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Agaricales of Sikkim Himalaya: A Review
Krishnendu Acharya, Manjula Rai, Prakash Pradhan
University of Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal 700019, India
krish_paper@yahoo.com
Abstract: The loss of biological diversity is a global crisis. There is hardly any region on the earth that is not facing
ecological catastrophes. Sikkim Himalaya is a biologically enriched place of diverse flora and fauna because of its
typical geographical situation. But as the population is increasing, socio-economic and environmental changes are
going on rapidly, and the natural resources are at risk. Thus, conservation is a major concern at this moment. In the
Sikkim Himalaya only a few work on Agaricales has been done after Berkley (1856). Literature survey has shown
that no up to date list of Agaricales has been created from this area. In this review we have developed a diversity list
of Agaricales of this region. [Researcher. 2010;2(5):29-38]. (ISSN: 1553-9865).
Key words: Agaricales, Sikkim Himalaya, Red data List, Species richness.
modeling of bioresources as well as threats to the
environment due to its depletion, has come to the
forefront of the public and scientific concern of late
and these programs are being used as important tools in
identifying and prioritizing rare species (Coutecuisse,
2001). An organism is categorized as threatened when
its ecological niche is threatened. Our knowledge of the
microbial diversity is so meager that we do not yet
know if and when most species are threatened. Our
very inability to answer the question of threatened
microbial species cries out loud for the need for
microbial systematists and ecologists to begin to
address the exciting challenges regarding our
knowledge of the extent of microbial diversity on earth
(Staley, 1997). The generally accepted estimate of the
number of species of fungi on earth is a conservative
1.5 million of which only 1,00,000 have so far been
described (Hawksworth and Rossman, 1997).
One-third of the global fungal diversity is thought to be
present in India alone, although, only 50% are
characterized until now (Manoharachary et al., 2005;
Swapna et al., 2008).
Most of the fungal declines and extinctions are
accounted for by problems deep-rooted in the fabric of
modern society. We now are aware that the simple
fragmentation, as well as outright destruction, of our
natural areas is leading to an ever increasing decline in
biodiversity worldwide (Kishbaugh and Yocam, 2000),
including fungal species (Bunyard et al., 1996).
However, non-biologists may be excused for
questioning whether microbial diversity is really under
threat. At a superficial level, microorganisms seem to
be tolerant of almost any set of conditions thrown at
them. Also, they appear to have reproductive
potentialities to generate populations of truly
astronomic number in a very little time. However, that
is a superficial understanding and any beliefs that
1.
Introduction
Fungi are among the most diverse, important and
omnipresent groups of organisms on earth, though they
have received less attention than animals and plants,
therefore related studies are mostly inadequate
worldwide (Hawksworth, 1991; Cannon, 1997;
Rossman and Farr, 1997; Guzman, 1998; Piepenbring,
2007). Fungi have high potential for indicating the
holistic natural value of a habitat in a way that
integrates inputs like historical, nature management,
biodiversity, and conservation aspects (Coutecuisse,
2001). Along with other microorganisms, they not only
make conditions suitable for the evolution and
existence of macroscopic life forms, but also continue
to drive many of the ecological processes like
bioremediation, biogeochemical cycle, nutrient
recycling, litter decomposition, soil formation,
indicating perturbation within the environment and
ecosystem maintenance related to anthropogenic
activities (Cibula, 1974; Hawksworth, 1991;
Hawksworth, 1995; Guzman, 1998; Hunt, 1999; Pilz
and Molina, 2001; Gates et al., 2005). Mycorrhizal
fungi are the key functional component of a forest
ecosystem where they form symbiotic associations
with the roots of 75-80% of vascular plants, enabling
plants towards better nutrient uptake, which is
especially crucial under adverse edaphic conditions
(Hawksworth, 1991; Watling, 1997; Brown et al.,
2006). Furthermore, fungi (in particular the
mushroom-forming species) serve as valuable food
sources for numerous invertebrate and vertebrate forest
inhabitants (Hawksworth, 1991; Watling, 1997).
Besides that, fungi find utilization in industry,
agriculture, medicine (Cowan, 2001), food industry and
textiles (Molina et al., 1993; Keizer, 1998; Pilz and
Molina, 2001).
Inventorisation, mapping, monitoring and habitat
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Eastern Himalayan region as one of the major
biodiversity hotspots of the Indian subcontinent, no
databank on the species richness and diversity of
mycota are on records. Species diversity in the natural
environment of a region is one of the basic
requirements to estimate the richness of the habitat as
well as to understand the natural structure of the
ecosystems of the habitat. Also, the estimation of
species diversity ensures the change in the nature of the
ecosystem function and biological compositions.
The above features has already been considered
and dealt with in the construction of Red Data list of
IUCN. The first Red Data list of fungi appeared in
1982 and many European countries have also published
or are enroute to publishing formal or informal Red
Data lists. Many Red Data list are difficult to test
because they are published in rather obscure journals or
pamphlets. A survey of National Red Data list
hopefully up to date is presented in table 1.
microbial species are not threatened are simply
mistaken. Nearly 34 years ago the first reports
concerning a decrease in fungal species diversity and
the abundance of fungal fruit bodies across a wide
geographic area originated in Europe (Schlumpf, 1976;
Bas, 1978). The fear of mycologists and naturalists that
the macrofungi were decreasing came true from the
analysis of data and this awareness led to creation of
Rarity, Endangerment and Distribution Data list or Red
Data lists in 11 European countries in the next 15 years
(Arnolds and De Vries, 1993). Attention to this
phenomenon outside northern Europe was lacking until
recently (Molina et al., 2001).
Considering the importance of creating a databank
on the naturally occurring microbes, including fungi, in
generating and maintaining the diversity at the genomic,
taxonomic and ecological community levels, little work
has been carried out from the Indian subcontinent. Also,
in view of the fact that the North East India and the
Table 1: National Red Data lists of macrofungi
Country
Authors
Year
No of Species
Austria
Krisai
1999
542
Czech Republic
Kotlaba et al.
1995
120
Denmark
Vesterholt & Knudsen
1990
898
Estonia
Anon
1995
76
Finland
Rassi et al.
1992
325
Germany
Benkert et al.
1992
1402
Great Britain
Ing
1992
453
Greece
Diamandis
2000
150
Hungary
Rimóczi
1998
535
Latvia
Vimba & Peterans
1996
38
Lithuania
Kutorga et al.
1999
740
Macedonia
Karadelev
2000
67
Netherlands
Arnolds & van Ommering
1996
1655
Norway
Bendiksen et al.
1997
831
Poland
Wojewoda & Lawrynowicz
1992
1013
Spain
Calonge
1993
153
Sweden
Aronsson et al.
1995
528
Switzerland
Senn-Irlet et al.
1997
232
Ukraine
Shelyak-Sosonkn
1996
56
USSR (former)
Borodin et al.
1984
17
Yugoslavia
Ivancebic
1998
97
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In relation to the importance of estimating biological diversity of Mycota and to understanding the factors that
involve in sustenance of the community of the Eastern Himalaya region, an attempt is being made here to present
the diversity of Agaricales (Mycota: Eumycota: Basidiomycotina: Hymenomycetes: Holobasidieae) of the Sikkim
Himalayan region which constitute critical centers for biodiversity and endemism in Eastern Himalaya. The hills of
Sikkim (7096 sq km.) and Darjeeling (3149 sq km.) constitute the Sikkim Himalayan ensemble (Figure 1). The
region is surrounded by vast stretches of Tibetan plateau in North, Chumbi valley and Kingdom of Bhutan in the
east and Nepal in the west. The region has hilly and sloping terrain physiography in general and over which most
habitation, agricultural activity and forest cover may found. Vertical range is from 100 m amsl (foothills), through
4000 m amsl (timberline), upto 8500 m amsl (the Kanchenjunga peak). The area experiences a heavy rainfall due to
its proximity with the Bay of Bengal. Pre-monsoon rain occurs in April-May and Monsoon (South-West) operates
normally from the month of May and continues up to early October. Average annual rainfall varies from 2000 mm at
valleys to 4000 mm at the mountain ridges. The humidity remains very high during the rainy season (85-97%).
There are three identified seasons in the region, among which rain and high humidity are recurring and predominant
episodes. In such a small area sharp climatic differences in different ecological zones have promoted establishment
of a rich biological diversity including wide variety of fungi.
Figure 1: Sikkim Himalaya
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The order Agaricales, commonly known as gill fungi contains 270 genera and around 4000 species. These
include the mushrooms (the edible species) and the toad stool (the poisonous species). The order Agaricales for long
had only one family, the Agaricaceae. Smith (1973) and singer (1975) have recognized 16 families in this order.
Hawksworth et al., (1983) who have followed the classification of Singer (1975) in the 7th edition of the ‘Dictionary
of the Fungi’ have, however, excluded Boletaceae and Russulaceae from Agaricales. General characters of
Agaricales are hymenophore either lamellate or porose; if porose, the tubes are easily removed from the pileus;
basidiocarp fleshy, typically monomitic, rarely dimitic. In the modern sense, the boletes are placed in their own order,
the Boletales. The oldest record of the detailed survey of naturally occurring Agaricales of Sikkim Himalaya comes
from the study of Berkley (1856), who listed 131 species and provided taxonomic rank and nomenclature to 90 of
them. Since then, little work has been carried out on this respect. A list of genera and species reported from Sikkim
Himalaya till to date presented in Table 2.
Table 2: List of Genera and Species were reported from Sikkim Himalaya
GENUS
SPECIES
Agaricus L. ex Fr.
A. exaltatus Berk.
A. fulviceps Berk.
A. silvaticus Schaeff.
A. gemmata (Fr.) Bertill.
A. muscaria var. flavivolvata (Singer)
Jenkins
A. berkeleyi (Hook.f.) Sacc.
A. eriophora (Berk.) Sacc.
A. regalis (Berk.) Sacc.
A. adelpha Berk.
A. dichupella Berk.
A. duplicata Berk
A. horrens Berk.
A. mellea Berk.
A. multicolor Berk.
A. omnituens Berk.
A. vara Berk.
C. incongrua Berk.
C. laccata (Scop) Sacc.
C. antitypha Berk.
C. blandulq Berk.
C. camptopoda Berk.
C. dryophila (Bull.) Fr. var. Caespitis
Berk.
C. macera Berk.
C. maculata (Alb. & Schw.) Fr.
C. napipes Hook.f. in Berk.
C. papaveracea Berk.
C. podagrosa Berk.
C. raphanipes Berk.
C. rhodella Berk.
C. stillaticia Berk.
C. triplicata Berk.
C. undabunda Berk.
C. ustipes Berk.
C. velutipes (Curt.) Fr.
C. comatus Fr.
C. disseminates (Pers. ex Fr.) S.F.Grey
C .hookeri Berk.
Amanita (Pers. ex Fr.) S.F.
Gray
Amanitopsis Roze.
Armillaria (Fr.) Quel
Clitocybe (Fr.) Kummer
Collybia (Fr.) Quel
Coprinus (Pers. ex Fr.) S.F.
Gray
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HABITAT, PLACE AND AREA
(References)
Clay earth banks, Darjeeling (a)
Ground, Sikkim (a)
Soil, Darjeeling (a)
Darjeeling (p)
Darjeeling (p)
Ground, Darjeeling (a)
Ground, Darjeeling (a)
Ground, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Bark old tree, Darjeeling (a)
Root C. japonica, Calimpong (b).
Dead wood, Jalapahar (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Rotten timber, Sinchel (a)
On the ground, Jalapahar (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
Wood, Darjeeling (a)
Wood, Darjeeling (a)
Amongst grass and moss, Lachen, (a)
Ground in pine wood, Sikkim. (a)
Pine wood, Lachen. (a)
Ground, Darjeeling (a)
Ground, Darjeeling (a)
Clay banks, Sinchal. (a)
Jalapahar, Darjeeling (a)
Wood, Darjeeling (a)
Dead, living tree, Jalapahar (a)
Sikkim (a)
Old timber wood, Darjeeling (a)
Ground, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling & Sikkim (a)
Grassy land, Darjeeling (a)
Forest floor, moist wall Darjeeling (o)
Grassy place, Jalapahar (a)
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Cortinarius S.F. Gray
Crepidotus (Fr.) Staude
Entoloma (Fr.) Kummer
Flammula (Fr.) Kummer
Flammulina P. Karst.
Galera (Fr.) Quel.
Hygrophorus Fr. Kummer
Hypholoma (Fr.) Quel
Laccaria Berk. & Br.
Lactarius D.C. ex S.F. Gray
Lentinus Fr.
Lepiota (Pers. ex Fr.) S.F.
Gray
Leucoagaricus Singer
Marasmius Fr.
Mycena (Fr.) S.F. Gray,
2010;2(5)
C. micaceous (Bull.) Fr.
C. plicatilis (Curt ex Fr.) Fr.
C. vellereus Berk
C. emodensis Berk.
C. flameus Berk.
C. saniosus Fr.
C. vinosulus Sacc.
C. mollis (Schaeff.) Staude
C. variabilis (Pers.) P. Kumm.
E. cystopodium Berk.
E. euthelum Berk.
E. goliath Hook.f.
F. chrysomyces Berk.
F. flavida (Schaeff.) Fr.
F. macrophala (Berk.) Sacc.
F. phelegmatica Berk.
F. velutipes (Curt. ex Fr.) Sing
G. burkillii Massee
G. tenera (Schaeff.) Fr.
G. vinolenta Berk.
H. fulvus Berk.
H. miniatus Fr.
H. atrichum Berk.
H. castanophyllum Berk.
H. condensum Berk.
H. fasciculare (Huds.) Fr.
H. hemisodes Berk.
H. sublateritium (Schaeff.) Fr.
H. velutinum (Pers) Fr.
L. laccata (Scop.) Cooke.
L .deliciosus (L.) Fr.
L. vellereus Fr.
L. coadunatus Hook. f.
L. hepaticus Berk.
L. hookerianus Berk.
L. inquinans Berk.
L. subdulcis Berk.
L. tecomtei Fr.
L. delicolum Berk.
L. montosa Berk.
L. excoriatus (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Singer.
M. caperatus Berk.
M. consocius Berk.
M. erythropus Fr.
M. hematodes Berk.
M. irridescens Berk.
M. rotula (Scop ex Fr.) Fr.
M. bicrenata Berk.
M. broomiana Berk.
M. colligata Berk.
M. dentosa Berk.
M. discors Berk.
M. epipterygia (Scop.) Fr.
M. flavo-miniata Berk.
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Rotten log, Darjeeling (o)
Grassy meadow, Darjeeling (o)
Dead wood & earth, Darjeeling (a)
Pine wood, Lachen (a)
Pine wood, Sikim (a)
Pine wood, Sikim (a)
Pine wood, Sikim (a)
Darjeeling (p)
Darjeeling (p)
On dead leaves, twig, Darjeeling (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
Wood, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim. (c)
Tree trunk, Darjeeling (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim. (a)
Darjeeling (p)
Ground, Darjeeling (d)
Ground, Jalapahar, Darjeeling (a)
Wood in pine forest, Sikkim. (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
Pine wood, Lachen, Sikkim (a)
Dead timber, Darjeeling (a)
Ground, Darjeeling (a)
Ground, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Earth Bank, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Earthy bank, Darjeeling (a)
Darjeeling (q)
Lachen, Sikkim (e), Darjeeling (m)
Fire wood, Sikkim (a), Darjeeling (m)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Tree trunks, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Sikkim. (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Wood, Tonglo, Sikkim (a)
Dead trees, Darjeeling. (a)
Ground, Sikkim. (a)
Ground, Darjeeling (f)
Live &dead bush, Tonglo (a)
Dead twig, Darjeeling (a)
Ground, Darjeeling (a)
Pine twig, Sikkim. (a)
Mossy bark, Sikkim. (a)
Leaves of maple & pine wood, Sikkim
(a)
Roots of trees, Sikkim (a)
Rotten wood, Jalapahar (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
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Naucoria Fr.
Omphalia (Fr.) Staude.
Oudemansiella Speg.
Panus Fr.,
Paxillus Fr.
Peniophora Cooke
Pholiota (Fr.) Kummer
Pleurotus (Fr.) Kummer
Pluteus Fr.
Psathyra (Fr.) Quel
Psathyrella (Fr.) Quel
Psilocybe (Fr.) P. Kumm.
Russula Pers.ex S.F. Gray
Schizophyllum Fr.
Stereogloeocystidium Rick
2010;2(5)
M. galericulata (Scop.) Fr.
M. incommiscibilis Berk.
M. manipularis Berk.
M. myriadea Berk.
M. nubigena Berk.
M. prasia Berk.
M. puberula Berk.
M. pura (Pers.) Fr.
M. rubiaetincta Berk.
M. rufata Berk.
M. rufo-picta Berk.
M. russulina Berk.
M. xanthophylla Berk.
N. descendens Berk.
N. scrupea Berk.
O. radiatus Berk.
O. ranunculina Berk.
O. umbellifera (L) Fr.
O. radicata (Reih ex Fr.) Singer
O. mucida (Schrd.) Hoehn.
P. conchatus Fr.
P. monticola Berk.
P. chrysites Berk.
P. pinguis Hook.f.
P. sulphureus Berk.
Peniophora sp.
P. aurivella (Batsch.) Fr.
P. examinans Berk.
P. microspora Berk.
P. anserinus Berk.
P. eous Berk.
P. hapalosclerus Berk.
P. himalayensis Thind & Waraitch.
P. ninguidus Berk.
P. placentodes Berk.
P. salignus (Pers.) Fr.
P. verrucarius Berk.
P. chrysoprasius Berk.
P. plumbinus Berk.
P. clavescens Berk.
P. flavo-grisea Berk.
P. nassa Berk.
P. discolor Berk.
P. caespiticia Berk.
R. cinnabaarina Hook.f.
R. emetica Fr.
R. furcata Fr.
R. grossa Berk.
R. lepida Fr.
R. ochroleuca Pers. ex Fr.
R.rosacea Fr.
R. sororia (Fr.) Romell.
R. xerampelina Fr.
S. commune Fr.
S. spadiceum (Fr.) Rick
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Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
Trunk & stump, Sinchel (a)
Dead trunk, Darjeeling (a)
Old timber, Darjeeling (a)
Ground, Tonglo (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a).
Pine wood, Sikkim (a), Darjeeling
Tree bark, Darjeeling (a)
Tree trunk, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Tree trunk, Darjeeling (a)
Tree roots, Darjeeling (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
Moist earth, Darjeeling (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
On Turf, Lahu, Sikkim (a)
Pine wood, Sikkim (a)
Soil, Kurseong (g)
Sikkim (l)
Darjeeling (a)
Ground, Tonglo (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Earth & mossy banks, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood & Ground, Darjeeling (a)
Ground, Sikkim (h)
Tree stump, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling. (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling. (a)
Dead tree trunk, Sikkim (a)
Tree trunk, Darjeeling (a)
Burnt wood & Soil, Darjeeling (i)
Dead timber, Sikkim (a)
Birch wood, Sikkim (a)
Sikkim (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Burnt wood of Abies, Sikkim (a).
Living tree trunk, Darjeeling. (a)
Mossy earth, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Dead timber & ground, Darjeeling (a)
Clay banks, Darjeeling (a)
Clay bank, Darjeeling (a)
Clay bank, Darjeeling (a)
Clay bank, Sinchel, (a)
Darjeeling (a)
Clay bank, Darjeeling (a)
Forest floor, Darjeeling (n)
Pine wood, Lachen, Sikkim. (j)
Forest floor, Darjeeling (n)
Forest floor, Darjeeling (n)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (f)
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Stropharia (Fr.) Quel.
Tricholoma (Fr.) Quel.
Tricholomopsis Singer
Volvaria (Fr.) P. Kumm.
Xerotus Hill ex Grev.
2010;2(5)
S. aureo-fulva Berk.
T. cremoriceps Berk.
T. rutilans (Schaeff ex Fr.) Singh
V. thwaitesii Hook. f.
X. cantharelloides Berk.
Dead wood, Jalapahar (a)
Tree trunk, Darjeeling (a)
Humicolous soil, Darjeeling (k)
Dead wood, Darjeeling (a)
Dead wood, Jalapahar (a)
(a) Berkeley, M.J. (1856); (b) Bakshi, B.K. et al., (1972); (c) Banerjee, S.N. (1947); (d) Massee, G. (1912); (e)
Butler, E.J. and Bisby, G.R. (1931); (f) Ramakrishnan, K. and Sundaram, N.V. (1952); (g) Ghosh, R.N. et al., (1967);
(h) Banerjee, S.N. (1948); (i) Thind, K.S. and Waraitch, K.S. (1971); (j) Mundkur, B.B. (1938); (k) Sarwal, B.M.
(1984); (l) Rai et al., (2007); (m) Acharya et al., (2004a); (n) Acharya et al., (2004b); (o) Rai et al., (2005); (p)
Acharya and Rai, (2003); (q) Rai and Acharya, (2006).
2. Conclusion
The hills of Darjeeling and Sikkim (Figure 1) seem to provide a wide range of habitats for the growth of
Agaricales with 151 species belonging to 42 genera (Table 2). The number of representative species under each of
the 42 genera is varied with 13 genera having a single species each and the genera Mycena and Collybia, having 20
and 16 species respectively (Figure 2, Table 2). The evenness of species distribution/genera is significantly low
which supports higher diversity, assemblage and distribution of species. Maximum number of genera (31) supported
species richness of 1-3/genera and only two genera had more than 10 representative species which indicates higher
Agaricales diversity.
Figure 2. Species richness of Agaricales in the Sikkim Himalaya.
Correspondence to
Krishnendu Acharya
Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology
Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of
Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal, pin-700019, India.
Email: krish_paper@yahoo.com
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2010;2(5)
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