Science, Ecology and Engineering Research in the Globalizing World

Recep Efe

This book, “Ecological and Engineering Researches in the Globalizing World” has 43 Chapters including ecological approaches in making urban land use decisions, landscape design to develop public awareness, sustainability principles and landscape planning.Contributions in each chapter are prepared by experts in the respective fields and mirror the advancement in the approach. This book contains important future tasks of the particular fields and supplies extensive bibliographies at the end of each chapter, as well as tables and figures that illustrate the research findings. All these make this book highly useful and a must read for students, researchers and professionals in landscape architecture, ecology, environmental sciences and architecture.

Science, Ecology and Engineering Research in the Globalizing World Editors Ilia CHRISTOV Eric STRAUSS Abd-Alla GAD Isa CUREBAL Managing Editor Recep EFE ISBN 978-954-07-4526-8 ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI UNIVERSITY PRESS SOFIA  2018 1 Editors Prof. Dr. Ilia CHRISTOV Poushkarov Institute for Soil Science, Agrotechnology and Plant Protection Sofia, Bulgaria Prof. Dr. Eric STRAUSS Abd-Alla GAD National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences- NARSS Environmental Studies and Land Use Division Cairo-Egypt Prof. Dr. Isa CUREBAL Balıkesir University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Balıkesir-Turkey Michigan State University School of Planning, Design and Construction Urban And Regional Planning, MI 48824, USA Managing Editor Prof. Dr. Recep EFE St. Kliment Ohridski University Press The contents of chapters/papers are the sole responsibility of the authors, and publication shall not imply the concurrence of the Editors or Publisher. © 2018 Recep Efe All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the editors and authors Cover Design: Murat Poyraz 2 Contents Preface……………………………………………………………………………………………….7 Chapter 1 ..................................................................................................................9 Landscape Ecological Analysis of the Modern Delta of the Ural (Zhayik) River Erlan KABIYEV, Zharas BERDENOV, Gulzhan DZHANALEEVA, Erbolat MENDYBAYEV and Emin ATASOY Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................29 An Assessment of Applicability of Green Infrastructure Plan in Every Metropolitan Cities Nasim SHAKOURI and Aysel USLU Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................40 Ecological Approaches in making Urban Land Use Decisions A.Esra CENGİZ Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................58 Landscape Design to Develop Public Awareness about Urban Biodiversity Aysel USLU and Pelin ŞAHİN KÖRMEÇLİ Chapter 5 ................................................................................................................70 Urban Development Approaches in the Scope of Sustainability Principles and Landscape Planning Berfin ŞENİK and Osman UZUN Chapter 6 ................................................................................................................88 What are the Biological Effects of Global Climate Change? E. Dilşat YEĞENOĞLU and Meltem SESLI Chapter 7 ................................................................................................................97 Landscape Planning in Urban Design Competitions: The Case of Lüleburgaz Tosbağa Stream Recreational Area Doruk Görkem ÖZKAN, Emrehan ÖZCAN, Sinem DEDEOĞLU ÖZKAN and Duygu AKYOL Chapter 8 ..............................................................................................................109 Wetlands under the Pressure of Urbanization: The Gediz Delta Case Duygu AKYOL and İpek ÖZBEK SÖNMEZ Chapter 9 ..............................................................................................................119 Concept of Urban Square in Sustainable Cities Elif BAYRAMOĞLU and Nazlı Mine YURDAKUL Chapter 10 ............................................................................................................127 Visual Landscape Quality Assessment and Reflection on Urban Areas Gülbin ÇETİNKALE DEMİRKAN Chapter 11 ............................................................................................................135 Ecological Properties of Wooden Building Materials Gülru KOCA Chapter 12 ............................................................................................................146 Tobacco in the Historical Process Meltem SESLİ and E. Dilşat YEĞENOĞLU Chapter 13 ............................................................................................................152 Antiurolithiatic Activity of Medicinal Plants in Turkey Mustafa Eray BOZYEL and Elif MERDA MERT Chapter 14 ............................................................................................................168 Potential Role of Bio-Fertilizers in Organic Agriculture Nurdan ZINCIRCIOĞLU and H. Tansel YALÇIN Chapter 15 ............................................................................................................177 The Role of Ecotourism in the Preservation and Development of Rural Identity: The Example of Düzce Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village Pınar GÜLTEKİN and Berfin ŞENİK Chapter 16 ............................................................................................................194 Some Natural and Exotic Invasive Plant Species in Turkey Sefa AKBULUT and Mustafa KARAKÖSE Chapter 17 ............................................................................................................204 Modeling of Urban Sprawl Using Remote Sensing Data and Multinomial Logistic Regression Analysis: A Case Study of Malatya, Turkey Serhat CENGİZ, Sevgi GÖRMÜŞ, Şebnem YILMAZ and Bülent YILMAZ Chapter 18 ............................................................................................................219 Ecological Design in Landscape Architecture Serir UZUN Chapter 19 ............................................................................................................230 Neighborhood Effect in Urban Identity Formation: Tekirdağ Example Tuğba KİPER, Aslı KORKUT and Sefa Nur ARDA Chapter 20 ............................................................................................................244 An Evaluation about /of Greenways on Railway Route Umut Pekin TİMUR1, Pakize Ece ERZİN2 and Özgür Burhan TİMUR3 4 Chapter 21 ............................................................................................................259 Determination of Factors Affecting Perception of Entrepreneurship by Structural Equation Modeling: Case of Düzce University, Faculty of Forestry Yaşar Selman GÜLTEKİN Chapter 22 ............................................................................................................271 Evaluation of Visual Landscape Quality Yeliz SARI NAYİM Chapter 23 ............................................................................................................279 The Contributions of Green Spaces to Urban Ecosystem Aybike Ayfer KARADAĞ Chapter 24 ............................................................................................................291 The Effects of Integrated Urban Water Management on the Quality of Urban Life Demet DEMİROĞLU Chapter 25 ............................................................................................................311 Rafting Tourism Strategic Action Plan Framework: The Köprüçay River Case Emine KELEŞ and Atila GÜL Chapter 26 ............................................................................................................331 A Breathing System for Cities: Vertical Green Systems Serir UZUN Chapter 27 ............................................................................................................344 Assessment of Working Postures of Nursery Workers in Seedling Production Activities Saliha UNVER OKAN Chapter 28 ............................................................................................................355 The Foliar Application: Are We Applying Right? Senay AYDIN and E. Dilşat YEĞENOGLU Chapter 29 ............................................................................................................362 Endospore Formed Bacteria and Staining Techniques C. Cem ERGÜL and Emrah ÇALIŞKAN Chapter 30 ............................................................................................................375 Microbial Interactions in Phyllosphere and Rhizosphere Emrah ÇALIŞKAN and C. Cem ERGÜL 5 Chapter 31 ............................................................................................................384 Green Chemistry Applications in Textile Industry Aslıhan KATİP and Zeynep İNCE Chapter 32 ............................................................................................................392 Bronze Age Urban Organization in the Region of Southern Mesopotamia Alev ERARSLAN Chapter 33 ............................................................................................................408 The Role of the Regional Scale Cultural Policies within the Scope of Development Plans: The Eada Development Agency Case, Van Gülçinay BAŞDOĞAN Chapter 34 ............................................................................................................415 A Brief History of Edremit (Van) Cultural Landscape Feran AŞUR and Emel BAYLAN Chapter 35 ............................................................................................................430 Aesthetic and Functional Evaluation of Urban Road Planting: Nigde City Case Gülden SANDAL ERZURUMLU and Mertkan F. TEKİNALP Chapter 36 ............................................................................................................442 The Place and Importance of Fertilization Programs in New Production Models Nurdan ZINCIRCIOĞLU and Burçin ÇOKUYSAL Chapter 37 ............................................................................................................447 A Study on the Sustainability of Cultural Heritage Assets: The Example of the Old City of Van Gülçinay BAŞDOĞAN Chapter 38 ............................................................................................................461 Use of Plants with Color and Olfactory Effect in Landscape Architecture Makbulenur BEKAR and Demet Ülkü GÜLPINAR SEKBAN Chapter 39 ............................................................................................................477 Analysis of Plants Used In the Last Aegean Gardens Demet Ülkü GÜLPINAR SEKBAN and Makbulenur BEKAR Chapter 40 ............................................................................................................492 Landscape Elements and Usage Properties in the Atrium of Traditional Antakya (Hatay/Turkey) Houses Elif BOZDOĞAN SERT, Tülin TÜMAY ÇAĞLAYAN and Sema GÜLER 6 Chapter 41 ............................................................................................................504 Comprehensive Analysis of Natural Agricultural Potential of North Kazakhstan Region Gulnur Zabikhulayevna MAZHITOVA, Kulchikhan Мukhitovna DZHANALEYEVA, Banu Beysenovna DOSKENOVA and Emin ATASOY Chapter 42 ............................................................................................................512 Land Surface Temperature Retrieval from Landsat 8 Imagery: A Case Study of Kiev – Ukraine Hakan OGUZ Chapter 43 ............................................................................................................519 Reuse of Treated Wastewater Aslıhan KATİP 7 Preface This book, “Ecological and Engineering Researches in the Globalizing World” has 43 Chapters including ecological approaches in making urban land use decisions, landscape design to develop public awareness, sustainability principles and landscape planning, effects of global climate change, landscape planning in urban design competitions, wetlands under the pressure of urbanization, landscape ecological analysis of the modern delta of the Ural river, microbial interactions in phyllosphere and rhizosphere, history of Edremit/Van cultural landscape, concept of urban square in sustainable cities, sustainability of cultural heritage assets, visual landscape quality, the role of the regional scale cultural, ecological properties of wooden building materials, tobacco in the historical process, antiurolithiatic activity of medicinal plants, green infrastructure plan in metropolitan cities, bio-fertilizers in organic agriculture, importance of fertilization programs in new production models, the role of ecotourism in the preservation and development of rural identity, some natural and exotic invasive plant species in turkey, modeling of urban sprawl using remote sensing data, ecological design in landscape architecture, vertical green systems, neighborhood effect in urban identity formation, greenways on railway route, structural equation modeling, evaluation of visual landscape quality, the contributions of green spaces to urban ecosystem, the effects of integrated urban water management on the quality of urban life, construction of rafting tourism strategic action plan, bronze age urban organization in mesopotami and green chemistry applications in textile industry. Contributions in each chapter are prepared by experts in the respective fields and mirror the advancement in the approach. This book contains important future tasks of the particular fields and supplies extensive bibliographies at the end of each chapter, as well as tables and figures that illustrate the research findings. All these make this book highly useful and a must read for students, researchers and professionals in landscape architecture, ecology, environmental sciences and architecture. We would like to express our gratitude to all contributors for bearing with us as the volume has taken time to come to fruition We particularly wish to express our thanks to the team at Sofia St. Kliment Ohridski University, Publishing for preparing the book for publication. The Editors Chapter 1 Landscape Ecological Analysis of the Modern Delta of the Ural (Zhayik) River Erlan KABIYEV1, Zharas BERDENOV1, Gulzhan DZHANALEEVA1, Erbolat MENDYBAYEV2 and Emin ATASOY3 1 L.N.Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Astana, Kazakhstan. 2 Aktobe Regional State University named after K. Zhubanov, Aktobe city, Kazakhstan. 3 Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey INTRODUCTION Currently, landscape – ecological analysis is considered one of the most important methods in the study of natural capacity of a territory, which takes into account structural and functional dynamic features of natural complexes of different taxonomic ranks. The method ultimately aims to study the current ecological situation of any region, which determines the contemporary state of landscape complexes and depends on proportionality of the projected social functions and natural properties of landscape complexes and their stability (Kochurov, 2003). Landscape-ecological analysis of a territory focuses on the study of links between components of the natural environment, population, and economy through explicit assessment (i.e. through application of a set of analytical and synthetic quantified indicators that directly or indirectly characterize the degree of landscape sustainability (Mikhno et al., 2014)). The Research Area In 1935, the Ural delta included 7-10 main river branches including Bolshoy Yaitskiy, Maliy Yaitskiy, Zolotoy, Zarosliy, Bukharka, and Peretaska. Back then, Zolotoy was the main branch, and the city of Atyrau was located 18 km away from the sea. Due to the lowering of water level by 1977, the left branches of Peretska, Bukharka, Zarosliy and Soltyenok silted up and now form inland dry depressions (Polonskiy and Baydin, 1982). Nowadays, the Ural delta begins in the village of Zelyoniy which stands more than 170 km away from the current river mouth. The width of the river gradually increases from 10-15 km near Zelyoniy up to 60 km at the mouth. As far as the city of Atyrau, the Ural delta constitutes an ordinary river valley. At this point, two outflows, namely the Marynka and the Baksay, that only get filled with the water of the Ural in wet years, separate from the river. The Zolotoy branch forms a river part of the Ural-Caspian channel which, within further 16 km of the estuarial coast, goes into a sea section of the channel to a depth of 1.8 meters. This channel connects the Ural mouth with the Ural Borozdina, the deepest area of the Eastern part of the Northern Caspian. The Ural Borozdina is an extension of the underwater river bed 9 of the Ural which was made by the river at the time when sea level was lower. In addition to the downstream, there is a meander floodplain along the river that has a width of 0.5 to 3 km; its height above water level of the river is gradually decreasing and currently ranges from 6 to 7 meters near the village of Topoli and remains up to 2 meters near the village of Kandaurovka, situated respectively 156 km and 24 km from the city of Atyrau (Figure 1). Figure 1: Map of the Ural (Zhayik) River Delta Territory The research territory is predominantly located in the southern part of the Caspian basin and includes the present-day Ural River delta and adjoining shallow part of the sea which lies on 27 m below sea level (present background sea level) with down to –23 m on land and down to – 29 m at sea as seen in Figure 1. The North-West to South-East length of the research area is 85.2 km with an average width of 43 km and a total area of 2,751.6 km2. Materials and Methods Traditional approaches of geographical research were used for collection and analysis of materials. The solution of the main goal of this work - to define 10 anthropogenic variability of the Delta part of the Ural basin - was based on the implementation of comparative-geographical and landscape-cartographic analyses, scientific expeditions, and other research methods to study the dynamic natural sites. Landscape analysis of the territory is a system matrix of geoecological assessment of territories. The notion of landscapes makes the most common expression of a systemic approach to nature (Mikhno et al., 2014). A landscape is a hierarchy of natural formations of different temporal and spatial scales, a set of interrelated natural components (lithogenic basis, air masses, natural waters, soils, vegetation, and wildlife) in the form of territorial entities of various hierarchical ranks (Berdenov, 2015). The components of the landscape contain material-energy and information exchange which is called the biogeochemical circulation of elements that characterize a landscape as a whole geosystem. Information interrelations within landscapes can be traced both in space and time. They indicate that certain natural components transfer territorially and temporally ranked diversity to others (Chibilev, 1987). The studies were conducted in the summers of 2016-2017. Digital topographic maps of 1:100,000 scale, satellite images of Landsat 7 with a resolution of 15-30 m., and published archive data served as the primary source data of the research (Meldebekov and Bayzhanov, 2005). Digital images were employed to update information on the coastline, road network, settlements, agricultural areas, etc. The images were interpreted through taught classification, and the interpretations were supplemented and duly adjusted by expertise (Figure 2). In decoding, we received up-to-date maps of the vegetation and soil cover (Figures 3 and 4). Figure 2: Work with space images of Landsat 7 11 12 Figure 3: Soil Map of the Research Territory 13 Figure 4: Vegetation Map of the Ural River delta A landscape map of the Ural river delta at a scale of 1:500,000 was prepared based on the principles of hierarchical structure of geomers through integration of structural and structural-dynamic parameters and by taking into account the economic activity of the areas and by drawing on landscape profiling and standardization of index plots (Figure 5). Semi-Desert Primary marine Primary marine flattened poorly broken plain composed of clays, loams and sands with annual saltwort, clubrush, bulrush and reed vegetation on meadow marsh and solonchak soils in combination with salt marshes and primitive marine soils Primary marine slightly sloping plain composed of clays, loams and sands with glasswort and sarzasan in combination with reed on salt marshes, sometimes secondary, combined with seaside soils. Hydromorphic No. in the Map Class Landscape Primary slightly sloping plain composed of clays, loams and sands with glasswart and sarzasan vegetation in combination with reed on meadow-brown saline soils together with salt marshes, and sometimes on meadow-boggy drying soils. Marine Desert Category Table 1: Explanatory Note to the Landscape Map Primary marine flattened poorly broken plain composed of clays, loams and sands with alkali grass and wormwood vegetation on liman and meadow soils in combination with solonchaks Primary marine flattened poorly broken plain composed of clays, loams and sands with annual saltwort, alkali grass and wormwood vegetation on brown saline desert soils. Primary marine weakly sloping plain complicated by soraffected depressions and rare denudation remains and composed of clays, loams and sands with annual saltwort, alkali grass, wormwood and tamarisk vegetation on mushy solonchaks in combination with liman meadow soils Marine Late New Caspian plain composed of sor-affected depressions with alkali grass meadows and tamarisk (Puccinellia distans, Tamarix ramosissima, Tamarix laxa) on meadow solonchak soils in combination with sarsazan (Halocnemum strobilaceum) Primary marine slightly sloping plain with predominance of sarsazan (Halocnemum strobilaceum) and tamarisk thickets on 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Desert Alluvial meadow solonets soils Primary marine slighly sloping plain that is wind induced and composed of clays and sands with wormwood and tamarisk vegetation with areas of anthropogenic camel’s thorn and eremopyrum communities on meadow-brown normal desert soils Primary marine slightly sloping plain complicated by soraffected depressions and composed of clays and sands with wormwood and tamarisk vegetation with areas of anthropogenic camel’s thorn and eremopýrum communities on saline brown and meadow irrigated soils Primary marine slightly sloping poorly broken plain composed of clays and loams with sparse sarsazan and alkali grass vegetation on seashore and marsh Solonchak soils Marine slightly sloping poorly broken plain with sor-affected, suffusion and lake depressions composed of clays, loams and sands with anabasis-salsa and wormwood-anabasis-salsa vegetation on desert solonchak soils Alluvial slightly concave plain complicated by lake and soraffected depressions and composed of clays with interbeds of various-grained sands with anabasis-salsa, atriplex cana vegetation with sarsazan inclusion on desert solonets soils Slightly sloping plain composed of loam with shoreweed, wild rye and partially annual saltwort vegetation on meadow liman and meadow solonets soils Alluvial slightly sloping plain complicated by depressions and composed of clays and loams with interlayers of various-grained sands with meadow, sometimes artemisia-wheat agropyron desertorum vegetation on meadow drying liman soils Alluvial slightly sloping plain complicated by depressions and composed of clays and loams with interlayers of various-grained sands with meadow and wormwood vegetation and some tamarisk thickets on meadow-brown salted, brown solonets and solonets soils Alluvial slightly sloping plain complicated by depressions and composed of clays and loams with interlayers of various-grained sands with meadow and wormwood vegetation and anthropogenic camel’s thorn and eremopyrum communities on liman meadow drying soils Alluvial slightly sloping plain complicated by depressions and composed of clays and loams with interlayers of various-grained sands with meadow, annual saltwort ceratocarpus vegetation on saline meadow-brown, meadow liman drying and solonets soils Alluvial slightly sloping plain complicated by depressions and 15 9 10 11 12 13 14 ` 16 17 18 19 composed of clays and loams with interlayers of various grained sands with anabasis-salsa, wormwood, annual-saltwort, anabasis aphylla and anabasis vegetation on desert solonets and brown soils Alluvial slightly sloping plain complicated by depressions and composed of clays and loams with interlayers of various grained sands with anabasis salsa, anabasis salsa-nanaphyton, artemisia, sometimes annual saltwort vegetation on solonets, meadowdesert soils along with liman meadow soils and solonchaks Alluvial slightly sloping plain with multiple channels and isolated depressions composed of clays and loams with interlayers of various-grained sands with anabasis salsa, anabasis salsa-black sagebrush, artemisia, sometimes sarsazan vegetation on brown saline sometimes meadow brown saline soils, meadow-desert solonets and solonchaks Alluvial slightly sloping plain composed of clays, loams and sands with shrubs in combination with meadow and sedge lands on solonchaks and sometimes meadow irrigated soils Alluvial slightly sloping poorly broken plain complicated by lake and solonchak depressions and composed of clays and loams with interlayers of various grained sands with bluegrassartemisia, black sagebrush, anabasis salsa, wormwood-anabasis salsa vegetation with some annual saltwort vegetation on desert solonets, brown solonets and meadow-brown saline soils Alluvial slightly sloping poorly broken plain complicated by lake, solonchak and suffusion depressions and composed of clays and loams with interlayers of various-grained sands with anabasis salsa, black sagebrush-anabasis salsa, artemisia vegetation with some annual saltwort vegetation on desert solonets, brown solonets with some liman meadow drying soils Alluvial slightly sloping poorly broken plain complicated by lake, solonchak and suffusion depressions and composed of sands, loams, clay and sandy loams with anabasis salsa, anabasis salsa-nanaphyton, anabasis salsa-salt grass and kokpek vegetation on takyr-like solonets and liman meadow soils Alluvial slightly sloping poorly broken plain complicated by lake, solonchak and suffusion depressions and composed of sands, loams, clay and sandy loams with with meadow, tamarisk and wormwood vegetation on meadow-brown alkali and brown soils Alluvial slightly sloping poorly broken plain complicated by lake, solonchak and suffusion depressions and composed of sands, loams, clay and sandy loams with anabasis salsa, anabasis salsa-nanaphyton, anabasis salsa-salt grass and kokpek 16 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Valley Interzonal vegetation on desert solonets and meadow soils Slightly sloping valley complicated by solonchak depressions and oxbow lakes and composed of sands, loams, clay and gravel with shrub-poplar-oleaster, forb-grass, anabasis salsa and reed vegetation on floodplain meadow and meadow-boggy solonetsous soils along with forest-meadow, meadow-brown saline soils Flattened delta with single depressions, low mounds and ridges composed of clays, loams and sands with meadow, reed, anabasis salsa vegetation along with tamarisk vegetation on liman meadow with some old-irrigated drying soils Flattened delta with single depressions, low mounds and ridges composed of clays, loams and sands with single saltwort, weed, itsigek and sarsazan vegetation on secondary solonchaks, anthropogenic subsoils and meadow drying soils along with coastal reed thickets on meadowsolonchak soils Flattened delta with single depressions, low mounds and ridges composed of clays, loams and sands with single saltwort, shoreweed, alkali grass, wormwood and sarsazan vegetation on meadow-brown saline and floodplain meadow soils Flattened delta complicated by channels, single depressions, low mounds and ridges and composed of clays, loams and sands with cattail-reed, bulbrush, clubrush with some wood and shrubby vegetation on marshy and boggy soils 28 29 30 31 32 Landscape ecological analysis takes into account landscape differentiation of the territory with allocation of ecological-landscape zones and expresses sustainability of the territory to external impacts delivered in certain parts of the landscape (areas, stows, substows, and facies); the impacts include a certain system of farming, agriculture, and environmental protection. The result is a territorial frame of nature management with ecologically homogeneous areas (Amirzhanovna et al., 2017). It seems necessary to use a differentiated approach to assess the landscape ecological state of the delta territories. This, in turn, entails the presence of structuring criteria of ecological state of landscape complexes of the corresponding taxonomic rank. Specification of a representative set of analytical and synthetic quantitative indicators should be based on structural specifics of morphological complexes (first on terrain types and their variants, groups of stow kinds) that set the landscape capacity of the relative region. Landscape-ecological analysis of the research area is based on methodological works in two directions (Methodology Instructions., 2005): 1) impact area; 2) impact level. 17 The final step is an overall assessment of natural territorial complexes by way of summing up the obtained data and mapping the anthropogenic impact on the landscape of the Ural River delta. Figure 5: Landscape Map of the Ural River delta 18 Table 2: Main Factors and Indicators of Landscape Ecological Assessment No. Assessment Assessment Factors Indicators Morphological structure of landscapes at the level of terrain types and their variants 1 StructuralIndex of landscape ecological well-being morphological representativity index of terrain types Anthropogenic processes that influence pollution 2 and disturbance of abiotic and bioinert components of a landscape and performing resource functions (emission load, emission ratio of pollutants from exhaust gases, pollution index of surface water, average water consumption from 1 km2; humus content in the soil, direct costs of recovery of erosion-lost chernozem Adverse ecological fertility due to annual loss of major nutrients, and geographical assessment of farmland according to gross value processes of production; degree of radioactive contamination of soils) Natural-anthropogenic destructive exogenous geological processes (degree of gully roughness, karst density per 100 km2; degree of landslides, degree of washed-off soils, share of slopes steeper than 5°) structure of main classes and types of 3 anthropogenic landscapes Landscape anthropogenic index of anthropogenic transformation of transformation level landscapes index of landscape fragmentarity unfavorable ecologically valuable 4 Ecologically valuable factors factors favorable ecologically valuable factors To that end, the following factors of landscape ecological assessment were defined: structural-morphological aspects; adverse ecological and geographical processes; anthropogenic transformation of landscapes; ecological infrastructures of landscapes; environment-oriented factors (Mikhno et al., 2014). Key assessment indicators were described and grouped in accordance with the assessment factors (Table 2.). Structural-morphological assessment of landscapes. Structural-morphological assessment of landscape complexes is a primary and necessary component of landscape ecological studies of any territorial unit, both natural (natural area, province, stow, facie) and social (region, district). 19 Assessment of anthropogenic transformation of landscapes. This is another mandatory element of landscape ecological analysis of the municipal districts territory. Exceeding a certain level of anthropogenic load leads to disruption of ecological links between natural components and landscape complexes, to decreased ability of self-regeneration, and ultimately to degradation of geosystems. Both analytical and synthetic indicators of the territory transformation can be used for assessment of anthropogenic transformation of landscapes. Analytical assessment of anthropogenous transformation of landscapes is expressed primarily through the structure of anthropogenic complexes. At the present stage, the structure of anthropogenic complexes reflects factors of geotechnical processes, registers their effects through such criteria as the degree of land disturbance, the impoundment index, the degree of ploughness, the share of meadow-pasture and linear transport complexes and developed rural and urban land. Assessment of negative ecological and geographical processes. The following two groups of natural-anthropogenic processes have particular importance in assessing the ecological state of the residential districts of the Ilek River delta: contamination of certain landscape components and development of exodynamic processes. Such an approach is required for several reasons, among which we must highlight their dominance in the structure of landscape-destructive influences in the region on the one hand, and long-term statistical data and possibility to quantify the impact on the other. The contamination process is most clearly seen in climatic, soil, and hydrological components of landscape complexes that perform the essential exchange and transit function, linking the landscape to other landscape systems. In order to determine the ecological state of the landscape we conducted quantitative (4-point) rating of factors according to A. G. Isachenko to identify the degree of impact on natural territorial complexes and single components of nature; their maximum and minimum values can be interpreted as a criterion of an important ecological factor. Based on this, we distinguish the following categories of anthropogenic load on the landscapes: - landscapes of minor anthropogenic impact are those where only single components of the natural complex are affected and the disturbance is reversible; - landscapes of low anthropogenic impact are those where the load is subject to the single landscape components, mainly vegetation, but the ability of regeneration is present and close to the original; - landscapes of middle anthropogenic impact are those where a large part of the components of the natural complex is subject to load so that the natural complex is substituted by a natural-anthropogenic one; - landscapes of strong anthropogenic impact are those where the load is applied to all components, i.e., natural complex is changed by a natural-anthropogenic one. Results and Discussion In order to define climatic conditions of the Atyrau index plot, we used the mean annual data on "RSE KazGydromet" gathered by of the Peshnoy, Atyrau, and Topoli meteorological stations over the past five years. 20 The study area is located in the southern part of the Caspian basin to the below-sea absolute level of -27 m. The geological cross-section of the research area distinguishes basement and platform sedimentary cover. Crystalline basement rocks within the site are found at depths of 7-8 km. The structure of sedimentary cover distinguishes subsalt, salt, and above-salt complexes. Above-salt complex includes rocks from the upper Permian to the Quaternary inclusive, which are mostly clay and sandy layers with bands of limestone and marlstone. The terrain of modern alluvial-deltaic plains situated on both banks of the Ural River downstream of Atyrau looks relatively more dissected. The plains surface is complicated by deltaic channels, meander lakes and numerous draws. The width of the plain in the North of the site is 17 km; it gets narrower south-westwards and equals 14 km here. The delta plains are composed of loams sandy loams and sands with a capacity of up to 3 m, which are underlaid by sea late-Khvalynskiy clay deposits. The studied area belongs to Aral-Caspian province of the desert zone, where zonal soil types are brown desert soils (Faizov, 1983). Morphogenetic properties of the soil and structure of the soil cover of the researched territory is explained not only by zonal but also largely by hydrological factors. Processes of soil formation in the deltaic area are closely linked to the fluctuations at modern sea level (Figure 2). Changes in hydrological conditions associated with fluctuating levels of the Caspian Sea has become so dynamic that the signs of soil-forming process cannot gain a foothold in the endproducts of soil formation. The fluctuation of the sea level floods and covers the already formed soils under marine sediments. Today the flooded narrow coastal strip undergoes enhanced hydromorphism and desalinization of soils. We made 25 soil profiles as part of the field research (Figure 6). Figure 6: Soil Profile No. 3 (Seaside Solonchak Profile) We selected soil samples from 15 profiles for chemical analyses (humus, exchangeable bases, exchange capacity, mechanical structure, etc.). The total number of samples for general analyses exceeded 100. The results of chemical analyses are shown in Table 3. 21 Table 3: Basic Chemical Properties of the Soil Profile Depth No. сm 1 Total Humus СО2 Nitrogen Gypsum % % % 0-18 2.8 18-33 1.5 44-54 72-82 - 0-13 2 5 6 0.15 Absorbed Bases, mg-equ pH water for 100 g of soil Са 4.46 - 3.73 - 14.5 2.38 2.09 4 2.42 1.67 Мg K Na Total 8.3 36 0.61 3.87 54.98 8.2 12.5 0.36 0.46 17.32 8.98 8.95 0.1 8.15 23-33 8.05 44-54 8.2 72-82 8.32 0-16 1.,3 18-28 0.35 0.05 35-45 62-72 - 0-12 0.06 15-25 0.26 15.43 - 3.5 3.5 0.21 1.22 8.43 9.1 9.85 6 4 0.26 2.76 13.02 8.4 6.35 8 8 0.75 2.01 18.76 8.56 3.48 3.21 8.7 0.03 9.51 8.9 44-54 0-16 7 8.96 1.28 0.07 9.25 27-37 8.54 60-70 8 13.58 0-6 1.48 9-19 0.66 8.64 0.08 9 9.53 36-46 9 0-18 0.1 5.37 7.5 5.5 0.42 1.77 15.19 8.3 21-31 0.23 5.44 9.5 11 0.33 0.91 21.74 8.1 38-48 3.32 3 6.5 0.37 1.08 10.95 8.25 59-69 3.73 0.23 - - - - - 8 98-108 5.83 2 - - - - - 8.1 0-19 10 12 8.56 0.1 0.04 0.04 9.05 29-39 8.97 70-80 8.89 110-120 0-18 0.26 8.91 9.05 0.04 22 Profile Depth No. сm 15 19-29 30-40 60-70 0-20 30-40 65-75 Absorbed Bases, mg-equ Total Humus СО2 Gypsum Nitrogen % % % 0.13 0.1 0.03 pH water for 100 g of soil Са Мg K Na Total 5.5 4.5 0.21 0.41 10.62 10.5 7.5 0.23 0.65 18.88 0.04 9.18 8.85 8.37 8.87 8.58 8.35 There were collected samples for abbreviated water analysis from 5 profiles where groundwater was present. We collected composite samples from 10 plots from surficial horizons for chemical analyses aiming to detect heavy metals. The results of the chemical analysis are shown in Table 4. Data on all profiles and analyses of soil cover was recorded in a geodatabase. Table 4: Content of Heavy Metals (mg/kg) in Soil Profile No. Sampling Depth, cm Zinc 1 0-10 0.9 2 3 4 5 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-10 0.8 0.9 1.3 0.9 MPC 23 Copper Lead Active Forms 0.9 8 Nickel Chrome 0.5 2.4 3.2 6.9 0.2 0.7 1 0.8 4.5 6.4 5.7 8.6 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.6 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2 5.1 4.1 4.8 4.2 10.4 8.6 9.2 3 6 no no 5 4 0.9 7.2 25.2 68 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 6.8 14.8 9.2 11.2 27.6 67.6 34 35.2 80.4 176 104.8 120.4 1 0-10 21.2 Total Forms 8 12 2 3 4 5 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-10 20.4 74.8 28.4 44.4 6.4 21.6 12.4 12.8 8.8 14.2 10.2 17.2 110 23 32 MPC Cadmium Cobalt 35 As the results of the chemical analyses demonstrate, the content of active forms of copper, zinc, cadmium, lead, and cobalt are within the limits of maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) throughout the territory. As for active nickel, the highest nickel content can be seen in samples collected in the city of Atyrau (1.5 of MPC) and at the spots located 15 km to the south of Atyrau (1.7 to 1.9 of MPC). A similar situation is with active chrome, the highest concentrations (up to 1.9-2.2 of MPC) of which are recorded at the spot that is close to the airport and in the city of Atyrau (within 2-4 km), particularly in the area where soil is exposed to the highest anthropogenic loads. The highest concentrations of total forms of heavy metals also belong to nickel. As for the mobile forms, nickel’s content amounts to over 3 MPC in the area 23 near Atyrau. Besides, a slight excess of total copper over MPC was detected. The study revealed that the highest crests of the head of the delta are composed of stratified layers of micaceous sands with interlayers of bluish-brown clays and clay loams covered with wormwood, estragon, woodreed and agropyron cristatum. There are many bushes of tamarisk and small willow groves. Disturbance of the researched area’s soil cover is a consequence of anthropogenic factors. It comes in the form of areal degradation of soil and vegetation under the influence of a local factor, which is the elaboration of oil fields, quarries, construction of settlements, industrial objects and cattle-breeding farms, and of a linear factor which includes influence of the road network, communication lines, oil pipelines, canals, dams, etc. Frequently, the anthropogenic impact stimulates the natural processes of soil degradation (Mendybayev et al., 2015). Formation and dynamics of vegetation of the research area are subject to factors of direct influence of the sea, the Ural River floods and extreme flower variegation of soils. Therefore, the structure of vegetation and species diversity of natural communities are characterized by instability and weak soil maturity. This is due to the relative youth of the land and periodic changes of moisture and salinity of soils, especially in hydromorphic soils of washing mode (Ageleuov, 1982). The vegetation of the region was studied during the vegetation period of 2017. Communities are represented mainly by meadow vegetation. In the wind-affected zone of marsh solonchaks, there is a continuous cover of glasswort (Salicornia europaea) with some tamarisk (Tamarix ramosissima). In the areas of close groundwater, there are shore weed (Aeluropus littoralis) and alkali grass (Puccinellia distans) halophytic meadows with some shrubs (Tamarix ramosissima, Halostachys caspica) and sub-shrubs (Kalidium caspicum). With more distance from the sea and lowering of groundwater levels, these plant communities are replaced by wormwood-grass (Aeluropus littoralis, Puccinellia distans, Artemisia monogyna) and wormwood-tamarisk-grass (Aeluropus littoralis, Puccinellia distans, Tamarix ramosissima, Artemisia monogyna), then shrub-saltwart (Climacoptera crassa, C. brachyata, Petrosimonia brachyata, P. oppositifolia, Tamarix ramosissima, Halostachys caspica), and - in the Eastern part of the research area - mortuk (Eremopyrum triticeum) communities (Figure 3). A significant impact on plant cover transformation is produced by the use of land for grazing. Overgrazing gives rise to pastures degradation, decrease in projective cover and change of grass stand, which, in turn, results in the replacement of feeding crops (wormwood grass) by weeds and plants with low feeding value (burweed, peganum, some saltwarts) (Bizhanova and Kurochkina, 1989). Due to adverse climatic conditions, the vegetation of the research area transforms because of weak sustainability to anthropogenic impacts and extremely low compensatory capacity of regeneration and formation of secondary ecosystems, especially in technogenic ecotopes. 24 Figure 7: Map of Anthropogenic Disturbance of Landscapes 25 The studies have shown that areas of severe disturbance are localized (around oil wells and construction objects); i.e. the effect does not cover large areas. Hence, we should expect more rapid growth of vegetation due to vegetative mobility of the main dominant species of wormwood and perennial saltwort. All the basic dominants such as wormwood and perennial glasswort (barnyard grass, sarsazan, anabasis) are characterized by stable regeneration and can quickly master the disturbed areas. However, newly formed secondary communities will lack a fully floristic composition and thus have an unstable structure (Zhamangara, 1999), which is why they will be vulnerable to all kinds of anthropogenic impacts for a long time. The most stable and fast recovering communities are the ones of intrazonal meadow-shrub type (Nurmambetov and Akiyanova, 1989) which are formed under conditions of excessive moisture and have a high biological variety of vegetation and multiple-tiered structure. The main dominant species (reed, shoreweed, saltmarsh grass, clubroot) easily reproduce by seed and vegetative propagation (Landscape 1, 2, 3). The xerophytic suffrutic lose desert vegetation emerging at zonal brown soils is relatively stable (Landscape 7, 22). The halophytic vegetation of salt marshes is poorly resistant. The communities are usually monodominant and have very few related species, and the conditions of the ecotopes (high salinity) limit the settling of other species. The natural vegetation near residential areas, oil fields and other economic objects is highly transformed; therefore, the possibility of compensation is very low. Here, the formation of a secondary weed community similar to the surrounding area can be expected (Landscape 29-32). Full restoration of communities with no special phytomelirative measures is impossible as the areas have already lost their ecological and resource capacity. Landscapes of deltaic zone of the Ural River are mostly characterized by local types of pollution. In light of this, we should consider, above all, local features of the territory when struggling against it. A suitable level of contamination investigation is meso-territorial, corresponding to the level of landscapes. Geoecological assessment of the territory from an economic perspective is an essential component of landscape ecological studies. When studying the impact of human activities on the environment, performance indicators should reflect nature and intensity of anthropogenic load on the landscape. The main anthropogenic source of the research area is mining and processing of hydrocarbon deposits. Thus, following the results of various archive materials and chemical analyses of soil and vegetation samples obtained by the field methods, the anthropogenically most disturbed landscapes of the Ural River delta were defined according to a 4point scale (Figure 6). CONCLUSIONS It has been established that landscapes No. 29, 30, 31 and 32 exist under the most difficult geo-ecological conditions, where all components of natural environment are transformed and a completely modified natural-technogenic 26 complex is formed as they bear the main sources of technogenesis (factories, plants, etc.). This territory represents 20% of the total research area. Landscape No. 30 is subject to strong anthropogenic load because it is situated in close proximity to anthropogenic sources. Landscapes No. 4, 5, 7, 12, 13, 17, 19, 20, 22, 26, and 32 exist in conditions of strong anthropogenic disturbance of natural components and are mainly concentrated in urban areas. Landscapes with a medium degree of disturbance of natural systems occupy the largest part of the research territory and equal 50% of the area. They are concentrated in the area of degradation of agricultural land. The least exposed to anthropogenic transformation landscapes are those under No. 20, 21, 27 that are located in the eastern part of the Ural River delta as they are only partly used for grazing. Following the results of the landscape ecological analysis in the context of migration and accumulation of elements in deposit environments, we conclude that the territory of the delta is primarily prone to the anthropogenic impact of the oil and petrochemical industry. The mining areas are characterized by complex ecogeochemical variety that includes supertoxic and toxic elements of the 1st and 2nd hazard classes. REFERENCES Ageleuov, Y.A. (1982): Floodplain Meadows of the Ural River. Alma-Ata, 200 p. Amirzhanovna, Z.A., Zhanaleyeva, K.M., Galimzhanovich B.Z., Saparov, K.T., Mendybayev E.H., Atasoy, E. (2017): Assessment of hydrogeoecological features of the Yesil River Basin // Journal of Environmental Biology. Vol. 38, Issue 5. P. 1115-1120. Berdenov, Zh.G. (2015): Technogenic impact on the landscape geosystems for example Kargaly district of Aktobe region // European Conference on Innovations in Technical and Natural Sciences. – Vienna, Austria, p. 74-79. Bizhanova, G., Kurochkina, L.Y. (1989): Anthropogenic Pasture Changing of Moyinkums and Their Mapping. "Nauka" KazSSR. 46-53 p. Chibilev, A.A. (1987): To Landscape-Ecological Justification of Development of Protected Natural Area Network / А. А. Chibilev // General and Regional Issues of Landscape Geography of the USSR. – Voronezh: Publishing House of Voronezh University, p. 84-92. Kochurov, B.I. (2003): Ecological Diagnostics and Balanced Devellopment / B.I. Kochurov.– Moscow – Smolensk: Madzhenta,– 384 p. Meldebekov, А.М., Bayzhanov, М.Kh. (2005): Closing Report to the Research Work on Assessment of Ecological State of Fauna and Ecosystems of Three Project Territories of the Ural River Delta with Adjoining Caspian Seashore and Tengiz-Kurgaldzhinskaya and Alakol-Sasyloskaya Systems of Lakes. Project of GEF/UNDP: KAZ/00/G37. Almaty, p. 7-9. Mendybayev, E.H., Atayeva, G., Berdenov, Z.Н., Atasoy. E. (2015): Geochemical Researches of Region Soil with Technogenic Influence in Terms of Borlinskiy Region, West Kazakhstan. Oxid Commun. Vol. 38 (4). p. 1933-1941. Methodology Instructions on Determining of Degrading and Polluted Lands 27 Approved by Roskomzem, Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation. – Moscow, 2005. p.245. Mikhno, V.B., Bevz, V.N. Gorbunov, А.S., Bykovskaya, О.P. (2014): LandscapeEcological analysis of Municipal Districts Territory. VSU Reporter, series: Geography. Geoecologiya, No. 3. p. 245-260. Mikhno, V.B., Bevz, V.N., Gorbunov, А.S., Bykovskaya, О.P. (2014): LandscapeEcological analysis of Municipal Districts Territory. VSU Reporter, series: Geography. Geoecologiya, No. 3. P.40-48. Nurmambetov, E.I., Akiyanova. F.Zh. (1998): Modern Terrain Forming on the Seashore and Sea Shelve of the Caspian Sea // Geographical Principles of Sustainable Development of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Almaty, p.322-338. Faizov, K.Sh. (1983): Soils of Desert Zone of Kazakhstan. Almaty. 239 p. Polonskiy, V.F., Baydin, S.S. (1982): Flow Distribution and Redistribution in the Volga River Delta // SOGI.–No. 161. P. 111–122. Zhamangara, A.K. (1999): Lucas SG. Revision of some Eocene charophytes from the Zaysan basin, Eastern Kazakstan// Australian journal of Botany. Vol. 47, Issue 3, p. 297-304. 28 Chapter 2 An Assessment of Applicability of Green Infrastructure Plan in Every Metropolitan Cities Nasim SHAKOURI1 and Aysel USLU2 1 2 Dr.; Ankara University, Department of Landscape Architecture, Ankara, Turkey. Prof. Dr.; Ankara University, Department of Landscape Architecture, Ankara, Turkey. INTRODUCTION Cities are combination of natural and cultural content which are shaping urban landscape. The comparison of past and current urbanization pattern demonstrated that cultural factors are more effective in dynamic alteration of structure and function of urban landscape over the past decades. As a result, landscape structure modification caused the ecological process of urban environment which were more stable in old cities has threatened. Today, the growth of societies and development of technology impress the existence and functionality of nature and natural systems (Randolph, 2004) (Youngquist, 2009) that support ecological process in urban landscape. As a result, fragmented and dysfunctional patches in urban landscape will not provide long term sustainability of cities in future (Cook 1991). That’s why, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on developments that meet certain criteria of risk (Jackson 2007) and environmentally friendly urban planning gained importance in maintaining and improving the functionality of urban ecosystem over the past decades. In this context, several researches on the concept of environmentally friendly planning have been conducted and various methods regarding to sustainable urban development have emerged for improving urban landscape (Beatley, 2000; Steiner, 2002; Low et al., 2005; Moughtin & Shirley, 2005; Ahern, 2007). Green infrastructure planning (GI) emerged as one of the important strategies which aim to conserve natural balance in dynamic urban landscape along with conserving local biodiversity and human health in urban ecosystem. However, the root of the strategy is based on the idea of being compatible with the nature. The planning method and its functional framework are still in progress. Beside many researches which demonstrate the impacts of green infrastructure plans in sustainability of cities. There is still lack of the researches which discuss applicability of green infrastructure plans in every city with specific characteristics and structure. Therefore, considering the importance of sustainable plans in dynamic urban landscape; this chapter will focus on green infrastructure planning strategy and express the barriers and issues in applying GI plan in urban area. AIM and OBJECTIVES The aim of this chapter is to investigate literature on the concept of green infrastructure and its planning methods for determining the issues relating to GI planning in urban area and discussing the applicability of GI planning in every city. This goal is achieved through addressing three objectives;  Recognizing certain features relating urban landscape and green infrastructure plan,  Evaluating GI planning strategy and integrating GI planning methods in urban area  Discussing its requirements to clarify issues in planning process. This review will have a significant role in bringing new insights for green infrastructure planning in urban area and help in formulating new methods for resolving issues in planning process. Furthermore, it will bring about new research questions regarding green infrastructure plans in various urban structure. METHODS Electronic journal databases and significant book relating to urban ecosystem and green infrastructure plan were assessed to clarify the main stone of research. The journals included in the literature review were; Landscape and Urban Planning, The Journal of Environment, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, Building and Environment. Furthermore, planning methods of green infrastructure were evaluated and general framework was determined. In addition, barriers and issues analyzed based on GI planning principle and the author's own comments. FEATURES of CITIES According to many researches, cities are inventions of social and engineering studies (Cadenasso & Pickett, 2008). Since, human-focused planning and design process has been followed in forming the urban area during the historical period, many natural and ecological processes have been ignored over their development. Therefore, conservation of ecological values and the protection of ecological component of urban landscape have been limited to protected areas outside of city borders (Schäffler & Swilling, 2013). In other words, ecological services that provide ecological balance have been overlooked in urban development plan. The reason is that, priority has been given to the planning and implementation of physical infrastructures such as gray infrastructure, roads, and drainage systems due to the unexpected population growth rather than sustainable growth. As a result of this consideration, environmental problems appeared over the time and these problems have negative impact on urban resident’s quality of life. Due to the fact that more than half of the world population live in cities (Muller et al., 2010); development of appropriate planning and design strategies in order to create viable and sustainable cities become vital (Chiesura 2004). Today, cities are considered as a large ecosystem from the ecological perspectives. In other words, cities, are human ecosystems, with biotic, social, physical, and built components all interacting with each other the built component (Machlis et al., 1997; Grimm et al., 2000; Alberti et al., 2003; Cadenasso and Pickett 2008). Evaluating cities as an ecosystem (Alberti et al., 2003) express ecological 30 processes have significant role in ensuring its sustainability. Therefore, it is important to specify the features of urban ecosystem. There are also lots of research on the concept of urban ecosystem and its features. According to the Cadenasso and Pickett (2008), urban landscape interprets based on five principles. They defined cities as a large ecosystem in consequence of having interacting biological and physical complexes which is layout fundamental assumption of contemporary urban ecology. Urban ecosystem consists of patches in different scale and structure. Due to the diversity of patches in urban ecosystem; cities are spatially heterogeneous. Furthermore, human and biophysical components of urban ecosystem are interacting over the time. As a result of the interaction, urban landscape encounters of alteration under the current urban growth agenda. As a result of alteration and modification in the structures; cities have dynamic landscape which must be considered in planning process. Ecosystems vary in function, scale and nature (Tzoulas et al., 2007). In the case of urban ecosystem; spatial and scale differences play an active role in the natural processes (Kolasa & Pickett, 1991; Pickett & Cadenasso, 1995; Wiens, 2000; Turner & Cardille, 2007). Therefore, these factors must be highlighted in development of sustainable plans. The Concept of Green Infrastructure The concept of green infrastructure has long been used in natural resources science (Benedict & McMahon 2002). However, due to the environmental problems caused by urbanization, it becomes headlines in urban planning strategies. The green infrastructure as words; is defined as a system that supports the life of nature (Williamson, 2003; Ahern, 2007). When the green infrastructure is used in adjective terms, it has been developed as a strategy based on conservation, which aimed to preserve ecological networks by identifying protected areas (McDonald 2008). In recent years, with the rapid urbanization, many natural areas around the city or in rural areas have disappeared or lost functionality with land requirements. In particular, these changes have become more effective in agricultural and forest areas in urban structure. Thus, the change in human-oriented land use threatens native plants and wildlife, causing disruptions in land, as well as impacts on ecological functions and processes. Green infrastructure is planning approach that protects urban ecosystem values and functions and affects many human population-related problems positively by linking green spaces in urban fabric (Benedict & McMahon 2002). Therefore, it is mentioned as "life supporting system" in most of the literature (Benedict & McMahon 2002; Ahern, 2007). Today, green infrastructure planning has as much precaution as technological planning in urban design (Sandstrom 2008). The reason is that, green infrastructure is defined as a network that has many functions and links unstructured and natural areas with ecological and social values (Kambites & Owen 2007). Connectivity, sustainability and functionality in terms of ecological processes 31 are significant features supporting green infrastructure plans (Mell 2010). Therefore, all components of GI plan should be evaluated and addressed as a system along with individual assessments in the planning process to benefit positive influences of GI plan on ecological services. Recent research documented social and economic benefits of planning green infrastructure as well as its environmental influence. It’s benefits; improving water cycle and quality in urban area, reclamation of air quality (Yang et, al. 2005) and climate change (Rosenzweig et al., 2006; Oliveira et al., 2011) promoting of urban biodiversity (Uslu & Shakouri 2013) and rehabilitation of community health (Tzoulas et al., 2007; Benedict & McMahon, 2002; Mell, 2009) have been evaluated in many researches. Planning Green Infrastructure in Urban Area Despite the fact that the development of the green infrastructure strategy has provided a contemporary approach in use of landscape resources; it is based on landscape ecology principles. Therefore, understanding of ecology principle of urban environment is significant step in planning process. From the ecological point of view; GI is an approach which aimed to preserve and protect any open and green areas with different properties in urban structure together in order to provide their ecological functionality. In general, the green infrastructure plan is a system of Hubs and Links, as proposed by Forman (1995) in the landscape ecology model (Figure 1). The Hubs diverse from natural and vacant areas to man-made or repaired ecosystems and landscapes. The links are defined as a networks connecting these hubs to each other. Figure 1: Planning landscape based on landscape ecology. 1; a few patches of natural vegetation. 2; major vegetated streams or river corridor. 3; connectivity with corridors or stepping stone between large patches. 4; heterogeneous “bits of nature” across the matrix (Forman, 1995) Green infrastructure can be interpreted differently according to aim of system and its values. Furthermore, it is illustrated diversity based on functions, scale, location and forms (Burgess et al., 1988; Mell, 2010). In brief, it is a multi-scale approach with an explicit recognition of pattern: process relationships and an emphasis on physical and functional connectivity (Ahern 2007). Green infrastructure plans are identified in three different typologies. These 32 typologies are; Landscape-based green infrastructure, Biodiversity-based green infrastructure, Nature-based alternatives to gray infrastructure. Based on these typology plans components are determined in urban structure. Green infrastructure plans also differ in terms of scale and size. The plan may cover large scales such as region, country, city or small scale for instance; neighborhoods, public gardens and school gardens (Mell, 2010). In general, a basic framework for green infrastructure planning has not been identified in research. Due to the typology and aim of the Green infrastructure in urban area, it is possible to examine the overall green infrastructure planning process in four phases;  Goal setting,  Data analysis,  Synthesis of result  Implementation (Mcdonald et al., 2005). Due to the different issues, features and needs of a region; green infrastructure goals are diverse. For example, conserving agricultural and green spaces at Mascalucia in Sicily (Greca et al., 2011), adapting climate change in Greater Manchester (Gill et al., 2007). Promoting human health at Nashville are different aims for planning green infrastructure in these cases. Once the goals have been identified, the networks of the green infrastructure plan should be analyzed (Youngquist 2009). Considering the diversity of resources; green infrastructure components should be analyzed in detail. Another important component of green infrastructure plan is the diversity of land use which must be investigated entirely. In the development of the green infrastructure plan, the objective of synthesis of result is to develop implementation strategies by focusing on conservation and defining protection possibilities using existing patches and corridors. Implementation of plan is the final step which needs political and economic support as well as social awareness to ensure the plan functionality in long term. DISCUSSION According to the green infrastructure features, components and planning process which stated above, the issues of GI Planning is addresses through seven headlines which clarify the constrains of applying green infrastructure plan in every metropolitan city. Issues in Planning Urban Green Infrastructure  Scale Many green infrastructural plans are prepared on larger scale than cities. The reason is, functionality of ecological process detects the borders of green infrastructure plans. As Fabos (2004) indicated green infrastructure plans are better able to address the connectivity they seek to achieve when political boundaries are removed. Contrary to it, in the case of cities; political boundaries have been proposed for green infrastructure plans which not support the functionality of GI plan in some cases. Therefore, an assessment of all components of GI plan which 33 support its functionality is impossible in a city plan.  Various data base Green infrastructure planning; conserve resources as well as networks created by natural and human intervention in the urban matrix with the aim of preventing natural hazards and improving environmental issues. Therefore, it is essential to diagnose the characteristics of cities landscape and utilize its features for developing green infrastructure plan. For this purpose, various data base must be evaluated. These data not only consist of physical analysis of cities landscape, but also cover social and economic information of cities. As Benedict & McMahon (2002) emphasized in their research; green space systems need to be laid out strategically to cross multiple jurisdictions and incorporate green space elements at each level of government. In metropolitan cities, these data are collected by certain institution and authorities. Therefore, data exchange between authorized institutions is complicated. As a result, GI plan which conducted by municipalities will be based on land-use data, ignoring social and economic database. Therefore, these superficial plan which establish on incomplete data will not constitute sustainable structure.  Urban morphology and land cover analyze One of the basic principles of the ecological understanding that contributes formation of green infrastructure planning is the positive effects that natural resources and open-green spaces have on urban residents mental and physical health as well as urban biodiversity (Perlman & Milder 2005; Shakouri & Uslu 2013). Therefore, it is important to focus on urban landscape features and taking account human actions as well to find a solution meeting human needs and managing landscape changes (Ndubisi, 2002). Evaluating land cover is a foundation of green infrastructure mapping (Carr et al., 2002; Weber 2004). Since Green Infrastructure is a type of physical asset (Gill et al., 2007; Davies et al., 2006), coherent land use data base is imperative for evaluating the structure and component of GI plan. The case is more complicated in cities. It is because of planning processes need focus in-depth of analysis spatial land planning and territorial coherence schemes at the municipal and regional levels (MacKenna, 2010). Beside the detailed mapping and analysis of socio-economic information, spatial planning must integrate to territorial consistency to make more informed decisions at the municipal and regional level. For this purpose, mapping operations should base on detailed and multi-dimensional analyzes (MacKenna 2010) (Figure 2). However, land cover database and urban morphology data are not obtained for regional authorities and municipalities in most of the cities of Developing country. In addition, land cover analyzes data is not up to date in most of developing cities. Therefore, any green infrastructure plan which is based on not well-rounded database will not ensure sustainability and actualize main goals of plan.  Compacted development Many old cities in developing country have compact design which caused lack of green and open spaces inside the city border. However, open spaces are 34 considered in developing part of these cities. There are still problems in planning GI in old city core. In addition, integrating green infrastructure components around the city core and creating linkage with the hubs inside the historical part constitutes a problem. Figure 2: Primary urban morphology type map of Greater Manchester for developing GI plan with the purpose of adaptation city for climate change (Gill et al., 2007). On the other hand, lack of the vacant land inside the city border inspired high demand for these areas. As a result, price of land increased in the central regions of cities which caused most of the urban design professionals prefer high density design principles that encourage compacted development of city over the last decades (Carmona, 1997; Carmona, 2001). Therefore, planning green infrastructure and ecological goals become a challenge in these cities.  Various stakeholders As stated in pervious section, GI plan consist of Hubs and links. The hubs in urban green infrastructure plan can vary from a public park to the brownfield or individual house yard. Therefore, there may be various stakeholders in urban green infrastructure plans. The involvement of different stakeholders in the green infrastructure planning 35 process will be useful in many ways, from determining the realistic goals to considering future challenges. It will also make it possible for local stakeholders to be involved in planning through social support. Provision of support from local people is very important in terms of the sustainability and future of green infrastructure plan. However, in the case of metropolitan cities having a lot of stakeholders may cause problems in taking decisions in regional level. In addition, environmental awareness of stakeholders will have significant role in supporting the GI plan’s goals. On the other hand, lack of such awareness will prevent the implementation of GI plan in city scale.  Sturdy authorities The objective of green infrastructure plans is to develop implementation strategies by focusing on conservation and emphasizing nature-protection possibilities. Therefore, Green infrastructure plans have time consuming process and are long term plans. Furthermore, supporting the implementation of plans by local authorities is important. In this context, the plan must include certain gaps. These gaps will allow for future changes and more detailed analyzes to be made (Randolph 2004). In the case of metropolitan cities of many developing countries, local authorities are instable in making decision and follow the current trend in planning rather than sustainability. As a result, implementation of GI plan will not guarantee.  Economic support In particular, the availability of financial resources supporting the GI plan, will provide better opportunities for green infrastructure implementation. Therefore, specific financial resource must be provided to implement the strategies. In this context, taking into account private ownership of hubs in GI plan and various stakeholders in metropolitan cities, financial resources gain more importance. Whence, lack of financial resource is barrier for developing green infrastructure plans in most of cities. CONCLUSION As it stated in this chapter, green infrastructure planning is a new planning method in many countries. In this context, the general basis of plan is being Landscape-scale, conservation-oriented plan (Youngquist, 2009). However, the framework of this planning strategy differs according to the purpose of plan and location of the research area. Today, there is not a universal understanding of identification and use of green infrastructure plans in urban area. Therefore, it prevents the establishment of framework for green infrastructure which consists of all details about scale, concept and practice of plans. Furthermore, lack of framework for green infrastructure prevents the integration of GI planning strategy into main planning policies of existing and developing cities. The preparation and development of green infrastructure plans depends on consideration of the environmental and social factors in all process (Randolph, 2004). In this context, it is significant factor to evaluate the environment and landscape features not as individual but as a whole in city fabric (Wolf, 2004). 36 As Schäffler & Swilling (2013) indicated in their research, inserting the value of ecosystem services provided by green infrastructure into the matrices of traditional infrastructure choices and budget decision-making criteria is critical if we are to have more sustainable cities. For this reason, it is necessary to plan green infrastructure with a comprehensive understanding of network consisting of hubs and links so that ecological equilibrium could be established in long term in urban ecosystem. As it highlighted before, it is complicated process with many barriers in the case of metropolitan cities. Therefore, implementation of sustainable green infrastructure seems not to be applicable in all cities until the issues identified and the solution recommended. It must be emphasized that natural components integrated with human communities in urban ecosystem are important factors in planning process (Barthel et al., 2010). Respecting the fact that each city has its specific natural components and social structure; unique solution and plan must apply for every city based on its own characteristics and requirements. REFERENCES Ahern, J. (2007). Green infrastructure for cities: the spatial dimension. In Vladimir Novotny and Paul Brown. (Ed.), Cities of the Future: Towards Integrated Sustainable (Vol. Chapter 17, pp. 267–283). London, UK Alberti, M., Marzluff, J. M., Shulenberger, E., Bradley, G., Ryan, C. and Zumbrunnen, C. (2003). Integrating Humans into Ecology: Opportunities and Challenges for Studying Urban Ecosystems. BioScience, Vol. 53, No. 12 pp. 1169-1179. Barthel. S., Folke, C., Colding J. (2010). Social–ecological memory in urban gardens—retaining the capacity for management of ecosystem services. Global Environmental Change. 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The ecological consequences of environmental heterogeneity. Blackwell, Malden, MA. Williamson, K, S. (2003). Growing with Green Infrastructure. Heritage Conservancy, Doylestown, PA. Wolf, K. (2004). Economic and Public Value of Urban Forests in Urban Agriculture Magazine, 13, 31–33. Special Issue on Urban and Periurban Forestry. Woolley, H. 2003. Urban Open Spaces, Spon Press, London. Yang, J., McBride, J., Zhou, J. and Sun, Z. (2005). The urban forest in Beijing and its role in air pollution reduction. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 3(2), pp.65-78. Youngquist, T. D. (2009). What is green infrastructure? An evaluation of green infrastructure plans from across the United States. Graduate Theses and Dissertations. Iowa State University. 39 Chapter 3 Ecological Approaches in making Urban Land Use Decisions A. Esra CENGİZ Assist. Prof. Dr.; Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Design, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale-Turkey INTRODUCTION Urbanization movements have gained momentum depending on the population and the income level that have increased with the phenomenon of industrialization, which has rapidly grown to date. Everything is getting more and more complicated and the natural environments which should be strictly protected are facing the danger of extinction and degradation with unconscious planning practices today, when the need of the rapidly increasing population for new living spaces and areas of use is gradually increasing. Preservation of the ecological balance is the primary issue on which too much emphasis should be put today. The problem of the upsetting of the ecological balance, which manifests itself with such consequences as the depletion of natural resources, the deterioration of their qualities, a decrease in biological diversity, and global warming, began to be discussed rapidly on the world’s agenda particularly after the 1970s (Sılaydın, 2007). As in Turkey, the natural resources in the underdeveloped and developing countries of the world are under pressure for such reasons as improper and unplanned land use, a high population increase, the soil erosion in sensitive ecosystems, multidirectional demands for scarce resources, a poor rural population, and the inadequacy or unavailability of corporate support (Yılmaz, 2005). Mostly, land use is not dependent on a plan in Turkey. As a result, on the one hand the most fertile lands are used as the places of establishment of settlement areas and industrial enterprises, but on the other, it is intended to acquire agricultural lands from forests and pastures by opening fields (Akten, 2008). Optimal land uses which aim at ecological protection should be determined sensitively and sustained in order to make accurate and effective resource management and plan decisions (Zengin, 2007). The fundamental principle of sustainability is to make a land use suitability analysis (Lier, 1998). As the world is confronted with the environmental problems which threaten its future, development and protection of urban ecosystems are gradually gaining importance for the objective of sustainable cities (Erdoğan Onur, 2012). In general, the urbanization policies pursued pit economy and ecology against each other, which culminates in the destruction of the natural environment. However, “ecology” is the element which should be at the forefront in the creation of urban environments. Therefore, policies which are called “Green Policies”, highlight 40 sustainability, and envisage protecting and developing natural environments should indeed be implemented as urban policies (Tunçer & Ercoşkun, 2007). This can only be realized through making use of ecological planning approaches in making urban land use decisions. 1. URBAN LAND USES A city is a settlement unit which is continually undergoing social development; in which such needs of the society as settlement, accommodation, departure, arrival, working, resting, and entertainment are met; where very few people are engaged in agriculture; which is more densely populated than villages; and which is made up of small neighborhood units (Keleş, 1998). Cities occur upon the gathering of different land uses such as housing areas, indoor public spaces, organized industrial zones, open and green areas, regular waste storage areas/facilities, cemeteries, urban forests, and urban agricultural lands. Each of these areas affects, and is affected by, different natural and cultural landscape elements. In addition, these areas are changing with the driving force of the population, economy, and technology with every passing day. The basic resource in this process is the natural areas on which a city has settled or spread. On the other hand, the natural area on which a city has developed or which is located on its fringe is exposed to the invasion by the city. Thus, each land use should be known well at the point of protecting nature. When the urban land uses are examined, it is seen that they originated owing to different requirements. For instance, housing areas refer to the areas which are allocated for housing use in settlement and development areas and which are planned and they originated so as to satisfy the need for accommodation (Official Gazette, 2017). Indoor public spaces are the indoor areas where everybody freely lives altogether and in an interaction (e.g. state institutions, shopping centers, and indoor sports fields) (Çalışkan, 2014). Organized Industrial Zones (OIZ) aim to ensure that industry be structured in those areas which are considered appropriate; to prevent unsound industrialization and environmental problems; to steer urbanization; to use resources rationally; to benefit from information and communication technologies; and to place and develop the types of industry within a certain plan. In this context, they are commodity and service production zones which are created by equipping the land pieces with certified boundaries with common use, service, and support areas as well as with technology developing zones required within the ratios in the development plans and by allocating them for industry in a planned fashion and within certain systems; which are set up, planned, and operated in accordance with the provisions of the Law No. 4562 on Organized Industrial Zones; and which aim at efficiency in the use of resources (Official Gazette, 2018a). Open and green areas are sites which are allocated for people to meet their recreational demands such as urban neighborhood parks, children’s playgrounds, sports areas, and picnic sites (Gül and Küçük, 2001). Regular storage areas or facilities (RSFs) are areas where wastes are disposed of underground or overground according to specific technical standards except for the units where wastes are temporarily stored within the facility at which they have occurred in 41 order to be sent for recycling, pretreatment or disposal; the facilities where wastes are stored for less than three years in order to be subjected to recycling or pretreatment; and the facilities where wastes are stored for no more than a year in order to be subjected to the process of disposal (Official Gazette, 2010). Cemeteries are burial sites where the dead are buried and where graves are formed (Official Gazette, 2018b). Urban forests are places which are allocated in provinces and at districts and which include scouting, trekking, cycling, riding, and similar activities as well as rural restaurants, rural coffee houses, culture houses, places to display and sell local products, amphitheaters, various mini-sports areas, and other recreational buildings and facilities primarily in order to offer the health, sports, aesthetic, cultural, and social functions of forests to the service of the public as well as to contribute to the beauty of the country; to meet various sporting and resting needs of the society; to allow touristic movements; and to inculcate love and consciousness of forests especially in children and young people also by introducing technical forestry activities as well as the flora and the fauna (Official Gazette, 2013). Urban agricultural lands are areas where urban agriculture is performed. Urban agriculture is an industry which produces and processes food and fuel mostly in response to the daily needs of the consumers in the urban and semiurban areas, towns, cities, and metropolises which are located on land and which have spread over the waterside by employing intensive production methods and by using and reusing natural resources and urban wastes in order to provide a wide range of plant and animal products (Cengiz & Karadağ, 2013; Yılmaz, 2015; Cengiz et al., 2014). 2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS ABOUT ECOLOGY Ecology Derived from the Greek words "oikos" (house) and "logos" (understanding), the word "Ecology" was first used in 1970 by Ernest Haeckel – a German biologist. As a definition, ecology means "one which mediates us in understanding our planet". Ecology is also defined as a science which examines the relationships of living things with each other and with their surroundings (Gül & Polat, 2011). The most important subjects of study for ecology are described below (Tozar, 2006):  It examines the climatic (climatic characteristics), edaphic (soil properties), physiographic (characteristics depending on the form and structure of the earth), and biotic (other living creatures) factors which enable the individuals of living organisms to live and develop and determines the behavior of organisms towards these natural conditions and the demands of individuals for growing media accordingly.  It investigates the issues of the structure of the society of living things that is comprised of the same species (population), its way of development, intrapopulation relationships, the relationships with other populations, nutrition, and energy supply.  It examines and investigates other complicated relationships such as the elements, types, and structures of the natural systems composed of the societies 42 belonging to various living things and of the physical space that they inhabit as well as their nutrition and energy relationships (circulation of matter and energy flow) and their change in time (evolution and succession). Landscape Ecology The science of landscape ecology forms the most important basis for the identification of the complex structure of nature in landscape planning and management. Landscape ecology is a field of science which deals with the complex cause-and-effect relationships between the environmental conditions prevailing in any part of the landscape and the living communities as a whole (Odum & Barrett, 2008). As a science which hierarchically subdivides the landscape and enables one to make different comments on the structure, function, and change of the landscape, landscape ecology can also be defined simply as the ecology of landscapes or regions (Dramstad et al., 1996). There is a strong bond between landscape ecology and ecological planning. Both are based on the physical changes caused by the interactions between human beings and natural formations. Ecological planning is acknowledged as a process in which estimations and evaluations are made with respect to how natural and human impacts alter the functions of natural resources. Landscape ecology forms a scientific basis for making these estimations and evaluations (Tozar, 2006; Karadağ & Cengiz, 2018). Urban Ecology Before defining urban ecology, it is necessary to briefly define the city – a concept which stands out in environmental studies. Cities are defined as “spaces in which both problems and the possibilities of solutions likely to be found for these problems are concentrated as the points where production and consumption are concentrated” by Eke (2000). With its most general definition, "Urban Ecology" is a discipline which deals with the phenomenon of reflection of the relationships of human beings with their surroundings on the urban space with the ecological approach (Günal, 2008). Urban ecology or the approach of ecological planning in urban areas can be summarized as the sustainable urban life approach which prioritizes the methods and practices that support the assessment and development of the data of the city according to natural, i.e. ecological, criteria; the economical use and development of matter and energy at the city center; making the infrastructure sound in an environmentally-sensitive way; recycling of wastes; urban efficiency; productivity; conservation; and reuse (Gül & Polat, 2011). On the one hand urbanization, industrialization and technological developments provide societies with better living conditions, but on the other, they lead to the degradation of the natural environment and give rise to the depletion of natural resources and an increase in environmental pollution. It is these matters which make it inevitable to attach further importance to cities in the studies on environmental protection and to adopt an ecological approach in city planning. This perspective, which will influence the entire planning and implementation process 43 and allow the formation of cities that are in harmony with nature, has created the concept of "Urban Ecological Planning" (Eke, 2000). According to Hough (1990), ecological urbanization is a novel concept and occurs as an important approach to which attention has been paid in the planning of cities in the recent years. When considered comprehensively, the phenomenon of green city is an approach which indeed started on the urban scale and which originated upon considering the concepts of urbanization and nature together – in other words, which is about the city in biological and social terms (Güneş & Köylü, 2000). The importance attached and the priority given to the environment and urban ecological planning vary by society. Furthermore, it is possible to follow the changes in the perspectives on the environment in various phases. Urban development is defined with the increases in production and consumption as well as intensive construction activities following the industrial revolution by assuming that natural resources are infinite. There is an extravagant energy and land use in this phase. The growth of the city against agricultural lands is regarded as its development. The most obvious quality of this period is a human-oriented environmental understanding (Eke, 2000). 3. LAND USE PLANNING Although land planning is concerned with the design and organization of the natural and structural elements on a land, it is about organizing many technical issues (e.g. circulation solutions, infrastructural and superstructural arrangements, location of buildings, and creation of spaces for human use) (Akpınar, 2008). A piece of land suitable for any use may also be suitable for many other uses in competition with this use. Therefore, the decisions on land use should be made not only depending on land suitability assessments but also by considering such factors as social (demand for the products of different sectors), economic, environmental, and cultural factors. In this case, land use planning should be considered participatory, multi-sectoral, multidimensional, multi-purpose, and multi-criteria (Yılmaz, 2005). According to the FAO (1976), the first stage of land use planning is the acceptance of the alteration which should be made in terms of the current land use, followed by the setting of the goals and the formulation of the forms of land use and their requirements. The assessment process covers the determination of the current forms of land use and the assessment of feasible forms of land use in terms of each piece of land. This process continues with the procedure of decision-making on the preferred form of land use. The following stages are the elaboration of the forms of land use, implementation of the plan, and the monitoring of the practices (Yılmaz, 2005). 4. LANDSCAPE PLANNING Even though the concept of landscape planning dates back to earlier times, John Claudius Loudon (1783-1843) acted in the capacity of a "planner" in 1800 and Patrick Abercrombie lectured a course entitled "Rural Planning and Landscape 44 Design" in 1934. Brian Hackett wrote a book entitled "Landscape Planning" in 1971. The most important landscape planning book of the 20th century is “Design with Nature” by McHarg (Akpınar, 2008). Landscape planning is interested in the landscape problems which affect vast lands (cities, rural settlements, basins, and regions) (Akpınar, 2008). According to Marsh (1997), landscape planning is a process which encompasses land use planning besides decision-making on the form and strategies of using natural resources. According to Steiner (2000), landscape planning is the whole of the objectives that a society desires to attain in planning together with the process of physical change resulting from the implementation of these objectives. Landscape planning is aimed at the sustainable conservation, use, and restoration of biotic, abiotic, and cultural resources and the formulation of the optimum land use model in this line (Ahern, 1997). As the ecological part of physical arrangement, landscape planning covers the following issues (Köseoğlu, 1982): checking the ecological interactions of the land uses aimed at in various general and particular planning practices and developing the ecologically possible alternatives within the framework of the general physical planning process. In the recent years, it has been recommended not to disregard ecological suitability in land uses by developing a multidirectional form of ecological organization and planning in landscape planning. The ecology-economy balance must absolutely be considered in planning studies. For the economical use and sustainability of natural resources, it is now a must to eliminate the pressures on resources and to make planning accordingly (Ortaçeşme, 1996; Dearinger, 1972; Forman, 1995; Dramstad et al., 1996; Marsh, 1997; Makhzoumi & Pungetti, 1999; Sancar, 2000; Yılmaz, 2001; Karaelmas, 2003; Tuğaç, 2005; Yılmaz, 2005; Demircioğlu Yıldız, 2006; Zengin, 2007; Akten, 2008; Benliay, 2009; Özcan, 2009; Karadağ & Barış, 2009; Yeşil, 2010; Ayaşlıgil, 2011; Cengiz, 2011; Karadağ, 2012; Karadağ, 2013; Karadağ & Cengiz, 2013; Karadağ & Yıldız, 2013; Demiroğlu, 2010; Demiroğlu et al., 2014; Demiroğlu, 2016; Karadağ et al., 2016; Cengiz et al., 2017). In summary, the negative impacts of environmental conditions are reduced, the quality of a space is improved and the quality of life of people is enhanced through landscape planning (Çetinkaya & Uzun, 2014). 5. ECOLOGICAL PLANNING The natural environment and landscape have been assessed holistically in physical planning practices in the recent years, when the environmental problems have peaked. Ecological planning is a planning process in which the favorable/restrictive conditions of the land and the biophysical and sociocultural data are used when determining the most suitable places for land use in those areas which have not been spoiled yet (Tozar, 2006). In other words, it is a planning approach which allows selecting the most suitable of our living spaces in terms of natural potential, which is therefore sustainable, and which requires the spatial 45 organization of different types of land use (Çelikyay, 2005). Ecological planning is the planning which is one of the basic sections of physical planning and which is generally concerned with the organization of the physical space for the ecological objectives. The primary goal of this planning is to enhance the optimum and continual efficiency of the natural and artificial environments in all particular physical planning practices. In other words, it aims to filter the objectives of a particular plan (all demands concerning the physical structure) through the ecological structural filter with ecological planning as the complementary planning (Köseoğlu, 1982). The ecological planning approach envisages preventing environmental problems before they occur and organizing the spaces to be inhabited in this line. In this planning approach, the natural-local resources are determined with precedence and the uses are organized by taking the features of these resources into consideration. The objective is not to keep a resource under pressure with the planning made but to make planning according to the resource and protect it from the damage caused by uses (Uğur, 2009). Accordingly, ecological planning is the process of examining the physical and social factors to determine the most suitable place for the selected types of land use so as to reveal the opportunities and the obstacles in making a decision on the use of a landscape (Akpınar, 2008). Even though ecological planning is based on the interactions between human beings and the natural environment, it aims to formulate the design policies, road maps, guides, and plans to ensure sustainability in the development of an area and to steer environmentally-sensitive development (Akpınar, 2008; Demiroğlu et al., 2014). Landscape planning focuses on the organization and relationships of land uses in order to attain definite objectives (e.g. habitat rehabilitation and sustainability). Ecological landscape planning is a specialty within the scope of landscape planning studies and focuses on making the connection between ecological patterns and processes (Akpınar, 2008; Demiroğlu, 2016; Karadağ et al., 2016). Furthermore, it also encompasses human activities, cultural assets, and the social and economic dimensions. In conclusion, ecological landscape planning bases its research and plan proposals on ecological spatial units (Akpınar, 2008). 6. ECOLOGICAL PLANNING APPROACHES TO DETERMINE URBAN LAND USES Ecological city planning is the process planning which controls a series of goals rather than being consequence planning to realize a series of goals. This process (Erbaş, 1995):  Considers urban development within a holistic system perspective. According to this view, the whole world is an important parameter for the past and the future.  Envisages the whole humanity and nature within the integrity of a physical plan in which they mutually support each other. Envisages the consumption of few resources by considering future generations. 46  Regards ensuring that all designs and plans be recycled and performing production activities which will prevent wastes and pollution and which will be useful to each other as the main objectives.  Such types of renewable energy as the sun, water, and wind seek precedence in the system as much as possible. Thus, ecological planning is the most effective instrument for the protection and development of nature as well as for carrying it to the future in the planning process. For the protection and sustainable use of natural resources, various approaches have been presented regarding ecological planning so far (McHarg, 1992; Steiner, 2000; Ndubisi, 2002). The methods mentioned below are all based on the methods by McHarg and Lewis. However, they differ in the mathematical applications used to determine homogeneous lands and to combine natural and cultural features as well as in the interrelationships between the features (Ndubisi, 2002). The main ecological planning approaches used to determine urban land uses are examined below. The Ecological Planning (Physiographic Unit) Method by Angus Hills In the method Angus Hills (1961) suggested for the optimal use of renewable natural resources, he divides his study area into small units according to physiographic differences. The data on macroclimate, geology, soil, and microclimate are used in this hierarchical classification (Benliay, 2009). The method has five stages and the implementation stages are provided below (cited from Ndubisi, 2002 by Tozar, 2006): An inventory of the site which is based on its physical and biological characteristics as well as on the current or planned socio-economic conditions is formulated. Reference points are taken to collect data in more detail at the sites representative of various physiographic conditions. The site is divided into physiographic units. A classification is made depending on the biological efficiency of the site, the site regions, the landscape types, the site classes, the site types, and the site units. Identification of land characteristics for the proposed land uses. It is the stage of preparing maps on which the phenomena of suitability, capability and feasibility are combined and where the landscape units allowing multiple uses are also shown. Moreover, proposals to satisfy the social and economic requirements of the society are made at this stage. Final decisions are taken and proposals are made for land uses at this stage. The Ecological Planning (Resource Pattern) Method by Philip H. Lewis Lewis first of all emphasized the importance of public awareness in the context of the natural and cultural patterns of the landscape. He reduced all his studies particularly to the simplicity with which the local people could understand. The most significant contribution of Lewis to landscape planning as a landscape architect is his identification of the landscape patterns and characteristics perceived as unique in terms of quality. Lewis aimed to identify, protect, and develop the most important natural assets and to understand whether the man-made assets were in harmony with these resources of distinguished quality (Çetinkaya & Uzun, 2014). 47 In this context, Lewis aimed at the identification of the sample lands with rare characteristics in the landscape as well as at the consideration of them in regional landscape plans and designs. Lewis developed a method to identify the landscape lands of a high quality with a perception-based approach and to use them in regional and landscape planning (cited from Ortaçeşme, 2008 by Benliay, 2009). Lewis coined the concept "Environmental Corridors", which he defined as the basic recreational resource unit, and stated that these corridors were composed of significant and major natural-cultural resources. Furthermore, he set forth that these corridors were clear or major natural and cultural resources and were distributed depending on surface water, wetlands, and evident topographic structures. These resources were important in that they allowed recreational activities in terms of the assets they possessed and in that they provided the ecological and cultural integrity of the landscape. Lewis put forward that the most important factors in environmental corridors were the visual features of the landscape (Tozar, 2006; cited from Ortaçeşme, 2008 by Benliay, 2009). Environmental corridors constitute the basic resource unit for recreational-environmental planning. The inventory and mapping of these environmental corridors guide for holistic planning practices of a high quality in the context of the environment instead of a short-term solution which is individually on a land basis. Environmental corridors also provide significant advantages on issues other than recreation. They may assume a uniting function for settlement areas; stabilize the value of real properties; have a natural climate regulating effect in controlling temperature and pollution; and protect aquifer feeding areas and flood zones from building (Çetinkaya & Uzun, 2014). The Ecological Planning Method (Suitability Method by the University of Pennsylvania) by McHarg McHarg particularly concentrated on natural processes and the importance of the possibilities or restrictive criteria of these processes in land use planning. He developed theories that the processes concerned referred to these criteria and that they were the natural determinants of land uses. According to him, the landscape is the reflection of complicated biological processes. Although McHarg advocated that natural processes determined land use, he dealt with the nature-human being relationship as an interactive and holistic process (Çetinkaya & Uzun, 2014). The study carried out in 1969 by McHarg is essential in the international literature in that it formed the basis for the method based on ecology-based overlays on planning and the ecological suitability method developed by McHarg and its variations are one of the most widely used ecological planning methods today. Suitability methods are employed to determine the suitability of a land for various land uses depending on ecological inventories and the values of land users (Uzun, 2003; Tozar, 2006; Akpınar, 2008; Demiroğlu, 2010). With the method developed by McHarg (1969), it is aimed to determine the degrees of suitability of a landscape for protected areas, active recreation, development and expansion of housing settlement, development of commerce and industry, and the other uses determined. In the method, 32 assessment criteria for the environmental factors were addressed in 8 groups. These assessment factors 48 were soil, geological structure, hydrology, climate, flora, fauna, landscape assets, and land use. The degrees of significance of all assessment factors for five different types of use (conservation, education-instruction, active recreation, urban settlement, and industry) were individually determined according to the criteria specified (Köseoğlu, 1982). It is impossible to carry out these studies without any comprehensive and systematic inventory for the natural properties that are the indicators of natural processes. McHarg called this stage "the ecosystem inventory". The results of these assessments are used to estimate the locations of sensitive and important ecosystems (Çetinkaya & Uzun, 2014). The degrees of suitability of any landscape area are individually and generally determined according to the selected type of use and the assessment criteria by the help of this method (Köseoğlu, 1982). Figure 1: The optimal land use plan by McHarg (1969) (McHarg, 1992) 49 These data about natural processes are used in land use planning by systematically examining the processes one by one, by assigning values according to the potential they present, by specifying the restrictive factors as well as by determining policies concerning them (Çetinkaya & Uzun, 2014). McHarg determined the land uses expected for each different space in an area and prepared the plan by reaching the powers required for the realization of the plan after having prepared and interpreted an economical inventory. In his study, McHarg stated that certain lands were more suitable for certain uses and divided planning into four main stages, namely a. Inventory, b. Analysis, c. Interpretation, and d. Evaluation (Benliay, 2009). The optimal land use map developed by McHarg (1969) is seen in Figure 1. The physiographic features that are a significant expression of the ecosystem and ecological system approach by McHarg are the map forest cover, aquifer feeding areas, fifty-year flood zones, streams, slopes greater than 25%, and impermeable soils. The optimal land use map reflects the landscape characteristics obtained by overlaying these features according to the criteria determined (Şahin, 2009). Suitability maps are combined with the transparent overlay technique. This technique covers the overlaying of the analysis maps obtained in the inventory studies to identify the lands which first of all allow preselected land uses but which later impose restrictions. The map finally obtained shows the regions which are symbolized in light and dark colors and which are suitable and unsuitable for the land uses proposed. The lands with low suitability values are shown in dark colors, whereas those with high suitability values are indicated in light colors (Ndubisi, 2002; Akpınar, 2008). In conclusion, McHarg also defined the method he used as "the human ecological planning process" by making an addition to ecological planning. In this method, McHarg formulated, analyzed, interpreted, and finally evaluated an inventory by gathering all physical, biological, and social data. To express very briefly, the planning technique by McHarg includes all environmental fields of science and depicts, describes, and shapes them in time by being a connecting and uniting element (McHarg, 1992). The Ecological Assessment Method by Kiemstedt Kiemstedt (1972) developed a method to determine the ecological suitability of various resource uses on the basis of the interaction between the landscape and its elements (Köseoğlu, 1982). The assessment factors used by Kiemstedt (1972) are soil, water, climate, visual state, vegetation, and fauna. The land uses he assessed are housing settlement, transportation, water use, waste utilization, mining, recreation, agriculture-forestry, and conservation. Some of the current states under examination are erosion, flood, climate, and the decreases and increases in species in the biota. The method is based on two fundamental principles as the damage of resource uses to each other and to nature as well as the damage to resource uses by natural factors (Çelikyay, 2005). Both the interaction between the current uses and the natural resources was 50 scrutinized and the suitability of the natural resources for the planned uses was investigated in the method by Kiemstedt, which is an accurate and a complete study in terms of the systematics of ecological planning (Çelikyay, 2005). Golany’s Method of Site Selection for Urban Settlement Golany (1976) developed the method "Ecological Gridding", in which ecological suitability was scrutinized in terms of natural factors in the site selection for a new urban development region on the Roanoke Valley in Virginia. A region or a site is divided into equal grids according to its size (80x80m or 1x1km) and the grids are planned according to a series of criteria determined. The grids which get the highest scores indicate the lands suitable for settlement. Fundamental and detailed data should be obtained for the full implementation of the method. Computer use is the most efficient instrument as it will facilitate the process. Determining suitable alternatives for the city and choosing the best alternative by classifying the alternatives within them according to specific criteria are the two goals of the method. The implementation process of the method is made up of fourteen successive stages (Tozar, 2006): regional identification, exclusion of unnecessary sites, dividing the region into grids, determination of the criteria, classification of the criteria, weighted and relative scoring of the criteria, mapping of the scoring, holistic assessment of the scored criteria, determination of the size of the urban settlement area, selection of the grids which have got the highest scores, selection of the alternatives which have gained precedence, tabulation of the scores of the alternatives in order of precedence, a comparative analysis of the alternatives with the highest scores, and selection of the most suitable site. The Ecological Planning Method by Carl Steinitz Carl Steinitz (1990) developed a framework method for landscape planning. In the framework he designed, seven important questions make up the framework of the method, namely how the landscape state can be identified; what the content of the site is; what the functional and structural relationships among the elements of the landscape are; whether the current landscape works well; with what actions, where, and when the landscape can be changed; what predictable differences might lead to change; and how the landscape can be changed (Çelikyay, 2005). Suggested by Steinitz, this method presents a flexible model to evaluate the landscape and to create a participatory planning process. This method is suitable for many ABC (abiotic-biotic-cultural) objectives and can also be employed in any strategic planning study. It does not include spatial concepts; however, in practice, it encompasses developing alternative scenarios likely to present spatial concepts (Akpınar, 2008). Steiner’s Method The Ecological Planning Model by Steiner (1991) is a model which encompasses a large number of abiotic, biotic, and cultural objectives and which focuses on the land use distribution. The model is based on the Ecological Planning Method by McHarg. It focuses on model formulation, implementation, execution, and public participation. It qualifies as a transdisciplinary approach by including 51 both specialists and planners and the individuals in the society in the process altogether (Akpınar, 2008). According to Steiner, the ecological planning process is the use of the biophysical and sociocultural data which determine the favorable and restrictive conditions belonging to a site when making land use decisions. Ecological planning is the necessary process with precedence to examine the biophysical and sociocultural factors so as to determine the most suitable places for land use decisions (Tozar, 2006).The ecological planning method by Steiner (2000) is an approach with stages and studying the sociocultural and biophysical systems of a place determines the best spatial organization of specific land uses. The method includes eleven interrelated stages. Steiner proposed his method as a draft organizational study rather than a rigid method. The stages of the method (Benliay, 2009) are summarized as follows: a. Identification of planning problems and opportunities, b. Setting the planning goals, c. Landscape analysis at the regional level, d. Landscape analysis at the local level, e. Detailed studies, f. Concepts, preferences, and alternatives for the planning site, g. Landscape plan, h. Ongoing citizenship relations and social education, i. Detailed designs, j. Plan and design practices, and k. Management. 7. CONCLUSION It is almost impossible to maintain the continuity of these resources through the unlimited and unplanned uses by human beings. At this point, it turns out how important it is to consider the ecological criteria in any planning made. Thus, the ecology-based planning practices performed on the basis of ecological criteria are gradually gaining importance today. Besides being sustainable, the planning practices performed with this understanding draw attention as being uses which aim to develop the natural environment without degrading it besides supporting limited and conscious use. The environmental concerns in the decision-making processes concerning land uses produced the approach known as ecological planning. Ecological planning predominantly forms a bond between the spatial planning process for land use and the impact assessment process for natural resources and the ecological analysis of a land forms the basis for ecological planning (Çelikyay, 2005). The ecological approach is now a generally accepted approach in making land use decisions. The basis for the ecological approach in planning was the environmental concerns which originated in the 1960s and continued until the 1980s as well as the developments and changes which additionally brought forward the concepts of quality of life and sustainability after 1980. The rapid depletion of resources and the fact that the impacts of human activities have now reached the poles horizontally but gone beyond the atmosphere vertically make it inevitable to return to nature, to act according to its demands and requirements, and to protect and develop it (Şahin, 2009). As also stated in the previous studies, an ecology-based planning approach is also inevitable for the sound development of cities besides the conservation of natural-cultural resources. What should firstly be done in the city planning practices 52 based on preserving the ecological structure is to determine the natural and cultural resource inventory of the land and make planning accordingly (Hendrix et al., 1988; Niemelä, 1999; Termorshuizen et al., 2007; Zengin, 2007; Akten, 2008; Demiroğlu, 2010; Cengiz, 2011). Although many methods have been developed on ecological planning to date considering the idea of living in mutual harmony with nature, the most important of them and those which form the basis for many ecological planning studies are doubtlessly the ecological planning methods elaborated above. All these methods are mainly based on the principle of formulating the inventory of natural and cultural data and of generating the suitability maps of the types of use determined by the help of the selected assessment factors. The proposed use plan is formulated by overlaying the suitability maps in the order of precedence determined. 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Atatürk Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim Dalı, Basılmamış Doktora Tezi, Erzurum. 57 Chapter 4 Landscape Design to Develop Public Awareness about Urban Biodiversity Aysel USLU1 and Pelin ŞAHİN KÖRMEÇLİ2 1 Prof. Dr.; Ankara University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Ankara, Turkey 2 Res. Assist.; Çankırı Karatekin University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Ankara, Turkey 1. INTRODUCTION Biodiversity is one of the indications of a sustainable city. Urban biodiversity is contingent on biodiversity being an important issue during urban planning and design. The attitudes and behaviors of the community toward urban public spaces are important; as are the practices of local governments concerning urban public spaces. Both community and administrative valuation of urban public spaces is important in order to protect and improve biodiversity in urban planning and design. In addition, individual’s awareness, attitudes and behaviors toward conservation and the development of biodiversity is also an important issue. Public awareness has grown due to the dissemination of information that explains designs and a practice concerning biodiversity, this information, while leaving room for personal opinion, is designed to lead to positive attitudes towards biodiversity. This chapter is about how landscape design can be posited a tool for the development of public awareness about biodiversity in urban landscapes. It is one of the necessary tools that will enable all individuals in urban and metropolitan spaces to define, explore, and connect with biodiversity. The community's definition and knowledge of biodiversity can be expounded in areas in which the community experiences designs that are both enjoyable and informative. Protective approaches and policies concerning biological diversity, or biodiversity have often been addressed alongside economic factors such as job opportunities, and income generation in natural or rural areas. Although, urban areas are a human-made habitat, flora and fauna possessing biodiversity adapt to its unique conditions within the city biota. Urban landscapes surprisingly provide habitat opportunities for many native or exotic species. Habitat possibilities for biodiversity in urban areas can also be improved with applications that improve area use such as, transportation policies, green space planning and design elements, maintenance and management. In this regard, urban biodiversity can be improved with urban planning and design policies, strategies and practices. Individual's positive attitudes and behaviors for urban biodiversity is important, especially when they apply it toward supporting urban wildlife on their balconies or terraces and their communal housing complex garden are very important for current biodiversity in private and urban areas in public spaces. 58 Biodiversity refers to the diversity among organisms. According to Çepel (1995) biodiversity defined is as: "Diversity among organisms in an ecosystem, diversity of an ecosystem in terms of living species, genetic diversity in both species and species of living spaces". Biodiversity is included in genetic diversity (variety within certain species), species diversity (diversity among different species) and ecosystem diversity (habitat and species diversity in different ecosystems around the world) (Uslu & Shakouri, 2013). Biodiversity has an essential role in urban areas. According to Nilon (2011), urban biodiversity is a group of plants and animals in particular areas in a city which develop with social and cultural factors (Werner & Zahner, 2010). Biodiversity in urban areas determines the quality of urban life with the aesthetic and ecological contributions of genetic and species diversity. In addition to providing ecological services in cities, it also provides community health, social, economic and recreational benefits (Uslu & Shakouri, 2013). For example, urban parks and natural areas are not only recreational places for people, but also important living and feeding areas for many plants, birds and pollen carriers. The most important factors affecting biodiversity in urban areas are patches and corridors. Studies indicate that increasing habitat patch areas improve urban biodiversity levels (Beninde et al., 2015). According to Junca et al. (2016), some indexes used with the aim of evaluating analyzing the current situation and creating development opportunities for biodiversity in urban areas are as follows (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005): 1. Shannon Index (SHDI): A method that is used to determine probability of a second sample from a population being the same as the first sample (Güvendiren, 2017). 2. Gini-Simpson Index: A biodiversity index is proposed by Simpson (1949) is used to determine joint distribution of the relative abundance of pairs of species. 3. Singapore Index on Cities’ Biodiversity (Urban Biodiversity Index) (CSI): A tool designed to enable cities to monitor and evaluate the progress, performance, conservation, development of ecosystem services and urban biodiversity (CBI, 2012). 4. Urban Green City Index is classified as follows (Junca et al., 2016): a) Neutralization in urban green areas: Made by using indicators such as feeding and nesting (status and seasonality of fruits and flowers, renewable fruit production, pollen species traction, pruning type used, crown density, leaf features) in green areas. b) Biodiversity in urban settlements: Determined by indicators such as water demand, diseases and outbreaks, invasive species and adaptation to climate change in urban settlements. c) Evaluation and management of ecosystem services: Evaluated by urban ecosystem services in terms of health and welfare. 59 2. URBAN LANDSCAPE AND BIODIVERSITY 2.1 Biodiversity in Urban Areas Conservation of biodiversity has an important role in urban landscape and community development (Norton et al., 2016). Biotopes form the habitat for organisms and enrich the basic components of biodiversity in the urban ecosystem. It is apparent that gray systems (structures, roads, walls, streets, squares, etc.), green systems (rocks, empty spaces, road trees, green spaces, parks) and blue systems (coasts, harbors, water surfaces and fountains), referred to as sub-system biotopes, form the living space for each organism in a city. For example, a wall stone is an important habitat area for Capparis spinosa in Rome, while the ‘Wailing Wall’ in Jerusalem is a nesting area for some plants in the flowering plants family including grassy and perennial plants (Junca et al., 2016). The La Sagrada Familia structure in Barcelona provides important nesting areas for Falco vespertinus (falcons) where their young are born. These examples indicate the importance of biodiversity. The occurrence of biodiversity in urban areas is often referred to as "naturalization of cities". Barcelona has a well-deserved reputation in terms of urban biodiversity. The city has more than two thousand plant species with more than two hundred tree species. There are 235,000 urban trees, 28 mammal species, 184 bird species, 16 reptile species, 10 amphibian species, 57 species of butterflies and 4 fish species (Junca et al., 2016). According to the Shannon-Weaver index, Barcelona is located at the top of the middle with a score of 2.96 over 5 points as an indicator of traditional level of biodiversity (Roumani, 2013). Transition zones between rural and urban areas in cities especially provide areas of biodiversity in cities. In the city of Barcelona 2020 Green Infrastructure and Biodiversity Plan, some areas have been classified to represent the city’s green infrastructure: natural open space, river area, coastline, forest, park, garden, square, vegetable garden, tree-lined street, landscaped street, pond and lake, green roof and green wall. Some designs have been realized to increase biomass, strengthen green infrastructure and improve habitat functions in Barcelona (URL-3). Some of the initiatives in Barcelona that provide for the community to coexist with biodiversity are exemplified as follows (Junca et al., 2016): •BioBlita (BCN) Project launched in 2010 with the Barcelona Museum of Natural Sciences, the city and municipal administration and other institutions, is aimed to increase the city's biodiversity inventory by working together with the public and experts. The BioBlita Project was first implemented in 1996 in Washington D.C., was implemented in Barcelona and it documented an increase in many species such as including 13 different ant species, the flying insect Dolichopeza hispenica, first seen in Catalonia in 2013 (URL-5 & URL-6 ). •The SOCC (The Catalan Common Bird Survey) project developed as a tool to estimate bird species population numbers in Catalan region in 2002 (Herrando et al., 2008). •Aula Ambientol Bosc Turull, which is a municipal facility, supports 60 environmental education in primary and secondary schools. The facility, which uses participant guided activities aims to raise citizens' awareness of the importance of nature conservation and the role of urban biological diversity in different parts of the city (for example by putting nesting boxes in urban parks to celebrate World Bird Day) (URL-7). •The Amics del Jardi Barcelona Association, which was founded in 1993, aims to increase understanding of conservation and to promote of botanical gardens; it organizes guided tours on weekend (URL-8). •The La Farica del Sol facility also organizes training programs for children; especially about understanding the importance of urban biodiversity (URL-9). In order to promote biodiversity in the cities, there are many practices that can be initiated, such as ecoducts or green roofs, facades, walls, balconies, terraces and ecologically sound architecture and construction besides increasing public parks and green spaces. For example the city of Berlin has designed a guide to support biodiversity that has suggestions like urban, private and vertical gardens and social programs like planting street trees and environmental education (URL-4). Another example is the biodiversity initiative City of Curitiba Biocity Program in Brazil which involves the use of indigenous species throughout the city and the support of the community, especially from non-governmental organizations (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2007). Improvement of old industrial areas, participation in the green infrastructure and conversion to urban parks contributes to the water management of the cities, increases biodiversity and creates recreational areas. In Singapore, Bishan Park is a design that aims to improve the water management of the city. The Freshkills Park project in New York is an interdisciplinary study and one of the most important examples of landscape architecture in the 21st century due to the use of landscape as a tool to transform the old city to living habitats and hydrological systems (Waldheim, 2006).In urban areas, some species can live in the ecosystem, while some disappear. For example, the tail colors of some bird species on the Pacific coast are changing in San Diego, California (Yeh, 2004); some plants adapt to heavy metals or change their communication properties according to the sound of the city (Velguth & White, 1998). Providing for biodiversity naturalization is possible and it is also possible to connect people and nature in cities. In order to realize this aim, strategies and action plans should be developed. In fact, some projects have already been created in order to maintain ecological corridors in cities. In Helsinki, the experimental area for urban ecological housing construction ‘Eco-viikki’ is an ecologically designed site built in 1999-2004. With its 200 hectares of wet area, which is important for bird habitation, protected as a natural reservoir, it has developed agricultural character, and includes planted corridors in the residential area (URL-2). Birds are one of the most important indicators of the success of the link between wildlife and urban systems in landscapes. It is important for birds to be part of the urban ecosystem for feeding, nesting and breeding. Birds utilize corridors in the streets which provide access to the urban areas around the city. In addition, birds enable the propagation and renewal of species by enabling 61 polynization with seed and fruit movements. For this reason, they play a key role in road trees, facade greening, living walls, corridors, nesting, and nutrition areas. In Turkey traditional architecture has often included the use of bird houses, nests, and bird baths. 2.2 Public awareness on biodiversity and landscape design An important indicator of the quality of life and the environment is the existence of urban biodiversity. Many studies have indicated a positive relationship between urban naturalization processes and the welfare of individuals. Elands Van Koppen (2007) has developed awareness in the public and describes this awareness as feelings, desires, attitudes and behaviors towards the conservation of biodiversity. On the other hands Elder et al., (1998) states that states that biodiversity is already accepted by society. Public awareness of biodiversity affects the conservation and development of urban landscapes. Lack of experience with natural processes and natural elements makes individuals insensitive and causes environmental problems in the future. Educational programs and practices need to be developed in cities to propagate environmental awareness and inspire positive attitudes towards nature. Public awareness of biodiversity affects the conservation and development of urban landscapes. Lack of experience with natural processes and natural elements makes individuals insensitive and causes environmental problems in the future. Educational programs and practices need to be developed in cities to propagate environmental awareness and inspire positive attitudes towards nature. Current research has been done to measure the public's awareness of biodiversity in developed countries. Based on United States Wildlife Conservation Association survey of 1209 participants, only 37% of them were familiar with the term biodiversity (Turner Erfort, 1997). Likewise, in Swizerland, surveys demonstrated that 2/3 of participants weren’t familiar with the term (LindermannMatthies & Bose, 2008). In Ankara interviews showed that 40% of people have familiar the biodiversity term (Uslu & Shakouri, 2015). Beumer and Martens (2015) have emphasized the importance of public housing gardens which facilitate biodiversity by using organic and natural materials, water units, animal feeding and nesting sites. Habitats that are established for the wild life in residential and housing structures will provide opportunities for individuals to get closer with plant and animal communities in their daily lives. Therefore, planting areas should be developed to support biodiversity around housing units, such as on balconies and in gardens (Figure 1). Planting design must be created with carefully selected grassy and woody species that have wildlife support features. 62 Figure 1: Planting to promote biodiversity in a public housing garden, Ankara Tools and structures for promoting public biodiversity awareness are important in built-up areas. Bird and bat houses, insect hotels, water tanks that support wildlife habitats, ecologically sound bus stops and trash bins, gabions and plant information units are examples of supporting biodiversity in landscape design (Figure 2-a,b,c,d). When different people (children, adults etc.) experience such designs every day in their living spaces (streets, schools, home gardens, parks, etc.), their interest and empathy for nature will increase. Figure 2: a. Plant information units; Dresden, Germany, 2.b. Insect hotel, Dresden; Germany. 2.c. Gabion (sitting wall); Dresden, Germany, 2.d. Bird’s nest; Ankara, Turkey Biodiversity in nature has a different impact on different people. For example some species such as birds, butterflies, ladybugs, etc., have a more sympathetic effect on people, while some species, like bats or unaesthetically pleasing insects, 63 often experience negative attitudes from people. People perceive some plant and animal species as "useful species" and feel sympathy toward them, but describe some animals such as mice, pigeons, bats, mosquitoes and cockroaches as “antiservice species” because they perceive them as frightening or disease-causing (Gómez-Baggethun & Barton, 2013). In order to combat negative stereotypes towards animals and insects, it is necessary to implement public awareness programs and implement practices in order to raise awareness of biodiversity (Krasny et al., 2013). With proper landscape design, there are many ways to enhance biodiversity awareness. The “Berlin Strategy for Biodiversity” identifies four thematic fields with 38 strategic goals. These thematic fields classified as: species and habitats, genetic diversity and society. Some measures for promoting biodiversity in landscape design are as follows (URL-4): • Constructing dry stone walls, planting native trees, shrubs, and native wildflowers. • Leaving leaf piles and fallen/dead trees for winter shelters • Constructing living spaces for some animals like bugs, birds and bats • Incorporate green walls in construction plans and rainwater management designs • Protecting insects and cutting costs when planning lighting arrangements (using low blue/ultraviolet color spectrum lighting) Green spaces in urban areas are one of the most important tools in the development of biodiversity in landscape design. Therefore, the rainy season, lighting in dark periods, and the cultural and historical backgrounds of green areas should be taken into consideration in Dublin city design strategies (Harris, 2016). The native and durable species and planting spaces with native species are essentials for the sustainability of urban areas. Furthermore, artistic approaches are used in the design of planting areas in urban landscapes which increases the visual quality and aesthetic values of the spaces (Ignatieva, 2008). Urban landscapes are learning areas for people. People experience places by seeing, touching, hearing and smelling the landscape. Planting and structural materials should not be seen merely as ornamental elements in landscape designs. For example, planting with non-native species does not provide habitat opportunities for animals that pollinize. Plant non-native species also requires highcost maintenance (irrigation, fertilization, mowing, etc.) and also it cannot be permanent nor provide habitat for wildlife. Likewise the application of green areas rather than, hard floors (concrete, asphalt, etc.) is important because hard floors prevent rain water from being harvested. In order to maintain and develop biodiversity in urban areas, landscape design should be made responsive to biodiversity law. Biodiversity Sensitive Urban Design (BSUD) proceeds in 6 steps, including an optional step allowing quantitative assessment of the contribution of the built environment to biodiversity. The biodiversity-sensitive design phases are summarized as follows (URL-1): 1. Identify and map ecological values (Determine which native species and 64 ecosystems are present in or utilize natural features of the landscape area in terms of biodiversity) 2. Define ecological objectives (such as maintain viability of threatened species and ecosystems, protect and restore habitat quality or opportunities for restoration) 3. Identify development objectives (including population and dwelling targets, housing type and diversity, livability targets, commercial and educational and infrastructure requirements). 4. Identify actions required to achieve objectives, with consideration of the five principles of BSUD 4.1 Maintain or create habitat for target species (feeding, nesting and protection; minimum patch sizes; landscape connectivity) 4.2 Facilitate dispersal of species 4.3 Minimize disturbance 4.4 Facilitate natural processes, considering the management requirements of target species and ecosystems (burning, weed control, mowing, etc.) 4.5 Facilitate positive human-nature interactions and engage the local community (creating “Cues-to-Care”; promoting active stewardship) 5. Quantitative assessment of contribution to biodiversity 6. Identify the BSUD actions that best meet ecological objectives. 3. CONCLUSION Biodiversity can be improved with species sensitive planning, functional design policies, and community engagement strategies and practices in urban areas. In order to sustain the biodiversity in cities, it is important for the community to learn, make connections, recognize and be interested about nature, and so that they act with positive attitudes and behaviors. Landscape design is an important tool in planning spaces in which the users to take part in daily life that includes nature and in turn learn about biodiversity. Suggestions for the development of biodiversity from the landscape design process to the practice of use in metropolitan and urban areas are as follows: • Biodiversity sensitive urban planning should be carried out with landscape design. Areas which have high ecological values must be identified and protected by the design. The type of green space and design features should be determined in accordance with the landscape characteristics (like rocky, step, wetland areas etc.) with appropriate structures and function of the landscape. Functional landscape plans should be formed by detecting areas with high surface flow in terms of soil permeability and erosion risk. • Development plans for urban green areas in cities should be determined according to function, scale and location. Open and green space systems are to be organized in urban planning; different scales and qualities of green spaces should be designed. • Instead of designing with traditional material types and methods, projects in green areas, playgrounds, old abandoned industrial areas, school gardens, refuges, and architectural structures should be designed with natural planting and structural 65 materials. • It should provide connections between the urban green areas and rural agricultural areas. A green network system should be developed in the city. • Blue-green systems such as water surfaces, green spaces as well as gray systems (walls, abandoned buildings, symbolic structures, mosques temples, and churches) are potential areas for biodiversity in the urban ecosystem; special designs should be created in these areas. • Community centers, botanical gardens, hobby gardens, and urban farms should be designed in urban areas. • It is important to create areas that enable people to learn information about plants and animal species so that they can connect with nature by seeing, hearing and touching it in urban areas. Descriptive and accessible information units to promote biodiversity awareness in city should be placed. • Areas for activity and leisure should include designated spaces for the requirements of the community (alternative green areas for women, children, elderly, all ages, and genders) • The choice of plant species should be based on seasonal characterstics, high ecological tolerance, water holding capacity, non-allergen characteristics, and species with medicinal and aromatic qualities. Natural planting should provide food, nesting and shelter areas to different animal species (birds, butterflies, insects, etc.). • Ecological criteria should been considered in designing rehabilitation areas such as empty fields and abandoned cemetery areas. • The creation of natural planting areas and rain gardens, vertical gardens, green coverings, and roof applications will function as ecological corridors. In addition, biodiversity should be viewed as an art and designs should be developed to use the aesthetic features of the plants. • Promotion of nature and biodiversity should be included in the design of cities. For this purpose, bird houses, insect hotels, water troughs, dry stone walls and more should be used in landscape design. The establishment of qualified green spaces in individuals' own home gardens or on balconies and terraces are elements that can enhance human experiences with urban wildlife. • Permeable construction materials should be used in landscape design. In addition, in the management of rain water, permeable flooring, roof gardens, and infiltration hatches should be applied. • In the context of public information campaigns, it is necessary that the information obtained from community centers, lectures, and seminars is converted into practice. 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Urban biodiversity and design, 145-173. 69 Chapter 5 Urban Development Approaches in the Scope of Sustainability Principles and Landscape Planning Berfin ŞENİK1 and Osman UZUN2 Res. Assist.; Düzce University Faculty of Forestry Landscape Architecture Department, Düzce, Turkey. 2 Prof. Dr.; Düzce University Faculty of Forestry Landscape Architecture Department, Düzce, Turkey. 1 INTRODUCTION Although the emergence of the urbanization dates back to ancient times, it is possible to observe that the tendency for urbanization accelerated after a certain period. During 1880s, only 1.7% of the world population lived in cities, populated 100,000 and more, and 2.4% lived in places with 20,000 and higher population. However, urbanization, which was fully evident since the second half of the 18 th century, presented an inordinate development during the nineteen and twentieth centuries. The reasons for such rapid development of urbanization could be called “the causes of classical urbanization,” namely, the development of agricultural techniques, the development of transportation techniques, geographical causes, legal and political causes, and the migration trends. The reasons for the recent contemporary urbanization could be listed as the economic cooperation organizations, foreign workforce, and the increase in the mass transportation opportunities (İşbir 2016). Humans, who lived as dispersed and sporadic communities that provided for themselves through hunting and gathering under the challenging and significant forces of the nature, commenced life in agricultural societies due to processing the lands after domestication of the animals and established permanent settlements. These settlements became the first pioneers of cities. The settlements, influenced by social, economic, political and cultural processes, were transformed into lowdensity organic formed towns, which were designed to meet human requirements and to respond to daily necessities. However, cities were affected rapidly throughout the Industrial Revolution, during which the intellectual, scientific and technological developments were experienced and attributed as “modern”, with a background in the Enlightenment Period. The experienced urbanization process had devastating effects as never before. This population increase emerging in the cities during the process of unplanned development brought along unhealthy living conditions (Ersoy, 2016). Blended with modernism, the concept of planning entered a new phase during the process of transforming the deteriorated spaces created by the industrial cities. This transformation continued to evolve through the failure of 1848 Revolution, through the increasing distance between the socialist movement and the utopian approaches and the emergence of the respective planning framework of the capitalist approach (Tekeli, 2011). During this phase, all approaches were planned or implemented based on the ideology of its planner or supporter. These approaches, which aimed to improve the conditions of industrial cities within the framework of modernism, caused emergence of different applications in different contexts with respect to the periods they appeared and the solutions they provided. However, it could be observed that these approaches that emerged as a reaction to industrial cities, were not able to solve the problems based on the space use and delayed or increased socioecological problems. Jane Jacobs (1961) argued that the urban spaces produced through the modernist approach were physically organized and clean, yet were socially dead, thus emphasized the idea that the order paradigm of modernism was mechanical, reductive and shallow (Berman, 2012). Cities grow progressively due to population growth and migration from rural to urban areas. The cities experiencing growth should be planned in terms of physical, social and economic aspects. Planning, in response to growth, could take place in two means. First is to conduct analytical planning for several problems related to cities and the second is to plan for future problems that would possibly occur in time. Particularly, prevention of future problems for cities is considered an appropriate approach for the planning practice. Yet, such planning approach should encompass both the “space” and the “socio-economic” conditions. Whereas, classical urbanism approach solely places a prominence on the physical planning of the city, underscoring the philosophy of being “nice-comfortable-healthy” (İşbir 2016). Modern urban planning, which emerged in the mid-1800s, contradicted the spatial solutions that internalized the functioning of natural cycles while becoming into existence, that are sensitive to the nature and its constituents and that are based on the laws of nature, thus, became an instrument of economic development. The structuring of spatial planning as the means to realize the distribution of economic activities within the space could be considered as the most significant reason for not being able to respond to the ecological problems, with their impacts on global level since the 1940s. Especially, during the aftermath of the Second World War, when the ecological problems turned into social problems, the devastating consequences of the process were acknowledged by the public and awareness was raised along with the United Nations Environment Conference in Stockholm in 1972. Onwards since then, sustainability became a concept that is used along with urban planning in several disciplines. When considered within the context of spatial planning, it could be identified that the economic structure of the city depends on its ecological, social and spatial (physical) structure. In this respect, shaping of urban development approaches in line with these principles becomes necessary for the construct of the sustainable space. The present study, therefore, focuses on the advantages and disadvantages of the urban development approaches in terms of the social, spatial and ecological frameworks and accordingly, the different urban development approaches, which emerged during the ongoing process that started with the Industrial Revolution, were evaluated within the framework of ecological, social and spatial sustainability 71 principles. The connections to landscape planning were revealed through this process. Conclusively, the significance of landscape planning was emphasized through the evaluation of urban development approaches with respect to sustainability principles for the development of urban space in accordance with the multidimensional and transforming dynamics. 2. Findings Urban development approaches in the present study were examined under three main topics. The approaches that were influential on the urban development in the 19th century and that were highly cited in literature, such as the City Beautiful Movement, Haussmann’s pragmatic approach in Paris and Barcelona Plan of Ildefons Cerda, followed by Garden City of Howard that came into prominence in the 20th century, Broadacre city of Frank Lloyd Wright and linear and radial cities of Le Corbusier were elaborated throughout the present study. Lastly, the concepts of New Urbanism, landscape planning and Geodesign, and Landscape Urbanism, which instigated a shift between the 20th and the 21st century, were scrutinized and the evaluation of the overall urban development process within the scope of sustainability and the connection to landscape planning were emphasized. 2.1. Certain Approaches to Urban Development in the 19th Century Aslanoğlu (1998) argues that the urban theories before the 20th century were commonly constructed to explain the emergence and the development of the cities. It is possible to evaluate the reasons behind the emergence of cities with respect to different theoretical approaches. The theories are categorized under two main approaches regarding their methods. The first is the theoretical approach that considers the emergence of cities was related to a determining fundamental cause such as trade, market place, craft or religion. The second, on the other hand, is the conceptual framework that argues to address the urban phenomenon under the mutual interaction of various causes and supports the idea that the monocausal emergence and development of cities is not rational (Türk 2015). 2.1.1. The City Beautiful Movement The City Beautiful Movement emerged in the United States in 1893 through the curation of the Columbia Exhibition in Chicago by Daniel H. Burnham, John Wellborn Root and Frederick Law Olmsted and lasted until post-World War One (Tekeli, 2011). This movement, with its preceding examples in Chicago and Washington, surfaced with the objectives that the US cities would be able to compete culturally with the European cities, that the upper income group, who left the urban centers, would return to these zones and the social diseases would be removed, aesthetic values would be attributed to the cities, and spiritual and public virtues would be formed among the urban population (Ersoy, 2016). Given this context, Chicago and Washington plans become prominent. The Chicago Plan (1909), proposed by Burnham and Bennett, included an interconnected park system that was linked with transportation, a reserved forest land at the urban periphery and additionally, the Chicago River was improved, and its surroundings were considered monumental, the smaller park areas were designed with fountains and 72 statues, and the waterfront areas were re-organized in order to include them in the park system. Washington Plan, on the other hand, was approved in 1902 by a commission that included Burnham and Olmsted. This comprised park systems and park roadways as in the Chicago Plan. F. L. Olmsted, who is acknowledged as the first landscape architect, suggested that the urban green areas should represent an undisturbed vision of the nature and establish a balancing response against the artificial and noisy construct of the city. In this respect, parks along the unified valley and the “park-roadways” in the urban context were constituted, the idea of “park and park-roadway structure”, in other words “city in garden”, was proposed, and planned Bufallo in 1868 and Emerald Necknlace (Boston Park System) between 1878 and 1895. Apart from these parks, Olmsted designed significant open and green areas such as the Central Park (Manhattan), Prospect Park (Brooklyn), Riverside Project and the Chicago South Park. Parallel to this movement, classical was re-embraced, monumental structures were emphasized in the cities, aesthetical elements such as boulevards, parks, pools were used instead of the functional elements such as housing and transportation, in accordance with the objective to make the cities beautiful. In addition, order, symmetry, constitution of promenade-view spaces, integrated façade design, water and monumental elements as the fundamental element were emphasized as the prominent elements for urban landscape design (Aydemir, 2004). However, this movement was criticized due to the widespread idea that the monumental urban approach wasted the nation’s funds and was replaced by the City Functional Movement (City Practical), which altered the design-oriented planning style, by the extensive land use planning approach and the urban norms (Tekeli, 2011). Consequently, the City Beautiful Movement could not go beyond a make-up for the cities, despite its positive effect on urban landscape due to the monumental structures and the large urban parks yet could not respond to the living conditions and health problems within the city (Ersoy, 2016). 2.1.2. The Pragmatist Approach: Eugene Haussmann and İldefons Cerda In response to the increasing population, transportation and housing needs of the industrial cities and the epidemics, initially the health legislations and immediately after the expropriation laws became significant issues in Europe. The development operations in France were triggered by two fundamental incidents. The former was the health legislation of 1850, which emerged due to the cholera epidemic of 1849 and the latter was the interest of the rising bourgeoisie in urban planning consequent to the withdrawal of the socialist movement from urban planning during the aftermath of the revolution of 1848 (Tekeli, 2011). Given this context, Haussmann became the Paris governor in June 1853, as a result of the collaboration he made with Napoleon the 3rd. The development operations of Haussmann did not result with the production of urban spaces outside the urban center yet caused a transformation process that focused on the demolish-build practice that followed the building block, street and lot texture, which were sustained to the 19th century since the medieval ages (Ünlü, 2017). This 73 development operation had three major objectives. First objective was to strengthen the political authority of Napoleon the 3rd, second was to fulfill the housing, socialization and trade requirements of the rising bourgeoisie within the cultural and economic frameworks and the third was to suppress the unhealthy living conditions that originated from the rapidly increasing population. With these objectives in mind, a network of boulevards was constituted in order to easily suppress the labor uprisings and to develop non-domestic socialization opportunities and a lifestyle with the shops, cafes and restaurants along the boulevards (Tekeli, 2011). However, this network of boulevards also included an intrinsic spatial contradiction. The boulevards caused a 3 to 4 times increase in traffic, with respect to the increasing population, and this resulted with a chaotic and dangerous environment in the reserved pedestrian spaces due to increased density (Berman, 2012). On the other hand, through the expropriation endeavors, the existing building blocks were demolished to constitute isolated public buildings, standardized housing types along the boulevards, and continuous and long facades that emphasized the order, thus an urban texture of ownership was obtained (Ünlü, 2017). Besides, the social and technical infrastructures of the city were advanced, labor housing units were restructured, and the transportation system was renewed. This movement was as well deemed responsible for obtunding the social communication by breaking the non-domestic connections of families, such as provision of water and utilization of laundries (Aydemir, 2004). Although the modern city that was created by the Paris case enhanced the unhealthy environmental conditions of the city, it was criticized for the destruction of the existing urban texture, demolishing the housing units of the low-income groups and for complicating the conditions of these groups further (Ünlü, 2017). In this regard, while movements such as the Beautiful City and Camillo Sitte emerged as a response, several planners and architects (Garnier, Le Corbusier) were influenced by the pragmatist approach and continued the planning approach that was based on parcellation. In 1959, the Barcelona Plan of Ildefons Cerda was initiated with the same approach. Cerda protected the historic urban texture, while Haussmann completely demolished it. Cerda defined the area outside the medieval city walls as the development area and designed the city with an orthogonal grid plan, similar to the Greek and Roman cities. In Barcelona Plan, the roads that intersect orthogonally were designed with a width of 20 meters, while the two diagonal roads that intersect the orthogonal network had a width of 50 meters. In order to provide a better viewpoint for the users, to facilitate the capability of movement and to place different spaces for activities (shops, kiosks, toilets etc.) building corners and pavements were designed with a 45º angle. The blocks were designed in square form, which was considered to represent egalitarianism and justice (Urbano, 2016; Ünlü, 2017). In Besós River area a large urban park was designed, similar to the parks of Haussmann. However, the central open spaces planned between the building blocks were later occupied by functions such as car parking, shopping etc., and the park area was never built (Urbano, 2016). According to Şahin (2018), in 19th century, when urban decisions emerged 74 mostly as city planning, the construction of cities under the autocratic monarchies’ rule did not fully address the distinction between the design of the physical space and the constitution of the urban infrastructures. Benevolo (1992) refers to the planning approaches, which were acknowledged as examples to the early urban planning attempts and were conducted by Baron Hausman in Paris and Ildefons Cerdá in Barcelona during the mid-19th century, predominantly as infrastructure works, by evaluating the concept of infrastructure in a broad sense (Şahin 2018). 2.2. Certain approaches those were influential on urban development in 20th century One of the most prominent characteristics of the 20th century is the advancing urbanization. Throughout history, the actual development of the cities, where culture and civilization were born and developed, took place due to the increase of migration from the rural to the urban and the expansion of cities as a result of the cities becoming significant industrial centers consequent to the Industrial Revolution. Urban problems emerged due to the increase in the population of the cities in the 20th century, and the cities witnessed an extensive array of efforts to solve these problems. The most important one of these efforts was the emergence of the new urban theories (Türk 2015). According to Duru and Alkan (2002), the studies during the first half of the 20th century focused on the alienating effect of the cities, yet later in the second half was concentrated on the participation processes in the cities. While the fundamental discussions were structured around class struggle after 1970s, in 80s, they centered upon the new social movements, modernism and postmodernism (Türk 2015). The following parts of this section aim to provide information on certain urban development approaches. Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier’s approaches that were influential on urban development between 1890 and 1930 are presented below. 2.2.1. Garden City: Ebenezer Howard According to Ward (1992), under the influence of the romantic and nostalgic movement that emerged in response to the Industrial Revolution, the idea, that a nature-oriented and -reconciled design would only be able to prevent the devastation in cities instigated by the Industrial Revolution, caused the emergence of a number of exemplary design, which point out physical urban design rather than the infrastructure solutions, and these approaches became parts of urban planning tradition. The highly acknowledged one within these designs was undoubtedly the “Garden City” of Ebenezer Howard (Şahin 2018). The main objective of the Garden City approach, emerged in the United Kingdom, was to provide a suburban low-density settlement structure, which integrated the positive aspects of the rural and the urban life and removed the social and environmental problems caused by the industrial cities. Through this approach, housing areas, with low rent value, that utilizes the industrial production technologies and transportation, and are smoke free, were planned (Büyükcivelek, 2017). In the origins of the emergence of the Garden City, rested the idea that the City Beautiful Movement was insufficient and the necessity to reevaluate the 75 existing urbanization and planning approaches (Ersoy, 2016). In this context, Howard preferred low-density settlements rather than the high-density ones and aimed to control urban expansion. The fundamental principles of the Garden City Movement were the conscious growth of the city (human scale as the functional balancing element), the social instead of the individual, the provision of a green belt that encircled the city, the transfer of excessive population to the new cities to be created in the vicinities once the maximum population was achieved, to access surrounding cities via rail systems and the inclusion of the benefit of the society in planning (Aydemir, 2004; Ertan, 2004). In Garden City, the green belt was expected to set a boundary to the urban sprawl and thus the natural values were aimed to be protected through integrating them with the city. Human scale was brought forward in order to achieve a walkable city model. The industrial functions were located outside the boundary created by the circular railway, which encircled the city and connected the city to the main lines, in order to prevent the cities from the distressing effects of the industrial activity (Ertan, 2004). Howard defined the integration of the country and the town through his “three magnets” scheme. The country was identified through being nested with natural resources, having clean water and air, low level of job opportunities, insufficient infrastructure etc., the town was characterized through being isolated from the nature, the class differences, and job and infrastructure opportunities, and country-town synthesis was constituted from the inclusion of the positive aspects reported both for the country and the town. In this respect, a model, in which the nature and the city were nested within each other, in which standalone houses in large gardens, open and green spaces that compensate the recreative requirements of the community existed, and that nurtured the city in terms of aesthetical and ecological aspects, emerged. However, this model attracted diverse criticism upon itself. Several communities criticized this model for the uncertainty of several issues such as, its inefficient potential in creating social administration and spatial solutions, the relationship between the city residents and country environment, the supervision of production elements, and the equal distribution of goods and services (Ertan, 2004). In addition, the effort to overcome the new social connections caused by industrialization and capitalism through spatial organization was considered as an inefficient approach (Ersoy, 2016). Nevertheless, Garden City Movement received endorsing criticism in terms of putting forward the social requirements, emphasizing a planning approach that prioritized enhancing living conditions contrary to the industrial cities and in terms of becoming an example for many approaches that emerged consequent to the Garden City. The most important examples were Letchworth, Hampstead, Welwyn and Milton Keynes. 2.2.2. Broadacre City: Frank Lloyd Wright As a reaction to the focus of the City Beautiful Movement on the aesthetic aspects of the urban space, an effort to address the housing and transportation problems within the cities through a practical urban approach that was based on functionalism started to become forward. The existing problems joined with the 76 increase in the private automobile ownership necessitated the emergence of new advances. As a response to the cities, which became spaces that were complicates, crowded and socially and economically problematic due to industrialization, Wright designed the Broadacre City in order to provide solutions to these problems. This approach, developed by Wright in 1932, contradicted Le Corbusier’s emphasis on the city, however it could be evaluated as a new interpretation of the Garden City Movement. Considered as one of the precedents of the American suburbanization, Wright allocated an approximate surface area of 4000 m2 to households within this approach and the city was supported for agriculture- and industry-based production. Transportation was largely provided by private vehicles; the intercity connections were planned to take place through railways. While the settlement areas and other utilization areas were commonly planned as low-density and low-storey, only the commercial structures and office buildings were planned to be multi-storey (Büyükcivelek, 2017). In addition, Wright developed a grid form model, through which all functions could be integrated, and the traces of technology could be followed. The urban services were completely decentralized, and different functional zones were scattered among the housing zones (an acre of land for each family), close to the main transportation axes (Tekeli, 2011). Wright declined the idea of a large city, similar to Howard, and supported that equality should be established in the land offered to the society, yet, for this approach, while Howard emphasized the mutual organization and communal property, Wright underscored individuality. Furthermore, while Howard projected country-town integration in Garden City, Wright also aimed to put an end of the separation between the country and the city (Ünlü, 2017). In addition, contrary to the compactness idea of the Garden City, in Broadacre City different functional zones were distributed in a large area. In this context, there was no definitive center due to the decentralized functions. The function of all areas (agricultural, industrial, commercial centers, housing zones, etc.) was considered to be in harmony with each other. 2.2.3. Linear and Radiant Cities: Le Corbusier In Paris, in the beginning of 1900s, deprivation zones started to occur behind the facades constructed by Haussman. This phenomenon revealed the necessity to reconsider the cities and planning approaches. In this context, Le Corbusier proposed the approaches of “the Contemporary City and “the Radiant City” in 1922. Le Corbusier argued that traditional urban planning approaches would prevent the development of transportation and the contemporary ideas should be integrated within planning, and aimed to create a vertically constructed garden city, which was composed of large building blocks and road networks designed for private automobile access. In the Contemporary City, Le Corbusier proposed a residential area around the central business zone, large open areas for the future urban development and suburban areas that included residential and industrial zones (Guiton, 1982). The central zone was comprised of 24 high-rise building complexes with 60 storeys and of two residential zones with 6-storey luxurious apartment buildings and garden 77 residences within the lots between the orthogonally intersecting grid street organization (Ertan, 2004). In the center, Le Corbusier planned green areas around the residential areas and the central business district, which was located in walking distance. These green areas constituted a green belt. The zones with the suburban development were composed of garden cities (Tekeli, 2011). The emergence process of the Radiant City was founded on the endeavor of Le Corbusier to provide a pleasant city for its inhabitants as well as his intention to reinterpret the Contemporary City. His point of origin is to include sports as a daily activity within the city. In this context, Le Corbusier wanted the people to benefit from the solar access in their homes, and to see the sky and a green texture when they look through the windows (Guiton, 1982). The Radiant City was also founded on an industrial hierarchy. In the residential units Le Corbusier called the Unité, he attempts to preserve the natural landscape among the residential areas and the green areas surrounding the high-rises (Ertan, 2004). In this context, Le Corbusier proposed spaces that integrated with the nature. In his book ‘Urbanisme’, Le Corbusier, who considered the cities as the spaces of the centralized power and authority, called the city as the representation of the dominance established by the human over the nature and for him, the geometric order in the city was the foundation of the machine order. He emphasized that speed was as well a highly significant element, hence proposed an orthogonal, linear geometry for the urban order, which would facilitate direct access, in other words, he proposed the grid system. As a matter of fact, this machine order and urban space approach facilitated the distinction between the functional zones, such as business, education, transportation, industrial, residential, and park areas, in the Radiant City, and this approach led to the emergence of the mechanic planner. However, this approach caused the development of structures instead of green areas, the interruption of the connection between the buildings and their environments, the reveal of the urbanization without streets approach (Ünlü, 2017). 2.3. Certain approaches influential on urban development during the transition from 20th to 21st Century While the main drivers behind urbanization in the 20 th century were the advances in agricultural techniques, job opportunities, advances in transportation, geographical characteristics, judicial and political causes and the tendency towards migration, towards the end of the 20th century, urbanization was driven by different aspects, such as economic cooperation organizations, foreign workforce, refugee problems, the increase in the mass transport facilities and the globalization of the environmental problems. Therefore, it became necessary to more concretely and realistically provide the connections between an ecology-based approach and urbanization. Within this scope, this section focuses on New Urbanism, Landscape Planning Geodesign and Landscape Urbanism approaches, which assisted the transition to the 21st century urbanization approaches. 2.3.1. New Urbanism New Urbanism approach emerged as a reaction to the results of the development of transportation facilities in the United States, such as urban sprawl, 78 single function zoning, and fundamentally against modernism, during 1980s. In this approach, which was acknowledged via the Congress for New Urbanism, the main objective was to provide a sound living environment with respect to human requirements, in response to the current environmental problems by preserving the natural resources. The reasons behind this objective stemmed from the fact that private vehicle dependency and the related complex transportation networks, and the residential texture due to the modernist parcellation approach caused similar problems in the United States and in Europe and the necessity of more sustainable approaches became evident. In the Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM), or International Congresses of Modern Architecture, which was guided by Le Corbusier and was held between the years 1928 and 1953, the cities were zoned according to functions and their connection with the past was broken (Ünlü, 2017). Thus, New Urbanism emerged as a contrary argument (Weller, 2008). In the New Urbanism approach, studies encompassing diverse scales, such as the building, building lot, street, neighborhood, corridor and eventually the whole city scale, were proposed according to the design principles (Katz, 1994). The basic principles were walkability, connectivity, mixed-use and diversity, diverse settlements, the quality of the urban and architectural design, traditional neighborhood structure, high-density, green transportation, sustainability, high levels of quality of life and increasing the public space (WEB-1). The “urban transect” method, proposed by the prominent representative of New Urbanism, Andres Duany, aimed to provide a continuity between the human living environment and the nature and planned settlements accordingly. It was argued that this approach was more beneficial in terms of integrating the nature and urban systems, when compared to the traditional methods. Hence, it would be possible to present a reasonable and sustainable potential for development (WEB2). New Urbanism primarily aimed to establish a balance between the priorities of the humans and nature. Therefore, the approach did not base its discourse on directly increasing the quantity of the green areas such as landscape urbanism and proposed less open and green spaces in comparison. This attitude was criticized by the supporters of landscape urbanism and it was argued that this approach resulted in a “park desert” (Kelbaugh, 2014). Besides, this approach was also criticized for its solutions solely proposed for the suburban or outer-city settlements and its lack of concrete solutions for the already degenerating city centers (Harvey, 2015). 2.3.2. Landscape Planning Geodesign and Urban Development The environmental disasters and the establishment of unhealthy settlement areas after the Industrial Revolution caused the pursue of new approaches. Ian L. McHarg, is undoubtedly one of the most significant figures, who marked the period of the pursue of the new approaches (Değerliyurt and Çabuk 2015). Ian L. McHarg, in his pioneer book Design with Nature, first published in 1969, stated that environmental and social problems could be prevented, the resources could be utilized in an efficient, balanced and sustainable manner, and thus a better future could be possible for the humankind, as the planning and design 79 processes were realized in a harmonious manner with the nature (Değerliyurt and Çabuk 2015). According to Dangermond (2010), the ideas pioneered by McHarg did not only influence the planning studies in the close future of his time, but also helped the materialization of the fundamental concepts of geographic information systems (GIS), which was yet immature during that time. In addition, the idea proposed by McHarg provided the roots of the current geodesign approach (Değerliyurt and Çabuk 2015). According to Miller (2012), another pioneer in the emergence of this approach was Frank Lloyd Wright. With respect to the organic architecture idea, Wright realized his design of the house he built in the rural by taking into consideration the factors such as the geographical conditions, topography, geological formations of the area, distance to the river with the idea that the building could be affected by floods, scenery opportunities, and benefiting from the sun and the wind according to the season (Değerliyurt and Çabuk 2015). Another important pioneers of the Geodesign movement is Richard Neutra (1892–1970). According to Miller (2012), Neutra argued that the design area and the nature surrounding this area should absolutely be taken into consideration, while preeminently meeting the client desires and requirements (Değerliyurt and Çabuk 2015). According to Çabuk et al. (2012), geodesign facilitates the collaborative work of landscape architects, geographers, city and urban planners, and other disciplines, in order to be able to make design decisions that are harmony with the natural environment and highly benefit from the geography during the design and planning processes (Şenöz et al. 2014). According to Steinitz (2012), Carl Steinitz (1938– ) developed a conceptual draft (conceptual framework, design strategies and procedure techniques) for the application of geodesign in regional landscape planning, for almost 30 years with his colleagues and students. He developed the initially called “A Framework for Landscape Planning” model into the “The Steinitz Framework for GeoDesign” (Akpınar 2014). According to Miller (2012), the whole landscape planning process depends on the application of six models. Once the The Steinitz Framework for GeoDesign was evaluated, it was possible to determine that this framework consisted the existing evaluation process based on the geographical conditions in the first three models. The latter three models, on the other hand, included the intervention process, in other words, the latter three models include aspects such as evaluating the means to modify the determined content within the first three models, considering the potential implications these modifications could cause, and whether the modifications should be realized or not (Akpınar 2014). In conclusion, as a result of this process initiated by McHarg, since 1960s, urban development decisions and selection of settlement areas were considered after the evaluation of natural landscape elements and conducting suitability analyses in urban planning. Especially after 1990s, the advances in landscape ecology discipline brought prominence to the ecological planning of rural areas and consecutively the urban areas. 80 2.3.2. Landscape Urbanism Landscape urbanism was first mentioned in 1997 in the Landscape Urbanism Symposium, organized by Charles Waldheim. Landscape was considered as an alternative dynamic cross-section in contemporary urban planning with respect to its ability to conceptually organize the places, districts, ecosystems, networks, infrastructures, and large urban areas, and was proposed as a model for contemporary urbanism (Aytaç and Kuşuluoğlu, 2015). Landscape urbanism is a concept and a hot focus of discussions that is often mentioned in the current planning discipline. It is asserted that the “Design with Nature” concept put forward by McHarg was highly influential on the development of this concept, and it is described as the integration of the landscape architecture viewpoint supported by the ecologic design/planning concepts within the center of design with nature to the contemporary urbanization approaches. In landscape urbanism, it is essential to combine the natural and cultural systems in a city and to place this combination to the center of the planning process in a manner that does not disturb the nature and the landscape (Çabuk et al. 2013). Similar to the New Urbanism movement, landscape urbanism also emerged as a reaction to the static, mechanical applications of the modernist approaches, urban sprawl, increasing problems of the cities, and simultaneously as a very reaction to the new urbanism movement itself. Landscape urbanism does not only define the city as the phenomenon that is made up of structures/buildings, but also considers all its elements and interprets. Furthermore, it integrates the notion of “landscape” within urban design, by advancing the concept further that the street scale. Besides, the approach considers landscape as an infrastructure and the elements of this infrastructure are vegetation, walkways/roads, swales, terrain morphology, catchment areas (Akman, 2017). The main objectives of landscape urbanism are integrating whole elements that constitute landscape (buildings, infrastructure etc.) within the trio of planning, design and ecology, achieving more creativity in planning and more rationality in design, obtaining the interconnectedness of the urban and landscape textures and emphasizing the creative and temporal representation of ecology within the formation of the urban life (Weller, 2012). Simultaneously, the landscape design principles could be described as openendedness for temporal changes, flexibility and harmony (Cermasi, 2017). Furthermore, this approach aims to revitalize the large industrial buildings, disrupted/destroyed habitats etc. within the city. Hence, in the High Line (New York) project, James Corner protected the old railway as a heritage that contributes the identity of the city and designed the railway as a linear urban park (Aytaç and Kuşuluoğlu, 2015). However, landscape urbanism was also extensively criticized in many aspects. Initially it was criticized for being a cause for urban sprawl and expansion, rather than creating dense city centers. Another criticism was related to the gradual destruction of the public use of streets and buildings due to the large-scale public areas. Third and the most prevalent criticism was towards being highly dependent 81 on the large-scale parks, which were utilized as the core tool of the design studies, however, they were not to be realized. Therefore, it was argued that landscape urbanism was a form of landscape architecture (Akman, 2017). A last criticism indicated that landscape urbanism focused on more abstract solutions when compared to the substantial solutions of New Urbanism (Kelbaugh, 2014). 3. Discussions and Conclusion The common framework of the criticisms from the Garden City of Howard to the approaches of Le Corbusier include characteristics such as being large scale and incorporating society design within, depending on modernism, being top-town and unifying (Şengül, 2016). Similarly, Jacobs (2017) as well criticized the modernist approaches such as Garden City, City Beautiful, Linear and Radiant City. Several other criticisms point out the marginalization of nature and its elements through modern planning. According to Şahin and Özer (2001), while modernism was structured around the idea to rule and benefit from the nature, the economic view developed depending on this approach and urban planning constituted their own social and spatial structure. While doing that, an understanding of “perceiving the nature as a value itself” was not adopted, contrarily this understanding was excluded, and planning was considered as a tool that constantly procrastinated regarding the ecological problems. According to Table 1, which evaluated urban development approaches based on sustainability principles, it is possible to observe that the approaches, which provide a modernist framework, especially the pragmatist approach represented by Haussmann and the linear and radiant city approaches of Le Corbusier, are insufficient when the ecologic, social and spatial frameworks are considered as a whole. The other modernist urban development approaches, City Beautiful and Garden City, stand out with respect to their ecological analysis. Although the New Urbanism and landscape urbanism approaches, which emerged as a reaction to the modernist framework, has similar characteristics in terms of social and spatial analyses, landscape urbanism stand out in terms of the ecologic context. According to Akman (2017), the historical background of landscape urbanism included similar characteristics with the Central Park project of F. Law Olmsted, the prominent representative of the City Beautiful movement, Garden City approach, landscape planning studies of Ian McHarg, Parc de la Vilette of Bernard Tschumi, who was an important representative of landscape urbanism, and High Line project of James Corner. Hence, these aforementioned approaches became and still are a source of inspiration, with their sustainable spatial construct, for many successors, who were engineers, architects or planners. The approaches such as City Beautiful, Garden City, landscape urbanism, which were evaluated in Table 1, were differentiated from other approaches in terms of sustainability. In this context, the integration of the concept of “landscape” within urban planning in planning and design scales facilitates a suitable framework for sustainabile planning. Therefore, it is necessary to endorse landscape pkanning within the scope of sustainability (Botequilha and Ahern, 2002). 82 Table 1: The evaluation of urban development approaches based on sustainability principles The City Beautiful Movement (the United States) City form: Grid The Pragmatist Approach: Eugene Haussmann (France) City form: Radial The Pragmatist Approach: İldefons Cerda (Spain) City form: Grid Garden City: Ebenezer Howard (United Kingdom) City form: Radiant Broadacre City: F. L. Wright (United States) City form: Organic, Grid Linear and Radiant City: Le Corbusier (France) City form: Linear and Radial New Urbanism (United States) City form: Compact Spatial (3) Social (2) Urban Development Approach Ecological (1) Sustainability Principles Explanations (1) (2) While the park paths and open and green spaces enhances the city ecologically, they also provides for the public space requirements of the community. (3) However, the spatial requirements were not sufficiently met due to the monumental city approach. (1) Large scale park projects and the tree planted boulevards enhanced the city ecologically. However, the historical texture of the city was diminished. (2) The solutions proposed for the low-income group were insufficient. (3) The designed boulevards provided risks for the pedesterians. (1) The planned park areas were not built. (2) In the related studies, only spatial characteristics were focused on. (3) Square form was used as the representative of equity and justice. Suitable form and spaces for the users were developed at the road intersections. (1) The integration of the city with the nature and the existence of a green belt enchanced the city ecologically. (2) (3) However, although the positive aspects of the country and town were adopted, the model was not sufficient in terms of social administration and spatial solutions. (1) The widespread utilization of private automobiles and urban sprawl are not solutions that could be regarded as sustainable. (2) The urban population was supported through the distribution of land per household, in terms of production based on agriculture and industry. (3) Low-density and lowstorey buildings were designed. All space uses were rendered harmonious with each other. (1) Despite the vertically rising garden city principle that is nested with the nature, the planned open spaces were later ocuppied with buildings. (2) Different suggestions were made for the welfare of the society. (3) Cities without streets emerged. (1) Provided human-centered ecological solutions. (2)(3) Although it provided sufficient solutions for the suburbia or the settlements outside the city, it could not provide solutions for the urban centers. 83 Landscape Planning Geodesign (United States) Landscape Urbanism (United States) Sufficient Partly Sufficient (1) While providing solutions for the integration of the ecologically based analyses into urban planning, (2) (3) it commonly stayed in the background due to the conflict with the objectives of the rent/income economy. (1) The design of the landscapes, considered as the mosaic of ecosystems, was in the foreground. (2) The social dynamics were partly left in the background. (3) Although the lost natural/cultural values were revitalized, the approach was criticized for its large scale projects. It was also criticized that this approach and the idea of creating ecological cities were not novel, and these principles were already embedded within the nature of the landscape architecture discipline. Insufficient Planning within the modernist framework was shaped by a rational and comprehensive understanding that structured the irregularity caused by the industrial revolution and shaped the space by allocating it with the different functions. According to Tekeli (2013), planning which was a modernist project, was the totality of the single-function zoning approach that enabled the mass production of structures and the rational-comprehensive approaches. The spatial construct was guided along the axis of social welfare and economic growth. Nevertheless, parcellation, i.e. the planning which leads the urban fabric in terms of density, size and usage area based on the building plot, results a monotone, standard, mechanic and therefore a boring construct. In this context, the hegemony of the idea based on modernism on every area also shaped the planning practice as an act of intervention on the nature and the city. Urban planning, on the other hand, transformed into an activity that facilitated the utilization of the elements of the city in terms of the economic priorities and that produced usage decisions accordingly. Therefore, this situation caused a misconception of the functioning of nature within the scope of urban planning discipline and such functioning could not be translated to the space. Consequently, the awareness of preservation could not be integrated within the scope of urban planning (Sılaydın, 2006). Thus, spatial planning implementations, which were unable to analyze and evaluate the connection between the human and the nature within the scope of “landscape concept and content”, could be named as one of the most important causes of the current ecological problems (Şahin, 2009). The concept of landscape is not only the expression of a place, but also includes the interaction between the natural and/or cultural entities within that space and the process that this interaction takes place. Therefore, it is separated from the concept of space in terms of the emphasis and/or interpretation of the historical, physical, ecological etc. characteristics of the part of a city. In other words, landscape appears as a concept which is in harmony with diverse scales, is multidimensional and dynamic (Şenik and Karaçor, 2018). In this respect, landscape is a concept that has a key significance in terms of establishing the relationship of planning with the natural processes. As a matter of fact, the connection between the ecology and spatial planning is established through landscape planning. Therefore, 84 the spatial planning process, which aims the preservation of ecological balance, cannot realize this aim through excluding landscape planning (Sılaydın, 2006). The main objective of landscape planning is also to holistically evaluate the research and studies based on landscape with larger social and ecological systems and to contribute the preservation of nature and sustainable development through a multidisciplinary and participative approach (Çetinkaya and Uzun, 2014). In conclusion, to include the landscape planning approaches or landscape plans within the spatial planning and urban development decisions of the 21st century are significant in terms of the sustainability of the cities. REFERENCES Akman, S. D., (2017). ‘Parametric Landscape Urbanism’: A Model Proposal For Operational Framework. Middle East Technical University. Master Thesis. Akpınar, A. (2014). Peyzaj Tasarımda Yeni Bir Süreç: GeoTasarım. SDÜ Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 2014, 15: 189-195 Aydemir, S. E., (2004). Planlama ve Planlamanın Evrimi. Kentsel Alanların Planlanması ve Tasarımı. (Ed. Şinasi Aydemir, Saliha Erkonak Aydemir, Dilek Şen beyazlı, Nermin Ökten, Ahmet Melih Öksüz, Cenap Sancar, Murat Özyaba, Yelda Aydın Türk). Akademi Kitabevi: Trabzon. Aytaç G., Kuşuluoğlu D. D., (2015). Kent Parkları. http://www.plantdergisi.com/yazi-doc-dr-gulsen-aytac-120.html 15.02.2018 05.05.2018 Ben-Eli, M., (2006). Sustainability the Five Core Principles A New Framework. A Sustainability Laboratory Publication New York USA. Berman M. (2012). Katı olan her şey buharlaşıyor. 15. Baskı. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Botequilha, L. A., Ahern, J., (2002). Applying Landscape Ecological Concepts and Metrics in Sustainable Landscape Planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, 59(2), 65-93 Büyükcivelek B. (2017). Tarih İçinde Kent. Kent Planlama (Der. Suna Senem Özdemir, Ö. Burcu Özdemir Sarı, Nil Uzun). Ankara: İmge Kitabevi. 69-93. Cermasi O. (2017). Contemporary landscape urbanism principles as innovative methodologies. 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(2016). “The Cerdà Plan for the Expansion of Barcelona: A Model for Modern City Planning” Focus, Vol. 12: Iss. 1, Article 13. Ünlü T. (2017). Mekanın Biçimlendirilmesi, Kentsel Planlama ve Plancı. Kent Planlama Kavramlar, Konular, Güncel Tartışmalar. (Melih Ersoy Der.) İmge Kitabevi: Ankara. 95-126. Weller, R. (2008). Landscape (Sub) Urbanism in Theory and Practice. Landscape Journal 27:2–08, 255-278. WEB-1. http://www.newurbanism.org/newurbanism/principles.html WEB-2. http://www.dpz.com/Initiatives/Transect 87 Chapter 6 What are the Biological Effects of Global Climate Change? E. Dilşat YEĞENOĞLU1 and Meltem SESLI2 1 Faculty member, Dr. Manisa Celal Bayar University Alasehir Vocational School, Department of Pland and Animal Production, Alasehir, Manisa, Turkey. 2 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Manisa Celal Bayar University, School of Tobacco Expertise, Department of Tobacco Breeding, Akhisar, Manisa, Turkey. INTRODUCTION Climate is a term that represents the sum and average of weather events that occur every day over a long period. The climate is also a potential danger manifested by extreme weather events. Climate information is also necessary to mitigate these events. Nevertheless, it is important not to confuse the weather with the climate, the weather tells a brief description of the atmospheric conditions. The climate is a definition that includes 30 years of records when sufficient data are available. At the same time, the climate represents a dynamic structure. Climate conditions in one region do not remain constant, but show differences in years, centuries or millennia (URL1). When it comes to climate, it is not right to just think about temperature and precipitation. The term also includes extreme weather events such as storms, hurricanes, flood and drought with many monthly and yearly collected meteorological indicators. Changes in atmospheric conditions have direct effects on living organisms. This does not happen only through the influence of ecosystems, habitats or individuals on Earth's surface. Climate and environmental conditions indirectly exert pressure on people's survival by affecting the sustainability of agriculture, which is a complex production that is the source of food production (URL2). There are concerns about the impact of global climate change on life, agriculture and the livability of the world for a long time. Meteorological changes in the future of a region using on long-term local data can be estimated for a short interval. Today, weather forecasts can estimate a period of about one month (URL2; URL3). However, micro-climatic and local changes may have more effect than a general change in some cases. A 1 ℃ change in the average temperature of the world may cause the to feel temperature more intense in some regions while the expected effect may not show due to different conditions such as geographical structure in some areas. All organisms living on Earth form a gigantic system that is complex and directly or indirectly related to each other. Like every complex structure, this system also has subsystems, sub-units, and the individuals who create structure. The response of individuals to climate change and the reactions of unit forms will be different (URL3). 88 Studies on the impact of global climate change on biodiversity and organism life are ongoing studies. Globally, the change in climate is not just about organisms in a specific place, but about all living things and human beings. The important point in global climate change is; it will continue to affect every part of the planet, even if the whole world decides to take measures to prevent it. Since the Industrial Revolution, greenhouse gases released from the atmosphere has been increased more than up to 30% (sourced from coal, oil and natural gas using). Arrhenius first proposed the greenhouse effect, one of the major determinants of the world climate, in 1896. Arrhenius was also warned about the temperature would be increased all over the world due to rapid consumption of coal along with the Industrial Revolution (Weart, 2003) Living organisms are constantly exposed to environmental conditions. Organisms immediately notice temperature and humidity changes. Adaptation to environmental conditions is a necessary ability for survival. However, measurements occur below or above the optimal environmental conditions are stress factors for organisms. As pointed out earlier, agriculture is an industry where plant and animal production is integrated. Agricultural production is one of the basic livelihoods of people living in developing countries, and is dependent on environmental conditions. For this reason, it is also necessary to evaluate the effects of global climate change in agricultural production, especially in terms of yield and quality. Organisms exhibit many behavioral, physical, chemical and molecular responses under stress factors. Organisms living in a particular area can give different responses to changing conditions. They may choose to adapt or migrate. Climate is an important influence on the survival and reproduction of living organisms. For example, high temperatures are a particular risk for birds. Birds also have a narrow range of body temperature control because birds have higher body temperatures than other species, as well as the absence of sweat glands. Apart from this, birds frequently breathe in order to provide thermoregulation when the ambient temperature is high, alkalosis can be seen due to panting (Yegenoglu, 2007). At the same time, birds and mammals increase water consumption in response to temperature, and in the event of additional stress such as drought, the consequences can be fatal. The situation is more difficult for ectotherms (amphibians, reptiles etc) since thermoregulation in these organisms is directly related to the ambient temperature. The researchers are shown the temperature on Earth has increased by 0.6 0C in the last 90 years. When the world's climatological history is examined, it is seen that global climate changes are not peculiar to our age. Wide fluctuations in temperatures and precipitation or Milankovitch cycles are seen in the world history (i.e. Pleistocene age). There is a positive correlation between greenhouse gases and the change in average temperatures (URL4; IPCC 2001). In the Pleistocene age, temperatures have cycled between the two extremes, glacial and interglacial. About 10,000 years ago, this cycle stopped and the world temperature remained at a relatively fixed point. The temperature increase of 0.6 0 C following 1910 is a quite rapid and big shift after the almost stable level (fluctuations about of 1 0C) during 10000 years. The atmospheric carbon dioxide 89 level increased from 280 ppm to 360 ppm during the same period. Today, the increase in global surface temperature is associated with the increased greenhouse effect (). In Pleistocene Age, major climatic change events and massive extinctions occurred. Those changes had been much more chaotic than our century, however, remaining living organisms and ecosystem had found a way to adaptation to the new conditions (URL 4; IPCC 2001). In fact, global climate change has not only a huge impact on individual organisms; it also is affected populations, communities and whole ecosystems. The climate change is now more measurable than the last century, but we cannot say that we can predict future pattern of climate change and its effects on organisms certainly for a precise moment or a location (URL5; URL6). Atmosphere is not stable, it is dynamic and constantly changing while we expect the climate to be more stable and predictable since we have been recorded meteorological data for a long time with the statistics of averages and calculated correlations. Climate has the traits of chaotic systems, but it is not totally unpredictable (URL6). There are developed models for trying to estimate global climate change. According to evaluated data, the warming related with the greenhouse effect is the lowest in tropical zone and greatest in poles. The calculations pointed the temperature has been increasing by 2-4 0C in some parts of Canada, Alaska and Siberia (IPCC 2001). The mean temperature has been increased about 0.7 degree of Celsius in USA from 1900. The precipitation has also been increased in the world and the rate of major floods is more severed. (URL4; IPCC 2001). The predictions show the increase in temperature would be continued and range between 1.4 and 5.8 degrees of Celsius until 2100. The precipitation would increase too, and naturally, the high temperature would lead higher evaporation rate. Nevertheless, declining of glaciers and melting of mountain ice caps has already been occurred since 1850’s. This phenomena would also related with the increase in sea level, the projectiles is estimated that the main changes in sea level until 2100 most likely sourcing from melting of glaciers and ice. Glacial ice is covered about 10% of the Earth surface and according to According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC), in the event of melting of all glaciers the sea level would rise about 70 meters. Glaciers and ice caps are also structures where large percentage of Earth’s freshwater locked (URL4, URL7). Snow is a precipitation of ice crystals and the major water storage facility. The problem in the global climate change is the precipitation more occurs in the rain form instead of snow as the air getting warmer. Why the snowfall is important when we have rainfall? The answer is simple; we lose most of the water from rain if we cannot keep it. The rain captured by lakes, dams and aquifers, while we lose most of the water. However, the snow piling up on the mountains can store the water for a long time. So what will happen to the snow on the mountains as the Earth getting warmer? They are going to melt, but the melting will not occur uniform manner throughout the planet. It will affect the regions with different rates while almost 2 billion people are dependent on snowmelt for a water. Snowmelt is also a feeding source of groundwater such as lakes. The human 90 population and ecosystems, especially aquatic life, living in the American West, the Middle East, Central Asia, and southern Europe are under the risk of losing the water coming from snowpack and some of these regions has already been face with drought and the water in some natural reservoirs has declined below their average amount (URL8; URL9) We can gain information from fossils, rocks, glaciers or soils about the past natural events. We can assume one hypothesis that the organisms could move and find new locations in cooler regions. Individual behavior and ecosystem behavior are different things anyway. Ecosystems establish from organism communities; even in the same ecosystem, the species have different environmental needs and tolerances. Ecosystems that include high biodiversity are naturally more resilient against the confrontational events, but the effect of global climate change on present ecosystems could be hard to predict because of the complexity in ecosystems establishment. While some of the species would have migrate, some of them would not be found a way to escape. This may lead extinction of some species, invasion of new regions, losing of numbers in population and destroying of some ecosystems or creating new ecosystems from the mixture of migrated communities with the local ones as well (URL4; IPCC 2001; IPCC, 2007; URL10) The climate change is shown its effects as changing seasonal durations, melting and retreating of glaciers, ice and snowcaps with the rise in sea levels. Then, how these changes affect living organisms and their surrounding biophysical environment? The adaptive response to the climate change has already begun as changes in species’ geographical distribution and abundance, changes in migration patterns, reproductive behaviors and changes in in the frequency and severity of pests and disease outbreaks (URL11) There are reports on the changes and expansions for distribution of the species towards to the Poles and higher elevations. It is likely that this movement will also cause other problems. New diseases, which have not been found in that locality before, can be seen. The changing in the geographical distribution will bring new wild species, pathogens, pests, vectors to the location. Likewise, the global climate change may have also effect on phenology; changes in the vegetation period in plants, changes in the flowering and fruit set times are examples of these changes. The effects on ecosystems structure are also seen. The number of populations is increased and some of the populations lost their numbers. According to ICCC report, the expected rise in the global average temperature is threatening the aquatic freshwater, wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs, arctic and alpine ecosystems (URL12) It has been reported that earlier springs caused earlier nesting for some migratory birds in East Coast of US while half of the butterfly species in California changed their migration times and arrived earlier to the regions. This alteration in migration, growth and reproduction time can be resulted with decreasing in growth and survival rate in species because of the impaired time for food resources and predators (URL13). The rise in rainfall pattern and temperature has a direct effect on agricultural systems. It is expected that there would be decrease in crop growth and yield. The 91 model for the simulating the consequences of global climate in agriculture has been shown none other than a negative impact, and this simulated impact is seemed stronger for developing countries where the economy mostly based on agricultural production. The alterations in temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide level, and the extreme weather conditions will have an important effect on crop yield. Crop yield in some regions may be affected positively from the rising temperature and carbon dioxide levels, however, the increase in these parameters are also related with the status of the water scarcity, macro and micro nutrients in the soil, soil texture, moisture and meteorological events such as floods, storms or drought. It should be taken into account that the yield may decrease when all parameters are evaluated. Besides, increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide level has a stimulating effect on plant growth, but it reduces the protein and mineral concentration in most plants using in agriculture. (URL14; URL11) A potential health risk for human and animal health is also revealed. Because of the changing in geographical distribution, zoonotic diseases and plant diseases are expanding their impact zones via disease vectors through the new locations. For human health, infectious diseases and their vectors would also expand their distribution from low altitudes to high altitudes (URL11). For both land and aquatic organisms, species move to the North and higher elevations. The studies showed this movement is taking place as 0.011 kilometers to higher elevations (median rate) and 16.9 kilometers to higher latitudes in each decade, leading to increased competition between species in the same habitat. One of the other impact of temperature rising is the warming the waters. The warm water fishes are spreading through the cold waters and invading the habitat, water warming is causing the habitat losing for the cold-water fishes. (URL13) Thus, the effect on biodiversity is emerged as another matter. Global climate change is not the only factor put species under pressure; human invasion and pollution are the other stressors for organisms. Especially climate sensitive organisms are at risk such as ringed seals and polar bears in sea ice habitats or the cold-water fish salmon in the Pacific Northwest. According to IPCC estimations, 20-30% of the animal and plant species used in the climate change models are at the risk of extinction if the predictions from temperature increasing models would realize. Some of the species may be extinct, but some of them would find a chance to invade and capture the habitats. Penguins in Antarctica are good examples. The Adelie penguin populations decreased by 22% while the Chinstrap Penguins increased their numbers by almost 400% due to increase in midwinter temperatures in the western Antarctic Peninsula and loss of sea ice URL13). The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, the rise of the global mean temperature, changes in precipitation data and frequency and severity of extreme weather conditions are evaluated as the main influencing factors on the biological effects of climate change. These broad changes and expected future impacts can be summarized in four major points as described below (Visser and Both, 2005; Hughes, 2000; URL14; URL15; URL16; URL17). 1. Phenological effects: Global climate change caused shifts in phenology of wide range of species. Phenology is the timing for seasonal activities in plants 92 and animals such as flowering, fruit set, or reproduction. Phenological events are related to meteorological data such as temperature and precipitation. The changes in climate patterns has led to unseasonable alterations, i.e. shifts in flowering and fruit set time in plants or earlier egg laying period for some bird species due to global increasing of the temperature. Survivability of a population in a habitat is dependent to synchronize their phenological times with the other species required for growth and development of their next generation. The mismatched reproduction and growing seasons can lead decreasing in numbers. This might be also created a selective pressure on organisms. 2. Geographical distribution and abundance: Species answered the changes in climate in their zones, especially the temperature rising, with moving towards to the poles and upwards to the higher elevations. This reaction of movement correlated with the shift in the temperature, and can caused a health risk on unexposed animal, plant and humans due to expansion of new pests, weeds, fungi and vectors. Most of the pests, weeds, and fungi are spurted in warm and wet environmental conditions. These species is most likely found a chance to expand their ranges with the climate change. 3. Physiological effects: Environmental conditions (carbon dioxide level, temperature, water availability) have impacts the physiology, metabolism and the development of the organisms. These are also stress factors. The photosynthesis, respiration, reproduction, growth, yield, and tissue composition of plants change against the stress factors. The climate change unsettled the natural selection process of plants for a long time. The new environmental conditions can have effects on germination, plant viability and fecundity as well as their physiology. 4. Adaptation and ecosystems: A species has a short generation time and rapid population growth may experience micro evolutionary changes in situ. Ecosystems form with organic and inorganic components. The fate of the ecosystem is dependent on how every part of the system, living and non-living, functions together. Each unit get benefit from the other and the sustainability of the system is related to maintain the interactions between dynamics such as reproduction, nutrient cycle or soil fertility. The disruption of the natural balance in the ecosystem is resulted with the loss of benefits for everyone in the system. When we consider all of these effects, there are expected changes in biodiversity and species interactions, including novel competition process for the new species and the previously located one, changing predator-prey relationships, corruption of mutualistic liaisons between organisms. These phenomena may lead more shifts in species distribution and abundance in the regions, rising the number of opportunistic organisms and pests with the possibility of extinction for some species that could not adapt or fight the new conditions and invading species. CONCLUSION There are stories about the historical events related with weather that every human being in the world heard from the old people in their communities, the great drought, the freezing winter that the rivers were frozen or the grasshopper plague occurred in the hot summer. Such drastic changes in weather engraved 93 even in art and literature. This remnant tales of real events could bring some questions into people’s mind. Do we really have to be afraid of climate change? Is it really a threat against the life in the world? Those climate shifts had occurred in history from time to time, even mass extinctions had taken place, Homo sapiens and abundant number of species had survived. This is kind of thinking most likely caused by the fear of radical changes in surrounding environment. It is also sourced by the fact that the climate change is not a neither visible threat, can it be seen directly nor taste or hear by humans. The studies have already been showed that the changes in climatic patterns have an impact on some species’ physiology, phenology and adaptation processes with the expanding ranges in their distributions. As we said above climate change is not the only responsible contractor for these variations. It is not the only stressor for the organisms; there are also natural selection and adaptation process for every species. Human-related expansion and invasion of the nature and pollution are the additional stress factors while the global climate change is the main cause for these drifts. Shall we say the changes in species distribution and phenology absolutely have a negative impact? It may be the truth or not, since some of the species have a capability of adaptation and survival, even some species does not need to change their phenology. It perhaps should set out contradictory statements. Is it a success since species can adapt the shifting environment or creating a risk, even extinction risk, since the climate change influencing their living conditions? Species or populations cannot be evaluated as solitary units, they are connected to the other units they share the same ecosystem. Therefore, we cannot explain the changes without considering how the climate change affected the other parts of their system. However, when an alteration occurs in a species phenology, if this change is not simultaneous with the ecological conditions, there would be mismatched timing. There are several variables for determining the phenology of a species such as food, water, and temperature. These variables are also important for the growth and reproduction. The water and food availability are one of the major authorities on the growth and reproduction timing. Temperature is a decisionmaker for the migration in birds. The studies represented many of the bird species are arriving their breeding grounds earlier because of the temperature shift. The early agreement may cause mismatched food ability and nesting places, this would affect their survival and hatching. Nevertheless, survival and reproduction is simply related with the adaptation to the environmental conditions and how well this adaptation has been achieved by the organisms. Climate can cause major disruptions in environment conditions, thus, adaptation to the climate changes is crucial for surviving and reproduction of organisms. The large-scaled changes in local climate started to cause shifts in distribution of populations, species or individuals across the geographical regions, while some of the species may find benefits and largely expand through the new regions, this expansion may lead extinction of some local species. The opportunistic organisms and vector can find a chance to invade new territories. For the benefit of human well-being in future, new strategies should be developed 94 for agricultural production, and conservation of biodiversity since the results related with global climate change are mainly affected the developing parts of the world. REFERENCES URL1: MGM (2018). http://212.174.109.9/FILES/genel/sss/iklimnedir.pdf. URL2: UNOMAHA (2009). https://www.unomaha.edu/college-of-artsand-sciences/environmental-studies/about-us/johnmccarty/docs/papers/McCartyetalEncyLifeSci2009.pdf. URL3: http://www.news.com.au/technology/environment/climatechange/extreme- weather-forecasting-looking-years-or-even-decades-into-thefuture-could-soon-be-a- thing/newsstory/bf83d430a072d204a41bd7f2a3975487. Weart, S.R. (2003). The Discovery of Global Warming, Harvard University Press. Yegenoglu, 2007. Etlik Piliçlerde Sıcak Stresine Alıştırma Uygulamalarının Beyin Hsp-70 Proteini Üzerine Etkisi. Doktora Tezi. Ege Üniersitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü. İzmir. URL4: Parmesan, C.; Matthews, J. (2005). Biological Impacts of Climate Change.Available at: https://www.sinauer.com/media/wysiwyg/samples/Groom Chapter10consbio.pdf URL5: McCarthy, J.P.; Wolfenbarger, L. L.; Wilson, J. A. (2017). Biological Impacts of Climate Change. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9780470015902.a0020480.p ub2 URL6: AJP (2018). https://history.aip.org/climate/chaos.htm URL7: USGS (2018). https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleice.html URL8: NSIDC (2018). https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/snow URL9: https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/11/151112-river-basinswater- drought-snowpack-snowfall-climate-change-science/ URL10: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/intro-toecosystems/a/what-is-an-ecosystem URL11: EXTEII (2010). Perrings, C. Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and Climate Change. Available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTEEI/Resources/BiodiversityEcosystems Servi ces_CC.pdf URL12: http://www.birdlife.org/projects/7-impacts-climate-changebiodiversity-and- ecosystem-services URL13: EPA (2017). https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climateimpacts/climate- impacts-ecosystems_.html URL14: EPA (2017). https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climateimpacts/climate- impacts-agriculture-and-food-supply_.html 95 URL15: EPA (2017). https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climateimpacts/climate- impacts-human-health_.html URL16: Midgley, G. F. (2017). Plant Physiological Responses to Climate and Environmental Change. Available at: http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0003205.html. Hughes, L. (2000). Biological consequences of global warming: is the signal already apparent? Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 15 (2): 56-61. Visser, M. E.; Both, C. (2005). Shifts in phenology due to global climate change: the need for a yardstick. Proceedings of the Royal Sciences: Biological Sciences. 272(1581): 2561–2569. URL17: Becklin, K.M.; Anderson, J.T.; Gerhart, L.M.; Wadgymar, S.M.; Wessinger, C.A.; Ward, J.K. (2016). Examining Plant Physiological Responses to Climate Change through an Evolutionary Lens. Available at: http://www.plantphysiol.org/content/172/2/635. IPCC, 2001. Climate change 2001: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by J. J. McCarthy, O. F. Canziani, N. A. Leary, D. J. Dokken and K. S. White (eds). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, USA, 2001. IPCC, 2007. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson (eds). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. URL18: NASA (2018). https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/ 96 Chapter 7 Landscape Planning in Urban Design Competitions: The Case of Lüleburgaz Tosbağa Stream Recreational Area Doruk Görkem ÖZKAN1, Emrehan ÖZCAN2, Sinem DEDEOĞLU ÖZKAN2 and Duygu AKYOL3 1 Dr. Karadeniz Technical University, Department of Landscape Architecture, Trabzon, Turkey 2. Res.Assist. Karadeniz Technical University, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Trabzon, Turkey 3 Res.Assist. Karadeniz Technical University, Department of Landscape Architecture, Trabzon, Turkey INTRODUCTION Urban standards and quality of life often fall behind the continuing process of economic development and urbanization. While the cities grow quantitatively in order to meet the increasing needs of the urban population as a result of economic development, a decrease in quality is witnessed often and the natural resources are degraded. Traditional planning and design approaches, which are suggested as solutions to the abovementioned problems, are frequently addressed without seeking the links between the spatial relationships and the economic, social, cultural and historical relationships. Such approaches, presented by disregarding these relationships, are incapable of contributing the understanding of the social, economic and cultural transformations and aside from providing solutions to the existing problems, the intervention itself could emerge as a new problem. Therefore, the relationship between the nature and the urban context should be evaluated by all aspects and the planning approaches should be redefined accordingly. The concept of sustainable urban design could be defined as the possibility of a successful urban growth and constructing urban conditions for achieving quality of life. These conditions were unified under the concept of urban design, through reintegrating the professional disciplines of urban and regional planning, architecture and landscape architecture. Urban design approaches are structured within a natural or cultural environment. The sum of the elements constituting the environment is described as “landscape” and the process of identifying and preserving its components and functions and developing new proposals is expressed as the landscape planning concept (Kaplan et al., 2003; Seeger, C. J., 2008; Mahdavinejad & Abedi, 2011). In this respect landscape planning focuses on evaluating the current condition of all natural, socio-cultural and economic resources and on the components of landscape elements (Von Haaren et al., 2008; Biefeld & Khouli, 2017). Hence, landscape planning provides a balance between the human and the environment in terms of preservation-development (Açıksöz et al., 2017). The quality and quantity of the open-green areas, which provide balance in the urban environment, are currently being accepted as an indicator of quality of life (Sun, 2005, Gül & Küçük, 2009). Therefore, majority of the developed countries plan and create urban open spaces suitable to enhance the quality of life through taking into account the physical and socio-psychological requirements of individuals. The concept of open space is defined as the open areas that accommodate no types of construction and that provide recreational utilization (Özbilen, 1991). The present study was carried out in the Tosbağa Stream Recreational area, which could be accepted as a green belt system within the context of Lüleburgaz district. The study was intended to evaluate the approaches to establish and design the links between the Lüleburgaz Tosbağa Stream Recreational area and the urban environment, within the scope of landscape planning and design discipline. In this regard, the landscape planning and design process was evaluated in scope of Lüleburgaz case, with respect to; regional strategies and policies, urban environment and urban morphology, urban design and programming, approaches of landscape design process. MATERIALS AND METHODS Located to the south of the province of Kırklareli, Lüleburgaz is surrounded by the Saray and Çorlu districts of the Tekirdağ province to the east, Babaeski district of the Kırklareli province to the west, Pinarhisar district to the north and Hayrabolu and Muratlı districts of the Tekirdağ province to the south. With respect to these boundaries, the Lüleburgaz district is situated between the north latitudes of 41;12;30 most southern point and the 41;32;30 most northern point and between the east longitudes of 25;13;10 most eastern point and 24;47;0 western point (Figure 1). Figure 1: The location of the study area 98 Lüleburgaz is a district with significant potentials between the cities of Istanbul and Edirne. Being the largest settlement of the Kırklareli province, the district has a total area of 1370 hectares and an altitude of 30 meters. The clustered focal points around the historical urban center on the northwest part of the district are separated by the planned Lüleburgaz series to the urban areas. The focal point to the north of the settlement, which was separated in two by the highway, is Gençlik Park and the one on the south is Çamlık. Lüleburgaz district, which is connected to the important transportation networks such as the Istanbul Edirne highway and the European highway, further strengthens this beneficial location through the international bicycle/motorcycle route. Lüleburgaz, which developed in the north-south direction in a balance, currently continues development along the south-east direction. The case area, which has an approximate area of 65 hectares, is a zone that extends along the Tosbağa Stream bed and is defined as a green area in the development plan (Figure 1). The method of the study was structured around evaluating the process of landscape planning and design within the scope of design competition for the Lüleburgaz Tosbağa Stream recreation area. Accordingly, first the regional and urban scales were evaluated in terms of planning, then urban design and landscape design processes were evaluated with respect to the design process (Figure 2). Figure 2: Landscape planning and design process FINDINGS REGARDING THE PLANNING AND DESIGN PROCESS Regional Data for Planning Regional Context Lüleburgaz district is located along the alternative main transportation networks, such as the high-speed rail line, D100 highway and the railway line, due to its situation in the center of Thrace peninsula. The district is at the intersection of Kırklareli-Tekirdağ and Istanbul-Europe routes within the peninsula, with respect to such characteristics. Lüleburgaz could be considered as a service hub for industrial connections and includes both the rural settlements and other rural centers within its 99 hinterland. According to the demographic structure, Çorlu province was found to be the most populated center, hence Lüleburgaz ranked fifth with a larger population than the center of the Kırklareli province (Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning, 2009). Floristic Regions Thrace peninsula accommodates three different floristic regions. In the peninsula, where Black Sea and Mediterranean basins mutually exist, a third transitionary region displaying both floristic characteristics exists as well. Since Lüleburgaz district is located in this transitionary region, it comprises the Mediterranean-Black Sea floristic characteristics. Rural Context Lüleburgaz, which was featured as the service center in the Trakya sub-region Ergene Basin Environmental Plan, has a structure that supplies both the requirements of the urban residents and the requirements of the district center and the rural population in its hinterland. Once the year 2023 projection in the regional plan was examined, it was determined that the Lüleburgaz district center could serve an approximate population of 310,000 individuals (Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning, 2009) (Figure 3). Figure 3: Regional data for the planning process Urban Data for Planning Urban Context  Existing Morphological Structure When the morphological development of the district was examined, it was determined that the district sprawled in the direction of southeast and in due course the settlement fabric developed to enclose the Tosbağa Stream.  Morphological Structure in Plan In the current situation, Tosbağa Stream and its two banks are not yet zoned for settlement development, however, it was indicated in the master plan that these areas would be available for settlement development in the years to come (Lüleburgaz Municipality, 2017).  Existing Status of Transportation The examination of the existing status of transportation indicated that Tosbağa Stream is only connected to the district center and its vicinities, since there is no existing settlement in the stream area. 100  Status of Transportation in Plan The decision in the plan, indicating that the transportation system should be established with collecting roads, could be evaluated as an assessment to decrease the traffic density in the urban area. The integration of the Tosbağa stream with the district is realized through three different vehicle bridges and pedestrian connections that could facilitate the access from the residential areas were proposed as well (Lüleburgaz Municipality, 2017).  Existing Sub-centers The district of Lüleburgaz has a structure that provides an example for singlecentered cities. Hence, there exists a sub-center on the Station Street that meets the service needs of the district. The parts with the state hospital and the developing vocational school of higher education were considered as the other centers of the district.  Sub-centers in Plan The plan decisions proposed to establish more than one sub-center in the development areas. Thus, the aim of this decision could be interpreted as decreasing density in the district center through meeting the regular needs of the development areas from the sub-centers (Lüleburgaz Municipality, 2017).  Existing Status of Density In current status, the population density in the district of Lüleburgaz decreases from the center towards the periphery.  Status of Density in Plan The current status of decreasing population towards the periphery was maintained and the population density for the development areas were planned as low- and mid-density regions (Lüleburgaz Municipality, 2017) (Figure 4). Urban Design Data for Landscape Planning Environmental Relations and Vision The historical texture of the district center and the remaining traces of the trade structure provide the district a significant identity. Lüleburgaz district, located at the intersection of important service and tourism centers such as Istanbul and Edirne, could be considered as a transition zone due to this feature. Lüleburgaz district, which has a developed service sector due to its location, serves as the service center both for its rural settlements and for other districts with rural center characteristics within its hinterland. Once the dynamics of the district were examined, it was determined that the existing academies or the ones that are being built spread in the district in a holistic manner and are concentrated on the three main arteries/regions, and they contributed especially to the socio-cultural enrichment of the district. The other dynamics of the city, such as the university, the hospital, technology development area, the fairground, the terminal, the station and small industrial sites are expected to lead to the strengthening of relationships with the surrounding settlements and to the development of important transportation networks. 101 Figure 4: Urban context during the planning phase 102 Lüleburgaz district presents a sprawl towards the southeast direction and the master plan suggests an expansion in years to come towards the Tosbağa Stream and its vicinities. As a result, the new development areas and Tosbağa Stream Recreation area are expected to require a stronger connection with the district center. Such connection should not only be achieved through a vehicle access but also should be enriched through the provision of pedestrian connections. There exists only one urban park that could service the whole population within the Lüleburgaz district. It is significant that the district could have a regional park due to the design of the Tosbağa Stream recreation area. Therefore, it is essential to provide connections not only with the district center, but also with the surrounding settlements through strong transportation networks. The streams springing from the Istranca Mountains join the Ergene River and reach the Aegean Sea. Lüleburgaz district in this area is between the Lüleburgaz Stream and the Tosbağa Stream. Lüleburgaz Stream and the Tosbağa Stream run parallel to the Lüleburgaz district and could not be benefited from. However, the development plan projected a development towards southeast and Tosbağa Stream area was planned to be utilized with recreational purposes. The streams running parallel to the district, which constitute the fundamentals of the ecologic system of the district, are expected to encircle the district as an ecological belt. Such ecological belt was not fully utilized for human access, certain parts are planned to continue the ecologic life (*living) and other parts were designed as a system to fulfil the recreation requirements (*enabling life). As a service center, Lüleburgaz district is capable of meeting the green area requirements of the surrounding population. Tosbağa Stream Recreation Area is expected to serve as a regional park that could not only serve the district but also to the region with respect to its characteristics that unite and enable the vitality of the ecological corridors around the district. In order to rehabilitate the harmful effects of the solid waste storage area in the district, Lüleburgaz coppice forest was proposed for this area. Later, this area could be utilized as an urban forest. The academies were planned to be distributed in a holistic manner, in order to ensure the sustainability of our socio-cultural dynamism in the district. In this context, an academy corridor integrated with Tosbağa Stream was proposed. Ergene River, Lüleburgaz Stream, Tosbağa Stream and the north urban ecological belt were determined as the vital ecological belts of the district. The preservation decisions regarding these ecological belts were suggested to be integrated within the planning system, in order to ensure the continuity of the ecological life. The potential of the current segmented green areas were evaluated and road side forestation, bicycle routes, pedestrian dense access routes were proposed to unify these segmented areas (Figure 5). Morphological Characteristics Urban development should be guided by the relevant institutions, in order to achieve the proposed visions and such guidance could be realized through master plan investment programs. Within the scope of the proposed design, a staging 103 proposal was developed fot the urban master plan investment program via taking the morphological developments into account. Proposals Regarding Transportation Transportation network within the planning system was analyzed in order to realize the proposals regarding the transportation network and bicycle routes, pedestrian routes and transportation networks with urban green axes were developed. Through such approach, the connection of both the new development areas and the Tosbağa Stream Recreational Area with the district center was strengthened through alternative transportation networks. With respect to the data obtained from these phases, a programming data was established (Figure 6). Figure 5: Proposals for environmental connections during the landscape planning process 104 Figure 6: Data regarding the programming phase within the scope of urban design. Data Regarding the Landscape Design within the Scope of Landscape Planning Tosbağa Stream Recreation Area, which would be influential for the urban identity in the periods to come, which would be a green area with a symbolic meaning, and which would preserve itself as a natural area without urbanization, was emphasized for its potential to become an area to enable the life of the urban population with respect to the “living/enabling life” vision. With respect to this objective, a design code was established regarding the data obtained from the abovementioned phases (Figure 7). Figure 7: Establishing the design code during the design process 105 In this regard, the most indicative element of the design approach is the idea of an elevated route, defined as the “Ecological Axis”. The idea behind such approach is to partly preserve the natural vegetation within the area, while bringing these zones to service. The route gains elevation at the zones described as the buffer zones and is designed at the ground level at the zones which could be named as urban transition zones in order to strengthen the contact of the urban population with the area. In terms of design approach, in the zone, which was determined as the permaculture area and had strong connections with the urban texture, the urban population could both commune with nature during their spare time and grow their own crops in order to contribute the economy on district and individual levels through sustainability. Instructions to be provided in this area and the harvest festivals to be conducted could help to sustain the permaculture and local identity. The idea of local festivals and large scale urban concerts stands out in the zones designed as the festival area and urban amphitheater. The idea of an ecological pond, designed in the recreation and entertainment zones, was proposed to enhance the weak water effect due to the dried-out stream that separates the area into two, at the inner parts of the area. Yoga Garden, Oak Garden, Ash Tree Garden are among the other elements that constitute the design approach. Especially the Oak and Ash Tree Gardens are proposed to sustain the local vegetation. In the design zone Art and Culture Node, open space art ateliers were designed as the open platform extension of the Art academy. Exhibition boards were also considered as a part of the design with the purpose to serve such activities (Figure 8). Figure 8: Open space activities in the landscape design approach 106 The vegetation of the area was addressed through three phases. These phases were determined as follows: first, the preservation of the existing vegetative texture should be evaluated, second, the revitalization policy through the pre-vegetation of the area should be carried out, and finally third, the forestation process should be executed. Oak, ash tree, hornbeam, and pine species, which constituted the natural flora of the area, were especially used in the buffer zones. Within the scope of the design approach, the main circulation axis was planned to be emphasized by the alee effect created with the trees and vegetation types belonging to the aquatic ecosystem were utilized in the ecological pond areas. As a result of these phases, the construction drawings were prepared (Figure 9). Figure 9: Design proposal RESULTS Current increase in the built environment resulted in the decrease of natural areas and disrupted of the ecological balances in the cities. One of the most important indicators of quality of life in cities is the quality of open green spaces. When planning and design approaches are not based on a systematic solution and an ecological basis, they could turn into factors that negatively affect the quality of life in cities. In Turkey, landscape planning and design approaches are not yet fully addressed in implementation policies. It could be observed that landscape planning and design approaches are especially limited to aesthetic aspects. Therefore, the present study focused on landscaping planning and design processes through the case of Tosbağa Stream Recreation Area Project Competition in Lüleburgaz district. The main approach of the research was structured around two dimensions; planning and landscape planning. Within the planning dimension, regional context, floristic regions and rural context were primarily evaluated. Subsequently, as the second phase of the planning dimension, the data on the urban context, morphologic structure, transportation characteristics, sub-centers, status of density were evaluated in comparison to the plan decisions. Due to the completion of the analyses regarding planning, urban design analyses were conducted within the scope of landscape planning. Environmental connections were evaluated within the scope of urban design analyses and finally the planning and design proposal was realized with respect to a holistic evaluation of the data. Hence, the present study attempted to provide a significant contribution to the urban design discipline through the integration of academic knowledge, besides its end-product-oriented discussion. 107 REFERENCES Açıksöz, S., Bollukcu, P., & Gökçe, G. C. (2017). Amasra-Ahatlar Köyü İçin Ekoturizme İlişkin Öneriler. Bartın Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 19(2), 40-49. Atila, G. Ü. L., & Küçük, V. (2009). Kentsel Açik-Yeşil Alanlar Ve Isparta Kenti Örneğinde İrdelenmesi. Turkish Journal of Forestry, 2, 27-48. Bielefeld, B., & El Khouli, S. (2017). Basics Design Ideas. Birkhäuser. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı. (2009) Trakya Alt Bölgesi Ergene Havzası 1/100000 ölçekli Revizyon Çevre Düzeni Planı, Plan Hükümleri ve Plan Açıklama Raporu. Kaplan, H., Bayraktar, N., Tekel, A., Çalgüner, T., & Yalçıner, Ö. (2003). Kentsel Tasarım Süreci Ve Yöntemine İlişkin Bir Alan Çalışması; Çeşme-Dalyan Yerleşiminde Yeni Bir Yöntem Denemesi. Gazi Üniversitesi MühendislikMimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, 18(2). Lüleburgaz Belediyesi. (2017) 1/1000 ölçekli Lüleburgaz Kenti Uygulama İmar Planı. Mahdavinejad, M., & Abedi, M. (2011). Community-oriented landscape design for sustainability in architecture and planning. Procedia Engineering, 21, 337-344. Özbilen, A. (1991). Kentiçi Açık Alanlar ve Dağılımı, Tarihi Eserler ve Gelişen Yeni Yapılaşma,K.T.Ü. Orman Fakültesi,Genel Yayın No:155,F.Y.N: 17, Trabzon, 1991. Seeger, C. J. (2008). The role of facilitated volunteered geographic information in the landscape planning and site design process. GeoJournal, 72(3-4), 199-213. Sun, Y. S. (2005). Development of neighbourhood quality of life indicators. Community-University Institute for Social Research. Von Haaren, C., Galler, C. and Ött, S. (2008). Landscape planning: the basis of sustainable landscape development. Bundesamt für naturschutz / Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Gebr. Klingenberg Buchkunst Leipzig GmbH. 51 p., Leipzig. 108 Chapter 8 Wetlands under the Pressure of Urbanization: The Gediz Delta Case Duygu AKYOL1 and İpek ÖZBEK SÖNMEZ2 1 Res. Assist., Karadeniz Technical University,Faculty of Forest, Trabzon,Turkey Prof.Dr., Dokuz Eylül University, Faculty of Architecture, İzmir, Turkey 2 INTRODUCTION Wetlands are among the most important ecosystems on earth. In addition to natural and biological features, wetlands have significant social impact on neighboring settlements’ cultural accumulation. However, since the early 20th century, wetlands have also been affected by the accelerating changes in land cover. Several unhealthy and unplanned interventions due to the claims of several human needs and health reasons were implemented and wetlands have either been dried or occupied due to physical pressures. There are several reasons that induced these changes. The causes of change could be observed in the settlement, urban and basin or regional scales. In particular, the reasons due to the urban scale and requirements can be summarized as the increase in urban structures that expand horizontally along with the increase in urban population, urban land production, industrial development and tourism. These variables that endanger the natural wetland ecosystems are in fact related to the unplanned consumption of space by the humans. In particular, the social, political and economic factors that determine the relationship between humankind and the environment can lead to the negligence of the ecological and biological systems. Unbalanced human-environment relations could cause deterioration or destruction of the natural eco-systems based on the abovementioned factors. Current or potential pressures on wetlands with the auxiliary function of supporting other habitats and natural systems are not limited to wetlands, but also affect the related living environments such as streams and seas adversely. A management plan has been developed to protect the biological and ecological diversity and to provide rational use of Gediz Delta which is one of the most important wetlands in Turkey. However, the sustainability of the ecosystem at Gediz Delta has not been fully achieved due to the violation of preservation borders established with Ramsar agreement as a result of urbanization pressures and implementation mistakes. The present study aims to determine the changes in land use at Gediz delta that occurred in the process and the potentials and threats that the area faces, and present the recommendations about the management plan to enable positive developments 109 in the near future. PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF WETLANDS It is difficult to definitively define wetland ecosystems. Seasonally, wetlands may exhibit terrestrial or aqueous ecosystem characteristics. Scientists or organizations may publish different wetland definitions for their own purposes, and thus, the approaches differ. Wetlands include quite different habitats. Coastal wetlands such as marshes, peat lands, flood plains, rivers, lakes, saltpans, mangroves, sea grass beds, corals, coastal areas not deeper than six meter during the tides, as well as manmade wetlands such as wastewater treatment pools and dams are not included in the wetlands definition (Çağırankaya and Köylüoğlu, 2013). Today, wetlands, which have important effects on the life of the people living in the hinterland, possess a significant and different status among habitats for preservation of natural balance and biodiversity. The properties, significance and functions of wetlands that are considered as natural wealth museums of the world as well as their region and country with their values can be summarized as follows:  Underground water discharge  Flood control  Balancing the groundwater  Prevention of saltwater influx  Balancing the regional climate  Water treatment by retaining residue and poisonous substances or utilizing nutrients  Bioproduction, biological diversity  High economic value contributing to regional and national industries such as aquaculture, agriculture, recreation, tourism, and reed production.  Enabling educational and scientific studies  Waterway transportation. (URL 1) Despite the above-mentioned significance of wetlands, it may be considered that advancing technologies could have caused us to forget this significance. However, environmental disasters (floods, storms, landslides) due to the unsustainable and unplanned use of lands demonstrate the contrary. Due to the "industrial revolution" that was experienced during the 19th century, significant areas of natural land, especially wetlands were destroyed. During the last quarter of the 20th century, humans began to realize the need to support these natural ecosystems (URL 1). As the impact of climate change becomes significant on humans and wildlife, the ability of the wetlands to adapt to rapidly changing conditions becomes an indispensable factor. Previous studies demonstrated that wetlands are absolutely necessary lands to protect for the future. WETLANDS MANAGEMENT IN TURKEY Upon the Ramsar Convention that Turkey signed in 1994, the state is required 110 to developed and implement a management plan for the areas described as Ramsar areas in accordance with the international criteria, The provisions in the "Regulations for the Preservation of Wetlands" published in the Official Gazette on 17.05.2005 and the provisions in the "2003-2008 National Wetlands Strategy" enacted in early 2003 to ensure the implementation of the Ramsar Convention at national level also include the development of wetlands management plans for those mentioned in the list published with the Ramsar Convention (Sönmez, Onmuş, 2006). The objective of the current "Regulations for the Preservation of Wetlands" (Anonymous 2005) is to establish the principles of collaboration and coordination among the institutions and organizations responsible for the preservation and development of wetlands, independent of their international significance. An important step was taken with the " Regulations for the Preservation of Wetlands" and the principles of preservation and use of wetlands, the principles of identification and implementation of preservation zones, the process of the declaration of the Ramsar Zones and the duties and related procedures for the National Wetlands Commission were determined (URL 2). The Ministry of Environment and Urbanism has been developing the Wetland Management Plans since 1999 based on the "rational use of wetlands" directive in Ramsar Convention. The wetland management plan is a constitution for that area and includes activities that assign various duties and responsibilities to all interest groups with a collaborative approach for the solution of wetlands problems, in addition to the determination of the general preservation and use principles. Wetland management plans possess a dynamic structure and are updated every five years. In this context, new measures against new problems or threats that may arise are included and currently unnecessary measures are eliminated (URL 3).There are 14 Ramsar areas, 45 wetlands of national significance, 8 wetlands with local significance in Turkey (URL 4). WETLAND MANAGEMENT PLAN Wetland management plan is a technical document that defines the current status and the prospective status of the wetland, and the road in between. The most important factor that distinguishes the management plan and physical plans is that it is designed and implemented within a process. Thus, the management plan,  Gathers all interest groups and planners for a unified management in the area,  Enables a strong integration, collaboration and communications between these groups,  Promotes active participation and initiative-taking of these groups in management,  Contributes to the harmony of inter-industrial policies, stipulates the solution of disagreements. The plans are commonly developed for a 5-year period. This may vary based on the habitat type and the variables in the field. For fields with fewer variables, a management plan can be developed for 10 years or more. The present study would scrutinize the urban pressures on Gediz delta due to 111 the changes in Izmir province and usage changes based on wetland management. Thus, initially, the area would be introduced and the changes in delta management process over the years would be revealed. GEDIZ DELTA Gediz Delta (380 30'K, 260 55'D) is located in Izmir province and within the boundaries established by Izmir Gulf (Bostanlı) in the south, Aegean Sea in the west, Foça hills in the north and Menemen district in the east. Figure 1: Gediz Delta Boundaries (Source: URL 5) 112 The 20400 hectare section of Delta is a typical Mediterranean delta ecosystem that includes salt and freshwater marshes (5000 ha), bays and saltpans (3300 ha) and four lagoons (Homa 1824 ha; Çilazmak, 725 ha; Kırdeniz 450 ha; Taş, 500 ha). Gediz delta that both includes fresh and saltwater habitats creates an ideal nutritional, accommodational and breeding grounds for many species with diverse habitat requirements. This is one of the wetland areas of the country with international significance where around 220 waterfowl species regularly reside (Kocataş, A. et al., 2000). Gediz Delta has a rich biodiversity and a very important bird habitat. Thus, the delta is called 'Izmir Bird Paradise'. A total of 281 bird species were identified in the delta during bird observations. Delta, along with the Salt Lake, is one of the largest flamingo habitats in Turkey (URL 5). Gediz Delta Management Gediz Delta, which is one of the most important wetlands in Turkey due to the fact that it provides a habitat for more than 280 bird species, 80-120 thousand waterfowls, more than 700 plant species, countless fish and several invertebrates and mammals, was identified as "Important Bird Land" (IBL) and "Important Nature Area" (INA) due to its biodiversity, and it was included RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands with International Significance as a Specialized Waterfowl Living Environment by the Ministry of Environment on 15.04.1998. Thus, the delta management plan was initiated by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry in 2004. Within the framework of the legal obligations, the aim was to develop proposals for the identification and resolution of environmental problems encountered in Gediz Delta, as well as the rational use of the area as a preservation approach (Sönmez, Onmus, 2006). Figure 2: Preservation Status Boundaries at Gediz Delta (Source: URL 5) 113 However, the delta now faces two major threats. The first is legislative changes on wetlands regulations. And, the other is the Gulf Transit Project. The fact that the approval of Gediz Delta Wetland Preserve Regions with the 5th article of Decision No. 28-2017 / 1 dated 30.03.2017 by the Ministry of Forestry and Waterworks National Wetlands Commission as a result of field study conducted on 23.02.2017 and the related ministry approval dated 26/04/2017, no: 380 was against the international and national legislation for various reasons was kept in the agenda continuously by vocational chambers and environmental NGOs. The definition of "sensitive use zone" in the regulation dated 2017 is different when compared to the definition in the Article 4 of the Regulations on the Preservation of Wetlands amended with RC (TMMOB, EGEÇEP, Joint Report with the Association of Underwater Research). Figure 3: Gediz Delta Preservation Regions as determined with Regulations on the Preservation of Wetlands amended with RC dated 04/04/2014, no: 28962 (URL 6) Another issue in the above-mentioned regulation was the buffer zone at the delta. The Buffer Zone definition accepted by the Fourteenth Office of the Council of State dated 13.04.2016 and no: 2016/2827 was ignored in the decision and the fact that Buffer Zone boundary should be at least 2500 meters from the wetland borders was neglected. Although a large section of the Gediz Delta Wetlands provided the Sensitive Preservation Zone criteria as mentioned in the legislation, the Sensitive Preservation Zone concept was completely excluded from the study on the preservation zones conducted by the National Wetland Commission. Based on the current satellite images of the Gediz Delta Wetlands, the area should include zones that provide 114 sensitive criteria. Certain areas that are compatible with the Sensitive Preservation Zone were marked with the term "Sensitive Use" that does not exist in regulations according to the official communication annexes that were the subject of a court case (TMMOB, EGEÇEP, Joint Report with the Association of Underwater Research). Figure 4: The sections that fulfill the sensitive preservation zone criteria based on the Article 4 of the Regulations on the Preservation of Wetlands amended with RC dated 04/04/2014, no: 28962 (Source: URL 6) Another important point in the Regulation that was published in 2017 and examined in the present study was the overlap of sensitive zone and controlled zone use boundaries. There was no ecological knowledge base data on why the small changes in the above-mentioned boundaries were determined. Figure 5: The sections that fulfill the controlled use zone criteria based on the Article 4 of the Regulations on the Preservation of Wetlands amended with RC dated 04/04/2014, no: 28962 (Source: URL 6) 115 Changes Implemented During the Management Process In several Turkish wetlands, draining works were conducted to fight against malaria between 1950 and 1970 due to the fact that these were breeding grounds for mosquitoes (Gürer and Yıldız, 2008). In that era, in addition to the fight with malaria, drainage was conducted to create agricultural lands and to protect these lands from floods. In the 1980s, the objective of drainage works changed. The main reason for this change was the establishment of organized industrial zones, especially in metropolitan cities, based on the approach that the locomotive of the economy was the industries (Öztürk and Özyakışır, 2005, p.2; OSBDER, 2010, p.7). The interventions in delta zones in Turkey such as construction, alterations of the stream direction, drainages and dredge landfills were all conducted at Gediz Delta. Thus, after the alteration of the Gediz riverbed, the remaining riverbed was landfilled and İzmir Atatürk Organized Industrial Zone was constructed on this land in 1980. The industrial zones are concentrated in the southern section of the plain on the Izmir Gulf coast. In zoning map, these areas are out of the border of agricultural areas. Certain factors promoted the concentration of industrial areas on these lands. First, these lands are located to the north of Izmir Gulf. The proximity of the area to Izmir downtown was among the reasons why the industrial development was facilitated. Izmir is the urban area with the most intensive industrial activity in the Aegean region. Today, the concentration of industrial activities in Izmir forced industrialists to search for new land. Gediz delta plains created an alternative due to the proximity of the area to Izmir and ease of transportation (URL 7). In Gediz delta and its immediate vicinity, the organized industrial zone, Free Leather Zone and treatment facilities continue to operate. There is no doubt that new facilities will be constructed on these areas. The continual construction of these facilities would lead to the use of the land for non-agricultural purposes. Today, the area includes farmlands, residential areas and industrial areas. As the number of industries and settlements increase, agricultural lands face certain hazards. The most significant hazard is water and soil pollution. Furthermore, the water requirements of the facilities lead to water shortages. All these development have an adverse effect on agricultural activities (URL 7). The suitable location of the delta and favorable natural environment attracted the settlements. Based on latest research, settlements in this region date back to 6000 years ago. The presence of settlements since prehistoric times in the area depends on the possibilities offered by the space. The settlements are dense in certain spaces, while they are sparse in others. In particular, the urban sprawl in the form of mass housing and secondary housing complicated the conditions. Roughly, the morphological units include the plain, mountainous areas, and plains on the slopes. The inclusion of such units was more influenced than the distribution of settlements (URL 7). The most intensive settlements in the area are located at the skirts of Yamanlar mountainous area towards the plain. Settlements in this area exhibit a distribution surrounding the mountainous area. The density of industrial facilities and proximity 116 to the city of Izmir are important factors that affect the distribution of settlements in the area. The most important urban settlements in eastern and southern sections of the plain are Karsiyaka and Menemen districts. In addition to the above-mentioned factors that create a pressure on the wetlands, the use of delta as a salt production field demonstrates the extent of the multi-faceted tragedy (Alevkayalı and Tağıl, 2018). The rapid urbanization experienced in Turkey during the past two decades is clearly demonstrated by the change of zoning in Gediz Delta area between 2005 and 2010. This process is manifested by the rapid increase in human construction over the years. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION In the present study, the problems that Gediz delta experienced under the pressure of urbanization and the changes in the land use and legal regulatory practices were discussed. Due to the historical background of the delta as a coastal wetland system, its delicate and dynamic landscape characteristics, the fact that planning and management of the delta should be conducted based on its significance as a wetland and present and potential pressures is of vital importance for the future of the province. The fact that Gediz Delta is located in the development areas of Izmir, which is one of the urban areas that demonstrate rapid development in Turkey, led to intense changes in land use in the area. Rapid and unplanned urban development is accompanied with several problems. In the present study conducted on Gediz Delta, the problems due to uncontrolled and distorted changes and rent-based amendments in the regulations were emphasized. It was observed that the legal regulations concerning the delta led to the danger of urbanization in the delta. The preservation boundaries established with Ramsar convention are not considered sufficient for the delta that is located in the urban development zone. Reduction of urban pressure on the area could be achieved by considering the construction of preservation zone boundaries together with the basin boundaries, not only within the delta boundaries. This would allow the protection of the delta against the pressures and increase its functionality as a wetland. Furthermore, environmental and nature awareness education should be organized, the area should be recognized in local, national and international scales and promotional work should be conducted based on the preservation utilization balance of Gediz Delta for the sustainability of the area for the future generations. REFERENCES Alevkayalı, Ç., Tağıl, Ş. (2018). Ortak Malların Trajedisi Üzerine Teoriler: Gediz Deltası'nda Arazi Kullanımı-Arazi Örtüsü Değişimi.SDÜ Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Nisan 2018, Sayı: 43, ss. 120-142. Çağırankaya, S., Köylüoğlu, F. (2013). T.C. Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanlığı Doğa Koruma ve Milli Parklar Genel Müdürlüğü Sulak Alanlar, s.7-38. 117 http://www.turkiyesulakalanlari.com/sulak-alanlar/[Erişim Tarihi: 30.03.2018]. Kocatas, A.; Balık, S., andUstaoglu, M.R., 2000. The Final Report on Sub Project of Gediz Basin Wetland Area Management Plan. Ankara, Turkey: Ministry of Environment, General Directorate of Environmental Protection, pp.51. Öztürk, S., Özyakışır, D. (2005). Türkiye Ekonomisinde 1980 Sonrası Yaşanan Yapısal Dönüşümlerin Gsmh, Dış Ticaret Ve Dış Borçlar Bağlamında Teorik Bir Değerlendirmesi. Mevzuat Dergisi, 94, s.1-19. Sönmez, Ö.İ., Onmuş, O. (2006). Sulak Alan Yönetim Planı Süreci Gediz Deltası Örneğinde SosyoEkonomik Analiz Çalıșmaları. Planlama dergisi, 2006/3, s.1726. URL1: http://webdosya.csb.gov.tr/db/ced/editordosya/cevre_sorun_2017.pdf URL 2: http: //www.resmigazete.gov.tr/2014/04/20140404-11.htm URL 3: https://acikders.ankara.edu.tr/pluginfile.php/15362/mod_resource/content/0 /10.%20hafta.pdf URL 4: http://www.turkiyesulakalanlari.com/sulak-alanlar/ URL 5: http://www.dogadernegi.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/08/DD_Gediz_camur _tehdit_raporu_121228.pdf URL 6: www.tmmobizmir.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/korfez_rapor-.doc URL 7: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272503956_Gediz_Delta_Ma na gement_Plan_Gediz_Deltasi_Yonetim_Plani 118 Chapter 9 Concept of Urban Square in Sustainable Cities Elif BAYRAMOĞLU1 and Nazlı Mine YURDAKUL2 1 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Forestry Faculty, Karadeniz Technical University, Department of Landscape Architecture, Trabzon, Turkey 2 Grad. Std.; Forestry Faculty, Karadeniz Technical University, Department of Landscape Architecture, Trabzon, Turkey INTRODUCTION In recent years, urbanization has increased rapidly due to technological developments in parallel, problems have arisen in the living standards of people and in the quality of life in urban centers. One of the important elements of urban open green spaces is urban squares. Urban open spaces are areas located in green areas and used extensively by the people of the city, generally located in the city center. The squares are places where communities have formed for centuries and the places where they can find many different activities in physical, cultural and economic direction. The squares have the natural, cultural, social and economical functions of the city they are located in. For this reason, the city has important functions as a focal point. The first urban open spaces reflect the city's cultural heritage and are the cultural environments that link the past and the future. Today, however, the process of change and transformation in cities has led to the disappearance of the functionality, attractiveness and urban identity of urban squares. This change reduces the quality of life of the city as part of social life. In this process, the urban culture is forgotten due to the pressure of design and management, and unidentified and unqualified spaces emerge. Urban concept Cities in general terms are places where non-agricultural economic activities with a certain population are made (Ektiren, 2017). Based on the factors of establishment and development, they can carry different characteristic constructions such as the intensive construction, rich historical texture, important geographical and geological structures (Karagüler and Korgavuş, 2014). Throughout centuries, cities have made considerable progress in terms of human relationships in Western culture. Their production and consumption capacities and access to education have made it possible for almost everything to be reshaped, from law to politics. Thus, many concepts such as accessibility, democracy and human rights in the first place have been moved to the top and become concepts recognized by the whole world. (Karataş & Kılıç, 2017). In this direction, the cities that have various characteristic features from past to today can be classified as Castle Cents, Antique Cities, Historical Cities with Natural Heritage and Island Cities. In fact, cities are innovative central points where people live their lives and benefit from the earth. Different types of activities come together in the city, and an open system is found in which each element is tightly connected. In this respect, the city is a settlement system with its own characteristics and concentrated in a certain space (Topal, 2004). In this context, for a settlement unit to carry urban quality;  Having achieved a certain population size and population density,  The fact that the agricultural production has gone from a higher level of industrial production to the industrial production,  The physical infrastructure of the settlement has reached a certain level,  The fact that the traditional family structure has been resolved and left its place in the core family structure,  The population has been organized in large proportions, has reached a complex division of labor and a high level of specialization,  The place of local values, national values or universal values,  The fact that traditional relations (community type) are solved and individual relations or individual interests are at the forefront,  The level of education is higher than the level of education in rural areas and the development of non-family institutions in child care and education,  The place of social norms is taken by official supervisory bodies,  The statutory should not have to come from the family, but should carry the traits such as the individual being gained by their own efforts (Kaya, 2007). Sustainable cities The concept of sustainability is based on much earlier cases than in 1986. It has emerged with the struggle of societies to regard nature and man as a part of the whole, and to be in an effort to live a life that suits it. The starting point of sustainable urban development thinking is that industrialized countries continue to grow and overuse natural resources, risking the lives of future generations. These adverse developments against the nature have strengthened the awareness that increasingly the social environment must be protected (Ertaş, 2016; Karataş & Kılıç, 2017). In 1987, the concept of sustainability gained importance with the Brutland Report and a definition was made which means that today's needs can be met in a healthy and balanced way by considering the needs of future generations (UN, 1987). Since the Brutland Report, the concept has begun to be seen as a system of values accepted throughout the world and practiced in all areas of life. According to the report, the conditions for a sustainable development;  To provide a political system that will ensure effective participation of citizens in decision making  To provide an economical system that can provide self-sustaining and sustainable production surplus and technical information  To provide a social system that can find solutions to the consequences of incompatible conditions  To provide a technological system that can produce new solutions 120 continuously (Güneş, 2004). The concept first appeared in the World Nature Conservation document, which was adopted in 1982 by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). According to this circumstance; "It is foreseen that they should be managed in such a way that they can achieve the optimum sustainability of the ecosystem, organisms, land, sea and atmosphere resources that people enjoy, but that it does not jeopardize the integrity of ecosystems and species" (Tosun, 2009). The sustainable urbanization approach involves all the environmental (built environment/natural environment), social and economic elements influenced by urban development and affecting urban development in an interrelated manner; economic and social development with environmental protection and improvement purposes (Karakurt Tosun, 2009). In this context, Wheeler (2004) identified what should be in sustainable societies as activity, inclusivity, security, good governance, good transport, good service, environmental awareness, good development, good design and construction, equality for all. Urban open spaces are places where the sustainable concept of cities is most felt and influenced. Urban Open Space Concept The place is a space that meets the physiological, psychological and social needs of the inhabitants (Schulz, 1971). According to Kuban (1992), it is a form that is organized as a whole by including features related to human life as much as it is formal. The outward opening of the space and the space created by the relations between each other and other objects are called "urban space" (İnceoğlu & Aytuğ, 2009; Düzenli et al. 2010). The most widely used area of urban life from the past to the present day is the urban open-green spaces. These areas are becoming increasingly prevalent in the globalizing world and are areas of social, political and cultural diversity. Urban open green spaces feature the obligatory areas of use in the city, such as transportation, housing, work, health, and service. As well as providing opportunities for the inhabitants of the city, providing social, psychological, functional and recreational facilities, contributing to urban ecology and contributing to urban aesthetic sense (Şavklı & Yılmaz, 2013; Alpak et al., 2018). They are places that are accessible to all physical, domestic and foreign people, with very few restrictions in towns, cities and rural areas (Madanipour, 1999). One of the most important elements of urban open and green areas is urban squares. It is an important public space that urban life uses for social, cultural, political and commercial purposes on special occasions (Özer & Ayten, 2005). The space distinguishes between natural and architectural formation by limiting some elements. These items include architectural planks ceilings, upholstery, columns and beams; include outdoor space, the sky, the horizon, the bushes, the trees and the clouds are natural places. Urban spaces that are architectural space or natural space as well as the special situation of architectural space; streets, buildings or green spaces with them (Joedicke, 1985; Altan, 1992). Urban open spaces vary according to urban ecology, aesthetic, imaginary or recreational functions. These functions can be shaped according to the structure of the space and can have more than one function (Atabay, 1991). Urban open spaces 121 are not suitable for any purpose and are suitable for recreational use. Areas of use are perceived as water surfaces, potential areas such as squares and transportation areas with no or little vegetation elements on them (Gül & Küçük, 2001). Urban Square as Urban Open Space The square "Latin" expanded open space, "Platea", which means street, emerged from the word "Place" in English and French (Marcus & Francis, 1998). According to Oztan, it is a volumetric arrangement in which people perform their activities, limited to elements horizontally and vertically within a sense of being integrated and possessive (Önder & Alkanoğlu, 2002). According to Kevin Lynch, the squares are intense activity foci surrounded by high density and wide walls formed in urban spaces. Historically, the city has been used for many purposes, such as the day-to-day cityscape or sight-seeing of these areas, where the city can be relieved of the complexity of the city and offer relaxation and rest (Moughtin et.al., 1999; Moughtin, 2003). URL, 1. Times square, URL, 2. Old Town square, URL, 3. San Marco Square URL, 4. Piazza Novano The city attracts the attention of the people and the usage area is quite high. The reason for this is the user factor. The greater the number of people using the space, the greater the attractiveness of the user (Barnet, 1982). It is the most prominent and most skewed center of the city. It is defined in the same way as urban areas such as street, street. The difference between them is the necessity for the spaces to be surrounded by buildings to form a continuity and define the square. (İnceoğlu, 2007) The more permanent and proportionally this encirclement is, the higher the spatial quality of the plaza (Aygün Öztürk, 2009). The Krier (1979) define as site; agora, forum, monastery hunter, mosque courthouse, etc., and that these symbolic examples have formed a "model" for the developments that may be in the future spirits. The squares sometimes appear as spontaneous areas that are useful for their original purposes and sometimes as a result of the use of certain conditions of use left in people. As a place to live in, it is the most prominent example of urban spaces and one of the elements that make up city texture. It reflects the cultures, beliefs and values of the society in which they are situated and the areas in which 122 social changes are revealed. Besides, the squares must be able to provide service to the needs of the users. According to Zucker (1959), the boundaries of urban squares with architectural elements must be in the form of urban parts that have certain social functions and are connected to certain urban fabric. Urban squares; it is perceived as the boundaries of the space become visible. And it is these boundaries that determine the behavior within the space. There are three elements that limit the squares; the array of buildings surrounding the square, the width of the floor and the sky. These are the relationship established by the forms of the surrounding constructions, the organization of these constructions, the three dimensional proportional balance of the open space of these constructions, the openings of the open spaces and the location of the three dimensional elements such as sculpture or fountain (Aygün Öztürk, 2009). Paul Zucker (1959) classified as squares; i) Closed squares, ii) Defined squares, iii) Core squares, iv) Grouped squares, v) Unmatched squares. Functions are important in urban squares. For this reason, the squares with visual appeal are usually the ones that can provide various possibilities to use the building surrounding them. The encircling of the spaces in this way creates an architectural style from the undifferentiated complex of the city, which is expressed in the purest form of a "sense of place" (Krier, 1979). Quality of life in urban squares The concept of quality is a total feature that allows the needs to be met (Burt, 1978). His concept of quality of life first appeared in a study of Long in 1960. Then, with the human rights declaration, it became a universal goal that societies aim to reach. The fact that quality of life is a universal phenomenon begins with the theory of Maslow (1970). According to Maslow, there are basic needs that must be met at every stage of human life. The quality of life is emphasized that the quality of these needs is important as well as the quantity (Aydıner Boylu & Paçacıoğlu, 2016). According to Maslow, human needs are categorized as physical needs, security needs, social needs, respect and personal need. According to the classification, spaces that satisfy these conditions are described as high quality of life for people. According to Van Kamp and colleagues (2003), quality of life, measurable spatial, physical and social components of the environment and the perception of these components are considered together. According to this, not only the objective characteristics of the individual's perception forms but also the individual influences are evaluated. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), quality of life is a way of perceiving and evaluating individuals' situations in life in the context of the system of cultural structures and values they belong to. The establishment of a reliable system of measurement and monitoring of quality of life requires a comprehensive understanding of economic and social trends and developments in particular (WHO, 1995). The concept approach comes and develops with the needs of modern life, with the contemporary structure of society. In this sense, it is about determining and using the criteria or indicators to be used in evaluating the quality of life. Campbell et al. (1976) used the approach of measuring the perception, evaluation and satisfaction of individuals in conceptualizing the quality of life experience. Marans and Cooper (2000) argued that the quality of life of any 123 geographical unit is a perceptual phenomenon and that each individual's opinions may be different from the conceptual viewpoint. In this respect, the quality of life in the corridors must be designed in accordance with the need for people to make peaceful, comfortable and happy recreational activities. It should be at a level that meets user needs in terms of size, form and form. According to researches made in recent years, studies have been carried out to determine the characteristics and indicators that reflect the quality of life in urban, street and district areas. In this sense, perceptible criteria have been determined for every space. These criteria include climate (environmental pollution), use of demographic features and transportation (rates of use type, distance to park area, distance to shopping area, distance to hospital, distance to transport line and station), ecological (forest, lake, the size of the natural resources, such as vegetation) and urban texture characteristics (Marans, 2007). RESULTS Sustainable cities are important for the conservation, improvement and development of natural resources integrates with social and economic development purpose and influences urban development. All environmental (built environment / natural environment) allows social and economic elements to develop in an interrelated and balanced manner. At this important time in the 21st century, when a large part of the world's population lives in cities, raising the quality of life in cities will be an important factor in human happiness. Urban squares are used extensively by urban people in urban areas and provide urban cultures with an area of being located in the city center or nearest to the city. These spaces have an important relative in the formation and maintenance of urban cultures. For this reason urban squares must be able to transfer our past experiences, history and culture to future generations. In fact, urban squares reflect the spatial and local social assessment of the quality of life. Certain criteria are required for a successful design in the squares; Image and Identity, Attractions and Destinations, Amenities, Flexible Design, Seasonal Strategy, Access, The Inner Square and The Outer Square, Reaching out Like an Octopus, The Central Role of Management, Diverse Funding Sources (İnceloğlu & Aytuğ, 2009). For this reason, it is necessary to produce planning tools that will qualify as squares. 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Town and square: From the agora to the village green, Columbia University Press, New York 126 Chapter 10 Visual Landscape Quality Assessment and Reflection on Urban Areas Gülbin ÇETİNKALE DEMİRKAN Assist. Prof. Dr., Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Niğde, Turkey INTRODUCTION Mankind has begun to understand better the importance of nature and natural resources due to increasing environmental problems and diminishing green spaces with changing cities and societies. At this point it has become inevitable to maintain the sustainability of landscaping landscapes that have become particularly noticeable in urban areas, and to preserve while using them. The determination of the visual quality of landscape landscapes, not only economically but also aesthetically, has an important place in ecosystem management (Özgüç Erdönmez & Çağlayan Kaptanoğlu, 2008). Aesthetics expresses the specific indications of the relationship between human beings and reality, including beauty and ugliness, supreme and vulgar, tragic and funny evaluations, and is also the main component of art (Özhancı &Yılmaz, 2017). Landscape not only refers to the visual perception of the shape of the land, the vegetation and the surrounding structures but also the historical environments, other cultural features, wildlife and seasonal changes, and the effects created by them (Asur & Alphan, 2018). In this context, the visual components of landscape not only constitute an aesthetic value, but also show the relation of cultural, economic and biological factors to each other. A landscape can change over time with natural or anthropogenic influences. Changes in sea level, natural disasters, agriculture, and settlements can be the cause of this change. Analysis of the visual components of the landscape and a method for preserving these components, and the analysis of sensitivity and conservation needs within the framework of the steps are required. In this case, the way to follow is (Krause, 2001);  Limiting the landscape units with a characteristic styling of the structural elements and their landscape mosaic texture  Differences between macros, mezzo and microstructures in a single landscape unit (images, spatial orientations and landscapes can be isolated by building blocks)  Determining protection requirements and sensitivity for some types of intervention and degradation  To examine the degree of degradation caused by a proposed development and to show the ways to avoid it, to reduce this situation to the least, to compensate for important and ongoing degradation. 127 People perceive objects after seeing them, and can or cannot embrace them with perceptions. In this point, the influential objects in the world are meant to be emotional, meaningful and symbolically meaningful for humans. Thus, perceived objects will reflect the feelings they have on people and will act as sensory and cognitive memory of one's memory (Irmak & Yılmaz, 2010). In this case, the object in front of one's eyes will result in positive or negative emotions, corresponding to an idealized concept with the object in the mind. (Figure 1). Figure 1: Perception Process of the Object (Gibson, 1986) The different types of elements or units that a landscape has and the different or perceivable variable or predominant structure of the landscape in relation to the good or the bad reveal the unique structure of the landscape (Ak, 2010). Landscape quality is perceptual and objective, as it generally includes environmental / ecological, sociocultural, and psychological factors and is defined in a broader structure and reveals not only the physical aspects of the landscape but also the observations of the eyes that observe / follow it at the same time. For this reason, it is very difficult to evaluate the quality of the environment. The visual quality used in defining the elements of the landscape or the structure they have is intended to be regarded as synonymous with beauty and objective value, while aesthetic satisfaction is expressed as personal and subjective value and as an object is better than the other. (Wherrett, 1996). Visual landscape quality assessment is a method used to determine changes in landscape characters and to identify the effects created by landscape characters and how the potential changes affect sensitivity. In the visual landscape quality assessment, inventory work and landscape qualifications are determined in the context of planning, design and management to determine what is in the landscape (Palmer & Hoffman, 2001). Although there are many approaches to visual landscape quality assessment, two approaches are generally considered. One of these is an expert approach (objective or physical approach model), an approach based on environmental management practices. Planners and geographers, for example, classify and map landscapes by evaluating soil class, product form or plant cover and special 128 formations. They evaluate the physical characteristics of the landscape in this direction (Polat, 2015). The second approach, the perception approach (subjective or psychological approach model), is based on perception and research (Irmak & Yılmaz, 2010). The expert approach; is based on items that can be measured by people's perceptions such as diversity, unity, contrast, suitability, rate, which are considered as general determinants of design elements. In the perception approach, the landscape quality is based on the perception of the observer. Evaluation is done using questionnaires and objectivity is evaluated as subjective (Özgüç Erdönmez & Çağlayan Kaptanoğlu, 2008; Irmak & Yılmaz, 2010; Ak, 2010; Wang et al., 2016). In this study, it is aimed to emphasize the importance of visual landscape quality assessment in terms of planning and design especially in rapidly changing and developing urban areas and to guide similar works to be done. STUDIES ON VISUAL LANDSCAPE QUALITY ASSESSMENT Visual landscape quality assessment has a wide working area. It is used in the assessment of historical sites, urban and rural landscapes, agricultural lands, recreation areas, forests, water resources, various geographical features. Tüfekçioğlu (2008), determined the visual landscape quality evaluation around Istanbul / Yedikule historical according to criteria of consistency, readability, complexity, temporality, portability, possessiveness, historicity, naturalness, visual scale and sense of space. Suggestions have been made for determining the deficiencies for historical sites. It has been reported that visual landscape quality assessments must be made in order to improve the quality of life in urban areas. In the study of determining the landscape characteristics of the Evciler district which is a rural settlement in Ankara, it has been reported that rural settlements should be included in the focus of their studies on spatial planning, design and management, and that in order to be able to realize this, the rural settlement landscape characteristics should be determined according to a certain method. Ak (2010), showed the differences between the existing images and the edited images by determining the level of regularity, openness, maintenance and the presence of natural elements by showing photographs and improved edited images to the user group consisting of expert and halcyon in Akçakoca city shore band and its surrounding works. Irmak & Yılmaz (2010), determined the tourism potential of the region with the visual landscape quality evaluation of resource values containing items related to flowering plants, historical works, rivers, lakes, forests, meadows, geological formations and rural landscape characters in different areas in and around Erzurum province. Aytaş & Uzun (2015), evaluated the naturalness, manageability and historical features of the landscape with the psychophysical approach model in the studies of the visual landscape quality of the pedestrian areas in Düzce city center. It has been determined that the visual landscape characteristic which has the most effect on the perception and appreciation factors is naturalness. It has been reported that in the planning and design studies, the visual landscape characteristics of the pedestrian areas are taken into consideration, the maintenance works are given importance, and 129 the visual landscape quality of the city can be increased. Düzgüneş & Demirel (2015), determined the necessary measures to be taken at the point of sustainability by identifying the areas that need to be protected in their studies that determined the visual landscape quality evaluation of Altındere Valley National Park. Gavridilis et al. (2016), assessed the urban landscape quality index in a locality in Romania in terms of construction, green spaces, transport infrastructure, industrial areas, commercial sites, places of worship, public institutions, traffic, people's living conditions, ethnic structure and waste management of the population. By creating a map that represents the quality of the urban area according to the results they obtained, they indicated that the index they determined can be used a guide. Dere (2017), in the study which identifies visual landscape features on TEM highway in Istanbul, wanted experts and users to evaluate the photos that determined as; artificial-natural, boring-interesting, conventional-new, unsettlingrelaxing, insecure-safe, repulsive-attractive, mixed-understandable, incompatibleharmonious, well-maintained-not maintained, not aesthetic-aesthetic. Özhancı & Yılmaz (2017), in their studies on visual landscape quality evaluation of university campus, mountain ecosystems, rural landscape areas and recreation areas; preference and confidence in university campuses; visual preference, naturalness, vitality, fascination, interestingness (difference), integrity, value of photography in mountain ecosystems; naturalness, openness, diversity, order, trustiness, harmony and landscape beauty in rural landscape areas; and in the recreation areas, analysis was carried out by using naturalness, diversity, consistency, openness, mystery, perspective, trust, order, landscape beauty and recreational value criteria. The concept of preferred / not favored landscape, the real value of the landscape, the ideal landscape and the landscape functions has been evaluated. Pouya & Behbahani (2017), in their study of visual quality assessment according to the perception approach in designing a monumental garden in Iran, evaluated the images they got from the three points that are dominant in the field by using the scoring method and stated that the design of the garden can be decided according to the perceptions of the visual items in determining the field uses so that a sustainable and dynamic monument area can be created in the city. Sandal Erzurumlu & Kahveci (2017), identified structural and plant equipment and environmental problems in the Campus settlement in Niğde in their work and carried out and determined their effects on people. The photographs were evaluated by the expert group and it was stated that the structural and plant equipment were not properly maintained and not designed according to design principles. It has been reported that in subsequent spatial decisions and projects visual landscape quality assessment can be used as a guide. Qi et al. (2017), used natural beauty estimation method and semantic difference estimation method in their photographs taken during the same time period before and after lunch in their studies evaluating the visual and sensory landscape qualities of urban parks in Beijing. Their work scored visual quality 130 according to criteria of element richness, color richness, herbaceousness, plant variety, regularity, naturalness, beauty sensation, wildness, vitality, feeling of happiness, stereoscopic impression, harmony, localism, simplicity and peace. The common point of these works is that visual landscape quality assessment is a guide in planning and design work to be done in urban or rural areas. Visual landscape quality assessment is important in terms of conservation and sustainability of the areas. NEED FOR VISUAL LANDSCAPE QUALITY EVALUATION Nowadays, the need of the human being for the visual saturation provided by the intact natural environment has increased in the dense and crowded urban areas, which are becoming increasingly concrete. To meet this need, open green spaces in cities are gaining importance. However, problems arise in the planning and design process of these areas. In the environmental planning and design process, the determination of the abstract and concrete qualities of the environment is the main source of the solution of the problems. In addition, because of the interaction between the people and the people who use it, the concept of visual resource should be placed in the environmental resources. The purpose of the visual landscape quality assessment is to determine the sensitivity to possible changes by collecting information on the current visual characteristics and situation. The information obtained will guide the decisionmaking and strategy development in resource management activities through the use of space planning (Asur & Alphan, 2018). • Especially in the areas of cultural heritage where there are irregular urbanization, the areas that need to be preserved such as historical areas and the areas that need special protection, • Identifying methods that compare research areas aesthetically, • Monitoring of the changes caused by negative effects on landscape areas with special qualities, • Determining the changes in the landscape and some anthropogenic influences, creating a method to determine the operations to be done before and after the work, • In determining the factors that are important in terms of environmental preferences and in identifying and classifying the physical components of the landscape, • Visual landscape quality assessment is needed for determining the preferences of different user groups and obtaining findings (Asur & Alphan, 2018). CRITERIA USED IN VISUAL LANDSCAPE QUALITY EVALUATION The evaluation of natural qualities by relating them to the natural landscape is effective in determining the visual quality of the landscape. The harmonization of manmade features with the natural landscape increases the value of naturalness. As the landscape evaluation requires a multidisciplinary evaluation, specialists need to have knowledge of the design. The landform, slope, water, vegetation cover, forest 131 area, close landscape, agricultural areas, animal existence, residential areas, rarity, cultural changes, other land uses, transportation network, historical areas are visible characteristic features. These characteristics are evaluated as exist-absence or as high, medium, low or insignificant. In the visual quality evaluation study of any scale, the characteristic of the view and the surrounding elements that are subject to evaluation must be defined within the scope of the purpose of work by determining the characteristics of the observer's point of view and other variables (Table 1). Table 1: Environmental Components That Play a Role in Determining Visual Quality (Kalın, 2004) Characteristic Features of the Object’s influencer Characteristic Features of Landscape  Color  Form  Texture  Quality and grouping  Length field  Movement  Noise, odor, etc.  Scale (by environment)  Color  Texture  Water structure  Topography  Plant structure  Relics and endemics  Unique combinations  Interfaces of vegetation types  Ground cover and pattern  Architectural form and feature  Historical significance  Uniqueness of the site  Visual character  Panoramic  Oriented to the object  Enclosed  Focused  Shaded  Perceived by atmospheric conditions Characteristic Features of Observer     Sensitivity Behavior Expectation Preference Characteristic Features of Point of View and Other Variables  Point of view  Renewal by object  Quality (landscaped road / path, historic area, wild nature, dumps, streets, etc.)  Other variables  Image duration  Atmospheric conditions  Season  Light CONCLUSION Today, it has emerged that the protection and sustainability of natural and cultural landscaping qualities must be supported not only by ecological benefits and management tools but also by visual resource management at the same time. Taking nature as priority in human nature interaction and making arrangements to include human beings in it will enable nature to be protected and transferred to future generations in these days with increasing environmental problems. Protecting 132 natural resources is possible only by determining the value they have. Planning must be done carefully in order to prevent destruction and ensuring continuity in areas where vegetal or natural resources are rich. In this context, the results obtained from the visual quality evaluations that have attracted attention in recent years with the wide scope of work, the planning of urban and rural areas and the creation of policies on design, especially the preservation and sustainability of historical sites which are cultural heritage, in fast and irregularly urbanized cities, it is considered to be an important tool to be used as a guide. In areas that are heavily demanded for tourism, it may also be possible to develop strategies that demonstrate expert opinions and user demand and expectations in the production of space use. In landscape planning and design studies, areas with high qualities and attractiveness in terms of visual maintenance can be evaluated in ecotourism activities It will also be possible to provide continuity for landscape assets when making planning decisions such as protection, maintaining and reinforcement. REFERENCES Ak, M.K., 2010. Akçakoca Kıyı Bandı ÖrneğIinde Görsel Kalı̇ tenı̇ n Belı̇ rlenmesı̇ ve Değerlendı̇ rı̇ lmesı̇ Üzerı̇ ne Bı̇ r Araştırma. Ankara Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim Dalı, Doktora Tezi, 145 s. Asur, F. & Alphan, H. (2018). Görsel Peyzaj Kalite Değerlendirmesi ve Alan Kullanım Planlamasına Olan Etkileri. Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi, Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi 28 (1), 117-125. Aytaş, İ. & Uzun, S. (2015). Düzce Kent Merkezindeki Yaya Alanlarının Görsel Peyzaj Kalitesinin Belirlenmesi. İstanbul Üniversitesi, Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 65 (1), 11-29. Dere, E.E. (2017). Peyzaj Görsel Analizi ve Değerlendirilmesi: TEM Otoyol Örneği. Namık Kemal Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Düzgüneş, E. & Demirel, Ö. (2015). Milli Parklarda Doğal ve Kültürel Kaynak Değerlerinin Görsel Peyzaj Kalite Yönünden Değerlendirilmesi. İnönü Üniversitesi, Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi 5 (12), 12-23. Gavrilidis, A.A.; Ciocănea, C.M.; Nită, M.R.; Onose, D.A. & Năstase, I.I. (2016). Urban Landscape Quality Index – Planning Tool for Evaluating Urban Landscapes and Improving the Quality of Life. Procedia Environmental Sciences 32, 155-167. Gibson, J.J. (1986). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Psychology Press, A Taylor & Francis Group, pp., 332, NewYork Irmak, M.A. & Yılmaz, H. (2010). Farklı Peyzaj Karakter Alanlarına Göre Doğal ve Kültürel Kaynak Değerlerinin Görsel Analizi: Erzurum Örneği. Gaziosmanpaşa Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 27 (2), 45-55. Kalın, A. (2004). Çevre Tercih ve Değerlendirmesinde Görsel Kalitenin Belirlenmesi ve Geliştirilmesi: Trabzon Sahil Bandı Örneği. Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim Dalı, Doktora Tezi, 221 s. Kaptanoğlu, A.Y.Ç. (2008). Peyzajın Görsel Analizinde Grafik Düşünme Süreci ve 133 Soyutlama. İstanbul Üniversitesi, Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 58 (1), 25-38. Kiper, T.; Korkut, A. & Üstün Topal, T. (2017). Görsel Peyzaj Kalite Değerlendirmesi: Kıyıköy Örneği. Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi, Doğa Bilimleri Dergisi 20 (3): 258-269. Köse, Y. & Şahin, Ş. (2017). Bir Kırsal Yerleşim Olarak Evciler Mahallesi Peyzaj Özellikleri. Ankara Araştırmaları Dergisi 5 (2), 257-272. Krause, L.C. (2001). 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Available at: http://macaulay.webarchive.hutton.ac.uk/visualisationlitrev/chap4.html (Accessed: 14.05.2018). 134 Chapter 11 Ecological Properties of Wooden Building Materials Gülru KOCA Assist. Prof. Işık University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Interior Architecture, Istanbul-Turkey INTRODUCTION Wood is a preferred building material from the earliest known years of man’s existence, due to its workability, versatility and aesthetical properties. The earliest known use of wooden constructions is tent-like shelters obtained from little branches (Davey N., 1961; Kelley. et.al., 2000). The large diameter tree trunks started to be used after the improvement of tools such as stone axes and animal teeth. Wood has been used as one of the most preferred structural materials until the Industrial Revolution (Kelley. et.al., 2000, Roth, 1993). The technological developments following the Industrial Revolution have increased the use of modern building materials. However, the manufacturing processes of modern building materials are hazardous to the environment. A significant amount of greenhouse gas is emitted, non-renewable natural resources are consumed and waste is produced during the manufacture of commonly used modern building materials such as; concrete, steel, polymers, etc. (Yeang, 2006). Even though some environmental problems arise at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution because of the modern materials production process, no precautions have been taken. Hence, the environmental problems increased and deepened (Costanzo et al., 2016). High greenhouse gas emission and non-renewable natural resource consumption led to some important environmental problems such as; forest destruction, waste accumulation and global warming. Prevention of these problems is very important in order to ensure sustainability and to protect the ecological balance (Joseph, Tretsiakova, 2010; Nässén et al. 2012). The solutions recommended are; increasing the number of green buildings that consume less natural resource and energy, emitting less carbon, using waste materials and renewable energy sources. WOOD as a BUILDING MATERIAL Wood is a fibrous, homogeneous and anisotropic material which is one of the most precious and useful natural resources that mankind has used throughout history. Wood is being used in many areas such as; fuel, instrument, boat, furniture, decoration and construction. However, the most common use of wood is in the construction industry. Wood is the only basic renewable resource in the world, its waste production during manufacture is low and it absorbs and stores carbon to its trunk during 135 photosynthesis. Therefore it can be mentioned that wood is an environmentally friendly material. Recently due to the increasing environmental concerns, wood’s constructional use is started to be supported more (Yeang, 2006; Cowan, 1991). Wood is used in solid and composite form in construction industry. It is harmless to the environment when it is used in solid form which is sawn directly from the tree trunk and chemically untreated. However, composite wood is hazardous to the environment as it consists volatile organic compounds and polymer resins (Rosen, Heineman, 1996). Recently the environmental impact of composite wood is trying to be eliminated by supporting waste utilization and by using alternative manufacturing processes which use less hazardous chemicals (Joseph, Tretsiakova, 2010). Characteristics of wood Tree is a complex organism which consists of three parts; branch, stem and root. Wood is obtained from the stem of the tree which is composed of; bark, sapwood and heartwood. Bark is the outer part of the stem and contains the cambium layer which produces the wood cells (Rowell, 2012; Illston, Domone, 2001). Each year the cambium layer starts to produce new cells in spring and adds a new annual ring to the stem. The outer part of the stem is named as sapwood and the inner part is named as heartwood (Figure 1). Sapwood is the soft outer layers of recently formed wood containing living cells, therefore it is very attractive to fungi and insects. Heartwood is produced with the death of parenchyma cells which have different chemical properties than the living cells. The greater durability of heartwood is attributed to the Figure 1: Structure of a tree extraneous materials of the dead cells (Illston, trunk (URL 1) Domone, 2001; McDonald et.al. 1996). When the microscopic structure of wood is evaluated; it can be seen that it is composed of multitude units called cells. There are five types of cells in the structure of wood; fibers, tracheids, parenchyma cells, vessel elements and ray cells (Illston, Domone, 2001; McDonald et.al. 1996). The cells combine and form wood tissue and the arrangement varies between different species of wood. The wood species are divided into two groups according to the difference between the cell combinations; hardwoods and softwoods (Figure 2). Softwoods have a simple cell structure and mostly contain only two types of cells; longitudinal tracheids and ray parenchyma. Their wood is mostly lighter than hardwoods and is usually used in timber framed constructions (Lyons, 2004; McDonald et al. 1996). Hardwoods are more complex than softwoods and all hardwoods contain; fibers, parenchyma cells, vessel elements and ray cells. Due to hardwoods have different visual alternatives they are being used in furniture industry and as finishing materials (Lyons, 2004; Rowell, 2012). Cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin comprise the main composition of cell 136 walls of plants, they form a compact structure and greatly affect the properties of wood. While cellulose shows an elastic behavior in short-term loadings, lignin shows a plastic behavior in long-term loadings. Figure 2: Cells of hardwood and softwood (URL 2, 3) Wood also consists of different components in its cell wall such as; resin acids, fatty acids and terpenes which are named as extractives (Lyons, 2004; Illston, Domone, 2001). The properties of the wood are considerably affected by the chemical composition of the tree which differs according to geographical region, growing conditions and age. The wood of two trees from the same species which grow in the same forest may also have different properties according to the location of the tree. Therefore every single tree has unique properties (Illston, Domone, 2001; Binggeli C., ASID, 2007). One of the biggest advantages of using wood as a construction material is; it has a porous structure which decreases its weight and increases its thermal properties. Wood is remarkably strong in relation to its weight, due to the layered cell wall structure and has good thermal and acoustic properties due to its porous structure (Rowell, 2012). Although the properties of the material vary greatly depending on different factors, the strength of wood is quite high, which enables it to be used safely in construction (Figure 3). Manufacturing wood Log construction is the simplest way of using wood, however wood is rarely used as logs in construction. It is usually used as conditioned and sawn for each place of use. The wood of newly cut logs contains a large amount of water which has a significant influence on wood. Therefore after the trees are cut down, they have to be dried to a constant moisture amount in order to decrease the fluctuations in dimensions. Then they are sawn and brought to the desired dimensions (Illston, 137 Domone, 2001; McDonald et al. 1996). Wood drying, which is also named as seasoning, is a process which is applied to improve the dimensional stability, increase the strength and durability of the material. Wood is dried until the moisture level is suitable for the place of use. During the drying process problems such as cracks should also be avoided and therefore, the process has to be controlled. After the drying process, the material is sawn to small dimensions (Lyons, 2004). There are two types of manufactured wood products; solid and composite wood products. When wood is directly sawn from the log, the material is named as solid wood. Wood is named as composite wood when it is sawn into its fibers or chips and then mixed with a binding agent. Laminated wood is also named among composite wood products because it is obtained from layers of wood glued together. Recently, composite wood production has increased due to high consumption of wood being used in different industries. Composite wood is also preferred to avoid the anisotropic behavior and increase the dimensional stability of the material (Rosen, Heineman, 1996). Figure 3: Material property plots for different classes of construction materials (URL 4) 138 Performance of wood The durability and performance of wood is evaluated according to its resistance to deteriorating agents without any preservation. Some wood species have natural antibacterial properties and some have extractives which increase the resistance of the wood. For instance; chestnut and oak have tannins, coniferous trees have resins, exotic trees have fatty acids and some inorganic salts which increase the resistance of wood (Illston, Domone, 2001; Rosen, Heineman, 1996; Addleson, Rice, 1991). The advantages and disadvantages of wood come from its organic structure and problems related to the structural performance of wood depend on its behavior against environmental factors. The factors which effect wood and cause deformations can be divided into three main groups;  Physical factors; cause abrasion and cracks on the wood's surface. Physical deteriorations do not usually give harm to wood and start the other deteriorations.  Chemical factors; change the chemical composition of the material and cause dissolution.  Biological factors; mainly cause microorganism attacks under suitable conditions. Solar rays, temperature variations, freeze-thaw cycles, atmospheric pollution and wind can be counted as the physical deterioration factors. It is not possible for physical factors to degrade wood materials alone, because physical degradation, which is a superficial feature, occurs very slowly. However, physically harmed wood is vulnerable to chemical and biological degradation factors (Cowan, 1991) Due to the extractive materials it include wood is resistant to a large number of chemicals. However, some substances with strong acidic properties increase the pH levels, destroy the cellulosic structure and shorten the life of material (Figure 4). Chlorates, alkalis, phenol, calcium and zinc salts, strong basic salts, sodium sulphite and sodium carbonate destroy the wood. During the chemical degradation process, due to the changes in the chemical structure of wood some mass loss occurs (Illston, Domone, 2001; Kass et al., 1970). Microorganisms that cause deterioration of plants are an indispensable part of all terrestrial ecosystems. The ecosystem would not function without them properly. Microorganisms such as; mold, algae, lichen, fungi and insects attack and deteriorate wood under suitable moisture and temperature conditions (Figure 5). A large variety of microorganisms cause the biodegradation of wood. The humidity and temperature conditions differ according to the type of the microorganism. Fungi, which is the most effective microorganism in the biodegradation of wood is effective between a temperature of 25-30°C and humidity of 35-50%. Wood has to be protected against these microorganisms to prevent biodegradation (Bodig, Jayne, 1982, Rowell, 2012; Wilson, 1984). In order to increase the service life of wooden structural elements;  wood has to be dried to the appropriate moisture content, 139  has to be obtained from a high durability wood class and  the design has to be created with proper details. Figure 4: Salt damage on a wood deck (URL 5) Figure 5: Rot effect on a wooden beam (URL 6) High levels or fluctuations of humidity and temperature enable the development of microorganisms and therefore it is preferable to use heat treated or chemically treated wood in places with varying ambient conditions (Schmidt, 2007). Wood preservative chemicals (chemical treatment) increase the service life of the material and are usually applied to prevent wood against environmental factors, microorganism attacks and fire. A large variety of wood preservatives are used in the preservation of wooden building materials. Heat treatment is also widely being used for the last years in increasing the resistance of wood against environmental factors (Illston, Domone, 2001). Applications of wood Neolithic period is accepted as the beginning of the early civilization and the construction systems and building materials can be investigated afterthis period. According to the researches, wood is being used as a building material from the beginning of humankind. The oldest known examples of wooden constructions are tent-like shelters built with wooden branches and twigs which were obtained from the common tree species of the region (Figure 6). Wood has been used in the construction of low rise buildings until the Industrial Revolution. After the Industrial Revolution, it was mainly used as furniture and finishing materials (Davey N., 1961; Kelley et al., 2000; Roth, 1993). The concerns about sustainability have been the main subject of the 20 th century’s construction industry. The increase in the building production resulted with the excessive consumption of natural resources. Wood composites, which use less raw material in the production process, started to be used widely in the construction industry in order to decrease the consumption of trees. Nowadays, wood composites can be used in every area where solid wood is used (Rosen, Heineman, 1996). 140 Figure 6: Prehistoric hut, Terra Amata, Nice (URL 7) ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF WOOD The environmental problems which are emerged recently due to construction industry are directly linked with the global warming. Some precautions have to be taken in order to decrease the impact of construction industry on climate change, waste production, atmospheric pollution and natural resource consumption. It is stated that greenhouse gas emission values should be reduced by 50% until 2050 in order to solve these ecological problems (Joseph, Tretsiakova – McNally; 2010). The embodied energy and carbon emission of modern building materials are significantly high and therefore it can be mentioned that construction industry is harmful to the ecology. Embodied energy is defined as the sum of energy required to produce a building material, element or entire building over its service life. The service life of the building is the sum of design, production, renovation and demolition periods of a building. During the service life of the building CO 2 has the highest emission rates between the greenhouse gases (Arntzen, 1994). The carbon emission of most of the modern building materials such as; brick, cement, steel are higher when compared to wood (Figure 7). When wood is evaluated according to its environmental properties it can be mentioned that, wood is a renewable natural resource, has a low embodied energy and the carbon emission during the production process is low (Figure 8). New solutions are also proposed in order to decrease its environmental impact such as; the use of alternative wood sources (bamboo, etc.) and waste utilization in the production of wood composites. However the carbon emission of some wood composites may be higher and also important problems such as deforestation may occur due to the excessive consumption of natural resources in the lack of silvicultural applications. Especially the tropical and old-growth forests can be depleted at an unsustainable rate. Old forests continue to shrink in size nowadays and therefore sustainable forestation is also compulsory in wood production (Binggeli C., ASID, 2007). 141 Figure 7: Embodied carbon of some building materials (URL 8) Figure 8: Embodied energy of some building materials (URL 4) A sufficient amount and broad variety of naturally occurring trees has to be grown in sustainable practices of wood. During this process the health of soil, water and air also has to be protected. Thus it can be possible to prevent deforestation by producing certified wood (Binggeli C., ASID, 2007). Certified wood production is a useful tool which is being used recently to reduce forest degradation and loss of biodiversity (Rametsteiner, Simula, 2003). The quality of wood can be increased in this way by preventing the use of immature trees in wood production. The natural resource consumption problems were prevented by using certified wood in USA, 142 Canada and Northern European countries. The use of locally obtained trees can also be advised to improve the ecological properties of the material. There are numerous publications comparing various properties of wood with other building materials. The embodied energy and carbon emission amounts of two structures designed by using concrete and wood were compared in Sweden. According to the results; the embodied energy of concrete building was 60-80% higher than the wooden building and the carbon emission of concrete was also significantly higher than wood (Börjesson and Gustavsson, 2000). In another research study, it was presented that the carbon emission amounts and fossil fuel consumption would decrease by 20%, with a 17% increase in wood use in building production (Joseph, Tretsiakova – McNally; 2010). Waste generation and environmental pollution are among the most undesirable problems during building material production. Most of the building materials create harmful by-products and air pollutant particles during the production process. Materials such as foam, wood composites, polymer floor covering, paints and varnishes, which are frequently used in construction, also have considerable amount of air pollutant components to the atmosphere and indoor air. Although some of these harmful volatile gases are prohibited by health and safety policies, building materials still contain a large number of chemicals. When wood is evaluated in this respect it can be mentioned that; the use of fertilizers and insecticides pollutes water and soil in forests, the chemicals used in the production of composite wood and the surface treatment applications are also harmful to the environment and human health due to the formation of volatile organic gas (VOC). Heat treated wood is recommended recently to reduce the amount of harmful chemicals (Joseph, Tretsiakova – McNally, 2010). Due to the exhaustion of non-renewable resources in the near future; the use of alternative materials with low embodied energy, low carbon emission, minimal processing requirement and low toxicity are also supported. Some of these materials, which are bio-degradable in nature and do not produce harmful byproducts, are recommended such as bamboo, fiber and straw. The use of bamboo is supported in recent years due to its high mechanical properties, rapid growth, light and flexible properties (Asıf, 2009; Joseph, Tretsiakova – McNally, 2010). CONCLUSION The use of ecological building materials has become important recently for some important reasons such as; climate change and global warming. Ecological building materials has to; be a renewable resource, have low embodied energy, produce low waste, have low toxic properties and be obtained (preferably) locally. According to these properties wood can be evaluated as follows;  Wood is a renewable natural resource. High quality wood can be obtained and deforestation can be prevented with the help of silvicultural applications and certified wood usage.  Wood can easily be obtained and sawn and therefore the embodied energy of the material is lower than the other building materials.  Local wood procurement can also be advised to reduce the embodied 143 energy and waste generation during the transportation of the material.  Wood has low greenhouse gas emission values. The carbon emission of wood is also low due to the photosynthesis process of trees.  Fertilizers and pesticides used during the tree growth in forests give damage to water and soil. However, the environmental waste produced during the manufacture of wood is lower than the other building materials.  The chemicals used in the production of composite wood and surface treatment applications are harmful to the environment and human health due to the formation of volatile organic gas (VOC). Heat treated wood is recommended recently to reduce the amount of harmful chemicals.  Alternative building materials are also being used recently. The use of bamboo is supported due to it is a renewable and biodegradable resource. REFERENCES Addleson L.; Rice C. (1991). Performance of Materials in Buildings: A Study of the Principles and Agencies of Change, Butterworth & Heinemann. 588 pp., Oxford. Asıf M. (2009). Sustainability of Construction Materials. Chapter 2. Sustainability of Timber, Wood and Bamboo in Construction. Elsevier. 294 pp./ 31-54, Amsterdam. Binggeli C.; ASID. (2007). Materials for Interior Environments, John Wiley & Sons. 339 pp., New Jersey. Bodig J.; Jayne B.A. (1982). Mechanics of Wood and Wood Composites, Van Nostrand Reinhold. 712 pp., New York. Börjesson P.; Gustavsson L. (2000). Greenhouse gas balances in building construction: Wood versus concrete from life-cycle and forest land-use perspectives, Energy Policy 28 (9): 575-588. Costanzo V.; Evola G.; Marletta L. (2016).Energy savings in buildings or UHI mitigation? Comparison between green roofs and cool roofs, Energy and Buildings 114: 247-255. Cowan H.J. (1991). Handbook of Architectural Technology. First Edition. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 528 pp., New York. Davey N. (1961). A History of Building Materials. Phoenix House, 260 pp., London. Illston J.; Domone P. (2001). Construction Materials: Their Nature and Behavior. Third Edition. Taylor & Francis, 584 pp., New York. Arntzen C.J. (1994). Encyclopedia of Agricultural Science, Vol. 4. Wood Properties. Academic Press, 667 pp./ 549-561, Orlando. Joseph P.; Tretsiakova Mc N. (2010). Sustainable Non-Metallic Building Materials, Sustainability 2: 400-427. Kass A.; Wangaard F.F.; Schroeder H.A. (1970). Chemical degradation of wood: The relationship between strength retention and pentosan content, Wood and Fiber Science 1: 31-39. Kelley S.J.; Loferski J.R.; Salenikovich A.; Stern G. (2000). Wood Structures: A Global Forum on the Treatment, Conservation and Repair of Cultural Heritage. 144 ASTM International, 302 pp., Philadelphia. Lyons A. (2004). Materials for Architects and Builders. Second Edition. Butterworth & Heinemann, 352 pp., Amsterdam. McDonald K.A.; Falk R.H.; Williams R.S.; Winandy J.E. (1996). Wood Decks; Materials, Construction and Finishing. Forest Product Society, 93 pp., Wisconsin. Nässén J.; Hedenus F.; Karlsson S.; Holmberg J. (2012). Concrete vs. wood in buildings – An energy system approach, Building and Environment 51: 361-369. Rametsteiner E.; Simula M. (2003). Forest certification – an instrument to promote sustainable forest management? Journal of Environmental Management 67 (1): 87-98. Rosen H.J; Heineman T. (1996). Architectural Materials for Construction. McGraw-Hill, 320 pp., New York. Roth L.M. (1993). Understanding Architecture: In Elements, History and Meaning. Westview Press, 542 pp., Colorado. Rowell R.M. (2012). Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites. CRC Press, 703 pp., Florida. Schmidt O. (2007). Indoor wood-decay basidiomycetes: damage, causal fungi, physiology, identification and characterization, prevention and control, Mycological Progress 6: 261-279. Wilson F. (1984). Building Materials Evaluation Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 358 pp., London. Yeang K. (2006). Eco-design: A Manual for Ecological Design, John Wiley &Sons, 499 pp., Chichester. URL 1. http://emp.byui.edu/wellerg/Secondary%20Growth/Instructions/Secondary% 20Growth%20Instructions%2003.html URL 2. http://workshopcompanion.com/KnowHow/Wood/Hardwoods_&_ Softwoods/ 1_Wood_Botany/1_Wood_Botany_Images/H&S_1_A.jpg URL 3. http://workshopcompanion.com/KnowHow/Wood/Hardwoods_&_Softw oods/1_ Wood_Botany/1_Wood_Botany_Images/H&S_1_D.jpg URL 4. https://www.nature.com/articles/natrevmats201782 URL 5. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Leandro_Passarini/publication/ 316317038/ figure/fig1/AS:485599934193666@1492787454450/Characteristicdamage-to-treated-wood-caused-by-salt-a-Treated-deck-boards-exposed-to.jpg URL 6. http://www.eichlernetwork.com/article/those-dirty-rotten-beams URL 7. https://www.filthymonkeymen.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/TerraAmata-Ricostruzione-capanna2.jpg URL 8. http://www.circularecology.com/embodied-carbon.html 145 Chapter 12 Tobacco in the Historical Process Meltem SESLİ1 and E. Dilşat YEĞENOĞLU2 1 Assoc.Prof. Dr.; Manisa Celal Bayar University, School of Tobacco Expertise, Department of Tobacco Breeding, Manisa, Turkey. 2 Dr.; Manisa Celal Bayar University, Alasehir Vocational School, Departmentof Plant and Animal Production, Manisa, Turkey. INTRODUCTION Tobacco is a plant grown in tropical and subtropical regions in the world (Er, 1997). It has been determined that its agriculture dates back to 6000 years B.C. in American continent and that it was used by the Mayas living in Middle American 4,500 years after that date. The natives first rolled or grinded tobacco leaves to use in primitive pipes; and some chewed gums made of tobacco or applied tobacco dust on their skin or used it for disimpaction. Afterwards, tobacco production and use was adopted by the Indians on the north and the Incas on the south (URL 1). It is found that there are figures picturing Mayan priests smoking tobacco in pipe in the walls of ancient temples in Middle America in 1.000 B.C. In those ages, tobacco leaves were rolled around wounds to release pain, resulting in its common use in medical area; and then, the Aztecs made smoke inhalation a part of their rituals. Two different smoker classes emerged including those smoking pipes in the palace of Montezuma and the Aztecs who were the next lower class smoking tobacco by rolling in leaves (URL 2).Since priests used tobacco smoke frequently in rituals in the Mayan and Aztec civilizations, they started smoking tobacco also in times other than the rituals eventually because of getting used to the pleasure giving effect (URL 4). Mayan and Aztec priests also used tobacco against chest diseases by inhaling its smoke and used its smell for the treatment of headaches (Özendi, 2006). Whether tobacco originates from Asia or America (Seydioğulları, 2009) was determined through the examination of famous mummy of Egypt Ramses II (1300 B.C.) by scientists in 1979 in Paris and finding grinded tobacco leaves in his intestines filled with many plants (URL 3); and, even though it was not known that tobacco was smoked in the ancient Egypt, this finding proved the existence of tobacco plant in Asia; and it was determined that the smoke of tobacco and aromatic materials incensed were used during rituals in the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt (Teyo, 1978); however, tobacco was first smokes by the Indians and they had not been slaves to this plant like coca as the white people met for the first time in America that they referred to be ritual (URL 3). Mayan tribes started spreading towards different locations between 470 and 630 B.C. and brought tobacco along. Tobacco leaves were carried to South America, where it was placed between the husk of corn and palm leaves and smoked, and to the Mississippi 146 region, where it met American Indians in the north. In North America, the pipes were made of clay, marble or lobster claws. Some pipes had two outlets to draw on the smoke from nostrils. Tobacco chewing became widespread especially in South America where it is chewed by mixing with lime (URL 2). Homeland of tobacco is not for certain; however, American origin views are more predominant. Tobacco became world known after it was brought to Europe with the exploration of American continent (URL 4). A Spanish Jew sailor named Rodrigo De Jerez was on board the ship of Christopher Colombus approaching Cuba in November 1492. Rodrigo was brought on board this ship because he could speak Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldean in those years that the Jews were banished to Spain, hoping that they could find people speaking at least one of these ancient languages on the island. The sailor Rodrigo de Jerez was known to be the first tobacco addict in history; and he was complained to be “doing witching” because of the smoke coming out from his month while chewing tobacco as he brought along on the way back to Spain from America; and he was tried on the Inquisition to “worship the devil” and served 7 years in prison (URL 3) (Barış, 1994; Nafiz, 1932). TOBACCO’S ENTRY TO EUROPE Europeans learnt about tobacco thanks to Christopher Columbus stepping on Cuba in 1492. In fact, Columbus aimed at finding gold on the new continent. Columbus arriving at Cuba Island witnessed the natives smoke tobacco in rituals and feasts with pleasure; and the natives offered this object to the sailors from Europe and introduced it as Tobacos. Today, one of the islands on the Caribbean Sea where tobacco is grown is named as Tobago Island (URL 1). tabacum which is the part of tobacco’s scientific name “Nicotianatabacum” is named after the Tobago Island in Middle America as well as Tobaco and Tabasco, the tobacco regions of Yucatan (URL 3).Columbus and companions stated that red skin people were smoking a dry herb rolled in corn husk and exhaling smoke from their mouth and nose and that the natives called this “tobaco” or “tombac”. Tobacco smoking habit started expanding after the Portuguese and Spanish sailors exploring America first got used to tobacco and then brought it along to other cities. Spanish, Portuguese and other European cities met tobacco and smoking habit as the ships traveled between the two continents. The Spanish, seeing tobacco agriculture in “Tabasco” region in Mexico, heard also that the smoking pipe was named as “tobaco” in Cuba and they resulted in the expansion of this name “tobaco” in everywhere they visited. Tobacco seeds were brought to Spain, Portugal and France after 1518. Tobacco was used first as a decoration plant and shortly afterwards as a curative plant in Europe (URL 5). Bishop Romano Pane presented tobacco seeds to the Spanish King Carlos V in 1518 (Teyo, 1978). In 1559, Jean Nicot, French ambassador to Portugal, presented tobacco to the French Queen Catherine de Medici mentioning that it was good for cough, asthma, headaches, stomach diseases and female diseases; therefore, tobacco was named as “Queen of Herbs” or “Ambassador’s Herb” (Nafiz, 1932). Tobacco was spread to other European countries from France and it was named as “Nicotiana” after Jean Nicot; and, 147 alkaloid, that was found in 1828, was named as “nicotine” (Teyo, 1978).In 1565, Nicolo Mondares, a professor from Seville, announced that tobacco was the most efficacious to cough, asthma, headaches and women’s menstrual pains and shortly afterwards, it was grown in Vatican’s gardens (Yılmaz, 2006). Captain Walter Raleigh was the one to start tobacco trade in Europe as he was known with his close relationships to Henry VIII’s daughter Queen Elisabeth I. In fact, Raleigh was a pirate and in addition to presenting precious gifts and goods to the queen, he brought tomato, potato and tobacco seeds to the island where they were not available before. He started making tobacco trade through expeditions to the region in eastern coast of North America, which is today known as Virginia, on board the ships built with the monetary support from his queen. 7000 tobacco shops were opened in England in 1614 selling Virginia tobacco. The information that tobacco was good to any disease started to spread throughout Europe rapidly during that time (URL 1). At the end of sixteenth century, tobacco smoking was accepted as a virtue, an aristocratic privilege along with horse riding, hunting and card playing in England (Teyo, 1978). Tobacco was brought to Germany and Italy from England on board the ships; and it was brought to Austria and Hungary from there and to Russia and Istanbul by sea (URL 5).Upon the gradual increase in tobacco consumption, Spain, Portugal, England and France made their colonies in the American continent grow tobacco aiming at obtaining income from tobacco trade. Tobacco, being spread rapidly to the Mediterranean and Northern European countries, was brought to the Philippine Islands by Magellan and to Eastern counties such as India and China by the Portuguese (Teyo, 1978). In 1596, tobacco reached Japan and in 1639, it became almost obligatory to offer tobacco in addition to their sacred drink, tea (Özendi, 2006). EXPANSION OF TOBACCO IN OTHER COUNTRIES Chinese and Hindu people learned the use of tobacco from the Japanese and Philippines between 1530 and 1600. In 1858, China started importing tobacco products free of duty through the Treaty of Tianjin; and in 1900s, foreign tobacco monopolies completely had the command in the country. Chinese government monopolized tobacco industry and deported foreign companies in 1960. Tobacco expanded in Africa in 1560s by Spanish and Portuguese sailors first to the coastal cities of continent and then from there to the eastern and middle African countries. Tobacco agriculture started in Northern African countries in 1650. African slaves were used in tobacco fields in place of cotton fields in the beginning of eighteenth century. In 1710, Russian Tsar Peter the Great required Russian people to drink coffee and smoke cigarettes to approximate to the Europeans. New Zealand met tobacco with the pipe smoked by Captain James Cook, who explored Australian continent in 1769 and first tobacco transfer to the continent was in 1788 on board the ships (URL 1). TOBACCO’S ARRIVAL TO THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE There are different views as to when and how tobacco was brought to the Ottoman lands for the first time. It is informed that tobacco was brought by the 148 Venetians in 1580; tobacco needs were met through importation until the beginning of 1600s; it was started to be grown in different sanjaks (administrative divisions) of the Ottoman Empire in 1630s; and that tobacco consumption was prohibited by Murad IV in 1633 (Borio, 2001). In another resource, it is informed that tobacco was first carried to the empire’s lands in 1603; tobacco consumption was prohibited in 1612; and that tobacco smokers were sentenced to death penalty in 1639 (Türkoğlu, 1979). It is also recorded that tobacco was brought to the Ottoman lands for the first time as a result of a trade treaty with Holland in 1612 (Doğruel, 2000). There are also resources stated that tobacco first entered to the country between 1601 and 1605 (Er et al., 2011). In another resource, it is mentioned that tobacco first entered our land as a medicine in 1594 and that its reason for entering the Ottoman lands is that it was some kind of a medicine used in the treatment of some diseases (Savaş, 1969). At the beginning of 1600, tobacco, reaching Istanbul, was sold claiming that it treated some diseases arising from humidity; and then it was observed that the people and statesmen became addicted to tobacco. It is recorded that first coffee house in Istanbul was opened in 1554 in Tahtakale and the bon vivant met tobacco in addition to coffee and became addicted to both in a very short time (Yılmaz, 2006). First tobacco agriculture was made in the Ottoman Empire in Macedonia, Yenice and Kardzhali; and in Anatolia in Ayasuluk hills (Selcuk district, Izmir), Aegean Region (Nafiz, 1932), and then in Bursa, Avunya (Agonya), Söke, Foca and Akhisar (Mercimek, 1999). Tobacco first entered Turkey in 1600s as a plant with large leaves, coarse textured, pure, primitive type; however, a new cultivated type emerged owing to the unique features, ecological conditions of Turkish lands as well as to the skills, rigorous, determined and tenacious work of Turkish farmers. This new tobacco, named as Turkish tobacco, brought a new quality and became a colored tobacco with increased exquisiteness, thinned texture, fine smell, mild taste, low nicotine; and gained a fair fame in the world. The name of Turkish tobacco is not just a name of variety or a simple classification. Turkish tobacco has been finding approval and sought for for years owing to their marvelous smell, mild taste, and beautiful colors, and because of good burning and raising the quality of blends (URL 6). Turkish tobacco, also known as the oriental tobacco, became very popular in the world and therefore, it was exported on board the ships to the northern coastal cities of the Black Sea and to the cities on the shores of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. Oriental tobacco gained significant share in Germany, Poland and Russia. In the Crimean War during 1853-1856, Ottoman soldiers saw English and French soldiers roll cut oriental tobacco in paper and smoke like a cigarette and they adopted this style of use immediately. World War I and II became the terms when tobacco industry reared up. Three of four men and one of five women were smoking cigarettes. Cigarette consumption was spread widely with the cigarette advertisements featuring film actors and even doctors in the following years (URL 1). Turkish tobacco production regressed upon rapid expansion of USA origin Virginia tobacco following World War II. It also suffered substantial damaged because of blue mold that spread in 1960s. Despite all these unfortunate events 149 continuing in time, Turkey is one of the main producers of tobacco known as Oriental tobacco in the world, with its tobacco cultivation sites from past to today (URL 7). CONCLUSION Tobacco was used for different purposes in the historical process; sometimes, as incense in rituals or as medicine for treatment purposes; and became popular in a short time because of the discourse that it has curative properties; and despite that tobacco sales were prohibited in most countries, the clergymen excommunicated tobacco smokers, and even the prohibition of tobacco during the term of Murad IV in the Ottoman Empire were subjected to severe penalties including death penalty, the addiction to tobacco could not be suppressed. In this regard, governments preferred making this pleasure-giving material a source of income. Today tobacco, being among number one products in the world owing to its importance in agricultural, trade and industrial sectors, would maintain in its importance because of creating supporting industries and wide range of areas of use in the future just as it has been in the past. REFERENCES Er, C. (1997). Tütün, İlaç ve Baharat Bitkileri, Ankara Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi. Yayın No: 1479. 6-7, Ankara. Seydioğulları, M. (2009).Tütün ve Tütün Kontrolü, Dünya'da ve Türkiye'de Tütünün Tarihçesi, Üretimi, Ticareti ve Temel Politikaları, 3-20. Tütün Eksperleri Yüksek Okulu. (1978). Tütüncülüğe giriş. TEYO yayını, 9-18. İstanbul. Özendi, S. (2006). Avrupa Birliği’nde tütün kontrolü ve Türkiye’deki uygulamalarının incelenmesi [Tez], TAPDK. Ankara. Barış, İ. (1994). Sigara ve sağlık. 1inci baskı. MEB yayınları, 11-14. Ankara. Nafiz, Z. (1932). Tütün ziraati ve hastalıkları.1 inci baskı. Cezri matbaa, 3-10, İstanbul. Yılmaz, A. (2006).Türkiye’de tömbeki üretimi ve nargile kullanımının incelenmesi. Tez. TAPDK, Ankara. Mercimek, V. (1999). Tarihi Süreç İçerisinde Türkiye’de Yetiştirilen Tütün Miktarı ve Değişim Sebepleri, Tütün Eksperleri Derneği Bülteni, 11, Sayı: 42, MartNisan 1999. Borio, G. (2001). The Tobacco Timeline, 6-11. Türkoğlu, A. (1979). Gıda Maddeleri, İktisadi Coğrafya I. Kitap, İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayın No: 2563, İktisat Fakültesi Yayın No: 438, s. 196, İstanbul. Doğruel, F. Doğruel, A.S. (2000). Osmanlı’dan Günümüze TEKEL, Türkiye Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Vakfı Yayınları, s.25, İstanbul. Er, C. Başalma, D. Ekiz, H. Sancak, C. (2011). Tarla Bitkileri II., T.C. Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayın No: 2254, s.76, Eskişehir. Savaş, R.(1969). Ticaret ve Endüstri Bitkileri (Özel Tarla Ziraati), Kardeş Matbaası, s. 151, Ankara. URL 1: http://www.toraks.org.tr/userfiles/file/Tutun_Kullanımının_Tarihcesi150 I_Baris.pdf URL 2: www.bat.com.tr/group/sites/BAT_ URL 3: www.serenti.org/tutunun-tarihi-ve-turkiyedeki-seruveni URL 4: www.birdeburadandinleyin.blogspot.com/2012/dunyada-tutun-tarihisigarann-tarihcesi URL 5: http://www.kerimusta.com/tutunun-tarihi URL 6: http://www.guneydoguanadolututun.com/pages/tutun URL 7: www.msxlabs.org/forum/tarih/14436-tutunun-tarihi.html 151 Chapter 13 Antiurolithiatic Activity of Medicinal Plants in Turkey Mustafa Eray BOZYEL1 and Elif MERDA MERT2 Dr., Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Arts and Science, Department of Biology, Çanakkale, Turkey 2 M.Sc., Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Arts and Science, Department of Biology, Çanakkale, Turkey 1 INTRODUCTION It is known that many plants in the world have been used for medicinal purposes since antique ages. The first information on medicinal plants and their uses come from the history of China, Egypt and Greece. It is known that some drugs were produced and exported in Anatolia during the Hittite period (Başer, 1998). Although spice, medicinal and aromatic plant definitions are often mixed, they are quite different concepts. The reason for this confusion is that plants such as Mentha sp. are used as spices, medicinal and aromatic plant. Aromatic plants are plants that often have leaves and flowers added to impart flavor and aroma to sauces or teas. Spice plants are plants that are grown in tropical regions, usually added at the beginning of the cooking period to give flavor and aroma to the food. All organs of the plant can be used. Medicinal plants are the plants used as raw materials for drugs or drugs which cause physiological changes in the body thanks to the chemical substances in their structure and provide support for healthy living of the people. The use of medicinal plants is not only for medicinal purposes, but also for nutrition, cosmetics and body care (Kökçü et al., 2015). Throughout the ages, this information obtained through trial and error has reached the level of daily use with some changes in the way of use over time (Baytop, 1999). The plants that have been used primarily for therapeutic purposes together with the existence of humanity have been the foundation of many of today's synthetic drugs. However, in the last 25 years of the 20th century there was a return to herbal remedies due to the considerable side effects of synthetic drugs (Kızılarslan, 2008). According to the World Health Organization (WHO) data, 80% of the world's population is treated with herbal drugs (Sarı et al., 2010). Today, it is reported that the number of plants used in the world is about 20.000, 4000 of them are widely used, and about 400 of them are made of commerce (Başer, 1998). There are about 9,500 species of tracheophytes in the Turkish flora, and almost one-third of them are endemic. (Ozhatay et al., 2012). The number of plant taxa increasingly used as medicinal in Turkey is not precisely known but is estimated to be around 500. However, it is known that about 200 of medicinal and aromatic plants have export potential and about 100 of them are exported (Baytop, 1999; 152 Ekim et al., 2000; Aydın, 2004). MEDICINAL PLANTS USED IN THE TREATMENT OF UROLITHIASIS The presence of stone in any region of the urinary system (right and left kidney, ureters, bladder and urethra system) is explained by urolithiasis. Urolithiasis, the oldest known disease of human history, is the third most common pathology of urinary tract after urinary tract infections and prostate pathologies. Urolithiasis is a serious health problem that can cause kidney dysfunctions or even permanent renal damage. The earliest known record is the kidney and bladder stones found in the mummies in Egypt at 4800 BC (Özkeçeli et al. 1998, Menon and Resnick 2002). The frequent occurrence of urolithiasis is due to the prevalence of cases where complete success in treatment options is not achieved. The recurrence of stone after treatment in the majority of patients adversely affects the quality of life. This leads to the search for supportive solutions for patients with urolithiasis (Yunusoğlu 2011). In this case, dozens of centuries-old accumulation of ethnobotanical knowledge come to the foreground, and the use of medicinal plants comes into play. Medicinal plants used in the treatment of urolithiasis are called antiurolithiatic plants. This study examines the recent ethnobotanical studies to form a compilation on medicinal plant species used as antiurolithiatic in Turkey and their local names, parts and usage forms. Since there are many plants with this feature, only the most used 66 taxa from 25 families are listed (Table 1). Also, 10 different multi-herbal formulas are listed (Table 2). Table 1: Antiurolithiatic Plants in Turkey Plant species Local name* Parts Usage form References Fruits juice raw eaten/dec. pickle infusion Erdem et al., 2016 Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2014 Sezik et al., 2001 Tuzlacı & Şenkardeş, 2011 infusion infusion decoction decoction cooked with cornﬂour, sugar, Bulut et al., 2014 Furkan, 2016; Gençay, 2007 Sarı et al., 2010; Furkan, 2016 Güler et al., 2015 Ezer & Arısan, 2006; Sarı et al., 2010 Bağcı et al., 2006 Bulut et al., 2014 Güneş, 2017; Furkan, 2016 Ezer & Arısan, 2006 Bulut et al., 2014 Adoxaceae Viburnum opulus L. Gilaburu Flowers Apiaceae Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam. Hıltan Anethum graveolens L. Dereotu Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) A.W.Hill. Maydanoz Fruits Seeds Seeds Leaves Stems Leaves Aerial parts Roots 153 Whole plant water juice/raw eaten Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2008 decoction Güzel et al., 2015; Polat et al., 2013 Demirci, 2010 Asparagaceae Asparagus acutifolius L. Tilkişen Aerial parts infusion Aspleniaceae Leaves decoction infusion Ceterach officinarum Willd. Dalakotu Aerial parts Whole plant inf./dec. inf./dec./powder with honey decoction Asteraceae Centaurea benedicta (L.) L. Cichorium intybus L. Gundelia tournefortii L. Leaves Aerial parts infusion infusion Whole plant decoction inf./dec. Leaves Aerial parts decoction infusion Roots decoction Stems Aerial parts juice raw eaten infusion Topdiken Hindiba Kenger Flowers Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench. **Helichrysum arenarium ssp. aucheri (Boiss.) P.H.Davis & Kupicha Helichrysum pallasii (Spreng.) Ledeb. Ölmez çiçek Yayla çiçeği Kocaman çiçeği Flo. branches Whole plant Flo. branches Aerial parts Flo. branches Aerial parts Whole plant Helichrysum plicatum DC. Mantuvar dec./inf. infusion infusion infusion infusion decoction infusion infusion decoction infusion Flowers infusion Flo. branches Aerial parts decoction infusion decoction dec./inf. 154 Uysal et al., 2012; Yeşilada et al., 1993 Tuzlacı & Aymaz, 2001; Demirci, 2010 Sarı et al., 2010 Tuzlacı & Erol, 1999 Akbulut, 2015 Yeşilada et al., 1995 Tuzlacı & Bulut, 2007 Polat & Satıl, 2012; Sargin et al., 2015 Bulut & Tuzlacı, 2015 Sargın et al., 2013 Polat & Satıl, 2012 Akgul et al., 2018; Altundağ, 2009 Sezik et al., 2001; Altundağ, 2009 Sarper et al., 2009 Akgul et al., 2018 Özdemir & Alpınar, 2015 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Özgen et al., 2012; Tuzlacı & Erol, 1999 Özdemir & Alpınar, 2015 Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2014 Sargin et al., 2015 Mükemre et al., 2015; Sargın et al., 2013 Demirci, 2010 Sargin, 2015; Altundağ, 2009 Mükemre et al., 2015 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Kilic & Bagci, 2013 Polat & Çakılcıoğlu, 2018; Fujita et al., 1995 Yeşilada et al., 1993 Altundağ, 2009 Demirci, 2010 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Kilic & Bagci, 2013 infusion Helichrysum stoechas (L.) Moench. Kuduma Inula oculuschristi L. Yolotu Scolymus hispanicus L. Şevketi bostan Tanacetum aureum (Lam.) Greuter, M.V.Agab. & Wagenitz Taraxacum androssovii Schischk. Taraxacum fedtschenkoi Hand.-Mazz. Taraxacum macrolepium Schischk. Tragopogon buphtalmoides (DC.) Boiss. Brassicaceae Capsella bursapastoris (L.) Medik. Whole plant Flowers Flo. branches Aerial parts infusion infusion infusion decoction Güzel et al., 2015; Akbulut, 2015 Sargin, 2015 Sağıroğlu et al., 2013 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Kilic & Bagci, 2013 Sargin et al., 2015 Flowers decoction Leaves Aerial parts Roots raw eaten infusion decoction decoction Ekşi pireotu Flowers decoction Altundag & Ozturk, 2011 Zeze Leaves infusion Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Özgen et al., 2012 Hapşurukotu Leaves infusion Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Özgen et al., 2012 Leaves infusion Roots decoction - Leaves raw eaten Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Özgen et al., 2012 decoction raw eaten dec./inf. Altundağ, 2009 Sarı et al., 2010; Altundağ, 2009 Türkan et al., 2006 Furkan, 2016 Kültür, 2007; Bağcı et al., 2006 Fruits decoction - Sarı et al., 2010 Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2008 Furkan, 2016 Cones infusion Honda et al., 1996; Koçyiğit & Özhatay, 2006; Akgul et al., 2018 Tuzlacı & Erol, 1999 Sargin et al., 2015 Cakilcioglu & Turkoglu, 2010 Şar & Asil, 1985 Sargin et al., 2015 Kars çıtlığı Tarla yemliği Çobançantası Leaves Aerial parts Whole plant Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sativus L. Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2008 Hıyar Fruit peels Tuzlacı & Bulut, 2007 Polat & Satıl, 2012 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Özgen et al., 2012 Güneş & Özhatay, 2011 Cupressaceae Juniperus oxycedrus L. ssp. oxycedrus Katran ardıcı Seeds Buds Tar decoction dec./oinment decoction with honey dec./oinment dec./oinment - 155 Günbatan et al., 2016 Elaeagnaceae Barks Elaeagnus angustifolia L. Leaves decoction decoction decoction Fruits infusion İğde Flo. branches raw eaten - Equisetaceae Equisetum arvense L. Atkuyruğu Leaves Stems Branches Aerial parts infusion infusion dec./inf. juice decoction infusion Equisetum giganteum L. Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. Kırk kilitotu Whole plant dec./inf. Aerial parts dec./inf. Aerial parts decoction Whole plant infusion decoction Deredoruk Kültür, 2007 Altundağ, 2009 Tuzlacı & Aymaz, 2001 Honda et al., 1996; Ugulu et al., 2009; Şar & Asil, 1985 Altundağ, 2009 Hayta et al., 2014; Bulut & Tuzlacı, 2015 Tuzlacı & Erol, 1999 Altundağ, 2009 Güler et al., 2015 Akbulut & Ozkan, 2014 Ezer & Arısan, 2006 Güzel et al., 2015; Turker & Turkay, 2016 Sargn et al., 2013; Furkan, 2016 Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2008 Uysal et al., 2012; Koçyiğit & Özhatay, 2006 Kültür, 2007; Tuzlacı & Aymaz, 2001 Polat et al., 2015 Tuzlacı & Tolon, 2000 Fabaceae decoction Glycyrrhiza glabraL. Meyan Melilotus officinalis (L.) Desr. Kokulu yonca Ononis spinosa ssp. leiosperma (Boiss.) Sirj. Roots infusion Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Güldaş, 2009 Furkan, 2016 Kilic & Bagci, 2013; Güneş & Özhatay, 2011 Aerial parts decoction Aerial parts decoction decoction Roots infusion Güzel et al., 2015 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Kilic & Bagci, 2013 Demirci, 2010 Flowers Aerial parts Roots infusion decoction infusion decoction Demirci, 2010 Tuzlacı & Aymaz, 2001 Kaval et al., 2014 Özdemir & Alpınar, 2015 decoction infusion decoction Uysal et al., 2012 Gürdal & Kültür, 2013 Tütenocaklı, 2014 decoction infusion Kültür, 2007 Polat & Satıl, 2012 Demirdelen Juncaceae Juncus inflexus L. Sazak Lamiaceae Lavandula stoechas L. Karabaş Teucrium chamaedrys L. Kısamahmut Leaves Flowers Flo. branches Leaves Flo. 156 branches Whole plant Teucrium polium L. Thymbra spicata L. ssp. spicata Thymus longicaulis ssp. chaubardii (Rchb.f.) Jalas Thymus migricus Klokov & Des.Shost. Malvaceae Acıyavşan Flo. branches Aerial parts Whole plant decoction infusion decoction infusion Leaves infusion Aerial parts infusion Zahter Dağ kekiği Leaves Aerial parts infusion decoction infusion Peynir kekiği Leaves dec./inf. Alcea calvertii (Boiss.) Boiss. Hıraçiçeği Roots Whole plant infusion decoction Alcea flavovirens (Boiss. & Buhse) Iljin Sarı hatmi Roots Whole plant decoction dec. with honey decoction Malva neglecta Wallr. Çobançöreği Leaves Aerial parts Whole plant decoction decoction Malva sylvestris L. Ebegümeci Leaves decoction Aerial parts decoction Leaves Fruits Fresh shoots Oil decoction Kept in olive oil infusion - Fruits Fresh leaves Aerial parts decoction decoction - Fruits infusion Özgen et al., 2012; Tuzlacı & Doğan, 2010 Polat & Satıl, 2012 Altundağ, 2009 Özgen et al., 2012; Tuzlacı & Doğan, 2010 Akgul et al., 2018 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Tuzlacı & Doğan, 2010 Bulut et al., 2017a; Akaydin et al., 2013 Tütenocaklı, 2014 Günbatan et al., 2016 Kültür, 2007 Tuzlacı & Aymaz, 2001 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Tuzlacı & Doğan, 2010 Korkmaz & Alparslan, 2015 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Uysal et al., 2012 Tabata et al., 1994 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Uysal et al., 2012 Akgul et al., 2018 Altundağ, 2009 Çakılcıoğlu & Türkoğlu, 2009 Gürdal & Kültür, 2013; Ozturk et al., 2013 Kültür, 2007 Oleaceae Olea europaea L. ssp. europaea Phillyrea latifoliaL. Zeytin Akçakesme Plantanaceae Platanus orientalis L. Çınar Leaves Flowers Buds decoction dec./inf. dec./inf./drop dec./inf. dec./inf./drop dec./inf./drop 157 Gürdal & Kültür, 2013 Güneş, 2017 Sarı et al., 2010 Koçyiğit & Özhatay, 2006;Tuzlacı & Aymaz, 2001 Tütenocaklı, 2014 Koçyiğit & Özhatay, 2006; Bulut & Tuzlacı, 2015 Polat & Satıl, 2012 Sargın et al., 2013 Sargin et al., 2015 Sargın et al., 2013 Sargin et al., 2015 Bark Roots decoction infusion Sağıroğlu et al., 2013 Uysal et al., 2010 decoction decoction infusion dec. with lemon j. infusion decoction decoction Kartal & Güneş, 2017 Uysal et al., 2010 Poaceae Aerial parts Rhizomes Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Köpekdişi Roots Und.gr. parts Whole plant Elymus repens (L.) Gould Hordeum vulgare L. Zea mays L. Sabankıran Aerial parts Rhizomes Roots infusion infusion decoction infusion Seeds dec./inf. Whole plant Corn silks dec./inf. decoction Arpa infusion Mısır Polat & Satıl, 2012 Demirci, 2010 Bağcı et al., 2006 Bulut & Tuzlaci, 2013 Yiğit, 2014 Sargin et al., 2015 Akbulut & Bayramoglu, 2013 Sargın et al., 2013 Akaydin et al., 2013; Çömlekçioğlu & Karaman, 2008 Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2014 Polat & Çakılcıoğlu, 2018; Sarı et al., 2010; Akbulut & Bayramoglu, 2013; Bulut et al., 2017b, Polat et al., 2013 Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2008 Fruits Aerial parts juice oil decoction Aerial parts inf./dec./heated Whole plant Whole plant Aerial parts decoction decoction decoction raw eaten infusion raw eaten Sargin et al., 2015; Altundağ, 2009 Yeşilada et al., 1993 Güzel et al., 2015; Cakilcioglu et al., 2011; Polat et al., 2012 Polat & Çakılcıoğlu, 2018; Polat et al., 2013 decoction infusion raw eaten/ macerat./oinment Akaydin et al., 2013 Polat et al., 2015 Sargin et al., 2015; Günbatan et al., 2016 Leaves infusion Aerial parts Whole plant - Gençay, 2007 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011; Ahmed et al., 2016 Kocabaş & Gedik, 2016 Sarı et al., 2010 Fruits decoction Flowers decoction Sağıroğlu et al., 2013 Polygonaceae Polygonum aviculare L. Köyotu Rheum ribes L. Işgın Roots Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L. Semizotu Aerial parts Pteridaceae Adiantum capillusvenerisL. Baldırıkara Rhamnaceae Paliurus spinachristi P. Mill. Karaçalı 158 Tuzlacı et al., 2010; Gürdal & Kültür, 2013; Cakilcioglu & Turkoglu, 2010 Sarı et al., 2010 Flo. buds Seeds dec./frankincense infusion decoction Roots - Fruits raw eaten dec./inf. decoction Rosaceae Peduncles Cerasus avium (L.) Moench Cerasus mahaleb (L.) Mill. var. mahaleb Crataegus azarolus var. azarolus L. Seeds Stems dec./inf. infusion decoction decoction dec./inf. decoction Seeds infusion Fruits – decoction dec./inf. raw eaten decoction decoction dec./inf. dec./inf. Kiraz Flowers Leaves Mahlep Müzmüldek Mature fruits Flowers Leaves Fruits Crataegus monogyna Jacq. Crataegus orientalis Pall. ex M.Bieb. Yemişen Alıç Flowers Leaves Aerial parts Fruits Flowers Leaves Seeds decoction raw eaten dec./inf. dec./inf. dec./inf. infusion r. eat./macerat. raw eaten jam/ inf. dec./inf. decoction infusion dec./inf. dec./inf. decoction dec./inf. decoction 159 Gürdal & Kültür, 2013 Sarı et al., 2010 Sargin et al., 2015 Çömlekçioğlu & Karaman, 2008 Gürdal & Kültür, 2013; Eşen, 2008 Furkan, 2016 Sargın et al., 2013 Sargin, 2015 Sezik et al., 2001; Şar & Asil, 1985 Sargin et al., 2015 Polat & Çakılcıoğlu, 2018 Güzel et al., 2015; Kültür, 2007 Sargın et al., 2013 Sargin et al., 2015 Sarı et al., 2010 Yeşilada et al., 1995 Çakılcıoğlu et al., 2010; Çakılcıoğlu & Türkoğlu, 2009 Altundağ, 2009 Simsek et al., 2004 Sargin, 2015; Polat et al., 2013 Sargin, 2015 Tetik et al., 2013 Sargin, 2015; Polat et al., 2013 Sargin, 2015 Tuzlacı & Aymaz, 2001 Sargin, 2015 Koçyiğit & Özhatay, 2006 Sargın et al., 2013 Sargin, 2015 Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2008 Sargin, 2015 Sargin et al., 2015 Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2008 Sargin, 2015 Sargın et al., 2013 Sargin et al., 2015 Branches Cydonia oblonga Mill. Rosa canina L Rubus sanctus Schreb. Ayva Kuşburnu Fruits Leaves Fruits infusion decoction raw eaten decoction dec./inf. Mature fruits Flowers Leaves Roots Roots+Fruits jam/ juice/inf. decoction infusion infusion infusion decoction infusion decoction Leaves Fruits infusion decoction Flowers Roots inf./jam infusion infusion decoction Böğürtlen Urticaceae Leaves Seeds Urtica dioica L. Isırgan Aerial parts Roots decoction with honey infusion infusion decoction Whole plant decoction Urtica urens L. Cılağan Seeds Aerial parts infusion decoction Verbenaceae Verbena officinalis L. Zygophyllaceae Mineçiçeği Aerial parts decoction Fruits decoction Flowers Flo.+ Lea. Leaves infusion decoction decoction decoction Seeds infusion powder Tribulus terrestris L. Çoban çökerten decoction Stems Aerial parts decoction infusion 160 Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2008 Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2014 Furkan, 2016 Kültür, 2007; Koyuncu, 2005 Ahmed et al., 2016; Koçyiğit & Özhatay, 2006 Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2014 Sezik et al., 2001 Polat et al., 2013 Hayta et al., 2014 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011 Tuzlacı & Erol, 1999 Altundağ, 2009 Gürdal & Kültür, 2013 Yeşilada et al., 1993; Tuzlacı & Erol, 1999 Polat et al., 2013; Furkan, 2016 Akaydin et al., 2013; Furkan, 2016 Özgen et al., 2012 Korkmaz & Karakurt, 2008 Şar & Asil, 1985 Polat et al., 2012 Yeşilada et al., 1999; Tuzlacı & Aymaz, 2001 Altundag & Ozturk, 2011 Şar & Asil, 1985 Akaydin et al., 2013; Özkan, 2011 Kilic & Bagci, 2013; Demirci, 2010 Uysal et al., 2010; Koçyiğit & Özhatay, 2006; Güneş, 2017 Polat & Çakılcıoğlu, 2018 Sargin et al., 2015 Tütenocaklı, 2014 Uysal et al., 2010; Koçyiğit & Özhatay, 2006 Polat & Çakılcıoğlu, 2018 Sargin, 2015; Tuzlacı & Şenkardeş, 2011 Uysal et al., 2010; Koçyiğit & Özhatay, 2006 Sargin et al., 2015 Kaval et al., 2014; Polat & Satıl, 2012; decoction Roots Whole plant oil decoction decoction * Güner et al., 2012, ** Endemic taxon Bulut et al., 2017b Sağıroğlu et al., 2013; Karcı et al., 2017 Furkan, 2016; Arı, 2014 Güldaş, 2009 Yeşilada et al., 1993; Tuzlacı & Bulut, 2007 Table 2: Multi-herbal Formulas Used As Antiurolithiatic in Turkey Plant species Elaeagnus angustifolia+ Petroselinum crispum+ Citrus limon Prunus spinosa+ Pyrus communis ssp. communis+ Brassica nigra Petroselinum crispum+ Urtica dioica+ Zea mays Malva sylvestris+ Petroselinum crispum+ Plantago major ssp. major+ Rubus sanctus+ Urtica dioica Bellis perennis+ Cerasus avium+ Zea mays Petroselinum crispum+ Urtica dioica Cynodon dactylon+ Juniperus sp. Cerasus avium+ Rosa canina Cerasus avium+ Zea mays Hordeum vulgare+ Cynodon dactylon+ Zea mays Local name* İğde+ Maydanoz+ Limon Parts Leaves+ Leaves+ Fruits juice Usage form decoction References Tuzlacı & Aymaz, 2001 Çakal eriği+ Bey armudu+ Kara hardal Fruits+ Fruits+ Seeds pickle Güneş, 2017 Maydanoz+ Isırgan+ Mısır Leaves+ Whole plant+ Corn silk decoction Tuzlacı & Tolon, 2000 Ebegümeci+ Maydanoz+ Sinirotu+ Böğürtlen+ Isırgan Whole plant+ Leaves+ Leaves+ Roots+ Whole plant decoction Tuzlacı & Tolon, 2000 Koyungözü+ Kiraz+ Mısır Maydanoz+ Isırgan Flowers+ Peduncles+ Corn silks Aerial parts+ Whole plant decoction Tuzlacı & Erol, 1999 decoction Furkan, 2016 Köpekdişi+ Ardıç Roots+ Cones decoction Karcı et al., 2017 Kiraz+ Kuşburnu Kiraz+ Mısır Arpa+ Köpekdişi+ Mısır Peduncles+ Fruits Peduncles+ Corn silks Seeds+ Roots+ Corn silks decoction Karcı et al., 2017 decoction Bulut & Tuzlacı, 2015 decoction Şar & Asil, 1985 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS It can be seen that the most commonly used plant family is Asteraceae and plant parts are leaves, fruits and roots. In addition, other aerial and underground plant parts such as the flowers, seeds, branches, stems and buds of the plants can also be used in the treatment of urolithiasis. The most commonly used usage form is 161 the preparation of decoctions and infusions. Other than these, the plants may also be applied as raw eaten, jam, maceration, ointments, frankincenses and medicinal oils. However, it is known that some plants traditionally used for therapeutic purposes among local populations actually contain toxic compounds which cause various disorders, and in some cases even death. Therefore, studies that demonstrate the medicinal characteristics and uses of different plants are just for informational purposes. It is also known that the various compounds present in plants may have different effects on different individuals. 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Tansel YALÇIN2 1 Dr.; Manisa Celal Bayar University, Akhisar Vocational School, Department of Plant and Animal Production, Manisa, Akhisar, Turkey 2 Associate Prof. Dr.; Ege University, Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey INTRODUCTION The current population of the world is 7 billion and is expected to reach 8 billion by 2020 (Conway 2012). Given the increasing environmental damage caused by the global population growth and increased industrialization, feeding people over the next 10-20 years will be a serious problem. Due to the rapid increase in world population on the one hand and people's efforts to lead a better life on the other hand, industrialization and the use of industrial products in the nature are increasing (Glick 2012; Mahanty et al. 2017). Industrial inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides used especially in agricultural areas to produce higher yields from the unit area destroy soil irreversibly. All these destroy the balance between soil and man, and between soil, plant and water, pollute the basic components of the ecosystem, such as soil and water, and cause plants growing on these soils to accumulate elements toxic to humans, which can affect human health adversely and facilitates the transfer of toxic substances to human body through plants. In addition, since not all these dangerous chemicals can be absorbed by plants, they start to accumulate in groundwater, and some of these chemicals are responsible for the eutrophication of water bodies (Aktar et al., 2009; Savcı 2012). These chemicals also adversely affect the soil because they reduce the soil’s fertility and water holding capacity, increase the soil’s salinity and lead to imbalance in soil nutrients (Savcı 2012). Therefore, in order to feed the rapidly growing world population, current approaches involving the use of fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, insecticides etc. in agriculture should be reassessed (Glick 2012). In recent years, in order to avoid the negative effects of industrialization and chemical inputs on the components of the ecosystem and human health, to meet the increasing demand for food and to produce healthier foods, environmentally friendly agricultural production such as organic agriculture, ecological agriculture or sustainable agriculture has gained importance (Macilwain 2004). One of the most important factors limiting agricultural fertility in these agricultural forms is the shortage of fertilizing material. It is known that it is necessary to use organic fertilizers in plant production if the crop yield is to be increased, the physical and chemical structure of soils are to be improved, human health is to be protected and environmental pollution is to be prevented (Mahdi et al., 2010). Biofertilizers which have recently been intensively investigated have a very 168 important place among organic fertilizers (Bhardwaj et al., 2014). Biofertilizer is a biological substance that contains living microorganisms which promote plant growth by increasing the supply of primary nutrients to the host plant by colonizing the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant when they are applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil (Vessey 2003).These organisms increase the availability of certain nutrients in the soil to the plant by accelerating some microbial processes (Vessey 2003; Bardi and Malusà 2012; Malusa and Vassilev 2014). Biofertilizers play a very important role in organic agriculture. They improve soil productivity and increase crop yields in the long run especially by binding atmospheric nitrogen to soil and / or by converting macro and micro nutrients which exist in the insoluble form in the soil into forms that the plant can use (Mazid and Khan 2015). Need for Use of Biofertilizers The use of chemical fertilizers to meet increased food demand has brought about another problem: environmental contamination. Among these fertilizers, nitrogen fertilizers increase the release of nitrous oxide (N2O) which contributes to global warming by increasing denitrification (Smith et al., 2008), pollute soil and water, destroy beneficial microorganisms and beneficial insects in the soil, make crops susceptible to diseases and reduce the fertility of soil (Mishra et al., 2013). In addition, it is assumed that nitrogen fertilizers will cause a significant decrease in the amount of organic carbon in soil in the long run (Khan et al., 2007). Moreover, the demand for chemical fertilizers is much greater than the supply. According to a prediction, approximately 28.8 tons of fertilizer is needed to produce 321 million tons of grain targeted by 2020: however, the amount of fertilizer that can be produced until 2020 is limited to 21.6 million tons (Mishra et al., 2013). Due to the growing population, available foods do not meet the need; therefore, the first thing to be done would be to increase agricultural productivity in a sustainable and environmentally friendly way. Therefore, it is inevitably necessary to reevaluate most of the existing agricultural approaches, involving the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and insecticides (Pretty and Bharucha 2015; Mahanty et al. 2017). Given the harmful effects of chemical fertilizers, biofertilizers are considered a safe alternative to chemical fertilizers and minimize ecological balance to a great extent (Mahdi et al., 2010; Singh et al., 2011). Moreover, the use of biofertilizers increases productivity and prevents environmental pollution (Mia and Shamsuddin, 2010; Jeyabal and Kupuswamy, 2001). The most prominent features of biological fertilizers in terms of plant development are the symbiotic and non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation, the mobilization of plant nutrients, the biological control of soil-borne diseases and the secretion of substances stimulating plant growth (Lucy et al., 2004). The use of biofertilizers has been reported to increase crop yield by about 10% to 40% by increasing protein content, essential amino acids, vitamins and nitrogen fixation (Bhardwaj et al., 2014). Different microorganisms are essential components of soil and play an important role in the several biotic activities of the soil ecosystem, which activates soil for nutrient mobilization and makes it sustainable for crop production (Ahemad and Kibret 2014). 169 Use of Biofertilizers in Agriculture The use of biofertilizers directly and indirectly contributes to the nutritional efficiency in agricultural production. While increasing the efficiency of both the resources existing in the soil and mineral fertilizers added to the soil are among the indirect effects, contributing to plant production through the organic and inorganic acids, hormones, vitamins they provide are the direct effects (Richardson et al., 2009). The production of environmentally friendly microorganisms and their metabolites industrially in large quantities and use of them in agriculture is a very important potential both for the sustainable agriculture and for the organic agriculture (Macilwain 2004). One of the fundamentals of clean and organic agriculture is the fortification of the rhizosphere with organic and biological fertilizers. The results of biological fertilization vary depending on the activity and types of microorganisms present in the composition of each biofertilizer. Biofertilizers can be broadly categorized as N2 fixing Bio-fertilizers (Freeliving, Symbiotic, Associative Symbiotic), Phosphate solubilizing Bio-fertilizers (bacteria, fungi), Phosphate mobilizing biofertilizers (Arbuscular mycorrhiza, Ectomycorrhiza, Ericoid mycorrhizae, Orchid mycorrhiza) and Biofertilizers for micro-nutrients (Silicate and Zinc solubilizers) and Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGBR) (Mahanty et al. 2017). The most important biofertilizers used in agriculture so far are the ones including nitrogen-fixing organism cultures, phosphate-solubilizing and -mobilizing organism cultures and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) (Mahanty et al. 2017). Microorganisms used as biofertilizers are important elements of soil fertility because they take part in the cycle of nutrients essential for plant growth. By ensuring the effective uptake of organic fertilizers by the plant used both in organic agriculture and in conventional agriculture, the optimum crop yield can be realized. Bacteria promoting plant growth leading to the aforementioned effect are called Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria (PGPB). Plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) includes those bacteria that are free-living, and form specific symbiotic relationship with plants, bacterial endophytes that can colonize at some portions of plant tissue, and Cyanobacteria (Farrar et al. 2014; Mahanty et al., 2017). Although these bacteria are different from each other, they all promote bacterial growth by exhibiting the same mechanisms in various ways. The mechanisms used by these bacteria are as follows: competing with other microorganisms in their ecological niches, producing interfering allelochemicals against pathogens, and inducing systemic resistance (ISR) in plants against pathogens and abiotic strains (Nowak and Shulaev, 2003; Mayak et al., 2004 ). Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria - PGPR which colonize the root surface and promote plant growth in the rhizosphere constitute the most studied group (Kloepper et al., 1980). These bacteria are of great importance in organic agriculture and sustainable agriculture. However, the effect of different types of PGPR varies according to the type of the host plant (Garcia et al., 2015). Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) refer to a wide range of soil 170 bacteria that promote the development of host plants they colonize. PGPR can be broadly classified into two categories: extracellular plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (ePGPR) and intracellular plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (iPGPR) (Viveros et al 2010). ePGPR are a group of rhizobium that inhabiting the rhizosphere or in the spaces between the cells of the root cells. ePGPR comprises several bacterial genera such as Azotobacter, Serratia, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Caulobacter, Chromobacterium, Agrobacterium, Erwinia, Flavobacterium, Arthrobacter, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas and Burkholderia. Among the endophhytic microbes belonging to iPGPR are Allorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Rhizobium, and Frankia, that can fix atmospheric nitrogen specifically for higher plants (Battacharyya and Jha 2012). PGPR are involved in a number of activities that help to improve soil ecosystem, and make the soil dynamic and sustainable in crop production (Gupta et al. 2015). PGPR practices can affect plant growth and development directly or indirectly. Among the mechanisms of plant growth promotion provided by PGPR are nitrogen fixation, biological absorption of the phosphorus, production of plant hormones such as cytokinin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and gibberellin, uptake of iron by plants via siderophore, inhibition of plant ethylene synthesis by 1aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase produced in bacteria, production of hydrogen cyanate (Singh et al., 2015; Liu et al, 2016), biodegradation of environmental pollutants, and production of antibiotics or lytic enzymes (Xie et al., 2016). PGPR facilitate plant acquisition or modulate plant hormone levels and thus they may promote plant growth directly, or they act as biocontrol bacteria and thus indirectly decrease the inhibitory effects of various pathogenic agents on plant growth and development (Glick, 2012). Two of the main components of organic farming are microbial inoculants and biofertilizers which account for nearly 65% of the nitrogen supply to crops worldwide (Babalola 2010). The bacteria strains fixing nitrogen most efficiently belong to the genera Rhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Azorhizobium and Allorhizobium. All of these bacteria lead to host-specific symbiosis together with leguminous plants. The formation of root or stem nodules initiates symbiosis in response to the presence of the bacterium (Bloenberg and Luktenberg, 2001). Inoculation of inorganic or organic phosphate soluble bacteria into the soil or plant seeds promotes plant growth. Phosphorus (P), one of the basic elements that limit plant growth, is inaccessible to plants in the majority of agricultural soils. In most cases, even if the amount of P in the soil is sufficient or even if regular fertilization is carried out, its uptake by plants is still low. Uptakable P is generally insufficient for high yield and the applied inorganic phosphorus is fixed immediately after fertilization. The applied P fertilizer is precipitated in the form of Fe, Al and Ca compounds by 75-90%. Inoculation of the seeds with phosphatesolubilizing bacteria promotes plant growth by increasing the uptake of applied phosphorus fertilizer fixed in the soil. Some bacteria convert the inorganic P into an uptakable form by increasing its solubility with organic acid secretions and different mechanisms, promote plant growth and increase the uptake of other minerals. It is 171 reported that agricultural production has increased significantly thanks to the use of phosphate bacteria as a biologic fertilizer (Çakmakçı, 2005). In recent years, the number of studies conducted on PGPR and their interactions with plants has increased. These studies have shown that these bacteria promote plant growth and increase yield in plants such as oat, canola, soybean, potato, maize, peas, tomato, lentil, barley, wheat, radish, cucumber (Gray and Smith 2005), apples, cherries, citrus fruits, mulberry and strawberry (Kloepper, 1993, Sudhakar et al., 2000, Eşitken et al., 2006, Pırlak et al., 2007). It was determined that application of nitrogen-fixing bacteria through the leaves led to significant increases in plant growth and yield in mulberry (Sudhakar et al., 2000), cherry (Eşitken et al., 2006) and apples (Pırlak et al., 2007). In field experiments conducted with selected PGPR, it was found that the seed yield of canola and soybean was 10-40% higher than that in the control group (Kloepper et al., 1986). Some Pseudomonas PGPR were found to increase fruit weight by 18% in cucumber (Mccullagh et al., 1996). An increase was reported in yield and fruit quality in tomato plants inoculated with Bacillus subtilis BEB-13bs (BS13) compared to control tomato plants (Mena-Violante and Olalde-Portugal, 2007). It was determined that inoculation of Bacillus M-13 and Bacillus megaterium RCO1 into barley plants produced indole acetic acid, dissolved phosphate, increased the amount of uptakable phosphorus in soil, and increased barley yields significantly (Çakmakcı 2007). Another group of microorganisms used as biofertilizers are mycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhiza absorbs nutrient elements, especially phosphorus, whose solubility is low or insufficient for the plant to uptake and contributes significantly to plant nutrition (Thompson et al., 1994). It increases the endurance of host plants against pathogens. In addition, mycorrhizal fungi promote root extension, accelerate plant growth and reduce the use of chemical fertilizers. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) constitute a group of root obligate biotrophs that exchange mutual benefits with about 80% of plants. Thanks to the symbiosis between AMF and a plant, the plant uptakes the nutrients (especially phosphorus) together with the micelles from the soil in the form and amount otherwise the plant cannot. AMF which provide water, nutrients, and pathogen protection in exchange for photosynthetic products for the host are considered natural biofertilizers. Thus, lack of AMF considered as primary biotic soil components can lead to a less efficient ecosystem functioning (Berruti et al., 2016). The effects of plant growth promoting microorganisms are a complex process and may vary depending on the species and number of microorganisms, plantmicroorganism combination, plant genotype, developmental stage, harvest season, plant parameters, soil type, amount of organic matter and environmental conditions (Şahin et al., 2004; Çakmakçı et al., 2006). Although biofertilizers can promote the productivity of agricultural lands enormously, the integrated approach to discover the most favorable plant microorganism interaction is the most critical factor that brings about the increase in productivity (Mahanty et al. 2017). 172 CONCLUSION With the gradual decline of agricultural land in the world, the need for more food production to feed the growing population has forced those concerned to find ways to obtain more crop yield per unit area, resulting in a considerable increase in the use of chemical inputs. As a result of the intensive use of chemical inputs in agricultural areas, yields and production have increased, but sustainable soil fertility and natural balance have been endangered. Due to the inadequacy of the available foods for the growing population, the first thing to be achieved is to increase the agricultural productivity in such a sustainable and environmentally friendly way not to destroy the ecological balance. The use of microorganisms as biofertilizers in agriculture is considered as an alternative to chemical fertilizers due to their high potential to increase agricultural production and food safety. Biofertilizer will not only feed the growing population but also can be used as a powerful alternative to protect agriculture from the effects of various environmental stresses. In agricultural applications, some microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria which promote plant growth are used as biofertilizers. PGPR which contribute to the plant growth due to their beneficial effects such as the elimination of harmful effects of pesticides and chemical fertilizers which lead to environmental contamination, disease and pest control, increased uptake of nutrients by the plant, and reduction of stress in plants caused by biotic / abiotic factors play an important role in the agriculture sector. 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Comparative genomic and functional analysis reveals conservation of plant growth promoting traits in Paenibacillus polymyxa and its closely related species. Sci. Rep. 6, 21329. 176 Chapter 15 The Role of Ecotourism in the Preservation and Development of Rural Identity: The Example of Düzce Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village Pınar GÜLTEKİN1 and Berfin ŞENİK2 Assistant Prof. Faculty of Forestry, Landscape Architecture Department, Düzce University Düzce/Turkey 2 Research Assistant; Faculty of Forestry, Landscape Architecture Department, Düzce University, Düzce/Turkey 1 INTRODUCTION In the late 19th century, especially in developed countries, rapid industrialization and the accompanying urbanization processes have led to an explosion of urban populations by triggering migration of inhabitants of rural areas to the cities. This worldwide industrialization process has emerged in Turkey as a result of the mechanization of agriculture. In the 1950s, along with the demand for farm machinery, there emerged a wave of migration from the rural areas to the cities, increasing the urban population rapidly (Tekeli, 2011; Keleş, 2012). In the first years of the Republic, inhabitants of the rural areas, where a large majority of the population lived, increasingly began to migrate to the cities, leading to a steady decline in the proportion of the total rural population. Today, the continued increase in the urban population density is the cause of spatial and ecological problems in the urban areas such as the inadequate amount of open and green areas and the tendency toward unplanned and unhealthy urbanization in parallel with this everincreasing population growth. Thus, due to their natural and cultural characteristics, rural areas have become places where the recreational needs of the society are met (Sağcan, 1986; Özkan and Kaplan, 1992; Aslan, 1993; Küçük, 2002; Girti et al., 2009; Gültekin and Gültekin, 2012). Rural areas are defined as places outside the areas classified as urban, where economic activities are largely dependent on natural resources, the economic, social and cultural development process is slower than in cities, and traditions shape the lifestyle (Anonymous, 2011; Torun, 2013). Although rural areas have the advantage in many ways, in Turkey, the lack of an effective management framework for these areas is still ongoing. Rural areas in Turkey are defined as "provincial and district centers with towns and villages having a population of less than 20,000" (Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, 2015). However, with Law No. 6360 entering into force in 2012, the extension of the borders of the metropolitan municipality to cover provincial boundaries of rural areas has led to the need for a new definition. In addition, new policies and practices must be brought to the agenda, especially with the post-1990 177 coercive policies on population migration in rural areas and the lack of alternative agricultural sectors for rural areas (Yorur, 2010). In this context, the redefinition of rural areas in legislation, highlighting site-specific characteristics and alternative sectors such as tourism, and maintaining a new policy and practices based on the preservation and development of natural and cultural landscape features and identity are important for the sustainability of rural areas. The reason for this is that rural areas are areas where humans and nature interact and the unique way of life of the local inhabitants, their traditional architecture together with the area usage types (agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, recreation, conservation areas, etc.) bring about benefits in the ecological (food safety, clean water, etc.), economic (agriculture, animal husbandry, tourism, etc.), social (job opportunities, recreation, etc.) and cultural (historical areas, traditional structures, cultural activities, etc.) sectors (Çetinkaya and Uzun, 2014). In particular, the fact that the natural landscape and the form of the buildings are determinative of rural identity makes rural areas centers of attraction and necessitates their evaluation in the field of tourism (Eminağaoğlu and Çevik, 2007). In this context, the concept of ecotourism based on respect for nature is in the forefront. The concept of ecotourism comes together in the literature with the concept of sustainability (Türker, 2009; Gültekin, 2010; Gültekin et al., 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016; Uzun et al., 2015, 2016; Gültekin et al., 2017a, 2017b). Ecotourism, where small-scale development and conservation of the ecological balance are essential, has come about as the result of sustainable development (Türker, 2009; Gültekin, 2010). Ecotourism emerges as a tool for the protection of both nature and rural identity as well as for the economic development of rural areas. In this context, in order to support ecotourism, especially when considering natural and cultural/traditional values, it is necessary to protect and develop site-specific features, to provide income for the local people and to be sensitive to nature. Ecotourism principles should be promoted at the local, regional and national levels (Dorobantu and Nistoreanu, 2012). On the other hand, the view that ecotourism has disadvantages as well as advantages is widespread. It is also argued that the increased recreational use of rural areas for leisure, recreation and tourism activities may lead to a contradiction of the conventional texture of rural identity and the destruction of natural landscape values (erosion, degradation, etc.) (Xue et al., 2017). However, when implemented with a sustainable approach, ecotourism can be an important driving force in generating local economic activity as an alternative source of livelihood. Ecotourism encompasses factors such as natural resources, cultural heritage and rural lifestyle, and creates awareness of natural and cultural landscapes by giving tourists an ecological experience (Kiper, 2013). Most of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) ecotourism-focused projects (e.g., in Brazil, Malaysia, Namibia, etc.) demonstrate the protection of landscapes and biodiversity as the main target (WWF, 2001). Likewise, in a study conducted for Mexico's San Luis Potosí city examining the relationship of ecotourism and sustainability in rural areas, it was stated that tourism is a potential tool of the central-local government-local community triad for developing and securing the continuity of rural areas (Valtonen, 2013). Similarly, 178 ecotourism is seen as an important area of activity in terms of ensuring sustainability of more local values and the rural identity for the local people by encouraging visitors from different geographic locations to witness the village lifestyle and to experience different characteristics of the local people and rural areas in order to create mutual interaction and empathy (Tekin and Kasalak, 2014). In an ecotourism study of Ahatlar Village in the Amasra district of Bartın, with the aim of supporting rural features in the development of rural lands, ecotourism scenarios and goals were presented on the basis of sustainable development in which one feature was dominant in each place (Açiksöz et al., 2017). Within this framework, ecotourism, through a participatory approach with accurate and effective goals and strategies, seems to be an important concept in the sustainability of rural areas. Köprübaşı Omar Effendi Village, which is a unique settlement in terms of its landscape value, settlement format, rural architectural character, gastronomic features and socio-cultural structure, is located in northwest Turkey in the Central District of the Black Sea coastal province of Düzce. This study has revealed the role of ecotourism in the preservation and development of its rural identity. Strategies have also been developed for increasing the attractiveness of ecotourism and for the diversification and marketing of locally specific ecotourism products. MATERIALS AND METHOD 1. Material Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village, as the designated study area, is a village belonging to the Central District of Düzce Province and composed of residents of Caucasian origin. With the settlement of this area in the year 1894, the village was named after a person called "Omer Effendi" who immigrated to Turkey after the 93 Turco-Russian war (Anonymous, 2018). The location of the study area is indicated in Figure 1. Figure 1: Study area location Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village exhibits all the of settlement characteristics of the Caucasian culture with itslarge land plots, wide, clean and well-organized streets and the presence of houses reflecting the orderly arrangement of Caucasian architecture. The local population, who strictly adhere to traditional social rules, continue to carry on their handicrafts, dances, music, gastronomic values and culture. According to the 2017 Turkish Statistical Institute (TÜİK) data, the Köprübaşı Village population consisted of 454 people, including 206 females and 248 males. The village is located 11 km from the Central District city of Düzce and is located on a plain 121 m above sea level. 179 2. Method For the study, a literature search was first conducted with the aim of establishing that the settlement unit exhibited the authentic rural identity for the Düzce region. Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village was determined as the study area by using scientific research and studies from the Düzce Culture and Tourism Provincial Directorate, the Düzce Municipality, and others related to Düzce culture and history. Land studies were carried out to determine the rural identity characteristics of the study area, to investigate the applicability of ecotourism activities and to determine the proximity of villages to ecotourism resources. A survey was conducted with the aim of determining the rural identity structures and the viewpoints of the local people concerning ecotourism. The questionnaire also asked about the reason for tourism activities and whether there was any concern about or awareness of future negative effects on their local identity. The survey study was applied to a random sampling of 142 persons between March and April 2018 and 118 questionnaires were accepted as valid. The results were evaluated via the IBM Statistics 22.0 program and interpreted using frequency and percentage analyses, the independent sample t-test, cross-tabs and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). As a result, the ecotourism role of Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village in the preservation and development of rural identity was revealed and proposals were made to increase the attractiveness of ecotourism for future visitors to the region. RESULTS 1. Local socio-demographic characteristics A questionnaire was administered to the local people with the aim of utilizing ecotourism activities to aid in the protection of the rural identity of Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village. Information on the socio-demographic characteristics of the local people is given in Table 1. Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of inhabitants of Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village Gender Age Female Male Total 12-20 years old 21-30 years old 31-45 years old 46-60 years old 61-75 years old 75 years and older Total 180 Frequency 61 54 115 1 18 29 35 25 9 117 Percent 51,7 45,8 97,5 0,8 15,3 24,6 29,7 21,2 7,6 99,2 Education Monthly income Marital status Number of children Number of household Birthplace Duration of living in the village Home ownership Vernacular architecture Material of house Membership of association Primary school Secondary school High school Associate degree Bachelor’s degree Postgraduate degree (MSc, PhD) Total Less than 1501 ₺ 1501-3000 ₺ 3001-5000 ₺ Total Single Married Total 1 2 3 4 and more Total Alone 2 3 4 5 and more Total Köprübaşı village Another county of Düzce Outside of Düzce Total Less than 5 years 5-10 years 11-20 years 21-40 years More than 40 years Total Own home Tenant Other Total Yes No Total Adobe Wooden Masonry Reinforced concrete Steel Vernacular architecture Total No Yes Total 181 44 24 15 1 19 9 112 33 51 25 109 26 90 116 16 53 17 7 93 21 24 16 30 23 114 57 30 29 116 19 14 13 24 44 114 99 15 2 116 58 54 112 4 24 6 79 3 1 117 94 23 117 37,3 20,3 12,7 0,8 16,1 7,6 94,9 27,7 43,2 21,1 92,4 22,0 76,3 98,3 13,6 44,9 14,4 5,9 78,8 17,8 20,3 13,6 25,4 19,5 96,6 48,3 25,4 24,6 98,3 16,1 11,8 10,8 20,1 36,7 96,6 83,9 12,7 1,7 98,3 49,2 45,8 94,9 3,4 20,3 5,1 66,9 2,5 0,8 99,2 79,7 19,5 99,2 When the profile of the Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village inhabitants was evaluated via the survey results, it was seen that the average age of the population in the village ranged between 31 and 75, the younger population was less, the education was at the primary and middle school level, and families mostly had two children. Moreover, most of the local people were born in this village or in nearby villages and most had been living in this village since they were born and owned their houses. Half the houses in the village exhibit traditional architectural characteristics, while the recently built houses are of reinforced concrete. The vast majority of the local inhabitants stated that they did not belong to any organization/association. When the rural identity of the area was assessed along with profiles of the local inhabitants, it was apparent that the young population was small, the age range of the local people was between 31 and 75, the number of youth available as a workforce in ecotourism activities was low, the protection of rural identity was in danger and there was migration out of the village. It could be said that the fact that in Caucasian culture people marry late and have few children affected this situation. Field studies confirmed that nearly half of the houses display traditional architectural features. The majority of the local people were born and raised in the village of Köprübaşı, but those coming from another city preferred to live in this area. 2. Local views on village facilities, ecotourism activities and tourists In the questionnaire study, participants were asked about the facilities in the village, the dishes they made, agricultural products they produced, their festivals, celebrations, etc. Open-ended questions were asked about the recognition of rural identity and the existence of cultural activities. The local people stated that Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village was a clean, tidy, quiet settlement with 150 years of history. They stated that they continued to protect traditional structures, customs, local dishes and handicrafts. They emphasized that they had established a museum named the "Adige Culture House" in the village and that they attended all the festivals and celebrations held in Düzce and participated with a stand representing the village. They also emphasized that they continued the traditional agriculture models (cultivation of pumpkin, corn and wheat). Using a 5-point Likert scale, participants were asked questions aimed at determining the superstructure and infrastructure facilities in the village, the proximity of tourism and recreation resources, their perceptions of ecotourism and their opinions of tourists. The responses are given in Table 2. 182 2,6 2,6 26,1 62,6 5,3 9,7 16,8 38,9 19,2 7,9 7,9 8,8 39,5 36,0 6,2 14,2 11,5 44,2 23,9 32,7 27,4 24,8 7,1 8,0 11,6 22,3 12,5 29,5 24,1 4,4 8,8 10,5 36,8 39,5 29,8 18,4 26,3 15,8 9,6 8,0 13,3 8,0 23.0 47,8 0,9 8,8 4,4 34,2 51,8 0,4 1,5 6,4 21,5 70,2 Neither agrees nor disagree (%) Strongly agree (%) a. Transportation to the village is easy b. Social, cultural, sport etc activities are frequently conducted in the village. c. In the village, the maintenance / cleaning is done sufficiently d. There are adequate rest areas / recreation areas (children playground, parking, picnic area, etc.) in the village. e. Tourists visiting the village pollute the environment. f. Marketplaces where agricultural products can be sold for tourists are needed in the village. g. Tourism projects are needed in terms of economic development of the village. h. Infrastructure, water, sewage etc. services are adequate in the village. i. The indigenous pattern of the village should not be changed. j. The specific features of the village should be foregrounded. k. I can give a room of my house to tourists Disagree (%) 6,1 Strongly disagree (%) Agree (%) Table 2: Local views on village facilities, ecotourism activities and tourists Participants stated that it was easy to reach the village, that the village was well-maintained and clean, that social, cultural and sports activities were organized and recreation and picnic areas in the village were sufficient, that tourists would not pollute the environment, that market places where agricultural products can be sold are needed, that tourism projects for economic development are necessary, that the super- and infrastructure facilities were sufficient, that the traditional texture should be preserved unchanged, and that local features should be brought to the fore. From the direction of their answers, it may be argued that the participants would support ecotourism and tourism activities and that the village facilities necessary for ecotourism development are sufficient. 3. Independent sample t-test results The relationships between other characteristics of the survey respondents were evaluated according to their gender, but the only statistically significant differences found were between the views on infrastructure facilities and gender (Table 3). 183 Table 3: Relationship between gender and village infrastructure facilities Infrastructure, water, sewage etc. services are adequate in the village. Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) 4,750 ,032 ,769 100 ,444 ,753 86,095 ,453 * Significant difference at 0.05 level. When Table 3 is evaluated, the opinions of the women and men participating in the survey are seen to be statistically different in terms of their views on the infrastructural facilities of the village. The males found the infrastructure facilities to be inadequate, while the females often stated that they were ambivalent about whether or not the infrastructure facilities were adequate. 4. One-way ANOVA results Within the scope of the study, a one-way ANOVA analysis was carried out with the aim of emphasizing rural identity and comparing the characteristics of those who were born in Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village with those of residents who later settled in this village (Table 4). Table 4: Comparisons of birthplace and other features Gender Number of Children Duration of living in the village Home ownership Material of house Social, cultural, sport etc activities are frequently conducted in the village Marketplaces where agricultural products can be sold for tourists are needed in the village Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 2,305 14,059 16,364 8,625 27,996 36,621 19384,518 23746,467 43130,985 2,122 6,908 9,030 27,217 28,485 6,182 2 63 65 2 63 65 2 63 65 2 63 65 63 65 2 Between Groups Within Groups Total 59,757 65,939 9,281 Between Groups Within Groups Total 64,658 73,939 12,750 184 Mean Square F Sig. 1,152 ,223 5,164 ,008 4,312 ,444 9,704 ,000 9692,259 376,928 25,714 ,000 1,061 ,110 9,677 ,000 ,432 3,091 3,259 ,045 63 65 2 ,949 4,641 4,522 ,015 63 65 2 1,026 6,375 3,455 ,038 df Infrastructure, water, sewage etc. services are adequate in the village Education Level Age Between Groups Within Groups Total 116,235 128,985 18,872 63 65 2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total 114,658 133,530 20,347 202,320 222,667 12,390 63 65 2 63 65 2 1,845 9,436 5,185 ,008 3,168 ,049 5,607 ,006 1,820 10,173 3,211 6,195 * Significant difference at 0.05 level. There were statistically significant differences between survey participants’ birthplace and their age, education level, views on infrastructure facilities, findings on sufficient cultural and sports activities, materials preferred for use in home construction, homeowner status, number of children and gender. Most of those who were born in Köprübaşı Village and spent their lives there were men, while the women married and settled there afterwards. The ones born in Köprübaşı village owned their own houses and preferred wood as the building material, while those who came to the area later lived in rented houses and reinforced concrete buildings. The education levels of those born in this village were at the primary and middle school level, whereas those who settled there later were college graduates. Although the number of children of those born and raised in the village was fewer, the number of children of those settling there afterwards was higher. The inhabitants born and raised in the area found the infrastructure facilities and activities to be sufficient, while the later settlers found them insufficient. 5. Crosstab results The relationship between the place of birth of the respondents and the use of traditional architecture is also explained by crosstabs (Table 5). Table 5 suggests that those who were born in Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village mainly preferred traditional architecture. Individuals born and raised in this village growing up in accordance with their traditions were more enthusiastic about possession of a traditional building than those who settled later in the area. The relationship between the birthplace of the questionnaire participants and the materials used in the construction of their houses is shown in Table 6. Table 5: Relationship between place of birth and traditional architecture Birth place Köprübaşı village Another county of Düzce Outside of Düzce Total 185 Vernacular Architecture Yes No 32 24 10 15 15 14 57 53 Total 56 25 29 110 Table 6: Relationship between place of birth and building materials used in the home Birth Place Adobe Wooden Material of Masonry House Reinforced Steel Total Another Country of Duzce 0 1 1 27 0 29 Köprübaşı Village 2 20 1 33 3 59 Outside of Duzce Total 2 2 4 21 0 29 4 23 6 81 3 117 Table 6 shows that those born and raised in Köprübaşı Village chose wood as a building material more often than the later settlers, but in general, both those born in this village as well as those who settled there later preferred reinforced concrete. However, the increase of ecotourism activities and the preference of wooden buildings for the accommodation of tourists present the possibility of abandoning the concrete and returning to wooden construction materials. 6. Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village ecological tourism resources Köprübaşı Village is a key site for ecotourism activities due to its geographical location and the nature preserves and recreational areas in its immediate vicinity (Fig. 2) Figure 2: Ecotourism resources in the vicinity of Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village As stated in the Düzce Nature Tourism Master Plan (2013), Efteni Wildlife Development Area is located in the Gölormanı, Paşakonağı, Kuşaçması and Ballıca Villages connected to the Central District and the Hamamüstü and Hacıyakup Villages in the Gölyaka District. It covers an area of 764 ha and has a lake area of 158 ha. The maximum water depth is 977 ha and the water flood area is 3760 ha. In the studies carried out by Aksoy (2006) and Keten (2009), 105 aquatic, semiaquatic and terrestrial species, including herbaceous and woody plants, were identified. Of these, Lythrum anatolicum (Leblebici & Secmen), Verbascum 186 bithynicum (Boiss.) and Campanula lyrata (Lam.) are endemic species. The number of bird species (Aves) recorded is 175, 123 of which are endangered according to the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It was also found that there are 11 fish species 73 ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii), two species of amphibians (Amphibia), six of reptiles (Reptilia), nine of mammals (Mammalia) and 14 of invertebrates (Invertebrata). There are five waterfalls located 10 km away from the city center of Düzce. The Aydınpınar Waterfalls are located in the Aydınpınar Waterfall Nature Park in the Yilanlıkaya district of Aydınpınar Village. In line with the water of the Aydınpınar Waterfalls, the Uğur River, Efteni Lake and Great Melon River empty into the Black Sea. Touristic activities that can be conducted here include trekking and photo safaris. The Toptepe scenic observation spot is located along the public promenade area of Düzce Gölormanı Village. The promenade area is suitable for hiking, cycling, scenic viewing, photography and picnic activities. The Dedekoru recreation area, located in the province of Gümüşova, is another place where picnicking, hiking, etc. activities can be carried out. 7. Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village rural identity values Information about the architectural features, handicrafts and gastronomic characteristics of the village were obtained by conducting field trips and literature surveys. Figure 3 shows items of local food. Figure 3: Local foods (Anonymous 2018b, 2018c, 2018d). As a result of the questionnaire survey, the local dishes and tastes in the forefront in Köprübaşı Village include Circassian chicken, mamursa (made of corn flour), şıpsibasta (porridge made of chicken or red meat and corn or wheat flour), lepsi (meat stew),haluj (Circassian dumplings containing meat, cheese or potato), Circassian and Abkhazian cheeses and acıka abaza salt. Apart from these, there are a lot of other Circassian foods and desserts such as halvane (a kind of layered helva), metaz (a dumpling cooked in water) and hurmisa (a syrupy dessert). The local varieties of food will attract tourists to participate in ecotourism activities. 187 Another element that was evaluated in the study area was regional architecture and housing typologies (Fig. 4). Figure 4: Traditional architecture and housing typologies From the questionnaire survey and field observations, it was determined that the houses in the study area had one or two storeys with wide and orderly garden areas surrounded by walls. Despite the preservation of traditional houses in the village, it was observed that the new buildings are examples of reinforced concrete and modern architecture. Figure 5 shows traditional clothing and musical instruments. Circassian clothing also has a place-specific value in terms of visual richness and artistic detail. The traditional men's costume consists mainly of wide-sleeve caftans, shirts, trousers, shoes and fur headgear. The caftan has a dagger and sword attached at the waist. At home, men wear plain garments consisting of inner shirt, trousers and a knee-length lined jacket, while outside, a çerkeska (traditional Circassian men’s outfit with trousers narrow at the bottom), fur hat and soft boots are worn. Depending on their social class, the gentlemen would choose white, the aristocracy red, and the peasants gray, brown or black. The women wear caftans, and from adolescence to the time of marriage, they wear an embroidered waistcoat of soft, thin leather called sahtiyan made from goat or lamb skin. The upper part of this garment is perfectly fitted and below the belt worn at the waist it is sewn open for the length of the front to the bottom. In the composition formed by the costume, the triangular opening at the chest reveals metal buttons made of silver, gold or brass, and from the opening below the belt, the inner garment can be seen. Caftans are usually sewn from maroon, red, dark blue, dark green or black velvet, silk or satin cloth. They are decorated with motifs and ornamented with gold and silver gilt stripes extending from the shoulders under the belt to the bottom of the skirt. The sleeves are fashioned in many different styles. The embellishments on the garment are of gold and silver thread. The broad floor-length extent of the caftan below the waist and the long, wide sleeves are symbolic of comfort, wealth and nobility (Erdoğan, 2006). 188 Figure 5: Traditional clothing and musical instruments: Women's clothing and accessories, 1a, 1b, 1c, 1d; Men's clothing and accessories, 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d (Anonymous 2018e) In the Circassian society, songs (huaho) that express their folk music include songs of prayer and entreaties, agricultural and work songs, shepherd songs, hunting songs, songs of domestic work and family institutions, therapeutic songs, heroic songs and laments. There are a variety of cultural-specific stringed instruments such as the şıç’epşıne, pşınetark’u, ahımaa, phuante pşıne and apepşıne, as well as wind instruments like the kamılh and bjamiy, percussion instruments such as the phaç’ıç and adaul, and keyed instruments like the pşıne (Erdoğan, 2006). 8. “KAZAN” project The "KAZAN” project, supported by a grant from the Ministry of Interior Associations Office, is a social life project focused on bringing vitality to Köprübaşı Omer Effendi Village and on bringing about renewal of their communal work system, establishing the value of produced goods, boosting visits to the villages via activities, and promoting lost values and local delicacies In 2015, as a result of the project application made to the Ministry of Interior Associations Office Directorate, the Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village Development Association was supported by a grant project. Within the scope of the project, 55 Circassian dishes were presented through the chefs of the Kitchen Workshop as a part of Turkish cuisine. In order to introduce the local cuisine, activities entitled "Food Festival", "Our Living Dishes” and “Our Cuisine" were carried out in Köprübaşı. In the competition held within the scope of the Food Festival, members of organizations such as the Düzce Professional Cooks Association and the Euro189 Toques European Cooks Association from Istanbul took part as juries. At the Food Festival, stands selling entirely natural products created an important opportunity to promote culture as well as to boost production and strengthen economic vitality. Vegetable-growing courses providing information on the development of agriculture and alternative crops were organized by the Düzce Governorate Province Food, Agriculture and Livestock Directorate. An additional goal was to contribute to the domestic economy by creating Köprübaşı Natural Market, where natural agricultural products such as milk, yogurt, cheese, condiments, jam, molasses, homemade bread, handicrafts and gift items are exhibited. Project partners include the Düzce Governorship Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate, Düzce Governorship Provincial Food, Agriculture and Livestock Directorate, Düzce Adige (Circassian) Culture House Association, and Düzce Education, Research and Guidance Association (DEAR). As a result of the project, it was emphasized that the villages of Duzce, which are in the foreground with their natural and cultural richness, should be included in the tourism sector with such activities as the KAZAN project. In economic terms, such projects aimed at creating markets will generate profits from the goods produced and provide income to the families and at the same time will lead to the promotion of natural and cultural values. Within the scope of the project, seeds of the local Circassian pumpkin obtained from various villages by village youth were planted and research was begun on determining their geographical origin markers. In addition, within the framework of the KAZAN project, Düzce and Gaziantep cuisines were brought together, providing an opportunity to introduce the dishes in the historical and cultural sites of Gaziantep, which is one of the UNESCO “Gastronomic Cities of the World". DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS According to the research and field studies carried out within the scope of the study, Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village has preserved rural identity more than other villages in Düzce and the local people are very willing to maintain their culture and traditions. The KAZAN project and activities like the Caucasus festivals have been identified as efforts to maintain cultural values. The most important factors in preserving rural identity are the attempts of the local people born and raised in the village to continue the traditional agricultural models and to maintain and transfer from generation to generation the traditional architecture, local dishes, clothing, music and dance culture. In recent years, the establishment of Adige Culture House has increased the recognition of the village and its attractiveness among tourists by organizing competitions, establishing stands at festivals to introduce the village, actively using social media promotion, printing brochures promoting the village, and using television programs to help draw people to ecotourism activities in the village. Tourists from Lithuania, Italy and Spain are visiting the area thanks to these promotional activities. As Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village is located within a few hours’ distance from Istanbul and Ankara, it can be said that the majority of tourists coming to the area are composed of urbanites from big cities. For this tourist profile, rural areas 190 with unique local values that cannot be found in urban areas can be regarded as highly attractive. In addition, the willingness of the local people to support tourism projects and tourists coming to the area should be an indication that local peopletourist interaction will have positive mutual consequences. Local flavor is very important in ecotourism. The sectors in which special foods are introduced should be increased and their activities should be planned in such a way as to provide a regular income. Restaurants specializing in regional cuisine should be expanded and financial and counseling support for entrepreneurship should be provided to the local people. The efforts of Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi Village to develop and protect its identity through ecotourism activities can set an example for other villages in Düzce. In several conducted studies, the Abhaz settlements in Derdin village in Düzce, the Circassian settlements in Köprübaşı Ömer Efendi village, the Balkan immigrant settlements in Sarıdere, the Black Sea settlements in Güzeldere and Kabalak, the Manav Turk settlements in Subaşı, the Georgian settlements in Hacıyakup, and the mixed ethnic community in Aydınpınar have been indicated as the best representative villages (Uzun et al., 2016). There are examples of traditional houses and gardens specific to each culture. The introduction of these examples of ecotourism practices, i.e., conservation, development and income generation via the utilization of tourists, is seen as the most effective way to ensure the sustainability of the identity of the settlements REFERENCES Açıksöz, S., Bollukçu, P., Cengiz Gökçe G., (2017). 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Annals of Tourism Research 66: 170–182 WWF, (2001). Guidelines for Community-Based Ecotourism Development. WWF International July. 24.04.2018. http://www.widecast.org/Resources/Docs/WWF_2001_Community_Based_Ecot ourism_Develop.pdf Yörür, N., (2010). 1990 Sonrası Türkiye’de Uygulanan Kırsal Alan ve Tarım Politikaları Üzerine Genel Bir Değerlendirme. Planlama Dergisi (1). 3-19. 193 Chapter 16 Some Natural and Exotic Invasive Plant Species in Turkey Sefa AKBULUT1 and Mustafa KARAKÖSE2 1 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Karadeniz Technical University Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Engineering, Trabzon/TURKEY 2 Assist. Prof. Dr., Giresun University, Espiye Vocational School, Programme of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Giresun/TURKEY INTRODUCTION Invasive and alien plant species are an important threat to natural habitats. These species, which can show a tendency to naturalization, have a devastating effect on the natural food chain. Invasive species usually have a different phenology than natural species. Leafing are earlier than wild plants and are cut off from activity later than usually. In short, vegetation times are longer. This is because of their high ecological tolerance. These invasive plants develop many strategies to survive. Their development is often rapid and they grow to maturity at early ages. Many of invasive plant species have the ability to reproduce vegetative because of stolon, rhizomes, and shoots rooted at the soil. These species tend to be mostly pollination by wind. Fruits are carried by winds, waters and birds to reach very wide spreading areas. Owing to this feature, colonies can be built in places far from natural habitats. The main problem occurs in global biodiversity. Biodiversity is a complex structure composed of a perfect blend of bacteria, fungi, plants and singlecelled organisms. All the organisms that are constituent parts of biodiversity are living elements of ecosystems and these organisms enable the continuity of life on the planet. These naturalized species, with their invasive character, exterminate the wild plant species present in the region. They cannot just settle for certain species, but can destroy the whole organism community. Naturalized invasive species tend to alter the normal succession stages of the ecosystem in which they are located and are effective on the ecosystem in the long run. Naturalized invasive plant species eliminate the wild species that exist in the region. They do not just to replace specific species. They can destroy the whole organism community. Naturalized invasive plant species tend to change the stages of succession in the ecosystem in which they are located and have an impact on the ecosystem in long term. Today, there are many factors that threaten biodiversity. The most important of these are habitat losses, the disintegration of natural ecosystems by human ingenuity and the degradation of their dynamics. In addition, invasive species gain land due to wrong land use, over-utilization of plant sources, global warming and environmental pollution can be among other threats to biodiversity (Chevalier et al., 194 1997; Işık et al., 1997). For example, the disruption of habitats directly changes the structure of the ecosystem. This results in isolation and deterioration of habitats away from each other. In habitats where fragmentation increases and structural dynamics are broken, plant and wildlife mobility is restricted (Collins, 2005). Turkey is a unique country in terms of plant biodiversity because of its geographical location, geomorphological structure, micro-climate diversity and its combination with three different flora regions. Habitat fragmentation and loss of habitat are the leading factors that threaten biological diversity. Habitat fragmentation may occur naturally or anthropogenic origin (wrong land use, road construction, forestry activities, etc.). This factor, which threatens biodiversity, causes alien species to settle in natural habitats (Pysek & Richardson, 2010). In the globalized world, the globalization of travel and trade allows these non-natural species to find new areas of distribution in various parts of the world (Wagner et al., 2017). These non-natural species create serious problems in various fields such as environmental, economic and human health in the new habitats they find. (Xu et al., 2012). With 11,707 taxa in Turkey, there are also alien plant species that enter Turkey's flora in different ways such as introducing or naturalizing. It has been determined that there are 340 of alien plant species which are not included in the natural flora of Turkey (Uludağ et al., 2017). In this study, information about the origin, biological and ecological characteristics of some invasive alien plant species that are spread commonly in the Turkey has been compiled. Some of them naturally take place in the flora of Turkey. These plants are Amaranthus retroflexus L., Ambrosia artemisiifolia L., Clematis vitalba L., Conyza Canadensis (L.) Cronquist, Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv., Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) A.Camus, Polygonum persicaria L., Sicyos angulatus L., Xanthium spinosum L., Tradescantia fluminensis Vell., Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore, Rhododendron ponticum L., Robinia pseudoacacia L., and Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Amaranthus retroflexus L. is native to North America, but is widespread as an introduced species on most continents in a great number of habitats. Young plants usually emerge from the end of May to June. Growth can be very rapid. Flowers appear from June to October. The first fruits can be developed in July, although I observed plants that fructified in January. Senescence stage is from November to February. Phenological stages are slightly dephased for different latitudes (Costea et al., 2001; Iamonica, 2010). It is often found in garden cultures, rich in nutrients, and sometimes in arid soils. He likes warmth. Common in subtropical areas. It may produce more than 1 million seeds under appropriate conditions. Seeds can remain in the soil for 10-40 years without germinating (Uygur et al., 1986). Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. is an invasive alien plant in Europe. It grows to 2090 cm, even 120 cm in height. It begins to emerge early in the spring and continues to emerge through the summer. Plants that emerge early in the spring have a longer vegetation period. They are higher, more ramified and produce more seeds (Galzina et al., 2010). As an annual plant it reproduces by seed and has abundant seed production. One plant produces on average 1000-4000 seeds but that number can be 195 significantly higher. Seed can remain viable in the soil for 35 years and even more (Ostojić et al., 1992; Ostojić, 2005). Solitary, individual plants are more ramified and generally pollinate more. Common ragweed plants react with high phenotypic plasticity to population density and competition from other plants (Brandes & Nitzsche, 2006). Clematis vitalba L.: is native to central and southern Europe. It is a invasive deciduous plant which spreads both vertically and horizontally. It can grow up to 7 times faster than ivy. Stems can grow several meters in a single season. One plant is capable of blanketing an area of 180 m2. Old Man’s Beard is tolerant of cold, moderate shade, damp, wind, salt and most soil types. Damage from the species also enhances the colonization of native habitats by other invasive plants. It can reproduce by both seed and vegetative means. An estimated 17,000 viable seeds are produced per 0.5 m2 in areas. Seed dispersal is by wind, water, people and animals. It often grows on roadsides, and the risk of seeds being transported on road vehicles from known infestations to new sites is high (URL-1, 2017). Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist is native to North America. Annual herb up to 150 cm, with patent hairs and with arranged flowers in small yellowish-white spherical flower heads. Flowering is from June to August. It propagates by seed, producing a high amount of seeds that are efficiently dispersed by the wind, rapidly enhancing their distribution area. A ruderal weed species, very frequent in disturbed areas: urban areas, roadsides, abandoned fields, common lands, ditches and unattended crop fields (removed soils and enriched in nutrients). It also appears in natural and semi-natural areas normally associated to disturbance events. It forms dense areas that prevent the growth of native vegetation. High costs in applying control methodologies, mainly in crop areas. It reduces productivity in crop fields (URL-2, 2017). Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. is an annual introduced from Europe and India. An upright summer annual weed. Found in moist, disturbed sites, marshes, and wet turf areas. The stem is flat and erect with roots at its nodes. The leaves are linear with a broad round base narrowing at the tip. The seed head is windmill-shaped and the seeds are short with stiff awns. The flower head is reddish, purplish, pinkish or greenish. Panicle and seed head often purple, spikelets end in a bristle. Each plant can produce up to 40,000 seeds. Completes its development in 42-64 days (URL-3, 2017). This species is ranked 3rd among the world’s worst weeds, and can consume 60-80% of available soil nitrogen in one growing season (Royer and Dickinson, 1999). Seeds can survive up to 12 years (Cliffor & Walter, 2005). Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) A.Camus is an annual grass from Asia. It germinates in spring and grows slowly until mid-summer ultimately reaching a height of 0.6–1.5 m. Reclining stems can grow to a length of up to 2 m. In unfavorable conditions, the plant can be as small as 10–20 cm in height but it is still capable of producing flowers and seed (Mehrhoff, 2000). Microstegium vimineum possesses characteristics typical of many invasive alien species: it grows quickly, 196 fruits within a single season, produces abundant seed and readily invades habitats that have been disturbed by natural (Tu, 2000; Oswalt & Oswalt, 2007). It produces numerous seeds in autumn eds are dispersed by water, animals and through human activities on clothing and vehicles. Seeds may remain viable in the soil for 5 years (Barden, 1987). Polygonum persicaria L. is native to Europe. It is annual herbs with coarse, erect or ascending stems that grow 30 to 91 cm tall. Stems are swollen at the nodes (Welsh, 1974). It reproduces entirely by seeds. It can produce up to 1,550 seeds in one season (Stevens 1932). Seeds can be dispersed by birds and mammals after being ingested (Ransom 1935). Most seeds germinate in spring. The optimum temperature for germination is 20°C (Bouwmeester & Karssen, 1992). It inhabit an extremely broad range of habitats, from moderate shade to full sun, flooded areas to dry areas, and fertile soils to nutrient-poor soils (DiTomaso & Healy, 2003; Heschel et al., 2004). It grows best in soils with pH between 4.0 and 8.5. It can tolerate a slightly broader range of environmental conditions than curly top knotweed (Sultan et al., 1998). Sicyos angulatus L. is native to North America. This plant is an annual vine, drying entirely in the coldest months of the year (Hilty, 2002-2006). Sicyos angulatus blooms from mid-August to mid-September (Cooperrider, 1995). Each fruit contains a single, large seed. Thus what appears to be a seed at dispersal is a single mature ovary with one seed inside. It is an annual plant that spreads mainly by reseeding itself. Seeds are produced in large numbers and the enclosing fruit is disseminated by animals, which may catch the prickly fruit in their fur (URL-4, 2017). Seeds germinate from May through September (Esbenshade and Curran, 1996). Sicyos angulatus is invasive in maize and soybean fields where its seeds are scattered by farm machinery (URL-4, 2017). Xanthium spinosum L. is native to North America. It is an annual herb originating from South America (Chile). It is widely distributed throughout the temperate regions in the World (URL-5, 2017). Bathurst burr is an erect, multibranched annual herb, growing up to 1 m high. Flowers are creamy green and small, developing into straw-colored burrs, 1–1.5 cm long, with numerous yellow hooked spines. The burs contain two seeds that can survive up to 3 years under field conditions (Anonymonus-6, 2017). Woodlands, pastures, fields, forest margins, coastal habitats and disturbed sites such as roadsides, ornamental landscapes, agricultural fields, and urban waste areas; also common along riparian areas. The cockleburs can grow in most environment and can tolerate many soil types (URL-5, 2017). Tradescantia fluminensis Vell. is an endemic South American species in its natural areas. Despite its natural environment, it is known as an invasive species outside its natural environment. (Standish et al., 2001). Tradescantia fluminensis is a succulent, creeping and perennial plant of ground cover. The main body can reach 1.5 m in length and has a soft and brittle structure. Every nod on the body is capable of producing new bodies. Breeding of this invasive species is mostly done through stolons and tubers. (Maule et al., 1995). Tradescantia fluminensis responds quickly 197 to the presence of sufficient light and nitrogen (Maule et al., 1995). In the edge habitat, the growth rate of this taxon reaches to 40-50 m (Standish et al., 2004). In addition, well-drained soil is increasing the growth of this taxon (Smale & Gardner, 1999). Tradescantia. fluminensis has great negative effects on forest biodiversity, with the possibility of spreading on the edges of forests and creeks outside its natural environment (Standish et al., 2001). With the decline of the closure in these areas, there is an increase in population density and prevents new youth from coming. The dense populations that are formed cause homogenization of the natural environment and cause the species diversity to decrease (Standish, 2002). Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore is a plant species of African origin. Crassocephalum crepidioides are 30-120 cm long, erect, simple or branched annual herbaceous species. Flowering is between August and November, fruiting stage is between October and March (Davis et al., 1988). Plant sprouts have optimal germination ability in 10-30 oC and 4-10 soil reaction (Nakamura & Hossain, 2009). Crassocephalum crepidioides species are usually able to multiply by seeding, and plant members can produce about 5000 seeds per m2 (URL-7, 2018). Seed germination ability decreases during the next growing season. Crassocephalum crepidioides taxon is mainly distributed in moist habitats, especially in artificial land (Chen et al., 2009). Rhododendron ponticum L. is a woody taxon that grows naturally in Turkey and Georgia and can reach 10 m height (Stevens, 1978). The leaves are evergreen, leathery, full-sided, wide obovate or elliptical. The purple-pink-colored clustered flowers are open in May. Rhododendron ponticum are used as ornamental plants outside the natural distribution area due to their showy flowers (Spain, England, Belgium, Holland etc.) (Cross, 1975). Outside the natural spreading area, Rhododendron ponticum is considered as an invasive species. In addition to producing millions of small seeds every year, Rhododendron ponticum species also has the ability to grow fast and produce strong sprouts. (Maguire et al., 2008). This plant species belongs to the worst 100 invasive species in the world with the cause of the invasive character. (URL-8, 2018). Reforestation in areas covered with Rhododendron ponticum is extremely difficult (Harris et al., 2009). However, an important benefit of this woody species in high mountain areas is the prevention of landslides on steep slopes and deforested places. Robinia pseudoacacia L. is native the eastern coast of North America. It is a deciduous species with a limited spread here. It was first brought to Europe in 1601 by J. Robin. It is a tree in 20-25 m length. There are drooping white inflorescences which reach a length of 10-20 cm. Fruit is 5-10 cm long, flat and contains 3-10 pieces of light-brown seeds (Chamberlain, 1970). It makes its best developments well-drained soil in river beds (Cierjacks et al., 2013). There is a root system that descends deep ahead, then spreads around. At the tips of their roots, there is often Mycorrhiza, which consist of bacteria that fixing free nitrogen as seen in all Fabaceae family specimens (Rice et al., 2004). Black locust annually produces nearly 12 kg seeds. Germination ability of this species seeds is low due to seed dormancy (Masaka & Yamada, 2009). On the other hand, Robinia pseudoacacia 198 has a powerful root and stem sprout feature that easily increases the population level in areas with plenty of light (Swamy et al., 2002). So, in order to remove this species from the naturalized areas, it is necessary to remove all of the plant from the habitat. Black locust is commonly used in urban areas for ornamental purposes and in forestation areas, preventing soil erosion and honey production. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle is a deciduous woody species and native to China. It is called “Tree of heaven”. Perennial woody up to 20-25 m. The seed is flat, located in the middle of the wing (Cullen, 1967). It is a fast-growing, shortlived tree that can survive for 40-50 years. It grows with seed or strong root and stem sprouts. Ailanthus altissima is a sun-loving woody plant and find suitable habitat in forest areas and ruderal areas where there is generally intervention (Wickert et al., 2017). Ailanthus altissima species begin seed production after 4-5 years and each female individual is able to produce about 350,000 seeds per year. (Bory & Clair-Maczulajtys, 1980). In addition to this strong proliferative ability, there is an allelopathic effect of Ailanthus altissima. This feature limits the development of natural species in the areas where Tree of heaven colonize and causes them to move away from the own environment (Small et al., 2010). REFERENCES Barden, L.S., 1987. 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Çukurova Bölgesi Buğday-Pamuk Ekim Sistemindeki Önemli Yabancı Otların Tanımı. PLTS 4(1). Josef Margraf, Aichtal. Wagner, V., Chytrý, M., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Pergl, J., Hennekens, S., Biurrun, I., Knollová, I., Berg, C., Vassilev, K., Rodwell, J.S., Škvorc, Ž., Jandt, U., Ewald, J., Jansen, F., Tsiripidis, I., Botta-Dukát, Z., Casella, L., Attorre, F., Rašomavičius, V., Ćušterevska, R., Schaminée, J.H.J, Brunet, J., Lenoir, J., Svenning, J-C., Kącki, Z., Petrášová-Šibíková, M., Šilc, U., García-Mijangos, I., Campos, J.A., Fernández-González, F., Wohlgemuth, T., Onyshchenko, V., 202 Pyšek, P., 2017. Alien plant invasions in European woodlands. Diversity and Distributions, 1-13. Welsh, S.L., 1974. Anderson’s flora of Alaska and adjacent parts of Canada. Brigham University Press. 724 pp. Wickert, K.L., O’Neal, E.S., Davis, D.D., Kasson, M.T., 2017. Seed production, viability, and reproductive limits of the invasive Ailanthus altissima (Tree-ofHeaven) within invaded environments. Forests, 8(7), 226. Xu, H., Qiang, S., Genovesi, P., Ding, H., Wu, J., Meng, L., Han, Z., Miao, J., Hu, B., Guo, J., Sun, H., Huang, C., Lei, J., Le, Z., Zhang, X., He, S., Wu, Y., Zheng, Z., Chen, L., Jarosik, V., Pysek, P., 2012. An inventory of invasive alien species in China. NeoBiota, 15: 1-26. 203 Chapter 17 Modeling of Urban Sprawl Using Remote Sensing Data and Multinomial Logistic Regression Analysis: A Case Study of Malatya, Turkey Serhat CENGİZ1, Sevgi GÖRMÜŞ2, Şebnem YILMAZ3 and Bülent YILMAZ4 1 Res. Assist.; Inonu University, Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Department of Landscape Architecture, Malatya, Turkey 2 Assoc. Prof. Dr.; Inonu University, Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Department of Landscape Architecture, Malatya, Turkey 3 Dr. Lecturer; Inonu University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Business, Malatya, Turkey 4 Prof. Dr.; Inonu University, Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Department of Landscape Architecture, Malatya, Turkey INTRODUCTION Today, as a result of marginal changes in the form of production and market together with the industrial revolution, urban systems are a social ecological phenomenon, which host more than half of the world’s population today, and which are a combination of both agricultural and non-agricultural production, distribution and control functions, and where cultural diversification, specialization and class heterogeneity occurs, and which, in addition to their historical, social and economic quality, spontaneously penetrate into the structure of biological evolution (Weber, 2006; Bookchin, 2006; Görmüş & Cengiz, 2011; Cengiz et al., 2014). This phenomenon, as the population that it has inhabited increases rapidly and accumulates while it develops proximodistal, nowadays causes a set of environmental and social problems such as inability of the urban infrastructure and superstructure services (such as transportation, accommodation, living in a healthy environment, etc.) to reach the residents of the city in a homogenous way, straying from the natural state of agricultural landscapes on the city wall, and transformation of natural landscapes into building lands (Cengiz et al., 2014). In other words, urban sprawl not only creates economic and demographic consequences such as increase in the crowding cost, rent and land prices, squatting (Ulusoy & Vural, 2001), increase in crime rates, and inability to distribute urban services homogeneously among urban people (Weber, 2006), but also, changes the structure of ecological systems by affecting biodiversity, energy flow, biochemical cycles and climatic conditions at local and regional scale, and transforming land, which is the existence of space (Sukopp, 1990; McDonnell et al., 1997, Breuste et al., 1998, Baker et al., 2001; Luck & Wu, 2002). In this context, it is very important for planners and resource managers to understand the urban sprawl, to ensure the sustainability of the social, economic and natural resources that the city influences (Knox, 1993; Turner et al., 1993; Tanrıöver, 2011). A number of models have been developed by planners, resource managers, economists and sociologists in order to understand urban sprawl and to analyze urban dynamics (Knox, 1993). In this study, a model of urban growth for year 2044 was established for the city center of Malatya and its immediate surroundings by using the Multinomial Logistic Regression approach based on the empirical estimation method and the variables which are the driving force in urban growth. The following steps were followed in the model of urban growth; (1) classification of multi-temporal satellite images; (2) determining the appropriate spatial resolution for accurate spatial autocorrelation; (3) determining the variables that are the driving forces which affects urban growth; (4) prediction of the future urban pattern. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area: The area of 560 km2 in a 28 x 20 km area enclosing the city center of Malatya and its immediate surroundings was determined as the application area of the study (Figure 1). Malatya center, Battalgazi and Yeşilyurt districts constitute the study area. The total population of Malatya Center and integrated settlements is 447,240 people and the present average density is 66 people / ha. Given the current trends of the province of Malatya, it is foreseen that the population for year 2040 will be 1.000.000 - 1.100.000 people and the average density will be 73 persons / ha. Figure 1. Location of the study area Method: In this study, LANDSAT 5 TM (1984), LANDSAT 7 ETM (2000), and LANDSAT 8 OLI (2014) satellite images in L1-TP format geographically 205 referenced to WGS 84 37 N projection, Digital Elevation Model (ASTER GDEM) and socio-economic data related to the study area were used as the main material. The method of study consists of 3 main step (Figure 2). I.Step: Data preprocessing II.Step: Data processing III.Step: Data evaluation I. Step Data preprocessing: This step consists of sub-steps such as preprocessing of satellite images and collection of ground control points (GCP’s). Image preprocessing: In the analyzes, LANDSAT 5 TM (1984), LANDSAT 7 ETM (2000) and LANDSAT 8 OLI (2014) images, referenced geographically according to the projection of WGS 84 (37 N), were used. Before the classification of the satellite images used in the research, some preprocessing was performed such as geometric and radiometric correction on the images. Geometric correction; Systematic, geometric and topographical corrections were made using the Tier 1-L1TP group ground control points obtained from USGS (United States Geological Survey Institute) and high quality data suitable for multi temporal pixel level analyzes were used. An extra geometric correction process was performed since the RMS value in the data is smaller than 0.4 pixels (12 meters) (acceptance value, ± 15 m. (0.5 pixel)) (Welch & Usery, 1984; Kaya et al., 2002). Atmospheric correction; The object radiances measured by the sensor system are affected by atmospheric conditions such as solar radiation change, atmospheric absorption and scattering, causing the same region to give different pixel reflection values in different time periods and in images obtained from different sensors. Atmospheric correction has been applied under the heading of radiometric correction for multi temporal satellite images to be used in the analyzes. In this study, the FLAASH model was used, which promotes the derivation of surface reflectance values correctly by deriving atmospheric parameters such as surface albedo, surface height, water vapor content, aerosol and cloud optical thickness, surface and atmospheric temperatures in the atmospheric correction process (Görmüş et al., 2018). After atmospheric correction, all images were extracted according to the study area. Collection of GCPs: Field studies were conducted in September 2015 to identify the LULC categories by means of Ground Control Points (GCP) obtained using a Global Positioning System (GPS) and digital photos. In this study, 106 GCPs were collected to verify the classification of 2014 Landsat-8 OLI image. II. Step Data processing: This step consists of sub-steps such as image processing and post processing and design of data that will be entered into model. Image processing and post–processing: In this study, object-based threshold classification technique was used in order to identify meaningful pattern groups on the image and cluster these groups by shape and spectral properties (Cengiz et al. 2017). Classification process consists of multi-resolution segmentation, threshold value determination for LULC categories and accuracy analysis, respectively. 206 Figure 2. Flowchart of the Methods 207 Multi-resolution segmentation; Specific to this study, two-scale-factor was determined in the phase of segmentation. In order to create transportation network details, the scale factor was weighted «1» and all the bands were scaled 1 (chess board segmentation). In order to create other LULC categories the scale factor was weighted «15» and all the bands were scaled 1. Object-based threshold classification; Classification of LULC categories was based on combined manual interpretation and automatic classification. As the transportation network covers a small area in the study area, manual vectorization technique is used. In the classification of the other LULC categories, the following operations were performed respectively. The Automated Water Extraction Index (AWEI) was used to classify water surfaces (Feyisa et al., 2014). In AWEI, water surfaces have positive values while other land use categories have negative values. In the classification of forest land and apricot gardens categories Forest Index (FI) was used. FI is an effective technique to segregate tree cover land from other vegetation (Ye et al. 2015). FI function is expressed as follow: In this study, FI threshold values for the years 1984, 2000 and 2014 of Tree cover land were identified as 3.5, 3.3 and 3.5, respectively. In the classification of agricultural land category, vegetation indexes such as NDVI, SAVI were used. In the classification of built up, barren land and mining and construction area categories, combination of Normalized Difference Built-Up Index (NDBI) (Zha et al. 2003), Urban Index (UI) (Kawamura et al. 1996), Normalized Difference Bareness Index (NDBaI) (Zhao and Chen 2005) and spectral properties of the bands were used to obtain the best conclusion. The function for the indices is expressed as follow: After classification, the overall accuracy of the classification results was determined as 0.81, 0.86, and 0.88 for the years 1984, 2000 and 2014, respectively. Design of data that will be entered into model; Digitization and standardization process of variables that have a direct impact on urban sprawl, and transformation process to raster grid form with 30 x 30 m cell size were carried out. 208 The following formula has been used for linear transformation in transforming specified variables into raster grid format and standardizing independent variables that have continuous variable structure with sigmoid activation. Hd: Unit cell value in raster grid format Min Hd: Lowest unit cell value in raster grid format Max Hd: Highest unit cell value in raster grid format Hdı : New cell value between 0 and 1. Computable and measurable dependent and independent variables affecting the urban sprawl, determined in the first stage for the study, were given in Table 1 (Figure 3). Digitization and standardization of variables used in the study and the structure of variables Table 1. Effective variables in urban sprawl Variables Dependent variable Independent variables Content Y X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11 X12 X13 0= Urban growth is not present, 1= Urban growth is present Population density (Person/km2) Per capita income Height (m) Slope (%) Distance to the nearest main road (m) Distance to central business areas (m) Distance to the closest urban cluster (m) 1= High-Density Settlement, 0= Not a HighDensity Settlement 1= Low-Density Settlement, 0= Not a LowDensity Settlement 1= Barren Land, 0= Not a Barren Land 1= Agricultural Land, 0= Not an Agricultural Land 1= Apricot Orchard, 0= Not an Apricot Orchard 1= Other Land Use, 0= Not an Other Land Use Variable structure Binary category Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Binary category Binary category Binary category Binary category Binary category Binary category Urban growth - Dependent variable (Y); Extraction of the urban areas obtained as a result of the classification of the satellite image of successive years (1984-2000, 1984-2014) determined the areas where urban growth is occurring and 1 was processed to the attribute of the areas where there is growth, 0 was processed to the attribute of the areas where there is no growth. For the study, this process was carried out separately for 2 periods, 1984-2000 and 2000-2014. 209 Figure 3. Variables used in the model 210 Population density - Independent variable (X1); It was found by dividing the population data of the district by the area of the district and by entering it on the digitized district boundaries map in the period covered by the dependent variable. After this step, block population data, which was processed to the attribute of the settlement spots, was interpolated with spot size and density, and the data was converted to a continuous structure between 1 and 9 by using sigmoid activation (For 1984-2000 period, 1990 population data was used.). The variable X2 was generated in a similar way to the variable X1. Height and Slope - Independent variables (X3 and X4); In both of the variables, the data was used after it was converted into a continuous structure between 1 and 0 by using sigmoid activation. Distance to the nearest main road - Independent variables (X5); The road data was classified in between 1 and 0 by Euclidean Distance method in the period covered by the dependent variable. The variables X6 and X7 were generated in a similar way to the variable X5. High-Density Settlement Area – Independent variable (X8); Building and floor height information in the zoning plan was overlapped with urban area class of the corresponding year, and the attribute of the high-density settlement areas was processed as 1, and the attribute of the areas without high-density was processed as 0 according to the binary category in the period covered by the dependent variable. The variables in between X8 and X13 were generated in a similar way to the variable X13. The only difference from the variable X13 was that they were generated according to the land cover/use map obtained as a result of the classification of satellite image for the initial year of the relevant period (1984 land cover data was used for 1984-2000 period). III. Step Data evaluation: After the dependent and independent variables were prepared separately for 1984-2000 and 1984-2014, the impact rates of the variables that direct the urban sprawl for the Malatya city center and the integrated settlements, and the urban sprawl trend model for the future were developed by generating Multinomial Logistic Regression Model. In the logistic regression, independent variables can be categorical or continuous while the dependent variable is on a dichotomous scale (Table 1). Logistic transformation is the natural logarithm of odds ratios of success or failure. The logistic transformation of the probability of success (p) can be shown as follows (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 2000; Oğuzlar, 2005). (1) 211 When equation 1 is taken as a correlation function in the generalized linear model frame and Xs' are independent variables, equation 2 is obtained (Oğuzlar, 2005). The logit (pi) in the 2nd equation represents the logistic transformation of p probability. When p approaches 0, logit (pi) approaches -∞, and when p approaches 1, logit (pi) approaches +∞. The ratio of pi to 1-pi is called the odds ratio and is obtained as in Equation (3) where pi denotes the likelihood that the dependent variable takes on the value 1, and where 1-pi denotes the likelihood that the dependent variable takes on the value 0 (Oğuzlar, 2005). Odds ratio values close to 1 will be defined as variables that have no significant contribution to Y's change. If the coefficients of such variables are not found to be significant, the variables to be used in the study will be reduced by concluding that the variable is not an important factor. With the condition that the coefficient is significant, obtained value of the odds ratio greater than 1 indicates that the relevant variable is an important factor. With the condition that the coefficient is significant, obtained value of the odds ratio closer to 0 shows that the variable is an important factor but causes Y to have low values and has a negative effect. The logistic regression uses the maximum likelihood estimation after the conversion of the dependent variable to the logit variable (Oğuzlar, 2005). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Change in land cover – land use Between 1984 and 2000, urban areas increased by 100% and apricot orchards by 180%. Between 2000 and 2014, the urban areas increased by 87% while the apricot orchards decreased by 21% (Table 2). The total agricultural areas of 420 km2 in 1984 decreased to 302 km2 in 2000 and 256 km2 in 2014. The gap between the settlement areas in 1984 gradually decreased in the following years. Urban green and residential garden categories had increased over the years, but when they were evaluated together with the increase in urban areas, their proportion in urban areas was gradually decreasing. In 1984, apricot gardens were clustered in Yeşilyurt region, but in later years they were concentrated in Battalgazi region. When the development direction of the city was examined according to years, it was determined that the city developed east-west axis around the D-300 highway, northeast Battalgazi direction and towards northwestern airport and industrial areas. The area decreases in the arable land category increased with the effect of Karakaya Dam Lake between 1984-2000, while the biggest effect on the decrease in the arable land category between 2000-2014 was the increase in the artificial surfaces category. 212 Table 2. Change in Land over/Land use LULC categories Year (Km2) Level 1 Level 2 1984 2000 2014 1984 to 2010 2000 to 2014 1984 to 2014 Built up area 16.43 32.89 61.58 100.18 87.23 274.80 7.96 9.39 11.24 17.96 19.70 41.21 1.39 5.79 8.89 316.55 53.54 539.57 6.79 7.71 8.94 13.55 15.95 31.66 32.57 55.78 90.65 71.26 62.51 178.32 Apricot garden 14.85 41.67 32.89 180.61 -21.07 121.48 Arable land 405.32 260.41 223.47 -35.75 -14.19 -44.87 420.17 302.08 256.36 -28.11 -15.14 -38.99 Barren land 148.57 130.85 120.76 -11.93 -7.71 -18.72 Forest land 9.89 10.04 12.73 1.52 26.79 28.72 158.46 140.89 133.49 -11.09 -5.25 -15.76 9.05 121.50 139.75 1242.54 15.02 1444.20 620.25 620.25 620.25 Artificial surfaces Transportation network Mining and construction site Urban green and residential garden Total Agricultural land Total Natural and semi natural area Total Water surfaces Total Water surfaces Change (%) Model Results When the model results obtained for Malatya city were evaluated, the most influential variables in urban growth were respectively. The variables marked with “” are the most important variables for the model. In the logistic regression model, the consistency of the model is determined by the McFadden coefficient. According to this, the McFadden coefficient for the city center of Malatya was calculated as 0,43 and this ratio was found to be above the threshold of 0,2 for a valid model. At the same time, the comparison of the control model results (model 1) with the real-time event shows that the control model results and the real-time urban growth (2014) case overlapped and that a large proportion of the newly developed areas overlapped with probable developmental and highly probable developmental classes as a result of the control model and that the overlap rate was 78% (Figure 5). 213 Figure 4. Built-up area change 214 Table 3. Variables those were effective in urban sprawl Variables Independent Variables X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11 X12 X13 Coefficient P > |Z| -0.591000 -0.000011 -0.703965 0.000019 -0.625000 0.000102 -1.237360 0.000617 -0.417820 -2.529920 -1.513310 0.003925 0.004152 0.004* 0.121 0.002* 0.112 0.003* 0.190 0.000* 0.094 0.005* 0.000* 0.000* 0.204 0.223 Figure 5. Model results 215 CONCLUSION Today, the city, which causes a set of environmental and social problems such as inability of the urban infrastructure and superstructure services (such as transportation, accommodation, living in a healthy environment, etc.) to reach the residents of the city in a homogenous way, straying from the natural state of agricultural landscapes on the city wall, and transformation of natural landscapes into building lands as the population that it has inhabited increases rapidly and accumulates while it develops proximodistally (Cengiz et al., 2014), is a concept emerging with the process of industrialization and shaped by class differentiation and the process of social change that this situation emerges (Es & Ateş, 2004). The modeling of the complex structure of this multi-tiered concept, which hosts many processes, is of great importance for the smart use of social, economic and natural resources (Knox, 1993; Turner et al., 1993; Tanrıöver, 2011). For this reason, studies on the modeling of urban systems have been increasing over the last 30 years. In most of these studies, the city was considered as a process that is shaped by human activities with temporal and spatial dynamics, and dynamic simulation models and empirical estimation models were used to understand this structure. The rule-based cellular automation (CA) model between dynamic models is the most appropriate to reveal the interaction of temporal and spatial dynamics. However, the CA model focuses on the interpretation and understanding of spatial and temporal processes rather than spatial pattern simulation. In most of the dynamic simulation models, land cover change, biophysical and temporal processes are explained and socio-economic variables are ignored. In empirical estimation models, statistical methods are used to model the relationship between land use change and driving forces due to multi-temporal data. Statistical approaches based on the empirical estimation method provide a degree of confidence on easy identification of the effects of independent variables on dependent variable and contribution of the impact of these variables, and in most cases these models provide a good match between spatial processes and land use change. Urban growth models aim to understand dynamic processes, and thus, interpretation of models is becoming very important. The interpretation of statistical models gives detailed information about the repulsive processes on spatial pattern change. In this study, the urban growth process in Malatya, which is characterized by economic, geographical, social and cultural features, was modeled using multitemporal spatial and statistical data. According to the model, variables such as barren lands as a land use status, agricultural lands as a land use status, distance to the nearest urban cluster and road, population density and altitude range are the most effective driving forces in the urban growth process in Malatya. The model describes the future of the urban land use in Malatya as follows; The vast majority of land use changes in the system will be between urban areas, barren lands and agricultural lands. The existing urban area entity affects the land use at a distance of 450 meters in the real model (Model 1), while the estimation model affects the land use at 750 meters in the model (Model 2). In the 216 real model, the upper limit of urban growth is 1200 altitude, while the estmation model has risen by 55 meters to reach 1255 meters. 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IEEE, Transaction on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. GE22, No:3. 218 Chapter 18 Ecological Design in Landscape Architecture Serir UZUN Assist. Prof.; Dr., Dr. Lecturer, Düzce University Faculty of Forestry, Landscape Architecture Department, Düzce, Turkey. INTRODUCTION Because of the intensive misuse of technological applications up through the 20th century, in place of an urban cultural lifestyle which developed a respect for humans and nature, the legacy left to us is a culture in which humans, nature and natural resources are ignored and the environment is polluted as a result of urbanization and industrialization. Nowadays, the results of this negative process are felt even more and due to the rapid depletion of natural resources, the diminution of biodiversity and the deterioration of the global ecological balance, researchers are racing to resolve vital issues like climate change, global warming, pollution of air, soil and water, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, damage to the ozone layer, etc. These problems are bringing about ecological dangers which could reach irreversible levels on a global scale. This situation has led to the development of the ecological approach to solutions for the sustainability of the environment and the order of nature and its continuity. Urban living issues have brought ecologically based approaches into the lives of conscious societies and the ecological approach has become a necessity in the planning and design of living spaces. The goal is to preserve the right of future generations to a way of life by developing an approach that takes into account the experiences of past cultures in urban and residential areas, follows an approach that does not harm, but rather is sensitive to environmental resources and developments, and that aims for the sustainability of the environment and natural resources. Thus, ecological planning and design approaches have come to the agenda that consider the existing local vegetation, integrate economic inputs with usage and are committed to efficient use of energy and the use of alternative energy sources. The formation of healthy, comfortable, self-sufficient and high-quality living spaces is only possible through ecological design (Kısa Ovalı, 2007). 2. ECOLOGICAL DESIGN Up through the 1970s, ecology had been defined as a subcategory of biology and as a discipline that examines the survival of plants and animals in their natural environment. However, nowadays, due to the human-nature relationship causing environmental problems and affecting the life of living beings in a negative way, ecology has become an interdisciplinary branch of science (Gürpınar, 1995)2). The use of ecology as a science in the general sense of space planning, design 219 and management is quite new. Since the 1970s, the concept of ecology has begun to be considered as a sustainability factor in design. The ecological approach to design is based on ecological planning. It becomes necessary to integrate planning into design and the developments and changes that bring the concepts of quality of life and sustainability into consideration are the starting points of ecological design (Alkanoğlu, 2009). The ecological approach is just as necessary in design as it is in planning. Ecological design must be creative and unique within the scope of sustainability, be able to respond to the needs of the community, be an improvement factor in the quality of urban life and it must establish the relationship between urban integrity and the applied scales. Ecological design is contradictory in that it must be able to sustain the living environment without harming the natural balance in the natural environment (Yeang, 2006). Karaman explained the case of ecology in design. He stated that ecologicalenvironmental design is a post-modern paradigm that emphasizes the limits of functional design and that human structure is not only a result of the personal, social and cultural differences of the environment, the city, the dwelling, the landscape, but at the same time also needs to be a product of the ecosystem (Karaman, 1994). As part of the sustainable urban approach, ecological design is a field of activity for different disciplines. These disciplines include: • Landscape Architecture: Creating functional and sustainable urban open spaces and green spaces as well as exterior spaces in all respects, • Architecture: Creating ‘smart’ and green buildings and environmentally sensitive building designs, using alternative building materials, • Engineering: Establishing sustainable technical infrastructures and superstructures, • Urban Planning: Modeling and continuous monitoring of the urban metabolism in which spatial development strategies play a role (Bogunovich, 2008). 3. ECOLOGICAL DESIGN IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE Ecology as a science related to the natural field is linked to physical planning through landscape planning. In this context, landscape architecture is based on ecological data from high-scale planning to the lowest scale of design. At first it was understood that the use of ecology as the basis for planning against global problems was not enough and that an ecological basis should be used in design. Today, with the public awareness and increased consciousness and the boost in efforts to improve the quality of life and achieve a sustainable living space, these studies are more common (Alkanoğlu, 2009). Ecological landscape design is an approach that is holistic (integrating the design of biotic, abiotic and cultural landscape components with socio-economic and ecological processes) and dynamic (the natural and cultural processes of the landscape), a quality that varies according to temporal and spatial scales. At the same time, ecological landscape design is sensitive to the diversity of the ecosystem, natural and cultural resources and their integrity and sustainability. It requires an intuitive approach to non-material items (e.g., tradition, customs, local 220 knowledge and experiences) in response to the rationality of the external world. With this heuristic approach, the design is created from different perspectives and according to the wishes of the users (Fig. 1) (Makhzoumi & Pungetti, 1999). Based on sustainability in ecological design, it was thought that by including natural areas and recreational opportunities, more livable spaces would be created and the quality of urban life improved. The primary goal of ecological design is for humans to consider the natural environment in the most appropriate and effective way. To this purpose, the prerequisite for land use is an optimal combination of diverse ecological, aesthetic and visual aspects, thus ensuring diversity and change in structural and visual maintenance in residential settlement and urban planning (Van der Ryn & Cowan, 1996). Figure 1: Characteristics of ecological landscape design (Makhzoumi & Pungetti, 1999). Ecological design practices in landscape architecture are discussed under the headings: • Climate-appropriate design • Water-efficient landscape design • Energy-efficient landscape design • Sustainable agriculture (Permaculture) • Green roof, green wall applications, • Creation of alternative green spaces. 221 3.1. Development of Ecological Design in Landscape Architecture Three important figures in the development of ecological design in landscape architecture are Patrick Geddes, Ian McHarg and John Tillman Lyle (Makhzoumi & Pungetti, 1999). Patrick Geddes pioneered the conceptual development of the ecological approach to urban design, landscape design and landscape planning. He considered humanity to be an integral part of nature and argued that there should be a holistic conceptual framework for the improvement of the social and physical environments of cities. Moreover, Geddes' biological principles of economics are very close to the current concept of sustainability (Makhzoumi & Pungetti, 1999). Ian McHarg emphasized the importance of working with nature by developing an ecological method and preserving nature in landscape planning. The designs emphasized the inclusion of natural landscape components such as topography (slope, aspect), geology, hydrology, soil (erosion), climate (precipitation), wildlife and vegetation cover (Dazzini, 2005). The book Design with Nature by Ian McHarg (1969) was an important step in understanding the natural process and integrating human activities in harmony with nature. McHarg developed an ecological approach to regional and urban planning problems, based on data collected from many natural science sources. John Tillman Lyle in his work Design for Human Ecosystems (1985) combined ecological concepts with landscape design in a comprehensive way. In this work Lyle introduced professional classification and description to landscape architecture and landscape planning. Lyle described design as an activity that shapes physical events and accomplishes them at every scale. Design is seen as an ongoing process, and it is anticipated that it will interact with the environment of the designed ecosystem and that it will be seen to change in the future. In addition, the need for a critical review of the ecosystem's function, structure and ecological suitability has also been indicated. Since the 1960s, ecological approaches have been used in large-scale landscape design and applications. The work of Ian McHarg constituted the basis of the ecological approach in the field of design, as evidenced by the adoption of natural features as data in urban planning and the method referred to by his name. Over time, with the process of negative developments in living standards throughout the entire world, the natural environment is beginning to be taken into consideration in urban development and therefore, an environmentalist planning and design concept is beginning to be followed. Since the 1970s, there has been an intense interest in natural style in the field of landscape in Europe. All these developments have given birth to the idea of reviving nature in the cities, and natural landscape applications began to reappear in the 20th century (Özgüner, 2003). 3.2. Climate-Appropriate Design Residential areas which are designed to be climatically appropriate create a 222 comfortable and healthy living environment. For this reason, in order to optimize their lifestyle and living arrangements, people can use climatic elements such as sunshine, temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation and so on as a guide in landscape design. The effective use of these factors can create the desired effect in the structure and its immediate vicinity. Due to the biological, morphological and physiological impact of their plant and structural elements, open-green areas have a controlling effect on climatic elements. As with planning, the climate factor is the natural factor that has the greatest influence on design in terms of integrating natural processes and socio-cultural processes. The key components of the climate such as sunshine, temperature, humidity, wind and precipitation have a great influence on ecological, social and economic dynamics globally and affect the use of space in physical plans (urban plans and landscape plans), urban and structural design, and even engineering calculations (Çinar, 2005). Approaches aimed at forming a natural climate system in the structure of buildings and residential texture began with the work of the Olgyay brothers in the 1950s and continued to this day with the new technologies being developed by researchers (Alkanoğlu, 2009). 3.3. Water-Efficient Landscape Design Increasing difficulties with the water supply have necessitated the development of new landscape designs, especially in open-green areas, where water consumption reaches higher levels or where water is used as little as possible. "Xeriscaping", which is one of the new landscaping concepts developed in this direction, can be defined as a landscaping arrangement that takes as its principle the conservation of water resources and the environment by using water at a minimum level (Barış, 2007). This technique is based on a basic principle of designing landscape projects (Table 1), notably, to reduce water use to a minimum (Yazgan & Özyavuz, 2008). Xeriscape planning that provides support for water-saving use offers many economic and environmental benefits (Yazgan et al., 2010): •It provides water savings: Uses domestic and drought-resistant plants to significantly reduce water use. •It saves time: Reduces the time spent on irrigation, fertilization and sowing by using anhydrous plants. •It provides cash savings: Reduces water usage and reduces water bills. •It reduces energy use. •It provides more habitats for plants and animals. •It provides low labor and maintenance costs. Along with the xeriscaping approach, which is the most important step in landscape applications, other very important issues include collection of natural wastes and the recovery and use of wastewater. Water other than the mains water to be used for irrigation can be obtained by using advanced wastewater technologies. Natural water resources are used effectively by collecting rain water or gray water. Gray water contains all wastewater other than toilet water and has the lowest level of pollution (Yurtsev, 2015). 223 Table 1: Water-saving opportunities in landscape architecture applications (Karagüzel & Atik, 2007). Planning / Design General Principles - Adaptation to natural structure - Conformity of buildings and structural landscape elements to the natural structure Savings on water - Nature-based approach in design - Suitable evaluation of soil, geological and topographical properties of the area Application / Construction - Avoidance of artificial surfaces and unnecessary soil processing, - Selection of natural species - Preserving the areas outside the building in a natural state - Selecting region-specific natural species and drought-tolerant plant species - Avoiding large grass lawns Maintenance / Repair - The use of organic fertilizers which have no adverse effect on soil and water - Biological pest control - Nocturnal irrigation - Deciding on appropriate irrigation pattern and time - Irrigating with rain, sea water and purified water - Mulching When determining the species to be planted in the landscape design application, selection of natural species native to the locality is a savings method to meet the water needs of the plants (Zolnoun, 2013). 3.4. Energy-Efficient Landscape Design By applying a correct and conscious landscape design, it is possible to reduce the energy cost of heating and cooling in summer and winter by 30%. For this purpose, regional and local climate characteristics and micro-climatic features must be taken into consideration in order to achieve energy saving (Moffat & Schiler, 1995). At each stage of landscape design work, the effects of climate on the use of residential, housing and open-green space should be considered. For this, it is necessary to take into account the correct plant selection for the landscape design (such as deciduous or coniferous trees, shrubs, hanging-climbing plants, groundcover plants, etc.), the use of the plants and their location and the position in relation to the building. The maximum height that the plants can reach and the distance from the structure should also be determined. Trees reduce the cost of cooling and improve the ambience by providing a pleasant shading canopy (Esin, 2001). Broad-leaved trees planted in an eastern- western orientation can provide shade for a building in the summer and in winter, when the leaves have fallen, they transmit the sun’s rays to the building. In a north-south orientation, green trees can serve as good shields against summer sun and winter wind. With the right landscape design, it is possible to reduce the drafts that leak into a building by breaking the force of the wind. Intense planting of trees and shrubs at the western and northwestern fronts of buildings also prevents entry of unwanted evening sunshine 224 (Tel, 2014). Materials such as asphalt and concrete that store heat increase the temperature at night by continuing to emit heat after the sun’s effect is gone. In order to reduce the cooling energy loads of the buıldings, it is necessary to use fewer heat-storing materials in the vicinity or to prevent overheating of such materials by shading against direct sunlight. In addition, ground covers and lawns also have the effect of cooling the environment through transpiration. 3.5. Sustainable Agriculture (Permaculture) Permaculture is a concept first created in 1974 by combining the words "permanent" and "agriculture" in English. It is an approach that suggests that cultures cannot be maintained without sustainable agriculture-based land-use ethics (Mollison, 2011). Permaculture is a design system that aims at the creation of sustainable human settlements. Using the characteristics of the site and the relationship between sociocultural features, energy and abstract components to achieve its purpose, permaculture provides the best way to organize them in the settlement area (Table 2) (Mollison, 2002). The goal of the permaculture approach is to create ecologically sound and economically feasible systems that can meet their needs without exploiting or polluting the environment, and can thus be considered sustainable in the long run (Mollison, 2011). Permaculture requires the conscious design and care of ecosystems. Sustainable and harmonious co-operation between people and the Earth is essential in order to meet food, energy, housing and other needs. Although based on natural production and farming methods, permaculture is a holistic design system. It is an unrestricted approach to raising only environmentally friendly products using methods that allow sustainable human settlements to be realized, natural ecosystems to be preserved and expanded, and quality of life on Earth to be achieved in all dimensions (Eryildiz, 2004). Permaculture involves the continuation and diversity of all life systems. There are three ethical principles on which the world is based, including the care and protection of people, the access to resources that people need for their own existence, and the limitation of population and consumption (Mollison, 2002). Permaculture design principles in line with these three ethical principles include: • All elements are placed in a relationship in which they serve each other, • All living and non-living items are multifunctional, • Every important function is supported by other members, • Appropriate techniques and technologies are used correctly and economically, • Wastes are recycled, • Land is used in an effective manner, • Natural plant species are primarily used, • Energy efficiency is listed as a provision (Eryildiz, 2004). 3.6. Green Roof and Green Wall Applications Unplanned growth in urban areas without ecological and aesthetic concerns leads to a rapid increase in built up areas and inadequate urban green spaces, which 225 in turn reduces the quality of urban life and affects urban residents. In this context, green spaces are needed more in our working and living spaces, the areas where we spend most of our time in everyday life. Green roofs and green wall systems are at the forefront of ecological and aesthetic solutions that have been produced recently in order to meet this need and offer alternative solutions. These systems are mostly applied to walls, terraces, various sloped roofs and building surfaces. The green roofs and walls perform many functions within the city.These functions can be listed as follows (Luckett, 2009; Scharf, 2015): • Energy savings • Reduction of CO2 emissions • Reduction of urban heat island effect • Improvement of air quality by retaining dust particles • Reduction of amount of CO2 • Protection of structures from external factors • Creation of a living space for fauna • Reduction of noise pollution • Creation of agricultural spaces • Ecological recycling of rainwater • Increasing the amount of green space in cities • Creation of a positive psychological impact • Achieving an aesthetic appearance and value • Expanding ecological awareness. 3.7. Creation of Alternative Green Spaces On the one hand, open green spaces are an attempt to overcome the urban dweller’s longing for nature; however, they also mask the negative features of urban life. Open green spaces are of great importance both ecologically and economically. They increase the ecological functions and the environmental quality of the city in terms of healthy urban development by creating natural urban habitats and meeting the needs of the public for recreation. They establish mass balance of the gap between physical spaces and open spaces in the city. They soften the rigidity of the architecture and give the city a more organic character as well as offering more pleasant environmental conditions for the people (Van Kamp et al., 2003; Li et al., 2005). • Due to over-population and urbanization, existing natural areas and green areas have been depleted. • The quality and quantity of green areas have been lost due to climate change and water shortage. • The creation of alternative green areas is becoming a necessity in cities with shortage of land for creating green spaces. In urban areas, waterfronts, river banks, cemeteries, old railways, highways, streets, unused industrial zones and old abandoned settlements have been transformed into green spaces and have become part of the urban open-green space system. Thus, the amount of green space in the city is increased and the contribution to urban ecology is provided. Most importantly, alternative green 226 spaces transform into cultural and recreational resources within easy reach of the city dwellers. In addition, roof and wall surfaces, terraces, balconies, gardens and courtyards are areas on the building scale that can be utilized by the city as green spaces. 4. RESULTS In the 21st century, planning and designs made in line with the decisions designers make have a direct influence on the future of the globe. The responsibilities of designers to the environment and humanity are better understood by considering the environmental problems generated by the built environment, which consumes more than 50% of the energy and available natural resources and is thought to have accelerated the degradation of the ecological balance (Kısa Ovalı, 2009). An assessment of the future made in light of the current situation would show us that problems with health, economy, energy, the environment and ecology are inevitable and to a much more serious extent. This necessitates more effective decision making in all aspects of planning and design. In the past, designs that ignored nature and natural processes have caused the destruction of the natural balance and the depletion of natural resources. For this reason, when it comes to designing, it is understood that not only the human aspect, but also the ecosystem must be considered, and that ecological design has manifested itself as a far more vital requirement than environmental awareness The aesthetic point of view that modern and popular cultures bring to the present day influences the approach to the natural and cultural environment, causing landscape design to be considered only from the aesthetic point of view. Therefore, instead of the ecological approach in landscape design studies, the aesthetic approach is taken into consideration first. The result is a totally aesthetic design that does not match the natural structure of the area, is unsuitable for ecological conditions and is based on the use of unsustainable structural and plant materials which require considerable expense and maintenance costs. As a result, the way to an ecologically, economically and socially sustainable world is to integrate environmentally sensitive ecological planning with design work. Projects are underway which aim to improve ecological conditions in the planning, design and implementation processes, as well as to define the profession and professional ethics of landscape architects. With their knowledge and awareness as designers of the built environment, landscape architects have the capacity to provide a variety of contributions from other design disciplines. For this reason, great responsibilities fall on landscape architects because the interdisciplinary links with ecological design contribute just as much as the link between natural history and planning. The discipline of landscape architecture, with its knowledge of ecosystems, ecological cycles and processes, should lead the way to other design fields in the creating of solutions to ecological problems. This requires a multi-disciplinary approach to the design scale, from the planning scale to the implementation scale. 227 REFERENCES Alkanoğlu, F., 2009. Geleneksel Yerleşmelerin Sürdürülebilirliği ve Ekolojik Tasarım: Konya Sille örneği. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim Dalı, Ankara. Ankara University, Science Instıtute, Landscape Architecture Department, Ankara. Barış, M.E., 2007. “Yeşil Alanlarımızın Tükenişini Engellemek İçin. Kurakçıl Peyzaj”. Bilim ve Teknik Dergisi, Tübitak yayını, Ankara, 478 (Eylül): 22-27. Bogunovich, D., 2008. “Eco-tech Urbanism: Merging Urban Design with Clean Technology”. International Conference on Ecological and Technological Cities, Gazi University, 19 September 2008, Ankara. Çınar, İ., 2005. Planlama Ve Tasarımda İklim Değişikliğinin Olası Etkileri”. Yapı Dergisi, İstanbul, YEM Yayını, 289 (Aralık): 82-86. Dazzini, M. 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Zolnoun, S., 2013. Peyzaj Mimarlığında Enerji Etkin Tasarım Yaklaşımları. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Fen Bil. Ens. Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim dalı, AnkaraMaster’s thesis, Ankara University, Science Instıtute, Landscape Architecture Department, Ankara. 229 Chapter 19 Neighborhood Effect in Urban Identity Formation: Tekirdağ Example Tuğba KİPER1, Aslı KORKUT1 and Sefa Nur ARDA2 Prof. Dr., Namık Kemal University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architecture, Landscape Architecture 2 Süleymanpaşa Municipality, Zoning and Urban Planning Directorate 1 INTRODUCTION Cities are places where individuals with different socio-cultural and economic structures live together and interact and shape according to their own way of life. (Erdönmez and Akı, 2005; Ilgar, 2008). As Karabey (1990) stated, it is insufficient to define the city with only a four-dimensional diagram of width, height, height and time. Urban space is not the only place where structures are formed. Urban space also consists of a combination of public spaces, semi-public spaces, and private spaces (Koca & Kayılıoğlu, 2017). Cities, having a variable structure, differ depending on time, geography, and especially people living in it. All the traces that differentiate the city, separate from others and form in our memory over time constitute the character of that city (Oğurlu, 2014; Ilgar, 2008). These traces are shaped over time by the influence of many factors such as geographical location, climate, geological-geomorphological structure, architectural texture, socioeconomic status, cultural structure and population of the city.This variable structure constitutes the identity of the city by ensuring that cities have their own character (Table 1). According to Erdoğan and Ayataç (2015), cities take place in minds with their urban image and identity features. Identity in urban areas; creates recognizability, originality and difference with others. The characteristics that make up the identity, create different image effects on the cities, such as “industrial city, tourism city, port city, finance and trade city, etc.” (Kiper, 2016). In its purest definition, a neighborhood is the vicinity in which people live (Keller, 1968). Neighborhoods are the smallest settlements in the city, which are separated by certain boundaries, and are places that give clues about the cities. Although the neighborhoods have various limits and details, but however are assumed as the smallest integrated civil units that include all urban characteristics. Hence, urban neighborhoods as a tool for planning and management of urban affairs particularly nowadays and upon promotion of quantitative dimensions of the city are significantly important (Abdollahi et al., 2010). Lynch defined the neighborhood as “a part of the city that at least has a middle or large size and includes two dimensions so that the observer feels has entered therein (Lynch, 1960). Rapaport defines the neighborhood as identity basis and signifying the urban places (Rapoport, 1997). At the same time, the neighborhood is an area of social life 230 where individual and public relations are organized in daily life (Alada Bayramoğlu, 2008). Neighborhoods refer to a human environment in which people have face-to-face relationships, meet and visit each other, take part in mutual social relationships and undertake the responsibilities of these relationships (Erten, 2008). The neighborhood is not just a physical space but a collective sum of memories accumulated by future adults over time (URL 1). Neighborhood identity is shaped together with values such as structural features of settlements (materials of buildings, dimensions of these areas, settlement frequency), the demographic characteristics of neighborhood residents (age, ethnicity, social status, etc.), ecological characteristics (water resources, green areas, etc.), level of social interaction (neighborhood relations, participation in local activities, etc.) and emotional properties (identification with space, belongingness) (Galster, 2001). Table 1: Urban identity components (Bülüç, 2017) URBAN IDENTITY COMPONENTS ENVIRONMENTAL PROPERTIES SOCIAL PROPERTIES (Abstract Items) (Physıcal Items) Natural Artıfıcıal Cultural Economıc Envıronment Envıronment Socıal Characterıstıcs Characterıstıcs Features Features Features - Traditions - Roads, Streets - Custom - Urban Occupancy -Historical - Geography *Buildings Existing Characterıstıcs - Topography Structures - Income Rate - Cultural *New Sturctures - Imployment - Climate - Population Structure Heritage - Urban Gaps Structure - Flora -Institutional Structure - Lifestyle *Square - Employee - Fauna *Political Sturcture - Expectation *Park Rate - Water *Legal Structure - Requirement *Garden - Sector - Geological *Managment - Religious and - Imaginary Items Technology Situation *Mechanism Ethnic Structure *Monuments Tourism - Geoformic - Values, *Fountains Industry Situation Opinions *Architectural Agriculture - Geopolitical -Knowledge, Heritage Products Situation Art, Ethic *Urban Planing - Experience *Urban Silhouette - Cultural Level According to Schwirian (1983); the basic elements of a neighbourhood are: people, place, interaction system, shared identification, and public symbols (Schwiran, 1983). Foth, defined neighborhood identity as a sense of belonging to a neighborhood (Foth, 2004). Such that Alver (2008) stated about the neighborhood; “The foundations of the neighborhood are the space and the human; the integration of space and human/life”. Hence, a common memory for the people who settled in the neighborhood and the people living there and designs that reflect the neighborhood culture should be foregrounded. According to Shokoei (1999), the residential neighborhoods in cities have been as urban life cells and played an important role in the lives of its residents since old times and neighborhoods had 231 particularly distinctive character and identity (Shokoei (1999). Neighborhoods have different or same features/identities as lower segments of cities. The mix of geographic content, cultural level, architecture, local traditions and lifestyle of neighborhoods defines urban identity. Reading neighbourhoods, which represent different time and place relationships, provide significant clues to understand the whole city (Aydın & Büyükşahin Sıramkaya, 2014). But today, due to the willingness of communities to urbanization and the increasing need to residential places, establishing residential areas with economic integration approach and minimal use of construction sites and increase in the construction speed have become important. One consequence of this approach is to ignor the human, his identity and social culture and also the creation of unstable social spaces and lack of identity which leads to the reduction of inhabitants participation, feeling high loneliness in the possible threats and lack of asense of belonging to the place (Shokoei, 1999). According to Manzo (2005); emotional attachment, i.e., the (positive) feel-ings toward neighborhoods, is contributing to the creation of a neighborhood identity (Manzo 2005). While the city may provide those who seek it a sense of anonymity, the neighborhood scale can at the same time provide familiarity and recognition. In this context, to understand how some-one feels connected to a neighborhood, it is necessary to understand how someone seesand experiences his/her own and other neighborhoods (Scourfield et al., 2006) In this sense; especially, the foresight of "local identity elements, residential layout and human factor will especially be effective in the formation of neighborhoods" constitutes the objective of this study. In this context, to examine the impact of the neighborhood in the formation of urban identity, the opinions and expectations of individuals are evaluated who are in different ages, genders and social groups living in the two neighborhoods of old and new city of Tekirdağ. In the study; the answer for "how neighborhoods should be planned and equipped with which features for a space formation synthesized by local identity elements?" is sought via surveys, observations and literature based researches carried out on this subject. For this purpose; by applying questionnaires to individuals living in neighborhoods Namık Kemal and Ertuğrul in Tekirdağ; particularly perceptions, awareness and expectations of urban identities in these two neighborhoods has been investigated. As a result of the study, the effect of two neighborhoods, in the old and new urban texture, on the urban identities was compared via descriptive statistics. Besides, a proposal brought forward on planning, design and management of neighborhoods developed by residential layout which are enriched with local identity elements, pedestrian priority roads, residential-yard togetherness designed according to bioclimatic conditions and street texture in which neighborhood relations come to life. MATERIAL Materials: The main material of the study is Ertuğrul District and Namık Kemal District in Suleymanpaşa County of Tekirdağ Province (Figure 1). Ertuğrul District (Figure 2); besides of being the first settlement area of Tekirdağ, which is the center of the city center during the historical development 232 process, where the old neighborhood culture is still in existence and the examples of the registered civil architecture and monumental structure are present together, is a settlement with linear development parallel to the shore. The surface area is 377,044.59 m². Namık Kemal District (Figure 3) is a settlement unit that has a different urban texture, becoming a prestigious region where newly developed and modern buildings take place due to the fact that the city of Tekirdağ has recently developed towards the east in Istanbul direction. It has a surface area of 4,390,881.88 m². Namık Kemal District has become a rapidly developing region recently with people who have opted for the choice of life from modern buildings away from the city center, together with an increase in the number of students and faculty members due to the presence of Namık Kemal University in this region. While the zoning plans were being prepared, the building density of this zone has been kept to a minimum, despite the fact that the area is large, on the other hand, due to being located in the city center and being an old residential area, Ertuğrul District has a higher structure density, although it has a smaller surface area. Figure 1: Geographic location of the places in the study (URL 2, URL 3) The figures for 2017 population data and the number of households for the study areas are given in Table 2. Table 2: Population data and number of households for the study area for 2017 (URL 3) County Süleymanpaşa District County Population Ertuğrul Namık Kemal District Population County Residence 3,090 187,727 2,696 233 41,010 District Residence Numbe r of Surveys 475 73 512 65 Figure 2: Ertuğrul District satellite image (URL 3) Figure 3: Namık Kemal District satellite image (URL 3) In addition, the questionnaires applied to the people living in the selected areas of the study and various researches forming the conceptual and theoretical basis were used as secondary materials. The Method This study is composed of; literature surveys, field observations, survey studies and evaluation stages. The main material of the study is the people living in the districts of Namık Kemal and Ertuğrul in the province of Tekirdağ Süleymanpaşa. The survey was conducted by face to face interviews with randomly selected participants who were living in Namık Kemal and Ertuğrul Districts. The universe of the research is composed of 5865 (URL 4) individuals according to the census data of 2014. 234 In determining the sample size, the formula n = Z2 NPQ / ND2 + Z2 PQ (Kalıpsız, 1981) was used. The sample volume was found to be 72 people with a margin of error of 5% at 95% confidence limits. However, in order to give a healthier result, the survey was carried out with a total of 138 people reflecting the 0.05% sampling volume in proportion to the population in two neighborhoods that developed differently according to the characteristics of the artificial environment (65 people from Namık Kemal District, 73 people from Ertuğrul District). n= Sample size, Z= Confidence coefficient (1.96) P= Probability of the characteristic to be measured (%95) (0.95) Q= 1-P (0.05) N= Universal set size (Ertuğrul District: 3,354, Namık Kemal District: 2,511), Total: 5,865 people) D= Accepted sampling error (5% sampling error is assumed for the study) (0.05) A total of 14 questions were included in the survey conducted within the scope of the study. Findingsobtained in this study were handled in three different groups. Findings related to the socio-demographic characteristics of the participants in the survey: In this section; the participants' gender, age, level of education, occupation, place of birth and duration of living in the city were evaluated. Findings about the opinions of the participants on the imaginary elements and identity of their living spaces: In this section; the reasons for living in that district and the most important features of their neighborhood and the results that will reveal their differences from other neighborhoods are discussed with regard to the participants' places. Findings about the satisfaction of the participants with their neighborhood: The results of the participants' satisfaction levels with their neighborhood were examined. The questionnaires were transferred to the computer environment with SPSS and Excel programs. Charts were constructed based on the statistical data of percentage distributions and chi-square tests in the evaluation of the data. FINDINGS A survey was conducted with a total of 138 people, as explained in the method section, in order to understand how the users in the selected sample areas evaluate and perceive the neighborhoods they live in with respect to the urban identity. Findings were evaluated under 3 main headings. Findings Related to the Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Participants in the Survey Findings related to the socio-demographic structure are given in Table 3. 235 Table 3: Distribution of socio-demographic structure of the participants Personal Data Gender Age Education Occupation Place of Birth Duration of Living Category Namık Kemal District Ertuğrul District Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Female 27 41.5 31 42.5 Male 38 58.5 42 57.5 0-20 3 4.6 1 1.4 21-30 13 20 22 30.1 31-40 16 24.6 22 30.1 41-50 24 36.9 15 20.5 51 plus 9 13.8 13 17.8 Elementary 2 3.1 7 9.6 Secondary 3 4.6 4 5.5 High School Associate Undergraduate Graduate 10 15.4 18 24.7 40 61.5 37 50.7 10 15.4 7 9.6 Housewife 4 6.2 4 5.5 Student Employed in Private Sector Employed in Public Sector Employer 12 18.5 6 8.2 8 12.3 13 17.8 27 41.5 27 37 6 9.2 4 5.5 Retired 6 9.2 11 15.1 Unemployed - - 2 2.7 Other 2 3.1 6 8.2 Tekirdağ City Center 25 38.5 46 63.4 Other 40 61.5 26 36.6 1-5 Years 24 36.9 10 13.7 6-10 Years 5 7.7 9 12.3 More Than 10 Years 36 55.4 54 74 When Table 3 is examined; For Namık Kemal District, 58.5% of the individuals participating in the survey are men and 41.5% are women. 36.9% of these people are in the 41-50 age group. When the educational status is examined, the highest rate is 61.5% with Associate-Undergraduate. When the occupational status is examined, it is found that 41.5% is employed in the public sector. In Ertuğrul District, 57.5% of the individuals participating in the survey are men and 42.5% are women. 60.2% of these people are in the 21-40 age group. When the educational status is examined, the highest rate is 50.7% with AssociateUndergraduate. When the occupational status is examined, it is found out that 37.0% work in the public sector. When analyzed from the point of view of the place 236 of birth, the majority (61.5%) of the people living in Namık Kemal District were born outside Tekirdağ while the majority (63.4%) living in Ertuğrul District were born in Tekirdağ. However, the proportion of those who live more than 10 years has been observed to be quite high. Findings about the Opinions of the Participants on the Imaginary Elements and Identity of Their Neighborhood In this section, primarily the perceptions of users who were interviewed, about Tekirdağ are evaluated. According to this, Tekirdağ was defined as an "agricultural city" for the people living in both districts (Table 4). In the study of Kiper 2016; it is stated that Tekirdağ has developed as a semi-rural coastal settlement and over time has acquired the identity of "Trade City", "Port Town" and "Agricultural City". Especially; being on an active commercial transfer route, its position within the seashore of the Marmara Sea and being a port, characteristics of the Ottoman Period, proximity to Istanbul, migration and population increase especially after the 1980s, the impact of the Balkans, traditional life style, establishment of the University and factors such as the transition to metropolitan status have been influential in the development of the city over time and the acquisition of its identity. Table 4: Perceptions of participants about Tekirdağ It is an industrial city. It is a student / university city. It is a cultural city. It is an agricultural city. It is a trade and service city It is a port city. Namık Kemal District Frequency (%) 14 21.5 17 26.2 15 23.1 35 53.8 22 33.8 16 24.6 Ertuğrul District Frequency (%) 16 21.9 19 26 23 31.5 35 47.9 11 15.1 20 27.4 Among the users interviewed, while the residents of Namık Kemal District stated, having an interesting environmental texture from the visual point of view (36.9%) and being close to work/school (32.3%), as the reason for living in their neighborhood; the residents of Ertuğrul District stated, being close to work/school/downtown (41.1%) and sense of belonging (26%), as the reason for living in their neighborhood. After questioning the causes of living in the neighborhood, the answers to the question "What is the most important feature of your neighborhood and its difference from other neighborhoods?" are as follows;  In Namık Kemal neighborhood; features such as it is a quiet neighborhood with 46.2%, a distinguished/luxurious neighborhood with 15.4%, a new settlement and a rich nature/green area with 13.8%, the structures have an interesting environmental texture from the visual point of view with 6.2% and being away from the center of the city with 4.6% have been preferred. 237  In Ertuğrul District; features such as being in the city center with 50.7%, the proximity of coastline with 16.5%, good neighborhood relations with 15.1%, being historical and having historical structures with 10.9%, the crowded and active neighborhood with 6.8% have been preferred. Users who participated in the survey were asked to choose the most appropriate words among the 21 different word alternatives in total;  For Namık Kemal District; safe (73.8%), regular (56.9%), calm (58.5%), clean (53.8%),  For Ertuğrul District, old (75.3%) and neglected (60.3%) words came to the forefront. Later on, the participants were asked which constructions attract the attention in their neighborhood, which one they remember, what the elements in their imagination are, and their priority ranking. At the next stage, the question of what determines the identity of their neighborhood was asked. The table below contains a general summary of the answers given to the inquiries about imaginary elements and the identity of the neighborhood (Table 5). Table 5: The imaginary elements and identity of neighborhood from participants’ point of view Imaginary Elements in People's Mind Namık Kemal District Ertuğrul District (1) Namık Kemal University (60%), (2) Namık Kemal University Hospital (38.5%), (3)YSK Center (27.7%), (1) Rakoczi Museum (61.6%), (2) Rüstempaşa Mosque (47.9%) (3) Archeology and Ethnography Museum (42.5%), Identity of the Neighborhood Inhabitants (36.9%), Structures (29.2%) Inhabitants (38.4%), Historical Texture (38.4%) According to the preferences of residents of Namık Kemal neighborhood; the first three of the imaginary elements representing the neighborhood are Namık Kemal University, Namık Kemal University Hospital and YSK Center, Degirmenaltı Street, Degirmenalti Coast and Ataturk Forest followed them. According to the preferences of the residents of Ertuğrul neighborhood, the first three ranks were the Rakoczi Museum, Rüstempaşa Mosque, Archeology and Ethnography Museum, while Rüstempaşa Bedesten, Orta Mosque and Governorate building followed them. In the next stage, participants are asked to rank the three features they liked and disliked in the neighborhood in order of importance. Findings about the Satisfaction of the Participants with Their Neighborhood In this section, participants' satisfaction was analyzed. In this context, users are asked to rank the three features that they liked and disliked in the neighborhood in order of importance. 238 Table 6: Liked/disliked features of neighborhood by participant's point of view Namık Kemal District Ertuğrul District Liked (1) Security (40%) (2) Relaxing (24.6%) (3) Close to work/school (53.8%) (1) Close to city center (43.8%) (2) Historical (26%) (3) Neighborhood Relationships (31.5%) Disliked (1) Distance to city center (32.3%) (2) Active (40%) (3) Lack of common living areas (children's play areas, shopping areas) (32.3%) (1) Neglected (32.9%) (2) Lack of common living areas (children's play areas, shopping areas) (30.1%) (3) To be crowded in terms of structure and people density (28.8%) According to Table 6; while the most admired property of Namık Kemal District is safety, the most popular feature of Ertuğrul District is its proximity to the city center. In the unlikely features, for Namık Kemal District the first order is being far from the city center, and for Ertugrul District the first order is being neglected. The primary data obtained by the survey to determine the opinions and expectations of the individuals, living in two different neighborhoods, about the change of urban identity were evaluated with the help of tables. In addition to these evaluations, it has been tested whether there is a significant relationship between the variables via the developed hypotheses and the chi-square test. Accordingly, a significance level of 0.05 was confirmed with 3 hypotheses. In other words, there was a significant relationship between them (Table 7). Table 7: Hypothesis tests and results Hypothesis Relation between the occupational status of the individuals living in Ertuğrul District and the values determining the identity of the neighborhood The relationship between the occupational status of the individuals living in Ertuğrul District and the values determining the most important characteristic of the neighborhood The relationship between the educational status of the individuals living in Namık Kemal District and the values determining the identity of the neighborhood Chisquare 43.414a P 0.032 59.323a 0.040 29.306a 0.022 239 Result p <0.05, there is a significant relationship between the occupational status and the values that determine the identity of the neighborhood. p <0.05, there is a significant relationship between the occupational status and the values that determine the most important characteristic of the neighborhood. Since it satisfies the condition of p <0.05, there is a meaningful relationship between the educational status and the values that determine the identity of the neighborhood. CONCLUSIONS The survey assessed the opinions and expectations of individuals with different age, gender and social group living in two neighborhoods in Tekirdağ city Süleymanpaşa district with the foresight of "local identity elements, settlement form and human factor would be effective in the formation of the neighborhoods". The evaluation results of the study are discussed below. According to the survey results; although most of the people living in Namık Kemal District are not from Tekirdağ, they live in the same neighborhood for more than 10 years. In similar studies (Kasarda and Janowitz, 1974; Sampson, 1988; Korpela, 1989; Göregelli et al., 2014), attention was drawn to the fact that the period of living in a place influences the sense of belonging of individuals and formation of the identity of the city. at this point, for both neighborhoods selected as the study area, it is an important result in emphasizing the identity of the city when it is considered that the duration of residence is excessive. After determining the socio-demographic characteristics; findings related to how the people perceive, imagine, and like/dislike the environment they live in are assessed. The overall evaluation results of the questionnaires made in this context are given in Table 8. Table 8: Overall evaluation results of the questionnaires The reason for living in the neighborhood Difference from other neighborhoods Which structures attract the attention, which structures are remembered The identity of the neighborhood Namık Kemal District - Having an interesting environmental texture from the visual point of view Ertuğrul District -Close to work/school/downtown - Being a quiet neighborhood - Being in the city center - Namık Kemal University, - Namık Kemal University Hospital, - YSK Center - Inhabitants, - Structures - Rakoczi Museum, - Archeology and Ethnography Museum, -Rüstempaşa Mosque - Inhabitants, - Historical Texture Favorite identity elements of the neighborhood - Safety - Relaxing - Close to work/school - Close to city center, - Historical, - Neighborhood Relationships Disliked identity elements of the neighborhood - Distance to city center, - Active, - Lack of common living areas (children's play areas, shopping areas) - Neglected, - Lack of common living areas (children's play areas, shopping areas), - To be crowded in terms of structure and people density Namık Kemal District individuals who participated in the survey has taken the importance of having an interesting environmental texture from the visual point of 240 view as the reason for living in the neighborhood. It is also emphasized in the works of Topçu (2011), attractive places with good quality structures have helped to improve the identity by positively influencing the appearance of the city. When the differences regarding the neighborhoods are evaluated, while Ertuğrul neighborhood, which is one of the oldest settlements of Tekirdağ is preferred because it is located in the city center, Namık Kemal neighborhood, where the majority of the new settlements are in, stand out with calmness. When we look at the structure that comes to foreground as city imagery; we see Namık Kemal University in the Namık Kemal neighborhood, while monumental buildings are preferred in the other neighborhood. As the factors forming the identity of the neighborhood, while the inhabitants in took priority in both neighborhoods, in the second order we observe new structures in the newly developed Namık Kemal neighborhood and the historical texture in the Ertugrul neighborhood where the old settlements were mostly located. When the favorite features are considered; the most popular feature is being safe for Namık Kemal neighborhood. This result is similar to study of Brown et al. (2003) and Gifford et al. (2009). Especially in Brown et al. (2003) study; those who feel insecure in their neighborhood, fear crime in the neighborhood, and who feel the need for control in terms of personal and interpersonal experiences in the neighborhood, have a lower dependency on the place. As a result, neighborhoods are important parts of both the city and urban identity and have different properties and distinctive characters. 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İstatistik yöntemler. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Yayını: İstanbul, 558s. Karabey, H. (1990). Kimliksizleştirilen İstanbul. Arredamento Dekorasyon 1723, 123. Kasarda, J. D. & Janowitz, M. (1974). Community Attachment In Mass Society. American Sociological Review, 39, 328- 339. Keller, S. (1968). The Urban Neighborhood. Random House, New York. Kiper, T., (2016). Tekirdağ’ın Mekânsal Planlamasındaki Değişim ve Kent Kimliğine Yansımaları. Tekirdağ Şehir ve Kültür. Tekirdağ Tarih Bilincinde Buluşanlar Derneği Kültür Serisi, Tekirdağ. Koca, Kayılıoğlu, (2017). Spatial and Social Comparison of the Traditional Neighbourhood and the Modern Gated Community: Eskisehir Sample. IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 1-7, http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/245/5/052009/pdf. Korpela, K. M. (1989). Place Identity as A Product of Environmental SelfRegulation. Journal Environmental Psychology 9, 241-259. Lynch, K. (1960). The Image of the City. The M.I.T. Press, 195pp, Cambridge and London. Manzo, L. C. (2005). For Better or Worse: Exploring Multiple Dimensions of Place Meaning. Journal of Environmental Psychology 25(1), 67–86. 242 Oğurlu, İ. (2014). Çevre - Kent İmajı – Kent Kimliği – Kent Kültürü Etkileşimlerine Bir Bakış", İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi 13(26), 275-293. Rapoport, A. (1997). Human Aspects of Urban Form: Towards a Man Environment Approach to Urban Form and Design. Pergamon Press, 85pp, NewYork Sampson, R. J. (1988). Local Friendship Ties and Community Attachment İn Mass Society: A Multilevel Systemic Model". American Sociological Review 5, 766779. Schwirian, Kent P. (1983). Models of Neighborhood Change. Ann. Rev. Social 9, 83-102 Scourfield, J.; Dicks, B.; Holland, S.; Drakeford, M; Davies, A. (2006). The Significance of Place in Middle Childhood: Qualitative Research from Wales. The British Journal of Sociology 57(4), 577–95. Shokoei, H. (1999). New Thinking on the Philosophy of Geography. Gitashenasi Publication, Tehran. Topçu, K. (2011). Kent Kimliği Üzerine Bir Araştırma: Konya Örneği. Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi 8 (2), 1043-1072 URL 1: http://www.arkitera.com/proje/8037/mahalle-tasarimi-fikir-yarismasiesdeger-birincilik-odulu2 URL 2: http://cografyaharita.com/tekirdag_ili_haritalari.html (Accessed: 23.01.2016) URL3: http://keos.suleymanpasa.bel.tr:8096/keos/ (Accessed:: 23.01.2017) URL 4: http://www.trakyanet.com/istatistikler/nufus/tekirdag-belde-ve-koynufuslari.html (Accessed: 23.01.2017) 243 Chapter 20 An Evaluation about /of Greenways on Railway Route Umut Pekin TİMUR1, Pakize Ece ERZİN2 and Özgür Burhan TİMUR3 Assoc. Prof. Dr. Çankırı Karatekin University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Çankırı, Turkey 2 Grad. Student. Çankırı Karatekin University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Çankırı, Turkey 3 Assist. Prof. Dr. Çankırı Karatekin University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Çankırı, Turkey 1 INTRODUCTION The urban areas inhabited by the majority of the world population are attractive areas to offer various opportunities for urban people. But today urban spaces also face many environmental problems due to rapid urbanization, population growth, and industrialization. Urbanization issues not only affect the environmental sphere, but also economic and social factors (URL1). According to estimates made by the United Nations, it is clearly stated that this tendency will continue throughout this century and by 2050 70% of the world population will be living cities (Ahern, 2011). Concurrently, the existing problems in urban areas will only compound. With environmental, economic and social benefits, greenway concept plays an important role in solving the problems originating from urbanization and industrialization (Pekin, 2007). According to Ahern (1995) greenways are corridors of land and water (and networks of such corridors) designed and managed for multiple purposes, such as nature conservation, recreation, social equity and scenery protection etc. (Hellmund & Smith, 2006). In the 1980s, the decline of open space and the need for recreation in major cities of the US drew attention to greenways dating back to 1865 (Little, 1995). Today, they have become an important tool for urban landscape planning with a focus on protecting resources within the area (Ahern, 2004). There are different types of greenways. The recreational ones can be built around natural corridors or human made corridors such as canals and abandoned or active railroads. In this chapter, greenway concept, its brief history, and types and benefits are explained. Likewise it it will specifically provide information about railway route greenways and planning and design principles of greenways on active and inactive railway routes. This will include examples and samples. GREENWAY CONCEPT AND ITS BRIEF HISTORY Greenways serve many purposes and different functions, therefore many definitions exist according to literary context. According to Smith and Hellmund 244 (2006), they also vary widely in name, for example they may also be referred to as environmental corridors or green links. They have emphasized that the commonality between these spaces is that they are characteristically linear or that they are designed as networks of linear land or recognized for their special qualities. A comprehensive description of the greenway was made by Little (1995). According to which, greenways are linear, open spaces such as canals and scenic roads that are set along riversides, hillsides, valleys, or railroads and converted to a recreational space. These linear open spaces connect parks, natural reserves, cultural or historical sites to each other, and settlements. He also states that a greenway is any natural or landscaped course for pedestrian or bicycle passage. Turner (1998) explained the differences between greenways and historic public parks. He states that greenways can provide for movement while the historic public parks are essentially a static concept. According to Turner, greenways are a concept that allows for the movement of people and the movement and natural functioning of wildlife by creating a green transportation network (Turner, 2006). The term greenway is a combination of green from greenbelt (a term with a British origin) and of way from parkway (a term with an American) (Little, 1995). Although the term greenway is relatively new, having emerged only in the late 1950s, the design of linear green spaces in North America predates the name by nearly a century Smith and Hellmund (2006). In the evolution of greenways, four distinct stages or ‘generations’ can be identified. The first three generations were described by Searn (1995), and Vasconcelos (2006) has added fourth generation. The first generation of ancestral greenways were boulevards (in Europe) which go to the 1700s and parkways (in USA) (Searn, 1995) which were begun by Frederick Law Olmsted in 1865. Olmsted’s initial project was the California Campus Project in Berkeley. Olmsted suggested two greenway elements. The first is the area covering the Strawberry Creek valley located at the top of the campus park area. The second one is the way that connects the campus to the city of Oakland for provides a visually aesthetic landscape experience (Little, 1995). Olmsted's first complete greenway was the ‘Emerald Necklace’ for the Boston Park System in the 1880s. Today, this system is still being used for recreation, transportation, flood control, scenery beauty, and as a home to wildlife (Ahern, 2004). With the rapid advent of the car in the 1890s, many greenways were transformed into scenic roads that were used for recreational purposes. In the 1960s, the damage caused by automobiles to the environment began to increase, and bicycle paths and pedestrian paths returned (URL1; Little, 1995; Arslan et al., 2007; Searn, 1995). This is the beginning of the second generation. This period is focused on trails, primarially recreational. In the 1980s, the loss of open space and increased demand for recreation in urban and metropolitan areas focused attention on greenways. The President’s Commission on Americans Outdoors (1987) found strong support for greenways to address the need for additional open space and recreational land and proposed a national system of greenways (Ahern, 2004). 245 The third generation of ancestral greenways falls between years 1985-1995. This stage is the emerging ‘multi-objective’ greenways that address the needs of wildlife, flood damage reduction, water quality, education, and infrastructure needs in addition to urban beautification and recreation (Searn, 1995). From 1995 on, the greenway concept has evolved into a comprehensive greenway network concept in order to meet the needs of an increasingly urban society. Greenways are embraced as a framework for urbanisation and intelligent land use planning (URL1). GREENWAYS’S FEATURES According to Ahern (1995), greenways are networks of land including linear components that are planned, designed and managed for multiple purposes including ecological, recreational, cultural, aesthetic, or other purposes compatible with the concept of sustainable land use. By the same author, the basic qualities of greenways are listed below:  Their spatial forms are linear, and this feature contributes to recreation and ecology.  They make connections between spaces to spaces with the connection features of greenway  They can be multifunctional, such as ecological, recreational and cultural simultaneously  They are consistent with sustainable development,  They have a form that completes landscape planning. GREENWAYS’S BENEFITS Greenways are not created only for the protection of nature and environment, but they also allow for use by people. This feature of greenways is orchestrated with the principle of sustainable development, which of built on a balance between the use of resource use and its protection (Ahern, 1995). In other words, greenways provide environmental, economic, and social benefits to urban areas through their basic features. Their benefits are compatible with the components of sustainability. These benefits are shown in Table 1 (Vasconcelos and Pritchard, 2006). Environmental benefits can be summarized as conserving and repairing natural areas, protecting and supporting biodiversity, protecting water resources, reducing flood hazards, and providing a living space for plants and animals (Lindsey, 2003). Economic benefits include reduction in public investment and private spending by creating a strategy that is affordable, for securing outdoor recreation, to provide tourist attractions, and to increase property values in neighboring areas. Social benefits include to provide protection of historical and cultural resources, outdoor recreational areas, alternative transportations, spaces to strengthen social ties, and increase the quality of life, and to increase environmental awareness and knowledge (Vasconcelos and Pritchard, 2006). 246 Table 1: Adapted from Vasconcelos and Pritchard (2006) greenway benefits Environmental Benefits  Help to protect and restore natural environments  Connection between living environments  Protect and support biodiversity  Provide protection of water resources  Reduce flood hazards  Reduce problems of soil erosion and sedimentation  Provide control of urban development Economical Benefits  Increase property value in neighboring areas  Provide development of various business and commercial facilities  support high productivity in working life  Provide tourist attractions  Reduce public investment and private spending  Provide a cost effective strategy for outdoor recreation  Reduce the need for a second (or even first) vehicle Social Benefits  Provide training for people of all ages  Ensure that historic and cultural resources are protected and linked with each other  Offer recreational opportunities  İnfluence public health and quality of life  Help raise awareness of responsibility for nature and the environment  Strengthen social ties  Increase aesthetic values  Provide an alternative transport route Figure 1: Examples of greenways types (Little, 1995) According to the estimates in the benefits analysis made of Houston’s Bayou Greenway (which is currently in the implementation phase), this greenway alone will provide approximately $13.9 million a year in health benefits by increasing the 247 physical activity of users. In addition, it will also provide reduced air pollution, vehicle operation cost savings, and reduced vehicle accidents an annual benefit estimated at $4.2 million/year (URL2). TYPES of GREENWAYS Although there are different greenway categories made by different scholars, the most common classification are the five categories made by Little (1995). These are:  Urban riverside greenways: usually created as part of a redevelopment program along neglected, often run-down city waterfronts.  Recreational greenways: featuring paths and trails of various kinds, often of relatively long distance, based on natural corridors as well as canals, abandoned railbeds, and other public rights-of-way.  Ecologically significant natural corridors: usually along rivers and streams and ridgelines, to provide for wildlife migration and species interchange, nature study, and hiking.  Scenic and historic routes: usually along a road or highway, the most representative of them make an effort for pedestrian access along the vehicle route or at least places to alight from the car such as view points.  Comprehensive greenway systems or networks, usually based on natural landforms such as valleys and ridges. This system sometimes presents simple oppurtunities with assemblage of greenways and open spaces of various kinds in terms of creating green infrastructure in urban or regional scale. RAILWAY ROUTE GREENWAYS While a significant portion of greenways are intended for either recreation or nature conservation, some of them are planned to provide for both purposes. In this context, it is possible to find examples of active or inactive railway routes that are used for this purpose in many countries. This is especially the case in America, where after the 1920's, the decline of railway use left some routes neglected. This was concurrent with the increase of urban population. People began to escape urban pressures through bicycling, horseback riding and hiking. For this purpose, several old railroad beds were converted to trails. In 1968, Congress enacted the Trails Act to establish a nationwide system of nature trails. In 1983, railway corridors that had fallen out of use were also included. Approximately 225600km of railroad are now in use, but it is predicted that another 4800km will be abandoned every year through the end of this century (Jones, 1988). One of the most important steps for the use of railway routes as a greenway in America belongs to the Rails-to-trails Conservancy (RtC). RtC is a non-profit organization dedicated to building a nationwide greenway network from old railway lines and developing connection corridors to create healthy areas for people.The RtC provides a range of data and demonstration projects to help raise awareness of railway trails and greenways, and to improve local and state policies and practices 248 so that they support railway trails. RtC has helped to develop over 31,000 km of railway trails throughout the United States and provides technical support for the transformation of railways to greenways (Pack & Tomes, 2013). The RtC also supports the use of greenways (rail with trail) in active railway corridors. This usage is safe, widespread, and increasing in number throughout the US. According to the European Greenway Association (2000), the transition from railway to greenway in Europe has similarities with the US. It is usually created as "safe, continuous, and environment-friendly alternative transportation route". CASE STUDIES There are many examples of rail to trail and rail with trail in the world. Examples of abandoned railway greenway (rail to trail) are the Bristol & Bath Railway in UK, the High Line in New York, the Creeper Trail in Virginia, the Carrilet Greenway in Spain, the Côte Chalonnaise in France and the Green Corridor in Singapore. Examples of active railways with greenways, or rail with trail, are the ClarionLittle Toby Creek Trail, Lehigh Gorge State Park Trail, Richmond Greenway, Frisco Trail, and Charlotte Trolley Trail all in America, and the Puurs Greenway in Belgium. Followed are some details of this application from examples. High Line/USA High Line in Manhattan, New York is one of the best examples of a recently transformed abandoned railway route to greenway (fig. 2). Figure 2: High Line at the Rail Yards (URL 3) The High Line is a train line that was moved on the highway (fig. 3) during the 1930’s under the West Side Improvement Project (fig. 4). This change was aimed at eleminating the risks and acciedent from railroad crossings in the region. 249 Figure 3: High Line (URL 3) Figure 4: Change of High Line (URL 3) However, the popularity of railway transportation decreased as road transportation gained importance in this period. In the 1980s the line was completely out of use. In 2006, it was converted into a linear park of about 2.3 km in length (Bezgin, 2014). Designed with a new approach, High Line is exemplified as a trend of landscape urbanism (Steiner, 2011). High Line, with an approximate area of 14.31 hectare, was designed by James Corner Field Operations and Diller Scofidio+Renfro, and Piet Oudolf in 2004. The goal of the project was to protect and develop the unique nature of the area produced by the high level ground (Serdar Köknar, 2012). High Line is approximately 9 meters high from the ground level and located on the southwest side of New York City's Manhattan Island. The plan of the project was designed in 3 phases. The original and unique design was developed with high usage in mind, and as a result the greenway is accessiable from 9 different points along the line in the city and is in a continuous interaction with the city (Fig. 5) (Bezgin, 2014). In the selection of plants, indigenous, drought-resistant, maintenance-free, and landscaping-friendly species were preferred. Where the High Line is exposed to the 250 winds off Hudson River, hard, drought-tolerant herbs have been used. Of the 210 plants chosen, 161 of them are native. Sustainability is the main design intention of the High Line. Conservation, maintenance, and sustainability are important. This linear park allows for a variety of recreational activities, contributing as a tourist attraction and to economic development (Steiner, 2011). Figure 5: The High Line (URL 3) Richmond Greenway/USA The Richmond Greenway is a beautiful example of rail with trail. It runs through Richmond, California, city of just over 100,000 people in the greater East San Francisco Bay metropolitan region. The partially completed greenway is 4.5km long and 2km of this is parallel to the active railway. Each weekday, 135 trains operate along the Richmond line in each direction, traveling up to 128km/h. Trains are less frequent on weekends. The multi-use trail has 12 hectares of adjacent green space and provides an alternative transportation and recreation facility (Pack & Tomes, 2013). 251 The trail itself is eight feet wide and its surface transitions from asphalt to crushed stone at various points. Ornamental light poles are placed along the trail. Wire fences distinguish the pedestrian trail from the railway tracks (fig 6). The cost of the Project planning is approximately $450,000 and the construction cost is $3,6 million (Pack & Tomes, 2013). Figure 6: Richmond Greenway (Pack & Thomas, 2013) Bristol & Bath Railway/UK Between 1979 and 1986 the former Midland Railway line was transformed into a greenway. This initiative was undertaken by members of a local organisation, Cyclebag24, who had grown weary of the authorities’ failure to create pedestrian and cycle infrastructure. Their decision was to use the old railway line route to build a greenway (Jones, 2012). The old railway route was acquired through an agreement with British Rail and was transformed into Bristol Path. Bristol Path has 21km of off-road route and connects the historical cities of Bath and Bristol. The route, which originally linked Bath with Bitton (URL 4; European Greenways Association, 2000) has been part of the first section of the National Cycle Network since its creation in the mid-1980s (Prior & Walton, 2017). The UK National Cycle Network (NCN) developed by the transport organisation Sustrans, is a significant policy intervention aimed at encouraging cycling. Around half of the region population is purported to live within 2km of the 20,000 km network (Jones, 2012). The network is used year-round, with peak periods in summer. But many who use the route for journeys between home and work travel on it all year round by foot or bicycle (fig. 7). Each year, 1,500,000 journeys are taken on the Bristol & Bath Railway Path (European Greenways Association, 2000). Figure 7: Bristol & Bath Railway (European Greenways Association, 2000). 252 People are interested in housing near the Bristol greenway. The greenway offers a safe and direct access to the city centre, being used both for utility trips and leisure trips, as a link with places of work, schools, shops etc. It also enables people living in the city centre to use continuous routes from near home to leave the urban centre without using a car. The value of housing near a greenway does not decrease, but on the contrary, increases European Greenways Association (2000). There are numerous attractions along the path; for example, Community Forest Park, River Avon Trail, The Dramway, Wilsbridge Mill Visitor Centre, Bitton Railway Station, Warmley Station, Sculpture Trail and Saltford Brass Mill (URL 4). Similar greenway projects in scale and scope would cost about 150000 euros per kilometer (European Greenways Association, 2000). Figure 8: Bristol & Bath Railway Path map (URL 4) 253 PLANNING AND DESIGN An effective greenway plan can be based on the “Hub and Spoke Model” (fig. 9) (URL 5). Hub areas can be green areas such as forest, park, or historical and cultural areas. The connecting corridors are important areas like river corridor, watershed or man-made corridors such as the route of the railway or highway. Corridor width and length varies by the intended purpose of the greenway and user needs. The corridor should be wide over as much as possible (Arslan et al., 2007). Greenways can be designed to serve one purpose or more than one purpose. Therefore, the determination of a greenway’s purpose is an important factor that guides the planning process. Because of these reasons, the greenway planning process is varied. But generally it consists of three stages: Inventory and Analysis Preparing a Conceptual or Draft Plan The Preparation of the Master Plan Figure 9:“Hub and Spoke” model (URL 5). In this method developed by Flink and Searns (1993), the Inventory and Analysis phase assesses the natural and cultural resources of the selected area. The Draft Plan Phase defines the goals and objectives. It creates the groundwork for and provides options and usage decisions for the implementation plan. In the Implementation Plan Phase, the most suitable plan alternative for the field is selected, application strategies must be determined, and participation of people should be provided (Arslan et al., 2007). 254 Greenways are shaped by trails. Greenways and trails have many similar and overlapping features. However, greenways can pass through public or private property, but trails can not pass over private property. There are many types and functions of trails. They allow recreational activities such as hiking, cycling, horseback riding or skating. There are single-use and multi-use trails. Many trails established in the past were intended for a single use such as walking. As their popularity grew and use increased, the variety of modes of transportation used on the trail also increased. Therefore, trails designed for single-use have become multiuse trails (URL 6). The following are principles to be considered for successful trail planning (Flink et al., 1993):  Continuity: Facilities should be continuous and interconnected. Trails often end abruptly. The connection between trail use and continuity must be direct.  Potential Use: Multi-use trails should be located along corridors that assure maximum use by the intended user group. For example, bicyclists and walkers generally have the same trip origins and destinations as motorists and need to get to and from facilities, services, and places of work and recreation. Of course, access, climate and perceived safety may also affect potential use.  Destinations: Multi-use trails should be combined with neighbourhood areas, parks, and open air activity areas, such as schools, universities, cultural centers, and market areas. The system should be created with consideration of the various populations, users, and recreation needs.  Safety: Safety considerations should be given top priority when creating a trail corridor. Routes with the fewest number of intersections should be selected and step grades should be avoided. Warning signs for intersections should be placed, bridges and tunnels should be provided at the required points. There are various standards and criteria in trail design. Trail routes on existing transport lines are have special conditions. For example, rail with trails are trails that parallel an operating railroad track. For this reason, it is necessary to create a safe environment for trail users and rail operators. Some of the most common design elements that contribute to safety include setback¹, separations, and crossings (Pack & Thomas, 2013). CONCLUSION According to Spirn (1994), although the problems arising from urbanization may vary from city to city and from country to country, they are many common features, and for this reason, solving them is similar, too (Arslan, 1997). Greenways, which enable many resources to be saved with the least area affected (Ahern, 2004), are quite effective in the solution of these problems. They are based on natural or artificial corridors and are an open green area in cities. According to Riaz et al. (2002), amount and distribution these areas in urban landscape are important (Barış et al., 2010). 255 Greenways are significant planning tools for a sustainable city. They are not designed only to protect the environment and nature, but they are also designed for people’s use. This feature of greenways complies with the principle of sustainable development which builds a balance between resource use and protection (Ahern, 1995). Lindsey (2003) stated that sustainability has emerged as a major theme in planning and that planners often suggest greenways in urban planning in order to make places greener, healthier, and more livable. According to Yunghuo and Guangming (2005), greenway planning has now become a worldwide movement, and has been embraced by governmental agencies, non-governmental organizations and academies, but perhaps most importantly, by citizens of urban areas and small towns (Barış et al., 2010). Rail-to-trails and rail-with-trails serve many purposes, especially recreation and alternative transportation. They are very popular for users because they follow a gentle grade and often pass through undeveloped land and along rivers (URL6). Rails-with-trails are steadily becoming more popular as safety measures are introduced. Greenway and trail projects are composed of very complex and comprehensive processes. Multi-disciplinary studies and planning and public participation is required. Greenways and trails can be planned at the local level as well as at the regional level (Ahern, 1995). Today, it is possible to see greenways/trails that connect cities and even countries. When greenways/trails are planned, especially in the form of greenway networks, the benefits to cities will be increased and sustainability can be ensured. ¹Setback — The lateral distance between the centerline of the nearest track (track located closest to the rail-with-trail) and the nearest edge of the trail or the separation feature (fence, wall, etc.). REFERENCES Ahern J. (1995). Greenways as a Planning Strategy. Landscape and Urban Planning, 33, 131-155. Ahern J. (2004). Greenways in the USA: theory, trends and prospects. In: Jongman R. & Pungetti G. (Ed.) Ecological Networks and Greenways. Chapter 3, p.34-53, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0 521535026, USA. Ahern J. (2011). From fail-safe to safe-to-fail: Sustainability and Resilience in the New Urban World. Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 100, Issue 4, 341343. Arslan, M., Barış, E., Erdoğan, E., Dilaver, Z. 2007. Yeşil yol planlaması Ankara Örneği. Ankara Üni. Bilimsel Araştırma Projesi Kesin Raporu, 139 s., Ankara. Arslan M. (1996). Yeşil Yol Planlaması: Ankara Örneği. Çevre Planlama ve Tasarımına Bütüncül Yaklaşım Sempozyumu, s. 277-285. Barış M.E., Erdoğan E., Dilaver Z. and Arslan M. (2010). Greenways and the Urban Form: City of Ankara, Turkey. Biotechnol. & Biotechnol. Eq., 24/1, 1658-1664. Bezgin N. Ö. (2014). Hizmet Dışı Kalmış Bir Ulaştırma Yapısının Çağdaş Kentsel 256 Arayışlar İçerisinde Yaratıcı Şekilde Geri Kazanılması: “The High Line ProjectManhattan, New York City”. Dünya Şehircilik Günü 38. Kolokyumu, 6-8 Nowember 2014. European Greenways Association (2000). The European Greenways Good Practice Guide: Examples of Actions Undertaken in Cities and the Periphery. European Greenways Association, 91 p., Belgique. Flink C. A., Ryan K., Searns R. M., Balmori D. and Lagerwey P. (1993). Trails for the Twenty-First century. Island Press 213 p., Washington D.C. Hellmund P.C. and Smith D.S. (2006). Designing Greenways: Sustainable Landscapes for Nature and People. Island Press, 288 p., London. Jones T. (1988). Rails to Trails: Converting Amerıca's Abandoned Railroads into Nature Trails. Akron Law Reviewed, 22, 4. Jones T. (2012). Getting the British back on Bicycles-The effects of Urban Trafficfree Paths on Everyday Cycling. Transport Policy, 20, 138-149. Lindsey G. (2003). Sustainability and Urban Greenways: Indicators in Indianapolis. Journal of the Amerikan Planning Association, 69, 2, 165-179. Little C. E. (1995). Greenways for America. The Johns Hopkins Press Ltd., 237 p., London. Searn M. R. (1995).The Evolution of Greenways as an Adaptive Urban Landscape Form. Landscape and Urban Planning, 33, 65-80. Pack K. and Tomes P. (2013). America’s Rails-with-Trails: A Resource for Planners, Agencies and Advocates on Trails along Active Railroad Corridors. Rail-to-Trails Conservancy, 49 p. Pekin U. (2007). Kentsel Akarsu Koridorlarının Geliştirilmesi ve Ankara Çayı Kavramsal Yeşil Yol Planı. Doktora Tezi. Ankara Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, 283 s., Ankara. Prior J. & Walton S. (2017). The Bristol and Bath Railway Path: An Ecopoetic Sound Collaboration. GeoHumanities, 3:1, 246-249. Serdar Köknar A.B. (2012). Kentsel Dönüşüm Alanlarında Gerçekleştirilen Peyzaj Tasarımlarının Eleştirel Teori ile Bir Okuması. Doktora Tezi. İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, 305 s., İstanbul. Steiner F. (2011). Landscape ecological urbanism: Origins and trajectories. Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 100, Issue 4, 333-337. Turner T. (2006). Greenway Planning in Britain: Recent Work and Future Plans. Landscape and Urban Planning, 76, 240-251. Vasconcelos P. and Pritchard M. (2006). A Greenway Network for a more Sustainable Auckland. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sustainability Engineering and Science. Auckland, New Zealand, Feb 21–23. URL1: Vasconcelos P. (2006). http://www.ece.auckland.ac.nz/~sinnen/VasconcelosSilva2006.pdf (Accessed: 02 January 2011) URL2:http://www.bayougreenways.org/benefits (Accessed: 04 September 2015). URL3 Taşpatlatan (2012). http://www.arkitera.com/haber/9809/new-yoerkta-birdonusum-hikayesinin-yuzu- (Accessed: 07 June 2017) URL4: http://www.bristolbathrailwaypath.org.uk/library/Railway_Path_Leaflet 257 _Part _2.pdf (Accessed 21 July 2017) URL5: Flink C. A. (2006). http://www.saludareedy.org/outreach/pastevents06. htmlflink. (Accessed: 20 October 2006). URL6: https://pittsboronc.gov/vertical/sites/%7B512CE168-4684-4855-9CD97D209FE775E3%7D/uploads/%7B8AC2F0AF-A26D-4EE8-8F6DA9B5043486DA%7D.PDF (Accessed 18 February 2018). URL7: http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/recreational_planning/greenway.shtml. (Accessed: 23 September 2015). 258 Chapter 21 Determination of Factors Affecting Perception of Entrepreneurship by Structural Equation Modeling: Case of Düzce University, Faculty of Forestry Yaşar Selman GÜLTEKİN Assist. Prof. Dr.; Duzce University, Faculty of Forestry, Forest Economics Department, Konuralp/Düzce TURKEY INTRODUCTION Today, the environmentally sensitive development of initiatives in forestry and forest industry as well as in all sectors where environmental concerns and expectations are increasing, is of great importance. At this point; emerging as a new concept, entrepreneurship can be considered as a possible concept in forestry and forest industry. Therefore, governments and universities have to engage more in educating and encouraging students on entrepreneurship (Gürbüz, 2011). Eco entrepreneurship covers the entire range of studies that reduce the negative impacts on people and the environment, while increasing the positive contribution of enterprises and activities to their enterprise goals (Aykan, 2012). This process is shaped within the context of sustainable development and growth objectives, is taken into account from the enterprise's stage of establishment, and includes longterm and environment-oriented practices. While preserving the natural environment, businesses that meet the users' expectations and earn revenue from the activities they perform can be described as "eco-entrepreneurs" (Haznedar, 2016; Cingöz, 2013). It is possible to say that the activities of ecoentrepreneurs are initiatives not only in terms of profitability but also in consideration of environmental concerns. In this study, the entrepreneurship tendency of the students studying at Düzce University Faculty of Forestry and the factors affecting the eco-entrepreneurship potential were examined by Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). As a result of the study, the students who are studying at Düzce University Faculty of Forestry have made suggestions about the potentials of entrepreneurship and eco-entrepreneurship. Within the scope of the study, 200 students surveyed at the undergraduate level in 2017-2018 academic year were applied at Düzce University Faculty of Forestry. The students' perspectives on entrepreneurship and participation levels in entrepreneurship activities were evaluated. In the study, the most appropriate model was presented by testing the relationship between entrepreneurship and the factors affecting the tendency of eco-entrepreneurship (environmental concern, achievement need, creativity, risk taking tendency, tolerance to uncertainty, selfconfidence, innovation, assertiveness). According to the model obtained as a result 259 of the research; eco-entrepreneurship has been found to be positively related to environmental concern, need for success, creativity, risk taking, tolerance to uncertainty, self-confidence, innovation, and assertiveness. MATERIALS AND METHODS The research was carried out with 200 students (106 female, 94 male) attending Düzce University Faculty of Forestry in 2017-2018 academic year. Reasons for the study to be carried out at Düzce University Faculty of Forestry; Düzce University Faculty of Forestry has started to give entrepreneurship courses in the last 5 years as an elective, importance of university administration to entrepreneurship, increase in activities in university and saving time and cost in researcher's application of Düzce University survey forms. The students who applied the questionnaire were applied to the students of forestry engineering, forest industry engineering and landscape architecture department in forest faculty in the university campus and their residence, and applied to the students who accepted the questionnaire on the voluntary basis. Despite the fact that 217 surveys were conducted in the study, 17 surveys were considered invalid since more than half of the surveys were not answered. In the questionnaires, to determine the perception and attitudes of young people about entrepreneurship issues, especially to find out the young people’s entrepreneurship profile because of they are forest faculty of research universe (total 460 students, response rate is 43%) and to get information about young people’s entrepreneurial activities with the aim of gender, whether they had taken courses or not, what kind of entrepreneurial activity they were involved in, whether their family had an entrepreneurial background, and so on. Then, a new scale consisting of 41 questions was developed by adding some questions to the information obtained from some researches on the topic of entrepreneurship (Dixon and Clifford, 2007; Wagner, 2015) as well as the expressions in the entrepreneurship scales developed by Koh (1996), Yılmaz and Sünbül (2009), İşcan and Kaygın (2011). The responses to the questionnaires were analyzed with IBM SPSS Statistics 22 and EQS 6.2 software, mean and frequency values were specified, and the most appropriate models were developed by factor analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM). The Structural Equation Modeling Software (EQS 6.2) was used for CFA, with the aim of examining the fit of the factor models carried out by the exploratory analysis. In determining the fit of the model, multi-fit measures are used. In this study, adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI), goodness-of-fit index (GFI), normed fit index (NFI), nonnormed fit index (NNFI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) were used as absolute fit measures for determining the model fit (Bollen, 1989; Hu and Bentler, 1998; Hu and Bentler, 1999; Bentler, 2006). In the study, the effects of forest faculty students on the factors affecting entrepreneurship and ecotourism (EKOP), environmental concern (CK), achievement need (BI), creativity (RA), risk taking tendency (RAE), tolerance to uncertainty (BKT), innovation (YE), assertiveness (GR) and the sub-variables that 260 make up these variables are given in Figure 1. “D” letters express error term for latent variables (circle shapes in model) in measurement model. “E” letters are the errors for observed variables (rectangle shapes in model) in measurement model. Arrows state the regression loads from latent variables to observed or latent variables (Bentler, 2006). Figure 1: Measurement Model The CFA model in SEM was used to test the measurement model and to be able to see the model relations in detail. The results obtained from the research were interpreted through tables and figures. The null hypotheses of the study are given below: H10: There is no significant relationship between entrepreneurship perception 261 and environmental concern. H20: There is no significant relationship between entrepreneurship perception and achievement needs. H30: There is no significant relationship between entrepreneurship perception and tolerance to uncertainty. H40: There is no significant relationship between entrepreneurship perception and risk taking tendency. H50: There is no significant relationship between entrepreneurship perception and self-confidence. H60: There is no significant relationship between entrepreneurship perception and innovation. H70: There is no significant relationship between entrepreneurship perception and assertiveness. H80: There is no significant relationship between entrepreneurship perception and creativity. According to the obtained results, proposals have been made to diversify entrepreneurial activities for young people who will benefit from social and economic mobilization by participating in entrepreneurship activities, increasing their level of consciousness and preserving their resource values. In addition, ecoentrepreneurial factors added to the EKOP model and evaluations of ecoentrepreneurial potentials of young people with knowledge of natural sciences have been made. RESULTS The results of the research are summarized as demographic characteristics, first and second level DFA and SEM. The distributions of the students participating in the study are given in Table 1. Table 1: Distributions of participants according to departments Departments Frequency Forest Engineering 90 Forest Products Engineering 30 Landscape Arthitecture 80 Total 200 Percentage (%) 45 15 40 100 According to Table 1; 45% of the participants in Düzce University Faculty of Forestry are Forest Engineering Department, 15% are Forest Industrial Engineering Department and 40% are Landscape Architecture Department students. The reason why there is a small number of students in the Forest Industrial Engineering department in the participants; is due to the small number of students in this department. The distribution of participants by gender is shown in Table 2. 262 Table 2: Distribution of participants by gender Gender Frequency Male 94 Female 106 Total 200 Percentage (%) 47 53 100 According to Table 2; 47% of the participants were male, 53% were female. A homogeneous distribution was attempted in the study in terms of gender. Table 3: Classification of participants by classes Classes Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Total Frequency 38 44 49 69 200 Percentage (%) 19 22 24,5 34,5 100 According to Table 3, 34.5% of the participants are senior students. Other classroom students also seem to be participating in a relatively close ratio (20%). It is thought that the proportion of the senior students participating in the study is relatively high, which will give positive contributions in determining the potential of entrepreneurship. Table 4: Participation of students in a course related to entrepreneurship Participation status Yes No Total Frequency 10 190 200 Percentage (%) 5 95 100 According to Table 4, only 5% of the participants have participated in the entrepreneurial course. And 95% were not involved in entrepreneurship-related courses. Table 5: Students’ entrepreneurial activity status Activity status Yes No Total Frequency 21 179 200 Percentage (%) 10,5 89,5 100 According to Table 5; it was determined that 89.5% of the participants did not perform any activity and only 10.5% of the participants had entrepreneurial activity. 263 Table 6: Information on the occupations of the family head of the participants Occupations of the family head Labor at private sector Labor at public Public personnel Artisan Contractor Self-employment Retired Not working Other Total Frequency 42 20 25 14 2 34 38 4 21 200 Percentage (%) 21 10 12,5 7 1 17 19 2 10,5 100 Table 6 shows that 21% of the participants are working in the private sector, 7% are trades, 17% are self-employed, and 1% are contractors. The analysis of the factors that influence the entrepreneurship of forest faculty students in the study and the relationship between these factors was tested with first- and second-order CFA (Table 7). Table 7: CFA results for EKOP Scale Items* RAE CK YA RAE1: I do not depend on ,649 external factors for my life. RAE2: I can shape my life ,647 with my decisions. RAE3: I'm not ,575 afraid to take risks. CK1: When thinking about business ideas, we give ,725 priority to ideas that do not destroy nature. CK2:I work in my work to ,686 protect nature. CK3: I prioritize the use of ,636 renewable energy sources in my work. YA1: Creativity is strong in my work. ,649 YA2: I'm not afraid to take the lead in ,608 my work. YA3: I can make effective decisions ,472 about the future of business. YE1: I like to challenge old practices. YE2: I like to do research to make old ideas better. YE3: I'm dealing with things that allow me to YE KG GR BKT BI Reliability 0,63 0,70 0,68 ,798 ,491 ,485 264 0,74 look at a new perspective. YE4: I try to work with new methods that have ,435 not been used by others in the past. KG1: I can build my own business. ,762 KG2: If I leave compulsorily, I can create alternative ,646 jobs for myself. KG3: If I remain in a difficult situation, create my own ,576 options. GR1: I do not hesitate to apply what I have not been able to do ,686 before. GR2: I have the energy to do different things. ,593 GR3: I talk about different business projects with my friends. ,526 BKT1: With enough effort, I can come up with all kinds of problems. ,755 BKT2: I'm sure I can handle the plans I made. ,487 BKT3: I'm looking for the right jobs to make money. ,462 BI1: I try to make more effort to be better than my past performance in my work. BI2: When the time is extremely difficult, I do the best I can for the time being. 8,562 3,176 2,649 2,556 1,424 1,329 1,241 Eigen Values Varience 9,786 12,698 10,826 4,971 3,801 3,384 2,723 Explained Ratio Total 55,131 Varience Explained 0,848 KMO Barlett’s 2399,274 Sphericity Test 0,69 0,63 0,67 ,945 ,464 1,195 0,50 2,261 * (1) Strictly disagree, (2) Disagree, (3) Middle, (4) Agree, (5) Totally agree RMSEA = 0.049 for first-order CFA. RMSEA, a measure of approximate harmony in the main mass, indicates an acceptable fit. That is, it is determined that the model conforms to the data. However, where the sample size is large, the degree of freedom is a more important measure. The model's chi-square value is 329.01. The degree of freedom is a very important measure in the chi-square test, especially when the number of samples is high. Where the degree of freedom is large, the ꭓ 2 value tends to give a meaningful result. Therefore, if the ratio of ꭓ2 to the degree of freedom is less than 5 or 5, it is stated that there is a good agreement between the model and the data (Bentler, 2006; Gültekin, 2015). (ꭓ2/df: 329,01/224=1,47)<5 is seen that there is a good fit between model and data (Table 8). Table 8: Evaluation of Structural Equation Modeling Results (Kayacan and Gültekin, 2012) Goodness of Fit Criterias RMSEA SRMR NFI NNFI CFI GFI AGFI Acceptable Ranges 0,05≤RMSEA≤0,100 0,05<SRMR≤0,100 0,90≤NFI≤0,95 0,95≤NNFI≤0,97 0,95≤CFI≤0,97 0,90≤GFI≤0,95 0,85≤AGFI≤0,90 265 Suggested Model 0,049 0,048 0,90 0,92 0,92 0,90 0,86 Taking into account the t test results, the insignificant variables between psychological factors and latent variables were removed from the model. Thus, entrepreneurship has reached the Second Order DFA model which will explain the relationship between the variables (Figure 2). Figure 2: Path Diagram for EKOP model ꭓ /df=357,64/235=1,52 < 5 showed that the model had adequate fit and that the results of the proposed conformity measures were also in acceptable agreement. Table 9 gives the R² values, which show the significance of the factors affecting entrepreneurship and the explanations of entrepreneurship alone, according to the second-order CFA results. 2 266 Table 9: Total Effects of Independent Latent Variables on the Dependent Latent Variable in the EKOP Measurement Model Structural Equations RAE = 0.679 * EKOP + 0.734 D1 CK = 0.571 * EKOP + 0.821 D2 YA = 0.811 * EKOP + 0.584 D3 YE = 0.730 * EKOP + 0.684 D4 KG = 0.660 * EKOP + 0.751 D5 GR = 0.683 * EKOP + 0.731 D6 BKT = 0.717 * EKOP + 0.697 D7 BI = 0.631 * EKOP + 0.776 D8 (R2 values) 0.46 0.33 0.66 0.53 0.44 0.47 0.52 0.40 When the independent variables included in the model are examined, EKOP is used to assess the relationship between CK (environmental concern), BI (success need), YA (creativity), RAE (risk taking tendency), BKT (tolerance to uncertainty) There is a positive (ie, same-direction) relationship between GR (initiative). The explanatory power in the model is the highest factor as creativity (R2: 0.66). All of the null hypotheses put forward in the study are rejected and the alternatives of these hypotheses; it was accepted at the level of 5% that there was a positive and meaningful relationship between environmental perception, achievement need, creativity, risk taking tendency, tolerance to uncertainty, selfconfidence, innovation and initiative and entrepreneurship perception. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Entrepreneurship in developed and developing world countries is seen as an indispensable part of the economy. In addition to the contributions of the countries to the economies, the importance of entrepreneurship has begun to be felt more and more because of the balance brought about by social life, employment and income distribution. However, the increasing environmental concerns of societies; entrepreneurs to environmentally-friendly technologies and business ideas that are more environmentally friendly. For this reason, the concept of eco-entrepreneurship is thought to have an important share in entrepreneurship (Gültekin ve Gültekin, 2017). With the study, the entrepreneurial tendencies of the Forest Engineering, Forest Industry Engineering and Landscape Architecture students at Düzce University, Faculty of Forestry, the factors affecting these trends and the family environment, personal characteristics, gender etc. demographic characteristics of these factors were investigated. In addition, since these students should have taken courses in natural sciences, a new measure was developed by using additional questions in the literature (Dixon and Clifford, 2007; Wagner, 2015) in order to determine the potentials of eco-entrepreneurship. With these additional questions, it was observed that the structural models obtained for the students of forest faculty who have potential for eco-entrepreneurship gave more meaningful results. The survey shows the results of entrepreneurship studies in which 267 entrepreneurship indicates that the presence of trafficked persons in their parents' families and their experience with the work they are planning to establish is statistically significant on opening a workplace. The survey results provide important clues for the strategies needed to increase the effectiveness of active employment policies. In the field of entrepreneurship, special support programs for sustainable development can be developed for forest engineers, forest industry engineers and landscape architects who have taken courses related to natural sciences. The results of the factor analysis within the research indicate that the entrepreneurship training area is satisfied with the duration and content of the training and meet the expectations of the training they receive. Ecotourism activities are closely related to forest engineers and forest villagers (Gültekin et al. 2014, Gültekin et al. 2015, Gültekin et al., 2016) since their activities are predominantly made in forest areas and natural areas around them. It is stated that the potential of ecotourism is high because Düzce has very rich natural resources in terms of forest area. Scientific studies on Düzce and its immediate surroundings suggest that the region and region have a high potential for ecotourism resources and may be an alternative source of income for the local people (Uzun et al. 2011; 2012a; 2012b; 2013). It is known that various ecotourism activities have been done in Düzce city center and its vicinity. These are mainly; nature walk, bird and plant observing, recreation places, paintball, horse riding, camping, orientring (Gültekin, 2010; Gültekin, 2014). Students at Düzce University Faculty of Forestry should have taken courses such as ecotourism and ecotourism management; it is thought that it will bring important business ideas and opportunities to be associated with ecotourism management. For this reason, what kinds of activities the students can make about eco-entrepreneurship in entrepreneurship lessons can be explained by examples of entrepreneurship related to ecotourism (Gültekin ve Gültekin, 2017). The support of eco-entrepreneurial businesses is important because of the increase in the number of eco-entrepreneurs in all other sectors, especially in the ecotourism sector, which can help reduce unemployment, poverty and human pressure on the environment (Gültekin, 2010; Gültekin and Uzun, 2012; Gültekin et al. 2013; Gültekin, 2014). Educational opportunities should be provided to increase the sensitivity to the free environment especially for the employees of the business, financial incentives, incentives, tax reductions should be provided to the founders and eco-entrepreneurship should be included in the legislation of Turkey. As examples of entrepreneurship in the forest industry, wood-based products can create job opportunities by choosing forestry industry engineers who work in this sector and products based on the industry, as the environmental damage of the waste is almost negligible. Likewise, it can be considered as a business opportunity that will give priority to ecoentrepreneurship in landscape projects, because the equipment used in landscape architecture is produced in environmentally friendly style and the plantal weighted materials can be used. REFERENCES Aykan, E., 2012. Girişimciliğin Değişen Yüzü Ekogirişimcilik, Süleyman Demirel 268 Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, Y.2012, C.17, S.3, s.195-212. Bentler, P.M., 2006. EQS 6 structural equations program manual, Multivariate Software Inc., Encino, CA. Bollen, K.A., 1989. Structural Equations with Latent Variables, Wiley, New York. Cingöz, A., 2013. Girişimcilik: Ekogirişimcilik, Beta Yayımları, 2. Baskı Dixon, S., Clifford, A., 2007. Ecopreneurship – a new approach to managing the triple bottom line, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 20 No. 3, 2007, pp. 326-345 Haznedar, H.A., 2016. Ekoturizm ve Ekogirişimcilik Potansiyelinin Ortaya Konmasına Yönelik Bir Araştırma: Nazarköy Örneği. İzmir Katip Çelebi Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Ekoturizm Anabilimdalı. Yüksek lisans Tezi. İzmir. Gürbüz, H., 2011. Girişimcilik Eğilimini Etkileyen Psikolojik Faktörlerin Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesi ile Belirlenmesi, 3.Uluslararası Girişimcilik Kongresi, Kırgızistan-Türkiye Manas Üniversitesi, Bişkek, Kırgızistan. Hu, L.T., Bentler, P.M., 1998. Fit Indices in Covariance Structure Modeling: Sensitivity to Underparameterized Model Misspecification, Psychological Methods, 1082-989X, Doi 10.1037//1082-989x.3.4.424, 3 (4), 424-453. Hu, L.T., Bentler, P.M., 1999. Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria Versus New Alternatives, Structural Equation Modeling-a Multidisciplinary Journal, 1070-5511, 10.1080/10705519909540118, 6 (1), 1-55. Gültekin, P., Gültekin, Y.S., Uzun, O., 2013. Düzce Uğursuyu ve Aksu Havzalarında Katılımcı Ekoturizm Algı Ölçeğinin Geliştirilmesi, Peyzaj Mimarlığı V. Kongresi, 14-17 Kasım 2013, 904-921, Adana. Gültekin, P., 2010. Düzce Uğursuyu ve Aksu Havzalarında Ekoturizm Potansiyelinin Belirlenmesi ve Peyzaj Yönetimi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Düzce Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Peyzaj mimarlığı Anabilimdalı, Düzce. Gültekin, P., 2014. Uğursuyu ve Aksu Havzalarında Peyzaj Planlama ve Ekoturizm Odaklı Kırsal Kalkınma. Doktora Tezi, Düzce Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Peyzaj mimarlığı Anabilimdalı, Düzce. Gültekin, P., Uzun, O. 2012. Determination of Eco-tourism Potential of Düzce Ugursuyu and Aksu Basins and Landscape Management. African Journal of Business Management, 6 (9), 3428-3437. Gültekin P., Gültekin Y.S., Uzun O. 2014. Katılımcı planlamada yerel halk ekoturizm ilişkisi: düzce aydınpınar köyü örneği, Uluslararası Odundışı Orman Ürünleri Sempozyumu 8-10 Mayıs 2014, Kahramanmaraş. Gültekin, P., Gültekin, Y.S., Uzun, O., 2015. Ekoturizmde Çatışma Yönetiminin Düzce Uğursuyu ve Aksu Havzaları Örneğinde İrdelenmesi. IV. Ormancılıkta Sosyo-Ekonomik Sorunlar Kongresi, 15-17 Ekim 2015, Trabzon. Gültekin, P., Gültekin, Y.S., Uzun, O., Gök, H., 2016. Katılımcı Ekoturizm Planlamasında Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesi İle Paydaş Analizi: Batı Karadeniz Bölgesi Örneği. Düzce Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projesi. Gültekin, Y.S., 2015. Devlet Orman İşletmelerinde Dikili Ağaç Satışı 269 Uygulamasının Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesi ile Analizi, Doktora Tezi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Orman Mühendisliği Anabilim Dalı, Düzce Üniversitesi, Düzce. Gültekin, P., Gültekin, Y.S., 2017. Evaluation of Eco-Entrepreneurship for Ecotourism in Düzce, 3rd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research Rome, ITALY/ August 08-10, 2017. İşcan, Ö.F., Kaygın, E., 2011. Potansiyel Girişimciler Olarak Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Girişimcilik Eğilimlerini Belirlemeye Yönelik Bir Araştırma, Organizasyon ve Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi, Cilt 3, Sayı 2, 2011 ISSN: 1309 8039 (Online). Kayacan, B., Gültekin, Y.S., 2012. Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesinin (YEM) Ormancılıkta Sosyo-ekonomik Sorunların Çözümlenmesinde Kullanımı, III. Ormancılıkta Sosyo-ekonomik Sorunlar Kongresi, İstanbul. Koh H.C., 1996. Testing hypotheses of Entrepreneurial Characteristics: A Study of Hong Kong MBA Students, Journal of Managerial Psychology, 11, 3, 12-25. Uzun, O., Gültekin, P. 2010. Cultural Landscape network and eco-tourism in Duzce Ugursuyu and Aksu watersheds, 27TH ECLAS Conference, Istanbul, 29 September-2 October 2010. 105-114. Uzun, O., Aydın A., Girti Gültekin P., 2012. Uğursuyu ve Aksu Havzaları arazi örtüsünün zamansal değişiminin Cbs ve Ua Entegre Edilerek Değerlendirilmesi (1999-2008), 16-19 Ekim 2012 IV. Uzaktan Algılama Sempozyumu, Zonguldak. Uzun, O., Gültekin, P., Akıncı kesim, G. 2012a. Interaction between Landscape Change and Landscape Quality: Example of Turkey, Düzce Aksu and Uğursuyu Basins. ECLAS 2012, Warsaw, Poland. Uzun, O., Gültekin, P., Akıncı Kesim, G. 2012b. Landscape Quality in Planning of Coastal Landscapes, Example of Düzce Efteni Lake. BENA 2012 Istanbul sustainable landscape planning and safe environment, BENA İstanbul 2012 Conference, 3-12, (2012). Uzun, O., Akıncı Kesim, G., Gültekin, P. 2011. Efteni Gölü sulak alan ekosistemi Peyzaj yönetim planının oluşturulması, Düzce Üniversitesi BAP Projesi, BAP: 2008.02.01.010. Düzce. Uzun, O., Gültekin, P., Gültekin, Y.S. 2015. Assessment of Participatory Ecotourism Planning and Management Using By Different Stages Of Basin Scale. MACODESU 2015 Trabzon. Wagner, M., 2015. "Eco-entrepreneurship: An Empirical Perspective Based on Survey Data" In Frontiers in Eco-Entrepreneurship Research. Published online: 10 Mar 2015; 127-152. ISSN: 1048-4736/doi:10.1108/S1048-4736 (2009)0000020009 Yılmaz, E., Sünbül, M.A., 2009. Üniversite Öğrencilerine Yönelik Girişimcilik Ölçeğinin Geliştirilmesi, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 21, s. 195-203 270 Chapter 22 Evaluation of Visual Landscape Quality Yeliz SARI NAYİM PhD, Assist. Prof.; Bartın University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Bartın, Turkey. INTRODUCTION Human and nature have always been in close interaction. This interaction enables human beings not only to meet their basic needs but also their need for aesthetics. Landscape areas which form the natural and cultural environment serve people in aesthetical terms with the resource value they have. These areas provide economic, social and cultural contributions to their region through touristic and recreational services. In this respect, it will be appropriate to put landscapes into use within the framework of protection-use balance. Identifying the existing visual quality potential of the area is an important base in decision making process. It is necessary to define the concept of "quality" before defining "visual quality". "Quality" is defined as (Cambridge Dictionary, 2018): "How good or bad something is", "A high standard", "A characteristic or feature of someone or something". Landscape is a concept that is formed by the visual perception of external environment. The quality of landscape derives from an interaction between biophysical characteristics of the landscape (landform, vegetation etc.) and the perception - decision making process of the observer (Daniel, 2001). All natural and cultural landscapes have unique characteristics and a beauty arising from these unique characteristics. Some landscapes could be more attractive when compared to others and could be preferred more often because of their scenic value. Observer could have either a positive or a negative idea towards a scene s/he see or perceive when standing at a certain point. In studies, which look into the analysis of landscape, double approaches such as "quantitative (relating to numbers) / qualitative (relating to quality)" or "objective / subjective" are taken into account. Quantitative analysis is primarily related to physical environment whilst qualitative analysis is related to social environment. The objective approach tells what the observer sees in the environment whilst subjective approach tells the individual landscape impressions of the observer (Makhzoumi & Pungetti, 1999). In order to determine landscape quality, a value belonging to the characteristics of the landscape is set and this is possible through visual assessment. To digitize the data of the quality of landscape elements it is necessary to know what people think 271 of the attractiveness of the landscape (Clay, 2001a; Clay, 2001b). Arthur et al. (1977) defined two main models for the evaluation of landscape quality (Vining & Stevens, 1986): Public preference model (perception based approach) Descriptive inventories model (expert approach) Shafer et al. (1969) presented a compromise between the two models. There has been an increasing interest in such kind of holistic models lately. In these models, statistical techniques, which determine the mathematical relationships existing between landscape components and the scenic preferences of observers, are widely used (Arriaza et al., 2004). Zube et al. (1982) and Daniel & Vining (1983) also presented comprehensive model idea sor theoretical approaches to assess landscape quality (Bergen, 1993). Zube et al. (1982) define four landscape perception paradigms or methods in assessing the landscape quality (Bergen, 1993):  Expert paradigm  Psychophysical paradigm (it is based on public perception)  Cognitive paradigm  Experiential paradigm The first two paradigms have been used to examine planning, design and management issues and to solve problems. Cognitive and experiential paradigms, on the other hand, are more theoretical paradigms (Zube et al., 1982). Expert Paradigm When the articles on landscape quality is examined in Zube et al.’s (1982) study, it is seen that 35% used expert paradigm and most of these articles are on forest areas, river management and rural planning (Taylor et al., 1990). Daniel & Vining (1983) divides expert into two models:  Ecological model  Formal aesthetic model Ecological model hypotheses that the places where there is almost no change are visually the most attractive landscapes. This ecological tradition believes in the assumption that natural and intact ecosystem has the strongest and most interesting aesthetic quality. Leopold (1969) developed a model to assess the river corridor aesthetics. This study was based on the assumption that there was a strong correlation between the "interest towards landscape" and "level of naturalness" (Taylor et al., 1990). Formal aesthetic model has similarities to the descriptive inventories model mentioned in Arthur et al. (1977). This model relies on the standards of the trained experts (Vining & Stevens, 1986). It does not use the perceptions of the public in the assessment (Palmer, 1998; Daniel & Vining, 1983; Arthur et al., 1977; Zube et al., 1982; Vining & Stevens, 1986). Expert paradigm, which is used in landscape quality assessment, has been more dominant in environmental management practices (USDA Forest Service, 1974; USDA Forest Service, 1995; Daniel, 2001). VMS - Visual Management System which is accepted by USDA Forest 272 Service (1974) is an example of formal aesthetic visual analysis model (Bergen, 1993). The main point in this model is to assess the "visual harmony" using 3 main concepts. These are:  Defining the landscape characteristics  Visual diversity  Distinctions from characteristic landscapes These main concepts are evaluated by presenting the 3 criteria given below. Dominating Elements There are four main visual elements which are form, line, color and texture (USDA Forest Service, 1973; Fig.1). Figure 1: Dominating design elements (USDA Forest Service, 1973). Dominating Principles There are 6 principles effecting the dominance of form, line, texture and color. These are contrast, sequence, axis (direction), intersecting (joining of the lines), codominance (equal dominance), enframement (restriction of the perceived areas) (USDA Forest Service, 1973; Fig.2). Figure 2: Dominating principles (USDA Forest Service, 1973). Changeable Factors The changes in the visual conditions effecting the perception of dominating elements are important. These factors should be taken into consideration. These are the movement of the observer, climate, weather and light conditions, the distance of the observer, position of the observer, scale and time factors (USDA Forest Service, 273 1973; Fig.3). Figure 3: Changeable factors (USDA Forest Service, 1973). The biophysical features of a landscape (mountains, rivers, trees etc.) are turned into formal features (line, form, texture and colour) by the experts. There are relationships between these features (diversity, integrity, mystery, harmony etc.). Later, rules and main lines which group areas from low quality to high quality (visual quality or scene value class) (Daniel, 2001). Based on expert evaluation of formal landscape features, diversity classes are determined. Also, sensitivity levels are determined based on the visuality of the landscape. Visual quality objectives are determined by overlaying of diversity and sensitivity levels from landscape protection to maximum change (Bergen, 1993; British Columbia, 1982). VMS system was criticized because it does not involve public participation. It could be ineffective because of low reliability and sensitivity (Bergen, 1993). The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Visual Resources Management Program sets an example to expert paradigm. This is similar to VMS. This method is divided into three sections (Taylor et al., 1990):  Landscape character is particularly defined by the 4 main design elements 274  Landscape which has a strong impact in terms of these elements is considered as a more interesting landscape  Visual diversity increases the satisfaction from the landscape in aesthetical terms BLM method emphasizes the importance of visual elements in design. Particularly, it considers the line, form, colour and texture features in terms of "diversity" and "strength" principles. As it is shown in Table 1, in BLM landscape evaluation method, there are "7 key factors". These are landform, vegetation, existence of water, color, adjacent scenery, scarcity and cultural modifications (Taylor et al., 1990). Table 1: BLM - Landscape Evaluation Method Matrix (Taylor et al., 1990). These landscape factors are transferred to a rating scale system as shown in Table 1. These scores are added up to get three scenery quality classes. These are (Taylor et al., 1990): Class A (ranging between 19-33 points): This class includes the most oustanding features of each assessment factor. Class B (ranging between 12-18 points): This class reflects a mixture of some outstanding and some simple features. Class C (ranging between 1-11 points): This class includes simple features in the area. Psychophysical, cognitive and experiential paradigms defined by Zube et al. (1982) against expert paradigms are perception based paradigms. These paradigms are based on measuring the perceptional judgements of non-expert people (Bergen, 1993). 275 Psychophysical Paradigm In this paradigm, a correlation is sought for between the physical landscape features and the visual quality classes of the non-expert people. The best example of this paradigm is "Scenic Beauty Estimation - SBE" method by Daniel & Boster (1976). In this study, scenic beauty is determined based on people’s perceptions. Participants rate different landscapes from 1 - 10 based on their own choices (Table 2) (Bergen, 1993). Table 2: The rating scale of ‘Scenic Beauty Estimation - SBE’ method (Daniel & Boster, 1976). Low quality 1 2 Very low visual quality 1 3 4 Low visual quality 2 High quality 5 6 7 8 9 10 High visual Very high visual Neutral quality quality 3 4 5 Cognitive ve Experiential Paradigms In cognitive paradigm observer tries to give meaning to the landscape based on his/her feelings and perceptions such as mysterious, dangerous, well-defined etc. Experiential paradigm, on the other hand, is a lot more subjective compared to cognitive paradigm. Participants make a detailed definition of their interaction with the environment and try to explain the meaning and significance of different environmental factors (Bergen, 1993). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Recent years in landscape quality assessment studies have been a struggle between expert and perception based paradigms. Expert paradigm has been dominantly used in environment management practices while perception based paradigm has been used in research (Daniel, 2001). Expert paradigm is strongly inclined towards objective landscape quality assessment. Perception based paradigm is subjective based on how observers see and understand the landscape. Both objective approach, which pioneers "form" and subjective approach, which pioneers "meaning", should be taken into consideration in landscape quality analysis as a holistic research method (Makhzoumi & Pungetti, 1999). There are efforts to combine expert and perception based assessment methods in studies in recent years. An example of this case is the SMS - The Scenic Management System created by the development of VMS - Visual Management System by USDA Forest Service. This system is a study which involves a process covering the planning of aesthetic elements, researching for practice and assessment. Contrary to Visual Management System, in Scenic Management System participant surveys, which are among perception based assessment methods, are also administered to assess the landscape quality (Daniel, 2001). 276 Turkey is a rich country in terms of climate diversity, different topography, geographical compositions and species & habitat diversity. Different natural and cultural landscapes of the country brings along visual values with high potential. As in many countries, it is necessary to study and define landscapes which are important in terms of visual quality in Turkey. This will ensure determining the appropriate landscapes which will serve as a potential to tourism and recreational activities and realizing the protection and utilization of these landscapes with minimum damage and in a conscious manner. REFERENCES Arriaza, M.; Canas-Ortega, J.F.; Canas-Madueno, J.A. & Ruiz-Aviles, P. (2004). Assessing the Visual Quality of Rural Landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning. 69 (1), 115-125. Arthur, L.M., Daniel, T.C. & Boster, R.S. (1977). Scenic Assessment: An Overview. Landscape Planning, 4, 109-129. Bergen, S.D. (1993). Mitigating Potential Impact to Visual Quality during the Design of Forest Operational Plans. Master of Science. University of Washington. Cambridge Dictionary (1986). Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary & Thesaurus, Cambridge University Press, UK. British Columbia (1981). Forest Landscape Handbook. Province of British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Canada. Clay, R.G. (2001a). Landscape Analysis and Planning (Exercise Seven Visual Quality/Visual Assessment). Landscape Architecture Department California Polytechnic State University lecture notes. Clay, R.G. (2001b). Visual Resource Management Methods. LandscapeArchitecture Department California Polytechnic State University lecture notes. Daniel, T.C. & Boster, R.S. (1976). Measuring Landscape Aesthetics: The Scenic Beauty Estimation Method. USDA Forest Service Research Paper RM-167, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO. Daniel, T.C. & Vining, J. (1983). Methodological issues in the assessment of landscape quality. In: Altman, I., Wohlwill, J. (Eds.) Behavior and the Natural Landscape. Plenum Press, New York. Daniel, T.C. (2001). Whither Scenic Beauty? Visual Landscape Quality Assessment in the 21st Century. Landscape and Urban Planning. 54 (1-4), 267-281. Leopold, L.B. (1969). Landscape esthetics. Natural History 76, 36-45. Makhzoumi, J. & Pungetti, G. (1999). Ecological Landscape Design & PlanningThe Mediterranean Context. 330 pp., E & FN Spon, an imprint of Routledge, London. Palmer, J.F. (1998). Recreation Participation and Scenic Value Assessments of Clearcuts. Proceedings of the 1998 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium, Bolton Landing, 199-203, New York. Shafer, E.L., Hamilton, J.F. & Schmidt, E.A. (1969). Natural landscape preferences: a predictive model. Journal of Leisure Research 1, 1-19. 277 Taylor, J.G., Zube, E.H. & Sell, J.L. (1990). Landscape Assessment and Perception Research Methods. In: Bechtel, R.B., Marans, R.W. and Michelson, W., Robert E. Krieger In Methods in Environmental and Behavioral Research. 361-393. Publishing Company, Malaba, Florida. USDA Forest Service (1973). National Forest Landscape Management. Vol.1. Agriculture Handbook 434, 77 pp. Washington DC. USDA Forest Service (1974). National Forest Landscape Management. Vol.2. Handbook 462, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC. USDA Forest Service (1995). Landscape Aesthetic: A Handbook for Scenery Management. Agriculture Handbook 701. USDA, Washington DC. Vining, J. & Stevens, J.J. (1986). The Assessment of Landscape Quality: Major Methodological Considerations. In: Smardon, R.C., Palmer, J.E. & Felleman, J.P. (Ed.) In Foundatıons for visual project analysis. p.167-186., John Wıley&Sons, USDA. Zube, E.H., Sell, J.L. & Taylor, J.G. (1982). Landscape perception: research, application and theory. Landscape planning, 9, 1-33. 278 Chapter 23 The Contributions of Green Spaces to Urban Ecosystem Aybike Ayfer KARADAĞ1 Assoc. Prof. Dr.; Düzce University, Faculty of Foresty, Department of Landscape 1 Architecture, Düzce, Turkey. ayferkaradag@duzce.edu.tr 1.INTRODUCTION We live in an increasingly urbanized world. The world population has reached 7.1 billion today. Today, half of the world's population lives in urban area (Anonymous 2018a). Urbanization is an important influence that causes environmental change. The transformation of land to urban uses, causes the depletion and threat of natural resources. Every city affects the environment in the same way. While developed world cities have largely overcome their traditional environmental problems (waste water removal, sanitation, water supply, indoor air pollution, etc), attention has turned to their impacts on ecosystems further away as well as those larger in scale (Anonymous 2013). Environmental issues in cities are described above include three categories; "brown", "gray", and "green" environmental agenda issues for cities. The brown agenda involves primarily health, water and sanitation issues in the least developed cities and the poor neighborhoods of the developing world. The gray agenda contains issues related to industrialization and motorization effects (chemical pollutants, etc). The gray agenda can be considered as the next stage of brown agenda, parallel to the development of cities. As cities became highly developed, activities within their borders prompted the emergence of “green agenda” issues, which followed increases in consumption and waste generation that disrupted ecosystems and has lead to resource depletion and global climate change (Anonymous 2013). According to the social scientist Wirth (1938), in terms of sociology, the city is a relatively large, densely populated settlement formed by individuals who do not resemble social characteristics in terms of their social characteristics. Cities are not only able to meet people's need for housing, but also economic; social, cultural, religious, political, educational, recreational, etc. with possibilities of actions. They are also multi-dimensional. From a physical point of view, the city is a place where the functional elements are numerous and varied within themselves. At the same time, density and quality variations in functions such as housing, production, shopping, management, health, education, transportation, defense, entertainment, accommoda-tion are also urban specific qualities (Tarakçı Eren and Özbilen, 2017).According to ecology, cities are techno-ecosystems. Even in terms of resources that support life, they are some kind of parasites on the biosphere. This 279 study is about green field systems that are part of the urban ecosystem and that significantly affect this ecosystem (Odum and Barrett, 2008). In the study, urban ecosystem and the effects of green areas on this ecosystem will be explained. 2.URBAN ECOCYSTEM An ecosystem Moll and Petit (1994) defined as "a set of interacting species and their local, non-biological environment functioning together to sustain life". Ecosystem services are defined as "the benefits human populations derive, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions" by Costanza et al. (1997) (Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999). Ecosystems and their services are critical to human health and well-being and provide society with products that support biodiversity and economic development (e.g., food, clean water, flood mitigation and disease control). These products and services are often referred to as ecosystem goods and services. A diverse array of urban ecosystems and habitats can provide ecosystem goods and services, including: green spaces (such as parks urban forests), cemeteries, vacant lots, gardens and yards, and campus areas; and blue spaces, including streams, lakes, ponds, artificial swales and stormwater retention ponds (Demiroğlu and Karadağ, 2015; Terton, 2017). Cities are human creations, and they have always been centers of hope and inspiration: they are where the products of nature are used to create better qualities of life, and to facilitate cultural and intellectual achievements. Their cultural diversity is part of their vitality and dynamism. It stems from many sources and is reflected in many ways in urban areas, particularly determining people’s priorities and values for the environment and ecological resources. This cultural diversity must always be taken into account when analysing urban ecosystems. The great cities of the world have a balance of fine architecture and open space that in ecological terms offer not only a good human habitat, but also opportunities for biodiversity. This pro–active role of people in the urban environment continues to produce habitat improvements and to beneficially manage ecosystems, as the best urban wildlife reserves indicate. Nevertheless, huge challenges are posed by many cities, with high concentrations of poverty found juxtaposed to wealth in many urban areas (Anonymous 2013). Urban ecosystems are examined with three approaches. These are explained below. 1.Ecosystems within Cities: Service and property for the urban ecosystem are considered important for natural ecosystems and the health of the population. The health of the city and people requires looking at ecology-based approaches. In this approach, ecosystems and services within the city are evaluated. This is one case where the scale of ecosystems lies within the cities (Anonymous 2013). 2.City as an Ecosystem: The city is an organism with its own metabolic processes. This approach is about examine the complex interactions that take place within cities. Studies along these approach include those that explore the energy, water, and nutrient balances of cities, along with the flows of waste materials, among others (Anonymous 2013).In addition, there is also a similar approach to assessing the urban ecosystem on the basis of landscape ecology, or in a different 280 way, with the "patch-corridor-matrix" approach (Forman and Godron, 1986; Odum and Barrett, 2008; Eşbah Tunçay et al., 2009; Karadağ and Cengiz, 2018). 3.Cities within Regional and Global Ecosystems: The "global" city literature that emerged in the mid–1980s. In global cities, goods, services, investment, finance, people and information are increasingly linked to each other. At the same time, global cities are also linked with and are increasingly impacting ecosystems elsewhere and at a larger scale. As Folke et al. (1997) stated, the web of connections linking one ecosystem and one country is affecting across all scales in both space and time. Everyone is now in everyone else’s backyard. In this context cities are key to the promotion of global sustainability. For this reason, it should be known how their activities affect local, regional and global ecosystems (Anonymous 2013). Urban ecosystems may be viewed in three ways. These; 1.The built–up areas: The built-up areas are the habitat of urban people, their pets, their garden plants, the adapted animals and organisms (birds, moulds, etc) and pests (rats, weeds, parasites. etc). The survival of these areas depends on outside (external) support in the form of energy, water, and materials inputs (Anonymous 2013). 2.The Peri–urban area: These areas, support system of the urban area and its surroundings. Also they are providing such ecological services as water supplies, sources of aggregates, areas for landfill, recreation zones, watershed protection, greenhouse gas uptake, and biodiversity (Anonymous 2013). 3.The areas affected by urban activities: These are areas of life support services that provide food, energy, water and supplies to the city. Also those areas affected by the emissions and waste flow from urban areas. As the urban population and purchasing power grow, the effects on these ecosystems are also increasing (Anonymous 2013). Views of Urban Ecosystem Characteristics. These features are described below. 1.Built–Up Areas and their Peri–Urban Zones: These area share a similar mosaic of land use and land cover. While buildings tend to dominate the built–up area, open spaces are more prominent in the peri–urban zone. There may be patches of land used for food production, remnant woodlands, river valleys or hill–top ridges with semi–natural vegetation, and rivers, lakes, ponds, or floodplain wetlands in built–up area. Biodiversity may be high in urban and peri–urban areas because of the variety of land cover. Urban agricultural areas are under pressure. There are environmental problems (air, water, soil, etc.) and they affect the food negatively. Human activities negatively affect ecological cycles. Built–up areas form urban heat islands, with which is associated an urban dust–dome in which, fine particles and gases are trapped. This affects urban microclimate. Urban areas noise levels are high. This situation negatively affects people and other organisms. There is intense light pollution in urban areas. This can affects the periodicity and diurnal rhythms of plants and animals (Anonymous 2013). 281 2.Built–Up Areas Human Shelter: Housing wealth varies according to the richness of the city. The distribution and the quality of the housing vary according to the usage of the area within the city. Inadequate housing (lacking water supplies, sanitation and safe access) is often located in hazardous areas. Production, release and migration of contaminants within urban areas creates spatial and temporal risks. There is green area in built-up area. The green areas offer opportunities for biodiversity. Urban agriculture is also important for biodiversity. As well as significant buildings and urban landscapes, the built heritage includes socially important gardens and parklands. In addition the structures themselves provide the opportunity for organism in built-up area (Anonymous 2013). 3.Peri–Urban Areas: The peri–urban areas are the transition zone (such as agriculture and forestry). There are primary production activities in this area. Sometimes protected biosphere reserves or national parks containing forests may dominate the peri– urban area. Peri–urban transition zones often lie outside urban administrations, or straddle the boundaries of two administrations. For this reason they can often be ignored. Growth of peri–urban residential zones often places stresses on soils and groundwater. Peri–urban changes and activities alter the pattern of wildfire in many situations. Also the peri–urban areas are being surrounded by the expanding city. Many peri–urban areas contain surface water reservoirs, flowing rivers from which water supplies are abstracted. Also intensification of land use and release of agricultural and industrial chemicals to peri– urban zones are major threats to the quality of such freshwater resources. Potentially polluting industries usually are located to peri–urban zones. This increases the pressure on natural resources. There are also water bodies and related wetlands in peri-urban area. They contribute biodiversity, microclimate, etc. in urban ecosystem (Anonymous 2013). 3. GREEN AREA IN URBAN The city is formed by the combination of different land uses. Every area (industry, agriculture, forest, solid waste storage, cemetery, settlement, etc.) serves different purposes. It is also interacting with each other. The open and green areas are one of the uses of this land. As Keles (1998) points out, urban open and green spaces are common areas of use for urban administrations, left out in the natural state or separated for agriculture and non-residential rest purposes, outside the built-up areas in the cities (Şengün and Üstündağ, 2009). Also urban open and green spaces are places where people find themselves in a position to get close to nature. With this aspect, open and green spaces are a part of nature in urban environment (Eroğlu et al., 2016).The open and green areas are generally defined separately This work is focused on the green area. For this reason, especially the concept of green space will be focused on. Green spaces offer more comfortable environmental conditions to people with the contributions and opportunities they urban ecosystem, the physical development of cities and daily urban activities provides (Emin ağaoğlu and Yavuz, 2010). Also, when used correctly, it is an important urban fragment that affects the character and 282 livability of the city (Atabeyoğlu and Bulut, 2012). In modern society, the first definition of planned urban green spaces was made by the American landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted in the 19th century, with the creation of the Boston Park System. Olmsted defined the green space on the basis of the park word. According to Olmsted's definition, a city park should look wider, simpler and more natural than residential gardens, but should not have a dense green texture like a woodland and forest. According to this definition, urban parks should contain natural elements and compositions that take away and take away the artificiality that occurs in the minds of the city's people (Özdemir, 2009). On this basis many definitions were made later. Green areas are defined as surface areas covered or combined with vegetal elements of woody and grassy plants of existing open areas. The concept of green space is defined as "playground, children's gardens, recreation, picnic, entertainment, and coastal areas. Interpol fair, botanical and zoo gardens and regional parks are also in the green area". The concept of active green space is urban and Neighborhood Park, children's horticulture and playgrounds describes (Gül and Küçük, 2010). Alkay (1997) divides green areas into "open areas" and "green areas". In this classification, open spaces are unstructured areas that form physical boundaries around urban and urban areas. Green areas are areas where plant species are found (Gökalp, 2006). Lendhold and Richter are the ones who define green areas, perhaps the most obvious. According to Lendhold (1970), green areas are arranged by various plants in the settlement areas fields. According to Richter (1982), they are areas in the settlement area that are formed by more plants. Also, in these definitions, transportation and other necessary structures related to green areas are regarded as green areas and accepted as green areas (Gökalp, 2006). Urban space is open and green spaces are generally integrated and complement each other. For this reason, open-green spaces are one of the basic uses of the city that reveals and shapes the physical structure of the city, balance factor (Gül and Küçük, 2010). Green areas in cities are seen and used in many different ways. These include "urban parks, neighborhood parks, children parks, refuges and traffic green areas, home and private gardens, sports fields, institutional gardens, etc.” (Atabeyoğlu and Bulut, 2012).Türel (1988) divided urban and regional green areas into nine categories. These; residential surroundings, mobile parks, mini parks, children's gardens; neighbors unit parks; urban metropolitan parks; special activity areas; roadside parks; green tapes; visual green spaces; botanical gardens; urban roads, refuges, pedestrian zones (Gökalp, 2006). Green areas are assessed under various classifications. One of them is classified according to the city unit they serve. This classification has four headings. These are explained below. 1. Green Areas at Housing Level: It forms the smallest unit of green areas. The gardens of single or multi-storey houses, terraces and roof gardens, balcony arrangements are considered within this unit. At this level the building and garden are integral. It is generally defined as front, side and back garden. The physical and social characteristics of the city play an important role as well as their size, functions and aesthetic activities are proportional to the cultural and economic 283 situation of the residents (Gül and Küçük, 2010). 2. Neighborhood Unit Green Areas: Approximately 6 to 400 housing units with a population of 30 to 5,000. It can cover a maximum area of 15 ha. This level of green areas consists of children's gardens, sports and playgrounds and public housing gardens (Gül and Küçük, 2010). 3. Neighborhood-Neighborhood Green Areas: The population of three neighborhood units is at least 15,000 and covers 15 ha. It consists of neighborhood parks, sports fields, children's gardens, playgrounds and school gardens (Gül and Küçük, 2010). 4. Green Areas at the City Level: The impact of the green areas at the city level has the size and function to serve an entire city population. As the density of population and structure increases, the need for green space also grows. Urban green spaces, urban parks, sports complexes, recreational areas, zoo gardens, botanical gardens, exhibition and exhibition spaces, urban roads and boulevards and refuges, pedestrian paths, urban forests, woodlands, green belt and cemeteries are examples (Gül and Küçük, 2010). Proper planning of green areas is very important in terms of urban ecosystem. In this context, in the planning process, the distribution of the green areas in the city as a whole, the adequacy of the functional features and functions they contain, the relationship between the functions, the mass they serve, the population and the service area they serve, it needs to be considered (Atabeyoğlu and Bulut, 2012).Green spaces, which have an important place in terms of protection of ecosystem and environmental health, fulfill many functions in terms of human life and needs in cities (Açmaz and Cengiz, 2015; Ortaçeşme, et al., 2005).In recent years, the necessity of establishing green infrastructure plans, which are all planned for all components of urban green saces, and the economic, social and environmental contributions of these plans to urban life have been emphasized in many studies (Benedic and McMahon, 2002; Kambites and Owen, 2002; Benedic and McMahon, 2006 Tzoulas et al., 2007; Demiroğlu et al., 2014; Demiroğlu and Karadağ 2015; Karadağ and Demiroğlu, 2016; Demiroğlu et al., 2018). Green spaces in cities modify the urban heat island, absorb some of the emitted greenhouse gases, provide recreation, add diversity to human life, may be of cultural value (Demiroğlu et.al, 2017)and they can contribute to wildlife corridors. These areas have many contributions, particularly at the point of improving water quality and quantity (Karadağ and Demiroğlu, 2016; Demiroğlu et al., 2016a; Demiroğlu et al., 2016b; Demiroğlu et al. 2016c; Karadağ et al., 2016; Demiroğlu et al., 2018), and they are used for food production (Cengiz et al., 2016).In addition the diversity of biogeochemical situations within urban green spaces creates a series of opportunities for biodiversity (Anonim 2013). In the next section, the urban effects of green areas are explained in detail. 4. THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF GREEN SPACES TO URBAN ECOSYSTEM Green area such as urban parks, green walls, green roofs and street trees provide a number environmental benefits: they offset the urban heat island effect, 284 improve air quality, and reduce air temperatures etc. These benefits to the urban ecosystem are described below under the main headings. Air filtering: Air pollution caused by transportation and heating of buildings, among other things, is a major environmental and public health problem in cities. Vegetation reduces air pollution. Nowak (1994a) and Escobedo et al. (2008) have stated vegetation in urban areas improves air quality by removing pollutants from the atmosphere, including ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter less than 10 μm (PM10). Nowak (1996).said that removal of pollutants operates through filtration of particulates through the leaves of trees and shrubs (Gómez-Baggethun and Barton, 2013). Givoni (1991) said that filtering capacity increases with more leaf area, and is thus higher for trees than bushes or grassland. Stolt (1982) has stated due to the larger total surface area of needles, coniferous trees have a larger filtering capacity than trees with deciduous leaves. Also, as Stolt (1982) points out, coniferous trees are sensitive to air pollution, and deciduous trees are better at absorbing gasses. For this reason, the mixture of species seems to be the best alternative in preventing air pollution (Bolund and Hunhammar 1999; Gül and Küçük, 2010; Aksoy and Akpınar, 2011; Terton, 2017). In general, vegetation reduces wind speed, causing inhibition of ventilation and, consequently, an increase in particle concentrations (Wania et al., 2012). Selmi et al. (2016) accepted that urban trees are a significant element to reduce air pollution. Micro-climate regulation: Local climate and even weather are affected by the city. Urban heat island effect, is caused by the large area of heat absorbing surfaces, in combination with high amounts of energy use in cities. All natural ecosystems in urban areas will help to reduce these differences. Water areas in the city will help even out temperature deviations both during summer and winter. Vegetation is also important. Hough (1989) stated a single large tree can transpire 450 l of water per day. This consumes 1000 MJ of heat energy to drive the evaporation process. In this way city trees can lower summer temperatures of the city markedly. Vegetation can also decrease energy use for heating and air conditioning substantially in urban areas by shading houses in summer and reducing wind speed in winter (Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999; Gökalp, 2006; Gül and Küçük, 2010; Aksoy and Akpınar, 2011; Demiroğlu et al., 2017b ; Terton, 2017). Noise reduction: Noise is an activity that can create problems in the life of all organisms. The green areas contribute to the prevention of noisy with the details they have (Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999; Cohen et al., 2014; Terton, 2017). In this regard the distance to the source of the noise is one key factor, and a doubling of the distance decreases the equivalent level by 3 dB(A). Another key factor is the character of the ground. A soft lawn, rather than a concrete pavement, decreases the level by another 3 dB(A). Vegetation also contributes to the decrease, but at what level is uncertain (Bolund and Hunhammar 1999. It should also be indicated the attenuation depends on the noise level at source, distances from source and on vegetation features (Aksoy and Akpınar, 2011; Cohen et al., 2014). Rainwater drainage: Vegetation cover in the city catchment influences the quantity of available water (Gómez-Baggethun and Barton, 2013). The impervious 285 surfaces and high extraction of water cause the groundwater level of many cities to decrease. Vegetated areas contribute to solving this problem in several ways. The soft ground of vegetated areas allows water to seep through and the vegetation takes up water and releases it into the air through evapotranspiration. In vegetated areas only 5–15% of the rainwater runs off the ground, with the rest evaporating or infiltrating the ground. In other words, benefiting from ecosystem services can provide significant contributions in this regard (Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999; Demiroğlu et.al., 2016c; Demiroğlu et al., 2017b; Terton, 2017) Sewage/Waste treatment: Today, wetlands have being used to treat sewage water. The wetland plants can assimilate large amounts of the nutrients and slow down the flow of the sewage water, allowing particles to settle out on the bottom. Ewel (1997) have said that up to 96% of the nitrogen and 97% of the phosphorous can be retained in wetlands, and so far wetland restorations have largely been successful, increasing biodiversity and substantially lowering costs of sewage treatment. Gren (1995) stated that the cost of nitrogen reduction through wetland restoration is lower than that at a sewage treatment plant (Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). Vauramo and Setälä 2013) said that plant communities in urban soils can play an important role in the decomposition of many labile and recalcitrant litter types (Gómez-Baggethun and Barton, 2013). Carbon storage: Vegetated areas (Terton, 2017) and forest ecosystems (Dixon et al., 1994; Wang, 2001) have an important place in carbon storage. Because trees and other vegetation are the planet’s carbon storage closet – absorbing and releasing carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in an ongoing cycle (Anonymous 2018b). The results of Ren et al. (2011) work have showed that urban vegetation carbon storage has increased by 865,589.71 t during the period from 1972 to 2006 (34 years) in Xiamen, with a rapid increase between 1972 and 1996, then relatively little change between 1996 and 2006. In the study it was revealed that this situation was caused by increasing suburbs and afforestation. Anonymous (2018b) is stated that a study from December (2018) has calculated that the world’s vegetation, from Amazonian rainforests to Eurasian grasslands, may hold about 450 billion tonnes of carbon today. It’s a colossal capacity, roughly equal to the amount of carbon that humans would pump into the atmosphere over 50 years at current rates of emission. Erosion prevention: Natural spaces and green infrastructure can reduce soil erosion and protect river banks as well as help manage water quality and quantity by reducing total runoff, including untreated runoff, before it enters water bodies (Demiroğlu, 2016; Karadağ et al., 2016; Terton, 2017). In addition, soil and water protection by covering the top of the soil provide soil fertility (Gül and Küçük, 2010). Urban Biodiversity: Biodiversity is defined as the presence of genes, species, ecosystems and ecological events. Urban biodiversity expresses diversity in the urban ecosystem (Selim et al., 2015). Urban ecosystems cover constructed, industrial and other artificial habitats, including commercial and transport areas, urban green areas, mines and dump and construction sites. As created ecosystems, they have their own wildlife of particular urban species; species that occur also in 286 the wider countryside, but in different numbers and composition than in urban areas, and with differing genetic diversity (Anonymous 2018c). Nevertheless, urban green areas can be considered as the most important areas of urban biodiversity (Tratalos, 2007; Karuppannan, 2013; Norton et al., 2016). There is strong relationship between green open space, peoples’ mental and physical wellbeing and presence of biodiversity and wildlife habitats within established built environments. Biodiversity refer to all living things, from the largest species down to the smallest micro-organisms (Karuppannan, 2013,). Green area or each ecosystem has been generating a number of different services simultaneously. This is shown in a matrix (Table 1) (Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). Table 1. Urban ecosystems generating local and direct services (Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). Air filtering Micro climate regulation Noise reduction Rainwater drainage Sewage treatment Street Lawns/ Urban Cultivated Wetland Stream Lake/sea tree parks forest land X X X X X X X X X X X X X - X X - X X - X X - X X X - - X: produce service - does not produce service CONCLUSION The urban green and space areas are important for sustainable urban development with ecological, economic and social aspects (Jannson, 2014). In this study, information about the contribution of urban open and green areas to urban ecosystem was given. These contributions, summarized in the study, constitute the basic requirements of urban ecological balance and sustainable cities. These requirements should be considered “a key ingredient" for urban planning, design, management, etc. work. Thus, an ecology-based perspective will be provided for all kinds of decisions concerning cities (planning, design, use of space, etc.). 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Manage. 94, 91–101. 290 Chapter 24 The Effects of Integrated Urban Water Management on the Quality of Urban Life Demet DEMİROĞLU Assoc. Prof. Dr.; Kilis 7 Aralık University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Kilis, Turkey. 1. INTRODUCTION The planet has seen a rapid urbanization process over the last six decades. In 1950, significant proportion (70 percent) of people worldwide lived in rural settlements and less than one-third of the human population lived (30 percent) in urban settlements. In the year 2014, urban settlements were hosting 54 percent of human population. The growth in urban population is expected to continue, so that by 2050, the one third of world population will be living in rural (34 percent) and two thirds in urban areas (66 percent); which is roughly the reverse of the global rural-urban population distribution of the mid-twentieth century (UN, 2014). Water is an essential natural resource for world’s continuously growing urban population. Importance of water resources has been increasing continuously growing urban population (Barış and Karadağ, 2017).Water plays an important role in socio-economic development and necessary for food and energy production, healthy ecosystems and for human survival itself. Water plays an important role in socio-economic development. Also it is necessary for food and energy production, healthy ecosystems and for human survival itself (URL-1). Water is required to create and maintain jobs across all sectors of the economy. Eight industry depends on water and natural resources; agriculture, forestry, fisheries, energy, resourceintensive manufacturing, recycling, building and transport employ half of the global workforce (URL 2). In many countries, water demand have increased due to population and economic growth as well as urbanization, however supply has remained unchanged or even decreased because of climate change. 2.6 billion people have gained access to an improved water source since 1990, but dwindling of safe drinking water supplies is still a global problem. Every year, inadequate water supply and sanitation services cause more than $250 billion loss in “Gross Domestic Produce (GDP)” in low-and middle-income countries. Only 68 percent of the world’s population has access to improved sanitation facilities. Today’s water-related challenges are (URL-1); 2.1 billion people lack access to safely managed drinking water services 4.5 billion people lack safely managed sanitation services. 340,000 children under five die every year from diarrheal diseases. Water scarcity already affects four out of every 10 people. 90% of all natural disasters are water-related. 80% of wastewater flows back into the ecosystem without being treated or reused. Around two-thirds of the world’s transboundary rivers do not have a cooperative management framework. Agriculture accounts for 70% of global water withdrawal. Roughly 75% of all industrial water withdrawals are used for energy production. With industrial and domestic water demand expected to double by 2050 (UNDP, 2006), competition among urban, peri-urban, and rural areas will likely worsen. At the same time, the quality, quantity, and seasonality of water available to urban centres and their surroundings are expected to be affected by more frequent and extreme weather events because of climate change. Cities close to water resources may be threatened by disasters related to climate change. In response to such threats, city dwellers in many areas of the World fall ill due to waterborne illnesses because they don’t have access to good-quality water due to disrupted hydrologic cycle and aquatic systems, including vital ecosystem services (Bahri, 2012). As cities seek new sources of water from upstream and discharge their effluent downstream, surrounding residents suffer the effects and this affects the quality of urban life negatively This situation is expected to get worse because of climate change that causes raised water stress in arid regions and increased frequency and magnitude of extreme weather events. Half of the world’s population is projected to live in high water-stress regions in 2030 (URL-3). Integrated urban water management (IUWM) promises a better approach than the current system, in which water supply, sanitation, storm water and wastewater are managed by isolated entities, and all four are separated from land-use planning and economic development. IUWM calls for the alignment of urban development and basin management to achieve sustainable economic, social, and environmental goals. It offers a significant contribution to the quality of urban life (Bahri, 2012, Furlong, 2016; Karadağ and Demiroğlu 2016; Fu et al., 2017a, Furlong et al., 2017b; Guthrie et al., 2017). In this chapter, general information about IUWM and components of urban living quality will be given; the contribution of this administration to the urban quality of life will be revealed. 2. EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION ON WATER RESOURCES The global population has increased dramatically over the past century in many areas of the World. Roughly, 70 percent of the global population is expected to live in urban areas by 2050 (UN-2014). Megacities, which hold populations in excess of 10 million, are becoming widespread around the World and getting larger (Cohen, 2004). By 2025, there will be 27 megacities, where 21 of them will be in the Global South (PRB, 2012). With that kind of increasing urbanization rate, environmental sustainability limits have already been exceeded (Gleick, 1998). Water quality and 292 water quantity are affected by these sustainable environmental limits affect issues (Biswas, 2004). Water quantity and quality issues caused by urbanisation contribute to the disruption of the earth's natural environment, and its ability to sustain fauna and flora (Vitousek et al., 1997). Urbanization Effects on Water Quantity Available freshwater shortage has caught the global attention (Gain and Giupponi, 2015). Meanwhile, various factors such as population growth, economic developments, changes in land use, and environmental degradation affect the changes on water resources (Vörösmarty et al., 2002; Sophocleous, 2004). Under these circumstances some big and megacities are facing acute water problems already; by 2030, 47 percent of the world population will be living in areas with high water stress (OECD, 2008). One-third of the world’s total megacity inhabitants that live in megacities in arid and semi-arid areas, increasingly rely on water of marginal quality, which is considered unusable without treatment first (Abderrahman, 2000). Irrigation may be responsible for 70–80 percent of water withdrawals worldwide. Industrial use (including energy) of water is estimated to hold 20 percent of total water usage, although it has an increasing share in urbanising economies. The domestic water usage is approximately 10 percent of the total water use. Competition over water sources will escalate in the future, because industrial and domestic water demand is expected to double by 2050 (UNDP, 2006). The rate of increase in water consumption quickly outpaces population growth as cities grow larger; the global water consumption grew sixfold between the years 1900 and 1995 – more than two times the rate of population growth (WMO, 1997). A comparative study about cities indicates that urban water requirement invariably gets the priority over water demands in outlying settlements (Molle and Berkoff, 2006). Given the emergency on the water resource situation, use of existing supplies must be utilized more efficiently. Urbanization Effects on Water Quality The world may be on the verge of a water quality crisis (Corcoran et al., 2010). Water quality issues are generally related to various forms of manmade pollution from inadequate sewage systems, point source pollution from industry, and diffuse pollution from agriculture. These quality issues often cause water quantity problems to get worse by making existing water resources unsuitable for human consumption through contamination of ground and surface water resources (Carpenter et al., 1998). Degradation of water resources often originates from human activities like intensive agriculture, resource-heavy industries, and rapid urbanisation – that disrupts natural water cycles and processes across the rural-urban spectrum. For example, the concentration of built-up impermeable areas in cities means that less water infiltration to groundwater. The stream base flows are affected and the surface run off volume increases. Therefore, resulting stormwater flows reduce water quality by possibly conveying greater amounts of pollutants (Palaniappan et al., 2010). In this context, urban agriculture can also be a threat to water resources and contributes to existing pollution (Karadağ, 2014). 293 The microorganisms, nutrients, heavy metals, and organic chemicals are the most common water pollutants (Bahri, 2012). These emerging pollutants are the next challenge in urban water systems. Scientific and technological developments have revealed new contaminants and their impact on human health and the environment. This warming also affects water resources. Urban areas will face both immediate and slow-on set threats such as disruptions of water supply. Urbanisation Effects on Climate Change and Water Resources Urban centres affect the carbon cycle and climate by releasing greenhouse gases and generating solid waste as well as through their land-use patterns. Waste water treatment is a source of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions (WHO and DFID, 2009). Methane emissions from waste water are predicted to rise by nearly 50 percent between the years 1990 and 2020 (although, at present, it is relatively minor) and25 percent increase is estimated in nitrous oxide emission (IPCC, 2007). Informal settlements and slums, which tend to emerge near rivers, streams, and coastlines that offer informal access to water, can disrupt aquatic systems and deprive the city of critical ecosystem services, including flood control. Natural infiltration and stormwater flows are disrupted by the parallel increase in built-up areas and consequent imperviousness of urban land surfaces (Tucci, 2009). The latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Assessment Report (2007) called the evidence for global warming ‘unequivocal’ and forecast warming of 1.8°C to 4.0˚C by 2100. Urban areas will face both immediate and slow-onset threats such as disruptions of water supply (UN-Habitat, 2011). Sudden natural disasters caused the displacement of an approximately 20 million people in 2008. By 2050, the number of people displaced is expected to rise to around 200 million due to climate change-related events. The number of drought affected areas is expected to expand. Intense tropical cyclones will be seen in some regions, and coastal areas will face rising sea levels. Although low elevation coastal zones account for 2 percent of the world’s total land area only, they host approximately13 percent of its urban population (UN-Habitat, 2011). Water is the main conveyor for climate change effects in urban areas (UNWater, 2010), and fresh water hydrology will be among the most affected systems by climate change (IPCC, 2007). Climate change will mean hotter temperatures, more frequent heat waves, and more areas affected by droughts and floods. Climate change is as one of the main actors that already affecting the temporal and spatial variability of water availability and sanitation (Werritty, 2002; Bates et al., 2008; Bahri, 2012; Stocker et al., 2013; IPCC, 2014; Jeunesse et al., 2015; Chiarelli et al., 2016). It will aggravate the flood damage and increase the water treatment requirements, and it will damage water availability and operational capacity. Climate change and water supply: Some water sources may become unusable for certain uses (e.g., salinity may limit water usage for irrigation), and the water treatment costs may go higher (e.g., additional treatment of domestic water may be required due to eutrophication) (Sadoff and Muller, 2009). For some fast-growing megacities located in desert and semi-desert areas, water scarcity may become a severe problem (Biswas et al., 2004). 294 Climate change is probably affect the water supply systems, mostly through flood damage, increasing treatment requirements and reducing availability and operational capacity. Extended dry periods will increase the vulnerability of shallow groundwater systems, roof rainwater harvesting, and surface waters (Bahri, 2012). Climate change and water sanitation: Climate change can affect sanitation directly when water is the main component of the process (such as sewerage) or indirectly if ecosystems are less able to absorb or reduce the amount of waste. In arid areas, water-dependent sewer systems will become more difficult to operate and maintain (Bahri, 2012). Where rainfall intensity and flooding increase, climate change will create additional costs on stormwater drainage, dams, and levees, and may render certain areas uninhabitable. Sewers may be damaged by flooding. In cities which have combined stormwater and sewage systems, flooding may disrupt the operation of treatment facilities, creating public health risks (Tucci, 2009). Rising ground water levels may make pollution from pit latrines difficult to manage (WHO and DFID, 2009). Water supplies may also be contaminated by flooding, leading to increased number of diarrhoeal and respiratory illness cases (UN-Habitat, 2011). Table 1 shows the range of climate hazards that cities are likely to face, along with their effects on urban systems. Table 1. Effects of climate hazard on urban water systems (Bahri, 2012) Climate hazard Effect Increasedprecipitation Decreased precipitation Water scarcity Vulnerable system Water supply Possible consequences Human health Food production Reduced streamflow Urban green space Energy supply Food production Flooding Water supply Wastewater Transportation Increased erosion and sediment transport Water supply (reservoirs) Water shortages for households, industries, and services Malnutrition and increase in waterborne diseases Reduced availability of irrigation water and yield decreases: food import Reduced biodiversity and ecosystem services Reduced hydropower generation potential: disruption of thermal power plants cooling systemes Negative impact on coastal fisheries due to decreases in the outflow of sediments and nutrients Disruption of public water supply Flooding of facilities damage and contaminate water bodies Damage to transport infrastructure Disruption of settlements, commerce, transport, and societies:loss of property Sedimentation and decrease in water storage capacity andturbidity increase 295 Higheremperatures Sea level rise Reduced water oxygen concentrations and altered mixing Changes in snow and ice cover Increase in bacterial and fungal content of water Saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers Storm surges, flooding Water supply (lakes, reservoirs) Reduced water quality (e.g., algal blooms): increase in treatment requirements Water supply (rivers) Change in peak-flow timing and magnitude Water supply infrastructure Increase in treatment requirements to remove odour and taste Water supply (groundwater) Decreased freshwater availability due to saltwater intrusion: abandonment of water source Damage to all coastal infrastructure: costs of coastal protection versus costs of land-use relocation: potential for movement of population and infrastructure All It has become very well known that conventional water management approaches are not sufficient in dealing with these emerging water challenges (Bell, 2012). Nowadays, Integrated management of urban water catches more interest (Mitchell, 2006; Makropoulos, et al., 2008; Sharma, et al., 2010 ; Dobbie & Brown, 2013; Ferguson, et al., 2013; Mukheibir, et al., 2014; Furlong, 2016; Fu et al., 2017a, Furlong et al., 2017b; Guthrie et al., 2017). 3. URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT The urban water system (UWS) can be described as the total sum of the natural and human-engineered parts of the water cycle in urban areas. It includes both the existing natural, freshwater ecosystems, and the water infrastructure that were built to supply human population with drinking water and to collect, transport and treat the wastewater. Basically, this constructed infrastructure includes drinking water and wastewater treatment plants, water distribution and sewer networks. All of these UWS elements are intrinsically linked by the water movement, as well as any associated matter and energy fluxes, leading to a unique and vital socioenvironmental system. Management actions on any component of this system will possibly influence the others negatively or lead to unpredictable outcomes in a cascading effect due to this obvious connected structure of different parts (Everard, 2014; Olander et al., 2015; Xue et al., 2015, Karadağ and Demiroğlu, 2016). The management of urban water system which predominantly consists the provision of three services; water supply, sewerage, and drainage are of crucial importance to both humanity and the natural ecosystem (Marlow et al., 2013). Each of these three services is separately managed with different infrastructure, managers, processes, and plan within the conventional water management paradigm (Anderson and Iyaduri, 2003; Makropoulos et al., 2008; Mukheibir et al., 2014). Given the challenges posed by urban growth and climate change, conventional 296 urban water-management practice appears in sufficient to meet these challenges. Its tradition of managing the urban water system elements related services has led to an unstableurban ‘metabolism’ (Novotny, 2010) and separated urban water issues from broader urban planning processes. CUWM has failed to distinguish between different water qualities and identify their uses. As a result, high-quality water has been diverted to urban water needs indiscriminately (Van der Steen, 2006). This issue is not only within city boundaries: basin-level management often fails to understand the cross-scale fresh water, waste water, flood control, and storm water inter dependencies (Tucci et al., 2010). Water is drawn from upstream sources and delivered to urban areas, where it is used and polluted, then rerouted – often untreated – to downstream. There is an associated increase in planning complexity, as urban water management practices evolve away from purely water supply, sewerage and drainage functions towards a wider set of environmental considerations, such as river and ocean ecology, and social considerations, such as liveability and recreation (Bell, 2012). Therefore, it of crucial importance to push forward the integrated management of the whole system in order to make more effective and beneficial decisions related to economy and environment both (Everard, 2014; Karadağ, 2014; Olander et al., 2015; Xue et al., 2015).Using the rhetoric of a transition from conventional water management towards Integrated Water management, the progress in urban water management principles and practices towards the mastery of this complexity is typically described (Furlong, 2016). 4. INTEGRATED URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT The idea of the necessity to change the conventional water management and planning practices began widely discussed after a series of global conferences in 1977, 1992 and 2002. In modern history, the first records of the use of integrated approaches in water management occurred in the United States in the early 1900s. ‘Rational comprehensive planning’ and ‘multiple-purpose water construction’ were some of the first terms that were used to describe these concepts (Mukhtarov, 2008). The basic principles of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) emerged out of these conferences and records.These principles are to look at the economic, social and environmental perspectives and participate in the management of women and communities (Bahri, 2012). IWRM has been considered on either regional or river-basin scales (Warner et al., 2008). In parallel to the IWRM evolution, challenges about water have also been specifically considered from an urban perspective and related system ideas have emerged such as Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM), Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD, Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) and Green Infrastructure System (GIS) (Fryd, et al., 2012; Furlong, 2016). The adoption of urban stormwater treatment technologies into cities is referred as Water Sensitive Urban Designin Australia and as Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems and Green Infrastructure System in the United States (Potter & RossRakesh, 2007; Fryd, et al., 2012; Sharma, et al., 2012). WSUD and IUWM share similarities in terms of its original definitions, when it comes to the terms of its practices and messages, WSUD can be considered as a 297 subset of IUWM (Furlong et al., 2015). WSUD is a term widely used to describe an approach of incorporating Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) in Australia, also known as green infrastructure, and reuse schemes into urban planning (Brown et al., 2009). This system is mainly used to controlling urban stormwater runoff and protecting urban waterways (Karadağ and Demiroğlu, 2016; Demiroğlu et al., 2016a; Demiroğlu et al., 2016a; Demiroğlu et al. 2017). The main Technologies at WSUD, SUDS and GIS which are considered to mitigate the environmental damage of urban stormwater consist harvesting and reuse of wetlands, rain gardens and swales (bio-filtration devices), and also rainwater (rain before it touches the ground) and stormwater (rain after it touches the ground) (Wong, 2006). Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM)-different from the other tecnologies (WSUD, SUDS, GIS)-calls for the alignment of urban development and watershed management *in order to achieve sustainable economic, social, and environmental goals. In this system, water supply, sanitation, storm- and wastewater management are combined and integrated with land use planning and economic development. An IUWM approach integrates planning for the water sector with other urban sectors, such as land, housing, energy, and transport to avoid fragmentation and duplication in policy- and decision-making. Cross-sector relationships are strengthened through a common working culture, collective goals and benefits are better articulated, and differences in power and resources can be negotiated. It includes the urban informal sector and marginalized communities. IUWM can be very broadly defined as (Bahri, 2012): Integrated urban water management (IUWM) offers a set of principles that underpin better coordinated, responsive, and sustainable resource management practice. It is an approach that integrates water sources, water use sectors, water services, and water management scales:  It recognises alternative water sources.  It differentiates the qualities and potential uses of water sources.  It views water storage, distribution, treatment, recycling, and disposal as part of the same resource management cycle.  It seeks to protect, conserve and exploit water at its source.  It accounts for nonurban users that are dependent on the same water source.  It aligns formal institutions (organisations, legislation, and policies) and informal practices (norms and conventions) that govern water in and for cities.  It recognizes the relationships among water resources, land use, and energy.  It simultaneously pursues economic efficiency, social equity, and environmental sustainability.  It encourages participation by all stakeholders. * Watershed is the natural boundary of water and is an area of land that contains a water resources(stream, lake, etc.) (Karadağ and Barış 2009; Karadağ 2013). Watershed management is an adaptive, comprehensive, integrated multi-resource management planning process that seeks to balance healthy ecological, economic, and cultural/social conditions within a watershed (URL 4). 298 IUWM can contribute to water security in a basin or catchment by aligning the urban water sector with rural water supply, agriculture, industry and energy. Thus, IUWM is not an end in itself. Rather, it is a means of overseeing a subsystem of a basin to improve the availability of and access to water, and minimised conflicts over use. Table 2 compares past practice with the new approach (Bahri, 2012). IUWM includes institutional, financial and policy structures and is not limited to the physical characteristics of the urban water cycle. Therefore, humans and their various organisational forms are integral elements of the urban water system (van der Steen and Howe, 2009). IUWM requires the development of planning and management for all components of urban water services. Figure 1 illustrates the coordinating structure that will ensure communication between departments, levels of government, local communities, and stakeholders (Bahri, 2012). Figure 1. Integrated Urban Water Management (Bahri, 2012) Table 2. Comparison of urban water management and IUWM (Bahri, 2012) CUWM Water and wastewater systems are based on historical rainfall records. Water follows one-way path from supply, to single use, to treatment and disposal Stormwater is a nuisance, to be conveyed quickly from urban areas. IUWM Water and wastewater systems rely on multiple sources of data and techniques that accommodate greater degrees of uncertainty and variability. Water can be reclaimed and reused multiple times, cascading from higher to lower quality. Stormwater is a resource to be harvested as a water supply and infiltrated or retained to support aquifers, waterways, and vegetation. 299 Human waste is nuisance, to be treated and disposed. Linear approaches deploy discrete systems to collect, treat, use, and get rid of water. Demand equals quantity. Infrastructure isdetermined by the amount of water required or produced by end-users. All supply-side water is treated to potable standards; all wastewater is collected for treatment. Gray infrastructure is made of concrete, metal, or plastic. Bigger is better; collection system and treatment plant are centralised. Standard solutions limit complexity; water infrastructure consists of ‘hard system’ Technologies developed by urban water professionals. Utilities track costs alone and focus on accounting. The standard is a business-as-usual toolkit. Institutions and regulations block innovation. Water supply, wastewater, and stormwater systems are physically distinct. Institutional integration occurs by historical accident. Collaboration equals public relations. Other agencies and public become involved only when approval of predetermined solution is required. Human waste is a resource to be captured, processed, and used as fertiliser. Restorative and regenerative approaches offer integrated systems to provide water, energy, and resource recovery linked with land-use design, regulation, and community health. Demand is multifaceted. Infrastructure matches characteristics of water required or produced for end-users in sufficient quantity, quality, and level of reliability. Green infrastructure includes soil and vegetation as well as concrete, metal, and plastic. Small is possible; collection systems and treatment plants may be decentralised. Solutions may be diverse and flexible; management strategies and technologies combine ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ systems devised by a broad range of experts. Utilities evaluate the full array of benefits from investment and technology choices, and focus on value creation. An expanded toolkit of options includes hightech, low-tech, and natural systems. Institutions and regulations encourage innovation. Water supply, wastewater, and stormwater systems are intentionally linked. Physical and institutional integration is sustained through coordinated management. Collaboration equals engagement. Other agencies and public are actively involved in search for effective solutions. It is possible for urban planners to help governments overcome fragmented public policy and decision-making by linking planning with other policy sectors like infrastructure, and adopting collaborative approaches that involve all stakeholders in determining priorities, actions, and responsibilities – see Figure 2 (Bahri, 2012). 300 Figure 2. Framework for integrated urban water management and land use planning (Bahri, 2012) There isn’t a one size IUWM model that fits all. Water managers must consider the implications of the choice of scale: for example, when can catchments or basins be useful or appropriate scales to use, and when are municipalities or regions a better fit? What decisions are best made at the catchment or basin scale and what decisions are best made at other scales? There are various boundary options, depending on natural and social factors. Nonetheless, each will feature nested levels of management across municipalities, basins, nations and regions. Table 3. IUWM goals and tools at different levels of management (Bahri, 2012) Level Household, community Goals Conserve supplies Meet basic needs Municipality, cityutility Conserve supplies and reallocate supplies Improve health and meet basic needs Increase investment Tools In-factory and in-house recycling Rainwater harvesting Water-efficient consumer durables Small-scale community networks Authorisation of private vendors Leak control and network maintenance Planned reuse at urban scale Dual supplies Cost-based tariffs and metering Retrofitting of water-use equipment Targeted subsidies Education on water hygiene Facilitating community-level provision Removing land-tenure restrictions on provision Preventing waste infiltration into supply Cost-based tariffs Better revenue collection 301 Source protection or quality protection Basin Enhance supply Enhance supply and protect quality Reallocate supplies Subnational orregional government Enhance municipality utility performance National government Prioritise goals Higher operating efficiency Curbing illegal connections Groundwater abstraction controls Leak control to curb infiltration Land zoning Industrial and domestic waste pollution controls Purchase of upstream water or waste disposal rights Purchase of catchment protection services Physical enhancement (dams, recharge) Regulation of catchment land use Regulation of waste and stormwater discharges Pollution taxes Regulation of abstraction Abstraction pricing Water trading Consultation, conflict resolution Monitoring, benchmarking, and publicity Building of skills, human capacity Public loans Consultation, conflict resolution for land use Land and water allocation policy Regulatory frameworks Monitoring of subnational, basin-level agencies Table 3 provides an example of the goals and the practical tools through which they can be pursued, at different levels of management. IUWM should be scoped to include; coordinated planning of all water services such as water supply, sewerage and drainage (Makropoulos et al., 2008; Dobbie and Brown, 2013; Mukheibir et al., 2014), consideration of decentralised wastewater and stormwater reuse opportunities (Mitchell, 2006; Sharma et al., 2010; Ferguson et al., 2013), explicit consideration of quality of urban and rural life and ecosystem protection (Brown et al., 2009; Ferguson et al., 2013; WSAA, 2014; Hodge et al., 2014). 5. QUALITY OF URBAN LIFE (QOUL) AND IUWM The term ‘quality of urban life’ (QOUL) is a worldwide term in order to describe the general well-being of societies and people in the urban area (Costanza et al., 2008). In a broad sense QOUL means everything that makes the life in an urban area pleasant and is therefore related to what is valued by a particular 302 community. Psatha et al. (2011), have produced a set of twelve general categories of factors determining the QOUL in Europe (Table 4). Table 4. General categories of QOUL in Europe Economic Environment Employment opportunities, employment structure, average income and income distribution, living costs, etc. Natural Environment Air quality, water resources, waste management, suburban natural environment, accessibility to areas of natural beauty, weather and climate Urban and suburban green spaces Total area and rate per resident, condition, allocation, accessibility, usage, etc. Culture - Leisure Cultural resources, tourism infrastructures, recreation areas, leisure activities, entertainment capabilities, cultural life, available choices Education Education units, quality and maintenance, attendance per education level, private schools, etc. Democratic Institutions Democratic regime, election of local government, voting rates, etc. Social Environment Crime, social inequalities, social exclusion, networks and infrastructures Built environment Building density, housing conditions, public monumental buildings, building stock, neighborhoods, etc. Public spaces –Public buildings Area, quality, condition and maintenance, accessibility, visiting rates, etc. Demographic data Marital and family status of adults, age rates, level of education Health care Health services, accessibility, social welfare for the disadvantaged, etc. Traffic and transportation Traffic conditions, parking spaces, efficiency of public transportation The water industry has been discussing for a number of years (WSAA, 2014). Water sectors are starting to realize that while clean water, sanitation and flood protection are crucial for a city, society also has broader needs from urban water system, recognising more and more the shortcomings of conventional systems in meeting the existing needs. For example, Ecological health, amenity, thermal comfort, beauty and equity — characteristics that are influenced by water systems and considered to make a city liveable, are valued by the people. Therefore the question of how a liveable city can be supported by its water system, has been started to explore by academics and water practitioners (Haan et al., 2014). Essential services provided by water utilities, including water supply, sewerage and drainage, are necessary in order to attain liveable cities. However there are also “non-essential services” which relate to liveability including: community connection, local identity, natural environments/biodiversity, urban form/amenity, leisure/ recreation, and ecological footprints (Holmes, 2013). There is a lack of clarity around what exactly the water sector's role is in relation to these nonessential services, and how it should be done. The idea of involvement of the water utility sector in contributing to these non-essential services has been a continued 303 focus for a number of researchers, who have been promoting the concepts known as WSUD; SUDS; GIS. The installation of stormwater management devices such as rain gardens, wetlands and swales throughout urban areas is promoted by these concepts;Thus simultaneously improving all of these non-essential liveability services (Wong, 2006; Brown and Clarke, 2007; Karadağ and Demiroglu, 2014; Karadağ 2014; Demiroglu et al., 2015). IUWM is an approach that adds to the management of all components of water resources at all aspects (country-watershed-region- urban-rural). It is a model of management that contributes to the quality of life of people at all aspects. This situation especially presents significant contributions to today’s water industry issues and there has been a strong intellectual association between the concept of IUWM and QOUL (Hodge et al., 2014). With IUWM plan -the above information and Table 4 based on the defined data-will contribute to the most important indicators of urban living quality such as water supply regulation, water quality regulation, moderation of extreme events, air quality, waste management, suburban natural environment, natural beauty, accessibility to areas of natural beauty, quality of weather and climate. In addition the model contributes to the protection and development of recreational resources (for example, rivers, lakes, wetlands, forests, urban and suburban green spaces) by supporting green infrastructure systems in cities. This supports social and cultural sustainability. These areas also contribute to social and cultural sustainability, an important component of urban living quality, by providing opportunities for recreational activities. For example; these activities increase social cohesion / integrity / solidarity, increase social interaction, increase public health and welfare, enable the activities of nature education and nature experience (Demiroğlu et al., 2017) 6. CONCLUSION Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) calls for the alignment of urban development and basin management to achieve sustainable economic, social, and environmental goals. It brings together water supply, sanitation, storm- and wastewater management and integrates these with land use planning and economic development. IUWM assesses both water quantity and quality, estimates future demand, anticipates the impacts of climate change, and recognises the importance of efficiency, without which water operations cannot be sustainable. As Karadağ et al., (2016) point out, area use decisions developed on the basis of conservation of water resources in this context will be important guides for the process. Adopting IUWM and its iterative processes will help cities to significantly reduce the number of people without access to water and sanitation by providing water services of appropriate quantity and quality, and improving the health and productivity of urban residents and therefore contributing to QOUL. The study has focused on benefits of IUWM on QOUL. However techniques for valuing QOUL benefits are still emerging and not well understood. 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What is Watershed Management? http://www.rdrwa.ca/node/27 (Date of access: 20.06.2018) 310 Chapter 25 Rafting Tourism Strategic Action Plan Framework: The Köprüçay River Case Emine KELEŞ1 and Atila GÜL2 1 Lecturer, Trakya University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Edirne, Turkey 2 Prof. Dr., Suleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Isparta, Turkey INTRODUCTION Today, along with rising living standards and the increase in leisure activities, demand for touristic activities increases as well. The said increase differentiates tourism demands, leading to different types of tourism. It was observed that the differentiation of tourism types was reflected mostly in nature-based activities. The most important problem encountered in nature-based touristic activities is the failure to maintain sustainability. In particular, tourism activities conducted in natural reserves with special status can destruct or destroy these areas (Akgün, 2009). The tourism activities conducted in a natural environment should be based on planning, development, management and preservation of natural resources. The basic principle in utilization of natural resources is to provide the balance between preservation and use to minimize the damages to the natural areas due to utilization (Nayir, 2009). One of the most important problems that administrators face in protected areas is the confusion caused by the need to protect natural ecosystems and in the meantime to allow touristic and recreational use of these areas (Kuss &Grafe, 1985). Especially the increase in recreational demands makes it difficult to concurrently implement these two opposing tasks (Kearsley, 1990). Today, the basic reasons for conservation of natural areas protected by law in scientific and technical terms often contradict with recreational and touristic objectives, thus causing negative impacts on natural and cultural assets. Regulation of this relationship in sensitive natural reserves with special characteristics, namely balancing the recreational demand and supply and minimization of adverse effects, is only possible through the determination and regular monitoring of the recreational load capacity or the visitor capacity (Kliskey, 1994). To ensure the rational use of the existing natural, cultural and visual assets in natural preserves and their transfer to future generations in a sustainable manner, it is necessary to construct holistic, participatory and applicable “management plans” (Gül & Akten, 2005). It is necessary to determine the design standards of visitor facilities and services, to associate the levels of use to changes in social and physical impacts, to generalize the estimates for utilization models and to determine demand trends in order to establish the sensitive balance between the resources and 311 the user and to conduct the best possible assessment of the existing recreational potential in natural preserves. This process requires a lengthy, systematic visitor observation study (Gül & Özgüner, 2005). As the level of recreational and touristic utilization of natural reserves increase, natural resource assets are negatively affected as well as the quality of use of the area due to factors such as crowding and noise. This results in the loss in landscaping appeal. Thus, visitor management is an important tool between recreation & tourism and the natural preserve, and requires careful and attentive administration to meet the requirements of both the nature and the visitors (Cessford & Muhar, 2003). Rivers and streams play a vital role in economic development of a country by providing sustainable water resources (Zeitoun et al., 2013) and also an important transportation route for goods and services (Kusky, 2009). Rivers and stream corridors provide important riparian habitats for terrestrial wildlife and also aquatic habitats for fish and other aquatic organisms (Nilsson & Svedmark, 2002). Rivers and streams contain water which has important relationship with human as a recreational resources with many types of recreation activities such as swimming to kayaking (Nuruddin & Ali, 2013). Rivers and its surrounding provide several valuable natural and aesthetic sites for cultural, historical (May, 2006) and physical attributes for the purpose of recreational users (Nuruddin & Ali, 2013). Users are willing to pay for using these water-based recreational sites. Stream course also provide “recreation habitat” for water dependent activities such as boating and fishing, as well as water enhanced activities such as camping and bird watching (Shelby et al., 1992) The river tourism, which is very important for nature-based tourism, one of the most dynamic sectors of the tourism industry, provides significant potential for economic development in regional areas (NRRDB, 1994) and recreational users can cause significant ecosystem damage in natural areas (Alden, 1997). Antalya province is one of the rare areas that are suitable for all types of tourism activities and possess natural climate, flora and fauna, and available for tourism all year round. Due to these characteristics, Antalya province has 92.418 hectares of preserved areas that include 5 national parks, 3 natural reserves and 3 nature parks. Within these areas, there are facilities that cater the daily leisure and entertainment needs of domestic and foreign tourists. One of the natural preserves with high touristic potential in Antalya province is the Köprülü Canyon National Park. The national park adds to the recreational tourism assets in the area with its several natural and geological formations that allow natural tourism activities. Within the area, the Köprüçay River is one of the factors that provide the most important recreational texture of the national park. Introduction of touristic activities in natural reserves is a popular trend. Incorrect and unplanned utilization of these areas has negative consequences on the national natural resources. Knowledge about the strengths and weaknesses of nature tourism activities that are increasingly important in contemporary life and analysis of present and future opportunities and threats by anticipation play an important role in determining adequate strategies and policies, especially in the tourism industry. As a result, the aim is to reduce the negative effects of touristic utilization 312 on natural resources, to improve the significance of nature tourism, and to utilize the resources properly. In order to identify potential sites for instream activities, rivers need to be assessed for potential recreational and nature activities (Nuruddin & Ali, 2013).There are many methods of evaluating the potential of river for recreational activities (Miskell, 2009). The objective of the present study was to determine decisions that aim to identify the conceptual perceptions, demands and trends of the stakeholders in Köprüçay river rafting area, located in Köprülü Canyon National Park, internal (strengths and weaknesses) and external (opportunities and threats) factors specific to the area with SWOT analysis and to minimize the problems in this area. Furthermore, sustainable and holistic strategic action programs (strategic goals, objectives and activities) specific to the Köprüçay rafting area were envisaged. Thus, it was aimed to provide a holistic administration in the area. Rafting Tourism Recreational activities in and around the water are very popular activities in many countries. Water presence is a fundamental requirement for the existence of open space recreation both in terms of being both the center of the activity and the attractiveness of recreational design. Some of the active varieties of water-based recreation are made directly in the sea and some in other inland water sources such as rivers and dams. In recent years, participation in water-based recreational activities has increased steadily (Turgut, 2012). Adventure tourism is the sale of an adventurous trip or activity where there is some risk, uncertainty and challenge involved. Clients are actively and physically involved and most participants experience of strong emotions, such as fear and excitement (McKay, 2014). Adventure activities are usually classified into three key segments: hard, soft and nature-based adventure (Buckley, 2006; McKay, 2013). Hard adventure, includes activities that are perceived to be more risky, more physical and more challenging that soft and nature-based adventure activities. In this regard, rafting, is considered a hard adventurous activity. According to Wilson et al., 2013, McKay, 2014); rafting is a group activity where between four and eight participants both propel and steer an inflatable raft using single-blade paddles. In a commercial situation, the bulk of the steering and the propulsion is done by paid river guides (McKay, 2015). According to the American Whitewater AssociationRiver Classification Scale based on the principle of showing resistance without harming nature, these sports rivers are divided into 6 classes according to the difficulty criteria such as water flow rate, volume, river bed width, water fall height. The easiest, least dangerous and least ‘exciting’ is a Class I rapid. The Class I; for beginners and those who will learn to use a new shovel. Class II (novice), there are constant currents, a few maneuvers and easy-to-reach radips. The Class is for people with basic rowing skills who can successfully row in the river. The Class III (intermediate), there are high and irregular waves, narrow passages that require maneuvers, and waves that can fill water. Has moderate skill in all general maneuvers, The Class II is for people who can use a successful shovel in the river. 313 The Class IV (advanced), there are long, difficult and continuous rapids, strong waves and halls that prevent the boat from moving. For those who are experienced in coastal / bounty rescue, who have led in the Class II rivers. The Class V (expert), the precision maneuvers require strong, hard, and long rapids in the constricted areas. Rescue is hard to do. Having the ability to overcome obstacles in all rivers in the middle water levels, IV. for those who have made successful leaders in graded rivers. The Class VI (extreme), the progress is almost impossible or very dangerous. All difficulties rise to limit points. It is suitable for specialists to do. All safety precautions must be taken (Uğurlu, 2005). MATERIALS AND METHODS Study material included the Köprüçay rafting area and its immediate vicinity, which is an asset for the Köprülü Canyon National Park, located within Antalya province. SPSS software was used to assess the findings of the survey conducted with the residents, visitors, rafting business operators and experts. Köprüçay and Köprülü Canyon National Park is located in Köprüçay basin, located between the 31001'30 "E and 37016'10" N west, 31011'16 "E and 370 25'12" N north, 31014'01"E and 37016'32" N east and 31012'59"E and 37007’40”N south coordinates (Figure 1). It is located in the north-east of Antalya and at a 85 km distance from the city. Köprülü Canyon National Park is one of the 7 national parks administered by Ministry of Forestry and Water Works 6th Regional Directorate, where the most intensive touristic activities are conducted in Turkey and with a unique beauty, geomorphologic and geological features that include archaeological, aesthetic and rich plant and animal groups (DKMPGM, 2007). Köprülü Canyon National Park was declared a national park on 12 December 1973 with the Article 25 of Forest Law No. 6831 due to 35.777.0 hectares of natural, cultural and recreational assets it possesses. Dense recreational activities such as rafting, picnics and visits to cultural sites are conducted and most visitor needs could be fulfilled in the area. The rafting activities in Antalya commenced in 1992 at Köprülü Canyon. Köprülü Canyon National Park is estimated to receive an average of 500,000 tourists per year. No exact figures are available since there are no checks or ticket requirements on entrance. In villages such as Beskonak, Karabük, Altınkaya, Gaziler located within the national park, the land is generally used for agricultural cultivation, for residential and grazing purposes and to build rafting facilities on riverbanks. The Köprüçay River rafting area located within the borders of Beşkonak, Manavgat district of Antalya has 1, 2 and 3 difficulty levels according to international rafting difficulty grade classification. A face-to-face survey was conducted to determine the demands and trends of related stakeholders, the current situation and problems in the Köprüçay rafting area and to identify and propose solutions to these problems. Before the survey was conducted, observations were carried out to determine recreational and tourism activities of the residents and the visitors and information was obtained by interviewing the individuals who are familiar with the environment. Based on the collected information, survey forms were applied face-to-face to four different 314 stakeholder groups that included local residents, visitors (domestic and foreign tourists), rafting operators and experts (academicians and administrators), and subject demographics, conceptual approaches, perceptions, trends, problems and recommendations were determined. The total number of questionnaires applied to stakeholders was 600 in the present study. Figure 1: The Köprüçay River rafting area SWOT analysis technique was applied with the findings obtained. The significance ranking of the factor values within each SWOT group resulting from combining the SWOT technique with the "Ranking Technique" in order to determine the priority values (significance, weight) of the factors in each group was determined. According to the survey and SWOT analysis, holistic action programs were established. RESULTS Knowing the current strengths and weaknesses of today's increasingly prevalent nature tourism and anticipating and analyzing today's and future opportunities and threats play an important role in determining appropriate strategies and policies, especially in the tourism sector. Antalya Köprüçay SWOT Analysis was carried out in the direction of the data obtained from the survey studies made to the field specific data and stakeholders in order to determine the current situation of the rafting area and to determine the strategic objectives and activities for the future. For this purpose, the internal (strong and weak aspects) and external (opportunities and threats) factors of the field have been identified. Priorities were assigned to these factors with the scores given by the stakeholders. Taking into account the internal and external factors of the study area, planned decisions and proposals have been developed that will make the most of the existing strengths and opportunities of the Köprüçay rafting area, and will minimize the effects of the threats and weaknesses. 315 Determination of the Current Situation and Determination of Priorities by SWOT Analysis The SWOT factors within each SWOT group are ranked by giving scores on the "Nine weightiness scale" (Table1, 2,3,4). This scale is used as "1 point - weakly important", "3 points less important", "5 points - moderately important", "7 points more important", and "9 points - extremely important". Besides these," 2,4,6,8 values" are used as medium values. Table 1: The strengths of the Köprüçay rafting area and percentage of importance ranking Priority STRENGTHS Percentage Value (%) Different tourism and nature tourism activities in the area 7 Due to its geographical location, Turkey is one of the tourism centers 7 in Antalya and has accessibility qualities Potential for water-based and various recreational activities 7 In terms Rafting is one of Turkey's leading river 6 Being of rich in terms of biodiversity and ecosystem values 6 Taking place in Köprülü Canyon National Park 6 Offering suitable areas for nature tourism 6 Köprüçay area is the focus point for natural landscape 6 To have many species of life-threatening species that are unique to 5 the area and not found anywhere else on earth Has rich flora and fauna diversity 5 Important geological and geomorphological have occurrences within 5 the national park Within the national park are unique archaeological sites and 5 possessing human settlements that are equivalent to prehistoric times Having the largest pure cypress forest in the Mediterranean basin 4 Possession of alluvial soils suitable for agriculture 4 Finding of topography that allows for different nature tourism 4 activities Finding and serving rafting, restaurants and other businesses 4 To have natural and cultural riches that can be used for tourism in the 4 region The presence of the business force to be able to direct tourism and be 4 treated Take place intertwined with natural areas 3 Tourism has wildlife and bird diversity to contribute 3 Total 100 316 Table 2: Köprüçay rafting area weaknesses and percentage of importance ranking Priority WEAKNESSES Percentage Value (%) Köprülü Canyon National Park natural tourism activities do not have 8 spatial and spot action plans. The absence of an institutional structure or activities for the coordination, organization, monitoring and controling of nature 8 tourism activities (Not having a responsible central government entity Inadequacy of publicity, advertisement, marketing opportunities for 6 nature tourism activities Insufficient protection of natural and cultural resources 6 Unplanned construction of illegal rafting, restaurants and other 5 businesses due to legal protection restrictions and illegal construction Inadequate recreational facilities, accommodation and shopping 5 facilities for tourists Lack of trained staff members (staff, guides, trainers) for rafting 5 tourism activities Destruction of vegetation and forests along the river during the 5 operations of the enterprises Dialogue and cooperation between tourism stakeholders (acental, ecotourist, local people) are not institutionalized and lack of 5 participation mechanism Inadequate tourism investments 4 Lack of awareness and knowledge for tourism 4 Difficult access to the area 4 Unconsciously consuming people's natural resources and increasing 4 environmental pollution. Rafting operations' rafting material, quality of service and lack of 4 security Incorrect land use in the area 4 Incompatibilities between existing sub-superstructure and 4 environmental qualities of natural sites Uncontrolled input and output of the field 4 The inability to fully perceive the nature tourism concept. 3 The agricultural value of the soil should be low, only the alluvial soil 3 around the Köprüçay river. Lack of promotion of handicrafts and various traditional products in 3 the region. The ignorance of local people about natural and cultural resource 3 values. Water access in some areas is difficult. 3 Inadequate quality and quantity of travel and tour operators. 3 Total 100 317 Table 3: Köprüçay rafting area opportunities and percentage of importance ranking Priority OPPORTUNITIES Percentage Value (%) Increasing interest of Köprüçay and its surroundings for increasing 8 nature tourism High potential for space for alternative tourism types 7 Increased demand for nature tourism in to the world and Turkey 7 One of the largest and most advanced city to be connected to Antalya 7 in the Mediterranean Region Antalya local managers and other interest groups have the intention and desire to improve the natural tourism potential 7 Providing local people with new business and revenue opportunities 6 Due to the geographical structure of the area, it is very suitable for different tourist and recreational activities 6 The cultural and natural texture of the area that will be adapted with 6 conservation and restoration works The development and increasing of rafting tourism activity 6 Formation of new investment and sub-sectors for nature tourism 6 Mediterranean region attractiveness in terms of nature tourism 5 Increasing travel opportunities with improved transport facilities 5 Possibility to develop local national and global awareness on nature 4 conservation Increasing local awareness of nature conservation 4 The people of the region are willing to participate in nature tourism 4 activities Serik and Manavgat provide job opportunities for young population 4 Increase in the quantity and quality of natural areas protected by law 3 in Turkey Increasing interest of nature tourism in the world and in Turkey 3 Providing opportunities for ecologically and biologically rich scientific work 3 Total 100 318 Table 4: Köprüçay rafting area threats and percentage of importance ranking Priority Percentage Value (%) THREATS Uncontrolled and unconscious construction of tourism activities in the suburbs, damage to the natural vegetation cover Increasing and growing tours without plans, damage to wildlife As the carrying capacity of the field becomes more difficult, the resource value is likely to deteriorate Environmental pollution Uncertain incentives and investments to tourism lead to overconstruction in natural areas Unplanned tourism activities distort the natural structure of the area Population during the tourist season and increasing number of visitors to the area Risks of uncontrolled and unconscious tours that increase the loss of life and property of tourists and create bad reputation Unplanned tourism activities Hydroelectric power plant (HEPP) construction on the Köprüçay River Difficulty in finding young population for acceleration of population migration and rafting tourism activities Water source to be used as drinking water Increased water pollution due to restaurants, businesses in the area Removing sand and gravel from the tea bed Socio-cultural degeneration and conflict of tourists and local peopl The use of chemical pesticides for agricultural purposes Individual buildings and advertising boards such as restaurants, built-in buildings that do not have architectural aesthetics, restaurants, visual signs of roadside signs Total 9 8 8 8 8 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 3 3 100 Determination of Strategic Goals, Objectives and Activities for Köprüçay Rafting Area Based on the field study and survey findings obtained in Köprüçay Rafting area in Köprülü Canyon National Park, a holistic action program and action programs for stakeholder powers and authority were designed as a result of the conducted SWOT analysis and determination of the current status. The envisaged action programs could serve as a guide to both the applications and field managers (Table5). 319 Table 5: Rafting Tourism Strategic Action Programs Rafting Tourism Strategic Action Programs for the Köprücay Rafting Area Holistic Action Strategic Aims Goals Activities Programs -Establishment of the national park administrative structure, -Successful management of Establishment of a the national park, central -Ensuring that interest groups administration work effectively in unit in charge of accordance with the targets Köprülü Canyon set out in the management National Park plan, Köprüçay area. -Organizing the allocation Establishment and management structures of a sustainable for the national park, etc.and participatory -Establishment of units that management are in charge of natural, structure that cultural and archeological 2.Spatial, Administrative will enable the assets in Köprülü Canyon Administrative Structure active National Park, and Recreational Action implementation -Control of unplanned and Structures and Program of management irregular businesses, Equipment plan -Determination of entrance applications in and exit points and regular and around the routes, etc. Köprülü 3.Creation of Canyon budgets and funds National Park. for expenditures such as personnel, -Organization of revenuetools and generating activities, equipment, -Generation of income from maintenance and in-field facilities, repair, project -Production and marketing of applications, inarea-specific souvenirs, etc. field activity programs and conservation. Managing the 1. Construction -Establishment of settlement sustainable and application of boundaries, development of spatial planning -Establishment of Spatial the residential and design conservation and Development areas within the application development master plans, Infrastructure Köprülü (structural and -Creating of a separate Action Canyon planting) projects conservation master plan for Program National Park at Köprüçay Köprüçay river rafting route, with a holistic, rafting area and its -Creating of a holistic ideal, spatial surroundings in inventory of the area (social, 320 substructuresuperstructure planning and design. Köprülü Canyon National Park. 2. Repair, improvement and reforestation of vehicle and pedestrian transportation substructure and superstructure. 3. Maintenance and repair of existing tourism and recreational facilities, reinforcements and furniture in the area. 4.Prevention of environmental pollution, regular collection of waste and deposits 321 economic, natural, historical and cultural), -Creating of holistic landscaping spatial organizations, -Design and implementation of spatial application projects by the project team in planning (1/2000 or 1/1000) and design 1 / 500-1 / 200/1/100 or 1/50) scales. -Improvement of spatial physical substructure and superstructure -Maintenance and repair of existing vehicle and pedestrian roads and pathways, -Widening and pavement of vehicle roads with asphalt or natural stone material, etc. -Construction of the area entrance checkpoint and security cabin -Construction of the main entrance arch and development of an adequate concept, -Maintenance and reconstruction of the orientation and information boards, -Determination of the boundaries of the area and bordering with appropriate material, etc. -Construction of fully functional waste processing and collection facilities in the villages within the National Park, -Cooperation with Manavgat Municipality about the transportation of solid waste, -Construction and supervision of wastewater treatment systems for restaurants and rafting enterprises that sprawl on the banks of Köprüçay River, etc. 1. Creating sustainable tourism and recreation facilities by protecting existing resources in Köprüçay center and along the Köprüçay River. Resource Management Action Program Preservation of natural and cultural resource assets within Köprülü Canyon National Park. Development of preservation, management and monitoring programs for the preservation of endemic plant and animal species, habitats and ecosystems in the area. Enabling planned and controlled access to natural resources in the national park. Preservation and administration of the cultural values in the national park. 322 -Design of areal and spot action plans for Köprülü Canyon National Park nature tourism activities, -Construction of a separate conservation development plan for the Köprüçay rafting route, -To enable the rafting sport as a planned and responsible activity -Prevention of activities that could change the natural topography and stream beds, etc. - Conservation of nature tourism and ecosystems, -İdentification and technical maintenance of existing endemic and rare plant and animal species, -Conducting additional studies and surveys for primary habitats such as cypress (Cupressus sp.) forests and canyon ecosystems in the National Park, -Establishment of permanent monitoring systems for all ecosystems. - Preservation of natural resources in the area, - Construction of national park management policies - Completion of forest and land registry maps and conducting necessary studies to determine the legal administrative borders, etc. -Establishment of cultural values administration subplans for archaeological and historical structures and sites, -Preservation of the current status of the cultural values in Development of qualitative and quantitative capacity of recreational facilities and activities. Economic Activities Action Program Sustainable and versatile economic development of Köprüçay rafting center Organizations and programs for nature tourism or ecotourism activities. Production and sale of local and area-specific products. EducationPromotion and Awareness Action Program Raising the awareness of stakeholders on the environment and nature. Turning the area into an educational natural laboratory space. Raising the awareness of stakeholders. 323 the national park, -Provision for the administration of these values for the use of visitors and local residents, prevention of the destruction of existing structures and securing these structures, etc. -Recreational opportunities and infrastructure for visitors to the national park, -Remediation, design, implementation and operation of accommodation and catering facilities, establishing an entrance fee for the area, etc. -Management and promotion of biodiversity and ecosystem assets for nature tourism, -Providing information for the visitors, -Design of an ecotourism plan for a safe, environmentally and socially responsible visits, etc. -Design of awareness and educational and selfimprovement programs for local residents, -Raising the awareness of local residents on ecotourism to improve public wealth, etc. -Design of educational and promotional programs, conducting, -Conducting theoretical and practical classes on nature for kindergarten, primary and secondary education and college students, -Design of an educational material set about the National Park for use in schools and youth groups, etc. -Organization of educational activities for local residents, visitors, tour agency staff and students to increase their Monitoring the fauna, wildlife and soil structure in the area. Resource Monitoring and Assessment Action Program Development of the source monitoring system Monitoring environmental pollution. Monitoring the area visitor capacity. awareness on nature, -Providing annually updated information on the national park for the web pages of tourist organizations in Antalya, etc. -Observation of vegetal density and plant species diversity in areas where recreational activities are conducted, -Establishment and development of early warning systems for endangered species, -Observation of wildlife density and species diversity in areas where recreational activities are conducted, etc. -Observation of sufficiency of waste bin and environmental waste in the area, etc. -Observation of the number of visitors in spatial use areas, - Parking capacity and occupancy rates, - The capacity of the visitors, who participate in the activities, etc. Köprüçay Rafting Area Stakeholder Responsibility and Collaboration Action Program It is necessary to design an action program that will enable cooperation and general framework between the institutions and organizations and other stakeholders that are responsible for the management of the Köprüçay Rafting area (Figure 2). In this program, the powers and responsibilities of each stakeholder, their duties, the institutions and organizations they will collaborate with and the activities they can perform should be defined (Keleş, 2015). 324 Figure 2: Rafting Area Stakeholders DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Several countries, such as Turkey, consider tourism and ecotourism as a major development tool and envisage a great contribution to their economy via these tools. Especially when considering the possibility that domestic and foreign tourism industry capital could purchase and / or utilize the natural resources in Turkey in the short and long term with an opportunistic and purely liberal approach, nature tourism or ecotourism could be used as a savior, a mask or a shield (Gül &Ozaltın, 2007). Increasing and diversifying tourism activities in nature areas often harm natural resource assets and can lead to adverse consequences for the sustainability of the area. According to Keleş (2015), any human activities that are performed in the natural environment would always lead to a change, deterioration and a multifaceted interaction in the natural environment independent of the circumstances. Thus, it is necessary to develop more cautious and conscious approaches to tourism and recreational activities in natural areas. The main purpose of natural tourism or ecotourism approaches to natural preserves should entail the preservation, support and nourishment of natural and cultural resources. Knowledge about the current strengths and weaknesses of increasingly popular nature tourism and anticipation and analysis of the present and future opportunities and threats play an important role in determining adequate strategies and policies, especially in the tourism sector. The rafting tourism center on Köprüçay, which is located in Köprülü Canyon National Park, became one of the most important rafting centers in Antalya province and Turkey. Especially the area, where there is a historical bridge and the starting point of the rafting activity, is the most important National Park attraction center for recreational / tourism activities and a high number of visitors travel to the 325 area. Every year an average of 600,000-700,000 individuals visit the park and 90% of the visitors are foreign tourists who visit the area for the day long rafting tours. Several problems were determined as a result of the surveys and observations conducted on the Köprülü Canyon National Park and face-to-face interviews conducted with the locals. These problems can be summarized briefly as follows:  Several problems such as the lack of an institutional structure and activities to coordinate, organize, monitor and supervise nature tourism activities in the area, presence of more than one protection status for Köprülü Canyon National Park, unplanned construction of area businesses such as rafting operators, restaurants and other facilities due to legal protection restrictions and the presence of illegal settlements, pollution and deterioration experienced in the river downstream (areas where the facilities are concentrated), damages to the natural settings and vegetation as a result of uncontrolled tourism activities, lack of trained personnel for rafting activities were identified. Recommendations were developed for all the above mentioned problems in order to ensure the planning and spatial utilization of the site based on the protection and utilization balance. These recommendations can be summarized as follows;  Construction of the spatial landscape design application projects in the area: The rafting area built on Köprüçay is the center of activity and focus (landmark) that provide the most significant tourism revenues. Thus, rational implementation and administration of a spatial organization that could maintain the natural structure of Köprüçay, suitable to the natural character of the area, provide the local residents their livelihood and maintain the balance between ecological protection and purposeful use to increase the satisfaction level of the users (DKMPGM, 2007). It is necessary to develop spatial development plan proposals within the framework of the strategic action programs for the area utilized as Köprüçay Rafting Area.  Establishment of a sustainable and participatory central administration structure within the national park: An action program should be laid out to establish the cooperation and general framework among the institutions / organizations and other stakeholders that are in charge of the Köprüçay Rafting area. It is necessary to establish an effective and competent administrative organization that can inform and guide the visitors.  Establishment of settlement borders and creation of protection master plans: In order to prevent the problems of local residents that arise from the protection status of the area, settlement borders should be determined and development master plans should be established as soon as possible. This would also prevent illegal construction.  Establishment of alternative areas and activities besides the Köprüçay rafting activity to decrease the pressure on the river: Nature tourism and ecotourism activities conducted on Köprüçay should be diversified, new alternative tourism types should be introduced and the natural resources of the area should be promoted. In addition to the rafting activities, it is necessary to introduce trekking, adventure and sports tourism, historical and archeological tour, festival, Jeep safari, climbing, mountain biking activities in the area in addition to rafting. 326  Design of spatial and spot action plans for nature tourism activities in Köprülü Canyon National Park.  Organization of rafting activities on Köprüçay and design of protective rafting plans: It is necessary to prevent irregular rafting activities in the area and render the rafting sport a planned and responsible activity. Organizations should be established to establish and organize rational rafting tourism activities and to make the area a rafting center. It is also necessary to establish an institutional organization that would control the qualifications of the material, guides and rafters that are active in rafting operations.  Prevention of environmental pollution and raising the awareness of visitors and local residents on the environment: The most significant problems in the area are waste and wastewater management. Due to these problems, the polluted water that are discharged into the river deteriorate Köprüçay water quality and the ecosystem. The following recommendations are made:  Design of ecotourism plans to inform the visitors about the recreational use of the area and to conduct responsible activities,  Protection of the natural and cultural assets of the national park and to ensure that the park is administered to maximize its use by the visitors and local residents,  Establishment of visitor management systems for all protected areas  More planned and controlled use of the national park  More organized and controlled construction and supervision of rafting facilities that developed irregularly and illegally in the area  Production and sales of local and area-specific products to increase the economic revenues of the local residents and for promotional purposes  Construction of buildings and equipment that are suitable for the identity of the area  Providing sufficient transportation to the area and improvement of both substructure and superstructure  Regular maintenance and repair of the site  Creation of sustainable tourism and recreation opportunities in the area  Providing controlled access to national park resources to maintain the livelihood of the local residents  Encouraging institutions such as colleges to conduct scientific studies in the area  Monitoring the load capacity of the area. Furthermore, the current capacity of the area cannot fulfill the high seasonal demand of domestic and foreign tourists for rafting. In order to prevent this, necessary measures should be taken and satisfaction level of the tourists should be improved. Collaborative, participative, responsible solutions that prioritize the protection-utilization balance should be developed in order to raise the satisfaction level and to meet the needs of all stakeholders that provide (administrators, operators, locals) and receive services (tourists, visitors) in the area. 327 Criteria of development for sustainable nature-based tourism are biodiversity conservation, economic consistently, controlled marketing, cultural wealth, local people prosperity, work and services quality, social equality, visitors pleased levels, to spread to local of authorizes, community happiness, effective using of sources and healthy environmental (Polat et al., 2016). In conclusion, Köprüçay rafting area and vicinity natural and cultural assets should be preserved and transferred to future generations. For this reason, rafting activities on Köprüçay should be conducted without destroying the natural structure of Köprüçay river, in a manner that is suitable for the natural character of the area, to provide a living for the local residents and to raise the satisfaction of the users and should prioritize the balance between ecological protection and purposive utilization and all spatial and administrative activities should be integrated in the area. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The present study is based on a part of the master thesis “Analysis of the Current Situation and Solution Recommendations in Antalya-Köprüçay Rafting Center.” We would like to thank SDU Scientific Research Projects Coordination Department for sponsoring the said thesis with Project No: 3929-YL1-14. REFERENCES Akgün, B. (2009). 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Antalya, Zeitoun, M., Goulden, M. and Tickner, D. (2013). Current and future challenges facing transboundary river basin management. WIRES Clim Change, 4: 331349. DOI: 10.1002/wcc.228 330 Chapter 26 A Breathing System for Cities: Vertical Green Systems Serir UZUN Assist. Prof. Dr., Düzce University Faculty of Forestry, Landscape Architecture Department, Düzce, Turkey. INTRODUCTION In today's rapidly developing countries, the increase in the urban population and the growth of the cities is causing irregular urbanization, reduction of green spaces and increasing the encroachment of the built environment over nature. Concrete surfaces have taken the place of green spaces inside and around the cities, and as a consequence, many environmental problems have arisen in the urban areas that are devoid of nature. Environmental pollution and the negative effects of this pollution are chief among the problems of urban living. Environmental pollution, i.e., human-generated ecological damage which destroys the natural equilibrium of the ecosystem, can be classified as air, water, soil, noise and radioactive pollution. In addition, the problems of global warming, global climate change and the effects they create are also encountered in cities. As a result of changes in the landscape of urban centers and the surrounding areas, natural landscaping elements are rapidly becoming further distanced from city centers (Yüksel, 2005). Consequently, people living among buildings, concrete façades, roads and parking lots become more disconnected from nature (Erdoğan & Khabbazi, 2013). For this reason, expanding the range of green areas within the city, forming urban areas integrated with nature and protecting natural resources are among the important topics of our day. Ways are being sought to raise sensitivity to “green” issues like the preservation of natural resources and sustainability, environmental problems, global climate change, etc. and to bring back nature, especially plants (Sheweka & Mohamed, 2012), to cities which have lost their natural spaces (Yücel & Elgin, 2010). In order to make life in cities "sustainable" and leave behind livable cities for future generations, the abovementioned problems have to be solved concurrently as a whole (Kentleşme Şurası, 2009). For livable cities and healthy environments, new insights must be developed in this direction. In recent years, attempts have been made to meet the needs of city dwellers for green spaces by planning. In addition to their aesthetic and visual value, vertical green systems provide important contributions to the urban ecology as a result of the healthy, beneficial and breathable urban environments they create (Barış et al., 2003). 331 2. VERTICAL GREEN SYSTEMS 2.1. Definition of Vertical Green Systems A vertical green system is an exterior wall system that enables the growth of a vegetation cover. It is a system in which plants are grown on the vertical surfaces of buildings or walls with systematic and organized care (Farid et al., 2016). The vegetation cover on the façade of a building helps to maintain its surrounding microclimate and the building thus acquires a local and environmental identity (Detail, 2005). According to Peck, a vertical garden or green façade system is a living shell encasing the front of a building (Ottele, 2011). According to Dunnet and Kingsburry, vertical green systems are living, and therefore self-renewing, façade cladding materials (Ottele, 2011). According to another definition by Hermy, green façades provide a green envelope of plants cultivated in soil on vertical surfaces. The growing medium for the plants can be the ground soil at the base of the wall or soil in containers or pots attached to the frontage (Ottele, 2011). In summary, vertical green systems are façades covered with plant material growing in the earth, on the wall itself, or in planters. In these systems, the façade consists mainly of the plants, the growing medium-carrier layer, the filter layer, the root retaining layer, the water insulation layer, the heat insulation layer, the vapor barrier layer and the wall support system. Different layers may be added depending on the choice of materials to be used, where the materials come together in the system and where they are applied (Erdoğdu, 2014). 2.2. Classification of Vertical Green Systems It is possible to classify vertical green systems according to the plant species, carrier systems, growth substrates and irrigation systems used in them. However, in the literature, the most common classification is based on the construction technique. A classification scheme based on construction techniques is shown in Table 1 (Mir, 2011; Timur & Karaca, 2013). Table 1: Vertical garden classification (Mir, 2011; Timur & Karaca, 2013). 332 2.2.1. Green Façades Among the vertical green systems, the easiest to apply are green façades, in which the walls are covered with creeping-climbing plants. Green façades are divided into two groups: those grown in the ground soil and those grown in containers or pots (Erdoğdu, 2014). - Green façades grown in the ground Green façades grown in soil that with wall contact; in the wall-contact type, plants are rooted in the soil and grow directly up the wall surface naturally, without the need for any supporting system (Fig. 1). In this type, where plant stems climb up from the front, it takes a long time to cover the whole surface of the wall to achieve a green façade, depending on the surface measurements, the type of plants and the amount planted. Plants are supplied with water from natural sources such as rain water and ground water (Kırşan, Figure 1: Green facade example 2015). created by planting the soil (URL-1). Green façades grown in soil that without wall contact; in the type where a supporting trellis is needed, plants are rooted in the soil, but grow on a specially designed support structure that covers the façade because not every plant species has features enabling it to attach itself and grow directly on the façade. In this type of system, such plants do not come into contact with the wall and grow using the support structure (Fig. 2). Supportive trellis systems give the plants more opportunity to grow and develop their own shoots in the vertical direction. Modular trellis panel systems and cable and wirerope network systems are the most frequently used carrier systems (Erdoğdu, 2014). Figure 2: Green façades grown in soil that without wall contact (URL-2-3). - Green façades grown in containers These are systems in which the plants grow in soil in containers fixed at intervals to the wall at the required levels via a suspension system. In this system, plants need to be irrigated like normal potted plants because they are not rooted directly in the ground. For this reason, a continuous irrigation system is required (Kırşan, 2015). The time required for the plants to cover the surface of the wall depends on the species of plants, their number and the distance between the plants. 333 The small size of the containers allows the plants to grow only to a certain length and width. In order to enable plants to cover the walls in a shorter time, care should be taken to ensure that containers are placed at each level. The green façades grown in containers are divided into two types: those that come into contact with the wall and those that do not (Fig. 3). Figure 3: Green facade example created by potting way (URL-4-5). 2.2.2. Planted Walls Planted walls are divided into two groups: those that are naturally planted spontaneously and those using a system of prefabricated panels suitable for planting (Erdoğdu, 2014). - Natural planting The first vertical green system group consists of those naturally and spontaneously planted and in which the plants grow irregularly on the wall surface, especially in joints or cracks (Fig. 4). This system is usually seen on venues like old buildings, walls, monuments, ruined castle walls, and so on. The development of plant communities growing without any human intervention is mostly due to the disintegration level of the plaster, concrete or other binding materials (Erdogdu, 2014). Figure 4: Natural planted walls (URL-6-7). - Prefabricated panels suitable for planting The second group consists of vertical green systems with concrete panels. These purpose-built panels form a wall that provides for its own planting. This system is a new development in green structures and uses concrete panels with pores as the building elements (Fig. 5). In order to grow the plants, these pores are filled with soil. In this system, the plants are supplied with water from natural sources such as rain and snow. In addition, a certain number of plant species dependent on the pH value of the concrete are known to be able to survive on the surface, and these are preferred for this system (Ottele, 2011). 334 Figure 5: Vertical green systems with concrete panels (URL-8). 2.2.3. Living Walls The living wall system, like the green façade type, consists of cultivating plants in a growing medium attached to the wall as opposed to rooting them at the base of the wall (Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). Living wall systems can be designed for many different climates (Yu-Peng Yeh, 2010). This system is more suitable for building walls due to the separation of the plant layer from the wall and the use of a hydroponic system. The hydroponic system is a method used to grow soilless plants, and the growing medium itself is not a nutrient source. Plants can take necessary minerals directly from a nutrient solution instead of from nutrients in the ground. The drip irrigation system, which is preferred for the living wall system, keeps the growing medium moist. It is separated from the system carrier by a waterproof membrane (Dunnett & Kingsbury, 2008). Because of the diversity and density of the plants used in living wall systems, they require more intensive care than green façades. These systems can be built using existing wall carriers and without coming in contact with the building systems. Living wall systems, which can be applied to both external and interior spaces, are divided into two groups: the prefabricated and the in situ construction systems (Erdoğdu, 2014). - Prefabricated walls These systems, constructed from pre-planted panels mounted on the walls or components integrated with the structure provide the opportunity to grow herbaceous plants, shrubs, perennial flowers and edible plants. According to the characteristics of the growing medium used, prefabricated living walls are divided into three groups: container-planted, foam-layered and mineral wool-layered (Fig. 6) (Mir, 2011). Figure 6: Planted living walls in pots (URL-9-10). - In situ construction systems In situ construction systems are semi-prefabricated systems that can be 335 installed on the façades during the construction phase. The different layers of felt are mounted on the PVC plate in the form of pockets in which the plants are placed (Fig. 7). Due to the limited pocket area, plants with large root systems cannot be used in this system, nor can the plants grow too extensively. In addition, irrigation systems that operate automatically and are controlled by humidity sensors are used in these systems (Erdoğdu, 2014). Figure 7: Felt layered living walls (URL-11). 2.3. Usage Areas of Vertical Green Systems in Cities Vertical green systems in cities are applied for different purposes on buildings with different uses. Houses, business centers, shopping malls, sports centers, hotels, bridges, retaining walls and advertisement boards form appropriate platforms for vertical green system applications (Fig. 8). Figure 8: Usage areas of vertical green systems in cities (URL 12-13-14-15-16). 2.4. Contribution of Vertical Green Systems to Urban Ecology 2.4.1. Increasing Biodiversity and Creating a Natural Habitat The total number of plants and animal species and varieties in a region is called biodiversity. Biodiversity is an important component of ecosystems. The rapidly growth of populations and urbanization, overuse of natural resources and a gradual reduction of green spaces cause biodiversity to decrease and species to disappear. The application of vertical green systems in urban areas creates new habitats for flora and fauna. Especially with their rich diversity of plant species, vertical green systems contribute to biodiversity. The creation of vertical green systems provides a natural living habitat for insects, bees, butterflies, birds and so on. 2.4.2. Reducing Urban Heat Island Effect In the concept of the urban heat island, the heat in the city is greater than in the 336 surrounding rural area. The reduction of the natural plant cover in urban areas, the properties of the materials used in building elements, urban geometry and anthropogenic heat are all influential in the formation of the urban heat island effect (Yu-Peng Yeh, 2010). The most effective of these is the reduction of the natural vegetation cover in urban areas. In urban areas, concrete and asphalt surfaces that are exposed to sunlight during the day cause increased absorption of the heat rather than reflecting it, while in rural areas the vegetation cover provides shade and helps to reduce surface and air temperatures via evapotranspiration. In addition, the filling of lakes and seas due to intensive settlement decreases the amount of evaporation in urban areas, and the environment is deprived of its cooling effect during the transition from liquid to gas. By reflecting the sun's rays and increasing the evaporation surface in urban areas , vertical green systems are the most effective method of coping with the urban heat island effect today (Perini et al., 2011) and play an important role in increasing the amount of green space in cities. 2.4.3. Improving Air Quality The role of vertical green systems in increasing indoor and outdoor air quality is enormous. Depending on population growth, the major causes of air pollution in cities include the increase in vehicle usage and industrialization activity and the decrease in the amount of green space. Vertical green systems increase the amount of green space in cities and, thanks to the leaves and roots of the plants inside, retain the exhaust gases and dust in the air. Plants also produce oxygen while taking CO2 from the atmosphere. In this respect, by cleaning the air, they play an important role in improving the air quality of the space. The amount of harmful gases absorbed and dust retained varies according to the form, leaf structure and texture of the plants used in the vertical green systems. The use of vertical green systems in façades is seen as more effective than road afforestation for the reduction of air pollution (Mir, 2011). 2.4.4. Reducing Energy and Water Consumption Vertical green systems contribute to energy consumption and serve as thermal insulation, depending on the microclimatic conditions and the structure of the buildings where they are located (Bjerre, 2011). The thermal insulation property of vertical green systems saves energy in the winter by preventing indoor cooling and protecting the building from cold and in the summer by preventing entry of heat and decreasing the effect of heat via natural cooling. The cooling effect of the growing medium of the plants and their transpiration has also been observed (Tekin & Oğuz, 2011). In addition, heat losses and gains generated by air movements on the façades of the buildings are also reduced by vertical green systems (Loh, 2008). Thermal insulation is not the only benefit of vertical green systems. By enabling plants to absorb rain water, vertical green systems filter the water naturally and bring about ecological cycling. Vertical green systems help to reduce storm water and flooding by reducing the rain intensity during heavy rainfall. At the same time, they reduce the amount of chemicals and pollutants that reach the rivers and seas by filtering out the pollution in the water (Kanter et al., 2013). In addition to 337 supporting water conservation, vertical green systems serve to reduce the load on sewage systems (Tekin & Oğuz, 2011). 2.4.5. Reducing Noise Pollution With the intensive migrations to the cities, the resulting increase in the urban population brings with it the problems of noise pollution. Vertical green systems help to minimize the transport of city and traffic noise to the interior. The soil and plant materials used in vertical green systems have sound absorbing properties. For this reason, they assume the function of noise reduction in the building as well as in the vicinity surrounding it (Tekin & Oğuz, 2011). Success in noise insulation varies depending on the insulation material, the plant species and the density of their use. 2.4.6. Increasing the Amount of Urban Green Space The increase in the urban population also increases the rate of construction, causing green spaces to disappear in the urban centers. The increase in construction, which is a major problem for the establishment of green spaces, creates the opportunity for vertical green systems. Vertical green systems that cover the surface of a building are grown without paying the price of land in the city center and thus present an economical and ecological solution to today’s urbanization problem. 2.4.7. Adding to Aesthetic Appearance and Value With the reduction of green spaces in the cities, residential areas among the concrete surfaces have become increasingly gray. As their aspirations for nature increase, city dwellers look for the concept of green in their habitats. In this respect, vertical green systems offer aesthetic assets to the environment at both the urban and the building scale (Erdoğan & Khabbazi 2013). These systems add aesthetic value and attract interest by way of their structure as well as by features such as the color, form and texture of the plants present in their design forms (Kanter, 2014). 2.5. Comparison of the Contribution of Vertical Green Systems to Urban Ecology The contribution of vertical green systems to urban ecology varies according to system type (Table 2). Table 2: Comparison of contributions of vertical green systems to urban ecology (Mir, 2011). Systems Contribution to Urban Ecology Increasing biodiversity and creating a natural habitat Reducing urban heat island effect Improving air quality Reducing energy and water consumption Reducing noise pollution Adding to esthetic appearance and value X: Weak Degree XX: Good Degree Green façades Planted walls Living walls XX XX XX XX XX XX X X X X X X XX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX: Very Good Degree 338 2.6. Plant Species Used in Vertical Green Systems and Plant Selection Selection of plant species used in vertical green systems; • According to the way the sunlight came, • According to the climatic data of the region such as wind, temperature, rainfall and humidity, • Wall location, • The type of vertical green system to be applied and the layering model of this type, • It varies according to the visual effect required to be created. 2.6.1. Suggested Plants for Green facades Some of the recommended plants for green facades (Aygencel, 2011): Aloe ciliaris Bougainvillea sp. Cardinal climber Cardiospermum halicacabum Cissus antarctica Clematis sp. Clytostoma callistegioides Confederate jasmine Cuphea sp. Dalechampia dioscoreifolio Distictis buccinatoria Gelsemium sempervirens Hardenbergia sp. Hibiscus sp. Ipomoea indica Jasminum sp. Vigna caracalla Lathyrus odoratus Lonicera sp. Macfadyena unguis-cati Passiflora sp. Polygonum sp. Pyrostegia venusta Rosa sp. Solandra maxima Solanum jasminodes Stephanotis floribunda Tecomaria carpensis Thunbergia sp. Wisteria sinensis 339 2.6.2. Suggested Plants for Living Walls Some of the plants recommended for outdoor applications (Aygencel, 2011): Abutilon megapotamicum Heuchera palace purple Acorus gramıneus Lonicera pileata Adiantum venustum Medinilla magnifica Begonia sp. Pereskia rotundifolia Buddleja lindleyana Philodendron sp. Cistus purpureus Phygelius capensis Corydalis cheilantifolia Pilea petiolaris Cyrtomium falcatum Platycerium bifurcatum Cytisus sp. Polystichum munitum Dianthus sp. Russelia equisetiformis Fuchsia magellanica versicolor Salvia sp. Helianthemum henfield brilliant Sedum sp. Helixine sp. Weigela sp. 3. RESULTS As a result of changing conditions in the world, the migration to cities and growing urban population and the technological developments taking place, accordingly, structural density in cities is increasing and urban renovation is undergoing change. In this context, green spaces in cities are shrinking and more vehicles, buildings and environmental resources are being used (Erdoğan & Khabbazi, 2013). All these changes in cities are accompanied by pollution and its negative effects on life. When we look closely at the cities, it can be seen that vital resources such as air, water and soil are extensively polluted. On the other hand, the global climate change caused by the increase in CO2 is driving the future of the cities to the point of danger. As a result, cities are being turned into "dirty living environments" and lives are negatively affected. In these polluted environments people breathing toxins and consuming toxic foods and beverages become sicker and die earlier. New insights have been developed to make life in cities "sustainable" and to enable us to bequeath livable cities to future generations 340 (Kentleşme Şurası, 2009). The city dweller longs for nature and to create livable cities and healthy environments in order to improve the quality of urban life. Thus, efforts to increase the amount of green space per capita in cities have become an important issue in recent years. In this context, vertical green systems provide solutions that cannot be overlooked for developing new and environmentally sensitive insights in architecture and for bringing about more livable cities. Vertical green systems provide important contributions to urban ecology on both an urban scale and a building scale as well as aesthetic, visual and economic values because of their functions, which include preserving structures, making climatic effects more suitable for humans, improving environmental conditions and mitigating a number of environmental problems. Vertical green systems are of vital importance due to the healthy and suitable urban environments they create and they are extremely important resources as part of everyday life. Through the use of different application techniques and structural equipment as well as through excellent planting work both inside and outside of the city these systems can improve the quality of urban life (Yüksel, 2013). Vertical green systems are among the modern methods that humans resort to in order to enable their cities to breathe. Consequently, in the face of urbanization and its negative effects, the number of green system applications needs to be increased Regulations and standards should be established for the expansion of vertical green system applications. Furthermore, awareness of the positive effects of vertical green systems on the community along with the understanding and support of local administrations on this issue are extremely important. REFERENCES Aygencel, M. (2011). 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(2011). Yapı ile Yükselen Yeşil Duvarlar. Mimar Sinan Üniversitesi: İstanbul, p. 10. Timur, Ö.B.; Karaca, E. (2013). “Advances in Landscape Architecture”. Environmental Sciences, Çankırı, Turkey. Yu-Peng Ye, (2010). “Green Wall; the Creative Solution in Response to the Urban Heat Island Effect”, National Chung-Hsing University. Yücel, G.; Elgin, Ü. (2010). “Duvar Bahçesi: Dikey Bahçe / Yeşil Duvar”. Mavi Yapı Dergisi, 1(2): 51-53. Yüksel, D.Ü. (2005). Ankara Kentinde Kentsel Isı Adası Etkisinin Yaz Aylarında Uzaktan Algılama ve Meteorolojik Gözlemlere Dayalı Olarak Saptanması ve Değerlendirilmesi Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim Dalı, Ankara. Yüksel, N. (2013). Dikey Bahçe Uygulamalarının Yurtdışı ve İstanbul Örnekleri İle İrdelenmesi, Bahçeşehir Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Kentsel Sistemler Ve Ulaştırma Yönetimi Yüksek Lisans Programı, İstanbul 73 pp. URL-1.https://sait-pro-dachu.ru/pletistye-rozy-v-landshaftnom-dizajne/Accessed 01.05.2018 342 URL-2. http://www.worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-imagefiles/PDF/Euro_Inox/VertGard Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-3.http://preprodtest.archdaily.com 2013, http://www.archdaily.com 2013. Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-4.http://fresh-thinking.org/9869/ Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-5.http://oukas.info/?u=BuildingGreen Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-6.https://pxhere.com/es/photo/968402 Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-7.https://pixabay.com/tr/bitki-duvar-%C3%A7i%C3%A7ek-santur-ot-mavi188727/ Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-8.http://architizer.com/projects/aeronautical-cultural-center Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-9.http://www.erkonltd.com.tr/hi/dikey-bahce-uygulamalari-7.html Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-10.https://www.emlakwebtv.com/konut-projelerinde-dikey-bahcetrendibasliyor/10865 Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-11.http://landscapingindurbanville.co.za/vertical-garden/ Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-12.https://www.thecivilengineer.org/news-center/latest-news/item/1157vertical-gardens-in-mexico-city-to-combat-pollution Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-13.http://peyzax.com/yercekimine-direnen-yesil-alanlar-caglardemir/Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-14.https://architectureau.com/calendar/talk/vertical-gardens-patrick-blanc/ Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-15. http://www.gradjevinarstvo.rs/vesti/7820/810/zeleni-zid-protiv-buke Accessed 01.05.2018. URL-16.https://www.nda.ac.uk/blog/vertical-gardens-sustainable-design/ Accessed 01.05.2018. 343 Chapter 27 Assessment of Working Postures of Nursery Workers in Seedling Production Activities Saliha UNVER OKAN Assist. Prof. Dr.; Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Trabzon, Turkey INTRODUCTION As the demand for a quality working life increases in industrialized societies, ensuring occupational safety and health in working environments has become more important. Thus, planning of work flows in such a way to preserve the rights of workers to leading a healthy life and taking required measures by determining the ergonomic risk levels of workers have become hot topics in the agenda. Forests are living ecosystems that have various economic, ecological and social functions for societies. Increasing the amount of forest areas or ensuring sustainability of the products and services they provide is only possible through afforestation activities that use accurate methods and healthy seedlings (Kaya, 2016). Success of planting activities in forests relies on using the saplings of the type and origin suitable for growing conditions, in desired quality and quantity, in a timely manner and with accurate techniques (Çepel, 1978). The need for forest tree saplings in Turkey is accommodated by forest nurseries operating in 62 provinces in affiliation with the Presidency of Forest Nursery and Seedling Works (Forest Management, 2015). One of the most significant ergonomic risks in nursery works which are mostly of a labor-intensive nature is the wrong working postures. The most common working postures in nursery works include many physically-challenging works such as long-staying in the same position, bending down & standing up, stretching, pushing-carrying-lifting and doing repetitive works. Poor working postures have been considered as the main factor of musculoskeletal system disorders which are among the primary causes of occupational diseases in recent years (Kee and Karwowski, 2007; Choobineh et al., 2007; WHO, 2003; Buckle and Devereux, 2002). SAPLING GROWING ACTIVITIES IN FOREST NURSERY The main of seedling production activities in forest nurseries; control of the seeds, sowing of seeds in the containers or seedbeds, planting of seedlings, picking, thinning, cutting propagation and replanting. Seed Elimination: It is defined as shaking the seeds – that were already dried by spreading them outdoors – inside a sieve to take out the cones or capsules from it (Figure 1). Workers generally do this work in a sitting position whereas they stretch and turn to right and left as they put the seeds in to the sieve, eliminate the seeds and take the seeds out of the sieve. 344 Figure 1: Body posture in sifting Sowing of Seed into Containers: Sowing of seeds is conducted by mechanically, semi-mechanically and manually methods. In mechanical planting, the worker fills in tanks of the machine with soil and places the empty containers on to the machine. The soil-filled container slides on the moving counter and arrives at just under the seed-planting chamber where seeds are sowed in them and the worker covers the seeds with soil (Figure 2). In manual seed sowing work, putting the base material on the pot, spreading the seeds and covering them with soil are all conducted manually by workers (Figure 2). In semi-mechanized method, the machine only fills the base material in to the pot while all other works are conducted manually by workers. Figure 2: Sowing of seeds into container mechanically and manually 345 Sowing Seeds into Seedbeds: Workers place seeds into the sowing lines carved by machines on the seedbeds (Figure 3-a) and spread soil on them manually (Figure 3-b). (b) (a) Figure 3: Sowing of seeds on seedbeds (a) and closure with material (b) Planting of Seedlings: Firstly, a hole is dug in the places marked by a pick according to the size of the seedling to be planted. The seedling is taken out of the planting tube and put into the hole. The root of the seedling is covered with soil. Picking: Weeds around the seedlings are picked to minimize the loss of water and nutrients in the soil. Picking is conducted early at the beginning of the vegetation period following the planting before the seeds of weeds become mature and fall. Picking is conducted on seedbeds either manually or by using an anchor. During hand picking, workers pick the fresh weeds in sitting or bending position (Figure 4-a) whereas they pick the weeds in standing position when they use an anchor (Figure 4-b). (a) (b) Figure 4: Weed removal by hand (a) and anchor (b) Replanting: Replanting is the work of taking out the saplings planted in beds or containers when it is not their growing period and replanting them in larger containers or beds at larger intervals (Güner et al., 2008). In replanting work with saplings in tubes, workers turn or stretch to reach and take the polyethylene bags or pots which are on the ground to their right-hand side. They put the soil which they 346 pull towards themselves by means of an anchor into bags or buckets by using handshovels, and they place the sapling into the soil and fills the remaining parts with soil (Unver-Okan and Kaya, 2015). Finally, as they finish replanting, they turn to their left-hand side to put the replanted sapling into a box (Figure 5). Figure 5: Replanting Stages Cutting Propagation: Cutting is the work of parting the body, branch, root or leaves of a plant from the main plant and rooting it in another place under convenient conditions (Söğüt, 2012). In cutting work, branches to be cut are stacked on one side of the worker while the soil-filled polyethylene pots in which branches will be planted are lined up in front of the worker. The worker turns and stretches to his/her right-hand side to cut parts from branches by using a knife and then places the cut parts into soil-filled pots (Figure 6). Figure 6: Working steps of cutting propagation ASSESSMENT OF WORKING POSTURES Posture is simply defined as the existing body position when working activities are conducted. Working posture is alignment of body, head, torso, arms and legs according to the work and characteristics of the work. (Kocabaş, 2009). Correctness of body posture during work is an important indicator for a healthy and successful working life. Bad working postures might even cause various musculoskeletal disorders from minor back pain to disability. What makes a working posture bad includes having the neck and shoulders on a fixed position, repeating the work you 347 do, working for a long time without giving a break, doing heavy work manually, lifting and carrying heavy loads and not having enough time to regenerate between two moves (Esen and Fığlalı, 2013). Having a wrong posture for a long time in working life may result in WRMD. Occupational diseases with such causes can create serious loss materially and immaterially for both employees-employers and the government (Unver-Okan et al., 2017). Ergonomic assessment of working postures is made in three methods such as direct measurement, observational and subjective assessments (Pinzke and Kopp, 2001). The methods that are mostly preferred in field practices are the observational ones because they save time and cost and they are easy to use (Graves et al., 2004). These methods are divided into two categories as basic and advanced observational methods. The RULA (Rapid Upper Limb Assessment) method, which is used to assess body postures of workers in various sectors, is a method which is highly preferred by ergonomists and which is moderately difficult to use (Yazdanirad et al., 2018; Pascual and Naqvi, 2008). Ergonomic risk assessments made by means of the RULA method in different sectors show that mostly moderate or high-risk levels are often figured out and these risks can be reduced to tolerable levels if relevant measures are taken (Özyörük and Kütük, 2014; Sanchez-Lite et al., 2013; Berberoğlu and Tokuç, 2013; Oates et al., 2008). RAPID UPPER LIMB ASSESSMENT (RULA) The RULA method is a basic observational method developed for a quick assessment of the load on musculoskeletal system (McAtamney and Corlett, 1993). This method is used to calculate the probability of occurrence of occupational upper limb diseases stemming from the strain on upper limbs of workers by figuring out the works they repeat most or carry out for the longest period. Furthermore, the muscle power consumed by the worker during the work and the works that result in muscle fatigue can also be identified (Can and Fığlalı, 2014). The RULA method focuses on the upper extremities and torso, and the work is analyzed for a given point of time. In this method, there are certain constrains in assessment of movement intervals. The disadvantages of this method can be listed as ambiguity of observation period or observation intervals for practices and bad adaptation to highly-variable working conditions. This method analyses the human body by dividing it into two classes as Group A (upper arm, lower arm, wrist and wrist flexion) and Group B (trunk, neck and leg parts) (Table 1, Table 2). In this method, scoring is conducted according to flexions and extensions that occur in body sections in the groups above and additional scores are also given for bending or turning movements during these postures. 348 Table 1: Body section diagram of Grup A (McAtamney and Corlett, 1993). Positions Upper Arm/ Shoulder Flexion:0-20o Point Adjust 1 Extension:0-20o Flexion:20-45o 2 Upper arm is abducted: +1 3 Shoulder is raised: +1 4 Arm is supported:-1 Extension: >20o Flexion:45o-90o Flexion: >90 o Lower Arm Flexion:60o-100o 1 Flexion: <60o 2 Extension: >100o Either arm is working across midline or out the side of body: +1 Wrist Flexion: 0o 1 Extension: 0o Flexion:0-15o 2 Extension: 0-15o Flexion: >15o Wrist is bent from midline: +1 3 Extension: >15o 349 Table 2: Body section diagram of Grup B (McAtamney and Corlett, 1993). Trunk Point Vertical Flexion:0-20o 1 2 Flexion:20o-60o 3 Flexion: >60o 4 Adjust Twisted/side bending: +1 Neck Flexion: 0-10 o o Flexion: 10-20 Flexion: >20o 1 2 3 Twisted/side bending: +1 Extension:>20o 4 Legs Legs and feet are supported Standing and body weight equally balanced on both feet Legs and feet are not supported 1 1 2 Scores given separately for upper arm, lower arm, wrist and wrist flexion in the assessment conducted according to Table 1 are placed in to Table A given in Table 3, whereby a score value is determined as a combination of all these scores. The score A obtained from Table 3 is added with muscle utilization score and force/load score (if one or several body sections remain static for more than 1 minute or if the action is repeated for more than 4 times a minute, 1 point is given; if the load lifted is lighter than 2 kg, 0 point is given; if the load is between 2 and 10 kg and is lifted at intervals, 1 point is given; if it is lifted at repeating intervals, 2 points are given; and if the load is heavier than 10 kg, 3 points are given). The scores obtained from Table 2 for each body section specified in Group B are placed in Table 4, and a score value is specified as a combination of all these scores. Muscle utilization score and the force/load score point is added to this value to calculate Score B value. 350 Table 3: Table A (Middlesworth, 2007). Wrist Score Upper Arm 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 Wrist Twist Lower Arm 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 Wrist Twist 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 9 1 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 9 3 Wrist Twist 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 7 7 8 9 9 1 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 9 9 4 Wrist Twist 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 7 7 8 9 9 9 Table 4: Table B (Middlesworth, 2007). Neck Posture Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 Legs 1 1 2 3 5 7 8 2 Legs 2 3 3 3 5 7 8 1 2 2 3 5 7 8 2 3 3 4 6 7 8 Trunk Posture Score 3 4 Legs Legs 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 5 Legs 1 6 6 6 7 8 9 2 6 7 7 7 8 9 6 Legs 1 2 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 Score A and Score B values obtained for Group A and Group B are placed in the Table C which is in Table 5 to find the RULA risk score. 351 Wrist/Arm Score (Point A) Table 5: Table C (McAtamney and Corlett, 1993). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8+ 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 Neck, Trunk, Leg Score (Point B) 3 4 5 3 3 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 5 4 5 6 5 6 6 6 6 7 6 7 7 6 5 5 5 6 7 7 7 7 7+ 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 7 For the risk score calculated, the RULA action levels are assessed according to the classification in Table 6. Table 6: Action levels for RULA method (Middlesworth, 2007). Score 1-2 3-4 5-6 6+ Risk Level Acceptable Low Medium High Action No action Change may be needed Further investigation and modification Implement change now CONCLUSIONS The working postures of workers in seed elimination, diversion, cutting propagation, manual seed planting, planting seeds with machine, planting seedlings in containers, hand picking and anchor picking were assessed by means of the RULA ergonomic risk assessment method. In replanting, seed elimination and cutting works, upper arm sections of workers display an internal flexion of 20-45o and external extension of more than 20o while internal flexion of 45-90o was seen in upper arm for other works examined. Furthermore, additional scores should be given to these postures in assessment as lateral flexion of upper arm or rotation movement is conducted in nursery works except for sowing seeds. Nevertheless, in replanting, planting saplings in containers, seed elimination and cutting propagation works which are conducted in sitting position, (-1) point should be considered as the arms get support from knee caps. In hand picking and anchor picking, internal flexion of lower arm at 60-100o was found out while in other nursery works internal flexion at <60o and external extension at >100o were found out. At the wrists, in all nursery works, internal flexion at 0-15o and external extension at 0-15o occurs. At the neck, internal flexion occurs at 10o-20o in mechanical sowing and anchor picking works whereas it was higher than 20o in all other works. Additional scores should be given considering that lateral bending or rotation movement occurs at the neck in all works. 352 Worker’s experience bending at >60o in their trunk when they do manual or anchor picking while they bend at 0o-20o in other works. In all works but anchor picking, lateral bending or rotation movements occur at the torso, which requires additional scoring. Legs and feet are not in a balanced position in hand picking whereas balance is ensured in other works because workers are in the sitting position. Moreover, extra scores were added to their RULA scores as workers had static body postures for more than one minute during these works and they conduct actions that entail repetition more than four times a minute. Once the scoring was concluded, assessments were conducted in the relevant tables as per the method and action levels were identified for each nursery work. The risk score was defined as “moderate” for seed elimination, replanting and manual seed sowing whereas it was found to be “high” in other works. Accordingly, measures need to be taken in the works that have a moderate risk sore though it is not very urgent while measures need to be taken as soon as possible in the works that have a high risk score. REFERENCES Berberoğlu, U.; Tokuç, B. (2013). Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders at Two Textile Factories in Edirne. Balkan Medical Journal 30(1), 23-27. Buckle, P.W. & Devereux, J.J. (2002). The Nature of Work-Related Neck and Upper Limb Musculoskeletal Disorders. Appl Ergon. 33(3), 207–17. Choobineh, A.; Tabatabaei, S.H.; Mokhtarzadeh, A.; Salehi, M. (2007). Musculoskeletal Problems among Workers of an Iranian Rubber Factory. J. Occup Health 49, 418–23. Çepel, N. (1978). Forest Ecology, Istanbul University Faculty of Forestry Publications, No. 257, Istanbul, 534p. Esen, H. & Fığlalı, N. (2013). Working Posture Analysis Methods and the Effects of Working Posture on Musculoskeletal Disorders. SAU J. Sci. 17(1), 41-51. Graves, R.J.; Way, K.; Riley, D.; Lawton, C.; Morris, Z. (2004). Development of Risk Filter andRisk Assessment Worksheets for HSE Quidance-“Upper Limb Disorders in the Workplace”, Applied Ergonomics 35(5), 475-484. Güner, T.; Çömez, A.; Karataş, R.; Genç, M. (2012). The Effect of Seedbed Density on the Field Performance of Anatolian Black Pine Seedlings. J. of the Faculty of Forestry Istanbul Univ. 62(2), 89-96. Kaya, A. (2016). Some Anthropometric Features on Women Forest Nursery Workers and Evaluation of Theır Working Positions. Master Thesis, The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Karadeniz Technical University, 123p., Trabzon Kee, D. & Karwowski, W. (2007). A Comparison of Three Observational Techniques for Assessing Postural Loads in Industry. Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. 13(1), 3–14. Kocabaş, M. (2009). Analysis of Working Postures That Cause Strain on Workers That Work in Dangerous and Heavy Works. Master Thesis, Selçuk University Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, 80p., Konya. 353 McAtamney, L. & Corlett, E.N. (1993). RULA: A Survey Method for the Investigation of Work-Related Upper Limb Disorders. Applied Ergonomy 24, 91–99. Middlesworth, M. (2007). A Step-by-Step Guide: Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA). Ergonomics Plus from www. Ergo-Plus.Com. Oates, S.; Evans, G. W.; Hedge, A. (2008). An Anthropometric and Postural Risk Assessment of Children's School Computer Work Environments. Computers in the Schools 14(3-4), 55-63. Özyörük, B. & Kütük, D. (2014). Effect of Redesigning Working Area on Work Efficiency. Ergotherapy and Rehabilitation 2(2), 73-81. Pascual, S.A. & Naqvi, S. (2008). An Investigation of Ergonomics Analysis Tools Used in Industry in the Identification of Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders. Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. 14 (1), 237-45 Pinzke, S. & Kopp, L. (2001). Marker-Less Systems for Tracking Working Postures-Results from Two Experiments. App. Ergon. 32(5), 461–471. Sanchez-Lite, A.; Garcia, M.; Domingo, R.; Sebastian, M.A. (2013). Novel Ergonomic Postural Assessment Method (NERPA) Using Product-Process Computer Aided Engineering for Ergonomic Workplace Design. Plos One 8(8), 1-8. Söğüt, Z. (2012). Nursery Techniques. Report of Mersin Flora Ornamental Plants Project. 144p. Unver-Okan, S.; Acar, H.H.; Kaya, A. (2015). Analysis of The Working Postures with Reba Method for The Repikaj Works in Nursery, SDU J. of Engineering Sciences and Design 3(3), 157-163. Unver-Okan, S.; Kaya, A.; Acar, H.H. (2017). Determination of Work Postures with Different Ergonomic Risk Assessment Methods in Forest Nurseries, Fresenius Envir. Bulletin 26(12), 7362-7371. WHO (2003). Scientific Group on the Burden of Musculoskeletal Conditions at the Start of the New Millennium. The Burden of Musculoskeletal Conditions At The Start of The New Millennium. World Health Organ Tech Rep Sery 3, 112–119. Yazdanirad, S.; Khoshakhlagh, A.H.; Habibi, E.; Zare, A.; Zeinodini, M.; Dehghani, F. (2018). Comparing the Effectiveness of Three Ergonomic Risk Assessment Methods-RULA, LUBA, and NERPA-to Predict the Upper Extremity Musculoskeletal Disorders. Indian J. Occup. Environ. Med 22(1), 1721. 354 Chapter 28 The Foliar Application: Are We Applying Right? Senay AYDIN1 and E. Dilşat YEĞENOGLU2 1 Prof. Dr., Manisa Celal Bayar University, Alasehir Vocational School, Alasehir, Manisa, Turkey. 2 Faculty Member, Dr. Manisa Celal Bayar University, Alasehir Vocational School, Alasehir, Manisa, Turkey. INTRODUCTION Foliar fertilization is explained as the application of organic or inorganic liquid fertilizers via spraying to the plant leaves. The history of foliar fertilization is not new; however, there has been increased usage of foliar fertilizers in recent years. When we reviewed the brief history of foliar fertilization, foliar feeding was first used in France against Fe chlorosis with spraying iron sulphate to leaves in 1844. The purpose of fertilization is to supply some nutrients that the plant is needed and promoted the growth, development and yield. The expected result from the foliar fertilization is not replacing soil fertilization. Since the fertilization is aimed to supply a plant’s nutrient requirements, soil fertilization is more economical and effective for macro elements (N, P, K) while foliar fertilization is a good choice as a secondary and/or microelement supplement. Plant nutrition is the essential component of the plant production (Haytova, 2012; URL2; URL3). Foliar fertilization can be applied throughout the vegetation periods. The amount of solution is small, and it enables to feed a plant in different phases of the development when the plant required specific needs for each phase. Nutrient uptake may accelerate by spraying of leaves so nutrient deficiencies and disorders related with them can quickly corrected. It may also be fast solution for the stress problems in plants. Foliar fertilizers are mixed with pesticides and reduced the production cost (URL2). Roots are the main nutrient uptaking organ in plants. During the foliar fertilization, the fertilizer solution is sprayed as fine mist to the leaves. First, leaf is the primary organ for uptaking C02, 02 and S02 gases. However, leaves are absorbed the ion formed substances, too. The gas change provides by the small openings at micron level, which are called stomata. The stomata have guarding cells around them, and the contraction of those cells allow the opening and closing of stomata like a switch. Because of this feature, a stoma could manage the gas exchange and stress response (balancing the loss of water due to high evaporation rate) in high ambient temperature as well as taking C02 to use in photosynthesis. There are 150 to 3000 stoma in plant leaf blade (URL4; Hakerlerler and Anaç, 1994). Factors that make it difficult to absorb nutrients by plant roots may cause the 355 obligation to feed from leaves. In such a case, the plant can be fed by spraying dilute nutrient solutions from leaves. Sixteen elements are essential for plant nutrition and development (C, H, O, N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, B, Cl). Those elements are the requirements of the plants. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are provided from the atmosphere and soil water while the others can be uptaken from soil. If the plant has difficulty to getting them from the soil, the organic and inorganic fertilizers can be used as suppliers (URL5). Plant’s need for these nutrients is variable depending on several conditions such as the cultivar, environment, soil composition etc. Plants are food sources for both humans and animals. They are living organisms and like any other organism; they need optimum conditions to survive. Let us remember Liebig’s law, Justus Von Liebig formulated the “Law of the Minimum”, Liebig’s Law stated that the growth of plants relies on whichever the nutrient has the shortest supply, even if the others are abundant. Thus, the plant’s development and growth depend on the status of the nutrient availability and the level. If the level of some nutrients in the soil is less than the minimum requirement, the plant starts to show nutrient disorders just as the excessive uptake of a particular nutrient can cause toxicity. In general plants uptake these nutrients from soil as in return when plants are death the decomposition of their remains provide organic matter and nutrients to the soil. (URL5; URL6; URL7; URL8). Plants produce their own and our nutrients from photosynthesis. The photosynthesis process needs chlorophyll, sunlight, water, carbon dioxide and other enzymes with the supplement of inorganic molecules such as Fe, which takes place in Chlorophyll molecular structure. The thirteen nutrients except from C, H, O are called as mineral nutrients. They are dissolved in water and absorbed from plant roots. These mineral nutrients are divided into two groups as macro and microelements. Macroelements are such as nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K) (primary nutrients) and calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and, sulfur (S) (secondary nutrients). Microelements are essential for crop development but they are needed less amounts. These are boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), chloride (Cl), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo) and zinc (Zn). Because of different reasons such as the availability of the nutrient, plant or environmental conditions, a plant cannot uptake these nutrients from the soil. It is why farmers are needed to use fertilizers. The application of fertilizers is also related with the economy. Due to the prices of a fertilizer, farmers may hesitate to apply nutrients such as microelements or secondary elements. However, as Justus Von Liebig’s the minimum law states whichever the nutrients in the soil is missing, growth and yield regressed even so the other nutrients supplied (URL9; URL5; URL6; URL7; URL8). Nutrient deficiencies and toxicities in plants are first seen on the leaves. In some cases, the symptom of deficiency may not be seen on the leaves. If there is a hidden deficiency, it could be determined by the leaf analysis. Nutrient deficiencies in the leaves of the plant occur within a certain system. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) deficiencies are found in the 356 older leaves of annual plants and in the leaves at the bottom of the shoots in perennial plants. Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu) and Boron (B) deficiencies (microelements) are found in young leaves, fruits, branches and shoots. Molybdenum deficiency can be seen in both young and old leaves. The deficiency symptom can be seen from the leaf tip to the leaf stem, as well as from the leaf edge to the leaf mid-vein, or between the veins. It can be seen in leaf size and in leaf form (curling etc.). Those changes in leaf color, size and form are used for the diagnosis of each nutrient deficiency (Eryüce, 1993; Hakerlerler and Anaç, 1994; URL9). Regardless, ions could be absorbed through leaf surface; the activity of stoma in this process is less than realized since stomata are more suitable for the gas exchange. The surface tension is high due to the stoma size. The possible role of stomata in foliar fertilization has drawn attention in the beginning of the last century. However, the surface tension problem for infiltration is also stated, using of pure water without a surface-active agent to lower surface tension may also cause absorption problems. The theory of foliar fertilization based on a 1950’s study, showing leaves can absorb minerals through their stomata even from cuticles (URL10). In their study, Dr Tukey used of radioactive labelled elements to demonstrate the absorption through leaves. Several soil conditions are affected the availability of macro and microelements from the soil. However, there is no evidence that a material applied from leaves reached to the each part in the plant as they applied from soil, this phenomenon can be seen for “immobile” elements. The terms of mobile and immobile indicates the transportability of a substance within the plant. Mobile nutrients are nitrogen in the form of ammonium nitrate, phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and chlorine (Cl), Calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), iron (Fe), boron (B), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) are immobile (URL11). For example, an immobile element such as Calcium can uptake from the leaf, however, it stayed in the absorption spot because of its immobility (Eyyüce, 1994). These elements could also helpful for diagnosing the plant nutrition problems, since the deficiency symptoms for a mobile element are first seen in the older leaves while the deficiency of an immobile element is seen in younger leaves. Aquatic plants can directly absorb the immobile elements as foliar application can be used for terrestrial plants in the circumstance of immobile element deficiency (URL11). As it explained in above, price has also decisive role in fertilizer applications. Macroelements such as N, P, K are needed large amounts for plants so it would be pointless to apply them as foliar fertilization without regarding the some possibility of side effects such as leaf burning by water evaporation and remaining salts if they used in large quantities. The stomata size and surface tension and waxy cuticle structure restrict the entrance of water and nutrients. It means the amount of absorption of these major elements is small and it does not meet the real requirement so foliar fertilization of them should be considered as supportive applications for soil fertilization (URL12; Hakerler and Anaç, 1994). Different nutrient substances have different usefullness rate and there are 357 differences between the forms of the same substances, i.e the nitrogen in urea form replies deficiency problem much better than the nitrogen’s other forms. Similarly, metal-chelates help the absorption. The leaf surface area and the age of the leaf are also important since the absorption rate is decreased with senescence (Eryüce, 1993). The uptake rate from leaves is more different from the uptake rate from roots. It is mostly managed by diffusion instead of active transport based on the ions in the solution which is sprayed on the leaf surface pass through the cuticle and cell wall. Plants have different features about absorption ability from leaves. Cuticle thickness, stomatal resistance, genetic background as well as environmental conditions are affected the ability of nutrient uptake from leaves for plants. Greenhouse plants could take up nutrients from leaves more easily than the field plants since their cuticles are thinner and more porous than the field plants. Environmental conditions such as drought or salt stress are also affected this ability. The growth of plants in arid areas has thicker and less penetrable cuticles because of the stress defense mechanism (URL10-12). When do we need foliar fertilization? Fertilization from the leaf becomes important when there is a condition that prevents the plant requirements from the soil. In general, heavy metals such as Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu fix by the soil, and the nutrient uptake from soil could be difficult, as well as deep rooted plants, insufficient irrigation and precipitation, the price of the fertilizer, the insufficient development of root system are the other reasons for foliar fertilization. The soil conditions like extreme pH levels (high or low), drought, and excessive moisture can decrease the availability of each nutrient in the soil. Soil and leaf analysis are important to evaluate the deficiency situations. If the nutrient deficiency has visual symptoms or soil analysis is pointed the specific element deficiency, foliar application can be a fast solution, but it would be a temporary one until the underlying problem will be fixed. The foliar fertilization of micronutrients is the well-known example of its usefulness. Iron chlorosis can give as a classic case. Iron chlorosis is the typical yellowing of leaves caused by iron deficiency. The yellowing indicates the decreasing in chlorophyll content, since the chlorophyll is one of the main component in photosynthesis, yellowing can cause reduction in plant development and yield. Iron chlorosis is frequently seen in alkaline soil (pH above from 7) with the presence of lime, in these conditions, iron is not available for plant roots even if the soil contains enough or high level of iron. Ffor the iron chlorosis correction is to apply foliar fertilization. Iron can applied as iron salts or chelated forms of iron. If the soil problem is not solved, -lowering soil pH, choosing resistant cultivars,- the foliar fertilization must be repeat during vegetation period. (URL13; URL14; URL3; URL15) We can summarize the question of when we need foliar fertilization at three main points (URL3). A) There is a condition in the soil limiting the availability of soil nutrients. B) Even if we apply fertilizer to the soil, it can be high losses for a reason C) The plant is needed specific requirements for the certain phase of growth and there is a limiting factor because of the environmental conditions. 358 Foliar fertilization should meet the requirements of the plant. The quantity absorbed from leaves is small regarding to plant’s need. For this reason, it is not the definite answer to the deficiencies of macro elements like N, P, K. The droplets of the sprayed solution should also be small. Large droplets can cause burns or move away from the leaves. Avoiding foliar fertilization in hot and sunny times is necessary so that the solution can stay on the leaf surface for a long time; the fertilizer should apply on cool, cloudy days or night time. For immobilized elements such as boron, the foliar fertilization of specific nutrient must be applied several times during the growth period. The application of heavy metals in chelate forms increases the takeability. Addition of a wetting agent to the solution decreases surface tension on the leaf and may increase absorption. Many foliar fertilizers are applied in the salt form. Sometimes the nutrient needs a carrier such as protein, acid, or sugar. The nutrients associated with the organic substances may remain dissociated. The idea of chelating has emerged from this quintessence. The concentration of the solution is also important. Higher concentrations cause damage to the leaves. It is determined by isotope studies that absorption of the microelements are of Cu> Zn> Mn in leaf tissue, respevtively (URL12; URL13, URL14; URL3; Eryüce, 1994). The absorption of sprayed nutrients from leaf surface is depended on several conditions such as the formulation, the wetting, spreading and retention of the solution on leaf surface, penetration and distribution site. The penetration rate of the solution is reduced by drying which is related with environmental conditions. The concentration of nutrient solution should be selected regarding some factors such as macro or microelements, plant species, the nutritional status of the plant and environmental conditions. It is important that each components in the solution are properly dissolved and suspended to refrain remaining residues and possibility of leaf burning. Water is the common dissolver for foliar fertilizers; the fertilizer solution has some active ingredients such as salts, chelating agents and mineral nutrients. Commercial nutrient sprays generally have two major components active ingredients and adjuvants. Adjuvants can be used for improving spreading and persistence (wetting and sticking) of active ingredients. Molecular weight of ingredients, electric charge, pH, humidity, temperature are playing essential roles in the performance of foliar fertilization. For example, many of the Fe chelates are negatively charged (URL12; URL13, URL14; URL3; Eryüce, 1994). When is the time for foliar fertilization? The critical answer for this question is proper phase of plant growth. Foliar fertilization should be adjusted with the phase and the needs of the plant in this stage. Multiple applications with low rates could be helpful. Leaf tissue analysis will tell which elements are needed, and give a chance to prepare suitable fertilization program. The condition of the plant is also important. A plant in heat or moisture stress gives a reduced response, but if the foliar fertilization is applied before the stress, it could be improved plant performance and yield. Environmental conditions; temperature, moisture, wind speed and the time of the day are related with the success of foliar fertilization. The absorption of nutrients are dependent on the tissue permeability. The permeability is higher in warm, moist and warm weather. Ate evening hours and 359 occasionally early morning hours are provided these conditions (URL3). The major purpose of the foliar fertilization is to provide maximum absorption into the plants from leaves. Because of that, fertilizers should have some specific properties such as low salt index, high solubility and high purity. Even though the amount of foliar fertilizers applied to the plant is less than soil fertilizers, their utilization rate is higher than the uptake from root. However, we should remember that foliar fertilization cannot meet the total requirements of a plant, especially for major nutrients like N, P, K. Foliar fertilizers are effective when there is a problem in the soil limiting the availability of a nutrient i.e, Fe status in alkaline soils. Foliar fertilization is only a temporary solution; the soil nutrient availability problem in the soil should be cared. We should not assume foliar fertilization could be used as substitution for soil fertilization and proper soil management. Soil analysis must be done in every year and suitable soil fertilization program will be applied based on the results. The cost and economical effectiveness of the foliar application should also regarded in fertilization program. CONCLUSION Since 1843, when Gris sprayed plants with iron solution for correcting the iron chlorosis, foliar fertilization has found a widespread application area in plant production. Today, foliar fertilization is used to correct nutrient deficiencies and relieve the effects of stress conditions. Some of the advantages are immediate resulting, increasing yield and quality, boosting growth, helpful in stress conditions, helpful for pest and disease resistance. Some of the disadvantages are; the need for multiple applications, the requirement for even distribution on all sides of the plant, the importance of the concentration since it may have a toxic effect, the requirement for irrigation water for dissolving. However, further studies are needed for understanding the process and mechanism of this fertilization type as well as the optimization of plant response. REFERENCES Eryüce, N. (1993). Yaprak Gübrelemesinin Fizyolojik ve Pratik Yönden İncelenmesi. E.Ü.Ziraat Fak.Derg. 30(3) 137-144. Hakerlerler, H; Anaç, D. (1994). Bitkilerin Yapraktan Gübrelenmesi. Ege Üniversitesi Tarımsal Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi. Teknik Bülten, No:19. Haytova, D. (2013). A Review of Foliar Fertilization of Some Vegetable Crops. Annual Review and Research in Biology, 3 (4): 455-465. URL1: SESL (2018). http://sesl.com.au/blog/what-is-foliar-fertilisation/. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL2: https://manicbotanix.com/beneficial-additives-in-hydroponics/4/. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL3: Midwestlabs (1994). https://midwestlabs.com/wpcontent/uploads/2017/01/foliar_nutrition.pdf. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL4: Regina Bailey (2018). https://www.thoughtco.com/plant-stomata360 function- 4126012. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL5: Uchida, R. (2000). Essential Nutrients for Plant Growth: Nutrient Functions and Deficiency Symptoms. http://src.gov.jm/wpcontent/uploads/2013/02/pnm3.pdf. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL6: Mosaic (2018). http://www.cropnutrition.com/the-law-of-theminimum. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL7: https://www.nicholls.edu/biol-ds/Biol156/Lectures/Plant%20Nutrition.pdf. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL8: http://www.esalq.usp.br/lepse/imgs/conteudo_thumb/PlantNutrition-IIa- Macronutrients.pdf. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL9: Toros Tarım (2016). https://www.toros.com.tr/documents/file/FlipBook/Yapraktan%20Gu%CC%8 8brele me-2016-07-15-17-5100/Yapraktan%20G%C3%BCbreleme/files/assets/common/downloads/publication .p df. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL10: Chalker-Scott, L. The Myth of Foliar Feeding. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). Available at: https://s3.wp.wsu.edu/uploads/sites/403/2015/03/foliarfeeding.pdf. URL11: http://www.aqua-rebell.com/aquatic-plants/mobile-immobilenutrients.html. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL12: http://www.walterreeves.com/tools-and-chemicals/foliar-fertilizationpros-and- cons/. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL13: ATTRA (2003). Kuepper, G. Foliar Fertilization. Available at: https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/download.php?id=286. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL14: IFA (2013). Fernadez, V.; Sotiropoulos, T.; Brown, P. Foliar Fertilization, Scientific Principles and Field Practices. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264810852_Foliar_Fertilization _Scientific_Principles_and_Practices_-_Book. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). URL3: USU (2018). https://forestry.usu.edu/trees-cities-towns/treecare/causes-iron- chlorosis. (Accessed: 25 May 2018). 361 Chapter 29 Endospore Formed Bacteria and Staining Techniques C. Cem ERGÜL1 and Emrah ÇALIŞKAN2 1 Uludag University, Faculty of Arts and Science, Department of Biology, Bursa Uludag University, Institute of Science Department of Biology, Bursa 2 INTRODUCTION It is a technique that has been used for many years in biological science with the aim of coloring the organisms by interacting with various natural stains and chemicals, and giving color to them, and examining them morphologically and cytologically by grouping them and revealing detailed cellular structures. This technique continues to provide an analytical, deterministic method of helping scientists in both optical microscopic and electron microscopic studies. In this way, very important inferences are obtained for the cellular structures and formations which are made visible by obtaining different contrasts with the appearing paint affinities. A variety of stains are used especially in bacteriological studies in microbiology. The majority of the microbiological stains are organic compounds. These stains contain groups of chromophores and oxochromes combined with benzene ring. The benzene ring carrying the chromophore group is called the chromogen ring. The chromogen group gives the combination the stain property. However, although it is such a composite color, it does not yet have the stain character. It is because this stain has no ability to bond with the tissue or fiber. The resulting color can easily be removed through the mechanical method. In order to be able to be converted into the actual stain, it is necessary for it to have the chromophore group as well as other groups (auxochrome). Auxochromic gives electrolytic dissociation to the compound, allowing salt formation in the compound and helping the chromophore group to be more effective (Örtücü & Yazıcı, 2017). The stains are classified into three main groups as acidic, basic and neutral according to their structure and electrical charges; Acidic Stains: They are negatively charged stains with positive charge and possess the ability to bind to certain proteins. Acidic stains are generally used for painting the floors. Acidic stains are used, for example, in the capsule staining method.For instance; Nigrosine, Picric acid, Eosin, Acid fuschin, India ink stains. Basic Stains: These positively charged stains bind negatively charged nucleic acids and molecules bearing negatively charged ionic groups such as -OH and COOH. The cell walls of the bacteria have a negative electric charge due to the presence of teico-acid / teonic acid. Because of these qualities, they are frequently used in bacterial staining processes. For instance; Crystal Violet, Methylene Blue, Safranin, basic fuschin stains. Neutral Stains: Acidic and basic paints are obtained from appropriate ratio of 362 combinations. For instance; Giemsa, Wright, Leishman stains. Endosporogenesis usually occurs in the Bacillaceae group; while they are rarely found in bacteria in spherical form, they are not observable in the spiral bacteria. Endosporogenesis in bacteria is extremely important in terms of medicine and the food industry. It is because bacterial endospores are resistant to sterilization practices, antibiotics and many chemicals. Most endospores are Gram-positive (+). There are aerobics, facultative anaerobic, obligate anaerobic and microaerophilic for oxygen demand. According to some taxonomic classifications, spores bacteria are grouped into a single subdivision under the name Endobacteria. For instance: Bacillus, Sporolactobacillus, Clostridium, Desulfotomaculum, Sporosarcina, Oscillospira, Sporomusa, Thermoactinomyces, Helicobacteria, Alicyclobacter, Sporohalobacter, Syntrophospora, Anaerobacter, Heliobacterium, Heliophilum, Amphibacillus, Paenibacillus, Desulfibacterium etc. Although endospore-forming bacteria generally survive in the soil, their spores are found almost everywhere, including the atmosphere. Bacillus and Clostridium of the endospore-forming bacteria are the most studied bacteria types. Bacteria thrive in amazingly diverse ecosystems and often tolerate large fluctuations within a particular environment. One highly successful strategy that allows a cell or population to escape life-threatening conditions is the production of spores. Bacterial endospores, for example, have been described as the most durable cells in nature (Hutchison et al., 2014). The special forms, which are more resistant to external agents in the cell and termed as "endospores", usually grow in rich media, but are found in cells that are finally in the process of active reproduction. On the other hand, the factors such as lack of nutrients (especially carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus) or optimum growth temperature change in addition to the increase of metabolic product, water activity (aw) and pH changes towards endospore formation can play a triggering role (Ray & Bhunia, 2016). After endospore formation, the vegetative bacterial cell may die or be disrupted by cell division (lysis state) due to various agents. In this case, endospores become free. These are called free spore or simply "spore". The spore is formed within the vegetative bacterial cell. Mature spores can survive for long periods of time (for years) in a dormant state, and when appropriate conditions are available (especially in appropriate humidity, temperature, and nutrient medium), each spore can be transformed into a bacterial cell (Gücin & Dülger, 1995, Özçelik, 2009). The fact that spores are more resistant to physical effects such as cold, hot, UV (ultraviolet), gamma radiation, drying, osmotic pressure and chemical substances than vegetative cells is due to their difference in chemical and physical structures. In the endosporeformed cell, the part of the cell that surrounds the endospore is called sporangium (plural sporangia). The diameter of the endospore, which is a sphere or oval shaped entity, may be larger or smaller than the main cell. Endospores are frequently seen in three different positions in sporangium; central, sub-terminal or terminal. Central spores are located in the middle of a bacterial cell; for instance, the spore of Bacillus anthracis. Sub-terminal spores are located near the end of the bacterial cell, for instance Clostridium novyi, Cl. histolyticum'sspores. Terminal spores, like the Clostridium tetani, display a drum-like or racquet-like appearance on one end of 363 the bacterial cell. The mature endospore is composed of several different structural units. These are from the inside out; exosporangium, outer spore sheath, inner spore sheath, cortex, cell wall, cytoplasmic membrane and cytoplasm. The cortex and the impermeability of the external covering, its high contents of dipicolinic acid (DPA) and calcium, low water content (5-20%), very little metabolic and enzymatic activity make it highly resistant to vegetative form. This structure, called endospore, has undergone extreme dehydration and contains very little RNA, ribosomes, enzymes, and a few small and important molecules and organelles apart from DNA. It is stated that 200 genes and related enzymes play an active role with the effect of environmental factors in the sporulation process, which takes about 8 hours. It is highly likely that nutrient depletion and inefficiency arising from the conditions initiate the triggering starter synthesis in spore formation. On the other hand, Adenosine bis-triphosphate (Abt) is a starter compound synthesized by sporogenic bacteria in the case of carbon and phosphorus depletion (Ray & Bhunia, 2016, Güven & D. Zorba, 2016). Figure. 1: The schematic features of an endosporegenic cell The formation of endospores from vegetative bacterial cells and the formation of new bacteria by germinating endospores is not typical form of bacterial 364 reproduction. It is because the bacteria multiply by dividing, where the active protein FtsK is active while the spore IIIE protein, which is also the analogue protein, plays an active role (Baker et al., 2013). Accordingly, endospores can be regarded as a genetic trait or form stemming from the effort to maintain the generation of such bacteria, or this is a form of passive resistance to adverse conditions of the environment. In other words, spore does not constitute a phase associated with proliferation in direct bacteria, and principally spore formation is not a proliferation. It is because a spore is composed of germination only of a single bacterium. In fact, by switching into the spore form, the bacteria ensure that their generation survives on conditions not suitable for their life. However, it can also be thought of as a breeding form in terms of reproductive reproduction under favorable conditions (Omurtag, 1966). Endospores are ultimately protection for the bacterial genome and spores form within the cell and contain a full copy of the bacterial genome (URL 1). Table 1: Differences between endospores and vegetative cells (URL 4). Characteristic Structure Microscopic appearance Calcium content Dipicolinic acid Enyzmatic activity Metabolism (O2 uptake) Macromolecular synthesis mRNA DNA and ribosomes Heat resistance Radiations resistance Resistance to chemicals (for example, H2O2) and acids Vegetative cell Typical gram-positive cell: a few gram-negative cells Nonrefractile Low Absent High High Present Present Present Low Low Endospore Thick spore cortex; Spore coat; exosporium Refractile High Present Low Low or absent Absent Low or absent Present High High Low High Stainabilitiy by dyes Stainable Action of lysozyme Water content Small acid-soluble proteins (product of ssp genes) Sensitive High, 80-90% Stainable ony with special methods Resistant Low, 10-25% in core Absent Present Cytoplasmic pH About pH7 About pH5.5-6.0 (in core) During spore-formation, the cell cytoplasm contracts to spore; the remaining part meanwhile is disintegrated together with the wall. There is a thick wall around the cytoplasm that turns into a spore. Since the spore is formed in the main cell, chromatin condensation occurs. A spore that develops from a cytoplasmic membrane separates the developing spore from the other part of the bacterium called sporangium. A developing double-layered membrane-like compartment and 365 at least one full chromosome completely surround the protoplasm, which contains some ribosomes and enzymes. The septum's inner layer comprises the spore’s membrane; this membrane is similar to the cytoplasmic vegetative cell membrane. A spore wall surrounds a sports wall with a murein structure. Apart from that, there is a thick layer of cortex containing synthesized calcium dipicolinate and grain particles. The outer layer of the septum turns into a hard spore mantle and wraps the cortex. The spore mantle, which is resistant to protease enzymes and lysozyme, protects the spore against external effects. In some species, apart from the spore mantle, there is also a loose cover called exzosporium including lipoprotein and amino sugars. The spore rising from the endospore eventually ends up with the autolysis of the rest of the main bacterial cell and eventual release of the spore (Özçelik, 2009, Güven & D. Zorba, 2016). Figure 2: The schematic endosporegenic cell cycle While it is observed that endospores maintain their lifespan of 60 years in a dry environment, it is stated that some spores need time to be active. Such spores are called "deep sleepy" spores. The species that frequently display this behavior are found in Bacillus and Clostridium genera (Ray & Bhunia 2016). Some spores survive in extreme cold 366 conditions; for instance, in the glaciers of Antarctica, they been observed to retain their reproductive ability even though they have stayed there for 30,000 years. If water and nutrients are provided to the environment after such a long period of time, the spores swell by absorbing water, their shells crack, are observed to begin to turn into a typical vegetative bacteria and divide. Activation of the present macromolecules in order to activate spores before germination, e.g. non-fatal heat application, radiation, oxidation, high pressure application, lysozyme enzyme, high pH and sonic waves may be required. Spore germination / sporulation which started at the end of this process is reversible and may not germinate after spore activation in inappropriate environmental conditions. D-alanine, ethanol, EDTA, high NaCl concentration, NO2 are the effective agents in the prevention of germination (Ray & Bhunia, 2016). Again, if similar effects are inhibited by amino acid-like substances or protein inhibitors such as chloramphenicol, actinomycin D, spore formation is again inhibited. In order to kill the spores, it is enough to keep it for 10 minutes in 100-120 °C humid heat application (Çetin, 1973). Some important endospore formed bacteria and taxonomic positions: Regnum: Bacteria Subregnum: Eubacteria Divisio: Firmicutes Class: Bacilli Order: Bacillales Family: Bacillaceae Genus: Bacillus They are gram-positive, mostly aerobic, generally mobile, aerobic or facultative anaerobes, rod-shaped and endospore-forming bacteria. Cells are 1.21.5μ in diameter and 5μ in length. They are mostly catalase positive. They are commonly found in soils and plants (e.g. Bacillus subtilis). The spore’s diameter is smaller than the diameter of the vegetative bacteria. This group includes psychrophil (Bacillus insolitus and Bacillus globisporus), mesophilic, and thermophilic (Bacillus stearothermophilus) species. Only few species found in the genus Bacillus are pathogens. For instance, Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax in cattle, sheep and horse and can be transmitted to humans. The vegetative cells are stationary, facultative anaerobes and cell sizes are between 4-8 μm. Bacillus thuringiensis is pathogen for insects. Bacillus cereus forms endotoxin in foodstuffs and causes gastroenteritis and poisoning. Some of its types produce antibiotics. For instance: Bacillus subtilis is used in the production of "subtilin" and "bacitracin" antibiotics, and Bacillus polymyxa is used in the production of "polymyxine / polymxine" antibiotics. At the same time, Bacillus polymyxa and Bacillus macerans produce acid in addition to acid production, causing food to decay. Bacillus type bacteria are also considered to be useful with their indirect use in food technology. Some species of this genie are used in the production of "amylase" since they are capable of breaking up the starch. Even today, they are also used in the production of the protease and amilase enzymes (Bilgehan, 1995, Şahin & Başoğlu, 2014, Ray 367 & Bhunia, 2016, URL 2). Figure 3: Microscopic view of a stained colony and a schematic endospore of bacilli Table 2: The endospore positions of some species. Genus/Species Endospore position Central or terminal Terminal Central Central Central Central Central Central Terminal Terminal Terminal Central or terminal Central or terminal Central Terminal Terminal Bacillus coagulans Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius Bacillus licheniformis Bacillus cereus Bacillus anthracis Bacillus megaterium Bacillus subtilis Bacillus thuringiensis Geobacillus stearothermorphilus Paenibacillus polymyxa Bacillus macerans Bacillus circulans Paenibacillus larvae Paenibacillus papilliae Bacillus sphaericus Sporosarcia pasteurii Class: Clostridia Order: Clostridiales Family: Clostridiaceae Genus: Clostridium Clostridia are generally anaerobic. However, there are also very few species that are aerotolerant or microaerophilic. They are spore and mostly motile bacteria. Cell lengths are between 3-8 μm. They are Gram-positive, but catalase-negative. The diameter of the spore is usually greater than the diameter of the vegetative 368 bacteria. These proteolytic bacteria (e.g. C. putrefaciens, C. sporogenes, C. histolyticum) break down proteins, amino acids and purines. They break down carbohydrates and causes degradation of foodstuffs by forming butyric acid, acetic acid, ethyl alcohol, CO2 and H2. Since they have thermophilic species, they develop at very different and elevated temperatures (for instance: Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum). These species-specific bacteria, which are very common in soil, mud and water, are also found in the digestive tracts of humans and animals and are pathogenic. For instance: Clostridium tetani, affects tetanus disease, Clostridium botulinum is the cause for botulismus (Bilgehan, 1995, Şahin & Başoğlu, 2014, Ray & Bhunia, 2016, URL 3). Some important Clostridium species that form endospore: Clostridium tetani: It is a bacterium that belongs to the Clostridiaceae family. It is bar-shaped. They are gram-positive bacteria and display on Gram staining that is like appearance similar to a tennis racket or drum knob. They respiration, oxygen-free / anaerobic, are motile and sporulate. They produce a biological toxin called "tetanospasmin". They normally live symbiotic in human intestines, but they cause tetanus if they enter the body through an injury. The poisonous substance it secrets leads to contractions that envelop the entire body, near the wound and starting from the face. In addition to the application of serum, protection is provided by vaccination. Clostridium botulinum: It is basil gram-positive, can live in anaerobic environments and is sporeforming. The spore form is found in the feces of animals as it is commonly found in nature (in soil, fruits, plants). This bacterium produces the poisoning known as "botulism". The disease is referred to as "botulismus". It is in birds, fish effective including humans. This toxin is called “botulin”, which is more toxic than the other known bacterial toxins and even the most lethal. Botulinum is a neurotoxic agent that effect through the nervous system. Figure 4: Microscopic view of C. botulinum 369 Clostridium perfringens: Clostridium perfringens is an anaerobic, immobilized, gram positive, sporeforming, rod-shaped bacterium. Spores are located in the sub-terminal or terminal position. At temperatures below 100 °C, spore forms cannot be completely killed. It is found in soil, dust, air, water, sewer, human and animal excrement and many food items. It is found in the gut of people, pets and wild animals in the nature. It causes "gastroenteritis". Intoxication with enterotoxin (alpha toxin), which is released in the small intestine, manifests itself with vomiting and abdominal pain. It is the cause of gas gangrene and causes food poisoning. Figure 5: Microscopic view of a stained C. perfringens SPORE STAINING Some bacteria such as Bacillus and Clostridium produce heat resistant structures. These structures are called endospores. They are resistant to various chemicals except the temperature. Various methods have been developed to study endospores. Among these methods are the Schaeffer-Fulton and Dorner methods that are the most commonly used methods by microbiologists (Örtücü & Yazıcı, 2017). Since these microorganisms are colorless and transparent, morphology cannot be precisely determined by microscopic observations. Therefore, it is necessary to stain the microorganism with one of various stains. The stained microorganism loses its vitality due to the fixation and the color tone difference (contrast) between the grounds makes it morphologically clear to be seen. Staining is a process aimed at examining the morphology of microorganisms, including bacterial cells and parts; cell wall, capsule, spore, flagella, and bacterial membrane can be stained and examined. The preparation is prepared from all microbiological specimens and fresh culture colonies taken for bacterial staining; it is generally or specially stained by the staining methods and examined in the microscope. Good staining of the preparation is possible by using stain solutions prepared according to the appropriate technique (Temiz, 2014). In order to obtain a good stain solution, the following points have to be considered: Powder stains should be crushed very well in the air, stored in the dark in colored and dropper bottles after the stains has been prepared and should be left in the room for at least 24 hours after preparation; the stains should be used after filtration both after the preparation and before use (Erkmen, 2106). Although vegetative cells are stained with normal stains, the presence of thick capsules around the spores and they impermeability makes it difficult to stain them. Therefore, special spore staining methods have been 370 developed. Structural staining methods are compound staining method developed with this thought in mind. Endospores have a resistance to take on their stains at normal environmental temperatures. However, the heat treatment during staining breaks this resistance of the endospores (when the temperature is raised to about 100 °C) and the endospores take in the stain and enable the staining. Two main methods have been developed for spore staining: -Spores Staining with Malachite Green (Schaeffer-Fulton spores staining method, 1930), - Bartlholomew and Mittwer Spores Staining, - Dorner’s Spores Staining Method (1922-1926). Spores staining with malachite Green (Schaeffer-Fulton spores staining method, 1930) This method malachite green stain the endospore, while saffron stains the vegetative cell/sporangium. Since malachite green has a weak positive load, it cannot bind strongly to the surface and the inner part of the sporangium. This stain easily penetrates into the sporangium, but is easily separated from the cell during washing with water and is also thrown out by washing water. On the other hand, if staining is carried out with the hot malachite green, the stain becomes easier to penetrate into the endospores. Once the stain has entered into the spore, it is very difficult to remove this stain from the spore by washing. For this reason, the staining is done with the hot malachite green, and then if the preparation is washed by cooling, the spores stay green and the vegetative cells stay pink or colorless. Stages of spore staining with the malachite green: - The preparation is prepared with the bacterial culture to be examined (spreading, drying and fixing), - The preparation is placed on top of a suitable boiling water bath apparatus prepared using a suitable beaker or canister, - The preparation is covered with a 5% malachite green solution. On top of this, a blotting paper which is prepared by cutting in advance to be smaller in size than the lamella is placed. The blotting paper is wetted by absorbing the stain solution. The malachite green stain solution is dripped onto the blotting paper and the paper is kept wet continuously. As the wetness of the blotting paper decreases, the malachite green stain solution is dropped and the preparation is contacted with the stain in this way for 5-6 minutes, - At the end of the time, the blotting paper is removed with a clamp and the preparation is washed, - It is stained with a counter stain application that lasts 20-30 seconds with aqueous fuchsine or 0.5% saffron solution, - The preparation is washed and dried in open air, - It is examined in the immersion lens at the microscope. In this staining, sporangium is seen as pink-red, endospore green. 371 Figure 6: Malachite green stained step by step procedure Bartlholomew and Mittwer spores staining (1952) - The bacterial culture to be examined is prepared with the preparation (spreading, drying and fixing), - The preparation is passed through underneath the bunsen burner 20 times, - The preparation is covered with saturated green malachite green solution and left to wait for 10 minutes, - The preparation is covered with a 0.25% solution of saffron with counter stain and left to wait for 15 seconds, - It is washed with water and dried, - It is examined in the immersion lens at the microscope, - Spores are seen as green. Dorner’s spores staining method (1922-1926) This is a negative staining technique. If the culture is to be taken from the solid medium, a nonconsecutive suspension is prepared from this culture and again a loop-full of the suspension is placed on the microscopic glass. It is mixed with paint in equal amount and left to dry in the open air. Bacteria are seen as unstained in the gray area in the preparation examined under the microscope (Omurtag, 1966). Stages of spore painting with the Dorner method; 1 - Dense suspension of microorganisms is prepared in a small test tube with two or three drops of distilled water, 2 - The ZIEHL’s modified Carbol-fuchsin stain is immediately filtered to be used for this purpose. The same amount of culture suspension is taken from this and added to the first tube, 3 - The tube is left in a boiling water bath for 10-12 minutes, 4 - Stained culture suspension at a ratio of the loop is taken from this tube volume and placed on the cover glass or microscopic glass. On top of this, a loop is taken from Dorner's nigrosine stain solution and mixed, and a foil as thin as 372 possible is prepared and left to dry quickly. If it is going to dry slowly, the smear will crack. The thin sections in the preparation are examined with the immersion objective. Here the spores are red and the vegetative forms of the bacteria are unstained. The ground is dark gray. CONCLUSION Stains and staining techniques, with the development of chemistry and especially biochemistry, have made it possible for the details of biological structures to be microscopically more visible. In this way, with the rapid developments in the field of cytology, cellular organelles and other cellular structural components has been revealed. In parallel with the development of cytology, the knowledge of the morphological and cytological structures of stain chemistry and stain affinity is the most important point in achieving the desired results by obtaining good contrast in operation. Adherence to the procedure for stain and staining techniques used in applications is also extremely important; otherwise, it can generate a negative consequences and it should be remembered that all the efforts can be lost and it even cause loss of time and material which cannot easily be compensated. In addition to stain and staining techniques, the new technical developments in optics and electron microscope applications have made the screening more prominent and elaborated, and have gained an extremely high momentum both in medical science and in biology. REFERENCES Baker, S.; Griffiths C. & Nicklin, J. (2013). Bıos Instant Notes Microbiology, Çeviri Editörü: M. Baykan, 329 pp., 4. Basım, Yayın No. 545, Nobel Akad. Yay. Eğit. Dan. Tic. Ltd. Şti., Ankara. Bilgehan, H. (1995). Klinik Mikrobiyoloji, 610 pp., 9. Basım, Fakülteler Kitabevi, Şafak Matbaacılık, İzmir. Çetin, E.T. (1973). Genel ve Pratik Mikrobiyoloji, 841 pp., 3. Baskı, Sermet Matbaası, İstanbul. Erkmen, O. (2106). Laboratory Techniques in Microbiology, pp. 226, 1. Copy, No. 115, Nobel Akademic Publishing Education Consultancy trade.co.ltd. Ankara. Gücin, F. & Dülger, B. (1995). Genel Mikrobiyoloji Laboratuar Kılavuzu. U. Ü. Fen-Edeb. Fak. Ders Notları Yayın No. 3, Bursa. Güven, S. & Zorba, N.D. (2016). Genel Mikrobiyoloji ve Laboratuar Kılavuzu, 225 pp., 7. Basım, Yayın No. 96, Nobel Akad. Yay. Eğit. Dan. Tic. Ltd. Şti., Ankara. Hutchison, E.A.; Miller, D.A. & Angert, E.R. (2014). Sporulation in bacteria: beyond the standard model. Microbiol Spectrum 2(5): TBS-0013-2012. doi:10.1128/microbiolspec. TBS-0013-2012. Madigan, M.T.; Martinko, J.M. & Parker, J. (1977). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (Eighth edition), 986 pp., Prentice Hall International Inc. USA. Omurtag, A.C. (1966). Genel mikrobiyoloji laboratuvar kılavuzu, Ankara Üniversitesi Eczacılık Fakültesi Yayınları, Yayın No. 28, Ankara. Örtücü, S. & Yazıcı, A. (2017). Mikrobiyoloji Laboratuarı, Erzurum Teknik Üniversitesi, Moleküler Biyoloji ve Genetik Bölümü, Mikrobiyal Biyoteknoloji 373 Anabilim Dalı, Laboratuar föyü, Erzurum. Özçelik, S. (2009). Genel Mikrobiyoloji, SDÜ Ziraat Fakültesi, 341 pp., Yayın No. 1, Filiz Matbaacılık San. Ve Tic. Ltd. Şti., Ankara. Ray, B. & Bhunia, A. (2016). Fundemental Food Microbiology, Çeviri Editör: D. Heperkan, 575 pp., 5. Basım, Yayın No. 1636, Nobel Akad. Yay. Eğit. Dan. Tic. Ltd. Şti., Ankara. Şahin, İ. & Başoğlu, F. (2014). Gıda Mikrobiyolojisi, 217 pp., 4. Baskı, Dora Basım-Yayın Ltd. Şti., Bursa. Temiz, A. (2014). Genel Mikrobiyoloji Uygulama Teknikleri, 260 pp., 6. Baskı, Hatipoğlu Basım ve Yayım San. Tic. Ltd. Şti., Ankara. URL 1. www.gc11.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/spores.pptx, (accessed: 26 April 2018). URL 2. https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus, (accessed: 26 April 2018). URL 3. https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium, (accessed: 26 April 2018). URL 4. Surface structures and inclusions of prokaryotes. Chapter 4 Part 4, www.clayton.edu/portals/222/.../chapter%203part4.pptx, (accessed: 30 April 2018). 374 Chapter 30 Microbial Interactions in Phyllosphere and Rhizosphere Emrah ÇALIŞKAN1 and C. Cem ERGÜL2 1 Uludag University, Institute of Science Department of Biology, Bursa Uludag University, Faculty of Arts and Science, Department of Biology Bursa 2 INTRODUCTION Plants depend on places where they grow and, thus, they are not mobile like other biological organisms. This requires them to get into direct mutual relationships with the environment in which they are. With both root and upper vegetative and generative organs, vegetative organisms are affected by these relationships positively or negatively. On the other hand, similarly, there are also both positive and negative interactions between microorganisms themselves and between microorganisms and plants. These are generally synergistic, commensal, mutual and parasitic relationships. In this small soil area defined as rhizosphere, being in relation with soil microorganisms and directly affected by the root secretion, microorganisms frequently establish commensal and mutual relationships with plants. In the physical environment defined as phyllosphere, plants establish similar symbiotic relationships with epiphytic microorganisms on their air contact surfaces (stem, leaf, flower and fruit) (Atlas & Bartha, 1998). In addition to both the concept of phyllosphere and that of rhizosphere, the area recently defined as spermosphere where biochemical events take place in the immediate surroundings of the seed is another concept describing possible relationships in the immediate surroundings of a plant (Srivastava, 2013). Spermosphere This area is described as the increasing microbial activity around the germinated seed and the volume of the soil surrounding the seed. Spermosphere differs from its other external environment due to the substances leaking into the soil from the germinated seed (Nelson, 2004). There is a positive interaction between the microflora forming the surrounding of the germinated seed, spermosphere organisms' biological products like growth hormone and the seed. At the same time, some chemicals secreted from the seed affect both the amount and quality of the microorganisms which are close to the seed. When a seed is planted into the soil, both the seed-borne microflora and the soil-borne microflora interactions begin to take place. These interactions affect the quality of the spermosphere condition (Srivastava, 2013). Before seeds are planted, they can be subjected to a pretreatment via some fungicides or other biological agents. This directly affects the spermosphere microflora and the interactions here. For example, when a seed subjected to a pretreatment via fungicide planted into the soil, it may lead to an increase in some 375 bacteria populations, that is to say, a complete change of the microflora by inhibiting the fungi around it, which directly affects the nature of the microflora becoming colonisation in the rhizosphere. In this context, an effect causing a manipulation in spermosphere directly causes a manipulation in rhizosphere. Today, by using seeds covered with Rhizobium, Azotobacter and Azospirillum, more positive interactions are formed for the plant in spermosphere and, hence, rhizosphere (Atlas & Bartha, 1998). When a seed applied a pretreatment or a seed not applied a pretreatment is planted into the soil, there occurs a competition between the seed-borne microflora and the soil-borne microflora in terms of feeding and area. However, the final decision for the microflora around the seed is determined by the chemicals secreted by the seed (Nihorimbere et al., 2011). On the other hand, for seeds infected with pathogenic microorganisms, soil microflora may be important. For example, it may be taken under control by soaking a seed containing a seed-borne cotton pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum into cow scat slurry, which leads to a change both in spermosphere and later in the rhizosphere microflora. Moreover, in previous studies, it was observed that the current microbial activity decreased and, hence, the pathogen virulence increased when the seeds having been subjected to pathogen were planted in the sterile soils. Rhizosphere Figure 1: Schematic view of the rhizosphere. URL 1 Rhizosphere is characterized as a cylindrical area where plant roots and soil stick to/abut on each other. It is not an empty soil area. A procedure called “rhizodeposition”, which is secreted out by plant root cells and rich in proteins and sugar, which are nutrients for a lot of bacteria, takes place in the rhizosphere. Again, the rhizosphere area is very rich in protozoan and nematodes fed on bacteria. In this way, most of the nutrition cycle is achieved and diseases are prevented by plants neighboring roots. The micelle of some fungi such as Cephalosporium, Trichoderma and Penicillium stick to plant root surfaces; moreover, some specific bacteria form a mucilaginous outer layer helping roots develop by entering root surfaces (Fokkema & Schippers, 1986). This can be shown as an example for 376 rhizosphere interactions contributing to the development of roots. Within this framework, like in some specific bacteria's forming a mucilaginous outer layer, helping roots develop by entering root surfaces, that some fungi such as Cephalosporium, Trichoderma and Penicillium make a contribution to the development of plant roots by sticking to root surfaces in micellar state is another rhizosphere interaction. In a plant rooted after the seed, the physical and the chemical factors of the microflora in the soil are managed via the effect of plant root exudates. These exudates cover simple sugars like glucose and fructose, sugars like di-, trioligosaccharide, amino acids like alanine, serine, leucine, valine, glutamic and aspartic acids and exudates containing glutamine and asparagine, which are produced from these acids. Moreover, other compounds contain vitamin-like thiamine and biotin, nucleotides, flavones and auxins as well (Fokkema & Schippers, 1986). They realize nitrogen fixation by using some root exudates like Azospirillum spp., Azotobacter paspali, which are nitrogen fixators, as a source of energy. Moreover, exudates containing toxic substances like glycosides and hydrocyanic acid have an inhibiting effect on pathogens. Another feature of root exudates is that they change effects of pathogenic fungi by leading to change in the rhizosphere microclimate through free water and CO2. Rhizosphere microflora may be subjected to successive changes within the time period elapsing between the germination of the seed and the ripening of the plant. While the plant is growing, there appear such results as salient successions in the rhizosphere, fast growing, increasing need for growth hormone, and opportunist microbial population increase. These results undergo changes in the ripening stage. Initially, carbohydrates and mucilaginous exudates secreted from the root, stimulate microorganisms to grow fast in grooves on root surfaces or in parts embedded in mucilage (rhizoplane). After the ripening of plant, some of the root exudates are autolyzed and, thanks to this, simple sugars and amino acids penetrate into soil, which stimulates the growth of bacteria having a high growth speed like Pseudomonas. As a result of this effect, the rhizosphere microflora creates a high amount of rod-shaped gram negative microorganisms and low amount of gram positive rod, coke and pleomorphic formations (Atlas & Bartha, 1998). Normal photosynthesis translocation from the leaf to the root during the life of a plant does not affect the rhizosphere microflora. However, antibiotics, growth regulator supplements, pesticides or inorganic substance supplements applied to the leaf are carried to the roots. In this case, these compounds are released, even in very small amounts, as root waste and cause existing microflora to change (de Boer et al. 2005). Rhizosphere microorganisms generate plant growth and development promoters like gibberellin and auxin having increasing effects on the development of important plant tissues and seed germination speed by activating plant root hairs and, hence, the root system proliferation. Of these promoters, microorganisms such as Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas and Agrobacterium have the ability to generate organic secretions containing such kinds of growth factors. The bacteria population density, generating indoleacetic acid (IAA) in the Triticum sp. (wheat) plant seed 377 rhizosphere area contributes to root development in the plant. Together with a decline in the generation of root secretion in old wheat plants, there also occurs a decline in the population of bacteria producing IAA in addition to the need for possible growth hormone. Rhizosphere interactions both affect this kind of growth and development positively and protect plants against toxic substances (MoenneLoccoz et al., 2015). For example, the generation of H2S (hydrogen sulfide) occurring through sulfate reduction takes place in plants growing in water logged anoxic sediments like paddy (Oryzea sativa). For plant roots, toxic hydrogen sulfide microaerophilic, catalase negative, catalase enzyme secreted from the roots of the Beggiatoa plant, sulfur oxidizing fibrous bacterium and O2 are benefited. In this kind of toxic environments, the Beggiatoa bacterium neutralizes this H2S secreted by Desulfovibrio spp. through oxidation and turns H2S into harmless So or SO4-2 and accumulates them in plant cytoplasm, which protects the cytochrome system of the paddy plant (Srivastava, 2013). The average release of the allelopathic (antagonistic) substances, leading to negative interactions by rhizosphere microorganisms helps plants to get into ammensal (antagonistic) relationship with other plants, which prevents the invasion of the environment by other plants through allelopathic chemicals and, hence, makes existing plants advantageous in competition. On the other hand, all this leads to the establishment of a synergistic relationship between the plant and the rhizosphere area microbial community. For example, it was shown to inhibit the development of bacteria population in the young wheat plant rhizosphere, lettuce (Lactuca sp.) and peas (Pisum sp.). One of the most important features of the rhizosphere interactions is their nutrient recycles. Although some substances which plants need are available in the soil, they do not have appropriate mobilization for the use of plants. For example, such organisms as Rhizobium and Azotobacter turn N into nitrate or other organic forms which are usable for the plant. Similarly, Desulfovibrio oxidizing sulfur mobilizes sulfur for the plant by turning sulfur into sulfate. Another important feature of the rhizosphere microflora is its producing siderophore. The microorganisms with the ability to produce siderophore as a reaction to the low amount of usable iron in soil, generate non-cellular iron-carrying agents known as siderophore with low molecular weight. These siderophore compounds function both as the growth factor and antibiotics in plants. For example, pseudobactin, a siderophore compound generated by a strain of Pseudomonas fluorescense, prevents the growth of pathogens and inhibits the intensity of diseases by covering Erwinia carotovora, a pathogen, with iron (Srivastava, 2013). In all these conditions mentioned for rhizosphere interactions, although the rich microbial interaction in rhizosphere seems to have a positive effect on plants, it may create negative effects in some conditions. For example, in a rhizosphere having a rich and abundant microbial population, the bacteria immobilize Zn and Mn and may cause the diseases of "small leaf" in some fruit trees and “gray stain” in oats by oxidizing them (Srivastava, 2013). 378 Phyllosphere Figure 2: Schematic view of the phyllosphere. URL 2 Phyllosphere is a term denoting the quality and amount of microorganisms existing on leaf surface. It is an appropriate habitat for microbial populations denoted as stem, leaf and fruit epiphytic microorganisms. The structure of the microflora in this area may show differences due to many factors such as plant age, leaf surface area, leaf morphology and atmospheric conditions (Atlas & Bartha., 1998). These microorganisms, namely heterotrophic and photosynthetic bacteria, fungi, especially yeasts, lichens and some algae, regularly exist on plant surfaces contacting with air. While the contiguous habitat on plant leaf surface is known as "phyllosphere", the immediate leaf surface is known as "phylloplane" (Atlas & Bartha., 1998). Both habitats are invaded by various bacterial and fungal populations. As it is known, such structures as cuticula on leaf surfaces, waxy layer and additional outgrowths (hairs, thorns, etc.) contribute to microorganisms' adsorbing to leave. The number of microorganisms on the leaf surface depends on the age of the plant and the season. In the determination of the phyllosphere microflora, the position of the leaf is important as well. For example, on leaves at high elevations compared to the ones at low elevations and the ones receiving less rain, it was determined that they contained less microorganism existence. Plant surface epiphytic microorganisms are directly subjected to climate changes. These populations resist direct sunlight, dehydration, high and low temperature effects. The most successful epiphytes are the ones which have a pigmented and special protective cell wall may resist these negative environmental conditions thanks to their adaptive qualities. Such factors as the leaf surface structure (waxy, hairy, thin / thick, hard / soft), metabolite accumulation (glycol resulting from the plant itself or endophytes and other fungi, chloro-bromohydrins) affect the colonization and succession among the fungal community members composing the phylloplane mycoflora. Yeasts are often microorganisms settled on surfaces of plants. Pigment-containing microorganisms such as Sporobolomyces roseus, Rhodotorula glutunis, R. muciloginosa, 379 Cryptococcus laurentii, Torulopsis ingeniosa and Aureobasidium pullulans are normal settlers of a phyllosphere. These yeasts and bacteria populations probably prevent the leaf surface from getting harmed from direct sunlight thanks to pigments which they have. Sporobolomyces may be the most successfully developing fungi in the phyllosphere. This fungus facilitates dispersion by jumping from one leaf to another via its ballistospores. Many fungi belonging to the group of Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Deuteromycota are isolated from phyllosphere. Undoubtedly, these are allochtonous populations which are associated with some plant diseases. The populations of Ascochytula, Leptosphaeria, Pleospora and Phoma are the main saprophytes of phyllosphere and do not exhibit intensive growth until the start of senescent (leaf aging and fall). While the common ones of the allochtonous fungal populations existing on phyllosphere belong to the genus of Cryptococcus, Myrothecium, Pilobolus, the normal habitats of many other fungal populations are soil and all of them are soil-borne microorganisms. Flowers create a short-lived habitat group of epiphytic microorganisms. They are included in the flower habitats of Candida reukaufii and C. pulcherrima. High sugar content of flower nectars makes flowers an appropriate habitat for these yeast populations. Many yeasts, including Candida, Torulopsis, Kloeckera and Rhodotorula are present inside flowers. Again, many yeasts are present in stigma and stamens in higher amounts compared to the sepals and petals of flowers. The change in existing habitat conditions in ripening stages following the pollination of flowers leads to successive changes in the microorganism population, which, in this case, sometimes makes Saccharomyces populations dominant. There are positive and negative interactions among microbial populations existing on plant surfaces. The development of osmophilic yeasts makes the habitat appropriate to be invaded by other microorganisms by decreasing sugar concentration. The “unsaturated fatty acids" produced by yeasts may have an amensalic effect by inhibiting the development of Gr (+) bacteria on fruit surfaces. Bacterial populations developing on the fruit surface need such growth factors as thiamine (Vit-B1) and nicotinic acid produced by yeasts. Moreover, yeast populations need growth factors produced by bacteria living on fruit surfaces as well. Although phyllosphere microorganisms show variety, the dominant phyllosphere organisms in forest vegetation are bacteria fixing nitrogen such as Beijerinckia and Azotobacter. Besides this, such bacterial kinds as Pseudomonas, Erwinia and Sarcina can be found in phyllosphere as well. Moreover, the Cyanobacteria group of organisms such as Anabaena, Calothrix, Nostoc and Tolypothrix, such fungal organisms as Cladosporium, Alternaria, Cercospora, Helminthosporium and Mucor and some Actinomycetes group of organisms like Streptomyces spp. are microorganisms which may exist in phyllosphere as well (Beattie & Lindow 1999, Morris & Kinkel, 2002, Srivastava, 2013). The most important element in the spreading of phyllosphere microorganisms is air. When a pathogenic microorganism spreading via air (most likely fungus spore) comes to the leaf surface, it reacts with chemicals provoking the release of plant defense mechanism chemicals called phytoalexin. There are polysaccharides, lipids, microbial enzymes, polypeptide compounds, abiotic metal salts, UV lights 380 on fungus cell wall stimulating the phytoalexin synthesis called "elicitor". For example, malic acid released from the leaves of Cicerarietinum is a phytoalexin. In this context, when a pathogenic microorganism comes to phyllosphere, there might be an interaction based on mutual struggle. It is known that epiphytic microorganisms existing on leaf surface synthesize indoleacetic acid (IAA), which seems to be for the benefit of the plant. Moreover, some of the phyllosphere bacteria may also serve as "ice core former" promoting frost damage in plants. Again, symbiotic Anabaena-Azolla nitrogen fixation union takes place on the leaf surface, too (Moenne-Loccoz et al., 2015). When all these are taken into consideration, it is observed that there are more problems which microorganisms are obliged to solve in order to get into interaction in phyllosphere in phyllosphere and rhizosphere interactions. On the other hand, the phyllosphere and rhizosphere interactions are directly connected to each other both positively and negatively. Nitrogen fixing bacteria exist in the phyllosphere of other plants, including pollyplanes of coniferous trees. While some of the nitrogen fixed in phylloplane is kept, preserved on the tree trunk (canopy) and subjected to recycling by microbial populations, the rest of it is washed into the soil and while some are directly taken from leaves, little of it is consumed herbivores. Some of the endophytic bacteria show symbiotic cooperation in a way to form nodules on leaves (generally on species belonging to Rubiaceae and Myrsinaceae). These nodules are very important for such plants as Psychotria, Paretta, and Chomelia. The bacterium types of Mycobacterium runiaceae, Mycoplana rubra, Flavobacterium spp., Bacterium rubiaceae, Phyllobacterium and Klebsiella rubiacearum are of great importance for the formation of nodules (Srivastava, 2013). These nodule interactions do not have many advantages except for plant growth hormones (cytokinin) secreted by bacteria partners following short mutual interactions. Plants provide bacteria with both nutrient and hosting and growth hormone supplement. However, it was observed that when nodules became stable for phyllosphere, they could prevent pathogenic spores (Srivastava, 2013). Figure 3: Schematic view of mycorrhiza types. 381 Mycorrhizal relationship is observed in almost all terrestrial plants as a quasi non-exclusive nitrogen fixation symbiosis. In this kind of interactions, the efficiency of symbiosis is directly proportional to the quality of microorganisms existing in the soil and population productivity. Ectomycorrhizal symbiosis is a formation based on mutual benefit between the members of Basidiomycetes (Agaricus) and Ascomyetes and the roots of higher plants. In ectomycorrhizal interactions, generally the root sees the fungal hypha outside the root as an outer extension of its and get into interaction with it by storing high amounts of carbohydrates. However, in endomycorrhizal interactions, fungus hyphas penetrate into host root cells. This is very common in high fruit trees such as the Ericaceae and Orchidaceae members and citrus, coffee, rubber. Again, some fungus types known as the VAM (vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhoriza) fungi get into similar interactions with plants. A great majority of angiosperms interact with VAM fungi. The feeding needs of this group of fungi are not very specific. The VAM units establish mycorrhorizal relationships with the Zygomycetes and Phycomycetes group of fungi without septa. The most common of these species is included among the genus of Glomus, Gigaspora, Acaulospora, Entrophospora and Scutellospora. Since these fungi are obligate biotrophic, they cannot be grown in synthetic environments. The most important characteristic of the VAM fungi is to make a symbiotic N fixation with free microorganisms in the soil and increase the effects of biochemical transformation in the host plant by interacting with P solvent microorganisms (Deacon, 2006). Within the framework of all of what has been mentioned, mycorrhorizal interactions between plant parts and microorganisms, interactions in rhizosphere and phyllosphere have direct effects on plant life and put forward a complicated process closely related to one another. On the other hand, it should not be forgotten that although all these interactions bear positive features for plants, they may also have negative consequences. Interactions with pathogenic elements may interrupt the growth and development of plants and result in the emergence of diseases and various symptoms in plants by causing morphological and physiological deviations in the existing genetic characteristics of plants. REFERENCES Atlas, R. M. & Bartha, R. (1998). Microbial Ecology, Fundamentals and Applications 4th Edition. p. 99-140. Benjamin/Cumming Publishing Co., Menlo Park, Californa. Beattie, G. A. & Lindow S. E. (1999). Bacterial colonization of leaves: a spectrum of strategies. Phytopathology (89), 353-359. de Boer, W.; Folman, L. B.; Summerbell, R. C. & Boddy, L. (2005). . Living in a fungal World: impact of fungi on soil bacterial niche development. FEMS Micobiology Reviews 29, 795-811. Deacon, W. J., (2006). Fungal Biology 4th Edition. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. England. pp. 380. Fokkema, N. J. & Schippers, B. (1986). Phyllosphere vs rhizosphere as environments for saprophytic colonization. In N. J. Fokkema and J. Van den 382 Heuvel (ed.), Microbiology of the phyllosphere. p. 137-159, Cambridge University Press, London, UK. Moenne-Loccoz, Y.; Mavingui, P.; Combes, C. & Normand, P.; Steinberg, C. (2015). Microorganism and Biotic Interactions. In: J.-C. Bertrand et al. (Ed.) Environmental Microbiology: Fundamentals and Applications: Microbial Ecology. Chapter 11, p. 395-444. Springer Science & Bussiness Media: Dordrecht. Morris, C. E. & Kinkel L. L. (2002). Fifty years of phylosphere microbiology: significantcontributions to research in related fields. In: S. E. Lindow, E. I. Hecht-Poinar, and V. Elliott (ed.), Phyllosphere microbiology. p. 365-375. APS Press, St. Paul, Minn. Nelson, E. B., (2004). Microbial Dynamics and Interactions in the Spermoshere. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 42: 271-309. Nihorimbere, V.; Ongena, M.; Smargiassi, M. & Thonart, P. (2011). Beneficial effect of the rhizosphere microbial community for plant growth and health. Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ 15:(2), 327-337. Srivastava, P. C. (2013). Microbial Interactions in Phyllosphere and Rhizosphere, Centre of Advanced Faculty Training in Plant Pathology, Procedings of the 27th Training on “Managing Plant Microbe Interactions for the Management of Soilborne Plant Pathogens”, January 22 to February 11, 2013. p. 38-44. New Delhi, India. URL 1 https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-rhizosphere-rootssoil-and-67500617 (Accessed: 24 January 2016). URL 2 https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro2910 (Accessed: 24 January 2016). 383 Chapter 31 Green Chemistry Applications in Textile Industry Aslıhan KATİP1 and Zeynep İNCE2 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Bursa Uludag University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Envionmental Engineering, Bursa, Turkey 2 Chemist, Bursa-Turkey INTRODUCTION Green chemistry (environmentally benign chemistry) involves the utilization of a set of principles that reduces or eliminates the use or generation of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture, and application of chemical products (Kidwai & Mohan, 2005). In practice, green chemistry covers a much broader range of issues than the definition suggests (Lancaster, 2000). In addition to using and producing better chemicals with less waste, green chemistry also involves reducing other associated environmental impacts, including a reduction in the amount of energy used in chemical processes (Kidwai & Mohan, 2005). Environmental chemistry is examining the impact of environmental pollutants while researching and examining into new technologies and sciences in order to prevent the formation of green chemical wastes. The chemical industry has made big leaps for improving the processes but considering the limitation of natural resources, the ability to manufacture chemical products shall represent an inevitable frontier unless a radical innovation is made. Both researchers and producers develop sustainable strategies in order to meet the demand towards chemical products, which emerge due to population increase and difficulties in the branch of green chemistry. Over the last two generations, the field of engineering and especially that of chemical engineering pioneers the development of environmental technology. A dramatic improvement has occurred in the quality of air, water and soil especially during the last thirty years. As approaches towards environmental protection expand to also include waste prevention, chemical engineering, and in order to achieve a simultaneous decrease in pollution, produces technologies & process changes not only in the chemical industry but also in a broad scope that is permitted by al industrial sectors that use chemical processes. Chemistry provides an improvement in all fields, in all corners of physical life and also in the living qualities of billions of people and especially in fields of health, health, clothing, housing, communication, and etcetera. This situation may have unbelievably high prices. This price is the damage inflicted on the environment and human health through the production, use and disposal of synthetic chemicals. In ecologic terms, the textile industry is considered as one of world's most pollutant industries. Use of rayons for clothes especially affects the endangered forests. Petroleum based synthetic fibers and dyes are not sustainable 384 and are not biodegradable. Some steps have been taken recently in order render textile processing greener. Amongst these, green fibers, green adjuvants and dyes, greener solvents have been optimized, which also include the efficient processing and bio-processing and recycling of water & chemicals as well as the removal of hazardous wastes. 2. WHAT DOES GREEN CHEMISTRY MEAN? The term "Green Chemistry" has been defined by Anastas and Warner as the design of chemical products & processes that reduce or eliminate the use or production of hazardous substances. Rather than a branch of chemistry, "Green Chemistry" is a type of thought and pertains to the implementation of a series of principles in order to reduce the negative environmental impacts of chemical processes & products and therefore contribute to sustainable development. Ranging from the design of chemical products to the production & implementation thereof, Green Chemistry aims at using several principles that reduce or remove the use or production of hazardous materials. Clean Production represents a conceptual and procedural approach, which demands that all phases in the life cycle of a product or process minimize or prevent short-term and long-term risks on humans and the environment. As the concept of Green Chemistry focuses on chemicals and therefore tries to solve the problem of pollution prevention at a molecular level, it is also interested in physical factors such as clean technologies, decomposition, recycling, protection, use of raw materials, water and energy. Although green chemistry appears sophisticated, it is generally perfect but not sophisticated. Engineers always try to reach their own synthetic method efficiency. Efficiency is important and it is not only a criteria for the quality of a synthetic system but also gains importance as a fragmental and economic value. Green chemistry aims at using chemical principles and methods for resource reduction, which is most demanded for the prevention of pollution. Historically, environmental chemistry means tracking and improvement. A synthetic chemistry engineer that develops a green chemistry synthesis can manufacture a product with suitable costs if all direct & indirect costs have been explained to him/her (Mudhoo, 2010). The use of various technologies that were developed in the past, their application on new problems through new methods and the invention of new technologies have enabled chemical engineers to not only prevent pollution but also to create more secure chemical processes by reducing hazards at all possible locations. Listing the "twelve principles of green chemistry" should be seen as a reflection of a science that is conducted inside this newly born branch and it should be handled as a roadmap that is identified by some pioneer scientists as the foundations of the future (Anastas & Warner, 1998). These twelve principles are defined as follows: 1. Waste management: elimination or minimization of waste. 2. Atom economy: no or lower wastage of atoms. 3. Catalysis: catalysts are preferred to stoichiometric reagents (the latter are used in excess and work only once, whereas catalysts are mostly recovered, 385 recycled and reused). 4. Direct reactions: use of minimum or fewer reaction steps; derivatives or intermediate steps use additional reagents and have the potential to generate more waste. 5. Safer reactions: synthetic methodologies should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment. 6. Renewable raw materials: use of renewable and non-depleting feedstocks. 7. Safer products: preservation of the efficacy of functioning while reducing toxicity. 8. Biodegradability: use of easily and harmlessly degradable chemicals with no accumulation in the environment. 9. Green auxiliaries: use of auxiliary substances (e.g. solvents, separation agents) should be avoided wherever possible and where absolutely necessary, should preferably be innocuous. 10. Energy economy: saving of energy should be achieved preferably by using reactions that take place under ambient temperature and pressure conditions. 11. Safer by-products: real-time monitoring and control and reuse of byproducts. 12. Hazard control: avoidance of hazardous chemicals to minimize the chance of explosions, fire and harmful releases. The most fundamental philosophical reason behind the work of chemical engineers should be identifying how to render their works environmentalist. As environmental protection continues to advance, environmental engineering once again responds with innovation and creativeness, which have become a tradition to find solutions to environmental problems. Green engineering, which is defined as the design of systems & unit processes that use lesser energy and that remove or reduce the necessity of using hazardous substances during the production of byproducts, represents a new generation environmental protection in chemical engineering (Anastas, et al., 2001). 3. ECO LABEL The fundamental purpose of eco label is to render the consumer sensitive about environmental and health problems. Labels allow that consumers make comparison between products, purchase environmentally sensitive & healthy products and reduce the environmental impacts of their daily activities by minimizing negative results during their use and disposal. For textile, the Oeko-tex® 100 Standard represents world's leading eco label as it gains prominence within the European countries and other locations. Since 1992, the Oeko-tex® 100 Standard has become an international standard that is applied throughout the entire textile production chain. The purpose of environmental labeling is to incent the sales of environmental friendly products. In addition, several different labels that have significantly different requirements are being used. Whereas some label requirements can be based on the assessment of a product's lifecycle, others may focus on different 386 subjects such as the quality of raw materials or recyclability. In 1987, the EU has established REACH that represents a single integrated system for the registration, evaluation and approval of chemicals throughout their chemical lives. Reach represents the European Union Regulation about chemicals and their secure use (EC) 1907/2006). The EU brings more responsibility on the industry in order to manage risks from chemicals and to provide safety information about these substances (EU, 2011). Made In Green represents an independent textile brand that accentuates consumer products and byproducts at each level of the textile chain that are manufactured in accordance with OEKO-TEX. They represent materials that are manufactured through the use of environmental friendly processes, which are tested for hazardous substances, and under safe working conditions that are socially responsible. 4. THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY According to a report by Oerlikon the global supply of manufactured fibres and the major natural fibres increased from 52.6 million tonnes in 2000 to 70.5 million tonnes in2008, corresponding to an average annual growth rate of 3.3%. Textile materials can be divided into three major groups in terms of their percentage in the global textile market, which are wearing apparels (43.5%), domestic and home textiles (33%) and industrial & technical textiles (23.5%) (Euratex, 2004). Considering that the textile industry has an intense labor, labor costs have a great impact on China's competitive power in the textile market. The global textile supply chain represents a sophisticated process that includes many different phases and actors. The majority of chemical use in textile finishing procedures appears during "wet processing" such as dyeing, washing, printing and fabric finishing. Research surveys show that concerning natural resources, textile dyeing and finishing factories in all industries use a maximum amount of 200 tons water for each ton of textile manufactured. The Textile Industry and the Chemical Industry have been associated with each other since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. The textile and confection sectors represent 3% of the entire trade in the global economy. The conducted researches show that 10% of the Global Carbon Emission comes from the textile sector. The textile industry follows agriculture in the highest ratios of clean water consumption and pollution. The sustainability of textile products becomes more difficult when they are packed with plastic packages and foam, which are widely used. Sustainability can be improved by using recyclable and reusable packaging materials. Traditionally manufactured fabrics can sometimes include residues of chemicals that were used during production (Oerlikon, 2010). 4.1 Sustainability in the Textile Industry Sustainability should be environmental friendly for textile products and adaption should be made to rational conditions in order to respect social & environmental quality by preventing pollution or establishing pollution control technologies. Certification can only be a voluntary process. Any corporation that operates according a certain standard can be asked to have its outputs or services certified. During each step of textile operations, water is used for transporting the 387 chemicals used and also for washing them before commencing the next step. Sustainability has some subheadings such as chemical use, water use, use of toxic chemicals, reuse, recycling in textile (cotton, polyester, carpet, and etcetera) and the recycling of water (Lenzing, 2012; Choudhury, 2013). 4.2 Textile Chemicals and Green Chemistry In addition to dyes, there are three different categories of chemicals that are widely used for producing the majority of textile industry products. These are classified as auxiliary chemicals, surface-active agents and stain removing chemicals. Auxiliary chemicals can represent an interesting subcategory of industrial chemicals due to their sophistications and variety of the compounds during use. An auxiliary chemical can represent a chemical product that is formulated in order to obtain a more efficient processing during preparation, dyeing, printing or finishing or that is necessary for a more efficient effect. Such is the case, for example, with ‘Plasma Enhanced Chemical “Vapour Deposition”, an alternative to conventional wet finishing, which also offers the possibility of saving large volumes of water (Oecotextiles, 2012). To become environmentally responsible, dyers need to adopt the wellestablished ‘3R’ principle of pollution prevention, i.e. reduce, reuse and recycle; the most effective pollution prevention practice in textile wet processing is ‘RFT’ dyeing. Corrective measures like shading additions, or stripping and re-dyeing processes, consume additional dyes and chemicals, water and energy (Holmes, 2012).New products studies during recent years have introduced certain standards due to the importance attached to the environment and human health. 5. RUDOLF-DURANER EXAMPLE 211 persons are employed in a corporation that is erected on a closed are of 15.000 m2 in the Bursa Organized Industrial Zone. The corporation's production capacities are 11.194 tons/year Textile Auxiliary Chemicals, 936.5 tons/year Pool Chemicals and 1.820 tons/year Mineral Oils in sequence. The Company possesses a management system that has integrated the DIN EN ISO 9001 Quality Management System, the DIN EN ISO 14001 Environmental Management System and BS OHSAS 18001 Occupational Health & Safety Management System. In addition, its laboratory is managed by the TS EN ISO/IEC 17025 Laboratory Quality Management System. The Turkish Accreditation Organization has accredited this System within the scope mentioned in the Accreditation Certificate as dated: 08.06.2016 and numbered: AB‐1087‐T. Performing tests on the product manufactured by customers in a speedy manner according to standard methods and enabling customers to be one step ahead by accreditation reports when they are competing with time; Performing the cause analyses, microscopic imaging and analytic examinations of defects that occur during production phases (stains, weaving and knitting defects etcetera), revealing the causes behind these and presenting technical knowledge accumulation and solution recommendations in order that such defects can be corrected and not repeated in the future. Making analyses on prohibited chemicals in order to ensure the compliance of 388 products with standards during the projects conducted by our customers with brands and therefore contributing to the reliability of these products with accreditation results; It is one of Turkey's leading companies that has eliminated the use of prohibited chemicals during raw material purchases. It supports environmental sensitivity with the eco certificates obtained for its products (Bluesign, Gots, and etcetera). It ranks amongst sector's leading companies with sustainable products included in its product range. Its environmental sensitivity rises to prominence with new generation environmentalist products. The certificates it obtained for the below products evidence the importance it attaches to this approach (Thiry, 2011). The sensible and sustainable withdrawal from fluorine chemistry demands the user to realistically assess the necessity for repellency of water and aqueous dirt. RUDOLF GROUP offers an innovative alternative to the as yet customary strong water repellency which is attained via fluorocarbon chemistry. BIONIC-FINISH® ECO is the umbrella brand for textiles that are finished with ®RUCO-DRY ECO and ®RUCODRYECO PLUS and represents an ecological and pioneering technology for new, permanent water repellent finishing. ®RUCO-DRY ECO PLUS was developed based on a technology which is environmentally friendly and fluorine-free using highly branched polymers, and already belongs to the 3rd generation of fluorine-free products at RUDOLFGROUP. ®RUCO-DRY ECO PLUS contains advanced, environmentally friendly and sustainable emulsifiers. They stabilise the active hydrophobic components, ensure a good running stability but do nota have a re-wetting effect. They guarantee shear stability without having a negative impact on water repellency. free from fluorine compounds, formaldehydefree, APEO-free (İnce, 2018). In principle, ®RUCO-DRY ECO is biodegradable. Nevertheless, it cannot be called readily biodegradable according to OECD test methods, but eliminable. As the polymeric ingredients are maintained and are to be effective beyond the lifespan of the article finished with it, this is quite reasonable. Neither are polyester fibres “readily biodegradable“, but they can be recycled without hesitation. According to OECD tests ®RUCO-DRY ECO can be easily eliminated from the effluent (>80%) and is harmless regarding water toxicity (EC50 (bacteria) >100 mg/l, LC50 (fish) >100 mg/l) as well as oral toxicity (LD50 (rats) No fluorinated compounds, formaldehyde free. Their unique combination of soya lecithin and rape seed oil makes RUCOLIN RSO, which is based on renewable raw materials, a high-quality and high-performance product to effectively prevent running creases in textile wet processes. RUCOLIN RSO has also ecological advantages. Chemical oxygen demand: 518 mg O2/g, Biological oxygen demand after 5 days: 220 mg O2/g. To be still regarded as biodegradable, the ratio COD/BOD5 should be max. 4/1. Thus, with a value of ca. 2/1, RUCOLIN RSO is highly biodegradable. RUCOFIN LAN NEW, provides a natural comfortable climate when wearing the textike and offers comfort of the highest degree using the combination of optimised textile softness and hydrophilic effect. RUCOFIN LAN NEW complies with the most stringent standards for ecological textiles. Hence, it conforms to the 389 Oeko-tex Standad 100, Global Organic Textile Standard (G.O.T.S) and Bluesign approved. This is why RUCOFIN LAN NEW is highly suitable for use in biotextiles made using different fibres, such as bio-cotton, bio-wool, bio-lyocell, bioviscose, bio-modal, bio-line, ingeo etc. (İnce, 2018). 6. CONCLUSIONS The continuation of sustainability is only possible under the responsibility of all market participants. Manufacturers, retail sellers and consumers should always consider ecologic factors during all material decision-making processes. Manufacturers should modify their approaches; they should develop new techniques by creating lesser water and air pollution, using lesser energy, obtaining more efficiency, yielding lesser wastes and creating an awareness for the prevention of undesired byproducts. Pressure on the manufacturers is expected to increase. Manufacturers should research into production technologies that will allow them manufacture their goods in an ethical manner and with the least negative impact on the environment. Such demands not only come from consumers but also various national and international organizations in order to raise the public awareness about ethical, environmental and social priorities. As long as the wet portion of the textile industry continues to globalize, one should clarify that the scope is continuing for "greening" its processes and chemical content. Societies that include industries within themselves should work. There should be collaboration with companies in order to obtain an optimal status where industrial growth and welfare are optimized without suffering negative impacts. As always, it becomes increasingly more important for engineers to conduct new studies and develop the same. It is envisaged that sustainable processes will unite the best ideas and therefore made the necessary technologic leaps. Applying other aspects of green chemistry principles and clean technology are expected to become more important and yield increasingly more number of environmental friendly production systems. Chemists should collaborate with other disciplines. There is an increasing importance on the collaboration of chemists and engineers to develop new sustainable processes. Necessary technologic leaps are expected in both branches by only uniting the ideas. Applying other aspects of green chemistry principles and clean technology are expected to yield increasingly more number of environmental friendly production systems. It is expected to harmonize certification documents and therefore help users such as buyers to compare and verify information easier. It is necessary to raise awareness in consumers in order to give priority to the environment instead of pricing. Importance should always be attached to raising national awareness, which should be accompanied by a public awareness about the importance of sustainable products. This will permit that the importance of sustainability for the environment is ensured at every phase from the manufacturer to the final consumer. REFERENCES Anastas, P.T., Warner, J.C. (1998). Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice, Oxford University Press, 135 pp., New York. 390 Anastas, P.T., Heine, L.G., Williamson, T.C (2001) Green Chemical Syntheses and Processes: Introduction, Chapter 1, pp 1–5, ACS Symposium Series Vol. 766, American Chemical Society. Choudhury, A.K.R. (2013). Green Chemistry and the Textile industry. Textile Progress, 45(1): 3–143. EU (2011) European Parliament and of the Council on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), Official Journal of the European Union, L 134/2, 20.5.2011). Euratex (2004). European technology platform for the future of textiles and clothing. A vision for 2020. The European Apparel and Textile organization, Brussels. Available at: https://www.certh.gr/dat/141D2148/file.pdf (Accessed: 20 June 2018). Holmes, I. (2012). Right-first-time dyeing: the sustainable approach, ATA J. Asia Tex. Apparel (Web Version). İnce, Z. (2018). 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Available at: http://www.aatcc.org. 391 Chapter 32 Bronze Age Urban Organization in the Region of Southern Mesopotamia Alev ERARSLAN Assoc. Prof. Dr., Istanbul Aydın University, Faculty of Architecture and Design, Department of Architecture, Istanbul, Turkey INTRODUCTION In the words of Gordon Childe, the “urban revolution” is accepted to have first emerged in the region of Southern Mesopotamia (Childe, 1950). In the article entitled The Urban Revolution, which Childe published in 1950, 10 criteria were established to identify urban development in terms of the manner cities could be differentiated from villages in the settlements of ancient Mesopotamia. These were; the size of the settlement; the density of the population; a full-time working class of artisans; the existence of monumental public works of added value such as temples or palaces; an administrative class; writing or some other system of signs and symbols to take its place; developed techniques of arithmetic, geometry and astronomy; long-distance trade; a standardized style of art; and a state-level political organization. This article explores and seeks to provide knowledge about the Bronze Age cities and urban organization of Southern Mesopotamia, considered the region where history’s first cities and urban settlements flourished. MATERIAL AND METHODS This study, which will attempt to present an understanding of the urban organization of Bronze Age Southern Mesopotamia, will first describe the public areas that attest to the cities and urban organization as well as the urban societies that emerged in this region in what is known as the “First Urbanization Era” or the Uruk Period. A description will then follow of the cities and the areas and structures comprising the cities in the region as well as the nature of urban society during the Bronze Age, which is the main subject of our study. Our focus will be not only on the sections, structures and characteristics of planning in the cities in the region but also on the pattern of urban settlement. THE FIRST CITIES IN THE REGION The first cities in the region of Mesopotamia appeared in southern Mesopotamia and date to the second half of the 4th millennium B.C. (3500-3100 B.C.) in the Late Uruk Period (Figure 1). The ecological conditions of the area included alluvial deposits in the plains, but cultivation was only possible with the help of irrigation. The researcher Robert McCormick Adams asserts that the reason cities emerged in this region and the population tended to be concentrated in these 392 settlements is that the added assets that were brought about through cultivation led to a need to collect and manage these in a central location (Adams, 1966). Figure 1: Cities in the Region of Southern Mesopotamia (Stone 1995). In this period, a well-developed urban hierarchy began to develop in the region and the population started to shift from the villages and towns to the cities. An area of 2.5 km2 was occupied by the city-state Uruk (Tell-el Warka), which was a central settlement. The density of the settlement‘s population was 100-200 persons per hectare (Van de Mieroop, 1999). The sacred area of E-anna, where the temples that were responsible for the collection and redistribution of agricultural crops of added value were located, was the public realm of the settlement. An area of 230 hectares in the city, of which 20 hectares belonged to the public, was allocated as a residential area. The surprising size of the settlement and of the areas allocated to ritual activities is an indication of the settlement’s importance. It is believed that with the migrations of the rural population from surrounding regions at the end of the 4th millennium B.C., the population of the city was approximately 25,00050,000. Surrounding the central settlement were smaller satellite settlements. In the Late Uruk period, 60% of the population of the region shifted to the area around the capital of Uruk (Roaf, 1996). The settlements surrounding Uruk were characterized by a dispersed pattern of habitation (Çevik, 2005). All of the settlements were positioned in proximity to reliable water sources. Another region in Southern Mesopotamia in which urbanization was seen in the Late Uruk period dating to the second half of the 4th millennium B.C. was the area surrounding Nippur and Adab. There was an increase noted in the number of small and medium sized settlements surrounding Nippur during this period (Adams, 1966). 393 Figure 2: Uruk period temple of Eridu (Lloyd 1978: Fig 8). The earliest public structure to be seen in this period was the temple (Figure 2). This period was a time in which cities were settled around a central temple. The structures served not only as centers of worship but they were also locations that were the focus of political and economic power. The temples owed their existence to the community and their sizes were directly proportional to the size of the settlement of which they were a part. The fundamental economic livelihood of the temples derived from the land they possessed. The temples were the first location of political, social and economic organization or institutionalization and more than half of the inscribed tablets found at these temples reveal documentation of economic transactions (Çevik, 2005). Anu Ziggurat on the White Temple in Uruk was dedicated to the sky god Anu and was visible from even over the fortification of the city. Eighty-five percent of the inscribed tablet in the E-anna precinct comprises economic texts. THE ADVANCED STAGE OF URBANIZATION THIRD MILLENNIUM B.C. Urbanization tendencies in the region of Southern Mesopotamia are dated to the beginning of the third millennium B.C. to the era of Cemdet Nasr (3100-2900 B.C.), reaching their acme in Early Dynastic Period I (2900-2350 B.C.). While the number of villages and towns around Uruk was 146 in the former period, this figure fell to 76 in Early Dynastic Period I and later to 24. In other words, the population in the rural areas found its way into the cities (Adams, 1972). Adams estimates that 78% of the population in the period lived in cities that occupied an area of land that was larger than 40 hectares (Adams, 1981). Kish in this period reached an area of 60 hectares. The main model of the city at this time was again Uruk. The dimensions of Uruk continued to increase, reaching 600 hectares and the city was 394 surrounded by walls (Nissen, 1993). The city walls of Uruk in this period were built around 400 hectares. Other large cities of the period were Zabalam, Umma and Bad-tibira. Small settlements were abandoned as the population started to collect in large centers. In the region of Nippur, for example, more than 70% of the population lived in a 10-hectare settlement. Around Nippur, this percentage was even higher (Adams, 1981). In the Early Dynastic I period, contrary to the dispersed pattern of previous days, the model of settlement was more linear. Information about the physical organization of the cities of this period is however scarce. Temple areas found in some of the settlements point to the existence of religious organizations of monumental dimensions that served administrative functions. These structures appear on a smaller scale in the buildings of the 4th millennium B.C. and with the same type of organizational principles (Ur, 2012). In the middle of the 3rd millennium B.C. main cities with larger populations emerge such as Ur, Lagash and Susa. And along the watercourses, a large number of canals begin to be built for purposes of trade rather than irrigation. This is the period in which the cities reach their largest dimensions. The largest urban settlement of the period, Lagash, occupied an area of 400 hectares and had a population of 65,000 (Carter, 1990). Ur is spread out over an area of 220 hectares. Shuruppak is another major city built on 100 hectares. Other main cities are smaller. The population living in the cities increases in this period. This is a time in which urbanization reaches its zenith in the region. Each of these cities are city-states where there are public spaces such as temples and palaces that are indications of a high-level and hierarchical social stratification. The cities of this period do not display a regular type of plan since their development was generally organic. The canals and avenues of the cities were separated into irregular sections. There was no concept of a citadel devoted to administrative and religious buildings in the cities of this era. Each of the cities were dedicated to gods but were composed of three sections of different character (Oppenheim, 1964). 1). The inner city (uru): In the walled inner city there were a temple complex, palaces, administrative buildings, residential and industrial areas. 2). The outer city (uru-bar-ra): houses, agricultural land, gardens, fields 3). The harbor (kar) The inner city started to rise above its position on the plains, building upon the remnants of its past history. The structure of the city reflected separate distinctions between the temple, palace and gates and did not suggest the existence of a citycenter. The temple stood apart from the rest of the city, even separated from the walls and together with the temple, was located amid a cluster of streets and private houses (Oppenheim, 1964). The temple (e-dingir) was the most important institution of this period. The layout of the temple, its dimensions and location stood out in the general organization of the city. There were temples built for worship to the different gods of each city. The temple was an economical power that dominated agriculture, production and the workforce. The temple could also engage in industrial production. Textiles, ceramics, metals, wood and valuable gems were some of the areas of production. For example, the “north palace” at 395 Esnunna engaged in textile production in affiliation with Abu Temple (Postgate, 1992). Most of the cities had only one main temple. These temples were situated in the main visual focus of the city. They were not however located in the city centers (except for Larsa). The main temple is usually situated on the edge of the city in an asymmetrical arrangement. Mashkan-shapir, Ur, Nippur, Khafajah, Iscalli and Tell Agrap, for example, were positioned at the edge of cities (Stone, 1999). Whether a temple was a main temple or a ziggurat, it played a significant role in the economy and was always situated at the highest peak of the city, becoming its visual focal point. They were not necessarily located at the city center, however. For example, while temples were situated on the edge of cities such as Sippar, Kish, Tutup (Kahafaje), Lagash, Neribtum, Mashkanshapir and Shuruppak, the temples at Larsa, Nippur, Ur and Uruk were positioned asymmetrically (Stone, 1991). In fact, even early temples such as Tell al-Uqair and Tell al-Ubaid were not in the center of the cities. As from the middle of the third millennium B.C., the second most prominent institutions to be seen in the cities of the region were the palaces (e-gal). Like the temples, the palaces were of monumental dimensions and were built in the city centers. Unlike the temples, however, they were not built on a high platform and did not exist in every city. The palaces symbolized the rise of secular power and as such, they were most probably born of the need for defense in the prevailing atmosphere of conflict between city-states. It is known that in many instances palaces were built in collaboration with temples and were involved in struggles for ruling power (Nissen, 1988). This administrative power was combined with the presence of independent administrators. As in Larsa, palaces were sometimes positioned next to temples or, as in Eridu or Uruk, at a certain distance from them. The positioning of these structures pointed to the two types of authority that represented the two main powers of the state. Palaces were not necessarily found in every city. They were built close to the city center or at the edges of the inner city. Besides their residential functions, palaces also served in production thanks to the workshops that existed within their walls. Palaces began to become more numerous in the Jemdet Nasr period around the beginning of the third millennium B.C. Whereas structures that had first been identified as temples were scarce, in this period palaces, symbols of secular power, came to be physically separated, as in Kish and Eridu, from the center of power and became symbols of this separation. There are two palaces in Kish that are dated to the Early Kingdom. One of these is Palace A, the other is the Plano-convex Building. In their function as administrative bodies, palaces were again set out asymmetrically at a certain distance from the main temple. In this way, the temple and the palace were separated from the rest of the city (Figure 3). In the planning of the cities of Southern Mesopotamia, exclusive and ordinary homes, workshops, small cult structures comprised a wide residential area and emerged as an important urban feature. The workshop areas that housed ceramic, metal workmanship and stonemasonry activities, however, were sometimes separated from residential areas. In general, these types of production areas were located at the edges of the city near small canals. Some workshops however did 396 exist at the center of the city. In some instances, there were separate artisan workshops in every residential district (Stone, 1991). The residential areas were one of the most important elements of the city but no social hierarchy was displayed in these locations. In other words, people of every socioeconomic status lived together in every residential district. Figure 3: Kish Plano-Convex palace (Zaina 2014: Fig 6). There is a concentrated fabric of residences around the temples in the inner cities. For example, in Eshnunna, the Northern Palace occupies an area of 1825 m2 and surrounding it is a neighborhood that is accessed via a wide avenue and streets. One of the most significant of the cities of the period was Abu Salabikh, which was spread over an area of 50 hectares and sectioned into a few separate divisions. Each of the streets, laid out on a grid along the main avenue, was made up of 20-30 m. insulations of housing (Stone, 2007). The temples and palaces of Kish, Lagash, Khafajah and Tell Asmar are surrounded by residential areas comprising houses with courtyards. Tell Asmar contained the most widespread residential area of the period of the Early Kingdom. The industrial districts represent another type of main construction in the cities of third millennium Southern Mesopotamia. While some of these districts were concentrated at the edges of the city, in some cities (Larsai Mashkan-Shapir, some were located outside the city (Ur). In general, however, the districts were kept at a distance from the city center to prevent putrid smells from enveloping the city, commonly in suburban areas along with other houses. In Ur, the numerous areas that contained slag to the east of the Inner City seemed to have been used for the metal industry (Van de Mieroop, 1992). The main reason industrial activities were kept outside of the city stemmed from the need for raw materials and proximity to bodies of water. There are also dispersed areas of production that were not concentrated at a single point of the city. Sometimes areas of production were situated around small canals to meet the need for water. Shops existed along the lengths of the main avenues. In Mashkan-Shapir, for example, the copper shops 397 were lined along the main avenue. Written sources say that commercial activities were concentrated in the squares close to the gates of the city (Stone, 1999). Another commercial activity that the texts point to took place in the city’s harbors and piers. Although written sources refer to these areas of “karum,” there are no archeological finds to verify this. While it might be expected that these major areas of karum were situated around temples and palaces, to the contrary, they were dispersed over the entire city. The best examples of these are in Abu Salabikh, Larsa, Lagash and Ur. Another physical urban feature of the cities of Southern Mesopotamia is the canals. Canals divided the cities into habitats with different functions, playing a decisive role in their structure. The main aim of the canals was not only to provide water to the city but also to connect the city with the outside world and separate the interior into different sectors. The canals served as boundaries between the different areas in the cities and their other important function was to act as conduits of major transportation and commerce (Postgate, 1992). Large harbors joined major water sources and commercial activities were carried out in these harbors in all of the cities. The canals sometimes also became borders to administrative/religious and habitat zones. Other urban characteristics of the cities of Southern Mesopotamia that separated portions of the city besides the canals were the walls and roads. The roads were particularly used in dividing residential areas. The main roads followed the tracks of the waterways and for this reason were built parallel to these. The other roads were built perpendicular to the waterways. Like the canals, these main roads acted as separators but also played a connective role. All of the main cities of Southern Mesopotamia were surrounded by walls. The walls separated the cities from the hinterland. The walls were built on the edges of the city but reached out towards unsettled regions at some points. This was because such points were generally used for planting fruit and vegetables. It is also seen that waste materials were also made a part of urban planning in the cities of Southern Mesopotamia. There were empty spaces allocated for refuse on streets and avenues. Garbage collection and garbage burning appears to have been the custom here. There are also examples of garbage disposal sites outside the cities. In the outer city, gardens and vegetable patches appeared next to the canals. Suburban areas occupied the lands lying outside of the harbor and city walls. The cities generally developed organically and there was no major urban planning to be seen. Some cities were made up of only a few hilltops which were separated by rivers. All of the hilltops were surrounded by walls. Secular administrators emerged in this era. Their houses were adjacent to temples, as in the examples of the Khafajah Oval temple and the Kish A palace. Most of the cities of Southern Mesopotamia were arranged in an oval layout. An example of this is Ur. Open city spaces (sila dagala) were parts of the city that were considered in planning (Postgate, 1992). Most of the streets were unpaved and irregular. References point to a sacred route in Uruk that joined the main temple to an outer sanctuary; this is thought to have led to the formation of the processional routes to be found in later eras (Oppenheim, 1964). The open urban spaces were named sila 398 dagala, or “wide street” (Postgate, 1992). The most prominent cities of the third millennium B.C. were Tell Asmar (Eshnunna) and Tell Khafajah (Tutub), which were key settlements that reflected the urban characteristics of the mid-Mesopotamian region of the period (Figure 4). Figure 4: City of Eshnunna (Tell Asmar) (Ur 2012: Figure 28.5) Both cities have wide residential areas close to the temples. In Tell Khafajah (Tutub), houses belonging to the families of the elite can be found to the north and west of the Oval Temple (Postgate, 1992). The 5000 m2 area to the north of the Tell Asmar settlement was allocated as a residential sector. Cities reach massive dimensions in this era. In the second half of the third millennium B.C. two big powers such as the Akad and the Ur III dynasty emerge in the political arena of the region. The states of Akad and Ur III turn the region of Southern Mesopotamia into a centralized unitary political system. This did not continue for more than a century, however, and then after the downfall of the hegemonism of first Akad and then Ur III, the region was thrown into chaos and disorder in administrative organization. 399 URBANIZATION IN LOWER MESOPOTAMIA IN THE 2ND MILLENNIUM B.C. Towards the end of the Bronze Age (1500-1200 B.C.), the region of Southern Mesopotamia was ruled by the Kassit Kingdom. The middle of the second millennium B.C. was a time in which there was political instability among the independent city-states of the region. The unity of the cities came into disarray during this period. With the advent of the 1750’s B.C., the process of urbanization was interrupted due to economic collapse. In this period, the rate of urbanization fell to one-sixth of its previous level (Adams, 1981). When we look at the physical distribution of the humanitarian and public institutions within the urban scene in the cities of Southern Mesopotamia, we can see that there are common constructs in terms of the canals, city walls, road networks, harbors, bureaucratic focal points, sections of artisanship, residential areas and other arrangements. The cities were lined with natural and artificial waterways. However, sudden river flooding led to disaster sometimes and caused some settlements to be abandoned. In the Old Babylonian period of the Middle Bronze Age, a flood in one of the river canals in the region caused the main city to be abandoned (Gibson, 1980). At the beginning of the 2nd millennium B.C., open areas, narrow and wide streets, side streets and private entrances all carried certain common characteristics in the Old Babylonian cities of Ur, Saduppum, and Nippur. More than 8000 square meters of domestic housing were uncovered in Ur (Ur, 2012). The independence of elite families, merchants, artisans and artists played a critical role in the construction of cities (Figure 5). In cities where these groups were affiliated with public institutions, they gathered around temples and palaces. However, in cities where they were more socially and economically independent, as an indication of this aristocratic independence, houses and workshop areas were seen to be built at a distance from temples and palaces. On the other hand, in an effort to make their authority over the people known, the elite did not actually prefer to stray too far from public residential areas (Stone, 1991). This social fabric reflected on the physical appearance of the city’s arrangement. The site of the main temple and ziggurat was the most important point in urban planning. The main temple was always a visual focal point and was built on the highest point of the city. In cities that had no ziggurat, most of the major temples were positioned at the borders and edges of the city. Examples of this are the Oval temple in Khafajah and in Mashkan-shapir and Tell Agrab. In these cases, however, the temple is the focal point of the cities of Southern Mesopotamia and the difference between sacred and secular architecture is only a symbolic differentiation (Stone, 1991). In this period as well there are many interior canals in the layout of the cities. These canals sometimes separate cities from each other. The rivers divide the cities into principal sections. The canals sometimes also draw the borders between administrative/religious and habitat zones. The canals not only serve to separate the city into sectors of different functions but they are also used in meeting the city’s need for water and for purposes of transportation and commerce. There were many 400 harbors located along these canals. The existence of these harbors can be seen in Ur, Mashkan-shapir and Larsa (Stone, 1991). The harbors are inside the city walls. The number of harbors in a city, however, is usually limited to one. All commercial activity is carried out via these harbors. The rivers, which played a decisive role in the urbanization process of Southern Mesopotamian cities, not only physically separate the city into different interior sectors but also connect it with the outside world. Figure 5: A Middle Bronze Age Domestic Area at Ur (Ur 2012: Figure 28.6) Another factor that plays a role in the physical organization of the cities of Southern Mesopotamia is the network of walls and roads. All of the cities of Southern Mesopotamia were surrounded by walls. The walls usually surrounded unsettled territories as well. The purpose of these areas is not exactly known but as in the example of Nippur, it is believed that they were used as vegetable gardens. Sometimes too, as in Mashkan-Shapir, they were employed as cemeteries. In some cities, different segments were separated by walls instead of rivers. Sometimes, consecrated sites were surrounded by temenoi. Main roads in the cities were either parallel to the canals or almost perpendicular to them (Stone, 1991). As much as they connected cities, road networks also divided streets and avenues, and this type of network is important in the urban planning of this period. According to 401 written sources, the cities had main avenues as well as smaller streets and side streets that had proper names. Ur is one of the cities that had a developed network of roads. There, the wide avenues passing through residential areas also provided access to houses via small side streets and cul-de-sacs. Workshops and industrial areas in the cities were found among the houses in the residential areas. These structures looked like the houses as far as layout was concerned but they could be differentiated by their smaller scale and the numerous uncovered groups of finds. It is however seen that some areas related to production stood separate. The production of ceramics usually took place on the edges of town while metal production was performed in the town centers and precious stone workshops were to be found in the southeast district of the cities. Smaller scale workshops could also be seen inside the areas where temples and palaces stood. The elite of the period were equally distributed in all of the residential districts; there were no areas in which they formed a separate community. Even in settlements with different residential districts, there were no special areas designated for the elite. In other words, no socioeconomic hierarchy is reflected in the architecture of the urban fabric. There is a concentration of house compounds or insulae in the settlements. THE URBAN FABRIC OF THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE: THE EXAMPLE OF MASHKAN-SHAPIR Mashkan-Shapir (Tell Abu Dhuwari) is a city of the Old Babylonian Period which is 140 km. to the north of Nippur and is dated to the beginning of the second millennium. The city reached its zenith around 2000 B.C.E. and was the second capital of the Mesopotamian kingdom situated around Larsa. First founded during the rule of the Larsa Kingdom, its brightest era was during the Old Babylonian Period. The city is surrounded by city walls for defense against invaders and flooding (Ur, 2012). Occupying an area of 56 hectares, it was separated into different sections by canals and river beds (Figure 6). Mashkan-Shapir was made up of a group of hills that served different purposes. The main roads in the cities were either parallel to the canals or almost perpendicular to them (Stone 1991: 240). The canals in the city joined with larger regional hydraulic systems. There were two roads for traffic that were located near the major canal. The city was home to a concentration of crafts activities that included lapidary, ceramic and metal production. Districts in the city were delineated by canals. These canals formed the backbone of the streets and provided formal neighborhood divisions. There were five districts to the city and these were separated by canals. The largest of the districts, again separated by canals, were those in the north and east. Two of the canal junctions formed broad harbors, which are thought to have been centers of commerce. Structures in the city were positioned along the waterways such that the canals became essential parts of the urban fabric (Stone & Zimansky 1995). The focal point of the city was its main temple, which stood on a platform or ziggurat. Another sanctified area occupied the central district across the canal where many burials could be found. A large number of graves at other Mesopotamian sites and at Mashkan-Shapir were found in domestic areas. 402 This site was characterized by four canals, each of a width of more than fifteen meters, while lesser canals could be seen to the north and east. There were thus at least a total of six waterways crossing the city. The two harbors were situated at the junction of two of the larger canals. The network of waterways constituted the water supply for the city and the major commercial routes of the city (Stone, 1995). A network of roads and streets linked the residential areas and major arteries were situated parallel or perpendicular to the canals, with bridges or ferries linking the different sections. Most residences could be accessed through a network of narrow alleyways and dead-end streets. The north part of the city was the center of commercial activity (Stone, 1995). A fortification system surrounded the city where the walls were penetrated by gates, providing access to sea traffic and land travel. Figure 6: The City of Mashkan-shapir (Stone 1995). The principal roads and canals separated the city into pockets of residential areas not segregated by wealth or status. Examples of imported materials in the form of metal objects were found evenly distributed over the city. There was also an even distribution of cylinder seals (Stone & Zimansky, 1995). The whole city displayed signs of manufacturing. 403 The site does not exhibit signs of a distinct centralized model of a Mesopotamian city. Sacred and administrative centers were clustered to the south. Again, major canals separated these centers from one another and from the remainder of the city. Commercial activities were carried out at a distance from these centers of power. LATE BRONZE AGE AND URBANIZATION With the fall of the Old Babylonian kingdom, the region entered the rule of the Kassites. In this period, Dur-Kurigalzu appeared as a newly founded city. The city is a typical city of Southern Mesopotamia with its ziggurat, temple complex, palace and residential areas (Gibson, 1992). The city of Nippur was the most important settlement of the period, with its ostentatious walls, its temples of Enlil, Inanna and Gula, its main palace and the widespread residential area to the southwest of the city. Today, the city is called Nuffar and it is 160 km to the south of Baghdad, standing between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers. A clay tablet displaying a map of the city in this period, dated to the late Kassite era (1500 B.C.), indicates the city’s topography, calling attention to the canals, city walls and gates and its three main regions (Figure 7) (Gibson, 1992). The map on the tablet, which is of a size of 21x18 cm, shows how the city was separated by the rivers. The Euphrates flowed from the west of the city and the waterway is called the “Nunbirdu Canal.” The middle canal ran through the center of the city (called Lar en-Nil today). The map particularly highlights the city walls and gates. The map points to two residential areas (TA, TB) immediately adjacent to the Ekur temple area dedicated to the god Enlil.Nippur is not a typical Southern Mesopotamian city. There is no temple standing as a key landmark in this city, for example, as in other southern Mesopotamian cities. The settlement is significant as a site of religious power. As in other cities of Southern Mesopotamia, the city was abandoned in the Old Babylonian period and earned an identity as a city in the last Kassite era. In terms of the city’s organization, it can be seen that the walls and main waterways are situated both inside and outside of the city. Seven gates pierced the wall surrounding the city. At the southwest corner stood the main administrative palace and broad domestic buildings. Enlil, the main temple, was joined by a lesser temple, the temple of Eshmah, and was built beyond the city walls. The temple dedicated to the principal protective god of the city Ninurta does not accompany these structures and is not shown on the map (Stone, 1991). Emphasis has also been made on the map to the walls of the city. The walls on the southwest, southeast and northwest have been drawn together with their gates. The names of gates also appear on the map. The map additionally indicates the ditches that stand parallel to the walls. In the Kassite map, an open space, labeled as Nippur’s gardens, can also be seen together with the walls. This area was situated beyond Nippur’s main hilltop and was uninhabited. It can also be seen that there were also open fields that were used as vegetable gardens. 404 Figure 7: Nippur city plan (Ur 2012: Figure 28.8) The main temple at Nippur, rather than bearing the characteristics of city planning and being set in the center of the city, was instead built on a hilltop to the east of the city. As in other cities of Southern Mesopotamia, the city consists of several hilltops. As seen in the map, the major separation between the west hilltop and the rest of the city derives from the river flowing across the land. The map of Nippur shows us how some Mesopotamian cities were incorporated alongside gardens. There is a large garden, for example, planted on one corner of the city (Stone & Zimansky, 1995). The map highlights three features of the city--the watercourses, the city wall and gates, and three large divisions (Ur, 2012). To the west was the Euphrates. The city wall on the map calls attention to the angles and to how the gates are positioned. Garbage disposal was handled inside the city (Stone 1991: 242). A city square and park stood in the center of the site. 405 CONCLUSIONS Research considers the region of Southern Mesopotamia the first area in history in which cities and urbanization began. As of the 4th millennium B.C., it is possible to see the traces of a urbanized organization of settlement and an urbanized social structure. The two main powers of temple and palace were the driving forces of urbanization in this period. Planned urban organization was present in Southern Mesopotamia ever since the first phases of city development and its cities were characterized by the separate planning of water canals, streets, residential areas, public buildings, parks and disposal areas, cemeteries and production sites. The physical and social organization of the cities, which were distinct city-states surrounded by walls, are clear indications that the concept of preconceived urban planning existed in the area ever since the 4th millennium B.C. It was from here that the organization of cities and their social structures spread out into surrounding regions. Thanks to the developing commercial network, the merchants of the area engaged in trade with nearby regions, whose urbanization processes readily reveal the influence of the process of urbanization in Mesopotamia. REFERENCES Adams, R.M. (1966). The Evolution of Urban Society, New York: Aldine Publishing Company. Adams, R.M. (1972). Patterns of urbanism in early southern Mesopotamia. In: P.J. Ucko, R. Tringham, G.W. Dimbleby (Eds), Man, Settlement and Urbanism, p. 735-749, London: Duckworth. Adams, R.M. (1981). Heartland of Cities, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Carter, E. (1990). A Surface Survey of Lagash, Al-Hiba, 1984, Sumer 46 (2), 60-63. Childe, V.G. (1950). The Urban Revolution, Town Planning Review 21 (1), 3-17. Childe, V.G. (1952). New Light on the Most Ancient East: the Oriental Prelude to European Prehistory, New York: W.W. Norton Çevik, Ö. (2005). Arkeolojik Kanıtlar Işığında Tarihte İlk Kentler ve Kentleşme Süreci, Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları, İstanbul. Crawford, H. (2004). Sumer and Sumerians, University College London. Gibson, M. (1980). Current Research at Nippur: Ecological, Anthropological and Documentary Interplay. In: M. T. Barrelet (Ed), L’archéologie de l’Iraq du début de l’époque néolithique à 333 avant notre ère, pp. 193–206, Editions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique, Paris. Gibson, M. (1992). The Origin and Development of Sumerian Civilization and Its Relation to Environment. In I. Shuntaro, Y. Yoshinori, (Ed). Nature and Humankind in the Age of Environmental Crisis, p. 1–27, International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, Japan. Lloyd, S. (1978). The Archaeology of Mesopotamia, London: Thames & Hudson. Nissen, H. J. (1993). The Context of the Emergence of the Writing in Mesopotamia. In: J. Curtis (Ed), Early Mesopotamia and Iran. Contact and Conflict 3500-1600 BC, p. 54-71, London: British Museum. Nissen, H. J. (1998). The Early History of the Ancient Near East. Chicago: 406 University of Chicago Press. Oppenheim, A. (1964). Ancient Mesopotamia, Chicago: UCP Postgate, J. N. (1992). Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, London and New York: Routledge. Roaf, M. (1996). Mezopotamya ve Eski Yakındoğu, İletişim Yayınları: İstanbul. Ur, J. (2012). Southern Mesopotamia, In: D. T. Potts (Ed), A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, First Edition, p. 65-98, London: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Stone, E. C. (1991). The Spatial Organisation of Mesopotamian Cities, Aula Orientalis 9, 235-242. Stone, E. C. (1995). The Development of Cities in Ancient Mesopotamia, In: J. Sasson (Ed), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, p. 235-248., New York: Scribners Press. Stone, C. E. (1999). The Constraints on State and Urban Form in Ancient Mesopotamia. In: M. Hudson, B. Levine (Ed). Urbanism and Economy in the Ancient Near East, p. 203-227, Cambridge: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Stone, E.C. (2007). The Mesopotamian Urban Experience, In: E.C.Stone (Ed), Settlement and Society: Essays Dedicated to Robert McCormick Adams, p. 213234. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology. Stone, E. C., Zimansky, P. (1995). The Tapestry of Power in A Mesopotamian City. Scientific American 272 (4), 92-97. Van de Mieroop, M. (1999). The Ancient Mesopotamian City. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Zaina, F. (2014). Craft, Administration and Power in Early Dynastic Mesopotamian Public Buildings. Recovering the Plano-Convex Building at Kish, Iraq. Paleorient 4 (1), 177-197. 407 Chapter 33 The Role of the Regional Scale Cultural Policies within the Scope of Development Plans: The Eada Development Agency Case, Van Gülçinay BAŞDOĞAN Yüzüncü Yıl University, Faculty of Architecture and Design, Department of Landscape Architecture, Van/Turkey INTRODUCTION The concept of development is one of the most frequently used concepts since 1950's. “Development”, which also includes the meanings of "civilizing", "modernization", is often used in Turkish as a synonym for progress, modernization, and becoming contemporary. Not often the concept of "growing" is also used instead of concept of development. The dichotomy of “developmentunderdevelopment” in the Western languages which are originated from Latin origin has been replaced by the concepts of “development-underdevelopment” or “progressive-non-progressive” in Turkish language (Siggel 2005: 1, Başkaya 2010: 16-23). Development is seen as an emerging change process not only in economical, but also in social and corporate structures. In time, it has been understood that the development cannot occur with a single driving power and, through interrelations of economical, psychological, socio-cultural and political factors; the fact of development has become more evident (Ruttan 1988: 247).Historically, development means catalyzing of the potential towards improving the substantial well-being and reduction of human suffering that appeared in the socalled underdeveloped countries (Gasper 1995: 209). If we summarize the concept of development; it mainly consists of progress and growth that happened in a country within certain periods, generally an economic environment which has improvements in the living standards of the society, improvements in the quality of the products or in the production system in it. Within this context, economic growth and development is the most obvious fundamental objective of all countries; and each country is trying to use its existing resources and facilities in the most rational and efficient way to reach that objective.. Economic and social activities which are mostly concentrated around a certain center in each country have led to serious imbalances by bringing out the interregional developmental differences. In this process, with economic activities of the regions, distribution of population, integrity of the cities, the environmental and the natural tissue have deteriorated, economic and social costs of development have increased; and under those negative conditions there are bottlenecks occurred which prevent the progress (Arslan 2005: 275-294). 408 At this point, there has been a need of a regional policy towards elimination of regional developmental differences that allows convergence of less developed regions to the socio-economical-cultural structure in developed regions by balancing the developmental differences between regions. In accordance with this requirement, regional policies have gained importance in development policies and, on the basis of planning and development policies, a new formation and understanding has been introduced. In the research it has been considered accordingly that, for the cities of the region and especially for the city of Van, whether the cultural policies which are seen as the tools of urban development take place within the regional plans established toward the targets set for development by Eastern Anatolia Development Agency (EADA) which is attached to the Ministry of Development, taking place within the framework of the central government, whether or not culture creates a field of influence by itself and, whether or not the policies to be implemented have connections with cultureoriented approach. 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS In this study, within the regional plan report of EADA 2014-2023, by analyzing the TRB2 Region 2014-2023 Regional Plan Development Line, Recommended Projects According to the Targets and Strategies and the Development Line, the aim has been to determine what are the pre-set policies, which sectors are given priority for development and the role given to culture within these policies. 3. RESULTS 3.1. 2014-2023 Period Regional Plan for TRB2 region Development Agencies have been established by “Law for Establishment, Coordination and Duties of Development Agencies” dated 25.01.2006 and no. 5449.According to theobjectives of establishment, Development Agencies work in order to accelerate the regional development in accordance with the principals and policies prevenient in the national development plan and programs and to ensure its sustainability, and to reduce interregional and intraregional developmental differences, by means of developing cooperation among the public sector, private sector and non-governmental organizations, ensuring appropriate and efficient use of resources, and catalyzing local potential. In line with these objectives 26 Development Agencies were established in Turkey. EADA was established in November 22nd, 2008 (Anonymous 2006). Regional Plans, with Law no. 5449 for the Establishment, Coordination and Duties of Development Agencies and Zoning Law no. 3194, and within the context of country-wide 26 Level-2 Regions, are considered as basic policy documents defined by the reduction projection of regional developmental differences.TRB2 Region (Bitlis, Hakkâri, Muş and Van) consists of the least developed provinces of Turkey as reported by Socio-Economic Development Index (SEDI) in 2011. Accordingly, TRB2 Region 2014-2023 Regional Plan has been prepared by the Eastern Anatolia Development Agency in order to determine and to support the 409 fields where the Region is comparatively superior and where it remains below the country averages. In the process of the final shaping of the document, in addition to the analysis and data collection, there have been focus group studies based on participation, where the experiences and the opinions of the actors of the Region have been received (DAKA, 2014: 9, 26-29, 298, 307, 314, 320, 329, 333, 343345). The Regional Plan has determined three major development lines (Strong Society, Economic Transformation and Growth, Livable Spaces) for ensuring the simultaneous progress in all dimensions (social, economic and environmental) of development. In the plan, the notions of social responsibility, eco-efficiency, sustainable production and consumption, health and safety, environmental sustainability are evaluated within the framework of a systematic approach and sustainability policy has been turned into the main line. 3.1.1. Development line: Economic transformation and growth According to the report of SEDI 2011 which formed the basis for the new incentive system, in socio-economic developmental ranking, Bitlis ranked 76th, Hakkâri 80th, Muş 81st and Van 75th. Accordingly, 1stDevelopment Line, aiming the increase of the social welfare with structural transformation in the economy and growth, consisted of 12 targets and 40 strategies with the purpose of the factors of production in TRB2 Region to be used in an efficient and sustainable manner [6]. In addition, in the TRB2 Regional Plan for the period 2014-2023, 69 projects have been identified towards the development axes. 37 of the said projects are the ones oriented for economic transformation and growth; 24 of them are the projects oriented for live able spaces; and finally, 8 of them are oriented for strong society. Within the context of branding and marketing strategy in the line of economic transformation and growth; activation of the geographic indication mechanism towards local products and application for the geographic indication of the local products of Van province (such as Uşkun, Gevaş beans, yellow melon of Sıhke, Norduz sheep and goats, breakfast of Van, walnut of Bahçesaray, Çatak honey, Edremit apple, grey mullet of Van) become important in terms of local gastronomy and the cultural values. Also, for the purpose of reviving the tourism sector in the region, determination of the “Urartu Route” and the “Blue Voyage Route” in order to promote the natural-cultural values; organization of national and international cultural activities (exhibitions, fairs) for the promotion of the tourism potential of the region; show that the recommendations developed to correct the negative image of the region through organization of festivals and carnivals are directly related with the cultural policies. When the projects related to economic transformation and growth are taken into consideration; it is foreseen that by the renewal of the image of the region through “Traditional Promotion and Cultural Festival Project” which is planned to be organized in all of the provinces of the TRB2 region, with the promotion of the local products be ensured and, with symposiums, poetry events and festivals organized in the name of the valuable personalities such as poets and intellectuals etc., who are natives of the region and whose importance are adopted by large 410 masses, participation would take place on national and international scale (DAKA, 2014: 9, 26-29, 298, 307, 314, 320, 329, 333, 343-345). Level of interest of TRB2 Region towards intellectual and industrial property has been examined and it has been stated that there is a concentration in the application for Trademark Registration Certificate. Taking this concentration into consideration, it has been suggested, as a project proposal, to establish Food Technologies and Agricultural Research Center in Van. This center; in order to increase the competitiveness of a region where products in excess of livelihood are supplied to the market and local products are wide-spread in the consumption chain, and by this way, with the purpose of creating an eco-system of culture industry with low elasticity, and with the purpose of production and marketing of the products with high levels of food safety and with brand value at national level, has been foreseen to undertake an institutional mission as a corporate body having scientific qualifications in the execution of the projects by examining the contestability of the food products of the region with local products having priority, which are suitable for human health, have high level of quality and are able to enter to the world kitchens. This center has been proposed to be established within the Yüzüncü Yıl University (DAKA, 2014: 9, 26-29, 298, 307, 314, 320, 329, 333, 343-345). With this center it is seen that the traditional food culture is being considered together with the culture industries. Existing situation in the Region has been examined in terms of science and technology sector, and it has been stated that a Technology Development Zone (YYU TEKNOKENT) with legal establishment phase completed exists only in the Yüzüncü Yıl University. Mentioning the economic transformation of the TRB2 Region could be ensured by innovative technologies and innovative systems, the “Establishment Project of R & D and Innovation Centers, such as TEKMER, TEKNOPARK” has been proposed. With these structures, it has been foreseen that the industrial rights indicators would improve (DAKA, 2014: 9, 26-29, 298, 307, 314, 320, 329, 333, 343-345). 3.1.2 Development line: Liveable spaces It has been stated that the provinces of the region are growing due to a continuously increasing population movement, other provinces except the province of Van have net immigration; therefore, city of Van receives immigrants and due to this fact, the city has the distinction of being the center of attraction [6]. In the line of Liveable spaces, 4 targets and 12 strategies have been formed according to the urban quality of life parameters. Three projects have been highlighted which are related to culture for livable spaces. First of them is “Urban Identity Oriented Urban Economics and Macro Form Research Project" and it covers TRB2 Region/Bitlis and Van city centers and the county of Tatvan. It is aimed to determine the age of the city by investigating the macro form of the city and to form an identity certificate in relation with which symbols and corner stones might be used to create attraction in the main activities that make up the city's economy and at the spatial arrangements of the city. In accordance with this purpose, the preparation of the comparative maps of the city 411 whereby the age of the city is determined, the determination spatial experiences with interview studies and the making of animations towards this retrospective in spatial arrangements have been projected within the context of the project. Secondly, "Urban Coding Directory Project" consists of TRB2 Region/BitlisHakkari-Muş-Van city centers, and the county of Yüksekova. It has been aimed to form sample studies for city center projects for urban design to make cities competitive and a center of attraction and to establish an urban coding directory in this regard which places these studies in a system of regulations. Accordingly, it has been suggested that suitable spatial decisions are taken for city's architectural tissue, existence of natural habitats and people’s life-styles, and tools such as urban furniture, plates, slabs and landscaping products are used in the execution of these decisions. And the final one is “Urban Identity Oriented Architectural Tissue Research and Urban Design Project”. While covering TRB2 Region/Bitlis and Van city centers and the counties of Tatvan, Ahlat, Adilcevaz and Gevaş; the project aims the making of the macro scale urban economy studies defining the urban identity, also, as a field of execution, in the micro scale urban design; the designation of the spatial experiences determined by verbal history and the determination of architectural tissues, the creation of urban aesthetics, the increase of the attraction of the city, having the silhouette of the city to gain a form and the spatial quality to increase. In accordance with this objective, it has been proposed that a comparison of the old and the new architectural samples is made and the models, which are adapted to the conditions of the day and oriented to the architectural tissue, are developed (DAKA 2014: 9, 26-29, 298, 307, 314, 320, 329, 333, 343-345). The images of the provinces in the region have been determined on a sectoral basis by attaching importance to the urban identity within the scope of live able spaces. Accordingly, the most remarkable thing in terms of culture is the "focus of tourism and museum city" identity emphasis attributed to the city of Bitlis. With the development strategies directed to this identity emphasis, the following points become important in terms of urban cultural policies; the increase of the urban space quality-oriented level of live ability, the renovation of the architecturalhistorical-cultural tissue creating the urban identity by urban design studies, the improvement of the environmental quality and, suggesting applications of urban transformation in the fields of collapse. 3.1.2. Development line: Strong Society It has been stated that; for the societies to become successful in their processes of economic development, besides their physical capital, it is also necessary for them to develop their human capital, and in this regard, it is not possible for the region/countries, which do not invest into human and social capital, to show a high performance in the economic field. Accordingly, 2 main targets and 8 strategies have been determined in order to have the social and the human capital, which is in the framework of development in the TRB2 region, developed. When projects oriented to the strong society line are examined, it is observed that three projects, within the scope of social and human capital, are related to the 412 cultural policies. With the "Lifelong Learning Center Project (Continuing Education Center)" which is planned to be made in the TRB2 Region/ Van, Hakkari, Muş and Bitlis city centers, it has been aimed to improve the service quality and to contribute to human capital development by increasing the quality of the existing human power (ages 15-64). With this project, it is foreseen that the abilities of socialization for individuals who do not have any professional experience and who could not have found chances for higher education would be increased by providing them vocational training, human resources and career guidance services. Secondly, a “Youth and Sports Center Project” has been proposed for “All the County Centers without Cultural Centers” in the TRB2 Region. It aims for young people to evaluate their free time with social, cultural, artistic and sports activities, establishment of plans and programs directed for them to have knowledge and skills, to improve the qualities of the cultural activities in the region and to ensure the individuals who immigrate to city center to integrate with the city. Finally, with the “Cultural Centers Project” planning to be established at the region, the following have been aimed; giving better cultural services in the region, ensuring the accessibility of cultural services and contributing to the individuals to renovate themselves and to integrate with the city life. In accordance with this purpose, it has been proposed that cultural centers are established where meetings, exhibitions, courses, shows, contests, audio and video programs would be organized (DAKA 2014: 9, 26-29, 298, 307, 314, 320, 329, 333, 343-345). As per the plan in the strong society line; while not perceiving the development concept only on the economic dimension, it is foreseen an understanding of development together with the social and human capital, and it can be said that, with the strategies directed to the social and human capital, the cultural development is, consciously or unconsciously, targeted within this context. 4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Looking at the objectives of the 2014-2023 Period Regional Plan of TRB2 Region; it aims at developing of the agricultural and livestock sectors by improving them, increasing of industrial and commercial investments, developing of the tourism sector, increasing of the participation in social life by raising the level of education and supporting of activities related to the infra-structure and superstructure in order to increase the level of urban life quality. Accordingly, in spite of there is no direct objective in the plan to improve the cultural structure and to catalyze it as a means of development, it can be stated that the cultural structure is considered as a means of developing the tourism sector. REFERENCES Başkaya, F. (2010). Kalkınma İktisadının Yükselişi ve Düşüşü, İmge Kitabevi, 3. Baskı, Ankara, pp.16-23. Siggel, E. (2005). Development Economics: A Policy Analysis Approach, Ashgate Publishing Company, USA, pp.1. Ruttan, V. (1988). Cultural endowments and economic development: What can we learn from anthropology?” Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol: 413 36, No:3, pp. 247. Gasper, D. (1995). Kalkınma Ahlakı: Yeni bir alan mı?, içinde Piyasa Güçleri ve Küresel Kalkınma, (ed.) Renee Prendergast ve Frances Stewart, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul, 209. Arslan, K. (2005). Bölgesel kalkınma farklılıklarının giderilmesinde etkin bir araç: bölgesel planlama ve bölgesel kalkınma ajansları, İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 4(7), 275-294. Anonymous (2006). Official Gazette of the Republic of Turkey. Kalkınma Ajanslarının Kuruluş ve Görevleri Hakkında 5449 sayılı Kanun,: 8 Şubat 2006 Sayı: 26074. DAKA (2014). Doğu Anadolu Kalkınma Ajansı (DAKA) 2014-2023 Dönemi TRB2 Bölgesi Bölge Planı, Mart, pp. 9, 26-29, 298, 307, 314, 320, 329, 333, 343-345. URL:http://www.daka.org.tr/panel/files/files/yayinlar/trb2_2014_2023_bp.pdf (accesed date: 1/03/2016) 414 Chapter 34 A Brief History of Edremit (Van) Cultural Landscape Feran AŞUR1 and Emel BAYLAN2 Dr. Lecturer, Van Yuzuncu Yıl University, Faculty of Archtecture and Design, Department of Landscape Architecture, Van-Turkey. 1, 2 INTRODUCTION The term “cultural landscape” was first coined by the World Heritage Committee as part of the UNESCO World Heritage Agreement in 1992, and is defined as the “combined works of nature and man”. It seems that almost no natural habitat is left untouched by this partnership, or unaffected by the cultural processes involved in it. So much so that, the term of “landscape” itself, which was defined as “view, natural habitat or environment planning” for a long time, has been stated as “a region with properties shaped through interaction of human and/or natural factors or actions, and as perceived by humans” in European Landscape Convention (ELC 2000). Concordantly, regardless of their ordinary or extraordinary properties, almost all landscapes today can be defined as “cultural landscapes”. Cultural landscape can also be defined as “a combination of cultural properties and elements created by man and nature together with humane, cultural and symbolic aspects; which explain the changes a settlement and its society undergoes due to limitations and opportunities created by social, economic, cultural forces, and forces of nature (Mitchell et al. 2009). Natural and man-made elements and processes are the main constituents of a given natural landscape (Farina 2000). Entities and areas like aqueducts, graveyards, fences, gardens, cultivated areas, historical settlements, village squares, holy natural areas, and defense structures can be given as examples to such elements (Page 2009). Cultural landscapes that shed light to past cultures with their distinctive and extraordinary properties, whether material or immaterial, are treasured and prioritized in national and international scales. In this regard, UNESCO has classified cultural landscapes in three categories as given below; 1. Landscapes that have clearly been defined by man; 2. Organically developed landscapes; 3. Associative cultural landscape areas (UNESCO 1999). Most cultural landscapes, in line with the changes in culture and nature, are dynamic landscapes that are still under development. Historical settlements and structures and their surroundings are valued as heritages in the cultural landscape contecxt, and they carry the sociocultural and economical properties and details of the period they originated from such as construction techniques and materials, to our day. Such historical locales, however, are usually harmed, or even worse, face complete destruction due to the factors like population increases, rapid urbanization, changes in social structures, and lack of awareness on cultural landscapes. As such, the “integrated protection” 415 principle, which considers socio-cultural structures in addition to the usual physical preservation methods, becomes prominently important (Çelik and Yazgan 2007). Historical environment, as a heritage, displays regularity; it has repeating elements and properties of similar nature which help distinguish itself from other patterns in the constructed environment, and hence it exhibits its distinctive framework. Such an urban fabric is quite specific and distinctive due to its characteristic physical and non-physical properties of time and locale (Hassler et al. 2004). As the elements and properties of a given historical urban fabric are not created with natural processes alone, it is not possible to recreate them once they are destroyed (Rodwell 2008). As such, protective efforts that aim the sustainability of physical and sociocultural structures are of great importance, especially so for cultural landscapes that are undergoing change and transformation. The purposes of preserving and restoration of historical environments can be summarized as follows: ensuring historical and cultural continuity, revitalizing these environments in terms of modern living conditions in a manner that preserves their identity, putting historical structures that can be settled to good use, and preserving urban landscape and traditional settlement models. Due to the influence of governments and religion, earliest works in Europe in this regard was conducted on religious structures like churches and monasteries. These structures were taken under protection and restorations were conducted on them; both to prevent physical wear-downs and to increase the emotional impact of the power they represent (Çelik and Yazgan 2007). The historical environment preservation works in Turkey are separated into two groups as “the works conducted during Ottoman Empire Period” and “the ones conducted during Republic of Turkey”. During the Ottoman Empire Period, the emphasis was mostly on preservation of movable cultural assets. Preservation efforts within this scope were in the form of museology. The preservation of immovable cultural assets was first brought to subject during the Republic Period, and as the time progressed, the selection for type of preservation works moved on to the “integrated preservation methods” (Çelik and Yazgan 2007). With the notion of “integrated preservation”, which has been adopted after the World War II in Europe, the preservation of a historical fabric along with its environment, as well as the maintenance and enhancement its validity has become part of the landscape agendas. Within this concept, all kinds of fabrics that reflect Europe’s history, landscape and life style were evaluated as architectural heritages, without any prioritization (Eke and Özcan 1988). The city of Van is a landscape quite rich in cultural, natural and historical heritages. The Edremit district of Van is especially prominent in this regard as it has inherited material and immaterial cultural heritages from various civilizations in form of historical structures, folklore, customs and traditions, language, rhymes, poetry, and folk songs. Despite being shaped under the influence of numerous civilizations and cultures in the past, especially for the last 40 years, Edremit is under influence of population increase, natural disasters, domestic and foreign migrations, security issues, economical deficiencies, human resources shortages, short term economic development plans those ingore the sustainability of cultural 416 heritage, and lack of awareness of local people on cultural heritage values. These processes are resulting significant harm to Edremit’s cultural heritage values, and even bringing them to brink of potential destruction. In this study, considering all of these problems, Edremit district’s material cultural heritage values and their current conditions were defined, and suggestions were given on how to best carry them to the future. DEVELOPMENT OF HISTORY OF EDREMIT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ITS CULTURAL LANDSCAPE The Edremit district of Van, which is located in Eastern Anatolian Region, is surrounded by Van city center in north, district of Gurpinar in east and south, and district of Gevas in south. West and northwest is neighboured by the Van Lake. The district has a rather uneven terrain that increases altitude towards south, away from Van Lake (Figure 1). Figure 1: Geographical location of Edremit district When historical ruins before common era were inspected, it was found that Edremit was mostly ruled by Urartu Kingdom. It was also understood that various tribes had migrated over Edremit towards west, in times before the Urartu as well. King Sardur the first, king of Urartu, established a stone workshop to produce construction materials for the construction of the bastion known as Sardur Bastion, and a settlement known as Alniuni was built right beside it, in the Kale regions of Edremit, towards the west point of the fortress of Van (Kılıç et al. 2006). Hence, the 417 settlement foundations of Edremit, known as Alniuni back then, were laid in this period. Some samples of civilization, lifestyle, construction, architecture, irrigation and agriculture belonging to the period of reign of Urartian Kingdom (840-600 BC.) are present even today (Figure 2 and 3). As can be seen in Figures 2 and 3, there are some trimmed stones in the front, which are believed to have originated from the stone workshop built in Urartian period where the Alniuni city was founded in, and have reached to our day and age (Deniz 1996; URL1 2017). Urartians are in the forefront of the civilizations which had placed importance on vineyards and orchards (Sevin 2000). Figure 3: Today’s view of Urartu stone workshop, Edremit (URL 1) Figure 2:Urartu stone workshop, Edremit (Deniz 1996) In this long historical course, Edremit was given various names like Ardamad, Artemet, Gumusdere, and Sarmansuyu. According to priest N. Sarkisyan, the city that was established by King Ardaşes the second and named after himself (Ardamad), was amongst the most lively cities of the region in the past. The settlement was named “Ardemet” in the period of Armenians, which means “next to the plains”, and in later periods was named “Sarmansuyu”, influenced by the Menua (Shamran) Canal. Evliya Celebi also has mentioned the settlement with the name “Edremit” in the 17th century. In the encyclopedic work of Semseddin Sami F. (1850 -1904) named Kamûs- u A'lâm, the name of the district is mentioned as “Erdemit”. It is thought that the root of this name could be “erd”, which means “terrain, earth, soil” in Aryan language (Kılıç et al. 2006). Upon inspection of Figures 4 and 5, it is evident that Edremit was an administrative township in the middle of 19th century, and the languages of Armenian, Arabic and Turkish were being spoken along with each other. The names given to locations in these figures lead us to think that natural landscape elements such as water and mountain were the defining elements in the languages spoken in the township and near surroundings. The fact that the only man-made construction in the figures is the vehicle road that trails in the northwest and southwest of the township along the edge of Van Lake, gives rise to the thought that this path may have been the most valued and influential “cultural” element of that period. It is also evident that Engil Stream was a prominent element amongst the most influential and important “natural” elements for the township in the same period. Since the geographically 418 limiting factors of the township were the natural elements-Van Lake on the west and uneven terrain on the east - it is natural to assume that natural elements were effective in the development of the township in 19th century as well. Figure 2: Edremit Township (Kippert 1852) Figure 5: Edremit Township (Cuinet 1878) Inspection of Figure 6 reveals that in the early 20th century, the official language in Edremit and near surroundings was the Ottoman Turkish. Edremit was a settlement where Armenian, Kurdish and Turkish communities lived along with each other before 1915 (Anonymous 2017). It can be seen that in this period, new village pathways were corded into the vehicle road that trails the Lake edge, the web of roads had expanded, and the village settlements for the region had begun to form, mainly in the areas close to the lake. Again in this period, it can be surmised that Menua (Shamran) Canal was a valued, man-made cultural landscape element, along with the expanding road web. Another important development in this period was the telegram line that passes along with the road itself. Upon inspection of Figure 6 and Figure 7, the village pathways were found to have gained the vehicle road status, as during the second half of 20th century, their connections with the main road have increased, and Shamran Canal was now being transversed with bridges. It was also revealed that the only official language of the township and its surroundings in this period was Turkish, and Armenian, Kurdish and Ottoman Turkish names had been replaced with Turkish ones. Settlement names seem to reflect the location of the settlement, dominant land-use types, agricultural products, names of prominent religious figures of the period, and ethnicity of the resident population. Cultural and architectural works, like churches and monasteries, that are known to be present in the area, were not reflected on the maps that were created between 19th century and the mid-20th century. Edremit has, due to the effects of the Van Lake, a comparatively milder climate, where many kinds of agricultural products can be grown despite the short length of vegetatation period, especially in the regions around the lake (Deniz 1996). Since its foundation, Edremit was most notable due to its agricultural activities, yet since the 1970’s as service, industry and trade sectors began to develop, and agricultural function of the district began to fall behind relatively. 419 Figure 6: Map of Edremit (Anonymous 1911) Figure 7: Map of Edremit (Anonymous 1953) Edremit attained the status of municipality in 1974, and the status of district in 1990. The initial location of the settlement was around the Edremit Fortress and had an elevation level of 1650 meters above the sea level, which make it 100 meters higher than the Lake. This area is now called “The Old Edremit” and the oldest buildings of the district are in this locale. Later, beginning with the early years of the Republic, the district began to expand. The first coastal road was paved between the years 1957-60, and later was moved to its current position near the lake. With this road in place, the settlement steered towards the shoreline. As more and more residences within large gardens were built, Edremit transformed into a settlement that was rather dispersed, in contrast with its initial, aggregated form (Figures 8, 9, 10, 11). The most important avenue of the district is the transit road that lies along the shoreline. Narrow and stabilized perpendicular roads that trail into the inner regions were paved in the earlier years of the 20th century (Deniz 1996; Kılıç et al. 2006; Anonymous 20017). Up until the year 2011, the regions around the shore mostly contained summer houses, but after the earthquake in 2011, primary housing zones began to emerge in the district as well. The land use in Edremit district in 1996, as can be seen in Figure 11, was distributed between business and trade areas, official and administrative regions, health organizations, education facilities, tourism and recreational zones, residences, gardens and agricultural areas, mosques, canals, settlement borders and vacant lands. The zoning plan of the Edremit district was prepared in 1980. As a result of the “Government Bill on Metropolitan Municipality with law no 6360”, the borders of the Edremit district changed. Today, Edremit is a district that has its center located in the edge of Van Lake, surrounded by 12 neighbourhoods, and has a total population of 113.999 according to the data from the population census in 2014. The surface area of the district is 318.478.085 km² (Anonymous 2017). 420 Figure 8: View from Edremit coastline inthe 1960s (Deniz 1996) Figure 9: A view from the old bazaar in Edremit (Kılıç et al. 2006) Figure 10: View from Edremit and its coastline in 2000s (URL 3) Figure 11: Land use in Edremit,1996 (Deniz 1996) 421 One of the well known folk songs that reveal significant information on Edremit’s history and nature, is the song “Edremit Van’a Bakar” (Edremit Overlooks the City of Van), composed in 1946 by Muzaffer Sarisozen (Sarıca et al. 2014). Edremit Overlooks the City of Van Edremit overlooks the city of Van, The girl’s heart is on the boy, The boy is afflicted with the girl as well, As Shamran flows through. I fell for a lover, who catches the eye of all, The boy is afflicted with the girl as well. The fressia, the hyacinth, Belongs to that rose orchard. The freesia, the hyacinth, belongs to that rose orchard. As the pearl, the coral belongs to the pale dewlap, It’s a playfull age, time to spring. As the pearl, the coral belongs to the pale dewlap, Rocky like a castle, And a sea full of fish. It’s a playfull age, time to spring. CULTURAL HERITAGE ELEMENTS IN EDREMIT Within the borders of the district, there are 24 archeological and historical protected areas as certified by the Van Regional Directorate of Preservation of Cultural Assets in various degrees (Figure 12). These are: the Dilkaya Barrow, the Edremit Church, the Shamran Canal, the Kız Castle (The Lady’s Castle), the Zivistan Castle, the Christian Graveyard of Ayazpınar Village, the Muslim Graveyard of Ayazpınar Village, the Ayazpınar Village Sepulcher, the Bakacık Village Church, the Cayırbası Village Christian Graveyard, the Bakımlı Village Church, the Doganlar in-village Armenian Tombstone, the Doganlar Village Christian Graveyard, the Donemec Village Engil Streamlet Region Church and Settlement, the Donemec in-village Region Church, the Devdam Cave, the Devdam (Kadembas Region) Settlement Area, the Golkasi Village Church, the Kopruler Village Christian Graveyard, the Kopruler Village Seljuq Tombstone, the Shamran Canal Urartu Scripture (Devdam Area), the Erdem Kent under-TOKI Christian Graveyard, The Sage of Treasury Stone Scripture and the Turnakilise Hill Settlement area (Kılıç et al. 2006; Anonymous 2017a; Sevin 2000; Anonymous 2016). Movable and immovable (in-situ) historical cultural heritage elements in Edremit district are given in Figure 12. Detailed information about some of these elements is given below. Prehistoric Period Tilkitepe Barrow: This tumulus is located about 6 km. south of old Urartu Fortress Tuspa, and is within the current borders of the Van Airport. This also 422 places it 7 km southwest of the city centre. Tilkitepe barrow is the physical proof that the settlement history of Van City centre dates to thousands of years back. The archeological findings in the digs in the barrow place the first settlement dates to 6th millennia BC. The first dig efforts in Tilkitepe were made in 1899 by W. Belek with the financial support of Berlin Anthropology Gemeinschaft (Kılıç et al. 2006; Deniz 1996; Anonymous 2016). It is currently not possible to visit the area as it falls within the borders of the airport. Figure 12: In-situ cultural heritage sites from the pre-historic and post-historic period in Edremit district Dilkaya Barrow: This tumulus is located 24 km to southwest of Van City centre, in the western regions of Dilkaya Village of the Edremit District, in the edge of Van Lake shore and Engin Delta. A culture layer was detected at 7 meters in the settlement that was built upon a natural dune. In the digs performed between 1984 and 1991, findings belonging to both an Urartu civilian settlement and to another one that dates back to 3rd millennium BC. were discovered. Furthermore, in the shores 200 m north of the barrow, a graveyard was found, which dates back to Early and Mid-Iron Age and Middle Ages (Table 1). It is reported that ceramic pieces dating back to early Bronze Age were found in this graveyard area. The layers found in the settlement can be sorted from old to new as can be seen below (Kılıç et al. 2006; Anonymous 2016; Ayman 2013). Today, the barrow is not being preserved properly. The people of nearby villages have foraged construction materials from the barrow, causing almost total destruction of archeological remains. The community beach that was established around the barrow by the current district administration will increase the pressure on the area and will risk failure to pass down the barrow to the future generations as well. 423 Kadembastı (The old Katepans): to the west of Edremit, the remains of the palace built to honor the daughter of the fourth Urartian King Menua can be found. There are also terraces that are thought to be leveled by people to build vineyards and orchards over them to honor Menua’s wife Tariria. Evliya Celebi’s Seyahatname mentions this vineyard-orchard area as “Edremit’s vineyards were to our right as we left the castle towards the east” (Deniz 1996; Sevin 2000; Anonymous 2016) indicates that this area is one of Edremit’s characteristic elements of cultural landscape. Table 1: Layers dating from the day before in Dilkaya Barrow (Kılıç et al. 2006) Layers Va and Vb Layer IV. layer III. layer II. layer I. layer Periods Early Bronze Age II (BC 2600-2300 Early Transcaucasia II Period) First Tertiary Age III (BC 2300-1750 Middle Bronze Age) Early Iron Age (1100-800 Urartu Beylikler Period) Middle Iron Age (800-600 BC (Urartu Kingdom Period) Medieval Menua (Shamran) Canal: This canal is one of the oldest samples of humanity’s irrigation systems that still functions today. It starts from the Yukarı Kaymaz Village of Gurpinar, passes through Edremit and reaches to the plains of Van, with its total length of 52 km. This irrigation system is functional after 2800 years and nothing similar to it was found anywhere else in the world. The scriptures over it state that it was built by Urartian King Menua (810-785/780 BC). All along the canal in the suitable places, sometimes over the straightened stone faces on the main rock, sometimes over stone blocks embedded into support walls, scriptures were written in cuneiform script. 15 of such scriptures were located till now. These scriptures are in a malediction format, and it is clear that they were placed to prevent intentional harm to the canal. Even in today’s beloved folk songs, the lyrics that say “Edremit overlooks the city of Van, as Shamran flows through” clearly indicate that the Shamran Canal is important both socially and economically for the people of the district (Sevin 2000; Kılıç et al. 2006; Bildirici 2008; Anonymous 2016). There is an engraving that depicts the status of Shamran (Menua) Canal in 1898 (Figure 13), (Garbrecht 2004). The Menua Canal was renovated by General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works in 1950’s (Figure 14). Unfortunately most of the remains of the old canal were destroyed. In some places along the canal, various structures were built on the canal route, causing difficulty to locate exact placement of the canal at those locations. 424 Figure 13: Shamran Canal in 1898 Figure 14: Shamran Canal in 2000s (Garbrecht 2004) (Garbrecht 2004) Zivistan Castle: The old name of the Elmalı Village located to the east of Edremit District Centre is “Zivistan”. There is a small Urartian Castle and a settlement towards southeast of the village. Settlement is positioned to the north of the castle, in an area around 150 m x 150 m, and clearly displays shaping in form of terraced walls. The castle was built with large cut stone blocks. Some of the cuneiform scriptures found in Elmalı Village and recorded during previous researches hint that the Zivistan Castle might be built during the reign of Urartian King Ispuini (830-810 bc.) There is another castle located about 500 meters west of the Zivistan Castle and right south of the village, and this place is recorded in registries as Aşağı (lower) Zivistan Castle (Kılıç et al. 2006; Anonymous 2016; Ayman 2013). The Gate of Sage of Treasury: Towards the south of Lower Zivistan Castle, there is a niche carved into a rock. This nice, called the Gate of Sage of Treasury, has a four-line Urartian text written on the inside. With its size of 6m x 2.8m, the niche looks similar other Urartian period stone gates, yet it differs with its singlerank property. The short text surmises that a vineyard was built here by the Urartian king Ispuini. Accordingly, this gate is considered to be a non-holy place, contrary to other stone gates of the culture. Even though the Gate of Sage of Treasury is one of the oldest Urartian texts to survive, it lacks any official preservation status classification and thus has suffered significant degradation over time (Kılıç et al. 2006; Ayman 2013; Anonymous 2016). Middle Ages and Later The registered protected areas and monuments belonging to this age are: Edremit Church, Christian Graveyard of Ayazpınar Village, Muslim Graveyard of Ayazpınar Village, Ayazpınar Village Sepulcher, Cayırbası Village Christian Graveyard, Bakımlı Village Church, Doganlar in-village Armenian Tombstone, Doganlar Village Christian Graveyard, Donemec Village Engil Streamlet Region Church and Settlement, Donemec in-village Region Church, Golkasi Village Church, Kopruler Village Christian Graveyard, Kopruler Village Seljuq Tombstone, Erdem Kent under-TOKI Christian Graveyard, Turnakilise Hill Settlement area (Kılıç et al. 2006; Anonymous 2016). Edremit Church: This church is built upon a very solid rock formation to the southwest of a relatively high rocky terrace called Kız Castle (The Maiden’s 425 Castle), which places is somewhat 2 km south of Edremit District Centre. Walls of the structure, which was built in an east-west orientation, have mostly survived till our day. The structure was used for various other purposes after the Armenians left in 1918, and later was ransacked by treasure hunters. No written document about Edremit Church’s construction date or architecture could be found. Yet when the architecture, construction materials used, and construction techniques of the Church are compared with other Christian buildings in the area, the Church’s construction date can be placed in post-16th century (Figures 15 and 16). The graveyard found to the northeast of the Church, located in a place thought to be a stone quarry, is believed to be related to the Edremit Church (Kılıç et al. 2006; Anonymous 2017; Anonymous 2016). This church is not well known by the local people, however, and there are no direction or navigation signs from the main road to guide the people who wish to visit it. Figure 15: Edremit Church environs before 1915 (URL 1) Figure 16: Edremit Church environs in 2000s (URL 1) Kopruler Village Seljuq Tombstone: The historical graveyard area located in the Kopruler Village is mostly earthed up (Kılıç et al. 2006; Anonymous 2016; URL 2 2017). The few sarcophagusses and shahideh’s (fixed cups located at the feet-side of the tomb) that managed to stay above the surface are decorated with rich motifs. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION According to the inventories and inspections made within the scope of this study, it is evident that Edremit cultural landscape is a common creation of man and nature. Investigated resources have revealed that the Van Lake, uneven terrain features of the area, natural disasters, the social and economic structures of the communities that have ruled and affected its utilization, and the religions of these communities, were the prominent factors that contributed to the development of Edremit cultural landscape. In that regard, the district of Edremit can be classified as an “organically developed” type cultural landscape, according to UNESCO categorizations. The historical remains in the district reflect the socio-cultural properties, development levels, and methods of utilization of natural resources for the period they belong to. As these cultural heritage elements reflect various historical periods, and considering the status of these elements today, it is evident 426 that Edremit is a multi-layered cultural landscape that demands further historical, archeological, economical, and sociological research. The cultural heritage elements in the district are valued by domestic and foreign visitors. However it is clear that there are insufficiencies on preservation of natural and cultural values of the district for the future generations. Since there are no direction signs for cultural heritage areas in the district, visitors are having difficulties during their visits in Edremit. Historical environment preservation and historical landscape design works should be conducted to remedy such shortcomings and prevent destruction of historical heritage, which would also reveal the value of the area and help its promotion. With youngsters of today and future, awareness raising and information giving activities on the district’s cultural heritage elements should also be conducted. Since a structure has integrity with its surroundings in terms of landscaping, during preservation efforts, it would be wiser to consider the structure’s garden/immediate area, along with its street and neighborhood, district, village and region scales as well. The garden of a building carries detailed information about how open/semi-open areas were utilized, how people lived in the past, what construction materials were used, which plant species existed, and how the structure of community was in terms of social and economic life. For example, the high rocky terrace known as Kız Kalesi (Edremit Castle) is one of the primarily suggested cultural elements to visit for watching the sunset. Yet the immediate surroundings of this place require significant landscape restorations in-line with its identity. Suggested restorations could be summarized as: plantation works in nearby areas, informative and navigation signs and panels, and construction of viewing areas built with appropriate construction materials in nearby positions for the castle, all the while considering the proper size and identity of the locale for each of these renovations. It would be sensible to apply some of these restorations to the other cultural heritage sites to better preserve and publicize them as well. During the development planning for the city of Van, it is important to ensure the sustainability of Edremit’s cultural landscape by including restoration and repair endeavors in these plans, which would reveal and reinforce Edremit district’s traditional cultural identity. In this regard, an integrative approach, from the building scale to historical pattern, is necessary to realize planning, design and application phases for conservation and sustainable use of Edremit cultural landscape. REFERENCES Anonymous. 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Conservation and Sustainability in Historic Cities, Wiley, Chichester, GBR, p.19, http://site.ebrary.com/lib/yildiz/Docid 10233150. 428 Sarıca B., Arvas A., Önay Y. and Oto M. M. (2014). Van 2014 Kültür ve Turizm Envanteri – III Halk Kültürü-I (Dil ve Anlatım- Halk EdebiyatıMüzik Kültürü). Van Valiliği, ISBN: 978-605-149-638-2. P: 372. Van. Sevin V. (2000). URARTU Bahçeleri, Türk Tarih Kurumu, Cilt: LXIV Ağustos 2000, Sayı: 240. s: 395- 421. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (1999). Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, p.34-42. Paris. UNESCO, Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Paris. (1992). http://whc.unesco.org/en/culturallandscape, (Accessed: November 2017). URL 1: (2017). http://virtualani.org/edremit/index.htm, Artemid, (Accessed: April, 2017). URL 2: (2017). https://tarihvearkeoloji.blogspot.com/selcuklular-oguzlarturkmenler. html (Accessed: June 2017). URL 3: (2018). https://mapio.net/pic/p-913526/ (Accessed: July 2018) 429 Chapter 35 Aesthetic and Functional Evaluation of Urban Road Planting: Nigde City Case Gülden SANDAL ERZURUMLU1 and Mertkan F. TEKİNALP2 Assist.Prof.Dr.Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University, Faculty of Architecture, Niğde/Turkey. Res. Assist., Duzce University, Faculty of Forestry Department of Landscape Architecture, Düzce/Turkey 1 2 INTRODUCTION Urban road landscaping is the process of establishing suitable vegetation in order to provide aesthetic and functional contribution in the refuges on the sides and in the middle of vehicles and pedestrian roads. The first use of road trees took place in the 15th century Renaissance gardens and was regarded as a symbol of nobility in France, England and Italy in the 17th century. Street, boulevard, and refuge planting are important in the creation of urban green space systems. By wrapping the residential areas like a network, the plantation made on the roads connecting the city with the natural areas, brings a lot of visual and functional positive effects. (Kösa et al. 2016). In addition to its visual and functional values, selection of suitable natural species in road plantations performs many functions such as protection of natural resources and facilitating more efficient pedestrian and vehicle traffic. Affordable and well-maintained road trees, UV-B treated street trees help prevent UV-B radiation, reduce noise levels, keep air pollutants and maintaining the wildlife (Fernández-Juricic 2000; Heisler et al. 2003; McPherson 2003; Samara and Tsitsoni 2011; Yang et al. 2012). In cities, plants often have to live under conditions unsuitable for natural habitat due to different climate, air quality, hydrology, biodiversity and the soil structure from natural environment. Many factors such as mechanical damages, water, soil and air pollution make it very difficult to grow plants in urban ecosystems. For this reason, there is a need for special application, maintenance and repair techniques for the sustainability of plants in urban areas (Önder et al., 2011). The most important reason for the failure of urban road landscaping nowadays is to ignore the fact that in order to fulfill the functions expected of them, trees should be regarded as living beings and their needs has to be met (Aslanboğa, 1997). In order to meet the expected functions and objectives of the trees, implementation and maintenance principles must be fulfilled in order to minimize the negativities that arise in the growing environment. Road planting works with the selection of suitable plant species increase the prestige of the cities. Especially with the elaborately planned city entrances, road trees play a big role in the first impressions of the city (Aklıbaşında et al., 2016). In summary, planting works in urban roads provide many visual and functional effects. 430 In this study, in the city of Niğde, which is one of the cities where rapid urbanization takes place, planting works on main boulevards and streets were studied within the scope of urban road planting, it was aimed to determine the plant species used in these areas and to develop suggestions. 2. MATERIALS and METHODS The research was carried out in the open and green areas of the city center of Niğde.The fact that such a study was not carried out in Niğde City earlier became effective in the selection of the area. In this context, the avenue and boulevards where landscaping works are carried out are preferred. In the study, from the Niğde city road network, Ayhan Şahenk Boulevard (part of the Imam Hatip district to the municipality), Dr.Sami Yağız Street (From the municipality to the derbent graveyard), Atatürk Boulevard (Up to the Ömer Halisdemir University), Süleyman Fethi street (Niğde Vocational School of Social Sciences - Niğde Anatolian high school section), Gazeteci İsmet Sayın Street (From the Hayat Hospital to the State Hospital), Ethem Onbaşı street (The part between Atatürk Boulevard and Selçuk street) constitutes the study material (Figure 1), (Table 1). Figure 1: Nigde City study area In Niğde province, continental climate is dominant. Summers are hot and arid, winters are cold and snowy. The highest average temperature values in Niğde is in June (29.30C) and August (29.50C), the lowest average temperature values are observed in January (-4.60C) and February (-3.4°C). The average annual temperature is 11.20 (URL, 1). Identification and evaluation of plant materials: Species selected in the urban road plantation were identified on-site with help of literature. As a result of the observations and examinations, the compatibility of the plants with design principles and the present situation were determined and suggestions were developed. Most of the plants are 1.5-2 meters long since road planting works are usually new. Only Atatürk Boulevard, the junction of Gazeteci Ismet Sayın Street 431 and the pines and cedars trees at the junction reached 5-6 m. Boulevard Table 1: General characteristics of the research area 1 2 3 4 5 6 Boulevard and street name Direction Road Length Sidewa lk Width SW-NE 420 3-4-5 SW-NE 1300 3-4-5-7 E-W 4000 3-4-5-7 NE-N 1000 NW-SE NW-SE Ayhan Şahenk Boulevard Dr.Sami Yağız Street Atatürk Boulevard Süleyman Fethi street Gazeteci İsmet Sayın Street Ethem Onbaşı street Central Refuge width Number of Junctions (Number) Neighborhoods 1 Yenice, sıralı, Orta 3 Selçuk 1-1.5-23-5-7 4 Selçuk, İstiklal, Sağlık, Yeni, Başpınar, Kale 2-4-7 3-5 1 - 800 1.5-23-5-7 1-4 - Aşağı Kayabaşı 800 3-5-6 1-2-3- 2 Selcuk 1-1.5-45 1-1.5-35 The study areas are based on the works of Kösa et al. (2016). The seasonal flowers used in were also included and their addition to the design were evaluated. However, the main purpose of the study is to determine the existence of trees and shrubs and to evaluate the plant functions of perennial species. In evaluating the plant functions of perennial woody species, summer is preferred, due to fact plants still hold their leaves and display design characteristics. The study was carried out in one season; summer, in order to provide general information about the plant design of urban roads in this region, taking into consideration that the species can functionally provide image and noise curtain and display their vegetative characteristics most effective in this season. 3. RESULTS and FINDINGS 1. Ayhan Şahenk Boulevard: Feridun Zeren, Station, Hatun, Kemal Ummiye streets are connected to Ayhan Şahenk Boulevard. Total length is approximately 420 m. There are cafes and restaurants, banks, shopping centers, health units, bureaux, etc. on the edge of the road. There are also residents nearby. It is one of the oldest settlements of Niğde city, contains Niğde Square, some historical buildings and shrines (URL, 2). Table 2: Ayhan Şahenk Boulevard Features Wayside Acer negundo Fraxinus excelsior Platanus orientalis Central refuge Berberis thunbergi Buxus sempervirens Ligustrum vulgare Malus floribunda Thuja orientalis 432 Junction Berberis thunbergi Buxus sempervirens Ligustrum vulgare Figure 2: Images from Ayhan Şahenk Boulevard There is a double sidewalk along the boulevard and a central refuge. The average width of sidewalks along the road is 2-3 m. In the central refuge Thuja orientalis, Pinus brutia, Acer negundo and Malus floribunda were used, while on the sidewalks Fraxinus exelsior was used. Some of the central refuge is averaging 50 cm in length, fenced with wire and no planting is done in these parts,. 2. Dr. Sami Yağız Street Ayhan Şahenk Boulevard is the connecting point of Dr Sami Yildiz street which connects to Atatürk Boulevard, Ak medrese, Selcuk, Süleyman Fethi street. It is approximately 1300m long. There are also cafes and restaurants, banks, shopping centers, health units, bureaux, etc. on the edge of the road with residents nearby. Table 3: Dr.Sami Yağız Street Features Wayside Acer negundo Ailanthus altissima Fraxinus excelsior Platanus orientalis Central refuge Berberis thunbergi Buxus sempervirens Ligustrum vulgare Juniperus horizontalis Malus floribunda Platanus orientalis Thuja orientalis Viburnum sp. 433 Junction Berberis thunbergi Buxus sempervirens Ligustrum vulgare Mevsimlikler Before 2016 (middle refuge arrangement phase) After 2016 2018 Figure 3. Images from Dr. Sami Yağız Street On either side of the road are sidewalks with an average width of 3-4 m. The central refuge varies between 1 and 2m. In the central refuge there is Malus floribunda and rarely Cedrus libani. On the sidewalks; Ailanthus altissima, Fraxinus exelsior, Acer sp., Platanus sp. plants are in place. On the sidewalks the evergreens and deciduous plant species used in combination and in rotation, while in the central refuges in Malus floribunda are used mostly. In recent years, with the arrangement of intersections, Malus floribunda have been removed and shrubs have been planted in concrete flower caskets. The planting leads both drivers and pedestrians and provides a comfortable, safe and aesthetic walking environment separated from the vehicle traffic for pedestrians. However, in the narrow green band between the road and the sidewalk, 434 the types of coniferous species were used without taking into account the future size and diameter characteristics. Over time, these plants could overflow on sidewalks and roads, affecting pedestrian and vehicle traffic negatively. The use of these plant species, especially at turning points, threatens traffic safety because it prevents vision (Table 2) 3. Atatürk Boulevard The Atatürk Boulevard, which is about 4km in length, is connected to the Gazeteci İsmet Sayın street. It is one of the transportation routes to Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University, which is connected with the Bor district of Niğde City. For this reason it is one of the districts where the structures and therefore the population increase. Along the Atatürk Boulevard, there are generally furniture, food and beverage areas, markets, dormitories, old apple gardens and so on as well as numerous residential areas. There are two sided pavements along the boulevard. On one side of the sidewalk there is 1200 m of the bike path. The sidewalks are 3-5 m wide on average. For people with disabilities, sloping areas were created on sidewalks and seating units were located. The planting in this boulevard leads both drivers and pedestrians and provides a comfortable, safe and aesthetic walking environment for pedestrians separated from the vehicle traffic. The vehicle road is separated by a green band, which is also enriched by shrubs. The plant species used in the green band are; Malus floribunda, pyracantha coccinea, Berberis thunbergi, Euonymus japonica, and Ligustrum vulgare. On the sidewalks are generally Malus floribunda, Acer sp., Cupressus arizonica vr. glauca, juniperus horizontalis, in the central refuges there are Cedrus libani, Pinus s. species which is more developed and 4-5m long due to previous planting. The different objects that connect the main arteries to this street along the Atatürk Boulevard route are supported by plant design and water, and there are driver warning junction arrangements. It is arranged as a sitting unit and is presented to the public as a rest area on the road. Borsa junction, Nevşehir closed bazaar junction and Nevşehir Chamber of Commerce and Industry junction was emphasized with the use of object, water, bushes and seasonal flowers. Table 4. Atatürk Boulevard Features Wayside Acer negundo Cedrus libani Fraxinus excelsior Juniperus horizontalis Platanus orientalis Pinus sp. Central refuge Berberis thunbergi Buxus sempervirens Cupressus arizonica Euonymus japonica Hibiscus syriacus Juniperus horizontalis Lagerstroemia indica Ligustrum vulgare Malus floribunda Pyracantha coccinea 435 Junction Berberis thunbergi Buxus sempervirens Cortaderia sp. Ligustrum vulgare Santolina sp. Mevsimlikler Figure 4: Images FromAtatürk Boulevard Ethem Onbaşı Street It is one of the routes connecting Atatürk Boulevard and Dr.Sami Yağız to Selçuklu Street. Ethem Onbaşı Street, about 800m long and contains markets, bakeries, photographer studios as well as dense residential areas. On both sides of the road there are sidewalks with an average width of 2-4 m. The central refuge width is usually 1-2 m. In the Central refuge Cupressus sp. rosa sp., in the sidewalks Acer negundo have been used. In the parts of the central refuge near the junction, the width reaches 4-5m. Table 5: Ethem Onbaşı Features Wayside Acer negundo Fraxinus excelsior Central refuge Berberis thunbergi Buxus sp. Catalpa bignonoides Cupressus sp. Euonymus japonica Juniperus horizontalis Ligustrum vulgare Rosa sp. 436 Junction Berberis thunbergi Buxus sempervirens Mevsimlikler Figure 5: Images from Ethem Onbaşı Süleyman Fethi Street The road connects Dr.Sami Yağız street to Feridun Zeren street. It is approximately 1000m long and has two sidewalks and a central refuge. On the sidewalks Acacia cp. Catalpa sp. Tilia sp.Cupressus sp. and Platanus sp. have been used. In the Süleyman Fetih Street, after the road landscape arrangements made in 2015, a crossroad was arranged on the road route linking to Dr Sami Yağız Street, and green bands have been designed between the vehicle and the pedestrian paths. There are cafes and restaurants, parks, schools and residential areas on the specified street. Table 6: Süleyman Fethi Street Features Wayside Acer negundo Berberis thunbergi Euonymus japonica Fraxinus excelsior Hibiscus syriacus Platanus orientalis Salix babylonica Tilia sp. Central refuge Berberis thunbergi Buxus sp. Catalpa bignonoides Cupressus sp. Euonymus japonica Juniperus horizontalis Ligustrum vulgare 437 Junction Berberis thunbergi Buxus sempervirens Cupressus arizonica Euonymus japonica Pyracantha coccinea Thuja sp. Yucca flamentosa Figure 6: Images From Süleyman Fethi Street Gazeteci İsmet Sayın Street Gazeteci Ismet Sayın street, which is approximately 800m in length, is one of the areas where traffic is intense due to being the way to Niğde Ömer Halisdemir Training and Research Hospital. There are numerous construction sites, cafes and restaurant areas, dormitories, kindergartens, stores and residential areas. Planting is very weak on this route. There are very few Acacia sp., Cedrus libani, Salix babylonica, Acer sp. plant species. Facing sidewalks are 2-3 m wide and there is no central refuge. 438 Table 7: Gazeteci İsmet Sayın Street Features Wayside Acer negundo Cedrus libani Robinia pseudoacacia Central refuge - Junction Berberis thunbergi Buxus sempervirens Ligustrum vulgare Euonymus japonica Figure 7: Images From Gazeteci İsmet Sayın Street DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Urban roads attract attention to both those living in the city and the passengers passing through the city. Niğde City has an important place in the urban identification of urban road planting works. Terrestrial climate dominant Niğde City, is among the developing cities and can be considered as one of the cities where inadequacy of the green spaces are being tried to be solved. Central refuges and sidewalk planting equipment are inadequate especially in new open areas. 439 Planting studies on 6 main roads in Niğde were evaluated from aesthetic and functional point of view. It has been determined that open and green spaces in the study area are inadequate, neglected and unable to respond to the growing population. In road planting, vegetative planning and designs made according to natural building specifications and environmental designs that combines the aesthetics and functionality are needed. The analysis of the natural structure, especially the selection of the appropriate species, will continue to provide sustainability in terms of aesthetic and functionality (Çetin et al., 2018). In the landscape arrangements of Niğde city roads, as a result of not properly choosing the plant species, it may become possible to create unpleasant and disturbing environments, along with problems identified in the inner city roads of Niğde, they could be able to cause difficulties in the field with the changes that will take place over the years. In central refuges, the width of the crown to be formed by the carelessly planted selected species and large crown trees being planted 1-2 m from the vehicle road cause interference with the passing vehicles. When such an intervention takes place, the plants are pruned into shapes that are not aesthetically pleasing. On the Atatürk Boulevard, it will be necessary to prune branches of the Juniperus horizontalis plant, which is planted inside green belts, between the pedestrian road and the vehicle roads. Pyracantha coccinea and Berberis thunbergi, which are planted near the road in the junction arrangements, are likely to affect the viewpoint of the drivers in the future. In Niğde City road arrangements, plant species to reduce noise have not been used enough. For example, in some parts of Niğde City, Aesculus sp., Ailanthus altissima and Juglans regia plants are already available but they are not used in roadside planting works. It is difficult to talk about a design of quality as a whole in the city. As suggestions for plants to be used on Niğde city roads; the selection of species that will not threaten the drivers and the pedestrians, the emphasis on natural species that will provide shade and noise reduction effect could result in more functional and aesthetic spaces. The landscape arrangements that will be made with the right usage possibilities within the Niğde city habitat will be beneficial to the ecosystem which is deteriorating day by day and economically, culturally and aesthetically more satisfactory landscape designs will be obtained. Besides all these factors, this will allow the identity of the city to emerge as special and unique. REFERENCES Aklıbaşında, M., Erdoğan, A. (2016). Nevşehir Kentiçi Yol Bitkilendirmelerinin Estetikfonksiyonel Yönden Değerlendirilmesi Ve Kullanılan Bitki Türlerinin Tespiti. Journal of Bartın Faculty of Forestry, 2016, 18(1): 57-71. Aslanboğa, İ. (1997). Kentlerde Yol ve Meydan Ağaçlarının İşlevleri, Ağaçlamanın Planlanması, Uygulanması ve Bakımlarıyla İlgili Sorunlar. Kent Ağaçlandırmaları ve İstanbul Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı, s. 7-12, İstanbul. Çetin, N., Mansuroğlu, S. (2018). Akdeniz Koşullarında Kurakçıl Peyzaj 440 Düzenlemelerinde Kullanılabilecek Bitki Türlerinin Belirlenmesi: Antalya/Konyaaltı Örneği. Ege Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Derg., 2018, 55 (1):11-18 Fernández-Juricic, E. (2000). Avifaunal use of wooded streets in an urban landscape. Conservation Biology 14: 513–521. Heisler GM, Grant RH, Gao, W. (2003). Individual and scattered trees influences on ultraviolet irradiance. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 120: 113–126. Kösa, S. Karagüzel, O. (2016). Antalya, bazı kent içi yolların bitki materyali ve bitkisel tasarım yönünden değerlendirilmesi. Mediterranean Agricultural Sciences (2016) 29(3): 105-116. McPherson, EG. (2003) A benefit-cost analysis of ten street tree species in Modesto, California, U.S. Journal of Arboriculture 29: 1–8. Onat, İ. (2012). İstanbul Kenti Kamusal Yeşil Alan Düzenlemelerinde Mevsimlik Çiçek Ve Soğanlı Bitki Uygulamalarının İrdelenmesi. T.C. Bahçeşehir Üniversitesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. S.61 Önder, S., Akbulut, Ç.D. (2011). Kentsel Açık-Yeşil Alanlarda Kullanılan Bitki Materyalinin Değerlendirilmesi; Aksaray Kenti Örneği. Selçuk Üniversitesi, Selçuk Tarım ve Gıda Bilimleri Dergisi 25 (2): (2011) 93-100 ISSN:1309-0550 Samara T, Tsitsoni, T. (2011). The effects of vegetation on reducing traffic noise from a city ring road. Noise Control Engineering Journal 59: 68–74 URL, 1. www.mgm.gov.tr. Accessed. 23.05.2018. URL, 2. http://www.gib.gov.tr/fileadmin/user_upload/ArsaArazi2010/NIGDE.pdf (Accessed.25.05.2018) Yang, J., Zhou, J., Ke, Y., Xiao, J. (2012). Assessing the structure and stability of street trees in Lhasa, China. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 11: 432– 438 441 Chapter 36 The Place and Importance of Fertilization Programs in New Production Models Nurdan ZINCIRCIOĞLU1 and Burçin ÇOKUYSAL2 1 Dr. Manisa Celal Bayar University, Akhisar Vocational School, Department of Plant and Animal Production, Manisa, Akhisar, Turkey 2 Prof. Dr. Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil and Plant Nutrition, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey INTRODUCTION In today's agricultural production models, despite the social, economic and environmental problems and all the scientific and technological possibilities, the use of chemical fertilizers seems inevitable, which necessitates the review and reevaluation of the current fertilization programs. With the "scientific revolution" in the 17th century and the "industrial revolution" in the 18th century, the population working in agriculture tended to work in factories, which brought about fertilization problems and decreased soil fertility due to the difficulty of animal husbandry, as a result of which using chemical fertilizers came to the agenda and their use in agriculture has continued to increase day by day. Thanks to intensive production, the problem has been solved to a great extent, but this increase was not enough for the nutrition needs of the world population which has increased approximately 4 billion in the same period; in other words, the increase in production lagged behind the increase in population. In addition, between 1950 and 2000, the number of tractors and fossil fuel use increased fourfold, the use of chemical fertilizers increased tenfold, the use of pesticides increased thirty-twofold, all of which led to environmental problems and thus to the disruption of ecological balance. There have been major strides in genetic studies; however, these strides have also led to worldwide arguments about the consumption of genetically modified organisms due to their risks. Thus, today's dominant production model has become the sustainable production model, in which natural resources and environment are protected while high yield and quality products are produced (Welch and Graham, 1999, Byerlee et al., 2008, FAO, 2007). The world's longest known multi-year fixed fertilizer experiments first started in 1800s in Rothamsted, England (Rothamsted Research, 2012), followed by Julius Khun production area in Germany (Merbach and Deubel, 2007), and in the Askov Research Station in Denmark (Christensen et al., 2008). Twenty-five experiments were conducted in more than 100 years. Of these experiments, 11 were in the UK, 3 in Denmark, 2 in France, 2 in Germany, 2 in Ukraine and 5 in the United States (Debreczeni and Körschens, 2010). In the subsequent multi-year fertilizer experiments (Norton et al., 2010; Zhang and Wang, 2005) revealed that more than 50% of the product was obtained thanks to the 442 fertilizers added. Today, fertilization programs are still the indispensable part of sustainable production models aimed at feeding the growing world population. The present study was aimed at investigating the effects of developing science and technology on the remodeling of the agricultural production programs and production models. Within this new understanding of production, it was attempted to evaluate fertilizer materials and the management of fertilization programs from a new perspective. New Approaches in the Management of Fertilizer Use to Increase the Efficiency of Nutrient Elements The new approach is based on the re-evaluation of the traditional basic approach which is based on the principle of extracting the amount existing in the soil from the estimated yield within the new framework considering different factors while the fertilization programs and production plans are prepared. These factors are summarized as follows: the product to be produced (quantity of production and quality of the product), environmental impacts (loss of biodiversity, loss of soil quality, risk of water pollution, carbon emissions / retention), natural resources (climate, soil quality, water, plant and animal genetic resources, combat diseases and pests), household structure (availability of labor, size and availability of the land, consumption needs, knowledge status, food preferences, non-farm income, willingness to take risks), political and economic environmental conditions (input-output prices, marketing of inputs and outputs, inputs and outputs, loaninterest rates, land use legislation, publishing services, technology development studies, political stability), and producers’ decisions (what to produce, how much land to be used, when to produce, what technology to be produced and how it would be produced). It is clear that all these factors require the integration of management, educational institutions, research institutions, non-governmental organizations and producers. These new approaches, which confront us with new concepts such as "Integrated Nutrient Management" and "Integrated Soil Fertility Management", aim to take into consideration the effectiveness of the aforementioned factors as much as possible and a lot of publications have been published on the subject (FAO, 1995, Gruhn, 2000; Das et al., 2015). In general, there is no definite answer about which fertilizer to be selected and which cultural procedures to be performed, and thus it is obvious that special programs should be prepared considering the characteristics of the region and the means of production in that region. The International Crop Research Institute (ICRISAT) defined the low dose fertilizer application performed as top dressing fertilizer during planting of the seeds or 3-4 weeks after germination in arid or semi-arid regions as micro-dosing. This delicate application not only helps to reduce the cost of fertilization because it is aimed at the seeds to be grown but also forms the basis for the traditional basic fertilizer application. Indeed, it is reported that fertilizer micro-dosing carried out by the ICRISAT with more than 25,000 small producers in Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger increased the productivity by 44% to 120% (World Watch Institute, 2011). The article "Know Your Fertilizer Rights and Responsibilities" published in 443 the March-April 2009 issue of American Society of Agronomy's Crops and Soils magazine focused on the so-called 4R (4 Right) approach regarding fertilizer applications in good agricultural practices for the first time (Bruulsema, 2009). The interesting feature of this article was that it was written in cooperation with universities and industry under the scientific editorship of the International Plant Nutrition Institute. In the use of a fertilizer, this approach, which can be interpreted as the right source, right rate, right time, right place, not only aims to provide a sustainable future for all the sharers of the agricultural industry in the use of fertilizers but also attempts to establish a common unity to increase production and profitability. This approach also asks the question "Who will decide what will be right?" which makes it different. Possible expected answers are; producers, researchers, experts, publishers, fertilizer producers, and distributors. Undoubtedly, all these can produce different answers based on their own perspectives, but the main basis which the sustainable fertilization programs with 4R are laid on is the complete production system performance including both all these sharers and the environment in this context. Therefore, the notion of "right" in this sense has both ethical and scientific meaning. Proposals made within this approach are likely to provide an environmental, social and economic value for all the sharers. Use of New Preparations and New Resources One of the results revealed in sustainable fertilization and production models is that the results obtained from field trials in particular on the efficient use of nutrients do not comply with the producer's criteria or the farmer's conditions. Changes are observed due to changes in cultural processes such as irrigation, plowing, disease and pest control, harvesting. The efficiency of use of nutrients in producer conditions generally leads to lower yields than in field trials (Cassman, 2002, Roberts, 2008).This result suggests that for the sustainability and healthy food production, slow-release fertilizers which can remain longer in the growing medium, organomineral fertilizers, biostimulants that facilitate adaptation to stress conditions and increase efficiency of fertilizer, some organic compounds that facilitate the uptake of nutrients in the effective root zone should be used rather than increasing the amount of fertilizers. It also suggests that product-effective formulations, coated urea forms, various chelating agents, and target specific nanoparticle fertilizers should be used instead of traditional fertilizer materials. It is obvious that nanotechnology, one of the innovative technologies, will have an indispensable role in remodeling the agricultural production in the future. Nano is defined as one-billionth of a unit. When materials are produced in nanosize, they exhibit higher activity than they do at their normal sizes. The activity, which cannot be obtained at macro- and micro-size, is easily obtained at nanosize. The fact that the soil in Turkey generally has a calcareous structure and high pH value makes the uptake of various minerals by plants difficult. Thus, fertilization performed to eliminate mineral deficiency is not effective enough. Especially in the foliar fertilization, narrow stoma opening in the leaf structure makes the uptake of a fertilizer composed of macro- and micro-sized molecules difficult to a great extent. 444 Thus, not only does the yield decrease as the plant is deprived of the minerals it needs, but also unnecessary fertilizer use causes economic losses and environmental damages. Contrary to macro- and micro-sizes, fertilizers with nano sizes can easily pass through the stoma opening of the plant, so that the plant can easily benefit from the minerals and the fertilizer becomes almost 100% efficient. Thanks to the use of nanotechnology fertilizers, waste of fertilizers is prevented and maximum yield is obtained from the plant. In addition, environmental damages and economic losses are avoided. In Turkey, approximately 2 million tons of fertilizers are used per year. Thanks to the nanotechnology fertilizers, although less fertilizer is used, a higher yield is obtained (URL 1). Rapidly developing technology also provides new sources for sharers of agricultural production to facilitate fertilization programs with these new materials. Today, on smartphones, there are free applications which provide information on the quantities of nutrients that a variety of plants can take relative to the yield, fertilizer and pesticide rates in drip irrigation systems, mineral fertilizer recommendations, nutrient deficiencies, balanced fertilizer mixtures, openings of nozzles according to the speed and application distance of the tractor. As it is not commercially sold, the University of Wisconsin's special mobile phone application for corn, or the Fertilizer Manufacturers Association’s applications which enable people to prepare fertilization programs for different products can be easily downloaded and used. CONCLUSION Today, the importance of producing healthy and safe food makes it necessary for the sustainability of the environment and production. However, the rapidly progressing science and technology offer new and alternative suggestions in fertilizing materials and fertilization programs. From this perspective, if sustainable production models are to be developed, cooperation between all the sharers in the sector becomes essential. REFERENCES Bruulsema, T. (2009). Know Your Fertilizer Rights. Soils&Crops. March-April 2009. Byerlee, D., Janvry, A., Sadoulet, E. (2008). Agriculture for Development: Toward a New Paradigm. Annual Review of Reseource Economics. Vol.1:15-35 Cassman, K. G., Doberman, A., Walters, D.T. (2002). Agroecosystems, Nitrogen Use Efficiency and Nitrogen Management. Ambio. 31. Christensen, B., Petersen, J., Schact, M. (2008). Long-term Field experiments- A Unique Research Platform. Proceeding of NJF Seminar 407. Danimarka. Das, D., Dwivedi, B. S., Meena, M. C. (2015). Interated Nutrient Management for Improving Soil Health and Crop Productivity. Indian J. Fert., Vol.11 (4). Debreczeni, K., Körshens, M. (2010). Long Term field experiment of The World. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science. FAO. (1995). Integrated plant nutrition system. FAO Fertiliser and Plant Nutrition Bulletin No. 12. Rome. 426 pp. 445 FAO. (2007). The State of Food and Agriculture. Paying Farmers for Environment Services. Rome: FAO. Gruhn, P., F. Goletti, M. Yudelman. (2000). Integrated nutrient management, soil fertility and sustainable agriculture: current issues and future challenges, IFRPI 2020 Vision Brief. 2000 Merbach, W., Deubel A. (2007). The Long Term Fertilization Trails in Halle, Germany. Teubner Research. Almanya. ISBN 978-3-8350-4000-7. 2007. Norton, R. Perris, R., Armstrong, R. (2010). Learning From LongtermExperiments-WhatDo They Teach Us. Better Crops, Vol.94, No.2 Rothamsted Research, (2012). Long Term Experiments, Guide to the Classical and Other Long-term Experiments Dataset and Sample Archive. Rothamsted Research, İngiltere, ISBN 0 9514456 9 3 Roberts, L. T. (2008). Improving Nutrient Use Efficiency. Turkish Journal of Agricultur and Forestry. Vol.38. URL1:Http://www.teknobim.com.tr/detaylar/1/haberler/1047/nanoteknolojinintarim-alanindaki-onemi.aspx World Watch Institute (WWI), (2011). Nourishing the Planet. State of the World: Innovations that Nourish the Planet http://blogs.worldwatch.org/nourishingtheplanet/research/state-of-the-world2011-2/ Zhang, Q., Wang, G. (2005). Studies on Nutrient Uptake of Rice and Characteristics of Soil Microorganisms in a Long-term Fertilization Experiments for Irrigated Rice. Journal of Zhejiang Uni. Science, 6B(2): 147-154. 446 Chapter 37 A Study on the Sustainability of Cultural Heritage Assets: The Example of the Old City of Van 2 Gülçinay BAŞDOĞAN 1 Yüzüncü Yıl University Faculty of Architecture and Design, Department of Landscape Architecture, Van/Turkey INTRODUCTION Tushpa/Van Fortress, the Mound, and the Old City of Van located on the eastern shore of the Van Lake are on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage sites and comprise almost five thousand years of historical and cultural structures. Accordingly, the purpose of this research is to bring the cultural landscape value into tourism and urban recreation to ensure the sustainability of this cultural heritage asset. Culture and tourism politics that are important for the cultural heritage of the city are being preserved and transmitted to future generations. In accordance with targeted policies, "The Old City of Van Landscape Project" is proposed to make Van's cultural and historical heritage more visible and accessible. For this purpose, the cultural and historical structure of the area is examined, and landscape design proposals are developed with this study. 2. CULTURAL HERITAGE AND UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE AREA The term cultural heritage has changed and evolved over the history. Initially, it was being used only for architectural works with a memorial value, for structures that were deemed significant for artistic and historic values, or for archeological areas; over time, though, the meaning began to encompass ordinary civilian structures that were parts of the communal memory. In 1972, with the “Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage”, the works of nature and nature-human collaboration were added to the human-created works to define what represented the cultural assets. World Heritage Committee’s Intergovernmental World Culture and Heritage Preservation Committee has accepted the “Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention” in January 2008, in which a new category was created for “assets with special attributes” that could be accepted as candidates for the World Heritage List. According to these guidelines, assets that are under the classification of “Cultural This study was created by using the “Old City of Van Museum City Project”, which was supported by the Directorate of DAP Development Management, as a foundation. 2 447 Landscapes”, “Historic Cities and City Centers”, “Aqueducts”, and “Heritage Routes” which have “Superior Universal Values” can be proposed as candidates for the World Heritage Lists (Aksoy and Enlil, 2012). This point of view accepts the cultural heritage as the combination of material and immaterial works created by humankind during the history. Material heritages are historic, natural, and cultural structures, while immaterial ones are languages, rituals, traditions, etc. In order to create the common awareness towards the promotion and preservation of cultural and natural heritages with universal values -which are declared to be the common heritage of humankind- it was decided during the 16th General Conference of the UNESCO held in Paris between 17 October – 21 December 1972 to bring the issue under an agreement, and the “Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage” was signed in November 16th, 1972 (Akpınar, 2007). Turkey has joined this convention on March 23th of 1982, which came into effect when the decision was issued in the Official Gazette in 1983. This agreement, named “Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage” consists of 38 articles, and the first one defines the term “cultural heritage”. According to this definition, monuments, architectural works, works of monumental sculptures, paintings, sites, inscriptions, archaeological sites, cave dwellings, and groups of separate or connected buildings which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science, and works of man or the combined works of nature and man which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point of view, are considered cultural heritages. The 2nd article defines the natural heritages as: natural features, physical and biological formations that are of outstanding universal value from aesthetic or scientific point of view, the areas which constitute the habitat of threatened species of animals and plants, and sites that are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or natural beauty (Official Gazette, 1983). According to the literature, once a location is declared a UNESCO world heritage area, it experiences increased awareness of preservation, scientific researches, and tourist count, while it also receives more resources from international funds (Harrison and Hitchcock, 2005; Ringbeck, 2008; Şahin, 2013). As a result of the activities conducted by the General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums, Turkey was able to register 17 locations into the UNESCO World Heritage List. The temporary list, which was initially sent to UNESCO World Heritage Centre in 1994, contains a total of 71 assets as of 2017, of which 2 are hybrid (cultural/natural), 2 are natural, and 67 are cultural. According to this list, Tushpa/Van Fortress, the Mound, and the Old City of Van were registered in 2016 (The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2018). 3. OLD CITY OF VAN LANDSCAPE DESIGN STRATEGIES The landscape works in the archeological site aim to preserve the spatial texture of the site, and to integrate it to its environment by making it functional again, hopefully resulting in alternative visiting locations for the new city (Tuna, 448 2016:136). In line with these aims, the landscape projects try to: Ensure drainage, Preserve the ruins against environmental conditions, Preserve the ruins against threats of human and nature origin, Ensure water cycle control, Sustain ongoing dig works, Ensure the safety of archeological remnants, and to create a travel path for visitors making sure the location is accessible, Ensure the safety of visitors, Reduce the impact of rapid environmental changes, And to support promotion and interpretation of the archeological site. (Ertosun, 2012; Tuna, 2016:134). The cultural and historical properties, policies of development, and landscape design strategies for the study area, the Old City of Van, are discussed below. 3.1. Study Area Tushpa/Van Fortress, the Mound, and the Old City of Van combined encompass about 97 hectares of land. The Tushpa/Van citadel is built over a 1345meter-long, 200-meter-wide, 100-meter-high rock conglomerate near the eastern shoreline of the Van Lake. It contains structures from the Urartian Kingdom, which earned its sovereignty during the 9th century B.C. The citadel carries the mark of 250 years of reign of Urartians, and the ramparts and foundation beds, the traces of the structures over the platform created by chiseling the rock, open-field cult areas, the rock cemetery where the kings were buried, diaries of the kingdom, inscription stelas, and construction texts can be found within. As such the citadel carries all the indicators for a large and developed state structure. The Van Citadel Mound is towards the north of the citadel and is parallel to it, while the Old City of Van is located towards the south. The Mound carries the traces of a 5.000year old settlement culture, while the Old City displays the texture of a settlement reaching back 800 years (Figure 1) (Konyar, 2016). The Old City of Van contains remnants from Seljuk civilization from the 12 th century, and town texture and monumental works from the Ottoman Empire between 16th and 20th centuries. Most notable ones amongst these structures are: The Great Mosque of Van, the Red Minaret Mosque, Hüsrev Pasha Complex, and the Kaya Çelebi Mosque. The Old City displays all the elements of a typical 19 th century Ottoman settlement with the remnants of public and commercial structures, market, inns, dwellings, stone-paved roads, and structures from earlier periods (Konyar, 2017). The city spans approximately 46 hectares, and the ramparts covering the city on three sides are fortified by bastions. The city walls are built in two stages, and there is a water channel acting like a trench right outside the outer wall. Most of these walls are in ruins now; but it is known that the eastern wall had the Tebriz Gate, southern wall had the Middle Gate, while the west wall had the Pier Gate. Only the Middle Gate has reached today intact, and it was restored recently. The ramparts were initially made out of adobe, but their outer and inner faces were beset by stone rubble in the 16th century. A miniature surviving from the 449 17th century contains some information regarding the structures of the city. According to this, the Pasha Palace was located left of the Hüsrev Pasha Complex. This palace had 40 rooms and a decorated garden. This palace couldn’t last till today, but it is known that a banquet hall was added to it in the 17 th century. The west end of the castle housed the Horhor gardens, through which the waters of Horhor river flowed. This place also contained the Ketenci Ömer Pashazade Mehmet Pasha Palace. Various sources report that this palace also had 40 rooms, and its banquet hall was facing towards a large square. According to interpretations of old paintings, it seems like the city was alive with its neighborhoods consisting of single or double-floor dwellings, mosques, and other structures, until the Russian invasion in 1915. The citizens left the city due to large-scale destruction and fires caused by the war. After the city was taken back in 1918, the new structures were built in their current position in the plains of Van. The Old City of Van today is looking like an open-air museum with its mosques, madrasahs, inns, baths, imarets, and churches, most of which are in ruins (Digs of Old City of Van, Citadel, and Mound, 2018). Figure 1: The Old City of Van and Van Citadel (Konyar, 2017) Under the light of the above information, it is clear that the Old City of Van contains numerous cultural structures. Unfortunately, only the Hüsrev Pasha Complex, Kaya Çelebi Mosque, and S.Dsırvanarow Chapel has been restored, while the S.Nişan Church, Hüsrev Pasha (Dual) Baths, the Dual Church (S.Paulos and S.Petros), the Great Mosque, The Red Minaret Mosque, S.Vardan Church, S.Stephanos Church, Miri Silo, Abbasağa (Chamberlain Ahmet) Mosque, Horhor Mosque and Mustafa Pasha Mosque are barely standing. As part of the “Old City of Van: A Museum City Project”, many public and civilian structures, Hüsrev Pasha Inn and Hüsrev Pasha (Dual) Baths, S.Vardan Church, Miri Silo, and Tebriz Gate were declared as candidates for restitution-conservation. There are also some restoration projects, where the aim is to bestow these structures with cultureoriented functions and bring them back to life. For other assets, we propose restitution projects and creation of digital platforms which can project 3D views of the structures in their locations. In line with these advices, it is also important to restore the old roads and to create new ones for the Old City of Van, to form a tour route. 450 3.2. Protection Status By the decision A-1673 of the “Council of Immovable Old Assets and Monuments” in 08.06.1979, the Van Citadel and the Old City of Van were declared 1st Degree Archeological Sites, Urartian and Muslim Cemeteries were declared 2 nd Degree Archeological Sites, the small woodlot area towards the southwest of the castle was declared 2nd Degree Natural Site, and a small portion of the City of Van Master Plan was declared 3rd Degree Archeological Site. The aforementioned decision list also registers the Van Citadel (Tushpa), The Hüsrev Pasha Mosque in the Old City of Van, The Red Minaret Mosque, The Grand Mosque, the Kaya Çelebi Mosque, two other mosques, The Mausoleum of Sheikh Muhammet Abdurrahman Baba, two other mausoleums, two dwellings, and one structure which is believed to be a church. In addition to these previously registered cultural assets, Diyarbakır Committee of Protection of Cultural and Natural Assets has also registered the following assets with decision 1405 in 10.12.1993: Saray Gate, Double Baths, cistern, military warehouse, Süleyman Han Mosque, Miri Silo, Double Church (S.Paulos and S.Petros), S.Stephanos Church, and S.Vardan Church. Currently, many cultural assets inside the Van Citadel and its surroundings are classified as 1 st and 2nd Degree Archeological Sites and are under protection. 3.3. Development Policies and Van Current policies for the region employ methods to activate the potential of the area, and to transfer these potentials to economic, social, and cultural life. In that regard, the TRB2 Area which also includes the city of Van needs cultural investments that will realize its potential in terms of cultural and natural heritages. This is due to the fact that the cultural investments having the capability to influencing the cultural and social structure positively, and increasing tourism potential. When the Turkey Tourism Strategy 2023 Action Plan (2007-2013 Period) is inspected, it can be seen that cultural assets are being utilized and cultural tourism being prioritized through the actions of “Branding in Urban Scale”, “Diversification of Tourism”, and “Tourism Development Areas”3, in line with the general strategies and purposes. At this stage, the aim is to declare the city of Van as the “Urartian “Branding in Urban Scale” article proposes the determination of city museums, history, restoration of structures with cultural and architectural significance and archeological sites, restorations and landscaping, daily food and beverage locations around the historical attraction points and commercial centers as architectural regulations; regulation of cultural axis (fair convention and congress centers, art villages) as Culture Towns; while the “Diversification of Tourism” article proposes eco-tourism and highland tourism, handcraft trainings, museum houses, culture villages, promotion and consultancy, science and nature museums, public education, congress and fair tourism, and fair tourism centers, finally, the “Tourism Development Areas” article proposes the determination of brand tourism areas that compete in national and international scales which have specialized in tourism regarding the Urartian Culture and Tourism Development Area(Ministry of Environment and Urbanization, 2016). 3 451 Cultural and Tourism Development Area.” Furthermore, the “Regional Development National Strategy Plan” ((BGUS) 2014 – 2023 period) prepared by the Ministry of Development defines the city of Van as a “Regional Attraction Center, Culture Tourism Destination, and Development Area”. The purpose with this classification is to create an attraction and destination center off of the city of Van with its natural and cultural heritage values. In addition, the Eastern Anatolia Development (DAP) 2014-2018 Action Plan also defines the city of Van as “Attraction Center”. All of these classifications and targets can be considered directly in relation with regional development policies. 3.4. Landscape Design Strategies Directorate of DAP Regional Development Management supports the “Old City of Van Museum City Project”, in which the aim is to achieve “the restoration and conservation of monumental structures like mosques, churches, and inns, baths, and to lift the veil over a 800 year old town texture, while creating an awareness of urban cultural and cultural heritage”. Towards this aim, the primary objectives are to revitalize touristic, cultural, and economic structure throughout the city of Van, to increase the quality of life for the local population, to preserve the cultural heritage, to improve the physical conditions of the environment, to increase the number of locations attracting the tourists, and to create new job opportunities. Amongst these, preservation of cultural heritages, improving the physical conditions, and increasing tourist attractions are of major priority. The strategies developed regarding the landscape design are given below: 1. To utilize and create sample projects considering the diverse utilization of landscape and architectural projects (restoration, etc.) for the Old City of Van (shops and other commercial structures, activities for recreational, cultural, and entertainment, bars, cafes, restaurants, educational purposes), the void space balance for the structures (empty structures at the street level, and transforming the original utilization purpose of these to new ones), flow of pedestrians (the number and movement of individuals in various parts of the old city over time), accessibility (availability of different travel alternatives, public transportation service quality, providing conveniences for pedestrians and cyclists, quantity and quality of car parking lots), safety (security personnel and cameras), environmental quality (air-noise-water pollution, human density, open green areas and landscape quality), street texture (accessibility, historical texture, activity), image (Sejuk-Ottoman architecture, Ottoman lifestyle, daily life), landscape (presence of plants, utilization of open areas, artificial and natural landscape elements). 2. Creating a transportation network (tour routes) in the Old City of Van, with regards to the landscape projects, 3. To recreate the town history and town culture with landscape elements, 4. To create a balance of preservation and utilization through landscape and protection projects, 5. To transform the historic town into an area of vistas, recreation, and cultural activities through landscape projects, 452 6. To improve/rehabilitate (through projects) stream beds in order to prevent the groundwater, riverbeds, and ponds damaging the historic texture; to introduce better visualization to the natural potential, and to make them contribute to the landscape (developing drainage projects and forming natural ponds), 7. To utilize the open green areas within the historic town area for recreational use of both the local population and visitors (sitting benches, shadow areas compatible with the historic texture) 8. To keep the town identity and image alive in cognitive minds through open area design (info boards, help desks, cinevision services) 9. To restore the street texture faithful to the original so that the experience of living through the period is as authentic as possible, 10. To ensure social, cultural, and human development of the City of Van in addition to the economic growth through the project, 11. To improve quality of life and to eliminate socio-cultural injustice around the historic town center and the city of Van, 12. To create public areas for social use by restoration of public structures, 13. To ensure night-visibility of the Old City of Van (lighting project), 14. To integrate the Old City of Van to the urban life, 15. To leverage the characteristic structures and areas of historic and cultural heritage of the urban silhouette as “urban image”, “focal point”, or “urban prestige area”. 4. RESULTS and SUGGESTIONS The Landscape Project for the Old City of Van (landscape design suggestions) consist of: transportation network (walking trails), entry gates (Tebriz Gate, Saray (Palace) Gate, and Middle Gate), soft and hard landscape elements (pathways and plants) and accessories (sitting benches, litter boxes, lighting elements, bridges, fountains), suqare design, viewing platforms, info boards, direction signs, ticket offices and tour routes (Figure 2). Figure 2: Old City of Van Landscape Project 453 4.1. Walking Trails Transportation network of the Old City of Van was evaluated under three main categories, suggesting relevant tour paths. The suggested network consists of excavated (or scheduled for excavation) stone-paved roads of the 19th century, wooden sleeper paths, and the alee path. The excavated roads of the 19th century are made of natural stones. The digs since 2013 have surfaced a total stone-paved road of 232.5 meters length, of which 134 meters are between the Kaya Çelebi Mosque and the bridge, and 98.5 meters are from the dig site to Viewing Platform 1. The width of the road varies between 4 and 5 meters (Figure 3). The road planned for excavation consists of the part between the Hüsrev Pasha Mosque and Kaya Çelebi Mosque (168 meters), northern dig site (viewing platform 1) and Grand Mosque (495 meters), and S.Stephanos Church and S.Vardan Church (60 meters), for a total of 723 meters. In these parts, the road width varies between 3 and 4 meters. In addition to the natural stone-paved parts as described above, the walking trail will also include parts made of wooden sleeper material and slates (Figure 3). This part consists of the parts between the dig site and wooden bridge and to Palace Gate (121 meters), Tebriz Gate and Grand Mosque (517 meters), Square1 and Red Minaret Mosque (65 meters), Miri silo and S.Stephanos Church (237 meters), Miri silo to Grand Mosque (142 meters), and between Grand Mosque and Horhor Mosque (375 meter), for a total of 1457 meters. The path width is considered to be 2 meters. Finally, the path proposed as the alee trail is between the Hüsrev Pasha Mosque and Horhor Mosque (721 meters). The path width was proposed as 5 meters considering the potential visitor density, connections to recreational areas, and potential vehicle use in case of emergencies. Considering the 19th-century roads were paved of natural stones, and the linking road between Middle Gate and Hüsrev Pasha Mosque is made of natural stones, the solid landscape element for the alee road is proposed as the slate stone material. Furthermore, as the road defined as “the alee road” contains a low density of cultural structures and can be considered as a walking trail in terms of landscape design, plantation of Van Lilacs (Syringa vulgaris) with 2-meter gaps is considered appropriate. 4.2. Landscape Accessories The landscape accessories proposed for the Old City of Van consist of sitting benches, litter boxes, lighting elements, the bridge, enclosure walls, fountains, information and direction boards, and ticket office (Fig. 2). Fountains: Considering that the groundwater of the Old City of Van is close to the land and surfaces at 5 locations, 5 fountains are proposed for these points. Furthermore, since the water surfacing in these locations forms small riverbeds, it’s possible to use these as landscaping elements and increase landscape quality. Natural Stone Sitting Benches: Natural stone sitting benches were preferred considering the original landscape of the Old City of Van, and to prevent damage to the buried structures during dig works (Figure 6). Considering the visitor density, these fixation units were placed strategically around the alee path, square, and the fountains. 454 Figure 3: The network of streets of the 19th century (Konyar, 2017) Figure 4: Kadifekale Wooden Sleepers Path (Tuncer, 2015) Figure 5: Natural Stone Sitting Benches The Bridge: The Palace Gate is quite a significant element since it was planned as one of the city entrances for the Old City of Van, and it has a close proximity to the public and common structures planned for revival along with the 19th-century road texture. That being said, water surface getting wider in the Palace Gate makes it impossible to use as a visitor entry point. For this reason, the project 455 aims to offer visitor entrance through the Palace Gate using a bridge, connecting it to the 19th-century stone-paved road. For this purpose, a bridge compatible with the historic texture was proposed. In addition to offering an entry point and linking path for the visitors, the bridge can also be used as a viewing platform where the visitors can perceive the Old City of Van. Enclosure Walls: 1st and 2nd-degree archeological sites have absolute construction bans, while constructions in 3rd-degree ones are allowed with the condition of an approved construction plan. Considering this fact, the precautions taken for the preservation of the historic and cultural assets of the study area were found to be inadequate. Some parts of the study area, like the ruined ramparts from the Ottoman era, and the site area classified by the Directorate of Culture and Tourism, are enclosed with barbed wire fences, while other places have no enclosure. In the current situation, the study area is completely defenseless, and it is very easy to trespass through the gaps in the rampart ruins. Considering all of these, the gaps in the ramparts should be restored, or linking walls should be built between the currently standing ramparts and ruined ones. Complete restoration of the ramparts would have a high cost, so this study proposes to close the gap between the standing walls of the ramparts with integrated walls of semi-transparent / steel material (Figure 6). Figure 6: Steel Wall Lighting Elements: The lighting projects for the study are separated into two groups, as the lighting of historic structures, and lighting of the alee road. The lighting projects for historic structures will be evaluated in parallel to the restoration projects, and they should consider aesthetics, technical compatibility, economy, and contribution to the town identity. The lighting projects also aim to create a better night-visibility for the Old City of Van. For the Alee roads, we propose the utilization of solar-powered lighting elements. Information – Direction Boards and Ticket Office: To provide the visitors of the Old City of Van with preliminary information, and to help them understand the cultural landscape more accurately, some information and direction boards should 456 be prepared in accordance with “Legislation Regarding Information and Direction Boards for Museums and Archeological Sites”. Accordingly, information boards that describe the historical and cultural properties of the Old City of Van as a whole using maps and pictures/paintings of the period should be prepared and placed in Common Gate - Palace Gate - Tebriz Gate entryways. Furthermore, every structure should contain information boards that describe the structure’s cultural and historic properties. Direction boards should be placed on the linkage ways of the tour route. 4.3. Tour Route and Viewing Platforms: Considering the fact that the cultural structures within the Old City of Van are dispersed in a 46-hectare land, and the fact that the field is inclined as a whole, a 3120-meter tour route has been created to help the visitors perceive the historical texture as a whole. With this route, the following elements can be visited as a whole: 19th century stone-paved road and the Tebriz Gate (Square 2) – S.Stephanos Church – S.Vardan Church- to the Viewing Platform 4 through wooden sleeper path – Miri Silo – to the Grand Mosque using the 19th century stone paved road – Viewing Platform 3 – The Double Churches (S.Paulos and S.Petros) – Square 1 – Viewing Platform 2 – Hüsrev Pasha Bath – S.Sahak Church - S.Nişan Church – Viewing Platform 1 – to the 19th century structures (currently in planning period) – Wooden Bridge – 19th century structures (completely revived) – S.Dsırvanarow Chapel – Hüsrev Pasha Inn and Hüsrev Pasha Mosque – to the Middle Gate using the stone-paved road – Fountain 5 – Mustafa Pasha Mosque – Recreational Areas 1 and 2 – to the fountains 3 and 4 using the wooden path – The Horhor Mosque – Abbasağa Mosque – Fountain 2 – Grand Mosque – Red Minaret – Tebriz Gate (Square 2) (Fig. 2). To help visitors understand the Old City of Van more accurately, and to help them trace the varied culture of the Ottoman period with the 19th-century streets and cultural fabric so that they better experience the period, sitting benches and viewing platforms were created at various locations of the tour route. Viewing platforms are placed in 4 different areas (Map 1). These areas are generally locations where historical structures are more densely located and the 19th-century street fabric is more prominent. These viewing platforms were positioned to the highest places in the 46 hectares of land so that the town’s landscape can better be viewed. Structurally, utilizing the advantages of the topographical heights in proper locations for these viewing platforms were found to be more appropriate compared to building high landscaping elements. Furthermore, utilization of round-form sitting benches for these locations was found to be more appropriate as well (Figure 6). The sitting benches in this shape offer more sitting positions with varied viewing angles for the visitors to enjoy the vistas of the Old City. 457 Figure 7: The Sitting Bench Samples for the Viewing Platforms (Anonymous, 2017) 4.4. Squares The Old City of Van has 2 areas with the properties of a Square (Fig. 2). Square 1 spans an 80 m2 area and is surrounded with the Red Minaret Mosque in the northeast, Double Churches on the west, Grand Mosque on the northwest, and Hüsrev Pasha (Double) Bath in the southwest. Square 2, on the other hand, is right behind the Tebriz Gate where the visitor density is expected to be the highest, and spans a 1500 m2 area surrounded with 19th century structures. Covering both the Square 1, which is at crossroads of stone-paved and wooden sleeper paths, and Square 2, where two walking paths cross, with wooden sleepers, are suggested, along with the introduction of proper landscaping accessories (Figure 8). Figure 8: Asklepion Architectural Site Wooden Sleeper Path Sheathing (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2017) 458 4.5. Recreational Areas Over a 721 meter section of the tour route where the slate stones are going to be used, 2 recreational areas (RA) are proposed for the visitors to enjoy Fig. 2). RA1 spans 300 m2, while RA2 spans 800 m2. A waterbed exists between the two areas, and towards their western boundaries. This riverbed is significant for the natural landscape of the site. As such, a separate landscaping project has to be prepared for this asset considering the visitor density, historical and cultural texture, water surface and height, width and depth, and existing vegetation. In the end, as the term “heritage” gains a deeper meaning, cultural heritage elements are not only seen as representative assets but are also evaluated with all the layers and complexities of the location they are within. This change is represented in the perspective of cultural heritage as a “shift from work-focused approach towards a landscape-focused approach” (Fairclough, 2008 p.298; Aksoy and Enlil, 2012). At this stage, a landscape is perceived as “a significant element of the human environment, an expression of the cultural and natural heritage they share, and a foundation for their identities” (Aksoy and Enlil, 2012). In that regard, the suggested landscape project contributes to the awareness of promotion and preservation of cultural heritage, while also emphasizing on the significance of the archeological design criteria. REFERENCES Akpınar, E., 2007. "Türkiye’nin Dünya Miras Listesi’ndeki Yeri ve Yeni Bir Aday Önerisi", Erzincan Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(1), 81106.http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/67784. 1Mart 2018. Resmi Gazete, 1983. 14.02.1983 tarih ve 17959 sayılı "Dünya Kültürel ve Doğal Mirasının Korunmasına Dair Sözleşme". Aksoy A., Enlil, Z., 2012. "Kültürel Miras Yönetiminde Çağdaş Yaklaşımlar", Kültürel Miras Yönetimi, (ed Deniz Ünsal ve Asu Aksoy), Eskişehir, Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları. Anonim, 2017. Ahşap Yuvarlak Bank, https://tr.depositphotos.com/50100257/stock-photo-wooden-round-circularbench.html erişim tarihi: 20.08.2017 Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı, 2016. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı 2015-2017 Strateji Planı, https://www.csb.gov.tr/db/strateji/editordosya/STRATEJIK%20_PLAN. pdf. 23 Nisan 2016. Ertosun, A. (2012). Evaluation of Protective Structure in Archaeological Sites for In Situ Conservation of Architectural Remains and Artifacts, Master Thesis, The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences of Middle East Technical University. Eski Van Şehri, Kalesi ve Höyüğü Kazıları, 2018. Eski Van Şehri, Kalesi ve Höyüğü Kazıları "Önemli Yapılar". http://tuspa.org/. Erişim tarihi: 20.08.2017 Fairclough, G., 2008. “New Heritage, an Introductory Essay” Heritage Reader (ed.Graham Fairclough) London: Routledge, s. 298. 459 Harrison, D., Hitchcock, M., 2005. "The politics of World Heritage: Negotiating tourism and conservation", Clevedon: Channel View Publications. Konyar, E., 2016. Van Kalesi/Tuşpa, Van Kalesi Höyüğü ve Eski Van Şehri UNESCO Geçici Liste Başvuru Dosyası. Konyar, E., 2017. "Eski Van Şehri Projesi" tanıtımı ve yüz yüze görüşme. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, 2017. Asklepion Ören Yeri Çevre Düzenleme ve Aydınlatma Uygulamaları www.kulturvarliklari.gov.tr/TR,51288/asklepion-oren-yeri-cevre-duzenleme-veaydinlatma-uygul-.html, erişim tarihi: 20.08.2017 Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, 2018. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Başbakanlık Kamu Diplomasisi Koordinatörlüğü "Türkiye UNESCO Dünya Mirası Listesindeki 15 Kültür Varlığına Ev sahipliği Yapıyor". https://kdk.gov.tr/haber/unesco-dunyamirasi-listesinde-yer-alan-15-kultur-varligi/461. 24 Aralık 2017. Ringbeck B., 2008. Management plans for World Heritage Sites: A practical guide. Bonn: German Commission for UNESCO. Şahin, S.Z., 2013. Ankara Kentinin UNESCO Dünya Miras Alanı Adaylığı İçin bir Öneri ve Eylem Planı, Ankara Araştırmaları Dergisi, sf: 36-50, http://www.Journalagent.com/jas/pdfs/JAS_1_1_36_50.pdf . 5 Ocak 2018. Tuna, A., 2016. “Arkeolojik Peyzajların Sunumunda Kullanılan Yapısal Unsurların İrdelenmesi”, İnönü University Journal of Art and Design ISSN: 1309-9876 EISSN: 1309-9884 Cilt/Vol. 6 Sayı/No.13 (2016): 131-146. Tuncer, A., 2015. Kadifekale ve Traversler http://www.turizmhaberleri.com/koseyazisi.asp?ID=2830. 7 Temmuz 2017. 460 Chapter 38 Use of Plants with Color and Olfactory Effect in Landscape Architecture Makbulenur BEKAR1 and Demet Ülkü GÜLPINAR SEKBAN2 1-2 Res. Assist.; Karadeniz Technical University, Department of Landscape Architecture, Trabzon-Turkey INTRODUCTION With increasing population, migration of individuals to urban areas to sustain their lives led to general problems such as urban sprawl and unqualified living conditions, as well as several environmental and health problems due to alienation from the nature. However, as a solution to the problems created by the stressful and rapid urban life, individuals started to prefer green spaces to spend their leisure time. Previous studies reported that green reduces the intense stress in human life, socializes individuals, activates individuals’ senses and makes them environmentally aware and responsible individuals (Marcus, 2001, Bowers, 2003, Sakici and Var, 2013). Senses play the most important role in the perception of the environment by the individual and positive or negative effects of the environment. This is due to the stimulation of the sensual organs by the units in the environment (Gür, 1996), and the resulting awareness about the environment in the individual (Sakıcı and Var, 2013). It is expected that an ideal environment would include landscape elements that stimulate all senses in a balance (Brawley, 1992). It is very important to utilize diverse aqueous, topographical and vegetation landscaping elements with adequate qualities and quantities that would affect the sensory organs positively. The more balanced these landscape elements are, the more user attention they would attract and a balanced and diverse sensory stimulation in the environment would make a significant contribution to the user’s preference to use the respective area (Orians and Heerwagen, 1992). Another evidence for that is the fact that individuals prefer nature to spend their leisure time, to relax and have fun. Because, individuals encounter diverse sensory stimulations in nature. Each landscaping element included in the environment appeals to all sensory organs. Especially vegetation, one of the landscape elements, provides stimuli for the senses of sight, hearing, haptic, taste and smell. Since the early times, individuals have used the vegetation element to render their environment similar to the nature. Furthermore, they improve and qualify the diversity of sensory stimulation provided by vegetation as an inspiration of the nature. Especially when designing the space to create their environment, the vegetation landscaping elements of color and scent form the primary elements of use. Color and scent design elements provide the sharpest and most remarkable stimuli so much so that the scent design element could connect space and time 461 beyond its ability to provide for the perception of space. Because, our senses constitute the building blocks of our memory. A scent we smell, a landscape we see could connect us with our past memories and associate spaces with the scents we smell along with our ability to remember memories experienced in the past. Scent is defined as the sense created by small particles released from objects on special nerves located in the nose membrane according to the Turkish Language Institute dictionary (URL-1). The relationship that little particles of scent establish with spatial properties and the effectiveness of the space creates the olfactory memory. Buddha established a non-temporal relationship between odor and the space. The olfactory memory can vary among individuals, the scent of a flower could remind one of summer, while another person remembers holiday mornings with the same scent. The objective of the designer is to assign a uniqueness to the space and associate the scent and the space by utilizing the scents in a balanced and quality manner. In addition to the significance of the olfactory memory, the properties of the scent are used to solve spatial environmental problems. The use of fragrant plants that exhibit activities based on the time when the designed spaces would be used would introduce diversity and authenticity to the space. However, the scents that are very important on sensory stimuli should be used with care and in balance. Because the plants that have quite nice fragrances separately exhibit intense characteristics in the same period and could lead to a negative impact on the space when used together. The use of plants that are effective in every season increases the olfactory effect. The presence of pleasant fragrances in the space could have a positive effect on the health of an individual by reducing the blood pressure and slowing the respiration (Redd et al., 1994), as well as creating a good memory. Several plant taxa with high fragrance potential are used in landscape architecture. They are preferred in designs with their scent, colors, texture, etc. (Table 1). One of the most important senses in the perception of a space by the user is vision (Sakıcı and Var, 2013). The most important role is played by the eyes in the perception of a space (Peron et al., 1998). Thus, designers often use design elements such as color, texture and shape. Furthermore, even users who do not respond to other features of the space react to the color design element (Altınçekiç, 2000). Color is a perception that occurs when the light reaches the retina with a different angle. Colors are important guidelines in design. Because, they exist under light and they lead different emotions in individuals. For this reason, the brands should identify and use color combinations that best describe their vision (URL-2). Color is not only effective on the perception of a space. Furthermore, the colors used in a space influence the users psychologically. The use of color is not only a structural act. Furthermore, the use of color element in parks, green spaces and in spaces designed to imitate nature is common with the utilization of vegetation landscape elements. Seasonal plants with different colors introduce diversity in a space and break down the monotony of the space. This allows the users to enjoy different pleasures from the same space in different seasons. Color and scent are two important design elements that a designer should use to build associations between the space and the user and to strengthen these associations. Therefore, designers should prioritize the diversity, coexistence, harmony and balance of these two 462 senses when creating environments and spaces. Thus, the present study aimed to follow the following steps: -Analysis of the use of plant taxa with color and olfactory effect in landscape architecture to provide an alternative guide for the designers, -Determination of the benefits of the plants with color and olfactory effect for the ecosystem, -Providing examples for future studies through the proposed plants, And finally, to respond the questions “Where could the plants with color and olfactory effect be used in landscape architecture?” and “Which taxa could be preferred?” Table 1. Fragrance plant taxa that could be used in landscape architecture Plant Image Plant Species Fragrant Part Size S/M/L Active Color Acacia dealbata L Yellow Berberis vulgaris M Yellow Calendula officinalis S Orange Cinchona pubescens S Purple Cytisus battandieri S Yellow Daphne mezereum S Purple Gardenia jasminoides M White Lamium album S Green Laurus nobilis S White Lavandula officinalis M Purple Lavandula stoechas M Purple Lilium candidum M White Lonicera fragantissima M White Magnolia grandiflora L White Matthiola incana M Purple Melissa officinalis S White 463 Myrtus communis S Green Ocimum basilicium S Green Origanum majorona S Green Philadelphus coronarius M White Pimpinella anisum M Green Robinia pseudoacacia L White Rosa canina L Red Rosmarinus officinalis M Purple Sambucus nigra S White Salvia officinalis M Purple Thymus vulgaris S Purple Tilia cordata L Yellow Valeriana officinalis S White Viburnum x carlcephalum M White : Fragrant plant : Fragrant leaf S: Small M:Medium L:Large Image Resources: Between URL-4/ URL-20 are the sources. The Correlation between the Colors and Plants Colors help determine spatial functions. The user and the spatial elements in the same environment are defined by systems that include three basic functional forms such as utilization function, aesthetic function and information supply (Alpaakunt, 1998, cited by Aydintan, Sağsöz, 2009). Colors are divided into two categories based on intensity and their mental effects on individuals (URL-2). Colors were scrutinized in two main groups of warm and cold colors in the present study. The effect of warm colors on design Warm colors stimulate and cheer the viewer. They increase physical power, energy, dynamism, accelerate the metabolism; excessive exposure to warm colors can lead to excitement, fatigue, violence, aggression and concentration difficulties (Sağocak, 2005). The psychological effect of these colors includes joy, vitality and movement. These colors create strong vibrations in the air, thus they affect the eye 464 before other colors. This is why the red color attracts the child the most when the child begins to recognize colors, and primitive communities assigned the highest importance to the warm colors (URL-2). Yellow: The most luminous, moving, bright and cheerful color, yellow, reminds of wealth, abundance, honor and loyalty. Yellow symbolizes management, ambition, assertion and freedom. Vivid yellow makes the individual active; pale yellow relaxes and refreshes. Yellow is the only color that increases overall muscle nerve strength. Yellow sharpens comprehension and improves the functions of intelligence. Also, the light hues of the yellow enlarge the spaces. This color, which stimulates the mind and facilitates communication, leads to jealousy, illness, suspicion, insecurity, irresponsibility and radicalism when applied in excess (Martel, 1995, cited by Özdemir, 2005). Furthermore, yellow is a joyful, relaxing color that improves intelligence (Altınçekiç, 2000). Table 2. Plants with yellow color effect that could be used in landscape architecture Plant image Adapting to garden Plant species Fragrant Effect Sun request Growth rate S-M-FVF - M - M Hypericum calycinum - M Jasminum mesnyi - F Laburnum anagyroides - F Hibbertia scandens Hemorocallis Oro” “Stella De Liriodendron tulipifera F - Mahonia aquifolium Nerium oleander “Luteum Plenum” Robinia pseudoacacia “Frisia” M F M Rosa “Rimosa” M : Adapting to small gardens :Adapting to park and vast gardens : Full sun : : Fragrant flower effect S: Slow M: Medium F: Fast VF: Very Half sun : Full shadow fast Image Resources: Between URL-21/ URL-30 are the sources. Red: The color of passion, red has attention-enhancing, engaging, mobilityenhancing, thrilling, healthy, vitality-enhancing, energizing, courageous, powerful, vivacious, and warming effects. Exaggeration may lead to toughness and violence, danger, disturbance and could symbolize sin (Martel, 1995, cited by Özdemir, 465 2005). Red is a very popular, noticeable and frequently used color. It has a stimulating, exciting and provocative effect on human psychology. Some studies suggested that 10% of the energy in the human body is actuated in environments where the presence of the red color is intense. Red represents happiness and works on the appetite. The red color affects the blood pressure and is used as a warning and danger sign as well (URL-3). It has animating and sometimes unpleasant effects. It refers to bellicosity and vitality (Altınçekiç, 2000). Table 3. Plants with red color effect that could be used in landscape architecture Plant image Plant species Adapting to garden Fragrant Effect Sun request Growth rate S-M-FVF Abutilon “Vesivius Red” O Acer ginnala H Calliandra tweedii O Callistemon laevis O Camelia japonica “Black Lace” Y Crataegus laevigata O Nandina domestica O Nyssa slvatica Y Passiflora “Coccinea” O Photinia x fraseri O Quercus coccinea O : Adapting to small gardens :Adapting to park and vast gardens : Full sun : Half : Fragrant flower effect S: Slow M: Medium F: Fast VF: Very fast sun : Full shadow Image Resources: Between URL-31/ URL-41 are the sources. Orange: Orange is a joyful, warming, unifying color that represents wealth, light and efficiency, and in abundance it could disturb the individuals. Orange is the symbol of lucid joy and balanced power and radiates optimism (Martel, 1995, cited by Özdemir, 2005). Orange is one of the colors of the sun and filled with energy. Orange is the icon of rebirth and new beginnings. It reflects its energy on people and can be used in the treatment of some psychological disorders. Many energyrelated material and actions are also indicated in orange (URL-3). 466 Table 4. Plants with orange color effect that could be used in landscape architecture Plant image Plant species Adapting to garden Acer palmatum “Katsura” Fragrant Effect - Sun request Growth rate S-M-FVF F M Aloe x spinossisima Azelia mollis “Gibraltar” Campsis grandiflora - S - F Geum coccineum - M Grevillea “Coastal sunset” - M Kniphofia uvaria - M M Prunus armeniaca - Punica granatum M Pyracantha coccinea “Orange S Glow” Rosa “Crown M Princess Margerate” : Adapting to small gardens :Adapting to park and vast gardens : Full sun : Half sun : Full shadow : Fragrant flower effect S: Slow M: Medium F: Fast VF: Very fast Image Resources: Between URL-42/ URL-52 are the sources. Pink: It is a color that suggests kindness, softness, sweetness, shyness, embarrassment, and a sense of conservatism (Martel, 1995, cited by Özdemir, 2005). 467 Table 5. Plants with pink color effect that could be used in landscape architecture Plant image Plant species Adaptin g to garden Fragra nt Effect Sun request Growth rate S-M-FVF Clematis “Nelly Moser” - M Cornus florida “Rubra” - M Clerodendron trichotomum - M - M - M Kalmia latifolia - S Lagerstroemia indica - S Leptospermum scoparium - F Malus “Prairiefire” - M Hibiscus syriacus “Pink Chiffon” Hydrangea macrophylla “Taube” Nerium oleander “Altini” F Prunus persica “Russel S Red” : Adapting to small gardens :Adapting to park and vast gardens : Full sun : Half sun : Full shadow : Fragrant flower effect S: Slow M: Medium F: Fast VF: Very fast Image Resources: Between URL-53/ URL-63 are the sources. The effect of cold colors on design Green: In general, since it is the color of the leaves of the green trees and grass, it has a refreshing and soothing effect. It reminds of silence, productivity, life, growth, nature, wisdom and conviction. Similar to all other colors, green has different hues and tones, which could lead to different emotions (Martel, 1995, cited by Özdemir, 2005). Furthermore, green has been used by several social groups since the ancient times to symbolize the spring, the movements in nature and abundance. The effect of green on individuals is indisputable. It reflects the trust, peace and creativity of nature on people. The serenity created by the green color plays a significant role in the selection of this color in schools and on library walls. Light green is refreshing and creates a sterile sensation, so it is often used on hospital walls or in the packaging of cleaning products. (URL 3). 468 Table 6. Plants with green color effect that could be used in landscape architecture Plant image Plant species Adapting to garden Fragrant Effect Sun request Growth rate S-M-FVF Acer campestre - M Araucaria araucana - S Betula pendula - F Carpinus betulus - M Ilex crenata - M Ligustrum ovalifolium Liriodendron tulipifera Magnolia grandiflora Osmanthus fragrans Prunus laurocerasus F F S S S F Tilia cordata : Adapting to small gardens :Adapting to park and vast gardens : Full sun : Half sun : Full shadow : Fragrant flower effect S: Slow M: Medium F: Fast VF: Very fast Image Resources: Between URL-64/ URL-74 are the sources. Blue: Blue evokes pleasure, goodwill, mercy, honesty, flexibility, agreement, reconciliation, cooperation and peace. It has a relieving and calming effect. There should be blue reflections in relaxed, loving environments. Blue light induces sleep, relives pain and prevents contractions. Whether it is dark or light, blue is a color that includes freedom and harmony. Dark blue conveys seriousness and comprehensive thought. In particular, it should be remembered that excessive use of very light blue shades would create pacifism and laziness (Martel, 1995, cited by Özdemir, 2005). 469 Table 7. Plants with blue color effect that could be used in landscape architecture Plant image Plant species Adapting to garden Fragrant Effect Sun request Growth rate S-M-F-VF Alkanna tinctora - M Cedrus atlantica “Glauca” - M Ceratostigma plumbaginoides - M Ceratostigma willmottianum - M Delphium “Blue Beauty” F Eucalyptus camaldulensis VF Juniperus Virginia “Blue Arrow” - M Meconopsis grandis - M Olea europaea - M Picea pungens “Glauca” - S Plumbagı auriculata - VF : Adapting to small gardens :Adapting to park and vast gardens : Full sun : Half sun : Full shadow : Fragrant flower effect S: Slow M: Medium F: Fast VF: Very fast Image Resources: Between URL-75/ URL-85 are the sources. Purple: Purple is the combination of nobility, shame, sorrow, love and mind and the color of esteem. It was the color that represented the aristocrats and the palace in medieval Europe. Purple can be a frightening and disturbing color when seen in large spaces. Light purple suggests a sense of seriousness and distance between individuals and creates a sense of righteousness, splendor, sovereignty and nobility. Violet represents chaos, death, self-devotion, and divine love. Lilac color suggests melancholic feelings (Martel, cited by Özdemir, 2005). 470 Table 8. Plants with purple color effect that could be used in landscape architecture Plant image Plant species Adapting to garden Fragrant Effect Sun request Growth rate S-M-F-VF Agapanthus “Peter Pan” - F Akebia quinata - M Alyogyne huegelii “Santa Cuz” - F Brunfelsia pauciflora “Macrantha” - M Buddleja davidii “Adonis Blue” VF Cercis siliquastrum - M Daphe odora “Aureomarginata” - M Hibiscus syriacus - M Loropetalum chinense M Magnolia soulangeana M Rosmarinus officinalis F : Adapting to small gardens :Adapting to park and vast gardens : Fragrant flower effect S: Slow M: Medium F: Fast VF: Very fast Image Resources: Between URL-86/ URL-96 are the sources. : Full sun : Half sun : Full shadow CONCLUSION and RECOMMENDATIONS In the scope of the present study, plants with color and fragrance properties were investigated and plant samples that can be used in landscape architecture are presented (Tables 1-2-3-4-5-6-7). The recommendations for future landscape architecture work that could be conducted within this context are listed as follows: Since the plants with fragrance do not only have psychological effects on individuals, but they also contribute to the ecology and the aesthetics in the environment, these taxa should be included more in designs. These plants should be integrated in urban areas and their use should be increased. Diversity in designs should be improved through the use of color properties of the plants. The psychological effects of colors on human beings and the location of the design should be considered in conjunction during the design. For example, in 471 hospital gardens, the use of red plants should be avoided since they could remind blood, however plants with red flowers could be used in restaurant and café gardens since they work up the appetite. These factors should be considered in the relations between the color and the location. Design decisions that combine the color-scent relation and are both visually and ecologically functional should be made. It should be remembered that fragrant plants attract animals such as birds, etc. and provide shelter and food for these animals. In conclusion, plant preferences should be made by taking the color-scent properties into consideration in order to utilize the rich flora available in Turkey better and to create ecologically and aesthetically productive designs. Thus, the scrutinized plants could differ based on several parameters such as the location of the space, the climate, user demands etc. The plants included in the present study are not taxa specific to one region, but the list intended to provide a guide for future designs. It was envisaged that the present study would provide an example for the future planting studies in landscape architecture. REFERENCES Aydintan, E., Sağsöz, A. (2009). Grafik Tasarım ve İç Mekan. Mimarlar Odası Trabzon Şubesi Yayınları Altınçekiç, H. (2000). Peyzaj mimarlığında renk ve önemi. Journal of the Faculty of Forestry Istanbul University| İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 50(2), 59-78. Brawley, E.C., 1992. Alzheimer’s disease: designing the physical environment. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Demants. 7 (1): 3-8 Bowers, D.A., 2003. Incorporating Restorative Experiential Qualities and Key Landscape Attributes to Enhance The Restorative Experience in Healing Gardens Within Health Care Settings. Master Theses. Washington State University, 108. Gür, Ş. Ö. (1996). Mekân örgütlenmesi. Gür Yayıncılık. Marcus, C.C., 2001. Gardens and Health, Design and Health-The Therapeutic Benefits of Design. Ed.: Dilani, A., 61–71 Orians, G.H. and J. H. Heerwagen, 1992. Evolved responses to landscapes, Eds.: Barkow, J., Cosmides, L., Toobyi J. The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture. Oxford University Pres, New York, 98–121. Redd, W.H., S.L. MAnne, B. Peters, P.B. Jacobsen and H. Schmidt, 1994. Fragrance administration to reduce anxiety during mr imaging. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 4 (4): 623-626. Duran Sağocak, M. (2005). Ergonomik Tasarimda Renk. Trakya Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 6(1), 77-83. Peron, E., Purcell, A. T., Staats, H., Falchero, S., & Lamb, R. J. (1998). Models of preference for outdoor scenes: Some experimental evidence. Environment and Behavior, 30(3), 282-305. 472 Sakıcı, Ç. and Var, M., 2013. Ruh ve Sinir Hastalıkları Hastane Bahçelerinin Tedavi Edici Etkilerinin Ortaya Konulmasi İçin Deneyimsel Kaliteler ve Peyzaj Bileşenlerinin Belirlenmesi. Journal of the Faculty of Forestry Istanbul University| İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 63(2), 21-32. Özdemir, T. (2005). Tasarımda renk seçimini etkileyen kriterler. 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Plants Used In the Last Aegean Gardens Demet Ülkü GÜLPINAR SEKBAN1 and Makbulenur BEKAR2 1,2 Res. Assist, Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Trabzon, Turkey INTRODUCTION From day to day, mankind has interacted with the garden (Bekar, 2016). The perception of the garden as a reflection of heaven on earth has caused people to live in the environment they have lived for centuries, shaping nature, all the beauty and aesthetics left there, being in this place collecting passion. In paradise, paradise is often described as a garden space, causing people to turn into small paradise spaces in their lives in the world (Demiröz, 2002). The root of the gardening word is Persian and it means "small vineyard". Generally; Herbaceous and woody ornamental plants of a certain visual quality, fruits, vegetables and herbs are grown. Large or small sized, integrated with the environment, inland courts or gardens are spaces shaped by the characteristics of the region, which reflects the living conditions, economic and cultural qualities of the communities during certain periods of history (Khabbazi & Erdoğan, 2012). Another definition is that the concept of garden, which is the soil that is grown with garden flower, tree or vegetable, has interchanged with the concept of "garden architecture" over time. This concept is defined as the art of arranging a piece of land with nature items such as plants, water, stone, and the line of landscape architecture (Hasol, 2002). Especially the lifestyle has deeply affected the formation of the gardens. For example, as a remnant of nomadic life in Turks, great importance is given to life in outer space. For this reason, in the selection of the places made from the smallest house to the palaces in the Turkish gardening, attention was first paid to the general position, slope and view of the land (Evyapan, 1974). Along with all these desires, housing has actually become a reflection on the culinary landscape. Because of this characteristic, the home of the human being is the place where the person who makes and uses it makes the worldview and perception, beliefs, traditions and organizations, ways of winning their lives (Köse, 2007). Regardless of culture and geography, climate, soil and topographical conditions have been influential in shaping the horticulture in the countries where Islam spreads as well as religious philosophy in the formation of the garden (Khabbazi & Erdoğan, 2012). In cold regions, the vegetable elements that hold on to changing roof structures change almost completely as they go to hot and temperate places. Therefore, Turkey's hottest regions located between the Aegean and vegetable gardens understanding of the unique characteristics is available. The temperature in the region has led people to outward life and make the horticulture 477 more advanced than the others. The biggest examples of this are the ones that show themselves with outward-facing courtyards in single-family houses. Houses in the Aegean Region are generally located in forests, mountainous areas and flat areas according to the structure of the land. In residential gardens in general, the lower part of the gardens is partly opened to the streets with windows and outcrops on the upper floor that are restricted by courtyards and gardens (Bayram, 2012). In Aegean countryside, houses are usually located in courtyards. The courtyard walls, which have an important usage area in the Turkish House, are made of stone or mud brick in traditional buildings (Köse, 2007). In the Aegean Region, in the temperate and warm regions near the coast, the use of the courtyard and open sofan in daily life is quite complicated in the plans of the Turkish House (Bayram, 2012). Day by day the changes in the structure of the old Aegean houses have been changed and influenced by this modern life with the influence of modern life. Although the number of cottages is decreasing, the garden is always important for the Aegean region. In this study, the analysis of the plants used in the landscape areas of the single residential and residential settlements, which are the result of the architect who changed in recent years. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials A total of 6 landscaping areas in the Aegean Sea coastal areas, which were planned, designed and implemented in 2012-2017 and maintained for a period of 2 years by a professional landscaping firm, were selected for our study. These landscaping areas are divided into two groups in terms of usage differences. These groups were designated as residential garden and public housing garden. Single Residential Gardens 1. Single Residential Garden (K1) The landscape area is located in the province of Çeşme in İzmir province. Landscape maintenance is being carried out at regular intervals over the past 5 years for the area completed in 2013. The area is approximately 500 m2. The landscape area consists of entrances, transit corridors and swimming pool areas (Figure 1). 2. Single Residential Garden (K2) Landscape area is located in Sahilevleri Mahallesi of İzmir province. Landscape maintenance is done at regular intervals for 1 year in 2017. The area is approximately 2,500 m2. The landscaping area consists of entrances, passage corridors, ornamental ponds, fire pit, recreational areas and swimming pool areas (Figure 1). 3. Single Residential Garden (K3) Landscape area is located in Sahilevleri Mahallesi of İzmir province. Landscape maintenance is done at regular intervals for 1 year in 2017. The area is approximately 2,100 m2. The landscaping area consists of entrances, transit corridors, recreational areas, fruit gardens and swimming pool areas (Figure 1). 478 Figure 1: Single residental gardens’s photos (K1, K2 and K3) Mass Housing Gardens 1. Mass Housing Garden (T1) The landscape area is located in the province of Çeşme in İzmir province. Landscape maintenance is carried out at regular intervals for 6 years in the area completed in 2012. The area is approximately 4,750 m2. The landscaping area consists of entrances, transit corridors, roof gardens and swimming pool areas (Figure 2). 2. Mass Housing Garden (T2) The landscape area is located in the province of Çeşme in İzmir province. Landscape maintenance is being carried out at regular intervals for 2 years in the area completed in 2016. The area is approximately 2,500 m2. The landscaping area consists of entrances, passage corridors and swimming pool areas (Figure 2). 479 3. Mass Housing Garden (T3) Landscape area is located in Mavişehir District of İzmir province. Landscape maintenance is carried out at regular intervals for 6 years in the area completed in 2012. The area is approximately 3,700 m2. The landscaping area consists of entrance, transit corridors, resting area and swimming pool areas (Figure 2). Figure 2: Mass housing gardens’s photos (T1, T2 and T3) Methods The study consists of two phases. The first step is the field study where the data are obtained, and the second step is the office work where the data are converted into findings. During the field study which constitutes the first stage; Plant analysis of 6 horticultural crops, including two landscaping areas for each use group, were performed to perform plant analysis of Aegean gardens. A total of 447 photographs were taken for analysis and 18 photographs were selected from these photographs. Attention has been paid to the fact that photographs of landscaping areas are in summer. The photos were shot using a Samsung WB1100F digital 480 camera and a tripod of 165 cm (average adult vision level). In the office work that constitutes the second stage, analysis of the plants used in the landscape areas was carried out in two groups. The first analysis group is the silhouette analysis and the second analysis group is the ecological desire analysis of the plants. For the silhouette analysis, Adobe Photoshop program was used. Adobe Photoshop, a pixelbased digital photo processing software, is a very useful program for creating visual materials and analyzing visual materials. For the ecological desire analysis, after determination of the plants used in the landscape areas, the desire of these plants is tabulated by the literature. RESULTS It has been determined that the studied study areas are generally designed for common use areas and applied and planted according to these areas. Accordingly, analysis of landscaping areas addressing two different uses have been made as input fields, transition areas and activity area plants. Thus, it has been determined what kind of plants are used in the entrance areas, transition areas and activity areas of single residence and public housing. Single Residential Entry Areas Planting Analysis Findings When examining the entrance plantings of landscaping areas belonging to single dwellings, it is seen that the plants with many forms are used in the gardens. However, it has been determined that the most commonly used forms are oval, round, rectangular and columnar forms. Emphasized by the use of mushy plants alone, distinct forms were formed by the multiple use of shrub groups, which are not so much influenced by themselves (Figure 3). Thus, both the functionality and the visual appeal are given to the entry areas which are important in the concept of landscape arrangement. When the applications are examined, visual diversity can be achieved by choosing different plants at the stage of planting, and it is seen that the same functionality as many plants can be achieved by the acquisition of functionality (Robinson, 2011) which is the main aim of planting. In the K1 field, Dasylirion longissimum is used to emphasize the input field, whereas in the K2 field, this function is Cycas revoluta. Plant K1 and K2 are also Washingtonia robusta, while K3 provides this function Cupressus sempervirens 'Stricta' to emphasize the sharp lines of the buildings and to connect the building with the garden. Although no plant was used in K1 as a roadside bordering plant, Pitasporum tobira 'Nana' was used in K2. As an alternative to providing the border function with a single plant in K2, the border element in K3 is provided by multiple use of multiple plants. These plants were identified as Asparagus densiflorus 'Meyersii', Pitosporum tobira 'Nana' and Festuca glauca 'Elijah Blue' (Figure 3). 481 Figure 3: Planting analysis findings of entry areas for K1, K2 and K3 Single Housing Transition Areas Planting Analysis Findings When studying the planting of transition areas linking the entrance area and the activity area in landscape areas of single dwellings, it is noteworthy that the border elements and the alley following them are generally planted (Figure 4). As with every biting operation, functionality is provided here with different plants. When study areas are examined K1 and K2 are used to support the border element alle planting, K3 does not have alle planting. However, in plants K2 and K3, which constitute the boundary element, there is a tendency to focus the plant. K1 also used a pruned plant species such as Cupressus macrocarpa 'Goldcrest', but in the same garden Strelitzia nicolai, a more natural and exotic style, was used as a border element. In K1, two kinds of plants were used for alle planting. These species are Cinnamomum camphora and Prunus cerasifera 'Pissardii Nigra'. It was observed that all green or flowering plants were used for alle planting. Since the transition areas are linked to the activity areas, they are usually associated with the focus plant (Figure 4). Citrus mitis in K1, Olea europaea in K2, and Ficus microcarpa bonsai focus plant in K3. 482 Figure 4: Planting analysis findings of transition areas for K1, K2 and K3 Single Residential Activity Areas Planting Analysis Findings The activity areas of single dwellings are planned and used according to their usage according to their usage. The density of large lawn areas is noticeable in regulations. Planting areas, however, are used extensively near border elements or pool area activity area. The use of various plant forms in use has brought diversity to the regulations. However, the use of round and rectangular forms around the pool is remarkable. In addition, the use of large, remarkable exotic plants around the pool has made the pool area special. Cupressus sempervirens 'Strica' was used in K1 and Washingtonia robusta and Chamaerops excelsa in K2 were used as focus plants. In K3, this effect is provided by multiple uses, while no single focal point is used. To create this effect, Arecastrum romanzoffianum and Strelitzia nicolia were used in groups and in multiple (Figure 5). With rounded forms, grounds were created for plants used in umbrella form associated with the focus plants with the activity area. 483 Figure 5: Planting analysis findings of recreation areas for K1, K2 and K3 Mass Housing Entry Areas Planting Analysis Findings Analysis of the planting practices of mass housing entry areas showed that the entrance planting sites and the site were shaped according to the security structure. According to the safety of the site, the plants were used either as balusters or as wall separators. However, it has been observed that different plant species provide different forms of plant for single or multiple use (Figure 6). In general, the input areas have been found to be reduced by the number of plant species used and the use of stricter plant species is more common. The functions of routing, sorting, concealing and emphasizing the plants used in public housing areas are installed. The plants used for emphasis are Citrus sinensis in T1, Olea europaea in T2, and Chamaerops humulis in T3. The fact that Chamaerops humulis used in T3 can be used as a transitional plant in public use but can be used as a stress plant in single use, shows that the number of plants shapes the function of usage. Pittosporum tobira 'Nana', which is generally used as a separator, was used as a floor covering in T1 and T2. This use, seen in these areas, indicates that the planting sequence affects the functionality as well as the number of plants used. 484 Figure 6: Planting analysis findings of entry areas for T1, T2 and T3 Mass Housing Transition Areas Planting Analysis Findings Clear and sharp planting practices have been observed in the circulation networks that make up the mass housing transit areas. It seems that the transition areas are intended to have a lot of functionality from visual appeal. For this, the pruning Pittosporum tobira 'Nana', which clearly shows the orientation, seems to be used frequently. However, it has been observed that repetition of the form is important to achieve orientation. While the trend at T1 is often provided with the Pittosporum tobira 'Nana', which is used in the lane, this trend is provided by the repeated use of the Pittosporum tobira 'Nana' in round form. In T2, the orientation was provided by Cinnamomum camphora (Figure 7), which was used in parallel with Cupressus macrocarpa 'Goldcrest' and Rhyncospermum jasminoides. 485 Figure 7: Planting analysis findings of transition areas for T1, T2 and T3 Mass Housing Activity Areas Planting Analysis Findings It has been noted that the density of plants around the pool is high when the application areas of the public gardens' surrounding areas are examined. This is why plants are used to increase visual appeal in these areas as it is thought that these areas are the places where the user is closest to plant contact. However, the plants used around the pool are generally plants with permeable tissue, although they vary in form. This allows the formation of the form depending on the number of plants used. Plants close to the surface of the water usually consist of plants resistant to chlorine. In addition to these, it has been found that the attractiveness of visual plants is increased due to the reflections of the plants on the water surface. If public areas, such as T1 and T3, are open for public use, public use of plants with a clearer form is seen. In addition, it has been determined that more plant species have been used in plant sites such as T2 (Figure 8), where activity sites belong to a single site but are not separated by clear boundaries. 486 Figure 8: Planting analysis findings of recreation areas for T1, T2 and T3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Today, the only residential buildings that people use the most are landscape areas of residential and public housing, which is very important for the users to spend quality time. When studying the landscape areas of these two types of residential use in the study, it is seen that the number of species used in single residential landscapes is higher than that of mass residential landscapes. However, studies of planting design confirms that they are seen as design elements that increase both aesthetics and functionality values (Yıldızcı, 1988), while not only as a design element that is used to increase visual value but as an identity of the place. This is because, although some plants with high visual value are used only for aesthetic purpose, in some places it has been found that the "separate" characteristic of the plant is gained by increasing the usage frequency of these plants. However, as seen in this study, it is possible to achieve a variety of plant species, plant form, or plant with different numbers of uses to provide functionality and visual diversity. 487 When we look at single residence and public housing gardens, it is seen that form variety is higher in public housing gardens. This suggests that the mass housing areas are diversified in terms of form, even if not in terms of plant species, because they are addressed to many users. When we evaluated the gardens according to the usage areas, it was determined that the most species and form variety was used in recreation areas of mass housing gardens (Table 1). In addition, when examined both in terms of type and form, the most diverse use areas of single residential gardens and mass housing gardens are the areas of activity. Planting entrance gardens of residential gardens used more plant variety than public housing, but more basic forms were used for form. This made it possible for the single residential entrance areas to be more vivid and integrated. The transition areas, such as the input fields, gave the same result (Table 1). Table 1: Examination of single residence and residential gardens in terms of species and form variety Single Residential Residential Garden Garden Form Species Form Species Variety Variety Variety Variety 3 13 5 8 Entry Areas (E) 3 10 6 8 Transition Areas (T) 7 15 8 18 Recreation Areas (R) In this study, the gardens applied in the Aegean region in recent years are examined and the list of used plants is given in Table 2. Thus, a literature source has been established as to what kinds of plants have ecological requirements and where they can be used for future studies. Table 2: Ecological characteristics of the detected plants and where they are used (Gülpınar, 2006) The Name Of The Plant Agapanthus africanus Area Used Ecological Request E+R Arecastrum romanzoffianum R Asparagus densiflorus ‘Meyeri’ E Bambusa aurea R Begonia tuberosa T Callistemon citrinus E 488 Chamaerops excelsa R Chamaerops humilis E+T+R Cinnamomum camphora T Citrus mitis T Citrus sinensis E Cortaderia selloana R Cupressus macrocarpa ‘Goldcrest’ E+T+R Cupressus sempervirens ‘Stricta’ E+R Cycas revoluta E Dasylirion longifolium E+R Dianthus alpinus ‘Compacta’ R Dianthus chinensis R Echinocactus grusonii R Festuca glauca ‘Elijah Blue’ Ficus microcarpa bonsai Laurus nobilis pyramidalis E+R T T+R Lavandula angustifolia E Miscanthus sinensis R Nandina domestica E+T 489 ‘Firepower’ Nerium oleander tige Olea europaea Pennisetum setaceum ‘Rubrum’ Phormium tenax 'Variegata' Pittosporum tobira ‘Nana’ Polygala myrtifolia Prunus cerasifera 'Pissardii Nigra' Rhyncospermum jasminoides Rosmarinus officinalis Rosmarinus prostratus Salix babylonica Strelitzia nicolai Tulbaghia violacea Viburnum lucidum Washingtonia robusta Growth Rate T E+T+R R R E+T R T T+R E R R T+R R T+R E+T+R Light Request ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to Nesil Peyzaj for the design, application and maintenance of the study areas, especially thanks to the help and dedication of the founding partners Hakan ERDOGAN, the landscape architect. 490 REFERENCES Bayram, G. (2012). Ege’de Kırsal Mimari Araştırmaları (Manisa Kayacık Örneği). (Yüksek Lisans), Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, İzmir. Bekar, M. (2016). İstanbul'da Bulunan Bazı Saray Bahçelerinin Yapısal Ve Bitkisel Dokusunda Batılılaşmanın Etkilerinin İncelenmesi. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Trabzon. Demiröz, Z. (2002). Tarihsel Süreç İçinde İslam Bahçe Sanatı Hint–Moğol Bahçeleri Örneği Ve İslam Bahçeleri’nin Türk Bahçe Sanatı’na Etkileri. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi), İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Evyapan, G. A. (1974). Tarih İçinde Formel Bahçenin Gelişimi ve Türk Bahçesinde Etkileri. Ankara: Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi. Gülpınar, Y. H. (2006). Bitkilerimiz. İstanbul: Türev Yayıncılık ve Matbaacılık. Hasol, D. (2002). Ansiklopedik Mimarlık Sözlüğü (Vol. 8). İstanbul: Yem Yayınları. Khabbazi, P. A., & Erdoğan, E. (2012). Islamic Gardens. Journal of Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty, 9(2), 20-31. Köse, A. (2007). Balıkesir Çevresinde Geleneksel Kırsal Avlu Peyzajı ve Değişimi. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 12(18), 7-38. Robinson, N. (2011). The Planting Design Handbook. England: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Yıldızcı, A. C. (1988). Bitkisel Tasarım. İstanbul: Atlas Ofset. 491 Chapter 40 Landscape Elements and Usage Properties in the Atrium of Traditional Antakya (Hatay/Turkey) Houses Elif BOZDOĞAN SERT1, Tülin TÜMAY ÇAĞLAYAN2 and Sema GÜLER3 1 Iskenderun Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Iskenderun-Hatay, Turkey 2 Mustafa Kemal University, Art and Design Vocational School, Antakya-Hatay, Turkey 3 Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Antakya-Hatay, Turkey 1. INTRODUCTION As it is seen all over the world, historical areas, which are regarded as an important aspect of our cultural heritage, have gained value in terms of the fact that they provide information about the lifestyles of ancient civilizations. However, the notion of unconscious protection in the preservation and sustainability of these areas, the changes in the use of the buildings, the desolation as a result of giving up the traditional dwelling houses and moving to modern living spaces, giving different functions to these areas have caused cultural and economic casualties (Gültekin, 2007; Dikmen and Toruk, 2015). The preservation of the traditional urban texture, which is high in value as a historical and cultural heritage, is the most important indicator of the development level of the countries. The loss of this texture or any kind of damage in it gains importance in terms of the cultural and historical sustainability in addition to aesthetic features. Therefore, giving particular importance to the notion of sustainable preservation will play an effective role in resolving the problems (Dikmen and Toruk, 2015). The conservation work that started with the restoration of the monuments has changed in a way to include the preservation of historical texture and cities. The most important factor increasing the success in protection works is the assessment of the city as a whole, including the building, garden, street and urban texture (Çelik and Yazgan, 2009). In the spatial design of traditional Anatolian house, climate and land structure, local building materials and traditional house culture are of great value (Sözen, 2006). In this context, atriums are the most important elements of this type of house and they are used in the middle part of the constructions, preferably in closed or open, in an enclosed way. The preservation of the atriums which are the most important features of the traditional Anatolian houses together with their all original content, ensuring the sustainability of them, building houses with atriums in this day and time will have a great place in transferring the cultural and historical heritage to future generations (Bozkurt and Altınçekiç, 2013). The atriums, which are important component of the city, have non-living and living elements as complementary item of the urban space. Living elements (woody and herbaceous 492 plant species) create symbolic characteristics by creating different perceptions in the environment; non-living elements (wall, well, fountain, etc.) symbolize the qualities of life (Yücel Besim, 2007). Some of the settlements where the atriums are considered as a living space in traditional residential area in Turkey include Bodrum, Gaziantep, Göynük (Bolu), Isparta, Kayseri, Malatya and Muğla (Tali, 2005; Yücel Besim, 2007; Demirci, 2009; Karabacak, 2013; Dikmen and Toruk, 2015, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2017; Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2018). In Göynük houses, there are pools and toilet in the atriums which are used extensively (Dikmen and Toruk, 2015). There are different traditional house types in Isparta and houses with atriums surrounded by a garden wall higher than 2 meters are also founded (Demirci, 2009). The atriums in Kayseri houses are called as "Hayat (Life)"; in each atrium, there is a well. The fountains in the atriums also attract attention with stone ornaments (Tali, 2005). In traditional Gaziantep houses, most of the day passes through in the atriums. So, this part of the house is called "life". On the edge of the atriums, there is a flowerpot, a well hidden by atrium, and a pool in the middle (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2017). In Anatolia, the atriums are mostly called by the same term as life in Antakya. Antakya, which was established in 300 B.C.; having hosted many civilizations and considered as the queen of the East in ancient times possesses distinctive cultural values. It is an important Anatolian city that has always been a center of attraction throughout the ages. The city is also strategically important because of its being at the crossroads of important roads and because of the fact that the Christian religion began to spread out of here for the first time outside Jerusalem (Demir, 1996; Ömeroğlu, 2006). The first settlement in the city was established between Asi River and Habib-i Neccar Mountain.on the northern part. The city was built with the grid plan city planning system consisting of building islands formed by the streets and streets which are perpendicular and parallel to each other in a certain order developed by Hippodamos. This typical Hellenistic structure has changed over the centuries except a few streets on either side of Kurtuluş Street and has become a non-symmetrical characteristic of Islamic cities. The city destroyed many times due to major earthquakes was destroyed completely with the earthquake in 148 B.C. and after that, it has been restored in large scale. It has been chosen as a permanent settlement since the Paleolithic Age; during the Roman period, it was the golden age of the city. At that time, the first of the Olympic Games, which would be held every four years, took place. The colonnaded street which is approximately 3 km in length and 9.60 meters in width was built and it had marble floor covering. As a result of the construction of the street covered with the bronze sculpture, the settlements on both sides were enlarged in this direction (Demir, 1996). Antique Age Antakya houses are typical examples of Roman Age houses which had the influences of ancient Greek houses (Demir, 1996). The most common type of residence in that period are houses with atrium. These buildings, which are usually planned as two-storey, were surrounded by high walls so that domestic life cannot be seen outside; the relationship with the street was very limited. The number of atriums in rich people’s houses could increase to 3 or 4. The 493 atriums were built according to the prevailing wind direction in consideration of the climatic conditions. The atrium receives air and light. The domestic life was maintained by with the high walls protecting the privacy of the house and the friendship and friendship relations of the people were also affected positively. At the same time, these walls with narrow streets to be sheltered from the sun create spaces that allow them to live comfortably in the long-warm climate and give permission all kinds of social activities. For this reason, they were called as "Life". This structure, which was formed by socio-cultural and climatic reasons, has been the key determinant of the architectural character of Antakya houses. The floors in the atrium are usually covered with regular rectangular cut stone, sometimes marble or patterned tile-cast mosaic. The use of trees is limited due to the closed usage in the atrium and the rooms; plants are used on the beds or pots (Bektaş, 2013, Bozkurt and Altinçekiç, 2013). As plants, there are usually orange, tangerine, grapefruit, lemon, citrus, pomegranate, Japanese plum, parney, banana, olive, vine, mulberry, plum and sometimes poplar. Flower beds are placed among the trees (Demir, 1996). In the atriums shaded with trees, there is a well and a fountain pool. Like all Anatolian people, the people in Antakya always like sound of water and do not want to stay away from the land (Bektaş, 2013). There is a “seki” with cut stone, marble or mosaic-covered pattern on a corner suitable for the size of the atrium. The number of sekis can be more than one depending on the size of the atrium. There is also a staircase leading to the upper storey in any part of the atrium. In the windows, upper parts of which are decorated with flat belts, the two blade clearance faces the atrium side. The second blade clearance which is in a smaller size on the windows is known as “bird niche”. These windows, the parts of which face the atrium are adorned with stone carvings with different motifs (Demir, 1996). When traditional Antakya houses are examined, it is seen that structural changes are made in the houses at high level. The closure of the water wells in the atriums, the use of the pools and bird niches for different purposes, and the replacement of the ground floor can be listed among the changes (Cengiz, 2014). Even though Traditional Antakya Houses are protected areas in the context of the "Law on the Protection of Cultural and Natural Assets" Law No. 2863, they can be damaged due to the fact that they are not being used as living places by their real owners, the fact that they are innovated in order to keep up with the new living conditions and especially the fact that the atriums are open to the external effects. This study aims at determining the landscape elements and their usages in the atriums which are the most important part of the traditional houses in Antakya, a city which has a very old history and has hosted many cultures and is trying to survive in narrowed area. For this purpose, all the items are evaluated in terms of quality and quantity. It is believed that the study will provide support for the studies and applications to be carried out for the sustainability of urban texture. 2. MATERIAL AND METHOD This study was carried out in three stages in sixteen districts of Antakya which is the city center of Hatay province (Biniciler, Dutdibi, Fevzi Paşa, Gazipaşa, Güllübahçe, Habibi Neccar, Kantara, Karaali Bölüğü, Kocaabdi, Kurtuluş, Kuyulu, 494 Meydan, Şehitler, Ulucami, Yeni Cami, Zenginler) in order to determine the living and non-living landscape elements and their usages in the atriums of traditional Antakya Houses during the months between September and December in 2015. The districts are located on both sides of Kurtuluş Street between the Asi River and Habib-i Neccar Mountain; the street which has the most well preserved urban area and represents the oldest settlement area in the city (Fig. 1). In the first phase of the study, literature review was made and knowledge related with the subject was compiled. In the second phase of the study, the area of the study was selected. For this purpose, 200 houses with atrium, which was randomly selected from this region where the best preserved historical area, was evaluated in terms of non-living and living landscape elements in the atriums (Fig. 2). Non-living landscape elements (Fig. 3) were evaluated in terms of their number, their position in the atrium and their usage (aesthetic and functional), the atrium’s characteristics (size, ground floor and wall-building material, wall height); living landscape elements were evaluated in terms of their number, their position in the atrium and their usage (from aesthetics point of view: leaf, flower, fruit, form; functional point of view: shadow, orientation, focus, bordering, other use: odor, ornamentation, food). In the third phase of the study, evaluations were made depending on the obtained data and the suggestions were presented. Figure 1. Location of the Research Area 3. RESULTS Within the scope of this study conducted between September and December 2015 in order to determine the landscape elements and their usage in the atriums of 495 the traditional Antakya houses, which is the most important area for living, 200 atriums that were chosen randomly from the best preserved historical area of the city were taken for evaluation and the following data were obtained. Figure 2. Samples of the atriums Figure 3. Some of the non-living elements in the atriums Data Regarding to the General Condition The average number of individuals living in the houses is four people. Given the home ownership, there were tenants in 50 houses and landlords in 134 houses. In 16 houses, it was determined to be uncertain. The average height of the outer walls of the houses was 2.90 meters. The building material of the outer wall was usually rubble stone and mud brick. However, due to renovation, the majority were coated on to mud brick plaster or rubble stone plaster. Rarely, briquette and brick walls were encountered. With the fact that the owners of the houses preferred to go to the new settlements, most of the elements in the atriums modified because they were outdated. In 112 houses, the floors were changed; in 20 houses, stairs were changed; in 7 houses, the building structures were changed and in 11 houses, the 496 reinforcements were changed. According to this, only 40 houses were found to be unchanged. The average size of the atriums in the houses is 45.70 m2; it ranges from 2.77 m2 to 201 m2. At the houses, the material used for the floor was cut stone, tile + cut stone over tile (in 54 houses), cast concrete (in 44 houses), tiles (in 12 houses), concrete + gravel (in 2 houses), tile + cast concrete (in 5 houses), soil + cut stone (in 1 house), cast concrete + cut stone (in 9 houses) and cut stone + tile + cast concrete (in 1 house). Data Regarding To the Non-Living Landscape Elements The non-living landscape elements within the study area were determined as pool, bird niche, seki, fountain, water well, niche, buttress, cistern (with fountain), grain grinder, arcade, tandoori and colonnade. The non-living landscape elements in the atriums were used for aesthetic and functional purposes or both purposes. Accordingly, the ornamental pools were used for both aesthetic and functional purposes (cooling-planting); bird niches were used for both aesthetic and functional (ventilation-lighting); sekis for only functional purposes (for residential purposes); fountains for only functional purposes (washbasin-irrigation purposes); water wells for functional purposes (for general purposes); niches for both aesthetic and functional purposes (shoe and flower pots, storage area); buttress for only aesthetic purposes; cistern for aesthetic and functional purposes (flower pots); grain grinder for only functional purposes; arcades for aesthetic purposes; tandoori for functional purposes; colonnade for aesthetic purposes. Table 1 contains data regarding to the condition and use of the non-living landscape elements in the atriums. Location in the Atrium* Aesthetic Functional Aesthetic and Functional 46 60 46 11 2 11 53 C-D H/ I/ J/ K E-F - 37 - 26 26 B-E - 26 - Water well 23 23 - 12 - Pool 18 20 A-B-GH A-B 12 6 - Existing House Number (Number) 555 141 Name of the Element Total Number (Number) Number According to Usage Type in the Atrium (Number) Bird niche Niche 94 92 Seki 53 Fountain 497 Other Qualification Table 1. Data regarding to the non-living landscape elements in the traditional atriums No usage at fifty nine houses No usage at 16 houses In the garden in one house No usage at eleven houses - (ornamenta) Cistern (with 15 18 M 4 4 1 No usage at nine fountain) houses Buttress 3 8 L 8 Arcade 3 6 I/ L 6 Tandoori 3 3 K/ I/ N 3 Grain 2 2 A 1 1 grinder Colonnade 2 2 I 2 * A: Middle of the atrium; B: Edge of the atrium; C: On the window; D: On the door; E: Neighboring to the building; F: Far away from the building; G: Wall edge; H: Under the stairs; I: Entrance of building; J: Between door and window; K: Corner of the atrium; L: On the wall; M: Near the wall; N: Naer the fountain According to Table 1, the most heavily used non-living landscaping element was bird niche and it is seen in 47% of the houses. This element used above windows and doors was used with aesthetic qualifications in 49% of the houses, functional in 49% of the houses, and both aesthetic and functional in 2% of the houses. The second most intensive used element was the niche seen in 46% of houses. 43% of the niches located at the entrance of the building, between the window and the door, at the corner of the atriums and under the stairs were used for aesthetic, 8% for functional and 8% for both aesthetic and functional purposes. There couldn’t be found any niches in 41% of the houses. Data Regarding to Living Landscape Elements In the atriums of the houses within the scope of the study, 40 woody and 27 herbaceous species were found. These plant species were used for their aesthetic qualities (leaf, flower, fruit, form) and functional qualities (shadow, orientation, focus, border), and other qualities as odor, ornamentation and usage as food source. Woody species found in the atriums of traditional Antioch houses and their usages are shown in Table 2; herbaceous species and their usages are given in Table 3. According to Table 2; it has been determined that there are 40 woody plant species in traditional Antakya houses. The vast majority of trees are fruit trees; they are used in the middle and on the edge of the atriums. Citrus fruits are usually located in the middle of the atriums. The only tree planted in the pot is Laurus nobilis. Most of the bushes were mostly used on the edge of the atriums. Rosmarinus officinalis and Thuja orientalis are found in the pot. The ivies are usually on the edge of the wall and on the edge of the stairs; Hedera helix is also used in the pot. Among the species determined in the atriums of Antakya traditional houses, all the other species except ivies, palms, coniferous, rubber plants, nightblooming cestrum and burning bush are also used for food purposes. In 44% of the gardens, Vitis vinifera was absolutely used because of the aesthetic qualities with the leaves and the fruit, as well as the functional quality such as creating shadow. Consumption of fruits as food is also considered to be an important factor for them to be chosen. Citrus fruits (lemon, orange, citrus, mandarin, kumquat) are found in the 67.5% of the houses’ gardens within the scope of the study. However, when 498 assessed on a species basis, Citrus is the most intensively used species with a rate of %24 because of its forming shadow and its odor of flowers. Another tree that is intensively used in the area is Eriobotrya japonica, which is found in 39% of the houses. They are used because of the fact that they are affected with their fruit aesthetically and the fact that they create a lot of shadow. Leaf Form Shadow Orientation Focus Border Odor Food Ornamental Usage with Other Purposes (Number) Fruit Usage with Functional Purposes (Number) 1 - - 1 1 - - 1 - - - 1 2 2 - 1 - - 1 1 - - - 2 4 - - 2 2 - - - - - - 4 1 19 - 1 14 1 8 1 - 2 1 8 3 17 - 1 19 1 1 7 1 1 - 1 - - 1 - - - 1 1 - - 1 1 - - 1 - - - 1 31 28 - 1 25 - 8 2 30 31 31 48 - 1 35 5 10 - 45 48 48 40 - 2 31 - 10 1 37 40 40 7 5 2 1 2 8 4 8 4 0 7 5 2 1 7 5 2 1 - 1 1 5 5 - - 4 1 - 1 7 4 2 - 7 5 2 - 7 5 2 1 2 23 55 - 23 55 2 8 - 2 3 13 26 2 2 2 6 19 4 10 - 23 55 2 23 55 Araucaria heterophylla Bougainvillea glabra Buxus sempervirens Cedrus libani Cestrum noctornum Chaenomeles japonica Chamaedorea elegans Citrus aurantium C. limon 48 C. sinensis 40 C. reticulata C. paradisi Kamquat sp. Cotoneaster horizontalis Cycas revoluta Diospyros kaki Eriobotrya japonica Usage with Aesthetic Purposes (Number) Flower Latin Name of the Plants Number of Existing House (Number) Table 2. Woody Species in the Atriums of Traditional Antakya Houses and Their Usages 499 Euonymus japonica Ficus benjamina F. carica F. elastica Hedera helix Jasminum nudiflorum Laurus nobilis Morus alba Myrtus communis Olea europea Passiflora caerulea Phoenix dactylifera Pittosporum tobira var. Nana Prunus armeniaca P.avium P. domestica P. persica Punica granatum Rosmarinus officinalis Rubus sp. Thuja orientalis Washingtonia filifera Vitis vinifera 4 1 1 3 4 - 2 2 - - - 4 2 7 5 6 3 3 7 - 2 6 5 6 - 2 2 5 2 4 - 1 - 3 5 1 2 4 2 - 7 - 2 7 5 6 3 4 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 4 1 2 - - - 1 1 1 3 - 3 - 4 1 1 4 1 1 9 1 1 8 - 4 - 2 - - - 4 1 5 1 - 9 - 9 1 5 - 5 - - 5 - - - - 5 5 5 - - 3 2 - - - 5 - - 1 3 1 1 - - 1 - - - 1 3 3 2 12 15 2 12 15 - 2 2 5 1 1 - 7 8 1 4 6 - 2 12 15 2 12 15 32 - 1 - - 20 9 - 32 32 3 9 1 5 3 2 - - 2 - - - 1 1 2 - 3 12 4 1 - 12 - 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 - - 6 1 1 5 1 - - 12 1 12 4 1 88 - 88 88 1 79 3 1 7 - 88 88 32 It is determined that there are 27 herbaceous plants in the atriums of traditional Antakya houses (Table 3); the vast majority of them are placed in pots. The other part is located in the middle of the atriums and at the edge of the atriums or in front of the wall. The most intensively used species are the Begonia rex because they are found in 22% of the houses. These species famous for their leaves’ beauty are used aesthetically; they are also used functionally for their form, focus and confinement purposes. It is Rosa sp., found in 19% of the houses’ atriums; they are used because of their aesthetic qualities. They are among the indispensable plants of the atriums due to their plant confinement, orientation, focus and form. Rosa sp. are preferred because of their smell of petals and their consumption as food. The other herbaceous species that are most commonly used in the atriums is Pelargonium zonale found in 17% of the houses and mostly used with flowers and then with the 500 beauty of their leaves. They have confinement, orientation and form qualities. 1 1 3 2 31 1 3 14 1 5 5 1 9 13 8 1 2 1 8 6 2 1 6 501 1 1 1 2 18 3 10 1 4 6 1 1 3 13 1 7 2 2 1 5 7 1 6 - 2 1 1 3 1 8 14 1 1 - Focus Orientation Shadow Form Leaf Fruit 1 1 - 1 1 14 1 2 11 2 9 1 7 5 6 1 14 1 3 3 2 1 4 Food Ornamental 1 8 1 12 1 1 1 20 27 1 4 1 1 Usage with Other Purposes (Number) Odor 1 1 3 2 31 1 1 3 14 1 5 12 1 1 9 13 1 24 1 27 2 1 8 7 2 1 6 Usage with Functional Purposes (Number) Border Agave americana Aglaonema sp. Aloe sp. Asparagus sp. Begonia rex Bergenia sp. Capsicum annum Chlorophytum comosum Coleus blumei Cyperus alternifolius Dieffenbachia sp. Hydrangea sp. Kalanchoe sp. Mirabilis jalapa Monstera sp. Nephrolepis exaltata Opuntia ficus-indica Pelargonium zonale Potos sp. Rosa sp. Russelia equisetiformis Sanseveria sp. Schefflera arboricola Schlumbergera sp. Spathyphyllum sp. Tulipa sp. Yucca sp. Usage with Aesthetic Purposes (Number) Flower Latin Name of the Plants Number of Existing House (Number) Table 3. Herbaceous Species in the Atriums of Traditional Antakya Houses and Their Usages 1 2 2 16 1 1 3 3 2 1 2 8 10 18 1 1 3 3 1 6 - 1 1 1 - 1 1 3 2 31 1 1 1 14 1 1 12 1 1 9 13 1 24 1 27 2 1 8 7 2 1 6 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Located between the Asi River and the Habib-i Neccar Mountain, Antakya, which has always been a center of attraction throughout the ages, has strategic importance city due to its being at the crossroads of important roads. The houses and narrow streets in the historic fabric were formed by the influence of both climate and socio-cultural structure. The most important place in traditional Antakya houses is the "atrium". The following data were obtained from the study in which 200 atriums that were chosen randomly from the best preserved historical area were taken for evaluation. As a result of the study: * The sizes of the atriums changed between 2.77 m2 and 201 m2; and the average value is found to be 45.70 m2. * Non-living and living landscape items in the atriums have been evaluated for their aesthetic and functional qualities. * Non-living landscape items are pool (ornamental), bird niche, seki, fountain, water well, niche, buttress, cistern (with fountain), grain grinder, arcade, tandoori and colonnade. Among them, the most commonly used item is bird niche found in 47% of the houses. This is followed by a niche with the rate of 46%. * These items are found to be used for aesthetic, functional or both purposes. In fact, most of the items with a functional qualification are used for different purposes due to the fact that the owners of the houses choose new settlements and the fact that the technology developed and these items lost their original usage. * The living landscape items are woody and herbaceous plant species. These items were used for both aesthetic and functional purposes. * The woody species found the most intensively (in 44% of houses) plant species in the study area is “Vitis vinifera”. This is followed by Eriobotrya japonica with 27.5%. When herbaceous species are taken into consideration, Begonia rex (15.5%) is the most abundant species; the second most abundant one is Rosa sp. All the data obtained suggest that the preservation and sustainability of the atriums should be ensured in the traditional Antakya houses. The living landscape elements transferred from past to present and the herbaceous things over a certain age often increase the value of these atriums. These items, which are used with both aesthetic and functional qualifications, are important assets that need to be conveyed to future generations. For this reason, it is necessary to give particular importance to a holistic preservation approach in which the public institutions, nongovernmental organizations and the people move together for the historical urban area. REFERENCES Bektaş, C., 2013. Turkish House. YEM Publishing, Istanbul, (In Turkish). Bozkurt, S.G., Altınçekiç, H., 2013. The Evaluation of Patterns and Historical Development Considering Traditional Houses and Patios of Anatolia by Using Safranbolu Houses as Samples. Journal of The Faculty of Forestry, 63(1): 69-91. Cengiz, A.K., 2014. Current Usage and Interpretation of Traditional Antakya 502 Houses by Their Dwellers. Mustafa Kemal University Journal of Graduate School of Social Sciences, 11 (25): 111-130. Çelik, D., Yazgan, M.E., 2009.Investigation of the Conservation Practices of Historical Environments within the Urban Landscape Design: Beypazarı Case Study. Journal of Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty, 6(3): 235-244. Demir, A., 1996. Antakya in the Ages. Akbank Culture and Art Books: 62. Ana Printing Incorporated Company, Istanbul, 363 P. Demirci, D., 2009. Entrances in Traditional Houses of Isparta. Süleyman Demirel University Faculty of Art and Science Journal of Social Science, 20: 187-202. Dikmen, Ç.B., Toruk, F., 2015.Spatial Structure and Proposals of Protection of Traditional Houses Göynük. Afyon Kocatepe University J. of Social Science, 17 (1): 99-128. Gültekin, N., 2007. Post-Occupancy Evaluation of Traditional Housing Areas: Beypazarı, Turkey. Journal of Faculty of Engineering and Architecture of Gazi University, 22 (3): 261-272. Karabacak, Z.İ., 2013. A City Losing its Local Texture: Malatya. Turkish StudiesInternational Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, 8 (5): 345-355. Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2017. Historical Antep Houses-Gaziantep. https://www.kulturportali.gov.tr/turkiye/gaziantep/gezilecekyer/tarihi-atep-eleri Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2018. Traditional Mugla Houses (Architectural Properties). http://www.muglakulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,158089/geleneksel-muglaevleri-mimari-ozellikleri.html Ömeroğlu, C., 2006. Investigation of Issues of Authenticity of Antakya and Today's Protection Problems in Protected Area. Gazi University Institute of Science and Technology, Dept. of Urban and Regional Planning, MSc Thesis, Ankara, 197 P. (In Turkish). Sözen, M., 2006. Culture from the Tradition to the Future in Anatolia. Çekül Foundation, Creative Publishing. Istanbul. (In Turkish). Tali, Ş., 2005. Decoration in Traditional Kayseri Houses. Atatürk University Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 6 (2): 61-85. Yücel Besim, D., 2007. An Analytical Research on Reading and Determination of Original Urban Spaces: Bodrum Türkkuyusu District. Ankara University, Graduate School of Natura and Applied Sciences. Dept. of Landscape Architecture, PhD Thesis, Ankara, 221 p. 503 Chapter 41 Comprehensive Analysis of Natural Agricultural Potential of North Kazakhstan Region Gulnur Zabikhulayevna MAZHITOVA1, Kulchikhan Мukhitovna DZHANALEYEVA2, Banu Beysenovna DOSKENOVA3 and Emin ATASOY4 1 PhD Candidate; Department of Physical and Economic Geography, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, 010008, Astana, Kazakhstan, 2 Doctor of Geography Sciences, Professor of the Department of Physical and Economic Geography, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, 010008, Astana, Kazakhstan, 3 Candidate of Biology Sciences, Senior Lecturer of the Geography and Ecology Department, M.Kozybayev North Kazakhstan State University, 150000, Petropavlovsk, Kazakhstan, е-mail: bdoskenova@mail.ru. 4 Bursa Uludag University, Education Faculty, Bursa, Turkey INTRODUCTION One of the most important factors in development and functioning of agriculture is natural agricultural potential. Natural agricultural potential means the combination of such natural conditions and resources required for development of agriculture and agricultural production as geological and geomorphological features, climatic and hydrological conditions, land resources, soil, biological and landscape features and their qualitative and quantitative performance. The combination of the features creates various preconditions and opportunities for agricultural production. Natural agricultural potential has a significant impact on industrial structure, territorial arrangement and nature of agricultural production. For agricultural production to function, it is important not only to have and favorably combine natural potential components, but also to use them effectively and efficiently. The purpose of the research is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the main natural agricultural potential components of North Kazakhstan Region. The object of the research is the territory of North Kazakhstan Region. The subject of the research concerns natural conditions and resources of North Kazakhstan Region determining its natural agricultural potential. MATERIALS AND APPROACHES OF THE RESEARCH The information and analytical base of the research included maps (Anonymous 1-5). and archive and published materials (Anonymous 6; Zemtsov et al., 1988; Volkov, 1965; Fyodorovich, 1960; Bezsonov 1960, Abdulova et al, 2001, Anonymous 7, Gribskiy, 2004; Anonymous 8, Geldiveya, 1992; Nikolayaev, 1999). In this research we applied the following methods: comparative-geographical and cartographic approaches, system analysis and a complex of landscape504 geographical and field methods. RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH AND THEIR DISCUSSION Basing on the analysis of different works concerning the study of agricultural natural potential of various territories ( Romanova, 1994; Kadyshevskaya 1989; Yatsukhno 1988; Nikolayev, 1985; Ishmuratov, 1985; Kaverin, 1995; Subbotina, 1993) we identified the following main components of natural agricultural potential: geological and geomorphological, agro-climatic, hydrological and soil components, vegetation potential of natural forage lands and landscape features and arrangement of the territory. Geological and geomorphological potential North Kazakhstan Region is located in the North of the republic. Most of its territory is located within the southern rim of the West Siberian Plain while the South-Western part of the region belongs to the North-Western outskirts of the Kazakh Hummocks. The terrain of the plain part of the region is characterized by weak dissection, undulation and continuous overall surface slope to the North and the North-East. Average height of the plain lands in the region equals to 125-200 meters above sea level. The minimum elevations are in the basins of quite large salt lakes in the southeastern part of the region. The lowest point of the surface is in the basin of Lake Teke and equals to 29 meters above sea level (Anonymous 6). The Yesil river in its meridian direction divides the region into the left-bank and the right-bank areas. The left-bank side can be characterized by a clearly hollow-hilly-ridged terrain and an abundance of lake basins and depressions. The right bank side is an even plain split in the East-North-Easterly direction by Kamyshlovsky ravine, a wide depression with flat bottom. The specific features of the right-bank side are numerous depressions and inland flat-bottomed degradations with no clear terrain design. The plain part mostly includes surface microrelief in the form of numerous and various indentations, small hollows and various flat, lowarched micro-ridges widespread (Zemtsov et al., 1988; Volkov 1965). The southwest of the region has low-hill terrain with wavy ridged rockdefended denudation plains. These are mostly leveled plateaus with separate low mountain groups and hills. The terrain here is divided into several tiers with height range from 230-300 to 360-400 meters. The peaks of some mountain ranges are elevated to 600-700 m. Here can be found the highest point of the region – ZhaksyZhangyztau – of 730 meters (Anonymous 6). The structure of the region terrain is subject to the peculiarities of tectonic and geological structure and lithological composition of the territory. From the point of view of tectonics and geology the main area of the region is the southern edge of the young epipaleozoic West Siberian plate consisting of two floors. The lower floor consists of the foundation made of metamorphosed rocks of Precambrian and early Paleozoic age, broken by cracks and threaded by intrusions. The upper floor forms a cover of soft sedimentary rocks accumulated at the bottom of ancient seas, rivers and lakes in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic age. The capacity of 505 the sedimentary cover varies from a few meters in the South to 2,000 meters in the North (Volkov 1965). The southern and southwestern part of the region is located on the Northern edge of the Caledonian Kokshetau-North-Tien-Shan fold belt. Within the region it is formed by Sarysu-Kokshetau bending fold developed in the middle-late Paleozoic. One of its structural elements is the North Kazakhstan arch, expressed in the terrain by the Kokshetau highlands. The elevation is composed of rocks of granite composition that form a dissected folded terrain while being exposed to longtime denudation and weathering (Anonymous 7, 8) Tertiary deposits of the region are mainly represented by continental Oligocene and Neogene rocks. Almost everywhere tertiary rocks are covered with Quaternary deposits, the upper part of which consists of a cover of loess-like sediments. The capacity of the top loess-like deposits is not uniform. They vary by complex structure and conditions of occurrence and are represented by ancient laky, meander and alluvial deposits (Volkov 1965, Anonymous 8). Agro-climatic potential The territory of North Kazakhstan region belongs to the continental steppe West Siberian climatic region. The climate of the region can be characterized as sharply continental due to the geographical position inside the mainland, remoteness from the oceans, predominance of plain terrain and domination of moderate air masses. Sunshine duration per year is an average of 1,900-2,000 hours. Total solar radiation is around 95 kcal/cm2 a year. The radiation balance in the region varies from 23-24 kcal/cm2 in the North to 27-28 kcal/cm2 in the South; it is negative from November to March. The average monthly temperature of the coldest month (January) is -18.50°C, 19.50°C and of the warmest (July) is +18.80°C, +19.50°C. The average annual temperature is from +0.300C to +1.200C. The average annual range of air temperature reaches 37°C, the absolute temperature range is about 85°С (Abdulova 2001; Anonymous 9). Winter is long, cold, with steady subzero air temperatures, strong winds and frequent snow storms; it lasts more than 5 months. Spring is short, dry and cool. Summer is warm, short and, despite the relatively large amount of precipitation, dry. The duration of the warm period ranges from 188 to 195 days. Autumn is cool, cloudy, and often rainy. The average annual amount of precipitation in the region is in the range of 300350 mm. Precipitation patterns vary as by months and by season. The territory of the region is characterized by a continental course of precipitation where the maximum falls in June-July and the minimum is observed in February-March. The duration of stable snow cover is 150-170 days. In snowy winters its height can reach up to 50 cm while in dry winters it goes up to 10-15 cm. The average annual wind speed is 4-5 m/s. The highest speed is observed in winter, especially in February-March (6.4-6.7 m/sec), the lowest – in August (3.64.3 m/sec). During the year, the prevailing winds are of western direction (Anonymous 6, 8). 506 Hydrological potential Surface waters of the region are formed by the Yesil river, small rivers of internal drainage such as Koluton, Zhabay, Akkanburluk, Imanburluk with Saryozek, Terysakkan etc., numerous lakes and swamps. The Yessil with its side streams is transit and belongs to the Ob river system; the rest rivers belong to the basin of internal drainage. The rivers are mainly snow-fed. More than 80% of annual runoff is formed by melt water. A small share falls on warm season precipitation and soil nutrition. The rivers behaviour is featured by significant spring floods. The average annual layer of river runoff in the region ranges from less than 5 mm to 30 mm. the average annual runoff of the Yesil is about 2.5 m3, the flow rate is 76.0 m3/sec (Anonymous 2). The number of lakes in the region varies between 2,500 and 3,500; their total area is 452430.5 ha. The lakes are uneven allocated. Average lake percentage for the region is 4.62%. The largest lakes are: Seletyteniz –750.3 km2; Ulken Karoy – 305.5 km2; Shagalalyteniz – 267.4 km2; Teke – 256.6 km2. Mainly lakes have a basin area not exceeding 1 km2. Most of them are 1.5-2.5 m deep (Anonymous 6). A characteristic feature of the lakes is their periodic drying and filling during the year, as well as by years, with filling periods less long. Chemical composition and water salinity of lake water varies a lot. The lakes belonging to hydrocarbonate and chloride classes prevail. According to alkalineacidic properties of water the lakes belong to the class of neutral and slightly alkaline lakes. Water salinity in the lakes ranges from 0.4 to 300 g/l. 54% of the lakes of the region belongs to brackish lakes, 38% of lakes are fresh lakes. Total fresh water reserves in the lakes of the region are more than 4 billion m3 (Anonymous 6, 7). Swamps are found throughout the region. The area of swamps is about 41.1 thousand hectares. There are several aquifer systems confined to rocks of different age and composition within the region. The depth of aquifers varies from 1.5 to 25 m or more. Groundwater supply is mainly dependent on circulation of atmospheric precipitation. The main area of aquifers feeding is located within the Kazakh Hummocks. The average long-term pattern of underground runoff in the plain part of the region is 0.1-0.2 l/sec from 1 km2, and within the Kokshetau highlands it reaches 0.8 l/sec from 1 km2. The total groundwater salinity ranges significantly from 0.2 to 64.0 g/l [2, 6]. The southern part of the region is dominated by fresh waters and the North and North-East – by brackish and salty. Soil potential The territory of the region is characterized by heterogeneity of soil formation conditions; this causes diversity and complexity of the soil cover, their high complexity. The zonal components of the soil cover of the region contain of grey forest soils combined with leached chernozem soils in typical forest subzone and chernozems in outlier forest-steppe and semi-dry steppe in the North; and southern chernozems in the conditions of dry steppes and chestnut (normal dark brown and 507 alkaline) soils within dry steppe at severe moisture deficit – in the South (Anonymous 8). Chernozems are performed by all main types, subtypes and kinds of soils of the Chernozem zone of the West Siberian lowlands. The following kinds of black soil can be defined within the region: ordinary normal (non-alkaline), ordinary calcareous, ordinary alkaline, ordinary fused, weakly developed or underdeveloped soils. Meadow, meadow-marsh and marsh soils spread within inundative degradations, depressions at watershed areas, low terraces of lakes and swamps, gullies and bottoms of ancient flow channels of the region. Depressions under birch and aspen-birch groves have soloth soils. Alkali soils are very wide spread and are the most common component of soil systems in the region. Salt marshes are confined to low terraces and bottoms of drying and dried salt lakes, ancient shallows of runoff and inter-ridge depressions. Alluvial soils have been developed in the valley of the Yesil river, and are also found in some part of meander area of the Iman-Burluk river (Anonymous 7, 8, Gribskiy 2004). Vegetation potential of natural forage lands The territory of the region is represented by about 700 species of higher plants that belong to more than 70 families. The most widely spread families are aster family – more than 100 species, gramineous family – more than 60 species, labiatae family – about 40 species, rose family – about 40 species, caryophyllaceous family – more than 30 species, cruciferous family – more than 30 species, umbelliferous family – 30 species, and bean family – about 30 species. Other families represented in the region include an average of 10-20 species of plants (Anonymous 6). North Kazakhstan region is located at the junction of two natural zones – forest-steppe and steppe. This fact significantly affects features of the vegetation cover. The main forest-forming species in forests of typical forest-steppe subzone are a warty birch and a downy birch. Treeless spaces are occupied with steppificated meadows and meadow steppes. Indigenous vegetation is formed by needle grass, grain and mixed herb plant groups. The subzone of outlier forest-steppe has an alternation of forest areas (outliers) with rich mixed herb and needle grass steppes. Forests cover depressions. Forestforming species are a downy birch, sometimes a warty birch, and aspen. Grass cover consists of forest, meadow and meadow-steppe plants (Anonymous 7, 8). Inter-outlier space is occupied by steppe plant communities: rich mixed herb and red feather grass at elevations with ordinary chernozems; rich mixed herb and needle grass at non-alkaline and calcareous chernozems; rich mixed herb and needle grass with field wormwood are limited to the tops of ridges and well-drained areas adjacent to the Yesil river; mixed herb, meadow saxifrage and needle grass in the South of outlier steppe, mostly on the right bank of the Yesil, at the ordinary and alkaline chernozems (Anonymous 8). Complexes of wormwood-fescue and goldilocks-fescue associations are also 508 widespread due to small drainage and salinization of soils in the subzone of outlier steppe. The subzone of semi-dry steppe is dominated by rich mixed herb and red feather grass, and needle grass, mixed herb and red feather grass groups at the ordinary and calcareous chernozems interspersed with sedge-willow thickets on water-logged depressions. Dry steppe with southern chernozems the grasses are represented by xerophilic sod grasses; a significant part belongs to wormwood. Vegetation of dark chestnut soils includes grain-wormwood groups with some wormwood-saltwort associations (Anonymous 5). Rock outcrops of mountain-hilly terrain in the southwest of the region consist of pine forests with an admixture of birch and aspen. The grass layer is poor and dominated by lichens. Hills and low hill degradations are overgrown with needle grasses and mixed herbs (Anonymous 7). Alkali soils are confined to salt-resistant halophytic fescue-wormwood groups while salt marshes are spread by a saltwort. Internal-drainage depressions are occupied by meadow steppe plant associations. Lakeside depressions are confined to grain and mixed herb groups. Water-logged depressions are overgrown with bulrush, cattail, reeds and sedge. The floodplain of the Yesil has various meadow communities and a lot of moistureloving plants and sedge marshes. Landscape features and arrangement of the territory The territory of North Kazakhstan region, despite the overall plain type of the terrain, has rather a complex and heterogeneous landscape structure with a large set of geosystems. Various natural complexes can be found within it including plain uplands, valley and lake-basin landscapes and hummock-hilled landscapes in the South-West of the region (Anonymous 6). The landscape structure of the region as a whole is characterized by clear zonal differentiation of geosystems, associated with an increase of incoming solar heat and simultaneous reduction of atmospheric moisture from North to South. Along with zonal landscapes, the natural complexes that were formed due to the influence of different azonal (intra-azonal) factors, such as development and widespread of meso- and micro-landforms, nature of groundwater occurrence, or complexity of soil cover, have become widespread. Landscape arrangement of the territory is greatly influenced by the valley of the Yesil and its side streams, as well as small temporary streams, ancient flow channels, and numerous lakes. Dominant zonal landscapes of forest-steppe natural zone are flat and undulating, as well as ridged and hollow upland plains with rich mixed herb and grain steppificated meadows at leached chernozems, ordinary chernozems and meadow-chernozem soils, and birch and aspen-birch forests and groves on gray forest and soloth soil (Anonymous 6, 7, 10; Geldiyeva 1992). The North-Western edge of the Kokshetau highlands is spread by forest-steppe natural complexes of hilly plains with individual hummocks and ridges with steppificated pine and birch forests and groves at the ordinary chernozem, sodcryptopodzol gravelly and soloth soils (Anonymous 7, 8). 509 Dominant zonal landscapes of uplands of the steppe zone are flat and undulating, as well as hollow-hilly-ridged plains with mixed herb and red feather grass vegetation at ordinary chernozems and meadow-chernozem soils and hollowhilly plains with needle grass, fescue and wormwood vegetation at calcareous chernozems (Anonymous 7, Geldiyeva, 1992, Nikolayaev, 1992). Intrazonal (azonal) natural complexes are represented by intrazonal forests along the valley of the Yesil river, and meadow, meadow-steppe, alkali-meadowsteppe, alkali and alkali-salt marsh natural complexes (Anonymous 6). CONCLUSIONS The comprehensive analysis of natural conditions and resources of the North Kazakhstan region showed that its territory is characterized by sufficiently high natural agricultural potential for development and functioning of agricultural production. In general, the main components of the natural agricultural potential and their combination create quite favorable conditions and various opportunities for agricultural production in the region. The study of natural agricultural potential allows explaining of the laws of territorial arrangement of agriculture, determining the ways of further development and improvement of agricultural production. One of the important issues in this direction is rational and effective involvement and use of natural agricultural potential. An important tool to address this issue may be the assessment of agroresource potential and agro-resource zoning. REFERENCES Anonymous 1; Atlas of the Kazakh SSR. Natural conditions and resources. Volume 1. М.: GUGK, 1982. 82 p. Anonymous 2. National Atlas of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Volume 1. Almaty, 2006. 125 p. Anonymous 3: Atlas of Agriculture of the USSR. Executive Editor А.I. Tulupnikov. М.: GUGK, 1960. 309 p. Anonymous 4: Agroclimatic World Atlas. Under the editorship of I.А. Golzberg. М.-L.: GUGK. Gidrometeoizdat, 1972. 20 p. Anonymous 5: Atlas of North Kazakhstan. М.: GUGK, 1970. 208 p. Anonymous 6: Geography of North Kazakhstan region. Textbook. Petropavlovsk, 2006. 159 p. Zemtsov А.А., Mizerov B.V., Nikolayev V.А. et al. Terrain of the West Siberian Plain. Novosibirsk: Nauka Publishing House, Siberian Branch, 1988. 192 p. Volkov I.V. Ishim steppe (terrain and cover loesslike deposits). Novosibirsk, 1965. 77 p. Natural zoning of North Kazakhstan. Executive Editor B.A. Fyodorovich. - M.-L.: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1960. 468 p. Anonymous 7: Soils of the Kazakh SSR. Number 1. North Kazakhstan region. / А.I. Bezsonov. Alma-Ata: Publishing House of AS of the Kazakh SSR, 1960. 175 p. Abdulova G.К., Bekzhanov Z.L., Beletskaya N.P. North Kazakhstan Region 510 (general description). Petropavlovsk: NKSU, 2001. 57 p. Anonymous 8: Kazakhstan Climate Reference Book. Almaty, 2004. 250 p. Gribskiy А.А. Soils and soil resources of North Kazakhstan region: Textbook. – Petropavlovsk: NKSU, 2004. 34 p. Anonymous 9: Physical Geography of the Republic of Kazakhstan: Textbook. Astana: L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University named after, Arkas, 2010. 592 p. Geldiyeva G.V., Veselova L.К. Landscapes of Kazakhstan. Alma-Ata: Gylym, 1992. 176 p. Nikolayaev V.А. Lanscape of Asian Steppes. М.: Publishing House of MSU, 1999. 288 p. Romanova E.P., Alekseyev B.А., Medvedev А.V. Agronatural potential of terrain landscapes of the Earth // Geography and natural resources. Novosibirsk, 1994. No. 3, P. 5-14. Kadyshevskaya Т.V. Agricultural potential of landscapes of the Pannonian Plain // Geography and natural resources. Novosibirsk, 1989. No. 3. P.100-107. Yatsukhno V.М., А.N. Vitchenko, М.N. Brilevskiy. Evaluation of agroecological potential of landscapes in the light of their ameliorative condition // Geography and natural resources. Novosibirsk, 1988. No. 4. P. 17-22. Nikolayev V.А. Agrolandscape research in North Kazakhstan // Proceeding of the report of the 2nd Convention of the Geographical Society of the Kazakh SSR. Alma-Ata: Nauka Publishing House. KazSSR, 1985. P. 5-6. Ishmuratov B.М., V.P. Shotskiy. Natural resource potential of a territory and formation of an agro industrial complex // Applied research tasks of Soviet Geography. L. Geographical Society of the USSR, 1985. P. 92-100. Kaverin А.V. Agricultural resource potential of a region: ecological principles of planning and management // Economics of Russian Agriculture. 1995. No. 10. Р. 23. Subbotina Т.V. Natural agricultural potential of Permskaya Oblast: geographical analysis, evaluation, utilization. Author’s abstract of Cand. Sc. {Geography}. SPb, 1993. 15 p. 511 Chapter 42 Land Surface Temperature Retrieval from Landsat 8 Imagery: A Case Study of Kiev – Ukraine Hakan OGUZ Assoc. Prof.; Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, Faculty of Forestry, Dept. of Landscape Architecture, Kahramanmaras / Turkey INTRODUCTION Land Surface Temperature (LST) is one of the key parameters in climate change, evapotranspiration, urban climate, vegetation monitoring and other thermal analyses. The new instrument which was called Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) carried on board of the new generation of Landsat 8 captures the temperature of the Earth’s surface in two bands, band 10 and band 11 with spatial resolution of 100m. Several methods have been developed by now but single-channel (SC), splitwindow (SW) and radiative transfer equation (RTE) are the most popular three methods used in thermal analysis studies. In this study RTE method was employed since it gives more accurate results according to Yu et al. (2014). In the last couple of decades many studies have been published on thermal analysis using MODIS, ASTER, Landsat TM, ETM and 8 data (Barsi et al., 2003; Jimenez-Munoz & Sobrino, 2008; Cristobal et al., 2009; Jimenez-Munoz et al., 2009; Li et al., 2013; Oguz, 2013; Oguz, 2015; Oguz, 2016a; Oguz, 2016b; Oguz, 2017; Oguz & Ozturk, 2017) The main objective of this study was to retrieve LST distribution map for Kiev - Ukraine using Landsat 8 imagery acquired on June 1st, 2018. In this study, LST Calculator, a python tool developed by Oguz (2016b) was employed. This tool was designed in python programming language to calculate LST from Landsat 8 satellite imagery. MATERIALS AND METHODS Input Data In this particular study, a Landsat 8 scene with path/row 181/25 acquired on June 1st, 2018 was downloaded from the USGS webpage and used as an input data. The LST Calculator tool uses Radiative Transfer Equation (RTE) method to retrieve LST from Landsat 8 imagery, which contains 11 bands ranging from 15m to 100m as illustrated in Table 1 below. Study Area Kiev (or Kyiv) was selected as the study area since it is not only the capital city of Ukraine but also one of the metropolitan cities in Europe with population of over 3 million. Kiev is also the largest cultural, scientific and industrial center of Ukraine (Wikipedia, 2018). The location map of the study area is illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1: Location map of the study area 513 Table 1: Characteristics of the Landsat 8 Data Band No Band Name Band Width(µm) Band 1 Coastal/Aerosol 0.435 - 0.451 Band 2 Blue 0.452 - 0.512 Band 3 Green 0.533 - 0.590 Band 4 Red 0.636 - 0.673 Band 5 NIR 0.851 - 0.879 Band 6 SWIR-1 1.566 - 1.651 Band 7 SWIR-2 2.107 - 2.294 Band 8 Pan 0.503 - 0.676 Band 9 Cirrus 1.363 - 1.384 Band 10 TIR-1 10.60 - 11.19 Band 11 TIR-2 11.50 - 12.51 (Source: Landsat 8 Data Users Handbook, 2016) Spatial Resolution (m) 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 15 30 100 100 The LST Calculator tool, developed by Oguz (2016a) was employed in this particular study as shown in Figure 2 below. Figure 2: The main interface of the LST Calculator tool in ESRI ArcToolbox (Source: Oguz, 2016b) The flow diagram is illustrated in Figure 3 below. 514 Figure 3: The flow diagram of the LST Calculator tool (Source: Oguz 2016b) RESULTS Figure 4 below illustrates the final spatial distribution map of LST for the study area. The minimum and maximum surface temperatures of the scene were calculated as 10 ºC and 30 ºC respectively. As predicted, high temperatures were retrieved within the dense urban areas while low temperatures were calculated for the water surfaces of Dnieper River and forest areas. The whole scene was clipped out by Kiev city boundary in ArcGIS software to find out spatial distribution of LST within the city of Kiev only. The LST distribution map of City of Kiev is illustrated in Figure 5 below. The minimum and maximum surface temperatures in the city were calculated as 11 ºC and 28 ºC respectively. High temperatures were retrieved within the dense urban areas while low temperatures were calculated for the water surfaces of Dnieper River and forest areas. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Nowadays, it is well known that land surface temperature is an important parameter in thermal analysis. It is not easy to calculate accurate LST in urban thermal environment. Accurate calculation of this parameter is an essential and challenging topic for the global change research. Therefore, the RTE method has been employed in this study because of the accuracy of the model compare to single channel and split window algorithms. The LST Calculator tool also makes the calculation process quite simple so it is hoped that this tool will be useful to people interested in thermal analysis. 515 Figure 4: The LST distribution map of the scene 516 Figure 5: The LST distribution map of Kiev REFERENCES Barsi, J.A., Schott, J.R., Palluconi, F.D., Helder, D.L., Hook, S.J., Markham, B.L., Chander, G., & O’Donnell E.M. (2003) Landsat TM and ETM+ thermal band calibration. Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, 29(2), 141–153 Cristóbal, J., Jiménez-Muñoz, J.C., Sobrino, J.A., Ninyerola, M. & Pons, X. (2009). Improvements in land surface temperature retrieval from the Landsat series thermal band using water vapor and air temperature. Journal of 517 Geophysical Research, 114(D8), D08103. Jiménez-Muñoz, J.C., Cristóbal, J., Sobrino, J.A., Sòria, G., Ninyerola, M. & Pons, X. (2009). Revision of the single-channel algorithm for land surface temperature retrieval from Landsat thermal-infrared data, IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 47(1). 339–349 Jiménez-Muñoz, J.C. & Sobrino J.A. (2008). Split-window coefficients for land surface temperature retrieval from low-resolution thermal infrared sensors, IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters, 5(4), 806–809 Li, Z.L., Tang, B.H., Wu, H., Ren, H., Yan, G., Wan, Z., Trigo, I.F. & Sobrino J.A. (2013). Satellite-derived land surface temperature: Current status and perspectives, Remote Sensing of Environment, 131, 14-37 Oguz, H. (2013). LST Calculator: A Program for Retrieving Land Surface Temperature from LANDSAT TM/ETM+ Imagery, Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, 549-555. Oguz, H. (2015). A Software Tool for Retrieving Land Surface Temperature from ASTER Imagery, Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 21, 471-482. Oguz, H. (2016a). LST Calculator: A Python Tool for Retrieving Land Surface Temperature from Landsat 8 Imagery. In: Recep Efe, İsa Cürebal, Abdalla Gad, Brigitta Toth (Eds.) Environmental Sustainability and Landscape Management, Chapter: 36, p. 560-572, St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, Sofia. Oguz, H. (2016b). Automated Land Surface Temperature Retrieval from Landsat 8 Satellite Imagery: A Case Study of Kahramanmaraş – Turkey. In: Recep Efe, İsa Cürebal, Abdalla Gad, Brigitta Toth (Eds.) Environmental Sustainability and Landscape Management, Chapter: 40, p. 598-604, St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, Sofia. Oguz, H (2017). Automated Land Surface Temperature Retrieval from Landsat 8 Satellite Imagery: A Case Study of Diyarbakir – Turkey. Turksh Journal of Forest Science, 1(1), 33-43. Oguz, H. & Ozturk, M. (2017). Monitoring Land Surface Temperature using Landsat 8 Imagery: A Case Study of Rome – Italy. In: Recep Efe, İsa Cürebal, Abdalla Gad, Brigitta Toth (Eds.) Environmental Sustainability and Landscape Management, Chapter: 54, p. 655-659, St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, Sofia. USGS (2018). Retrieved from https://landsat.usgs.gov/ Accessed on 14.07.2018 Wikipedia (2018). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiev Accessed on 11.07.2018 Yu, X., Guo, X., & Wu, Z. (2014). Land Surface Temperature Retrieval from Landsat 8 TIRS—Comparison between Radiative Transfer Equation-Based Method, Split Window Algorithm and Single Channel Method, Remote Sensing, 6, 9829-9852 518 Chapter 43 Reuse of Treated Wastewater Aslıhan KATİP Assist. Prof. Dr; Bursa Uludag University, Faculty of Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Bursa-Turkey 1.INTRODUCTION Water scarcity and drought are a gradually growing problem not only in arid regions across the world but also in the areas with abundant fresh water sources Underground water draft in several regions is over feedback volume and sustainable use volume. Water sources are significantly affected from global changes. It is known that there are a few surfaces and underground water systems that are not affected from human activities in the world. It is expected that the world population that was 7.1 billion in 2012 will be 8.3 billion in 2030. It is estimated that population and urbanization will gradually increase and approximately 60% population will live in the cities (Muluk, et. al., 2013). This case will increase the pressure on the volume and quality of water resources. Many countries are implementing national or regional directives or guideline principles for the applications of reuse of water. Technological advancements and in-house material cycles come to the fore due to the gradual increase of water requirements in the enterprises and legal arrangements for environmental conservation and minimization of waste water generation, recycling valuable materials and reuse of waters are gradually come into prominence (Pintilie, et. al., 2016). In this study, reuse area of domestic, municipal and industrial waste waters by way of treatment, their advantages and disadvantages and the parameters required to be taken into considerations have been compiled through conducting research from the literature. Water requirement is increasing with each passing year in almost all sectors due to the increase of urbanization, population and industrialization in our country and the world and climate change. In this study is of high importance for meeting the water requirement in our country, ensuring environmental criteria and for identifying what should be done in the issue of reuse of treated waste waters for adaptation works with climate change. 2. REUSE OF TREATED WASTE WATERS IN THE WORLD The increase of population, agricultural activities and industrialization causes underground and surface waters to be insufficient and many countries are seeking reuse of waste waters for meeting their national water requirement (Hermanowicz, 2006). The World Health Organization (WHO) assigns reuse of water as the following classes: "Direct reuse" refers to planned and intended use of water for a specific 519 purpose such as irrigation, industrial use, aquifer filling, potable water of treated waste waters; "Indirect use" refers to one time or several reuses of water for domestic or industrial purposes and their discharging into surface or underground water and reuse of them in diluted form; "Recycling" refers to reuse of water for water saving or pollution control purpose within the industrial facilities (Lamas & Fujisawa, 2009). Reuse of water is divided into 2 classes as "For Potable Water Purpose" and "For Non-Potable Water Purpose". The first one refers to directly or indirectly filling aquifer and surface source and the second one refers to the reuse of water such as in municipal, agricultural, industrial, environmental, recreational and aquacultural work facilities (Lamas & Fujisawa, 2009).There are several different recycling methods in the reuse of wastewaters in the world. Bixio et al., gathered the types of use of waste waters under 4 different categories in a study conducted in 2005: 1) agricultural use, 2) urban use and renewal of aquifer water, 3) industrial use, 4) mixed uses. Agricultural, industrial and domestic purpose use rates of treated waste waters are respectively 70%, 20% and 10%. However, these rates vary in each region of the world. Reuse of waste water for similar purposes such as agriculture is an indispensable part of integrated water management and it is believed that this would reduce water scarcity. This use requires the availability of simple, low cost and effective technologies as well as an alteration in perception (Nansubuga, et. al., 2015). This application is used in irrigation of sewerage waters, vegetable species and other short-term agricultural crops in the developing countries such as Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, Sudan, Namibia, India and China and agricultural crops and short-term fish farming (Kivaisi, 2001). Reuse of treated waste waters in recent years varies between 10% and 29% in Europe, the USA and China and corresponds to 41% in Australia; water volume used on a daily basis has reached high volumes such as 1,5-1,7 million m3/day in California and Florida states and Mexico and China (Aziz & Farissi, 2014). Given their intended uses, use of treated waste waters in agriculture is mostly observed in China. (200000 ha). This figure corresponds to 20000 ha in the USA and varies between 5000 and 10000 ha in Germany and France. Agricultural use in Italy that is a European Country at the Mediterranean coast is around 20000 ha and is higher than the other European Countries. Area size irrigated in Israel and South American Countries has been observed to be in high levels (between 50000 and 150000 ha) after China (Jaramillo & Restrepo, 2017). Reuse volume of treated waste waters in Arabian Countries has been identified as 1.2 billion m3. Syria, Saudi Arabia and Egypt are the countries mostly using treated waste waters; however, significant health risks have been observed as a result of the use of untreated waste waters and performing reuse of waste waters in the region haphazardly (Özbay & Kavaklı, 2008). Industrial use of treated waste waters is fairly widespread in European countries. Luxembourg, Denmark and Sweden reuse their industrial waste waters over 80%. Belgium and the Netherlands do not reuse their industrial waste waters below 20% (Bixio, et. al., 2006). 520 2.1. Parameters of Reuse of Treated Waste Waters The parameters relating to reuse of treated waste waters for different purposes vary according to intended use and countries. In our country, "the Communiqué on Technical Procedures of Waste Water Treatment Facilities" contains a set of regulations relating to recycling and reuse of waste waters (AATTUT, 2010). In the table of "treatment technologies applied for recycling of waste water and pollutants they cleanse", suspended solid content (SSC), colloidal substances, particulate and dissolved organic substances, nitrogen, phosphor, trace substances, total dissolved substances, bacteria, protozoa and viruses have been indicated to be the parameters required to be cleansed and relevant treatment methods have been provided. In the table of "Recycling purpose of waste water and applicable treatment systems in the same communiqué, green area, golf courses and agricultural irrigation have been indicated to be used after biological treatment, filtration, advance treatment and disinfection operations as wetland feeding, indirect utility water (underground and surface waters discharge), industrial cooling and process water purpose. This Communiqué has widely contained the parameters measured for irrigation water purpose use and treatment processes. BOI5, pH, turbidity, feacal coliform, viruses, protozoa and helminthic analysis and balance chlorine, salinity, SAR (sodium adsorption ratio; Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+), B and other trace elements and heavy metals parameters should ensure the standard values for the use of irrigation water purpose (AATTUT, 2010). Also, the number of NO3-N, total pesticide, bicarbonate (HCO3-) and E. coli have been added in addition to these criteria within the scope of "the Regulation on Irrigation Water Quality and Reuse of Used Waters." (SSKY, 2015). Given within the scope of the international legislation, "2000/60/EC European Union Water Framework Directive", ANNEX-VI contains key arrangements for reuse and planning of the water. Promoting irrigation techniques by ensuring efficient water technologies and water saving in the industry has been placed as a complementary measure. However, there is no guide in this directive. Many countries such as France, Greece, Southern Cyprus, Italy, Portugal and Spain have created their own legal arrangements and guides with regard to reuse of waste water (Sanz & Gawlik, 2014; Duman, 2017). Legal legislation of these countries covers the use areas of recovered waters, measured parameters and maximum limit values, monitoring protocols and additional protective measures for public health. Microbiological and physicochemical parameters that are applied for Greece and Spain, the Mediterranean countries, similar to our Country and in Australia experiencing water scarcity are shown in Table 1. 521 Table 1. Reuse of wastewater criteria in Turkey, Greece, Spain, Australia (AAT, 2010; EPA, 1999; Sagarakis, et. al., 2001; SRWR, 2007) 522 523 a Secondary or equivalent minimum wastewater treatment level. Intestinal worms, including: Strongyloides, Trichostrongylus, Toxocara, Enterobius and Capillaria. c Odor control required d SS: Suspended Solids e Minimum groundwater depth required at 5 meters f Treated wastewaters can be reused for agricultural purposes, except for plants consumed by humans (prohibited by Greek law). 1 , Greece, 2 Spain, 3, Australia, 4 Turkey criteria b Physico-chemical and microbiological parameters of treated waste waters for all use areas in Greece and Spain and limit values have been identified and water products and their agricultural use should be beyond the consumption of humans. Limit values of these two countries are close to one another other than total nitrogen values for their use for underground water filling a purpose and the limit values of Greece are generally much lower. In Australia, there are no common quality parameters in all use purposes. The limit values so found out are much higher than Greece and Spain. Our country has no quality criteria pertaining to reuse of waste waters other than irrigation. It has been observed that irrigation criteria of urban areas in our country are closer to and much lower than the limit value of Greece and Spain. Reuse of water in the USA has been arranged by the regulations made at the level of states such as Arizona, California, Florida and Washington. The World Health Organization has handled the necessity for taking in-place preventive measures for use of agricultural and water products and United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has handled the necessity for taking in-place preventive measures such as the recommendations for use in the issue of irrigating aquifer feeding and golf courses, treatment types required for such use, microbiological, physical and chemical parameters and monitoring frequency, monitoring the environment that can be potentially affected and drip irrigation, blocking the access of public along buffer distance and irrigation to potable water sources. These documents are applied to domestic waste waters and from treatment facilities to which industrial waste water in limited amounts enters and are not legal and mandatory. They can change in regional level and ensure attaining the objective. They described the topics such as treated waste water and irrigation project designs in ISO 16075 standard prepared by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in 2015 and health risks and strategies for reducing them, product pattern to be offered, the distance between the location of waste water irrigation and housing areas (TÜBİTAK, 2016). Use of Treated Waste water for Agricultural Irrigation The agricultural sector is one of the sectors where the water is mostly used. So long as required treatment operations are performed and technical procedures applied, a set of benefits of reuse of treated waste waters in irrigation is listed below (Yurtseven, et. al., 2010). • Water conservation is provided. • It provides an alternative water source in arid seasons. • It provides an additional treatment of wasting water before mixing with underground water. • It enables urban waste waters to be removed economically and in a manner that will not harm the environment. • It reduces discharges into receiving environment for reuse of waste water in its own source. In this way, it reduces pollution of river and channels and other surface water sources. • It provides saving from nutrient by reducing artificial fertilizer requirement. • It improves the plant yield. 524 In the study conducted in Spain, the impacts of applying treated waste waters on citrus trees have been assessed. Two lands irrigated with treated waste waters in two different treatment facility have been compared. The lands are located in Murcian in the south-eastern part of Spain. The first land located in Cartagena has been irrigated with the water treated with the second treatment and the second land located in Campotajar has been irrigated with well water and mixture of treated waste water in the third waste water treatment facility (Pedrero et al., 2010). Electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity and total dissolved solids (TDS) are higher than those of Campotejar in treated waste waters of Cartagena. In this way, it has been demonstrated that the mixture with well water has increased the agricultural quality of treated waste waters High electrical conductivity observed in both lands results from high chloride and boron level. A toxic level has not been observed in citrus leaves grown in the land of Murcia region. However, it has determined that there are high salinity and boron accumulation in the soil. It is believed by the researchers that this case has resulted due to irrigation of Murcian region with treated waste waters. Even though the existence of feacal coliform, E. Coli and helmint eggs is not encountered in the soil and treated waste water in the study conducted in Campotejar, feacal coliform has been found to exist in the treated waste waters in Cartagena over the health standards. Applying treated waste water on both lands has not increased macronutrients measured in the soil and organic matter amount; thus, waste water has not caused any nutrient source for the soil under the conditions in this study (Pedrero et al., 2010). Accumulation of heavy metals in the soil and plants found in treated urban waste waters have been identified in the studies conducted by Kalavrouziotis et al., in 2005 and 2008. In the study conducted with onions and lettuce plants in Agrinion region in Greece, the impacts of two different water sources have been assessed as treated municipal waste water and well irrigation water. Mn, Zn, Cu and Fe elements have been investigated in the soil and leaves where lettuce and onion irrigated with treated waste waters are grown. When metal accumulations between two vegetable species are investigated, it has been observed that lettuce has made much more accumulated when compared with onion. It has been determined that lettuce soil has made much more accumulation as in its leaves except for Cu element. When it is compared with the values obtained under well irrigation water, it has been found out that these values are statistically significant. Therefore, it has been concluded that treated municipal waste water can be used in irrigation of these products (Kalavrouziotis, et. al., 2005). In the study conducted by Kalavrouziotis et al., in 2008, the impacts on 2 different water sources as treated municipal waste water and well irrigation water have been investigated for growing brussels sprouts and broccoli. Accumulations of heavy metals and macro and micro nutrient parameters have been investigated on buds and leaves of these two vegetables. When the results in the plants are investigated, no remarkable difference has been observed between two irrigation waters. Although heavy metal concentrations such as Zn, Cd and Pb are within limit values for normal growth, they have been observed to have grown in the soil irrigated with treated municipal waste waters. It 525 has been observed that Fe accumulation in higher in broccoli and Ni and Co are higher in brussels sprouts in the plants irrigated with treated waste waters. Accumulations of heavy metals in the soil and plants in treated municipal waste waters are provided in Table 2. Table 2. Accumulation of heavy metals in soil and plants found due to treated municipal wastewaters (Kalavrouziotis, et. al., 2005; Kalavrouziotis, et. al., 2008) Heavy Metals Mn Zn Cu Fe Lettuce Soil (kg/ha) 42.1 7 2 31.7 Onion Soil (kg/ha) 30 2 31 27.6 Lettuce Leaf (µg/g) 177.5 70.7 15.3 165.6 Ni Co Onion Leaf (µg/g) 17.5 30.2 6.87 38.6 Brussels Sprouts (µg/g) Broccoli (µg/g) 388 (gemma) 6.17 (leaf) 2.70 (leaf) 1022 (gemma) 4.15 (leaf) 2.53 (leaf) Considerations in Agricultural Irrigation with Treated Waste Water Which products to be grown under normal conditions in a land are to be selected shall be agreed by considering the quality of waste water to be used as irrigation water. The products which can be grown with waste waters are listed below (Tanık, et. al., 2015): Forage crops (Grass and grass varieties, alfalfa and other forage crops) Non-human nutritional value plants (Various trees, forests, ornamental plants and flowers) Land plants (Corn, millet, wheat, barley, rye, rice, legumes, white millet, sugar beet, cotton, flax, oil plants (sunflower, rapeseed, canola, tobacco) Vegetables (Tomatoes, potatoes, cucumber, artichoke, broccoli, spinach, soybean, beans, courgette, cauliflower, okra) Fruits (Citrus fruits, apples, strawberries, grapes, bananas) While municipal waste waters are used in irrigation, waste water should be subject to periodic laboratory control for preventing accumulation of toxic metals in the soil or plants and 2) Waste, water treatment methods, should be developed for acquiring outlet water holding microbial charging complying with the limit values permitted by the World Health Organization (Pedrero, et. al., 2010). Recommended maximum concentrations of trace elements in irrigation are provided in Table 3. Total BOİ5 amount should be 15 mg/L; dissolved BOİ5 concentration should be 10 mg/L, AKM should be 15 mg/L in the waste water used in irrigation of crops consumed by the people in Israel as a sample to the countries known with water scarcity (Angelakis, et. al., 1999). Dissolved oxygen amount should be within 5 mg/L standard residual chlorine amount should be within 0.5 mg/L standard. It is 526 observed that these values are higher when compared with the values demanded by the World Health Organization to be fulfilled for the waste waters used in irrigation. The most frequently encountered health risks resulting from irrigation with waste water are that farmers and consumers are exposed to the pathogens containing parasitic infections (protozoa, virus and bacteria) and organic and inorganic trace elements accumulate and skin and nail problems. However, despite these health risks, farmers are generally not able to afford treatment costs (Qadir, et. al., 2010). Table 3. The maximum allowable concentrations of heavy metals and toxic elements in irrigation waters (AAT, 2010; USEPA, 2004) Parameters Aluminum Arsenic Beryllium Boron Cadmium Chromium Cobalt Copper Fluoride Iron Lead Lithium Manganez Nikel Selenyum Long-term usage (mg/L) Short-term usage (mg/L) 5.0 0.10 0.10 0.75 0.01 0.1 0.05 0.2 1.0 5 5 2.5 0.2 0.2 0.02 20 2.0 0.5 2.0 0.05 1.0 5.0 5.0 15.0 20.0 10.0 2.5 10.0 2.0 0.02 2.3. Use of Treated Waste Waters in Aquaculture The prerequisite of waste waters to be used for water products is that microbial pollution parameters should be below the limit values as in the irrigation. Use of water products cultivated by being fed with waste water has been investigated with a wide range of studies: (Adhikari, et. al., 2009; Azanu, et. al., 2016; Cho & Bureau, 1997; Davidson, et. al., 2009; Feldlite, et. al., 2008; Liang, 1999; Pal & Miti, 2017; Phong Lan, et. al., 2007; Rijn, 2013; Zhou, 1999). Fish species used in this field are mostly are Roho labeo (Labeo rohita), Catla catla (Catla catla), Mrigal carp (Cirrhinus mrigala), Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) and Carp (C. carpio), Micropterus, Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (Aristichthys nobilis), Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), Tinca tinca (tinca tinca), Helostoma temminckii (Helostoma temminckii), Tinfoil barb (Puntius gonionotus) and Osphronemus goramy (Osphronemusg oramy). Such fish species generally live in temperate and warm waters. However, they can survive in the climates with low seasonal temperatures throughout the year (Edwards, 1996). A variety of fish species has been tested for observing harmony with fish farming with waste water feeding. In 1904, Carp (Cyprinus carpio) fed on the 527 bottom, trout (Coregonus sp.) fed by filtering, pike perch, zander (Stizostedion), sea trout (Salmo trutta) rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) have been primarily. In 1921, pickerel (Esox lucius), carp, black code (Tinca tinca), rainbow trout and perch fish have been recommended. Carp and black cod have been observed to be the best species due to regularly rising temperatures and reduction in dissolved oxygen as a result of the experiences gained and the studies conducted thereafter. Rainbow trout can survive when oxygen values are not critical. On the other hand, it is the most resistant and tolerant fish against such temperature. Carp (Cyprinus carpio) black cod (Tinca tinca) have been incorporated into the literature as the two most common fish species cultivated in the pools with waste water feeding (Gisecke, et. al., 2014). "Calcutta wastewater-fed wetlands" in India and Munich fish farming facility with treated waste water feeding are the important samples here. There are more than 130 fishing areas with waste water feeding covering 12000 ha in total in India. Calcutta Wetland Area operated since 1930 is the facility where the biggest waste water fishing of the world is performed. A variety of carp and Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) are cultivated in these ponds covering approximately 4000 ha and that provides 4000 families with a job opportunity. The fish caught from there account for 10% of market demand for the consumable fish of Calcutta. Heavy metals have been encountered in the waste waters in Calcutta in a study conducted and lead, cadmium and chroma in high levels have been encountered when compared with those cultivated in rural regions with vegetables and the fish sold in the marts in this region (Edwards, 2001; Prein, 1990). Waste water-fed aquaculture work facilities gain much more prominence in the developing countries as waste water volume generated by continuously increasing human population is above the capacity of conventional treatment facilities. Domestic waste water with 15 billion litters per day in India can yield 90-ton N, 32ton P and 55-ton K recovery in the value of approximately 1.3 million $ from the domestic waste water. The fish fed with waste waters are converted into biomass and employment opportunities are also provided to the millions of people in the developing countries (Jana & Jana, 2003). 2.4. Use of Treated Waste Waters in Industry The waste waters in the industrial reuse can be provided from recovery and/or municipal water treatment facilities of industrial waste waters for factories. The industries such as steel industry, beer industry and electronic industry, etc. treat recover waste waters for ensuring the discharge standards of outlet water (Blumenthal, et. al., 2000). Compatibility of treated waste waters for industrial processes depends on the products produced. For example, water almost in pure water quality is required for washing electronic industry, circuit board and other electronic components. On the other hand, water is used in relatively low quality in the tannery industry. The requirements of textiles, pulp and paper and metal production are in medium quality. Thus, specific requirements in process water are of utmost importance while investigating the validity of industrial reuse of treated waste waters (USEPA, 528 1992). Treated waste waters are used for industrial purpose, evaporative cooling, boiler feeding, process and facility ground. The cooling water among these uses is the most widely used industrial application. In most of the industrial facilities, cooling process can singly create a substantial amount of water requirement. Additional water up to 44-88 L/s can be needed for circulating cooling system of public energy power plant with 250 MW or a small petroleum refinery. A vast majority of industrial facilities using treated waste waters for cooling across the world is constituted by public energy power plants. Process water quality standards for different industries are provided in Table 4 (USEPA, 1992). Use of treated waste waters in paper and pulp industry is a function of paper cost and class. High-quality paper requires more water quality. The impurities such as metal ions and colourful contaminants available in the water can disrupt the production quality. Water quality requirements for the chemical industry can substantially vary according to production. The waters generally within neutral pH range, partially soft, low turbidity and low suspended solids content are needed. Dissolved solids chloride content is not critical. The waters used in textile production should not leave any stain similar to the paper industry and thus, they should not contain turbidity, colour, iron and manganese contents. Hardness can cause problems in some processes used soap and can cause problems in nitrate and nitrite and dyeing (USEPA, 1992). The quality of print paste has been compared with recovery criteria designated for synthetic yarn dyeing operation by British Textile Technology Group in the study conducted in regard to treatment and recovery of print acid dyeing waste waters of a carpet factory in 2004 and as a result of, it has been determined that filtrate waters acquired with nanofiltration (NF) and ultrafiltration (UF) following chemical precipitation with alum from print dyeing are of the quality that can be used again in dyeing operation. It has been observed that recovery criteria have been established with practical three stage NF operation following microfiltration (MF) pre-treatment for acid dyeing waste waters. Production processes of petroleum and coal products can relatively utilize the waters in lower quality. Waste waters are very diverse depending on the industrial type of treatment methods of waste waters in industrial reuse. However, utilization possibilities of waste waters should be investigated with industrial symbiosis approach in the facilities that are comparable with one another in terms of process and physically located within the close proximity. 2.5. Reuse of Grey Water Grey water that is an alternative source of the water requirement in arid and semi-arid regions is defined as municipal waste waters (Oron, et. al., 2014; Santos, et. al., 2012) covering bathroom, shower cabins, hand wash basins, dishwashers, washing machines and kitchen sinks other than the toilet. Soaps and detergents are the most important pollutants found in the grey water. But as they do not contain human faeces and toilet paper, they are less contaminated than municipal waste waters (Üstün & Tırpancı, 2015). 529 530 Table 4. Process water quality standards for different industries (USEPA, 1992) Grey water production systems can be an important input for non-potable water procurement when they are combined with the other alternative water sources (rainwater, etc.) (Santos, et. al., 2012). People generally regard and clearly accept the grey water as an interesting addressee reliable method for especially toilet flush. Unreliability issues arise in regard to water quality in the activities requiring direct contact with water. Therefore, use of grey water cannot be accepted by the public. What must be done for the use of grey water for more extensive purposes is that financial support should be obtained from the government, user-friendly information packages and training programs should be arranged and domestic grey water training units with low cost should be developed (Santos, et. al., 2012). Some important parameters to be considered for reuse of grey water to be sustainable are pH, electrical conductivity, suspended solid content, heavy metals, feacal coliform, E. Coli, dissolved oxygen, BOI, KOI, total nitrogen and total phosphorus volumes. Chemical and physical characteristics of grey water vary depending on several factors such as the type of used detergent, type of washed materials, the lifestyle of the local residents, etc. Pinto and et al., have found out in the study conducted in 2008 that the kitchen waste water has the highest electrical conductivity and the waste water from hand sinks and shower cabins have the lowest electrical conductivity. Also, while pH range of grey waters from domestic use varies between 5.0-8.7 ranges, more basic pH has been detected in grey water from the washing machine in 9.3-9.5 range (Pinto, et. al., 2010). Physical, chemical or biological treatment technologies are used for attaining the desired standards depending on water characteristics of grey water treatment. Precipitation and filtration processes are used as a physical treatment technology. The filtration process is generally used for ensuring pre-treatment from biological or chemical treatment units. AKM and some organic matters and pathogens can be eliminated by using a sand filter, coarse filter or membrane filter as a pre-treatment in the filtration process. Chemical treatment technologies where particle and nutrient elimination are provided in some studies are used. Electrocoagulation, photocatalytic oxidation, ion exchangers and granular activated carbon are applied as chemical treatment technologies. However, it is also possible to provide grey water treatment with biological treatment technologies to prevent the use of chemicals. Constructed wetland (CW), rotating biological contactors (RBC), sequencing batch reactor (SBR), membrane bioreactor (MBR) technologies are used for biological treatment of grey water. Filtration or precipitation process is applied as pre-treatment for ensuring grey water recovery standards in the other biological processes other than membrane bioreactor and UV or chlorine and disinfection process are applied in the final treatment (Üstün & Tırpancı, 2015). While grey water is used for irrigation or direct contact even if it is treated, it should be definitely examined in terms of pharmaceuticals and other micro pollutants. Oron and et al. (2014) have indicated in a study conducted in 2001 that installation of a grey water reuse system costs annually 240-310 $. Its annual cost is 0.82-1.06 $ per person for a family with average 5 individuals. This cost will pay off within a short time (Oron, et. al., 2014). 531 3. CONCLUSIONS As a result of this study, domestic and industrial waste water treated especially for the regions that are under pressure in terms of drought can be used for a wide range of purposes such as in agriculture, water products cultivation, industry, domestic and recreational purposes in several parts of the world. It has been observed that there are metal accumulations as a result of the use of the waste waters containing toxic materials in irrigation and water products and quality of soil and underground water deteriorates and salinity problems can occur in the soil. For this reason, it has been observed that its mixture with clean water can be appropriate and microbial quality should be in an ideal level that shall not pose any health risk in terms of metals and other toxic organic/inorganic pollutants in the uses requiring direct contact for especially irrigation and water products cultivation. 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