REVIEW OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT OF THE
ALINYTJARA WILURARA NRM REGION,
AND SUMMARY OF THREATS
(c) A. Loisier
REPORT FOR THE ALINYTJARA WILURARA
NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT BOARD
by J.L. Baker, Marine Ecologist
June 2010
Contents
Part 1 AREA DESCRIPTION - MARINE ENVIRONMENT OF THE AW NRM REGION ..................................... 4
1 Area Description .................................................................................................................................... 4
Regional Setting and Biogeography...................................................................................................... 4
Oceanography ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Productivity and Food Webs ................................................................................................................ 8
Geomorphology, Geology and Sediments .......................................................................................... 10
Major Coastal and Marine Habitats.................................................................................................... 14
Benthic Flora ....................................................................................................................................... 18
Invertebrates ...................................................................................................................................... 20
Bony Fishes ......................................................................................................................................... 25
Cartilaginous Fishes ............................................................................................................................ 26
Marine Mammals ............................................................................................................................... 31
Marine Reptiles .................................................................................................................................. 34
Coastal Birds and Sea Birds................................................................................................................. 34
Part 2 USES OF THE AW NRM REGION – MARINE COMPONENT ............................................................. 38
2. Uses and Activities .............................................................................................................................. 38
Recreational Fishing ........................................................................................................................... 38
Commercial Fishing ............................................................................................................................ 42
Coastal and Marine Recreation and Tourism ..................................................................................... 48
Aboriginal Heritage ............................................................................................................................. 49
Research ............................................................................................................................................. 50
Ports, Shipping and Boating ............................................................................................................... 52
Mining, Minerals, Oil and Gas Exploration ......................................................................................... 53
2
Part 3 POTENTIAL THREATS AND THREATENING PROCESSES IN THE AW NRM REGION
– MARINE COMPONENT ............................................................................................................................. 57
3 Potential Threats ................................................................................................................................ 57
Fishing ................................................................................................................................................. 57
Threats to Sea Lions............................................................................................................................ 66
Recreation and Tourism ..................................................................................................................... 67
Marine Debris ..................................................................................................................................... 69
Marine Pests ....................................................................................................................................... 70
Research ............................................................................................................................................. 87
Land-based and Coastal Discharges ................................................................................................... 87
Mining, Minerals, Oil and Gas Exploration ......................................................................................... 88
Climate Change ................................................................................................................................... 90
Ranking of Threats and Proposed Actions .......................................................................................... 95
Part 4 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT IN THE AW NRM REGION – MARINE COMPONENT .......... 103
4.1 Notes on Current Protection and Management ............................................................................ 103
4.2 Notes on Proposed Protection and Management.......................................................................... 108
5. Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................. 110
6. Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 110
7. Appendices ........................................................................................................................................... 138
3
Part 1
AREA DESCRIPTION: MARINE ENVIRONMENT OF THE AW NRM REGION
1 Area Description
Regional Setting and Biogeography
The Alinytjara Wilurara (AW) Region in the far north-west of South Australia, covers 26% of the
State, but only a small portion of the region is marine (Figure 1). The marine component
stretches from South Australia‘s border with Western Australia in the west, to the coastal edge
(Yalata Beach) of the Yalata Indigenous Protected Area in the east, and the regional boundary
extends to the edge of the State Waters, 3 nautical miles from the coast (Natural Resources
Management Act, 2004). The marine component of the AW NRM region is part of the Statemanaged waters of the Great Australian Bight Marine Park (Figure 1). The AW Region is part
of the Great Australian Bight, Australian‘s largest coastal indentation, which extends from Cape
Pasley in the west, to Cape Carnot near Port Lincoln in the east, a distance of approximately
1,160kms (DEWR, 2006). The shallow continental shelf in the Bight is very wide. In some
places the shelf break, where the water is around 200 metres deep, is over 100 nautical miles
(or around 190 kilometres) away from the coastline.
Figure 1: Map of the coastal and marine component of the Alinytjara Wilurara NRM Region,
showing the boundary of the Region, and the location of the GAB Marine Park.
Map provided by AW NRM Board.
Major features of the marine area, where the Nullarbor Plain meets the Southern Ocean, are
the spectacular Bunda Cliffs (Nullarbor cliffs) of the Great Australian Bight, and the massive
sand dunes and wild windswept beaches of the Yalata Lands. The Great Australian Bight is an
unusual environment because the coastline is aligned with the equator, and runs mostly from
east to west instead of from north to south. The GAB is the longest ice-free coastline running in
this direction in the Southern Hemisphere.
4
The South Australian section of the Great Australian Bight (GAB), in which the AW NRM marine
region is situated, also forms part of a larger State marine bioregion which extends seaward to
the 200nm mark. This area, the Eucla bioregion (Figure 2, IMCRA Technical Group, 1998), is
the most westerly of South Australia‘s 8 marine bioregions, and extends westwards past the
Western Australian border, to Israelite Bay. The eastern boundary of the Eucla bioregion is
situated at Cape Adieu. At an even larger scale, the head of the GAB forms part of the ―Great
Australian Bight IMCRA Transition‖ (Geoscience Australia, CSIRO and Department of the
Environment and Heritage, undated), a provincial bioregion that extends to south-western
Australia.
The Eucla bioregion is characterised by moderate to high wave energy, high swells, seasonal
warm water currents, a south and south-west facing coastline, and a broad, shallow continental
shelf (IMCRA Technical Group, 1998).
Seasonal warmer water currents characterise the Great Australian Bight area, and these are
considered to influence the type of marine plants, sessile invertebrates, fish species and
migratory taxa, that occur in the region (Maxwell and Cresswell, 1981; Edyvane and Baker,
1999; DEWR, 2006). The marine flora and fauna is transitional warm to cool temperate
(Flindersian biogeographic province: Womersley and Edmunds, 1958), and there is a distinct
tropical and subtropical element to the flora and fauna of the region (e.g. plankton, fish,
echinoderms, hydroids) (Markina and Vishnyakova, 1977; Maxwell and Cresswell, 1981, cited
by Edyvane and Baker, 1999) due to both locally generated currents, and the edge of the
Leeuwin Current from Western Australia. A number of large, sub-tropical pelagic fishes, and
also marine turtles, seasonally occur along the coast of the northern GAB, in association with
the warm water currents.
Various surveys, some results of which are discussed in later sections of this document,
indicate that the Head of the GAB supports a diverse mix of habitats, including nearshore reefs
dominated by large brown macroalgae; seagrass beds (e.g. near Eucla, west of AW NRM
region), and in some of the bays to the east; sponge beds in some of the deeper waters; and
mixed reefs dominated by various attached invertebrates, including bryozoans, sponges and
ascidians (SARDI data, 1995; Edyvane and Baker, 1998, 1999; Ward et al., 2006; Gurgel,
2009). Furthermore, collation of museum records and previous survey records, indicate that the
State-managed waters of the GAB are species-rich and diverse, with pertinent examples
including the large numbers of species of bony fishes (at least 332 species), decapod
crustaceans (at least 145 species), shelled gastropod molluscs (at least 485 species),
echinoderms (at least 123 species), ascidians, bryozoans and sponges (see section 1.7
Invertebrates, and Appendices). Various other groups (e.g. amphipod and isopod
crustaceans, amongst many others) are also likely to be species-rich in the GAB shelf waters,
but only the few of the many groups of marine invertebrates have been catalogued for this
report.
5
Figure 2: Marine Bioregions of South Australia, showing location of Eucla Bioregion in the
northern Great Australian Bight (adapted from IMCRA Technical Group, 2008).
Oceanography
The GAB region is one of high energy, with large wind-driven waves, and strong, year-round
south-westerly swells (sometimes to 4m or more) around some of the exposed headlands, and
against the cliffs. In winter, this area is fully exposed to storms. In areas away from wave action,
the clear waters allow light to reach greater depths than in many other parts of the South
Australian coast.
A complex mix of weak down-welling currents are layered through the GAB, from the inner
shelf, to the deeper waters the slope. These include (i) seasonally alternating flows of small
coastal currents, close to the surface; (ii) the eastward flowing warm Leeuwin Current (see
below), which joins with the South Australian Current along the southern coast of Australia, and
(iii) in deeper continental slope waters, the westward flowing Flinders Current, which brings
cooler waters and nutrients into the southern part of the Bight (particularly the shelf break), and
has little influence at the Head of the Bight. In addition to the main currents, large eddies and
gyres are common in the GAB, whereby cold, oceanic surface water mixes with the warmer
waters in the inner Bight.
In the summer, the hot, dry winds blow from the deserts of central Australia over the Bunda
Cliffs, which form the northern and north-western coastline of the Bight. The winds help
evaporate more water from the sea surface, increasing the amount of salt in the surface waters.
Evaporation during summer over the shallow expanses at the Head of the Bight, creates hypersaline seawater which generates an additional and predictable down-welling force when the
system cools during winter (DEWR, 2006).
6
The coastal area is within the influence of the warm water masses generated at the Head of the
Bight, and also by the edge of the Leeuwin Current from Western Australia, which influences
the GAB in a weaker way compared with its flow in W.A. waters. The Leeuwin Current is a
shallow (< 300m deep) and narrow (< 100km wide) current which originates in the tropical
waters of the Indian Ocean, and accelerates as it runs southward down the coast of Western
Australia. The Leeuwin Current wraps around the southern corner of the continent and flows
eastward along the coasts of Western and South Australia into the Great Australian Bight and
further east (DEWR, 2006). This current is considered to suppress upwelling (Hobday et al.,
2006)
The Leeuwin current is joined by an easterly-moving warm water mass that is generated in the
Bight, and the influence of this warm water mass extends east to the Eyre coast (Herzfeld,
1997; Herzfeld and Tomczak, 1997; Herzfeld, 2000). The warm water mass develops in the
summer months, resulting in a temperature 2-3°C above that of surrounding waters and
spreads in a south-eastward direction to about 137° - 138°E during late summer and early
autumn (Herzfeld, 1997). Sampling has shown that during late spring, a large pool of warm
water (> 16ºC) characterises much of the inner-shelf south of the Head of the Bight, and is
consistent with a feature known as the GAB Plume; the intrusion of heated water that develops
due to strong summer heating in the shallow areas of the north-western Bight (Herzfeld, 1997,
cited by Currie et al., 2007). Water temperatures gradually decline along the inner-shelf to the
east of the warm pool, and reach their lowest values (~15ºC) at the foot of the Eyre Peninsula.
This development of warm water at the head of the GAB during summer is considered to be
independent of any influence of the Leeuwin Current, and the main source of the warm GAB
water is therefore from processes local to the region. The region of greatest warming in the
north-western GAB is associated with a large expanse of shallow water (< 30 m), and a larger
temperature change in the water column over this region compared with surrounding deeper
regions (Herzfeld, 1997). Inshore waters of the middle and mid-eastern part of the Bight stratify
in summer, when sea surface temperatures warm to over 23º C, and salinity increases due to
evaporation. During late autumn and winter, the inshore waters cool and the Leeuwin Current
intrudes into the GAB region from the west, and interacts with the GAB plume over the outer
shelf and upper slope (James et al., 2001).
A hydrographic survey in summer of 1999 showed that a subsurface front develops over the
shelf break during summer, and is indicative of upwelling (Young et al., 1999). This front is
capped by warm water. A similar survey by CSIRO also showed the presence of the subsurface
front overlain by the cap of warm water, indicating that the vertical structure observed was
typical for that time of year. Shelf water is stratified in summer due to localised upwelling and is
well-mixed in winter because of swell and storm waves, and the influence of the Leeuwin
Current (James et al., 2001).
Cooler, high-salinity water (> 36‰) dominates inner-shelf waters, east of the Head of the Bight
(Currie et al., 2007). This feature is consistent with evaporative forcing and winter cooling of the
eastwardly drifting GAB Plume. Further cooling and winter down-welling of the dense saline
water occurs in the eastern part of the GAB, the down-welling appears to be countered in the
central GAB by an on-shelf flow of less saline water (< 35.5‰) from the open ocean to the
south (Currie et al., 2007).
7
In the GAB, there is also some evidence to suggest that the El Niño - Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) climate pattern could also be a key driver that affects productivity and biodiversity in the
region (DEWR, 2006). ENSO is composed of
(i)
an oceanic component, called El Niño (the warm oceanic phase, coupled with La Niña,
the cold intervening phase), which refers to a sequence of changes in circulations across
the Pacific Ocean and Indonesian archipelago, when oceanic warming is particularly
strong (on average every three to eight years) (Bureau of Meteorology, 2010).
Characteristic changes in the atmosphere accompany those in the ocean, resulting in
altered weather patterns across the globe; and
(ii)
an atmospheric component, the Southern Oscillation, a major air pressure shift between
the Asian and east Pacific regions, whose best-known extremes are El Niño events.
Observations suggest that ENSO events significantly influence the strength of currents and
upwelling, and the propagation of eddies. ENSO has a strong and very significant effect on the
intensity of the southward flowing Leeuwin Current, and Australia‘s west coast waters, and this
signal in the Leeuwin Current is further transmitted along the south coast of Australia (Holbrook
et al., 2009). The Leeuwin Current is observed to be strongest during the La Niña phase, as are
the mixing mechanisms of the winter overturn; westerly wind strength; number and strength of
storm fronts; and rates of surface cooling (DEWR, 2006).
Productivity and Food Webs
The GAB is considered, in oceanographic terms, to be an area of low productivity at a large
(continental) scale, due to (i) the absence of high-flowing river systems and the consequent
limited amount of terrigenous (i.e. land-based) nutrient inputs; and (ii) the combined absence of
large-scale upwelling, and the predominance of seasonal down-welling (probably as a result of
the influence of warm water currents – see 1.2 Oceanography) (McClatchie et al., 2006;
DEWR, 2006).
The interactions between the Leeuwin Current, other currents and the continental shelf have
implications for the productivity and ecology of the GAB, and may influence localised
upwellings. The ‗conveyor belt‘ system made up by the Leeuwin Current (flowing eastward) and
the deeper Flinders Current (flowing westward) is likely to be used for large-scale movements
by a number migratory species (DEWR, 2006).
Summer upwellings increase the productivity of shelf waters in parts of the GAB (Young et al.,
1999), as occurs in other parts of South Australia, but the upwellings in the Head of Bight area
are weaker than those observed further south-east. Chlorophyll density, a measure of primary
productivity of phytoplankton, is high in summer in the Fowlers Bay area (Ward et al., 2008),
just east of the AW NRM region. Correspondingly, during a summer survey in 1999, biomass of
zooplankton estimated by bongo net tows was highest inshore in the GAB (compared with
offshore) and consisted mainly of a tropical salp, and biomass of the larger micro-nekton
estimated by a mid-water trawl net, was highest in offshore waters (Young et al., 1999). Studies
of fluorescence (an indirect indicator of the primary productivity), zooplankton abundance, and
abundance of eggs of Australian pilchard (Sardinops sagax) and anchovy Engraulis australis
across the central and western South Australian coast, have shown that in some years, these
measures are seasonally high at Head of the Bight (and in shelf waters to the south, south-west
8
and south-east of that point) and also at many sites in eastern GAB (Ward et al., 2001, 2005;
Dimmlich et al., 2004). Schools of pilchards are commonly associated with small benthic ―hills‖
and other geomorphic features in inshore waters. A thermo-cline occurs at approximately 40m
across the shelf, and appears to influence species distribution, and potentially plays a role in
nutrient upwelling (DEWR, 2006).
Also, in some parts of the Head of the Bight, groundwater sources are hypothesised to play
some role in augmenting the productivity of coastal ecosystems (DEWR, 2006). Apparently in
the Head of the Bight, intrusions of submarine groundwater / seeps may influence the
community composition, but the importance of these submarine groundwater seeps needs
further investigation. Satellite images show higher concentrations of chlorophyll a in the Head of
Bight area compared with waters directly east or west of this area. The localised increase in
productivity may be supported by anecdotal observations of higher concentrations of a number
of species such as juvenile west Australian salmon, mulloway, school shark, Australian sea lion,
and dolphins, all of which use the inshore habitats as nurseries, and, for some of these species,
feeding grounds (DEWR, 2006).
A study by CSIRO (cited by Young et al., 1999) showed that the summer front in the GAB (see
1.2 Oceanography) is correlated with a relatively higher biomass of potential prey of southern
bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii). Research has shown that juvenile southern bluefin tuna
predominantly feed on clupeoids, fishes in the sardine and herring family (Young et al., 1997;
Ward et al., 2006). Pilchard stocks may thus be highly significant for juvenile southern bluefin
tuna in the Great Australian Bight and the southern Indian Ocean. Individual Bluefin Tuna of
about one to four years old are found seasonally in the surface waters off southern Australia,
and the Bight appears to be an important feeding and nursery ground during the summer
(Cowling et al. 1996, cited by Director of National Parks, 2005; Figure 12 in Ward et al., 2006).
Possibly due to relatively low productivity, the GAB supports mainly higher order predators that
are highly mobile and transitory, rather than resident. Highly mobile predators that are
characteristic of marine food webs in the GAB, include marine mammals (southern right whales,
Australian sea lions, dolphins, and some toothed whale species), sharks (e.g. white shark,
bronze whalers and dusky shark / black whaler, amongst others) and piscivorous fish (e.g.
southern bluefin tuna, yellowtail kingfish, west Australian salmon, pink snapper, and deeper
water species such as gemfish) and a variety of seabird species (DEWR, 2006). Many of these
species are opportunistic predators, that follow frontal features between areas of enhanced
productivity, or pursue schools of smaller bait fish (e.g. sardines, anchovy, herring) as they
migrate within the Bight. Many of the larger predatory species in the GAB are flexible in their
diet and prey selection, perhaps to exploit the seasonal availability of different food sources in
the inshore waters, and this is probably linked to variability in the dominant physical features of
the GAB such as the warm water currents, and winter storms, and wave energy (see 1.2). Life
stage-specific migrations of marine species have important implications for the dynamics of
food webs in GAB. Many marine species are observed to move between shallow and deeper
water environments during the course of their lifecycle. Typically, such species spend their
juvenile stages in shallower water, feeding on and amongst smaller animals like themselves. As
sub-adults they may feed across the flats of the shelf, gradually moving offshore towards adult
feeding grounds at the shelf edge, on the slope, or in oceanic waters. Examples include
western rock lobster, pink snapper, some of the ground sharks, and other shark species
(DEWR, 2006).
9
Baitfishes have a significant role in the food web of the GAB, and the size and variability of the
biomass of small pelagic fish such as pilchards, may have significant influence on the
distribution and biomass of other fauna (Ward et al., 2008). For example, baitfishes are an
important food source for young southern bluefin tuna. Shark fishers in the GAB have described
pulses of ―dirty water‖ that irregularly wash through the GAB from the west. These pulses are
reportedly followed by an increased availability of baitfish and squid and, later, larger predators
(e.g. dolphins, tuna, school sharks and whaler sharks) (DEWR, 2006). Many of the seasonal
predators, such as tuna, Australian salmon, and little penguin, feed on baitfishes (Fletcher,
1990). During this time, many species tend to concentrate along the shelf edge. These
productivity pulses are highly variable within and between years, and may be associated with
La Niña years. Seabirds are attracted to the area by the ephemeral blooming of shelf edge
plankton communities and they then track the food chains associated with these pulses of
productivity as they move through the system. Other species that are common in GAB shelf
waters may also be responding to these events (e.g. ocean leatherjackets, latchet, stingrays,
stingarees, gummy shark and angel shark).
Geomorphology, Geology and Sediments
The Head of the GAB, as part of the Eucla Bioregion, is dominated by a Tertiary limestone cliff
coastline (with narrow intertidal rock platforms at the base of the cliffs in some places); and also
supports Pleistocene dune rock headlands and reefs in the east, interspersed with Holocene
beaches and dune barriers (IMCRA Technical Group, 1998). More specifically, the eastern side
(region between Fowlers Bay, and Twin Rocks at the Head of the Bight), is defined
geomorphologically as a curving, geologically stable and uniform province, dominated by beach
and semi-stable to unstable Holocene dune barrier deposits, regularly interrupted by
Pleistocene dune calcarenite cliffs, shore platforms and reefs (Short et al., 1986). A major
feature of the area is the large sand drifts, in particular the Yalata dunes which extend 13kms
inland (Short et al., 1986).
A separate geomorphic province has been defined for the area west of Twin Rocks, extending
to the W.A. border. This province is dominated by the Nullarbor cliffs, which extend unbroken
for 179kms. These cliffs, known as the Bunda Cliffs at the Head of the Bight, are composed of
Tertiary limestone averaging 70m in height (and the cliffs are as high as 90m in some places).
About 30 km from the S.A./W.A. border, the cliffs are fronted by a beach and dune calcarenite
ramp, mantled by extensive drifting sand dunes, known as the Merdayerrah Sandpatch (Short
et al., 1986).
Much of the coast in the northern and western section of the Head of the Bight is dominated by
the Nullarbor Plain, the onshore part of the sedimentary Eucla Basin. The Nullarbor Plain has
an area of ~200,000 km2, making it one of the largest continuous karst areas in the world
(Lowry and Jennings, 1974, cited by Webb and James, 2006). Karst topography refers to a
landscape shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble bedrock, usually carbonate
rock such as limestone. The Eucla Basin formed part of the Miocene (less than 65 million years
ago) sea-floor, which was subsequently uplifted to form the present day plateau. The surface is
flat and very gently undulating; any change in the surface relief is due to karst development.
Karst landforms are characterised by solution sculpturing of outcropping rock, underground
drainage systems and caverns (ANRA, 2009). Rainfall onto the almost flat surface of the
Nullarbor Plain seeps through the limestone, influencing the tunnel and cave systems below.
10
The Nullarbor region was inundated by the sea following subsidence during the early
Cretaceous, and the first limestones formed about 45 million years ago, in the Middle Eocene
(Lowry, 1970, cited by Bradbury and Eberhard, 2000). There were at least two periods of
recession during the Oligocene and early Miocene, followed by uplift about 15 million years ago,
during the middle Miocene (Lowry and Jennings, 1974, cited by Bradbury and Eberhard, 2000).
Since that time, the Nullarbor Plain has not been subject to marine transgression until the Late
Pliocene – early Pleistocene, when sea level reached about 30m above its present level. The
limestone plateau of the Nullarbor Plain slopes gently south, terminates abruptly as wave-cut
limestone cliffs along the Great Australian Bight. The cliffs along the Nullarbor fall sheer into the
sea except in two areas in the centre and west, where there are coastal plains (Webb and
James, 2006).
In the western section of the Nullarbor, west of the AW NRM region, old sea cliffs (eroded
during the late Pliocene – early Pleistocene transgression) mark the northern extent of plains
which are now some 30km inland of the present coastline (Bradbury and Eberhard, 2000).
At least 100 caves have been recorded along the Nullarbor (Webb and James, 2006). In the
limestone karst regions below the Nullarbor there are both dry caves and wet caves (the latter
of which intersect the regional water table). Some caves near the coast contain seawater which
has flowed in through the permeable rock.
Weathering has eroded the limestone plain to produce landscape features such as dolines large circular depressions that are found throughout the karst surface. More than 150 collapse
dolines are present on the Nullarbor Plain, mostly within 60 km of the coast, as steep-sided,
closed depressions often partially or wholly walled by cliffs, which may be overhanging. Many
dolines are degraded, but some are still actively collapsing. Caves in the Nullarbor, like the
dolines, are mostly restricted to the coastal belt; there are ~100 that have significant passage
lengths. The coastal strip of limestone containing most of the caves is about 400 km long and
50 km wide (Webb and James, 2006). Rock holes are another smaller karst feature, where
surface water collects within the dry plain.
In some of the wet caves, the salinity is the same as sea water, but the water is enriched with
calcium. Examples such as Cocklebiddy in the west, and Warbla and Weebubbie along the
eastern margin of the Nullarbor, feature lakes of blue water, and huge passages running under
the Nullarbor Plain (Yalata Land Management, 2003). Caves within the AW NRM region include
Koonalda (north of the Nullarbor Roadhouse), part of the Murrawijinie caves; Warbla; Ivy, and
New caves, and Biduna Blowhole (Webb and James, 2006; Atlas of South Australia, 2005). The
evolution of the Nullarbor karst system, including the caves, is discussed in detail in Webb and
James (2006).
Little rain falls on the Nullarbor Plain, and no major rivers flow into the Bight. Therefore, very
little sediment washes from the land onto the continental shelf. Seaward of the Nullarbor, there
is a shallow offshore gradient in the area, and the continental shelf is dominated by bioclastic
carbonate sediments (i.e. formed by skeletal remains of marine organisms) (IMCRA Technical
Group, 1998). South from the Head of the Bight, the seafloor is relatively flat, and slopes gently
for about 260 km before reaching the shelf edge at 200m depth (Currie et al., 2007).
11
The shelf of the Great Australian Bight lies seaward of the Tertiary Eucla Basin and much of it is
covered by coarse calcareous and mainly relic Pleistocene sands that are constantly shifted
and rippled by bottom currents. Bryozoans, molluscs, sponges, foraminifera, calcareous red
algae, and other calcareous species that live on the shelf comprise the bulk of the relic sands
(Conolly and Von Der Borch, 1967). Surface sediments are a mixture of the calcareous
Pleistocene skeletal and lithic intraclasts (i.e. relict grains, formed by the re-deposition of
material eroded from an original deposit), and Holocene biofragments, with minor amounts of
quartz (James et al., 2001).
Cool-water carbonate depositional processes have characterised the sea floor, particularly
during the Pleistocene, and the GAB forms part of the largest area of cool-water carbonate shelf
deposition on the globe, which stretches across the southern continental margin of Australia
(Feary and James, 1995). The zones of currently active carbonate production on the shelf occur
well east (western Eyre Peninsula) and west (south-western W.A.) of the Head of the Bight
(James et al., 2001).
According to Feary et al. (2004), the high accumulation rates of sediment, comparable to rates
in warm-water carbonate environments, reflect partitioning of sedimentation between the shelf
and slope, as high wave energy from the Southern Ocean interacted with sea level fluctuations
to generate vigorous off-shelf transport (Feary et al., 2004). The huge middle portion of the GAB
shelf is a "shaved shelf" with active sediment winnowing, and mostly relict sediment. In this
central GAB region where year-round down-welling occurs, fine sediment is transported off the
shelf, and carbonate muds are deposited (James et al., 2001). The outer shelf and upper slope
is described as a ―variably productive sediment factory‖ characterised by prolific calcareous
growth of benthic organisms such as bryozoans, on hard substrate "islands", which shed
particles into surrounding sands and mud (James et al., 2001).
Sedimentary facies (i.e. layers distinguished from each other by appearance or composition) in
the GAB have been classified by James et al. (2001) (Figure 3 below), who suggested that the
sedimentary facies reflect the spatial distribution of benthic assemblages in the GAB. The facies
within the marine component of the AW NRM region include the ―Molluscs – Intraclast‖ sand at
the Head of the Bight and further offshore, and the ―Quartzose Skeletal‖ sand and gravel facies
to the west, extending over the W.A. border. The Molluscs – Intraclast facies comprises wellsorted fine to medium sands and poorly sorted fine sandy gravels, with minor bryozoans and
foraminifera. The Quartzose Skeletal facies is characterised by equal amounts of bryozoans
and bivalves with lesser quartz, feldspar and crystalline rock fragments. It varies from poorly
sorted coarse gravelly sand to rippled fine-to-medium sand (James et al., 2001, cited by
Richardson et al., 2005).
Bivalves are common in the sediments of the inner shelf, and in shallow shelf regions the
sediments comprise bivalve-rich, bioclastic sands (James et al., 1994). Other sediment
components include tests of the large benthic foraminifera Marginopora sp. (Feary et al., 1993,
cited by Richardson et al., 2005). Water depth plays an important role in determining the
textural composition of sediments, and surveys have shown that spatial patterns in grain-size
are broadly consistent with patterns in shelf bathymetry (Currie et al., 2007). Sediments are
typically coarsest in shallow inshore waters, and become progressively finer with increasing
depth and distance offshore (Currie et al., 2007). Recent surveys during the 2000s (Currie et
al., 2007) support the previous works (Conolly and Von Der Borch, 1967; James et al., 2001) in
12
confirming that sediments of the GAB shelf are composed almost entirely of biogenic material,
such as fragments of bryozoans, molluscs, coralline algae and foraminifera.
During the early 2000s, a SARDI Aquatic Sciences project characterised the sea floor of the
GAB using videography (Currie et al., 2007). The seafloor of the inner-shelf (40-60 m depth) is
reported to be typically composed of hard-packed winnowed sand, swept into irregular, sharpcrested, ripples (wave length = 0-20 cm; amplitude = 0-50 cm). These sands are reportedly
mainly bare, but dense patches of epifauna (particularly sponges and ascidians) occur
sporadically, stretching for more than 10m. By comparison, high-relief ―sand dunes‖ (wave
length = 60-100 cm; amplitude = 20-30 cm) are reported to characterise the bed-forms further
offshore (70-120 m depth). These dunes are reportedly reworked by prevailing south-westerly
swells, and are characteristically sinuous-crested; with peaks composed of fine sediments and
troughs comprising mainly of coarse abraded shell fragments. Epibenthic growth is sparse in
this area of the shelf, with small isolated clusters of sponges, ascidians and hydroids occurring
almost exclusively in the dune troughs (Currie et al., 2007).
On the north-western side of the GAB, in shallow waters, prolific rhodoliths occur, where
shallow summer waters are the warmest in the GAB (James et al., 2001). Rhodoliths are
unattached calcareous marine plants that look like stones. The warm, saline, nutrient-depleted
waters from the north-west then drift eastward across the shelf, suppressing biogenic carbonate
production on the central and eastern mid-shelf. This arrested production in the eastern GAB is
countered locally by summer coastal upwelling along western Eyre Peninsula, with bryozoanrich sediment extending well inboard onto the mid-shelf (James et al., 2001).
Figure 3: Distribution of James et al.’s (2001) surface sediment classifications in the Great
Australian Bight (from Richardson et al., 2005).
13
Major Coastal and Marine Habitats
The coastal features of the Head of the GAB are discussed in detail in a number of other
reports, most recently in the Far West Coastal Action Plan and Conservation Priority Study
(Caton et al., 2007), which divided the coast into distinct cells, each of which was photographed
and described. Features of the coast are summarised briefly here (Table 1).
The marine habitats of the AW NRM region have not been systematically surveyed, due to the
relative inaccessibility of the area, as discussed below. However, based on the limited number
of nearshore marine surveys to date (see 1.6 Benthic Flora), a brief summary of nearshore
marine habitats in the area would include:
• rugged, wave-exposed cliff areas (mainly calcareous), including the Bunda Cliffs west of the
Head of the Bight, extending for 200km to Wilson Bluff. The cliffs range in height mainly from
40-70 metres above sea level (Yalata Land Management, 2003), up to 90m in some parts;
• granitic-based, calcarenite-topped headlands (in the east);
• wave-exposed beach habitats, in some areas backed by a large and dynamic dune system,
and fronted by sand bars. The winds, waves and currents that feed the dunes vary in
strength seasonally, and inter-annually.
• wave-exposed bays, containing both seagrass beds and macroalgae-dominated
calcareous patch reefs;
• nearshore reefs (both granitic and calcareous) of high and medium wave exposure,
dominated by canopy brown macroalgae and a variety of large red macroalgae, green
macroalgae and turfing brown macroalgae (see descriptions in 1.6 Benthic Flora, below);
• island reef habitats to the east (both granitic and calcareous);
• offshore calcareous reef and sand habitats, with sponges, bryozoans, molluscs and other
benthic fauna.
Significant coastal habitats include low cliffs and transgressive dunes from Wahgunyah (east of
the AW NRM boundary) to Twin Rocks; the supra-tidal saltmarsh of the Yalata swamp; the
large, transgressive sand mass of the Yalata Dunes; the Head of Bight (Bunda Cliffs); the long
massive cliff rampart of the Nullarbor, and, in the far west, Merdeyarrah Sandpatch (Yalata
Land Management, 2003; Caton et al., 2007). Much of the coastal area west of the Head of the
Bight is remarkably uniform, consisting of vertical limestone cliffs.
The coastal area of the AW NRM has been mapped in recent years (Caton et al., 2007). A
description of coastal environments is summarised in the table below.
14
Table 1: Description of coastal and nearshore areas, in 8 – 10km sections from the eastern to the
western coastal edge of the AW NRM region, according to Short et al., 1986 and Caton et al.,
2007.
Cell No. (section of AW
NRM coast)
AW7: Yalata Beach
Approx.
Length (km)
~8.5km
AW8: Yalata IPA, between
Coontiama Well and
Bilbabbi Well.
~11km
AW9: Yalata IPA, NW of
Coontiama Well.
~11km
AW10: Yalata IPA, Tjitji
Tjutaku and Geues camp
sites.
~10.5km
AW11: Yalata IPA,
Catacombs Cave and
Bob‘s Kitchen and Jaxons
camp sites.
~8.5km
AW12: Yalata IPA, to Head
of the Bight / Eyre Well
~10km
Description (from Short et al., 1986 & Caton et al., 2007)
Open dissipative sandy beach with multiple inshore bars,
with some low calcarenite headlands, small bays and low
tide reefs in the SE section, near Yalata Beach. Undulating
calcarenite coastal plain is overlain by complex, generally
transverse dunes, which appear stable inland; however,
immediately behind the beach most dunes are unstable.
Dissipative beach, with small patches of calcarenite intertidal platform and sub-tidal reefs. Calcarenite frequently
exposed as a shoulder at the back of beach. Extensive
calcarenite coastal plain, covered with dune sands, with predominantly transverse forms. Dunes within 500m of the
beach are generally bare and de-stabilised.
High to medium energy beach along the whole section, in
places Pleistocene calcarenite is present in small platforms
and nearshore reefs, and in low headlands, or outcropping at
the back of the beach. The calcarenite forms a low
undulating coastal plain, over which Holocene (white) and
Pleistocene (pale brown red) dunes have drifted, and extend
across the whole section. The dunes are un-vegetated near
the beach: the area of bare sand increases towards the west.
Moderate energy beach extends as a series of open
embayments along the whole section, separated by low
headlands of Pleistocene calcarenite, which also form a low,
straight, nearshore reef cut into sections with sand between
outcrops of reef. Dunes cover the undulating coastal plain.
White, Holocene, dunes are found within ~ 1 km of the shore;
these are generally un-vegetated SE of the Tjitji Tjutaku
camp site.
Relatively straight, medium to high energy, dissipative beach,
with 1 to 2 nearshore bars; some low calcarenite headlands
and low tide platforms. At the rear of beach, Holocene sand
dunes with generally transverse patterns extend inland <
200m.
Pleistocene dune calcarenite low cliffs, shore platforms,
wave-exposed sand beach and nearshore island (Twin
Rocks). Dunes of the vast Yalata sand mass have
extendedmore than 7 km inland, as sand has been supplied
during Pleistocene and Holocene high sea level episodes to
the broad embayment of the Head of Bight. Sand supply has
cut off possible former marine connection to the stranded
samphire of the low- lying Yalata Swamp.
15
Table 1 (continued): Description of coastal and nearshore areas, in 8 – 10km sections from the
eastern to the western coastal edge of the AW NRM region, according to Short et al., 1986 and
Caton et al., 2007.
AW13: Yalata IPA, western
side of Head of the Bight
~9.5km
AW14: Yalata IPA, western
side of Head of the Bight
AW15: Yalata IPA, western
side of Head of the Bight,
near eastern edge of
Nullarbor National Park
AW16: eastern end of
Nullarbor National Park
AW17 – AW19: cliffs
adjacent to western side of
GAB Marine National Park
AW20: cliffs adjacent to
western side of GAB
Marine National Park
AW20 – AW32: cliffs
adjacent to western side of
GAB Marine National Park
AW33: cliffs adjacent to
western side of GAB
Marine National Park
~9km
The coastal land from a little west of Twin Rocks is an almost
flat limestone surface covered by skeletal to absent marl and
sand soils, broken only by small sink holes. The cliffs are a
vertical rampart up to 90m high, extending from the Head of
Bight 170km to the Merdayerrah Sandpatch and the WA
border. Near the cliff edge there are small degraded cliff top
dunes of Pleistocene age, also occurring as small patches
throughout the Nullarbor. The limestone of the plateau is
Miocene Nullarbor Limestone, a grey- brown hard crystalline
rock. This is underlain by the thin chalky Abrakurrie
Limestone (Oligocene/ Miocene age); this is underlain in turn
by the Eocene Wilson Bluff Limestone: a white friable
limestone. The soft unresistant nature of the Abrakurrie and
Wilson Bluff Limestones results in marine undercutting and
cliff collapse, resulting in vertical or overhanging cliffs.
Following a cliff collapse, debris slopes of large limestone
blocks clothe the lower cliffs; the frequency of fresh talus/
debris slopes and reports of surface cracking in the Nullarbor
Limestone indicate the active erosion and recession of the
cliffs.
(as for AW13 above)
~9km
(as for AW13 above)
~9km
(as for AW13 above)
~ 8.5 - 9km
(each cell)
(as for AW14 above)
~10km
(as for AW13 above)
~ 9km 9.5km
(as for AW13 above)
~9km
AW34: Merdayerrah
Sandpatch
~10km
The Nullarbor cliffs continues from the east as a degraded
cliff line, fronted by a Pleistocene calcarenite slope. The
calcarenite slopes are heavily dissected by gullies, and leads
down to low cliffs, open embayments, small low tide reefs
and small beaches.
Merdayerrah Sandpatch consists of Pleistocene dune
calcarenite ramps partially covering the backing limestone
cliffs, including a 10 km section where Holocene Dunes (the
sandpatch) have thinly blanketed the Pleistocene ramps and
extend up the limestone cliffs on to the backing plain. The
plain surface is relatively flat, at 70 to 90m, with low relict cliff
top dunes, thin soils and kunkar (i.e. a nodular calcium
carbonate deposit) over the Tertiary limestone cliffs.
Extensive shallow sub-tidal reefs are located immediately
offshore.
16
It is notable that there are no rivers or estuaries along the central coast of the Great Australian
Bight. Some of the marine habitats in the area are discussed briefly below. Data are patchy,
because few marine benthic surveys have been undertaken in the shallow shelf waters of the
Head of the Bight, due to the remoteness (and therefore the expense) and the relative
inaccessibility due to extreme oceanographic conditions for most of the year, which includes
high waves and swells, and frequent nearshore rip currents. A partial survey of the marine
benthic environment at the Head of the Bight was undertaken in 1994, and several sites were
surveyed (Edyvane and Baker, 1998, 1999), as described below in 1.6 Benthic Flora. These
included highly wave-exposed reefs at the Head of the Bight, and exposed reefs at Pilpuppie
Well and Cape Adieu, the latter east of the AW NRM boundary. Groups of replicate samples at
these sites were taken between 10m and 15m deep.
Just east of the Head of the Bight, along the Yalata coastline, there is a series of named
campsites, and near all of these there is dissected reef forming ―gutters‖ near shore. In order
from west to east, these include Hilton, Bob‘s Kitchen, Jaxons, Geues Hole, Tjitji Tjutaku, and
Coombra (Coymbra), Granites, and Yalata Beach (Yalata Land Management, 2003). Jaxons is
a steeply sloping deep beach west of Geues, and contains nearshore reefs on either side,
about 1.5km apart. Geues Hole is a crescent-shaped beach about 200m wide, which is partially
sheltered by a series of limestone reefs with a channel (rip) to the sea. The sea flows into
Geues Hole through another gap in the reef to the east, forming a distinct channel between the
sheltering reef and a small but prominent sand spit, where the water is deeper (Wilson, 2007).
There is also reef offshore from Tjitji Tjutaku, a beach about 2km east from Geues. Coombra (=
Coymbra) contains two spits of reef nearshore, with an opening to the sea in between. Figure 4
shows the location of beaches (including major camp sites) in the AW NRM region.
Figure 4: Location of major camping grounds in AW NRM region, and coastal habitat types.
Map provided by AW NRM Board.
17
The coast in the Head of Bight area is dominated by beach and semi-stable to unstable dune
barrier deposits, regularly interrupted by dune calcarenite cliffs, shore platforms and reefs. A
major feature of the area is the large sand drifts, in particular the Yalata dunes which extend
13kms inland (Short et al., 1986).
Further seaward in the region, filter-feeding invertebrate animals, such as sponges, ascidians
and bryozoans, are a dominant feature of the sea floor in the shelf waters of the Eucla
Bioregion, and these invertebrates, particularly the larger sponges, form 3-dimensional structure
on the sea floor. For many fishes and mobile invertebrates in the Great Australian Bight,
invertebrate-covered sea floor provides areas for feeding, breeding, camouflage and shelter.
Benthic Flora
Surveys of the marine benthic flora of the Head of the Bight were undertaken by SARDI Aquatic
Sciences at several sites in 1994 (Edyvane and Baker, 1998, 1999), and by the Plant
Biodiversity Centre / South Australian Herbarium in 2008 (Gurgel, 2009) and 2010 (F. Gurgel,
Plant Biodiversity Centre, pers. comm.). It is important to note that the surveys had different
aims, methods, and sampling sites, and therefore the results are not directly comparable. The
1994 survey aimed to characterise subtidal benthic habitats (using SCUBA, at 5m – 20m) over
a broad scale of more than 600km (western Eyre Peninsula and the GAB), based on dominant
flora that contributed to the percentage cover in replicated 1m square quadrats (Edyvane and
Baker 1998). During that survey, 3 sites in the AW NRM were sampled (limestone reef at Head
of the Bight; ―Callosity Point‖, and Pilpuppie Well / Dog Fence, ranging from 10m to 15m deep).
Several sites east of the AW NRM region, at the Eucla Bioregion boundary, were also sampled
(Cape Adieu, Nuyts Reef, Cape Nuyts and three sites in Fowlers Bay, collectively from 5m to
15m deep). The 1994 survey did not aim to sample species richness in the GAB, but it is noted
that during the representative sampling to characterise habitats, 40 species were recorded from
20 quadrats at the three sites from 10m to 15m deep within the AW NRM region, considerably
fewer than the number of species recorded in a comparable number of quadrats at sites further
east of the AW NRM boundary.
The 2008 survey aimed to assess the status of the genus Sargassum in the GAB, and to collect
as many species as possible from 5 sites in the shallow subtidal (on snorkel), as part of a
marine plant species inventory for the AW NRM region (Gurgel, 2009). Therefore, only the
second survey (2008) aimed to sample species richness at the Head of the Bight, and due to
the major differences cited above, the results cannot meaningfully be compared with the first
(1994). The sites sampled during the 2008 survey were off beaches at East Coymbra, West
Coymbra, 2 sites at Mexican Hat, and Wandilla Beach, both near Fowlers Bay, east of the AW
NRM region boundary.
Many of the understorey species recorded during the 1994 survey were not recorded during the
2008 survey, due to differences in survey aim (dominant cover, versus drift and shallow subtidal
collection for species richness assessment), methods (SCUBA on highly wave-exposed subtidal
reefs versus snorkel from beaches in bays), sampling locations (none were the same between
the two periods) and depths (shallow subtidal less than 2m, compared with 10-20m deep).
18
A summary of the dominant cover at subtidal reefs sampled in and around the AW NRM in 1994
is provided below. Additionally, for a summary of the species recorded at 5 shallow subtidal
locations off beaches in the AW NRM, readers should refer to Gurgel (2009).
Generally, at the Head of the Bight, on high energy limestone reefs, subtidal macroalgae
communities are dominated by the brown canopy species Scytothalia dorycarpa and Ecklonia
radiata, with species of Cystophora (such as C. platylobium) as lesser cover. Although there are
few seagrass communities along this high energy coast, some seagrass beds occur west of the
Head of the Bight, in the area around Eucla. Amphibolis antarctica and A. griffithii are both
present in that area, with many common seagrass epiphytes, such as Haliptilon roseum and
Colpomenia sinuosa (G. Belton, University of Adelaide, pers. comm., 2010). Mixed seagrass
and patch reef communities also occur in the shallow subtidal west of the Head of the Bight.
Cover at several specific sites is discussed below.
Within the marine component of the AW NRM region, benthic samples taken in 1994 at both
―Callosity Point‖ and the Head of the Bight showed that wave-exposed reef in the area was
dominated by Ecklonia radiata and Scytothalia dorycarpa, with a sparse understorey of
encrusting corallines; the articulated coralline Amphiroa sp., and patches of bare limestone reef
and sand. There were fewer species of macroalgae at the very Head of the Bight compared
with slightly less wave-exposed areas to the east (discussed below). The existence of strong
swell and wave conditions for most of the year, possibly restricts the establishment of many
species of macroalgae on the large expanses of bare, mobile sand between reef patches in the
inshore area to 20m. As well, the existence of warm water masses at the Head of the Bight may
contribute to the low number of species of macroalgae recorded in this region, compared with
slightly cooler areas of nutrient-rich upwelling to the east of the Head of the Bight (Edyvane and
Baker, 1998).
Further south-east, near the eastern boundary of the AW NRM region, benthic samples taken at
Pilpuppie Well in 1994 showed that reef in the area was dominated by the canopy species
Scytothalia dorycarpa, with less cover of Ecklonia radiata and a Sargassum species
(paradoxum?). The understorey was species-rich and diverse, and consisted of large red taxa,
such as species of the succulent reds Trigenia and Cladurus; and species of Dictyomenia and
Vidalia, which have serrated laterals. Other red species in the understorey suite included
species of the ―leafy‖ reds Lenormandia and Crassilingua, the ―pelty‖ Haloplegma and two
species of Thuretia, as well as species of Rhodopeltis and Callophyllis. Encrusting corallines
were also present (Edyvane and Baker, 1998, 1999).
Collectively, the two surveys from 1994 and 2008 have sampled less than 10 sites in the AW
NRM region, but further surveys are being undertaken in 2010 (F. Gurgel, pers. comm., 2010).
According to a recent analysis of data from the South Australian Herbarium, 200 species of
marine plants have been recorded to date in AW NRM region (Table 2; Baker and Gurgel, in
prep.), and 31 of these were recorded for the first time in the region during the 2008 survey in
the shallow subtidal. The 2008 survey, which included samples taken on snorkel from 5 sites in
and adjacent to the AW NRM, recorded 74 species of marine plants, many of which were small
epiphytes from shallow waters (Table 3 in Gurgel, 2009). Due to its remoteness and
inaccessibility, the AW NRM region has been surveyed far less frequently that other regions of
the State, and comparatively little is known of the marine flora compared with well sampled
areas. Table 2 compares the number of species of macroalgae recorded to date (2009), and
number of records in the South Australian Herbarium database. Nomenclature of all taxa in the
19
SA Herbarium database, including old records, has been corrected and updated where
necessary (e.g. Baker and Gurgel, in prep.). the low number of recrods and species recorded in
the area reflects the remotenss and inaccessibility of the areas. There is no evidence to indicate
that the AW NRM region is one of low diversity or abundance in macroalgae, and recent (e.g. F.
Gurgel and G. Belton, unpubl. data) and future targeted collecting efforts may substantially
increase the number of species and records known from reefs and seagrass beds in the area.
Table 2: Number of species of macroalgae recorded to date (2009), and number of records in the
South Australian Herbarium database (to 2009). Results of surveys in AW NRM in 2010 are not
included. Nomenclature of all taxa in database, including old records, has been corrected and
updated.
NRM Region
Alinytjara Wilurara
Eyre Peninsula
Kangaroo Island
Northern & Yorke
Adelaide & Mt Lofty Ranges
SA Murray Darling Basin
South East
No. Species Recorded
(to 2009)
200
741
752
656
747
116
673
No. Records in SA
Herbarium database
(to 2009)
409
8,771
9,104
5,834
7,854
219
5,981
It is also noted that the majority of the marine flora on reefs in the area are not endemic to the
region. The statement occasionally quoted in summary documents that ―75% of the red algae in
the GAB are endemic‖ is incorrect. It is noted that in a recent analysis of macroalgae records in
the South Australian Herbarium, indicated that none of the South Australian endemic species of
macroalgae in that data set were recorded in the AW NRM region (Baker and Gurgel, in prep.).
Invertebrates
Much of the standing biomass in the continental shelf waters of the GAB is likely to comprise
the highly diverse attached fauna inhabiting the shelf, particularly sponges, bryozoans and
ascidians. The species that make up these communities tend to vary from the inner to the outer
shelf, and also decrease in abundance moving away from the coast (DEWR, 2006). Some of
the invertebrate groups of significance in the GAB are discussed in more detail below.
Sponges: Sponges are abundant and diverse in the Eucla Bioregion (of which the AW NRM
marine region is part), but a complete species list does not exist. In 1995, during an Adelaide
University survey (led by Dr Y. Bone) of the shelf waters deeper than 30m in the Great
Australian Bight, 103 species of sponge were recorded, but many have not been described to
species level (Appendix 2 in Sorokin et al., 2005). During a more recent SARDI survey of GAB
Marine Park in 2001/02, around 100 species of sponge in 45 genera were recorded at 27
sampling points in the Eucla Bioregion (South Australian waters), and many of these have not
yet been formally described (Sorokin et al., 2005, 2007). At one of the sites, near the Head of
the Bight, 63 sponge species were recorded, including some currently undescribed species
(Ward et al., 2003, Appendix 2). At least 63 (possibly up to 66) of the sponges recorded during
20
the first survey were not recorded during the second. An additional 5 or 6 species of sponge
listed in the Australian Faunal Directory (Hooper, 2002 and 2005, in ABRS, 2009) as occurring
in the GAB, were not recorded during either survey. From these 3 sources combined, and
discounting joint occurrences, it is evident that more than 170 species of sponge occur along
the GAB shelf alone (i.e. Eucla bioregion, waters less than 200m deep). The number of these
sponge species that occurs in the AW NRM region has not been determined. Examples of
sponges recorded during the SARDI survey in 2001/02 include species in the genera
Acanthodendrilla, Acarnus, Anisocrella, Axinella, Callyspongia, Chalinula, Chondropsis,
Clathria, Clathrina, Cliona, Coscinoderma, Cymbastela, Cribrochalina, Dactylia, Dictyodendrilla,
Dysidea, Echinodictyum, Gelliodes, Halichondria, Haliclona, Hemitedania, Holopsamma,
Iotrochota, Iotrochopsamma, Ircinia, Leiosella, Leucandra, Leucascus, Oceanapia, Phakellia,
Phorbas, Psammocinia, Pyloderma, Raspailia, Reniochalina, Sigmaxinella, Siphonochalina,
Stelleta, Suberites, Tabulocalyx, Tedania, Tethya, Trachycladus, Thorectandra, and
Xenospongia. Sponge community composition changes across the shelf, with the highest
diversity of sponges occurring in shallow inshore waters, declining with increased depth and
distance offshore. The sponge fauna is dominated by species occurring in temperate Australia,
with little affinity to fauna in tropical Australia (Sorokin et al., 2007). Unsurprisingly, comparisons
of the deeper water sponge fauna of the GAB (i.e. 50m – 198m) with the shallow sponge fauna
of the Investigator Group of islands in eastern GAB (Sorokin et al., 2007), show very little
similarity between the two assemblages due to major differences in depth and habitat type.
A number of chemicals isolated from sponges in the Great Australian Bight may have significant
medical uses. For example, the widespread species Trachycladus laevispirulifer, contains
organohalogens and other compounds which can kill leukaemia cells and also have anti-fungal
activity (Vuong et al., 2001; Capon et al., 2008). Other isolates from sponges that occur in the
GAB, such as the chemical hippospongins, are mildly antibiotic, and can inhibit the growth of
Staphylococcus bacteria.
After sponges die, the sponge spicules form part of the sediment in the Bight.
1.7.2 Bryozoans: This group is considered to be the main framework of the ecosystem on the
cool-water sea-floor of the Great Australian Bight, providing environmental niches for other
biota. Bryozoans also are an ―intermediate level‖ contributor in the food-chain; and are the
major contributor to Tertiary limestone in South Australia (Bone, 1997). During SARDI surveys
of the GAB Marine Park during 2002 and 2006, about 71 species of bryozoan were recorded in
the shelf waters of the Eucla Bioregion. Although some of these were common and widespread
species, such as Amathia tortuosa, Bugularia dissimilis and Cornucopina grandis, most were
not identified to species level, and some may represent new species, still undescribed. Of the
bryozoan species known from a wider area of the Bight, the number of these that occur in the
AW NRM marine region has not been determined.
The calcareous remains of bryozoans in the GAB, particularly in the outer shelf waters, form a
significant component of the shelf sediment (Ward et al., 2003; Currie et al., 2008) and also the
―biogenic reef mounds‖ in the slope waters, which consist of diverse suites of bryozoans,
together with coralline algae, echinoid spines, and benthic foraminifers, in a mudstone to
packstone matrix (Feary et al., 2004).
21
Ascidians: The ascidian fauna of the AW NRM region has not been systematically investigated.
However, to date, at least 130 ascidian species have been recorded in the South Australian
section of the Great Australian Bight (Kott, 2006, in ABRS, 2009), all of these described and
named by Kott. Of those, about 15 to 20 are known to date only from one locality where intense
collecting occurred, mostly from islands in the Investigator Group, south-east of the Eucla
Bioregion. One or two described species have been recorded to date only from the northern
GAB (i.e. within the AW NRM region). Of the approximately 130 ascidian species known from a
wider area of the Bight, the number of these that occur in the AW NRM marine region has not
been determined. During the SARDI survey of the GAB Marine Park cited above, 75 different
kinds of ascidian were recorded in the Eucla Bioregion (part of which includes the AW NRM
region), but only a few of those have been identified to species level. It is noted that to date,
many of the ascidians known from the Great Australian Bight are not endemic to the region, and
the often misquoted ―high level of ascidian endemism within GAB‖ is not correct.
Ascidians are a food source for various species of fish. Some molluscs, crabs, sea stars,
nudibranchs, flatworms and other animals also feed on ascidians.
Although recent surveys have provided some indication of the richness of the benthic fauna in
the shelf waters of the GAB, much more research is required to document the distribution and
biodiversity of the attached invertebrate fauna in this area, including the sponges, bryozoans
and ascidians.
Decapod Crustaceans: The decapod crustacean fauna of the AW NRM region has not been
fully investigated, but a species inventory of crustaceans that occur in the South Australian
section of the Great Australian Bight, indicates that at least 145 species of decapod
crustaceans occur in the GAB shelf waters (Davie, 2002, in ABRS 2009; Poore, 2004; Currie et
al., 2007), as shown in Appendix 1. Little is known of the decapod crustacean fauna in the
Great Australian Bight, particularly the deeper shelf and slope waters. It is noted that during a
beam trawl and benthic sled survey of the shelf and upper slope waters of the central and
south-western Australian coast in 2005 (Poore et al., 2008), 76 species previously unrecorded
south of Perth were found in the survey, and over the entire survey area, 175 species (33%)
were new to science. The results are an example of how little is known about the decapod
crustacean fauna of the continental margin of most of Australia (Poore et al., 2008), and the
GAB is no exception.
Some potentially limited range species of interest in the Great Australian Bight include the
shallow subtidal eared sponge crab Haledromia bicavernosa (Zietz, 1888), which may be
endemic within South Australia, and is known from the GAB and the South Australian gulfs
(Davie, 2001, in ABRS 2009; O'Hara, 2002; Poore, 2004); (ii) the aesop prawn / aesop shrimp
Periclimenes aesopius (Bate, 1863), a cleaner shrimp that is reportedly rare and known to date
only from the GAB and gulfs region in South Australia (Poore, 2004; Gowlett-Holmes, 2008),
and the swimmer crab Nectocarcinus sp., known to date from the outer shelf waters (140170m) in south-western WA and far western South Australia (Poore, 2004). This species
resembles Nectocarcinus bullatus Balss, 1924 from Juan Fernandez Island off Chile, but is four
times as big (P. Davie, pers. comm., cited by Poore, 2004).
22
Echinoderms: The echinoderm fauna of the AW NRM region has not been investigated,
although a species inventory of echinoderms that occur in the South Australian section of the
Great Australian Bight, indicates that at least 123 species of echinoderm occur in the area
(Rowe and Gates, 1995, and O‘Hara, 2001, in ABRS, 2009), and these are listed in Appendix
2. This includes at least 37 species of sea star; 18 species of urchin; about 25 species of sea
cucumber; at least 24 species of brittle star, and various basket stars and feather stars. Of the
echinoderm species known from a wider area of the GAB, the number of these that occur
specifically in the AW NRM marine region has not been determined.
Species of note that may occur in the AW NRM marine region include Ophiothrix (Keystonea)
hymenacantha H.L. Clark 1928 and Ophiothrix (Placophiothrix) albostriata H.L. Clark, 1928,
both known to date only from type locality (Rowe and Gates, 1995, and O‘Hara, 2001, in ABRS,
2009). Another species of note is the endemic and live-bearing small sea star Parvulastra
parvivipara (Keough and Dartnall, 1978), which is known from granite platforms in eastern
Great Australian Bight (Roediger and Bolton, 2008). It is not known whether the distribution
extends west as far as the Head of the Bight.
Shelled Gastropod Molluscs: The gastropod fauna of the AW NRM region has not been
investigated, although a species inventory of shelled gastropods that occur in the South
Australian section of the Great Australian Bight, indicates that at least 485 species occur in the
area (Baker, 2004 and references therein; Academy of Natural Sciences, 2006; OZCAM
database, 2009; ABRS, 2009), and these are listed in Appendix 3. The central Great Australian
Bight provides habitat for cowries, including those associated with sponges. Examples of
cowries in the GAB area include apricot-coloured cowrie Umbilia (Umbilia) armeniaca Verco,
1912 (in deeper shelf waters, but possibly occurs at the outer edge of the AW NRM region); the
cowrie Zoila venusta (including form profunda, recognised by collectors); humpback cowrie /
black cowrie Zoila friendii thersites (including the pale form contraria, recognised by collectors),
and Reeve‘s cowrie Austrocypraea reevei. Some of the species are rare / uncommon, and all
temperate cowries are of conservation concern due to their vulnerable population
characteristics (Ponder and Grayson, 1998; section 9.2 of Baker, 2004; Baker, in prep.).
A number of other shells found in the region, such as the southern baler shell Melo miltonis, are
considered particularly vulnerable due to limited distribution, large size, direct development of
young, and over-collecting (Ponder and Grayson, 1998, cited by Baker, 2004). Other species of
note that may be vulnerable due to their life history (e.g. direct development and limited
dispersion), rarity, and/or to over-exploitation (from collecting) in the South Australian part of the
range include sloping cowrie Notocypraea declivis; Cotton‘s volute Livonia nodiplicata;
Günther‘s volute Nannamoria güntheri; desirable volute Amoria exoptanda; Flinders‘ vase shell
Vasum (Altivasum) flindersi; punctate harp shell Austroharpa (Palamharpa) punctata, and the
small white volute shell Notopeplum translucidum (Ponder and Grayson, 1998, cited by Baker,
2004). The large Jourdan‘s turban shell Turbo (Dinassovica) jourdani, which often occurs in tide
pools, and amongst brown macroalgae in the shallow subtidal, has a limited distribution in both
S.A. and W.A., and is considered vulnerable to population decline (Ponder and Grayson (1998,
cited by Baker, 2004). Museum records show that at least two other shelled gastropod species
of conservation concern may occur in the AW NRM: (i) Lesueur‘s sand triton Sassia
(Cymatiella) eburnea lesueuri, a form of Sassia eburnea, for which there is a record from
eastern GAB and this species might extend further west into the head of the GAB, and (ii)
23
Hexaplex conatus, a murex shell from S.A. and W.A., which is considered in the shell trading
market to be rare.
Some groups of shelled molluscs are species-rich in the shallow waters at the head of the GAB,
including the top shells, marginella shells, turrid shells, triphorid shells and mitre shells
(Appendix 3).
Infauna: The infauna of the GAB shelf is species rich and abundant. In 2006, 65 samples of the
macro-invertebrate infauna were collected by SARDI Aquatic Sciences from the shelf waters of
the GAB (Currie et al., 2007), but most of these were in deeper waters outside of the AW NRM
region boundary. Results indicated that (i) numbers of species and total abundance were
typically highest near the Head of the Bight, where water temperatures are elevated, and also in
inner-shelf waters off western Eyre Peninsula, which support high levels of plankton
productivity; (ii) mobile, deposit-feeding organisms (primarily annelid worms and crustaceans)
dominated the samples, and comprised over 25% of the abundance and 35% of the species
collected over all samples (to the shelf edge); and (iii) the infaunal distribution pattern
corresponds closely with spatial patterns in benthic species cover, and reinforces the notion that
Head of the Bight is a ‗hotspot‘ of benthic biodiversity (as is western Eyre Peninsula) (Currie et
al., 2007).
More specifically, samples from the inner and mid shelf at the Head of the Bight during the 2006
survey were dominated by coarse grained sediments (average diameter 458.39 ± 29.51μm)
with almost no mud (1-2%). The infauna in these sediments was species-rich (16 ± 2 species
per 0.1 m2), and abundant (about 47 ± 15 individuals per 0.1 m2). During the 2006 survey, the
fauna within the coarse sediments in the inner and mid shelf waters at the Head of the Bight
comprised mainly crustaceans (48% of all major taxonomic groups recorded) and annelid
worms (39%), with few molluscs (5%), chordates(2%) and echinoderms (2%). Minor groups
include nemerteans (ribbon worms) (~ 1%), nematodes (round worms) (~ 1%) and sipunculids
(peanut worms) (~ 0.5%) (Currie et al., 2007, 2009).
During the SARDI survey, abundant infaunal species in the first 6 samples (closest to the
seaward boundary of the AW NRM region) included the following (in descending order of
abundance): the amphipod crustaceans Ceradocus rubromaculatus, Xenocheira fasciata,
Gammaropsis persetosus, Caprella scaura, Dulichiella australis, and Leucothoe diemenensis; a
tanaid crustacean in the genus Paratanais; the leptostracan crustacean Paranebalia longipes;
the mussel Musculus nanus; the sipunculan worm Phascolosoma annulatum and the tanaid
crustacean Kalliapseudes obtusifrons (Currie et al., 2007).
These and other infaunal species collectively found in the inner and mid shelf waters (stations
1-6 during the 2006 SARDI survey) at the Head of the Bight are listed in Appendix 4.
The ecological importance of GAB shelf infauna is indicated by the incidental and targeted
catch of the Great Australian Bight (GAB) trawl fishery (see Part 2) which is principally
comprised of latchet and deepwater flathead. Latchet feed directly on large infaunal species,
while deepwater flathead are specialised for ambushing smaller species that forage for infauna
along the bottom (DEWR, 2006).
24
Bony Fishes
The Head of the Bight (and thus the AW NRM marine region) is in the middle of the Flindersian
biogeographic province (Womersley and Edmunds, 1958), which runs from mid-western to
south-eastern Australia. The fish fauna is a mix of temperate species typical of the region (many
of those listed in Appendix 5), in addition to the following:
(i) a number of subtropical fishes at the eastern edge of their range, which are more abundant
in warmer waters of Western Australia. Examples include redlip morwong Cheilodactylus
rubrolabiatus; yellow-spotted / brown-spotted boarfish Paristiopterus gallipavo; yellow-eyed red
snapper Centroberyx australis; footballer sweep Neatypus obliquus; western wirrah Acanthistius
serratus; smoothspine leatherjacket Cantheschenia longipinnis; blue-tailed leatherjacket
Eubalichthys cyanoura; western black-spot pigfish Bodianus vulpinus; western form of
Australian pineapplefish Cleidopus gloriamaris; smooth cocky gurnard Lepidotrigla sp.; two-spot
eviota (goby) Eviota bimaculata; western red-banded grubfish Parapercis naevosa; rigid boxfish
Caprichthys gymnura and western smooth boxfish Anoplocapros amygdaloides; and
(ii) a number of cooler water, south-eastern Australian fishes at the western edge of the range,
and examples include blue warehou Seriolella brama; Derwent flounder Taratretis
derwentensis; dragonet Bovichtus angustifrons; southern cardinalfish Vincentia conspersa; little
conger Gnathophis longicauda; pot-bellied seahorse Hippocampus bleekeri / abdominalis;
short-headed seahorse Hippocampus breviceps; barred toadfish Contusus richei, and common
shore-eel Alabes dorsalis.
A few fish species have their centre of distribution in the shallow shelf waters of the GAB, and
are not known outside of South Australia and south-western Australia. Examples include the
eelblenny Peronedys anguillaris and shortfin snakeblenny Ophiclinus brevipinnis. The crested
threefin Trinorfolkia cristata, an apparently endemic species, confirmed to date from numerous
locations in South Australia and no other State (Baker 2009), occurs in the shallow waters of
the GAB.
In the GAB, the strength and timing of the Leeuwin Current can affect abundance of some fish
species in South Australia, such as southern bluefin tuna, blue mackerel, horse mackerel, west
Australian salmon, and Australian herring (tommy ruff) (Lenanton et al., 1991; Pearce and
Caputi, 1994; uncited reference, in Director of National Parks, 2005). The distribution and
abundance of these species is influenced by the seasonality, strength and timing of the Current.
Tropical and sub-tropical pelagic fishes sometimes occur in the shelf waters of the GAB, due to
the influence of the easterly moving Leeuwin current, which varies inter-annually in strength.
Appendix 5 lists the bony fish species that have been recorded in the AW NRM region, or are
highly likely to occur there, based on geographic distribution, habitat and depth range. For many
of the 332 species listed in Appendix 5, the Great Australian Bight has been included in a
generalised distribution map of the species range (e.g. Gomon et al., 2008), or there are
records from the area (e.g. S.A. Museum, W.A. Museum, Museum Victoria records, in OZCAM
database, 2009). However, a number of shallow water species that have been recorded in both
south-eastern and south-western Australia have been excluded from the table, due to lack of
records from the Great Australian Bight, but it is noted that such species might also occur in the
AW NRM region. Examples include the weedfishes Cristiceps aurantiacus Castelnau 1879,
which occurs in kelp beds, and Heteroclinus sp. 2, found in low macroalgae on coastal reefs;
25
the flathead Platycephalus longispinis Macleay 1884; the reef-dwelling red indianfish Pataecus
fronto Richardson 1844; the tiger pipefish Filicampus tigris (Castelnau, 1879); the mullet Mugil
cephalus Linnaeus 1758 and the silver Fish Leptatherina presbyteroides (Richardson, 1843).
South-eastern species, for which the eastern GAB area (e.g. Streaky Bay, or Ceduna) is the
western limit have also been excluded. Examples include the blenny Parablennius tasmanianus
(Richardson 1842) and the spotted flounder Ammotretis lituratus (Richardson, 1844).
Nevertheless, Appendix 5 indicates that at least 332 species of bony fishes are highly likely to
occur in the AW NRM marine region, these being a mix of resident reef fishes, sand-dwelling
and seagrass-dwelling fishes, pelagic schooling fishes that live in the water column, migratory
pelagic fishes pass through the area, and oceanic fishes that are occasionally stranded inshore.
Many factors likely contribute to this species richness, including the mix of inshore and shelf
habitats (see above), and the biogeographic position of the region.
A number of potentially threatened bony fishes occur in the AW NRM region. Some examples
include southern bluefin tuna, mulloway, western blue groper, harlequin fish, and Southern
Blue Morwong, amongst others. The conservation status of these species, and potential threats
in the GAB, are discussed in section 3.1.1 Fishing in Part 3.
Cartilaginous Fishes
The Great Australian Bight is a significant area for the protected white shark Carcharodon
carcharias. The White Shark is a relatively long-lived (more than 30 years), late-maturing
species, with low reproductive output every two to three years (Klimley and Ainley, 1996; Bruce
et al. 2001, cited by Baker et al., 2008). Females grow larger than males, and are not
reproductively active until they are over 5 m long and about 18 years old (Bruce et al., 2001).
White Sharks are top order predators, and are thus rarely preyed upon, other than by even
larger carnivores such as killer whales Orcinus orca (Pyle et al., 1999). Juvenile White Sharks
(under 2m) are commonly encountered in the inshore waters of the Great Australian Bight. The
relative abundance of small White Sharks in the GAB may be due to pupping in this area or
nearby. Movements of White Sharks are known to increase seasonally at the Head of the Bight,
and may be linked to the seasonal availability and movements of prey, including snapper,
mulloway, small gummy shark s and Australian salmon, and to the calving of southern right
Whales. White sharks may also seasonally visit Australian sea lion colonies in the GAB. White
sharks are highly migratory. Tagging of white sharks by CSIRO at the Neptune Islands off
southern Eyre Peninsula has shown that some White Sharks move across the GAB into
Western Australia. One female that was tagged in 2006 moved 3,800 kilometres from Port
Lincoln in S.A. to Exmouth Gulf in north-western W.A., passing through the deeper shelf waters
of the Bight along the way (CSIRO, 2008a). From W.A., the shark then began travelling back
towards the GAB. Another white shark, a male tagged in 2004, also travelled to south-western
WA, and one of the only points close to the coast where it passed during the journey was the
S.A. / W.A. border (CSIRO, 2008b). Another male white shark tagged in 2004, moved northwestwards along the western Eyre Peninsula coast, into relative shallow waters at the very
Head of the Bight, then travelled back down to islands at the bottom of Eyre Peninsula (CSIRO,
2005).
The GAB is an important area for the school shark, a long lived species of ground shark (more
than 50 years) which occurs all over South Australia and southern Australia, and in numerous
26
other countries. school sharks are highly migratory. In Australia, tagging has shown mixing
across most of the southern half of the continent (with movements of more than 2,000km across
southern Australia) and more than 30 tagged animals have moved across the Tasman Sea
between Australia and New Zealand (and vice versa), with movements of more than 3,500km
(Olsen, 1984; Coutin et al., 1992; Stevens and West, 1997, cited by Bruce et al., 2002; Hurst et
al., 1999; Walker et al., 1999, 2000; AFFA, 2002; Brown et al., 2000, cited by Cavanagh et al.,
2003). In addition to long distance migration, more recent archival tagging suggests that
complex and geographically distinct movements also occur in southern Australia. During
summer, archival tagged school sharks favoured the outer GAB and Tasmanian east coast,
whereas the sharks in those regions moved to Kangaroo Island and Tasmanian west coast
during winter. Movements occur over a wide time period in South Australia (West and Stevens,
2001, cited by Bruce et al., 2002). Migration is linked to feeding and reproduction (Last and
Stevens 1994, cited by Pogonoski et al. 2002; Bruce et al., 2002). In late summer and winter,
schools of adult sharks move either to deeper waters at the edge of the continental shelf in the
Bass Strait region, or to warm waters of South Australia and New South Wales. At the edge of
the continental shelf, reproduction occurs. Adult school sharks then travel southwards and
shorewards in the spring to converge along the coastlines, where they feed in schools that vary
in composition of individuals. About half of all adult females in these schools may be pregnant
during the breeding season, and these visit the pupping grounds to renew the cycle
(Compagno, 1984, cited by FAO, 2000). There is a hypothesis that school sharks may travel
―home‖ to their natal mating and pupping grounds (Walker and Punt, 1998, cited by Bruce et al.,
2002).
In the GAB, fishing records indicate the presence of school sharks in deeper waters south-west
of Ceduna and Streaky Bay, and around the Nuyts Archipelago; also Head of the GAB; deeper
waters throughout the entire GAB (both continental shelf and slope waters); and waters near
W.A. / S.A. border. At the Head of the Bight, school sharks are strongly associated with many
reef patches, also an ancient submerged coastline. s travel into the shallow waters at the
northern end of the Bight to give birth to pups. Generally, school sharks appear to have fairly
discrete pupping and nursery areas, often in shallow, protected bays and estuaries, but also in
coastal / ocean beach habitats (Olsen, 1954; Stevens and West, 1997; Stevens, 1999, cited by
Bruce et al., 2002; Walker et al., in Cavanagh et al., 2003). One area considered to be
significant for pregnant female school sharks is the Head of Great Australian Bight – Eyre Bluff
to the Western Australian border. It is thought that pregnant females from south-eastern
Australia may travel to South Australia, aggregate in particular areas, then migrate back to
pupping areas in Tasmania (Walker et al., 1989 and 2000; Prince, 1996, cited by Bruce et al.,
2002; AFMA, 2003). The Head of Bight aggregation area includes some of the GAB Marine
Park (AFMA, 2003). There are 5 other areas identified as being significant for pregnant female
school sharks and/or pups in South Australia, and Head of Great Australian Bight to Fowlers
Bay is one of those areas (AFMA, 2002), which includes a significant portion of the AW NRM
region. Although the movements of school sharks have not been studied in the GAB, it is noted
that in south-eastern Australia, pregnant females move into shallow, partly enclosed bays and
estuaries in late spring and early summer, and depart to offshore feeding grounds after
dropping off their young. Most young-of-the-year depart the pupping grounds in late summer
and move offshore, but mostly return to the bays (and estuaries, in some areas) of their birth
the following spring; some juveniles may switch to adjacent bays. Some juvenile school sharks
may remain in shallow protected waters for up to two years before moving offshore. Juveniles of
27
about two years old join schools of immature sharks that are inshore or offshore along the coast
(data by Walker et al., cited by FAO, 2000; Bester 2003).
Another ground shark, the gummy shark Mustelus antarcticus, has a similar distribution to the
school shark in southern Australia, and is abundant in the GAB. gummy shark s are often
associated with soft seafloor sediments (Bax and Williams, 2001), and their diet is dominated by
squid and octopus, crustaceans (with crabs mainly taken by small gummy sharks, and lobsters
by larger ones), and bony fishes, including toadfishes (Simpfendorfer et al., 2001). gummy
shark s are moderately long-lived (to about 16) and fecund (up to 38 pups) (Lenanton et al.,
1990; Moulton et al., 1992; Walker, 1996, 2007). Like school sharks, gummy shark s visit the
shallow protected waters of the northern GAB to give birth to pups.
Whiskery shark Furgaleus macki and sawsharks (common sawshark Pristiophorus cirratus and
/or southern sawshark Pristiophorus nudipinnis) also occur in the GAB, including shallow
waters. In the GAB, the whiskery shark is recorded over reef patches in the mid to outer shelf
(100-200m), but is also found inshore. Generally, it occurs on or near the sea floor, commonly
near rocky bottom, beds of kelp or other macroalgae, or seagrass beds (Compagno, 1984;
Simpfendorfer and McAuley, 2003). The diet of whiskery sharks is highly specialised, with
cephalopods (mainly octopus and squid) making up approximately 95% of food eaten
(Simpfendorfer et al., 2001). Bony fishes, and crustaceans such as lobsters, are a minor part of
the diet (Kailola et al., 1993; Last and Stevens, 1994). There is a seasonal reproductive cycle.
Mating is most likely to occur from August to September, with females storing spermatozoa until
ovulation in late January to early April. Gestation lasts 7–9 months, with parturition from August
to October. Litter sizes vary from 4 to 28 (mean 19). In a study off south-western W.A. (based
on gill-net fishery specimens), there was a significant linear relationship between litter size and
maternal length. Mature males mate each year, but females produce litters every second year
(Simpfendorfer and Unsworth, 1998). There is little information on movements with age and
size, but it is likely that juvenile whiskery sharks occur inshore. Similarly, there is little
information on the distribution or relative abundance of sawsharks in the GAB, but abundance is
assumed to be low, given the low bycatch in gillnet, trawls and long-lines.
In South Australia, reported sightings and captures of whaler sharks (mainly bronze whaler C.
brachyurus, but also black whaler / dusky shark C. obscurus in some areas) occur throughout
coastal waters, ranging from high energy surf beaches and off rocky coastal headlands, to more
sheltered waters of the upper gulfs (Cappo, 1992, cited by Jones, 2008). The bronze whaler
Carcharhinus brachyurus is found throughout the AW NRM region and surrounds, including
inshore areas near Eucla and Head of the Bight, and also outside bays to the east of the AW
NRM region. According to commercial fishing data, most records in the area are from shallow
waters, extending to about 100m deep. Globally, there is evidence for both migration and strong
site association in this species (Cliff and Dudley, 1992), and data from South Australia also
support this. Based on a small number of tag recaptures, there may be some seasonal
movement in South Australia (e.g. away from colder upper gulf waters in winter, into warmer
offshore waters in the GAB and off southern Kangaroo Island), but more data are required
(Jones, 2008). One bronze whaler that was tagged in the gulf waters during summer, moved to
waters north-west of Pearson Island in the eastern GAB by winter (Jones, 2008). Conversely,
tagged adult bronze whalers in South Australia have also been re-sighted at their tagging
location after a year at liberty, suggesting this species, like others in the family Carcharhinidae,
is philopatric (i.e. faithful to place of birth, through residency or periodic return) (I. Gordon, pers.
28
obs., cited by Duffy and Gordon, 2003). Over the broad geographic range, C. brachyurus occur
singly and in loose schools, sometimes numbering hundreds of individuals (Smale, 1991;
Cappo, 1992; Cliff and Dudley, 1992; C. Duffy, unpubl. data, cited by Duffy and Gordon, 2003).
In some parts of the range, adult males are present in subtropical regions throughout the year,
whereas females and immature C. brachyurus migrate into these regions during winter. Most
adult females return to temperate regions to breed in the spring. Males also appear to migrate
to higher latitudes in late winter-spring, presumably to mate (Cliff and Dudley, 1992). Mating
probably occurs offshore as females disperse from the nursery areas. Juvenile and adult C.
brachyurus segregate by size and sex (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984; Smale, 1991; Cliff and Dudley,
1992; Chiaramonte, 1998, cited by Duffy and Gordon, 2003). Juveniles occur in shallow water
(less than 30m depth) year-round, whereas adults are most abundant inshore during spring and
summer. Adults and sub-adults are found over the shelf and around offshore islands and banks
throughout the year. The movement of adult females inshore in spring is related to breeding. In
Western Australia, females move inshore to drop their young (Harrison, 2001). Nursery areas
tend to be large and ill-defined, but can include shallow banks and large shallow bays, as well
as the open coast (Muñoz-Chápuli, 1984; Smale, 1991; Cappo, 1992; Chiaramonte, 1998;
Fergusson and Compagno, 1995, cited by Duffy and Gordon, 2003).
Segregation of bronze whalers also occurs along latitudinal gradients (Muñoz-Chápuli, 1984;
Smale, 1991; Cliff and Dudley, 1992). C. brachyurus inhabiting temperate areas can range into
higher latitudes during the summer (Ayling and Cox, 1982; Compagno, 1984; Compagno et al.,
1989: Cappo, 1992: Last and Stevens, 1994; Chiaramonte, 1998). These latitudinal movements
may be in response to changes in water temperature or prey migrations (Compagno, 1984;
Compagno et al., 1989; Cliff and Dudley 1992; Chiaramonte, 1998). This species eats many
types of bottom-living and pelagic cephalopods and fishes (see Duffy and Gordon, 2003). Food
items in South Australia include schooling Australian salmon (a main dietary item), rock flathead
and snook (Cappo, 1992; Jones, 2008). The fishery for bronze whaler sharks is discussed in
Part 2 of this report, and threatening processes are discussed in Part 3.
Also occurring in the GAB is the dusky shark Carcharhinus obscurus, which is found over a
broader depth range (from inshore waters to the upper continental slope) (Last and Stevens,
1994; Daley et al., 2002). The abundance of C. obscurus in S.A. is much lower than in W.A.
(McAuley, 2005, cited by Jones, 2008). In temperate and subtropical areas the species is
migratory, moving north during the warmer summer months and retreating south when water
temperatures drop (Musick et al., 2007). In Western Australia, a tagging study showed that
there was some movement into South Australia of tagged individuals (including east of S.A. /
W.A. border, and also a small number into the S.A. gulfs), but main seasonal movements were
north and south along the west coast of W.A. (Simpfendorfer et al., 1999; McAuley, 2005; B.
Hay, pers. comm., cited by Jones, 2008). There are potentially distinct nursery areas in inshore
waters. In Australian waters, adolescents and adults appear to move inshore into shallower
water (less than 80m depth) off WA during summer and autumn, with neonates occupying
separate inshore areas (Last and Stevens, 1994). In Australia, Dusky Sharks may breed in
North West Shelf waters during winter, and migrate southwards, giving birth to their young off
the south-west off W.A. during autumn and winter (McAuley, pers. comm., cited by Pogonoski
et al., 2002; McAuley, 2005). Despite a small number of tagged juvenile Dusky Sharks being
recaptured in South Australia, most young probably remain in the southern waters of W.A. for a
number of years before migrating northwards, to become part of the mature stock, which is
concentrated in W.A. (McAuley, pers. comm., cited by Pogonoski et al., 2002; McAuley, 2005).
29
The diet of C. obscurus includes a variety of reef fishes, bottom-dwelling fishes, and pelagic
bony fishes, along with other shark species, rays, crustaceans, cephalopods, barnacles, and
whale meat. In W.A., the main diet is pelagic fish such as Sardinops sagax, octopus and squid,
and cartilaginous fishes become a more important part of the diet in larger, older sharks (N.B.
cannibalism also occurs) (Simpfendorfer et al., 2001).
The GAB provides an important habitat for the southern banded wobbegong / large ornate
wobbegong Orectolobus halei, which is caught in the trawl bycatch in shelf waters. In the GAB,
this species may be concentrated along the mid shelf and shelf edge at certain locations, but
also in inshore reefs at the head of the GAB. Research in south-eastern Australia has shown
that temperate wobbegongs favour areas of ―high topographic complexity and crevice volume‖
(Carraro and Gladstone, 2006). Wobbegongs are usually nocturnal sharks, that rest on the
bottom during the day in caves, under ledges on reefs, and in trenches, and seek prey in reef
habitat at night. Prey includes bottom-dwelling fishes, small sharks and rays; octopuses and
other cephalopods; crayfish / lobsters, crabs and other crustaceans (probably taken by
juveniles) (Compagno, 2001, 2005; Last and Stevens, 1994; Australian Museum, 2003;
Compagno, 2005; C. Huveneers, pers. comm., 2007). Fishes recorded in the diet of O. halei
include yellowtail scad Trachurus novaezelandiae, mulloway Argyrosomus japonicas, western
blue groper Achoerodus gouldii, drummers (Kyphosus species) and various scombrids
(mackerels, tunas etc) (Huveneers, 2007). Abalone has also been recorded in the diet (Kailola
et al., 1993). Wobbegongs occur singly, or often in aggregations during the day (Pollard et al.,
in Cavanagh et al., 2003), sometimes with several animals piled on top of one another
(Compagno, 2005), making them particularly vulnerable to trawl capture.
Another benthic shark species in the area is the Port Jackson shark Heterodontus
portusjacksoni, widespread throughout southern Australia, and commonly found on rocky reefs,
on sandy and muddy bottoms, and in seagrass beds. Port Jackson sharks are fished from the
coast in summer, especially around Coombra lagoon (A. Loisier, AW NRM Board, pers. comm.,
2010). The species is relatively slow growing and long-lived (to 40 years), with delayed maturity
(6-8 years in males, and 8-11 years in females) (McLaughlin and O‘Gower, 1971; Rodda, 2000;
Izzo, 2006, cited by Baker et al., 2008). Adult Port Jackson sharks feed mainly on bony fishes,
decapod crustaceans, squid, octopus and echinoderms, whereas juveniles mostly eat worms
(Powter, 2007; Svane et al., 2007). Wobbegongs prey on Port Jackson sharks, as well as many
other items (see previous paragraph) (Compagno, 2001; Huveneers, 2006). Although relatively
long-range (hundreds of km) migrations have been recorded in south-eastern Australia, studies
of this species in South Australian gulfs indicate much smaller scale movements, mostly less
than 20km (Svane et al., 2007). In both south-eastern Australia and South Australia, Port
Jackson sharks have been recorded in spawning aggregations, and animals may return
annually to the same areas to lay eggs. Port Jackson sharks also use a suite of specific ―resting
sites‖ during non-breeding periods. When the sharks at one site are disturbed, they will move
directly to another of their resting sites. After the breeding season, males move into deeper
waters followed by the females in late September or October. The remarkable homing ability of
these sharks, which can return to the same site after several years of migration, has given rise
to a hypothesised spatial memory in these sharks (O‘Gower 1995).
The inner and mid shelf areas of the Head of the GAB (including waters of the AW NRM region)
are also important for the smooth hammerhead Sphyrna zygaena, which is concentrated in
areas of heavy reef and numerous reef patches, and also sandy areas, particularly shallow to
30
mid shelf waters at the Head of the Bight (and also western Eyre Peninsula). Over the broad
range of this species on the shelf and upper slope, the preferred depth is close to shore.
Charter boat captures from the eastern Great Australian Bight indicate seasonal aggregation in
shallow waters. In other parts of the range (outside of Australia), juveniles may be abundant
and form large aggregations, and various nursery areas have been identified. Adults occur
either singly or in small groups. This species often occurs at the surface in the open ocean, and
can form enormous schools during migration to cooler latitudes during the summer months.
However, the relative abundance, seasonal movements and age- and reproduction-related
movements of smooth hammerhead in the GAB have not been investigated. Smooth
hammerhead is primarily a piscivore, and feeds on a variety of bony fishes including clupeids
(sardine and herring family) and small scombrids (tuna and mackerel family). This shark
species also eats smaller sharks (as well as its own species), stingrays, squid and other
cephalopods, and benthic crustaceans (Stevens, 1984; Smale, 1991; Bornatowski et al., 2007).
Some of the shark species in the vicinity of the Head of the GAB are known mainly from
offshore areas at the edge of the shelf, including the migratory shortfin mako Isurus oxyrinchus,
and the sharpnose sevengill shark Heptranchias perlo and broadnose sevengill shark
Notorynchus cepedianus.
Appendix 6 lists the cartilaginous fish species that have been recorded in the AW NRM region,
or are highly likely to occur there, based on geographic distribution, habitat and depth range.
South-eastern species, for which the eastern GAB area (e.g. Investigator Group, Streaky Bay,
or Ceduna) is the western limit have been excluded. Examples include the banded stingaree
Urolophus cruciatus. Species known mainly from outer shelf and slope waters of the GAB are
also excluded (e.g. wide stingaree Urolophus expansus and Bight skate Dipturus gudgeri.
Some of the species occurring in the GAB are considered vulnerable at international level and
have been listed in the IUCN‘s Red List (see Appendix 6).
Marine Mammals
Southern Right Whale Eubalaena australis: The Head of the Great Australian Bight is a
significant area for southern right whales. Although numbers of southern right whales are now
increasing at 7-8% per year (DEH South Australia, 2006), this whale is still considered a
threatened species under national and State level legislation, despite a recent downgrading of
threat category to least concern on a global scale, by the IUCN. Southern right whale is listed
under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
(EPBC Act) as endangered. It is classified under the South Australian National Parks and
Wildlife Act 1972 as vulnerable. Around 1,500 of the 12,000 or so southern right whales
remaining worldwide visit Australia during the austral winter, usually arriving in May after their
journey northwards from Antarctica, and departing around October. The global number is still a
small percentage of the estimated 60,000 - 100,000 that existed prior to whaling during the 19th
century (DEH South Australia, 2006). Approximately 26,000 southern right whales were
reported to have been killed through whaling in Australian and New Zealand waters from 1820
to 1850 alone. Fowlers Bay was the closest whaling station to the GAB, during the 19th century,
and whales still pass through the area today. The Head of Bight is a critical gathering area for
southern right whales, with up to half of the Australian population (10% of the global population)
using the area for mating (southern right whales are mature at about 7 years old), calving and
31
socialising. The Head of the GAB is one of the three most important calving grounds on the
Australian coast, with 25-45 calves born each year, and more than 100 whales per day may be
present in peak periods of peak years (Pirzl and Burnell, 2004; Pirzl, 2008; A. Loisier, AW NRM
Board, pers. comm., 2010). During the past 2 years to 2010, more than 100 (and up to 140)
whales were counted on some days towards the end of the season (A. Loisier, AW NRM Board,
pers. comm., 2010). Mark-recapture estimates show that about half the Australian population of
this species uses the site (Pirzl and Burnell, 2004). Whales gradually enter the nursery waters
of the Bight in early June, where those that are pregnant give birth. During autumn and early
winter, mostly adults are observed, but by late winter and spring, mothers with calves are
commonly seen swimming along the cliffs of the GAB. At such time, there are often 70 or more
whales visible from a viewing platform in the area. Each year between 25 and 55 calves are
born at or near the Head of Bight, making it one of the three largest breeding areas along the
Australian coast (DEH South Australia, 2006), and one of the most significant nursery areas
(Pirzl, 2008). Each day, mothers and new born calves nurse, rest, play and travel. Mothers and
calves tend to spend more time at the Head of Bight than lone whales, which tend to leave and
return over the season. The average residence of females that calve at the Head of the Bight is
71 days, higher than the average residence time of unaccompanied adults (20 days) (Burnell
and Pirzl, 2006; Pirzl, 2008). A study at the Head of the Bight recorded 20 calving females in
2002; 28 in 2003 and 32 in 2004 (Pirzl, 2008). Southern right whales calve about every 3.64 ±
0.13 years at Head of Bight (Burnell, 2001, cited by Pirzl, 2008). Whales in the Head of Bight
area often occur about 500m from shore (Pirzl, 2008). During the austral summer, whales head
back south, travelling and feeding well offshore in the southern Ocean. During the early 2000s,
a genetics project which utilised skin biopsy samples showed that genetic differences (in term of
mitochondrial DNA) exist between southern right whales in the GAB, and those in Western
Australia (research by N. Patenaude and R. Harcourt, Macquarie University, 2001-04). The
genetic research has indicated maternally-directed substructure within the Australian population
(Patenaude and Harcourt, 2006) and long-term distribution changes may be the result of
extirpation of localised sub-groups (Pirzl, 2008). During the early to mid 2000s, a project on
habitat selection and usage by southern right whales at the Head of Bight and two other calving
areas, showed that the whales exhibit significant spatial structure at a fine-scale (within calving
grounds), and that the location of individuals is primarily determined by the location of other
whales (i.e. spatially auto-correlated) (Pirzl, 2008). Depth apparently has a big influence on
distribution of the whales, with a general preference for shallower water (particularly by mothers
with young calves) being modulated by specific population factors and local environment
conditions. At the Head of Bight, where whales aggregate seasonally, about 29% of the area
from shore to 3km seawards is less than or equal to 10m deep, and 60% is 20m deep or less
(Pirzl, 2008). A long-shore distribution pattern was also evident for the whales in this area, and
during the season, whales tend to move to deeper, more westerly waters of the Bight as calves
grow larger / older (Pirzl, 2008).
Australian Sea Lion Neophoca cinerea: Populations of Australian sea lions in the GAB, which
were likely never commercially harvested in the past, provide a very important genetic and
geographic bridging population between the South Australian and Western Australian sea lion
populations (Dennis and Shaughnessy, 1996). Previously, in 1994, a survey of potential haulout sites of the Australian sea lion along the coastline of the Great Australian Bight (from Twin
Rocks to Wilson Bluff: distance = 206km) reported 289 sea lions at 23 sites, widely dispersed at
the base of the Bunda Cliffs. The animals were hauled out on perched platforms formed by
collapsed sections of cliff at various levels above the sea. Of these, 37 sea lions were recorded
32
in a deep cave accessed from the sea. The total included 86 pups aged under 12 months,
which were considered to probably have been born in the region (Dennis and Shaughnessy,
1996). The Australian sea lion sites located in 1994 were surveyed again in August-September
1995, during a predicted breeding season. In that survey, a total of 284 sea lions was recorded
at nine sites in South Australia and one site in Western Australia (2km west of Twilight Cove).
The 1995 survey included 90 pups under six months of age. Overall, 10 breeding sites and 14
haul out sites were recorded. By extrapolating from the number of sea lion pups found in 1994,
the population for the Great Australian Bight region in South Australia was estimated to be
between 613 and 774 during the 1990s (Dennis and Shaughnessy, 1996), which represented
approximately 9.3% of the South Australian population or 6.6% of the total world population for
this species at the time (Dennis and Shaughnessy 1996). At least 7 breeding and haul-out sites
are known along the Head of Bight area (SARDI Aquatic Sciences, 2006), known as Bunda
Cliffs B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B8 and B9 (Goldsworthy and Page, 2009; Goldsworthy et al., 2009b).
The seven GAB populations are spread from the Head of the Bight westwards towards the W.A.
border, and there is an eighth colony at western Nuyts Reef (Goldsworthy, 2009b). Recent
estimates of pup numbers at the Bunda Cliffs sites are as follows: B1 = 15 , B2 = 5, B3 = 31, B5
= 43, B6 = 12, B8 = 38 and B9 = 17 (Goldsworthy et al., 2009a). This species has also been
recorded in waters adjacent to Wahgunyah Conservation Park, east of the AW NRM region
(Caton et al., 2007). Foraging area maps are being developed for Australian sea lions, and it is
noted that adult male sea lions utilise the entire continental shelf to forage, where they overlap
with adult females, but the adult males also forage further out to sea, in deeper waters than the
females (Goldsworthy and Page, 2009). The relatively small populations of females scattered
through the GAB may be faithful to their natal colonies, as was shown in populations in Western
Australia (Campbell, 2003, cited by DEWR, 2006). An extended rearing period for older pups
suggests that learning about the location of local feeding grounds is important to the species.
The breeding cycle is about 13-14 months, and colonies in different parts of the GAB cycle have
staggered breeding times, perhaps to help spread their predation pressure on limited shared
resources more evenly through the seasonal cycle. It could also provide further protection for
small genetic populations against predation by making it more difficult for predators to take
advantage of young pups during predictable pupping seasons. Australian sea lions in the GAB
are noted for being relatively thin, in comparison to those foraging in the more productive waters
off Kangaroo Island to the east (uncited reference, in DEWR, 2006).
New Zealand Fur Seal: During the 1994 survey of Dennis and Shaughnessy, 12 New Zealand
fur seals Arctocephalus forsteri were sighted along the coastline of the Great Australian Bight
from Twin Rocks to Wilson Bluff (Dennis and Shaughnessy, 1996). Goldsworthy and Page
(2009) recorded only one breeding site, at west Nuyts Reef. The colony in the Nuyts Reef area
may be the most westerly of the breeding colonies in South Australia (Shaughnessy et al.,
1994, 2005; Director of National Parks, 2005).
Other Species: Appendix 7 lists the marine mammal species recorded in the Great Australian
Bight, and their conservation status at international, national and South Australian levels. Many
of these mammal species occur only rarely, as strandings of dead or injured animals (e.g. Ling,
1991; Kemper and Ling, 1991; Director of National Parks, Commonwealth DEH, 2005). Beaked
whales, including such species as Gray‘s beaked whale Mesoplodon grayi and straptooth whale
Mesoplodon layardii, are occasionally stranded at the Head of the Bight (e.g. DEWHA, 2010). A
number of species are regularly sighted in situ. For example, the killer whale Orcinus orca, has
been recorded just east of the AW NRM region, approx. 2km south of Fowlers Bay (1989), and
33
at several sites further east, in the eastern GAB (Ling, 1991). There may also be records from
the Head of the Bight Area, as evidenced from the Southern Oceans Orca Database, held at
Deakin University (Morrice, undated). The presence of killer whales may be related to the
abundance of pinnipeds in the region, upon which they feed (Kemper and Ling 1991, cited by
Director of National Parks, 2005). Humpback whales are commonly seen from the cliff tops at
the Head of the Bight, and this fast-moving species usually travels further offshore compared
with southern right whales (A. Loisier, AW NRM Board, pers. comm., 2010). Some species,
such as blue whales and sperm whales travel seasonally through the Bight, but these species
are not commonly recorded inshore. Dolphin species which are common wide-ranging
throughout South Australia, including the GAB, are Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin Tursiops
aduncus, often in estuarine and coastal waters; common bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus,
in coastal and offshore waters, and the common short-beaked dolphin Delphinus delphis
(Kemper, 1998, 2004).
Marine Reptiles
Reptiles such as the green turtle Chelonia midas are occasionally recorded in the GAB, with
museum records from the Ceduna area, and in situ sightings from further west, including the
Nuyts Archipelago and waters further west, in the northern GAB. The green turtle is classified
internationally as endangered with a decreasing population trend (IUCN, 2009), and is listed
under the Commonwealth EPBC Act 1999 as vulnerable in Australia. There are also records of
the loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta in the GAB area, and at locations further east, such as the
SA gulfs region. The leathery (or leatherback) turtle Dermochelys coriacea is also recorded
occasionally in the GAB (e.g. Nuyts Archipelago), and the GAB may be an important feeding
area (DSE, 2009). The leathery turtle is classified internationally as critically endangered and
the loggerhead as endangered (IUCN, 2009), and both the leathery and the loggerhead are
also listed under the Commonwealth EPBC Act 1999 as endangered in Australia.
The occasional presence of migratory turtles in the GAB may be linked to transport eastwards
in the Leeuwin Current from western Australia. Turtles occasionally wash up dead in the
eastern GAB, in areas such as Anxious Bay (e.g. Edyvane et al., 2004).
All marine turtle species occurring in South Australian waters are also listed under the South
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972.
Coastal Birds and Sea Birds
According to maps in Pizzey (1988), about 60 species of coastal and marine birds are likely to
occur in vicinity of the head of the Great Australian Bight. During a recent survey of the
Alinytjara Wilurara lands in September 2008 (Dennis, 2008), 28 bird species of coastal and/or
marine association were recorded, several of which are listed under South Australian and/or
Commonwealth legislation as threatened species, and others of which are listed migratory
species under international conventions, such as JAMBA and CAMBA. These, and other marine
bird species recorded either regularly or irregularly in the GAB from previous surveys (e.g.
Carpenter, 2005, cited by Caton et al., 2007), are listed in Appendix 8, which also lists the
conservation status of these species at international level (IUCN; JAMBA, CAMBA and
34
ROKAMBA); national level (Commonwealth EPBC Act 1999) and State level (South Australian
National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972). Some species are seasonal, such as the migratory
sanderling and red-necked stint (both present during summer), and the southern giant-petrel
(present during winter).
The endangered white-bellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster has been recorded in the AW
NRM region, including the Head of the Bight, and sections of the Nullarbor cliffs west of the
Head of the Bight (Caton et al., 2007). White-bellied sea eagles nest along cliffs, rock pinnacles,
escarpments and tall trees. The number of territories currently occupied by the white-bellied sea
eagle is reported to have declined in the far west of South Australia (Dennis and Lashmar,
1996, cited by Caton et al., 2007). Dennis (2008) recorded an active nest of H. leucogaster in a
previously unrecorded territory, in the eastern section of the Bunda Cliffs. The white-bellied sea
eagle is very sparsely distributed in the region. Surveys of Dennis (2008) have indicated that
there may be as few as 3 individuals in the broad region from Laura Bay (eastern GAB),
through to the S.A. / W.A. border, hence the number within the AW NRM region is very low.
The endangered osprey Pandion haliaetus nests on rocky headlands, stacks, cliffs, live or dead
trees and artificial platforms. Several active osprey sites have been identified in the northern
Great Australian Bight and Yalata (T. Dennis pers. comm., cited by Caton et al., 2007).
Examples including the Head of the Bight, and a site near the Merdayerrah Sandpatch (Dennis,
2008). Like the white-bellied sea eagle, the osprey is sparsely distributed in the region, and the
surveys of Dennis (2008) have indicated that there may be as few as 8 osprey in the broad
region from Laura Bay (eastern GAB), through to the S.A. / W.A. border (Dennis 2008).
Therefore, the number in the AW NRM region is even lower.
Parts of the AW NRM region provide significant habitat for the vulnerable hooded plover
Thinornis rubricollis rubricollis. Examples of significant habitats include the beach and foredunes in the vicinity of the Dog Fence beach (northern end of Wahgunyah Conservation Park,
near the eastern border of the AW NRM region), with one active nest recorded recently 1km
south-east of Tjitji Tjutaku campsite (Dennis, 2008). Other locations where this species might be
present include the coast adjacent to Wahgunyah Conservation Park, and the beach south-east
of the Dog Fence (Caton et al., 2007). Recent surveys have indicated the presence of up to 10
pairs of hooded plovers between Twin Rocks and Granites (A. Loisier, AW NRM Board, pers.
comm., 2010). Figure 5A and 5B show the location of Hooded Plover sightings at various
beach locations in the AW NRM region, during surveys in August and December 2008, April
2009 and February 2010. According to counts during the past 3 years to 2010, numbers have
been stable since 2008, and similar numbers of birds were recorded in the same locations
during the three years (Table 3; A. Loisier, AW NRM Board, pers. comm., 2010).
Table 3: Number of Hooded plovers counted during different seasons along the Yatala coast
(between Granites and Head of Bight), from August 2008 to April 2010. Data from AW NRM Board.
Survey Date
Number of Hooded Plovers
August 2008
13
December 2008
15 (including 1 juvenile)
April 2009
14
March – April 2010
17
35
t
t
t
Jerry's Beach (Bobs Kitchen)
1
t
Jaxson's
2
2
2
2
2
26 2 3
2
2
2
Geues Hole
tt t t
Alinytjara Wilurara
Natural Resource
Management
Shorebird Surveys
Hooded Plover - Geues/Bob's Kitchen
Month
Transect Areas
Granites - Coymbra
August, 2008
Hilton - Twin Rocks
December, 2008
±
Geues - Bob's Kitchen
April, 2009
t
0
0.3
DISCLAIMER:The Alinytjara Wilurara Natural Resources
Management Board, its employees and servants expressly disclaim
all liability of responsibility to any person using the information or
advice contained herein.
0.6
© Government of South Australia, through the Alinytjara Wilurara
Natural Resources Management Board. This work is copyright.
Apart from any use permitted under the copyright Act 1968 (Cwlth),
no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written
permission obtained from Alinytjara Wilurara Natural Resources
Management Board. Request and enquires concerning
reproduction and rights should be directed to the General Manager,
Alinytjara Wilurara Natural Resources Management Board
Kilometres
Campsites
February 2010
AWNRM_Boundary
Extent of shorebird surveys
t
Map Production: Knowledge and Information, Alinytjara Wilurara
Natural Resources Management Board
Data Source: Topographic Data – From various State
government departments
Map Datum: GDA 94, Zone 52
Date: 15/6/2010
AW NRM Map 2010145_001
Tjitji Tjutaku
Coombra
t
22
2
t
3
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
t
Alinytjara Wilurara
Natural Resource
Management
Shorebird Surveys
Hooded Plover - Granites/Coymbra
Month
Geues - Bob's Kitchen
Granites - Coymbra
August, 2008
Hilton - Twin Rocks
December, 2008
February 2010
±
Transect Areas
April, 2009
t
0
0.6
Kilometres
Campsites
AWNRM_Boundary
Extent of shorebird surveys
t
32
2 Granites
1
2
t
Map Production: Knowledge and Information, Alinytjara Wilurara
Natural Resources Management Board
Data Source: Topographic Data – From various State
government departments
Map D atum: GDA 94, Z one 52
Date: 16/6/2010
DISC LAIMER:The Alinytjara Wilurara Natural Resources
Management Board, its employees and servants expressly disclaim
all liability of responsibility to any person using the information or
advice contained herein.
1.2
© Government of South Australia, through the Alinytjara Wilurara
Natural Resources Management Board. T his work is copyright.
Apart from any use permitted under the copyright Act 1968 (Cwlth),
no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written
permission obtained from Alinytjara Wilurara Natural Resources
Management Board. Request and enquires concerning
reproduction and rights should be directed to the General Manager,
Alinytjara Wilurara Natural Resources Management Board
AW NRM Map 2010145_002
Figure 5: Location of Hooded Plover sightings during surveys at beaches in the AW NRM region,
from August 2008 to February 2010. Maps provided by AW NRM Board.
36
Threats to populations of the ‗forementioned species are discussed in section 3.1.3 of Part 3.
Other species of conservation concern recorded in the AW NRM region include Whimbrel,
Great Knot, Ruddy Turnstone, Common Sandpiper, Pied Oystercatcher and Sooty
Oystercatcher, all of which are listed as Rare under S.A. legislation), and all of which have been
recorded recently in the Coymbra area (Dennis, 2008).
Migratory albatrosses occasionally use the area but none were recorded in the 2008 AW NRM
bird survey (Dennis, 2008). Species likely to pass through the AW NRM marine region (e.g.
travelling, and/or feeding) include the Shy Albatross, Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross, Blackbrowed Albatross, Wandering Albatross, Sooty Albatross, Southern Royal Albatross and the
Southern Giant-Petrel (Director of National Parks, Commonwealth DEH, 2005; AG DEWHA,
2009).
37
Part 2
USES OF THE AW NRM REGION – MARINE COMPONENT
2. Uses and Activities
Recreational Fishing
In both eastern Great Australian Bight and at the Head of the Bight, commonly caught species
include mulloway, pink snapper, Australian salmon and sharks (Yalata Land Management,
2003; Wilson, 2007; The Fishing Guide, 2009). Remote ocean beach / surf fishing, particularly
for mulloway, is widely promoted locally, interstate and internationally, and many fishers visit the
area during the summer months to catch mulloway during their ―runs‖ along the shallow subtidal
waters off surf beaches, and in nearshore reef ―gutters‖.
Mulloway are fished every year in the AW NRM region. During the 2009-10 fishing season, a
survey showed that 324 permits were issued, and 129 fishers (40% of total) were interviewed.
Fishers stay, on average, 2 weeks at a time in the area and fish every day; some also fish at
night. The 129 fishers who were interviewed during the 20091- season, fished a total of 621
hours over the sampled season. The survey did not include the busiest fishing period of the
year (January holiday period), hence the total number of hours fished by all fishers over the
whole season would be higher than that estimated from the survey. During the 2009-10 survey
period, 81 legal-sized mulloway were caught from 7 locations in the AW NRM region (A. Loisier,
AW NRM Board, pers. comm., 2010).
Some fishing guides report that fishers expect to catch one or two ―good sized‖ (i.e. 1m)
mulloway per day as the fish pass through the gutters. Some fishers return to the area every
year, specifically to target mulloway in the GAB. On-line fishing forums and fishing reports (e.g.
Fishnet; Got One; The Fishing Guide) and tourism materials for the Ceduna and Fowlers Bay
area all promote the capture of mulloway in the Great Australian Bight.
In this area, large (and some very large – to 30+ kg) mulloway are taken by individual
recreational fishers, and charter boat fishers (e.g. Murton, 2003; Wilson, 2007; The Fishing
Guide, 2009). Some are kept, and others released. In some years, there is a mulloway-catching
competition run from October to January, by a hotel at Nundroo (Eyre Highway, 160 kilometres
west of Ceduna). Issues associated with the capture of mulloway are discussed in section 3.1.1
Fishing in Part 3.
Apart from the main targets (mulloway; large west Australian salmon and sharks such as
gummy and bronze whaler), other species taken include pink snapper (including occasional
very large individuals); mullet (often used for bait, along with small west Australian salmon),
stingrays, and Port Jackson sharks. smooth hammerhead, school shark, and other shark
species are also taken occasionally, but figures are not available for this report. The chimaera
elephant fish / elephant shark (Appendix 6) is also taken seasonally in low numbers.
38
A number of recognised recreational fishing areas occur in the AW NRM region, including:
Head of the Bight (which is less accessible than some of the other areas to the east);
Dog Fence Beach (popular for fishing large mulloway – reportedly including specimens
to 35kg – and large west Australian salmon;
Geues Hole, Jaxsons, Tjitji Tjutaku and other beaches off the Yalata Indigenous
Protected Area (where a permit is required for fishing, and where fishers take mulloway,
west Australian salmon, sharks, stingrays and reef fishes, including juvenile Western
Blue Groper);
Coymbra (Coombra) Beach (also in the Yalata IPA), where surf fishers and anglers fish
the deep lagoons, ―holes‖ and ―gutters‖ of the reef seaward of the beach.
Examples of locations fished adjacent to the AW NRM area include the following (from Yalata
Land Management, 2003; Hunt, 2006; Wilson, 2007; The Fishing Guide, 2009, and recreational
fishing reports):
surf beaches around Point Fowler, Fowlers Bay and surrounds (e.g. Scotts Beach /
Scotts Bay, Mexican Hat and Wandilla, popular fishing spots to catch west Australian
salmon);
Fowlers Bay jetty (where Australian Herring / Tommy Ruff, whiting and mullet are
caught, amongst other species);
Tuckamore Beach (where samson fish, west Australian salmon, mulloway and pink
snapper area caught), Clare Bay and Cabbots Beach (where various reef fishes are
taken from the ledges offshore);
Charter boats visit a number of locations, particularly east of the boundary of the AW NRM
region, in the Fowlers Bay and Nuyts Reef area, where, for species such as pink snapper, bag
limits of small and large fish are easily caught. East of AW NRM region, offshore from Fowlers
Bay, fishers catch reef species such as samson fish, Bight redfish, pink snapper, southern blue
morwong, swallowtail, harlequin fish and sergeant baker (Hunt, 2006). Large whiting, snook
and sand flathead are also caught in the area. southern bluefin tuna are targeted during the
summer months (e.g. Hunt, 2006).
Table 4 below shows the numbers of fishes caught (including numbers retained and released)
in Fishing Block 1 during a National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey (NRIFS), from
March 2000 to April 2001. Fishing Block 1 constitutes State waters of the GAB, from Fowlers
Bay in the east to the W.A. border in the west. In terms of numbers caught, the top species
recorded during the survey were west Australian salmon, ―unspecified mullet‖ (including yelloweye mullet, jumping mullet, and/or sea mullet) and mulloway. Other species caught by
recreational fishers in Fishing Block 1, but for which totals were not collated, included sea
sweep, and flathead species (NRIFS data, 2001). According to Jones and Doonan (2005), no
King George whiting, pink snapper, sea garfish, snook, southern calamari, blue swimmer crabs
or sand crabs were caught in Fishing Block 1, but some of these species were caught in
significant numbers in more sheltered waters to the east, such as the Ceduna and Streaky Bay
area.
39
Table 4: Numbers of fishes caught, retained and released in Fishing Block 1 (Great Australian
Bight) during the National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey, 2000-2001 (adapted from
Jones and Doonan, 2005).
Species
No. Retained
No. Released
Total No.
Caught
% released
west Australian salmon
15,852
19,535
35,387
55.2
Australian herring (tommy ruff)
567
0
567
0
yellow-eye mullet
0
529
529
100
unspecified mullet (including
yellow-eye mullet, jumping
mullet, and/or sea mullet)
1,213
532
1,745
30.5
mulloway
898
2,033
2,931
69.4
whaler sharks (bronze whaler;
dusky shark / black whaler)
53
0
53
0
rock lobster
112
0
112
0
Table 5 below shows the target and non-target effort used to catch fish species listed in Table
4. Target fishing effort is that effort expended by a recreational fisher, when a species is
nominated as targeted, and caught during a fishing event (Jones and Doonan, 2005). The catch
includes both the retained and released component. Non-target species fishing effort is that
effort expended by a recreational fisher, when a species is caught and retained, but is not
reported to have been targeted. Non-target effort does not include that effort when a species is
released. Total effort is the sum of target and non-target effort (Jones and Doonan, 2005). In
Fishing Block 1 at the Head of the Great Australian Bight, it was estimated that around 910
fishers fished a total of 1,815 fishing days during the 2000/01 survey period (Jones, 2009).
In Fishing Block 1, fishers expended most effort (almost 23,000 hours fished) on west
Australian salmon, over the period March 2000 to April 2001. An estimated total effort of 7,281
hours was spent fishing for mulloway, about 70% of this was targeted effort, during which
fishers specifically sought to catch mulloway. ―Unspecified mullet‖ (more than one species) and
tommy ruff (Australian herring) were caught but not targeted during the survey period.
According to the results of the survey, all Whaler sharks were caught without being targeted
specifically. Note that effort is 0 hours fishing for Yellow-eye Mullet (Table 3), because all
individuals captured were reported to have been released.
Of the species that were caught in abundance in the GAB during the NRIFS, west Australian
salmon is a widespread, abundant migratory species in South Australia, and the numbers
caught by recreational fishers in the GAB apparently from a small proportion (e.g. 3% in the
NRIFS) of the State total. Similarly, the catches of the various mullet species appear to be
insignificant on a State-wide scale (e.g. 0.4% of the annual State-wide catch of unspecific
mullet, and 0.07% of the yellow-eye mullet catch, according to NRIFS survey results).
40
According to the results of the NRIFS, the recreational catches of mulloway in the GAB may be
as low as 3% of the State total (i.e. 92,870 individuals were recorded from the entire State
during the survey period, including released specimens, and 2,931 of these were caught in the
Great Australian Bight). A more recent recreational fishing survey (Jones, 2009) reported an
even lower proportion of the State catch of mulloway from the GAB during 2007/08, with 2%
recorded for the entire ―West Coast‖ (includes waters east of the Fowlers Bay). During that
survey period, the estimated total number of recreational fishers fishing in the Head of GAB
area was 1,128 persons, who fished a total of 5,223 days during the 2007/08 survey period
(Jones, 2009). The relatively low proportion of mulloway caught from the AW NRM region
compared with other parts of South Australia may reflect the lower number of available records,
and perhaps lower response rates from recreational survey participants in remote regions such
as the GAB.
Recreational catches of Whaler sharks (see Table 4) in State-managed waters of the Great
Australian Bight may be as low as 1.5% of the State total, according to results of the NRIFS.
Issues associated with the capture of Whaler sharks are discussed in 3.1.1 Fishing.
A number of species that are caught by recreational fishers in the GAB, have not been listed in
the results of the National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey (Jones and Doonan,
2005) or the more recent 2007/08 survey (Jones, 2009) .
Table 5: Target and non-target fishing effort (no. hours fished) for species caught in Fishing Block
1 (Great Australian Bight) during the National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey, 20002001 (adapted from Jones and Doonan, 2005).
Species
Target Effort
Non-Target Effort
(hours fished)
(hours fished)
west Australian salmon
12,503
10,474
Australian herring (tommy ruff)
0
5,261
yellow-eye mullet
0
0
unspecified mullet (including yellow-eye
mullet, jumping mullet, and/or sea mullet)
0
2,507
mulloway
5,057
2,224
whaler Sharks (bronze whaler and dusky
shark / black whaler)
0
399
rock lobster
1,598
0
Charter boat fishing is not discussed in detail here because catch and effort statistics for that
sector (e.g. Knight et al., 2007) list the GAB area under a category called ―Other‖, which
includes the Head of the Bight, but also deeper waters off the western and southern sides of
Eyre Peninsula. Fishers in that broad region, part of which includes the GAB, participate in
fishing categorised as ―game fishing‖, ―inshore scale-fishing‖, ―offshore scale-fishing‖ and
―deepwater scale-fishing‖ (Knight et al., 2007). From September 2005 to June 2006, a reported
432 fishes (total weight 1.23 tonnes) were caught by charter boats in the ―Other‖ area, and from
July 2006 to June 2007, the reported number was 614 fishes (6.3 tonnes) (Knight et al., 2007).
According to Knight et al. (2007), pink snapper, Australian herring and King George whiting
41
were the only major commercial species taken in the ―Other‖ region during the survey periods
(2004 – 2007), and this contrasts with the result of the NRIFS (see above), in which no King
George whiting or snapper were reported to have been caught by recreational fishers in Head
of the GAB (Fishing Block 1) during the survey period 2000-01 (with results from 2000/01 being
considered typical of annual catches). This indicates that the majority of the charter boat catch
from the region classified as ―Other‖ would come from waters away from the Head of the Bight.
Commercial Fishing
The State waters component of the Great Australian Bight is not a major fishing area, possibly
due to the rough conditions, lack of easy access, remoteness from ports, and presence of GAB
Marine Park (see Part 3). The AW NRM marine region covers three of the 1-degree fishing
blocks (blocks 1, 2 and 3) of the multi-species, multi-method South Australian Marine Scalefish
Fishery (Figure 6). Much of the species-specific data is confidential, because less than 4
fishers fish for those species in each block (SARDI Aquatic Sciences statistics section, pers.
comm., 2009). During the mid-1990s, the major species taken were school shark and gummy
shark (e.g. approximately 10 - 20 tonnes of each species taken per annum from each block in
some years) and whaler sharks (i.e. bronze whaler and/or black whaler – several tonnes per
annum taken from blocks 2 and 3). It is noted that an Offshore Constitutional Settlement (OCS)
during the late 1990s between the Commonwealth Government and South Australia, resulted in
management of commercial shark fishing in South Australia becoming a Commonwealth
responsibility, and the agreement was signed in 2000. Under the OCS, the Commonwealth was
given jurisdiction from the low water mark to the boundary of the Australian Fishing Zone, for
commercial fishing of sharks. The Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry conducted
a buy-out of 40 operators from the fishery. Therefore, catch and effort data for commercial
capture of school sharks and Gummy sharks in South Australian waters from that time onwards
(and including the 2000s) were collated by the Commonwealth, and block-specific data within
the Great Australian Bight region are not available. The shark fishery is discussed in more detail
in the paragraph below. Other sharks are taken in low numbers in the South Australian Marine
Scalefish fishery, and low quantities of scalefish such as Australian Salmon and mulloway are
also taken. Most scalefish data from 1997/98 to 2007/08 are confidential (SARDI Aquatic
Sciences catch and effort statistics, 2009).
In both State-managed waters (see above) and Commonwealth-managed waters of South
Australia, sharks are targeted in the Shark Gillnet and Shark Hook Sectors (formerly called the
Southern Shark Fishery) of the Commonwealth-managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish and
Shark Fisheries (SESSF). In deeper waters of the Great Australian Bight (i.e. not in AW NRM
waters) , the Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector (GABTS) of the SESSF operates in
Commonwealth-managed waters.
The Australian endemic gummy shark is the main target species in the Shark Gillnet and Shark
Hook Sectors, and represented approximately 77% - 80% by weight of the total shark catch in
the fishery in 2007 and 2008 (McLoughlin and Wood, 2009). School sharks are taken as byproduct in the fishery, and have comprised approximately 8% - 10% of the total catch by weight
in recent years (McLoughlin and Wood, 2009). Both of these sharks are taken in waters of the
AW NRM region, at the Head of the Bight, as mentioned above, but in low numbers. The main
fishing areas for sharks are western and south-western Eyre Peninsula, southern Kangaroo
42
Island; waters offshore from the Coorong, and the upper and mid South East of South Australia
(McLoughlin and Wood, 2009). The fishery is also active in Bass Strait (particularly the eastern
side), and eastern Tasmania. Issues associated with the fishing of school shark in southern
Australia are discussed below, in section 3.1.1 Fishing in Part 3.
N
Head of Bight
Nullarbor
01
02
03
04
05
06
12
0
100
Fowlers Bay
07
13
200 Kilometers
Figure 6: South Australian Marine Scalefish Fishery 1-degree fishing blocks, showing the 3
blocks (01, 02, 03) included in the AW NRM region.
A list of species taken commercially in South Australian Marine Scalefish Fishery blocks 1,2
and/or 3 is provided below (Table 6). Other than school sharks and gummy sharks, most of
these species have been taken in low (some very low) quantities during the past decade. The
population of mulloway at the Head of the Bight was reported to have been targetted heavily by
commercial fishers during the 1990s, with initially high catches and catch rates reported, prior to
reported depletion of the stock (K. Evans, SARDI, pers. comm., 1996). Catch numbers of
mulloway taken per annum are not available for this report, because data from 1997/98 to
2008/09 are confidential (SARDI Aquatic Sciences catch and effort statistics, 2009), other than
a 1.5t catch of mulloway in 2000/01, from the region which includes blocks 1,2, and 3
combined.
43
Table 6: Bony and cartilaginous fishes and invertebrates taken by the commercial Marine
Scalefish fishery, in fishing blocks 1,2 and 3 (SARDI Aquatic Sciences data, 1997 – 2008)
Bony Fishes
Cartilaginous Fishes
Invertebrates
west Australian salmon
school shark
cuttlefish
mulloway
gummy shark
southern calamari
yellow-eye Mullet
whaler sharks (bronze whaler &/or black
whaler)
sand crab
Garfish
―other sharks‖
King George whiting
―rays and skates‖
snapper
Snook
Sweep
wrasses (―parrotfish‖)
leatherjackets
―other / mixed species‖
Catches of whaler sharks in South Australian waters are usually reported as bronze whaler, but
the catches also contain black whaler C. obscurus (Jones, 2008). There are 8 fisheries in South
Australia (State and Commonwealth combined) that catch whaler sharks, plus 2 other fisheries
in which they are bycatch, plus incidental mortality from aquaculture operations. Examples of
catches include Marine Scalefish Fishery long-line fishery in South Australia; GAB Trawl
Fishery (bronze whaler is a by-product from fishing in shelf waters); Gillnet Hook and Trap
Fishery in Commonwealth waters; and bycatch in the southern bluefin tuna fishery (including
attraction to towed cages in and around the GAB). In the State and Commonwealth fisheries,
tighter controls in 2002/03 on school shark and gummy shark fishing resulted in increased
targetting of whaler sharks (Jones, 2008).
Rock lobster are taken in low quantities in the Head of Bight area, as part of Region A of the
Northern Zone of the South Australian Rock Lobster Fishery. Figure 7 below shows the
geographic extent of Region A, of which the marine region of AW NRM forms a small part.
Catches for fishing blocks 1, 2 and 3 – from east of the Head of Bight through to the S.A. / W.A.
border – are not available, but it is noted that less than 10% of the entire Northern Zone catch is
taken from Region A (e.g. 4% in 2006, and 8% in 2007: Linnane et al., 2008, 2009) and these
three blocks form only a small portion of Region A (Figure 7). The Region A catch was higher
during the mid 1970s (e.g. almost 150t in 1975) and mid 1990s (e.g. 172t in 1993), as were
catch rates (e.g. > 2kg per pot lift in 1990, 1992 and 1993), but catches (especially) and catch
rates are now lower, compared with those from other parts of the Northern Zone. In 2006 and
2007, the total Region A catches were 20 tonnes and 36 tonnes respectively, from all 16 fishing
blocks in Region A combined (Linnane et al., 2008, 2009).
44
N
Head of Bight
Nullarbor
01
02
Fowlers
Bay
03
Ceduna
09
04
61
05
06
07
62
12
13
24
3
0
200
08
14
25
3
400 Kilometers
Figure 7: Region A (numbered fishing blocks) of the South Australian Rock Lobster Fishery,
showing the 3 blocks (01, 02, 03) included in the AW NRM region.
Abalone are taken in low quantities in the Head of the GAB, as part of Region B of the Western
Zone of the South Australian Abalone Fishery. Region B is a broad area that encompasses
waters from the S.A. / W.A. border, eastwards to the Point Brown area near Smoky Bay. As part
of that broad area, the marine component of the AW NRM region lies within the Head of Bight
and Nullarbor fishing area known as Abalone Fishing Area 1A, nested within Abalone Fishing
Area 1, which runs from the S.A. / W.A. border eastwards to Point Bell (Figure 8).
Catch and effort data specific to Abalone Fishing Area 1A are not available for this report, but it
is noted that catches of greenlip abalone from Fishing Area 1 as a whole have been stable at
about 3t per year since the mid 1990s. Slightly higher catches (between 5t and 18t) of Greenlip
were taken in some years of the 1980s and early 1990s (Chick et al., 2007). Catches of blacklip
abalone are slightly higher than those of greenlip, and although less than 5t per annum have
been taken from Fishing Area 1 since the mid 2000s, catches between 5t and 10t per annum
were taken in most years from the early to late 1990s. About 6t of blacklip were taken in 2002
from Fishing Area 1, and annual catches have been lower since that time, to the limits of
available data (2007). The blacklip catches from Fishing Area 1 have represented between 10%
and 40% of the annual Region B Blacklip Abalone catch since 2000 (Chick et al., 2007).
45
N
1A
1D
2
1B
2
1E2
1C
2
0
100
200 Kilometers
Figure 8: Fishing Area 1 (numbered fishing blocks) of Region B of the Western Zone of the
South Australian Abalone Fishery, showing the fishing area (1A) of which the AW NRM region
forms a part.
The annual catch of both abalone species from Fishing Area 1 forms a relatively small
proportion of the Region B quota of 41.4 tonnes of greenlip and blacklip abalone combined
(Chick et al., 2007), and the catch from the AW NRM region (Fishing Area 1A) would form an
even smaller proportion, being the most remote location in Fishing Area 1, and thus least
accessible for commercial abalone fishers. From the early 1990s to the present, between 50%
and 80% of the abalone catch in Region B has come from well east of the Bight, in Fishing Area
2.
Giant crab (Pseudocarcinus gigas) is another invertebrate species taken in the Great Australian
Bight, but a recent stock assessment report (Currie and Ward, 2009) indicates that the fishery
operates in waters south-east of the Head of the Bight, and off western and southern Eyre
Peninsula, in deeper (Commonwealth-managed) waters. This species is not taken in the marine
waters of the AW NRM region.
In deeper waters seaward of the AW NRM region, the central zone of a Commonwealthmanaged Great Australian Bight trawl fishery operates, which is part of the SESSF (see above).
Deepwater flathead Neoplatycephalus conatus and Bight redfish Centroberyx gerrardi are the
principal species taken (Lynch and Garvey, 2003; AFFA, 2004), and have been trawled
sporadically in the GAB since the early 1900s (Kailola et al., 1993). A dedicated fishery was set
up and managed as a developmental fishery in 1988, and since then, a permanent fishery has
been established with steadily increasing catches of both species (Klaer, 2007). In shelf waters
of the GAB, the trawlers have traditionally operated at about 120–160m depth, but most of the
effort in the fishery is now concentrated on the upper continental shelf and slope, in depths from
100m to 400m (AFMA, 2008c), and in particular, the shelf break south of the Head of the Bight,
in Commonwealth-managed waters (Morison et al., 2009). During spring and summer in recent
years, integrated scientific monitoring program (ISMP) observer reports indicate that 9 of the 10
46
licensed vessels consistently work in the GAB trawl fishery, with most vessels targeting
deepwater flathead and Bight redfish on the outer shelf (100m – 220m deep). Some vessels
target blue grenadier, gemfish and ling. Vessels work across the whole of the GAB from 125o E
to 134o E, but the effort expended to catch deepwater flathead, Bight redfish and ocean
leatherjacket is concentrated at the shelf break of the central GAB (Lynch and Garvey, 2003),
including Commonwealth-managed waters seaward of the AW NRM region.
The shelf trawl fishery in the GAB operates year-round, and deepwater flathead catches and
catch rates peak in October–December and those for Bight redfish peak in February–April
(AFFA, 2004). There appears to be an inverse relationship between redfish and flathead catchrates that is probably environmentally driven (AFFA, 2004), and may relate to variable patterns
over time in dispersal or aggregation for feeding, in relation to variable productivity. In some
years (e.g. 2002), significant tonnages of other species are taken in the central zone of the
fishery (e.g. Lynch and Garvey, 2003). Other important continental shelf species taken by the
GAB trawl fishery include ornate angel shark (Squatina tergocellata), ocean leatherjacket
(Nelusetta ayraudi), brown-spotted (yellow-spotted) boarfish (Paristiopterus gallipavo), jackass
morwong (Nemadactylus macropterus), western gemfish (Rexea solandri). Other species taken
in lower quantities in the shelf part of the fishery include Gould‘s squid (Nototodarus gouldi),
knifejaw (Oplegnathus woodwardi), latchet (Pterygotrigla polyommata), sawsharks
(Pristiophorus species), whiskery shark (Furgaleus macki) gummy shark (Mustelus
antarcticus), and bronze whaler Carcharhinus brachyurus (Lynch and Garvey, 2003, and
fisheries bycatch data). Apparently, several tonnes of bronze whaler per year are taken by the
GAB trawl fishing in the shelf waters of the GAB (Figure 3.11 in Jones, 2008). In recent years,
gurnard perches (Neosebates species), ocean perch (Helicolenus percoides), long-finned /
black-spot boarfish (Zanclistius elevatus) and queen snapper / southern blue morwong
(Nemadactylus valenciennesi) have been increasingly retained when caught (ISMP data, 200506). Pelagic schooling species such as redbait and jack mackerel are also regularly caught.
Annual landings of the shelf species have varied, largely depending upon the amount of fishing
effort on the continental shelf (AFFA, 2004). There is a large discarded bycatch of latchet, wide
stingaree (Urolophus expansus), spikey dogfish (Squalus megalops), juveniles of ocean
leatherjacket (Nelusetta ayraudi) and many other species, as well as attached benthos (see
Part 3).
Other fisheries which operate in the Great Australian Bight include the Gillnet Hook and Trap
sector of the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fisheries); Small Pelagic Fishery Zone
B – only operators who also hold concessions in the Great Australian Bight Trawl Fishery (part
of the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery); Southern Bluefin Tuna Fishery; the
Southern and Western Tuna and Billfish Fishery; the Skipjack Tuna Fishery, and the Southern
Squid Jig Fishery (Director of National Parks, 2005), but these fisheries do not operate in the
shallow waters of the AW NRM region. Approximately 99% of the annual catch of southern
bluefin tuna in southern Australia comes from the continental shelf break area south-east of the
Head of the Bight (and west of Anxious Bay), in Commonwealth-managed waters (Phillips et al.,
in Wilson et al., 2009). In some years, this species is also caught in deeper waters south of the
head of the Bight (e.g. Figure 12 in Ward et al., 2006).
Mid-water trawls have also begun to target comparatively small pelagic species such as jack
mackerel (Trachurus declivis) and blue mackerel (Scomber australasicus) over a broad area in
GAB waters, and this activity increased during the 2000s (AFFA, 2004; Morison et al., 2009).
47
Coastal and Marine Recreation and Tourism
The migration of Southern Right Whales to the Head of the Bight between May and October
each year is of significant tourism value. Whale watching / site seeing in Yalata lands and
Nullarbor National Park is one of the primary recreational activities in the area (Caton et al.,
2007). The near-shore whale watching opportunities afforded by the cliffs and viewing platform
in the area, make the GAB of State, national and international significance for whale watching in
a non-invasive way that does not disturb the natural behaviour of the whales. According to
Yalata Land Management (2003) and O‘Connor et al. (2004), over 15,000 visitors come to the
area during the whale-watching season. The Head of the Bight is part of South Australia‘s
Southern Right Whale Trail, which stretches from Robe in the south-east of the Great Australian
Bight in the west, and interpretative signs and information are provided at whale-watching sites
along the route. The interpretative centre at the Head of Bight is operated by Maralinga Tjarutja
Inc., and contains information about the social and natural history of the area. A number of
display boards discuss the habits, behaviours and other scientific curiosities relating to the
southern right whale. Boardwalks lead from the centre to the Head of Bight where the whales
can be observed. White sharks, Australian sea lions and other fauna are also seen occasionally
from the Head of the Bight, and this is promoted by Tourism South Australia as part of the
whale-watching experience. During the whale watching season, an aviation company at
Nullarbor Roadhouse offer 20 to 30 minute flights over the area.
Visitors are still permitted to enter the Head of Bight during the summer months (when the
whales are not present).
In addition to whale watching, camping is also one of the coastal uses in the area, and is often
associated with surf fishing (e.g. Wilson, 2007; The Fishing Guide, 2009). Fishing and camping
in Yalata lands are popular activities (Caton et al., 2007). The Yalata Indigenous Protected Area
is reported to provide some of the best natural dune camping areas available in South Australia,
and the camping areas are adjacent to renowned remote surf fishing spots. Fishers use 7 main
camp sites (Hilton, Bob‘s Kitchen, Jaxon‘s, Geues, Tjitji Tjutaku, Coombra and Granites) spread
along the beach, and some take four-wheel drive motorbikes (quad bikes) to travel from the
camp sites to the beach, and to move along the beach. Camping is permissible in designated
camp sites, and a permit is required. Within the Yalata Indigenous Protected Area, vehicles are
permitted to enter the beach at locations named Granites, Bob's Kitchen and Hilton, and other
campsites (Yalata Land Management, 2003).
Apart from the popularity of whale-watching, tourism materials promote the coast of the Head of
Bight and Nullarbor for the spectacular scenery. The coastline in this region is nationally and
internationally renowned for its scenic amenity and wilderness value. In the east, the very large
sand dune formations, and in the west, the 200km of towering cliffs facing into the Southern
Ocean, are promoted for sightseeing and ecotourism experiences. The vast dry and wet cave
systems in the limestone karst regions below the Nullarbor are popular with local and
international divers as well as tourists, but it is noted that some caves have been closed in
recent years due to safety risks.
Adjacent to the Nullarbor National Park and due south of Yalata Roadhouse, the Great
Australian Bight coast is promoted for ―excellent wilderness fishing‖ (Eyre Peninsula Tourism
Association, 2000). To the west, the scenic coastal look-outs of the Bunda Cliffs, as well as the
underground caves, and blowholes of the Nullarbor National Park, are promoted for ecotourism.
48
Aboriginal Heritage
The Aboriginal history and cultural value of the Head of the Bight, which includes the Wirangu in
the east and the Mirning in the west, is discussed in other reports (including Cane, 1989, cited
by Edyvane and Andrews, 1998 and Caton et al., 2007) and will not be reiterated here. It is
noted, however, that the coastal area has long been important to both groups, particularly
during the spring and summer, with coastal resources including seals / sea lions, shellfish, bony
fish and birds (e.g. Australian Bustard). In the past, when much of the coastline was
inaccessible because of the cliffs, occupation focused around fresh water soaks at the Head of
Bight, Eucla and Merdayerrah Sandpatch. Rockholes, a significant karst feature at places along
the coast and further inland, also have both natural and cultural value, being the main places
where water can collect on the dry surface. The caves of the Nullarbor, which provide habitat
for unusual and endemic fauna, are considered to be very important cultural heritage for the
indigenous Mirning people. At the Head of the Bight, the Yalata swamp and dune system is of
cultural significance to Anangu and Wirangu people and other Aboriginal communities. This
area contains the traditional waterhole and meeting place called Illcumba. The area of
significance to Anangu people runs north and NE from the swamp, up to and beyond The
Lands‘ northern boundary (Yalata Land Management, 2003).
Caton et al.‘s (2007) Far West Coastal Action Plan mapped the parts of the GAB coast that are
Indigenous Protected Areas, owned by Aboriginal Lands Trust, and leased to Yalata
Community Incorporated.
The Yalata people on the Yalata Aboriginal Lands inhabit the Head of the Bight region.
According to Yalata Land Management (2003), the core population is approximately 250
people, and they maintain an active cultural life. The Yalata people regard themselves as the
southern Anangu and speak a southern dialect of Pitjantjatjara as their first language (Yalata
Land Management, 2003). The main population centre is around Yalata township, and Yalata
Roadhouse, but there are extensive track systems to the north-east and north-west. The
community hunts within all of The Lands depending on seasonal availability. South-west from
Yalata township, the Yalata Beach area, is a usual recreation site for community members
(Yalata Land Management, 2003).
The Mirning, Wirungu, Maralinga Tjaruta and Anangu hold indigenous cultural interests in the
waters of the Bight. For the Anangu based at Yalata, interests focus mainly on the inshore reef
areas within State waters (Jeremy LeBois, Yalata Community, pers. comm., cited by Director of
National Parks, Australian Government DEH, 2005). Sites of particular significance for the
Aboriginal community have also been identified through literature reviews and consultation, and
a number of actions have been recommended to ensure that such significant sites (and any
others that Aboriginal communities should wish to register with the Aboriginal Affairs and
Reconciliation Division) are better identified, managed and protected (Caton et al., 2007). In
addition to the Yalata IPA, some other examples of significant indigenous heritage sites,
according to Caton et al. (2007) include the Wahgunyah Sandhills, and the coastal area southeast of Dog Fence beach.
49
Research
In 2008, a coastal field study was undertaken to determine the current status and distribution of
the threatened coastal sea birds white-bellied sea eagle, osprey and peregrine falcon in the AW
NRM region, and to identify habitat threats (Dennis, 2008). The field study also aimed to identify
locations where little penguins may be aggregating ashore, and to assess breeding status
where possible. Counts of other coastal birds and sea birds were also made. The conservation
organisation Birds Australia also undertakes shorebird counts on an irregular basis, at two sites
in the AW NRM area: one at the very head of the Bight, and the other on the western side of the
Head of the Bight where the coastal direction turns from south-west to westwards. Recent
counts of coastal birds, included the hooded plover, have been undertaken in the AW NRM
region (A. Loisier, pers. comm., 2010). Other coastal research projects will not be discussed
here.
A number of marine research projects have been carried out in the AW NRM region during the
past two decades. Researchers have been undertaking a detailed and long-term study of the
southern right whales at the Head of Bight since 1991. This research includes photographing
individuals for a photo catalogue (to record the callosities, unique markings which can be used
to assist identification over space and time), recording behaviour, mapping distribution, and
assessing how the whales use the area over years and decades. As at 2006, the photo archive
comprised more than 20,000 images, spanning more than 15 years. In 2006, there were 683
individual right whales in the photo catalogue, and gender was known for ~60% of these.
Details such as callosities, dorsal and ventral pigmentation, ventral anatomy and scarring are
recorded for each image. The re-sighting history (date, location, status) is maintained in a
database, and a computer-assisted photo matching system has been developed (Burnell and
Pirzl, 2006). Through this photo identification project, researchers have been able to determine
how often the whales visit the Great Australian Bight Marine Park. During the annual surveys,
aspects of Southern Right Whale movements, distribution and behaviour are recorded, and a
range of environmental conditions are sampled. The photo archive and associated data sets
(life history, habitat use, census, and behavioural data sets) has enabled the study of coastal
residence periods, visitation rates and habitat preference, population size, behaviour and social
interactions, migration / long-distance movements and travel speeds, and various aspects of the
population dynamics, such as growth rates, breeding age, reproductive rates, frequency of
calving and age at weaning (Burnell and Pirzl, 2006; research by Burnell and Pirzl, cited in
Department for Environment and Heritage, 2006). During the early to mid 2000s, the Head of
Bight was one of the three main areas in southern Australia in which research on the spatial
ecology of southern right whales was undertaken. The surveyed area comprised waters from
the shore to 3 km seaward along 15km of coastline, which encompassed almost the entire
calving ground defined from previous aerial observations and shore-based study (Bannister,
1979; Ling and Needham, 1985; Burnell, 1999, all cited by Pirzl, 2008). During the project, a
species-habitat model was developed, and habitat selection was investigated, including extent
of calving grounds, spatial arrangement within calving ground aggregations, spatial extent of
movement range of adults, long-term patterns of spatial use within range, and factors
influencing the selection of locations as calving grounds. Techniques used in the study included
point pattern analysis, spatially sensitive generalised linear modelling, univariate statistics, nonparametric analysisof variance and rules-based environmental envelope models (Pirzl, 2008).
50
In additon to the habitat usage study, a satellite telemetry project was also underway during the
mid 2000s, so that researchers could examine connections with offshore habitat components as
an extension of coastal habitat preference studies across southern Australia (Pirzl, 2004; Pirzl
and Burnell, 2004). A project has also been undertaken to determine whether genetic
differences exist between stocks of southern right whales aggregating at different locations
along the southern Australian coastline (research by N. Patenaude and R. Harcourt, Marine
Mammal Research Group, Macquarie University, 2001-04; Patenaude and Harcourt, 2006).
At a broader scale, aerial surveys of southern right whales throughout south western Australia
and western part of south Australia have been ongoing since 1976, and this long term project
includes population estimates and maintenance of a photo-identification catalogue (research by
J. Bannister, West Australian Museum, cited by DEWHA, 2010).
During the 2000s, SARDI Aquatic Sciences tagged Australian sea lions with satellite tags, at a
80m high section of the Bunda Cliffs along the central GAB coastline. The project, for the
Commonwealth and South Australian departments for Environment and Heritage, aims to
understand more about the movements and foraging habitats of the sea lions, and what role the
Marine Mammal Protection Zone of the GAB Marine Park plays in protection of sea lions
(SARDI Aquatic Sciences, 2006). State Emergency Service vertical rescue experts and
volunteers also assisted the project, which tagged female members of one of the seven
colonies that breed along the 200 kilometre stretch of Bunda Cliffs. Within a fortnight of the
tagging, one of the sea lions had already moved more than 180 km from the Bunda Cliffs base,
while another had remained close to the colony (SARDI Aquatic Sciences, 2006). As part of the
project, spatial analyses will be used to determine distance and direction of travel from colonies
by males and females of different age classes, and depth of foraging (Goldsworthy et al.,
2009a). Another survey, in 2008, aimed to opportunistically locate previously known and
unknown Australian sea lion haul-out locations in the AW NRM region, and to record evidence
of breeding activity and data on all age-classes present, where it was safe to do so (Dennis,
2008). The Bunda Cliffs colonies have not commonly been surveyed over the past two
decades, due to inaccessibility and remoteness. For example, between 1985 and 2008, two of
the Bunda Cliff colonies were sampled during two breeding seasons; four colonies sampled
during three seasons, and one colony sampled four times (Goldsworthy et al., 2009a).
Other research on Australian sea lions includes PhD projects on the degree of population subdivision / meta-population structure among breeding sites, including a comparison of the Bunda
Cliffs populations with others in South Australia and Western Australia (research by University
of Adelaide, SARDI Aquatic Sciences and Macquarie University, cited by Goldsworthy et al.,
2009a). There is also an investigation by SARDI Aquatic Sciences, the South Australian
Museum and WA Fisheries into dietary preferences of Australian sea lions across their range
(Goldsworthy et al., 2007).
In recent years, a recreational fishing survey has been undertaken by the AW NRM Board, in
conjunction with SARDI Aquatic Sciences. The format is similar to that used in a Statewide
recreational fishing survey (Jones, 2008). Information is being collected on mulloway, and other
commonly fished species in the AW region. During the 2009-10 fishing season, 40% of those
who fished in the AW NRM region was targeted. A promotional brochure about the survey has
been distributed. Researchers are collecting information on number and species of fish caught,
stage of maturity (where possible to assess), and earbones are being collected for ageing work,
and comparisons with mulloway populations form other parts of South Australia. Data from the
51
first year are currently being analysed, and the survey will continue in future years (A. Loisier,
AW NRM Board, pers. comm., 2010).
Other studies in shallow shelf waters of the Head of the GAB include studies of the marine
plants in the AW NRM region, including (i) phylogenetics and phylogeography of marine benthic
macroalgae of the Great Australian Bight: a PhD study which is using molecular tools to provide
a taxonomically updated survey of the marine flora of the head of the GAB and vicinity; testing
the hypothesis that the Bunda Cliffs acts as a barrier to gene flow between western and eastern
GAB populations, and testing whether species of macroalgae considered ―relicts‖ trapped at the
northern reaches of the GAB and SA gulfs belong to ancient populations, or whether they
arrived recently as ―long range dispersals‖ (University of Adelaide and S.A. Plant Biodiversity
Centre project); and (ii) status and taxonomy of Sargassum species in the AW NRM region (e.g.
Gurgel, 2009).
In deeper waters seaward of the AW NRM region boundary, the GAB Industry Association,
CSIRO, and external consultants are engaged in a number of projects, including fisheryindependent surveys of Bight redfish and deepwater flathead stocks; catch and bycatch
monitoring programs, and characterisation of the seabed using multi-scale maps, to develop
habitat classifications and correlate with catches.
Also in deeper waters of the GAB, white sharks (CSIRO data) and shortfin mako sharks (SARDI
Aquatic Sciences and Flinders University data) are being tracked, to learn more about seasonal
and depth-related movements. Diet and DNA samples are also being taken from sharks in the
GAB, and in other parts of South Australia (henrythesealion.com., 2010).
In Western Australia, the multi-participant Marine Futures program (Government of Western
Australia, 2006) has been mapping habitats and undertaking biodiversity surveys in the marine
waters associated with 5 participating NRM regions. In a mid-2000s workshop for prioritising
sites (Government of Western Australia, 2006), areas in the Eucla Bioregion (includes Baxter
Cliffs, Twilight Cove and Eyre coast) were ranked as low priority for surveys, due to high cost
and relatively low impacts, other than fishing.
Ports, Shipping and Boating
There are no major or minor ports in the marine waters of the AW NRM region. The nearest
ports are Thevenard (near Ceduna) in the eastern GAB, and Esperance in W.A., in the west.
Of the 9,185 Australian-owned commercial or trading ships registered in Australia at June 2004,
1,208 are located in Western Australia and 643 in South Australia (ABS data, cited in ABS,
2007). About half (311) of those vessels in South Australia are used for fishing; 284 for
recreation, and only 47 are commercial or trading vessels. In Western Australian, 53% (or 642
vessels) are registered for recreational purposes; 34% used for fishing, and 12% are used for
trading and other commercial purposes (ABS data to June 2004, cited in ABS, 2007).
In South Australia in 2001, domestic sea freight transported 7 million tonnes of goods, over
10,184 million tonne-kilometres. The same quantity of goods was also transported domestically
from Western Australia, over 33,691 million tonne-kilometres (ABS, 2007). When travelling
through Australian coastal waters, commercial vessels report their position each day to the
52
Australian Maritime Safety Authority as part of the AUSREP ship reporting system. Using ship
position data, it is possible to determine the major shipping routes of vessels moving through
the Great Australian Bight in South Australia and Western Australia (Figure 9; Gardner et al.,
2006). It is clear from the figure of shipping routes, that ships bypass the shallow waters of the
Great Australian Bight. The busiest shipping routes run east–west through the Southern
Ocean, in Commonwealth-managed waters. Major shipping routes stem from Gulf of St Vincent
and Spencer Gulf in South Australia, and from Albany, Fremantle and Perth in Western
Australia. Collectively, this shipping traffic includes international and national cargo trade, and
some passenger services. Within the Great Australian Bight, the majority of the shipping activity
occurs in the south-eastern area, between the Ceduna / Streaky Bay region to bottom of Eyre
Peninsula.
Figure 9: Shipping routes (determined from ship position data) in the Great Australian Bight.
Data from Australian Maritime Safety Authority. Figure is from Gardner et al. (2006), based on
data from the Australian Maritime Safety Authority.
Mining, Minerals, Oil and Gas Exploration
Currently there is no offshore production of oil and gas within the Great Australian Bight.
However, oil and petroleum are imported through ports east (Port Lincoln) and west
(Esperance) of the GAB (Australian Association of Port and Marine Authorities data, 2003, cited
by Gardner et al., 2006). Although there is currently no offshore production within the GAB,
exploration activity has been undertaken, including the release of exploration acreage and
permits, seismic and magnetic surveys, and drilling of wells (Figure 10; DITR, 2003; Gardner et
al., 2006; Fugro, 2008; Struckmeyer, 2009). The AW NRM region forms part of the Eucla Basin
and the Bight Basin, and the Bight Basin has been identified as a ―frontier area‖ with petroleum
53
potential. This basin spans over 800,000 square kilometres, from the southern tip of Western
Australia to the western edge of Kangaroo Island, and varies in depth from 200 metres to over
4000 metres (Geoscience Australia, 2010). From the late 1960s to the early 1990s, only nine
offshore wells were drilled in the Bight Basin. However, since 2000 the Australian Government
has focused on the Great Australian Bight for the release of exploration acreage, with three
large exploration permits awarded in the Ceduna Sub-basin (Figure 11) and several smaller
permits granted. The exploration programs associated with these permits include the acquisition
and reprocessing of over 18,000 line kilometres of 2D seismic data, and geological and
geophysical studies. Exploration interest focused largely on the Ceduna and Duntroon Subbasins (Geoscience Australia, 2010). In 2003, Woodside and partners drilled the unsuccessful
Gnarlyknots 1 in the Ceduna Sub-basin, the first well in the basin since 1993. By November
2007, all exploration permits in the Bight Basin had been relinquished. In early 2007,
Geoscience Australia undertook a 3 week sampling survey which identified potential source
rocks in the basin. A total of 37 dredge samples were taken, resulting in 259 samples that
underwent organic geochemical analyses. These analyses showed that a set of samples from
the western Ceduna Sub-basin have characteristics of source rock, with high organic carbon
contents and the potential to generate liquid hydrocarbons (Geoscience Australia, 2010). It is
noted that some of the exporation activity in the GAB has taken place in the Commonwealthmanaged waters of the Great Australian Bight Marine Park (see section 3.1.8 in Part 3).
Note that none of the exploration activities have taken place in the shallow waters of the AW
NRM region. Petroleum exploration has been undertaken in deeper Commonwealth-managed
waters.
A
54
B
C
Figure 10 A,B,C: Exploration permits and exploration wells (A) and seismic surveys (B,C) in the
Great Australian Bight. Figures A and B from Gardner et al. (2006), based on data from DITR,
NIMA and Geoscience Australia; Figure C from Geoscience Australia (2010).
55
Figure 11: Location of the Bight Basin and sub-basins. Figure from Geoscience Australia
(2010).
56
Part 3
POTENTIAL THREATS AND THREATENING PROCESSES
IN THE AW NRM REGION – MARINE COMPONENT
3 Potential Threats
Fishing
Fishing in South Australian waters: A number of fish species of conservation concern are taken
by commercial and/or recreational fishers in State-managed waters of the Great Australian
Bight. Examples include mulloway, Western Blue Groper, Harlequin Fish, Southern Blue
Morwong, school shark, Whaler Sharks and Smooth hammerhead.
Although only 3% or less of the annual recreational catch of mulloway is estimated to be taken
from the Great Australian Bight (see section 2.1.1 Recreational Fishing), and the commercial
catch is also low as a proportion of the State total, any catch of this species should be closely
monitored. Mulloway have vulnerable population characteristics, and are considered
susceptible to over-exploitation at international, national, and Statewide scales. Ward and Butler
(2006) described mulloway in southern Australia as a ―sensitive species that is highly targeted
by recreational fishers‖. In other parts of the world, such as East Cape of South Africa,
mulloway is described as being very highly exploited, with very high vulnerability to overexploitation, and poor stock status (Britz et al., 2001), and the situation is similar in South
Australia (Ferguson et al., 2008; Baker, 2009). In Western Australia, mulloway is classified by
the Department of Fisheries as a ―high risk‖ species. There are few parts of South Australia
where this species occurs in significant numbers, other than the Murray Mouth area (in
particular), southern Gulf St Vincent / Fleurieu Peninsula, north-eastern Spencer Gulf, and the
South East. The mulloway in the Great Australian Bight may be a genetically isolated population
(Jones, 1991), which may not mix with mulloway from other parts of the State. Observations
from fishers in the Head of the Bight indicate a westward movement of fish in the spring to
summer period and a reverse movement in the autumn to winter period (Jones, 1991). This
species undertakes seasonal movements along the coast, possibly in response to the seasonal
movements of their prey, such as pilchards (Gomon et al., 1994). Fishers report that mulloway
movements are influenced by many factors, such as moon phases, tides and storms.
Mulloway grow rapidly up to the end of their sixth year of life. After that time, growth slows
markedly. About 80% of the maximum size is reached by 6 years of age, but the maximum age
is about 32 years (Farmer et al., 2005; Farmer, 2008). In Western Australia, a research project
by B. Farmer (Farmer, 2008) estimated that length at first maturity is typically 90.3cm for female
mulloway and 88cm for males on the west coast of W.A. (equivalent to 5 years of age or more),
but only 49.3cm for females and 41.9cm for males (3 years of age) at sampled locations on the
southern coast of W.A., such as Oyster Harbour (Farmer, 2008). Spawning aggregations are
not typical, but have been reported in some areas (e.g. Swan River estuary, in Western
Australia: Farmer, 2008; Parsons et al., 2007, 2009). Year class strength is variable, and strong
year classes, or their absence, may be related to freshwater inflow (Ferguson et al., 2008).
57
More genetic research is required to determine the status of the population in the Great
Australian Bight, but it is noted that preliminary stock identification studies indicate that the
genetic composition of mulloway along the south coast of Western Australia differs markedly
from that of mulloway along the west coast of W.A., and that there is also a degree of genetic
differentiation between two populations of mulloway along the western coast of W.A., although
to a lesser degree when compared with the south coast (Farmer, 2008).
Table 1 in section 2 above shows that 69% of the mulloway caught by recreational fishers in the
GAB area in 2000 and 2001 were released. Of concern is the possible mortality rate of hooked
and released fish. For example, in New South Wales, field and laboratory experiments that
were undertaken to determine the mortality rate of mulloway that are hooked and released by
anglers, showed that fish with ingested hooks suffer a high mortality rate. Mortality can be
reduced by cutting the line rather than trying to remove the ingested hook. During those studies,
fish which were mouth-hooked suffered much lower mortality rates, regardless of whether the
hook was removed or the line was cut. Cutting the line underwater (and thus reducing the
exposure of the fish to air) also reduced mortality rate (Butcher et al., 2007).
As indicated in section 2.1.1 Recreational Fishing, mulloway is one of the primary targets for
anglers in the GAB, including local fishers, and interstate and overseas visitors. The population
of mulloway at the Head of the Bight was also targetted heavily by commercial fishers during
the 1990s. At that time, catches and catch rates were reported to be initially high, and then
declined significantly as the numbers were exhausted (K. Evans, SARDI, pers. comm., 1996).
In the Great Australian Bight (and in other South Australian waters, excluding the Coorong), the
minimum legal length for capture of mulloway is 75cm measured from tip of snout to tip of tail,
and there is a personal daily bag limit of 2, and a daily boat limit of 6 mulloway (PIRSA
Fisheries web site, October, 2009). However, the numbers of mulloway in the GAB have not
been determined, and there is a lack of long-term monitoring of total catches from the area. This
is concerning, and should be addressed as soon as possible.
Western blue groper also occur in the Great Australian Bight. This is a species of conservation
concern in South Australia, due to its large size and slow moving nature (and ease of capture),
site association, longevity, slow growth, reproductive habits, and population structure (Shepherd
and Baker, 2008; Baker, 2009). There is some evidence that, as in some other parts of South
Australia, fishers in the GAB cut up juvenile groper (which are commonly called ―green wrasse‖
or ―green parrotfish‖) when they are caught, and use them as bait for catching bigger fishes,
and sharks (e.g. Wilson, 2007).
Other species of conservation concern, caught on offshore reefs in the GAB area (e.g. off
Fowlers Bay, east of the AW NRM boundary) include harlequin fish and southern blue morwong
(queen snapper). Harlequin fish populations may be threatened in South Australia because (i)
this species, which occurs only in Western Australia and South Australia, has a limited known
depth range in upper continental shelf waters, and research, observations and fisheries data
indicate that abundance is much lower in South Australia (the edge of the range) compared with
Western Australia; (ii) it is a site-associated coastal reef fish with vulnerable population
characteristics, similar to other species in the Serranidae family (including solitary nature of the
fish, benthic existence and strong site association with reefs and caves, relatively slow growth,
large size, and inquisitive nature); (iii) there is a paucity of information about population sizes,
biology, and population dynamics (although some aspects of the biology are now being
58
examined by DEH in South Australia: research by S. Bryars); (iv) harlequin fish is caught
recreationally and (to a lesser extent) commercially across its range by a number of methods,
with few controls on the capture, particularly in South Australia, and (v) insufficient investigation
of the potential impacts of fishing has been undertaken to date (summary from Baker, 2009).
Similarly, southern blue morwong is a large (to 1m), relatively long-lived species (to at least 21
years) (Coulson et al., 2007), which is vulnerable to over-exploitation and depletion due to its
strong site-association with reefs; the migratory and aggregative nature (including spawning
aggregations); relatively late age at maturity (3 to 7 years); the existence of inshore nursery
areas; and the popularity of this species as a fishing target, for sports fishers / offshore charter
boat fishers (summary from Baker, 2009). Large, reef-aggregated morwong are easy to find,
and to capture, but there is insufficient information on population sizes over space and time.
A number of shark species of conservation concern are caught in State-managed waters of the
GAB, including the AW NRM area. Examples include bronze whaler, black whaler (dusky
shark), school shark and hammerhead (see Section 2). Although some of the other shark
species taken are more abundant over their range (e.g. gummy shark) it is noted that all sharks
are potentially vulnerable to population decline due to fishing, because of their low fecundity
and reproductive output relative to most bony fishes.
Bronze whaler may be vulnerable to over-exploitation due to its behaviour (seasonal
aggregations, and use of shallow waters as pupping and nursery areas), longevity (more than
30 years, possibly to 50 years), delayed maturity (17-23 years), biennial reproductive cycle and
long gestation (15-21 months) (Walter and Ebert, 1991 and Jones, 2008, cited by Baker et al.,
2008). This species is listed by IUCN as Near Threatened at a global scale (IUCN, 2009;
Appendix 6).
The catch of the related species black whaler / dusky shark C. obscurus is not recorded, and is
likely to be low in the GAB; however, the vulnerable status of this species both globally and
across southern Australia is noted. During the early-mid 2000s, a report on the status of C.
obscurus in Western Australia suggested depletion of the breeding population and declining
recruitment, based on apparent reduction in catch rates of neonates (Department of Fisheries,
W.A., 2005). Researchers consider that there might be fewer adult females pupping over a
smaller geographic range, and this is supported by a recent stock assessment, which
concluded that demersal gillnet fisheries‘ catch of primarily neonate (first year) sharks was
sustainable as long as mortality of sharks older than 6 years was less than 4%. However,
Department of Fisheries research data show that there is a continuing bycatch of adult C.
obscurus in other fisheries, and also mortality from entanglement in plastic packing straps.
Thus, the collective mortality of dusky sharks is beyond that generated by the managed shark
fisheries, and this remains a major cause for concern in W.A. (Department of Fisheries, W.A.,
2005; McAuley, 2005), where the fishery for this species is classified as overfished (Larcombe
and Begg, 2008). This species is listed by IUCN as Vulnerable at a global scale (IUCN, 2009;
Appendix 6).
school shark is another shark species caught in the shelf waters of the GAB, as discussed in
other parts of this report. However, the catches in the GAB are much lower than in other parts
of south-eastern Australia, such as southern Eyre Peninsula, southern and south-eastern
Kangaroo Island, south-eastern South Australia and Tasmania (McLoughlin and Wood, in
Wilson et al., 2009). During the early 2000s, an assessment of school shark stocks suggested
that the biomass of mature school sharks was between 9% and 14% of original levels, and that
59
at current exploitation levels, the species was unlikely to rebuild to its target level by 2011
(Caton, 2003). More recently, available information indicated the pup production is still below
20% of initial levels, and that recent fishery data are a poor indicator of the stock rebuilding
progress. The species is still classified as overfished in southern Australia (McLoughlin and
Wood, in Wilson et al., 2009), and was listed in 2009 under the EPBC Act 1999 as conservation
dependent. There is a report that some relief from fishing pressure on school sharks may occur
in coming years as industry reports that fishers are directing their effort away from this species,
both because of the need for the stock to recover and because processors are paying less for
school shark than previously (Caton, 2003, cited by Trinder, 2007). While this may produce a
positive outcome for school shark, it is also likely to lead to increased pressure on gummy shark
stocks (Trinder, 2007), although the latter species is currently not considered to be as
threatened as school shark in southern Australia (McLoughlin and Wood, in Wilson et al., 2009;
IUCN, 2009).
Catches of hammerhead sharks in the GAB are not well quantified, but it is noted that the
seasonal aggregations of this species, and the use of shallow waters as nursery areas may
increase the vulnerability of hammerheads to over-exploitation by fishers. Also, this species is
relatively long-lived (i.e. more than 20 years), and matures at a late age (up to 11 years old, for
females) (Joung et al., 2005) On a global scale, smooth hammerhead is listed as vulnerable
(IUCN, 2009), but it is noted that the fisheries primarily responsible for population depletion are
not in South Australia. Nevertheless, the vulnerable status of the species should be considered
across the range.
Regarding fishing for invertebrates in the GAB, although catches of both abalone and rock
lobster are low, and form a small proportion of the region catch of the entire west coast of South
Australia, it is noted that stocks of both greenlip abalone and southern rock lobster are in
decline in western South Australia. Monitoring is not undertaken in the most remote region of
the fishery (i.e. Head of the GAB), but a recent stock assessment for greenlip abalone further
east showed that the declines in catch, catch per unit effort (CPUE) and the mean size of
abalone in the commercial catch are consistent with declining stock abundance in Region B of
the Western Zone (Chick et al., 2007). Blacklip abalone stocks appear to be stable in the area,
but decreases in mean size during one recent survey in Region B suggest that closer
monitoring is required (Chick et al., 2007).
Although the catch of southern rock lobster in the AW NRM is very low compared with other
parts of the Northern Zone (see section 2.2), it is noted that a recent assessment (Linnane et
al., 2008) reported that (i) catch is decreasing, even with increased fishing effort, in all major
regions of the Northern Zone, and the annual quota was not caught in the any of the 5 years to
2007; (iii) catch per unit effort has declined over the past 12 years in all parts of the Northern
Zone, and was the lowest on record in 2007; (iv) despite periodic ―good‖ years of juvenile
settlement, the adult biomass in 2007 was estimated to be the lowest in the history of the
fishery; and (v) the management plan objective of rebuilding the biomass of southern rock
lobster was not being achieved.
Great Australian Bight Trawl fishing: Although the GAB trawl fishery operates in deeper,
Commonwealth-managed waters offshore from the AW NRM region, a number of the fishes
caught in the shallowest waters in which the fishery operates, also occur in the AW NRM
region. Therefore, the GAB trawl fishery, which is a component of the SESSF (AFMA, 2008c, is
discussed here. Over 100 species of bony fishes, sharks, rays and skates are commonly taken
60
in the GAB trawl fishery (AFMA, 2008c), and a similar number of species (presently considered
to be of no commercial value) are commonly discarded. The total number of different species
observed to be caught during the period 2000-2006 was 282, with many of these species either
rarely caught or caught in low numbers. A number of the species taken as by-product are of
conservation concern, such as the bronze whalers sharks (see above in section 3.1.1), a
species which also occurs in the inshore waters of the AW NRM. Apparently, several tonnes per
year are taken by the GAB trawl fishing in the shelf waters of the GAB (Figure 3.11 in Jones,
2008).
In a draft Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) for species in the Great Australian Bight Trawl
Fishery (Daley et al., 2006), two of the target fish species taken by the fishery were ranked as
―high risk‖ species, in terms of population impacts from capture in the GAB Trawl Fishery. One
example was the Bight redfish Centroberyx gerrardi. Although this species is fished mainly in
waters 80m – 210m (Daley et al., 1998) or 150m – 250m (CSIRO et al., 2001) and can occur
deeper than 400m, it is discussed here because (i) some operators in the GAB fishery have
fished in shallower, mid-shelf waters in recent years (see section 2.2 Commercial Fishing),
and (ii) Bight redfish also occurs in shallow waters in South Australia (e.g. 3m - 8m: Australian
Museum record; 10m: CSIRO, 2001). A recent review of the status of Bight redfish indicated
that this species is of conservation concern in South Australia due to the following points (see
chapter on Berycidae in Baker 2010, and references therein):
it is a long-lived (65 - 70+ years) species with high variability in size at age, probably with
low natural mortality rate and delayed maturity / high age at first spawning; it is commonly
accepted that populations of such species cannot tolerate high and sustained catches over
space and time;
it is an aggregating / schooling species that is highly vulnerable to capture, and heavily
targeted by numerous commercial and recreational fisheries across the range, with a
recent age estimate of commercially caught specimens ranging from 9 to more than 60
years;
year class strength may be highly variable, and environmentally-driven;
despite poor knowledge of the population dynamics, and biomass (for which figures
regularly and significantly fluctuate), and inadequate regulation of catches from all fisheries
combined, the Commonwealth-managed commercial catches (Great Australian Bight) and
commercial catches in W.A. have increased significantly during the past decade, and this
species is also an increasingly popular recreational target in S.A. and W.A., particularly
charter boat catches;
given the size range of commercially caught fish (e.g. in the GAB), compared with the
reported size at maturity, it is possible that a significant proportion of the commercial catch
is reproductively immature, and has not had opportunity to spawn before being caught;
there are indications that the size (and age) structure of the population is being adversely
affected by commercial fishing, with a decrease in the modal size of fish observed over 5
years, few larger (older) fish in the catches, and a decrease in the age range of caught fish
over nearly two decades (from predominately 20-40 year old fish in the late 1980s, to
mainly 14-24 year old fish in the following decade);
61
despite annual abundance surveys using trawls in the Great Australian Bight, there is little
information about this species across the range, including reliable measures of relative
abundance and biomass over space and time; distribution and connectivity between
populations; habitat preferences of adults and juveniles; reproduction; larval movement;
population dynamics and ecology.
In the GAB trawl fishery, bycatch data gathered by onboard-observer programs show modest
discarding of commercial species (summarised in chapters on Berycidae and Platycephalidae in
Baker, 2010), but significant discarding of non-commercial species in continental shelf waters,
the latter equating to about 44% by weight of the overall catch. Most shelf trawls are reported to
be on soft, sandy substrates with little sessile fauna or flora (AFFA, 2004), but some
‗exploratory‘ shots near the established grounds contained significant benthos.
Estimates of retained and discarded catches were made through an Integrated Scientific
Monitoring Program (ISMP) during the 2000s. The estimated average annual catch (weight) for
the period 2000-2006 was 6,881 tonnes. Of this, 4,054 tonnes was retained, and 2,827 tonnes
was discarded, which equates to about a 40% discard rate (annual averages) (AFMA, 2008c).
Although the bycatch consists of a large number of species, the bulk of the catch by weight
comprises small latchet (Appendix 5), sponges, stingarees, and ocean leatherjacket.
During 2000 to 2002, studies of bycatch in the central zone of the GAB trawl fishery showed
that latchet dominated the discarded catch (47%) with lesser amounts of wide stingaree (17%),
ocean leatherjacket (12%) and sponge (9%). In the Central Zone, the mean catches of target
species such as deepwater flathead and Bight redfish were similar (approx. 320 kg per shot),
whilst the discarded Latchet was about twice this quantity (approx. 660 kg per shot). Only 0.3%
(individuals > 35cm caudal fin length) of the estimated 21 tonnes of latchet landed was retained,
i.e. 99.7% of the latchet catch was discarded because it was not considered of commercial size.
During the mid-2000s, ISMP data indicated that, on average, 6 tonnes per trip of latchet were
discarded, but this was less than in previous years, because fish larger than about 30cm are
now retained as by-product.
During the 2000-2002, monitoring of bycatch in the central zone of the GAB trawl fishery, about
75% of the landed catch of ocean leatherjacket was discarded, with a mean discarded catch of
165kg per shot compared with a mean retained catch of 54kg per shot. Only large ocean
leatherjacket (>33cm Total Length) were retained (Brown and Knuckey, 2002). Smaller ocean
leatherjackets (<30 cm TL) have been routinely discarded in the past. Integrated Scientific
Monitoring Program (ISMP) data indicate that extremely large catches of juvenile leatherjackets
(3-4 tonne per shot) can be avoided by not trawling in shallow waters (100-120m) during the full
moon. Other species are discarded in significant quantities, with examples including wide
stingaree (Urolophus expansus), spikey dogfish / shortnose spurdog (Squalus megalops),
rubyfish (Plagiogeneion macrolepis), ringed toadfish (Omegophora armilla), deepwater burrfish
Allomycterus pilatus, various rays and skates, and catsharks (see Brown and Knuckey, 2002).
These species occur in waters deeper than the AW NRM boundary, and therefore are not
discussed here. It is noted that in 2006, during a draft ecological risk assessment for species in
the GAB trawl fishery, various other species either taken as by-product, or discarded in the
bycatch - including jackass morwong, yellow-eye snapper, swallowtail, mirror dory, king dory,
blue-eye trevalla, spotted warehou, Australian tusk, bigscale rubyfish, pink ling, gemfish and
latchet - were all listed as being at high risk of population impacts from the operation of the
Great Australian Bight Trawl Fishery (Daley et al., 2006). Gemfish and blue-eye trevalla are
62
classified as species of low resilience, with gemfish being highly to very highly vulnerable and
blue-eye trevalla being moderately to highly vulnerable to fishing-induced population decline
(Cheung et al., 2005; Froese and Pauly, 2009).
In the draft Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) for species in the Great Australian Bight Trawl
Fishery (Daley et al., 2006), 39 by-product species and 15 by-catch species were ranked as
being at ―high risk‖. However, in a residual Risk Assessment of the Level 2 Ecological Risk
Assessment, the two target species at high risk were considered at lower risk than when initially
assessed, due to management measures, such as the introduction of a catch quota for Redfish
in 2006 (despite annual increases in quota since that time). As part of that Residual Risk
Assessment, the numbers of by-product and bycatch species considered at ―high risk‖ were
reduced to 27 and 12 respectively, compared with the initial ERA. However, in a ―rapid
quantitative Level 3 assessment, or Sustainability Assessment of Fishing Effects (SAFE)
assessment‖ undertaken by Australian Fisheries Management Authority, a supplement to the
ecological risk assessment (by CSIRO) for the GABTF, all target, bycatch and by-product
species were ranked as ―low risk‖ of impact from operation of the fishery. According to AFMA
(2008b), the Level 3 assessment process considers the mitigating effects of management
arrangements that were not explicitly included in the ERAs, or introduced after the process
commenced. It is noted that the level 3 assessment is made proportional to the spatial area in
which the fishery operates, compared with the spatial area of distribution of the species, but this
does not account for aggregation, rather than even distribution throughout space (the latter of
which is unrealistic, e.g. for reef-associated species in a heterogeneous benthic environment).
It is unlikely that the Level 3 assessment provides an accurate indication of fishing-induced
threats to marine species in the GAB.
There are few reported interactions of the GAB trawl sector with seabirds. Although ISMP data
indicate that albatrosses and shearwaters follow the fishing vessels in the GAB (e.g. over 300+
shearwaters and <10 albatross followed one of the 10 GAB trawl boats when it was monitored
in spring and summer of 2006), no mortalities were observed in 132 trawl shots of that period,
only one seabird mortality was observed (a fleshy-footed shearwater drowned after being
entangled in the trawl net). More albatrosses are observed in early winter, with the start of the
annual northern migration of albatross.
Mortality of syngnathids (seahorse, seadragon, pipehorse and pipefish family) is also reported
to be low in the GAB trawl fishery. During monitoring of one vessel in 2006, one spiny pipehorse
(Solegnathus spinosissimus) was reportedly found on the deck after trawling over ―weedy‖
bottom (ISMP data, 2006), but it is noted that this south-eastern Australian and New Zealand
species does not normally occur in South Australia, and the specimen might have been
misidentified. Note that all pipehorse species are protected under legislation in South Australian
waters under the Fisheries Management Act 2007, and are considered uncommon in South
Australia, and potentially at risk (Baker, 2009).
A draft ecological risk assessment of the GAB trawl fishery during the early 2000s (Daley et al.,
2006) identified 6 high risk habitats on the outer shelf (100m – 200m) trawled by the fishery.
These were mainly soft sediment seabed types characteristically dominated by large sponges
and mixed epifauna, with bryozoan communities at the shelf break. Sedimentary, sub-cropping
rock with communities of large sponges also scored at high risk. Slope habitats, some also
classified as high risk of trawl damage, are not discussed here, because they are much deeper
than the boundary of the AW NRM region.
63
The bycatch of sponge in part of the GAB trawl fishery has been quantified in some years. For
example, during a bycatch survey from 2000 to 2002, Brown and Knuckey (2002) recorded
sponges in 131 or 209 trawl shots (i.e. more than half), with an average discard rate of 9.5kg of
sponge per shot. During the monitoring period, sponge constituted 9% of the total discarded
bycatch from the central zone (deeper Commonwealth-managed waters seaward of the AW
NRM boundary). Hard coral was recorded in 24 of 209 shots (average discarding of 50kg per
shot). The bycatch of sponge, rock and hard coral raises concerns over the adverse effects of
trawling on benthic communities in the Great Australian Bight (Brown and Knuckey, 2002).
Attached benthos is a major component of benthic habitat ‗structure‘ which is important for
maintaining community and ecosystem functioning, because of the associated quantity and
variety of food resources, living spaces and refugia. Habitat structure provides refuge from
competitors, unfavourable environmental conditions and predators, which is particularly
important for the early life stages of fish (Brown and Knuckey, 2002). Factors that affect juvenile
survivorship influence the size, vitality and distribution of adult populations, so habitat
complexity has an important role in the sustainability of fish stocks (Brown and Knuckey, 2002).
Sponge beds can take many years to recover from damage.
Other Fishing in the GAB: In deeper shelf waters in the south-eastern GAB (i.e. not in the AW
NRM region), southern bluefin tuna (SBT) Thunnus maccoyii is caught in a Commonwealthmanaged fishery. This species occurs in both shelf and slope waters along the Western
Australian coast and the Great Australian Bight (CSIRO data, 1979; Kailola et al., 1993; Gunn
and Young, 1999; Wilson et al., 2009). The small number of tuna taken by charter boats and
other recreational fishers in shallow water is not significant, compared with the number (99% of
the Australian catch) taken by commercial fishers in the south-eastern GAB. The Head of the
Great Australian Bight may be significant for juvenile southern bluefin tuna (Figure 22 in Ward
et al., 2008). Aerial surveys along the shelf and slope of the central and eastern Great
Australian Bight, showed that over the period 1993 to 2007, the number of sightings declined,
from approximately 130-180 sightings per annum (reportedly representing about 12,000 –
22,000 tonnes of SBT per annum) during the early-mid 1990s, to around 40 – 80 sightings
(approximately 4,000 – 6,000 t) during the mid-late 2000s (Eveson et al., 2007). Southern
bluefin tuna is an overfished species, of high conservation concern, and is currently listed under
the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered (IUCN, 2009). In Australia, it is classified as
overfished (Wilson et al., 2009), but not formally protected under the EPBC Act 1999 as a
threatened species, because the nomination for listing was not accepted by the Australian
government (Department of the Environment and Water Resources, 2005). Other issues
associated with the capture of southern bluefin tuna in south-eastern GAB include anecdotal
reports of deliberate harm to sharks and marine mammals which interact with the tuna fishery,
e.g. which follow the captured tuna that are being towed eastwards to pens in Spencer Gulf.
Kemper et al. (2005) provided a brief summary for locations east of the GAB (e.g. Port Lincoln
area), where deliberate harm of cetaceans has occurred.
Fishing Threats to Sea Lions: In the deeper shelf and slope waters away from the AW NRM
region, bycatch and incidental injury and mortality in fishing operations may be an ongoing and
significant issue of the Australian sea lion, which feed in the area (Goldsworthy et al., 2009a;
Hamer et al., 2009). In recent decades, low levels of bycatch of Australian sea lions have been
reported by a number of commercial fisheries, including the western rock lobster fishery
(WRLF) in W.A., but captures are highly variable both within and among fishing seasons (Gales
and Wyre unpubl. report., Mawson and Coughran, 1999; Shaughnessy et al. 2003, cited by
64
Campbell, 2005). Video evidence of Australian sea lions around rock lobster pots in Western
Australia has shown that individual animals can consume up to five lobsters from a commercial
pot within 2 hours, and a group of 8-10 animals consumed 23 lobsters from a single pot in
approximately 3 hours (Campbell, unpubl. data, cited by Goldsworthy et al., 2007). This rate of
consumption and interaction suggests there may be a considerable trophic interaction of
pinnipeds with rock lobster fisheries. Additionally, there is a high incidence in some locations of
young sea lions becoming entrapped in lobster pots (Goldsworthy et al., 2007).
Higher levels of bycatch have been recorded in the shark fishing component of the Gillnet, Hook
and Trap sector of the SESSF in South Australia, and this has long been an issue. In South
Australia, the entanglement of sea lions in monofilament netting of 150 mm mesh (used in the
shark fishery) has been described at least as far back as the 1980s (e.g. Robinson and Dennis,
1988). Anecdotal reports from shark fishers suggest that entanglement of sea lions occurs in
inshore rather than offshore waters (Shaughnessy et al., 2003, cited by National Seal Strategy
Group and Stewardson, 2005). More recently, a study on the bycatch of Australian sea lion in
shark gillnet fisheries operating in South Australian State- and Commonwealth-managed waters
has confirmed that this may be a significant source of mortality for sea lions in South Australia
(research by Goldsworthy et al., SARDI Aquatic Sciences; Goldsworthy and Page, 2007;
Goldsworthy, 2008). Readers are also referred to the report by Hamer et al. (2009) for further
information, which was not available for citation at the time of writing (S. Goldsworthy, SARDI,
pers. comm., 2010). An additional if small source of mortality may be shooting of sea lions,
reportedly from onboard fishing vessels (e.g. in W.A. – Campbell, 2005). Although it is unlikely
that the removal of a small number of animals in an isolated instance would have a significant
impact on population size or viability, the combination of direct shooting and harassment could
disrupt a small breeding colony (Campbell, 2005), but data are lacking from remote areas such
as the Great Australian Bight. The high level of subdivision within the Australian sea lion
population, coupled with strong natal site fidelity of females, means that recruitment of females
is solely from within each individual colony. The combination of increased mortality and the
potential effects of reduced genetic diversity among small separated sub-populations may limit
their recovery rate and/or viability (Amos and Balmford, 2001, cited by Campbell, 2005).
Fishing Threats to Cetaceans: The interaction of whales and dolphins with fisheries that operate
in deeper GAB waters seaward of the AW NRM has not been fully quantified or publicised. It is
noted that cetaceans are not included in bycatch surveys (e.g. Brown and Knuckey, 2002) or
risk assessments for the GAB trawl fishery (e.g. Daley et al., 2006; AFMA, 2008a,b,c).
However, it is noted that dolphin injuries and mortalities have occurred in the shark fishery
component of the SESSF, operating in other parts of South Australia (data by C. Kemper, South
Australian Museum). Entanglements can be fatal, especially when small cetaceans are caught
in nets, or non-fatal. Non-fatal entanglements can result in reduced reproductive potential, and
can interrupt migration, and increase the risk of re-entanglement (Kemper, 2004). Competition
between fisheries and cetaceans for prey is another issue, in areas where significant quantities
of scale fishes and squid are taken by trawl and hook fisheries, but this issue is not relevant in
the shallow waters of the AW NRM region. Common Dolphins consume bony fishes more than
cephalopods (squid and cuttlefish), and bottlenose dolphins consume more cephalopods
(octopus, cuttlefish, squid) than bony fishes (Gibbs, 2004). The deliberate harming of cetaceans
by fishers, which has been documented in other parts of South Australia (e.g. Kemper et al.,
2005), has not been investigated in the GAB.
65
Threats to Sea Lions
The threat that fishing operations in deeper waters (seaward of the AW NRM) may pose to
Australian Sea Lion populations is discussed in the previous section. Historically, populations of
the endemic Australian Sea Lion were greater in both W.A. and South Australia; however it is
likely that sub-populations in the Great Australian Bight were never commercially harvested due
to the isolation and general inaccessibility of the coast from both from land and sea (Dennis and
Shaughnessy, 1996). It is notable, however, that analysis of historical patterns of abundance on
the west coast of Western Australia suggests that the population size was greater prior to the
impacts of colonisation and commercial sealing/whaling between the 18th and 20th centuries
(Campbell, 2005). The major historical impacts on Australian Sea Lion populations as a whole
were a combination of subsistence and commercial harvesting events from the 1700s to the
1920s (Campbell, 2005). The GAB represents a significant barrier to dispersal (Campbell, 2003,
cited by Goldsworthy et al., 2009a) and the Bunda Cliffs population may therefore be effectively
isolated. It is likely that sea lions from these colonies were not previously harvested to the
extent that colonies in other parts of S.A. and W.A. were harvested. The current status of the
breeding population in the GAB is unclear (Goldsworthy et al., 2009), due to lack of regular
monitoring.
Threats to Australian Sea Lions within the AW NRM are relatively low compared with some
other parts of South Australia, due to the legislative protection afforded by the Great Australian
Bight Marine Park, and by the Nullarbor National Park (which abuts the coast and ostensibly
protects colonies on coastal cliffs, rocks and caves from harm). There is a low level of human
disturbance to breeding colonies and haul out sites, due to inaccessibility. However, it is noted
that Edyvane and Andrews (1998) reported that two of the Bunda Cliff sites, located on the
Yalata Aboriginal Land Lease near Twin Rocks, in addition to sea lion breeding colonies at
highway viewing points along the Eyre Highway (located 40km and 125km from the Western
Australia border) are situated directly below the car park areas. According to Edyvane and
Andrews (1998), these colonies may have been subjected to disturbance from above, as
evidenced by the quantity of rubbish recorded in the colonies. Such items included car and
truck tyres, highway signs and bottles. The authors considered that such materials may cause
direct injury to the animals or at least some disturbance.
In deeper waters, impacts that may affect Australian sea lions include:
fisheries entanglements (e.g. shark gillnets) – see previous section, and
competition with fisheries for common prey species (sea lions are known to rob baits
from lobster pots, as well as fish in nets set for sharks).
Given the time that sea lions spend searching for food in deeper waters, interactions with .
fishers may occur where foraging area and fishing area overlap. Recommendations from
fishery Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD) assessments, fishery Bycatch Action
Plans (BAPs), and a recently drafted Commonwealth government Draft Recovery Plan for the
Australian Sea Lion, have all identified the importance of assessing and mitigating interactions
between sea lions (and fur seals) and commercial fisheries. An example of such fisheries
interaction in South Australian waters is the attraction of sea lions (and seals) to fish trapped in
set gill-nets, and consequent entrapment, resulting in the animals either drowning, tearing out a
section of net, or being cut free by fishers (Robinson and Dennis, 1988; Shaughnessy et al.,
66
2003, cited by National Seal Strategy Group and Stewardson, 2005). Although there are few
official records of seal interactions with the shark fishery, there are various anecdotal reports of
shark fishers finding drowned seals in demersal shark nets set near breeding colonies, in State
waters (Shaughnessy and Dennis, 2002). In 1996, a fisher from South Australia reported to P.
Shaughnessy that he caught 20 Sea Lions a year in his shark nets set off Neptune Islands and
Kangaroo Island (Shaughnessy et al., 2003, cited by National Seal Strategy Group and
Stewardson, 2005).
Records of Sea Lions and fur seals entangled in marine debris also indicate that a significant
level of interaction occurs with set nets and lost monofilament netting throughout South
Australia. In the GAB, Australian sea lions have been recorded entangled in sections of
commercial shark net at a number of sites, including Jones Island (Shaughnessy and Dennis,
2002) and Nicolas Baudin Island (J. McKenzie, pers. comm., cited by National Seal Strategy
Group and Stewardson, 2005).
There is limited information on the trophic interactions between Australian sea lions and
commercial fisheries in the Great Australian Bight. Goldsworthy et al. (2003) estimated the
spatial distribution of foraging and consumption efforts of seals in southern Australia, and
identified regions in the eastern Great Australian Bight around Kangaroo Island and off
southern Eyre Peninsula as being areas where consumption was high, and where trophic
interactions with fisheries may be significant. Fine scale data on the spatial distribution of
commercial fishery catch in the GAB, coupled with information on the foraging area of sea lions
when away from colonies, would enable the extent of overlap in fishery catch and seal
consumption to be estimated. This could be used in conjunction with dietary and food-web
studies, to determine the degree of trophic interactions (Goldsworthy et al., 2007).
Other threats to sea lions which may be an issue in some parts of South Australia (e.g. shooting
/ harassment, oil spill impacts, and disease) are much less likely to affect populations in the
GAB, due to the remoteness of the area, and its position away from population centres and
industry.
Population viability analysis (PVA) on Australian sea lion subpopulations has indicated that
large numbers of subpopulations with low pup production are vulnerable to extinction. PVA
simulations suggested that in the absence of human-induced mortality, a number of Sea Lion
subpopulations will go ―quasi-extinct‖ (<10 females), but in the face of small (1-2 additional
females/year) but sustained fishery bycatch-induced mortality, most other small subpopulations
will become quasi-extinct and negative growth will become a feature of even the largest
subpopulations (SARDI data; Goldsworthy, 2008). In South Australia, there is apparent
depletion (i.e. very low pup production) of a large number of subpopulations that may be
indicative of widespread subpopulation declines in the species.
Recreation and Tourism
Compared to other Australian marine areas, there is a relatively low level of human use in the
Great Australian Bight (Director of National Parks, 2005).
Management issues in the coastal zone that arise from recreational and tourism activities are
discussed the Far West Coastal Action Plan and Conservation Priority Study (Caton et al.,
67
2007), and thus will not be reiterated here, other than to note that such issues include wildlife
disturbance, vegetation destruction, dune de-stabilisation, accelerated cliff erosion in some
places, soil disturbance and compaction, weed introduction and litter. Many of these impacts
are concentrated around formal and informal car parks and camping areas (Caton et al., 2007).
Off-road vehicle tracks have been identified as a significant threat throughout the area, and
mapping undertaken by Segaran (2006, cited by Caton et al., 2007) showed a large increase in
the number of tracks from 1979 to 2004.
Open access to the cliff areas may be reducing the nesting success of osprey and white-bellied
sea eagles (Caton et al., 2007; Dennis, 2008). Both species are considered extremely
vulnerable to human disturbance. Dennis (2008) reported that an abandoned osprey nest on a
pinnacle below cliff-line at 697353E 6513730N (~4km west of the Head of Bight visitor centre),
may have come under the same disturbance pressure from increasing human activities in the
Head of the Bight area as a former white-bellied sea eagle site, almost two decades earlier. In
1994, an abandoned white-bellied sea eagle nest structure was recorded ~2km east of the
Whale Sanctuary Visitor Centre and viewing platforms. At that time the annual winter presence
of Southern Right Whales was established, and increasing numbers of visitors and whale
research team activities in the area are considered to have displaced the sea eagles from the
area (Dennis, 2008). As for the abandoned osprey nest cited above, there is a frequently used
vehicle track close to the cliff-edge, directly above the abandoned osprey nest site in the
eastern Bunda Cliffs (Dennis, 2008).
One of the potentially threatened bird species in the AW NRM region is the hooded plover.
Generally, the nesting period extends between August and February in South Australia. It is
during this time that the adults and chicks are most vulnerable to disturbance and destruction.
The eggs are laid in shallow sand scrapes or seagrass wrack and, if they hatch successfully,
the chicks may then expend large amounts of energy, sometimes with fatal consequences,
running to hiding places to avoid predation or harm. The young do not fly for at least three
weeks, so each clutch is vulnerable for nearly two months. The hooded plover's habit of leaving
a nest site if people approach, and usually not returning until people have left the area, has an
important influence on breeding success. Caton et al. (2007) discussed locations within and
adjacent to AW NRM area in which hooded plovers nest, or may nest.
Impacts on hooded plover populations may come from cars driving on beaches (and therefore
crushing nests and eggs); humans trampling nests; and human presence near nesting areas,
which may disturb adults and/or chicks. The destruction of nests by off-road vehicles has been
a major factor in other parts of South Australia (such as the Coorong region). hooded plovers
nesting in exposed areas of beaches may also suffer high levels of egg and chick predation by
the European red fox, feral cats, and feral dogs (Caton et al., 2007) and domestic dogs,
particularly when the parent birds are absent. The increasing number of tracks in the AW NRM
coastal area during the past decade, may also lead (or may also have led) to increased visitor
access to beaches, including some beaches where hooded plovers nest. Silver Gulls may also
prey upon hooded plover eggs and chicks, but this has not been documented specifically for
hooded plover nests in the AW NRM region, and it is not known for this report whether such
predation occurs.
Other species within AW NRM that may be sensitive to disturbance by humans include the
Sooty Oystercatcher, Banded Stilt, Common Sandpiper, Sanderling, Eastern Reef Egret, Pied
Oyster Catcher, Grey-tailed Tattler and Kelp Gull (Caton et al., 2007).
68
Marine Debris
Much of the information on marine debris in southern Australia does not apply to the AW NRM
region, and there are few data for the Great Australian Bight (C&R Consulting, 2009). The
central GAB is one of the 4 regions in Australia for which there are few records of wildlife
impacted by plastic debris (C& R Consulting, 2009). It has been noted that Southern Right
Whales are considered at high risk of entanglement due to their tendency to aggregate inshore
during travel and calving (Jones, 1995; Allen and Bejder, 2003, cited by C & R Consulting,
2009), but during a recent review for the Commonwealth government, too few records were
available for any seasonal patterns to be discerned (C& R Consulting, 2009). A study of the
distribution of known records of cetaceans and seabirds impacted by plastic debris
(entanglement and ingestion) in Australian waters since 1998, showed that there were 1 to 3
records of cetacean entanglements from the Great Australian Bight (from the Ceduna / Streaky
Bay area, east of the AW NRM region), and no records of seabird entanglements from the area
(C & R Consulting, 2009). The results likely reflect the lack of monitoring of entanglements in
the remote GAB region, particularly the Head of the Bight, rather than genuinely low levels of
entanglement.
In Anxious Bay in the eastern Great Australian Bight, SARDI Aquatic Sciences ran a long-term
litter clearing program on the beach in that area (Edyvane et al., 2004), with the aid of
community groups. Although Anxious Bay is not in the AW NRM region, the results of the
survey may be relevant, because the prevailing winds and currents are likely to move marine
litter eastwards to Anxious Bay, from waters further west in the GAB, where it may have
originated from fishing vessels and other marine craft. The SARDI surveys showed that over the
1991–1999 period, a large but gradual decline in the amount of beach-washed litter was
recorded (with minor peaks recorded during 1992 and 1994). In a decadal comparison, beachwashed litter decreased from 344kg recorded in 1991 (13.2 kg/km) to 49 kg in 1999 (1.9 kg/km),
but reached a maximum of 390 kg in 1992 (or 15 kg per kilometre of beach). A sharp increase
in litter was recorded in 2000 (i.e. 252 kg or 9.7 kg/km), reported to be probably due to stronger
than average onshore surface flow (or Ekman Transport) in the western Eyre Peninsula and
Bight region at that time (Edyvane et al., 2004). Prior to the survey in 2000, the results
appeared to indicate that ocean litter on Anxious Bay beach was beginning to level out at
around 50–70 kg/year (i.e. 2–3 kg/km). The yields and type of litter collected from the annual
surveys indicated that the majority of litter washed ashore originated from commercial fishing
activities within the GAB. Most of the fishing-related litter was directly sourced to the Southern
Rock Lobster Fishery (i.e. bait buckets, baskets, pots), the Great Australian Bight trawl
component of the SESSF (i.e. cod-ends, trawl nets) and the gillnet and shark hook sector of the
SESSF (i.e. mono-filament gill-nets and long-lines) (Edyvane et al., 2004).
Between 1994 and 1999, large reductions were observed in the amount of bait straps (77%
reduction), lobster bait baskets/buckets (86% reduction), nets/ropes (62% reduction) and
floats/buoys (83% reduction). According to the results of the SARDI-managed surveys, fishingrelated litter in the Bight has reduced at a slower rate than domestic litter. The level of glass and
soft plastics on the beach reduced from 103kg to 7kg and 119kg to 8kg respectively, and the
level of hard plastics reduced from 122kg to 30kg.
To date, the South Australian Rock Lobster Fishery, the south-east trawl sector, and the gillnet
and shark hook sectors of the SESSF are three fisheries which have been highlighted as
responsible for significant numbers of interactions with fur seals and sea lions in South Australia
69
(Page et al., 2004; Goldsworthy et al., 2007, 2009, and see 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 above). Previously,
bait box straps were one of the most significant sources of marine litter that had detrimental
effects on marine fauna. For example, bait straps were the most common material (30%)
observed entangling New Zealand fur seals during a 6-year study on Kangaroo Island, and
accounted for 11% of material identified entangling Australian sea lions during a 15-year study
(Page et al., 2004). Other material included trawl-netting (28%), rope (23%), plastic bags (7%),
hooks and fishing line (3%), monofilament netting (1%) and other material including rubber ‗orings‘, string and lobster-pot (8%) (Page et al., 2004, cited by Goldsworthy et al., 2007). Hamer
et al. (2009) Goldsworthy et al (2009) discuss fishery interactions in more detail, and outline
ways in which interactions can be minimised.
Some fisheries (i.e. southern rock lobster, and the gillnet and shark hook sector of the SESSF)
have shown marked reductions in fishing-related litter. This may be due to both reduction in
fishing effort over the past decade, and also efforts that have been made within marine
industries to reduce the amount of marine litter entering the environment in South Australia. For
example, the South Australian Rock Lobster Fishery has moved away from potentially harmful
packaging materials such as hard plastic bait box bands, in favour of glued boxes (DEWHA,
2009a).
At a national level, a threat abatement plan for the impacts of marine debris on vertebrate
marine life is being developed (DEWHA, 2009a). Although South Australia is only briefly
considered in the plan, many of the proposed actions are relevant to marine debris reduction in
all States, and in Commonwealth waters. Adherence to the plan will also ensure that operators
in Commonwealth and southern Australian State waters remain compliant with the international
MARPOL (Annex V) regulations.
Marine Pests
According to the National System for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pest
Incursions (NIMPIS, 2009, 2010), in conjunction with a national ranking of marine pests in
Australia (Hayes et al., 2005) and several other sources combined, at least 54 marine and/or
estuarine pests occur in South Australian waters (Table 5 below). The majority of these pests
were introduced into South Australian ports and harbours by ships‘ ballast water or as fouling
on ships‘ hulls, and it is unlikely that most of these pests have colonised the relatively pristine
and wave-exposed waters at the Head of the Bight, where there are no ports or harbours, and
relatively undisturbed substrates. The nearest port is at Ceduna, approximately 200km east of
the eastern marine boundary AW NRM area. However, due to the remoteness of the AW NRM
region, there has been no full investigation of introduced marine species in the area. As a result,
introduction of marine species may go unnoticed, and of those that possibly occur, none have
been confirmed, and the sites of origin are not known (i.e. these would be classified as
―cryptogenic species‖). Although an interactive mapping function in NIMPIS (2010) reports no
marine pests as occurring in the Head of Bight area, the following potential pests are noted
here:
70
Hydroids
The hydroid Antennella secundaria has been recorded in open waters with good current flow in
South Australia (NIMPIS, 2002). It grows on variety of substrates, (including red algae, seagrasses,
ascidians, sponges, bryozoans, shells, stones, crustaceans), but there have been no recorded
impacts of this species in southern Australia.
Bryozoans
The globally widespread encrusting bryozoan / sea lace Membranipora membranacea occurs in
South Australia (Bock, 1982), but its full distribution here is uncertain. This species attaches to kelp
and other organisms, and studies in other countries have shown that it can cause seasonal dieback
of kelps, which can aid the establishment and growth of nuisance macroalgae (see Table Y). Its
presence in the AW NRM is unknown.
The bryozoan Cryptosula pallasiana may have potential to occur in the area, but is mainly found on
seagrasses, drift algae, oyster reefs and human-made structures. Colonies found to date in
Australia generally do not reach a large size or cover large areas of substrate.
The lace coral Schizoporella unicornis can exist on a broad range of substrates. It has been
reported in the eastern Great Australian Bight, east of the AW NRM region, and is also known from
south-western Australia. The impacts of this species are not known (NIMPIS, 2010).
Common fouling organisms on vessels, such as Watersipora arcuata, are now widespread along
the southern Australian coastline, and easily transferred. This species is resistant to anti-fouling
paints; can spread rapidly on vessel hulls and provide an area for other species to settle upon. Also
attaches to rocks, macroalgae and wooden structures. This species has been recorded in the
eastern Great Australian Bight, east of the AW NRM region, but is not known to date any further
west.
Molluscs
The New Zealand Creeper Shell or mud snail Zeacumantus subcarinatus is one of the introduced
marine species that might occur in the region. It was introduced to Australia from New Zealand
during the 1930s, and is now broadly distributed across the southern coast of Australia. It occurs
mainly in the intertidal, such as rock pools at high tide level in bays and estuaries, and on the open
coast. There are records from Streaky Bay, east of the AW NRM region. This species is known to
graze green macroalgae such as Ulva (e.g. McClatchie, 1979). Overseas, much research has been
undertaken on trematode parasites that infest this creeper shell. The impacts of introduced
populations are not well known (and may be negligible in regions such as the AW NRM, even if
present).
It is also possible that the Mediterranean Blue Mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis occurs in the AW
NRM region, given its presence in bays of the eastern Great Australian Bight, and its culture in
South Australia. It is possible that this species came to Australia on hulls of early sailing ships
when the continent was colonised by Europeans, and has long been known as the ―native species‖
Mytilus edulis, M. planulatus, or M. edulis planulatus. The impacts of blue mussels in relatively
undisturbed areas such as the AW NRM region are unknown, but if this species is present, its
impacts may not be serious, compared with harbour areas and disturbed substrates where Mytilus
can compete with other organisms for space and food.
A beach clam from New Zealand, Paphies (Mesodesma) ventricosa was reported by the Academy
of Natural Sciences (2006) to occur in the Great Australian Bight, but there is very little information,
and it is not listed in documentation for marine pests in southern Australia (e.g. Hayes et al. 2005;
NIMPIS 2010).
71
According to Department for Environment and Heritage SA (2001), the New Zealand Screw Shell
Maoricolpus roseus has been recorded from the ―west coast of South Australia‖, but NIMPIS (2010)
and other references report it only from south-eastern Australia, where it was introduced to
Tasmania in the early 20th century, and is now firmly established in Tasmania, Victoria and New
South Wales. It has the potential to spread westwards. The impacts of dense populations of M.
roseus on native species have yet to be determined, but could possibly reduce numbers of native
gastropods and bivalves via competition for food and space. There appears to be no evidence to
indicate that this species occurs yet in the Great Australian Bight.
Hayes et al. (2005) reported that the shipworm Teredo navalis might occur in the Eucla marine
bioregion of South Australia (of which AW NRM area is part), based upon the generalised
distribution of this species across southern Australia, and its temperature tolerance. This species
bores into wooden structures such as boats and harbour piles, but is unlikely to become a pest in
the AW NRM region, even if present.
Feral populations of the Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas are found in the Ceduna area (NIMPIS,
2010), due to the prevalence of oyster culture in the bays of eastern Great Australian Bight.
Presence in AW NRM region is unknown.
Worms
The Slime Featherduster Worm Myxicola infundibulum might occur in the eastern Great Australian
Bight, but there are no confirmed records. It is transported by vessels, and there are no recorded
impacts.
Crustaceans
The Acorn Barnacle Megabalanus tintinnabulum, is a common fouling species that is widespread in
Australia and found in many types of habitat. There are no records from the Great Australian Bight,
but it has potential to spread to the area.
Ascidians
The colonial ascidians Botryllus schlosseri and Botrylloides leachi may both occur in the AW NRM
area, but there are no confirmed records. One has been recorded as far west as the Murat
Bioregion, and the other as far west as the Eyre Bioregion (see Table 5). Both can attach to rocks,
and to a variety of benthic marine organisms, as well as vessels, and human-made structures
associated with harbours and aquaculture. Colonies are eaten by crabs, gastropods, nudibranchs
and flatworms. Can be transferred by vessels, fisheries activity and aquaculture. Although colonial
ascidians can be dominant competitors, overgrowing and excluding many other fouling species, the
impacts are low compared with many other marine pests.
Several toxic dinoflagellates are of concern in South Australia (see Table 7), but are mainly
associated with ports, and estuarine areas, and unlikely to cause significant harm in the AW
NRM region.
According to a recent analysis of South Australian Herbarium data (Baker and Gurgel, in prep.),
one cryptogenic species of macroalgae occurs in the AW NRM region, the green alga Ulva
rigida. This species is cosmopolitan in distribution; widespread Europe and Africa (> 15
countries each); also Atlantic islands; Nth, Central & South America; SW Asia; Philippines;
Australia, New Zealand & Antarctica (Cowan, 2006; Guiry & Guiry, 2010). In Australia, it is
known from most States (SA Herbarium data; Baker & Gurgel, in prep.). Many Ulva species,
including U. rigida have the capacity to bloom in abundance, particularly in eutrophic conditions,
72
such as in estuaries, port and marinas (e.g. Sfriso, 2010); however, the chance of this species
becoming a nuisance in the AW NRM region is low.
Of significant concern in Gulf St Vincent is the presence and encroachment (e.g. into seagrass
beds) of the invasive green macroalga Caulerpa taxifolia, and concerted research and
management efforts have been made to control this species during the past decade (e.g.
Cheshire et al., 2002; Rowling, 2007; Deveney et al., 2008; Wiltshire and Rowling, 2009).
However, it is noted that Caulerpa taxifolia has a relatively low probability of invading remote,
low nutrient and wave-exposed areas such as AW NRM, unless boats or associated equipment
(e.g. anchors) from upper Gulf St Vincent with fragments of Caulpera on them are permitted to
enter AW NRM waters. This species can proliferate in warmer waters (22–25°C) compared with
cool waters (15–18°C) (Glasby and Gibson, 2007), and waters at the Head of the Bight are
seasonally warm; therefore caution is required.
Two of the most serious marine introductions in southern Australia have not yet reached South
Australian waters. These are (i) the Japanese seaweed Undaria pinnatifida, which can grow to
2m in height, and was introduced to Tasmania by shipping, and is now also present in Victoria.
Undaria grows rapidly and can shade the canopy on reefs, killing other macroalgae, and this
can adversely affect the ecology of the reef system, particularly for native herbivorous animals;
and (ii) the northern Pacific seastar Asterias amurensis, a highly fecund species which
reproduces prolifically, is a voracious predator, and is a particular threat to native shallow-water
communities of mussels, scallops, oysters and clams, and to shellfish aquaculture facilities. It
also preys on other seastars, and will scavenge dead fish. Asterias was introduced to Tasmania
by Japanese shipping, and has spread to Victoria (NIMPIS, 2002). It is found mainly in the
shallow subtidal, but can also live in deeper shelf waters. It has few known predators (none of
which are in Australia), and larvae are easily transported in ships‘ ballast water. The Centre for
Research on Introduced Marine Pests (CRIMP) at CSIRO in Hobart, is conducting research into
using a biological agent as a long-term control method. Although it has not yet been recorded in
South Australia, it is considered likely to spread from south-eastern to south-western Australia if
populations are not controlled. Fortunately, this species does not normally occur in exposed,
high wave energy areas, and thus the likelihood of a population becoming established in the
AW NRM region is low.
There is a possibility, given the likely impacts of climate change on ocean warming and ocean
circulation patterns, of several marine pest species in South Australia becoming more
widespread in future (see 3.1.8: Climate Change).
73
Table 7: Marine pests reported in South Australia (according to Bock, 1982; McMinn et al., 2000;
Department for Environment and Heritage, 2001; Russell-French, 2002; Hayes et al., 2005; Department
of Fisheries W.A., 2005; Reynolds, 2005; Academy of Natural Sciences, 2006; PIRSA, 2007; Department
of Health, 2009; NIMPIS, 2002, 2009, 2010; Wiltshire and Rowling, 2009; ABRS, 2009). Other references
include Dixon et al., 1981; Gunasekera et al. 2005; Department of Fisheries WA, 2005a, 2005b;
Beechey, 2009; Scheibling and Gagnon, 2009). GSV = Gulf St Vincent.
Latin Name
Common
Name
Likelihood of
Presence in
AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Macroalgae
Caulerpa racemosa var.
cylindracea
Caulerpa
Unlikely
Reported in South Australia from GSV
bioregion (e.g. St Kilda, North Haven
and O‘Sullivans Beach boat ramps).
Caulerpa taxifolia
aquarium
Caulerpa
Unlikely (but
caution
required)
In South Australia, mainly known from
Port River, West Lakes and associated
areas in north-eastern GSV. Highly
invasive, and found on a wide variety
of substrates, including rock, sand and
mud to dead seagrasses, mainly in
waters less than 15m (in Australia).
The invasive aquarium strain can
occupy up to 100% of the available
substrate. Native Australian
populations in tropical waters are
found on rocky reefs and seagrass
meadows in sheltered or moderately
wave-exposed areas in both polluted
and pristine waters. Easily transferred
on vessels hulls and fishing equipment
etc.
Polysiphonia brodiei
a red
macroalga
Unlikely
To date, known in South Australia from
GSV, and the upper south-east (e.g.
Robe area). In Australia, found to date
mostly in port environments. Colonises
wooden structures such as jetties and
pylons, floating structures such as
ropes, buoys and vessels and other
fouling species such as mussels.
However, note that the species is
easily transported by marine vessels.
Schottera nicaeensis
a red
macroalga
Unlikely
Usually in ports, under jetties or on
jetty piles, or other shaded areas.
Known in South Australia from GSV.
Ulva fasciata
sea lettuce /
sea strap
lettuce
Unlikely
Possibly occurs in the GSV and Eyre
bioregions. A tropical plant occurring
only in the warmer summer months in
southern and eastern Australia. Found
from intertidal zone to 10m deep, on
any firm substrate, in waters ranging
from calm to highly wave-exposed.
Often associated with high-nutrient
areas such as mangroves and bird
roosting islands, polluted areas, near
freshwater sources, or in ports.
74
Table 7 (continued): Marine pests reported in South Australia.
Latin Name
Common
Name
Likelihood of
Presence in
AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Dinoflagellates
Alexandrium catenella
toxic
dinoflagellate
/ estuarine
dinoflagellate
Unlikely
Known in South Australia from the Port
River area in GSV. Found in temperate to
warm temperate coastal and estuarine
waters; occasionally reported in tropical
waters. Usually found less than 20m, but
can also occur in much deeper waters
offshore. Cysts found in bloom areas are
associated with fine, organic rich
estuarine and coastal sediments. The
toxins produced by A. catenella are
bioaccumulated in fish, molluscs,
crustaceans, polychaetes and some
echinoderms. Consumers of
contaminated organisms suffer from
paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). There
is also some evidence of direct toxicity to
fish.
Alexandrium minutum
toxic
dinoflagellate
, estuarine
dinoflagellate
Unlikely
Known in South Australia from GSV, Eyre
and Murat bioregions; mainly associated
with ports, and was introduced by
shipping. In eastern GAB, known from
Streaky Bay (including cysts in sediment)
and Thevenard. Found in warm,
temperate, coastal and estuarine waters.
Usually found less than 20m, but can also
occur in much deeper waters offshore.
Cysts in bloom areas are associated with
fine, organic, estuarine and coastal
sediments. This micro-alga causes
serious algal blooms, resulting in water
discolouration, loss of oxygen and
paralytic shellfish poison (PSP) outbreaks.
Causes regular toxic red tides in the Port
River in Gulf St Vincent.
Alexandrium tamarense
toxic
dinoflagellate
/ estuarine
dinoflagellate
Unlikely
Possibly introduced to several parts of
southern Australia, including the
GSV bioregion, and waters of the southeast, including offshore from Pt
MacDonnell. Found inshore (1-20m), in
temperate to warm temperate coastal and
estuarine waters. Cysts found in bloom
areas associated with fine, organic
estuarine and coastal sediments.
Sometimes associated with shellfish and
fish aquaculture, and blooms can cause
severe impacts through PSP (paralytic
shellfish poisoning) toxins accumulating
up the food chain, from zooplankton to
shellfish, birds, fish and mammals.
75
Table 7 (continued): Marine pests reported in South Australia.
Latin Name
Common
Name
Likelihood
of Presence
in AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
toxic
dinoflagellate /
chain-forming
dinoflagellate /
estuarine
dinoflagellate /
naked
dinoflagellate
Unlikely
In South Australia, known from Port Lincoln in
Spencer Gulf and possible introductions in the
GSV and Eyre bioregions. Found in bays and
estuaries. Vegetative cells can be distributed
throughout the water column during a bloom,
and cysts are found in sediments. Toxins
produced by G. catenatum can cause Paralytic
Shellfish Poisoning (PSP). Toxins accumulated
in shellfish (oysters, mussels and scallops) then
become toxic to consumers, including humans.
Knotted
Thread
Hydroid
Possibly
Recorded in South Australia and prefers open
waters and good current flow. Grows on variety
of substrates, including red algae, seagrasses,
ascidians, sponges, bryozoans, shells, stones,
crustaceans.
Cordylophora caspia
a hydroid
Very Unlikely
Known in Australia from ports in eastern and
south-eastern States. May also be present in
GSV. Forms small, branched colonies on rock
and other firm substrates in shallow brackish to
fresh waters, including river mouths. Can
withstand a high degree of eutrophication and is
present in areas with high levels of run-off and
pollution.
Halecium delicatulum
a hydroid
Unlikely
Known from estuaries and harbours, mainly in
south-eastern Australia. Possibly introduced in
the Coorong and Eyre bioregions in South
Australia Lives on surfaces of soft-textured
sponges and other invertebrates, sometimes
bryozoans, occasionally macroalgae. Broad
depth range (shallow subtidal to 1,000m).
Frequently found in shaded locations such as
jetty piles as a fouling species, but no other
recorded impacts.
Plumularia setacea
a hydroid
Unlikely
Known in Australia from Tasmania, and possibly
introduced to GSV in SA, and also other parts of
Australia, including south-western WA.
Associated with calm coastal waters, typically
attached to hard substrates and organisms
including other hydroids.
Gymnodinium
catenatum
Hydroids
Antennella secundaria
(c) J. Watson, Marine Science
& Ecology Pty Ltd , at NIMPIS:
http://adl.brs.gov.au/marinepe
sts/index.cfm?fa=main.spDetai
lsDB&sp=6000005529
76
Table 7 (continued): Marine pests reported in South Australia.
Latin Name
Common
Name
Likelihood
of Presence
in AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Jellyfish
Cassiopea sp.
Upsidedown
jellyfish
Unlikely
Reported in South Australia from GSV
bioregion (e.g. Angas Inlet and Port
River). Known Mainly from low energy
waters in the tropics.
Bugula flabellata
bryozoan /
sea moss
Unlikely
Amongst other parts of South Australia,
has been recorded in the Eyre bioregion,
to the east of AW NRM region, but is
mainly associated with harbours. It is a
major fouling bryozoan in ports and
harbours, particularly on vessel hulls,
pilings and pontoons. Also reported from
off shore oil platforms. Quite often it is
found growing with other erect bryozoan
species such as B. neritina or growing on
encrusting bryozoans.
Bugula neritina
bryozoan
Unlikely
Amongst other parts of South Australia,
has been recorded in the Eyre bioregion,
to the east of AW NRM region, but is
mainly associated with harbours. Found
on jetty piles, vessel hulls, ships‘ intake
pipes and condenser chambers, buoys
and similar submerged surfaces In
Australia, it occurs primarily on artificial
substrates.
Cryptosula pallasiana
bryozoan
Possibly
Known in South Australia from GSV and
Eyre bioregions (east of AW NRM) and
also south-western WA (west of AW
NRM). A common fouling organism on
seagrasses, drift algae, oyster reefs,
artificial structures such as piers and
breakwaters, human-made debris, rock,
shells, ascidians, glass and vessel hulls.
Reported from shallows to 35m deep.
Reportedly transported by vessels, and by
fishing and aquaculture activity, but
colonies found to date in Australia
generally do not reach a large size or
cover large areas of substrate.
Bryozoans
(c) California Academy of
Sciences
77
Table 7 (continued): Marine pests reported in South Australia.
Latin Name
Common
Name
Likelihood
of Presence
in AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Membranipora
membranacea
encrusting
bryozoan /
sea lace
Possibly
Very widespread globally. Distribution in South
Australia uncertain, but does occur here (Bock,
1982). Attaches to kelp and other organisms.
Plants fouled by this bryozoan suffer greater
blade loss than unfouled plants, probably
because fouled blades are fragile and break off
easily, and also because fish bite off chunks of
blade while foraging on the attached
bryozoans (Dixon et al., 1981). Studies in
Nova Scotia have shown that changes in cover
of this bryozoan on kelp, and in the cover of
kelp on the seabed, are reciprocal and
seasonal; inter-annual variation in peak cover
of this bryozoan on kelp is temperaturerelated; annual decreases in kelp cover and
blade size are related to the
(c) United States Geological
Survey, at Wikimedia
Commons
degree of infestation by M. membranacea, and
not to wave action alone. Severe outbreaks of
this bryozoan can occur every few years, and
recurrent seasonal
outbreaks can have a devastating effect on
native kelp populations, which, in turn can aid
in establishment and growth of nuisance
macroalgae (Scheibling and Gagnon, 2009).
Schizoporella unicornis
lace coral
Possibly
Has been reported in the Eyre Bioregion,
which includes eastern Great Australian Bight,
east of the AW NRM region. Also known from
south-western Australia. Can encrust a broad
range of substrates, including shell, stone and
kelp holdfasts and often forms broad
encrustations under boulders or sheltered
overhangs.
lace coral
Possibly
Amongst others parts of S.A., has been
reported in the Eyre marine bioregion, which
includes eastern Great Australian Bight, east
of the AW NRM region. An abundant fouling
organism that is resistant to anti-fouling paints;
can spread rapidly on vessel hulls and provide
an area for other species to settle upon. Also
attaches to rocks, macroalgae and wooden
structures.
(c) L. and L. Langstroth, at United
States Geological Survey
Watersipora arcuata
(c) K. Gowlett-Holmes
78
Table 7 (continued): Marine pests reported in South Australia.
Latin Name
Common
Name
Likelihood
of Presence
in AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Zoobotryon verticillatum
bryozoan
Unlikely
Recorded in the GSV and Spencer
Gulf bioregions, and in southern WA.
Attaches to boats, structures and
cooling water intake pipes. A
deciduous species, with seasonally
growing branches. Masses of Z.
verticillatum and drift algae frequently
become entangled around submerged
hard surfaces, and may significantly
impact the settlement and fitness of
hard-bottom sessile invertebrates
(Walters and Abgrall, 2000, cited by
Hayes et al., 2005).
Unlikely
Occurs as one of the fouling organisms
in harbours and bays around the world.
It fouls many living (worm tubes,
mussel shells, encrusting bryozoans,
etc.) and non-living (wood, bark,
styrofoam floats etc.) substrates.
Known in S.A. from Gulf St Vincent
and associated mainly with harbours.
pileworm /
sedentary
worm
Unlikely
Known in southern Australia from ports
in WA, Victoria and NSW, and possibly
occurs in SA in GSV. In Australia,
associated with soft sediment bottoms
in ports and estuaries, but on a global
scale not restricted to such areas. May
be transported by vessels, and also by
natural means.
Boccardia proboscidea
Californian
polydorid /
spionid worm
Unlikely
Amongst other parts of South
Australia, has been recorded in the
Eyre bioregion, to the east of AW NRM
region. Burrows into rocks, sediments
and shells of oysters and other
bivalves, and increases risk of
parasitism in bivalves. Survives in a
variety of habitats but mostly recorded
in nutrient-enriched areas, such as
sewage outfalls. Transferred by
shipping, fisheries activity and natural
dispersal.
Euchone limnicola
fanworm
Very Unlikely
Occurs in soft sediments of harbours,
and no confirmation of presence in
South Australia, but might be present
in lower South East - Otway
Bioregion.
Nodding Heads (Kamptozoans)
Barentsia benedeni
nodding
head
Annelid Worms (including Polychaetes)
Alitta succinea
(formerly Neathes
succinea)
79
Table 7 (continued): Marine pests reported in South Australia.
Latin Name
Common
Name
Likelihood
of
Presence in
AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Hydroides elegans
Fouling
Serpulid
Unlikely
Point of origin uncertain. Recorded in
South Australia in the Gulf St Vincent and
Eyre bioregions, but also occurs in southwestern Australia. Known mainly in
harbours in the tropics and sub-tropics.
Occurs on both natural and artificial
substrates. Highly tolerant of polluted
waters. Can grow in high densities,
heavily fouling any new immersed
structure - natural or artificial. It creates
microhabitat for other species, changes
ecosystem dynamics and competes with
other species for food and space. The
fouling habit of this species also causes
problems for seawater piping systems.
Myxicola infundibulum
Slime
Featherduster
Worm
Possibly
Known in Australia from Tasmania, and
Gulf St Vincent in SA. In SA, possibly
also occurs in Eyre bioregion. Lives in
coarse, clean sands, in which it secretes a
gelatinous tube. Usually found from 1-50
m, but can occur as deep as 500m. It
commonly inhabits areas where the
temperatures range from 2-17 °C.
Transported by vessels. No recorded
impacts.
Polydora ciliata / Polydora
websteri
Bristleworm /
English
Polydorid
Unlikely
To date, known in South Australia from
Gulf St Vincent, in disturbed areas.
Found in crevices within rocks, on soft
sediments and is also recorded as a
boring species - burrowing into rocks and
mollusc shells. A serious pest for oysters
and mussels, as it burrows into shells,
weakens them and makes shells prone to
predation by organisms such as crabs. It
can also alter habitats by increasing the
amount of mud in an area (due to
burrowing activities).
Pseudopolydora
paucibranchiata
Japanese
Polydorid /
Elkhorn
Slough Spionid
Unlikely
Has been reported in the Eyre marine
bioregion, which includes eastern Great
Australian Bight, east of the AW NRM
region. Probably spread by ballast water,
hull fouling and Japanese oysters and can
become a dominant member of the
infaunal community in infested areas.
However, more likely to occur in disturbed
areas, and in low energy environments
(sheltered bays, mangroves etc.
(c) J. Finn, Museum Victoria, at
Pests and Diseases Image
Library: http://www.padil.gov.au
80
Table 7 (continued): Marine pests reported in South Australia.
Latin Name
Common
Name
Likelihood
of Presence
in AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Sabella spallanzanii
European Fan
Worm /
Sabellid
Unlikely
Known in S.A. from the eastern side of GSV
bioregion, particularly North Haven, West
Lakes, Port River, and Glenelg. Found
mainly in shallow subtidal areas from 1 to
30m deep, especially harbours and wavesheltered bays. Colonises both hard and
soft substrates, often anchored to hard
surfaces within soft sediments, or on wharf
piles and facings, channel markers, marina
piles and pontoons, and submerged
wrecks. Can compete with razor fish, can
displace scallop and mussel species, and
spreads very rapidly.
Crassostrea gigas
Pacific Oyster
Unlikely
Known in S.A. from Murat, Eyre, Spencer
Gulf, Northern Spencer Gulf and GSV
bioregions. Found mainly adjacent to oyster
leases. In eastern GAB, known from Murat
Bay, Streaky Bay, and Smoky Bay.
Attaches to almost any hard surface
(especially rocks) in shallow sheltered
waters such as estuaries, but also found in
muddy or sandy areas. Oysters will also
settle on adult oysters of the same or other
species. Although recorded in a Ceduna
area, east of AW NRM region, lack of
estuarine habitat and lack of aquaculture
facilities may impede settlement in the
Eucla Bioregion (i.e. AW NRM waters).
Maoricolpus roseus
New Zealand
Screw Shell
Possibly
According to DEH SA (2001), it has been
recorded from the ―west coast of South
Australia‖, but NIMPIS (2010) and other
references report it only from south-eastern
Australia. Introduced to Tasmania in the
th
early 20 century, and now occurs also in
Victoria and NSW. Very abundant in Bass
Strait. Has potential to spread westwards.
Appears to prefer areas of coarse or firm
substrate, moderate to strong currents, and
can tolerate broad range of conditions
(depths of 1m -130m and temperatures
between 8-20 degrees C). The impacts of
dense populations of M. roseus on native
species have yet to be determined, but M.
roseus could possibly reduce numbers of
native gastropods and bivalves via
competition for food and space. Transferred
naturally, or by vessels (including ballast
water) or aquaculture (e.g. attached to
oysters).
Molluscs
(c) T. Alexander, at
http://www.ausmarinverts.net
81
Table 7 (continued): Marine pests reported in South Australia.
Latin Name
Common Name
Likelihood of
Presence in
AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Musculista senhousia
Asian Date
Mussel / Asian
Bag Mussel
Unlikely
Known in South Australia from GSV.
Occurs in soft sediments and also wharf
piles and other human-made structures
in harbours.
Mytilus galloprovincialis
Mediterranean
Blue Mussel
Possibly
May be native, but origin uncertain.
Possible that this species came to
Australia on hulls of early sailing ships
when the continent was colonised by
Europeans. Farmed in South Australia.
The taxonomy is uncertain. This species
has been known under several names in
Australia, including Mytilus edulis, M.
planulatus, and M. edulis planulatus.
There is some question as to the valid
name, although recent genetic studies
indicate that the Australian form is closer
to M. galloprovincialis than any other
(Beu, 2004, cited by CSIRO, 2009). May
hybridize with other Mytilus species.
Common in harbours on jetty piles and
exposed rocks, and is found from the
intertidal to about 15m deep.
(a beach clam
from New
Zealand)
Possibly
Reported to Academy of Natural
Sciences 2006 to occur in the Great
Australian Bight. Very little information.
Not listed in Hayes et al. 2005 or
NIMPIS 2010.
New Zealand
Greenlip Mussel
Unlikely
Previously recorded in GSV bioregion:
P. canaliculus was successfully
eradicated from shipping channel
adjacent to Outer Harbour wharf in 1996
(PIRSA 1999, cited by McEnnulty et al.,
2001). However, according to the PIRSA
Aquaculture Public Register in August
2003, a licence was provided to farm
this species, amongst others, at Rabbit
Island near Pt Lincoln.
(c) CSIRO Marine and
Atmospheric Research
Paphies (Mesodesma)
ventricosa
(c) New Zealand Ministry of
Fisheries
Perna canaliculus
82
Table 7 (continued): Marine pests reported in South Australia.
Latin Name
Common Name
Likelihood of
Presence in
AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Polycera hedgpethi
Hedgpeth‘s
Dorid
Unlikely
To date, known in South Australia
from GSV, in disturbed areas, such
as Port River and North Haven.
Ruditapes largillierti = Venerupis
largillierti
Venus clam
Unlikely
Known in Australia from Tasmania,
and GSV in South Australia. Found in
fine, muddy to clean sand or fine
gravel or seagrass beds, from low
intertidal to ~ 20m in depth, usually
on wave-protected shores, harbours
and estuaries.
Theora lubrica
East Asian
Bivalve / Asian
Semele
Very Unlikely
Recorded in South Australia from
northern Spencer Gulf. Associated
with ports.
Teredo navalis
Naval Shipworm
/ Common
Shipworm /
Atlantic
Shipworm
Possibly
Generalised distribution across
southern Australia includes Eucla
Bioregion, of which AW NRM marine
region is part. Bores into wooden
structures such as boats and harbour
piles.
European Clam
/ Atlantic
Mediterranean
Bivalve /
Common
Basket-Shell
Very Unlikely
Known to date in S.A. only from the
South East / Victorian border. Mainly
in thick muddy sand in polluted
environments. Has fast growth rate
and high tolerance of many
environmental conditions, including
low oxygen levels. Can achieve very
high population densities and
therefore has potential to compete
with native species for food and
space, including commercial species
such as scallops, possibly affecting
their recruitment.
(c) The Full Wiki :
http://www.thefullwiki.org/Shipworm
Varicorbula gibba
83
Latin Name
Common Name
Likelihood of
Presence in
AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Zeacumantus subcarinatus
New Zealand
Creeper Shell /
mud snail
Possibly
Introduced to Australia from New
Zealand during the 1930s, and now
broadly distributed across the
southern coast. There are records
from east of the AW NRM region –
e.g. Streaky Bay.
Carcinus maenas
European Shore
Crab / European
Green Crab
Unlikely
Known in SA from GSV and Coorong
bioregions, including Barker Inlet,
Outer Harbor, West Lakes, Port
Stanvac, Port Noarlunga, Fleurieu
Peninsula and the Coorong.
Associated with soft sediment
bottoms in ports and estuaries.
Eurylana arcuata
cirolanid isopod
/ sea slater
Very Unlikely
Introduced from New Zealand, and
known in Australia from New South
Wales and the South Australian gulfs
(including Port Noarlunga and Port
Willunga in Gulf St Vincent).
Megabalanus tintinnabulum
Acorn Barnacle
Possibly
Very widespread in Australia. No
published records from GAB (and
none in S.A., according to NIMPIS
2010), but occurs in bioregions east
and west of that region, and in most
other parts of Australia. A common
fouling species, it is found in many
types of habitat, such as rock and
boulder areas, pylons, wharves,
vessel hulls and other organisms
such as mussels and algae. Main
impacts relate to fouling. Occurs from
intertidal to about 40m depth and can
withstand water temperatures up to
35 °C.
Photo of a related species:
Zeacumantus lutulentus.
(c) G. Bould, at Wikimedia Commons
Crustaceans
(c) Henry & McLaughlin, 1986, at
NIMPIS:
http://adl.brs.gov.au/marinepests/inde
x.cfm?fa=main.spDetailsDB&sp=600
0009302
84
Table 7 (continued): Marine pests reported in South Australia.
Latin Name
Common
Name
Likelihood
of Presence
in AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Monocorophium acherusicum
Mediterranean
Corophiid (an
amphipod)
Unlikely
Known in South Australia from
GSV. Occurs subtidally on
sediments or where silt and
detritus accumulate among fouling
communities such as algae,
ascidians and bryozoans, and
human-made installations e.g.
wharf piles, rafts and buoys.
Constructs conspicuous, fragile Ushaped tubes of silk, mud and
sand particles. Reportedly
transported by fisheries and
aquaculture activity and vessels.
Monocorophium insidiosum
English
Corophiid /
amphipod
Very Unlikely
Known in Australia from southeastern States, and from Perth
area in WA. May also occur in
GSV. An estuarine species, and
often associated with mud, algae,
seagrasses and hydroids in ports,
where it builds mud tubes. It is
common in areas of high turbidity,
especially in areas with high
organic pollution levels.
Paracerceis sculpta
Sponge Isopod
Unlikely
Known in South Australia from
GSV. Occurs intertidally in waveexposed areas. Mainly associated
with macroalgae, in sponges and
under stones. Also found amongst
the fouling community on buoys,
vessel hulls and other humanmade structures. Reportedly
transported by vessels, but there
are no recorded impacts.
solitary
ascidian
Unlikely
To date, known in South Australia
from GSV and Eyre Peninsula. In
Australia, found mostly in harbours
and other protected embayments.
Ranges from intertidal waters to
50m depth, and attaches to clay,
stones, rocks, algae and wharf
piles, where it can be the dominant
fouling species. Reportedly
transported by vessels, fishing and
aquaculture activity.
Ascidians
Ascidiella aspersa
85
Table 7 (continued): Marine pests reported in South Australia.
Latin Name
Common
Name
Likelihood
of Presence
in AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Botrylloides leachi
colonial
ascidian / Dark
Ascidian
Possibly
Possibly introduced into most parts of the
Australian coast, including Murat
bioregion (adjacent to Eucla, which
includes AW NRM waters), Eyre, Spencer
Gulf, Northern Spencer Gulf and GSV
bioregions in South Australia. Has been
recorded at Topgallant lsland in the
eastern Great Australian Bight. An
encrusting species from the lower
intertidal and shallow subtidal, growing on
stones, shells (including oysters),
macroalgae, seagrasses, other fouling
species; also human-made structures
such as floats, ropes and aquaculture
cages. Nudibranchs, gastropods and
flatworms feed on this colonial ascidian.
Can be a dominant competitor,
overgrowing and excluding many other
fouling species. Transferred by vessels,
fishing and aquaculture activity.
Star Ascidian
Possibly
Known in South Australia from the GSV
and Eyre bioregions (including southern
Eyre Peninsula), and also from southwestern WA. Attaches to rocks,
macroalgae, seagrass, other fouling
organisms, floats, wharf pylons, vessel
hulls and other submerged human-made
structures. Colonies of B. schlosseri are
eaten by crabs, gastropods, nudibranchs
and flatworms. Colonies can occur from
the very shallow subtidal to almost 200m
depth. Can be transferred by vessels,
fisheries activity and aquaculture.
solitary
ascidian
Unlikely
Known from port areas in several parts of
southern Australia, including Port
Adelaide and Outer Harbour area in GSV
bioregion in SA. Commonly found in
dense aggregations on rocks, algal
holdfasts, seagrass, shells and artificial
structures such as pylons, buoys and
ships‘ hulls. It is found in the low intertidal
and shallow subtidal zones of enclosed
and semi-protected marine embayments
and estuaries. Australian populations
appear to be in decline in port areas, but it
is noted that this species is reported to be
easily transferred by vessels, fishing
activity and aquaculture.
(c) K. Gowlett-Holmes, in Stafford
and Willan (2007)
Botryllus schlosseri
(c) K. Gowlett-Holmes at NIMPIS:
http://adl.brs.gov.au/marinepests/ind
ex.cfm?fa=main.spDetailsDB&sp=60
00006015
Ciona intestinalis
86
Table 7 (continued): Marine pests reported in South Australia.
Latin Name
Common Name
Likelihood
of Presence
in AW NRM
Region
Supporting Notes
Styela clava
Leathery Sea
Squirt
Very Unlikely
Reported by NIMPIS 2009a to occur in
South Australia, but Hayes et al. 2005 and
Kott (2006 in ABRS 2009) reported that
this species is known to date only in
Victoria. Known to foul vessels,
aquaculture and fishing equipment and
other artificial structures, and may also be
translocated with oyster spat and oyster
transfers.
Styela plicata
solitary ascidian
Unlikely
Reported by NIMPIS 2002 to occur in
South Australia gulfs and eastern GAB,
but not as far west as AW NRM region.
Associated with ports and harbours and
aquaculture.
Research
Disturbance to Australian sea lions from researchers undertaking work within colonies is
possible unless research activities are conducted appropriately (Director of National Parks,
2005).
Benthic research using sleds, dredges and cores can damage the sea floor, destroy benthic
flora and fauna in the dredged or cored area, increase turbidity, and degrade the habitat quality
for mobile organisms that utilise the structure and composition of the benthic cover for feeding,
reproduction, living, or shelter from wave action / storms or predators. This is particularly so in
areas where slow-growing species form a significant part of the benthic cover, such as sponges
and bryozoans.
Land-based and Coastal Discharges
The broad shelf of the GAB is largely uninfluenced by run-off from the land, because there are
no major or minor rivers draining into the Bight (DEWR, 2006). Due to this absence of river runoff, coupled with the very low population density, absence of large urban centres, absence of
coastal industry, and absence of agriculture, major land-based discharges are not an issue in
the region.
However, at a local scale, the proliferation of tracks in some parts of the cliff top and cliff face
within the AW NRM region, have resulted in gully erosion (Caton et al., 2007). Cliff erosion in
this area is a natural process, but the nearshore marine impacts of accelerated erosion from
human-made tracks (and consequent increased rate and quantity of cliff materials deposition
into the shallow marine environment) has not been investigated.
87
In parts of the AW NRM, the increased number of tracks through dunes during the past two
decades has also caused some dune destabilisation and erosion, and this is discussed in more
detail in Caton et al. (2007).
Mining, Minerals, Oil and Gas Exploration
Figures in section 2.7 show the parts of the Great Australian Bight in which oil and/or gas
exploration permits and exploration wells exist, and areas where seismic surveys have been
undertaken. None of these activities have occurred in the shallow waters of the AW NRM
Region. However, it is noted that significant impacts can occur from such activities in deeper
waters (managed by the Commonwealth).
No demersal (sea floor) trawling is allowed in the allowed in the Commonwealth-managed
Benthic Protection Zone of the Great Australian Bight Marine Park (see Table CC in 3.3 Notes
on Current Protection and Management); however, such activity is permitted outside the
benthic protection ―strip‖.
Also, within the area of the GAB Marine Park Commonwealth waters, petroleum exploration
leases have been approved, and petroleum exploration in the area has involved seismic testing
as well as proposals for core sampling (i.e. drilling into the ocean floor). Scientific exploration for
minerals in the area is also a disruptive process, which includes dredging and sediment core
sampling. Impacts from benthic drilling include destruction of benthic fauna; siltation, and
damage to colonies of filter-feeding organisms (such as sponges); erosion of bottom sediments
when benthic cover is removed; provision of conditions of opportunistic organisms to proliferate
(thereby altering community structure, including species composition and abundance); and
noise impacts (and disturbance to various species that may use the area for feeding, resting
etc).
Offshore seismic surveys involve the use of high energy noise sources operated in the water
column to probe below the seafloor. Almost all routinely used seismic sources involve the rapid
release of compressed air to produce an impulsive signal. These signals are directed
downwards through the seabed, and then reflected upwards again by density or velocity
discontinuities within the underlying rock strata. The technique is commonly used in oil and gas
exploration (McCauley et al., 2000). There is a large and increasing literature on the impacts of
seismic surveying on whales, dolphins, sea turtles, and fishes. In 2003, Pidcock et al reported
on the potential sensitivity of marine mammals to mining and exploration in the Great Australian
Bight Marine Park Marine Mammal Protection Zone. Despite a significant number of
publications on this topic, it is noted that the general conclusion of the authors was that ―there is
still insufficient definitive data to determine, with any degree of certainty, what is likely to occur
should petroleum operations be allowed in the Marine Mammal Protection Zone under (a future)
management plan”.
Impacts on marine mammals from the gas and petroleum industry can include the following
(from Pidcock et al., 2003):
noise from seismic survey, drilling activities, boat or rig operations;
collisions with ships involved with petroleum industry activities;
88
chemical impacts associated with oil spills or other sources of industry-based pollution;
and
indirect impacts through effects on prey species populations from industry activities such
as seismic surveys or events such as oil spills.
It is generally agreed by those that study effects of mining, minerals, oil and gas exploration
industries on marine mammals in Australian waters, that the primary potential source of impact
or disturbance from the industry is through sound (Pidcock et al., 2003).
One example is the work of McCauley and colleagues during the mid to late 1990s in Western
Australia, who undertook at 3-year survey for the Australian Petroleum Production and
Exploration Association (APPEA) in conjunction with the Energy Research and Development
Corporation (ERDC). Results of the project showed the following, in response to seismic
vessels and associated air gun signals (from McCauley et al., 2000, and McCauley 2004):
migrating humpback whales made avoidance manoeuvres in response to a 3D seismic
vessel at approx. 2 to 4 km, then allowed the seismic vessel to pass no closer than 3km.
Humpback pods containing cows which were involved in resting behaviour in key
habitats were more sensitive and showed an avoidance response estimated at 7-12km
from a large seismic source. (Generally, whales are more susceptible to noise while
resting or breeding compared to during migration or feeding, but resting is a particularly
important behavioural state for cow-calf pods);
male humpbacks were attracted to a single operating air gun due to what was believed
the similarity of an air gun signal and a whale breaching event.
based on the response of captive animals to an approaching single air gun and scaling
these results, sea turtles displayed a general 'alarm' response at an estimated 2km
range from an operating seismic vessel and behaviour indicative of avoidance estimated
at 1km.
captive fishes showed a generic fish 'alarm' response of swimming faster, swimming to
the bottom, tightening school structure, or all three, at an estimated 2-5 km from a
seismic source. Also, captive fish exposed to short range air gun signals were seen to
have some damaged hearing structures, and
captive squid showed a strong startle response to nearby air gun start up and evidence
that they would significantly alter their behaviour at an estimated 2-5 km from an
approaching large seismic source (McCauley et al., 2000).
Although this research project did not take place in the GAB, the results may be
relevant, because the affected faunal types all occur in the GAB either permanently or
periodically, and may display a similar response to seismic testing. According to a
literature summary cited by Pidcock et al. (2003), for seismic noise, most whales show
avoidance behaviour at 180 dB. Importantly, the greatest risks to marine mammals are
considered to be posed by exploration activities (compared with production activities).
89
A number of exploration companies in southern and western Australia have undertaken studies
of seismic impacts on whales, as a requirement under the Commonwealth‘s guidelines on the
application of the EPBC Act to interactions between offshore seismic operations and cetaceans.
In some cases, shut-down procedures have been instigated during operations when whales
were seen within a 5km and 3km mitigation zones (e.g. ROC Oil 2002 and 2003 programs,
cited by APPEA, undated).
Ship strike is another potential impact for whales in Commonwealth-managed waters, but far
less so in State waters at the Head of the Bight, where few vessels are permitted. Ship strike is
generally considered to be a serious risk for Southern Right Whales (summary in Pidcock et al.,
2003) particularly young right whales which tend to rest on or near the water‘s surface.
Climate Change
Changes in ocean temperature, currents, levels of ocean stratification, wind strength, rainfall,
sea level, surface irradiance, ocean chemistry and extreme weather conditions are some of the
key aspects of variables climate change impacts in marine environments (Booth et al., 2009).
Climate change requires global effort for mitigation, and CO2 emissions are unlikely to cease
this century despite an increase in policies to mitigate climate change by nations around the
globe (Babcock et al., in Poloczanska et al., 2008). However, in a ranking of vulnerability of
marine life to climate change impacts within Australia‘s 7 large marine regions, the southwestern part of Australia (which includes the Great Australian Bight), was considered the least
vulnerable to change (Hobday et al., 2006), compared with the central eastern and southeastern parts of Australia (the most vulnerable). The assessment included 29 indicators in five
dimensions (biological, regional, climate change, fishing stress and other anthropogenic
stressors) (Hobday et al., 2006). In the eastern Great Australian Bight, cooling due to increased
winds and upwelling is predicted to counteract the influences of ocean warming to some extent
(Hobday et al., 2006).
Compared with south-western Australia and south-eastern Australia, there has been little
investigation of the mechanisms or likely impacts of climate change specifically in the Great
Australian Bight. In south-eastern Australia, sea surface temperatures (SST) have been shown
to have risen ~2°C since 1925, with inter-annual variation in extremes also increasing (Figueira
and Booth, 2009, cited by Booth et al., 2009). Warming may have occurred in Western
Australia, but the data are less clear. Given that the Leeuwin Current from Western Australia is
a significant seasonal influence in the Bight, it is highly likely that changes in this current over
time that can be attributed to the influence of global warming, will have an impact on the
ecosystems of the GAB. Climate change is predicted to enhance the strength, annual duration
and southward extent of boundary currents such as the Leeuwin Current, and its associated
eddies (Ridgeway, 2007, cited by Booth et al., 2009). Furthermore, a gradual increase in sea
surface temperature (SST) has been observed in south-western Australia, and this may be
linked to air-sea heat flux into the southern Indian Ocean (Pearce and Feng, 2007; Caputi et al.,
2009, cited by Booth et al., 2009).
Possible impacts of climate change on several key temperate marine habitats and groups are
discussed below.
90
Temperate Rocky Reefs: Rocky reefs have been ranked internationally as one of the five most
threatened marine ecosystems (Halpern et al., 2007). Rocky reefs, commonly dominated by
brown or mixed red/green/brown macroalgae cover in shallow waters and attached
invertebrates and red macroalgae in deeper waters, form a large component of the AW NRM
marine region, and increasing sea temperature is considered to be a significant (and
increasingly serious) stressor on temperate rocky reefs, due to the effects of global warming.
There is concern that the distribution and abundance of macroalgae on temperate reefs in
southern Australia may be significantly affected by global climate change, because climatic
stability over geological time has been one of the key conditions underpinning the evolution of
the marine flora in the southern region (Wernberg et al., 2009). Some changes may already
have occurred, but these relate to the well publicised decline of giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera
in Tasmania (for which the causes have still not been unequivocally determined), and the
southward shift of 3 species of canopy-forming macroalgae on the east coast of Australia
(Wernberg et al., 2009).
Apart from work on eastern Tasmania reefs (Crawford et al., 2000; Edgar et al., 2005; Ling,
2008; Ling and Johnson, 2009; Ling et al., 2008, 2009), there are very few examples from
Australia of climate change impacts on rocky reefs in Australia, because of a lack of long-term
and broad-scale data sets. The Tasmanian work has indicated that current and increasing water
temperatures, and movement further south of the warmer Eastern Australian current, have
caused a southerly range shift for sea urchins from eastern Australia, leading to overgrazing
and loss of algal habitat. Ling (2008) predicted that although grazed barrens are relatively
uncommon in southern Australia, increased abundance and range (similar to that observed in
Tasmania), could occur as a result of ocean warming. This could have very serious
consequences for the high proportion of southern Australian endemic macroalgae and the
associated fauna, as poleward range retreat is prevented by a lack of contiguous southern
coastal habitat (Ling, 2008). The range of a number of other invertebrate species from eastern
Australia has also increased southwards during the past 50 years (Poloczanska et al., 2008).
It is predicted that in future, rising temperatures will result in changes in species distribution,
abundance, and patterns of reproduction (e.g. frequency and timing of spore release, and
changes in reproductive output), including further range-shifts of both macroalgae and
invertebrates on rocky reefs, with local extinction of species that have northern range limits
along the southern coastline of Australia. Such changes are predicted to happen progressively
through 2030 to 2100 (Wernberg et al., 2009).
This may have important consequences for community composition on rocky reefs, if key
structural and functional species such as brown canopy-forming macroalgae are adversely
affected by increasing ocean temperature.
A summary of likely changes to kelp-dominated habitats includes (i) a shift in the distributions of
kelp and other temperate reef species southward, due to increasing temperatures and
decreases in nutrients, and such a shift may imperil some species due to the bounded southern
coastline; (ii) changes in storminess and physical disturbance regimes will shift the distributions
and compositions of kelp ecosystems; (iii) changes in rainfall and watershed integrity will affect
kelp habitat; (iv) outbreaks of herbivores might reduce the cover of kelp forest stands in some
areas (Hobday et al., 2006).
91
In some areas, the combined effects of climate change and other stresses (such as poor water
quality) is predicted to reduce the resilience of temperate reef communities to perturbations
such as storms, diseases, and invasive species. Many of these perturbations may increase in
frequency and/or severity in response to climate change (Wernberg et al., 2009). However, it is
noted that although the flora and fauna in the waters of the AW NRM region may be subject to
the increasing and long-term effects of climate change, they are largely not subject to any other
stressors (other than potential recreational fishing impacts), due to the remoteness of the
region, lack of pollutants from the coast, low population density, and the legislative protection
afforded by the Great Australian Bight Marine Park.
Seagrasses: Seagrass beds can also be vulnerable to higher temperatures. One example
comes from Spencer Gulf in South Australia, where a rapid die-off of 12,717 hectares of
seagrass was attributed to the effects of a hotter than usual summer during an El Niño year
(Seddon et al., 2000). Sea surface temperature increases of 1-2°C across southern Australia is
predicted by 2070 (with greatest warming in SE Australia/Tasman Sea due to strengthening of
the East Australian current), an also, an increase in incident solar radiation on the sea surface
in Australian waters is expected by 2070, in the order of between 2 and 7 units W m-2 (Hobday
et al., 2006). Both the increased temperatures and the increase in solar radiation on the surface
could adversely affect shallow marine biota such as intertidal and shallow subtidal seagrasses.
Future reduction of seagrass habitat, which forms key nursery area for juveniles of many
species, is expected to occur, due to the impacts of climate change (Booth et al., 2009), and
seagrass physiology and morphology may also change (Hobday et al., 2006), in response to
increased solar radiation, increased CO2, and increased sea surface temperature. Decreasing
cover and extent of seagrass may have flow-on effects, such as a reduction in the populations
of various temperate coastal fishes.
At a national scale, a summary of some of the changes likely in future includes: (i) increases in
seagrass biomass as CO2 levels rise and enhancement of the role of seagrass in coastal
carbon and nutrient cycling; (ii) shifts in species distribution southwards, and alteration of
species composition of seagrass beds as temperatures warm; (iii) alteration of frequency and
timing of flower and seed production; (iv) increase in seagrass bed destruction if storm regimes
become more frequent or more severe; (v) disappearance of ultraviolet (UV)- intolerant species
from shallow waters as UV radiation levels rise (Hobday et al., 2006).
Fishes: Changes in distribution (latitudinal changes along eastern and western Australia, and
both latitudinal and longitudinal changes along the south coast, including the GAB) may be one
of the key impacts of climate change on temperate fishes. Many benthic and demersal fishes
may be particularly affected, because of their localised reproduction and reduced ability to
disperse, hence current distributions and abundances are highly likely to change over time
(Hobday et al., 2006), including localised extinctions of populations. Climate change may affect
temperate fishes in many ways, including changes to larval transport / dispersal and population
connectivity, settlement and recruitment (early post-settlement survival and over-wintering,
particularly in relation to changes in currents), growth rates, assemblage structure and range
shifts, spawning and egg production (including nursery grounds) (Booth et al., 2009). Examples
of some of the likely impacts of climate change on temperate fishes include the following: (i)
contraction of spawning period and southward movement of the spawning area for species
which spawn late autumn/winter (e.g. King George Whiting); (ii) east / west range shifts along
the South Australian coast, and also possibly in depth distribution, of Australian Pilchard
92
(Sardinops sagax); (iii) changes to strength of the Leeuwin Current and warming SST are likely
to enhance settlement and early survival of warmer-water fish species, with the opposite effect
for cooler-water southern species; (iv) reduced habitat for cooler water southern species,
including commercially important species; (v) establishment of fish species at southern latitudes
that were previously absent, e.g. Western Australian coastal fishes may establish/increase
abundance in South Australian waters, and (vi) changes in growth rates of some species,
because growth warmer waters are often inversely correlated with ocean productivity, and
hence fish food resources (Booth et al., 2009).
One of the major impacts likely to accelerate in future, is the north-south range shifts of
temperate and tropical fish species, due to the effects of warming sea surface temperature on
species‘ tolerances, coupled with ocean current changes linked to potential for larval dispersal
(Booth et al., 2009). In south-eastern Australia there is some research on early post-recruitment
survival of tropical reef fishes, which disperse to southern areas via the SE Australian coast. For
these species, an overwintering survival threshold of around 17.5°C has been demonstrated,
but this threshold was exceeded in 2001 and 2006 (warmest winters in 150 years: Figueira and
Booth, 2009, cited by Booth et al., 2009), and this resulted in significantly greater numbers of
several tropical species over-wintering in southern latitudes. Furthermore, in the last decade 34
fish species that were previously absent or rare south of the Bass Strait have either established
or increased in abundance further south (Last, CSIRO, pers. comm., cited by Richardson and
Poloczanska, in Poloczanska et al., 2008). It is quite possible that such a phenomenon could
also occur along the southern coast of Australia in future, for tropical and sub-tropical species
from Western Australia, driven southwards by the Leeuwin Current. Little is known of the larval
dispersal patterns of most temperate fishes, so impacts of changes in current patterns on
dispersal are unclear, but one possible impact may be adversely affected larval fish
development and survival due to increased ultraviolet radiation (Hobday et al., 2006).
In south-western Australia and through the Great Australian Bight, it is predicted that with
increased warming effects, future changes in the strength and timing of the Leeuwin Current
may have major implications for the distribution and abundance of some species, including
West Australian Salmon and Australian Herring in waters off South Australia (Hobday et al.,
2009). Changes in productivity, for example due to increased coastal upwelling, may lead to
increases in abundance of some species, particularly of small coastal pelagic fishes, such as
sardines and anchovy, in the large upwelling system between Cape Otway in Victoria and the
central Great Australian Bight (Hobday et al., 2009). However, due to limited evidence for
observed changes (which makes prediction difficult), coupled with absence of information on
species habitat tolerances and empirical models for future prediction of species ranges and
abundances, the confidence in predictions is low to medium (Hobday et al., 2009).
In summary, it is possible that significant range shifts – including more tropical species in
southern waters; southern species shifting south, driven by sea surface temperature warming;
change or strengthening of boundary currents, habitat losses and gains – will be strongly
evidenced by 2030, with possible large-scale changes in fish assemblage structure and fishery
outputs by 2100 (Booth et al., 2009).
93
Seabirds: At an Australia-wide scale, oceanic warming is expected to shift the distribution of
some seabirds southwards, and there is already some evidence of distributional changes in
tropical Australian seabird populations (Hobday et al., 2006). Other possible changes include
altered reproductive success; earlier nesting and laying; loss of nesting or feeding habitats; and
changes to migration and foraging patterns, due to the effects of changing current patters on
productivity and food sources etc (Hobday et al., 2006).
Soft Sediment Fauna: A summary of some of the changes likely in future includes: (i) sensitivity
of populations of sediment fauna warming, decreases in ocean pH, changes in primary
production, hydrology, storminess and extreme weather events; (ii) a shift in the ranges and
distributions of many species of soft sediment fauna, differentially leading to new assemblages
of organisms; (iii) acidification (see following paragraph) will erode the shells of molluscs,
corals, benthic foraminifera, and other groups with carbonate shells; (iv) changes in water
column primary production may alter abundances, community interactions, and benthic-pelagic
coupling; (v) changes in prevailing current dynamics may affect soft sediment systems
considerably, and (vi) changes in freshwater input may modify the benthic community over vast
areas (NB the last point of least relevance to AW NRM marine region, which has very little
freshwater input).
Oceanic acidification, and also changes in storm patterns, may also result from climate change.
Although there are currently no examples of such impacts for southern Australian ecosystems
(Wernberg et al., 2009), the predictions are serious. For example, McNeil and Matear (2008)
presented an observational and empirical analysis of the seasonal variability in pH and
carbonate ions in the Southern Ocean. Their work indicated strong variation in the seasonal
amplitudes of pH and carbonate, with an intense minimum of carbonate ions during the
wintertime. This coincides with the development of some prominent calcifying plankton species.
Such species are predicated to experience detrimental ocean acidification conditions ~30 years
earlier than previously thought, with a predicted threshold of 450ppm carbon dioxide for the
Southern Ocean wintertime carbonate unsaturation projected for the year 2030 (depending on
future emission scenarios) (McNeil and Matear, 2008).
In the future, it is likely that ocean acidification will increase (possibly in the order of a 0.2 unit
decrease in pH: Hobday et al., 2006, or a 0.3-0.4 unit decrease by 2100: Wootton et al. 2008,
cited by Wernberg et al., 2009), with negative impacts on calcareous macroalgae and other
calcifying organisms. Examples include corals, calcareous plankton (e.g. coccolithophores),
foraminifera, and larger fauna with calcareous shells, such as echinoderms, bivalve and
gastropod molluscs, and larger crustaceans which strengthen their external cuticle with calcium
carbonate deposits. The changes in the ocean‘s chemistry (i.e. decrease in the pH caused by
oceanic uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide), will reduce the capacity for such organisms to
secrete calcium carbonate (reduced rates of calcification), and /or will increase the rate of
dissolution; i.e. the concentration of carbonate ions will be lowered to a point where the shells of
many marine organisms will begin to dissolve. Many invertebrate shells are constructed of
calcium carbonate, and this is also the structural support for the plant body of calcareous algae.
On the temperate coast of southern Australia, calcareous macroalgae crusts occupy significant
areas of hard substrate (up to 80% in some exposed areas), dominating space beneath
canopies (Wernberg et al., 2009). Recent experimental work in Australia has shown that
acidification associated with conservative projections of future CO2 concentrations (550 ppm)
will have negative effects on the growth and recruitment of coralline algae (Russell et al., 2009,
94
cited by Wernberg et al., 2009). The work of Russell et al. (2009) also indicated that the effects
of increase CO2 may be worse in nutrient-enrichment areas, where opportunistic turfing algae
may proliferate in place of calcareous algae. Work in the northern hemisphere has shown that
increased CO2 and temperature have greater negative effects in combination than in isolation
(Martin and Gattuso, 2009, cited by Wernberg et al., 2009). Decalcification and reduced rates of
calcification may be particularly important future impacts in parts of the Great Australian Bight
shelf, where calcifying organisms are abundant.
Ocean warming may also influence the spread of pest species. For example, Glasby and
Gibson showed that both the tropical native invasive forms of Caulerpa taxifolia grew up to ten
times faster in warmer waters (22–25°C) compared with cooler water (15–18°C), in terms of
biomass, and length and number of both fronds and stolons. Given avoidance by certain fish
species of C. taxifolia, and its encroachment into and displacement of preferred seagrass beds,
potential indirect effects of sea surface temperature rise are likely to affect seagrass-associated
fish populations in shallow waters. However, it is noted that Caulerpa taxifolia may have a low
probability of invading remote and high energy areas such as AW NRM region (see section on
Marine Pests). Another consequence of global warming may be the increased incidence in
future of harmful algal blooms of phytoplankton groups that can proliferate due to thermal
stratification and acidification of the ocean. Warmer temperatures may also result in expanded
ranges of some harmful species, such as tropical marine dinoflagellates (Moore et al., 2008).
Two other habitats that are vulnerable to impacts from increasing sea temperature (hard shelf
and epi-pelagic ecosystems) are major components of the waters further offshore from the
region, but the discussion here will be limited to inshore habitats, which form part of the AW
NRM region.
Ranking of Threats and Proposed Actions
Table 8 below summarises the main issues discussed above, and lists proposed actions to
mitigate threats and threatening processes. A number of recommendations apply to deeper
waters seaward of AW NRM region, and these are included with respect to the ecological
connectivity between shallow and deep waters of the region. For example, some of the fishes
and sharks caught commercially in deeper waters seaward of the NRM, have nursery areas in
shallow waters. Also, sea lions that occur in the AW NRM region feed in offshore waters, where
they may be subject to bycatch mortality, or mortality or injury due to marine debris.
95
Table 8: Summary of issues / threat categories, area of concern (within AW NRM and/or seaward
of AW NRM region), proposed actions, and priority ranking for actions.
Issue / Threat
Category
(and Area of
Concern)
Proposed Action
Priority of Action
Fishing
(AW NRM)
A program is required to educate and inform fishers and
the general public about the conservation status of
species at risk, such as mulloway, western blue groper,
southern bluefin tuna, school shark and the whaler sharks.
These species should not be fished in the Great
Australian Bight Marine Park if possible (see below),
including waters of the AW NRM, due to their vulnerable
population dynamics.
High
Fishing
(AW NRM)
It is recognised that mulloway fishing is a key recreational
activity at the Head of the Bight, and a if managers and
other decision-makers determine that the social and
economic consequences of prohibiting mulloway fishing
are too great, then at least measures (such as hook
specifications, restrictions on time permitted to ―play‖ a
fish‖, and minimum handling etc) should be undertaken to
try to ensure that mulloway that are caught and released
suffer minimum post-release mortality. Some examples of
ways in which mortality can be reduced include (i) for
mulloway which have swallowed the hook: cutting the line
rather than trying to remove the ingested hook (NB fish
which are mouth-hooked suffer much lower mortality
rates, regardless of whether the hook is removed or the
line is cut), and (ii) cutting the line underwater (and thus
reducing the exposure of the fish to air).
High
Fishing
(AW NRM)
Determine relative numbers of mulloway in the GAB,
compared with other parts of the State, and monitor
catches in the area over space and time.
High
Fishing
(AW NRM)
Separate quotas for greenlip and blacklip abalone in
Region B of the Western Zone , to assist monitoring of
stock status.
Medium
Fishing (AW NRM
and deeper
waters seaward)
Reduce the quota for Southern Rock Lobster in the
Northern Zone, in light of the apparent long-term decline
in the stock.
High
Fishing (AW NRM
and deeper
waters seaward of
AW NRM)
Sharks and other elasmobranch species listed
internationally as vulnerable or endangered, should be
fully protected from commercial and recreational fishing in
the Great Australian Bight, including waters of the AW
NRM. This includes school shark, thresher shark, black
whaler, shortfin mako, smooth hammerhead, porbeagle,
Melbourne skate, and coastal stingaree.
High
Fishing (AW NRM
and deeper
waters seaward of
AW NRM)
A seasonal restriction on fishing gummy sharks should be
considered during the pupping season. This should apply
to both commercial and recreational fishing.
High
96
Table 8 (cont.): Summary of issues / threat categories, area of concern (within AW NRM and/or
seaward of AW NRM region), proposed actions, and priority ranking for actions.
Issue / Threat
Category (and
Area of Concern)
Proposed Action
Fishing (AW NRM
and deeper waters
seaward of
AW NRM)
Increase the level and quality of quantitative data on
bycatch rates of Sea Lions in the South Australian Rock
Lobster fishery. Anecdotal evidence and entanglement
data suggest there has been significant underreporting
of seal and sea lion interactions in this fishery (SARDI
data, 2006).
Priority of Action
In both Western Australia and South Australia, research
is currently being undertaken to determine suitable
methods to modify rock lobster pots to eliminate capture
of juvenile Australian sea lions, to reduce humaninduced mortality in the population (Campbell, 2005;
Goldsworthy, 2008), Measures such as seal-exclusion
devices (a metal spike placed vertically in the neck of
the pot), and attaching bait containers to the side of the
pot entrance, amongst other measures, should be
adopted in all parts of the South Australian rock lobster
fishery. Further information on reducing interaction of
sea lions within the rock lobster industry is provided in
Goldsworthy (2008).
Fishing (deeper
waters seaward of
AW NRM)
Reducing the bycatch of attached benthos such as
sponges and hard corals will reduce habitat degradation
and this may help to ensure the healthy status of fish
stocks in the Great Australian Bight. This may be
achieved in the closing areas of ―virgin‖ (untrawled)
ground to trawling and by prohibiting exploratory fishing
under certain depths (<100m). Consideration may also
be given to gear types or modifications that are less
damaging to benthic environments (Brown and Knuckey,
2002). Periodically closing trawled areas (particularly
those for which sponge and/or coral bycatch is large) to
permit recovery should also be considered.
Benthic habitats dominated by dominated by large
sponges and mixed epifauna, and those that are
dominated by bryozoan communities (e.g. at the shelf
break) should be closed to trawling.
High
High
Fishing (deeper
waters seaward of
AW NRM)
Investigate means of reducing bycatch of non-target
species, in terms of timing of shots (moon phase etc)
and location of shots, as well as further gear
modifications. Also, avoid fishing areas where catches of
species of conservation concern (e.g. stingarees,
sharks, dogfishes) are highest.
High
Fishing (deeper
waters seaward of
AW NRM)
Reduce risk of entanglement of cetaceans (and sea
lions – see separate heading) in trawl, gillnet and longline fisheries, by gear modification, seasonal or
permanent closures in areas where cetaceans are
known to aggregate, and acoustic alarms on vessels
during whale migration season.
High
97
Table 8 (cont.): Summary of issues / threat categories, area of concern (within AW NRM and/or
seaward of AW NRM region), proposed actions, and priority ranking for actions.
Issue / Threat
Category
(and Area of
Concern)
Proposed Action
Fishing (deeper
waters seaward
of AW NRM)
Investigate the extent of the deliberate harming of both
sharks and cetaceans by fishers operating seasonally in the
GAB, and where possible, ensure that on-board observers
are present to prevent such practices.
High
Threats to Sea
Lions
(AW NRM)
Prohibit entry by land or sea to any of the Bunda Cliff
colonies, with the exception of non-invasive research by
permit.
High
Threats to Sea
Lions (deeper
waters seaward
of AW NRM)
Based on the outcome of current research which is
investigating the main foraging areas of sea lions in south
Australia, restrict trawl fishing and gillnetting in the main
foraging areas of sea lions, including area in the Great
Australian Bight. This may be particularly important during
breeding times when the young are left ashore to await a
parent‘s return from feeding expedition.
High
Increase the level and quality of quantitative data on
bycatch rates of sea lions in the shark gillnet sector of the
SESSF. Anecdotal evidence and entanglement data
suggest there has been significant underreporting of seal
and sea lion interactions in this fishery (SARDI data, 2006).
Recreation and
Tourism
(AW NRM)
Reduce the number of vehicle tracks and foot access tracks
through the dunes and other coastal habitats in the AW
NRM region.
Reduce or restrict the use of vehicles on sandy beaches
which contain beach wrack, particularly during the hooded
plover breeding season. Beaches where this vulnerable bird
species is known to nest i.e. where nesting is confirmed,
should be closed to vehicles.
Divert cliff-top access tracks and roads away from osprey
and white-bellied sea eagle nests. Dennis (2008) discussed
this requirement in more detail (particularly for the Yalata
Indigenous Protected Area between Head of the Bight
whale viewing area and the boundary of the Nullarbor
National Park), and his suggestions are fully supported
here.
Restrict access by visitors / tourists to Head of Bight
locations where active osprey and white-bellied sea eagle
nests occur.
Reduce the opportunity for off-road vehicles to make
informal tracks along the cliffs to viewing spots.
Prohibit the dumping of rubbish by visitors at accessible cliff
and beach sites.
Ensure that visitors to the Head of the Bight to view whales
and sea lions adhere to the standards from the policy
associated with recreational and commercial tourism
interactions with marine mammals in South Australia (see
National Seal Strategy Group and Stewardson, 2005).
98
Priority of Action
High
High
High
High (for all
recommendations)
Table 8 (cont.): Summary of issues / threat categories, area of concern (within AW NRM and/or
seaward of AW NRM region), proposed actions, and priority ranking for actions.
Issue / Threat
Category
(and Area of
Concern)
Marine Debris
(AW NRM and
deeper waters
seaward of
AW NRM)
Proposed Action
Priority of Action
All NRM Boards and government agencies with marine
responsibilities should be aware of the national threat
abatement plan for the impacts of marine debris on
vertebrate marine life (DEWHA, 2009a). Although South
Australia is only briefly considered in the plan, many of the
proposed actions are relevant to marine debris reduction in
all States and Commonwealth waters. Adherence to the
plan will also ensure that operators in Commonwealth and
southern Australian State waters remain compliant with the
international MARPOL (Annex V) regulations.
High (for all
recommendations)
Where possible, expand South Australian investigation of
the spatial and temporal extent of mortality and injury of
marine biota (particularly marine mammals) due to fishing
industry discards, to include the fished area of the GAB.
Prohibit the use of plastic bait box straps in all Australian
fisheries, including the shark and long-line tuna fisheries.
Marine Pests
(AW NRM)
Although there are no harbours in the AW NRM region, and
no shipping activity (see above), even small recreational
and commercial boats can carry marine pests. Therefore,
vessels entering waters at the Head of the Bight should be
cautious in this regard, and take steps to ensure that ballast
water is not discharged. Hulls should be cleaned regularly,
with no discharge of waste washing waters to sea.
High (for all
recommendations)
Recreational boats and associated equipment (e.g.
anchors) from Gulf St Vincent should not be permitted to
enter the waters of AW NRM, to reduce the risk of the
invasive Caulerpa taxifolia being transferred to the region.
Researchers working in the GAB Marine Park have been
asked to report any sightings of marine pests (Director of
National Parks, 2005).
Research
(AW NRM)
Researchers undertaking work within sea lion colonies
across the GAB should minimise disturbance, as
recommended by the Director of National Parks (2005).
High
Research
(AW NRM, and
deeper waters
seaward of
AW NRM)
Benthic researchers should minimise the use of benthic
sleds, dredges and cores, because these methods can
damage benthic biota, and degrade habitat quality.
High
Land-based and
Coastal
Discharges
(AW NRM)
Reduce the proliferation of tracks in some parts of the cliff
top and cliff face within the AW NRM region, to reduce gully
erosion.
High
Reduce the number of tracks through dunes, to try to
mitigate dune destabilisation and erosion (see also Caton et
al., 2007)
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Table 8 (cont.): Summary of issues / threat categories, area of concern (within AW NRM and/or
seaward of AW NRM region), proposed actions, and priority ranking for actions.
Issue / Threat
Category
(and Area of
Concern)
Proposed Action
Priority of Action
Mining,
Minerals, Oil
and Gas
Exploration
(deeper waters
seaward of
AW NRM)
Prohibit seismic exploration, drilling, and all other forms of
exploration for oil, gas, mining and minerals in the Great
Australian Bight Marine Park, and in any future extension of
that park (e.g. see section 3.3 below, on proposed GAB
Extension, as part of the Commonwealth Marine Reserves
program).
High
Climate Change
The effects of climate change in any region cannot easily
be detected or monitored without knowledge of the
distribution, abundance and species composition of marine
flora and fauna. Therefore, more research is required to
document these features as a baseline against which future
changes can be measured. There are many knowledge
gaps in the AW NRM (some in the process of being filled),
with some examples including baseline data on ranges of
marine macroalgae, seagrasses, benthic and demersal
fishes, attached and mobile invertebrates, temperature
tolerances, and demography.
High
Climate Change
Following baseline data collection, monitoring at specific
time intervals for all of the above groups is required to
assess climate change impacts. This would include
programs to monitor species identified as ‗indicators‘ of
climate change (Hobday et al., 2006). Long term monitoring
programs are crucial to an understanding of impacts, yet in
Australian marine research, there is still a significant underinvestment in long-term monitoring (Hobday et al., 2006).
High
Climate Change
Ensure that the South Australian component of IMOS, the
Integrated Marine Observing System, continues to include
sites in the GAB for long term monitoring, and that such
monitoring include sea surface temperature, salinity,
currents, water chemistry, seabed habitats, phytoplankton,
zooplankton and acoustic monitoring of marine animal
movements.
Medium
Expand the IMOS system to include inshore waters.
Climate Change
Develop models to assess how main habitat types, such as
rocky shore communities, subtidal reefs (dominated by kelp
and other canopy-forming macroalgae) and invertebratedominated communities may change in the future.
In Australia, greater emphasis on data analysis and
modelling is required in future to better predict specific
climate change impacts , rather than just warehousing and
data-basing large amounts of unused biophysical
inventories (Rosenzweig et al., 2008).
100
Medium
Table 8 (cont.): Summary of issues / threat categories, area of concern (within AW NRM and/or
seaward of AW NRM region), proposed actions, and priority ranking for actions.
Issue / Threat
Category
(and Area of
Concern)
Proposed Action
Climate Change
Although climate change effects cannot be mitigated over the
short and medium term, providing opportunity for climate changestressed organisms to maintain adaptive responses, includes
means of controlling other interactive impacts by the following
(from Babcock et al., in Poloczanska et al., 2008; Booth et al.,
2009 and Wernberg et al., 2009):
Priority of
Action
High
(i) reducing fishing levels (and ensuring that stocks are not driven
down to low levels);
(ii) formally protecting habitat and strongly site-associated species
(through sanctuary zones, in Marine Protected Areas).
(iii) utilising Marine Protected Areas to assist in providing fish
populations with some level of resistance to climate change, by
allowing populations to exist with reduced fishing pressure;
(iv) restocking programs for key species, if careful attention is paid
to genetic structure and indirect effects on local marine
communities.
(v) adaptive fisheries management, such as offering incentives to
fishers to target species that are less affected by climate change;
concomitant incentives for consumers to switch to such species
as preferred food choices; and considerably reducing catch levels
of commercial species that are most affected by climate change;
and
(vi) ensuring that coastal discharges and other agents of
increased nutrients and other pollutants in marine systems are
controlled, given the evidence that climate change impacts in
marine ecosystems can be exacerbated by other (humaninduced) stressors.
(vii) reducing the opportunities for physical, chemical and
biological disturbance to habitats (e.g. by prohibiting coastal
dredging and developments, and other disruptive works).
Other
The knowledge of indigenous custodians of the area should be
incorporated into conservation and management strategies, and
these people should be active participants in such strategies, and
in long-term regional management plans.
101
High
Table 8 (cont.): Summary of issues / threat categories, area of concern (within AW NRM and/or
seaward of AW NRM region), proposed actions, and priority ranking for actions.
Issue / Threat
Category
(and Area of
Concern)
Proposed Action
Climate Change
Wernberg et al. (2009) provided suggestions for more
experimental work (including integrated field and laboratory
manipulations) to (i) increase knowledge of the current changes to
temperate reef assemblages, and (ii) better predict future
changes.
Medium
Climate Change
Employ ecosystem models to distinguish climate change impacts
from other impacts (e.g. fisheries impacts). Richardson and Okey,
in Hobday et al. (2006) and Okey et al., in Poloczanska et al.
(2008), provided a simple summary of types of model approaches
that may be useful for describing and predicting climate change
impacts.
Medium
Climate Change
The likely interaction between climate change variables and
fishing practices needs investigating (Booth et al., 2009).
Medium
Climate Change
Electronic tagging of indicator species, such as tuna and sharks,
to develop habitat preference models, and to assist in determining
range shifts over time (e.g. tunas are predicted to move
southwards with oceanic warming) (Hobday et al., 2006).
Medium
102
Priority of
Action
Part 4
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
IN THE AW NRM REGION – MARINE COMPONENT
4.1 Notes on Current Protection and Management
The waters of the AW NRM region are in a unique position in terms of protected area
legislation, because they are included in the State waters section of the Great Australian Bight
Marine Park (as discussed below), and the coastal lands backing those waters are part of the
Nullarbor National Park and the Yalata Indigenous Protected Area (Figure 12). More recently
(2010), the Nullarbor Plain was declared a Wilderness Protection Area, under the Wilderness
Protection Act 1992.
Figure 12: Marine and terrestrial areas protected under legislation in and adjacent to the AW
NRM region (Figure from Australian Government DEH, 2005).
The Nullarbor National Park (declared 1979) and Regional Reserve (proclaimed 1989), aim to
protect the world's largest semi-arid karst (cave) landscapes and associated wildlife, including
the southern hairy-nosed wombat. However, these parks do not have a high level of area
protection against activities such as mining, compared with Wilderness Protection Areas in
South Australia. (see below).
The recent declaration of the Nullarbor Plain as a Wilderness Protection Area (WPA) under the
Wilderness Protection Act 1992, follows a long-term campaign and nomination by the
Wilderness Society. The nomination acknowledges the cultural significance of the region to the
Mirning people and their interests in its protection and future management. It also recognises
the international and national importance of the area for its natural and cultural heritage values,
as the largest semi-arid karst cave system in the world, covering an area of more than
200,000km. The spectacular Bunda Cliffs and the Great Australian Bight bordering the area to
the south, are included in the WPA, which will ostensibly increase the level of protection of
Australian Sea Lion colonies. Also, no mining exploration or mining activity will be permitted in
the WPA.
103
In the coastal area of the Head of the Bight, a permit system is used to access the Yalata
Indigenous Protected Area. In that area, the impact of the steadily increasing number of people
visiting Yalata's beaches has reportedly become more significant in recent years (Yalata Land
Management, 2003), and one strategy to help control impacts of recreational activities is to
control numbers of visitors through the permit system. The funds collected from permits aid the
land management activities in the area, as well as providing rangers to ensure that the coastal
environment is protected, and the health and safety of visitors is overseen (Yalata Land
Management, 2003). In the coastal dune areas, vehicles must use designated tracks only (as
written on the permit); access through dunes is via marked roads only; camping must be in
designated areas only (as specified on the permit); pets must not roam free; all rubbish from
campsites must be removed; firearms are not permitted to be used on IPA lands, and permit
holders must not interfere with Aboriginal cultural heritage, flora and fauna (Yalata Land
Management, 2003).
Adjacent to the coast, the waters of the AW NRM region fall within the State water component
of the Great Australian Bight Marine Park. The Park is made up of adjoining South Australian
and Commonwealth protected areas (Figure 13). The State Marine Park, in the State (coastal)
waters of the Bight, combines a whale sanctuary established under the former South Australian
Fisheries Act 1982 (now the Fisheries Management Act 2007) and marine national park
established under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972. The sanctuary and marine national
park in S.A. waters were declared during the mid 1990s. The adjoining Great Australian Bight
Marine Park (Commonwealth Waters) is a Commonwealth reserve managed under the
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (and established the former
Commonwealth National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975). The relevant Acts contain
penalties for offences such as entering prohibited areas or conducting prohibited activities
within the Park.
The reserved area in State waters includes a Sanctuary Zone and a Conservation Zone (Figure
13). The Commonwealth waters component (seaward of AW NRM region) includes a Marine
Mammal Protection Zone adjacent to State waters, and a Benthic Protection Zone strip,
consisting of a 20 NM-wide strip orientated north to south and extending from three nautical
miles from the coast to the edge of Australia‘s EEZ, 200 nautical miles offshore (Figure 13).
Collectively, the zones are ostensibly designed to protect the main conservation values of the
Park, which are considered by government to be
(i)
habitat for the southern right whale (Eubalaena australis). Protection of the southern
right whales and their habitat in the Great Australian Bight Marine Park is considered
important for the global conservation of this species;
(ii)
habitat for the Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea);
(iii)
habitat for other species of conservation significance, and
(iv)
a transect representative of the seabed on the continental shelf and slope of the GAB
(Australian Government DEH, 2005).
104
Figure 13: Great Australian Bight Marine Park, showing State and Commonwealth
components. Figure from Australian Government DEH (2005).
The park is zoned, with different rules in each zone, in order to specific species. These zones
are shown in Table 9 below. Beach based recreational fishing can only take place in the
sanctuary zone of the Park and any boating activity must conform to the zoning conditions. The
normal State regulations under the Fisheries Management Act 2007 still apply in relation to
legal lengths, catch limits, permitted gear, and any other conditions. The zoning regulations in
the GAB Marine Park are discussed in more detail in Department for Environment and
Heritage‘s (1998) Great Australian Bight Marine Park Management Plan, Part A.
105
Table 9: Zones of the Great Australian Bight Marine Park in South Australian- and
Commonwealth-managed waters, and permitted activities (from Department for Environment and
Heritage, 2009).
Zone
Purpose
Rules
Protecting Southern Right
Whales, Australian Sea Lions
& representative habitat for
Southern Right Whales
No boating or resource extractive activities*
are allowed (except for recreational line
fishing from the beach).
Conservation
Zone (State)
Protecting Southern Right
Whales & Australian Sea
Lions
Annual six month closure from May to
October every year to all boating activity
(covers the period the whales are present).
All boating and commercial fishing activity
allowed at other times.
Marine Mammal
Protection Zone
(Commonwealth)
Protecting Southern Right
Whales & Australian Sea
Lions
Annual six month closure from May to
October every year to all boating activity
(covers the period the whales are present.)
Sanctuary Zone
(State)
* (includes mining, bio-prospecting,
commercial fishing, recreational fishing
from boats, mining activities etc).
All boating and commercial fishing activity
allowed at other times, except trawling.
Benthic Protection
Zone
(Commonwealth)
Protecting the sea floor
habitat structure and species
that live on the sea floor
(because of the unique
nature of the assemblages
present, with many southern
Australian endemic species)
No demersal (sea floor) trawling allowed
(as this activity alters the seafloor
structure).
―More stringent approval process for
petroleum exploration‖.
In the GAB, there are several closures in place (Figure 14) which restrict commercial fishing,
and in the shallow shelf waters of the AW NRM region, the GAB Marine Park is relevant in this
regard. The shallow waters of the GAB Marine Park Mammal Protection Zone are not in the
area of the Commonwealth trawl fisheries.
A research and management strategy for the Commonwelath and State waters of the GAB
Marine Park was being written in June 2010 (S. Kumar, DEH, pers. comm., 2010).
106
Figure 14: Areas closed to fishing, or which fishing is seasonally restricted, in the Great
Australian Bight. Map from GABIA, reproduced from AFMA, 2008C).
In deeper shelf waters, in the GAB trawl sector of the SESSF, quota management of the main
target species was introduced in 2006, comprising equal allocation of quota between ten
Statutory Fishing Rights licence holders. Selectivity of the gear used in the GABTF is governed
by a minimum mesh size of 90mm, but due to an industry code of conduct, mostly 100mm
minimum mesh sizes are used in the fishery. Over the past few years the GABTF has invested
in developing and trialling fishing gear to improve selectivity of target species and to reduce
bycatch. The GAB Industry Association agreed that all vessels in the fishery must use T90
extensions in all demersal nets, which result in a reduction in the catch of small unwanted
species. Testing of further developments in net design and gear configurations is currently
being conducted under scientific conditions to qualify and quantify the bycatch reductions and
selectivity (AFMA, 2008c). Other developments include assessing the recording of bycatch in
logbooks every 3-6 months; and development and implement of individual vessel management
plans (VMP), to minimise seabird interactions (e.g. offal management), and record procedures
for reporting on catch and wildlife interactions. As part of that aim, every vessel must design
and carry an up-to-date VMP, to be recorded by observers (AFMA, 2008c).
Spatial closures to fishing have been implemented in areas of the GAB where pregnant female
school sharks are known to aggregate (AFMA, 2008b). Another current management strategy in
the commercial shark fishery in southern Australia is to protect a portion of the large breeding
females of gummy shark.
107
4.2 Notes on Proposed Protection and Management
During the mid to late 2000s, the Department of Environment and Heritage in South Australia
developed a proposal to declare a multiple use marine park in Head of the Bight region,
between the Western Australian border and the Tchalingaby sandhills. The Far West Coast
Marine Park includes the State waters of the Great Australian Bight Marine Park (DEH, 2009).
The Far West Marine Park comprises the area bounded by a line commencing on the coastline
at median high water at a point 132°0´4.97E´´, 31°52´38.75S´´ then running progressively:
southerly along the geodesic to its intersection with the seaward limit of the coastal waters of
the State at a point 132°0‘4.97‖E, 31°56‘16.08‖S;
generally westerly along the seaward limit of the coastal waters of the State to a point
129°0‘5.08‖E´, 31°44‘29.80‖S;
northerly along the geodesic to its intersection with the coastline at median high water at a point
129°0‘5.08‖E, 31°41‘12.91‖S (at the western edge of Nullarbor National Park); and
generally easterly along the coastline at median high water (inclusive of all bays, lagoons and
headlands) to the point of commencement (DEH, 2009).
Zoning (including high protection sanctuary zones) for the multiple use marine park had not
been determined at the time of writing this report.
In deeper, Commonwealth-managed waters, a marine bioregional planning program started in
2006, for a broad area known as the South-West Marine region, spanning from Kangaroo Island
in South Australia through to Shark Bay in Western Australia. The program will result in the
development of marine bioregional plans under national environment law for all Australian
waters. It will also establish networks of Commonwealth Marine Reserves which will contribute
to the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA). All governments
in Australia have a shared a national and international commitment to establish a national
representative system by the year 2012 (DEWHA, 2009b). One of the 7 areas for further
assessment is the Head of the Great Australian Bight, including a proposed extension of the
current GAB Marine Park, in Commonwealth-managed adjacent to the AW NRM marine
boundary (see Figure 15 below).
108
Figure 15: One of the 7 major areas for further assessment in the South West Marine Region
(from DEWHA, 2009b)
The ―Great Australian Bight (Extension)‖ area for further assessment is an extension of both the
inner shelf and benthic protection components of the existing Great Australian Bight Marine
Park. The proposed reserve area recognises (i) the notion of the Head of the Bight being a
―hotspot‖ of biodiversity and productivity; (ii) the importance of this area for invertebrate
communities of the inner shelf, particularly the diversity of sponges, ascidians and bryozoans;
(iii) the national importance as a calving area for Southern Right Whales; and (iv) the important
of the area for other protected species, such as the Australian Sea Lion and the White Shark.
The proposed conservation objectives for any reserve(s) established within the ―GAB
(extension) Area for Further Assessment‖ area are as follows (from DEWHA, 2009b):
(i)
protect ecologically adequate examples of benthic invertebrate habitat communities of
the Great Australian Bight, specifically within the Eucla meso-scale bioregion and the
Southern Province;
(ii)
to protect ecologically adequate examples of the pelagic environments associated with
the Great Australian Bight Shelf Transition and the Southern Province;
(iii)
to preserve in their unmodified and/or natural conditions, areas of the Great Australian
Bight Shelf Transition and the Southern Province;
(iv)
to contribute to the recovery and long-term protection of Southern Right Whales, and
(v)
to contribute to the recovery and long-term protection of the Australian Sea Lion,
including the species‘ genetic diversity (DEWHA, 2009b).
109
5. Acknowledgements
Thanks to Commonwealth government‘s Caring for our Country for providing the funding for this
report to be written. The Alinytjara Wilurara Natural Resources Management Board engaged
J.L. Baker, Marine Ecologist write the marine threats review. The author would like to
acknowledge and thank A. Loisier (AW NRM Board) for providing editorial advice in the
development of this document, and for providing the table on Hooded Plover survey numbers.
Thanks also to A. Wood and A. Loisier at AW NRM Board for providing several of the maps.
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7. Appendices
Appendix 1: Decapod crustacean species known from the Great Australian Bight upper and mid shelf
waters, and thus highly likely to occur in the AW NRM marine region (Davie, 2002, in ABRS, 2009; Ward
et al., 2003; Poore, 2004; Currie et al., 2007; South Australian Museum, Museum Victoria and W.A.
Museum records, cited in OZCAM database, 2009). Common names collectively as listed in Davie (2002,
in ABRS, 2009) and CSIRO (2009). E = apparently endemic within South Australia. A = recorded directly
east, west and/or south of AW NRM, and therefore likely to occur in the region. U = might occur in AW
NRM region, at upper depth limit. An additional species Leptomithrax globifer Rathbun, 1918 that occurs
in GAB waters is known from 150m – 220m (Davie, in ABRS, 2009) and is excluded from the list below,
because its presence in AW NRM region is unknown.
Scientific Name
Common Name
Actaea calculosa (H. Milne Edwards, 1834)
Actaea peronii H. Milne Edwards, 1834 /
Actaea peronii peronii (H. Milne Edwards, 1834)
Acutigebia simsoni (Thomson, 1893)
Alope orientalis (de Man, 1890)
Alpheopsis trispinosa (Stimpson, 1861)
Alpheus bidens (Olivier, 1811) A
Alpheus edwardsii (Audouin, 1827)
Alpheus novaezealandiae Miers, 1876 A
Alpheus papillosus Banner & Banner, 1982
Alpheus parasocialis Banner & Banner, 1982
Alpheus villosus (Olivier, 1811)
Amarinus laevis (Targioni Tozzetti, 1877) A
Anchistus custos (Forskål, 1775)
Arcania undecimspinosa De Haan, 1841 A
Aristaeomorpha foliacea (Risso, 1827)
Athanas granti Coutière, 1908
Athanas haswelli / hasswelli Coutière, 1908
Austrodromidia australis (Rathbun, 1923) U
Austrodromidia insignis (Rathbun, 1923) A, U
Austrodromidia octodentata (Haswell, 1882)
Bellidilia laevis (Bell, 1855) A
Bellidilia undecimspinosa Kinahan, 1856
Betaeus australis Stimpson, 1860
Biffarius ceramicus (Fulton & Grant, 1906) A
Calliax aequimana (Baker, 1907) A
Cancellus typus H. Milne Edwards, 1836 A
Carcinoplax meridionalis Rathbun, 1923 = Pycnoplax
meridionalis (Rathbun, 1923) U
Ceratocarcinus longimanus White, 1847
Ceratoplax glaberrima (Haswell, 1881)
Cyclograpsus audouinii H. Milne Edwards, 1837
Cyclograpsus granulosus H. Milne Edwards, 1853
Chlorotocella spinicaudus (H. Milne Edwards, 1837)
Cyclograpsus granulosus H. Milne Edwards, 1853
Dagnaudus petterdi (Grant, 1905) U
Dardanus arrosor (Herbst, 1796)
Dorhynchus ramusculus (Baker, 1906)
Dromidiopsis globosa (Lamarck, 1818)
Elamena abrolhensis Gordon, 1940
Facetted Crab
Spiky Stone Crab / Thorn-legged crab
Sand-borer
Bald Prawn
(a prawn)
Mottled Snapping Prawn
(a pistol prawn / snapping prawn)
New Zealand Snapping Prawn
(a pistol prawn / snapping prawn)
(a pistol prawn / snapping prawn)
Hairy Pistol Prawn
(a flat spider crab)
Pinna Prawn
(a pebble crab)
Giant Red Prawn, Red Prawn, Royal Red Prawn
(a snapping shrimp)
(a snapping shrimp)
Southern Sponge Crab
Adorned Sponge Crab
Bristled Sponge-crab
Smooth Pebble Crab
Large Pebble Crab
(a prawn / shrimp)
Ceramic Ghost Shrimp, Large-clawed Burrower
Ambidextrous Burrower
Miner Hermit crab
(a goneplacid crab)
Gouty Crab
(a hairy crab)
(a shore crab)
(a shore crab)
Slender-beaked Prawn
Rough Shore Crab
Antlered Crab
Striated Hermit crab
Slender Spider Crab
Shaggy Sponge Crab
(a flat spider crab)
138
Ebalia crassipes (Bell, 1855) A
Ebalia dentifrons Miers, 1886 A
Ebalia intermedia Miers, 1886 A
Ebalia tuberculosa (A. Milne Edwards, 1873)
Ephippias endeavouri Rathbun, 1918
Fultodromia nodipes (Guérin-Méneville, 1832)
Galathea australiensis Stimpson, 1858
Galathea magnifica Haswell, 1882
Georgeoplax glabra (Baker, 1906) A
Haledromia bicavernosa (Zietz, 1888) E
Halicarcinides nuytsi (Hale, 1927) A
Halicarcinus ovatus Stimpson, 1858
Halicarcinus rostratus (Haswell, 1881)
Hippa australis Hale, 1927
Hippolyte australiensis Stimpson, 1860 A
Hippolyte caradina Holthuis, 1947
Huenia australis Griffin & Tranter, 1986 A
Huenia halei Griffin & Tranter, 1986
Hypothalassia acerba Koh & Ng, 2000
Ibacus alticrenatus Bate, 1888
Ibacus peronii Leach, 1815
Leptograpsodes octodentatus (H. Milne Edwards, 1837)
Leptomithrax species (in Ward et al., 2003)
Jasus (Jasus) edwardsii (Hutton, 1875)
Latreutes compressus (Stimpson, 1860)
Leander tenuicornis (Say, 1818)
Leptochela (Leptochela) sydniensis Dakin & Colefax, 1940
Leptomithrax sternocostulatus (H. Milne Edwards, 1851)
Leptograpsodes octodentatus (H. Milne Edwards, 1837)
Leptograpsus variegatus (Fabricius, 1793)
Leptomithrax gaimardii (H. Milne Edwards, 1834)
Leptomithrax sternocostulatus (H. Milne Edwards, 1851)
Lomis hirta (Lamarck, 1818)
Macrobrachium intermedium (Stimpson, 1860)
Megametope carinata (Baker, 1907) A
Melicertus latisulcatus (Kishinouye, 1896) = Penaeus
(Melicertus) latisulcatus Kishinouye, 1896
Merocryptus lambriformis A. Milne Edwards, 1873
Metanephrops boschmai (Holthuis, 1964) U
Metanephrops velutinus Chan & Yu, 1991 U
Metapenaeopsis lindae Manning, 1988 A
Micippa philyra (Herbst, 1803) A
Micippa thalia (Herbst, 1803) A
Micropagurus acantholepis (Stimpson, 1858)
Munida haswelli Henderson, 1885
Naxia aurita (Latreille, 1825)
Naxia spinosa (Hess, 1865)
Nectocarcinus integrifrons (Latreille, 1825)
Nectocarcinus spinifrons Stephenson, 1961
Nectocarcinus tuberculosus A. Milne Edwards, 1860 A
Neocallichirus angelikae Sakai, 2000 E, A
Notopontonia platycheles Bruce, 1991
Ogyrides delli Yaldwyn, 1971
(a nut crab / pebble crab)
(a nut crab / pebble crab)
Smooth Nut Crab
Nut Crab / Pebble Crab
Endeavour Crab
Warty Sponge Crab
Striated Craylet
Scaled Craylet
(a crab)
Eared Sponge Crab
Beakless Sea-spider
Three-pronged Sea-spider
Beaked Sea-spider / Spider Crab
Mole Crab / Sand Crab
Southern Weed Shrimp
(a shrimp)
(a spider crab)
(a spider crab)
Champagne Crab
Deep Water Bug
Balmain Bug
Burrowing Shore Crab
(a spider crab)
Southern Rock Lobster
Green Prawn
(a carid shrimp)
Sydney Comb Shrimp
Ribbed Spider-crab
Burrowing Shore Crab
(a shore crab)
Great Spider Crab
Ribbed Spider Crab
Hairy Stone Crab
Striped Prawn
Crested Forehead Crab
Western King Prawn
(a pebble crab)
Bight Lobster / Bight Scampi / Boschma's Scampi
Andaman Scampi / Velvet Lobster / Velvet Scampi
Linda‘s Velvet Prawn
(a flat-beaked crab)
(a flat-beaked crab)
(a hermit crab)
Long-armed Craylet
Smooth Seaweed Crab
Spiny Seaweed Crab
Rough Rock Crab
(a rock crab)
Rough Rock Crab
(a slow prawn)
(a carid shrimp)
(a shrimp)
(NB known from E and SE Australia, but Currie et al. 2007
reported this species during a survey of the GAB Marine Park)
Oplophorus novaezeelandiae (de Man, 1931)
(a carid shimp)
139
Ovalipes australiensis Stephenson & Rees, 1968
Ozius truncatus H. Milne Edwards, 1834 A
Paguristes brevirostris Baker, 1905
Paguristes frontalis (H. Milne Edwards, 1836) A
Paguristes tuberculatus Whitelegge, 1900 A
Paguristes sulcatus Baker, 1905 A
Pagurixus handrecki Gunn & Morgan, 1992 A
Pagurixus jerviensis McLaughlin & Haig, 1984 A
Pagurus sinuatus (Stimpson, 1858) A
Palaemon litoreus (McCulloch, 1909) A
Palaemon serenus (Heller, 1862)
Paragrapsus gaimardii (H. Milne Edwards, 1837)
Paramithrax barbicornis (Latreille, 1825)
Periclimenes aesopius (Bate, 1863)
Petrocheles australiensis (Miers, 1876)
Philocheras intermedius (Bate, 1863)
Phylladiorhynchus pusillus (Henderson, 1885)
Pilumnus acer Rathbun, 1923
Pilumnus fissifrons Stimpson, 1858 A
Pilumnus rufopunctatus Stimpson, 1858 A
Pilumnus tomentosus Latreille, 1825
Pinnotheres hickmani (Guiler, 1950)
Pisidia dispar (Stimpson, 1858)
Plagusia chabrus (Linnaeus, 1758) A
Polyonyx transversus (Haswell, 1882)
Portunus (Portunus) pelagicus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Portunus (Portunus) sanguinolentus sanguinolentus
(Herbst, 1783) A
Prismatopus spatulifer (Haswell, 1881)
Processa gracilis Baker, 1907 A
Pseudocarcinus gigas (Lamarck, 1818)
Pseudopalicus macromeles Castro 2000
Pseudopontonia minuta (Baker, 1907)
Rhynchocinetes enigma Okuno, 1997
Rochinia mosaica (Whitelegge, 1900)
Schizophrys dama (Herbst, 1804)
Schizophrys rufescens Griffin & Tranter, 1986
Scyllarus mawsoni (Bage, 1938)
Scyllarus / Scyllarides species 1 (in Ward et al., 2003)
Sergestes sargassi Ortmann, 1893
Stimdromia lamellata (Ortmann, 1894)
Stimdromia lateralis (Gray, 1831)
Strahlaxius waroona (Poore & Griffin, 1979) A
Strigopagurus elongatus Forest, 1995 A
Synalpheus fossor (Paul'son, 1875) A
Synalpheus harpagatrus Banner & Banner, 1975
Synalpheus streptodactylus Coutière, 1905
Synalpheus tumidomanus (Paul'son, 1875)
Thalamita intermedia Miers, 1886
Trigonoplax longirostris McCulloch, 1908
Thalamita sima H. Milne Edwards, 1834 A
Upogebia bowerbankii (Miers, 1884) A
Upogebia tractabilis (Hale, 1941) A
Vercoia gibbosa Baker, 1904
Xanthid crab 1 (in Ward et al., 2003)
Sand Crab
Reef Crab
Southern Hermit Crab
Common Hermit Crab
Friendly Hermit Crab
Hairy-legged Hermit Crab
Clarrie‘s Hermit Crab
(a hermit crab)
(a hermit crab)
Shore Prawn
Rock-pool Prawn
Common Shore Crab
Sea Toad
Aesop Prawn / Cleaner Shrimp
Spiny Porcelain Crab
(a carid shrimp)
Little Craylet
Long-spined Hairy Crab
Tasselled Crab
Red-spotted Hairy Crab
Common Hairy Crab
Pea Crab
Little Porcelain Crab
Cleft-fronted Shore Crab
Polished Porcelain Crab
Blue Swimmer Crab / Blue Swimming Crab
Red-spotted Swimming Crab
(spider crab)
Long-wristed Shrimp
Queen Crab / Tasmanian Giant Crab
(a crab)
Smooth Prawn
(a prawn / shrimp)
Little Thornback Crab
(a decorator crab)
(a spider crab)
(a lobster)
(a slipper lobster)
(a penaeid prawn)
(a sponge crab)
Ridged Sponge Crab
(a slow prawn)
(a hermit crab)
(a snapping shrimp)
(a snapping shrimp)
(a snapping shrimp)
Fat-handed Shrimp
Six-lobed Crab
(a flat spider crab)
Four-lobed Swimming Crab
(a slow prawn)
(a slow prawn)
Humped Shrimp
(a crab)
140
Appendix 2: Echinoderm species known from the Great Australian Bight upper and mid shelf waters,
and thus highly likely to occur in the AW NRM marine region (Rowe and Gates, 1995, and O‘Hara, 2001,
in ABRS, 2009; O‘Loughlin 2002; O‘Loughlin et al., 2003; Ward et al., 2003; O‘Loughlin and Waters,
2004). Common names as listed in Edgar (2008) and/or ABRS (2009). An additional three species Amphiophiura urbana (Koehler, 1904), Ophiocreas sibogae Koehler 1904, and Pseudostichopus mollis
Théel 1886, all of which occur on the continental slope, have reported upper depth limits of about 90100m, and it is not known whether they also occur in the waters of the AW NRM region. Another
species, Ophiomusium anisacanthum H.L. Clark 1928, widespread across southern Australia, is known
from 130m – 310m and thus not included in the table below, nor are Ophiomusium australe H.L. Clark
1928, known to date from 130m – 595m, and Ophiozonella bispinosa (Koehler, 1897), known from 205m
– 1,277m.
Scientific Name
Common Name
Allostichaster polyplax (Müller & Troschel, 1844)
Amblypneustes elevatus (Hutton, 1872)
Amblypneustes formosus Valenciennes, 1846
Amblypneustes grandis H.L. Clark, 1912
Amblypneustes pallidus (Lamarck, 1816)
Amphioplus (Amphichilus) ochroleuca (Brock, 1888)
Amphipholis squamata (Delle-Chiaje, 1828)
Amphistigma minuta H.L. Clark, 1938
Amphiura (Amphiura) constricta Lyman, 1879
Amphiura (Amphiura) multiremula H.L. Clark, 1938
Amphiura (Ophiopeltis) parviscutata A.M. Clark, 1966
Antedon incommoda Bell, 1888
Anthaster valvulatus (Müller & Troschel, 1843)
Aporometra occidentalis H.L. Clark, 1938
Asterodiscides truncatus (Coleman, 1911)
Astropecten preissi Müller & Troschel, 1843
Astroboa ernae Döderlein, 1911
Astropecten vappa Müller & Troschel, 1843
Astrosierra microconus (H.L. Clark, 1914)
Australocnus occiduus (O'Loughlin & O'Hara, 1992)
Bollonaster pectinatus (Sladen, 1883)
Brissus (Allobrissus) agassizii Döderlein, 1885
Cenolia spanoschistum H.L. Clark, 1916
Cenolia tasmaniae (A.H. Clark, 1918) = Comanthus
tasmaniae (A.H. Clark, 1918)
Cenolia trichoptera (Müller, 1846) = Comanthus trichoptera
Centrostephanus tenuispinus H.L. Clark, 1914
Centrostephanus sp. (in Ward et al., 2003)
Cercodemas anceps Selenka, 1867
Ceto cuvieria (Cuvier, 1817)
Clarkcoma canaliculata (Lütken, 1869)
Clarkcoma pulchra (H.L. Clark, 1928)
Colochirus crassus Ekman, 1918
Colochirus quadrangularis Troschel, 1846
Comatulella brachiolata (Lamarck, 1816)
Conocladus australis (Verrill, 1876)
Coscinasterias muricata Verrill, 1867
Cucuvitrum rowei O'Loughlin & O'Hara, 1992
Dipsacaster magnificus (H.L. Clark, 1916)
Echinaster arcystatus H.L. Clark, 1914
Echinaster glomeratus H.L. Clark, 1916
Echinocardium cordatum (Pennant, 1777)
141
Many-armed Seastar
(a sea urchin)
(a sea urchin)
(a sea urchin)
Yellow-spined Egg Urchin
(a brittle star)
(a brittle star)
(a brittle star)
(a brittle star)
(a brittle star)
(a brittle star)
Variable Feather Star
Mottled Seastar
(a feather star / crinoid)
Firebrick Seastar
Preiss‘s Sand Star
Pink Basket Star
Comb Sand Star
(a basket star)
(a sea cucumber)
(a sea star)
Agassiz‘s Heart Urchin
(a feather star)
Tasmanian Feather Star
Orange Feather Star
Western Hollow-spined Urchin
(a sea urchin)
Red Box Sea Cucumber
(a black and white sea cucumber)
Variable Brittle Star
White-flecked Brittle Star
(a sea cucumber)
Thorny Sea Cucumber
(a feather star on macroalgae & in seagrass)
Southern Basket Star
Eleven-armed Seastar
(a sea cucumber)
(a sea star)
Pale Mosaic Seastar
Orange Seastar
Heart Urchin
Echinocyamus platytatus H.L. Clark, 1914
Euryale asperum Lamarck, 1816
Fibularia (Fibularia) plateia H.L. Clark, 1928
Fromia polypora H.L. Clark, 1916
Goniocidaris tubaria (Lamarck, 1816)
(green mottled aspidochirotida, in Ward et al., 2003)
Heliocidaris erythrogramma (Valenciennes, 1846)
Henricia compacta (Sladen, 1889)
Holopneustes inflatus (Lütken, 1872)
Holopneustes porosissimus L. Agassiz, 1846
Holopneustes purpurascens A. Agassiz, 1872
Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hartmeyeri Erwe, 1913
Leptosynapta dolabrifera (Stimpson, 1855)
Lipotrapeza vestiens (Joshua, 1914)
Luidia australiae Döderlein, 1920
Mensamaria intercedens (Lampert, 1885)
Meridiastra atyphoida ( H.L. Clark, 1916) = Asterina atyphoida
H.L. Clark, 1916
Meridiastra calcar (Lamarck, 1816) = Patiriella calcar
(Lamarck, 1816)
Meridiastra gunnii (Gray, 1840) = Patiriella gunnii (Gray, 1840)
= Patiriella brevispina H.L. Clark, 1938
Meridiastra medius O‘Loughlin, Waters and Roy, 2003
Meridiastra occidens O‘Loughlin, Waters and Roy, 2003
Meridiastra oriens O‘Loughlin, Waters and Roy, 2003
Moira lethe Mortensen, 1930
Nectria macrobrachia H.L. Clark, 1923
Nectria multispina H.L. Clark, 1928
Nectria ocellata Perrier, 1876
Nectria pedicelligera Mortensen, 1925
Nectria saoria Shepherd, 1967
Nectria wilsoni Shepherd & Hodgkin, 1965
Neoamphicyclus lividus Hickman, 1962
Neoamphicylcus mutans (Joshua, 1914) = Cucumella mutans
(Joshua, 1914)
Nepanthia troughtoni (Livingstone, 1934) = Pseudonepanthia
troughtoni (Livingstone, 1934)
Odontohenricia endeavouri Rowe & Albertson, 1988
Ophiacantha alternata A.M. Clark, 1966
Ophiacantha clavigera Koehler, 1907
Ophiactis resiliens Lyman, 1879
Ophiactis tricolor H.L. Clark, 1928
Ophiarachnella ramsayi (Bell, 1888)
Ophiocrossota multispina (Ljungman, 1867)
Ophioconus opacum (H.L. Clark, 1928)
Ophiomyxa australis Lütken, 1869
Ophionereis schayeri (Müller & Troschel, 1844)
Ophionereis semoni (Döderlein, 1896)
Ophiopeza cylindrica (Hutton, 1872)
Ophiopsammus assimilis (Bell, 1888)
Ophiothrix (Keystonea) hymenacantha H.L. Clark, 1928 E
(known only from type locality)
Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) caespitosa Lyman, 1879
Ophiothrix (Placophiothrix) albostriata H.L. Clark, 1928 E
(known only from type locality)
Ophiothrix (Placophiothrix) spongicola Stimpson, 1855
142
(a sand dollar)
(a snake star) / Spiny Basket Star
(a sand dollar)
Many-spotted Seastar
Stumpy Pencil Urchin
(a sea cucumber)
Purple Urchin
(a sea star)
Inflated Egg Urchin
Carmine-spotted Egg Urchin
Eastern Egg Urchin
(a sea cucumber)
Sticky Sea Cucumber
Shellgrit Sea Cucumber
Southern Sand Star
(a sea cucumber)
Dark-tipped Button Star
Eight-armed Seastar
Gunn‘s Six-armed Star
Southern Six-armed Star
Western Six-armed Star
Eastern Six-armed Star
Devil‘s Heart Urchin
Large-plated Seastar
Multi-spined Seastar
Spotted Seastar
(a sea star)
The Saori Seastar
Wilson‘s Seastar
(a sea cucumber)
(a sea cucumber)
Troughton‘s Seastar
(a sea star)
(a brittle star)
(a brittle star)
Chequered Brittle Star
(a brittle star)
Ramsay‘s Serpent Star
(a brittle star)
(a brittle star)
(a brittle star)
Schayer‘s Brittle Star
(a brittle star)
Live-bearing Brittle Star
Mottled Brittle Star
(a brittle star)
Spiny-armed Brittle Star
(a brittle star)
Large Spiny-armed Brittle Star
Ophiura kinbergi (Ljungman, 1866)
(orange basket star, in Ward et al., 2003)
Paranepanthia grandis (Clark, 1928)
Paracaudina australis (Semper, 1868)
Paracaudina tetrapora (H.L. Clark, 1914)
Parvulastra parvivipara (Keough & Dartnall, 1978) = Patiriella
parvivipara Keough & Dartnall, 1978
Pentagonaster dubeni Gray, 1847
Pentocnus bursatus O'Loughlin & O'Hara, 1992 (recorded E
and W of GAB; likely to occur in AW NRM)
Peronella peronii (L. Agassiz, 1841)
Petricia vernicina (Lamarck, 1816)
Phyllacanthus irregularis Mortensen, 1928
Plectaster decanus (Müller & Troschel, 1843)
Plesiocolochirus ignava (Ludwig, 1875)
Protenaster australis (Gray, 1851)
Pseudophidiaster rhysus H.L. Clark, 1916
Ptilometra australis (Wilton, 1843) (NB: A species from QLD
and NSW; listed in Ward et al. 2003 as being recorded in
the shelf waters of GAB)
Ptilometra macronema (Müller, 1846)
Ptilometra sp. (in Ward et al., 2003)
Squamocnus aureoruber O'Loughlin & O'Hara, 1992
Staurothyone inconspicua (Bell, 1887)
Stichopus ludwigi Erwe, 1913
Stichopus mollis (Hutton, 1872) = Australostichopus mollis
(Hutton, 1872)
(strawberry-surface holothurian, in Ward et al., 2003)
Taeniogyrus roebucki (Joshua, 1914)
Tosia australis Gray, 1840 / Tosia nobilis (Müller & Troschel,
1843)
Temnopleurus michaelseni (Döderlein, 1914)
Thyone okeni Bell, 1884
Thyone nigra Joshua & Creed, 1915
Trachythyone glebosa O'Loughlin & O'Hara, 1992
Uniophora granifera (Lamarck, 1816)
(unidentified urchin, in Ward et al., 2003)
(wide mouthed asteroid, in Ward et al., 2003)
(yellow asteroid, in Ward et al., 2003)
143
Kinberg‘s Brittle Star
(a basket star)
(a sea star)
Podgy Sea Cucumber
(a sea cucumber)
Little Patti; Pygmy Live-bearing Seastar
Vermilion Biscuit Star
(a sea cucumber)
(a sand dollar)
Cushion Star
Western Slate-pencil Urchin
Mosaic Seastar
Orange-flecked Sea Cucumber
(a heart urchin)
(a sea star)
(a feather star / crinoid)
(a feather star / crinoid)
(a faether star / crinoid)
(a sea cucumber)
(a sea cucumber)
Ludwig‘s Sea Cucumber
Southern Sea Cucumber
(a sea cucumber)
(a sea cucumber)
Southern Biscuit Star
(a sea urchin)
(a sea cucumber)
(a sea cucumber)
(a sea cucumber)
Granular Seastar
(a sea urchin)
(a sea star)
(a sea star)
Appendix 3: Shelled gastropod mollusc species known from the Great Australian Bight upper and mid
shelf waters, and thus highly likely to occur in the AW NRM marine region (Cotton and Godfrey,
1931,1932,1938; Ponder and Yoo, 1976, 1977a,b, 1980; Bratcher and Cernohorsky, 1987; Ponder and
de Keyzer, 1992; Henning and Hemmen, 1993; Wilson et al. 1993 and 1994; Bail and Limpus, 1997;
Ponder and Grayson, 1998; Darragh, 2002; Ponder et al., 2002; Ponder, 2002, in ABRS, 2009; Watters,
2004; Academy of Natural Sciences, 2006; Australian Museum records, South Australian Museum
records, Museum of Victoria records, Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery records, cited in OZCAM
2009). Common names as listed in Edgar (2008) and/or ABRS (2009). E = apparently endemic within
South Australia. A = recorded directly east and/or west of AW NRM region, and therefore likely to occur
in the region. I = introduced. * = taxonomy uncertain.
Scientific Name
Aclophora hedleyi Marshall, 1983 A
Aclophoropsis festiva (A. Adams, 1851) A
Aesopus australis (Angas, 1877) *
Afrolittorina praetermissa (May, 1909) = Nodilittorina
praetermissa (May, 1909)
Alaba monile A. Adams, 1862
Alaba pulchra A. Adams, 1862
Alaba translucida (Hedley, 1905)
Alaginella borda (Cotton, 1944) A
Alaginella geminata (Hedley, 1912)
Alaginella malina (Hedley, 1915) A
Alocospira edithae (Pritchard & Gatliff, 1899) A
Alocospira marginata (Lamarck, 1811)
Alocospira oblonga (Sowerby, 1830) A
Alocospira petterdi (Tate, 1893) A
Alcyna acia Cotton, 1948 A
Alvania (Alvania) novarensis Frauenfeld, 1867 A
Alvania (Alvania) occidua (Cotton, 1944) A
Alvania (Alvania) strangei (Brazier, 1894) A
Alvania (Linemera) verconiana (Hedley, 1911)
Amalda coccinata Kilburn, 1980
Amblychilepas javanicensis (Lamarck, 1822) A
Amblychilepas nigrita (Sowerby, 1834)
Amblychilepas oblonga (Menke, 1843)
Amoria exoptanda (Reeve, 1849)
Amoria undulata (Lamarck, 1804)
Anabathron (Anabathron) contabulatum Frauenfeld,
1867
Anachis atkinsoni (Tenison Woods, 1876)
Anachis beachportensis (Verco, 1910)
Anachis cominellaeformis (Tate, 1892)
Anachis dolicha (Verco, 1910) E, A
Anachis fenestrata (Verco, 1910) E, A
Anachis fulgida (Reeve, 1859)
Anachis remoensis Gatliff & Gabriel, 1910
Anapella amygdala (Crosse & Fischer, 1864)
Anapella cycladea (Lamarck, 1818) A
Antisabia erma (Cotton, 1938) A
Anatrophon latior (Verco, 1909) A
Antiguraleus kingensis (Petterd, 1879)
Antisabia erma (Cotton, 1938) A
Common Name
(a creeper shell)
(a creeper shell)
(a dove shell)
Checkered Australwink
(a small shell in the Litiopidae family)
(a small shell in the Litiopidae family)
(a small transparent shell in the Litiopidae family)
(a small marginella shell from shallow shelf to upper slope)
(a small marginella shell from shelf to upper slope)
(a small marginella shell)
Edith‘s Ancilla
(a small ancilla shell)
(a small ancilla shell)
(a small ancilla shell)
Tread Top Shell
(a small rissoid gastropod that feeds on micro-algal film)
(a small rissoid gastropod that feeds on micro-algal film)
(a small rissoid gastropod that feeds on micro-algal film)
(a small rissoid gastropod that feeds on micro-algal film)
(an ancillid shell found on the continental shelf and slope)
Rayed Keyhole Limpet / Saddle Keyhole Limpet /
Javan Keyhole Limpet
Black Keyhole Limpet
(a keyhole limpet)
Desirable Volute / Much-Desired Volute
Wavy Volute
(a gastropod in the Anabathridae family)
(a small dove shell)
(a small dove shell)
(a small dove shell from the intertidal)
(a small dove shell)
(a small dove shell)
(a small dove shell)
(a small dove shell from the intertidal)
(a small wedge shell from intertidal sand habitats)
(a wedge shell from intertidal sand or mud)
(a horse hoof limpet)
(a small trophine shell)
(a horse hoof limpet)
144
Antisabia foliacea (Quoy & Gaimard, 1835)
Argalista corallina (Cotton & Godfrey, 1935) A
Argobuccinum pustulosum tumidum (Dunker, 1862) A
Ascorhis victoriae (Tenison-Woods, 1878)
Assiminea (Metassiminea) brazier A
Astele (Astele) armillatum (Wood, 1828) A
Astele (Callistele) calliston Verco, 1905 A
Astele (Astele) ciliare (Menke, 1843)
Astele (Astele) rubiginosum (Valenciennes, 1846) A
Astele (Astele) subcarinatum (Swainson, 1855) A
Astele (Astelena) multigranum (Dunker, 1871) A
Astele (Sinutor) incertum (Reeve, 1863)
Asteracmea alboradiata (Verco, 1906) E
Asteracmea crebristriata (Verco, 1904)
Asteracmea illibrata (Verco, 1906)
Asteracmea roseoradiata (Verco, 1912) A
Asteracmea stowae (Verco, 1906)
Asperdaphne (Asperdaphne) bastowi (Gatliff &
Gabriel, 1908) A
Asperdaphne (Asperdaphne) bitorquata (Sowerby,
1897) A
Asperdaphne (Asperdaphne) desalesii (TenisonWoods, 1877)
Asperdaphne (Asperdaphne) perplexa (Verco, 1909)
A, E
Asperdaphne (Asperdaphne) tasmanica (TenisonWoods, 1877) A
Asperdaphne (Asperdaphne) vestalis (Hedley, 1903)
A
Asperdaphne (Asperdaphne) vercoi (Sowerby, 1897)
A, E
Asperdaphne (Asperdaphne) walcotae (Sowerby,
1893) A, E
Asperdaphne (Aspertilla) legrandi (Beddome, 1883) A
Astralium aureum (Jonas, 1844)
Astralium rutidoloma (Tate, 1893) A, E
Astralium squamiferum (Koch, 1844)
Ataxocerithium beasleyi Cotton & Godfrey, 1938 A
Austrocochlea constricta (Lamarck, 1822)
Austrocochlea odontis (Wood, 1828)
Austrocochlea porcata (A. Adams, 1853)
Austrodrillia (Austrodrillia) agrestis (Verco, 1909) A, E
Austrodrillia (Austrodrillia) dimidiata (Sowerby, 1897)
A, E
Austrodrillia (Austrodrillia) subplicata (Verco, 1909) A,
E
Austroharpa (Palamharpa) exquisita (Iredale, 1931) A
Austroharpa (Palamharpa) punctata (Verco, 1896)
Austroharpa (Unplaced) learorum Hart & Limpus,
1998
Austroliotia australis (Kiener, 1839)
Austroliotia botanica (Hedley, 1915) A
Austroliotia densilineata (Tate, 1899)
Austroliotia pulcherrima (Reeve, 1843)
(a horse hoof limpet common in intertidal & shallow subtidal,
attached to underside of stones)
Coral-Red Gibbula
Flag Triton / Argus Triton
(a hydrobiid snail)
(a small brown snail)
Jewelled Top Shell / Meyer's Top Shell
Beautiful Top shell
Calliope Top Shell
Rusty Top Shell
Subcarinate Astele / Keeled Top Shell / Umbilicated Top
Shell
(a top shell)
Left-handed or Doubtful Calliostoma / Uncertain Top Shell
White Rayed Sugar Limpet
Fine Ridged Limpet
Midget Limpet / Plain Limpet
Rose Ray Limpet
Stow's Limpet
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
Golden Small Star
Granular Small Star
Star Shell / Scaly Star Shell
(a small cerithiopsid shell that lives on sponges)
Ribbed Top Shell
Chequered Top Shell
Zebra Top Shell
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
Exquisite Harp
Spotted Harp
(a harp shell)
(a liotine / turbinid shell)
(a liotine / turbinid shell)
(a liotine / turbinid shell)
(a liotine / turbinid shell)
145
Austrolittorina unifasciata (Gray, 1826)
Austromitra analogica (Reeve, 1845)
Austromitra arnoldi (Verco, 1909)
Austromitra minutenodosa Cernohorsky, 1980
Badepigrus pupoides (H. Adams, 1865) *
Belloliva triticea (Duclos, 1835) A
Bembicium auratum (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834)
Bembicium vittatum Philippi, 1846 A
Botelloides bassianus bassianus (Hedley, 1911)
Botelloides bassianus borda Cotton, 1944
Botelloides chrysalidus chrysalidus (Chapman &
Gabriel, 1914)
Botelloides sulcatus sulcatus (Cotton, 1944)
Bouchetriphora pallida (Pease, 1870)
Buccinulum bednalli (Sowerby, 1895)
Bulla quoyii Gray in Dieffenbach, 1843
Cabestana tabulata (Menke, 1843) A
Cabestana spengleri (Perry, 1811) A
Cacozeliana granarium (Kiener, 1842) A
Cacozeliana icarus (Bayle, 1880) A
Caecum (Caecum) amputatum Hedley, 1894 A
Calliostoma (Fautor) allporti (Tenison Woods, 1876) A
Calliostoma (Fautor) columnarium Hedley & May,
1908 A
Calliostoma (Fautor) comptum (Adams, 1854) A
Calliostoma (Fautor) hedleyi Pritchard & Gatliff, 1902
Calliostoma (Fautor) legrandi legrandi (TenisonWoods, 1876)
Calliostoma (Fautor) zietzi Verco, 1905 A
Calyptraea calyptraeformis (Lamarck, 1822)
Cancellaria (Nevia) spirata Lamarck, 1822
Cancellaria (Sydaphera) undulata Sowerby, 1849 A
Cantharidella beachportensis Cotton & Godfrey, 1934
A
Cantharidella ocelllina (Hedley, 1911) A, E
Cantharidus ramburi (Crosse, 1864)
Capulus devotus Hedley, 1904 A
Capulus violaceus Angas, 1867
Cardiolucina crassilirata A
Cassis (Hypocassis) fimbriata Quoy & Gaimard, 1833
A
Cellana solida (Blainville, 1825) A
Cellana tramoserica (Holten, 1802)
Charisma carinata (Verco, 1907) A, E
Charisma josephi (Tenison Woods, 1877) A
Cheilea flindersi Cotton, 1935 A
Chevallieria australis Ponder, 1984 E
Chicoreus (Triplex) damicornis (Hedley, 1903)
Cingulina spina (Crosse & Fischer, 1864)
Circulus delectabile (Tate, 1899) A
Circulus harriettae (Petterd, 1884)
Cirsonella weldii (Tenison-Woods, 1877)
Clanculus albanyensis Jansen, 1995 A
Clanculus consobrinus Tate, 1893
Clanculus denticulatus (Gray, 1827) A
Blue Australwink
(a small, variable costellate mitre shell found amongst rocks
and macroalgae)
(a small costellate mitre shell)
(a gastropod in the Anabathridae family)
(a small, common olivella shell)
Gold-mouthed Conniwink
(a littorinid shell found in a variety of nearshore habitats)
(a top shell)
(a top shell)
(a top shell)
(a top shell)
(a small triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
(a buccinid whelk)
Brown Bubble Shell / Brown Bubble Snail
Ploughed Triton / Shouldered Triton / Tabulate Triton
Spengler‘s Triton / Spengler‘s Rock Whelk
(a small creeper shell)
(a small creeper shell)
(a small, tube-shaped gastropod in the Caecidae family)
(a top shell found on the continental shelf and slope)
Cape Pillar Top Shell
(a top shell found on cup-shaped sponges)
Hedley‘s Top Shell
Legrand‘s Top Shell
Zietz‘s Top Shell
Shelf Limpet
Spiral Nutmeg Shell
(a nutmeg shell)
Beachport Top Shell
Eyelet Top Shell
Rambur's Jewel Top Shell
Devout Cap Shell
Violet Cap Shell
Densely Striated Lucina
Fringed Helmet Shell / Fimbriate Helmet Shell
Orange-edged Limpet
Common Limpet
Carinate Charisma / (a top shell)
Joseph‘s Charisma
(a limpet-like shell that attaches to stones or other shells)
(a small gastropod in the Iravadiidae family)
Damicornis Murex / Long-Horned Murex / Purple Murex
(a pyramid shell)
(a very small gastropod in the Vitrinellidae family)
(a very small gastropod in the Vitrinellidae family)
(a small shell in the Skeneidae family
Yellow Top shell
(a small top shell, common under stones on shallow reefs)
(a small top shell from the intertidal and shallow subtidal)
146
Clanculus dunkeri (Koch in Philippi, 1843) A
Clanculus euchelioides Tate, 1893
Clanculus flagellatus (Philippi, 1848) A
Clanculus limbatus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834)
Clanculus maxillatus (Menke, 1843)
Clanculus personatus (Philippi, 1849) A
Clanculus philippi (Koch in Philippi, 1843)
Clanculus plebejus (Philippi, 1852)
Clanculus ringens (Menke, 1843) A
Clanculus weedingi Cotton, 1938 A
Codakia (Codakia) perobliqua (Tate, 1892) A
Colpospira (Acutospira) accisa (Watson, 1881)
Colpospira (Colpospira) mediolevis (Verco, 1910)
Colpospira (Colpospira) runcinata (Watson, 1881)
Colpospira (Colpospira) translucida Garrard, 1972
Cominella (Cominella) eburnea (Reeve, 1846)
Cominella (Cominella) lineolata (Lamarck, 1809)
Cominella (Godfreyna) torri Verco, 1909
Cominella (Josepha) tasmanica (Tenison Woods,
1878)
Comitas murrawolga (Garrard, 1961) A
Coralliophila (Coralliophila) mira (Cotton & Godfrey,
1932)
Coralliophila (Coralliophila) wilsoni Prichard & Gatliff,
1898 A
Cosmetalepas concatenatus (Crosse & Fischer,
1864)
Crassispira (Crassispira) harpularia (Desmoulins,
1842) A
Crassitoniella erratica erratica (May, 1913)
Crepidula immersa (Angas, 1865)
Cymatium (Monoplex) parthenopeum (von Salis,
1793) A
Cylichnatys campanula Burn, 1978
Cystiscus angasi (Crosse, 1870)
Cystiscus connectans (May, 1911)
Cystiscus cratericula (Tate & May, 1900)
Cystiscus subauriculata (May, 1916) A
Daphnella (Daphnella) botanica Hedley, 1918
Daphnella (Daphnella) diluta Sowerby, 1897 A, E
Daphnella (Daphnella) stiphra Verco, 1909 A, E
Dentimargo allporti (Tenison Woods, 1876) A
Dentimargo jaffa (Cotton, 1944)
Dentimargo kemblensis (Hedley, 1903)
Dentimargo lodderae (May, 1911)
Dentimargo mayii (Tate & May, 1900) A
Dermomurex (Dermomurex) angustus
(Verco, 1895)
Dermomurex (Dermomurex) goldsteini
(Tenison Woods, 1876)
Dermomurex (Viator) howletti A
Diala megapicalis Ponder & Keyzer, 1992
Diala suturalis (A. Adams, 1853)
(a small top shell from the intertidal and shallow subtidal)
(a small top shell, common under stones on shallow reefs)
(a small top shell, common under stones on shallow reefs)
Keeled Clanculus
Rounded Clanculus
(a small, uncommon top shell from the intertidal)
(a small top shell found on macroalgae in the subtidal)
Plebian Top Shell / Plebian Clanculus
(a small top shell found under stones on shallow reefs)
(a small top shell found on macroalgae in the subtidal)
Codakia Shell / Codakia
(a screw shell)
(a screw shell)
(a screw shell)
(a screw shell)
Ribbed Cominella Shell
Spotted Cominella Shell / Chequerboard Snail
Torr‘s Whelk / Torr's Buccinum Whelk
Tasmanian Buccinum Whelk
(a turrid shell from deeper continental shelf waters)
Coral Shell
(a small, white or pale pink gastropod)
(a small, orange, keyhole limpet with a white sculptured
shell)
(a common turrid shell)
(a small gastropod that reproduces by direct development)
Southern Slipper Limpet / Elongate Slipper Limpet
Neapolitan Triton / Hairy Triton / Hairy Whelk / Giant Hairy
Triton
(a brown bubble shell, found in intertidal sand or sandy-mud)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a turrid shell from shallow water on rocky shores)
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a murex shell)
Goldstein's Trophon / (a murex shell)
(a murex shell; the only living species in the Dermomurex
subgenus Viator known from southern Australia)
(a small shell found amongst seagrass rhizomes & algal turf
(a small shell found amongst rocks, seagrass rhizomes &
algal turf
147
Diastoma melanioides (Reeve, 1849)
Dicathais orbita (Gmelin, 1791) = Thais orbita
Diodora lincolnensis Cotton, 1930
Dissona maccoyi (Tenison - Woods, 1878)
Dolicholatirus spiceri (Tenison Woods, 1876)
Domiporta strangei (Angas, 1867)
Eatoniella (Eatoniella) depressa Ponder & Yoo, 1978
A
Eatoniella (Eatoniella) exigua Ponder & Yoo, 1978 A
Eatoniella (Eatoniella) fulva Ponder & Yoo, 1978 A
Eatoniella (Eatoniella) juliae Ponder & Yoo, 1978 A
Eatoniella (Eatoniella) melanochroma (Tate, 1899)
Eatoniella (Eatoniella) puniceolinea Ponder & Yoo,
1978
Eatoniella (Eatoniella) taylorae Ponder & Yoo, 1978
Ericusa fulgetrum (Sowerby, 1825) A
Ericusa papillosa (Swainson, 1822)
Eatoniella (Eatoniella) atropurpurea (Frauenfeld,
1867)
Eatonina (Eatonina) sanguinolenta Ponder & Yoo,
1980
Eatonina (Eatonina) shirleyae Ponder & Yoo, 1980
Eatoniopsis (Pilitonia) westralis Ponder & Yoo, 1980
A
Ethminolia elveri Cotton & Godfrey, 1938 A
Ethminolia vitiliginea (Menke, 1843) A
Emarginula (Emarginula) candida A. Adams, 1852 A
Emarginula (Emarginula) dilecta A. Adams, 1852 A
Emarginula (Emarginula) patula Cotton, 1930 A
Emarginula (Emarginula) subtilitexta Verco, 1908 A
Emarginula (Subzeidora) devota Thiele, 1915 A
Epidirona flindersi (Cotton & Godfrey, 1938) A
Epidirona philipineri (Tenison Woods, 1877)
Epitonium (Hyaloscala) friabile (Sowerby, 1844) A
Epitonium (Hyaloscala) jukesianum (Forbes, 1852) A
Epitonium (Laeviscala) tacitum (Iredale, 1936)
Epitonium (Lamelliscala) godfreyi Cotton, 1938 A
Epitonium (Lamelliscala) minorum (Iredale, 1936) A
Eulima acutissima (Sowerby, 1866) A
Eulima augur augur Angas, 1865 A
Eulima augur broadbente (Cotton & Godfrey, 1932) A
Eulima bivittata (Adams, H.& A., 1853) A
Eunaticina albosutura Verco, 1909 A
Eunaticina umbilicata (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833) A
Euseila pileata Cotton, 1951 A
Eutriphora armillata (Verco, 1909) A
Eutriphora cana (Verco, 1909)
Eutriphora pseudocana Marshall, 1983
Eutriphora tricolor (Laseron, 1954) A
Exomilus pentagonalis (Verco, 1896)
Favartia (Murexiella) brazieri (Angas, 1877) A
Fossarina (Minopa) legrandi Petterd, 1879 A
Fossarina (Fossarina) petterdi Crosse, 1870 A
Fusus bednalli (Brazier, 1875)
(a diastoma shell found in sand amongst seagrass, in the
shallow subtidal)
Cart-rut Shell / Cartrut Shell
Port Lincoln Keyhole Limpet
(a gastropod in the Ovulidae family)
(a small spindle shell)
(a mitre shell)
(a small gastropod in the Eatoniellidae family)
(a small gastropod in the Eatoniellidae family)
(a small gastropod in the Eatoniellidae family)
(a small gastropod in the Eatoniellidae family)
(a small gastropod in the Eatoniellidae family)
(a small gastropod in the Eatoniellidae family)
(a small gastropod in the Eatoniellidae family)
Lightning Volute
Marbeled Volute / Papillose Volute
(a small gastropod found amongst algae, under stones, and
in crevices in intertidal and shallow subtidal)
(a small gastropods found amongst algal turf and stones in
intertidal and shallow subtidal)
(a small gastropod found amongst algal turf in the intertidal)
a small gastropod found amongst algal turf and debris in the
lower intertidal and shallow subtidal)
(a small top shell from the shallow subtidal)
(a small top shell from the shallow subtidal)
(a slit limpet commonly found in beach drift)
(a slit limpet of broad geographic range and depth range)
Flat-notched Limpet
Delicate Notched Limpet
(a slit limpet commonly found in beach drift)
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
(a small wentletrap shell, from intertidal and shallow subtidal)
(a small, common wentletrap shell)
(a small wentletrap shell found in the intertidal)
(a small wentletrap shell from the intertidal and shallow
subtidal)
Philippine Ladder Shell
(a small eulimid shell, parasitic on echinoderms)
(a small eulimid shell, parasitic on echinoderms)
(a small eulimid shell, parasitic on echinoderms)
a small eulimid shell, parasitic on echinoderms
White Band Sand Snail
(a small moon snail / sand snail)
(a small cerithiopsid gastropod that feeds on sponges)
(a small triphorid gastropod that feed on sponges)
(a small triphorid gastropod that feed on sponges)
(a small triphorid gastropod that feed on sponges)
(a small triphorid gastropod that feed on sponges)
(a small murex shell)
Legrand‘s Top shell
(a small top shell)
Bednall's Colubraria / (a small dog whelk)
148
Fusus reticulatus (Adams, 1855) A
Gracilispira lineata (Kiener, 1844) A
Granata imbricata (Lamarck, 1816) A
Granulina elliottae (Cotton, 1944) A
Guraleus (Guraleus) pictus (Adams & Angas, 1864)
Guraleus (Mitraguraleus) australis (Adams & Angas,
1864) A
Haliotis cyclobates Péron, 1816
Haliotis laevigata Donovan, 1808
Haliotis roei Gray, 1826
Haliotis rubra Leach, 1814 (including form
conicopora)
Haliotis scalaris (Leach, 1814)
Hedleytriphora basimacula Marshall, 1983 A
Hedleytriphora elata (Thiele, 1930) A
Hedleytriphora fasciata (Tenison Woods, 1879)
Hedleytriphora scitula (A. Adams, 1851) A
Hemitoma (Montfortia) subemarginata (Blainville,
1819)
Herpetopoma annectans (Tate, 1893) A
Herpetopoma aspersus (Philippi, 1846) A
Herpetopoma fenestrata (Tate, 1893)
Herpetopoma pumilio (Tate, 1893)
Herpetopoma scabriuscula (Angas, 1867) A
Herpetopoma vixumbilicata (Tate, 1893)
Hexaplex conatus (McMichael, 1964)
Hinea brasiliana (Lamarck, 1822) A
Hipponix australis (Lamarck, 1819)
Hydroginella columnaria (Hedley & May, 1908)
Hydroginella tridentata (Tate, 1878) A
Hydroginella vincentiana (Cotton, 1944)
Hypermastus mucronatus (Sowerby, 1866) A
Inella carinata Marshall, 1983 A
Inella intercalaris Marshall, 1983 A
Inella obliqua (May, 1915) A
Inglisella fischeri (Adams, 1860) A
Incisura (Scissurona) rosea (Hedley, 1904)
Incisura (Scissurona) vincentiana (Cotton, 1945) A
Isotriphora amethystina Marshall, 1983
Isotriphora aureovincta (Verco, 1910) A
Isotriphora nivea (Verco, 1909) A
Isotriphora vercoi Marshall, 1983 A
Lamellaria ophione Gray, 1849
Laetifautor spinulosum (Tate, 1893) A
Laevilitorina (Laevilitorina) johnstoni (Cotton, 1945) A
Latitriphora latilirata (Verco, 1909) A
Latirus pulleinei Verco, 1895 A
Leiopyrga octona Tate, 1891 A
Lepsiella (Bedeva) paivae (Crosse, 1864)
Lepsiella (Lepsiella) flindersi (Adams & Angas, 1863)
A
Lepsiella (Lepsiella) vinosa (Lamarck, 1822)
Lippistes helicoides (Gmelin, 1791) A
Reticulated Little Buccinum / (a small dog whelk)
(a small ancillid shell)
Tiled False Ear Shell / Rounded False Ear Shell / Imbricated
False Ear Shell
(a small marginella shell from the continental shelf and slope)
(a small turrid shell)
(a small turrid shell)
(an abalone)
Greenlip Abalone
Roe‘s Abalone
Blacklip Abalone
(an abalone)
(a small triphorid gastropod that feeds on sponges)
(a small triphorid gastropod that feeds on sponges)
(a small triphorid gastropod that feeds on sponges)
(a small triphorid gastropod that feeds on sponges)
(a slit limpet)
(a top shell from rocky habitats)
(a top shell found under stones in intertidal & shallow
subtidal)
(a top shell)
Dwarf Bead Shell
Scurfy Bead Shell
Spotted Bead Shell
(a murex shell)
Yellow-Coated Clusterwink / Jockiwink
(a horse hoof limpet)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small eulimid shell, parasitic on echinoderms)
(a small triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
(a small triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
(a small triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
(a nutmeg shell of uncertain distribution, in SA and southern
WA)
(a small slit shell)
Gulf St. Vincent Slit Shell
(a small triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
(a small triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
(a small triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
(a small triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
(a gastropod with a thin, translucent shell)
Prickly Calliostoma / (a top shell)
(a littorinid shell)
(a small triphorid gastropod that feed on sponges)
( a spindle shell)
(a top shell)
(an oyster drill shell)
Flinders' Lepsiella
Wine-mouthed Lepsiella
(a small tropical turbinate shell related to cap limpets)
149
Litozamia petterdi (Crosse, 1870)
Livonia nodiplicata (Cox, 1910)
Livonia roadnightae (McCoy, 1881)
(a small trophine shell)
Cotton‘s Volute
Roadnight's Volute
Lottia onychitis (Menke, 1843)
Lottia mixta (Reeve, 1855)
Lottia septiformis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834) A
Lucidestea muratensis (Cotton, 1944) A
Lyria mitraeformis (Lamarck, 1811)
Macroschisma producta Adams, 1850 A
(a small acmaeid limpet found on rock platforms)
(a small acmaeid limpet found on rock platforms)
(a limpet found on limestone in the intertidal zone)
(a small rissoid gastropod that feeds on micro-algal film)
Mitre-shaped Lyria
(a keyhole limpet found buried in sand, or under stones, or in
crevices)
(a small turrid shell)
(a horse hoof llimpet)
(a small turrid shell)
(a small eulimid shell, parasitic on echinoderms)
(a small eulimid shell, parasitic on echinoderms)
(a small eulimid shell, parasitic on echinoderms)
(a small eulimid shell, parasitic on echinoderms)
(a small eulimid shell, parasitic on echinoderms)
(a small eulimid shell, parasitic on echinoderms)
Southern Baler Shell / Milton‘s Baler Shell
(a small marginella shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small spindle shell)
Girdled Top Shell
Coral Red Top Shell
(a common mitre shell from rocky intertidal and subtidal
habitats)
(a mitre shell found under stones in the intertidal and shallow
subtidal)
Tapering Dove Shell
(a small dove shell, common amongst algae & intertidal
rocks
(a small dove shell)
Macteola anomala (Angas, 1877)
Malluvium devotus (Hedley, 1904) A
Marita compta (Adams & Angas, 1864)
Melanella gradata (Cotton & Godfrey, 1932) A
Melanella mayi (Tate, 1900) A
Melanella murrayae (Cotton & Godfrey, 1932) A
Melanella orthopleura (Tate, 1898) A
Melanella planicincta (Cotton & Godfrey, 1932) A
Melanella tenisoni (Tryon, 1886) A
Melo miltonis (Griffith & Pidgeon, 1834) A
Mesoginella caducocincta (May, 1916)
Mesoginella pygmaeoides (Singleton, 1937)
Mesoginella turbinata (Sowerby, 1846)
Microcolus dunkeri (Jonas, 1844)
Minolops cincta (Cotton & Godfrey, 1938) E
Minolops corallina Cotton & Godfrey, 1935
Mitra (Mitra) carbonaria Swainson, 1822 A
Mitra (Mitra) glabra Swainson, 1821 A
Mitrella (Dentimitrella) acuminata (Menke, 1843) A
Mitrella (Dentimitrella) austrina (Gaskoin, 1851) A
Mitrella (Dentimitrella) dictua (Tenison Woods, 1878)
A
Mitrella (Dentimitrella) lincolnensis (Reeve, 1859)
Mitrella (Dentimitrella) pulla Gaskoin, 1852 A
Mitrella (Dentimitrella) semiconvexa (Lamarck, 1822)
Mitrella (Zemitrella) purpureocincta (Verco, 1910) A
Monophorus nigrofusca (A. Adams, 1851)
Monstrotyphis yatesi (Crosse & Fischer, 1865)
Montfortula rugosa (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834)
Muricopsis planilirata (Reeve, 1845) A
Muricopsis umbilicatus (Tenison Woods, 1876) A
Naccula compressa (Verco, 1906)
Notoacmea alta (Oliver, 1926)
Naccula punctata (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834)
Nannamoria guntheri (Smith, 1886)
Nannamoria johnclarki (Bail & Limpus, 1997) A
Nanula flindersi Cotton & Godfrey, 1935
Nassarius (Alectrion) glans particeps (Hedley, 1915)
Nassarius (Hima) pauperus (Gould, 1850)
Nassarius (Niotha) nigellus (Reeve, 1854)
(a small, common dove shell that occurs in seagrass and
sand habitats)
Long Dove Mitre Shell
Semiconvexa Dove Shell
(a small dove shell)
(a small triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
Yates‘ Typhis
Rugose Slit Limpet / False Limpet
(a small, common murex shell from intertidal and shallow
subtidal)
Umbilicated Murex
Compressed Limpet
Dotted Limpet
Gunther‘s Volute
(a small volute shell found in sand and rubble)
(a small top shell from the continental shelf and slope)
(Particeps Dog Whelk)
(a small dog whelk shell occurring in sandy mud habitats)
(a small dog whelk shell occurring in sandy mud habitats)
150
Nassarius (Niotha) pauperatus (Lamarck, 1822) A
Nassarius (Zeuxis) pyrrhus (Menke, 1843)
Natica sertata Menke, 1843 A
Natica sticta Verco, 1909 A
Neotrigonia bednalli (Verco, 1907)
Nepotilla fenestrata (Verco, 1909) A
Nerita (Melanerita) atramentosa Reeve, 1855
Niveria (Cleotrivia) globosa (Sowerby, 1832)
Notoacmea alta (Oliver, 1926)
Notoacmea flammea (Quoy and Gaimard, 1834)
Notoacmea mayi (May, 1923)
Notocochlis subcostata (Tenison Woods, 1878) A
Notocypraea comptoni (Gray, 1847) A
Notocypraea declivis (Sowerby, 1870) A
Notocypraea piperita (Gray, 1825)
Notogibbula bicarinata (Adams, 1854)
Notogibbula lehmanni (Menke, 1843) = Prothalotia
lehmanni (Menke, 1843)
Notogibbula preissiana (Philippi, 1849)
Notopeplum translucidum (Verco, 1896) A
Nototriphora regina (Hedley, 1903)
Nototriphora vestita Marshall, 1983 A
Notovoluta kreuslerae (Angas, 1865) A
Notovoluta verconis (Tate, 1892)
Obesula albovittata (Hedley, 1903) A
Obesula profundior Marshall, 1983 A
Odontotrochus chlorostomus (Menke, 1843)
Oliva australis Duclos, 1835
Onoba (Ovirissoa) rubicunda (Tate & May, 1900)
Opalia (Opalia) australis (Lamarck, 1822) A
Opalia (Dentiscala) granosa (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834)
A
Ovaginella ovulum (Sowerby, 1846)
Ovaginella tenisoni (Pritchard, 1900)
Ovaginella whani (Pritchard & Gatliff, 1900)
Parastrophia (Parastrophia) cygnicollis (Hedley, 1904)
A
Parviterebra brazieri (Angas, 1875) A
Parviterebra trilineata (Adams & Angas, 1864) A
Patella (Scutellastra) chapmani
Tenison Woods, 1876
Patella (Scutellastra) laticostata Blainville, 1825 A
Patella (Scutellastra) peronii Blainville, 1825
Patelloida alticostata (Angas, 1865)
Patelloida insignis (Menke, 1843)
Patelloida latistrigata (Angas, 1865)
Patelloida mufria (Hedley, 1915)
Patelloida profunda (Deshayes, 1863)
Patelloida profunda calamus
(Crosse & Fischer, 1864)
Peculator bacatus Cernohorsky, 1980 A
Peculator porphyria (Verco, 1896)
Penion mandarinus (Duclos, 1831)
Pepta stricta (Hedley, 1907) A
Persicula albomaculata (May , 1911) A
(a small dog whelk shell found on a variety of subtrate types)
(a small, common dog whelk)
(a small moon snail)
Spotted Sand Shell / a small moon snail)
Brooch Shell
(a turrid shell known from the continental shelf and slope)
Black Nerite / Periwinkle
(a bean cowrie)
Tall Limpet
Flamed Limpet
May‘s Beetle Limpet
(a small moon snail)
Compton‘s Cowrie
Sloping Cowrie / Speckled Cowrie
Peppered Cowrie / Two-Coloured Piperita Cowrie
Cox‘s Top Shell
Many Coloured Top Shell / Lehmann's Top Shell
Twin Keeled Top Shell
(a small, translucent volute shell)
(a small triphorid gastropod that feed on sponges)
(a small triphorid gastropod that feed on sponges)
Kreusler's Volute
Verco‘s Volute
(a small triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
(a small triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
(a top shell of variable form, colour & pattern; common in
seagrasses)
Southern Olive / Australian Olive
(a rice shell)
Austral Wentletrap / Southern Wentletrap
Granose Wentletrap
(a small marginella shell with a broad depth range)
(a small marginella shell)
(a small marginella shell)
(a gastropod in the Caecidae family)
(a small dove shell)
Three-line Auger / a dove shell
Chapman's Limpet / Eight-rayed Limpet
Giant Limpet
Peron's Limpet / Scaly Limpet / Scorched Limpet
Tall-ribbed Limpet
(a small limpet found under stones)
Lateral-striped Limpet
(a small limpet, often on shells of other gastropods)
(a limpet)
(a limpet)
(a small volutomitrid shell)
(a very small volutomitrid shell found on sandy substrates)
Mandarin Penion Shell / Southern Siphon Whelk
(a nutmeg shell)
(a small gastropod resembling a marginella shell)
151
Persicula pulchella (Kiener, 1830)
Phasianella australis (Gmelin, 1791)
Phasianella ventricosa Swainson, 1822
Phasianotrochus apicinus (Menke, 1843)
Phasianotrochus bellulus (Philippi, 1845)
Phasianotrochus eximius (Perry, 1811)
Phasianotrochus irisodontes (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834)
Phenacolepas alboradiata (Verco, 1906)
Phenacolepas calva (Verco, 1906) A
Phycothais reticulata (Quoy & Gaimard, 1832) A
Pisinna approxima (Petterd, 1884) A
Pisinna costata (Hedley, 1911)
Pisinna frenchiensis (Gatliff & Gabriel, 1908) A
Pisinna varicifera relata (Cotton, 1944)
Pisinna voorwindei Ponder & Yoo, 1976
Plaxiphora (Plaxiphora) albida (Blainville, 1825)
Plesiotrochus monachus (Crosse & Fischer, 1864)
Pleuroploca australasia (Perry, 1811) A
Polinices (Conuber) conicus (Lamarck, 1822) A
Primovula verconis (Cotton & Godfrey, 1932) A
Pterochelus triformis (Reeve, 1845)
Proterato (Cypraeerato) bimaculata (Tate, 1878) A
Proterato (Sulcerato) denticulata (Pritchard & Gatliff,
1901) A
Prothalotia flindersi (Fischer, 1878) A
Prothalotia pulcherrimus (Wood, 1828)
Prototyphis angasi (Crosse, 1863)
Pseudamycla dermestoidea (Lamarck, 1822) A
Pseudopisinna gregaria gregaria (Laseron, 1950) A
Pusillina (Haurakia) mediolaevis Cotton, 1944 A
Pyrene bidentata (Menke, 1843) A
Ranella australasia australasia (Perry, 1811) A
Retusa pygmaea (A. Adams, 1850) A
Rissoella (Jeffreysilla) confusa umbilicata Ponder &
Yoo, 1977 A
Rissoella (Rissoella) vitrea Ponder & Yoo, 1977 A
Rissoina (Rissoina) nivea A. Adams, 1853 A
Sabia australis (= Hipponix australis)
Sabia conica (= Hipponix conicus) (Schumacher,
1817) A
Sassia (Austrotriton) subdistorta Lamarck, 1822
Sassia (Cymatiella) columnaria (Hedley & May, 1908)
Sassia (Cymatiella) eburnea (Reeve, 1844)
Sassia (Cymatiella) sexcostata (Tate, 1888)
Sassia (Cymatiella) verrucosa (Reeve, 1844)
Scissurella cyprina Cotton & Godfrey, 1938 A
Scutus (Scutus) antipodes (Montfort, 1810)
Flat-topped Margin Shell
Australian Pheasant Shell / Pheasant Shell / Painted Lady
Swollen Pheasant Shell / Painted Lady
Pointed Kelp Shell
Necklace Kelp Shell / Elegant Kelp Shell / Necklace Weed
Shell
Green Jewel Top Shell / True Kelp Shell
Kelp Shell / Rainbow Kelp Shell / Green Necklace Shell
(a sugar limpet)
(a sugar limpet)
(a small whelk shell occurring in seagrass beds and under
rocks, in the intertidal)
(a small gastropod found on algae, under rocks & stones)
(a small gastropod from continental shelf waters)
(a small gastropod found on algae under stones)
(a small gastropod from the continental shelf)
(a small gastropod from the continental shelf)
White Plaxiphora Chiton
(a small gastropod found in seagrass in the shallow subtidal)
(a large tulip shell) / Australian Horse Conch / Australian
Tulip
Conical Moon Snail / Conical Sand Snail
(a small ovulid shell)
(a broadly distributed shell found in sand, and on rocks, near
seagrass)
(a small eratos shell that feeds on ascidians)
(a small eratos shell that feeds on ascidians)
Flinder Top Shell
Crimson Lip Weed Shell / Beautiful Cantharidus
Angas‘ Murex
(a small dove shell)
(a small gastropod found amongst algal turf in intertidal and
shallow subtidal)
(a small rissoid gastropod that feeds on micro-algal film)
(a common dove shell associated with seagrass beds and
brown macroalgae)
Australian (Brown) Triton / Australasian Trumpet
(a bubble shell)
(a small gastropod found in lower intertidal & shallow
subtidal)
(a small gastropod found in lower intertidal & shallow
subtidal)
(a small rissoid gastropod that feeds on micro-algal film)
(a horse hoof limpet that lives in groups on the shells of other
gastropods)
Conical Horse-Hoof / Bonnet Limpet
Distorted Rock Triton
(a small triton shell found in deeper shelf waters)
Ivory Triton / Lesueur's Triton
(a small triton shell found in the subtidal)
Little Southern Triton
Venus Slit Shell
Elephant Snail / Roman Shield Shell / Duck‘s-bill Limpet
152
Seilarex verconis Cotton, 1951 A
Semicassis (Antephalium) adcocki (Sowerby, 1896) A
Semicassis (Antephalium) semigranosum (Lamarck,
1822) A
Semicassis (Antephalium) sinuosum (Verco, 1904) A
Semicassis (Semicassis) pyrum (Lamarck, 1822)
Serpulorbis (Cladopoda) novaehollandiae (Chenu,
1843)
Serpulorbis (Cladopoda) sipho (Lamarck, 1818) A
Serrata mustelina (Angas, 1871)
Sigapatella calyptraeformis (Lamarck, 1822)
Siliquaria (Siliquaria) australis Quoy & Gaimard, 1834
Siliquaria (Pyxipoma) weldii (Tenison Woods, 1876)
Sinezona atkinsoni (Tenison Woods, 1877) A
Sinezona beddomei (Petterd, 1884) A
Sinezona pacifica (Oliver, 1915) A
Sinezona pulchra (Petterd, 1884) A
Sinum zonale (Quoy & Gaimard, 1832)
Siphonaria (Siphonaria) diemenensis Quoy &
Gaimard, 1833
Siphonaria jeanae Jenkins, 1984
Siphonaria zelandica Quoy & Gaimard, 1833
Spectamen marsus Cotton & Godfrey, 1938
Specula regina Cotton, 1951 A
Specula turbonilloides (Tenison Woods, 1879) A
Spisula (Notospisula) trigonella (Lamarck, 1819) A
Splendrillia (Splendrillia) woodsi (Beddome, 1883)
Stosicia hedleyi (Tate, 1899)
Stomatella auricula (Lamarck, 1816)
Stomatella impertusa (Burrow, 1815)
Tanea sagittata (Menke, 1843)
Teretriphora spica (Verco, 1909)
Tasmatica schoutanica (May, 1912)
Tetraphora granifera (Brazier, 1894)
Thalotia conica (Gray, 1827) A
Tonna variegata (Lamarck, 1822) A
Tricolia fordiana (Pilsbry, 1888) A
Tricolia rosea (Angas, 1867) A
Tricolia tomlini (Gatliff & Gabriel, 1921) A
Tricolia variabilis (Pease, 1861) A
Tripterotyphis robustus (Verco, 1895)
Trivia (Ellatrivia) merces (Iredale, 1924) A
Tugali cicatricosa A. Adams, 1852 A
Turbo (Dinassovica) jourdani Kiener, 1839
Turbo (Euninella) gruneri Philippi, 1846
Turbo (Ninella) torquatus Gmelin, 1791
Turbo (Subninella) undulatus Lightfoot, 1786
Umbilica (Umbilica) armeniaca (Verco, 1912)
Vasum (Altivasum) flindersi (Verco, 1914) A
Vaceuchelus ampullus (Tate, 1893) A
Vaceuchelus profundior (May, 1915) A
Velacumantus australis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834)
Vexillum (Costellaria) acromiale (Hedley, 1915) A
Vexillum (Costellaria) apicitinctum (Verco, 1896)
(a small triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
(a helmet shell found on the continental shelf)
Half-grained Helmet
(a helmet shell found on the continental shelf)
(a helmet shell found on the continental shelf and slope)
(a worm shell that cements its shell to hard substrates)
(a worm shell that cements its shell to hard substrates)
(a small marginella shell from shallow reefs / rocky habitats)
(a slipper shell)
(a slit worm shell)
(a slit worm shell)
Atkinson‘s Slit Shell
Beddome‘s Slit Shell
(a small Scissurellid slit shell)
Beautiful Slit Shell
(a moon snail found on sandflats)
Van Diemen‘s Siphon Shell
(a limpet)
New Zealand Siphon Shell
Streaked Top Shell
(a creeper shell that feeds on sponges)
(a creeper shell that feeds on sponges)
(a trough shell)
(a turrid shell)
(a small rissoid gastropod that feeds on micro-algal film)
(a stomatella / false ear shell)
False Ear Shell / Elongate False Ear Shell
(a small moon snail found in intertidal zone)
(a small triphorid gastropod that feed on sponges)
(a small moon snail)
(a small, common triphorid shell that feeds on sponges)
Conical Thalotia
Variegated Tun Shell
(a small, tropical turbinid shell, common on rocky shores)
Rosy Pheasant Shell
Tomlin's Pheasant Shell
(a small turbinid shell that is extremely variable in colour)
Robust Pterynotus / Robust Typhis
Common Southern Bean Cowry / Australian Bean Cowrie
Scar False Limpet / Scarred Notched Limpet
Jourdan‘s Turban Shell / Turban Shell
Gruner's Turbo / Turban Shell
Heavy Turban Shell / Turban Shell
Common Warrener / Wavy Turban
Apricot-Coloured Cowrie
Flinders Vase Shell
(a cream-coloured top shell)
(a top shell from the continental shelf and slope)
Southern Mud Creeper / Australian Mud Whelk
(a costellate mitre shell)
(a small costellate mitre shell)
153
Vexillum (Costellaria) lincolnense (Angas, 1878) A
Vexillum (Pusia) australe (Swainson, 1820)
Xenophora (Austrophora) flindersi flindersi (Cotton
and Godfrey, 1938)
Zaclys semilaevis (Tenison-Woods, 1877)
Zaclys styliferus Cotton, 1951 A
Zeacumantus diemenesis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834) A
Zeacumantus subcarinatus (Sowerby, 1855) A, I
Zeidora legrandi Tate, 1894 A
Zenepos mimica (Sowerby, 1897) A
Zenepos minuta (Tenison-Woods, 1877) A
Zoila friendii thersites (Gaskoin, 1849) A
= Cypraea (Zoila) friendii thersites
Zoila marginata orientalis / Zoila orientalis
Zoila rosselli Cotton, 1948 A
Zoila venusta (Sowerby, 1847)
(a small costellate mitre shell found under rocks in intertidal
and shallow subtidal)
(a costellate mitre shell)
(a carrier shell that attaches small shells & pebbles to its own
shell
(a small cerithiopsid gastropod that feeds on sponges)
(a small cerithiopsid gastropod that feeds on sponges)
(a mud creeper shell)
(a mud creeper shell)
(a slit limpet)
(a turrid shell)
(a turrid shell)
Hump-backed Cowrie / Black Cowrie. Considered to be a
geographically isolated eastern sub-species of the Z. friendii
complex (Wilson et al., 1993; Wilson and Clarkson, 2004).
Broad-margined Cowrie
Rossell's Cowry
(a cowrie with various named forms, at least one of which
occurs in the SA portion of the Great Australian Bight)
154
Appendix 4: Infaunal species recorded in sediments at Stations 1, 2 ,3 , 4, 5 and 6 (inner and mid-shelf
locations, closest to seaward of boundary of AW NRM region), during a 2006 SARDI survey (data from
Currie et al., 2007). Genera in quotation marks may be misidentified.
Major Taxonomic Group
Crabs
Carid shrimp / comb shrimps
Craylets
Snapping shrimps / pistol prawns
Amphipod crustaceans
Isopod crustaceans
Mysid crustaceans
Tanaid crustaceans
Cumacean crustaceans
Leptostracan crustaceans
Ostracod crustaceans
Stalked barnacles
Bivalve molluscs
Species Recorded
Actaea peronii
Halicarcinus rostratus
Pisidia dispar (listed as Porcellana dispar)
Leptochela sydniensis
Philocheras intermedius
Galathea australiensis
Alpheus villosus
Synalpheus fossor
Birubius sp.
Birubius drummondae
Caprella scaura
Ceradocus rubromaculatus
Ceradocus serratus
Cheiriphotis australiae
Cyproidea sp.
Dulichiella australis
Gammaropsis (Gammaropsis) persetosus
“ Halicreion” sp.
Leucothoe diemenensis (listed as L. spinicarpa)
Leucothoe sp.
Mallacoota sp.
Metaphoxus yaranellus
Paradexamine echuca
Urohaustorius halei
Waldeckia kroyeri
Waldeckia sp.
Xenocheira fasciata
Cerceis sp.
Chitonopsis sp.
Eurydice binda
Haliophasma sp.
Heteroserolis longicaudata (listed as Serolis longicaudata)
Natatolana longispina
Stenetrium armatum
(species in Corophiidae family)
Paranchialina angusta
(species in Anarthruridae family)
Kalliapseudes obtusifrons
Paratanais sp. (listed as P. ignotus)
Paratanais sp.
Leptocuma pulleini
Gynodiastylis truncatifrons
Paranebalia longipes
(species in Candonidae family)
(species in Philomedidae family)
Smilium peronii
Carditella (Carditella) valida
Donax (Tentidonax) francisensis
Glycymeris (Glycymeris) striatularis
Hiatella australis
Mimachlamys asperrima
Modiolus sp.
Montacuta meridionalis
Musculus nanus
Neotrigonia bednalli
Ovacuna atkinsoni (listed as Cuna solida)
Sunetta vaginalis
155
Gastropod molluscs
Nudibranchs
Chitons
Brittlestars
Sand dollars
Sea urchins
Polychaete worms
Sabellid worms (fan worms)
Scale worms
Nemertean worms
Sipunculan worms
Serpulid worms
Cepahalochordates
Bony fishes
Oliva sp. 2
Oliva sp. 3
Retusa pygmaea
Doris chrysoderma (listed as Neodoris chrysoderma)
(more than one species in Chromodorididae)
Leptochiton collusor (listed as Parachiton collusor)
Ophiura kinbergi
Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) caespitosa
Fibularia acuta
Goniocidaris tubaria
(species in Amphinomidae family)
(species in Dorvilleidae family)
(species in Glyceridae family)
(species in Lumbrineridae family)
(species in Nereididae family)
(species in Onuphidae family)
(species in Polygordiidae family)
(2 species in Orbiniidae family)
(2 species in Phyllodocidae family)
(species in Polygordiidae family)
(species in Syllidae family)
(species in Spionidae family)
―Ampharete‖ sp.
Eunice sp.
Eurythoe complanata
Exogone sp.
Flabelligera sp. 1
―Leiocapitella‖ sp.
Lysidice sp.
―Micronephtys‖ sp.
―Nematonereis‖ sp.
Notomastus sp.
Ophelia sp.
Pista sp.
Syllis gracilis
(a species in Sabellidae)
(2 species in Polynoidae family)
(2 species in Cephalothricidae family)
Phascolosoma (Phascolosoma) annulatum
(species in Serpulidae)
Epigonichthys australis
Foetorepus phasis
156
Appendix 5: Bony fish species likely to occur in the marine component of the AW NRM region (to 3
nautical miles from shore). V = oceanic species; rare inshore, as vagrant. E = apparently endemic within
South Australia. P = Protected under the Fisheries Management (General) Regulations 2007 of the
Fisheries Management Act 2007 in South Australia. U = might occur in AW NRM region, at upper depth
limit. Compiled from: Kailola et al. (1993); Gomon et al. (1994; 2008); Kuiter (1996a, 1996b); Hutchins
and Swainston (2001); SARDI survey data, identified by South Australian Museum (2002); R. Foster
(S.A. Museum, pers. comm., 2006); M. Gomon (Museum Victoria, pers. comm., 2007); Australian
Museum records, South Australian Museum records, Western Australian Museum records, Museum
Victoria records, cited in OZCAM database (2009); Baker (2004, 2007, 2009); ABRS (2009); CSIRO
(2009); Australian Museum (2009a).
Scientific Name
Common Name
Acanthaluteres brownii (Richardson, 1846)
Acanthaluteres spilomelanurus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824)
Acanthaluteres vittiger (Castelnau, 1873)
Acanthistius serratus (Cuvier, 1828)
Acanthopagrus butcheri (Munro, 1949)
Acentronura australe Waite & Hale, 1921
= Idiotropiscis australe Whitley, 1947
Achoerodus gouldii (Richardson, 1843)
Aetapcus maculatus (Günther, 1861)
Afurcagobius tamarensis (= Favonigobius tamarensis)
(Johnston, 1883)
Alabes hoesei Springer & Fraser, 1976
Aldrichetta forsteri (Valenciennes, 1836)
Allenichthys glauerti (Whitley, 1944)
Allomycterus pilatus Whitley, 1931
Allothunnus fallai Serventy 1948
Ammotretis brevipinnis Norman, 1926
Ammotretis elongatus McCulloch, 1914
Ammotretis rostratus Günther, 1862
Anoplocapros amygdaloides Fraser-Brunner, 1941 =
Anoplocapros robustus (Fraser-Brunner, 1941)
Anoplocapros lenticularis (Richardson, 1841)
Spiny-tailed Leatherjacket / Spinytail Leatherjacket
Bridled Leatherjacket
Toothbrush Leatherjacket
Western Wirrah
Black Bream / Bream
Southern Little Pipehorse / Southern Pygmy
Pipehorse
Western Blue Groper / Blue Groper
Warty Prowfish
Tamar River Goby / Tamar Goby
Dwarf Shore-Eel
Yellow-eye Mullet / Yelloweye Mullet
Glauert‘s Anglerfish
Australian Burrfish / Small-spined Porcupine Fish
Slender Tuna
Short-fin Flounder / Shortfin Flounder
Elongate Flounder
Long-snout Flounder / Longsnout Flounder / Longsnouted Flounder / Bay Flounder
Western Smooth Boxfish / Blue Boxfish / Robust
Boxfish / Chubby Basketfish
Aploactisoma milesii (Richardson, 1850)
Apogonops anomalus Ogilby, 1896
Aracana aurita (Shaw, 1798)
Aracana ornata (Gray, 1838)
Argentina australiae Cohen, 1958
Humpback Boxfish / White-barred Boxfish / Humpty
Dumpty
Velvetfish
Threespine Cardinalfish
Shaw‘s Cowfish / Striped Cowfish
Ornate Cowfish
Silverside
Arenogobius bifrenatus (Kner 1865)
Bridled Goby
Argyrosomus japonicas (Temminck & Schlegel, 1844) =
Argyrosomus hololepidotus (Lacepède, 1801)
Mulloway / Butterfish / Jewfish
Arnoglossus muelleri (Klunzinger, 1872)
Arnoglossus micrommatus Amaoka, Arai & Gomon 1997
Arripis georgianus = Arripis georgianus (Valenciennes,
1831)
Arripis truttaceus = Arripis truttacea (Cuvier, 1829)
Mueller‘s Flounder
Smalleye Flounder / Flimsy flounder
Australian Herring / Tommy Ruff
Aseraggodes haackeanus (Steindachner, 1883)
Aspasmogaster liorhyncha Briggs, 1955
Aspasmogaster tasmaniensis (Günther, 1861)
Austrolabrus maculatus (Macleay, 1881)
157
Australian Salmon / West Australian Salmon /
Western Australian Salmon
Southern Sole / Southern Textile Sole
Smooth-Snout Clingfish
Tasmanian Clingfish
Black-spotted Wrasse / Blackspotted Wrasse
Auxis thazard (Lacépède , 1800)
Beliops xanthokrossos Hardy, 1985
Bodianus frenchii (Klunzinger, 1880)
Bodianus vulpinus (Richardson, 1850)
Brachaluteres jacksonianus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824)
Brachionichthys australis Last, Gledhill and Holmes 2007
Brachynectes fasciatus Scott, 1957
Caesioperca lepidoptera (Forster, 1801)
Caesioperca rasor (Richardson, 1839)
Callanthias australis Ogilby, 1899
Callogobius depressus (Ramsay & Ogilby, 1886)
Callogobius mucosus (Günther, 1872)
Campichthys galei (Duncker, 1909) P
Cantheschenia longipinnis (Fraser-Brunner, 1941)
Caprichthys gymnura McCulloch & Waite, 1915
Capropygia unistriata (Kaup, 1855)
Centroberyx australis Shimizu & Hutchins, 1987
Centroberyx gerrardi (Günther, 1887)
Centroberyx lineatus (Cuvier, 1829)
Centropogon latifrons Mees, 1862
Cepola australis Ogilby, 1889
Cheilodactylus nigripes Richardson, 1850
Cheilodactylus rubrolabiatus Allen & Heemstra, 1976
Chelidonichthys kumu (Cuvier, 1829)
Chelmonops curiosus Kuiter, 1986
Chironemus georgianus Cuvier, 1829
Chironemus maculosus (Richardson, 1850)
Chrysophrys auratus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) (=
Pagrus auratus)
Cleidopus gloriamaris De Vis, 1882
Cnidoglanis macrocephalus (Valenciennes, 1840)
Cochleoceps bicolor Hutchins, 1991
Bullet Mackerel
Southern Longfin
Western Foxfish / Foxfish
Western Blackspot Pigfish
Southern Pygmy Leatherjacket / Pygmy
Leatherjacket
Australian Handfish / Common Handfish
Weedy Threefin / Southern Barred Threefin /
Southern Barred Triplefin
Butterfly Perch
Barber Perch
Splendid Perch / Rosy Perch
Flathead Goby
Sculptured Goby
Gales Pipefish
Smoothspine Leatherjacket
Rigid Boxfish
Spiny Boxfish
Yellow-eyed Red Snapper / Yellow-eyed Nannygai
Red Snapper / Redfish / Bight Redfish
Swallowtail
Western Fortescue
Bandfish
Magpie Perch / Black-striped Morwong
Red-lipped Morwong / Redlip Morwong
Red Gurnard / Flying Gurnard
Talma / Western Talma / Square-back Butterflyfish /
Truncate Coralfish
Western Kelpfish / Southern Kelpfish / asselled
Kelpfish
Silverspot / Silver Spot
Snapper / Pink Snapper
Pineapple Fish / Pineapplefish / Knight Fish
Estuary Catfish / Cobbler / Southern Cobbler
Western Cleaner-Clingfish / Western Cleaner
Clingfish
Spade-nosed Clingfish / Spade-nose Clingfish
Short-finned Conger Eel / Short-finned Conger
Prickly Toadfish
Barred Toadfish / Prickly Toadfish
Common Dolphinfish
Pink Sandfish
Slender Sand-diver
Southern Crested Weedfish / Crested Weedfish
Southern Tongue Sole / Broadhurst‘s Tongue Sole
Silver Dory
Dusky Morwong / Butterfish
Australian Tusk / Tusk
Slender Blindfish
Long-finned Pike
Globe Fish / Porcupine Fish / Slender-spined
Porcupine Fish
Castelnau‘s Wrasse / Pretty Polly
Sharksucker / Slender Suckerfish
Prickly Anglerfish
Sponge Anglerfish
Cochleoceps spatula (Günther, 1861)
Conger wilsoni (Bloch & Schneider, 1801)
Contusus brevicaudus Hardy, 1981
Contusus richei (Fréminville, 1813)
Coryphaena hippurus Linnaeus, 1758
Crapatalus munroi Last & Edgar 1987
Creedia haswelli (Ramsay, 1881)
Cristiceps australis Valenciennes, 1836
Cynoglossus broadhursti Waite, 1905
Cyttus australis (Richardson, 1843)
Dactylophora nigricans (Richardson, 1850)
Dannevigia tusca Whitley, 1941 U
Dermatopsis multiradiatus McCulloch & Waite, 1918
Dinolestes lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834)
Diodon nicthemerus Cuvier, 1818
Dotalabrus aurantiacus (Castelnau, 1872)
Echeneis naucrates Linnaeus, 1758
Echinophryne crassispina McCulloch & Waite, 1918
Echinophryne reynoldsi Pietsch & Kuiter, 1984
158
Eeyorius hutchinsi Paulin, 1986
Emmelichthys nitidus Richardson, 1845
Engraulis australis (White, 1790)
Enigmapercis reducta Whitley, 1936
Enoplosus armatus (White, 1790)
Eocallionymus papilio (Günther, 1864)
Epigonichthys australis (Raff, 1912)
Etrumeus teres (De Kay, 1842)
Eubalichthys bucephalus (Whitley, 1931)
Eubalichthys cyanoura Hutchins, 1987
Eubalichthys mosaicus (Ramsay & Ogilby, 1886)
Eubalichthys quadrispinis Hutchins 1977 (in deeper shelf
waters )
Eupetrichthys angustipes Ramsay & Ogilby, 1888
Eviota bimaculata Lachner & Karnella, 1980
Favonigobius lateralis (Macleay, 1881)
Fistularia petimba Lacepède, 1803
Foetorepus calauropomus (Richardson, 1844)
Genus A, sp. 2 (Hutchins, in Gomon et al., 1994)
Genus B sp. (Hutchins, in Gomon et al., 1994)
Genypterus blacodes (Forster, 1801)
Genypterus tigerinus Klunzinger, 1872
Girella zebra (Richardson, 1846)
Glyptauchen panduratus (Richardson, 1850)
Gnathanacanthus goetzeei Bleeker, 1855
Gnathophis longicauda = G. longicaudus or G.
longicaudatus (Ramsay & Ogilby, 1888)
Gnathophis umbrellabia (Whitley, 1946)
Gonorynchus greyi (Richardson, 1845)
Gymnapistes marmoratus (Cuvier, 1829)
Gymnothorax prasinus (Richardson, 1848)
Haletta semifasciata (Valenciennes, 1840)
Finetooth Beardie
Redbait
Australian Anchovy
Broad Duckbill / Broad Sandfish / Broad Sand-diver
Old Wife
Painted Stinkfish / Painted Dragonet
Deepwater Lancelet
Maray
Black Reef Leatherjacket
Blue-tailed Leatherjacket / Bluetail Leatherjacket
Mosaic Leatherjacket
Fourspine Leatherjacket
Snakeskin Wrasse
Twospot Fringedfin Goby / Two-spot Fringed-fin
Goby / Twospot Goby
Longfin Goby / Long-finned Goby / Spotted Goby
Rough Flutemouth / Flutemouth
Common Stinkfish
Brown-spotted Spiny Clingfish / Kelp Clingfish
Rat Clingfish
Pink Ling
Rock Ling
Zebra Fish / Zebrafish
Goblin Fish / Goblinfish
Red Velvetfish
Little Conger-Eel / Silver Conger / Little Conger
Umbrella Conger
Beaked Salmon
Cobbler / South Australian Cobbler / Soldierfish
Green Moray / Yellow Moray / Brown Reef Eel
Weedy Whiting / Blue Weed Whiting / Blue Rock
Whiting
Yellowback Triplefin / Yellowback Threefin / Blackthroated Triplefin / Black-throated Threefin
Reef Ocean Perch / Ocean Perch / Red Ocean
Perch
Western Upside-down Pipefish / Western Upside
Down Pipefish
Helcogramma decurrens McCulloch & Waite, 1918
Helicolenus percoides (Richardson & Solander, 1842)
Heraldia sp. 1 = southern form of Heraldia nocturna
Paxton, 1975 P
Heteroclinus adelaidae Castelnau, 1872
Heteroclinus eckloniae (McKay, 1970)
Heteroclinus heptaeolus (Ogilby, 1885)
Heteroclinus macrophthalmus Hoese, 1976
Heteroclinus roseus (Günther, 1861)
Heteroclinus sp. 5 (in Gomon et al., 1994)
Heteroclinus sp. 6 (in Gomon et al., 1994)
Heteroscarus acroptilus (Richardson, 1846)
Hippocampus bleekeri Fowler, 1908 (N.B. H. bleekeri is
Adelaide‘s Weedfish
Kelp Weedfish
Seven-Bar Weedfish / Sevenbar Weedfish
Tasselled Weedfish / Large-Eye Weedfish
Rosy Weedfish
Fewray Weedfish
Milward‘s Weedfish
Rainbow Cale / Rainbowfish
Southern Potbelly Seahorse / Pot-bellied Seahorse
closely related to H. abdominalis Lesson, 1827)
Hippocampus breviceps Peters, 1869 (in GAB there may be
a western form of H. breviceps; in WA this has been assigned
species status by some, and known as H. tuberculatus)
Histiogamphelus cristatus (Macleay, 1881) P
Histiophryne bougainvilli (Valenciennes, 1837)
Histiophryne cryptacanthus (= H. cryptacantha) (Weber,
1913)
159
Short-headed Seahorse / Short-snouted Seahorse
Macleay‘s Crested Pipefish / Rhino Pipefish
Bougainville‘s Anglerfish / Smooth Anglerfish
Rodless Anglerfish / Cryptic Anglerfish
Hyperlophus vittatus (Castelnau, 1875)
Hyperoglyphe antarctica (Carmichael, 1818)
Hyporhamphus melanochir (Valenciennes, 1847)
Hypoplectrodes nigroruber (= Hypoplectrodes
nigrorubrum) (Cuvier, 1828)
Ichthyoscopus barbatus Mees, 1960
Kathetostoma canaster Gomon & Last, 1987
Kathetostoma laeve (Bloch & Schneider, 1801)
Kathetostoma nigrofasciatum (Waite & McCulloch, 1915)
Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Kaupus costatus (Waite and Hale, 1921)
Kuiterichthys furcipilis (Cuvier, 1817) = Kuiterichthys sp.
(western form)
Kyphosus sydneyanus (Günther, 1886)
Lagocephalus lagocephalus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lagocephalus sceleratus (Gmelin, 1789)
Lampris guttatus (Brünnich, 1788) V
Latris lineata (Forster, in Bloch & Schneider, 1801)
Latropiscis purpurissatus (Richardson, 1843)
Lepidoblennius marmoratus (Macleay, 1878)
Lepidoperca filamenta Roberts, 1987
Lepidoperca occidentalis Whitley, 1951
Lepidopus caudatus (Euphrasen, 1788) V
Lepidotrigla papilio (Cuvier, 1829)
Lepidotrigla spinosa Gomon, 1987
Lepidotrigla vanessa (Richardson, 1839)
Leptoichthys fistularius Kaup, 1853 P
Lesueurina platycephala Fowler, 1908
Leviprora inops (Jenyns, 1840)
Lissocampus caudalis Waite & Hale, 1921 P
Lissocampus runa (Whitley, 1931) P
Liza argentea (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825)
Lophonectes gallus Günther, 1880
Lotella rhacina (= Lotella rhacinus) (Forster, in Bloch &
Schneider, 1801)
Macroramphosus scolopax (Linnaeus, 1758)
Makaira indica (Cuvier, 1832) O
Maroubra perserrata Whitley, 1948 P
Masturus lanceolatus (Lienard, 1840) V
Maxillicosta scabriceps Whitley, 1935
Maxillicosta meridianus Motomura, Last & Gomon, 2006
Metavelifera multiradiatus (Regan, 1907)
Meuschenia flavolineata Hutchins, 1977
Meuschenia freycineti (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824)
Meuschenia galii (Waite, 1905)
Meuschenia hippocrepis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824)
Meuschenia scaber (Forster, 1801)
Meuschenia venusta Hutchins, 1977
Mola mola (Linnaeus 1758) V
Mola ramsayi (Giglioli 1883) V
160
Sandy Sprat
Blue-eye Trevalla
Sea Garfish / Southern Sea Garfish
Black-banded Seaperch / Banded Seaperch
Fringed Stargazer
Speckled Stargazer
Common Stargazer / Eastern Stargazer
Deepwater Stargazer
Skipjack Tuna
Deepbody / Deep-bodied Pipefish
Rough Anglerfish
Silver Drummer / Southern Silver Drummer
Ocean Puffer / Oceanic Pufferfish
Giant Toado / Silver Toadfish / Silver Pufferfish /
North-west Blowfish
Opah
Striped Trumpeter / Stripey Trumpeter / Tasmanian
Trumpeter
Sergeant Baker
Jumping Blenny
Western Orange Perch
Slender Orange Perch
Frostfish
Spiny Gurnard / Southern Spiny Gurnard
Southern Shortfin Gurnard
Butterfly Gurnard
Brushtail Pipefish / Brush-tail Pipefish
Flathead Sandfish / Flathead Pygmy Stargazer
Long-head Flathead / Longhead Flathead
Smooth Pipefish
Javelin Pipefish
Jumping Mullet / Jumper Mullet / Flat-tail Mullet /
Flattail Mullet / Goldspot Mullet
Crested Flounder
Beardie / Large-tooth Beardie
Common Bellowsfish
Black Marlin
Sawtooth Pipefish
Sharptail Sunfish
Little Scorpionfish
Southern Gurnard Perch
Common Veilfin
Yellow-striped Leatherjacket / Yellowstriped
Leatherjacket / Yellow-tail Leatherjacket
Six-spine Leatherjacket / Sixspine Leatherjacket /
Six-spined Leatherjacket
Blue-lined Leatherjacket / Bluelined Leatherjacket
Horseshoe Leatherjacket
Velvet Leatherjacket / Cosmopolitan Leatherjacket
Stars and Stripes Leatherjacket / Stars-and-Stripes
Leatherjacket
Ocean Sunfish
Short Sunfish
Myxus elongatus Günther, 1861
Naucrates ductor (Linnaeus, 1758)
Neatypus obliquus Waite, 1905
Nelusetta ayraudi (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824)
Sand Mullet
Pilotfish
Western Footballer / Footballer Sweep
Ocean Leatherjacket / Ocean Jacket / Chinaman
Leatherjacket
Jackass Morwong / Jackass Fish
Nemadactylus macropterus (Forster, in Bloch &
Schneider, 1801)
Nemadactylus valenciennesi (Whitley, 1937)
Queen Snapper / Blue Morwong / Southern Blue
Morwong
Little Weed Whiting / Little Rock Whiting
Whiskered Prowfish
Gulf Gurnard Perch
Black-spotted Gurnard Perch
Gurnard Perch / Bighead Gurnard Perch
Common Gurnard Perch / Ruddy Gurnard Perch
Thetis Fish
Sailfin Goby / Castelnau‘s Goby
Girdled Goby
Groove-cheek Goby / Grooved-cheek Goby
Groovecheek Goby / Groovecheeked Goby
Red Pipefish
Orange-spotted Wrasse / Brown-spotted Wrasse
Herring Cale
Ringed Toadfish / Ringed Pufferfish
Blue-spotted Pufferfish / Blue-spotted Toadfish
Variegated Snake-Blenny / Variegated Snakeblenny
Adelaide Blenny / Adelaide Snake-Blenny / Adelaide
Snakeblenny
Short-finned Snake-Blenny / Shortfin Snakeblenny
Black-Backed Snake-Blenny / Blackback SnakeBlenny / Blackback Snakeblenny
Variable Snake-Blenny / Variable Snakeblenny
Serpent Eel / Giant Snake Eel / Snake Eel
Maori Wrasse
Neoodax balteatus (Valenciennes, 1840)
Neopataecus waterhousii (Castelnau, 1872)
Neosebastes bougainvillii (Cuvier, 1829)
Neosebastes nigropunctatus McCulloch, 1915
Neosebastes pandus (Richardson, 1842)
Neosebastes scorpaenoides Guichenot, 1867
Neosebastes thetidis (Waite, 1899)
Nesogobius pulchellus (Castelnau, 1872)
Nesogobius maccullochi Hoese and Larson 2006
Nesogobius sp. 4 (in Gomon et al., 2008)
Notiocampus ruber (Ramsay & Ogilby, 1886) P
Notolabrus parilus (Richardson, 1850)
Olisthops cyanomelas Richardson, 1850)
Omegophora armilla (Waite & McCulloch, 1915)
Omegophora cyanopunctata Hardy & Hutchins, 1981
Ophiclinops varius (McCulloch & Waite, 1918)
Ophiclinus antarcticus Castelnau, 1872
Ophiclinus brevipinnis George & Springer, 1980
Ophiclinus gracilis (Waite, 1906)
Ophiclinus ningulus George & Springer, 1980
Ophisurus serpens (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ophthalmolepis lineolata (Valenciennes, 1838) =
Ophthalmolepis lineolatus
Oplegnathus woodwardi Waite 1900
Optivus agrammus Gomon, 2004
Othos dentex (Cuvier, 1828)
Parablennius tasmanianus (Richardson, 1842)
Parapercis sp.
Parapercis haackei (Steindachner, 1884)
Parapercis naevosa Serventy, 1937
Parapercis ramsayi Steindachner, 1884
Paraplesiops meleagris (Peters, 1869)
Parapriacanthus elongatus (McCulloch, 1911)
Paraulopus nigripinnis (Günther, 1878)
Paratrachichthys macleayi (Johnston, 1881)
Parazanclistius hutchinsi Hardy, 1983
Parequula melbournensis (Castelnau, 1872)
Knifejaw
Western Roughy
Harlequin Fish
Tasmanian Blenny
Western Barrded Grubfish
Wavy Grubfish
Western Red-banded Grubfish
Spotted Grubfish
Western Blue Devil / Blue Devilfish
Slender Bullseye
Blacktip Cucumberfish
Sandpaper Fish
Short Boarfish / Hutchins‘ Boarfish
Silverbelly / Southern Silverbelly / Melbourne
Silverbelly / Melbourne Silver Biddy
Yellow-spotted Boarfish / Brown-spotted Boarfish
Giant Boarfish
Victorian Scalyfin / Scalyfin
Smallfin Clingfish / Little Clingfish
Long-Snout Clingfish
Obscure Clingfish / Obscure Little Clingfish
Paristiopterus gallipavo Whitley, 1944
Paristiopterus labiosus (Günther, 1871)
Parma victoriae (Günther, 1863)
Parvicrepis parvipinnis (Waite, 1906)
Parvicrepis sp. 1 (in Gomon et al., 2008)
Parvicrepis sp. 2 (in Gomon et al., 2008)
161
Pegasus lancifer Kaup, 1861 = Acanthopegasus lancifer
McCulloch, 1915
Pelates octolineatus (Jenyns, 1840)
Pelsartia humeralis (Ogilby, 1899)
Pempheris klunzingeri McCulloch, 1911
Pempheris multiradiata = Pempheris multiradiatus
Klunzinger, 1880
Pempheris ornata Mooi & Jubb, 1996
Pentaceropsis recurvirostris (Richardson, 1845)
Peronedys anguillaris Steindachner, 1883
Perryena leucometopon (Waite, 1922)
Phycodurus eques (Günther, 1865) P
Phyllophryne scortea (McCulloch & Waite, 1918)
Phyllopteryx taeniolatus (Lacépède, 1804) P
Pictilabrus laticlavius (Richardson, 1840)
Plagiogeneion macrolepis McCulloch, 1914
Platycephalus aurimaculatus Knapp, 1987
Platycephalus bassensis Cuvier, 1829
Platycephalus conatus Waite & McCulloch, 1915
Platycephalus laevigatus = Leviprora laevigatus Cuvier &
Valenciennes, 1829
Platycephalus longispinis Macleay, 1884
Platycephalus speculator Klunzinger, 1872
Polyprion oxygeneios (Forster, 1801)
Polyspina piosae (Whitley, 1955)
Pomatomus saltatrix Linnaeus, 1766
Posidonichthys hutchinsi Briggs, 1993
Pseudocaranx georgianus (Cuvier, 1833)
Pseudocaranx wrighti (Whitley, 1931)
Pseudogobius olorum (Sauvage, 1880)
Pseudolabrus rubicundus (Macleay, 1881) =
Pseudolabrus psittaculus (Richardson, 1840)
Pseudophycis barbata Günther, 1863
Pseudophycis breviuscula (Richardson, 1846)
Pseudorhombus arsius (Hamilton, 1822)
Pseudorhombus jenynsii (Bleeker, 1855)
Pterygotrigla polyommata (Richardson, 1839)
Pugnaso curtirostris (Castelnau, 1872) P
Ranzania laevis (Pennant 1776) V
Remora australis (Bennett, 1840)
Remora remora (Linnaeus, 1758)
Repomucenus calcaratus (Macleay, 1881) = Callionymus
calcaratus
Rexea solandri (Cuvier 1832)
Rhombosolea tapirina Günther, 1862
Rhycherus filamentosus (Castelnau, 1872)
Rhycherus gloveri Pietsch, 1984
Sarda orientalis (Temminck & Schlegel, 1844)
Sardinops sagax (Jenyns, 1842)
Satyrichthys sp.
162
Sculptured Seamoth / Sculptured Sea Moth
Western Striped Grunter / Striped Perch / Striped
Trumpeter / Shitty
Sea Trumpeter
Rough Bullseye
Common Bullseye
Orange-lined Bullseye
Long-snouted Boarfish / Long-snout Boarfish
Eelblenny / Eel-blenny
White-nose Pigfish / Whitenose Pigfish
Leafy Seadragon
White-spotted Anglerfish / Smooth Anglerfish
Weedy Seadragon
Senator Wrasse
Bigscale Rubyfish
Toothy Flathead
Sand Flathead / Southern Sand Flathead
Deepwater Flathead
Grassy Flathead / Rock Flathead
Long-spined Flathead
Yank Flathead / Southern Blue-spotted Flathead
Hapuku
Orange-barred Pufferfish / Orangebarred Pufferfish
Tailor
Spiny Clingfish / Posidonia Clingfish
Silver Trevally / White Trevally / Skipjack Trevally
Sand Trevally / Skipjack Trevally
Blue-spot Goby / Bluespot Goby / Swan River Goby
Rosy Wrasse
Bearded Rock Cod / Bearded Cod
Bastard Red Cod
Large-tooth Flounder / Largetooth Flounder / Largetoothed Flounder
Small-tooth Flounder / Smalltooth Flounder / Smalltoothed Flounder
Sharp-beaked Gurnard / Latchet
Pug-nose Pipefish / Pugnose Pipefish
Slender Sunfish
Whalesucker
Remora / Short Suckerfish
Spotted Dragonet / Spotted Stinkfish
Gemfish (western stock)
Greenback Flounder / Melbourne Flounder /
Southern Flounder
Tasselled Anglerfish
Glover‘s Anglerfish
Oriental Bonito / Striped Bonito
Australian Pilchard
Southern Armour Gurnard
Saurida undosquamis (Richardson, 1848)
Scalanago lateralis Whitley, 1935
Schuettea woodwardi (Waite, 1905)
Scobinichthys granulatus (Shaw, 1790)
Scolecenchelys australis = Muraenichthys australis
(Macleay, 1881)
Scolecenchelys breviceps = Muraenichthys breviceps
(Günther, 1876)
Scomber australasicus Cuvier 1832
Scomberesox saurus (Walbaum, 1792)
Scorpaena papillose (Bloch & Schneider, 1801)
Scorpis aequipinnis Richardson, 1848
Scorpis georgianus (= Scorpis georgiana) Valenciennes,
1832
Seriola hippos Günther, 1876
Seriola lalandi Valenciennes, 1833
Seriolella brama (Günther, 1860)
Seriolella punctata (Forster, 1801)
Sillaginodes punctata (= Sillaginodes punctatus) (Cuvier,
1829)
Sillago bassensis Cuvier, 1829
Sillago schomburgkii Peters, 1864
Siphamia cephalotes (Castelnau, 1875) = Siphaemia
cephalotes
Siphonognathus argyrophanes Richardson, 1858
Siphonognathus attenuatus (Ogilby, 1897)
Siphonognathus beddomei (Johnston, 1885)
Siphonognathus caninus (Scott, 1976)
Siphonognathus radiatus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834)
Siphonognathus tanyourus Gomon & Paxton, 1986
Sphyraena novaehollandiae Günther, 1860
Spratelloides robustus Ogilby, 1897
Sticharium clarkae George & Springer, 1980
Sticharium dorsale Günther, 1867
Stigmatopora argus (Richardson, 1840) P
Stigmatopora nigra Kaup, 1856 P
Strongylura leiura (Bleeker, 1850)
Suezichthys bifurcatus Russell, 1986
Taratretis derwentensis Last, 1978
Thalasseleotris adela Hoese & Larson, 1987
Thamnaconus degeni (Regan, 1903)
Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre, 1788)
Thunnus maccoyii Castelnau, 1872)
Thunnus obesus (Lowe, 1839)
Thyrsites atun (Euphrasen, 1791)
Thysanophrys cirronasus ( = Thysanophrys cirronasa)
(Richardson, 1848)
Tilodon sexfasciatum = Tilodon sexfasciatus (Richardson,
1842)
Torquigener pleurogramma (Regan, 1903)
Trachichthys australis Shaw & Nodder, 1799
163
Largescale Saury / Checkered Lizardfish
Ladder Eel
Woodward‘s Pomfret / Western Pomfred
Rough Leatherjacket
Short-finned Worm-eel / Shortfinned Worm Eel
Short-headed Worm-eel / Long-finned Worm-eel /
Longfinned Worm Eel
Blue Mackerel
King Gar
Southern Red Scorpionfish
Sea Sweep
Banded Sweep
Samson Fish
Yellowtail Kingfish
Blue Warehou
Silver Warehou / Spotted Warehou
King George Whiting
Silver Whiting / Sand Whiting / Southern School
Whiting / School Whiting
Yellowfin Whiting / Yellow-finned Whiting
Wood‘s Siphonfish
Tubemouth
Slender Weed Whiting / Short-nose Weed Whiting
Pencil Weed Whiting / Long-nose Weed Whiting
Sharp-nosed Weed Whiting / Sharpnose Weed
Whiting
Long-rayed Weed Whiting / Long-rayed Rock
Whiting / Longray Rock Whiting
Long-tailed Weed Whiting / Long-tail Weed Whiting /
Longtail Weed Whiting
Snook / Short-finned Seapike / Shortfin Seapike
Blue Sprat
Dusky Crawler
Sand Crawler
Spotted Pipefish
Wide-bodied Pipefish / Wide-body Pipefish /
Widebody Pipefish
Slender Longtom / Banded Needlefish
Striped Trawl Wrasse
Derwent Flounder
Cryptic Sea Gudgeon / Dusky Marine Gudgeon /
Marine Gudgeon
Degen‘s Leatherjacket / Blue-finned Leatherjacket
Albacore
Southern Bluefin Tuna
Bigeye Tuna
Barracouta
Rock Flathead / Tassel-snouted Flathead
Moonlighter / Six-banded Coralfish / Six-banded
Coral Fish
Weeping Toado / Banded Toadfish / Common
Blowfish
Roughy / Southern Roughy
Trachinops noarlungae Glover, 1974
Trachurus declivis (Jenyns, 1841)
Trachurus novaezelandiae Richardson, 1843
Trianectes bucephalus McCulloch & Waite, 1918
Trinorfolkia clarkei = Norfolkia clarkei (Moreton, 1888)
Trinorfolkia cristata = Norfolkia cristata (Kuiter, 1986) E
Trinorfolkia incisa = Norfolkia incisa (Kuiter, 1986)
Upeneichthys vlamingii (Cuvier, 1829)
Urocampus carinirostris Castelnau, 1872 P
Vanacampus margaritifer (Peters, 1868) P
Vanacampus phillipi (Lucas, 1891) P
Vanacampus poecilolaemus (Peters, 1868) P
Vincentia badia Allen, 1987
Vincentia conspersa (Klunzinger, 1872)
Vincentia macrocauda Allen, 1987
Zanclistius elevatus (Ramsay & Ogilby, 1888)
Zebrias penescalaris Gomon, 1987
Zeus faber Linnaeus, 1758
164
Yellow-headed Hulafish / Noarlunga Hulafish
Jack Mackerel / Horse Mackerel / Cowanyoung
Yellowtail Scad / Yellowtail Horse Mackerel
Bighead Triplefin / Bighead Threefin / Bullhead
Triplefin / Bullhead Threefin
Common Triplefin / Common Threefin /Clarke‘s
Triplefin / Clarke‘s Threefin
Crested Threefin / Crested Triplefin
Notched Threefin / Notched Triplefin
Red Mullet / Blue-spotted Goatfish / Southern
Goatfish
Hairy Pipefish
Mother-of-Pearl Pipefish
Port Phillip Pipefish
Long-Snout Pipefish
Scarlet Cardinalfish
Southern Cardinalfish
Smooth Cardinalfish
Blackspot Boarfish / Black-spotted Boarfish / Longfin Boarfish
Duskybanded Sole / Dusky-banded Sole
John Dory
Appendix 6: Cartilaginous fish species likely to occur in the marine component of the AW NRM region
(to 3 nautical miles from shore), with notes on conservation status. V = oceanic species; rare inshore, as
vagrant. E = apparently endemic within South Australia. From Daley et al. (2006); Last et al. (2008);
Gomon et al., (2008); CSIRO (2009); ABRS (2009).
International: IUCN = World Conservation Union Red List (2009 version): CR = Critically Endangered; En
= Endangered; Vul = Vulnerable; LR/NT = Lower Risk but Near Threatened (revised as NT = Near
Threatened, from 2002 onwards); LC = Least Concern; DD = Data Deficient.
National: EPBC = Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999: Cr =
Critically Endangered; En = Endangered; Vul = Vulnerable; Con = Conservation Dependent; Mar =
Listed Marine Species, under s248 of the EPBC Act 1999; Mig = Listed Migratory Species under EPBC
Act 1999.
State: P = Protected under the Fisheries Management (General) Regulations 2007 of the Fisheries
Management Act 2007 in South Australia.
Scientific Name
Alopias vulpinus
Common Name
Thresher Shark
Asymbolus occiduus
Southern Shovelnose Ray / Western
Shovelnose Ray
Western Spotted Catshark
Asymbolus vincenti
Gulf Catshark
Callorhinchus milii
Elephant Fish / Elephantfish / Elephant Shark
Carcharhinus brachyurus
Bronze Whaler
Carcharhinus obscurus
Dusky Shark / Black Whaler
Carcharias taurus
Grey Nurse Shark
Aptychotrema vincentiana
Carcharodon carcharias
P
White Shark
Conservation Status
IUCN-Vul (A2bd+3bd+4bd)
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-NT
IUCN-Vul (A2bd)
IUCN-Vul (A2cd+3cd)
EPBC-Vul, EPBC-Mig
IUCN-LC
IUCN-Vul (A2ad+3d)
IUCN-LC
IUCN-DD
Cephaloscyllium laticeps
Draughtboard Shark
Cetorhinus maximus V
Basking Shark
Dasyatis brevicaudata
Smooth Stingray
Dasyatis thetidis
Black Stingray
Dentiraja flindersi
Dipturus cerva
Pygmy Thornback Skate
White-spotted Skate
-
Dipturus confusus
Dipturus oculus
Dipturus whitleyi
Long-nose Skate
Oscellate Skate
Melbourne Skate
-
Galeorhinus galeus
School Shark
Galeus boardmani /
Figaro boardmani
Furgaleus macki
Sawtail Shark
Heptranchias perlo
Sharpnose Sevengill Shark
Heterodontus portusjacksoni
Port Jackson Shark
Hypnos monopterygium
Coffin Ray
Hypogaleus hyugaensis
Pencil Shark
Irolita waitii
Southern Round Skate
Isurus oxyrinchus
Shortfin Mako
Lamna nasus
Porbeagle
Narcine tasmaniensis
Tasmanian Numbfish
Notorynchus cepedianus
Broadnose Sevengill Shark
IUCN-NT
IUCN-Vul (A2bd+4bd)
IUCN-Vul (A2bd+3d+4bd)
EPBC-Con
IUCN-LC
Whiskery Shark
165
IUCN-LC
IUCN-NT
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-NT
IUCN-LC
IUCN-VU (A2bd+4d) Indowest Pacific subpopulation
IUCN-VU (A2bd+3d+4bd)
IUCN-LC
IUCN-DD
Orectolobus maculatus
Southern Banded Wobbegong / Large Ornate
Wobbegong / Banded Wobbegong
Spotted Wobbegong
Mustelus antarcticus
Gummy Shark
Myliobatis australis
Southern Eagle Ray
Parascyllium ferrugineum
Parascyllium variolatum
Pavoraja nitida
Prionace glauca
Pristiophorus cirratus
Pristiophorus nudipinnis
Pteroplatytrygon violacea =
Dasyatis guileri
Sphyrna zygaena
Squalus acanthias
Rusty Carpetshark
Varied Carpetshark
Peacock Skate
Blue Shark
Common Sawshark
Southern Sawshark
Pelagic Stingray
Squalus chloroculus
Squalus megalops
Greeneye Dogfish / Greeneye Spurdog
Piked Spurdog / Piked Dogfish / Shortnose
Spurdog
Australian Angelshark
Ornate Angelshark / Ornate Angel Shark
Cobbler Wobbegong
Short-tail Torpedo Ray
Western Shovelnose Stingaree
Bight Stingaree
Southern Fiddler Ray
Spotted Stingaree
Coastal Stingaree
Sparsely-spotted Stingaree
Orectolobus halei
Squatina australis
Squatina tergocellata
Sutorectus tentaculatus
Torpedo macneilli
Trygonoptera mucosa
Trygonoptera ovalis
Trygonorrhina fasciata
Urolophus gigas
Urolophus orarius E
Urolophus paucimaculatus
Smooth Hammerhead
White-spotted Dogfish / White-spotted Spurdog
166
IUCN-NT
IUCN-NT
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-NT
IUCN-NT
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-VU (A2bd+3bd+4bd)
IUCN-LC (Australasia
subpopulation)
IUCN-NT
IUCN-DD
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-DD
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-LC
IUCN-EN (B1ab(v))
IUCN-LC
Appendix 7: Marine mammals reported to occur in the Great Australian Bight, including Head of the
Bight area (from Ling, 1991; Kemper and Ling, 1991; Kemper et al., 2005; Director of National Parks,
Commonwealth DEH, 2005; DEWHA, 2010). A = recorded strandings east of AW NRM region (e.g.
Fowlers Bay or Ceduna area). Notes on conservation status are as follows:
International: IUCN = World Conservation Union Red List (2009 version): CR = Critically Endangered; En
= Endangered; Vul = Vulnerable; LR/NT = Lower Risk but Near Threatened (revised as NT = Near
Threatened, from 2002 onwards); LC = Least Concern; DD = Data Deficient.
National: EPBC = Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999: Cr =
Critically Endangered; En = Endangered; Vul = Vulnerable; Mar = Listed Marine Species, under s248 of
the EPBC Act 1999; Mig = Listed Migratory Species under EPBC Act 1999.
South Australia: NPW = South Australian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972: En = Endangered
(Schedule 7); Vul = Vulnerable (Schedule 8); Rare = (Schedule 9).
Latin Name
Common Name
Conservation Status
New Zealand Fur Seal
Arctocephalus forsteri
IUCN-LC
Minke Whale A
Balaenoptera acutorostrata
IUCN-LC; NPW-Rare
Blue Whale
Balaenoptera musculus
IUCN-Endg (A1abd); EPBC-Endg;
EPBC-Mig; NPW-Endg
Pygmy Blue Whale
Balaenoptera musculus
brevicauda
IUCN-Endg (A1abd) (as Blue Whale
B. musculus); EPBC-Endg (as Blue
Whale B. musculus)
NPW-Endg (as Blue Whale B.
musculus)
Fin Whale
Balaenoptera physalus
IUCN-Endg (A1d); EPBC-Vul; EPBCMig; NPW-Vul
Common Short-beaked
Dolphin
Delphinus delphis
IUCN-LC
Southern Right Whale
Eubalaena australis
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Endg; EPBC-Mig;
NPW-Vul
Short-finned Pilot Whale
Globicephala
macrorhynchus
IUCN-DD; NPW-Rare
Long-finned Pilot Whale
A
Globicephala melas
IUCN-DD
Risso‘s Dolphin
Grampus griseus
IUCN-LC; NPW-Rare
Southern Bottlenose
Whale A
Hyperoodon planifrons
IUCN-LC; NPW-Rare
Pygmy Sperm Whale
Kogia breviceps
IUCN-DD; NPW-Rare
167
Humpback Whale A
Megaptera novaeangliae
IUCN-LC globally; IUCN-Endg (A1ad)
(Oceania sub-population); EPBC-Vul;
EPBC-Mig; NPW-Vul
Gray‘s Beaked Whale
Mesoplodon grayi
IUCN-DD; NPW-Rare
Straptooth Whale
Mesoplodon layardii
IUCN-DD;
(an unidentified beaked
whale)
Mesoplodon sp.
Australian Sea Lion
Neophoca cinerea
IUCN-Endg (A2bd+3d);EPBC-Vul;
EPBC-Mar; NPW-Vul
New Zealand Fur Seal
Arctocephalus forsteri
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mar;
Killer Whale
Orcinus orca
IUCN-DD; EPBC-Mig
Sperm Whale
Physeter macrocephalus
IUCN-Vul (A1d); EPBC-Mig; NPWRare
False Killer Whale
Pseudorca crassidens
IUCN-DD; NPW-Rare
Indo-Pacific Bottlenose
Dolphin
Tursiops aduncus
IUCN-DD;
Common Bottlenose
Dolphin
Tursiops truncatus
IUCN-LC
168
Appendix 8: Species of marine and/or coastal bird, occurring in the AW NRM area (from Director of
National Parks, Commonwealth DEH, 2005; Caton et al., 2007; Dennis, 2008; AG DEWHA, 2009), with
notes on status. U = unverified; N = not confined to coastal area, and also occurs inland.
International: IUCN = World Conservation Union Red List (2009 version): CR = Critically Endangered; En
= Endangered; Vul = Vulnerable; LR/NT = Lower Risk but Near Threatened (revised as NT = Near
Threatened, from 2002 onwards); LC = Least Concern; DD = Data Deficient.
JAMBA = Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement
CAMBA = China-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement
ROKAMBA = Republic of Korea-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement
National: EPBC = Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999: Cr =
Critically Endangered; En = Endangered; Vul = Vulnerable; Mar = Listed Marine Species, under s248 of
the EPBC Act 1999; Mig = Listed Migratory Species under EPBC Act 1999.
South Australia: NPW = South Australian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972: En = Endangered
(Schedule 7); Vul = Vulnerable (Schedule 8); Rare = (Schedule 9).
Latin Name
Common Name
Conservation Status
Actitis hypoleucos
(=Tringa hypoleucos)
Common Sandpiper
IUCN-LC; JAMBA; CAMBA;
ROKAMBA; EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar;
NPW-Rare
Ardenna grisea
Sooty Shearwater
IUCN-NT; EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar;
CAMBA; JAMBA
(= Puffinus carneipes)
Flesh-footed Shearwater /
Fleshy-footed Shearwater
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar;
JAMBA; ROKAMBA; NPW-Rare
Ardenna tenuirostris
Short-tailed Shearwater
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar;
JAMBA; ROKAMBA
Arenaria interpres
Ruddy Turnstone
IUCN-LC; JAMBA; CAMBA;
ROKAMBA; EPBC-Mar; NPW-Rare
Calidris acuminate
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper
IUCN-LC; JAMBA; CAMBA;
ROKAMBA; EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar
Calidris alba
Sanderling
Calidris canutus
Red Knot
IUCN-LC; JAMBA; CAMBA;
ROKAMBA; EPBC-Mar
Calidris ruficollis
Red-necked Stint
IUCN-LC; JAMBA; CAMBA;
ROKAMBA; EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar
Calidris tenuirostris
Great Knot
IUCN-LC; JAMBA; CAMBA;
ROKAMBA; EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar;
NPW-Rare
Catharacta skua
Great Skua
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mar
Charadrius ruficapillus
Red-capped Plover
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mar
Cladorhynchus
leucocephalus
Banded Stilt
IUCN-LC; NPW-Vul
(= Puffinus griseus)
Ardenna carneipes
(= Puffinus tenuirostris)
169
Diomedea epomophora
epomophora
Southern Royal Albatross
IUCN-VU (D2); EPBC-Vul; EPBCMig; EPBC-Mar; NPW-Vul
Diomedea exulans
Wandering Albatross
IUCN-VU (A4bd) (with decreasing
population trend) JAMBA; EPBCVul; EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar; NPWVul
Egretta sacra
Eastern Reef Egret
IUCN-LC; CAMBA; EPBC-Mig;
EPBC-Mar; NPW-Rare
Erythrogonys cinctus
Red-kneed Dotterel
IUCN-LC
Eudyptula minor
Little Penguin
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mar
Falco peregrines N
Peregrine Falcon
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mig; NPW-Rare
Haematopus longirostris
Australian Pied Oystercatcher
IUCN-LC; NPW-Rare
Haematopus fuliginosus
Sooty Oystercatcher
IUCN-LC; NPW-Rare
Haliaeetus leucogaster
White-bellied Sea-Eagle
IUCN-LC; CAMBA; EPBC-Mig;
EPBC-Mar; NPW-En
Heteroscelus brevipes /
Tringa incana / Tringa
brevipes
Grey-tailed Tattler
IUCN-LC; JAMBA; CAMBA;
ROKAMBA; EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar;
NPW-Rare
Larus dominicanus U
Kelp Gull
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mar; NPW-Rare
Larus novaehollandiae
Silver Gull
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mar
Larus pacificus
Pacific Gull
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mar
Macronectes giganteus
Southern Giant-Petrel
IUCN-LC (but with decreasing
population trend); EPBC-En;
EPBC-Mar; NPW-Vul
Morus serrator
Australasian Gannet
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mar
Numenius phaeopus
Whimbrel
IUCN-LC; JAMBA; CAMBA;
ROKAMBA; EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar;
NPW-Rare
Platalea regia
Royal Spoonbill
IUCN-LC
Pandion haliaetus
Osprey / Eastern Osprey
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar;
NPW-En
Phoebetria fusca
Sooty Albatross
IUCN-EN (A4bd); EPBC-Vul;
EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar; NPW-En
Pluvialis squatarola
Grey Plover
IUCN-LC; JAMBA; CAMBA;
ROKAMBA; EPBC-Mar; EPBC-Mig
Procellaria aequinoctialis
White-chinned Petrel
IUCN-VU (A4bcde); EPBC-Mar;
EPBC-Mig (Bonn)
Recurvirostra
novaehollandiae
Red-necked Avocet
IUCN-LC; EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar
Sterna caspia
Caspian Tern
IUCN-LC; CAMBA; EPBC-Mig;
EPBC-Mar
Thalassarche cauta cauta
Shy Albatross /
Tasmanian Shy Albatross
IUCN-NT; EPBC-Vul; EPBC-Mig;
EPBC-Mar; NPW-Vul
170
Thalassarche
chlororhynchos / Diomedea
chlororhynchos
Yellow-nosed Albatross /
Atlantic Yellow-nosed
Albatross
IUCN-EN (A4bd; B2ab(v)) (with
decreasing population trend);
EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar; NPW-En
Thalassarche melanophrys
Black-browed Albatross
IUCN-EN (A4bd) (with decreasing
population trend); EPBC-Vul;
EPBC-Mig; EPBC-Mar; NPW-Vul
(as Campbell Island sub-species:
Diomedea melanophrys impavida)
Thalasseus bergii
(= Sterna bergii)
Crested Tern
IUCN-LC; JAMBA; EPBC-Mar
Thinornis rubricollis
rubricollis
Hooded Plover
(eastern sub-species)
IUCN-NT (for whole species, with
decreasing population trend);
EPBC-Mar; NPW-Vul
171
Janine Baker