberboard (MDF) from A. mangium. It
is technically feasible to manufacture
such boards by processing the wood into
particles or fibers/fiber bundles and
bond them well with existing commercial
resin adhesives; this would not require
much production line modification. The
Composites of Wood/Fiber
and Nonwood Materials
Acacias and other smalldiameter
trees can also be processed into
composite products in combination with
plastics, besides the conventional
woodfiber/particle (sandwich)
composites. The technology for
combining these two materials is
194
SCAFFOLDIN.G PANEL
LVL
BEAM
COMPLY BEAM: LVL/OSB//LVL
TBEAM WITH LVL FLANGES
LUMBER BEAM
WITH LVL TENSION LAM
~LAMINATED
Figure 1. Uses of laminated veneer lumber (LVL).
195
continually evolving. The wood is first
reduced to particles, fibers, or fiber
bundles and then put back together into
panels of desired dimensions by a
special manufacturing process. The end
products have the advantage of having
properties of both wood and plastic:
improved acoustic, impact, and heat
reformability properties.
Youngquist et al. (1992) noted that
wood and synthetic fibers can be
assembled into a web or mat using
airformed, nonwoven web technology,
l'he fibers, which are initially interlocked
mechanically, are thermoformed into
panels or various molded products.
Additional bonding can be achieved by
incorporating thermosetting resin in the
web. Earlier work by Youngquist et al.
(1990) and Razali et al. (1992) resulted
in boards with varying mechanical
properties meeting various MDF grades,
depending on the wood to plastic ratio
used. The common synthetic fibers used
are polyester, polypropylene, and
polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The
development o this technology is
timely, as the conjugate MDF can be
molded to produce automobile interior
components.
Lowgrade acacia wood, particles, or
fibers can also be acetylated with the
right catalysts and conditions to make
products more dimensionally stable and
resistant to microorganisms and termites
without losing much mechanical
strength. Detailed pro,'esses for tailoring
these materials to specific end uses have
been discussed by Imamura et al. (1986
and 1989) and Shiraishi and Yoshimi
(1992).
Conclusion
Smalldiameter acacias can be
converted into generalutility products,
or tailored for specific end uses.
Technologies are available to transform
them into highvalue engineering
materials. Their wood requires low
processing energy input (and so is
economical to process and use), is
strong, and above all is renewable and
available. However, to ensure product
quality, wood rroperties need to be
controlled through proper grading, treatment, or reconstitution. The
marketdriven product development
approach should be adopted for
introducing "new" raw materials like
acacias into the marketplace.
Razali Abdul Kader is with the Faculty
of Forestry, UniversitiPertanian
Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang,
Malaysia.
References
Imamura, Y., K. Nishimoto, Y.Yoshida, S.
Kawai, T. Sato and M. Nakaji. 1986.
Production technology for acetylated
lowdensity particleboard If: Decay and
termite resistance. Wood Research 73:
3543.
Imamura, Y., B. Subiyanto, R. Rowell and T.
Nilsson. 1989. dimensional stability and
biological resistance of particlebuird from
acetylated Albizzia wood particles. Wnaod
Research 76: 4958.
1,iarra, A.A. 1983. Applications fo wood
bonding. In: Bonding of Wood and Other
Structural Materials, eds. R.F. Blomquist et
al.; 3674!5. University Park,
Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State
University.
196
Razali, Abdul Kader. 1992. Opportunities in
manufacturing high quality products from
forest plantation species. In proc. National
Seminar on Economics of Forest Plantation;
127144. Kuala Lumpur: Forestry
Department Headquarters.
Razali, A.K., O.R. Pulido, F. Yang, S. Kawai, and
H. Sasaki. 1992. Properties of conjugate
inedium density fibreboard (MDF) some
preliminary results. In Second Chemistry
Division Seminar Proc., eds. W.A.K. Wan
Rashidah et al.; 16. Kepong: Forest
Research Institute Malaysia.
Risbrudt, C.D. and F. Kaiser. 1981. Economic
impacts of the sawmill improvement
programme. Southern Lumberman 242
(3016): 108110.
Salim, A. 1992. Properties of laminated veneer
lumber (LVL) manufactured from three
selected tropical hardwood species. B. For S.
(Wood Industry ) Project Report, Faculty of
Forestry, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia,
Serdang.
Sasaki, H.. Q. Wang, S. Kawai and A.K. Razali.
1990. Utilization of thinnings from Sabah
hardwood plantation: properties of LVL and
the application to flanges of composite
beams with particleboard web. In proc. 1990
Joint International Conference on
Processing and Utilization of Lowgrade
Hardwoods and International Trade of Forestrelated Products, eds. S.Y. Wang and R.C.
Tang; 173182. Taipei: National Taiwan
University.
Shiraishi, N. and S. Yoshimi. 1992. A review of
acetylated wood. In proc. Second CIB
International Conference on Tropical and
Hardwood Timber Structures; A79A85.
Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Engineers
Malaysia.
Tong, G.L. 1990. Warpfree drying of
rubberwood lumber. B.S. (For) Project
Report, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti
Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang.
Wang, Q., T. Hayashi, H. Sasaki and Y. Nagayn.
1990. Utilization of LVL from Sabah
197
plantation thinnings as beam flanges I:
increasing confidence limits in properties by
processing into LVL. Mokuzai Gakkishi
36(8): 624631.
Youngquist, J.A., J.H. Muehl, A.M. Krzysik and
X. Tu. 1990. Mechanical and physical
properties of wood/plastic fibre composites
made with airformed dryprocess
technology. In proc. 1990 Joint International Conference on Processing and
Utilization of Lowgrade Hardwoods and
International Trade of Forestrelated
Products, eds. S.Y. Wang and R.C. Tang;
159162. Taipei: National Taiwan
University.
Youngquist, J.A., A.M. Krzysik, J.H. Muehl and
C. Caril. 1992. Mechanical and physical
properties of airformed woodfiber/polymerfiber composites. For. Prod. J. 42(6):
4248.
Acacias for Environmental Conservation
Reynaldo E. Dela Cruz
Introduction
Conservation of Carbon Dioxide
The area of natural forests worldwide
had been decreasing at an alarming .ate
following an increase in the human
population, which has exerted
tremendous pressures on the natural
forests. Over the past 50 years,
economic activity and the rate of
population growth has increased to the
point at which the effects of human
activities on the environment can no
longer be ignored. The quality of many
of the basic elements of the natural
resource baseincluding air, water, and
soil is deteriorating (Lupo and Brown
1980).
Among the major roles played by
natural forests in environmental
conservation are:
Forests are a major sink for carbon
and fill an important role in the global
carbon cycle (Schroeder 1992). Not
only do forests contain huge amounts of
carbon, they exchange it very actively
with the atmosphere. On average, the
equivalent of the entire CO content of
the atmosphere passes through the
earth's terrestrial vegeta ion every 7
years, and about 70% of the entire
exchange occurs through forest
ecosystems (Waring and Schlesinger
1985).
Due to the activity of this exchange,
forest area expansion may therefore
present an opportunity to increase the
terrestrial carbon sink and slow the
increase in atmospheric CO 2
concentration. The tropical zones of the
world appear attractive for forestation
due to the high productivity rates that
can potentially be attained there,
favorable weather and rainfall patterns,
and the availability of large areas that
could benefit from tree planting. Many
studies on forestation potentials suggest
that the tropics may offer a good
opportunity to fix and store large
amounts of carbon, and thereby reduce
the area required to store a given amount
of carbon (Marland 1988; Schroeder
and Ladd 1991). Marland (1988)
computed that the area required to
capture annual carbon emissions from
fossil fuel combustion worldwide could
be reduced by 25% if forestation efforts
were centered in the tropics. Grainger
(1988) estimated that the tropics
*
conservation of carbon dioxide
(CO.)
" conservation of soil
* conservation of water
" nutrient storage and release
" conservation of soil micro and
macrofauna
" microclimate amelioration
The first of these has global
implications, while the rest are important
at the national or microsite levels. This
paper explores whether Acacia
plantations can also fill these roles in
environmental conservation,
198
contained over 2 billion ha of depleted
or degraded land, of which 758 million
ha were once forested and could
theoretically be reforested.
The dilemma is that many tropical
plantation species (including acacias) are
relatively shortlived, and are grown on
estimated to have a mean carbon storage
potential of 17 tons C/ha on moderate
sites and only 12 tons C/ha on degraded
sites.
rotations of less than 20 years. When a
Soil Property Changes after Removal of
stand is cut, much or perhaps all of its
carbon returns to the atmosphere within
a short time. Schroeder (1992)
calculated the carbon storage potential
of shortrotation tropical tree
plantations. Fable I summarizes the
estimated yield and mean carbon storage
of several tree species, among other
parameters. Acacia mearnsii shows the
highest carbon storage potential of 78
tons C/ha on a 10year rotation. On the
other hand, Acacia nilotica was
Natural Forests
Soil Conservation
The effects of deforestation on soil
properties in natural forests can be
determined by comparing soils under a
natural dipterocarp forest and an
adjacent grassland, as done by Ohta
(1990a), who compared soils under a
natural dipterocarp forest and a
grassland in the Philippines in terms of
morphology, clay mineralogy,
physicochemical properties, nitrogen
Table 1. Yield, rotation, wood density, and carbon storage potential tor nine plantation species.
Species
Final yield
(m3/ha)
Pinuscaribaea
Leucaenaspp.
Rotation
length
(years)
Mean annual
growth
(m3/ha/year)
Wcxl
density
(g/cm 3)
Mean
Cstorage
(tC/ha)
30<)
15
20
0.46
59
72
140
8
7
9
20
0.60
0.60
21
42
140
50
10
10
14
5
0.83
0.83
55
21
Pinus patula
Cupressus lusitanica
Acacia mearnsii
Cassiasiamea
A. nilotica
moderate site
400
340
250
100
20
20
10
10
20
17
25
10
0.45
0.43
0.60
0.58
72
57
78
28
60
t0
6
0.60
degraded site
45
15
3
0.60
17
12
40
8
5
0.52
8
poor site
fuelwood crop
Casuarinaspp.
moderate site
degraded sitc
Azadirachta indica
Adapted from Schroeder (1991)
199
fertility, and humus composition. It
should be stressed that the grassland soil
was once covered with natural
dipterocarps and had been degraded by
slash and bum agriculture, overgrazing,
and other human activities.
Soil MorpLology
Table 2 summarizes the
morphological characteristics of the two
soils. While horizon patterns were
basically similar irrespective of
vegetation type, structural development
in the surface horizons was greater in the
forest soils than in the grassland soils.
This may be due to greater soil fauna
activity due to higher development of
the tree root systems in the forest.
Organic horizons were formed on the
surface while no organic horizon w.s
present in the grassland soil. In the
upper horizons under the forest soil, the
presence of many mycelia, mycorrhizae,
worm casts, and animal burrows
indicated a high activity of soil fauna; no
such activities were found in the
grassland soil. The influence of land
degradation on soil morphology was
most conspicuous for soil fauna activity.
Grassland soils were characterized by
extensive crack formation in the Bt
horizons, not found in the forest soils.
This was probably due to the more
pronounced drying of soils under
grassland than under forest cover,
particularly in the dry season,
200
Soil Physical Properties
Table 3 shows some physical
properties at different depths. Bulk
density, which was lowest for the surface
soil (05 cm), increased with depth up to
the 2530 cm layer. The upper layer of
the forest soils displayed a distinctly
lower bulk density than the
corresponding grassland soil, although
no significant differences in the values in
the deeper layers were detected.
The pattern of the total pore space
percentage was the reverse of that of the
bulk density: fine pore space percentage
was higher in the forest soils than in the
grassland soils at depths 05 and 510
cm in both plots. For the forest soils, the
highest percentage of fine pores was
observed in the 510 cm layer, while the
values tended to be highest in the deeper
2530 cm (GL2) or 6570 cm (GL i)
layers for the grassland soils. This
difference may be attributed to the more
extensive crack formation in the
grassland soils.
Hydraulic conductiviiy was higher
for the forest soil than for the grassland
soil in the 05 and 510 cm layers (plot
1)or in the 05 cm layer (plot 2). There
was no significant difference between the
two soil types in the deeper layers. The
soil moisture content of the fresh
samples collected in the dry season was
extremely low in the grassland soils
compared to that in the forest soils at the
depths of 05 and 510 cm. This
difference reflected the more
pronounced drying of the surface soil in
the grassland than in the forest during
the dry seascn.
Table 2. Morphological characteristics of a forest and adjacent grassland soils in Carranglan, Nueva Ecija, Philippines.
Soil
Horizon
Depth
(cm)
Forest
(NF1)
Ot (L)
02 (F)
A
40
very thin
05
7.SYR 2/2
E
515
7.5YR 2/2.5
Btl
1329
7.5YR 3/3.5
Bt2
2951
7.5YR 3/4
Bt3
5171
7.5YR 3/4
Btg
71 I00+
7.5YR 3.5/4
0
A
05
7.5YR 2/2
E
Btl
515
1532
7.5YR 2/2.5
7.5YR 3/3.5
Bt2
3250
7.5YR 3/4
Bt3
5071
7.5YR 3/4
Btg
71101
7.5YR 3.5/4
Ot (L)
A
82
20
05
IOYR 3/3.5
E
512
IOYR 4/5
Btenl
1330
IOYR 4.5/6
Bten2
3049
IOYR 4/6
Btl
4969
IOYR 5/6
Bt2
69100
10YR 5/6
Grass
land
(GL 1)
Forest
(NF2)
02
Color
(moist)
Structure
Other notable features
Strong medium blocky;
moderate fine granular; weak
very fine crumb
Moderate medium and coarse
subangular blocky
Moderate medium and coarse
angular blocky
Weak, medium and coarse
angular blocky
Very weak coarse angular
blocky
Very weak coarse angular
blocky
Many coarse (510 cm) worm
cast aggregates on soil surface;
many mycelia; many mycorrhizae
Common mycelia
Few mycelia; broken thin
cutans; many burrows of soil animals
Continuous moderately thick
cutans
Broken thin cutans
Broken thin cutans
Moderate fine, medium, and
coarse subangular blocky; moderate
very fine and fine angular
Strong, mnedium and coarse subangular blocky
Moderate coarse angular
Broken thin cutans; many coarse
blocky
interstitial pores
Moderate coarse angular
Continuous moderately thick
blocky
cutans; common very coarse
interstitial pores
Weak, coarse, angular blocky Broken thin cutans; few very coarse
interstitial pores
Weak, coarse, angular blocky Patchy thin cutans
Strong, fine medium and coarse Many mycelia; many mycorrhi zae
angular blocky
Strong coarse angular blocky
Very few small spherical red
ironstone and hard spherical black
ironmanganese nodules; common
mycelia on peds
Strong coarse angular blocky
Very few small spherical red
ironstone and hard spherical black
ironmanganese nodules; many
mycelia on peds; broken moderately
thick cutans
Weak coarse angular blocky
Few small soft spherical red ironstone
and very few small hard spherical
black ironmanganese nodules;
common mycelia on peds; broken
moderately thick cutans
Very weak coarse angular,
Few mycelia on peds, broken
blocky
thin cutans
Massive
Very few small soft spherical red
ironstones, nodules; partly thin cutans
201
Table 2. continued.
Soil
Horizon
Pcpth
(cm)
Color
(moist)
Grass
land
(GL2)
0
A
E
Btl
05
510
1032
10YR 3.5/4
10YR 4/6
Bt2
3252
10YR 4/6
Bt3
5269
IOYR 4/6
Btg
691004.
10YR 4.5/6
Structure
Other notable features
Continuous hard thin blackish brown
crusts, probably of algae, on soil
surface
IOYR 3/3
Weak coarse angular blocky
Strong medium coarse angular blocky
Strong coarse angular blocky
Many very coarse interstitial pores;
patchy thin cutans
Moderately coarse angularVery few small soft spherical
blocky
red ironstone nodules, continuous
moderately thick cutans on peds;
common, very coarse interstitial pores
Weak coarse angular blocky
Broken moderately thick cutaiis on
peds; few very coarse interstitial
pores
Massive
Patchy thin cutans
Adapted from Ohta (1990a)
Table 3. Physical properties of forest and adjacent grassland soils in Carranglan, Nueva Ecija.
Depth
(cm)
Bulk
density
Pore space (%)
(g/ml) fine
coarse total
Moisture
content
(%)
Forest
05
510
2530
6570
0.84
1.07
1.49
1.35
34
48
38
39
13
18
9
13
67
66
47
52
26
36
19
24
32
42
2
2
Grass
land
05
510
2530
6570
1.19
1.28
1.48
1.43
30
32
37
40
25
22
I1
12
55
54
48
52
7
14
20
23
19
13
2
3
Forest
05
510
2530
0.84
1.20
1.29
36
43
38
30
13
15
66
56
54
30
30
28
134
18
6
Grass
land
05
510
2530
1.06
1.20
1.32
29
22
35
31
33
17
60
55
52
8
9
20
24
24
10
Soil
Adapted from Ohta (1990a)
202
Hydraulic
conductivity
(ml/min)
Soil Mechanical Composition and Clay
Mineralogy
The mechanical composition of the
forest and grassland soils was basically
similar in both plots (Table 4).
Comparison of the forest and grassland
soils revealed that the clay content of the
top horizon was lower in the forest than
in the grassland. The ratio of the clay
content for the top horizon to the
maximum value within the argillic B
horizons was 1.76 and 1.47 for the 2
forest soils, compared with 1.44 and
1.20 for the corresponding grassland
soils. The higher ratios in the forest soils
Table 4. Mechanical composition of forest and adjacent grassland soils in Carranglan.
Soil
Horizon
Clay
(%)
Silt
(%)
Forest
NFI
A
E
Btl
Bt2
Bt3
Btg
21.7
21.9
30.2
34.2
38.1
37.0
19.5
21.0
16.3
17.2
16.9
20.3
Grass
land
GLI
A
E
Btl
Bt2
Bt3
Btg
26.7
29.5
33.5
35.4
38.4
33.2
Forest
NF2
A
E
Btl
Bt2
Bt3
Btg
Grass
land
GL2
A
E
Btl
Bt2
Bt3
Btg
Fine sand
(%)
Coarse sand
(%)
Texture
28.5
30.1
31.3
27.4
24.4
25.3
20.8
20.6
20.5
19.8
17.7
17.8
CL
CL
LiC
LiC
LiC
LiC
17.3
18.1
17.7
20.4
23.1
22.5
37.2
36.7
35.0
30.1
25.0
27.5
14.6
14.4
13.3
13.5
12.5
14.6
LiC
LiC
LiC
LiC
LiC
LiC
30.7
41.8
44.9
45.0
38.4
36.8
24.1
23.1
27.3
24.0
31.3
32.1
13.9
13.5
12.1
12.8
11.5
12.6
24.3
21.8
17.9
17.7
20.0
18.1
LiC
LiC
LiC
HC
LiC
LiC
35.2
39.0
42.2
42.1
40.5
38.6
23.5
21.4
21.7
23.6
25.1
27.1
16.9
15.1
15.6
16.5
16.2
16.4
24.1
22.1
19.9
18.5
18.7
19.4
LiC
LiC
LiC
LiC
LiC
LiC
Adapted from Ohta (1990a)
203
Table 5. Clay mineral composition of forest and adjacent grassland soils in Carranglan.
Soil
Horizon
Kaolinite
Montmorillonite Vermiculite
Alvermiculite
NF I
GI. I
ABtg
ABtl
Bt2Btg
ABt2
Ab
++
++
++
+
+
+
+/-
+/-
+/-
+
NF2
GL2
++-
++++
++++
Xray reflection intensity: i++
=
very strong; ++ = moderate; + = weak; +/- = trace.
Adapted from Ohta (1990a)
may suggest the existence of a stronger
clay eluviation in the soil under forest
cover due to greater hydraulic
conductivity than under grassland. The
clay content of the surface soil of the
grassland may have increased due to the
enhancement of the truncation of sandy
topsoils after deforestation.
Clay mineral composition of the two
types of soils is summarized in Table 5.
The forest and grassland soils belonged
to the same kind of soil in terms of
genesis, and prolonged grassland
conditions following deforestation had
not appreciably affected clay
mineralogy,
than in the grassland soil by 104 and
43% for Ploti and Plot 2, respectively
(Table 6). There were differences also
in the nitrogen content between the
forest and grassland soils. These
findings suggest that deforestation and
the subsequent prolonged grassland
conditions had resulted in a distinct
decrease in amount of organic matter of
the surface soil due to the lower supply
and more rapid consumption of organic
matter. However, the carbon and
nitrogen contents of the subsoils were
not affected by the changes in
vegetation. The differences in the
vegetation conditions affected the C:N
ratio of the soil. In both plots, the values
were clearly lower in the A and E
horizons of the forest soils than in those
of the grassland. This may be associated
with the higher soil fauna activity in the
forest soils, promoted by the steady
supply of organic matter to the soils and
better soil environment in terms of
acidity and moisture conditions. This
also implies that in the grassland soils,
nitrogen is depleted and removed from
the system more extensively through
leaching and repeated burning than in
the forest soils.
Soil Chemical Propetr,ies
Table 6 summarizes some chemical
parameters of the two soils. The forest
soil (NFl) showed higher pH (H 2 0)
values than the grassland soil (GL 1)
throughout the sola, the difference being
particularly conspicuous in the A and E
horizons. This indicates that
acidification of the A horizon and
sometimes of even the E and Bt horizons
had taken place in the grassland soils.
The carbon content of the A horizon
was significantly higher in the forest soil
204
Table 6. Chemical characteristics of forest and adjacent grassland soils it? Carranglan.
CEC
Exch. Base
(meq/
(meQ/0I0g)
00g) Ca
Mg K
Avail
Base able P
Satur (P2 0 2
ation ppm)
Hon
zon
pH
H20
KCL
C
(%)
N
(%)
C/N
Forest
NFl
A
E
Btl
Bt2
Bt3
Big
6.48
6.69
6.19
6.11
6.32
6.42
5.69
5.64
4.69
4.30
4.41
4.41
4.65
3.14
1.35
0.73
0.64
0.53
0,34
0.28
0.13
0.08
0.07
0.06
13.6
11.4
10.2
9.5
9.7
8.6
32.5
29.4
22.4
21.6
.14.1
25.9
27.1
21.0
13.6
13.2
15.6
17.7
6.00
5.24
4.13
4.38
4.32
4.20
0.89 0.35 105.4 52.4
0.67 0.89 94.5 16.1
0.71 1.19 8/.5
5.7
0.68 1.06 89.4
3.4
0.20 0.28 84.7
3.0
0.18 0.29 86.5
5.0
Grass
land
GL,l
A
E
Btl
Bt2
B3
Btg
5.70
5.42
5.55
5.80
6.10
6.17
4.32
3.92
4.01
4.20
4.29
4.30
2.27
1.75
1.13
0.64
0.45
0.40
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.06
0.04
0.04
17.5
15.8
12.8
10.4
11.3
10.1
22.6
22.7
23.6
24.8
27.2
27.4
9.25
9.11
10.5
11.7
14.0
14.4
6.18
5.79
6.88
7.58
8.22
7.80
0.62
0.59
0.78
0.56
0.49
0.47
0.22
0.58
1.48
0.71
0.74
0.99
72.1
70.9
83.4
82.8
86.4
86.5
7.3
3.4
1.4
1.0
0.6
1.4
Forest
NF2
A
E
Btl
Bt2
Bt3
Big
6.09
5.21
5.02
4.92
5.08
5.20
5.25
4.00
3.89
3.80
3.90
3.98
3.19
0.90
0.51
0.65
0.32
0.29
0.25
0.07
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.02
12.7
12.9
14.1
15.1
12.8
12.1
17.3
8.20
8.27
8.35
7.88
8.07
14.0
2.25
1.22
1.19
1.82
2.76
5.79
2.31
1.66
1.82
1.21
1.26
0.66
0.43
0.12
0.96
0.32
0.10
0.99 123.9
0.53 67.3
0.42 41.5
0.89 58.2
0.45 48.2
0.45 56.6
9.1
1.7
1.0
1.4
1.0
0.6
Grass
land
GL2
A
E
Bil
Bt2
Bt3
Big
5.40
4.99
4.90
5.10
5.13
5.20
4.30
3.91
3.93
3.99
4.00
4.05
2.23
1.59
1.03
0.62
0.49
0.43
0.15
0.11
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.03
14.8
14.9
14.1
13.2
12.6
12.6
9.64
8.66
7.79
6.50
6.74
6.74
2.37
1.58
1.28
1.51
1.58
1.84
1.59
0.55
0.46
0.38
0.35
0.43
0.53
0.14
0.32
0.19
0.35
0.36
0.37
0.50
0.42
0.23
0.47
0.48
8.3
2.9
1.4
1.0
0.2
0.2
Soil
Na
50.3
32.0
31.8
35.5
40.7
46.2
Adapted from Ohta (1990a)
The cation exchange capacity (CEC)
value .f the A horizon was higher in the
forest soil than in the grassland soil in
each plot, while in the underlying
horizons the values did not differ (Table
6). The higher carbon contents may be
soil showed higher exchangeable Ca2>
contents than the grassland soil for the
upper horizons. There was no consistent
pattern in the exchangeable Mg2+.
Sligntly higher exchangeable Na+ and
K+ were observed between the forest and
responsible for the higher CEC in the
grassland soils. The forest soil showed
surface soils of the forest. The forest
high base saturation percentages for the
205
was slightly higher in forest soils than in
grassland soils. This pattern was
associated with the lower supply of fresh
organic materials and more rapid
decomposition of soil organic matter in
the grassland soils. Forest soils
contained low humified humic acid,
especially in the surface horizons
because a large amount of fresh organic
matter was supplied continuously. In the
grassland soils, however, the
humification of humic acids proceeded
to a greater extent. especially in the
upper layers because tht/ contained
highly hurnified humic acid with a
higher resistance to microbial attack due
to the lower supply and prolonged
decomposition of organic matter.
Repeated burning may also result in
highly humified humic acid in grassland
soils.
Ohta (1990a) concluded that
deforestation and subsequent p:olonged
grassland condition alters soil properties,
particularly in the surface soils. After
removal of forest cover, the topsoil
temperature rises and steady inputs of
organic matter and other nutrients are
interrupted. As a result, organic matter
in the topsoil rapidly decomposes, and
the nutrients released are partially
absorbed by the grass, while excess
nutrients (particularly calcium and
nitrogen) are lost by leaching and
increased erosion, without sufficient
replenishment. Repeated burning of
grass further quickens the nitrogen loss
from the system. The depletion of
organic matter, bace status, and soil
acidity decreases soil fauna activity.
Meanwhile, the decrease in nitrogen
fixation may accompany soil
deterioration. Reduced organic matter
content, base status. and fauna activity
may decrease the soil aggregate stability,
resulting in deteriorated soil physicai
A and E horizons compared with the
corresponding horizon in the grassland
soils. Deforestation and subsequent
proionged grassland conditions are
likely to have caused the deterioration of
the base status in the surface soils
particularly in the case of exchangeable
Ca 2 .
Available phosphorus (P) concen
tration, which was highest in the A
horizon, decreased with depth; however
no clear change of the value was noticed
within the B horizon (Table 6). The
exceptionally high value of the available
P content in Plot I (52.4 ppm) was
observed in the A horizon of the forest
soil which contrasted with a modest 7.3
ppm in the corresponding horizon of the
grassland soil.
Forest soils contained 5 to I0times
more available nitrogen than the
grassland soils in the A and E horizons
in PlotI and in the A horizon in Plot2.
The formation of inorganic nitrogen was
le.ss abundant in the A horizons of the
grassland soils than in those of the forest
soils. Nitrification rate was also higher
(70.299.7%) in the forest soils.
Duforestation impeded nitrification
through the decline of soil acidity. Thus
forest soils were more fertile than
grasslandsoils in terms of available
nitrogen, especially in the surface soil.
Nitrogzn in the grassland soil was
depleted and removed from the system
by repeated burning and less efficient
utilization by grasses during a long
peri, I of time, thus the proportion of
the nitrogenous compounds relatively
resistant to microbial attack was higher
in the scils under grassland conditions.
Soil Huntls Composition
The patterns of humus composition
revealed that the extraction rate (Ce/Ct)
206
properties and decreased infiltration,
The restiltant increased runzDff and
erosion may further accelerate the
depletion of organic matter and nutrient
status. As a consequence, the topsoil of
the grassland eventually contains organic
matter more resistant to the attacks of
microorganisms, evidenced by the lower
nitrogen availability and the higher
hurnification of humic acid compared to
the foiest soil.
Ohta (1990a) further concluded that
in order to interrupt the vicious cycle of
deterioration in the soil quality and to
conserve grassland soils, it is essential to:
protect the soil surface from erosion
hazards, increase the content of organic
matter and nitrogen, and improve the
base status of the soil. Planting the area
with fastgrowing, nitrogenfixing trees
appears to be one of the most sensible
strategies to achieve this objective,
Effecis of Reforestation with Acacia
Species on DegradedGrasslandSoils
Of the many studies available on the
effects of reforestation of degraded
grasslands with Acacia species, three are
presented here.
lacked the 0 horizon altogether. The
soil structure in the topsoil was more
highly developed in the plantations than
in the grasslands. In Ploti, the surface
soil of the plantation (FI) contained a
large number of fine roots of Acacia
and earthworm casts; the adjacent
grassland (Gl) showed no remarkable
evidence of soil fauna activity. Acacias'
welldeveloped root system is considered
to reduce the risk of soil erosion. On the
other hand, in the Pinus plantation, no
such Strong soil animal activity was
noticed. Many mycelia were found in
the topsoil of the Pinus plantation (F2),
but they were absent in the adjacent
grassland soil. Acacia considerably
improved the morphology of the topsoil
due to the enriched soil fauna activity
and well developed rooting system,
whereas Pinus did not ameliorate it
appreciably and had an adverse effect
due to the presence of mycelia. The
differences in tree leaf characteristics,
which control soil fauna activity, and in
the root system seem to be most closely
related to the morphological
improvement of the soils under tree
growth.
Soil Physical Properties
Case Study 1
Ohta (1990b) studied the influence
of grassland reforestation on soils in
plantations of 5yearold Acacia
auriculiformisaad 8yearold Pinus
kesiya.
Bulk densities for the 05 cm layer
of the plantation soils were distinctly
lower (1.2 and 1.23 g/ml) than those of
the grassland soils (I .32 and 1.35 g/ml)
(Table 8). The bulk density of the 510
cm layer was lower in the plantation soil
than in the grassland soil in PlotI,
whereas it was similar in Plot 2. Fine
pore percentage slightly increased from
05 to 510 cm layers, while the coarse
pore percentage decreased with depth in
each soil. The percentage of fine and
coarse pore spaces for the 05 cm layer
was slightly higher in the soil under tree
Soil Morphology
Table 7 summarizes the
mor'phological characteristics of the 0
and Aul (0or A) horizons. In both plots,
O horizons of the plantation soils
consisted of a L layer or L and thin F
layers. In contrast, both grassland soils
207
Table 7. Morphological changes of the surface grassland soil aftei establishment with Acacia
auriculiformis and Pinus kesiya plantation in Carranglan.
Aul or AHorizon
Plot
Soil
0 Horizon
Structure
Other features
Plot I
Grassland
G1
No 0 horizon
Very weak medium and
coarse blocky and weak,
very fine granular in
uppermost part
Continuous thin soil crusts
on the soil surface
Aca,:ia
plantation
FI
2 cm thick L
and F layers
Strong fine and medium
blocky and moderate very
fine and fine granular in
the uppermost part
Common worm casts on the
soil surface; abundant fine
roots of A. auriculiformis
Grassland
G2
No 0 horizon
Weak medium subangular
blocky atul fine granular
in the uppermost part
Pinus
plantation
F2
2 cm thick L
layer; no F layer
Strong medium and coarse
subangular blocky and
moderate fine granular in
thi. uppermost part.
Plot 2
Abundant mycelia in the
upper part and many
mycelia in the lower part.
Adapted from Ohta (1990b)
growth than in the grassland in both
plots. The total pore space percentage
of the 05 cm layer was higher for the
plantation than for the grassland in both
plots, though the values for the 510 cm
layer were similar in the soils under
different cover types.
Moisture content of fresh samples of
the grassland soils was very low (26%)
in the 05 cm layer (Table 8). In
contrast, moisture rcontent of the
plantation soil gave higher figures in the
range of 912%. The soils of the tree
plantations retained more water than the
grassland b) 4055 t/ha respectively in
PlotI and Plot2 in the 010 cm layer
during the dry season.
Hydraulic conductivity ranged
widely from 3 to 50 nil/min and was
affected by reforestation depending on
the tree specie. (Table 8). The value
increased markedly with reforestation in
Plot I (with Acacia), especially in the 05 cm layer, and agrees with the
morphological characteristics such as the
abundant fine roots of Acacia and the
welldeveloped soil structure. In Plot 2,
however, the hydraulic conductivity
decreased with plantation establshement
in spite of the improved soil structure.
This was attributed to the water
repellency acquired by the soil under
Pinus growth, which contained many
mycelia.
The soils' physical properties were
significantly improved after
reforestation, as indicated by the
increases in bulk density and total pore
208
Table 8. Physical changes of the surface grassland soil after plantation establishment in
Carranglan, Nueva Ecija.
Bulk
density
Pore space (%)
(g/..l) fine
coarse total
Moisture
content
(%)
Hydraulic
conductivity
(m/min)
Plot
Soil
Depth
(cm)
Plot I
Grass
land
05
510
1.32
1.46
21
27
28
18
49
45
2
I1
5
Acacia 05
510
1.20
1.32
23
25
32
22
55
47
9
1i
50
16
Grass
land
0-5
510
1.35
1.44
25
27
24
19
49
47
6
10
18
6
Pinus
05
1.23
29
25
54
12
10
510
1.43
34
13
48
14
3
Plot 2
4
Adapted from Ohta (1990b)
space distribittion (Table 8). The
improvement of the physical properties,
however, seems to be limited to t!z thin
surface soils. The promotion of the soil
fauna activity by steady organic matter
supply and improved soil environment,
and the dense distribution of tree roots
of Acacia may account for the physical
improvement of the surface soils. But
Pinus plantations may have an adverse
effect on infiltration due to mycelial
development.
associated with accelerated organic
matter decomposition, and partly to the
decrease in the content of exchangeable
cations associated with intensive uptake
by the trees and soil fauna.
Total carbon and total nitrogen
contents significantly decreased with
reforestation in the 05 and 510 cm
layers of Plot land in the 05 cm layer
of Plot 2. The decrease was observed
only in plantations at the early stage of
tree growth, as soil organic matter level
tends to build up as the forest grows
older.
Ohta (1990b) concloded 'hat
reforestation affected the nutrient
dynamics of the plantsoil system by
causing a significant decrease in pH
values, carbon and nitrogen contents,
CEC, and exchangeable Ca 2+ of the
surface soils during the early stages of
tree growth. As the planted trees grow,
they supply increasing amounts of fresh
Soil Chemical Properties
The pH values (H 20 and KCI) both
decreased significantly with reforestation
in the 05 and 510 cm layers. pH of
the surface soil in plantations was Io.,er
than the grassland soils, contrary to
expectations. Ohta (1990b) ascribed the
lower pH in the plantation soils to
increased production of organic acids
209
organic matter rich in mineralizable
nutrients to the soil due to the increase in
biomass production. Trees improve soil
moisture by providing shade. The
resultant enhancement of soil fauna
activity promotes organic matter
decomposition and decreases the
contents f total carbon and nitrogen in
the surface soils, because the organic
matter replenishment is not large enough
to exceed mineralization during the
early stage of the plantations. Enhanced
activity of the soil fauna also improves
soil physical properties. The reduction
in organic matter content resuits in
decreased CEC.
Case Study 2
The effects of Acacia auriculiformis
and Gmnelina arborea plantations on soil
properties of a degraded grassland were
studied by Dela Cruz and Luna (1992).
Contiguous stands of eight (Aa8) and
twoyearold (Aa2) A. auriculiformisand
eightyearold (Ga8) G. arboreawere
selected, along with an adjacent
grassland. Average heights at the end of
the study were 980, 230, and 260 cm;
diameter at breast height was 15, 3.5, and
5.6 cm, respectively for the three stands.
The crowns of Aa8 were almost closed
and the forest floor was covered with
thick litter, which was absent in the Aa2
and Ga8 stands.
Litterfall and Leaf Litter Decomposition
Records of the mean monthly
litterfall in the three stands show that,
except for two months, Aa8 consistently
produced the greatest amount of litter.
Total annual litterfall in the older A.
auriculiformis plots amounted to 1338
kg/ha, while that of G. arboreaplots of
the sane age was only 498.5 kg/ha.
Litter decomposed fastest in the
Gmelina plots, followed by the Aa8 and
Aa2 plantations. The high
decomposition rate in Ga8 was partly
due to the high activity of termites under
the stand. The faster litter
decomposition under the older acacia
plantation versus the younger plot was
attributed to Lhe favorable microclimate
and probabiy to the presence of more
active soil flora and fauna.
Soil Bulk density
A marked improvement in bulk
density among stands was observed, with
Acacia auriculiformisimproving soil
bulk density better than G. arborea.
This is probably due to the higher
organic matter content and biological
activity of the stands, particularly in the
A. auriculiformisplots. Bulk density
values for the Aa8, Aa2, Ga8, and
grassland soils were 1.32, 1.41, 1.52 and
1.56 g/cc, respectively.
Soil Moisture
Soil moisture content during the dry
months was improved in the Aa8 stand.
The thick litter under this stand reduced
evaporation from and increased moisture
retention in the surface soil.
Furthermore, the lower air and soil
temperatures and higher relative
humidity in that stand minimized soil
moisture losses. These influences were
nil in the Gmelina stand, where there was
much less litter and it decomposed more
quickly.
Soil .PH
Initially, fluctuiations in pH values
occurred with no marked variations.
After a fire razed the area, the pH values
of the Aa8 and Aa2 soils peaked to 6.5
210
and 5.7, respectively, above the values
for the grassland and unburned Aa8
plots. This was attributed to the
deposition of basesrich ash, particularly
in both acacia plots. After II months,
effects of fire on soil pH was no longer
evident as heavy rainfall had washed
away the ash.
The unburned Aa8 plot generally
had the lowest pH values, perhaps due to
the increased production of organic
acids associated with accelerated organic
matter decomposition and the more
favorable microclimate in this stand.
Soil Organic Matter
Organic matter content was generally
higher under the older Acacia stand,
followed by Gmnelina, the younger
Acacia stand, and grassland soil (Figure
la). This trend reflected the amount of
litterfall in the plantations, absence of
litter in the grassland, and possibly
variations in activities of soil organisms.
Total Nitrogen
Total soil nitrogen content was most
improved under Aa8 (Figure lb), due to
its high amount of Nrich litter derived
from associated Nfixation. The
improved microclimatic conditions
favored the activity of Nfixing
organisms in this legume. The soils
under Ga8 and Aa2 exhibited higher N
contents than the grassland soil.
Analysis found Aa8 litter to contain
1.56% N. At a litterfall rate of 1338
kg/ha/year, this leads to an estimated total
litterfalladded N of about 20.87
kg/ha/year.
Available phosphorus
Availability of phosphorus (P) was
enhanced under Aa8 (Figure 2a). This
reflected a well developed mycorrhizal
association which enabled more efficient
P uptake from the Pdeficient soil.
Mycorrhiza increase P uptake by
secreting oxalates which bind with
precipitating cations (aluminum, iron,
and manganese), thus releasing
phosphate ions into the soil solution.
Another possible mechanism is a greater
activity of phosphatase enzymes, which
release organic P into available forms.
Analysis of litter P content showed
0.18% for both Aa8 and Ga8, leading to
estimated P return from litterfall of 2.41
and 0.73 kg P/ha/year, respectively.
Exchangeable K. Ca and Mg
Soil exchangeable K exhibited
seasonal fluctuations in all sites (Figure
2b). Burning markedly increased
exchangeable K in the Aa8, Aa2 and
grassland plots due to deposition of
basesrich ash on the soil surface.
Exchangeable Ca and Mg of the soils at
the four sites also fluctuated over time.
Values were generally lower under Aa8
and Ga8 than under Aa2 and grassland
area. This decrease in exchangeable K,
Ca, and Mg suggests that they are
intensively absorbed by the actively
growing trees and soil fauna, particularly
during early growth.
Case Study 3
Chakraborty and Chakraborty
(1989) studied changes in soil properties
under two, three, and fouryearold
211
4.5
4.0
3.5
d 3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
(a)
.20
.15
.10
.05
0
3
4 1909 4
M
,J
Mt
4-
M
1990
A
0
4
,J M
1991+
months
(b)
Figure 1. Bimonthly values of (a) organic matter and (b) total nitrogen under A. auriculiformis,
Gnelina arborea, and grassland at 05 cm depth. Source: Dela Cruz and Luna 1992
212
8.0
n
a4.0
U
fj
h[
Au8
000
oo
An O(biirnod)
Aop
6~0~1
OlQ110
ooo
.16
.14
.12
.10
r)
.06
LI
.04
.02
J 4188o s)4I M
J
Mj
M1990
A
0N
+J 1991*M
monthe
Figure 2. Bimonthly values of (a) soilavailable phosphorus and (b) exchangeable potassium
under A. auriculifornis,Gmelina arborea, and grassland at 05 cm depth. Source: Dela Cruz and
Luna 1992
213
m
A. auriculiformisplantations in Tripura
West, India. Soil pH increased from 5.9
(in barren soil), to 6.7 at ages two and
three years, and to 7.6 at age four years
(Table 9). Under the same plantations,
electric conductivity increased from 27.2
to 48.4 mhos/cm; waterholding capacity
increased from 0.364 to 0.504%; and
potassium content increased from 0.81
to 2.70%; nitrogen increased from 0.364
to 0.504%; and potassium content
increased from 5.45 to 7.10 mg/lit. The
significant changes in physicochemical
properties particularly in the 34 year
old plantations were attributed to the
species' fast growth, high increase in
biomass production, and fast rates of leaf
litter return. Increase in nitrogen may
also be attributed to the trees' Nfixation.
Control of Surface Soil Erosion
Wiersum (1983) summarizes the
protective role of vegetation against
surface soil erosion:
2. Leaves break the initial erosive
power of rain.
3. Surface vegetation and litter
protect the soil directly against
the erosive force of falling
waterdrops and surface runoff.
Vegetation and litter also prevent
the clogging of soil pores, which
would decrease infiltration and
increase surface ninoff.
4. Decomposition of tree leaf litter
increases the topsoil's humus
content, creating optimal
conditions for water permeability
and general aggregate stability.
Thus vegetation affects both the
erosive agentsrainfall and soilby
influencing the properties of the two
media.
Wiersum (1983) studied the effects
of various vegetation layers in an A.
auriculiformisforest plantation on
surface erosion in Java, Indonesia.
Throughfall within the plantation was
80.4% of gross rainfall and stemflow was
7.8%. Thus net rainfall in the plantation
was 88.2% of the incident rainfall. He
observed that many throughfall drops
I. Rainfall interception decreases
the quantity of water reaching the
soil and alters the spatial
distribution of that water through
stem flow and throughfall, with
concentrated drip points.
Table 9. Physicochernical properties of soil under A. auriculiformisplantation.
Treatment
Color
pH
Waterholding
Capacity
(%)
Contrc,l
2 years
3 years
4 years
10 YR 6/4
10 YR 7/4
7.5 YR 5/2
7.5 YR 5/4
5.9
6.7
6.7
7.6
27.2
29.5
43.4
48.4
Adapted from Chakraborty and Chakraborty (1989)
214
Organic
Carbon
(%)
Nitrogen
(%)
22.9
0.96
2.27
2.70
0.364
0.370
0.462
0.504
Potassium
(mg/lit.)
5.45
5.85
6.60
7.10
were distinctly larger than raindrops.
In addition to throughfall, some
precipitation reaches the forest floor as
stemflow, causing a local concentration
of water around stems, which might
cause increased runoff and rill erosion.
The author showed that th presence of a
direct soil cover is the single most
important vegetation factor protecting
the soil. The sustained presence of litter
is ensured by the litter production
capacity of the tree canopies. This litter
decomposes gradually, resulting in
increased humus and decreased
erodibility.
Wiersum (1983) concluded that the
protective influence of forest vegetation
on surface soil erosion depends mostly
c.1 the vegetation's influence on the
interface between erosive agent (rainfall)
and the eroded medium (soil), rather
than on its direct influence on these two
properties. The effect of trees on
rainfall has a variable and often negative
effect, while the positive effect of humus
incorporation on the soil will be
developed over longer periods. It is the
proper functioning of the forest
ecosystem, rather than the presence of
trees, that is important for erosion
control.
Water Conservation
In preparing the current paper, the
author found nothing in the literature
concerning the effects of Acacia
plantation on water conservation, water
absorption rates by trees,
evapotranspiration rates, effects of
plantations on water quality, on water
yield, and other waterbased parameters.
These are large gaps in Acacia research.
215
Nutrient Storage and Release
Effect on Soil Nitrogen Mineralization
BernhardReversat (1988) compared
the rate of soil nitrogen mineralization
under a Eucalyptus camaldulensis
plantation and a natural Acacia seyal
forest in Senegal. The Acacia forest had
consistently higher organic carbon and
nitrogen content at all soil aepths
compared to that under Eucalyptus
plantations. Mineralizable nitrogen,
measured by 20 days in vitro incubation,
averaged 4050 ppm in Acacia soil and
1114 ppm in Eucalyptus soil, and
reached 3.5 and 2.3%, respectively, of
total N. Mineralization was related to
precipitation, and ranged from 18 to 40
ppm over 4 weeks during the rainy
season i. the Acacia stand, where 710% of total N was mineralized each
year. Under Eucalyptus stands, N
mineralization reached only 10 ppm
over 3 weeks in the beginning of the
rainy season, and then decreased
sharply. This study showed that a
legume forest (A. seyal) contained more
carbon and nitrogen and had a higher
rate of nitrogen mineralization than a E.
camaldulensis plantation.
Venkataramanan et al. (1983)
studied the chemical composition and
total quantity of leaf litter from
plantations of Eucalyptus globulus and
Acacia inearnsiiin Tamil Nadu, India.
E. globulus leaf litter added 1935 kg/ha
annually, while A. mearnsii added 960
kg/ha. The authors concluded that
recycling of nutrients in both plantations
keeps the land highly fertile, with rich
top soil and dense vegetation.
Conservation of Soil Micro and
Macrofauna
Niijima and Yamane (1991) studied
the effects of reforestation on soil fauna,
using stands of Leucaena leucocephala,
Gmelina arborea,Pinus kesiya, and
Acacia auriculiformisestablished in a
degraded grassland. Grassland tracts
with Theineda triandra(samon) and
Imperata cylindrica (cogon), and parts
of a natural dipterocarp forest, were
selected as controls. In each stand, soil
animals, microarthropods, and
microfauna (including earthworms) were
determined.
Soil Microarthropods
Figure 3 shows the vertical
distribution of soil microarthropods in
each vegetation type. The numbers of
Collembola and Hemiptera decreased
during the dry season. The number of
mites decreased in the dry season in the
Acacia plantation, while it was almost the
same in both seasons at the other plots,
The reforested stands had relatively large
populations of microarthropods in the
wet season. On the other hand, there
were few microarthropods in the samon
grasslands and the natural forest.
Soil Macrofauna
Figure 4 shows the vertical
distribution of soil macrofauna. In the
dry season, soil macrofauna was found
mainly in the 05 cm or 510 cm soil
layers. In the wet season, soil
macrofauna was found mainly in the
uppermost 05 cm soil layer with the
exception of ants in G. arborea.
Earthworms were the dominant
group among macrofauna (Figure 5),
and were found in almost all plots in the
wet season, while in the dry season, they
were found only in the forested plots.
Egg capsules of earthworms were found
in the forested plots in both seasons, in
the Imperata grassland only in the wet
season, and none in the samon grassland.
The earthworms, consisting of one
species of Megascolides and two species
of Lumbricidae, seemed to live in the
forest during the dry season and spread
their distribution to grasslands during
the wet season.
Termites wetc " hundant in plots 1, 2,
and 3 in the dry season. Some termite
mounds with 60100 cm in diameter and
35100 cm in height were observed at
Acacia stands. The material for the
mounds appeared to come from the soil
at 50 cm below the surface.
Reforestation enriched the Class or
Order composition of soil macrofauna.
The number of Class or Order of
macrofauna was 35 at the Samon
grassland, 69 at the Samon grassland
with G. arborea or with Acacia, 510 in
Imperata grassland, and 813 in the
forests.
Total number of soil macrofauna
was 6,864 individuals/m 2 in maximum at
the Samon grassland with G. arborea,
where ants were abundant. Total
biomass was 41.3 g/m 2 in maximum at
the Acacia plantation in wet season,
where earthworms were abundant.
CastProductionby Earthworms
Earthworms deposited 40 g/m 2/day
(air dry weight) of casts in the Imperata
grassland, I I g/m 2 in the G. arborea
plantation, and 29 g/m 2 in the Acacia
plantation. These correspond to 5.2, 1.4,
and 1.1 g/standing crop of earthworms
(g wet weight)/day.
Niijima and Yamane (1991)
concluded that reforestation of
216
Acari na
1500
U
/
Col lembola
/
Hemnijptera
U
z
1000 "
'
k[
The others
Q)
E
500
'/
,Z/7
o OF
Sarnp1lin
to 1o
CO
to
rl
LC tO
CCO CO
da te
IC)
"D
LrO
IC
cO
O
CO
COD
CO
W0~4
Qj
ru
Lrf -D
Plot No.
Block
LO
No.
1
CC. M1.
LV)
2
WWCrrJ
/r
3
U
U
ru
4_
U
4)
U
CD
C
CD
-D
C)
c
8
9
6
57
7
91
90
Figure 3. Number of soil microarthropods per 100 cm2 , 010 cm depth at the samon grasslands
(plots 1,6, and 8), the Imperata grassland (plot 2), 'he Leucaena plantation (plot 3), the Acacia
plantation (plot 7) and natural forest (plot 9). Source: Nijima and Yamane (1991)
217
0
400
800
0
12
2000
Numbe.r
100
0
Scm depth
0
0
0
0.000000
400
_
0
400
_0
..
oooo0o00000
1
I0
o1oo
2-
101
"
Cogon
10
Giant
3
Acacia
ipil-ipil
Saon
20
20
20
Dry season
0
200
400
0
0
-10
20
Cogon
100
Wet season
0
100
20C
l0
27
lo
10 1
10
Ian,
ac 1
20.
30
0
100
200
0
10
9
Natural
forest
20
[E Spicers
EiThe
'- Termites
others
Figure 4. Vertical distribution of soil macrofauna in the dry season (Jan.
2829, 1986) and in
the wet season (Aug.
1421, 1986) under samon grassland (plot I), Imperata grassland (plot
2),
Leucaera plantation (plot 3), yemane plantation (plot 4), Acacia plantation
(plot 7), and natural
forest (plot 9). Source: Nijima and Yamane (1991)
218
40
UEathworms
ESnai1s
17Te rmi tes
"The
others
30
E
0
E
0
00
l0
Sampling
date
Plot No.
Block No.
100
P
...
;U--i
..
)==0
LO,'
I.)
UD -
1
2
n I'-D
3
=
<
<:
C)<
4
5
.6
57
(0=-"
C D
7
91
<
U
C
CD,
8
9
90
Figure 5. Biomass of soil wicrofauna per m2, 010 cm depth under samon grassland (plots 1, 6,
and 8), Imperatagrassland (plot 2), Leucaenaplantation (phrt 3), yemane plantation (plot 4), Pinus
plantation (plot 5), Acacia plantation (plot 7), and natural forest (plot 9). Source: Nijima and
Yamane (1991)
219
grasslands helped to reduce soil
temperature during the daytime and to
the increase of litter supply. These
changes provide favorable environments
for soil fauna, and tend to increase their
numbers, biomass, an species
composition (Class or Order).
Acacia trees transpired much water
during the dry season, and the soil was
so desiccated that the number of soil
fauna, especially soil microarthropods,
decreased. The soil under L.
leucocephalaseems not be as dry as the
Acacia soil because the trees had been
defoliated by Heteropsylla cubana and
did not transpire much water.
Collembolans and earthworms were
abundant only in the wet season,
reflecting the moist condition in soil.
These groups indicate soil conditions,
Soil macrofauna, especially earthworms,
enhanced litter decomposition and
accelerated turnover rates of nurients.
and the more exposed Ga8 and Aa2
plots. A peak in high light intensity was
observed at 1:00 PM.
Relative humidity was generally
higher in the Aa8 stands; lowest values
occurred in the more exposed Ga8 and
grassland areas.
Hourly variations in soil temperature
among the four sites were most marked
"nlyon the soil surface (Figure 6a) and
at 5 cm (Figure 6b) depths. Soil
temperature was consistently highest in
the grassland and Aa2 sites and
generally decreased with increasing soil
depth. A peak in surface soil
temperature occurred at 1:00 PM.
The study suggests that specie with
deeper crowns and more foliage, such as
A. auriculiformis, foster a more stable
microclimate. This stability favors soil
moisture conservation and better soil
organic matter content due to more
favorable activity of soil organisms.
In the study by Niijima and Yamane
(1991), soil temperature was lower than
air temperature in the forest and
plantation; this was the reverse in the
grasslands (Figure 7). The soil
temperature in the forested areas were
2.45.9'C lower than those in the
grasslands during daytime.
Microclimate Amelioration
In the study cited earlier, Dela Cruz
and Luna (1992) also studied the effects
of the older and younger A.
auriculiformis and G. arborea
plantations and an Imperata grassh.nd
on such microclimatic parameters,
including air and soil temperature, light
intensity, and relative humidity. G.
arboreaconsistently showed the highest
air temperature, followed by the
grassland site. Lowest air temperatures
were obtained in the older A.
aurictdiformisstand, with the most
marked difference in air temperature
occurring at 1:00 PM.
Hourly light intensity was
considerably decreased in the older A.
auriculiformisstand. Highest light
intensity was observed in the grassland
Allelopathic Effects of Acacias
Not all of the environmental effects
of Acacia plantations are positive.
Swaminathan et al. (1989) studied the
effects of aqueous extracts of bark and
leaf of A. nilotica for potential
inhibitory effects on eight arable crops
(sorghum, cotton, cowpea, sunflower,
eggplaot, tomato, chillis, and lady's
finger). The extracts significantly
inhibited seed germination,. and also
affected radicle and plumule growth.
220
55
40
40
O
000
38
A
aoH
Gland 04-
30
25
(a)
48
30
Z43o
28L
9'00 WOO I100 11O0 IOO MltO
tlme of doy
(b)
OO
00
Figure 6. Soil temperature under different forest stands and grassland, measured at (a) soil
surface and (b) 5cm depth. Source: Dela Cruz and Luna (1992)
221
Temperature 0 C
30
30
25
A
im above
ground
~
a
L
*=4
zl
surface
.j
)
-c m
cm
0
X
Soil
-10
35
J
0
Block 90
Block 91
Figure 7. Vertical distribution of temperature. Source: Niijima and Yamane (1991)
222
Bark extract caused greater inhibition
than the leaf extracts. It was assumed
that the effective substances were
phytotoxins, mostly tannin, present in
the extracts. Tomato was the most
susceptible crop, and sunflower was the
least susceptible.
implications. Acacia plantations can
help remove this greenhouse gas from
the atmosphere and thus reduce air
pollution. The other roles, also
important, are felt more at the national
or local (microsite) levels. Possible
harmful effects of Acacia plantations on
other crops, through production of
allelophatic compounds, have been
reported.
Conclusions
Can Acacia plantations assist in
environmental conservation? Yes, data
show that indeed acacias can do this and
more, through:
Dr.Reynaldo dela Cruz is Professor,
College of Forestryand Directorof the
National Institutes of Biotechnology and
Applied Microbiology, University of the
Philippinesat Los Bahos, College,
Laguna 4031, Philippines.
1. conseivation of CO 2 by fixation
during photosynthesis and
immobilization in the biomass of
standing trees
References
2. conservation of soils
BemhardReversat, F. 1988. Soil nitrogen
mineralization under aEucalyptus plantation
and a natural Acacia forest in Senegal. For.
Ecol. Mgt. 23:233244.
Chakraborty, R.N. and D. Chakraborty. 1989.
Changes in soil properties under A.
auriculiformis plantations in Tripura. Indian
Forester 115(4):272273.
Dela Cruz, L.U. and A.C. Luna. 1992. Effects of
Acacia auriculiformis and Gmelina arborea on
soil and microclimate of a degraded grassland
in Nueva Ecija, Philippines. Paper presented
3. improvement of degraded
grassland soil morphology,
physicochemical properties,
mechanical composition, clay
mineralogy, and soil humus
composition
4. nutrient storage and release
5. conservation of micro and
macrofauna
at an International Symposium on
Rehabilation of Degraded Grasslands, held
6. amelioration of microclimate
September 1520,1992 in Tsukuba, Japan.
While no data were available on the role
Grainger, A. 1988. Estimating areas of degraded
of Acacia plantations in water
conservation, it should not be surmised
that Acacia plantations play no role in
tropical ,sndc reniring replenishment of
forest cover. Int. Tree Crops J. 5:3161.
Lupo, A.E. and S. Brown. 1980. Tropical forest
ecosystems: sources or sink of atmospheric
this.
Among all these roles in which
carbon? Unasylva 32:813.
Acacia plantations can assist, the
conservation of CO 2 can be considered
the most important because it has global
Marland, G. 1988. The prospect for solving the
Co2 problem through reforestation. U.S.
223
Department of Energy, Office of Energy
Resources Report DOEINBB0082.
Washington, D.C.: DOE.
Nijima, K and A. Yamane. 1991. The effects of
tcforestation on soil fauna in the
Philippines. Phil. J. Sci. 120(1):119.
Ohta, S. 1990a. Influence of deforestation on the
soils of the Pantabangan area, Central
Luzon, the Philippines. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr.
36(4):561573.
Ohta, S. 1990b. Initial soil changes associated
with afforestation with Acacia auriculiformis
and Pinus kesiya on denuded grasslands of
the Pantabangan area, Central Luzon,
Philippines. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr.
36(4):633643.
Schroeder, P. 1992. Carbon storage potential of
short rotation tropical tree plantations. For.
Ecol. Mgt. 50:3141.
Schroeder, P. and L. Ladd. 1991. Slowing the
increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide: a
biological approach. Climatic Change19:283290.
Swaminathan, C., R.S. Vinaya Rai and K.K.
Suresh. 1989. Allelopathic proclivities of
Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. J. Trop.
For. Sci. 2(l):5660.
Venkataramanan, C., B. Haldorai, P. Samraj, S.K.
Nalatwadmath and C. Henry. 1983. Return
of nutrient by the leaf litter of bluegum
(Eucalyptus globulus) and bla.k wattle
(Acacia mearnsii) plantations of Nilgris in
Tamil Nadu. Indian Forester 109:370377.
Waring, R.H. and W.H. Schlesinger. 1985.
Forest Ecosystems: Concepts and
Management. New York: Academic Press.
Wiersum, K.F. 1983. Effects of various vege
tation layers in an Acacia auriculiformis
forest plantation on surface erosion in Java,
Indonesia. In Soil Erosion and
Conservation,eds. S.A. EISwaifly, W.C.
Moldenhauer and A. Lo. U.S.A.: Soil
Conservation Society of America.
224
Diseases of Acacias: An Overview
Lee Su See
Introduction
Although Tumbull (1986) lists 54
species of Australian Acacias as suitable
for fuelwood and agroforestry in
developing countries, especially of arid
and semiarid areas, only several have
been widely planted. The first meeting
of the Consultative Group for Research
and Development of Acacias
(COGREDA) identified seven priority
species for humid and subhumid areas
and eight for semiarid areas (Kamis and
Taylor 1992). Presently the most
popular species planted in countries in
the East Asia and Pacific region are
Acacia auriculiformis and Acacia
mangium.
Acacia species are popular for
reforestation and rehabilitation of
degraded areas, and for agroforestry.
To successfully establish and manage
these species we must be fully aware of
their pests and diseases as well as their
biology, silvicultural features, and
utilization. This paper presents an
overview of known diseases of acacias,
discusses the more important ones, and
provides general outlines for control.
Discast. Descriptions
A review of the literature on acacias
prompts the interesting observation that
many species have not been reported to
suffer from any disease. Of the 54
species listed by Turnbull (1986) as
suitable for fuelwood and agroforestry,
diseases were recorded for only four
225
species and in all cases were not serious.
Of the seven priority species listed by
COGREDA for humid/subhumid areas
and eight for semiarid areas (Kamis and
Taylor 1992), five in each group are not
kiown to suffer from any disease.
However, Turnbull (1986) made the
qualification that much of his
information is from Australian
observations and may not be relevant
when the trees arc introduced to a new
environment. There is evidence that
some acacias suffer only minor disease
problems in their native range but are
susceptible to a number of
diseasessome of them potentially
devastatingwhen introduced into
foreign lands. As areas planted with
acacias expand outside their native range
and the existing plantations age, reports
of diseases to which the species are
susceptible are increasing. This is clear
from the data in Table 1, where most of
the disease records are recent and from
acacias planted as exotics.
Table I lists the diseases and
pathogens of acacias more widely
planted in the Asia and Pacific region.
Inclusion of a record in the table does
not necessarily mean that the disease
causes serious damage or that control is
warranted. Many of these diseases, such
as leaf spots and rusts, cause only minor
damage and do not significantly affect
the plant's growth or yield. Sometimes a
disease may cause significant losses (for
example, root rot) yet control may not
be feasible or economically justifiable,
and other species may have to be
substituted.
Table 1. Diseases and pathogens of some of the more widely planted acacias in the East Asia and Pacific
region.
Tree species
Type of damage
Pathogen
Country
References
Acacia spp.
Spike disease
Sandal spike virus
India
Browne (1968)
Heart rot
Fomes badius,F. conchatus,
F. robiniae
Widespread
Australia
Browne (1968)
Root rot
Po!yporus schweinitzii,
Fomes (Rigidoporus)
lignosus
Temperate zones Browne (1968)
Widespread
Acacia rust
Uromyces fusisporus, U.
phyllndiorum
Uromycladium acaciae, U.
alpinum
U. notabile
Australia
Browne (1968)
Australia
Browne (1968)
Uromycladium tepperianum
Australia, New Browne (1968)
Zealand, Java
Hypocrea acaciae
India
Sarbhoy et al.
(1986)
Macrophomina phaseolina
India
Sarbhoy et al.
(1986)
Phyllachora acaciae
India
Sarbhoy et al.
(1986)
Oidium sp.
Haiti
Josiah and
AllenReid
(1991)
Aniwat (1987)
Kamnerdratan
aet al. (1987)
Ibnu and
Supriana
(1987)
Acacia gall rust
A. arabica
A. auriculiformis Powdery mildew
Australia, New Browne (1968)
Zealand
Thailand
Dampingoff
Sphaerothecasp.
Indonesia
Fusarium
Haiti
Josiah and
AllenReid
(1991)
Malaysia
Hong (1977)
Singh (1973)
Rhizoctonia
Sooty mold
Meliola sp.
Gall rust
Uromyces digitatus
Uromyces
226
Papua New Guinea Shaw (1984)
Indonesia
Supriana and
Natawiria
(1987)
Table 1, continued.
Tree species
Type of damage
A. auriculiformis Leaf infection
(cont'd.)
Leaf spots
Pathogen
Country
References
Colletotrichum
India
Mohanan and
Sharma (1988)
Pestalotiasp.
Haiti
Josiah and
AllenReid
(1991)
Mohanan and
Sharma (1988)
Cylindrocladium
India
quinquesepatatum, Phornopsis,
Exserohilum rostratum
Root knots
Meliodogyne app.
Haiti
(Nematodes)
PNG
Josiah and
AllenReid
(1991)
Shaw (1984)
Ganoderma borninense
Phellinus ,toxius
Ganoderma lucidum
Ganoderma applanatum
PNG
Arentz (1990)
India
India
Browne (1968)
Browne (1968)
Dampingoff, root rot Phytophthora
New Zealand
Browne (1968)
Acacia rust
Uromyclindium notabile
Australia,
New Zealand
Browne (1968)
Powdery mildew
Erysiphe acaciae
India
Browne (1968)
Powdery leaf spot Microstroma acaciae
India
Browne (1968)
Rust
India
Browne (1968)
MLO type disease Mycoplasmalike organisms
India
SenSarma
(1984)
Anthracnose
Glomerella cingulata
Japan
Root rot
Phellinus (Polyporus)
gilvus,
Ganoderma lucidum
India
Hashimoto
(1968)
Bakhi et al.
(1976)
Dargan (1990)
Heart rot
Fomes fastuosus, F. senex,
Ganoderma applanatum
Pseudophaeolus baudonii
India
Browne (1968)
Thailand
Fomes badius
India
Kamnerdratana et al.
(1987)
Bakhi (1957)
Pseodocercospora acaciae
India
Root and butt rot
Heart rot
A. baileyana
A. catechu
A. coccinna
Leaf spots
Ravenelia tandonii
227
Sarbhoy et al.
(1986)
Table 1, continued.
Pathogen
Tree species
Type of damage
A. confusa
Seedling gall rust Poliotelium hyalospora
Country
References
Hong Kong
Ivory (1991)
Gardner (1980)
Wilt
Fusarium oxysporum
Hawaii
Root rot
Ganoderma lucidum
G. tropicus
Taiwan (ROC) Ying et al. (1976)
Tan and Wang
China
(1984)
A. cyanophylla
Anthracnose
Collectotrichum,
Gloeosporium
Florida, U.S.A.
Barnard and
Schroeder
(1985)
A. dealbata
Coats and kills seedlings Polyporus laevigatus
Australia
Browne (1968)
Seedling root rot
Glornerella acaciae
Japan
Terashita
(1962)
Anthracnose
Gloinerella cingulata
Japan
Ogawa (1970)
Leaf spots
Calonectriatheae
Sri Lanka
Browne (1968)
Rust
Uromyces phyllodionum,
Uromycladium acaciae,U.
alpinum, U. notabile
Australia, New Browne (1968)
Zealand
Canker
Hypoxylon hypomiltum,
H. rubiginosum
Peniophora sacrata
Australia
Root rot
Peniophora sacrata
Ganoderma applanatum
Browne (1968)
Australia
Australia, New
Zealand
Calonectria kyotensis
W. Europe, Japan, Peerally
USA
(1974)
Fomes endapatus
Polyporus, Trametes
tawa
F. mastoporus
Australia
Browne (1968)
New Zealand
Browne (1968)
Heart rot
Ganoderma australe
Australia
Browne (1968)
Canker
Corticium salmonicolor
Malaysia
Singh (1973)
Gummosis
Ceratocystisfimbriata
Brazil
Ribeiro et al.
(1988)
Root rot
Hypoloma janus
Malaysia
Singh (1973)
Sooty mold
Podoxyphium
PNG
Shaw (1984)
Wound parasite
and decay
A. decurrens
A. holosericea
228
Browne (1968)
Table 1, continued.
Tree species
Type of damage
Pathogen
Country
References
Acacia koa
Rust
Uromyces koae
Endoraecium acaciae,
E. hawaiiense, U. digitatus
Hawaii, U.S.A.
Gardner (1978)
Hodges (1984)
Shoot blight
Calonectria thea
Hawaii, U.S.A.
Nishijima and
Aragaki (1975)
Wilt
Fusarium oxysporum
Hawaii, U.S.A.
Gardner (1980)
Collar rot
Calonectria crotolariae
Hawaii, U.S.A.
Aragaki et al.
(1972)
Decline
Phaeolus schweinitzii,
Polyporus sulphureus,
Pleurotus ostraetus,
Armillaria mellea,
Ganodermasp.
Hawaii, U.S.A.
Bega(1979)
A. hoaia
Wilt
Fusarium oxysporum
Hawaii, U.S.A.
Gardner (1980)
A. leucophloea
Acacia tar spot
Catacauma acaciae
India
Browne (1968)
Acacia gall rust
Hapalophragmiopsis
India
Browne (1968)
Rust
Hapalophragmium tandonii
India
Browne (1968)
Pink disease
Corticium salmonicolor
India
Browne (1968)
Root and butt rot
Ganodermna lucidum
India
Browne (1968)
A. longifolia
Leaf spot and blight Cylindrocladium scoparium
South Africa
Hagermann
and Rose (1988)
A. mangium
Dampingoff
Malaysia
Khamis (1982),
Lee (1985),
Liew (1985),
Lee and Goh
(1991), Norani
(1987), Maziah
(1990)
National
Research
Council (1983)
Maziah (1990)
Aniwat (1987)
de Guzman et
al. (1991)
Chactomium sp., Curvularia
sp., Fusariumsolani,
Fusariumsp., Pythium sp.,
Phytophthorasp.,
Rhizoctonia solani
Powdery mildeww Oidium sp.
Hawaii, U.S.A.
Malaysia
Thailand
Philippines
Sooty mold
Mekiola cfr. acaciarum
229
Malaysia
Ivory (1991)
Table 1, continued.
Tree species
Type of damage
Pathogen
Country
References
Collectotrichum
gloeosporioides, Glomere'la
cingulata, Lasiodiplodia
theobromae, Fusariumsp.,
Gloeosporiumsp., Corynes
pora sp., Hendersonula sp.
Pestaliopsissp., Phomopsis
sp., Phyllostictinasp.
Collectotrichum,Phoma
sorghina, Cylindrocladium
quinqueseptatum
Macrophominasp.
Malaysia
Norani (1987),
Lee and Goh
(1991); Maziah
(unpublished
data)
India
Mohanan and
Sharma (1988)
Malaysia
Khamis (1982)
Root knot
Meliodogyne spp.(nematodes)
Malaysia
Chin (1986)
Root rot
Ganoderma sp.
Ganoderma sp.
PNG
Malaysia
Acacia mangium Leaf spots
(cont'd.)
Charcoal root
disease
Rigidoporus vinctus
Arentz (1990)
Lee
(unpublished
data)
Malaysia
Maziah
(unpublished
data)
Malaysia
Khamis (1982),
Maziah
(unpublished
data)
Solomon Islands Ivory (1991)
Corticium salmonicolor
Malaysia
Rigidoporus lignosus
Phellinus sp.
Pink disease
Lee (1985),
Chin 1990)
A. ,nearnsii
Canker
Rhytidhysterium rufulum
Malaysia
Ivory (1991)
Heart rot
Phellinus sp. and numerous
unidentified hymenomycetes
Malaysia
Lee and
Maziah (1992)
Dampingoffroot
rot, dieback
Cylindrocladium scoparium
Widespread
Browne (1968)
Leaf spots
Calonectria theae
India
Browne (1968)
Acacia rust
Uromycladium acaciae
Australia, New Browne (1968)
Zealand
South Africa
Morris et al.
(1988)
New Zealand
Dingley (1977)
U. alpinum
Uromyces phyllodiorum
Acacia gall rust
U. notabile, U. tepperianum
230
Australia, New Browne (1968)
Zealand
Table 1, continued.
Tree species
Type ofdamage
Pathogen
Country
References
A. mearnsii
(cont'd.)
Gummosis
Unknown (physiological)
South Africa
Turnbull (1986)
Stem canker
Dothiorella pithyophila
India
Panneerselvan
et al. (1975)
Pink disease
Corticium salmonicolor
Browne (1968)
Dieback
Phoma herbarum
Malaysia,
Mauritius
Kenya
Cankers, leaf
blight, root rot
Physalosporaabdita
Australia, India, Browne (1968)
N. America, China,
S. Africa
ArmiUaria mellea
Sri Lanka,
Browne (1968)
Malaw:, Tanzania
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Root rot
Macrophomina phaseoli
Irpex subvinosus, Poria
albobrunnea
Black butt
Phytophthoranicotianae
var. parasitica
South Africa
Olembo (1972)
Zeijlemaker
and Margot
(1971)
A. melanoxylon
Sap rot
Schizophyllum commune
Widespread
Browne (1968)
Heart rot
Stereuin ostrea
Ganoderma applanatum
Tanzania
Australia,
Sri Lanka
Browne (1968)
Fusarium coeruleurn
India
Browne (1968)
Fusarium oxysporum
India
Polyporus laevigatus
Australia
Sarbhoy et al.
(1986)
Browne (1968)
Leaf spots
Calonectria theae
Sri Lanka
Browne (1968)
Leaf infection
CoUectotrichum
India
Mohanan and
Sharma (1988)
Parasitic on weak Peniophoraincarnata
saplings
Australia
Browne (1968)
Blackwood rust
UromYcladium robinsoni
Wilt and dieback
Gibberella
Australia, New Browne (1968)
Zealand
Australia
Browne (1968)
Shoot dieback
Fusarium semitectum
India
Seedling root rot
Coats and kills
seedlings
231
Mohanan and
Sharma (1988)
Table 1, continued.
Tree species
Type of damage
Pathogen
Country
References
A. melanoxylon
(cont'd.)
Collar rot
Armillaria mellea
Australia
Purnell (1959)
Root and butt rot
Ganoderma lucidum
Poriavincta var. cinerea
India
East Africa
Browne (1968)
Setliff and
Mesner (1971)
Heart rot
Stereum sanguinolentum,
Australia
Browne (1968)
Ganoderma applanatum
A. modesta
Rust
Ravenelia taslimii
India, Pakistan Browne (1968)
Root and butt rot
Ganoderma lucidum
India
Browne (1968)
Ganoderma applanatum,
Fomes fastuosus
Phellinus badius, G.
applanatum,Ravenelia
taslimii
Pakistan
Widespread
Pakistan
Browne (1968)
Heart rot
Quraishi and
Ahmad (1973)
A. mollissima
Wound parasite
Schizophyllum commune
South Africa
A. nilotica
Leaf spots
Septogloeum acaciae
India, Pakistan Browne (1968)
Leaf blight
Septoria mortolensis
India
Browne (1968)
Rust
Ravenelia acaciae.arabicae
India
Browne (1968)
Canker
Root rot
Hypoxylon acaciae
Fomes badius,
Ganoderma lucidum
Fomes papianus
India
Dargan (1990)
Widespread
Browne (1968)
India, Pakistan
Fagg(1992)
Heart rot
Ganoderma applanatum
Formes badius,F. faxtuosus,
F. rimosus
India
India
Browne (1968)
Dargan (1990)
Dieback
Diatrype acaciae
India
Sarbhoy et al.
(1986)
Twig blight
Tryblidiella rufula
India
Sarbhoy et al.
(1986)
Cankers
Diatrype acaciae, Nectria
coccinea
India
Sarbhoy et al.
(1986)
Rust
Ravenelia acaciaepinnatae
India
Sarbhoy et al.
(1986)
Hermatomyces tucumanensis
India
Sarbhoy et al.
(1986)
A. pinnata
232
Ledeboer (1946)
Table 1, continued.
Tree species
Type ofdamage
Paiogen
Country
References
A. podalyriifolia Sooty mold
Not mentioned
Australia
Turnbull (1986)
A. pycnantha
Uromycladium tepperianum
Australia, New Browne (1968)
Zealand
Acacia gall rust
Golden wattle rust Uromycladium simplex
Australia
New Zealand
Browne (1968)
Laundon and
McCully (1978)
Leaf lesions
Monochaetia lutea,
Seimatosporium arbuti
Australia
Swart and
Griffiths (1974)
Root rot
Armillaria mellea
Cylindrocladiuri scoparium
Australia
Australia
Browne (1968)
Bertus (1976)
Heart rot
Ganoderma applanatum
Australia
Browne (1968)
A. salicina
Acacia rust
Uromyces fusisporus
Australia
Browne (1968)
A. saligna
Acacia gall rust
Uromycladium tepperianum
Austral.a
Crompton
(1992)
Morris (1987)
South Africa
Several diseases known to cause
significant damage to acacias are
discussed below.
Acacia Gall Rust
Uromycladium notabile
This fungus is an obligate parasite
found in Australia, Tasmania, New
Zealand, and South Africa (Table 1) and
causes the formation of large, distorted,
yellowish brown to chocolate brown
swellings on leaves, stem, branches, and
pods. While the pathogen is of only
minor importance in mainland Australia,
it is destructive in Tasmania, and in New
Zealand, it has caused the failure of
Acacia mnearnsii plantations and
considerably depreciated the value of
other Acacia spp. as plantation crops
(Browne 1968).
However, this disease has not
seriously affected acacia plantations
elsewhere. Effective control of rust
diseases requires an understanding of the
life cycle of the pathogen. Use of
Powdery Mildew Oidium state of
Erysiphe acaciae
The fungus, an obligate parasite,
causes powdery mildew on leaves of
several species of Acacia (Table I).
Heavy infestation results in defoliation
and retarded growth. Browne (1968)
stated that the disease was uncommon
and unimportant. However, in 1985 90
100% of A. inangium seedlings in the
Sakaerat Project area in Thailalud were
heavily damaged by powdery mildew,
with 75% mortality (Aniwat 1987).
Effective control can be achieved by
use of fungicidal sprays and sulphur
dusting.
233
resistant host species is a longterm
strategy for effective disease control.
Heart Rot -Phellinus sp. and various
wood decay hymenomycetes
Root Rot Ganoderma spp. and
Phellinus spp.
Although a common disease of
many acacias (Table 1), heart rot was not
considered a serious disease until recent
reports of its high incidence in A.
mangium.
Heart rot in A. mangium was first
reported in 1981 from Sabah (Gibson
1981) and has since been found in
plantations in Sabah, Peninsular
Malaysia, and Indonesia. in Sabah, an
average of 35.5% of 6 to 9yearold
trees surveyed had heart rot (Mahmud,
Lee and Ahmad 1992); in Peninsular
Malaysia, between 49.2% to 97.3% of 2to 8yearold trees had heart rot (Tang
and Zulkifli 1992). Volume loss figures
were however considerably lower. The
study in Sabah reported a loss of
between 0.03% and 18.0% of the
heartwood of thc whole tree. In
Peninsular Malaysia volume loss from
the entire tree ranged from 0.73.0%,
and from the first 6-m log ranged from
0.89.8%. Sawn timber recovery of
between 42.8% and 49.9% has been
reported from Peninsular Malaysia
(Tang and Zulkifli 1992). No figures
are available from Indonesia.
A variety of fungi are associated
with heart rot in acacias (Table 1).
Phellinus and several other wood decay
hymenomycetes have been isolated from
heart rotted A. mangium trees in
Peninsular Malaysia (Lee and Maziah, in
press). Studies by Lee et al. (1988) and
Ito (1991) established that discoloration
and heart rot in A. mangium trees were
associated with fungal invasion of poorly
healed wounds, especially those left by
branch stubs and dead branches.
This disease has serious implications on
tie final enduse of the timber.
Although timber with heart rot can still
Root rot, usually caused by soil
borne facultative parasites, is a common
disease of many acacias. Ganoderma
and Phellinus are two of the main root
rot fungi (Table 1).
In Papua New Guinea survival of A.
auriculiformis planted on cleared
rainforest sites in the Gogol Valley has
been poor: 40% of the trees died by age
eight, most killed by root rot caused by
l'hellinus noxius or Ganoderma
borninense (Arentz 1990). A. mangium
trees in Papua New Guinea have also
been found to suffer from root and butt
rot caused by a Ganoderma sp. (Arentz
1990). This has cas' doubt on the
suitability of these species for
reforestation of lowland rainforest sites
in Papua New Guinea. Ganoderma sp.
has also been found as the main root rot
pathogen in A. mangiun plantations in
Peninsular Malaysia. Studies are
underway to determine the incidence
and spread of the disease.
Control of root diseases spread by
root contact usually involves the removal
of all diseased roots and other woody
debris that may harbor the pathogen.
Alternatively, sites with a lot of woody
debris (stumps, etc.) or known to have a
history of root diseases should be
avoided. This may not be practical for
acacia plantations. If it is confirmed that
acacias are very susceptible to root and
butt rot, the only feasible methods of
control would be the use of varieties with
a high degree of resistance to the
pathogens, or to plant other species.
234
be used for chips and composite
products without appreciable loss in
quality, it would not be suitable for use
as structural timber. Presently there is
no practical method of control for this
disease.
Prevention and Control Strategies
Diseasefree planting material is of
paramount importance in ensuring that
no new diseases are introduced with the
exotic species to be planted in a new
area. Thus the importance of quarantine
and phytosanitary measures cannot be
over emphasized, especially if planting
material (such as seeds) has to be
imported.
It is, however, reassuring to note that
presently most new pathogens of exotic
acacias are generally locally known
pathogens that hav adapted to a new
host. However, the impact of these local
pathogens on the exotic hosts may not
be immediately apparent. Thus constant
surveillance and early detection are
essential to effectively prevent and
ontrol diseases in plantations. This may
be achieved through inclusion of pest
at d disease monitoring during species
and provenance trials, and through
systematic surveys in nurseries and all
stages of plant development. Foresters
trained to recognize disease symptoms
and signs are in the best position to
conduct such regular surveys. This early
warning system can then alert
researchers to potential problems
requiring further investigative studies.
Site preparation has an importart
impact on disease incidence and spread.
For example, woody debris and stumps
left after felling and land clearing are
usually inoculum sources for root and
but rot pathogens. Due to the facultative
235
saprophytic nature of such fungi, the
presence of such woody material in the
plantation makes the control of root and
butt rot very difficult if not impossible.
Silvicultural practices also have an
important impact on disease incidence
and spread. For example, in A.
mangium, large and slowhealing
wounds left after singling and pruning
often act as infection courts for heart rot
fungi. On the other hand, well planned
and careful thinning can reduce the
inoculum potential of many diseases in
the plantation.
Planting patterns also have a role in
disease control. It is well known that
diseases spread much more rapidly in
monoculture, evenaged plantations. By
using mixed block plantings, the spread
of disease may be checked. However,
trials are needed to determine the best
species mix and optimum block size for
optimum yield and effective pest and
disease control.
Coordinated research and
exchange of information between
researchers in the region would serve to
update information on the current pest
and disease situation in each country and
also to alert fellow researchers of
potential problems.
Conclusion
Presently very few researchers are
actively studying diseases and fungi of
tropical forest plantation species, and
even fewer are studying those of tropical
forest trees. To make the work of these
few more effective, there should be
closer linkages and better
communication between them for
increased exchange of ideas, research
techniques, and findings of mutual
interest.
S.T. Nuhamara; 7790. BIOTROP Special
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Aragaki, M., F.F. Laemmlen, and W.T.
Nishijima. 1972. Collar rot of Koa caused
Through vigilant surveillance, early
detection, and information exchange the
pitfalls of largescale planting of disease
susceptible species may be avoided, and
outbreaks of serious diseases may be
effectively controlled or prevented,
Such information is increasingly
important in view of the widespread and
growing interest in planting acacias and
other exotics in developing countries.
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Arentz, F. 1990. Diseases of forest plantation
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Discussion Notes
Other diseases include gall disease on
stems of seedlings due to bacteria, and
pink disease. The former has destroyed
70,000 seedligs of A. mangium in
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Bakshi, B.K., M.A.R. Reddy and S. Singh. 1976.
Ganodernaroot rot mortality in Khair
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Q: It seems that a potentially serious
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Barnard, E.L. and R.A. Schroeder. 1984.
A: It has also been found in Peninsular
Malaysia; the scoratid beetle carries the
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Bega, R.V. 1979. Heart and root rot fungi
Lee Su See works with the Forest
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Choosing Acacias for Rural, Industrial,
and Environmental Development
Sompetch Mungkorndin
Introduction
Income and Employment
A short definition of economics by
Samuelson (1976) sets the scope of this
paper: "How do we choose to use scarce
productive resources with alternative
uses, to better meet prescribed ends what goods to produce, how, and for
whom, now or later?" For economics of
acacias, these definitional questions are
modified to cover what species to choose
from? Using what criteria? For what
purposes and what are prospects in the
future?
Other papers in this volume present
various acacias, with their specific uses.
An economic perspective can identify
criteria to choose among all these species
in a given set of conditions. Because
rural, industrial and environmental
developments usually have distinct, with
more or less overlapping, goals,
discussions will be categorized for each
type of development.
Tree products from acacias can help
generate income and employment.
Important products are lisied here with
probable utilization, criteria for selection
and examples of species.
Poles and Posts
Acacias are not well known for their
use as poles and posts, unlike casuarinas
or eucalypts. Using the criteria of fast
growth, length, straightness, and clear
bole, strength, and durability, A.
auriculiformiscan be used as a short
pole, provided that improved genetic
sources are used. The hybrid of A.
auriculiformisand A. mangium, with its
straight and long stems, may be a better
option. A. nilotica is used as pit props
and mining planks in Pakistan (Sheikh
1989).
Timber
Construction timber tends to play a
subordinate role in rural development,
but it can generate income from tree
farms and homestead plantings. Species
for construction should have, besides fast
growth, strength, hardness, toughness,
and ease of wood working. Growth
performance is determined by mean
annual increment (mai) but broad
comparisons are not feasible. Growth
figures for acacias are quite scattered
and site specific (Table 1).
Acacias for Rural Development
The primary goals of rural
development are often to raise income
and employment while at the same time
uplift the welfare of rural people. These
primary goals imply others related to
environmental protection and increased
agricultural productivity.
240
Table 1. Mean annual increments of selected acacias
MAI
Species
(m3lha/yr)
Source
A. auriculiformis
810
Busby (1985), India
23
Mangundikoro (1986), Indonesia
1720
Chuan and Tangua (1991), Sabah
2744
1029
NRC (1983), Sabah Softwoods
Chuan and Tangau (199 1), experiences
from SAFODA
Sheikh (1989), Pakistan
A. mangiun
A. nilotica
Site Quality
Site Quality
Site Quality
Site Quality
A. tortilis
I age 20
II age 20
I age 30
II age 30
13.0
7.I
10.5
6.2
1012
Busby (1985), India
For rural development, decision
making of small farmers may be based
on net returns regardless of time.
However, determining returns for more
intensive farm operations requires good
records of cashflows with proper
discount factors for accurate criteria of
net present value, benefit/cost ratios and
internal rate of returns. (See the
discussion of industrial plantations
below.)
been domesticated and, with selection for
taste and thornlessness, is becoming an
agronomic crop in these areas. Acacia
albida (Faidherbiaalbida) is another
example of a foodproducing acacia:
the seeds contain up to 27% crude
protein and are eaten by people of
Zimbabwe during times of famine
(National Academy of Sciences 1975;
Marunda 1992).
Criteria for selection of acacias for
food are modified after Harwood
(1992), as follows:
Food
Traditionally, Aboriginal people in
central Australia used at least 49 species
of acacias (Devitt 1992), examples start
from A. acradeniato A. victoriae. For
the most part, however, introduced
acacias have not been exploited as food
sources.
Young leaves of A. pennata ssp.
insuavis are consumed as vegetables in
the countries of Indochina where it is
native: Thailand, Myanmar (Burma),
Laos, and Cambodia. This shrub has
241
•
low level of toxins
•
easy establishment, fast growth
and heavy foodproduction
°
ease of food collection and
processing using local
technology
"
other beneficial effects for the
local farming system
(windbreaks, soil amelioration)
*
ease of production and
marketing
Fuelwood
The marketability of fuelwood varies
widely. In some places, fuelwood can
substitute for dung and crop residues,
which can instead be applied to fields for
greater soil fertility and crop production.
Where there is a fuelwood market, the
crop can be sold to provide income.
Fuelwood should have good calorific
value and burning patterns suitable for
cooking, making charcoal, firing pottery,
ceramics and lime, steaming the engines,
etc. The ease of collecting, longer burn,
less and favorable smokes, and local
preferences are also important factors.
Examples of popular acacia fuelwoods
include A. auriculiformnis in the humid
tropics, A. mearnsii in tropical highlands,
and A. nilotica and other species in aid
and semiarid regions (NAS 1980;
1983). Turnbull et al. (1986) list 53
fuelwood and agroforestry Australia
acacias, from A. amnmobia to A.
xiphophylla.
commercial promise, including A.
auriculiformisand A. berlandieri(NAS
1983).
Tannins for use in leathermaking,
dying, and chemical industries come
from bark of acacias, especially A.
mearnsii and from fruit pods of A.
nilotica. At rural level, it is practical to
extract tannin from chipped materials,
then make a tanning liquor to use
directly. Preparation of solid tanning
extracts is time consuming but still
practiced in some parts of India and
Thailand. The tanning liquor is called
cutch and solid extract called katha.
(See the paper by Subansenee et al. in
this volume). A few acacias such as A.
catechu have medicinal uses.
Improved Farm Productivity
Fodder Trees
Some arid and semiarid acacias
grow under severe conditions, where
they can provide shade and fodder for
animals and act as living fences to keep
livestock from crops. A. albida, A.
nilotica, A. tortilis, and others are used in
this way. Criteria for fodder trees are
(modified from FAO 1978):
I. easy establishment and
maintenance in the selected
environment
Other Products
Extractives should not be overlooked
in the decision of species selection (see
the paper by H.H. Chung in this
volume). Gum arabic from A. senegal is
used all over the world, with about
40,000 tons exported annually from
African countries for use in foods and
beverages, pharmaceutical preparations,
confections, and a wide range of
industrial applications. Over 100 acacias
are known to exude copious amounts of
gum when their bark is damaged, and at
least six have gums with apparent
2. palatability and nontoxicity to
animals
3. nutritive value
4. production and growth (related
to droughtresistance and quick
recovery from browsing)
242
Soil Conservation and
Environmental Protection
Because they are generally hardy,
acacias have potential for use as
windbreaks and shelterbelts. They are
nitrogenfixing trees that can improve
the fertility of wastelands and conserve
the soil on steep slopes. While these
functions will often be secondary to
other products in the decision of species
choice, here we may note the simple
criteria that the species should be hardy
and suitable for the specific purpose of
conservation and protection required by
the site, and not pose the threat of'
becoming 'weeds'.
2. available markets and market
projections
3. available processing technology
4.
silvicultural management
5. corporate/owner objectives (e.g.,
high yields and financial returns)
In industrial decisions, the financial
internal rate of return (IRR) is usually
employed. Given the short history of
experience with A. mangium, these
figures still vary widely. For example, a
financial analysis of an A. mangiun
plantation of the Sabah Forestry
Development Authority (SAFODA)
indicated an IRR of 16.2% (all social
and infrastructure components included)
given an mai of 24.4 m3/ha/yr on a 12year rotation (Chuan and Tangau 1991).
When Chuan and Tangau (1991)
calculated indicative returns of forest
plantation investment in mixed
plantation of A. mangiun and Gmelina
arborea,however, expected IRR was
only 5.9% (13.1% with optimistic
assumptions) and considered
unimpressive without further
government investment incentives. An
analysis of A. mangiwn plantation by
Sabah Softwoods Sdn Bhd (SSSB) on a
pulplog regime of eight years with an
assumed mai of 25 m3/ha/yr gave an IRR
of only 4.5%.
On the other hand, A. mangium
plantation for electric posts in the
Philippines, with an apparently assured
market, gives very attractive IRR values
(Francisco 1993). A financial analysis
of the Compensatory Forest Plantation
Project (CFPP) in Peninsular Malaysia,
where 80% of the planting area is A.
inangium, showed an IRR of 19.4%, and
when benefits to society at large were
Acacias for Industrial Development
Industrial development aims at
economic growth, and while each
business firm involved in industrial
forestry aims to maximize profits, the
aims of' social welfare and environmental
sustainability are complementary to this
primary goal in the long term.
Industrial forestry is usually capital
intensive,
As for other purposes, selection of
species for industrial development
depends on the grower's objectives and
site constraints. With advances in
utilization technology and the multiple
products obtainable from acacias,
various combinations of integrated
production of lumber, pulp, paper and
composite products are now possible.
To date, A. mangium is the most widely
used acacia in industrial forestry, but
with greater knowledge of other species
this may change. Criteria for selection
of industrial acacias may be generalized
as suitability to:
I. site conditions
243
included, the economic IRR rose to
28.8% (Mahmud and Sirin 1991).
Acacias for Environmental
Development
Besides ameliorating energy crises
with the renewable energy of fuelwood
(and charcoal), acacias can help reduce
other environmental crises as well. In
soil conservation and landscaping, A.
auriculiformis is well known. Like some
other acacias, it is used for land
reclamation (e.g., former tinmining
sites), protection, and stabilization.
Because environmental conservation and
development is a formidable task, criteria
for development must be cost
effectiveness rather than optimization of
profit. Economic considerations in
selecting acacias for this purpose are:
"
"
low cost of establishment (e.g.,
seed and seedlings, site
preparation)
suitability to objective
*
suitability to site (e.g., low
maintenance and fertilizer
requirements)
"
nonweediness
optimizing profits subject to existing
constraints.
Selecting species for rural and
environmental development requires
considerations of income, employment,
and welfare of rural people.
Environmental development is becoming
a controversial issue in many developing
countries. Acacia scientists should
recognize the environmental costs and
benefits of these species and use reliable
assumptions on cost and benefit streams.
Indicators from econo. tic analyses can
contribute realistic criteria for choosing
the right species.
Sompetch Mungkorndin works with
Winrock InternationalF/FRED,P.O.
Box 1038, KasetsartPost Office,
Bangkok 10903, Thailand.
References
Busby, R.J.N. 1985. A Guide to Financial
Analysis of Tree Growing. Rome: FAO.
Chuan, T.T. and W.M. Tangau. 1991. Cultivated
and Potential Forest PlantationTree Species
with Special Reference to Sabah. Sabah:
Institute for Development Studies.
Devitt, J. 1992. Acaicas: a traditional
Arboriginal food source in central Australia.
In AustralianDryzone Acaciasfor Human
Food,eds. A.P.N. House and C.E. Harwood.
Canberra: CSIRO.
FAO. 1978. Forestryfor Local Comnunity
Development. Rome: FAO.
Francisco, H.A. 1993. Acacias and rural
development. Paper presented at the Second
COGREDA Meeting held at Udon Thani,
Thailand, February 1518, 1993.
Harwood, CE. 1992. Overview of findings of
working groups and invited papers. In
Australian Dryzone Acaciasfor Human
Conclusions
This paper postulates different sets
of criteria for each of the three
development purposes identified in this
workshop's theme. For industrial
development criteria are not based on
appropriate technology, labor intensive,
or low input, but instead are based on
244
Food, eds. A.P.N. House and C.E. Harwood.
Canberra: CSIRO.
Mahmud, Dato' Mohamed Darus and Lockman M.
Sirin. 1991. Viability of the Compensatory
Forest Plantation Project in Peninsular
Malaysia. Paper presented at a Regional
Symposium on Recent Development in Tree
Plantations of Humid/Subhumid Tropics of
Asia, 59 June, 1989, Universiti Pertanian
Malaysia.
Mangundikoro, A. 1986. Gereral plan for timber
estates dcvclopment in Indone:ia. In
Appropriate Forest Industries. FAO Forestry
Paper 68. Rome: FAO.
Marunda, C. 1992. Use of seed of Faidherbia
albida (syn. Acacia albida) for human
consumption during famine periods in the
Gokwe communal lands of Zimbabwe. In
Australian Dryzone Acacias for Human
Food, eds. A.P.N. House and C.E. Harwood.
Canberra: CSIRO.
National Academy of Sciences. 1975.
Underexploited Tropical Plants with
Promising Economic Value. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press.
__
1979. Tropical Legumes: Resources for
the Future. Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press.
__ . 1980. Firewood Crops. Shrub and Tree
Species for Energy Production. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press.
__
.. 1983. Firewood Crops: Shrub and Tree
Species for Energy Production. Volume 2.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
National Research Council. 1983. Mangium and
Other Fastgrowing Acaciasfor the Humid
Tropics. Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press.
Samuelson, P.A. 1976. Economics, Tenth ed.
New York: McGrawHill Book Company.
Sheikh, M.I. 1989. Acacia Nilotica (L.) Willd. ex
Del.: Its Production, Management and
Utilization in Pakistan. GCP/RAS/II I I/NET.
Field Document No. 20. Bangkok: FAO.
245
Turnbull, J.W., P.N. Martensz and N. Hall. 1986.
Notes on lesserknown Australian trees and
shrubs with potential for fuelwood and
agroforestry. In Multipurpose Australian
Trees and Shrubs: Lesserknown Species for
Fuelwood and Agroforestry, ed. J.W.
Turnbul!. Canberra: ACIAR.
Appendix 1: Recommendations from COGREDA's
First Meeting, June 13, 1992
The first meeting of COGREDA
reviewed the are as of species assessment
and selection of acacias, improvement
and propagation, silviculture, growth and
yield research, insect pests, properties
and utilization, and economics and
marketing. The discussion focussed on
the countries of East Asia and the
Pacific.
Working groups suggested the
priorities for research outlined below,
Species Assessment and Improvement
Table I shows the priorities for
species assessment and improvement.
Because the experience with acacias in
East Asia and the Pacific has been
primarily with humid and subhumid
speciesi, the recommended priorities for
semiarid acacias in Table I should be
regarded as provisional, and reflect only
their relative priority in that region. In
Table 1. Priorities for species assessment and improvement.
Provenance Seed prod. Plus tree Seed Progeny Cutting Tissue
trials
area
selection orchard tests propagation culture
Humid/Subhumid Species
A. auriculiformis
A. mangiunm
A. aulacocarpa
A. crassicarpa
A. leptocarpa
A. oraria
A. cincinnata
A. angustissina
0
2
3
2
2
0
0
0
2
3
3
0
0
3
3
3
3
I
I
I
I
I
I
3
3
1
1
I
I
I
3
3
I
1
I
I
3
3
I
I (s)
I (s)
I (s)
2
2
I
I
I
I
3
1
1
Semiarid and Arid Species
A. amnpliceps
2 (s)
A. brassii
2(s)
A. difficilis
2 (s)
A. holosericea
2 (s)
A. plectocarpa
2 (s)
A. catechu
2(s)
A. arabica
2 (s)
A. confusa
2 (s)
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I (s)
1
1
Priority ranking: 0 = done, I = low, 2 = medium, 3
these species before improvement work begins.
246
=
1
high. (s) indicates that silvicultural research shoul
other regions, these or other acacias may
receive different priority rankings.
Specific suggestions were also made
regarding further research on promising
acacia hybrids.
Silvicultural practices for hybrids is
an area considered to be automatically
included in the areas identified for other
silvicultural research.
Utilization, Econwnics and Marketing
Silviculture
Recognizing that different growing
conditions and objectives dictate
different research needs, Table 2
describes silvicultural priorities for site
rehabilitation, industrial plantation, and
agroforestry.
For rehabilitation planting,
grasslands recovery is a regional
priority. In industrial plantations,
silvicultural practices depend on the
product; therefore this portion of the
table is divided between pulp, fuelwood,
and chemical uses on the one hand, and
sawn timber on the other.
Conditions of pest and disease
control vary from country to country.
Periodic surveys of pests and diseases,
with damage assessments, should identify
the significant problems in an area.
From this determination, appropriate
integrated pest management (IPM)
practices can be developed, depending
also on the crops grown in association
with the trees.
The heart rot affecting A. mangium
is net addressed in Table 2 for several
reasons, including the fact that, except
by selecting alternative species, there are
few means for tackling the problem.
From the point of commercialscale
management, the most important
consideration is to reduce weeding costs
(which now accoLtIts for up to 70% of
establishment costs) and examine soil
preparation. Reducing the length of
time seedlings spend in the nursery
relatively insignificant in terms of cost.
*.
247
Table 3 shows a priority ranking for
utilization research, by species and
product. A priority ranking of general
research areas in this field, using the
same scale as in the tables, appears
below.
Topic
Rank
Development..nd utilization of
nonwood produ ts
2
Utilization of smallsize logs (grown
in plantation and by farmers)
2
Development of local processing
technology(including products for
community consumption)
Appropriate machinery development
(harvesting saw logs, peeling, chipping,
defibrating)
3
Basic research on s lid wood and fiber/
Basic rsarcernsid oo andbr
particle characteristcs of recently
introduced materials
For
studies,
pries,
primary
Economics and Marketing
the following topics are of
the ofolnowin pi r e d):
importance (not prioritized):
costbenefit analysis of products
intended for i troduction, and
under different planting systms
"
economics of introducing
appropriate machinery for
processing smalldiameter trees
0
exchange rate changes and their
effect on marketing produce of
largescale plantations
"
processing economics for small
sized trees
0
assessment of acceptance and
market for new products
"
0
supply and demand of acacias in
the wood industry
"
transportation (freight)
storability of wood materials
*
"
processing incerwtives
ergonomic factors in harvesting
and processing
a
government policy incentives,
including tax credits
a
costeffectiveness studies
" creation of processing centers
(local industry centers)
248
Table 2. Priorities for simvcultural research for three sets of objectives, by
species.,
Site Rehabilitation
Sp.S.Ie
Suitabl.
Gr.&
YId Ds
Plant. F.stah
Sp T Pr PI Th FA RM PD
Industrial Plantation
.Puln. Fuelwood, and Chemial Uses
Sawn Timber
Sp.Site Gr.&
Pl3nt. Estab
Sp.Snte Gr.&
Plant.Estab.
Suitabl Yld Ds Sp T Pr FA Rm PD Suitabl. Ytd Ds Sp
T Pr Th FA RM PD
Agro and Community
Forestry
Sp.Site Gr.&
Plant. Ftab.
Suitabl. YIld Sp Pr PI RM PD
1lumdSuhbhund
A. auiculifordi
A. mangium
A. aulacocarpa
A ccusicarpa
A. leptcarpa
A. oana
A. cncinnata
A. nisjina
1
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
0
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
0
2 2 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
0 0 0
1 00
1 1 C
2 0 0
2 0 0
2 0 0
2 0 0
2 0 0
0 0 0
1 2
1 2
2 1
2
1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
0
0
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
0
3 1
0 2 1
3 11
0 2 1
1
0 2 2
111
0 2 2
111
0 2 2
111
0 2 2
1
0221
0 0 0 0 0
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
3
3
3
2
2
0
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
3 3 3 3
3
3333
13333312
1
333333
1
1111
1
11111
1111
0 0 0 0
3
3
2 1
2
1
2
2
2
1112
0 0 1
2
0
0
3
3
3
2
2
3
1
13
3
3
3
2
2
1
2
3
2
2
3
2 22311
222311
22
22311
3 2 3 1
2312
3 232
32
321
32321
3 2 3 2
32321
0 0 0 2
2
1
1
Semi.larid
A. arabica
A. uechu
A. cnfusa
A nilotica
A. pennata
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3 2
32
32
32
32
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
2
3
2
2
2
1
2223223
1
2213223
1
2 2 2
12223223
1
2 2 1
3
2
2
3
2
2
3
1
11111
1
1 1111
111
2 2
1121
311
1
1
31111
1
1
1
1
1
Sp.Site SuitabL
Species.Site Suitability, Gr.& Yld. = Growth and Yield; Ds
Direct seeding; Sp = Spacing; T = Tending, P
runing; PI = Pollarding; Th = Thinning; FA= Fertilizer Application;
RM = Rhizobia and Mycorrhizal Relationships; PD = Pests and Diseases. Priority
rating: 0 ao work needed; I = low priority;, 2 = .mediumpriority; 3 = high priority.
*For PD, numbers indicate priority for periodic survey of pests
and diseas s, ecepting heart rot ofA raSnoum,which receives
the highest prority (3).
Table 3. Pnonties for utilization rearch by species and product.
C
T"lnber
Chips
Sc Nc Part-Fiber Food
Fuel
Ven.I
Bark Ph.d
Glue.
Slcg LVL. Lan.
Haty.Fod.
Chem.
Envir.
Plant Posts
Crft
Countri.
Comments
General utility
timber
High silia
contenL
poor form
Good sawnwood
Furniture
Good sawn wood
Iluld'Sulhumid
A2muau'u
2
2
2
3
3
0
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
3
1
3
All
A. ariculfnus
2
3
3
2
2
0
3
2
2
3
3
3
3
2
2
3
2
3
All
A.
A.
A.
A
A.
A.
2
2
1
0
0
0
2
2
2
0
0
0
2
2
2
0
0
0
2
2
2
0
0
0
2
2
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
0
It
0
3
3
3
0
0
0
3
3
3
0
0
0
3
3
3
0
0
0
3
3
3
0
0
0
1
1
2
0
0
0
1
2
3
0
0
0
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
1
2
3
2
Recenty
Recently
Recently
Recently
Recently
Recently
A. aabic
A. catechu
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
2
2
3
3
3
3
2
2
1
1
A. conf'sa
A. ni/otica
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
0
0
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
1
2
0
3
1
3
2
2
2
1
Pakistan, India. Nepal
Bn,IL My.
N. Th, V
Ph, ROC, Th
SE Asia, In.Pak
A pnnata
1
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
3
0
0
L,Ca. Th
aiacocwpa
cras.icarpa
lpt'-araJ
oxaria
cincinat.
angtwirna
introduced
introduced
introduced
introduced
introduced
introdiced
Sem .arid
Gum, fuel uses
Poor form,
firetolerant
Slowgrowing
General utility
indryareas
Shrub
C = Construction: Sc = Semiconst. uction; Nc = Nonconstruction; Parl= Particleboard; Vcni/Pld = Veneer/Plywood; Slcg= Slicing; LVL = Laminated veneer lumber, Lam. = Laminating;
iny = ttoney; Fod = Fodder. Chem = Chemical; Enir Plant = Environmental Planting; Crft = Handicrafts.
Countries: Bn = Bangladesh. In = India, L = Laos, Mv = Myanmar (Burma).N = Nepal. Pak = Pakistan, Ph = Philippines. ROC = Republic ofChina(Taiwan). Th = Thailand. V =
Victnamn.
Priority rating: 0 = done or not needed; 1 = low priority; 2 = mediun, priority; 3 = high priority.
Appendix 2: Field Visit Summary
The Ban Phu National Park near
Sakhon Nakhon, in northeastern
Thailand, and the resettlement program
there managed by the regional office of
the Royal Forest Department (RFD)
illustrate the immediate importance of
the themes explored in the Udorn Thani
meeting.
The area receives less than 1,500 mm
annual rainfall, with average
temperatures ranging from 5"C to a
maximum in recent years of 38°C. The
area's uplands were originally
dipterocarp forest; the lowlands dry
evergreen forest. Cash crop agriculture,
logging, and population pressure have
all but eliminated the forest area.
In 1981, under the direction of the
Thai royal family, RFD began to resettle
communities living in the park reserve to
the lowlands near the nearby reservoir,
This program relocated II villages, a
total of 1,500 families, providing each
family with up to a maximum of 15 rai
(6.25 rai = I ha), tree seedlings
(including A. mangium and A.
auriculiformisfor fuelwood and
charcoal), and technical guidance. The
program also provided health centers
and schools through other government
agencies. Resettlement schemes
elsewhere in Thailand have been under
attack in the media for their lack of
251
clarity over land rights issues and
concern for villagers' rights to land
recently declared forest reserve, as well
as the impression that they favor interests
of industrial plantations.
The controversy surrounding such
resettlement schemes in other provinces
of Thailand is apparently absent here,
but the national conflict is not yet
resolved between park demarcation and
conservation on the one hand and, on
the other hand, communities' traditional
use of land, which in many cases
preceded establishment of parks.
Crops grown by farmers in the new
"forest villages" near Nakhon Sakhon
include kapok (Ceiba pentandra),
tamarind, and cassava. Near their homes
many have planted papaya and other
homegarden species. Other crops
include Dendrocalamusspp. (bamboo),
gallangall (kha in Thai), a root crop used
in Thai cooking.
The farmers' new land is marginally
agricultural, but in hard circumstances
tree crops, including acacias, help farm
households make their new homes
livable and profitable. Trees grown
include Azadirachtia indica, whose
inflorescences are sold in local markets
for food, and Acacia insuavis, which
serves as a living hedge and produces
marketable leaves used in Thai soups.
Plate 1. Dr. H.H. Chung inspects charcoal
making kiln near roadside planting of A.
auriculiformis.
Plate 2. A leading tree farmer, Luung Jaawn,
and his daughter.
Eucalypts and Acacia mangium
planted along the road by RFD are used
to make charcoal in kilns (Plate 1).
One innovative farmer, Luung
Jaawn, has his own seedling nursery
(Slide 3) and seedlings of Spondias
sp., as well as other species. He and
his family, including their fouryearold
daughter, have, after four years on their
settlement farm of 14 ha, begun to
receive income from sale of their
banana and papaya produce (Slide 8).
In the buffer zone at the edge of the
park, RFD has planted fastgrowing
plantation species, including A.
mangium and A. auriculiformis.
Bufferzone management is a critical
issue in Thailand, and points up the
need for clear land tenure policy for
both industrial and rural development,
as well as for environmental
stabilization.
Many thanks to Mr. Prayuth
Saipankaqw, Chief, Communiy
ForestryP:ogram,Regional Forest
Office, Udorn Thani,for organizing the
visit.
252
Appendix 3: List of Participants
Mr. Tjuk Sasmito Hadi
Reforestation & Natural Forest Management
Project
c/o Balai Teknologi Reboisasi
Banjarbaru, P.O. Box 65
J1. Sei Ulin No. 28 B
70711 Banjarbaru, Kalimantan Selatan
Tel: (62511) 92240, 92085
Fax: (62511) 92334
Australia
Dr. C.E. Harwood
Division of Forestry, CSIRO
P.O. Box 4008, Queen Victoria Terrace,
Canberra ACT 2600
(616) 2818211
Tel:
(616) 2818266
Fax:
Mr. Khongsak Pinyopusarerk
Division of Forestry, CSIRO
P.O. Box 4008, Queen Victoria Terrace,
Canberra ACT 2600
Tel: (616) 2818211
Fax: (616) 2818312
Tix: AA 62751
Dr. Ir. Hendi Suhaendi
Forest Research and Development Centre
J1. Gunung Batu 5, P.O. Box 66
Bogor16610
Tel: (62251) 325111
Fax: (62251) 325111
Mr. Wong Ching Yong
P.T. Indah Kiat Pulp & Paper Corp
P.O. Box 1135
Pekanbaru, Sumatra
Tel: (620761) 38988, 33630
Fax: (620761) 31228, 33080
India
Dr. B.S. Nadagoudar
Forestry Department
University of Agricultural Sciences
Dharwad 580 005
Karnataka
Tel: 42521 to 42524
865244 AGCD IN
Tix:
Lao PDR
Mr. Bounphom Mounda
Head of Forest Plantation Division
Department of Forestry and Environment
P.O. Box 2932
Vientiar:
Tel: 5 39
Fax: 3807
Indonesia
Mr. Goran Adjers
Reforestation & Natural Forest Management
Project
c/o Balai Teknologi Reboisasi
Banjarbaru, P.O. Box 65
JI. Sei Ulin No. 28 B
70711 Banjarbaru, Kalimantan Selatan
Tel: (62511) 92240, 92085
Fax: (62i 11) 92334
253
Malaysia
Nepal
Dr. Darus Hj. Ahmad
Forest Research Institute of Malaysia
P.O. Box 201, Kepong
52109 Kuala Lumpur
Tel: (603) 6342633
Fax: (603) 6367753
Mr. Jay B.S. Karki
Institute of Forestry
P.O. Box 206
Pokhara
Tel: (97761) 21101, 20469
Fax: (97761) 21420, 226820
Mr. Edward Chia
Sabah Softwoods Sdn. Bhd.
P.O. Box 137, Brumas
91007 Tawau, Sabah
Tel: (089)773233/4/5/7/9
Fax: (089)763027
Pakistan
Dr. Raziuddin Ansari
Atomic Energy Agriculture Research Centre
Tando Jam
Tel: (0221) 40468
Dr. Razali Abdul Kader
Faculty of Forestry
Universiti Pertanian Malaysia
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor
Tel: (603)9486101/110
Fax: (603) 9483745
Papua New Guinea
Dr. Prem B.L. Srivastava
Forest Research Institute
P.O. Box 314
Lae
Tel: (675) 424188
Fax: (675) 424357
Dr. Lee Su See
Forest Research Institute of Malaysia
P.O. Box 201, Kepong
52109 Kuala Lumpur
Tel: (603) 6342633
Fax: (603) 636 7753
Philippines
Dr. Herminia A. Francisco
College of Economics and Management
UPLB
College, Laguna 4031
Tel: (6394) 2505
Fax: (6394) 2715 or (632) 8170598
(SEARCA)
Myanmar
Mr. Saw Kelvin Keh
Forest Departmeat
Ministry of Forestry
East Gyogon
Yangon
Tel: (09501) 63409, 64373, 63482
Fax:(09501) 64336
Dr. K. Vivekanandan
FAO/UNDP Regional Project
Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau
P.O. Box 157
College, Laguna 4031
Tel: (6394) 280
Fax: (6394) 3628, 2809
254
Taiwan, Republic of China
Ms. Supatra Limpiyaprapant
Regional Forest Office
Udorn Thani
Tel: (66042) 221725
Fax: (66042) 223519
Dr. HsuHo Chung
Taiwan Forestry Research Institute
53 NanHai Road
Taipei 100, Taiwan
Tel: (8862) 3110061
Fax: (8862) 3754216
Dr. Sompetch Mungkorndin
Winrock International F/FRED
Faculty of Forestry
Kasetsart University
Bangkhen, Bangkok 10903
Tel: (662) 5791977, 56142456
Fax: (662) 5611041
Thailand
Dr. Kamis Awang
Winrock International F/FRED
Faculty of Forestry
Kasetsart University
Bangkhen, Bangkok 10903
Tel: (662) 5791977, 36142456
Fax: (662)5611041
Mr. Prapan Pukittayacamee
ASEANCanada Forest Tree Seed Centre
Muak Lek,
Saraburi 18180
Tel: (6636) 341305
Fax: (6636) 341859
Dr. Suree Bhumibhamon
Department of Silviculture
Faculty of Forestry
Kasetsart University
Bangkhen, Bangkok 10903
Tel: (662) 5790171
Fax: (662) 5611041
Ms. Sapit Royampaeng
Regional Forest Office
Udorn Thani
Tel: (66042) 221725
Fax: (66042) 223519
Mr. Sawang Fuangkrasae
Regional Forest Office
Udorn Thani
Tel:(66042) 221725
Fax: (66042) 223519
Mr. Prayuth Saipankaew
Regional Forest Office
Udorn Thani
Tel: (66042) 221725
Fax: (66042) 223519
Dr. Chaweewan Hutacharoen
Royal Forest Department
Phaholyothin Road
Bangkok 10900
Te1:(662) 57902304 Ext. 49
Mr. Sanan Siriwattanakarn
Director
Regional Forest Office
Udom Thani
Tel:(66042) 221725
Fax: (66042) 223519
255
Vietnam
Ms. Wanida Subansenee
NonWood Forest Products Research Sub
Division
Forest Products Research Division
Royal Forest Department
Phaholyothin Road
Bangkok 10900
Tel: (662) 5794844
Dr. Nguyen Hoang Nghia
Research Centre for Forest Tree Improvement
Forest Science Institute of Vietnam
ChemTu Liem
Ha Noi
Tel: 344031
Fax: 844345722
Mr. David Taylor
P.O. Box 78
Chiang Mai University
Chiang Mai 50002
Tel: (66053) 218019
Fax: (66053) 223062
Dr. Rick J. Van Den Beldt
Winrock International F/FRED
Faculty of Forestry
Kasetsart University
Bangkhen, Bangkok 10903
Tel: (662) 5791977, 56142456
Fax: (662) 5611041
Ms. Sopapan Varasarin
Winrock International F/FRED
Faculty of Forestry
Kasetsart University
Bangkhen, Bangkok 10903
Tel: (662) 5791977, 56142456
Fax: (662) 5611041
Dr. Kovith Yantasath
Thailand Institute of Scientific
and Technological Research
196 Phahonyothin Road,
Bangkhen, Bangkok 10900
Tel: (662) 57911213 Ext. 1244
256
Appendix 4: Species Index
Acacia adsurgens 66
A. adunca 55
A. albida 2223, 25, 66,
111, 241242, 245
A. ampliceps 6667, 94,
9799, 140
A. aneura 54, 6566, 73
A. angustissima 249250
A. angolacocarpa 87
A. arabica 29, 50, 52, 65,
187188, 226, 249250
A. aulacocarpa 2, 5, 10, 15
16, 4445, 46, 55, 81,
84, 8789, 9192, 94,
9799, 102, 108, 113,
145150, 175, 184, 187,
249250
A. auriculiformis 2, 5,
101 I, 1420, 2228, 34,
35, 38, 40, 42, 4445,
46, 4849, 5052, 5461,
65, 67, 7478, 8184,
8693, 94, 97, 99101,
108, 110113, 121,
123125, 130, 135, 139,
141, 143, 144150,
170171, 174175,
177178, 179185,
187188, 191, 207208,
210, 212214, 216, 220,
223224, 225227, 234,
237, 240242, 244.
249250
A. bracatinga 87
A. brachystachya 144
A. brassii 55, 97, 100101
A. cambagei 144
A. canophylla 2223
A. catechu 2, 5, 9, 14,
2124, 2628, 50, 52,
5354, 5859, 61, 65,
8084, 140141, 145,
153169, 187188, 190,
227, 236, 242, 249250
A. cincinnata 2, 10, 1516,
34, 46, 87, 89, 9192,
94, 100, 103, 175, 187,
249250
A. concina 22, 81, 84, 179,
183
A. concurrens 16
A. :onfusa 2, 15, 1819, 86,
187188, 190, 228, 239,
249250
A. corymbosa 87
A. crassicarpa 2, 5, 10, 14
16, 34, 4445, 46,
5455, 5859, 61, 7577,
8182, 84, 8789, 9192,
94, 97, 102103, 108,
I1, 113, 139, 145150,
170171, 174175, 177,
179, 183, 187,236,
249250
A. cunninghaii 16, 18
A. cyclops 66. 144
A. dealbata 15, 22, 54, 56,
59, 7374, 139, 228,
237238
A. deanii 55
A. decurrens 22, 54, 59, 65,
7374, 87, 135, 228,
239
A. difficilis 10, 55, 81.
102.103, 110, 145150
A. donnaiensis 86
A. ebrunea 65, 73
A. excelsa 87
257
A. falciformis 56
A.farnesiana 2223, 46, 50,
65, 8182, 84
A.ferruginea 22, 25, 30
A. filicifolia 56
A. filicina 65
A. filicioides 65
A. fimbrita 55
A. fistula 65
A. flavescens 10, 54, 75
A.gageana 65
A. harpophylla 87
A. ho!osericea 2, 5, 10, 15,
18, 45, 46, 5556, 59,
69, 81, 94, 102,
104105, 110, 112,
145150, 228
A. homalophylla 65
A. hydaspica 65
A. insuavis 2, 45, 8081,
84, 135, 241
A. intsia 86
A. irrorata 55
A.jacquemontii 65
A. leptocarpa 2, 10, 16, 34,
44,
55, 7677, 94, 105, 107,
111, 145, 147150, 187,
249250
A. leucophloea 2, 2124, 27,
28, 50, 65, 73, 81, 84,
140, 145, 229
A. longifolia 87, 229, 237
A. machanochieana 66
A. mangium 2, 5, 911, 14,
1516, 1819, 24, 29,
3342, 4445, 4649, 5051, 54, 46, 7478,
8185, 8793, 94, 97,
100, 102, 106107,
110112, 113121,
123124, 129133, 135,
137139, 141142,
145150, 170171,
173178, 179185,
187188, 190191, 192,
194, 225, 229230,
233239, 240241, 243,
245, 247, 249250
A. mearnsii 2, 101I, 1518,
2223, 54, 56, 59, 65,
7374, 87, 135136,
139, 142, 144, 199,
215, 224, 230-231, 233,
238
A. melanoxylon 10, 22,
5556, 65, 7374, 87,
121, 184,231-232
A. mellifera 65
A. microcephala 50
A. modesta 22, 26, 6566,
232, 239
A. mollissima 135, 232
A. inyaingii 50
A. nilotica 2, 5, 10, 14, 21
31, 54, 56, 6467,
6970, 136137, 140,
142143, 144, 187188,
190, 199, 220, 224,
232, 237, 240242, 245
249250
A. nodosa 87
A. oraria 10, 34, 7577,
106, 109, 187, 249250
A. pendula 54, 87
A. pennata 81, 84, 140,
145, 187, 232, 241,
249250
A. pennatula 23
A. planiformis 2, 73
A. planifrons 2122, 24, 27,
28, 140
A. plectocarpa 97, 108110,
145150
A. podalyrifolia 18, 46, 59,
87, 145
A. polystachya 10, 7677,
97, 108110, 145,
147150
A. radiana 66
A. retinoides 87
A. robusta 26
A. rothii 75
A. salicina 67, 233
A. saligna 65, 144, 233,
237
A. sclerospernm 66
A. senegal 2, 5, 2123,
2527, 5152, 6566, 73,
75, 144-145, 215, 223,
242
A. seyal 23, 65, 215
A. sieberana 65
A. spadicigera 65
A. sphaerocephala 65
A. stenophylla 55, 6667
A. sundra 22, 73, 155
A. tomnentosa 5, 81, 8384,
145
A. torta 65
A. tortilis 2, 2328, 6566,
241242
A. victoriae 54, 67, 241
A. xiphophylla 242
Amonum subulatum 25
Azadirachta indica 7677,
140
Calliandra calothyrsus 77,
136
Dalbergia sissoo 53, 57,
5960
Eucalyptus spp. 4445, 53,
258
57, 5961, 73, 77, 88,
97, 111, 113, 130, 137,
139140, 170, 174, 177,
215, 223224, 239
E. canmaldulensis 34, 50, 53,
57, 5961, 7677, 93,
97, 170, 215
E. deglupta 130, 170
E. tereticornis 26. 7577,
140, 170
Gnelinaarborea 34, 171,
238, 243
Leucaena spp. 34, 44, 59,
7677, 139, 170,
21t-219
Pterocarpus spp. 51
Tamarindus indica 7677
Terminalia arjuna 7677
Raziuddin Ansari