Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 10(2): 111-136, 2011 © The Biological Society of Ethiopia, 2011 ISSN: 1819-8678 FLORISTIC COMPOSITION AND COMMUNITY ANALYSIS OF MENAGESHA AMBA MARIAM FOREST (EGDU FOREST) IN CENTRAL SHEWA, ETHIOPIA Abiyou Tilahun 1 , Teshome Soromessa 2,*, Ensermu Kelbessa 2 and Abyot Dibaba 1 ABSTRACT: This study was conducted in Menagesha Amba Mariam Forest (Egdu), a dry evergreen afro-montane forest in central highlands of Ethiopia. The aim of the study was to determine floristic composition, community types and phytogeographical similarity of the forest. Sixty-nine sample plots (20 x 20 m) were laid following altitudinal gradient and each qaudrat was established at a 125 m altitudinal drop. Herbaceous species were collected from five (1 x 1 m) sub-plots laid at four corners and a centre of each quadrat. All plant species found in each plot were recorded, collected, pressed and identified using Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Vegetation classification was done using PC-ORD, Version 4.20 software programme. A total of 219 species belonging to 182 genera and 76 families were recorded (Appendix 1). Asteraceae was the most dominant family with 36 species and 29 genera. Poaceae was the second dominant family with 21 species and 17 genera followed by Fabaceae (17 species) and Lamiaceae (16 species). Among the identified plant species 15 are endemic to Ethiopia. Five community types were identified and each community was named after two dominant tree and/or shrub species. An excessive and destructive exploitation of resources is the greatest threat to the forest. Menagesha Amba Mariam Forest has the highest species similarity with the forest of Chilimo (41%) followed by Menagesha-Suba (40%) and the least resemblance to Dindin forest. Menagesha Amba Mariam Forest needs an immediate attention as the degree of anthropogenic impact is quite high. Key words/phrases: Dry evergreen afro-montane forest, Phytogeography, Plant community. INTRODUCTION Ethiopia is found in the Horn of Africa and is located between 3024' 14053′N and 32042′ - 48012′E with a total area of 1,120,000 km2 (MOA, 2000). Altitudinally, the country ranges from 126 m below sea level at Kobar Sink in Afar to 4620 m above sea level at the highest peak of Ras Dashen (Zerihun Woldu, 1999; EFPA, 1994). The great topographic diversity, vegetation types, soil types and diverse climatic conditions has led to the emergence of habitats that are suitable for the evolution and survival of various plant and animal species. As a result, Ethiopia has diverse flora 1Department of Biology, Debre Berhan University, P.O. Box 293, Debre Berhan, Ethiopia. 2 Biology Department, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia E-mail: soromessa@yahoo.com *Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed. 112 Abiyou Tilahun et al and fauna (Tewolde Berhan Gebre Egziabher, 1991). The vegetation of the country is very heterogeneous and has a rich endemic element. Endemism is particularly high in the high mountains and in the Ogaden area, southeastern Ethiopia (Teshome Soromessa et al., 2004) as well as in Borana and Bale lowlands (Vivero et al., 2006; Zerihun Woldu, 1999). Much of the country comprises highland plateaus and mountain ranges that are dissected by numerous streams and rivers. The flora of Ethiopia contains about 6,000 species of vascular plants, of which about 10% are endemic (Ensermu Kelbessa, Per.comm.). Vegetation cover of an area has a definite structure and composition developed as a result of long-term interaction of biotic and abiotic factors (Peters, 1996). Several studies focusing on forests or vegetation of specific regions in Ethiopia were carried out (Hedberg, 1951 and 1957; Mooney, 1963; Gilbert, 1970; Coetzee, 1978; Friis et al., 1982; Hailu Sharew, 1982; Zerihun Woldu, 1985; Sebsebe Demissew, 1988; Uhlig, 1988; Zerihun Woldu et al., 1989; Uhlig and Uhlig, 1990; Zerihun and Backeus, 1991; Haugen, 1992; Mesfin Tadesse, 1992; Tamrat Bekele, 1993 and 1994; Miehe and Miehe, 1994; Kumlachew Yeshitila and Taye Bekele, 2003; Simon Shibru and Girma Balcha, 2004; Teshome Soromessa et al., 2004). Moreover, the vegetation resources of Ethiopia have been studied by different scholars (Logan, 1946; Pichi-Sermolli, 1957; von Breitenbach, 1961, 1963; Westphal, 1975; Chaffey, 1979; Tewolde Berhan Gebre Egziabher, 1986, 1988; Friis, 1986, 1992; Friis and Mesfin Tadesse, 1990; EFAP, 1994; Teshome Soromessa and Sebsebe Demissew, 2002; Friis et al., 1982). These researchers employed different methods of vegetation classification. Almost all of the aforementioned studies have made a pencil note about the intractable loss of this natural resource. The demand for versatile functions and outputs of forests are increasing with rapid population growth, whereas forest resources are shrinking (Birhanu Mengesha, 1997). Nevertheless, the current tree planting campaign started elsewhere is a promising venture to leverage degradation of forests. In Ethiopia, forest cover has been declining rapidly. Most of the remaining forests of the country are confined to south and south- western parts of the country (Tesfaye Bekele, 2002). Loss of forest cover and biodiversity due to human-induced activities is a growing concern in many parts of the world including our country (Sebsebe Demissew, 1980). The reduction of forests in the tropics impairs important atmospheric functions such as carbon sinks and the combustion of forest biomass releases the atmospheric CO2, contributing to the buildup of greenhouse gases and global warming. The Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 10(2): 111-136, 2011 113 rate of deforestation and loss of fertile topsoil results in massive environmental degradation (Tamrat Bekele, 1993). The climate of Ethiopia has been changing due to global and local effects of vegetation degradation. The ultimate cause that has to be addressed for the forest destruction in Ethiopia is poverty and rapidly growing population (Birhanu Mengesha, 1997; Demel Teketay, 2001). The pattern of distribution and vertical stratification of vegetation fluctuates due to different climatic zones, soil type, latitudes and topography of the country (Grub et al., 1963). Even though Menagesha Amba Mariam (hereafter referred to as MAM) Forest is now included in the well studied Menagesha-Suba State Forest, there was no research carried out in the forest previously. Therefore, in order to implement conservation and sustainable utilization that could minimize forest losses, adequate information on factors affecting natural forest and the rate at which they cause depletion have to be obtained. Research on their degree of exploitation and investigation of diversity, composition, species richness, species abundance and distribution of plant species in a given area are indispensable for conservation and management of the forest (Dereje Mekonnen, 2006). Hence, this study was conducted with the main objective of investigating floristic composition, plant diversity and community types in MAM Forest. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study site The study was conducted in Welmera Wereda, Oromia National Regional State, central highlands of Ethiopia (Fig. 1). The study forest is located at about 30 km west of Addis Ababa, and has total area of 84 ha. The forest is known to have gradient of altitude and, consequently, contains variety of wildlife including mammals like Menelik’s bushbuck, Gelada baboon, Colobus guereza, Vervet monkey, Lepus starcki and natural and planted plant species like Pinus patula, Acacia mearnsii, and Cupressus lusitanica. Menagesha Amba Mariam Forest (MAM Forest) is situated approximately between 90 01′- 090 03′ N and 380 35′ - 380 36′ E. The altitudinal range of the study area varies from 2574 - 2948 m above sea level. 114 Abiyou Tilahun et al Fig. 1. Location map of the study site. Methods Reconnaissance survey was conducted in October, 2008 to collect baseline information, observe vegetation distribution, get an impression of the site conditions and identify the possible sampling sites and number of transect lines to be laid across the forest. Also, the altitudinal range of the forest area was determined. Systematic sampling was used for the current study. Sampling sites were arranged octagonally by eight line transects from the peak of the mountain to all directions covering the whole range of altitudes. Eight transects were laid at 200 m interval at the peak, 550 m at the middle Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 10(2): 111-136, 2011 115 of the mountain and 1.5 km at the bottom. This is because the study area has a shape like frustum of a cone. The transect lines radiate from the top of the mountain to eight directions and each of them contains different number of plots depending on the length of transect. Quadrats of 20 x 20 m (400 m2) were placed at 125 m altitudinal drop between each quadrat for sampling woody species and five sub-plots (1 m x 1 m) within each corner and one at the centre of the main plot for herbaceous plants were used to gather vegetation data. Geographical coordinates of the transects were recorded within Magellan NAV5000 Pro GPS navigation system. A total of 69 quadrats (2.76 ha) were laid down to collect data on the vegetation. Altitude was measured for each sample plot using ‘Pretel’ digital altimeter, and Magellan NAV5000 Pro GPS was used to record the latitude and longitude coordinates. Then a complete list of herbs, shrubs, lianas, epiphytes, and trees were made in each plot. Plant specimens were collected, pressed, dried, identified and checked at the National Herbar ium of Addis Ababa University using specimens in the Herbarium and published volumes of the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The 1-9 modified Braun-Blanquet scale (van der Maarel, 1979) was used to estimate the cover-abundance values of tree and shrub species (usually numbers) as follows: Scale1: rare, generally one individual, 2: sporadic, with less than 5% cover of the total area, 3: abundant, with less than 5% cover of the total area, 4: very abundant, with less than 5% cover of the total area, 5: 5-12% cover of the total area, 6: 12-25% cover of the total area, 7: 25-50% cover of the total area, 8: 50-75% cover of the total area, 9: 75-100% cover of the total area. The two main techniques of measuring diversity are richness and evenness. Richness is a measure of the number of different species in a given site and can be expressed in a mathematical index to compare diversity between sites (Zerihun Woldu, 1985). Species richness index has a great importance in assessing taxonomic, structural and ecological value of a given habitat. Evenness is a measure of abundance of the different species that make up the richness of the area. Species diversity shows the product of species richness and evenness. Species diversity indices provide information about species endemism, rarity and commonness (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). Thus, Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (1949) was used to determine diversity of the forest. Sorensen’s similarity index was used for comparison using a formula SI=2a / (2a + b + c) where, SI = Sorensen`s similarity coefficient, a = common to Menagesha Amba Mariam Forest and the forest in comparison, b = found only in Menagesha Amba Mariam 116 Abiyou Tilahun et al forest, c = found only in the forest in comparison with MAM Forest. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Floristic composition A total of 219 species, 182 genera and 76 families of plants were recorded (Appendix 1). Asteraceae was the most dominant family with 36 species and 29 genera. Poaceae was the second dominant family with 21 species and 17 genera (Fig. 2). The third species-rich family was Fabaceae with 17 species and 12 genera followed by Lamiaceae with 16 species and 10 genera. Apiaceae and Rosaceae were the fourth species-rich families with six species each (Fig. 2). Fig. 2. Plant families having 4 or more species (As=Asteraceae, Po=Poaceae, Fa=Fabaceae, La=Lamiaceae, AP=Apiaceae, Ro=Rosaceae, Am=Amaranthaceae, Asc=Asclepiadaceae, Pol=Polygonaceae, Ol=Oleaceae, Sc=Scrophulariaceae and Eu=Euphorbiaceae). The families, which contributed four species each, are Amaranthaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Oleaceae, Polygonaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Solanaceae, while the Acanthaceae, Brassicaceae, Cyperaceae, Ranunculaceae and Urticaceae contributed three species each. The following families had two representative species: Anacardiaceae, Celastraceae, Commelinaceae, Convolvulaceae, Crassulaceae, Cupressaceae, Dipsacaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Geraniaceae, Loganiaceae, Malvaceae, Myrsinaceae, Polygalaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rubiaceae and Sapotaceae and Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 10(2): 111-136, 2011 117 the rest 42 families contained only one species each. Among the collected species 25 (11.7%) were trees, 34 (15.4 %) shrubs, 136 (61.5%) herbs, 7 (3.2 %) trees/shrubs, 15 (6.8%) climbers/liana, 1 (0.5%) epiphyte and 2 (0.9%) ferns. Herbs occupied the highest proportion followed by shrubs and trees (Table 1). Table 1. Life form of plant species collected from Menagesha Amba Mariam Forest. No Life forms Number of species Percentage (%) 1 Trees 25 11.7 2 Tree/Shrub 7 3.2 3 Shrubs 34 15.4 4 Climbers/liana 15 6.8 5 Epiphytes 1 0.5 6 Herbs 136 61.5 7 Fern 2 0.9 Total 219 100 Based on published Flora volumes and Ensermu Kelbessa et al. (1992) and Vivero et al. (2006), 16 endemic species were recorded in the study area (Table 2). This represented 7.03% of the total floristic composition of the forest. Of these, herbs accounted for 73.3%, shrubs 12.5%, trees 12.5%, and climbers 6.25%. The family with the most dominant of endemic species recorded in Menagesha Amba Mariam Forest was Asteraceae (50%) followed by Lamiaceae (18.75%). Identification of plant communities Five clusters were identified at 25% similarity scale from the output of PCORD computer programme, which represented the plant communities in the forest (Fig.3). Plant communities have been named by two dominant species based on highest mean cover/abundance value that appeared within a cluster (Table 3). Description of the plant community types with their altitudinal distribution is given below. 118 Abiyou Tilahun et al Table 2. Endemic taxa recorded from Menagesha Amba Mariam Forest: (SU = Shewa, IL = Ilubabor, WG = Welega, AR = Arsi, KF = Kefa, GG = Gamo Gofa, SD = Sidama, GD = Gonder, GJ = Gojam, WU = Wollo, BA = Bale, HA = Harar, TU = Tigray and S=Shrub, H=Herb, C=Climbing herb and T=Tree) No Endemic species Family Habit Altitude (in m) Distribution in Ethiopia 1 Crassocephalum macropappum Asteraceae H 1600-3270 GD, GJ, WU, SU, WG, IL, KF, GG, SD, BA, HA 2 Leucas stachydiformis Lamiaceae S 1700-3200 TU, GD, GJ, WU, SU, AR, SD, BA, HA 3 Mikaniopsis clematoides Asteraceae C 2000-3300 TU, GD, WU, SU, AR, KF, BA, HA 4 Millettia ferruginea Fabaceae T 1000-2500 HA.IL,TU,GDGJ,SU,WG 5 Satureja paradoxa Lamiaceae H 1350-3500 GD, GJ, SU, AR, WG, IL, KF, GG, SD, BA, HA 6 Senecio myriocephallus Asteraceae H 2250-3300 TU, GD, GD, WU, SU, AR, KF, SD, BA, HA 7 Senecio ochrocarpus Asteraceae H 2800-4300 GD, GJ, WU, SU, SD, BA, HA 8 Solanecio gigas Asteraceae H 1750-3350 GD, GJ, WU, SU, AR, SD, IL, KF, BA, HA 9 Vernonia leopoldi Asteraceae H 1850-2850 TU, GD, GJ,WU, SU,WG, KF, HA, GG 10 Rhus glutinosa subsp. neoglutinosa Anacardiaceae T 1500-2700 WU, SU, AR, BA, HA 11 Inula confertiflora Asteraceae H 2500-3730 WU, SU, AR, BA, HA 12 Kniphofia foliosa Asphodelaceae H 2500-4000 TU, GD, GJ, WU, SU, AR, BA, HA 13 Urtica simensis Urticaceae H 1500-3400 TU, GD, GJ, SU, AR, BA, SD 14 Jasminum stans Oleaceae S 2400-2900 SU, AR 15 Conyza spinosa Asteraceae H 2500-3800 GJ, WU, SU, BA 16 Conyza abyssinica Asteraceae H 1600-3300 TU, GD, GJ, SU, WG, KF, SD, GG, BA, HA Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 10(2): 111-136, 2011 119 Fig. 3. Dendrogram showing plant community types of the study area: (C1-Community 1, C2-Community 2, C3-Community 3, C4-Community 4, and C5-Community 5). I. Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata – Rosa abyssinica community type The dominant taxa of this community type were Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Rosa abyssinica, Juniperus procera, Rhus vulgaris, Sideroxylon oxyacanthum, Buddleja polystachya, Dombeya torrida, Hagenia abyssinica, Acacia abyssinica and Maytenus arbutifolia. The dominant shrubs were Carissa spinarum, Jasminum abyssinicum, Jasminum stans and Myrsine africana. This community occurs in 15 quadrats (0.6 ha). The characteristic species were Urtica simensis and Solanum indicum. The altitudinal distribution of this plant community was between 2632-2887 m a.s.l. (Table 3). Indigenous tree species were mixed with planted species, which included Eucalyptus globulus, Pinus patula, Acacia mearnsii, Casuarina cunninghamiana and Cupressus lusitanica. This community type was one of the most disturbed parts by grazing, selective cutting, trampling and agricultural land expansion. 120 Abiyou Tilahun et al II. Erica arborea-Juniperus procera community type This community type contained 13 quadrats (0.52 ha-1) and was distributed between 2752-2894 m a.s.l. Erica arborea, Juniperus procera, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Acacia mearnsii, Nuxia congesta, Olinia rochetiana, Osyris quadripartita, Prunus africana and Sideroxylon oxyacanthum are common species in this community. Orobanche minor was the characteristic species. Smilax anceps was the most dominant woody climber. III. Juniperus procera - Alchemilla pedata community type This community was located between 2574 to 2742 m a.s.l. and comprised 15 quadrats (0.6 ha) (Table 3). The dominant trees were Juniperus procera, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Prunus africana, Rhus vulgaris, Podocarpus falcatus, Olinia rochetiana, Osyris quadripartita, Croton macrostachyus, Cupressus lusitanica and Bersama abyssinica. The characteristic species in this community type were Ficus sur, Ocimum lamiifolium and Kniphofia foliosa. Shrubs like Vernonia leopoldi, Rosa abyssinica, Jasminum grandiflorum subsp. floribundum and Crotalaria distantiflora were the most dominant. IV. Streblochaete longiarista - Alchemilla pedata community type This community type occured between 2625 and 2906 m a.s.l and consisted of 4 quadrats (0.16 ha). The upper canopy was dominated by Juniperus procera and Podocarpus falcatus with Maytenus obscura and Olinia rochetiana as a frequent admixture tree species in this type. The under storey consisted of Rhus glutinosa, Myrsine africana, Dovyalis abyssinica and Nuxia congesta. Climbers, like Rubus steudneri, Mikaniopsis clematoides and Rosa abyssinica, were common. Arundinaria alpina and Millettia ferruginea were the characteristic (unique) species at the peak of the forest. Hypoestes forskaolii was the most dominant herb in the lower storey. V. Myrsine africana - Rumex nervosus community type This community type is distributed betwwen 2624-2948 m a.s.l and is represented by 22 quadrats (0.88 ha). The dominant species were Myrsine africana and Rumex nervosus. Juniperus procera, Olinia rochetiana, Carissa spinarum, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Rosa abyssinica, Hagenia abyssinica, Cupressus lusitanica, Sideroxylon oxyacanthum and Erica arborea. Jasminum grandiflorum subsp. floribundum, Jasminum stans and Carissa spinarum were the most dominant shrubs and Apodytes Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 10(2): 111-136, 2011 121 dimidiata was characteristic species. Table 3. Synoptic cover-abundance value for species reaching a value of > 2.5 in at least one community type (value in bold refers to characteristic species C1-community 1, C2-community 2, C3-community 3, C4-community 4, C5-community 5). Communities Species and subspecies C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 6.73 4.31 4.20 5.75 5.00 5.07 1.31 2.13 3.75 3.86 3.00 3.15 1.40 1.75 2.91 3.67 2.23 1.80 0.75 3.50 2.33 1.92 0.60 0.00 1.64 3.20 1.92 0.93 2.25 1.50 3.07 2.31 1.27 2.50 2.59 4.40 4.46 1.67 0.00 3.68 4.33 2.47 3.85 2.77 4.20 1.53 2.00 1.25 4.64 1.91 3.47 5.69 1.33 0.00 4.18 Bidens pilosa 3.53 5.23 3.07 1.50 3.23 Crassocephalum macropappum 2.13 2.85 1.27 0.00 1.23 Smilax anceps Juniperus procera 0.93 1.77 3.87 0.00 2.32 5.20 0.47 5.46 1.69 5.60 2.53 4.00 2.25 5.14 1.18 Carissa spinarum 0.60 2.53 0.46 1.15 3.47 3.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.86 Alchemilla pedata 3.53 3.69 5.33 5.50 2.50 Streblochaete longiarista Dovyalis abyssinica 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.25 0.00 2.40 1.38 1.60 3.25 2.27 Maytenus obscura 0.07 0.31 0.13 3.50 0.14 Galium simense Bersama abyssinica 2.20 2.69 1.87 4.25 2.36 1.20 0.62 2.80 3.75 1.18 0.40 0.38 0.00 2.75 0.55 Myrsine africana 2.47 4.54 3.53 2.50 5.64 Rumex nervosus 2.13 0.85 0.27 0.00 5.55 Vernonia leopoldi 1.20 2.31 2.00 1.25 3.50 Lippia adoensis 0.00 0.46 1.40 1.25 3.59 Helichrysum odoratissimum 0.67 1.92 0.27 0.00 3.73 Festuca abyssinica 3.13 2.85 1.73 1.50 3.73 Andropogon abyssinicus 2.53 3.46 0.47 0.00 3.73 Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata Rosa abyssinica Osyris quadripartita Rhus vulgaris Prunus africana Nuxia congesta Sideroxylon oxyacanthum Jasminum stans Olinia rochetiana Adiantum poiretii Erica arborea Asparagus africanus Podocarpus falcatus Buddleja polystachya 122 Abiyou Tilahun et al Community similarity analysis The distribution of plant species among the communities in the forest showed significant dissimilarity. The overall similarity coefficient ranged from 30-64% among all the communities. The highest similarity (least dissimilarity) was observed between communities III and II (64%) (Table 4 and 5) since the two communities had plots, which are adjacent to each other that may indicate similar adaptation mechanisms and requirements. The lowest similarity was observed between communities IV and V (30%) followed by II and IV (32%). This is because of; community IV was found on the cliffy part of the forest and extensively exploited up to the foot of the escarpment. Its most part was covered by shrubs while community II was found on the level part that was occupied by most trees like Juniperus procera, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Jasminum stans, Smilax anceps and Carissa spinarum. Table 4. Jaccard’s similarity coefficient among the five communities. Communities I I II III IV V 1 II 0.6 1 III 0.54 0.64 1 IV 0.35 0.32 0.33 1 V 0.52 0.54 0.57 0.3 1 Table 5. Jaccard’s similarity coefficient among communities along altitudinal gradient. Communities Altitudinal range Similarity coefficient I, II 2632-2887 / 2752-2894 60% II, III 2752-2894 / 2574-2742 64% I, V 2632-2887 / 2624-2948 52% III, IV 2574-2742 / 2625-2906 32% IV, II 2625-2906 / 2752-2894 32% IV, V 2625-2609 / 2624-2948 30% III, V 2574-2742 / 2624-2948 57% I, III 2632-2887 / 2574-2742 54% Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 10(2): 111-136, 2011 123 The results from pair wise comparison of communities were not close to each other along altitudinal gradient and the vegetations vary as altitude varies. This could be due to effects of human activities and environmental factors such as aspect slope, soil physical and chemical properties on community composition (Tamrat Bekele, 1993). Species diversity (richness and evenness) of the plant communities Community V and I had the highest species richness (35.2 and 34.4, respectively) and diversity (3.25 each) followed by community II (Table 6). Community IV had the lowest species diversity than others. Community V had the highest species richness while community IV exhibited the least species richness. The variability of each magnitude in each parameter for different community types may be due to difference in their species composition, number of plots included, cover abundance value, high degree of disturbance involved (anthropogenic activity such as selective cutting for charcoal and wood based industries). Table 6. Shannon and Wiener diversity index. Communities III I IV V II Average altitude (m) Species richness (S) (E)Evenness (H’/ H’max) Diversity index (H') 2658 31 0.92 3.17 2759.5 34.4 0.92 3.25 2765.5 27.8 0.9 3.00 2786 35.2 0.91 3.25 2823 33.69 0.91 3.19 Community V and I had highest richness, evenness and diversity due to its proximity to a church and the high slope of the site, which is not easily accessible by local people to exploit through selective cutting and grazing. Community type V was the most diverse and had even distribution of species indicating that the vegetation is expected to be natural with less human intervention (Table 6). The value of species richness has a great importance in assessing taxonomic, structural and ecological value of the forest. Community IV shows the least amount of species richness, which may be due to pressure brought about by overgrazing in the lower part, rocky soil in the upper part of the forest. 124 Abiyou Tilahun et al Phytogeographical comparison Menagesha Amba Mariam forest was compared with three dry evergreen afromontane forests (Chilimo, Dindin, and Menagesha-Suba). Chilimo forest is situated 90 km west of Addis Ababa close to Ginchi town. Its geographical location is 38010′E, 9005′ N. Altitudinaly it extends from 2400 - 2900 m a.s.l. (Tamrat Bekele, 1994). Dindin forest is located in southeastern Ethiopia with a geographical location of 080 37′ -08039′ N and 400 11′ - 40016′E and its altitude ranges from 2150-3000 m a.s.l. (Kumlachew Yeshtila and Taye Bekele, 2003). Menagesha-Suba State forest is a well-protected state forest located about 30 km southwest of Addis Ababa. It is located between 38032′ to 38034′ E and 08056′ - 9000′N. Its northern and southern peaks are 2350 m and 3300 m respectively (Sebsebe Demissew, 1980). These forests were compared with Menagesha Amba Mariam forest based on similarities in species distribution. Menagesha Amba Mariam Forest had the highest species similarity with Chilimo (41%) followed by Menagesha-Suba (40%) (Table 7). This may be due to their similar climatic zones and altitudinal range since all of them belong to the dry Afromontane forest category. The forest showed the least resemblance to Dindin forest. This dissimilarity may be due to differences in altitudinal range, species composition, amount of rainfall, climatic conditions and the levels of anthropogenic impact. Table 7. Comparison and species composition similarities between MAM and other dry evergreen afromontane forests in Ethiopia Forests used for comparison Chilimo (Tamirat Bekele, 1993) Menagesha-Suba (Abate Zewdie, 2007) Dindin (KumlachewYeshtila and Taye Bekele, 2003) Altitude (m) Species richness a b c SI 2000 – 2950 200 86 135 114 0.41 2350 – 3300 82 61 160 21 0.4 2150-3000 81 50 171 31 0.33 Management and anthropogenic impacts on Menagesha Amba Mariam Forest The complex nature of human activities has a tremendous impact in forests including grazing and selective tree cutting for wood-based industries and clearing for cultivation and settlements (Alemu Abebe, 2007). Among these, the major disturbances were selective tree cutting and clearing for cultivation, which seriously affected both the structure and species Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 10(2): 111-136, 2011 125 composition of the forest. Eyewitness, interview with local people and forest guards revealed that most of the people always clear the vegetation for cultivable land expansion and to procure essential forest products. Information obtained from interviews of local people revealed that Hagenia abyssinica is mainly used by the local communities for medicinal purpose. As a result, the species is currently found in some inaccessible parts of the forest. Hagenia abyssinica, Juniperus procera, Olea europaea subsp.cuspidata, Olinia rochetiana, and Erica arborea are locally threatened and require a serious remedy and priority for conservation. Most of the new stumps left after tree harvesting were observed from these species (Table 8). Most local farmers sell firewood and charcoal due to the proximity of the forest to urban centers like Addis Ababa, Menagesha and Holeta. The local women and men frequently take charcoal and fire wood to the urban centers using donkeys mainly at night. Human disturbances are the most significant types of disturbance indicated by the left-over stumps, fences of surrounding farms, footpaths and charcoal kilns. Due to the high dependency on natural resources and lack of proper alternatives, the local people are not able to change their present forest resource use patterns. Table 8. The number of stumps in the study site. Species name Olinia rochetiana No. of stumps 150 Juniperus procera 149 Erica arborea 137 Olea europaea subsp.cuspidata 94 Acacia abyssinica 43 Osyris quadripartita 33 Myrica salicifolia 28 Rhus vulgaris 28 Podocarpus falcatus Prunus africana 16 14 Dovyalis abyssinica 10 Pittosporum viridiflorum Nuxia congesta 8 Sideroxylon oxyacanthum 6 5 Hagenia abyssinica 5 Hypericum revolutum 5 126 Abiyou Tilahun et al The most important plant species of the forest (Juniperus procera, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Podocarpus falcatus, Olinia rochetiana and Erica arborea) have been exposed to anthropogenic impacts (Table 8). Furthermore, these species show large number of new stumps and dead and standings trees. Generally, this study attempted to provide new insights concerning the extent and status of forest in relation to anthropogenic, natural and environmental factors. CONCLUSIONS The analysis of floristic data on vegetation of the forest indicated the presence of high species diversity.The forest was grouped into five community types. These community types included Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata – Rosa abyssinica, Erica arborea- Juniperus procera, Juniperus procera - Alchemilla pedata, Streblochaete longiarista - Alchemilla pedata and Myrsine africana - Rumex nervosus community types. The communities at the bottom and middle of the altitudinal gradient were found richer in species composition due to the presence of dense Carissa spinarum, Rosa abyssinica and Myrsine africana while the community at the top was poor in species composition. For example, community V and I had highest richness, evenness and diversity due to their proximity to the church and the high slope of the site, which is not easily accessible by local people to exploit through selective cutting and grazing. 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Zerihun Woldu, Feoli, E. and Lisanework Nigatu (1989). Partitioning an elevation gradient of vegetation from southeastern Ethiopia by probability methods. Vegetation 18:189-198. 130 Abiyou Tilahun et al Appendix 1. List of plant species collected from Menagesha Amba Mariam Forest. No Scientific Name Family Habit Coll. No 1 Hypoestes forskaolii (Vahl) Soland.ex Roem. and Schult. Acanthaceae H A121 2 Justicia ladanoides Lam. Acanthaceae H A121 3 Justitia schimperiana (Hochst ex Nees) T.Anders. Acanthaceae S A189 4 Adiantum poiretii Wikstr. Adiantaeae F A168 5 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae H A104 6 Amaranthus graecizans L. Amaranthaceae H A210 7 Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthaceae H A1 8 Cyathula uncinulata (Schrad.) Schinz. Amaranthaceae S A205 9 Rhus vulgaris Meikle Anacardiaceae T A38 10 Rhus glutinosa Gilbert Anacardiaceae T A140 11 Chlorophytum gallabatense Schweinf ex. Baker Anthericaceae H A94 12 Agrocharis melanantha Hochst. Apiaceae H A84 13 Anethum graveolens L. Apiaceae H A207 14 Anthriscus sylvestris L. Apiaceae H A134 15 Conium maculatum L. Apiaceae H A137 16 Heracleum abyssinicum (Boiss.) Norman. Apiaceae H A132 17 Sanicula elata Buch.-Ham.ex D.Don Apiaceae H A132 18 Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae S A8 19 Arisaema schimperianum Schott Araceae H A185 20 Cynanchum abyssinicum Decne. Asclepiadaceae C A151 21 Dregea abyssinica (Hochst.) K.Schum. Asclepiadaceae H A201 22 Gomphocarpus purpurascens A.Rich. Asclepiadaceae S A139 23 Periploca linearifolia A. Rich and Quart.-Dill. Asclepiadaceae L A37 24 Asparagus africanus Lam. Asparagaceae S A54 25 Kniphofia foliosa Hochst. Asphodelaceae H A175 26 Asplenium aethiopicum (Burm.f.) Bechereer Aspleniaceae F A113 27 Artemisia abyssinica Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich. Asteraceae H A87 28 Bidens pilosa L. Asteraceae H A68 29 Cineraria deltoidia Sond. Asteraceae H A141 30 Conyza abyssinica Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.. Asteraceae H A165 31 Conyza hypoleuca A. Rich. Asteraceae H A46 32 Conyza spinosa Sch-Bip. ex Oliv. and Hiern Asteraceae H A161 33 Conyza steudelii Sch.-Bip ex A.Rich. Asteraceae H A206 34 Cotula abyssinica Sch.-Bip.ex.A.Rich. Asteraceae H A203 Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 10(2): 111-136, 2011 131 Appendix 2. contd. No Scientific Name Family Habit Coll. No 35 Crassocephalum macropappum (Sch.-Bip ex A.Rich.) S.Moore Asteraceae H A119 36 Crepis rueppellii Sch.-Bip. Asteraceae H A197 37 Crepis sp cf foetida L. Asteraceae H A169 38 Dicrocephala integrifolia(L.f.)Kuntze Asteraceae H A147 39 Echinops macrochaetus Fresen. Asteraceae H A177 40 Felicia dentata (A.Rich) Dandy Asteraceae H A194 41 Galinsoga quadriradiata Ruiz and Pavon. Asteraceae H A116 42 Gerbera piloselloides (L.) Cass. Asteraceae H A100 43 Guizotia scabra (Vis) Chiov. Asteraceae H A120 44 Haplocarpha schimperi (sch.-Bip) Beauv. Asteraceae H A33 45 Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Less. Asteraceae H A194 46 Helichrysum schimperi (Sch.-Bip ex A.Rich). Asteraceae H A20 47 Inula confertiflora A. Rich. Asteraceae H A65 48 Laggera crispata (Vahl) Hepper and Wood Asteraceae H A148 49 Mikaniopsis clematoides (A.Rich.) Milne-Redh. Asteraceae C A78 50 Vernonia amygdalina Del. Asteraceae T A201 51 Pentas schimperiana (A.Rich.) Vatke Asteraceae H A15 52 Phagnalon abyssinicus Sch.-Bip ex A.Rich. Asteraceae H A32 53 Plectocephalus varians (A.Rich.) Jeffery Asteraceae H A66 54 Senecio lyratus Forssk. Asteraceae H A102 55 Senecio myriocephallus Sch .Bip. Asteraceae H A62 56 Senecio ochrocarpus Oliv. and Hiern Asteraceae H A75 57 Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae H A217 58 Solanecio gigas (Vatke) C. Jeffery Asteraceae H A88 59 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Asteraceae H A170 60 Sonchus bipontini Aschers Asteraceae H A58 61 Tagetes minuta L. Asteraceae H A86 62 Vernonia leopoldi (Sch-Bip.) Asteraceae H A28 63 Impatiens hochstetteri Warb. Balsaminaceae H A179 64 Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst.ex A.DC. Boraginaceae H A149 65 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L) Medic. Brassicaceae H A204 66 Cardamine trichocarpa Hochst. ex A.Rich. Brassicaceae H A111 67 Coronopus didymus (L.) Smith. Brassicaceae H A202 68 Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller Cactaceae S AA91 132 Abiyou Tilahun et al Appendix 3. contd. No Scientific Name Family Habit Coll. No 69 Cerastium indicum Wight and Arn. Caryophylaceae H A162 70 Casuarina cunninghamiana Miq. Casuarinaceae T A216 71 Maytenus arbutifolia ( A.Rich.) Wilczek Celastraceae T A5 72 Maytenus obscura (A.Rich.) Cuf. Celastraceae T A43 73 Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Chenopodiaceae H A122 74 Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae H A131 75 Cyanotis barbata D. Don. Commelinaceae H A61 76 Convolvulus kilimandschari Engl. Convolvulaceae H A187 77 Dichondra repens J.R. and G. Forst Convolvulaceae H A125 78 Crassula alsinoides (Hook.f.) Engl. Crassulaceae H A202 79 Kalanchoe petitiana A. Rich Crassulaceae H A51 80 Zehneria scabra (L.f.) Sond. Cucurbitaceae C A158 81 Cupressus lusitanica Mill. Cupressaceae T A173 82 Juniperus procera Hochst ex Endl. Cupressaceae T A9 83 Carex steudneri Böck. Cyperaceae H A62 84 Cyperus fischerianus A.Rich. Cyperaceae H A52 85 Kyllinga odorata Vahl. Cyperaceae H A163 86 Pterocephalus frutescens Hochst. ex.A.Rich. Dipsacaceae H A103 87 Scabiosa columbaria L. Dipsacaceae H A144 88 Erica arborea L. Ericaceae S A13 89 Euphorbia prostrata Ait. Euphorbaceae H A60 90 Clutia lanceolata Forssk. Euphorbiaceae S A51 91 Croton macrostachyus Del. Euphorbiaceae T A155 92 Ricinus comminus L. Euphorbiaceae S A192 93 Acacia abyssinica Hochst.ex Benth. Fabaceae T A2 94 Acacia mearnsii De Wild. Fabaceae T A50 95 Acacia melanoxylon R.Br Fabaceae T A184 96 Argyrolobium ramosissimum Bak Fabaceae H A67 97 Astragalus atropilosus subsp atropilosus (Hochst.) Fabaceae H A168 98 Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. Fabaceae S A31 99 Colutia abyssinica Kunth and Bouche Fabaceae S A61 100 Crotalaria laburnifolia L. Fabaceae S A11 101 Crotalaria distantiflora Bak.f. Fabaceae H A134 102 Crotalaria incana L. Fabaceae S A138 Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 10(2): 111-136, 2011 133 Appendix 4. contd. No Scientific Name Family Habit Coll. No 103 Crotalaria mildbraedii Bak.f Fabaceae S A157 104 Eriosema jurionianum Staner and De Craeme Fabaceae H A49 105 106 Medicago polymorpha L. Fabaceae H A133 Millettia ferruginea (Hochst) Bak. Fabaceae T A186 107 Rhynchosia densiflora (Roth) DC Fabaceae H A48 108 Trifolium simense Fresen. Fabaceae H A82 109 Lotus discolor E.mey. Fabaceae H A178 110 Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb. Flacourtiaceae S A10 111 Scolopia theifolia Gilg. Flacourtiaceae T A164 112 Swertia abyssinica Hochst. Gentianaceae H A59 113 Geranium aculeolatum Oliv. Geraniaceae H A181 114 Pelargonium alchemilloides (L.) Ait. Geraniaceae H A56 115 Hypericum revolutum Vahl. Hypericaceae S A21 116 Apodytes dimidiata E.Mey.ex.Arn Icacinaceae T A154 117 Achyrospermum schimperi (Hochst. ex Briq.) Lamiaceae H A196 118 Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Lamiaceae H A105 119 Clerodendron alatum Guerke Lamiaceae S A40 120 Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke. Lamiaceae S A45 121 Leucas martinicensis (Jack) R.Br. Lamiaceae H A169 122 Leucas stachydiformis (Hochst ex Benth.) Briq. Lamiaceae S A39 123 Lippia adoensis Hochst .ex Walp. Lamiaceae S A24 124 Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. ex Benth. Lamiaceae S A135 125 Plectranthus assurgens (Backer) J.K. Morten Lamiaceae H A196 126 Plectranthus lanunginosus Benth.) Agnew Lamiaceae H A142 127 Plectranthus punctatus L.Herit Lamiaceae H A135 128 Pycnostachys meyeri Güerke Lamiaceae S A47 129 Salvia nilotica Juss.ex Jacq. Lamiaceae H A182 130 Satureja paradoxa (Vatke) Engl. Lamiaceae H A98 131 Satureja punctata (Benth.) Briq. Lamiaceae H A145 132 Thymus schimperi Ronniger Lamiaceae H A57 133 Linium trigynum L. Linaceae H A102 134 Buddleja polystachya Fresen. Loganiaceae T A42 135 Nuxia congesta R. Br. ex Fresen. Loganiaceae T A10 136 Malva verticillata L. Malvaceae H A130 134 Abiyou Tilahun et al Appendix 5. contd. No Scientific Name Family Habit Coll. No 137 Sida schimperiana Hochst ex.A.Rich. Malvaceae H A37 138 Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. Meliaceae T A23 139 Bersama abyssinica Fresen. Melianthaceae S A23 140 Stephania abyssinica (Dill. Rich.) Walp. Menispermaceae C A174 141 Ficus sur Forssk. Moraceae T A195 142 Myrica salicifolia Hochst ex.A.Rich. Myricaceae T A14 143 Maesa lanceolata Forssk. Myrsinaceae T A19 144 Myrsine africana L. Myrsinaceae S A5 145 Myrtaceae T A3 146 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Jasminum grandiflorum subsp. floribundum (R.Br ex Fresen) P.S.Green. Oleaceae S A159 147 Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst.ex DC. Oleaceae C A37 148 Jasminum stans Pax. Oleaceae S A18 149 Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Wall.ex.G.Don.) cif. Oleaceae T A6 150 Olinia rochetiana A. Juss. Oliniaceae T A12 151 Diaphananthe schimperiana (A.Rich.) Summerh. Orchidaceae H A29 152 Orobanche minor Smith. Orobanchaceae H A146 153 Oxalis obliquifolia A.Rich. Oxalidaceae H A177 154 Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae H A94 155 Phytolacca dodecandra L “Herit Phytolaccaceae C A38 156 Pinus patula D.Don. Pinaceae T A214 157 Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims Pittosporaceae T A7 158 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae H A81 159 Agrostis quingueseta (Hochst. ex Steud.) Hochst. Poaceae H A99 160 Andropogon abyssinicus (Fresen.) R.Br. Poaceae H A72 161 Arundinaria alpina K. Schum Poaceae S A160 162 Bromus leptoclados Nees Poaceae H A106 163 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers Poaceae H A64 164 Digitaria abyssinica (Hochst ex.A.Rich.) Stapf. Poaceae H A123 165 Eleusine floccifolia (Forssk.) Spreng. Poaceae H A147 166 Festuca abyssinica Hochst. ex A.Rich. Poaceae H Acc 167 Harpachne schimperi A.Rich. Poaceae H A140 168 Hyparrhenia hirta (L.) Stapf. Poaceae H A127 169 Microchloa kunthii Desv. Poaceae H A114 170 Pennisetum sphacelatum (Nees) Th. Dur. and Schinz Poaceae H A80 Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci., 10(2): 111-136, 2011 135 Appendix 6. contd. No Scientific Name Family Habit Coll. No 171 Pennisetum thunbergii Kunth. Poaceae H A161 172 Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult Poaceae H A168 173 Poa annua L. Poaceae H A117 174 Poa leptoclada A.Rich. Poaceae H A152 175 Snowdenia polystachya (Fresen.) Pilg. Poaceae H A167 176 Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns and Tournay Poaceae H A76 177 Sporobolus pectinellus Mez. Poaceae H A113 178 Streblochaete longiarista (A.Rich.) Pilger Poaceae H A183 179 Vulpia bromoides (L.) J.E.Grey Poaceae H A150 180 181 Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb.) Mirb. Polygala abyssinica Fresen. Podocarpaceae Polygalaceae T H A191 A143 182 Polygala steudneri Chod. Polygalaceae H A178 183 Persicaria nepalensis (Meisen.) Miyabe Polygonaceae H A156 184 Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Polygonaceae H A124 185 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. polygonaceae H A129 186 Rumex nervosus Vahl Polygonaceae S A39 187 Anagalis arvensis L. Primulaceae H A106 188 Lysimachia ruhmeriana Vatke Primulaceae H A166 189 Clematis simensis Perr. and Guill. Ranunculaceae C A25 190 Delphinium dasycaulon Fresen. Ranunculaceae H A109 191 Thalictrum rhynchocarpum Qu.-Dill.CHEK Ranunculaceae H A156 192 Caylusea abyssinica (Fresen.) Fisch. and Mey Resedaceae H A151 193 Rhamnus prinoides L’Her. Rhamnaceae S A192 194 Rhamnus staddo A.Rich. Rhamnaceae S A30 195 Alchemilla pedata A.Rich. Rosaceae H A56 196 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmel. Rosaceae T A172 197 Prunus africana (Hook.f) Kalkm. Rosaceae T A22 198 Rosa abyssinica Lindley Rosaceae S A27 199 Rubus steudneri Schweinf. Rosaceae C A175 200 Rubus volkensii Engl. Rosaceae C A40 201 Galium simense Rubiaceae H A96 202 Rubia cordifolia L. Fresen. Rubiaceae H A65 203 Osyris quadripartita Decn. Santalaceae S A4 204 Sideroxylon oxyacanthum Baill. Sapotaceae S A16 136 Abiyou Tilahun et al Appendix 7. contd. No Scientific Name Family Habit Coll. No 205 Bartsia trixago L. Scrophulariaceae H A105 206 Craterostigma plantagineum Hochst. Scrophulariaceae H A70 207 Halleria lucida L. Scrophulariaceae T A128 208 Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. Scrophulariaceae H A176 209 Cheilanthes farinosa (Forssk) Kaulf Sinopteridaceae H A97 210 Smilax anceps Willd. Smilacaceae C A17 211 Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae H A36 212 Discopodium penninervium Hochst. Solanaceae S A171 213 Solanum marginatum Jacq. Solanaceae S A34 214 Solanum indicum L. Solanaceae H A35 215 Dombeya torrida (J.F. Gmel) P. Bamps Sterculiaceae S A165 216 Sparmannia ricinocarpa (Eckl. and Zeyh) O.Ktze. Tiliaceae H A44 217 Laportea aestuans (L.) Chew. Urticaceae H A79 218 Urera hypselodendron (A.Rich.) Weed. Urticaceae C A164 219 Urtica simensis Steudel Urticaceae H A206 (Ha=habit, T=tree, S=shrub, H=herb, T/S=tree/shrub, C=climber, SCs=scandent shrub, C=climbing herb, L=Liana, E=epiphyte, F=fern and V.N=vernacular name).