Botanical Geography of Uzbekistan Botanical Geography of Uzbekistan Copyright © 2016 Korea National Arboretum & Institute of Botany and Zoology, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan Published by Korea National Arboretum of the Korea Forest Service For the further information, please contact: Korea National Arboretum Adress: 415 Gwangneungsumokwon-ro, Soheul-eup, Pocheon-si, Gyoenggi-do, 11186, Korea Tel: +82-31-540-1074 Fax: +82-31-540-1070 Botanical Geography of Uzbekistan Institute of Botany and Zoology, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan Bogishamol str. 232, Tashkent, Republic of Uzbekistan 100053 E-mail: ktojibaev@mail.ru, natalia_beshko@mail.ru, ibz@academy.uz, igppa@academy.uz Contributing authors: Komil Sh. Tojibaev, Natalya Yu. Beshko, Viktor A. Popov, Chang Gee Jang & Kae Sun Chang Maps: Natalya Yu. Beshko Photographs: Komil Sh. Tojibaev, Natalya Yu. Beshko, Viktor A. Popov, Lucian V. Nikolai, Anna G. Ten, Dmitry I. Golovtsov, Tura Kholikov, Alexander V. Esipov, Habibullo F. Shomuradov Contributors: Feruza U. Mustafina, Dong Chan Son Citation: Tojibaev, K.Sh., Beshko, N.Yu., Popov, V.A., Jang, C.G., Chang, K.S. (2017). Botanical Geography of Uzbekistan. Korea National Arboretum, Pocheon, Republic of Korea. Edited and designed by GeoBook Publishing Co. ISBN 979-11-87031-45-1 (93480) Govermental publication number in the Republic of Korea 11-1400119-000274-01 Printed in the Republic of Korea within the framework of the "Central Asia Green Road Project" Acknowledgement This publication is dedicated to the blessed memory of MG Popov, EP Korovin, KZ Zakirov, M Arifkhanova, RV Kamelin and all other scientists, who have devoted their life and studies to investigations of the plant diversity of Uzbekistan and Central Asia. Their works inspired us to attempt a detailed phytogeographical division of the Republic of Uzbekistan. The authors would also like to extend special thanks to Director General of the Korea National Arboretum Dr. You-Mi Lee, Director of the Division of Forest Biodiversity and Herbarium Dr. Chang Ho Shin, Director of the Division of Plant Biodiversity Dr. Kyung Choi, and professor of Kongju National University Chang Gee Chang for invaluable support and cooperation in publishing of this book. The Republic of Uzbekistan is located in the center of the Eurasian continent, and is comprised of approximately 79% plains and 21% mountains and foothills. The flora includes more than 4300 species of vascular plants but the inventory is still incomplete and the floristic data for several regions of Uzbekistan is imperfect. The scheme of the phytogeographical division of Uzbekistan is based on the natural boundaries of the botanical-geographical regions, analysis of the species composition, distribution patterns of endemic and sub-endemic taxa, and characteristics of the landscapes and vegetation cover. Mountains of Uzbekistan are divided into 8 botanical-geographical districts and 23 regions; plains are divided into 8 districts and 15 regions. K.Sh. Tojibaev, N.Yu. Beshko, V.A. Popov, Jang C.G. and Chang K.S. PREFACE The Korea National Arboretum, forestry research institutes and experts Uzbekistan is located in the center of the Eurasian continent and its ter- of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan have estab- ritory consists of 79% of plains and 21% of mountainous areas. Biodiver- lished the Central Asia Biodiversity Conservation Network and sity in Uzbekistan has been rapidly declining compared to 30-40 years ago started the Central Asian Green Road Project as a research activity for due to destruction of ecosystems and habitats caused by grazing and mine Central Asia forest biodiversity conservation from 2015. development. (CABCN) The ‘Central Asian Green Road Project’ will provide a platform for the This is the first English book to introduce Uzbekistan's landscape, veg- plant diversity research and conservation at national and regional levels etation characteristics, distribution patterns of endemic plants, and plant and the goal is to contribute to biodiversity conservation at the global level geographical divisions. It is expected to be used as an important education by nurturing experts on biodiversity in Central Asia. material for future plant distribution research and conservation of Central Asia. Central Asia is an area to which economically important plants such as apples, leeks and tulips are native. Moreover, this region shows diverse The Korea National Arboretum, along with the Central Asia Biodiver- landscapes including deserts and alpine highlands, which leads to a variety sity Conservation Network (CABCN), will continue to promote forest biodi- of plants adapting to different environments. However, desertification and versity conservation activities in Central Asia, and will work to strengthen habitat destruction caused by recent climate change, pasturing and exces- the taxonomy research capacity of Central Asia. sive development have increasingly threatened biodiversity in Central Asia. LEE, YOU-MI Director General Korea National Arboretum 4 5 Preface FOREWORD This edition is an important contribution into studying and conservation Developing of the new scheme became possible due to the effective work of plant biodiversity in Central Asia as a whole, and in Uzbekistan in of the scientists from Central herbarium of Uzbekistan (TASH). Need particular. The publishing of the book is supported within International to note that considerable achievements have been obtained recently, i.e “Central Asia Green Road” project, which incorporated efforts of four the flora of the country was complemented with new records; many new Central Asian countries (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan and for science plant species were described; the lists of vascular plants for Uzbekistan) and Republic of Korea in revising and systematization of a number of regions were developed (South-West Tien-Shan, Nuratau, the plant species in the region. Scientists and specialists from different Baysuntau, Malguzar ridges, Nuratau relic mountains, Bukhara oasis, the organizations of Central Asia and Korea National Arboretum directed their flora of Nuratau, Surkhan and Zaamin reserves, the modern composition of efforts on preservation of invaluable natural resources of plants through the monocot geophytes of Fergana valley and others). The researches were studying and systematization of their diversity and uniqueness. conducted in cooperation with colleagues from Republic of Korea (Chang Ho Shin, Chan Gee Jang, Hyeok Jae Choi, Kyung Choi and others). This book was prepared on the bases of many years’ researches of the floristic composition, endemism, geological history, vegetation and This book incorporated the results of the researches of many scientists landscape specificity, and is devoted to the phyto-geographical division and scientific teams, which contributed during centuries into studying of of the territory of Uzbekistan. Almost all available scientific references flora and vegetation in Central Asia and understanding its richness and on the botanical and geographical zonation of Central Asia and adjacent uniqueness. Botanical researches in this region have a great potential for areas as well as herbarium samples from world herbarium collections future cooperation. The publishing of this book is one of many results of were reviewed, physical, geobotanical and landscape maps were analyzed. such fruitful cooperation between Institute of Gene Pool of Plants and According to the authors’ intention, the developed scheme of zonation Animals of Uzbek Academy of Sciences and Korea National Arboretum, can serve as a matrix for compilation all data on floristic diversity and the which will serve for prosperous development of future generations in bases for updated database on the Flora of Uzbekistan. diversified world of plants. TOJIBAEV Sh. KOMIL Director General Institute of Botany and Zoology, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan 6 7 Foreword 8 9 Contents Preface 4 I-5. Kuhistan district 123 Foreword 6 I-6. Hissar-Darvaz district 139 I-7. Western Hissar district (South-Western Hissar) 149 I-8. Panj district 171 Introduction II TURAN (TURAN-DZUNGAR) PROVINCE Introduction 15 II-1. Central Fergana district 175 Short geographical description of Uzbekistan 26 II-2. Middle Syrdarya district 179 Formation of landscapes 33 II-3. Kyzylkum district 190 Review of schemes of phytochoria of Central Asia and Uzbekistan 53 II-4. Bukhara district 205 II-5. Karakum district 212 II-6. South Aral district 214 II-7. Aral district 220 II-8. Ustyurt district 225 Phyto-geographical regions of UZBEKISTAN I MOUNTAIN CENTRAL ASIAN PROVINCE I-1. Western Tien Shan (South-Western Tien Shan) district 67 I-2. Fergana district 93 I-3. Fergana-Alay district 100 I-4. Nuratau district 106 10 References 232 Glossary 248 11 Introduction 12 13 Introduction T his publication is devoted to the botanical-geographical division of the Republic of Uzbekistan located in the heart of the Eurasian conti- nent. Plains comprise about 79% of country’s territory with mountains and foothills making up 21%. The ecosystems of Uzbekistan are characterized by rich biological and landscape diversity, which are a reflection of the complicated historical paths in flora and fauna formation, geographic position, and variety of nature conditions. The flora of Uzbekistan is comprised of more than 4300 species of vascular plants according to a recent estimation, including a large number of endemic, endangered species, and species of global importance. Deserts, mountains, and wetland ecosystems of Uzbekistan are included in the list of key ecological regions of our planet (WWF Global 200): # 111 – Middle Asian Montane Steppe and Woodlands: Gissar-Alay open woodlands; Tien Shan montane conifer forests, AlayWestern Tien Shan mountain steppe, Tien Shan foothill arid steppes; # 134 – Central Asian Deserts: Central Asian Southern deserts; Central Asian riparian woodlands (Olson, Dinerstein, 2002; The Third National Report, 2006). The mountains of Uzbekistan (and all Central Asia) are on the list of the World’s “the most biologically rich and endangered terrestrial ecoregions” al., 2004). (Mittermeier et The unique natural centers of origin and diversity of species, in- cluding the ancestors of many crop plants, are revealed on the territory of the country (Afonin et al., 2008). The mountain ecosystems of Uzbekistan are a part of the Central Asian center of the origin of crop wild relatives. The Zeravshan mountain ridge and basin and the Zeravshan River are included by IUCN and WWF into the World list of centers of plant diversity (CA7 - The Zeravshan River basin and mountains of Samarkand: Tajikistan and Uzbekistan). A huge volume of data on plant diversity in Uzbekistan was compiled Dry bottom of the Aral Sea and the eastern cliff of the Ustyurt plateau. Photograph by NYu Beshko 14 15 Introduction during a half century history of botanical research. A total of 3663 plant species is given bekistan” (3824 with introduced species) (1941-1962). in 6 volumes of “Flora of Uz- The 10-volume “Conspectus Florae Asiae Mediae” has been published as a result of the collaboration of a large team of experts in 1963-1993. These editions are still the main sources of information on the plant diversity of Uzbekistan. Since then, however, a large number of botanical findings have been made and many new plant species and even genera have been described 2014a). (Sennikov et al., 2016; Khassanov, 2015; Tojibaev et al., Nevertheless, flora of many regions of Uzbekistan is still insuffi- ciently studied; floristic research continues and new findings and openings are being made every year. Data on the distribution of many plant species have become outdated. The loss of vulnerable components of vegetation communities and the intensive extension of invasive species as a result of desertification and ecosystem degradation from anthropogenic impact are being constantly detected. New data have not been registered and floristic research has been irregular since the publication of the last volume of “Flora of Uzbekistan” (Sennikov et al., 2016). As a result, it is necessary to assume that there are no official data on Sarykamysh Lake, a view from the Ustyurt plateau. Photograph by NYu Beshko the precise number of plant species in flora of Uzbekistan today. Moreover, there is no modern annotated list of the flora of Uzbekistan or lists of the flora of the botanical-geographic and administrative regions of the country. A complete inventory of the flora has not been performed for all of the protected areas (PAs). The PA system of Uzbekistan does not correspond to the criterion of the botanical and geographical representativeness and does not provide sufficient protection of endemic, rare, and endangered species of plants (Recommendations, 2013). Uzbekistan is the most densely populated country in Central Asia; it is in first place in Central Asia and in third place in the CIS according to the last census of its population. The population of Uzbekistan increased from 20.6 million people in 1991 to 31 million people by the beginning of 2015; the average population density increased from 46 people/km² in 1991 to 69 people/km² (The Republic of Uzbekistan: Biodiversity Conservation, National Strategy 16 Dry bottom of the Aral Sea and the eastern cliff of the Ustyurt plateau. Photograph by NYu Beshko 17 and Action Plan, 1998; Central Asia: Atlas of Natural Resources, 2011; The Fifth National report, 2015; www.cawater-info.net; www.stat.uz). Considerable changes in indigenous vegetation communities in all regions of the Republic are being caused by the increasing anthropogenic The ecosystems of the country have been influenced by human activ- impact on nature. The ongoing status of vegetation cover is characterized ity since ancient times; anthropogenic impact has increased considerably by sparseness, low capacity of biomass productivity, considerable decrease th since the second half of the 20 Century. Approximately 20% of the area in forested area, the wide distribution of secondary communities and ad- of Uzbekistan consists of the landscapes transformed by humans. Natu- ventive, weed plants. All types of natural forests in Uzbekistan can be ral ecosystems have almost been replaced completely by anthropogenic designated as vulnerable and exposed to a strong anthropogenic pressure. landscapes as a result of economic development in regions of Uzbekistan, Uzbekistan is a country with a low forest coverage, which in 1990 was 7.2% such as the Fergana valley, Zeravshan valley, Kashkadarya and Surkhan- of the total land area and included about 3.0 million hectares or 6.7% of darya valleys, Khorezm and Tashkent oases, and Hungry Steppe. The flora the territory of the Republic as of 01.01.2013 and vegetation of many regions show significant degradation. The area diversity Conservation, National Strategy and Action Plan, 1998; The Fifth National report, and number of many plant species have been reduced considerably; many 2015). plant species are on the edge of extinction. An analysis of a current status in the 1970s – 1980s. About 150 thousand hectares were taken during this of ecosystems and biological diversity of Uzbekistan and existing tenden- period from the State Forest Fund for needs of agriculture; the best saxaul cies shows that the processes of reducing biological diversity is still taking woodlands and highly valuable tugay forests were transferred for agricul- place in the country, mainly as a result of the degradation and destruction tural land reclamation. Second, intensive process of degradation of wood of habitat and the overexploitation of bioresources (The Fifth National report, and shrubby vegetation on lands of Forest Fund has accelerated due to Increased fragility is a characteristic of the ecosystems of Uzbeki- climate change and anthropogenic impact. Despite the ongoing efforts, the 2015). A sharp deterioration in the condition of woodlands was observed stan; the western part of country territory is located in the zone of the Aral ecological crisis. Zeravshan Ridge, surroundings of the Takhtakaracha Pass. Photograph by NYu Beshko 18 (The Republic of Uzbekistan: Bio- 19 level of forested area has not been restored to the level of the 1960s (The Third National report, 2006). Some species and phytocenoses with restricted distribution and habitat are also considered endangered (e.g., gypsophilous vegetation of variegated rocks). Anthropogenic transformation of their habitats is a major factor of extinction of these species and communities. These warning facts have been highlighted repeatedly in the National reports on environmental protection, National reports on the implementation of International environmental conventions (Convention on Biological Diversity, Convention to Combat Desertification and the Framework Convention on Climate Change), and in the reports of various international projects and scientific publications (Kabulov, 1990; The Republic of Uzbekistan: Biodiversity Conservation, National Strategy and Action Plan, 1998; Kuzmina, Treshkin, 2001; Butkov, 2004, 2011; World Heritage Thematic Study, 2005; Central Asia: Atlas of natural resources, 2010; Treshkin, 2011; Recommendations, 2013; The Fifth National report, 2015; etc.). Nuratau ridge. A giant “holy” tree of Platycladus orientalis in the Madjrum valley. Photograph by NYu Beshko Consequently, the study and analysis of historical and current distribution of plant species ogy of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan and their natural combinations within biogeographical regions is extremely cal collection, which is a national treasure of Uzbekistan. The herbarium important. The results of this work are also required due to the start of contains more than 1.5 million herbarium sheets that have been collected - a unique botani- Defi- since the 1830s from all regions of Central Asia and some other regions of nition of phytochoria is not only of scientific and conservation value, but is the world. According to the total number of herbarium specimens, TASH also used for natural and economic regioning of the country, which is basic ranks second in the CIS after the Herbarium of Botanical Institute of Rus- for the development of socio-economic plans. sian Academy of Sciences work on the new edition of “Flora of Uzbekistan” (Sennikov et al., 2016). (TASH) (LE, St. Petersburg) and the second in Asia after At the present time, Institute of the Gene Pool of Flora and Fauna of the the Herbarium of Chinese Academy of Sciences (PE, Peking). It contains the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan with the support of the GEF Small world’s largest collection of Central Asian samples. The number of type Grants Programme, realized the project aimed at developing a new scheme specimens in TASH is more than 1.5 thousand. for the phytogeographical division of Uzbekistan and creating an elec- Many historical herbarium collections are stored in TASH from the tronic database of plant diversity in the country. The idea of the project is first explorers of the Central Asian flora, such as GS Karelin, IP Kirilov, E to analyze all available sources on the plant diversity of Uzbekistan and to Regel, AG Schrenk prominent botanists of the 20th Century, as MG Popov, compile information on the taxonomy, morphology, ecology, geographical EP Korovin, MV Kultiasow, VP Drobow, AI Vvedensky, RV Kamelin, distribution, economic importance, and status of species of flora in a single KZ Zakirov, MM Arifkhanova, UP Pratov, TA Adylov, MM Nabiev, SS electronic database and geo-information system The main source Kovalevskaja and many other scientists contributed to developing the of information is Central Herbarium of the Institute of Botany and Zool- plant taxonomy and botanical geography in Uzbekistan as well as provided 20 21 (GIS). Introduction sample collections of many geobotanic, floristic and resource studying expeditions of the 20th Century. The majority of taxonomic groups were described by experts at a satisfactory level. Historical and modern flora can be analyzed on the basis of TASH material for many Uzbekistan regions as the sampling is very rich. On the other hand, the data were not used in the development of the National and regional floristic lists. The main reason for this problem is the huge volume of collection funds and the absence of an electronic database of TASH. The results of our own field expeditions to the most of mountainous, piedmont, and plain regions of Uzbekistan as well as analyses of the herbarium collections stored in Tashkent (TASH), Moscow (MW), Saint Peters- burg (LE), and Berlin (B) were the basic sources for this work. An extensive Sundikli Sands. Ferula foetida in surroundings of the Dengizkul Lake. Photograph by NYu Beshko literature review was performed on the flora and vegetation of different regions of Uzbekistan, its neighboring countries and Central Asia as a whole; classic works of botanical geography, publications on phytogeographical, geomorphological, and landscape zoning of Central Asia; works of the Kyzylkum desert. Carex physodes, a dominant of psammophilous vegetation of Central Asian deserts. Photograph by NYu Beshko specialists in the field of paleogeography of the region, and a large volume of cartographic material. The electronic database of TASH collection created by the efforts of the entire team of the Central Herbarium of Uzbekistan was the most important resource for analyzing the geographic distribution of plant species. The digitizing of TASH herbarium specimens was done by scanning using HerbScan TM 224 + Epson Expression 10000 XL. More than 5.000 herbarium specimens from the general collection each plant species) (2-3 representative specimen for and 815 type specimens (stored separately) were scanned. The specimens from general collection and type collection were scanned with a resolution of 360 dpi and 600 dpi, respectively; the scanned images were saved in tif format. The TASH database was developed in MS Excel format; it now includes more than 200 thousand herbarium samples of more than 2300 species from 330 genera. The following information was included in the database Hissar Ridge. Eremurus kaufmannii in alpine pastures. Photograph by NYu Beshko Kyzylkum desert, Kuldjuktau relic mountains. Iris longiscapa in the stony desert. Photograph by NYu Beshko 22 for each herbarium specimen: scientific, Russian, and Uzbek names of 23 Introduction the species; place of collection (full text from label); surname of the collector; (1982), surname of identifier; year; collection date; sample number; coordinates – and provided herein as illustrations. (latitude and longitude); and botanic-geographical district and region. The digi- and RV Kamelin (1973a, 1990, 2010) were also digitized with ArcGIS Priority Latin names of the plant taxa are given according to the Inter- tizing of herbarium information is still in progress. A modern synopsis of national nomenclature provided in The Plant List flora of Uzbekistan was developed in MS Excel format International Plant Names Index (electronic database), which included 4344 wild vascular plant species, certainly registered for (www.ipni.org); (www.theplantlist.org) and authors of plant names are given in accordance with Brummitt and Powell (1992). Geochronological and stratigraphic nomenclature is given according the territory of the country. The coordinates for new collections during the expeditions were determined by a navigation device, GPS. Most coordinates of historical speci- to the International Chronostratigraphic Chart and regional stratigraphic scales for Central Asia (www.stratigraphy.org). mens were determined using online maps Google Earth. The historical In this book, we adhered to the most common modern definition of maps from the TASH archives were an invaluable source of information Central Asian region, which includes Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, in this work because some of toponyms had changed many times over the Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, i.e. Middle Asia in the meaning of the Rus- last century. The coordinates were tabulated in Microsoft Excel format, sian and Soviet scientists. imported to GIS using the ArcGIS 10.0 software and saved as the point vector layers (GIS shape-files). The licensed ArcGIS programme was provid- ed by the sponsorship support of the GEF Small Grants Programme. Satellite images from available free Internet resources (Google, Yandex, etc.) were downloaded using the SAS Planet software, exported to GIS and used as a topographical basis, as well as vector and raster layers from open access Internet resource www.naturalearthdata.com. The data were exported from ArcGIS into maps as jpg image files. Point distribution maps of many flora species of Uzbekistan, including endemic species, were prepared using GIS, which facilitated the analysis of the composition of endemic species in each botanical-geographical district and region. The modern scheme of the phytogeographical division of Uzbekistan was produced using the ArcGIS software as a vector layer. The boundaries of the phytogeographical provinces, districts, and regions were mapped along natural boundaries by analyzing the features of the flora, data on distribution of endemic and sub-endemic taxa, geologic history, landscape, and vegetation types. For these reasons, the satellite images and topographic base layers mentioned above were used. Schemes of phytogeographical division of Central Asia developed by the EP Korovin 24 (1962), ZA Maylun 25 Introduction Short Geographical Description of UZBEKISTAN T he rich floristic and phytocenotic diversity of Uzbekistan is defined by its geographic location, altitudinal zoning, and diversity of envi- ronment conditions within each belt. The Uzbekistan Republic is located in the center of the Eurasian continent between two large rivers of Central Asia – the Amudarya and Syrdarya in the basin of the Aral Sea. The total area is 447,400 km², 425,400 km² (95 %) of which represented by dryland. The northernmost point of the country is on Ustyurt plateau at the western shore of the Aral Sea (45°36’ N); the most southern point of the country is in the Amudarya flood plain near Termez city point is on plateau Ustyurt (56° E) (37°11’ N); the most western and the easternmost point is in the east of the Fergana valley to the north of Andijan water reservoir (73°10° E). The length of the territory of the country from east to west is 1400 km and from Figure 1 Climatic map of Uzbekistan (Goskomzemgeodezkadastr, 2006). north to south is 925 km. The total length of the borders is 6221 km. In the north, Uzbekistan borders with Kazakhstan, in the east and south-east with Kyrgyzstan, in the south-east with Tajikistan, in the south-west with Turk- cold with little snow. Desert, foothills, and mountain zones are characteris- menistan, and in the south with Afghanistan. The and highest and lowest tic of the country according to the climatic data (Atlas, 1982; Chub, 2000, 2007; points are 4643 m and -16 m above sea level (a.s.l.), respectively. Geographical Atlas, 2012). The main part of Uzbekistan territory belongs to the temperate climatic The average duration of the no frost period ranges from 160-190 days zone and only the most southern part of the country is in the subtropical in the north to 200-240 days in the south. In the plains of the country, the region. The geographic position of the Republic in the center of a large average annual temperature ranges from +9.8 °C in the north continent far from the oceans causes a dry continental climate that is char- kalpakia weather station) acterized by daily and annual amplitudes of air temperature fluctuations, temperature is + 26 °C in the north and + 30 °C in the south; the absolute contrast seasons of the year, low amount of precipitation and its uneven maximum reaches + 45-50 °C. The average January temperature ranges distribution during the year, as well as high intensity of solar radiation. from -8-9 °C in the north to + 2-3 °C in the south; in some years, the mini- The main climatic data has fluctuated over the years. Spring is short, early, mum temperature reaches -38-40 °CFigure 1. Moderate precipitation distribu- and wet; summers are long, hot, and dry; autumn is cool and wet; winter is tion is observed in the highlands and the average annual temperature does 26 27 to +17.3 °C in the south (Termez). (Ustyurt, Kara- The average July Introduction not exceed 5°С. For example, the average annual temperature was 5.8 °C at the meteorological station Kamchik cal station Oygaing (2151 m), (2145 m), 2.4 °C at the meteorologi- and 0.7 °C at the weather station Shakhristan pass (3143 m a.s.l.) (Atlas, 1982; Williams, Konovalov, 2008; Geographical Atlas, 2012). Precipitation in the desert and foothill zones occurs mainly in the rain, snow, and melting glaciers. A considerable part of the flow is spent on irrigation in the foothills and in plains, so most of the rivers end in a blind channel, even large rivers, such as the Zeravshan and Kashkadarya. The following types of soil were formed on the territory of Uzbekistan under the influence of different factors. Automorphic soils, such as gray- winter-spring period; the maximum is in March-April. In the mountainous brown, desert sandy soils, takyr-like soils, takyrs, saline soils area, precipitation takes place throughout the year, but the maximum is in and sands are common for the plain part of the country. The soil cover of April-May. Annual rainfall level in the valleys, foothills, and mountains is the mountain part of Uzbekistan is formed with gray soils, brown, dark 80-200 mm, 300-400 mm, and 600-800 mm, respectively; more than 2000 brown mountain forest soils, and light brown meadow-steppe soils. Hy- mm may fall on some windy slopes in the high mountains. The number of dromorphic soils, such as meadow, marsh, and saline soils, are typical for days with precipitation in the valleys is 35-60 on average during the year river valleys and deltas. In addition, takyr-oasis, meadow-oasis, and gray- and 70-90 in the foothills and mountains. Winters in the valleys and foot- oasis soils are characteristic of irrigated agriculture areas hills are usually not cold, short, with unstable snow cover, with the excep- graphical Atlas, 2012). (solonchaks), (Atlas, 1982; Geo- tion of the Ustyurt plateau. Constant snow cover of more than 1.5-2 m in Five main types of relief inherited from previous geological eras are thickness is being formed annually in the mountains with an altitude from characteristic of the country: denudation-tectonic, structural-denudation, 1500 m a.s.l. The terms of the formation of snow cover and its melting, denudation, denudation-deflation, and accumulative (Geographical Atlas, 2012). average height, and duration of its occurrence vary for different years (Chub, The territory of Uzbekistan is divided into plains the area), 2000, 2007). piedmonts and mountains (about 21%). (approximately 79% of Accordingly, landscapes are The geographical location and natural climatic characteristics of Uz- divided into two classes: plains and mountains. Plains occupy the northern, bekistan determine the high sensitivity of ecosystems to climate change western, and central regions of the country and include the south-eastern and human impacts. The country’s territory with the aridity indices be- part of the Ustyurt plateau, most of the Kyzylkum desert; alluvial val- tween 0.03 and 0.20 is located in the arid region that have undergone in- ley and delta of the Amudarya River; Karnabchul desert; Karshi Steppe; tense desertification and drought phenomena according to the criteria of Mirzachul; Fergana valley; Zeravshan and Surkhan-Sherabad valleys. UNESCO World desertification map and UN Convention to Combat De- Foothills and mountains are located in the eastern and south-eastern parts sertification (Chub, 2000, 2007; The Fifth National Report, 2015). of Uzbekistan and include the western spurs of the Tien Shan and Pamir- The water resources of Uzbekistan include surface and underground Alay. Therefore, the territory of the Republic is represented by all types of water distributed unevenly across the country. All surface waters are con- altitudinal zones from plains to highlands. Dissemination of the altitudinal nected to the Aral Sea without an outlet and basins of the Amudarya and zones are also reflected in the soil type and vegetation cover specification- Syrdarya rivers. The main area of runoff formation is the mountain regions Figure 2 of the Republic with the highest level of precipitation. A dense hydro- zones due to the heterogeneity of climatic conditions, landscapes, and soil. graphic network is well developed in mountains and only a few streams Modern physiography of the Uzbekistan territory, landscape structure, as are available in the plains. Mountain rivers derive their water from the well as the geomorphological division of the Republic are reflected in the 28 29 . A wide range of habitats are allocated within each of the altitudinal Introduction mountains (sub-humid, semiarid, and arid climatic variations), and highlands (sub- humid and semi-arid climatic variations) (Atlas, 1982; Geographical atlas, 2012; Recommendations, 2013). One hundred and one landscape types have been defined within the borders of Uzbekistan, which are united into five major environmental groups based on their relation to the environmental conditions: xeromorphic, mesomorphic, halomorphic, hydromorphic, and anthropogenic (Popov, 1990, 1994; Geographical atlas, 2012). The appropriate plant ecotypes are developing for which these natural territorial complexes are ecotopes. The landscapes (natural territorial complexes, geographical systems) of each particular region pro- vide a comprehensive description of its natural environment. A study of the landscape structure and botanical geography are linked inextricably because the landscape is a three-dimensional space within which the local populations of species and plant communities are developing. Figure 3 Surkhan-Sherabad valley. Photograph by VA Popov. Figure 2 Map of the vegetation of Uzbekistan (Goskomzemgeodezkadastr, 2006). geomorphological and landscape maps published in the “Geographical Atlas of Uzbekistan” (2012). Sixteen major categories of geosystems (landscape types), including 10 plain and 6 mountain, have been identified within the countryFigure 3. The landscapes of the plains of Uzbekistan are subdivided into marine plains, lacustrine plains, modern alluvial-deltaic plains, ancient alluvial-deltaic plains, alluvial plains, aeolian plains, bedded plains, relic low mountains, drainless depressions, and intermountain depressions. The class of mountain landscapes includes proluvial plains, alluvial-proluvial plains, foothills, low mountains (semiarid, arid, and extra arid climatic variations), 30 middle 31 Introduction Formation of Landscapes S tudying the processes of landscape genesis in the past (paleogeography) provides a key to knowledge of the laws of developing of modern vegetation in the Republic. In his fundamental work, EP Korovin 1962) (1961, in Part I of “The historical background to the current state of the flora and vegetation of Central Asia” (chapter IV-VI) expressed the idea that the Neogene flora and vegetation of Central Asia, especially in the plains, resemble modern flora in many aspects. A team of researchers, who described the paleobotany of our country in the summary of their work on the history of the formation of the vegetation in Uzbekistan, also suggested the similarity of vegetation of the Neogene, Quaternary, and modern period (Khudayberdyev et al., 1971). The principle of actualism is the comparative-historical method of research in natural sciences, according to which the study of contemporary natural processes used in paleogeography indicates the processes that occurred in the distant past, and allows a reconstruction of the paleogeographic conditions of most ancient epochs of the Earth. Specialists of this scientific direction now solve problems related to the re-establishment of the natural environment for the current epoch as was present in the Proterozoic era. An analysis of the landscape genesis processes and description in general terms of landscape structures in Central Asia during the Pliocene and Quaternary periods spaced out from the present time by no more than 12 million years is an achievable goal. Collective monography “Lower parts of the Amu-Darya, the Sarykamysh, and the Uzboy: History of formation and settlement” (1960) is an example prepared based on the Khorezm expedition, which describes the history of the formation of deltas of the Amudarya and includes a series of paleogeographical maps of the Surkhan-Sherabad valley. Photograph by VA Popov. 32 33 Introduction region. BI Pinkhasov (1984; 2000) recreated the main features of paleogeography Paleolandscape genesis on the territory of Central Asian mountain physiographical country of Turan in the The complex geological history of this region is the most important fac- described the tor that influenced the formation of flora, vegetation and landscape of geology and hydrogeology of the Hungry Steppe and Eastern Kyzylkum in mountainous Central Asia. The main stages of the geological development the Upper Cenozoic. The paleogeomorphologic characteristics of Uzbeki- of Central Asia were determined by the phases of orogeny, which had a stan in the Quaternary were described by GF Tetyukhin The paleo- planetary scale. Orogeny epochs alternated with periods of peneplanation. geographic circumstances in the Tien Shan and Aral Sea region is given in Tectonic movements were accompanied by intense magmatism, formation the monography “The History of lakes Sevan, Issyk-Kul, Balkhash, Zaysan of major breaks of the crust, active movement of the lithospheric plates, (mainly neotectonics, deposits and paleogemorphological conditions) Neogene – Quaternary. VP Volkov and BI Pinkhasov and Aral” (1991). The “Atlas of the Uzbek SSR” (1982) (1985) (1978). and “Geographical and significant changes in the natural environment. include an overview of paleogeography of Uz- The general structural plan of the mountains in Central Asia is charac- bekistan in the Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleogene, and Quarternary illustrated terized by the sub-latitudinal expansion of the tectonic zones separated by in a series of paleogeographic maps. deep breaks. Some mountain areas of the region have different ages; their Atlas of Uzbekistan” (2012) An analysis of the extensive literature on this subject as well as the re- formation took place in different geological periods. The northern, central sults of more than 40 years of field research by VA Popov allow a restora- and southern tectonic arcs were defined by DV Nalivkin tion of the landscape genesis processes on the territory of Uzbekistan in the researchers within the Central Asian mountain country. Caledonian folding Upper Neogene – Quaternary. The method of analogue landscapes used in orogeny dominates in the northern arcs physical geography is implemented due to the incompleteness of available Talas, Kyungey Alatau, Syrdarya Karatau, Chu-Ili Mountains), data, recreating the character of the vegetation of Uzbekistan in previous prevail in the central arcs geological epochs. Tien Shan, Northern and Western Pamir-Alay), the south arcs (1926) and other (ridges Ketmen, Trans-Ili Alatau, Kyrgyz, Hercynian structures (Dzungarian Alatau, mountain ridges of Central and Western and alpine structures are found in (low mountains of southern Tajikistan, Pamir, Badakhshan and the Kopet- Dag). The ancient mountain structures in Central Asia, including the ridges of the Northern Tien Shan, began to form in the early Paleozoic period during the Caledonian orogeny. Hercynian (Variscan) orogeny in the second half of the Paleozoic period was the next important step. The major event in Earth’s history occurred in this era; the continents of Gondwana and Laurasia merged into a giant continent, Pangaea. The collision of lithospheric plates led to the formation of the folded structures that have become the foundation of the modern Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay Mountains. Young epihercynian platform structures, including the Turan plate, were formed. The Western Tien Shan and Western Pamir-Alay mountains located 34 35 Introduction within the territory of Uzbekistan for a long time were developing in a marine regime with transgressions and regressions of the Mesozoic and Paleogene seas in contrast to Northern and Central Tien-Shan. mulative plains of paleo-Kyzylkum. The stage of relative tectonic inactivity took place in the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene. The processes of landscape genesis in Central Asia Tectonic movements of the Late Cretaceous - Early Paleogene led to the proceeded with the tectonic activities fading in the orogenic area and uplift of a considerable part of the Turan plain. The Paleogene and Eocene Turan plate. Lakes fed by a few streams flowing down the slopes of the periods were marked by the most powerful ocean transgressions. At this surrounding low mountains were formed on the bottoms of the large drain- time, a relatively deep and warm sea covered the Turan plains stretching less intermountain depressions of the Tien Shan under the conditions of until the present-day Tien Shan area. The mountain ridges that arose in the crust immersion at the edge of the Miocene and Pliocene. The arid climate early Oligocene were subjected to destruction. The peneplain landscapes, contributed to the deposition of gypsum and salt in these reservoirs. The wavy denudation plains with mesoxerophyte and xerophyte vegetation, discovery of salt and gypsum layers in the sediments of Tien Shan drain- mainly developed until the middle Sarmatian. Red-colored sedimentary less depressions suggests that environmental conditions were homoge- rocks filled the intermountain depression from the Oligocene to the middle neous and stable at that time. The terrain of this mountain country at that Sarmatian. Low mountain landscapes with a weak dissected relief and time remained slightly dissected and rather flattened; its slow lifting was inconsiderable streamflow developed on the territory of the Tien Shan balanced by denudation processes and the decrease in precipitation in the and Pamir-Alay in the early Miocene. Rather narrow ribbon of the gallery intermountain valleys. The landscapes in the mountain areas gradually be- forests stretched on the meadow alluvial floodplain and alluvial soils on came xeromorphic and the role of xerophytes and gypsophytes in vegeta- the valleys of small paleo streams. A narrow strip of foothill geosystems tion had increased considerably. with xerophilous vegetation on gray soils can be found along the mountain ridges. The Late Pliocene became significant in the natural history of the Central Asian region. Akchagyl and Apsheron transgressions of the Caspian Tectonic processes again were activated in Central Asia in the Middle basin took place in the territory of Turan at this geological time. The uplift Miocene. They resulted in the uplift of mountains in the east of the region, of mountain systems of the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay in Central Asia in- increasing the amplitude of the relief. According to the available paleogeographic materials, it can be assumed, that low mountain landscapes with rather dissected topography and mesophilic forest vegetation on typical dark gray soils prevailed at the initial stages of orogeny in the temperate climate of the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay. Landscapes with dominating xerophyte ephemeral-ephemeroid vegetation on the light and typical gray Reeds in the floodplain of the Syrdarya River. Photograph by NYu Beshko soils were developing on the slopes of the advanced steeply hill ridges. The floodplains of the shallow and temporal water streams were occupied by marshy meadows on the alluvial floodplain and alluvial soils. Rivers and streams exhausted in the foothills and intermountain depressions. Only few of them reached the periphery of the alluvial proluvial trails and accu- 36 37 tensified and expanded in the east. The hot and dry climate was replaced southern monsoon resulting in Central Asia being overshadowed from oce- by a cool and wet climate during the Akchagyl. This resulted in the for- anic influences, which produced the conditions for the formation of desert mation of an extensive hydrographic network and a powerful river flow landscapes in Turan plains. The Iranian Plateau and mountains of Middle conveying a huge amount of debris from mountains in the Central Asian and Central Asia became the centers of origin of many plant species. region. As a result, advanced ridges of the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay be- The area covered by the Alpine foldings, retained high tectonic activity came fringed by strips of alluvial and proluvial plains and their foothills in the modern era and is expressed in an intensely dissected relief and high and intermountain depressions were filled rapidly by the sediments. The seismicity. mountain systems of the Central Asia divided river valleys exist even now- The process of intensive uplift of young mountains in Central Asia was adays: paleo-Keles, paleo-Chirchik, paleo-Akhangaran, paleo-Zeravshan, accompanied by repeated climate change correlated with the glacial and paleo-Kashkadarya, and paleo-Surkhandarya. interglacial epochs of the temperate latitudes. Alternating warm and cold, The period of Alpine orogeny started in the Eopleistocene epoch about 60 million years ago - the youngest era of foldings formed the modern arid and pluvial periods were followed by a shift of landscape zones and altitudinal belts, and the migration of species. mountainous structures of Eurasia. Tectonic activity of the mountain regions of Central Asia intensified and powerful mountain ridges of the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay replaced the residual plains and lowlands with Paleozoic folded structures and insular low mountains rose in the center of Figure 4 Glacial landforms in the Central Asian highlands: wide valley with ancient moraines surrounded by sharp jagged crests of ridges. Chatkal ridge, Tashkeskensay river upstream. Photograph by NYu Beshko. the Kyzylkum. The latest orogenic movements in the mountains of Central Asia took place unevenly in time and space. They started in the south, within the Pamirs, and seized more northern areas. On the territory of modern Uzbekistan, the amplitude of the positive and negative tectonic movements of quickly uplifted mountain ridges was 4-5 km. Geologists estimate the amplitude of vertical motions in the Late Pliocene in piedmonts at 800-900 m, and in Turan plains – at 100-300 m. The average rate of tectonic movement in this period is much higher than in the Miocene and Early Pliocene (Pinkhasov, 2000). These magnificent geological events played an important role in the formation of mountain structures in Middle and Central Asia and became one of the key factors that determined acute continental climate of the region. The ancient Tethys Ocean ceased its existence Black, and Caspian Seas), (its relics are the Mediterranean, and the continents gradually took their modern shape. Risen during the Alpine orogeny mountain ridges of the Alpine-Himalayan fold belt formed a powerful barrier to the humid western air masses and 38 39 Mountain glaciation was developing, the humidity was increasing and the runoff was strengthening in the cold era. The interglacial epochs were characterized by climate aridity and a considerable reduction of water flow from the mountains. Glaciation had a great influence on the formation of terrain and landscapes in the high mountains of Central AsiaFigure 4. The processes of mountain glaciation continued throughout the Quartenary period (Tetyukhin, 1978); its maximum on the territory of the Central Asian mountain country occurred at the end of Late Pleistocene (Shnitnikov, 1973; Sevastianov et al., 1980; History of Lakes, 1991). In this era, the climate was relatively cold and dry, the most elevated areas of the mountain systems were covered with glaciers, and the snow line was approximately 600-800 m below modern level. Alternating arid and pluvial epochs took place in the Central Asian region from the Late Pleistocene until nowadays but the main trend of climate development has been directed towards the strengthening of aridity and continentality. The landscapes of forest and shrub vegetation were widespread on the slopes of the mountains in the foothills and intermountain areas in the Figure 5 Formation of landscapes in the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay during the NeogeneQuaternary periods by active mountain formation processes, and medium and high mountain landscapes with a strongly dissected relief now dominate in the region. Hissar Ridge, the ravine Kalasay. Photograph by NYu Beshko. pluvial periods and during the hot and arid periods, the forests and shrubs were retreating up the mountain slopes and were replaced with semi-desert went a complicated development. The present terrain is formed mainly as a and steppe geosystems. At the end of last glacial epoch, the mountain landscapes of Central result of the Alpine orogeny, which led to the restructuring and renewal of Asia took in general a modern look. The first half of the Holocene, which the most ancient folded structures of the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay, while began around 11,000 years ago, had a more humid climate than today. a part of the tectonic structures in the south of Central Asia were fully Steppe and meadow steppe landscapes were widespread in the mountains formed during the Alpine orogeny. The active mountain forming processes of Central Asia during this period. Forests occupied much larger areas than were a key factor in the formation of the natural systems throughout the today. The anthropogenic landscapes appeared Neogene-Quaternary time. The total value of the neotectonic uplifts dur- and began to expand since the second half of the Holocene and the char- ing the last thirty million years ranged from one to five kilometers. The acter of the environment and natural vegetation, soil cover and mountain intensive tectonic movements led to the formation of the strongly rugged landscapes of Central Asia took its modern look. terrain in the middle and upper mountain beltsFigure 5. Wide range of terrain (settlements, arable land, etc.) The modern mountain systems in Central Asia were formed on folded structures of a different age (Baikal, Caledonian, Hercynian, and Alpine) and under- 40 elevations was the main factor in the formation of altitudinal zones in the landscape structure of the Central Asian mountain country. 41 Introduction Paleolandscape genesis on the territory of the Central Asian plain physiographical country The Central Asian plain physiographical country (Turan plain), a vast natural humid climate with seasonal drought dominated in the Cretaceous period. The climate was presumably drier and hotter in the southern parts of Central Asia. At the end of the Mesozoic (Upper Cretaceous) and Paleogene peri- area of about 2 million km², is characterized by the inland and southern ods, the platform experienced sagging, resulting in sea water penetrating geographical location, distant from the sea, undrained and other features into Turan plain from the west and south, and thick strata of sedimentary that compose its unique shape. At present, the landscape of Turan plain has rocks that totally smoothed the roughness of the Paleozoic foldings. The a well-defined arid character. The typical features of this physiographical sea flooded not only the modern lowlands and plateaus, but also the insular country are the prevalence of low level terrain, widespread aeolian land- low mountains of Central Kyzylkum. forms, negative water balance, and excessive salt accumulation due to its drainless feature. In the Eocene epoch almost all the territory of modern Uzbekistan and its central part were under a warm and relatively deep sea. The activation The Turan plain formed on a single major tectonic structure, the young of tectonic processes started in Central Asia at the boundary of Eocene and epipaleozoic Turan plate. Its Paleozoic (hercynian) foundation lies in a depth Oligocene epochs. Rising of the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay mountain sys- of more than 1-6 km under the thickness of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic tems resulted in a retreat of the Eocene coastal line to the west. The eastern sediments demolished from mountains. In some places, Paleozoic rocks part of the Central Asian region was released completely from sea in the of the Turan plate basement come to the surface, forming insular lowlands second part of the Oligocene remaining within the boundaries of Uzbeki- and hills stan only on the territory of the modern Usturt plateau and in the gulf to (relic mountains of Kyzylkum, Great Balkhan ridge, etc.). These hills are confined to the zone of the deep Hissar-Mangyshlak break along which intense latest uplifts take place. Remnant lowlands located in the center the south-east of Sultan Uvays ridge. The area released from sea space was marshy plain with saline soils (Korovin, 1961). of Kyzylkum represent a continuation of the Nuratau ridge and form the occupied gradually by plants western extremity of the central tectonic arcs in the Central Asian moun- morphic geosystems started to develop on the newly formed land under tain country. the conditions of a humid and warm climate. Mesoxeromorphic and xero- The marine regime of this area, repeated alternation of periods of transgression and regression of the ancient seas and the newest tectonic move- Hydrogalomorphic and halo- morphic natural territorial complexes developed in the eastern part of the Turan plain with soil desalinization. ments of the Neogene and Quaternary periods have had a great influence New high scale marine transgressions took place between the Paleogene on the development of the relief and landscapes of Turan. Large-scale and Neogene periods, which reached mountain ridges rising in the east. changes in natural conditions led to appropriate changes in the vegetation The Fergana intermountain depression was flooded in the second half of cover in Central Asian plain country with a general tendency towards xero- the Oligocene period. The Early Miocene marine invasion deep into Turan phytization. was the most extensive. At the beginning of the Miocene, the sea returned In the Mesozoic and Paleogene periods, most of the territory of Central to the eastern part of Turan plain, in Fergana valley and even in the ter- Asia had a platform regime with relatively low amplitude of oscillatory ritory of the modern Angren plateau. At this time, the strip of the coastal movements. Hercynian folded structures in this era were subject to pe- desert and semidesert landscapes with xerophyte vegetation on saline soils neplanation. The available palaeobotanical data indicate that a warm and stretched to the west and north of the mountain ridges. 42 43 Introduction The last transgression of the sea was over in Turan in the Middle Miocene. The shallow warm sea in this era covered only Ustyurt within the borders of modern Uzbekistan. The landscapes of the denudation surfaces with gypsophilous and haloxerophilous vegetation on the grey-brown soils in combination with aeolian, saline, and takyr accumulative plains developed on the territory of the paleo-Kyzylkum to the east of sea basin. Gypsophilous and haloxerophilous vegetation were characteristic of the clayproluvial takyr plains, predominantly on carbonate soils. Geosystems with psammophilous vegetation were developed on the desert sandy soils and sands of the sandy plains, and the saline lowlands and depressions were occupied by halophilous vegetation on saline soils and salt marshes. The relatively quiet tectonic regime in the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene and the domination of hot and dry climate in the Central Asian Figure 6 Alluvial deposits of the paleo-Zeravshan in southwest Kyzylkum. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. region were the leading factors in landscape genesis. The western part of Turan was occupied by primary marine plains formed in the Miocene; the eastern part was comprised of accumulative plains. At the beginning of the Surkhandarya and others). These paleorivers began to irrigate the Turan plain, Pliocene, the surface of Turan was changed completely by the processes which led to the formation of hydro- and mesomorphic landscapes of of physical weathering, karst, suffusion, salt crystallization, as well as de- alluvial-deltaic and lacustrine plains with hydro-, hygro-, and mesophilic flation, which is the main reason for the arid denudation. An insignificant vegetation on the marsh, marsh-meadow, and meadow soils. These geosys- amount of precipitation and the absence of water courses caused the insig- tems spread in the center of the paleo-Kyzylkum due to watercourses flow- nificant development of the processes of plain erosion and weak dissection ing from the insular low mountains (Popov, 2007). The most overflowing of the above-mentioned rivers in the late Eopleis- of the relief. After regression of the Sarmatian Sea in the Late Miocene - Early Plio- tocene was the paleo-Zeravshan. The remains of its former riverbeds and cene, the paleo-Ustyurt plateau was released and developed in the conti- channels (the Daryasay, Makhandarya and others) are well traced in the north of its nental conditions until the present time. Halo- and xeromorphic landscapes present valley. Skirting the central part of the sublime paleo-Kyzyl-Kum with xerophilous vegetation on gray-brown soils and saline depressions in the south-west, it continued its way to the northwest and ended in the covered by halomorphic landscapes with sparse halophilous vegetation basin, located to the south-east of the UstyurtFigure 6. The most important rivers of the Central Asian region, the Syrdarya and have remained unchanged to the present day. With the beginning of Akchagylian cooling in the Late Pliocene, the Amudarya, came to the Turan plain later. Initially, the paleo-Amudarya and climate became more humid and the water content increased in rivers possibly paleo-Syrdarya fell into the Karakum Bay of the Akchagylian Sea originating from inner lands of the mountainous Central Asia (paleo-Caspian). (paleo-Arys, paleo-Keles, paleo-Chirchik, paleo-Akhangaran, paleo-Zeravshan, paleo-Kashkadarya, paleo- 44 According to researchers’ opinion Pinkhasov, 1984), (Tetyukhin, 1978; Atlas, 1982; the paleo-Syrdarya used the Aydar depression stretched in 45 Introduction the latitudinal direction on the border of the paleo-Kyzylkum and the alluvial proluvial plain of the paleo-Mirzachul. During the Quaternary period, the mouth of this river gradually shifted to the north, reaching its present Figure 8 One of the saline depressions in the center of modern Kyzylkum with hydrophilous vegetation around the springlets. Photograph by VA Popov. location of recent geological time. The paleo-Amudarya riverbed migrated through the territory of the paleo-Karakum in most of this era and only by the end of the Quaternary period did the river direct north to the paleo-Aral Sea. Herewith, it used the already existing channel of the paleo-Zeravshan. Most likely, the merged blind deltas of the paleo-Sarysu, paleo-Chu, paleo-Arys, and other rather affluent paleorivers of that time flowing in a southwest direction from the uplands located in the north of Turan, formed aran as well as in the paleo-Kashkadarya dumping zone, and in the valley landscapes of lake-alluvial, lacustrine, and alluvial-deltaic plains on the of the paleo-Surkhandarya territory of the present Northern Kyzylkum, Aral, and Betpakdala with Pinkhasov, 1985). (Tetyukhin 1978; Atlas, 1982; Pinkhasov, 1984; Volkov, hygromorphic vegetation on the marsh and meadow-marsh soils, with me- The change in climate from hot and dry to relatively cool and wet dur- somorphic vegetation on the meadow-like soils and with mesohalomorphic ing the Akchagyl was a powerful factor in the process of transformation vegetation on meadow saline soils. Similar geosystems developed in the of the topography and landscape of the Turan plain. This area, where the down stream areas of the paleo-Keles, paleo-Chirchik and paleo-Akhang- processes of denudation first prevailed, had accumulated cluster material brought by the significantly increased paleorivers flow. At the end of the Pliocene - Early Pleistocene, an enormous amount of sand material drawn by the affluent rivers formed the upper strata and topography of the paleoKyzylkum. Therefore, one of key factors of paleo landscape genesis of the Turan plain was the powerful surface flow of the pluvial periods. In the following geological time after establishing a dry climate, wind began to play a major role in the formation of the landscapes of the aeolian plains with psammophilous vegetation on sandy desert soils developed on the vast territory of the paleo-Kyzylkum. The central part of the paleo-Kyzylkum was occupied by insular arid low mountains fringed with proluvial plains (Bukantau, Zhetymtau, Tamdytau, Auminzatau, etc.) and xerophilous vegeta- Figure 7 tion on gray-brown, takyr, and desert sandy soils . Saline depressions with salt-tolerant vegetation often covered the bottom of these mountain ridges (Mynbulak, Molaly, Karata, Ayakagytma, etc.)Figure 8. During the Quaternary period, minor climate fluctuations and changes in the regional natural territorial complexes took place in the Turan plain Figure 7 Aerial view of the low mountains Bukantau 46 in the center of modern Kyzylkum. Photograph by VA Popov. 47 Introduction but the overall landscape structure of this physiographical region remained practically unchanged until the present day. The paleo-Aral depression was formed as a result of tectonic processes and exogenous factors (weathering, karst, water erosion and other processes) in the east of the Ustyurt plateau at the edge between the middle and late Akchagyl (about 2.6 million years ago) (Pinkhasov, 2000). The dynamic processes of landscape genesis rapidly changed the view of landscape structure of this vast depression. After only a few centuries after the formation of the depression terrain, the heterogeneity of the natural conditions in different parts led to the isolation of three main landscape regions. Landscapes of the salt marsh plains without vegetation or with sparse halophilous vegetation developed along the periphery of the salt marshes of various types at the bottom of the cliff chute. Brine lakes fed by springlets were located in the deepening of the chute. The eastern part of the depression was occupied by dissected plains with sparse halophilous and xerohalophilous vegetation on saline soils, and xerophilous vegetation on takyr-like soils, takyrs, desert sandy soils and sands. Slightly sloping hills with xerophilous vegetation on gray-brown, sandy desert soils, and sands stretched in the submeridional direction in the Figure 9 Erosion-deflationary depression with salt marsh in the center of dried bottom of the Aral Sea. Photograph by VA Popov. middle part of the paleo-Aral depression. Aleurite and salt particles were blown from the surface of the bottom of the depression by vertical and horizontal air flows and transported them over long distances. The small hollows turned into extensive erosion deepenings by gradual expansion Figure 10 Aeolian salt transportation on the dried bottom of the Aral Sea. Photograph by VA Popov. and widening, and constantly transformed the depression relief. Similar processes occurred many times in the periods of regression of the Aral Sea, and they can be seen on the dried bottom of the reservoir Figure 9-10. At the same period (at the edge between the middle and late Akchagyl), the sur- face of the Turan plain was divided as a result of a deep incision of the paleorivers into the upper strata of the accumulative deposits. The Dengizkul plateau formed in the south of the Central Asian plain country with its center - the North-Kyzylkum plateau. The cause of these events was the regression of the Akchagylian basin to the west, which caused the erosion 48 49 of paleorivers in Central Asia. This partition has been generally conserved until today and defines the contemporary geomorphological structure of the Turan plain country (Geographical atlas, 2012). In the late Akchagyl, the paleo-Aral depression was partially filled by the paleo-Chu, paleo-Syrdarya, and paleorivers from the Ural Mountains, Mugodzhar, Turgai plateau and upland situated to the east of it. The resulting undrained reservoir known in paleogeography as the Zayir Basin, a prototype of the future Aral Sea, experienced repeated transgressions and regressions in the next stages of geological history. By the beginning of Apsheron time, the bottom terrain of the depression was flattened as a result of accumulated sediments and the conveying activity of bottom flows; recession became rather small as the paleorivers’ deltas formed along its sides flown into this sea-lake in the north, northeast, and east lakes, 1991). The Aral (History of Sea was not distinguished by stability during the entire time of its existence. As a result of the various natural and anthropogenic factors, its area was frequently decreased and restored again. At the beginning of Eopleistocene, the Aral Sea region and Western Kyzylkum were filled by interlinked Sarykamysh and Aral basins representing the eastern part of the Apsheron Sea (paleo-Caspian), which included many paleorivers formed on the territory of the Central Asian mountain country. During the Pleistocene, streams ran down from the mountains, in which the upper belts were covered with vast glaciers and a hydrographic net- Figure 11 Aerial view of the Akchadarya channel in the northwestern Kyzylkum. Photograph by VA Popov. work with numerous river valleys and lakes formed on the territory of the Turan plain for the described time. The hydromorphic and mesomorphic landscapes of the alluvial, lacustrine, alluvial-deltaic plains with marsh, During the Upper Quaternary (early Khvalyn period) , the Amudarya, meadow and tugay vegetation on the alluvial, floodplain alluvial, marsh which had directed its water to the west of the Caspian Sea, turned north soils, and meadow salt marshes were well spread in the Fergana valley, and formed the Akchadarya deltaFigure 11. In the late Khvalyn period, the Hungry steppe, Kashkadarya and Surkhandarya intermountain valleys, in Amudarya again rushed to the west and formed the Sarykamysh delta and the lower course of the Zeravshan river in Central and Western Kyzylkum, sometimes reached the Caspian Sea through the Uzboy. Approximately 5-6 as well as in the Aral Sea region in a relatively humid climate (Tetyukhin, thousand years ago in the ancient period, the lower course of the Amudarya The tugay forests stretched along the river again turned to the north and began to fall into the Aral Sea and during a 1978; Atlas, 1982; Pinkhasov, 1984). banks as narrow ribbons. short geological time formed the modern delta with its location between 50 51 Introduction the ancient Akchadarya and Sarykamysh deltas. Its arms, the Daryalik and Review of Schemes of Phytochoria of Central Asia and UZBEKISTAN Daudan, during some periods fell into the Sarykamish Lake, adjacent to the South Ustyurt. These three deltas of the Amudarya mish and modern), (Akchadarya, Saryka- which were separated from each other in time and space, occupied a large area of approximately 7 thousand km². Generally, the mainstream of the Syrdarya flew into the Aral Sea and sometimes a part of its flow was also directed via one of the delta arms, the Quandarya or the Dzhanadarya. etation, and modern plant geography on the territory of Uzbekistan (about 8-6 thousand years are inextricably linked between each other as well as with the evolution the landscape genesis in Central Asia entered a new xerothermic era of nature in the entire Central Asian region, which is why the majority of At the end of the last large, lyavlyakan pluvial ago), T he geological history, formation of landscapes, development of veg- (Popov, 2007), which continues to the present day. Its natural territorial com- plexes are identical to the Middle Holocene. Irrigated agriculture began phytogeographical schemes have been developed based on the single geographic featuring of this region. to develop approximately 4 thousand years ago in Central Asia. This was The tasks of phytogeographical division of Uzbekistan and Central Asia the beginning of the formation of anthropogenic landscapes, which occupy are complicated by a number of circumstances, such as the large extent of vast territory in Uzbekistan. Among the anthropogenic landscapes of the the territory, a wide variety of physical and geographical conditions, com- country, human-transformed plains with cultivated vegetation on irrigated plicated geological history and weak floristic knowledge of some areas. lands and settlements cover the largest areas. There are three main approaches in botany to the division of the Earth’s vegetation into natural regions: floristical, based on an analysis of the geographical distribution of plant taxa; geobotanical, built on the distribution of plant communities; and phytogeographical, summarizing the data on flora and vegetation (Lavrenko, 1962, 1965; Takhtajan, 1978, 1986; Kamelin, 1990, 2012). One of the first attempts to divide the territory of Central Asia into areas with different vegetation was undertaken by BA Fedtschenko in the first quarter of the last century (1925). Based on much more diversified material, MG Popov (1927, 1940, 1950) and EP Korovin (1934, 1941, 1958, 1962) analyzed all existing schemes critically and published several scientific works devoted to this problem. These scientists paid a great deal of attention to the formation of flora and vegetation in Central Asia since ancient times and their views are of great importance in the development of a botanical -geographical understanding of this region. One of the outcomes of an analyses and summarizing of the research 52 53 Introduction regions defined. In “Flora of Uzbekistan”, this scheme did not find its application. The species distribution was mentioned in accordance with the administrative division of the country rather than according to that proposed by EP Korovin phytogeographical division. A more detailed report of districts) (with schematic maps and a description of the boundaries is “Phytogeographical division of Middle Asia” published by EP Korovin in the second volume of fundamental edition “Vegetation of Middle Asia and Southern Kazakhstan” provinces were defined: Turan desert South Kyzylkum and Bukhara), (1962). Seven phytogeographic (with 4 districts – Karakum, Messerian, Central Kazakhstan desert (with 7 districts - Ustyurt, Mangyshlak, Amudarya, North Kyzylkum, Betpakdala, Muyunkum and Ishikotraus), Turkestan mountain Hissar-Darvaz, Badakhshan and South Tajikistan), 2 districts - Kopetdag and Badkhyz), Turkmen-Iranian mountain Dzungarian Tien Shan mountain tricts - Dzungar, Tarbagatay, Trans-Ili, Kyrghyz, Chu-Ili and Talas), Figure 12 Phytogeographical regions of Central Asia and South Kazakhstan (by EP Korovin, 1962). I. Turan desert province, districts: I-1 Karakum, I-3 South Kyzylkum, I-4 Bukhara. II. Central Kazakhstan province, districts: II-1 Ustyurt, II-2 Mangyshlak, II-3 Amudarya, II-4 North Kyzylkum, II-5 Betpakdala, II-6 Muyunkum. III. South Turkestan mountain province, districts: III-1 Karatau, III-2 Western Tien Shan, III-3 Fergana, III-4 Kuhistan, III-5 Hissar-Darvaz, III-6 Badakhshan, III-7 South Tajikistan. IV. Turkmen-Iranian province, districts: IV-1 Kopetdag, IV-2 Badkhyz. V. Dzungarian Tien Shan province, districts: V-4 Kyrgyz, V-5 Chu-Ili, V-6 Talas. VI. Central Tien Shan province: VI-4 Alay district. VII. Pamir–Tibet province: VII-1 North-Eastern district. South (with 7 districts - Karatau, Western Tien Shan, Fergana, Kuhistan, (with (with 6 dis- Central Tien Shan alpine (with 5 districts – South-Western, North-Western, Eastern, Alay and Issyk-Kul), and Pamir-Tibet highland (two districts - North-Eastern and South-Eastern). A part of this scheme referring to the territory of Uzbekistan is presented hereinafter in figure 12. The indices of the provinces and districts correspond to those given in the monograph of EP Korovin. The map of geobotanical division was published by ZA Maylun in 1982 in the “Atlas of Uzbek SSR”. The Turan and West Asia province groups were defined on the territory of Republic and were divided into 3 prov- results for the first half of the twentieth century was the publication of a six-volume “Flora of Uzbekistan” (1941-1962). EP Korovin devoted one of introductory chapters of the first volume in this edition inces, 7 subprovinces, and 14 districtsFigure 13. ZA Maylun and VA Popov changed this scheme in “Geographic atlas of Uzbekistan” (2012). Thus, the to the phyto- Aral district, which included salt marsh, sand, and stony bottom of the Aral geographical division of Central Asia based on the vegetation characteris- Sea (so-called Aralkum), had been defined within Aral-Balhash subprovince of tics. The main idea of this scheme was the assignment of South and North the Aral-Caspian province along with Low Amudarya district. The Turke- botanical-geographical provinces, each divided into two districts, moun- stan district within the Fergana subprovince of South Turkestan province, tains and desert, and the districts in their turn were divided into regions which occupies the north slopes of the Turkestan and Alay ridges, was re- (total 21 regions). named the Alay–Turkestan district. (1941) Unfortunately, EP Korovin did not provide an appropriate theoretical foundation; a map was not applied nor were the borders of the 54 The phytogeographical division of mountainous Central Asia was de- 55 Introduction veloped in detail by RV Kamelin (1973a, 1979, 1990, 2010a, 2010b)Figure 14. The Central Asian mountains were divided by RV Kamelin into two provinces: western, Mountain Central Asian (Montane Middle Asian, or Afghan-Turkestan), with 5 subprovinces; and more eastern and northern, Dzungaria-Tien ShanAlay, with 3 subprovinces. RV Kamelin divided the Mountain Central Asian province into 5 subprovinces (1990, 2010a): Yaksart, Sogdian, Tajik, Bactrian, and Afghan-Badakhshan. The Yaksart subprovince included ChuIli, Kyrgyz, Karatau, Western Tien Shan and Fergana districts; Sogdian Nuratau, Kuhistan, Fergana-Alay, the northern part of Western Hissar, and probably Mogoltau-Kurama; the Tajik subprovince includes the HissarDarvaz and Karategin districts; the Bactrian subprovince includes southern part of the Western Hissar district, Panj district, and districts of Northern Figure 14 Phytogeographical division of Central Asia and adjacent territories (by RV Kamelin, 1973a, 1990, 2010). I. Mountain Central Asian province, its districts: I-1 Chu-Ili, I-2 Kyrgyz, I-3 Karatau; I-4 Western Tien Shan, I-5 Fergana; I-6 Mogoltau-Kurama, I-7 Fergana-Alay, I-8 Kuhistan, I-9 Nuratau, I-10 South-Western Gissar, I-11 – Panj, I-12 Hissar-Darvaz, I-13 Karategin-Alay, I-14 Badakhshan. II. Turan province, its districts: II-1 Balkhash-Ili, II-2 Betpakdala, II-3 Muyunkum, II-4 Aral, II-5 Ustyurt, II-6 Lower Amudarya, II-7 Kyzylkum, II-8 Fergana; II-9 Bukhara, II-10 Karakum, II-11 Mangyshlak. III. Dzungar – Tien Shan - Alay province; IV. Kashgar province; V. Pamir-Tibet province; VI. Kopetdag-Khorassan province. Afghanistan; the Afghan-Badakhshan subprovince unites Badakhshan and most parts of the Central Hindu Kush. For the part of the Mountain Central Asian province located within the Figure 13 Map of the geobotanical division of Uzbekistan (Maylun, 1982). I. Turan group of provinces, А. Aral-Caspian province, АI Ustyurt-Mugodzhar subprovince 1 Ustyurt district; АII Aral-Balhash subprovince 2 Lower Amudarya district; АIII Kyzylkum subprovince 3 Central Kyzylkum district; II. West Asian group of provinces, Б.Trans-Caspian province, БI Karakum province, districts: 4 Khorezm 5 South Kyzylkum; ВI Parapamiz subprovince 6 Surkhandarya district; ВII Hissar-Darvaz subprovince 7 South–Western Hissar district; ВIII Fergana subprovince, districts: 8 Zeravshan 9 Kashkadarya 10 Mirzachul 11 Chirchik-Akhangaran 12 Fergana 13 Western Tien Shan 14 Turkestan. 56 boundaries of the former Soviet Union, Kamelin defined 14 districts with a detailed description of the flora and vegetation features of the floristic diversity and a list of endemic species. The scheme of phytochoria of mountainous Central Asia proposed by RV Kamelin is complex, botanical-geographic, with the priority of the floristic criteria (Kamelin consider the flora more stable than vegetation) (Kamelin, 1973a, 57 Introduction 1979, 1990, 2012). The majority of the Central Asian florists and systematics boundaries of phytogeographical provinces and subprovinces suggested by uses this scheme. For example, some authors used Kamelin’s definition the authors generally do not coincide with the boundaries of other schemes of the phytochoria in the taxonomic treatment of some large families of of botanical-geographical division of Central Asia based mainly on floris- Kyrgyzstan (Pimenov, Kljuykov, 2002; Lazkov, 2006). In fact, these treatments are the first and most important step in the preparation of a new “Flora of tic criteria (Kamelin, 1973a, 1990, Pratov, 1987). There are also some papers on the phytogeography of certain regions of Kyrgyzstan”. On the other hand, some aspects in the scheme of Kamelin Turan province. For example, AA Allaniyazov remained unfinished: the criteria of defining of subprovinces are insuffi- scheme of the geobotanical division of the Ustyurt. B Sherbaev (1988) criti- cient; the Western Hissar district of Mountain Central Asian province had cally summarized the Karakalpakstan flora consisting of 1110 plant species been shared between the two subprovinces and the districts were split into (968 of which are native, and another 137 - cultivated and adventive) regions only on a preliminary basis without any justification of the bound- regions within 4 districts were identified based on comparative analysis. (1987) suggested a detailed and 12 floristic aries and flora characterization. The reason was the lack of data on flora for many regions in Central Asia. The origins of the Central Asian desert flora and botanical-geographical division of Turan province were discussed by MG Popov (1952, 1969), EM Lavrenko (1940), (1962, 1965), MN Iljin (1958), VP Botschantzev UP Pratov (1987), EI Rachkovskaya et al. (2003), and RV Kamelin (2010a, 2011). Consid- erable attention was given to the analysis of the geographical distribution Figure 15. Botanical-geographical division of Uzbekistan according to “Botanical geography of Kazakhstan and Middle Asia” by EI Rachkovskaya, EA Volkova and VN Khramtsov (2003). I. North Turan province: Ia West-North Turan subprovince. II. South Turan province: IIa West-South Turan subprovince, IIb East-South Turan subprovince. III. Mountain Middle Asian province, its subprovinces: IIIa West Tien Shan – Pamir-Alay piedmont subprovince, IIIb West Tien Shan mountain, IIIc Kuhistan mountain, IIId Hissar-Darvaz mountain, IIIe South Tajik mountain. of the typical representative for this area Chenopodiaceae family. One of the most recent publications on the subject is “The Botanical Geography of Kazakhstan and Middle Asia” (Rachkovskaya et al., 2003). Au- thors divided Kazakhstan and Central Asia into 8 botanical-geographical provinces and 25 subprovinces related to the Iranian-Turan and Central Asian subregions of the Sahara-Gobi desert area within Ancient Mediterranean subdominion of the Holarctic dominion. This scheme is based on criteria of orography, climate, geological history, history of vegetation formation, latitudinal and altitudinal zonation of vegetation, the composition of plant formations, associations, and dominant species, and the presence of endemic plant communities. Three provinces were defined within Uzbekistan according to proposed scheme of phytochoria: North Turan, South Turan, and Mountain Middle AsianFigure 15. The basis of this scheme was taken from the character of horizontal and vertical zonation of vegetation, not the geographic distribution of plant taxa. As a result, the proposed 58 59 Introduction Lower courses of the Amudarya and small remnant elevations adjacent to its delta were assigned to the Lower Amudarya district, islands and peninsulas of the Aral Sea – to the Aral district, Karakalpak part of the Kyzylkum desert - to the Kyzylkum district, and the Karakalpak Ustyurt - to the Ustyurt district of Turan desert province. Several schemes of geobotanical division of the lower courses of the Amudarya, the North-West Kyzylkum and Ustyurt plateau, were published in the collection of “Floristic and ecological - geobotanical research in Karakalpakstan” (Vol. 2, 1988). Hence, there are several items that are not correlated with each other’s schemes of phytochoria of the Central Asia, which demonstrate three basic approaches to this issue, floristical, geobotanical, and botanical-geographical (Kamelin, 1990, 2012b). They are all insufficiently detailed for the territory of Uzbekistan. In addition, new data on the taxonomic composition and distribution of species of Central Asia flora had been received over the past 20-25 years, which highlighted the need to develop a modern scheme of phytogeographical division Uzbekistan and adjust the boundaries of some districts and regions, as well as revise the list of endemic species. Our proposed scheme of the botanical-geographical division of UzbekistanFigure 16 is based on a study of fundamental works listed above; the material on the flora and vegetation of different regions were also analyzed (Kudrjashev, 1930, 1941, KZ Zakirov, 1955, 1962; PK Zakirov, 1969, 1971; Vernik, Rakhimova, 1982; Pavlov, 1980; Sherbaev, 1978, 1980, 1988; Krasovskaya and Levichev, 1987; Tojibaev, 2002, 2007, 2010; Beshko, 2000a, 2000b, 2011; Ibragimov, 2010; Khassanov et al., 2013, and other works). Geological, physiographical, and landscape regions of the country demarked by natural borders served as the matrix for phytogeographical division of Uzbekistan. The fact that many regions of Uzbekistan flora are still poorly understood has complicated the development of schemes of phytochoria. A targeted, systematic examination of the entire territory of the country after the Figure 16. Scheme of the phytochoria of Uzbekistan. I. Mountain Central Asian province, its districts: I-1 Western Tien Shan (regions: I-1-a Ugam-Pskem, I-1-b Western Chatkal (Chimgan), I-1-c Arashan, I-1-d Kurama (Akhangaran), I-1-e Chorkesar, I-1-f Tashkent); I-2 Fergana (I-2-a South Chatkal (Alabuga) region); I-3 Fergana-Alay (regions: I-3-a Western Alay; I-3-b Eastern Alay); I-4 Nuratau (regions: I-4-a Nuratau, I-4-b Aktau, I-4-c Nuratau Relic Mountains); I-5 Kuhistan (regions: I-5-a North Turkestan, I-5-b Malguzar, I-5-c Urgut, I-5-d Zirabulak-Ziadin); I-6 Western Hissar (regions: I-6-a Kashkadarya, I-6-b Tarkapchigay, I-6-c Baysun, I-6-d Kuhitang, I-6-e Surkhan-Sherabad); I-7 Hissar-Darvaz (I-7-a Sangardak-Tupalang region); I-8 Panj (I-8-a Babatag region); II. Turan province, its districts: II-1 Central Fergana (regions: II-1-a Kayrakum-Yazyavan, II-1-b East Fergana); II-2 Middle Syrdarya (regions: II-2-a Chinaz, II-2-b Mirzachul); II-3 Kyzylkum (regions: II-3-c Kyzylkum II-3-d Kyzylkum Relic Mountains); II-4 Bukhara (regions: II-4-a Middle Zeravshan, II-4-b Lower Zeravshan, II-4-c Karshi-Karnabchul); II-5 Karakum (II-5-a North-East Karakum region); II-6 South-Aral (regions: II-6-a Khorezm, II-6-b Amudarya Delta) II-7 Aral (II-7-a Aral Sea Bottom region); II-8 Ustyurt (regions: II-8-a North Ustyurt, II-8-b South Ustyurt). publication of “Flora of Uzbekistan” and the registration of new floristic findings were not conducted. As a result, a rather useful and complete con- 60 61 Introduction A larger part of the country is still poorly studied from a floristic point of view. The available sources consist of disparate information with different levels of specification and accuracy, incomplete or obsolete check-lists. Studies are being conducted in the Kyzylkum, Fergana valley, Baysun Mountains, Ustyurt. On the other hand, there is almost no current data on the flora of the basins of the Sangardak and Tupalang rivers on the Hissar ridge, Babatag, Zirabulak-Ziadin Mountains, Karshi Steppe, middle course of the Syrdarya River, and other areas. The proposed scheme of the phytogeographical division of Uzbekistan is based on an analysis of the flora, geological history, landscape features, and vegetation. A particular attention is focused on the taxonomic composition, endemic taxa and their geographical links. At the same time, we adhered to the principles of natural boundaries, i.e., boundaries of districts and regions were natural boundaries, such as watersheds, thalwegs of major rivers, large cliffs, etc. Figure 17 Evaluation of the floristic data in Uzbekistan (botanical-geographical districts designated in Figure 16). spectus of flora is available only for certain regions at the present time. According to the degree of floristic studies on the territory of Uzbekistan, all areas can be defined as satisfactorily studied, medium, and littlestudiedFigure 17. The most well-studied areas of Uzbekistan are the Western Tien Shan and Nuratau Mountains, together accounting for approximately 8% of the country. Several publications, actual check-lists of flora, and electronic databases are available for these areas (Zakirov, 1969, 1971; Kamelin, 1973b; Beshko, 2000a, 2000b, 2011; Pavlov, 1980; Krasovskaya and Levichev, 1986; Ionov, Lebedeva, 2005; Tojibaev, 2007, 2010, etc.). A great deal of information is also available on the Aral region, which has attracted the attention of many local and foreign experts since the environmental crisis in the 1980s (Sherbaev, 1980, 1988; Kuzmina, Treshkin, 2001; Sherimbetov, 2009; Treshkin, 2011; Breckle & al., 2012, etc.). 62 63 Introduction Phyto-geographical Regions of UZBEKISTAN The entire territory of the Republic of Uzbekistan is located within the Mountain Central Asian (Montane Middle Asian, Turkestan, or Afghan-Turkestan) and Turan (Turan-Dzungarian, or Aral-Caspian) provinces, Iran-Turanian region of Tethyan (Ancient Mediterranean) subkingdom of the Holarctic Kingdom (Takhtajan, 1978, 1986; Kamelin, 1973). A detailed description of the boundary between these two provinces was given by RV Kamelin (1990). The scheme of botanical-geographic subprovinces and districts by RV Kamelin was taken as basic in the phytogeographical division of the Uzbek part of the Mountain Central Asian province (1973, 1979, 1990), which was corrected by us and detailed. Eight districts and 23 regions were defined within a mountainous part of Uzbekistan and 8 districts and 15 regions were defined in the desert part. The following gives a description of the phytogeographical districts and regions of the country. Mountain Central Asian Province 64 65 I. Mountain Central Asian Province I-1. WESTERN TIEN SHAN (South-Western Tien Shan) M any prominent scientists were involved in the work on the issues of the botanical-geographical division of the Western Tien Shan as a part of larger phytochoria (Abolin, 1929; Korovin, 1941, 1962; Vykhodtsev, 1976; Kamelin, 1973a, 1990; Pavlov, 1980, etc.). VN Pavlov (1980) provided a considerable list of references on this subject. According to the scheme of phytogeographical division by RV Kamelin (1973a, 1990), the Western Tien Shan belongs to the Iranian group of moun- tain provinces, the Central Asian province and two subprovinces, Yaksart and Sogdian. Yaksart subprovince is presented by two districts: Karatau (ridges Syrdarya Karatau, Borolday, Ichkelitau, and western part of Kyrgyz Alatau) Ugam-Chatkal, or South-Western Tien Shan and (ridges Karzhantau, Ugam, Pskem, Maidantal, Koksu, Chatkal, western part of the Talas Alatau, low mountains Alymtau and Kazykurt). The following regions were identified by RV Kamelin (1973a) within the Ugam-Chatkal district: Mashat Talas Alatau ridge), of Koksu ridge), Ugam-Pskem (Mashat Mountains in the western end of the (ridges Karzhantau, Ugam, Pskem, and northern slope Talas (Talas Alatau, upper courses of the Maydantal, Oygaing, and Chat- kal rivers), Chimgan (western part of the Chatkal ridge, including Chimgan Mountains), Tashkent (transitional area with Turan province, including foothills and low mountains, located to the north and north-west of Tashkent, between the rivers Keles and Arys - Alymtau, Beltau, Kazykurt). The botanical and geographical designation of the Kurama ridge has (1962) wrote: “As for the Kurama ridge belonged to the same mountains system (Western Tien long been a subject of debate. For example, EP Korovin Shan, author’s remark) Mountain Central Asian Province 66 according to the complex natural conditions, including 67 I-1 Western Tien Shan vegetation, it is naturally connected to the Kuhistan district”, i.e. Pamir- altitudinal belts from piedmont plains and foothills with ephemeroid and Alay. Many authors expressed their critical opinion about the phytogeo- sagebrush communities to the high mountains with subalpine and alpine graphical designation of the Kurama ridge before and after EP Korovin. vegetation is characteristic of vegetation of the Kurama ridge and distin- RV Kamelin (1990) attributed the Mogoltau and Kurama ridges to the Sog- guishes it from the Mogoltau Mountains. The fescue steppes with a domi- dian subprovince as Mogoltau-Kurama district and defined the following nance of Festuca valesiaca Schleich ex Gaudin is distinctive for the alpine regions: Mogoltau (Mogoltau, Ak-Chop and Ak-Bel mountains), Kurama (north slope belt, and Ferula tenuisecta Korovin, Ligularia thomsonii (C.B. Clarke) of the Kurama ridge to the meridian of Angren city and the southern slopes), and Angren Pojark., L. alpigena Pojark are usual for subalpine tall grass meadows of (Angren plateau with surrounding slopes of the Chatkal and Kurama ridges). Considering the Kurama ridge and Angren plateau. The species typical of Western Tien the transitional character of the flora in Mogoltau-Kurama region between Shan highlands grow here: Aconitum talassicum Popov, Acantholimon the Western Tien Shan and Kuhistan, he emphasized “... suppressed state korolkowii (Regel) Korovin, Bunium angreni Korovin, Dracocephalum a high komarovii Lipsky, Lepechiniella seravschanica (Lipsky) Popov, Phlomoi- degree of aridity of vegetation, presence of the plots with “variegated des angreni (Popov) Adylov, Kamelin & Makhm., Oxytropis arassanica complex” in middle mountains belt, as well as a well-defined ... belt of ju- Gontsch., Papaver croceum Ledeb., Rhaponticum nanum Lipsky, Thalic- niper and prickly herb communities with fragments of mountain steppes”. trum alpinum L., Tulipa dasystemon Regel, Phleum alpinum L. This sug- RV Kamelin did not highlight the insufficient knowledge on the Kurama gests that the Kurama ridge ridge flora and did not exclude the possibility of subsequent changes in the plateau are significantly different from the low mountainous Mogoltau ac- scheme of phytogeographical division of the Western Tien Shan. cording to the vegetation type and floristic composition. of deciduous forests (and partially of xerophilous open woodlands and shrubs), The results of our research in the basin of the Akhangaran River and Uzbek part of the Kurama ridge (Tojibaev, 2010, 2013) gave many reasons to (at least without the most western part) and Angren An analysis of the endemic taxa content also gives a very strong argument to support the similarity of the Kurama ridge and Akhangaran basin we held flora to the Western Tien Shan flora. The monotypic endemic genera of the the opinion that the Kurama ridge orographically and by the character of Apiaceae family - Kamelinia F.O. Khass & I.I. Malzev and Kuramoscia- its flora and vegetation is a part of the Western Tien Shan. dium Pimenov, Kljuykov & Tojibaev are of particular interest because they make changes concerning this area. Following VN Pavlov (1980), The area defined by RV Kamelin as the Mogoltau-Kurama district in- well characterize the Akhangaran basin and Kurama ridge flora. These cludes contrasting plots to highlight the composition of flora, endemism, genera were not known at the time when RV Kamelin and character of its vegetation. Therefore, the Kurama ridge with thick Mogoltau-Kurama district in his scheme of phytochoria of the mountain- juniper forests on the northern slopes and steppificated juniper forests ous Central Asia. The genus Kamelinia (K. tianschanica F.O. Khass. & I.I. with prickly herbs in the highlands of the southern slope differs from the Malzev) was described late in the 20th Century from the Akhangaran basin Mogoltau and adjacent low mountains. Dense juniper forests occupy large (Khassanov, Malzev, 1992). areas of the northern slopes of the Kurama ridge, namely in the basins of system and is the closest to Sphaerosciadium Pimenov & Kljuykov from Abjassay and Lashkerek rivers. Cenopopulations of Paeonia hybrida Pall. the Pamir-Alay, which is also a petrophyte. The genus Kuramosciadium can be observed in these juniper forests with a large number of individuals was discovered a few years ago on the southern slope of the Kurama ridge, comparable to those on the Pskem or Ugam ridges. The full profile of the in highlands, on the cold slide-rocks near the watershed crest (Pimenov et al., 68 69 Mountain Central Asian Province (1990) defined the This genus has unique for the Umbelliferae root I-1 Western Tien Shan 2011). Studies have revealed its distant affinity to the Ligusticeae group, but according to the scheme of phytochoria presented in this book. As for the it has a close relationship with Sphaenolobium Pimenov, Paulita Šoják, Mogoltau ridge, the best solution would be its assignment to the Western Seselopsis Schischk. Tien Shan district as a transitional area with the Kuhistan district. This The flora of the Mogoltau ridge has no endemic genera. The represen- confirms the view of RV Kamelin (1990), “... that the following regions tative of subendemic genus Mogoltavia Korovin, Mogoltavia severtzovii … Mogoltau and all low mountains of Karamazar (Regel) Korovin, is found in the lower mountain belt of northern slopes ridge), of the Alay and Turkestan ridges besides the Mogoltau. Its previously regions according to the entire natural environment unknown populations were found recently in the northern part of Fergana ment and biotic features)... valley and in the foothills of southern slope of the Kurama ridge united in one major region Naralieva, 2012). (Tojibaev, In mountainous Central Asia, such endemic relict genera (Kamelinia, Kuramosciadium, Komarovia Korovin, Sphaerosciadium, Mogoltavia and others) clearly characterize and delineate the botanical-geographical regions. To analyze species endemism, more than 35 plant species with the (western part of the Kurama including Okurtau … cannot be attributed to the different natural (based on its rigid environ- One of two things - either all of these areas are to be (and estimate its rank again), or they should be cut off from the Western Tien Shan itself”. Therefore, the Western Tien Shan (South-West Tien Shan) district within the Republic of Uzbekistan includes the ridges Karzhantau, Ugam, Maydantal, Pskem, Koksu, Chatkal, and Kurama. Akhangaran habitat type justify the closeness of the flora of the Akhanga- The territory of the Western Tien Shan district is characterized by the ran River basin and Angren plateau with the flora of the Western Tien Shan significant variety of landscapes from the piedmont plains and foothills to and distinguish them from the Mogoltau and low mountainous areas of the highlands. The complexity of the landscape structure of this mountainous south-western part of the Kurama ridge. country is increased by the persistent high tectonic activity, wide range of range (Allium altitudes (from 500-600 to 4300-4400 m a.s.l.) and different positions of the ridges taeniopetalum subsp. mogoltavicum (Vved.) RM Fritsch et FO Khass., Cousinia angrenii and slopes relative to the air masses bearing moisture. In general, medium Juz., and high mountainous landscapes with a considerably broken topography, The presence of 23 species with the Western Chatkal type of Geranium bashkyzylsaicum Nabiev, Frolovia asbukini (Iljin) Lipsch., Hypacanthium echinopifolium (Bornm.) Juz., H. evidens Tscherneva, Phlomoides angreni, etc.) Western Tien Shan endemic species and 44 relatively cool and moderately humid vegetation season and cold winters (Allium pskemense B. Fedtsch., Astragalus dominate in the region. The snow line in the Uzbek part of the Western mackewiczii Gontsch., A. rubrivenosus Gontsch., A. talassicus Popov, Cousinia bonvalotii Tien Shan is relatively high Franch., C. vicaria Kult., Oxytropis arassanica, Phlomoides ostrowskiana (Popov) Adylov, of icing, even though seasonal snowfields are widespread. More than 250 Kamelin & Makhm., Prangos tschimganica B. Fedtsch., several species of the genera Gagea, small glaciers can be found in the upper course of the Oygaing river, areas Allium and etc.) in the Akhangaran basin also points to the close floristic links (3700-4000 m a.s.l.) causing poor development that are constantly decreasing (Shukurov et al., 2005; Chub, 2007). of the Kurama ridge with other plots of the Western Tien Shan. The south- The vegetation of the Western Tien Shan is distinguished by five altitude ern borders of the distribution area of many Western Tien Shan species zones: plains, foothills, lower, middle, and upper mountain belts. Piedmont (Tulipa kaufmanniana Regel, T. greigii Regel, etc.) lie on the Kurama ridge. Based on these facts, the basin of the Akhangaran river and Kurama ridge out the most western part) (with- shall be assigned to the Yaksart subprovince, South- West Tien Shan district (by RV Kamelin), or to the Western Tien Shan district Mountain Central Asian Province 70 plains and foothills (up to 800-900 m above sea level) are covered by low grass ephemeral-ephemeroid and sagebrush communities with xerophylous perennial plants (species Phlomis, Cousinia and others) lower mountain belt and saltwort species. The (from 800-900 to 1500-1600 m above sea level) 71 in all ridges I-1 Western Tien Shan of the Western Tien Shan is occupied by xerophilous open woodlands and herbaceous dry steppes (so-called savannoids). The well-defined zone of mountain juniper and deciduous forests are well developed in the upper belts. The sparse woodlands of Zeravshan’s juniper are spread in a lower belt (Juniperus polycarpos var. seravschanica (Kom.) Kitam.). The hemispherical juniper (Juniperus semiglobosa Regel) dominates in juniper forests at an altitude of 2000-2600 m, and the Turkestan juniper (Juniperus pseudosabina Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) dominates in the uppermost part of the belt of juniper forests. Juniper forests occupy a wide altitude ridge (from 1000-1300 to 3500 m above sea level). Relict walnut-fruit forests cover about 1,500 hectares on the wet plots of the slopes in the Pskem river valley ests of this type are extant) Figure 18 (one of three regions of Uzbekistan where for- . Mountain forests, particularly juniper stands, are located in the zone of maximum precipitation and the formation of surface and underground water reserves fulfill exceptional soil protection, water saving, and anti- Figure 19 Sparse stands of juniper trees on the slopes of the Chimgan massif. Photograph by NYu Beshko. sill roles. The deterioration of the mountain forests invariably leads to the shallowing of rivers, soil erosion, frequent devastating landslides, and mudflows. Juniper forests are highly efficient utilizers of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and volatile products, so they have invaluable sanitarian-hygienic, Figure 18 Plot of walnut-fruit forest on Pskem ridge. Aksarsay valley. Photograph by NYu Beshko. health improving, and recreational value. Moreover, in the mountains of Central Asia, juniper forests have a landscape, environment-forming role, and serve as a habitat to many species of plants and animals. The resistance of juniper to moisture deficits in the mountains of Central Asia is caused by its longevity and other biological features. At the same time, however, juniper forests are among the particularly vulnerable phytocenoses because the destruction of the structure and integrity of their vegetative cover is irreversible or very difficult recover due to the slow growth, late maturation and poor natural regeneration of junipers (Konnov 1973, 1974, 1990). Fragmentation and low density is a characteristic of juniper forests on the entire area of their distribution (Konnov, 1973, 1974, 1990). Owing to the centuries of anthropogenic pressure, the average crown density of juniper forests in the Uzbek part of the Western Tien Shan is typically less than Mountain Central Asian Province 72 73 I-1 Western Tien Shan 30%Figure 19. Juniper forests and other forests have long served local people as sources of timber, firewood, charcoal, and outrun pastures. Unauthorized logging and uncontrolled livestock grazing impede natural regeneration, leading to degradation of the soil and vegetation cover as well as reduced forest areas. Forest fires (which occur often due to the careless handling of fire) have caused and continue to cause big damages. As a result, modern forests of the Western Tien Shan are presented by fragmentary and sparse tree stands with broken composition and structure. More or less preserved forest areas are available in remote mountainous areas far from settlements 2004). According to AA Konnov (1990), (Butkov, juniper forests in the mountains of Central Asia are the last development stage of tree and shrub communities of the forest type. The fescue mountain steppes and subalpine tall herb meadows umbellars) formed by huge species of Umbelliferae Ferula tenuisecta) (so-called (Prangos pabularia Lindl., Figure 21 Alpine meadows in the highlands of the Chatkal ridge. Chatkal Nature Reserve, Tashkeskensay River Valley. Photograph by NYu Beshko. are characteristic of the upper part of the middle mountain belt and lower part of the alpine belt of the Western Tien Shan. Umbellars are one of main types of vegetation in the landscape of the Western Tien ShanFigure 20. Wide watersheds, plateau-type tops, flat fine earth and skeletal Figure 20 Subalpine meadows in the highlands of the Kurama ridge. Upper courses of the Chadaksay River. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. slopes at altitudes of 2000-3000 m a.s.l. are covered with fescue steppes, alpine sagebrush communities with a domination of Artemisia lehmanniana Bunge and prickly herbs (endemic community of Cousinia bonvalotii). In the highlands, subalpine meadows are well developed on fine earth slopes, communities of mountain xerophytes (cushion-like prickly plants) with a domi- nation of Acantholimon, spiny Astragalus and Onobrychis echidna Lipsky on stony slopes, and juniper elfin wood of Juniperus pseudosabina on the rocky ridges of mountains. The upper part of the alpine belt is occupied by cryophyte low herb alpine meadows with a domination of Ligularia, Ranunculus, Lagotis, Oxytropis, Draba, and other speciesFigure 21. Only a few species of cryopetrophytic plants rise to the top of the ridges, which hide in the cracks between the stones and rocks, forming a characteristic type of subnival vegetation. Subalpine and alpine meadows are the main summer pastures for sheep Mountain Central Asian Province 74 75 I-1 Western Tien Shan were given by VN Pavlov in his monograph “Vegetation cover of the Western Tien Shan” (1980). In this gross work, 2844 plant species are cited for the Western Tien Shan within three countries Kyrgyzstan). (Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Perhaps, this was not a very accurate indicator because it had been difficult to conduct a complete inventory of flora on such vast mountainous region. A great contribution to the study of flora and vegetation of the Western Tien Shan was made during the implementation of the international transboundary project, “Conservation of biodiversity of the Western Tien Shan” (2000-2006). New data on the distribution of some rare and endemic species were obtained, new findings were made, and an overview of the modern status of vegetation was conducted. On the other hand, a full conspectus Figure 22 Eroded north slopes of the Kyzylnura mountain massif in the western part of the of the flora of this vast and diverse mountainous area was not prepared. Chatkal ridge as the result of overgrazing. Photograph by NYu Beshko. RN Ionov and LP Lebedeva gave a list of 1795 plant species as well as a list of endemic species to the main mountain ridges (Karatau - 83, Chatkal - 32 Mogoltau - 7 Sandalash - 1, Talas Alatau - 20, Kurama - 7 Karjantau - 1, Fergana - 39, and horses. Nevertheless, overgrazing in the highlands of the Western Tien Ugam - 4 Pskem - 8, total - 202) in the “Atlas of the biodiversity of the Western Shan in many areas have caused great destruction of vegetation, consid- Tien-Shan” erable decreases in grass yields, and a threat to the populations of many at least 1148 plant species are known only for the Chatkal Nature Reserve plants species. In addition, the infiltration properties of soil deteriorate on the slopes broken by cattle overgrazing sod soil, and the intensity of erosion and mudflow increases in proportion to the intensity of grazingFigure 22. The Western Tien Shan flora overall and its Uzbek part have been well (Shukurov & al., 2005). These figures are underestimated because located on 35,724 hectares (Krasovskaya, Levichev, 1986; Tojibaev, 2007). In addition, the authors considered the Syrdarya Karatau as a part of the Western Tien Shan, while RV Kamelin (1990) defined the Karatau as an autonomous phytogeographical district, the floristic richness of which was estimated to studied. Botanical research in this area has a history of more than 150 be no less than 1666 plant species including 153 endemic species. In the years. Chimgan and Bostanlik botanical stations of the Institute of Botany monograph, “Vegetation cover of the Western Tien Shan (Review of the current of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan status of flora and vegetation)” (2005), Gene Pool of Flora and Fauna) (now Institute of played a huge role in studying of the Western Tien Shan flora, and the Chatkal Nature Reserve flora as a scientific basis for many expeditions resulted in a large number of botanical discoveries. NV Pavlov (1956) and VN Pavlov (1970, 1980) carried out a comprehensive study of flora and vegetation of the Western Tien Shan. The results of many years of field research and the assimilation of scientific references Mountain Central Asian Province 76 the same authors gave much higher figures on the plant diversity of the region. More than 2200 species of vascular plants from 472 genera and 87 families were shown for the Uzbek part of the Western Tien Shan, no less than 2200 species from 570 genera and 90 families were observed for the Kyrgyz part and 1635 species from 539 genera and 102 families were noted for Kazakh part. KSh Tojibaev (2010) published a modern list of the Uzbek part of the 77 I-1 Western Tien Shan Western Tien Shan flora consisting of 2056 species. The total number of Karatau district (Kamelin, 1990), where 35 species of onion comprise 2.1% of reliably recorded species of this area at the moment taking the recent find- flora, but the number of endemic Allium taxa in the Western Tien Shan (25 ings into consideration was 2143, 211 of which are endemic (Karimov, 2011; taxa, 11.54% of all endemic species) Tojibaev, Karimov, 2012; Tojibaev, Naralieva, 2012; Tojibaev et al., 2012a; Tojibaev, 2013). Genus Gagea in the flora of Syrdarya Karatau (Kamelin, 1990) is represented These data allow ranking of the flora of the Western Tien Shan and its Uz- by only 11 species (0.66% of the flora). is much higher than that of Karatau district. One of the most original features of the Western Tien Shan flora is the bek part as moderately rich flora. The composition of the leading families and genera of the flora in this generic endemism. Two monotypic genera of Apiaceae family, Kamelinia region is typical for the flora of mountainous Central Asia and the eastern and Kuramosciadium, are endemic to the Uzbek part of the Western Tien Tethyan region. The main distinctive features were observed within the Shan. Out of five endemic genera Ancient Mediterranean groups, i.e., in genera Astragalus, Allium, Cous- Pseuderemostachys Popov, Ugamia Pavlov, Hypacanthium Juz.) inia, Gagea, Ferula, Hedysarum, Phlomoides, Tulipa. Genus Astragalus occupies a leading position (101 species, or 4.9% of the flora, 26 species of which are endemic to the Western Tien Shan), which is the same as in all local flora of Tien Shan (Pavlov, 1970, 1980), (Sphenocarpus Korovin, Stephanocaryum Popov, related to the Western two sub-endemic genera are met in Uzbeki- stan: Hypacanthium and Ugamia. According to MG Pimenov MG Pimenov and LI Sdobnina (1975), (1983) and the Sphenocarpus genus with the mountainous regions of Central Asia. A considerable number of endemic only species, S. eryngioides Korovin, was referred to the polymorphic ge- species to the Western Tien Shan are also observed in the genera Cousinia, nus, Seseli L., and its habitat is outside of Uzbekistan (south slopes of the east- Ferula, Oxytropis, Hedysarum, Parrya, Eremurus, Acantholimon, Phlo- ern Chatkal – Itogar). moides and even within boreal group of taxa (Ranunculus, Draba, Pedicularis, grows on our territory. Genus Pseuderemostachys with the only species P. which is explained by the presence of secondary centers of spe- sewerzovii (Herder) Popov according to last taxonomic treatment of the ciation on the territory of the mountainous Central Asia. A high percentage Phlomideae tribe using methods of molecular biology was included in ge- of participation of species from the ancient xerophytic family Chenopo- nus Phlomoides Moench (Salmaki et al., 2012). Artemisia), Only S. olgae (B. Fedtsch.) Popov from Stephanocaryum diaceae (Amaranthaceae, according to APG IV) and genus Artemisia indicates the The uniqueness of the Western Tien Shan flora is also defined by the strong invasion of East Turanian flora in the low and even middle moun- concentration of many crop wild relatives. They are wild fruit and nut tains of Western Tien Shan. plants, e.g., species of Crataegus, Cerasus, Malus sieversii, Pyrus regelii, The main distinguishing feature of the Western Tien Shan district is an Hippophae rhamnoides, Amygdalis spinosissima, A. petunnikowii, Pistacia extraordinary species diversity of Allium and Gagea genera; a large num- vera, Prunus sogdiana, Padellus mahaleb, food ber of endemic varieties in the families of Amaryllidaceae tianschanica), aceae (17) (25) and a Lili- stipulated by large number of endemic taxa in Allium (24), Ga- gea (12) and Tulipa (5) genera (Levichev, 1990; Tojibaev, 2010). Species diversity and the high endemism of Allium (48 species, 2.33%) (52 species or 2.53% of the flora) and Gagea genera indicate the great modern centers of speciation in the Western Tien Shan and underline the original features and contrasting character of the flora. The higher diversity of Allium is known only in the Mountain Central Asian Province 78 ancestors of many cereals and ornamental plants (Allium), fodder (Medicago (Aegilops cylindrica, Hordeum spontaneum), (species of Tulipa, Rosa genera). No fewer than 100 spe- cies of crop wild relatives characterized by the diversity of useful features and resource potential are defined for this region flora (Popov, 1929; Brezhnev, Korovina, 1981; Afonin et al., 2008; Butkov, 2011). Six regions within Uzbek part of the Western Tien Shan district were identified: Tashkent, Ugam-Pskem, Western Chatkal 79 (Chimgan), Kurama I-1 Western Tien Shan Figure 23 Uzbek part of the Western Tien Shan and adjacent districts. Regions of the Western Tien Shan district: I-1-a Tashkent, I-1-b Ugam-Pskem, I-1-c Western Chatkal (Chimgan), I-1-d Kurama (Akhangaran), I-1-e Arashan, I-1-f Chorkesar. I-2-a South Chatkal region of Fergana district. II-1-a Kayrakum-Yazyavan and II-1-b East Fergana regions of Central Fergana district of Turan province. II-2-a Chinaz region of Middle Syrdarya district. (Akhangaran), Arashan and ChorkesarFigure 23. Tashkent region covers the so-called Tashkent desert (piedmont plains and foothills of the Western Tien Shan, which are located to the north and north-west of Tashkent, between the Keles and Arys rivers), and along the remnant ridges Alymtau, Beltau, Kaplanbek and Kazykurt. This region is located almost entirely within the Republic of Kazakhstan. Only a narrow strip on the territory of Uzbekistan between the channel Bozsu and state boundary belongs to the Figure 24 Valley of the Pskem River. Photograph by AG Ten. Tashkent region, which is occupied almost entirely by an anthropogenic landscapeFigure 24. Despite the arid conditions, the Tashkent region is distinguished by the rather diversified content of endemic species, the majority of which have a narrow distribution area. The relict species of Central Mountain Central Asian Province 80 81 Asian flora Rhaphidophyton regelii (Bunge) Iljin Amaranthaceae according APG IV), and annual endemic of Alymtau Mountains lasiocalyx Gontsch., A. pskemensis Popov, Oxytropis anaulgensis Pavlov, Dracocephalum adylovii I.I. Malzev, Iris pskemense Rukšāns, Melica shafkatii Bond. and others). (former Chenopodiaceae, Amarantha- The studies by NV Pavlov (1956) and ZU Muzaffarova (1993) need to be are among them. A large number of herbarium samples emphasized among the publications on the flora of this territory. The work Physandra halimocnemis (Botsch.) Botsch. ceae according APG IV) (former Chenopodiaceae, from this area are found in TASH but the list of flora of this region has not by ZU Muzaffarova been published yet and there are no even approximate data on the number described 921 plant species for the Nauvalisay River basin (Ugam ridge) and of species there. presented a number of interesting new findings from the Northern Tien (1993) is geobotanical and floristic, where the author Ugam-Pskem region includes the valleys of the rivers Pskem, Koksu, Shan, Altay, Siberia, and even Pamir-Alay and Kopetdag flora, comple- and Chatkal and fringing them the slopes of the Talas Alatau, Maydantal, menting the flora of Western Tien Shan considerably. According to our Ugam, Pskem, Koksu, and Karzhantau ridges. According to the scheme by records, these data are rather exaggerated because more than 40 species the basins of Maydantal and Oygaing rivers be- cited by ZU Muzaffarova for this territory were misidentified or not con- long to the Talas region of the Western Tien Shan district. These rivers are firmed by herbarium specimens. The following plants are relevant to these part of the draining arms of the Pskem River, which in terms of geology, “suspicious” species: Clematis alpina subsp. sibirica (L.) Kuntze (Atragene local climate, landscape, soil, and vegetation cover is an integral natural sibirica L.), Anemone gortschakowii Kar. & Kir., Ranunculus krasnovii complex. Therefore, by committing to the principle of natural boundaries, Ovcz., Cleome fimbriata Vicary it is impractical to separate this territory from the Ugam-Pskem region. glandulosum Bunge, Rheum macrocarpum Losinsk., Potentilla nivea L., P. The Zhabaglysu and Aksu rivers have a western orientation, whereas the pedata Willd., several species of Rosa, Thermopsis alpina (Pall.) Ledeb., Oygaing and Maydantal rivers have a southern orientation. In addition, Lathyrus sphaericus Retz., Oxytropis chionobia Bunge, Caucalis platycar- RV Kamelin (1973a, 1990), (cited for Kurama ridge), Acanthophyllum they are separated by the watershed crest of the Talas Alatau, which is a pos L., Tulipa butkovii Botschantz., etc.). At the same time, the synopsis of barrier for the migration of many boreal, Northern and Central Tien Shan flora of the Nauvalisay River basin can be complemented by Arabidopsis species in the southern direction and are the cause of the xeromorphic na- thaliana (L.) Heynh., several annual species of Euphorbia found in the ture of flora in the Pskem basin compared to the Talas Alatau. Undoubted- lower courses of the river, Rubia oppositifolia Griff. (rather common petrophyte ly, the valleys of the Maydantal and Oygaing rivers have a close relation- for lower and middle river courses), several species of Gagea, and others. ship with the western spurs of the Talas Alatau. Species with a distribution In general, the plant diversity of the Uzbek part in this region is com- area, including the basin of the Pskem River and western part of the Talas prised of at least 1250-1300 species with a distribution rate across certain Alatau prove this (Astragalus abolinii Popov, Cousinia fetissowii C. Winkl., Ferula ta- ridges as follows: Pskem – 1127, Ugam – 1118, Koksu – 819 (Tojibaev, 2010). lassica (Korovin) Pimenov, Pilopleura tordyloides (Korovin) Pimenov, Saussurea ispajensis More than one third of the endemic species grow in Uzbek part of the Iljin et al.). On the other hand, the presence of a number of endemic species Western Tien Shan, many of which have restricted range within the Pskem with the restricted habitat confined within the Pskem River Valley and valley (Acantholimon pskemense, Astragalus pskemensis, Bergenia ugamica, Draba lipskyi its upper courses, highlights the integrity of this territory as a phytogeo- Tolm., Dracocephalum adylovii, Erysimum aksaricum, Melica shafkatii, Jurinea mariae Pav- graphical region lov, Pseudoglossanthis simulans (Pavlov) Kamelin, Oxytropis anaulgensis and others)Figure (Acantholimon pskemense Lincz., Erysimum aksaricum Pavlov, Arabis tianschanica Pavlov, Bergenia ugamica V.N. Pavlov, Chesneya borissovii Pavlov, Astragalus Mountain Central Asian Province 82 25 . 83 I-1 Western Tien Shan Figure 25 Ugam-Pskem region occupies approximately half of the Ugam-Chatkal Dracocephalum adylovii I.I. Maltzev – narrow endemic of the Ugam-Pskem region. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. National Park established in 1990. According to KSh Tojibaev (2008), the flora of this protected area contains no less than 1697 plant species from 98 families and 622 genera, which is approximately 80% of the flora of Uzbek part of the Western Tien Shan, and approximately 40% of the total flora of Uzbekistan. Sixty-one plant species of them are included in the Red Data Book of Uzbekistan (2009). Currently, research on the inventory of the Ugam-Chatkal National Park flora is being continued and a compilation of the list of flora for the planned Pskem Nature Reserve, which should include the entire territory of the upper courses of the Pskem River Figure 26 Rare narrow endemic of Western Tien Shan, Astragalus baranovii Popov, known only by a few specimens collected from Great Chimgan Mountain. (upstream of Ispaysay) has begun. Western Chatkal (Chimgan) region covers the western end of the Chat- kal ridge, south-western boundary of the region goes along Chavlisay river basin. The flora of this area is estimated to be no less than 1300 species. The single mountain representative of desert genus Nanophyton Less., N. botschantzevii U.P. Pratov, grows in the Western Tien Shan area mountainous area, 2200-2300 m above sea level). (Beldersay The endemic species of the region are Phlomoides tschimganica (Vved.) Adylov, Kamelin & Makhm. and Potentilla tschimganica Šoják (apparently extinct), Acantholimon ekatherinae (B. Fedtsch.) Czerniak., Allium costatovaginatum Kamelin & Levichev, A. furkatii R.M. Fritsch, A. x tokaliense Kamelin & Levichev, Astragalus baranovii PopovFigure 26, Iris pseudocapnoides Ruksăns and others. Chimgan Mountain and its surroundings continue to surprise botanists with new discoveries. In particular, a new onion species Allium marmoratum Seregin was described recently from the Great Chimgan, which is allied to Western Tien Shan – Pamir Alay species A. talassicum RegelFigure 27 (Seregin, 2015). This species differs by the significantly prominent stamen filaments and yellow anthers. Half of the Ugam-Chatkal National Park lands as well as the territory of the Chatkal Biosphere Reserve with two plots located on different slopes Figure 28 Narrow endemic of the Akhangaran basin Kamelinia tianschanica F.O. Khass. & I.I. Malzev on the stony rockslides of the middle mountain belt in the Kattasay mountain area. Photograph by NYu Beshko. Figure 27 Allium marmoratum Seregin from type locality of the species, the Great Chimgan. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. Mountain Central Asian Province 84 of the Chatkal ridge belong to this region. The Chatkal Nature Reserve was established in 1947 under the name of 85 I-1 Western Tien Shan Mountain-Forest reserve. In 1986, the Chatkal reserve received Biosphere reserve status by UNESCO. The modern area of the reserve is 35,724 ha. The area consists of two separated plots: Bashkyzylsay dantal (24,150 ha). cies was given. Kurama (Akhangaran) region is the southern slope of the Chatkal ridge and May- and the northern slope of the Kurama ridge within the Akhangaran basin. Bashkyzylsay lies on the southwest slope of the Chatkal Insufficient data on the floristic content of the Kurama ridge estimated by (11,103 ha) ridge and includes mountainous part of the Bashkyzylsay basin with al- RV Kamelin titudes ranging from 1080 to 3267 m a.s.l., Maydantal is located on the a number of references (Emme-Markovskaya, 1940; Sidorenko, 1953; Kamelin, 1990). northern slope of the Chatkal ridge at altitudes ranging from 1200 to 3875 According to SE Korovin (1958), 914 plant species grow in the basin of the m and includes the basins of a few inflow streams of the river Akbulak – Akhangaran River; there is still no list on the flora for the Kurama ridge. Tavaksay, Zindansay, Tereklisay, and Tashkeskensay. According to KSh Tojibaev Botanical studies have been conducted by dozens of specialists and a (1973a, 1990) Kurama ridge of approximately 1500 plant species is shown in (2010), no less than 1397 species grow on the (mainly the Uzbek part was taken into consideration) and 1599 spe- large amount of herbarium collections from this area are available in col- cies were found in the Chatkal ridge. More than 80% of them were found lection funds of the reserve and Central herbarium of Uzbekistan. This within the Akhangaran basin. At first glance, the relatively high level of is one of the well-studied nature reserves in Uzbekistan. In 1986, IG species diversity might be unconvincing because the flora of more humid Levichev and LS Krasovskaya published “Flora of the Chatkal reserve”, areas of the Western Tien Shan, such as the Pskem River basin, was much which cited 1004 taxa for Bashkyzylsay, 745 taxa for Maydantal, and 1151 poorer than the Kurama region flora. Interestingly, one of the main conclu- taxa in a general checklist of the reserve flora (including species, subspecies and sions by SE Korovin was that the southern and south-western areas of the In 2007, based on new discoveries and a large number of nomen- Western Tien Shan were the richest in species diversity and most typical clatural changes that occurred since the release of the monograph, KSh for the Western Tien Shan. A monotypic endemic genus Kamelinia (K. Tojibaev published an updated list of flora of the reserve including 1136 tianschanica), distributed in the basins of the Kattasay and Karabau rivers, species and subspecies from 462 genera and 92 families. This list was the right inflow tributaries of the Akhangaran river, is indicative for the updated by an additional 12 plant species as the result of joint research by flora of this regionFigure 28. More than 30 endemic and sub-endemic species KSh Tojibaev and NYu Beshko. According to current data (www.chatkal.uz), were reported for this region (Acantholimon margaritae Korovin, A. laxiusculum F.O. the flora of the Chatkal Reserve includes 1148 species of vascular plants, Khass. & II Malzev, Eremurus korovinii B. Fedtsch., Parrya kuramensis Botsch., P. saxifraga 132 of which are endemic to the Western Tien Shan, 33 species included Botsch. & Vved., Rindera cristulata Lipsky, Tulipa vvedenskyi Botschantz., etc.). hybrids). Therefore, a representative As Arashan region, we defined the Angren plateau and adjacent high- part of the plant diversity of the Western Tien Shan, approximately 88% of lands of the Chatkal and Kurama ridges, which are generally related to the the Western Tien Shan area, 53.6% of Uzbek part of the Western Tien Shan Angren region according to the phytogeographical scheme by RV Kamelin district, and 62.6% of endemic plants, are protected in the territory of the (1973a). reserve (Recommendations, 2013). the Chadaksay and Chorkesar rivers. RV Kamelin defined the south-west into the Red Data Book of Uzbekistan (2009). The eastern boundary of the district goes along the upper causes of A description of the local flora of the Western Chatkal region besides border of the region along the Angren city meridian line. In our opinion, it the Chatkal Reserve was reported by TH Khudayberdiev “Flora and veg- runs much further upstream along the watershed of the Kamchik and Kum- etation of the Aksakata River basin” (1991), where the list of 853 plant spe- kul rivers approximately along the administration border of the Tashkent 86 87 Mountain Central Asian Province I-1 Western Tien Shan and Namangan regions. A specific feature of this region is determined by Cousinia bonvalotii, Onobrychis echidna, Oxytropis leucocyanea Bunge, the nature of vegetation with a predominance of caespitose steppes of high and other plants typical for the highlands of Central Asia grow there. mountains (Festuca valesiaca) and subalpine meadows of Ferula tenuisecta, Chorkesar region comprises the basins of the rivers oriented to the Fergana valley from the Kamchik pass (upper course of the Rizaksay) and the Sarvaksay valley to Kasansay valley. This is a unique site of the southern slopes of the Kurama and Chatkal ridges with several distinctive characteristics: well-expressed Pamir-Alay features of flora and vegetation, considerable amount of narrow local endemic species, and essential role of the representatives of the Turan desert flora in the lower altitudinal belts. The southern foothills of the Kurama and Chatkal ridges are often saline and gypsified; badland landscapes with ephemeral-sagebrush and saltwortsagebrush communities are most common for themFigure 29. Steppified juniper sparse woodlands with a predominance of sagebrush in a grass layer (Artemisia tenuisecta Nevski) are well developed in the high- lands and fragments of the prickly herb communities with Onobrychis echidna - in the middle belt of the mountains. A number of Pamir-Alay species are found in the Chorkesar region: Anemone baissunensis Juz., Arnebia obovata Bunge, Bromus tytthanthus Nevski, Fritillaria bucharica Regel, Scorzonera ovata Trautv., Cleome fimbriata, Andrachne rotundifolia C.A. Mey. ex Eichw., Tanacetopsis santoana (Krasch., Popov & Vved.) Kovalevsk., Pseudosedum fedtschenkoanum Boriss. Predominantly, the Pamir-Alay distribution is characteristic of Ampelopsis aegirophylla Planch., Astragalus subinduratus Gontsch., Echinophora sibthorpiana Guss., Elaeosticta alaica (Lipsky) Kljuykov, Pimenov & V.N. Tikhom., Seseli unicaule (Korovin) Pimenov, Cousinia ninae Juz., C. prolifera Jaub. & Spach., Galatella hissarica Novopokr., Nepeta satureiodes Boiss., Lagochilus seravschanicus Knorring, Iris linifolia O. Fedtsch., Allium osFigure 29 Badlands in the southern foothills of the Kurama ridge. Uygursay. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. chaninii O. Fedtsch., and others. The border of the distribution areas of the significant number of Western Tien Shan endemic species lay in the Chorkesar region. They include Prangos pabularia, Ligularia thomsonii, L. alpigena. About 700-750 plant Allium dodecadontum Vved., A. eriocoleum Vved., A. tschimganicum B. species, such as Draba talassica Pohle, Delphinium oreophilum Huth, Fedtsch., Iris orchioides Carrière, Tulipa dubia Vved., T. greigii, T. vve- 88 89 Mountain Central Asian Province I-1 Western Tien Shan denskyi, and others. One of the largest populations of the Western Tien Shan species Anthochlamys tianschanica Iljin ex Aellen grows here. At the same time, the territory of the district is the site of the localization of several narrowly distributed species of Allium, Iris (Juno), Tulipa and other genera. The autonomy of this area is confirmed by the presence of a monotypic genus Kuramosciadium (K. corydalifolium) and more than 12 endemic species. The majority of the endemic species of the Chorkesar region belong to the Allium L. genus. Seven new onion species Figure 30 Tulipa intermedia Figure 31 Single tree of bloomy poplar in the low mountains of Chorkesar district. Photograph by VA Popov. – Allium adylovii Tojibaev & R.M. Frit- Tojibaev & J.J. de Groot, a recently described endemic species from Chust-Pap foothills. sch ined., A. chorkessaricum F.O. Khass. & Tojibaev, A. haneltii F.O. Khass. & R. which recently were described from the southern slope of the Kyrghyz M. Fritsch, A. kuramense F.O. Khass. & ridge (Tulipa talassica Lazkov) and south Chatkal (Iris rodionenkoi Lazkov), were N. Friesen, A. michaelis F.O. Khass. & Tojibaev, A. orunbaii F.O. Khass. found on the southern slope of the Kurama ridge in stony foothills of the & R.M. Fritsch, A. scharobitdinii F.O. Khass. & Tojibaev, and 2 new spe- Rizaksay River basin. Considered endemic to the Akhangaran River basin, cies of tulips, Tulipa scharipovii Tojibaev and T. intermedia Tojibaev & J.J. Tulipa vvedenskyi was collected from the middle of the Rizaksay river de Groot years (Tojibaev, 2009; Tojibaev et al., 2014c) Figure 30 have been found for the last 15 . The distribution areas of some of these species penetrate the course. Vegetation cover of this unique area, as well as throughout the Fergana neighboring areas, but majority are narrow endemic species with a distri- valley is severely degraded bution area of less than 30 km². have been under anthropogenic pressure for centuries. Until the early 20th (Tojibaev, 2002). All ecosystems in the valley The Chorkesar region is the least studied region within Western Tien Century, the impact of economic activity was low because of the low pop- Shan district. Some information on its flora is available in a few geobo- ulation density and traditional land-use practices. On the other hand, by the (Vernik, Rakhimova, 1982; Tojibaev, 2002). The list of flora of this end of the 20th Century, human impact on the environment had increased region and Fergana valley was expanded considerably due to the discover- significantly, resulting in a decrease in plant diversity, ecosystem degrada- ies made over the last few years (Tojibaev, 2009; Tojibaev, Karimov, 2011; Tojibaev, tion, extinction of populations of rare and endemic species, and the re- Naralieva, 2012; Naralieva, 2014). placement of natural dominant by invasive species and weeds. Only single tanic works Mountain Central Asian Province The disjunctive populations of two species, 90 91 I-1 Western Tien Shan I-2. FERGANA DISTRICT The Fergana district is one of the floristically richest mountain regions in Central Asia, covering the eastern part of the Chatkal, Atoynak and Fergana ridges, and mountains in the middle course of the Naryn River. Detailed research of Fergana district vegetation was performed by the Fergana complex expedition of Academy of Sciences of the USSR in the Figure 32 Degraded piedmont pastures in the Muruldi area of Pap district in Namangan region. first half of twentieth century (Korovin, 1934, 1961, 1962). Important sources on Fergana district flora are the “Flora of the Kyrgyz SSR” (1950-1970) and Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. two editions of the “Checklist of vascular plants of Kyrgyzstan” (Lazkov, Sultanova, 2011, 2014). trees of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) and bloomy poplar (Populus pruinosa Schrenk) This area is characterized by the Fergana type of altitudinal zonality remained in some parts of the Chust-Pap foothills as a result of anthropo- (Rachkovskaya et al., 2003). genic pressureFigure 31. The current state of mountain pastures in Betagalik sagebrush communities, and prickly almond xerophytic shrubs area of the Kurama ridge, which is a part of medium mountain level of spinosissima Bunge) the Chadak and Chorkesar rivers, as well as of the Chust-Pap foothills is spread with specific communities of gypsophilous plants, a large number a striking example of vegetation degradation caused by overgrazing Figure 32 The piedmonts are occupied with ephemeroid(Amygdalus on stony slopes. Variegated strata outcrops are wide- of which are endemic species (Nabiev, 1959). At altitudes higher than 700- The situation is complicated by the lack of nature reserves 800 m a.s.l., mountain slopes are covered with open woodlands of Pista- or national parks in the Uzbek part of the Fergana valley, where it would cia vera, Cerasus erythrocarpa Nevski, C tianschanica Pojark., Crataegus be possible to conserve a representative part of the plant diversity pontica K. Koch, and C. turkestanica Pojark., communities of East Indies (Tojibaev, 2002). mendations, 2013; Karimov, 2016). (Recom- bluestem (Bothriochloa ischaemum (L.) Keng) and with tall grass vegetation Nevski). and sagebrush (Artemisia tenuisecta), (Hordeum bulbosum L., Elytrigia trichophora (Link) The distinctive feature of vegetation of Fergana district is the well- developed belt of deciduous forests (Juglans regia L., Malus sieversii (Ledeb.) M. Roem, Acer semenovii Regel & Herder, A. turkestanicum Pax, Cotoneaster sp., Crataegus sp., Exochorda racemosa (Lindl.) Rehder, Lonicera sp.) Mountain Central Asian Province 92 93 growing at altitudes from 1000- I-2 Fergana district 1200 to 2000 m a.s.l. Owing to the humid conditions of this area, the largest stands of relict walnut-fruit forests of Central Asia are conserved here. The vegetation of the upper part of the forest belt is presented with maple, juniper and spruce-fir stands and tall herb sub alpine meadows. The highlands are covered with alpine meadows and pulvinates, stream stone-fields with single cryopetrophytic plants. A complete synopsis of the flora has not been compiled for the Fergana district. There is a list of more than 120 endemic species of the district, published by RV Kamelin (1990), but according to the actual data, the geographical ridge of many of these plants have a wider distribution area. For example, Astragalus bosbutooensis Nikitina & Sudn. was recently found in the Uzbek part of the Kurama and Chatkal ridges within Western Tien Shan district (Tojibaev et al., 2014b). Previously, this species was considered as local endemic to the Bozbu-Too Mountains on the southern slope of the Chatkal ridge and endemic of Kyrgyzstan (Lazkov, Sultanova, 2011, 2014). Al- lium aflatunense B. Fedtsch. occurs on the territory of Uzbekistan in the Figure 33 Chartak foothills (southern foothills of the Chatkal ridge near the Chartak town). Photograph by NYu Beshko. Nauvalisay River basin on the Ugam ridge and in the Tashkeskensay River Valley on the Chatkal ridge. Kamelin also included Artemisia namanganica Poljakov in the list of endemic species of the Fergana district, but this presented with undulating alluvial-proluvial plains and foothills plant is widespread in the Fergana valley, Mirzachul, Western Tien Shan, in Central Asia “adyr”), (so-called which are younger than the massive mountain ridges and Northern Pamir-Alay. Another example of plant wrongly identified as towering over them a local endemic species of the district is Tulipa ferganica Vved. According son varies from hot and dry to warm and moderately humid; the winters to current data (Tojibaev, Beshko, 2015), this species is endemic to the Fergana are mild with moderate frost. Figure 33 . The hydrothermal regime of the vegetative sea- valley distributed in the Chatkal, Fergana and Alay mountain ridges, and There are significant differences between the vegetation cover of the is included in the Red Data Book of Uzbekistan. At the same time, several Uzbek part of the South Chatkal region and the neighboring Chorkesar new endemic species have been described from this area, for example, region of the West Tien Shan district. In the foothills and low mountain Saussurea gorbunovae Kamelin, Corydalis bosbutooensis Lazkov, Iris belt of the Chorkesar region, the dominant plants are sagebrush austrotschatkalica Tojibaev, F. Karim. & Turgunov. sogdiana Bunge, A. namanganica, A. tenuisecta) Within Uzbekistan, there is only a small part of the South Chatkal (or (Artemisia and saltwort (Salsola sp.). In the veg- etation of the South Chatkal region, ephemeroid (Carex pachystylis J. Gay., Poa and sagebrush plant associations play a significant role; Artemis- Alabuga) region of the Fergana botanical-geographical district covering the bulbosa L.) southern foothills of the Chatkal ridge to the east of the Kasansay River ia tenuisecta and Bothriochloa ischaemum communities also are typical. and the western foothills of the Fergana ridge Mountain Central Asian Province 94 Figure 23 . The landscapes are Pistachio stands are present only in a few small areas near the state border. 95 I-2 Fergana district The vegetation of the South Chatkal region has been described in several the vicinity of the Nanay village (Kudrjashev, 1938; Bondarenko, 1956; Arifkhanova, 1965, 1967; Vernik, on the slopes of Mount Ungorte- classical works Rakhimova, 1982). pa. They are Eremurus altaicus The flora of this region was explored insufficiently. The checklist for Steven distributed in the Altay, the Uzbek part has not been published, but the above-listed geobotanical Tarbagatay, and Jungar Alatau works contain some information on the species composition. The total and Iris alberti Regel, which is number of plant species was estimated at 450-500. The flora of the Fer- distributed in the Central Tien gana district is rich in endemic species, but they grow mainly outside of Shan (Karimov, 2016). In addition, Uzbekistan, with exception of Allium filidentiforme Vved., A. viridiflorum a new location of Corydalis pa- Pobed., Astragalus allotricholobus Nabiev, and Hedysarum gypsaceum niculigera Regel & Schmalh., the Korotkova. The characteristic feature of this territory is the number of rare species registered in Uzbekistan sub-endemic plants with a restricted ridge covering the northern foothills only for the Shakhimardan River of the Fergana valley within the South Chatkal and Chorkesar regions (e.g., basin, was found in this area for Acantholimon nabievii Lincz., Allium haneltii, etc.). Studies between 2010 and 2015 the first time (Naralieva, 2014). made a significant contribution to the knowledge of flora of this area. Sev- Another remarkable plant of eral new species and a number of new additions to the flora of Uzbekistan the South Chatkal region is Al- were found here as a result of field surveys. In particular, the Chartak foot- lium oreoscordum Vved., a relict hills and Mount Ungortepa showed interesting findings. Central Asian primitive species of Figure 34 Allium viridiflorum Pobed., a rare endemic of the Fergana district. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. Two new species have been discovered and described from the Mount the section Rhizirideum Don. This onion is distributed on the Chatkal and Ungortepa - Allium tatyanae F.O. Khass. & F. Karim. (Khassanov et al., Uzun-Akhmat ridges mainly within the territory of Kyrgyzstan. The “Flora 2013b) and Iris austrotschatkalica (Tojibaev et al., 2014d). The green flowering of Uzbekistan” (Vol. 1, 1941) reported this species for the Mount Ungortepa. onion (Allium viridiflorum), which was previously considered to be endemic After more than 70 years, its populations have been registered in this area to Kyrgyzstan, has also been found from this location Figure 34 . The species was described in 1949 from the vicinity of the Arkit village near the lake and a new location has been found on the Karatag Mountains near Kasansay town. Sary-Chelek on the southern slope of the Chatkal ridge (Kyrgyzstan) and was Among recent floristic findings from the Uzbek part of South Chatkal known only from the type locality until recent times (Tojibaev et al., 2014e; Laz- region, one has attracted great interest. It is an inhabitant of the variegated kov, Umralina, 2015). This rare onion is a representative of the Central Asian rocks, and the only representative of the Central Asian monotypic genus, endemic and relict bitypic section, Verticillata Kamelin, which is charac- Lamyropappus schakaptaricus (B. Fedtsch.) Knorr. & Tamamsch. (Astera- terized by verticillate leaves. The second species of this section, Allium ceae)Figure 35. The species was described in 1909 as Cirsium schakaptaricum verticillatum Regel, is distributed mainly in the Pamir-Alay with single O. Fedtsch. & B. Fedtsch. A type specimen was collected by B. Fedtschen- locations in the Western Tien Shan. ko in 1902 from the vicinity of the village Shakaftar in the Sumsar River Two new species for the flora of Uzbekistan have been collected from Mountain Central Asian Province 96 valley (at the present time, it is the territory of Kyrgyzstan near the border with Uzbeki- 97 I-2 Fergana district stan) . In 1954, Neustrueva- Figure 35 Lamyropappus schakaptaricus (B. Fedtsch.) Knorr. & Tamamsch., the only representative of the Central Asian relict monotypic genus. In addition, a rare species endemic to the northern foothills of the Fer- Knorring and Tamamschian gana valley Allium haneltii was found in the same area. This species has performed the taxonomic been described from the Chust-Pap foothills and was previously consid- revision of genus Cirsium ered to be a narrow endemic of the Chorkesar region (Fritsch et al., 1998). L. and ranked this plant as Field studies of 2015 showed that in the Chartak foothills, there are normal the monotypic genus Lamy- populations of this onion with a density of 12-15 plants per 100 square me- ropappus, which has been ters. Three new findings for the flora of Uzbekistan (Astragalus spryginii Popov, referred by Kamelin as a rel- Cousinia knorringiae Bornm. and Pseudosedum ferganense Boriss.) also were recorded ict of the Central Asian flora in Chartak foothills. (Kamelin, 1973a). Its geographi- An extremely rare endemic plant Hedysarum gypsaceum was another cal range includes the south- important finding of 2015 made in the Chartak foothills. The species was western part of the Balkhash described by Korotkova from the territory of Kyrgyzstan and included in deserts and mountains in the the “Flora of Uzbekistan” (Vol. 3, 1955), based probably on a single speci- middle reaches of the Naryn men collected by MM Nabiev in 1951 in the Chartak region from the sur- River. In the TASH, LE and roundings of the Naritan village. All other herbarium specimens stored in FRU herbarium collections, TASH refer to the adjacent region of Kyrgyzstan. The population found in there are several specimens 2015 in the Sassiksay tract consists of approximately 150 plants of differ- from the southern foothills ent ages; there is normal seed reproduction due to grazing restrictions in of the Chatkal ridge. Conse- the border zone. quently, the species has been included in the “Flora of Uzbekistan” (Vol. 6, 1963) and in the first three editions of the “Red Data Book of Uzbekistan” (1984, 1998, 2006). Local populations of the species were considered to be ex- tinct in Uzbekistan because its habitats in the northern foothills of Fergana valley were destroyed due to intensive land development over the past 5060 years. In the early 2000s, a special search for this plant in Uzbekistan was unsuccessful, and the species was removed from the fourth edition of the national “Red Data Book” (2009) and was not included in the database of flora of Uzbekistan (Tojibaev et al., 2014a). In 2015, however, as a result of field surveys on important plant areas of the Fergana valley, one population of Lamyropappus schakaptaricus was found in the Sassiksay valley, in foothills to the north-east of the Chartak town in the Namangan administrative region. Mountain Central Asian Province 98 99 I-2 Fergana district I-3. FERGANA-ALAY DISTRICT This botanical-geographical region covers the northern slope of the Alay ridge from Isfara river valley to Karadarya river valley, and the junction of Alay and Fergana ridges. In the monograph “The botanical geography of Kazakhstan and Middle Asia” (Rachkovskaya et al., 2003), this area was classified as a part of the Kuhistan subprovince of Mountain Middle Asian province. RV Kamelin (1973a, 1990) considered the Fergana-Alay district to be a part of the Sogdian subprovince of Mountain Central Asian (Montane Middle Asian) province. The Alay ridge reaches an elevation of over 5,000 m a.s.l. The highest point is Tandykul peak (5,544 m a.s.l.), which is located in a huge mountain knot, the Matcha, near the junction of the Alay, Turkestan, and Zeravshan Figure 36 Subalpine and alpine landscapes of the Shakhimardan river basin. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. ridges, on the border of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. The ridge’s crest is sharp and rocky, the slopes are abrupt, stony, eroded, divided by narrow valleys with glaciers in the riverheads. Several low limestone ridges (Sarytau, meadowsFigure 36. Summer is moderately hot and very dry on the piedmont Katrantau, Burgan, Shivaly, etc.) stretch parallel to the Turkestan and Alay ridges plains and the foothills, moderately warm, and humid in the enclaves. along their northern piedmonts. Outcrops of variegated rocks are wide- Winter is mild in the foothills of the Alay ridge and moderately cold with spread in the foothills. considerable frost in the enclaves. The high mountain belt of this district is The Uzbek part of the district is represented by the lower flows of a few one of the most humid regions of Uzbekistan. rivers of the northern slopes of the Alay ridge (Sokh, Shakhimardan and Kuva- Botanical research has been carried out many times in the Alay ridge say), foothills around Kokand, Fergana and Andijan cities, and Sokh and over the last 100 years, but not all the results were compiled in a synopsis Shahimardan enclaves. At the piedmonts of the Alay ridge, there are devel- of flora. The most important publications on the flora and vegetation of the oped undulating and hilly landscapes of alluvial-proluvial plains, foothills, area are the works by ZA Minkvitz (1917), MG Popov (1922), MM Arifkha- and lowlands. The landscapes of the Shakhimardan and Sokh enclaves are nova (1965, 1967), P. Khalkuziev (1971) and AK Gazybaev (1994). Important represented by sub-humid middle mountains and highlands with charac- data sources include “Flora of Uzbekistan”, “Flora of the Kyrgyz SSR” teristic juniper forests, mountain steppes, mountain xerophytes and alpine and particularly the “Flora of the Tajik SSR”, which makes reference to 100 101 Mountain Central Asian Province I-3 Fergana-Alay district (Botsch. & Vved.) Al-Shehbaz & Mummenhoff, Sorbaria olgae Zinserl., Chesneya trijuga Boriss., Astragalus dianthoides Boriss., Hedysarum alaicum B. Fedtsch., etc.). The only representative of the sub-endemic monotypic genus Fergania Pimenov (Apiaceae), Fergania polyantha (Korovin) Pimenov, connects the flora of the northern foothills of the Alay and Turkestan ridges with the flora of the Mogoltau ridge. There are many sub-endemic North Pamir-Alay species distributed within the Turkestan and Alay ridges or only on the northern slopes (Acantholimon compactum Korovin, Astragalus auratus Gontsch., Caragana alaica Pojark., Nepeta subhastata Regel etc.). The most interesting plants among them are the species with a limited distribution over small limestone ridges and the variegated foothills of Turkestan and the Alay ridges (Astragalus brachyrachis Popov, A. pseudotetrastichus M.N. Abdull., Ferula vicaria Korovin etc.). The Alay ridge is the southern border of distribution for many Tien Shan species, and the northern border for a significant number of representatives of the flora of Pamir-Alay. In addition, several interesting disjunctions of North Figure 37 Fumariola turkestanica Korsh., an endemic of the Alay ridge. Tien Shan plants have been reported from the Fergana-Alay district (e.g., Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. Clematis alpina subsp. sibirica (Atragene sibirica)). The Fergana-Alay district is divided into two regions: the Western Alay (basins of rivers Isfara and Sokh) and Eastern Alay (the rest territory from the Shakhi- herbarium collections. The general characteristics of the flora are also mardan River basin to the junction of Fergana and Alay mountain ridges)Figure 38. A clear given in the monograph by RV Kamelin “Florogenetic analysis of native border line between two regions of the Fergana-Alay district and between flora of Mountain Middle Asia” (1973a). Among the recent publications, Fergana-Alay and Kuhistan districts is difficult to draw because of pres- “Checklist of vascular plants of Kyrgyzstan” (Lazkov, Sultanova, 2011, 2014) ence of the above-mentioned small advanced ridges (Andygentau, Karatau, and is a good reference. At the present time, a full-scale field survey within Katrantau). the whole Fergana-Alay district is very difficult to perform because of the With regard to publications on the flora of the Western Alay region, transboundary position of this territory with several enclaves and periodic there is a thesis devoted to the flora of the Isfara River basin located at the border conflicts. junction of the Turkestan, Zeravshan and Alay ridges in Kyrgyzstan and The Fergana-Alay district has rich flora; a characteristic feature is the Tajikistan (Gazybaev, 1994). A total of 1429 species of vascular plants of 544 high rate of endemism with two monotypic endemic genera, Fumariola genera and 91 families (including 16 narrow local endemic species) have been re- Figure 37 and Nathaliella B. Fedtsch. (Scrophulariace- ported for this area. This number coincides approximately with the prelimi- ae), with a significant number of endemic species (Acantholimon katrantavicum nary estimation of RV Kamelin (1973a), who assessed the number of species Lincz., A. muchamedshanovii Lincz., A. schachimardanicum Lincz., Lepidium curvinervium in the Isfara valley to be 1200-1400. The flora of the Western Alay region, 102 103 Korsh. (Fumariaceae) Mountain Central Asian Province I-3 Fergana-Alay district Eastern Alay region is slightly less than that in the Western Alay, but the rate of endemism is superior. A number of remarkable endemic species of the Alay ridge are known for this area (many of them are narrow local endemic species). The following taxa are given as an example: Nathaliella alaica B. Fedtsch., an only representative of the monotype genus Nathaliella (all known habitats are situated outside Uzbekistan); Physochlaina alaica Korotkova (extant populations grow on the rocks in the Shakhimardan River basin); Fumariola turkes- tanica Korsh. (another stenotopic petrophyte plant, an endemic of the region with progressive populations)Figure 37; Phlomoides mihaelis Adylov, Kamelin & Makhm., Jurinea schachimardanica Iljin, Lactuca alaica Kovalevsk., Oxytropis schachimardanica Filim., Delphinium knorringianum B. Fedtsch., etc. P. Khalkuziev described several new taxa from the Shakhimardan River basin (Viola schachimardanica, Eremurus alaicus, Tulipa schachimardanica, etc.), which were not accepted by subsequent researchers. The region is also rich in endemic geophytes. Six endemic species of geophytes grow in the lower Figure 38 Uzbek part of the Fergana-Alay district and neighbouring areas. Regions of the Fergana-Alay district: I-3-a Western Alay, I-3-b Eastern Alay. I-2-a South Chatkal region of the Fergana district. Regions of the Western Tien Shan district: I-1-e Arashan, I-1-f Chorkesar. Regions of the Central Fergana district: II-1-a Kayrakum-Yazyavan, II-1-b East Fergana. reaches of the Vuadil, Shakhimardan and Sokh rivers (Allium alaicum Vved, A. ferganicum Vved, A. schachimardanicum Vved, A. sochense R.M. Fritsch et Turakulov, A. taciturnum Vved., Ixiolirion ferganicum Kovalevsk. & Vved.) (Tojibaev, Karimov, 2012). A characteristic feature of this territory is a number of rare sub-endemic plants in the northern foothills of the Fergana valley within the South and especially the flora of the Isfara basin, is transitional between the Chatkal and Chorkesar regions. Among the sub-endemic species, the fol- Fergana-Alay and Kuhistan districts, with a number of stenotopic endemic lowing plants are distributed in the neighboring botanical-geographic and sub-endemic species confined to the variegated rocks (Kamelin, 1979). districts: two North Pamir-Alay representatives of Allium (A. elegans Drobow, In addition, there is a number of species occurring throughout the Fergana A. minutum Vved) and three species red-listed in Uzbekistan (Astragalus auratus, valley, as well as species with a fragmented distribution in the Tien Shan at Tulipa ferganica, Lonicera paradoxa Pojark.). Allium michaelis, which was recently the junction of the Alay and Turkestan ridges and in the Zeravshan River described from the southern slopes of the Kurama ridge, was found in the basin. The narrow endemic species of the region within Uzbekistan are vicinity of the Andijan city. Calligonum calcareum Pavlov and Cousinia ferghanensis Bornm. A list of the flora of the Uzbek part of the Western Alay region has not been drawn. The check-list of the flora of the Shakhimardan River basin (1353 species) composed by P. Khalkuziev represents the plant diversity of the Eastern Alay region. According to RV Kamelin, the total number of species in the Mountain Central Asian Province 104 105 I-3 Fergana-Alay district I-4. NURATAU DISTRICT The territory of the Nuratau district includes the Nuratau mountains (consisting of Nuratau, Koytash, Khobduntau, Karachatau, Aktau and Karatau ridges) and several relic low mountain ridges (Pistalitau, Uchkulach, Egarbelistag and Balyklytau) (Kamelin, 1990; Tojibaev et al., 2012b; Beshko et al., 2014; Tojibaev, Beshko, 2016)Figure 39. This botanic-geographical region is situated in the transitional zone between the mountain systems of Pamir-Alay and Tien Shan and the arid plains of the Turan lowland. The northern and western boundaries of the district are also the border between the Mountain Central Asian and Turan provinces. According to RV Kamelin (1990), this border “... rounds the west Figure 39 Nuratau and Kuhistan dictricts of Mountain Central Asian province and adjancent end of the Karatau ridge, transects the Nuratau valley near Nurata town, territories. turns the the Nuratau ridge in the west, and goes to the east and southeast along the foothills to the Pistalitau ridge and Djizak city”. This description can be defined more precisely because the natural boundary is quite dis- Regions of the Nuratau district: I-4-1 Nuratau, I-4-b Aktau, I-4-c Nuratau Relic Mountains. Regions of the Kuhistan district: I-5-a North Turkestan, I-5-b Malguzar, I-5-c Urgut, I-5-d Zirabulak-Ziadin. I-6-a Kashkadarya region of the Western Hissar district. II-2-b Mirzachul region of the Middle Syrdarya district. Regions of the Bukhara district: II-4-a Middle Zeravshan, II-4-c Karshi-Karnabchul. tinctive in the vegetation cover. The landscape of the northern foothills and piedmont plain of the Nuratau ridge is formed by ephemeroid-sagebrush communities with the dominance of Artemisia sogdiana, which are typical diffusa Krash. ex Poljakov, a typical dominant of desert vegetation of in the foothills of the Western Pamir-Alay and some ridges of the Western southern Turan. Tien Shan. A number of Pamir-Alay, Western Tien Shan, and Central Asian The Nuratau Mountains with the adjacent small insular ridges are the mountain species are characteristic of these communities (Anemone petiolulosa peripheral north-western branches of the Pamir-Alay mountain system Juz., Astragalus bactrianus Fisch., A. sogdianus Bunge, Corydalis sewerzowii Regel, Dian- wedged deeply into the desert plain of Kyzylkum. They consist of two thus tetralepis Nevski ex Schischk., Iris narbutii O. Fedtsch., Phlomoides eriocalyx (Regel) parallel but not high mountain chains extended on 250 km along the right Adylov, Kamelin & Makhm., Tulipa korolkowii Regel, T. micheliana T.M Hoog, etc.). With bank of the Zeravschan River and separated by the Nurata valley (Sanzar- decrease of the altitude, approximately at 400-380 m a.s.l., near the lower Nurata depression). limit of the distribution of gray soils, a dominant of piedmont sagebrush- In the Nuratau district, the moderate raising of the Earth’s crust and low ephemeroid communities, Artemisia sogdiana is replaced with Artemisia precipitation during the Neogene and Quaternary led to the formation of 106 107 Mountain Central Asian Province I-4 Nuratau district landscapes with relatively less rugged terrain than in the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay. The summer in the Nuratau Mountains is hot and very dry; the winter is mild with medium frost. There are developed arid variations of all types of piedmont and mountainous landscapes of Central Asia except for highlands. The majority of mountainous Central Asian vegetation types (except for alpine communities) are represented on the territory of the district. The Nuratau ridge is one of the three isolated sites of the relict walnut-fruit forests in Uzbekistan. The walnut-fruit stands occupy the valleys of the largest streams on the northern slope of the Nuratau ridge. Currently, they represent an original cultural landscape (so-called forest-garden) that has been transformed extensively by local people over the centuries-old horticultural activitiesFigure 40. This area is the most western point of the distribution of forests of Juniperus polycarpos var. seravschanica. In the past, juniper woodlands grew in the Nuratau Mountains, but they were cut down almost entirely by the beginning of the twentieth century and were replaced with Figure 41 Zeravshan juniper is still preserved only in some remote places in the territory of Nuratau district. Nuratau Nature Reserve, Tykchasay valley. Photograph by NYu Beshko. scrublands and tall grass communities (so-called savannoids). Small populations and solitary trees of Zeravshan juniper were still preserved but only in some remote places in the Nuratau and Aktau ridgesFigure 41. The geographical position and natural conditions of the Nuratau district determine the xerophytic vegetation of the territory and an original type of vertical zonality, which combines the features of Kuhistan and Karatau types (Rachkovskaya et al., 2003). There are only four altitudinal belts: plains, foothills, low and middle mountains. The fifth belt (alpine) is absent. The piedmont plains and foothills (400-800 m a.s.l.) are covered with ephemeroidsagebrush and phlomis-ephemeroid phytocenoses. The upper part of the foothills is occupied by petrophytic ephemeral-sagebrush communities with shrubs (Amygdalus spinosissima). The lower and middle mountain belts have mosaic vegetation represented by tall grass and tall herb savanFigure 40 The relict walnut-fruit gallery forest on the Nuratau ridge. Nuratau Nature Reserve, Mountain Central Asian Province 108 Hayat valley. Photograph by NYu Beshko. 109 I-4 Nuratau district noids in combination with forb-sagebrush communities, shrubs, and open “Flora of the Syrdarya Karatau” (1990), RV Kamelin estimated the flora woodlands. In the middle mountain belt, there are widespread bunch grass of the Nuratau Mountains at 1172 species. A modern list of flora of the steppes (Festuca valesiaca, Poa relaxa Ovcz., Elymus angustus Trin. ex Ledeb., Stipa sp.), Nuratau district was compiled by NYu Beshko (unpublished). It accounts semishrub communities, and mountain xerophytes. for 1289 species, including all new records found during the last 20-25 The territory has been affected by centuries of human activity, and the years and alien plants (Tojibaev et al., 2016). Owing to the arid conditions, vegetation cover has been transformed extensively, except for remote rock the lack of highlands and strong anthropogenic pressure, the level of spe- massifs. Owing to the region’s aridity and water scarcity, local agriculture cies diversity of the Nuratau district is relatively low compared to other is performed on a small scale, and the main anthropogenic factors influenc- regions of the Mountain Central Asian province. The structure of flora as ing the vegetation are grazing and clear-cutting of trees and shrubs. In ad- a whole is typical for mountainous Central Asia. In addition, it has some dition, over the last few decades, the impact of mining operations has also original characteristics associated with the geological history and genesis increased. of the flora of this territory, as well as with its position on the border of the Currently, the process of further degradation of vegetation and desertifi- Mountain Central Asian and Turan provinces. cation under the impact of excessive grazing and clear-cutting is occurring The long and complex geological history of the territory contributed to in this area. There have been successional changes in the open woodlands the autochthonous development of flora with a high endemism rate. The and tall grass vegetation with xerophytic low-yield ephemeral-sagebrush flora of the district is characterized by the one endemic monotypic genus, communities and annual weedy grasses. This negative trend was noted Anura Tscherneva (recent investigations have thrown doubt on its rank as a separate since the late 1960s (Zakirov, 1969, 1971). genus) (Lopez-Vinallonga et al., 2009; Lopez-Vinallonga et al., 2011), and one sub- The flora of the Nuratau district has been well-studied. The works by EP endemic bitypic genus Autumnalia Pimenov. RV Kamelin (1990) reported Korovin (1923, 1934, 1961, 1962), MV Kultiassov (1923), EM Demurina (1975), that the number of endemic species in flora of the Nuratau Mountains is KZ Zakirov (1955, 1962), PK Zakirov (1969, 1971), RV Kamelin (1973a, 1973b, 62; however, in accordance with the recent data, the list of endemic plants 1990), and other publications contain information on the flora and vegeta- of the Nuratau district must be decreased to 34. They are Acantholimon tion of this region. An inventory and analysis of flora was carried out for nuratavicum Zakirov, A. subavenaceum Lincz., A. zakirovii Beshko, Allium the territory of the Nuratau nature reserve; several floristic findings also svetlanae Vved. ex Filim., Anura pallidivirens (Kult.) TschernevaFigure 42, have been reported from this area (Beshko, 2000a, 2011). Astragalus nuratensis Popov, Autumnalia innopinata Pimenov, Cousinia The most important publications on the flora and vegetation of this dis- botschantzevii Juz. ex Tscherneva, C. pseudolanata Popov ex Tscerneva, trict are the monographs of PK Zakirov “The vegetation cover of Nuratau Dianthus helenae Vved., Eremurus nuratavicus A.P. Khohkr., Erysimum Mountains” (1969) and “The botanical geography of Nuratau ridge and low nuratense Popov ex Botsch. & Vved., Ferula helenae Rakhm. & Mel- mountains of Kyzylkum” (1971). These books contain detailed descriptions ibaev, Jurinea zakirovii Iljin, Helichrysum nuratavicum Krasch., Lappula of the vegetation and a checklist of the flora of the Nuratau ridge of 679 nuratavica Nabiev & Zakirov, Lagochilus olgae Kamelin, L. proskorjakovii species of vascular plants. In 1971, RV Kamelin worked on the Nuratau Ikramov, Oxytropis pseudorosea Filim., Phlomoides anisochila (Pazij & and Aktau ridges; he complemented the list of flora of this territory with Vved.) Salmaki, Phlomis nubilans Zakirov, Salvia submutica Botsch. & 160 species and described several new species (1973b). In the monograph, Vved., Seseli turbinatum Korovin, Lepidium olgae (R.M. Vinogr.) Al-She- 110 111 Mountain Central Asian Province I-4 Nuratau district hbaz & Mummenhoff, Pentanema krascheninnikovii (Kamelin) Czerep., spurs of the Turkestan ridge. Therefore, the flora of the Nuratau district has etc. The character of endemism is relic (Anura pallidivirens, Phlomoides aniso- a high degree of affinity with the flora of the Turkestan ridge and the entire chila, Salvia submutica), or young and progressive (Eremurus nuratavicus, Astragalus Kuhistan district (more than 80% of species composition). A large number of sub- nuratensis, Oxytropis pseudorosea, Ferula helenae). All these species are national endemic species are common to these two districts (Allium cupuliferum Regel, endemic species of Uzbekistan and most are included in the national Red A. gusaricum Regel, Astragalus knorringianus Boriss., A. plumatus (Boriss.) Boriss., Cicer Data Book (2009). Several species previously considered to be endemic oc- pungens Boiss., Cousinia chlorantha Kult., C. dshisakensis Kult., C. dubia Popov, C. haesit- cur within neighboring botanical-geographical districts (e.g., Silene paranadena abunda Juz., C. pseudodshisakensis Tscherneva &Vved., Dracocephalum nuratavicum Ady- Bondarenko & Vved. is found on the Malguzar ridge). lov, Lepidium botschantsevianum Al-Shehbaz, Tulipa affinis Botschantz., etc.). An original Based on the current data of molecular taxonomy, Anura pallidivirens feature of the flora of Nuratau district is its relationship with the flora of was treated as Arctium pallidivirens (Kult.) S. López, Romaschenko, Su- relic mountains of the Kyzylkum, Kuhitang ridge, Western Tien Shan, and sanna & N. Garcia, the only species of the endemic monotypic section Syrdarya Karatau. Anura (Juz.) S. López, Romaschenko, Susanna & N. Garcia of the genus Arctium L. (Lopez-Vinallonga et al, 2009; Lopez-Vinallonga et al., 2011). Regarding orography, the Nuratau Mountains are the north-western The proximity to the Kyzylkum desert has a significant impact on the flora and vegetation of the Nuratau district. In the piedmont plain and foothills, there are many typical desert plants, such as Ephedra strobilacea Bunge, Ferula foetida (Bunge) Regel, Haloxylon aphyllum (Minkw.) Iljin, Cousinia mollis Schrenk, C. spiridonowii Juz., Tulipa buhseana Boiss., T. Figure 42 Anura pallidivirens (Kult.) Tscherneva, an endemic of the Nuratau botanical- geographical district. Photograph by NYu Beshko. lehmanniana Mercklin, etc. Nanophyton erinaceum Bunge, a representative of the desert genus Nanophyton Less., and Cousinia korolkowii Regel & Schmalh., a species with a range covering the Nuratau Mountains and the remnants of Kyzylkum, are widespread in all altitudinal zones of the district. An interesting fact that emphasizes the relationships between the flora of the Nuratau district and low mountains of Kyzylkum is the finding of Ferula kyzylkumica Korovin (Apiaceae), a rare endemic species included in the Red Data Book of Uzbekistan (2009). TASH contains a herbarium specimen from the Tekelyk pass on the Aktau ridge. Similarly, Allium kysylkumi Kamelin which was previously considered to be endemic to relic mountains of Kyzylkum, was recorded from the foothills of Karatau and Aktau ridges. Therefore, the attributes of resemblance of flora of the Nuratau district and flora of the Kyzylkum (particularly, relic mountains) appeared in the composition of Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Liliaceae, Amaryllidaceae, and other families (Beshko et al., 2013a; Beshko, 2014; Beshko, Azimova, 2014; Beshko, Batoshov, 2013, 2015; Tojibaev, Beshko, 2015; Batoshov, 2016). Mountain Central Asian Province 112 113 I-4 Nuratau district Although the territory of Nuratau district belongs geographically to the belts of the Western Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay, there are a number of interesting features showing its close Kuhistan. Owing to the natural con- relationships with the Western Tien Shan and Syrdarya Karatau ridge. First ditions of the region, the vegetation of all, there are a significant number of common species (more than 60%). The of the Nuratau Mountains, as well as most remarkable is that the Western Tien Shan and Syrdarya Karatau belong Syrdarya Karatau, varies consider- to the Yaksart subprovince of the Mountain Central Asian province and the ably with the prevalence of herba- Nuratau Mountains are a part of the Sogdian subprovince according to the ceous and subshrub communities scheme of botanical-geographical division by RV Kamelin (1973a, 1990). and fragmentary woodlands (Zakirov, A number of species (25) have a disjunctive ridge in the Western Tien 1969, 1971) . A resemblance between Shan, Syrdarya Karatau and Nuratau Mountains (Astragalus falcigerus Popov, A. vegetation of the Nuratau Mountains, nematodes Bunge ex Boiss., A. macropetalus Schrenk, Bungea vesiculifera Pavlov & Lipsch., Syrdarya Karatau and Western Tien Jurinea suffruticosa Regel, Mesostemma karatavica (Schischk.) Vved., Scutellaria ramosissi- Shan is evident in the wide distribu- ma Popov, Tanacetopsis karataviensis (Kovalevsk.) Kovalevsk., and Trichanthemis karatavi- tion of tall herb communities with a ensis Regel & Schmalh., etc.) (Beshko, 2014). For example, Astragalus alabugensis domination of umbellifers (Prangos B. Fedtsch. of section Laguropsis Bunge is known from the Alabuga River pabularia, P. ornata Kuzmina, Ferula angreni, basin in the eastern part of the Fergana ridge, Syrdarya Karatau, and two F. kokanica Regel & Schmalh., F. ovina Boiss., locations in the Nuratau Mountains. A. inaequalifolius Basil, A. pulcher F. penninervis Regel & Schmalh.). Figure 43 Autumnalia innopinata Pimenov, one of rarest and most interesting endemic species of the Nuratau district. Photograph by NYu Beshko. Korovin, and A. schrenkianus Fisch. & C.A. Mey., which are Western Tien The watersheds of the Nuratau Mountains in the middle and sometimes Shan species of the same section, also have a disjunction in the Nuratau in the lower mountain belt are covered with characteristic communities of Mountains. Eremurus lactiflorus O. Fedtsch., a rare representative of flora dwarf shrubs (“phryganoids”)Figure 44 with a domination of Lepidolopha nurat- of the Western Tien Shan, occurs at two localities on the Nuratau ridge. avica Krasch., L. komarovii C. Winkl., Pseudolinosyris grimmii (Regel & Ferula angreni Korovin is widespread on the Kurama and Nuratau ridges. Schmalh.) Novopokr., Artemisia juncea Kar. & Kir., in combination with A recently described bitypic genus Autumnalia (Apiaceae) with two dis- fescue, sagebrush, and mountain xerophytes. This is similar to the vegeta- junctive vicarious species, A. botschantsevii Pimenov from the Syrdarya tion of the Syrdarya Karatau because the domination of fescue steppes Figure with phryganoids and mountain xerophytes in the middle mountain belt , has great importance for an analysis of the botanical-geographical links is a feature of the Karatau type of vertical zonality (Kamelin, 1990; Rachkovs- of the Nuratau district. A specific life cycle of this genus with autumnal kaya et al., 2003). Within the Turkestan and Malguzar ridges in the Kuhistan flowering is very different from all other genera of Central Asian Umbel- district, phryganoids and tall-herb communities of umbellifers have shown liferae (Pimenov, 1989; Beshko et al, 2013b). little development (Demurina, 1975; Khassanov et al., 2013a). RV Kamelin (1990) Karatau ridge and A. innopinata Pimenov from the Nuratau Mountains 43 In a general outline, the vegetation of the Nuratau Mountains is repre- noted that communities of Cousinia karatavica Regel & Schmalh. are sented by plant communities typical for arid Central Asian middle-altitude characteristic of the Syrdarya Karatau ridge. The same Cousinia and an mountains, which is similar to the vegetation of the lower altitudinal allied vicarious species, C. korolkowii, comprise the original sparse com- 114 115 Mountain Central Asian Province I-4 Nuratau district munities on the dry stony slopes of the Nuratau Mountains. Therefore, the high degree of similarity in the species composition of the flora of Nuratau Mountains, Syrdarya Karatau ridge, and Western Tien Shan, number of common species with disjunctive range, and common traits of vegetation indicates that these regions were connected in the past. Another feature of the flora of the Nuratau district, just as in the Syrdarya Karatau, is the loss or depletion of some taxa and the concurrent polymorphism of others (Kamelin, 1990; Beshko, 2000a). The best example is the lack of Campanulaceae family in the Nuratau Mountains in contrast to other mountainous regions of Central Asia (Zakirov, 1971; Beshko, 2000a). This is an unusual case considering that the family is well represented in the flora of all neighboring districts of the Mountain Central Asian province. Five species of 5 genera of Campanulaceae are known for the Syrdarya Karatau ridge (Kamelin, 1990); 10 species of 4 genera grow in the Uzbek part of the Western Tien Shan (Tojibaev, 2010), and 8 species of 5 genera are found on the northern slopes of the Turkestan ridge (Khassanov et al., 2013a). The remarkable characteristics of vegetation of the Nuratau district, which were noticed by PK Zakirov (1969, 1971) and RV Kamelin (1973b), are a mosaic structure, indistinct boundaries of the altitudinal belts, wide spread of Iris songarica Schrenk formation on the piedmont plain, lack of Inula helenium L. and I. macrophylla Kar. & Kir. in the tall-grass communities, and bunchgrass steppes and mountain xerophytes distributed at relatively low altitudes (in Central Asia, this vegetation occurs mainly in the upper mountain belts). The Nuratau district is divided into three regions, Nuratau, Natural Relic Mountains, and Aktau. Nuratau region includes the northern branch of the Nuratau Mountains (or North Nuratau Ridge) and is divided into two parts separated by the Saurbel Figure 44 Dwarf shrub communities (“phryganoids”) with domination of Lepidolopha nuratavica Krasch. Central part of the Nuratau ridge, the Nuratau Nature Reserve. Photograph by NYu Beshko. pass: the Nuratau and Koytash ridges. The length of this mountain chain is approximately 200 km, and the highest peak is 2169 m a.s.l.; this is one of the oldest mountain ridges of Central Asia (Atlas, 1982). The flora of the region is estimated at approximately 1200 species, which is more than 90% of the flora of the district. As for the published Mountain Central Asian Province 116 117 I-4 Nuratau district check-lists, the flora of the Nuratau Nature Reserve includes 820 species of 385 genera and 81 families (Beshko, 2011), and 1033 species have been listed for the mountainous part of the planned Nuratau-Kyzylkum Biosphere Reserve (Beshko, 2000b). In addition, 15 endemic and 23 sub-endemic species are known to the region, including a number of narrow endemic species of the central part of the Nuratau ridge (Lagochilus proskorjakovii, Phlomoides anisochila, Lepidium olgae (R. M. Vinogr.) Al-Shehbaz & Mummenhoff, etc.). Nuratau Relic Mountains include the insular ridges (Pistalitau, Khanbandytag, Egarbelistag and Balyklitau) located at the southern edge of the Kyzylkum, to the north of the Nuratau ridge. They stretch parallel to the Nuratau Mountains from south-east to north-west. The largest of them is the Pistalitau ridge approximately 40 km long and 557 m above sea levelFigure 45. An investigation of this area is important for understanding the relationship Figure 45 Balyklytau, one of the Nuratau outlier ridges. Photograph by NYu Beshko. between flora of the relic mountains of Kyzylkum and defining the boundaries between the Turan and Mountain Central Asian botanical-geographical provinces. of Kyzylkum were included in the South Turan province and East-South Many famous botanists focused their research on the flora of the relic Turan subprovince. mountains of Central Asia, and low mountains of Kyzylkum in particular. Historically, these relic mountains remained out of the sight of botanists. A majority of scientists, who studied these mountains (Korovin, 1961, 1962; Za- Recently, AR Batoshov compiled an actual synopsis of 781 species be- kirov, 1971, 1973, etc.), regarded all remnant mountains as a part of the Turan longing to 355 genera and 69 families (Batoshov, 2016). The results of recent province. PK Zakirov (1971) noted some features of the flora and vegetation studies indicate the special botanical-geographical position of the Nuratau of the Nuratau insular ridges, distinguishing them from the mountains of remnant ridges compared to the other low mountains of the Kyzylkum. Central and South-Western Kyzylkum (Bukantau, Tamdytau, Aristanatau, Auminza- There altitudinal zonality is clearly expressed here. The general appear- tau, Kuldzhuktau, etc.). On the other hand, the lack of a complete list of flora ance of vegetation and dominant species is similar to that in the lower belts prevented him from performing geographical analysis and drawing a cor- of the Nuratau and other mountain ridges of the North-Western Pamir- rect conclusion on phyto-geographical position of the area. In contrast, RV Alay. In general, the vegetation of these insular ridges is a derivative of the Kamelin (1990) considered the Nuratau relic ridges as a part of the Nuratau mountain vegetation types with a notable predominance of eurytopic weed district of the Mountain Central Asian province. This confirmed another plants. scheme of botanical-geographical division of Central Asia proposed by EI The main features of the flora of this region also shows a significant dif- Rachkovskaya and co-authors (2003). In the last scheme, these outlier ridg- ference from the low mountains of Central and South-Western Kyzylkum, es were ascribed to the Mountain Central Asian province and West Tien- and a high similarity to the flora of Nuratau Mountains. For example, 43 Shan – Pamir-Alay piedmont subprovince, whereas the remnant mountains out of 47 species of monocotyledonous geophytes reported for this region 118 119 Mountain Central Asian Province I-4 Nuratau district are common with the flora of Nuratau Mountains and only 15 species are common with the flora of relic mountains of South-Western and Central Kyzylkum. Similarly, the composition of many genera and families also shows some resemblance with those in the Nuratau insular ridges and the mountain regions of Central Asia (Batoshov, Beshko, 2013, 2015; Batoshov, 2016). The characteristic features of the study area are a rather large amount of the ancient xerophilous family Chenopodiaceae (3.8%), which has been added to Amaranthaceae based on the current data of molecular taxonomy (APG IV, 2016), the small number of Eremurus M. Bieb. species, and their low abundance of vegetation cover (Batoshov, Beshko, 2013, 2015; Batoshov, 2016). Therefore, the Nuratau relic ridges are defined as a separate region of the Nuratau district of the Mountain Central Asian province. Aktau region includes the southern branch of the Nuratau Mountains, which consists of several small ridges (Khobduntau, Karachatau, Aktau and Karatau). The largest of these is the Aktau ridge, about 100 km in extent and 1993 m a.s.l. in altitudeFigure 46. This mountain chain has received less attention than the Nuratau ridge. A list of flora of the southern branch of Nuratau Mountains is still incomplete. In the monograph called “Vegetation of the Khobduntau and Karachatau Mountains” (1930), SN Kudrjashev reported 228 species for these two small isolated mountain ridges. In 1937, the EM Demurina and EE Korotkova conducted a detailed geobotanical study throughout the western part of Turkestan ridge and its western spurs (including Malguzar, Nuratau, Khobduntau, Karachatau and the eastern part of the Aktau ridge) and collected extensive herbarium material. The results were published later in the monograph of EM Demurina “Vegetation of the western part of Turkestan ridge and its spurs” (1975). Unfortunately, the list of 1139 plant species given in this work is common to the Turkestan ridge and its spurs, without information Figure 46 Central part of the Aktau ridge. Photograph by NYu Beshko. on the species distribution over its certain ridges. A classic monograph of KZ Zakirov “Flora and vegetation of the Zeravshan river basin” (1955, 1962) still remains an important source on the flora of the southern branch of Nuratau Mountains; 372 species (with reference to herbarium collections) have Mountain Central Asian Province 120 121 I-5. KUHISTAN DISTRICT The name “Kuhistan” translated from Farsi means “mountainous country”; in the geographical descriptions of Central Asia, it belongs to the large region of Western Pamir-Alay with three massive parallel ridges extending in the latitudinal direction: Turkestan, Zeravshan, and Hissar ridges (Shchukin, Gilarova, 1936). In the phytogeographical scheme of Central Asia (1962), EP Korovin defined as the Kuhistan district not only these three ridges, but also the entire western Pamir-Alay (including the western part of the Figure 47 Astragalus nuratensis Popov, a local endemic of the Aktau region. Alay ridge, Nuratau Mountains, the western spurs of the Hissar ridge, and Kuhitang) and a Photograph by NYu Beshko. part of the Western Tien Shan (Mogoltau and Kurama ridges). RV Kamelin (1973a, 1990) regarded this large area with extremely heterogeneous flora and veg- etation as the Sogdian subprovince of the Mountain Central Asian provbeen reported for the Aktau region in this publication. ince. Kuhistan is one of districts defined in the subprovince. According to The flora of Aktau region is rather poor compared to the flora of the RV Kamelin (1973, 1979, 1990), this district includes the Turkestan ridge (with Nuratau region owing to the low altitude of the southern branch of Nuratau the eastern part of the Malguzar ridge) and Zeravshan ridge, which is extended Mountains, lower diversity of landscapes and habitats, and arid conditions. over 350 km and separated by the valley of the Zeravshan River. There This territory has 9 endemic species (Allium aktauense F.O. Khass. & Esankulov, are following regions: North Turkestan (the northern slope of the Turkestan ridge), , A. saidii F.O. Khass. & Esankulov, Urgut (western part of the Zeravshan ridge), South Turkestan (the middle part of the A. habibi F.O. Khass., Astragalus nuratensis Figure 47 Autumnalia innopinata, Cousinia pseudolanata, Ferula nuratavica Pimenov, Scutellaria Zeravshan River basin between Penjikent and Ayni towns), Fan (Fan Mountains, Mogian, botschantzevii M.N. Abdull. and Pentanema krascheninnikovii) and more than 10 sub- Kshtut, Fandarya basins), Yagnob (Yagnob River valley), and Matcha (upper reach of endemic species. The total number of species, according to our estimates, the Zeravshan River). The authors of “Botanical geography of Kazakhstan and is approximately 1000, with a significant number of desert Turan and Iran- Middle Asia” referred the vegetation of the Turkestan, Zeravshan, northern Turanian plants, ephemers, and weeds. slope of the Hissar and most of the Alay ridges to the Kuhistan type of altitudinal zonality, and defined this territory as the Kuhistan subprovince of the Mountain Middle Asian province (Rachkovskaya et al., 2003). Considering the territory and borders of the Kuhistan district, we mainly Mountain Central Asian Province 122 123 I-5 Kuhistan district follow the concept of RV Kamelin, with some clarifications regarding the saltworts. Tall grass savannoids, xerophytic open woodlands, and semi- Malguzar ridge and western spurs of the Zeravshan ridge. shrub communities (Perovskia scrophulariifolia Bunge, Lepidolopha komarovii) re- In the scheme of phytochoria of Uzbekistan, the Kuhistan botanical- place them at 1000-1200 m a.s.l. In this belt, the most important dominant geographical district includes the Turkestan, Malguzar, Zeravshan ridges, species are Elytrigia trichophora and Amygdalus spinosissima. A thick belt and Zirabulak-Ziadin Mountains . This transboundary area covers of juniper forests begins at 1500-1700 m a.s.l. In some areas, the juniper more than 40,000 square kilometers with an elevations ranging from 400- trees form stands with a stock density of 0.6-1.0. The phytocenotic opti- 500 m a.s.l. at the piedmonts of the western spurs of the Zeravshan ridge to mum of thermophilous juniper forests is situated in Kuhistan, particularly 5489 m a.s.l. in the Fan Mountains and 5509 m a.s.l. in the Matcha moun- in the Turkestan ridge; therefore, juniper forests of this territory have no tain knot. analogues in Central Asia (Konnov 1966, 1973, 1974, 1990). As in the Western Figure 39 With increasing altitude, the landscape graduates from alluvial-proluvial Tien Shan, Juniperus polycarpos var. seravschanica, J. semiglobosa, and J. loess hilly plains to strongly rugged highlands, and the local conditions pseudosabina dominates in the lower, middle, and upper part of the juniper of the growing season varies from hot and dry in the foothills to cool belt, respectively. Juniper woods are combined with tall grass communi- and moderately humid in the mountains; the winters are very mild in the ties of Elytrigia trichophora, fescue and feather grass steppes of Festuca foothills and moderately cold with medium frosts in the mountains. Dry valesiaca and Stipa sp.Figure 48. Despite the rich diversity of trees and shrub valleys located in the “rain shadow” alternate with the areas of local ac- species in this area, mesophytic deciduous woods are presented poorly. cumulation of moisture. Comparing to the Western Tien Shan, the alpine In contrast to the Western Tien Shan, tall herb subalpine meadows do not climate of the Kuhistan is dry with less falls than in the middle mountain play a notable role in the landscape. These communities are distributed belt. Abrupt slopes of the ridges are strongly eroded and crossed by narrow patchly on the most humid slopes. The vegetation cover of the alpine belt deep gorges; the watersheds of ridges are sharp and rocky. Large glaciers, is comprised of juniper elfin wood, mountain xerophytes (spiny herbs and pul- cliffs, screes, and debris streams are typical for the highlands of Kuhistan. vinates as Cousinia verticillaris Bunge, Acantholimon alatavicum Bunge, Scorzonera acan- Outcrops of variegated rocks are widespread in the lower altitudinal belts. thoclada Franch., Astragalus lasiosemius Boiss. and Onobrychis echidna) and cryophytic The Zeravshan River valley downstream from the mouth of Kshtut and bunchgrass steppe. Communities of Kobresia pamiroalaica N.A. Ivanova, Mogian rivers is an ancient agricultural oasis occupied by an anthropo- K. stenocarpa (Kar. & Kir.) Steud. and alpine meadows of Cerastium ce- genic landscape with fragments of salt marshes and riparian forests. rastoides (L.) Britton, Lagotis korolkowii (Regel & Schmalh.) Maxim., The flora and vegetation of this area is distinguished by the significant Oxytropis humifusa Kar. & Kir., Potentilla gelida C.A. Mey., Ranunculus diversity due to the strongly rugged terrain, large amplitude of elevations, turkestanicus Franch. occupy mainly the wet depressions on the water- and wide ridge of soil and climatic conditions. They represent the semiarid sheds and upper part of the slopes. The limit of the vertical distribution of version of all piedmont and mountainous types of landscapes of Central plants is apporximately at 4200 m a.s.l. Asia and almost all mountain types of vegetation. Comparing to the West- The flora of Kuhistan has been well explored. Botanical research in ern Tien Shan, the boundaries of altitudinal belts in Kuhistan are shifted mountainous Central Asia began in the middle of the 19th Century by the upward. The piedmont plains and foothills are characterized by ephemeral- expeditions of Lehmann, Fedtschenko, Regel, Komarov, Capus, and Bon- sagebrush and low herb ephemeral-ephemeroid communities, often with valot to the Zeravshan valley. There are numerous sources containing the 124 125 Mountain Central Asian Province I-5 Kuhistan district data on the flora and vegetation, ranging from the classical works by AA Bunge (1847, 1852), VL Komarov (1896), BA Fedtschenko (1913-1918, 1925), VI Lipsky (1902-1905), and other first explorers of the Central Asian flora. KS Afanasjev (1956), EM Demurina (1975), KZ Zakirov (1955, 1962), RV Kamelin (1973a, 1979), AA Konnov (1973) should be cited as the most important publications of the second half of the 20th Century. Several new studies dedicated to the flora and vegetation of certain parts of the Kuhistan district have been performed over the past 15 years (Sulaymanov, 2008; Tirkasheva, 2011; Botirova, 2012; Sadikov, 2012; Esankulov, 2012; Khassanov et al., 2013). According to RV Kamelin (1979, 1990), the flora of the Kuhistan district is a moderately rich mountainous Central Asian flora, which includes 2080 species. One endemic monotypic genus, Komarovia Korovin, is known for the district; its only representative K. angiosperma Korovin is found in the western part of the Zeravshan ridge. Two sub-endemic genera, Cryptocodon A. Fed. and Cylindrocarpa Regel, are common to the Kuhistan, Western Tien Shan, and Syrdarya Karatau. The genus Lipskya (K.-Pol.) Nevski is common to the Kuhistan and Western Hissar districts. In the monograph, “The Kuhistan district of the mountainous Central Asia” (1979), RV Kamelin provided a list of the 128 endemic species and subspecies, most of which are localized in the western part of the Zeravshan ridge. This list should be revised considerably in accordance with the current data on plant species distribution, and new species described over the last 20-25 years. For example, Astragalus bactrianus Fisch., which is widespread in the Western Pamir-Alay and Western Tien Shan, was reported by Kamelin as endemic to the Kuhistan district. The distribution range of Astragalus iskanderi Lipsky, Iris maracandica (Vved.) Wendelbo, and Tulipa affinis covers the Kuhistan and Nuratau districts; Jurinea Figure 48 Landscape of the northern slope of the Turkestan ridge. The Zaamin Nature Reserve. maxima C. Winkl. also grows on the Hissar ridge; Astragalus lasiostylus Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. Fisch., and Hedysarum mogianicum B. Fedtsch. occur within the three adjacent botanical-geographical districts of Western Pamir-Alay, Kuhistan, Nuratau, and Western Hissar. In recent years, several new endemic species have been described from the Uzbek part of the district (Astragalus belolipovii Mountain Central Asian Province 126 127 I-5 Kuhistan district Kamelin ex F. O. Khass. & N. Sulajm., A. nenilinii F.O. Khass. & I.I. Malzev, A. russanovii ash Reserve”. At the present time, the area of the nature reserve is 26,840 F.O. Khass., Sarybaeva & Esankulov, etc.), and several new records have been re- hectares. In the east, the reserve borders with the territory of the Zaamin ported (Beshko, Azimova, 2013). National Park established in 1976, which has an area of 23,894 hectares. In general, 38 endemic species grow in the Uzbek part of the Kuhistan Although the region has been well studied, a complete synopsis of flora district (Cousinia adenophora Juz., Eremurus chloranthus Popov, Oxytropis kamelinii Vas- has not been compiled. MG Popov and N Androssov in their work “Veg- silcz., O. capusii Franch., O. seravschanica Gontsch., Primula iljinskii Fed., Silene popovii etation of the Guralash Reserve and Zaamin forestry” (1937) reported the Schischk., Tanacetopsis urgutensis (Popov ex Tzvelev) Kovalevsk., Tulipa fosteriana Irving, first floristic list for this region composed of 368 plant species. The modern etc.), and a significant number of sub-endemic species that are common to check-list of flora of the Zaamin Nature Reserve covering only two upper Kuhistan and Nuratau districts, or plants distributed within the Kuhistan altitudinal belts includes 1216 plant species belonging to 531 genera and and Western Hissar, Kuhistan, and Fergana-Alay. Therefore, the propor- 105 families (Khassanov et al., 2013). tion of endemic species is relatively low (approximately 5% of the flora), and The posthumous monograph of EM Demurina, “Vegetation of the west- endemism has a basically young and progressive character. The rather low ern part of Turkestan ridge and its spurs” (1975), contains a check-list of endemism rate and a significant number of sub-endemic species linking 1139 species with the notes on the altitudinal belt and habitats, but there the flora of Kuhistan with the neighboring districts accounted for the geo- is no data on the plants’ geographical distribution or citation of herbarium graphical position of the territory in the center of Mountain Central Asian collections. A general list of endemic species for the entire studied area province. (51 species) is also given. Therefore, this paper presents a very incomplete The most elevated eastern part of the Kuhistan district is situated in the territory of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. The western part of the district is mixed synopsis of the flora of two neighboring districts, Nuratau and Kuhistan. located within Uzbekistan, including the northern slope of the western part There are several works devoted to the local flora of the northern slopes of Turkestan ridge (to the west of the watershed of Shahristan and Zaaminsu rivers), of the Turkestan ridge. The “Flora of juniper forests of Shakhristan” (Konnov, Malguzar ridge, the western part of the Zeravshan ridge with a maximum 1973) contains a list of 839 species recorded for two upper altitudinal belts altitude of 2616 m above sea level, and Zirabulak-Ziadin Mountains (1115 of the Shakhristan River basin. RV Kamelin (1979) estimated the flora of the m a.s.l.). whole Shakhristan River in 1251 species. Overall, 1463 species have been The district is divided into four botanical-geographical regions: North Turkestan, Malguzar, Urgut, and Zirabulak-Ziadin. reported in the dissertation “Flora and vegetation of the Khodzha Bakirgan River basin” (Gaffarov, 1991); and 1339 species - in the “Flora of the Aksu According to RV Kamelin, the North Turkestan region covers the en- River basin” (Sulaymanov, 2008). The most actual geobotanical research of tire northern slope of the Turkestan ridge crossing the borders of the three the territory is an inventory of the vegetation of the Sanzar and Zaaminsu neighboring countries, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan. In the Uz- River basins (Tirkasheva, 2011; Botirova, 2012). On the other hand, the authors bek part of the region, the amplitude of the elevations ranges from 600-700 of these works confined their attention to identifying the diversity of plant to 4029 m a.s.l.; the complete profile of the altitudinal belts is represented communities, to the mapping and analysis of the altitudinal structure of the here. The Zaamin Nature Reserve is situated here, it is one of the oldest vegetation, and did not analyze the composition of flora. nature reserves in Central Asia established in 1926 under the name “Gural- Mountain Central Asian Province 128 In 2013-2014, as a result of the implementation of the state project 129 I-5 Kuhistan district Figure 49 Eremurus chloranthus Popov, a narrow endemic of the North Turkestan region. Only type specimen collected from the upper reach of the Guralash river is known. devoted to the inventory of works on the vegetation of Sanzar and Zaaminsu basins (Tirkasheva, 2011; flora and fauna of Dijzak Botirova, 2012), and on flora of neighboring territory of the Zaamin Nature administrative region, 1476 Reserve (Esankulov 2012; Khasanov et al, 2013), as well as several articles (Beshko, plant species were recorded Azimova, 2013, 2014). Within the framework of the aforementioned project for the Uzbek part of the on the plant cadaster of the Djizak region, DE Azimova compiled a list of North Turkestan region. This flora of Malguzar ridge, which includes 1170 plant species (unpublished). data is not yet complete due In the primary scheme of regionalization of mountainous Central Asia, to the insufficient knowledge RV Kamelin (1973a) referred the entire Malguzar ridge to the Nuratau on highlands of the Turkes- district. Later, he suggested that the boundary between the Kuhistan and tan ridge situated in hard-to- Nuratau districts passes in the central part of Malguzar ridge, near its high- reach border areas. Consid- est peak, and the western part of Malguzar refers to the Nuratau district ering these facts, the flora of (Kamelin, 1979, 1990). the Uzbek part of the region As a result of a study conducted in 2011-2015, we found that the flora was estimated to be approxi- of the Malguzar ridge is transitional between the flora of Turkestan ridge mately 1500 species. and Nuratau Mountains, but overall, it is similar to the western part of the The list of endemic spe- Turkestan ridge. A good example is the analysis of the species composition cies of the Turkestan ridge of genus Astragalus L.; 62 of the 67 species of Astragalus recorded for occurring on the territory of the Malguzar ridge are found in the western part of the Turkestan ridge, 44 Uzbekistan is short. They species are common to the Malguzar and Nuratau mountains (40 of them oc- are Eremurus chloranthus collected only once in 1926 (all further searches have cur also on the Turkestan ridge) (Beshko, Azimova, 2014). ; Scutellaria scha- The differences between the flora of the Malguzar ridge and the western christanica Juz, and two species recently described from the junction of part of Turkestan ridge (e.g., the absence of alpine and some subalpine plants) are ex- Turkestan and Malguzar ridges, Astragalus belolipovii and A. russanovii. plained by the relatively low altitude and xeric conditions of the Malguzar been unsuccessful, and the species has been declared extinct) Figure 49 Malguzar region covers the Malguzar ridge (2620 m above sea level). Mal- ridge. Only three species from a large number of species endemic to the guzar is a north-western spur of the Turkestan ridge stretching about 80 km Nuratau Mountains have reached the western extremity of the Malguzar and separated from the Turkestan ridge by the Zaaminsu River valley in ridge: relict endemic species Anura (Arctium) pallidivirens, well isolated the east and the Sanzar river valley in the south. The gorge called “Tamer- endemic species Phlomis nubilans, and Lepidolopha nuratavica, a sub-en- lane’s Gate” is the border between the Malguzar ridge and Nuratau Moun- demic species with disjunctive ridge in Nuratau and Kuhitang Mountains. tains. The northern slope of the ridge faces the Hungry Steppe, which is Accordingly, the western part of the Malguzar (from Rawatsay valley and Tasha- almost completely occupied by arable land. hurbel pass to the Tamerlane’s Gate gorge) was initially included to the Nuratau Publications including those devoted to the plant diversity of the region district (Beshko et al., 2014). On the other hand, as these endemic species of are limited to the above-mentioned monograph of Demurina (1975), recent the Nuratau district occur in the Malguzar ridge only in the vicinity of the 130 131 Mountain Central Asian Province I-5 Kuhistan district Tamerlane’s Gate gorge, it is appropriate to draw the border line between As on the Turkestan ridge, the foothills are covered with ephemeroid and Kuhistan and Nuratau districts along this gorge as a well-defined natural ephemeroid-sagebrush communities. The lower mountain belt contains sa- boundary, and to consider the entire Malguzar ridge as a separate botani- vannoids and xerophytic shrubs. The middle mountain belt has juniper and cal-geographical region of the Kuhistan district. broad-leaved woodlands, wheat-grass communities, and mountain steppes There is one endemic species of the flora of Malguzar, Oxytropis ka- beginning at 1500 m a.s.l. The broad-leaved stands of Malguzar ridge are melinii. In addition, as mentioned above, two endemic species, Astragalus similar to these communities of the North Turkestan region, they are com- belolipovii and A. russanovii, were recently described from the junction of posed of maple, hawthorn, Sievers apple, cherry-plum, honeysuckle, and Malguzar and Turkestan ridges. A significant number of endemic species other species. of Kuhistan (Allium alexeianum Regel, etc.) and most of the Nuratau-Kuhistan Urgut region includes the western part of the Zeravshan ridge (to the west sub-endemic species (Allium cupuliferum, A. taeniopetalum Popov & Vved., Cousinia of Mogiandarya River). A botanical investigation of this interesting area with chlorantha, C. dshisakensis, C. dubia, C. haesitabunda, Iris maracandica, Tulipa affinis, etc.) an original flora began about 150 years ago. The semiarid variation of the were also found on the Malguzar ridge. landscapes of piedmonts, lower and middle mountain belts developed here The vegetation of Malguzar and the northern slope of the Turkestan Figure 51 . . There are arid and semi-arid piedmont and moun- The species diversity of the flora of Urgut region is less than that in the tain landscapes, and most mountain vegetation types (except for highlands). North Turkestan region. This is explained by the relatively low elevations ridge is similar Figure 50 Figure 50 Landscape of the central part of the Malguzar ridge. Photograph by NYu Beshko. Mountain Central Asian Province 132 Figure 51 Watershed of the Zeravshan ridge in surroundings of the Takhta-Karacha pass. Photograph by NYu Beshko. 133 I-5 Kuhistan district and small number of alpine species. In addition, the vegetation in this chema parviflorum (Benth.) Vved., an interesting species with a disjunc- region is degraded significantly as a result of centuries of anthropogenic tive range of distribution. pressure; juniper and deciduous forests on the slopes of the Zeravshan There are a large number of sub-endemic species distributed in the west- ridge have been particularly affected (Zakirov, 1955, 1962; Ashurov, 1989). On ern part of the Zeravshan ridge and Nuratau Mountains (Lepidium botschantze- the other hand, this area is a major center of local endemism. Considerable vianum, Astragalus transoxanus Fisch., etc.), the species connecting the flora of the part of the endemic species of Kuhistan grows there (Iris magnifica (Vved.) Urgut region with neighboring Kashkadarya region of the Western Hissar , Tulipa fosteriana, etc.) including rare narrow endemic species (Ko- district (Silene excedens Bondarenko & Vved., Dianthus uzbekistanicus Lincz., Eremurus marovia anisosperma, Silene popovii Schischk, Cousinia adenophora, C. butkovii Tscherneva hissaricus Vved., Acantholimon sarawschanicum Regel, Lepidium minor (Botsch. & Vved.) & Vved, Astragalus nenilinii, Hedysarum amankutanicum B. Fedtsch.), and Phlomidos- Al-Shehbaz, Astragalus korolkowii Bunge, Galagania neglecta M.G. Vassiljeva & Kljuykov, Figure 52 Vved. Cousinia aurea C. Winkl., etc.), and the plants with Nuratau-Kuhistan and West- ern Pamir-Alay habitat types. Figure 52 Iris magnifica (Vved.) Vved., an endemic of the western part of Zeravshan ridge. The Agalyk valley. Photograph by NYu Beshko. The flora of the territory located at the junction of Zeravshan and Hissar ridges, and in the upper reaches of the Kashkadarya River and Fan Mountains has a transitional character. This complicates the boundary definition between Kuhistan and Western Hissar districts, which requires a detailed study of the flora of this region (Kamelin, 1973a, 1979). The data on the flora of Kitab Nature Reserve located in basin of the Dzhindydarya River, a tributary of Kashkadarya, is incomplete. According to the reserve’s reports and publications, 798 species have been recorded for this protected area including 19 endemic species of the Kuhistan district (Anemone seravschanica Kom, Corydalis maracandica Mikhailova, Onosma maracandica Zakirov, Iris magnifica, Tulipa fosteriana, etc.) (Recommendations, 2013). These species do not occur south of the Kitab Reserve. Considering these facts, the border between Kuhistan and Western Hissar districts within Uzbekistan can be drawn along the Dzhindydarya River. Many famous botanists, teachers, and students of the University of Samarkand have studied the flora of the western part of the Zeravshan ridge over the last 150 years. Despite this, the actual list of flora of the Urgut region has not been compiled. The most important publication devoted to this area is the two-volume monograph by KZ Zakirov (1955, 1962). In this book, there is a summary list of 2588 plant species with approximately 200 endemic species recorded for the entire Zeravshan River basin, from Mountain Central Asian Province 134 135 I-5 Kuhistan district the Zeravshan glacier to the Bukhara and Kenimekh cities, covering several botanical-geographical regions of Mountain Central Asian and Turan provinces. On the other hand, this synopsis includes more than 100 species from areas outside the Zeravshan River basin (from the southern slope of the Zeravshan ridge and Malguzar ridge), a number of cultivated and alien plants, as well as synonyms or incorrectly identified species. RV Kamelin (1973a, 1979) estimated about 1900 species for the flora of the mountainous part of the Zeravshan River basin (from Urgut town to the Matcha mountain knot, including the Samarkand oasis), and about 1300-1450 species for the flora of Urgut re- gion. In the most recent publications devoted to vegetation cover and plant resources of the Uzbek part of the Zeravshan ridge, only 670 plant species have been reported for this region (Ashurov, 1989; Khujanazarov, 2000). In 20152016, the inventory of flora of the Samarkand administrative region was performed and 1174 plant species for the northern slope of the Zeravshan ridge within Uzbekistan were identified. Figure 53 Zirabulak-Ziadin Mountains are covered with sagebrush-ephemeroid vegetation and sparse shrubs of Amygdalus spinosissima typical for foothills and low mountains of Pamir-Alay. Photograph by NYu Beshko. Zirabulak-Ziadin region. There are some problems with the definition of the botanical-geographical status of the Zirabulak-Ziadin Mountains. These mountains are relatively short and low ridges with a maximum eleva- ervoir. Therefore, the Zirabulak-Ziadin Mountains are located formally in tion of 1115 m a.s.l. Considering orography, these arid mountains are the the platform (plain) area. On the other hand, in relation to the orography, western spurs of the Zeravshan ridge. The vegetation cover is represented these arid low mountains are an extension of the sub-latitudinal Zeravshan by ephemeral-ephemeroid and sagebrush-ephemeroid communities with ridge gradually declining to the west. Amygdalus spinosissima, which are degraded severely due to overgrazing Figure 53 and mining After the period of intensive Tien Shan orogeny, the region entered a phase of relative geotectonic calm (Pinkhasov, 2003). Over the last million . In the scheme of phytochoria by EP Korovin (1962), the Zirabulak- years, morphostructural and closely associated with them, the landscape Ziadin Mountains were referred to the Bukhara district of Turan desert features (arid climate, altitudinal belts, the conditions of moisture, soil, etc.) are much province. RV Kamelin (1973a) suggested that these ridges may be included more determinative for the genesis of Central Asian flora in general and for in the Western Hissar district of the Mountain Central Asian province. the Zirabulak-Ziadin Mountains in particular than tectonics. In this regard, Indeed, some interesting representatives of flora of low mountains of the it is most logical to consider this botanical-geographical region as part of Western Hissar occur in this area (for example, Allium ophiophyllum Vved.). the Kuhistan district of the Mountain Central Asian province. Most Uzbek specialists in geotectonics draw a conditional line of de- The flora of Zirabulak-Ziadin Mountains has still been insufficiently marcation between the platform and orogenic areas in this region on the explored, and the monograph of KZ Zakirov (1955, 1962) remains the basic western piedmonts of the Zeravshan ridge and the Kattakurgan water res- source for this area. We recorded 384 species for the part of the Zirabulak- 136 137 Mountain Central Asian Province I-5 Kuhistan district Ziadin Mountains belonging to the Samarkand administrative region, and estimated the flora of the entire Zirabulak-Ziadin region at about 600 species. The species composition of flora of this region is transitional between I-6. HISSAR-DARVAZ DISTRICT the Kuhistan and Nuratau districts of Mountain Central Asian province and adjacent Kyzylkum and Bukhara districts of Turan province. Many typical representatives of the Turan desert flora (e.g., Tulipa lehmanniana, T. sogdiana Bunge) grow in this territory. A significant number of eurytopic weed plants, local endemic species of the region or species endemic to the Kuhistan This is one of the most interesting botanical-geographical regions of Cen- district are absent. Several interesting sub-endemic species common for tral Asia. The territory of the district covers the southern slope of the His- the flora of Zirabulak-Ziadin and Nuratau mountains are recorded (Allium sar ridge from the Sangardak River valley in the west to the upper reaches eremoprasum Vved., Parrya sarawschanica (Regel & Schmalh.) D.A. German & Al-Shehbaz of the river Kafirnigan in the east, the southern slope of the Darvaz ridge, (Pseudoclausia sarawschanica (Regel & Schmalh.) Botsch.), Cousinia dissectifolia Kult., C. and the highest ridges of the Southern Tajikistan (Korovin, 1962; Kamelin, schtschurowskiana Regel & Schmalh., Astragalus plumatus). 1973a; Rachkovskaya et al., 2003). The northern border of the district is clearly defined by the massive crest of sub-latitudinal Hissar ridge; the eastern border is the crest of the Darvaz ridge. These two mountain ridges have elevations exceeding 5000 m a.s.l. in some areas, and they constitute an arc embracing the Tajik depression from the north and the east and impede the wet air masses going from the west. Owing to these conditions, this is one of the most humid areas of Central Asia. The average annual precipitation in the lower mountain belt is about 500-800 mm, and it exceeds 1500-2000 mm in some places of the middle mountain belt. In the highlands, rainfall is significantly less (500-600 mm per year or less). The intensive tectonic uplift of the Neogene-Quaternary and runoff led to the formation of the strongly rugged terrain in this territoryFigure 54. Depending on the altitude, a hydrothermal regime of the growing season varies from a hot and very dry to cool and wet. The winters are mild, sometimes with moderate frosts. In the highlands, the winter season is long and harsh, with severe frosts. In many alpine areas of Hissar-Darvaz, the average annual air temperature is below 0 °C. The territory of Hissar-Darvaz district is characterized by the same name type of altitudinal belts. As the elevation increases, the vegetation changes as follows: low herb ephemeral-ephemeroid and ephemeroid- Mountain Central Asian Province 138 139 I-6 Hissar-Darvaz district sagebrush communities – xerophytic shrubs, open woodlands and tall grass of the slopes have a significant influence on this general scheme of altitu- communities (savannoids) – broad-leaved forests and tall herb communities dinal belts. (umbellares) – juniper forests, mountain steppes and prickly herb communi- Low herb ephemeral-ephemeroid and ephemeroid-sagebrush communities are typical for the foothills (from 500 up to 850-900 m a.s.l.), a large areas of this zone is occupied by a human transformed landscapesFigure 55. The lower mountain belt (from 850-900 to 1400-1600 m a.s.l.) is occupied by xerophytic shrubs and tall grass communities with domination of Hordeum bulbosum and Elytrigia trichophora. The xerophytic open woodlands of HissarDarvaz differ with the considerable diversity of shrub species. In addition to the communities of Amygdalus, Atraphaxis, Crataegus, Ephedra, Pistacia and Rosa distributed widely in the Pamir-Alay, there are complex polydominant formations and relict plant communities of Ampelopsis aegirophylla, Celtis caucasica Willd., Diospyros lotus L., Ficus carica L., Punica granatum L., Rhus coriaria L., Vitex agnus-castus L., V. pseudonegundo Hand.-Mazz., Vitis vinifera L., Ziziphus jujuba Mill. In some sites Figure 55 Significant areas in the southern foothills of the Hissar ridge are occupied by crop lands. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. Figure 54 Landscape of the middle and upper mountain belts in the Tupalang River basin. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. ties - mountain steppes and cryophytic low herb communities (Drobow, 1951; Ovchinnikov, 1957; Korovin, 1962; Kamelin, 1973a; Rachkovskaya et al., 2003). Exposure Mountain Central Asian Province 140 141 I-6 Hissar-Darvaz district of the Tupalang and Sardai-Miyona River basins on the southern slope alpine zone (3300-4200 m a.s.l.) are occupied by cryophytic meadows (Kobresia of the Hissar ridge, there are trees of Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco. pamiroalaica, K. persica Kuk. & Bornm.), and cryophilic cushions (Oxytropis immersa The natural habitat of this species is East Asia. EP Korovin (1962), IT Vas- (Baker ex Aitch.) Bunge ex B. Fedtsch., O. savellanica Bunge ex Boiss.). silchenko and FKh Dzhangurazov (1957), and KZ Zakirov and VA Burygin In general, almost all typical Central Asian mountain vegetation types (1956) regarded this species as a relic of the Tertiary flora in the Central are represented in the vegetation of Hissar-Darvaz due to the wide range of Asia. Therefore, this species has been included in the first (1984), second landscapes and climatic conditions. The flora is characterized by high di- (1998), and third (2006) editions of the Red Data Book of Uzbekistan. Ac- versity, a significant number of endemic and relict species, including three cording to contemporary sources (The Gymnosperm Database, The IUCN Red List, endemic monotypic genera of the family Apiaceae. etc.), this species was introduced and naturalized in Central Asia in ancient The genus Astomaea Reichenb. is represented by the only species Astomaea galiocarpa (Korovin) Pimenov & Kljuykov distributed in middle times. In the range of altitudes from 1200-1400 to 2500-2800 m a.s.l., there is a belt of deciduous and juniper forests and rosaries. On the most hu- and upper mountain belts of the southern slopes of Hissar and Darvaz ridges. mid slopes with fine soils and altitudes up to 2000-2200 m a.s.l., there are The genus Sphaerosciadium Pimenov & Kljuykov (Sphaerosciadium de- broad-leaved forests (Acer turkestanicum, Juglans regia, Malus sieversii). In the Tajik naense (Schischk) Pimenov & Kljuykov.) is a rare relict species, endemic to the part of the southern slope of Hissar ridge, these woodlands dominate in the Sangardak and Tupalang River basins growing on rocks and stony slopes. landscape of the middle mountain belt, and the juniper stands play a minor Only a few locations of this plant are known in the middle reaches of the role (Zapryagaev, 1940). The Hissar-Darvaz subprovince is the southernmost Sangardak and Tupalang rivers. location of walnut, maple, and apple forests of Central Asia. Fragmentary The genus Kafirnigania Kamelin & Kinzik. is endemic to Tajikistan. groves of Platanus orientalis L., Populus sp., Fraxinus sogdiana Bunge The only species of the genus, K. hissarica (Korovin) Kamelin & Kinzik., still remain along the river valleys. The authors of the earliest publications grows on the limestone cliffs in the Sardai-Miyona River basin on the on the flora of Hissar-Darvaz (Lipsky, 1902-1905: Logofet, 1913; Fedtschenko, 1925; southern slope of the Hissar ridge. Zapryagaev, 1937; Zapryagaeva, 1976) reported on the amazing mountain forests The monotypic sub-endemic genus Vvedenskya Korovin is an interlink of this area. At the present time, unfortunately, the forests and shrubs of the between the flora of Hissar-Darvaz district and the Western Hissar; the region have been degraded severely due to anthropogenic impact. An herb- bitypic genus Neopaulia Pimenov & Kljuykov (Paulia Korovin) connects age of the Hissar-Darvaz maple and juniper forests is composed mainly of this area with the Panj and Karategin-Alay districts. The bitypic genus tall umbellifers (Prangos pabularia, Ferula kuhistanica Korovin, F. kokanica); these Cephalopodum Korovin is found in the Karategin-Alay and Badakhshan species form a belt of subalpine meadows in altitudes from 2400-2500 up districts. The endemic relict genus Ostrovskia Regel (Campanulaceae) is to 3000 m a.s.l. In dry slopes of the subalpine and alpine belt, the prevail- associated with the flora of the Western Tien Shan. ing vegetation types are the bunch grass steppe, sagebrush communities, The first botanical research in this area difficult of access began in the pulvinates (Astragalus lasiosemius, Onobrychis echidna, O. cornuta (L.) Desv., Acantho- late 19th Century by the expeditions of A. Regel, VL Komarov, and VI limon erythraeum Bunge, A. tataricum Boiss., A. virens Czerniak.) and prickly herbs Lipsky. In the 20th Century, the flora and vegetation of Hissar-Darvaz were (Cousinia alpina Bunge, C. verticillaris, C. splendida C. Winkl). The upper part of the studied by many famous botanists, including BA Fedtschenko, NV An- 142 143 Mountain Central Asian Province I-6 Hissar-Darvaz district drossov, VS Titov, BA Mironov, NF Gontscharov VK Pazij, PN Ovchin- belt of xerophytic open woodlands belt is shifted down; tall-grass commu- nikov, FL Zapryagaev, VI Zapryagaeva, VP Drobow, IT Vassilchenko, nities are poorly developed (Vassilchenko, Vassiljeva, 1985; Malzev, 1989). Based SN Kudrjashev, RV Kamelin and others. On the other hand, the complete on these differences, IT Vassilchenko and LI Vassiljeva in their scheme of synopsis of flora of the Hissar-Darvaz so far is absent, as is a complete list regionalization of the Western Hissar (1985) proposed the inclusion of the of endemic species, even though some parts of the district have been stud- Sangardak, Tupalang, and Obizarang river basins in the Western Hissar ied in detail. For example, 1535 species have been recorded in the flora botanical-geographical district and to consider each of these basins as a of the Varzob River basin located on the southern slope of Hissar ridge in separate botanical-geographical region. This opinion is not supported here the range of altitudes from 850 to 4880 m a.s.l. and covering an area of because it did not take into account the characteristics of the indigenous about 1,400 sq. km (Kamelin, 1973a, 1990). EP Korovin estimated the flora of element of the flora. Hissar-Darvaz district at approximately 2500-2800 species. In one of the An interesting feature of the vegetation of the region is the unusual gi- most recent studies (Safarov, 2013), 2789 species are provided for the flora of ant form of tamarisk (Tamarix arceuthoides Bunge) with trunks up to 1 m in the Tajik Central (Central Pamir-Alay) ecological province, which includes the Tajik part of the Hissar-Darvaz and Karategin-Alay botanical-geographical districts of the Kamelin’s scheme. Figure 56 Western Hissar, Hissar-Darvaz and Panj districts of the Mountain Central Asian Most of the Hissar-Darvaz district is located within Tajikistan; the southern part is in Afghanistan; and the western part is in Uzbekistan. In Uzbekistan, the district is represented by one region, Sangardak-Tu- province. Regions of the Western Hissar district: I-6-a Kashkadarya, I-6-b Tarkapchigay, I-6-c Baysun, I-6-d Kuhitang, I-6-e Surkhan-Sherabad. I-7-a Sangardak-Tupalang region of the Hissar-Darvaz district. I-8-a Babatag region of the Panj district. palangFigure 56. The Sangardak-Tupalang region covers the Sangardak, Tupalang, Shargun, and Obizarang river basins on the southern slope of the Hissar ridge, to the state border with Tajikistan, at altitudes between 600 and 4643 m a.s.l. They represent different landscapes of foothills, low, middle, and high mountains as well as most vegetation types, including the relict vegetation of gypsum outcrops, petrophytes, ephemeral-ephemeroid, low herb, tall grass, and tall herb communities, xerophytic open woodlands and shrubs, mountain deciduous forests, juniper forests, mountain steppes, prickly herbs, and alpine meadows. In Uzbekistan, this is the only location of the relict brushwood of Ficus carica, Punica granatum, Diospyros lotus, Rhus coriaria, Ziziphus jujuba, and the southernmost location of natural walnutfruit forests. In contrast to the central areas of the Hissar-Darvaz, the deciduous forests of this region are distributed only in fragments, the main dominant in the forest belt is juniper; the border of the forest belt and the Mountain Central Asian Province 144 145 I-6 Hissar-Darvaz district diameter occurring in the Sangardak and Tupalang river valleys (Vassilchenko, endemic monotypic genus of umbellifers, Astomea galiocarpa, covers the Vassiljeva, 1985). Hissar-Darvaz district the territory from the Tupalang River basin to the Botanical research carried out in the Sangardak and Tupalang river ba- Darvaz ridge. The following endemic species of the Hissar-Darvaz district sins during the 20 Century (Drobow, 1951; Malzev, 1989) focused on applied should also be mentioned: the relict endemic Bergenia hissarica Boriss., purposes, mainly on an investigation of the vegetation cover and resource Astragalus artemisiformis Rassulova, a species with restricted range previ- plants. As a result, the list of flora of this region was not published. II Mal- ously considered as endemic to Tajikistan (Tojibaev et al., 2015), A. nigrocar- zev (1989) reported 392 species of medicinal plants for the Tupalang River pus F.O. Khass. & I.I. Malzev, A. tupalangi Gontsch., Allium lipskyanum basin. During the last two decades, floristic studies were conducted on a Vved., Tulipa hissarica Vved. At the same time, a number of locally very limited scale. In particular, in the framework of the state project de- distributed sub-endemic species connect the Sangardak-Tupalang region voted to the inventory of red-listed species of the flora and fauna of Tash- with the flora of the neighboring botanical-geographical regions. This is kent and Surkhandarya regions, which was performed in 2012-2013, data a species with a Kuhistan-Hissar type of range, such as the relict species on the distribution and status of the populations of rare and endangered endemic to the Hissar ridge Iskandera hissarica N. Busch (Brassicaceae), plant species in the region were collected. On the other hand, an extensive which is found in the upper reaches of the Sangardak and Tupalang rivers herbarium material was collected in the Sangardak and Tupalang river and in the Fan Mountains. A rare alpine species Tulipa orithyioides Vved. basins; and these collections together with an analysis of published mate- is distributed within the Sangardak-Tupalang region of the Hissar-Darvaz rial provided a clear picture of the flora of this area, which is significantly district and the Baysun region of Western Hissar district, from the upper different from the flora of the central regions of Hissar-Darvaz. According reaches of the river Obizarang to the Chulbair Mountains. The sub-endem- to estimates of RV Kamelin (1973a), no fewer than 1500 plant species grow ic species linking the flora of the Sangardak-Tupalang and Baysun regions, only within the river basin Tupalang, including more than 120 species particularly the Sangardak River basin and Chulbair Mountains, are also of trees and shrubs. The Sangardak-Tupalang region is characterized by Acantholimon vvedenskyi Lincz., Astragalus pseudanthylloides Gontsch., interesting flora with a high rate of endemism. IT Vassilchenko and L. Vas- Cousinia vvedenskyi Tscherneva, Dionysia hissarica Lipsky, Jurinea san- siljeva (1985) reported 37 species endemic to this area, but some of them gardensis Iljin, Scutellaria guttata Nevski ex Juz., S. holosericea Gontsch. are reduced now to synonyms (for example, Celtis tupalangi Vass.), others are not ex Juz. Ungernia victoris Vved. is widespread from the Chulbair Moun- local endemic plants and are found in the neighboring districts (Vvedenskya tains in the west to the Khanaka River basin in the east and to the northern pinnatifolia Korovin, etc.). According to our calculations, 27 endemic species of slope of the Babatag ridge in the south. The distribution area of Allochrusa the Hissar-Darvaz district grow within Uzbekistan, most of them are con- tadshikistanica Schischk., Astragalus viridiflorus Boriss. lies within the fined to petrophytes and gypsophytes. Hissar-Darvaz and Panj districts. Hymenocrater incisodentatus Boriss. is th The species endemic to the Sangardak-Tupalang region are the only widespread from the Sangardak River basin to the Kuhitang ridge. A large representative of the monotypic endemic relict genus Sphaerosciadium number of plant species are common in the flora of the Hissar-Darvaz, denaense, a representative of bitypic sub-endemic genus Cephalopodum Western Hissar and Babatag, e.g., Allium sordidiflorum Vved., Astragalus hissaricum Pimenov, Acantholimon annae Lincz., Jurinea pjataevae Iljin, bucharicus Regel, A. hissaricus Lipsky, A. oldenburgii B. Fedtsch., Cous- Silene michelsonii Preobr. The range of the only representative of another inia medians Juz., C. refracta (Bornm.) Juz., C. rotundifolia C. Winkl., C. 146 147 Mountain Central Asian Province I-6 Hissar-Darvaz district simulatrix C. Winkl., etc. Defining the western boundary of the region is complicated. EP Korovin (1962) drew this border along the watershed between Sangardak and Tu- palang rivers. RV Kamelin (1973a) included the Sangardak river basin in the I-7. WESTERN HISSAR DISTRICT (South-Western Hissar) Hissar-Darvaz district. Taking into account a number of the above listed species linking the flora of the Sangardak River basin and the Chulbair Mountains, it is advisable to move this border line slightly to the west, to the watershed of the Vahshivar and Khalkadzhar rivers, and to include the southern slope of the Chulbair Mountains to the Hissar-Darvaz district. The territory of district embraces the western part of the Hissar ridge and its spurs, including Baysuntau, Ketmanchapty, and Khoja Gurgurata mountains, the northern slope of the Chulbair Mountains and Kuhitang ridgeFigure 56 . The eastern boundary of the district runs along the watershed of the rivers Kashkadarya and Mogiandarya (inflow of Zeravshan) and then follows the crest of the Hissar ridge along the watershed between the Kashkadarya, Sangardak, and Tupalang river basins, where the altitude exceeds 4000 m a.s.l. Powerful orogenic processes with total uplift of the crust of one to five kilometers caused the formation of strongly rugged terrain in the upper and middle mountain belts. In the low mountains and foothills of the district, there are very characteristic red beds, gypsum outcrops, badlands and sculptural landforms formed by weatheringFigure 57. The climatic conditions vary according to the elevation. The summer is hot and extremely dry in the piedmonts and cool and moderately humid in the highlands; the winter season is warm with weak frosts in the piedmonts and soft with mild frosts in the mountains. Almost the entire territory of the district lies within Uzbekistan, except for the extreme western spurs of the Hissar ridge and the western slope of Kuhitang ridge which are situated in the territory of Turkmenistan. The district covers a large area with extremely heterogeneous natural conditions and significant distinctions in the vertical profile and in the character of vegetation between the different regions (Nevsky, 1937; Butkov, 1938; Kudrjashev, 1941; Granitov, Pjataeva, 1956; Abramov, 1975; Vassilchenko, Vassiljeva, 1985; Kamelin, Khassanov, 1987). The authors of “Botanical geography of Ka- Mountain Central Asian Province 148 149 I-7 Western Hissar district opsis of flora of this territory has not been published. IT Vassilchenko and L. Vassiljeva (1985) estimated the flora of the Western Hissar (including Sangardak, Tupalang and Obizarang river basins) at about 2100 species, and a list of 203 endemic and 60 sub-endemic species was provided. This list contains a number of plants that do not belong to the flora of the Western Hissar district. For example, Hedysarum amankutanicum, a species endemic to the western part of the Zeravshan ridge. Several species considered endemic are actually widespread in the Pamir-Alay (Astragalus kelleri Popov, Semenovia pimpinellioides (Nevski) Manden, Lagochilus gypsaceus Vved., Mentha pamiroalaica Boriss.). Species that have been reduced to synonyms also are on this list (Astragalus ambigens Popov, A. pedunculosus Popov, A. tanchasi Gontsch., Prangos cylindrocarpa Korovin, etc.). FO Khassanov (1991) estimated the flora of the district at 1850 species and defined more precisely the list of endemic species (124 species). According to our calculations based on the current data on the species distribution, Figure 57 Sculptural landforms in the foothills of the Hissar ridge near Dehkanabad village. the number of species endemic to the district is 121. The flora of the Western Hissar district is characterized by the impres- Photograph by VA Popov. sive list of endemic and sub-endemic taxa including one endemic and four sub-endemic genera. zakhstan and Middle Asia” (Rachkovskaya et al., 2003) considered the vegeta- The only representative of the endemic monotypic genus Calispepla tion of the northern slope of Hissar ridge as the Kuhistan type of altitudinal Vved., C. aegacanthoides Vved. (Fabaceae), is a rare species endemic to belts and the Kuhistan subprovince, and the vegetation of the Kuhitang the Machay River basin. ridge and Baysun Mountains – to the South Tajik type of the altitudinal The monotypic genus Vvedenskya (Vvedenskya pinnatifolia, Apiaceae) belts and the same name subprovince. In general, however, the vegetation grows in the highlands of Hissar ridge in the upper reaches of tributaries of of the Western Hissar represents a dry version of the altitudinal zonality, the Kashkadarya and Tupalang rivers. and differs from Hissar-Darvaz with the absence of a belt of broad-leaved The distribution range of the monotypic genus Spirostegia Ivanina of forests, widely distributed gypsopilous vegetation, a well-developed belt of Scrophulariaceae family covers the south-western spurs of the Hissar open woodlands and tall grass communities, powerful belt of juniper for- ridge and reaches the Babatag ridge. The only representative of the genus, ests, a predominance of the bunch grass steppe, and mountain xerophytes Spirostegia bucharica (B. Fedtsch.) Ivanina, is a rare inhabitant of gypsum in the highlands. outcrops of this region. The features of the Western Hissar district are the significant diversity of landscapes and vegetation, rich and interesting flora. Thus far, the syn- Mountain Central Asian Province 150 The monotypic genus Lipskya (Apiaceae) has localities on the Zeravshan, Turkestan, and Malguzars ridges. 151 I-7 Western Hissar district The bitypic genus Kuhitangia Ovcz. has a Western Pamir-Alay distribu- include many of the endemic species listed above, as well as rare species, tion range. One species of this genus, K. popovii (Preobr.) Bondarenko is such as Allium botschantzevii Kamelin known from the environs of the endemic to the Western Hissar, and the second, K. knorringiana (Schischk.) Tally pass only, the probably extinct endemic of the Kelif-Sherabad ridge Bondarenko is widespread in the Western Pamir-Alay from Nuratau Astragalus alexeji Gontsch., and an endemic species of variegated sedi- Mountains and Turkestan ridge in the north to the Baysun Mountains in the ments of south-western spurs of the Hissar rigde Cleome tomentella Popov. The majority of sub-endemic species connects the flora of the Western south. The territory of the Western Hissar district, as in other botanical- Hissar with Kuhistan and particularly with the Zeravshan ridge (Allium clau- geographical regions of Central Asia, is well characterized by some East sum Vved., A. majus Vved., Cousinia anomala Franch, C. rotundifolia C. Winkl., Eremurus Tethyan genera, which have centers of diversity in this area. First of all, pubescens Vved.), with Hissar-Darvaz (Allium dolichomischum Vved., A. rosenbachia- Cousinia Cass. is one of the largest genera of Asteraceae. According to num Regel, A. rosenorum R.M. Fritsch, Cousinia franchetii C. Winkl., Dionysia hissarica, The Global Compositae Checklist (www.compositae.org/checklist/), this genus Eremurus iae Vved., Iris bucharica Foster, I. nikolai Vved., Rosularia hissarica Boriss., Tu- is represented by 693 species; about 170 species of them are found in lipa carinata Vved.), or with the Babatag ridge and low mountains of southern the Pamir-Alay, and no less than 60 species are located in the territory of Tajikistan (Cleome lipskyi Popov, Cousinia oopoda Juz., Erysimum babataghi Korsh., Western Hissar district (Tscherneva, 1974, 1988; Knapp, 1986; Vassilchenko, Vas- Scutellaria colpodea Nevski, etc.). siljeva, 1985). Endemic to the district are 21 species, including C. gnezdilloi RV Kamelin (1973a) suggested the division of the district into three re- Tscherneva, C. grisea Kult., C. rhodantha Kult., C. spryginii Kult., C. gions: Kashkadarya, Baysun and Kuhitang. EP Korovin (1962) considered subcandicans Tscherneva, C. trichophora Kult., etc. A similar situation is this territory to be the Western Hissar region of the Kuhistan district, with observed with the genera Acantholimon Boiss., Allium L., Eremurus M. the Kashkadarya, Baysun and Kuhitang sub-regions. EI Rachkovskaya and Bieb., Jurinea Cass., Hedysarum L., many sections of the genus Astraga- co-authors (2003) attributed the northern slope of Hissar ridge to Kuhistan lus L. For example, the species endemic to the Western Hissar are Acan- subprovince, and its western and south-western spurs to the South Tajik tholimon butkovii Lincz., A. hissaricum Lincz., A. majewianum O. Fedtsch. subprovince. In our opinion, the Western Hissar district should be divided & B. Fedtsch., Allium brevidentiforme Vved., A. crystallinum Vved., As- into five floristic regions: Kashkadarya, Baysun, Kuhitang, Tarkapchigay, tragalus butkovii Popov, A. juniperetorum Gontsch., A. plumbeus (Nevski) and Surkhan-Sherabad (Tojibaev et al., 2012b, 2016)Figure 58. Gontsch., A. rubrigalli Popov, A. terrae-rubrae Butkov, Eremurus bais- Kashkadarya region occupies the Kitab-Shahrisabz intermountain sunensis O. Fedtsch., Hedysarum bucharicum B. Fedtsch., Jurinea bais- depression and the northern slope of the Hissar ridge from Dehkanabad sunensis Iljin, and J. tapetodes Iljin. Among the representatives of other village and Guzardarya river valley to the watershed crest of the ridge genera endemic to the Western Hissar district are the following species: (i.e., the left side of the Kashkadarya River basin in its upper and middle reaches) . This Tanacetopsis krascheninnikovii (Nevski) Kovalevsk., Phlomis spinidens territory covers a wide ridge of elevations from 450 to 4425 m a.s.l. and Nevski, Moluccella bucharica (B. Fedtsch.) Ryding, Salvia lilacinocoeru- all altitudinal belts except for the plains. They represent the landscapes lea Nevski, Calophaca reticulata Sumnev., etc. of the foothills, lower, middle, and upper mountain belt of the semi-arid A feature of the flora of district is a significant number of endemic type. The character of the vertical profile of the vegetation is similar to the stenotopic plants confined for the red beds and outcrops of gypsum. These Kuhistan. In the piedmonts (up to an altitude of 800-900 m a.s.l.), the characteris- 152 153 Mountain Central Asian Province I-7 Western Hissar district tic hilly landscape can be found. Large areas are plowed for dry-farming; belt of tall grass vegetation and xerophilous open woodlands is situated the vegetation of the virgin areas is represented by ephemeral-ephemeroid, on the altitude from 800-900 to 1800 m a.s.l., where the main dominant phlomis-ephemeroid, and sagebrush-ephemeroid communities degraded species are Elytrigia trichophora, Hordeum bulbosum, Artemisia tenuisecta, Amygdalus spinosissima, and A. bucharica Korsh. Solitary juniper trees appearing at 1300-1500 m a.s.l. and a massive belt of juniper forests with the stock density of 0.6-0.7 and more grows at altitudes from 1800 to 2500-2800 m a.s.l.Figures 60, 61. Deciduous trees (species Lonicera, Rosa, Cotoneaster, Acer, Crataegus) play a subordinate role in the forest belt. The watershed crests and dry stony slopes of the subalpine belt (from 2400-2500 to 3000 meters above sea level) are occupied with mountain xerophytes (Astragalus lasiosemius, A. leiosemius (Lipsky) Popov, Onobrychis echidna, species of genera Acantholimon and Cousinia) and fescue steppes, sometimes with the participation of juniper elfin woodFigure 62. Owing to the excessive grazing in alpine vegetation dominated poisonous species, such as Adonis turkestanica Adolf, Ligularia thomsonii, and Eremurus kaufmannii RegelFigure 63. At elevations above 3000 m, the vegetation consists of low herb alpine meadows (Lagotis korolkowii, Carex melanantha C.A. Mey., Kobresia persica) and cryophilic cushion plants. The largest nature reserve of Uzbekistan, the Hissar Nature Reserve (80,986 hectares), is located in the upper reaches of the Aksu, Tanhaz and Ky- zylsu rivers, at altitudes from 1800 to 3450 m a.s.l. The flora of this protected area contains no less than 900 plant species, but a check-list was not published (Recommendations, 2013). The vegetation of the Kashkadarya River basin during the 20th Century has been studied repeatedly by different specialists (Kudryashev, 1941; Granitov, Pjataeva, 1956; Pjataeva, 1962; Mustafaev, 1966; Ismatov, 1970; Abramov, 1975, etc.). The existing material on the flora of the Kashkadarya region is represented mainly by herbarium specimens and a few publications (Vassilchenko, VasFigure 58 Outcrops of variegated beds in the Machay River valley. Photograph by NYu Beshko. siljeva, 1985). The major collectors of the herbarium were MG Popov, AY Butkov, VP Botschantsev, MV Kultiassov, EE Korotkova, AD Pjataeva, and SM Mustafaev. A huge amount of herbarium material has been col. In addition, oil and gas production develop lected since 1920s. Unfortunately, it has not been processed completely; intensively in the foothills of the Hissar ridge during recent years. A wide the precise number of species of flora of the region was not defined, and a 154 155 due to intensive grazing Mountain Central Asian Province Figure 59 I-7 Western Hissar district Figure 59 Vegetation of the northern foothills of the Hissar ridge is strongly degraded. The lower reaches of the Katta-Uradarya River. Photograph of NYu Beshko. Figure 60 Juniper forests on the red beds on the northern slope of the Hissar ridge in the Langar river basin. Photograph by NYu Beshko. Figure 63 Adonis turkestanica Adolf on the degraded alpine pastures of the Hissar ridge. Photograph by NYu Beshko. complete summary has not been published. According to SM Mustafaev (1966), there are no less than 1184 species with 74 endemic species within the entire basin of the Kashkadarya River. A total of 786 species of vascular plants are known for the flora of the Lyangar River basin, which is one of the largest left tributaries of the Kashkadarya River occupying about 1350 km² (Abramov, 1975). RV Kamelin (1973a) evaluated the number of species in Kashkadarya region at 950-1000 with no more than 25-30 endemic species. The species endemic to the Kashkadarya region are Astragalus exilis A.S. Korol., A. butkovii, Cicer incanum Korotkova, Cousinia campyloraphis Tscherneva, C. rosea Kult., C. allolepis Tscherneva & Vved., C. subcandicans, Ferula pratovii F.O. Khass. & I.I. Malzev and other species, which shows the predominance of gypsophilous group. The number of Figure 62 Community of mountain Figure 61 Juniperus pseudosabina Fisch. & C.A. Mey. in the highlands of the Hissar ridge. Upper reaches of the river Igrisu. Photograph by NYu Beshko. Mountain Central Asian Province 156 xerophytes with domination of Onobrychis echidna Lipsky in alpine belt of the Hissar ridge. The watershed between rivers Igrisu and Sangardak. Photograph by NYu Beshko. sub-endemic species is much larger. They link the flora of the Kashkadarya region with all the neighboring botanical-geographical regions. These in- 157 I-7 Western Hissar district Figure 64 Outcrops of variegated sediments in the western spurs of the Hissar ridge. Akbashtau Mountains, Kansay valley. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. clude Astragalus kaschkadarjensis Gontsch., Iris svetlanae (Vved.) T. Hall & Seisums., Lepidium minor (Botsch. & Vved.) Al-Shehbaz (Kuhistan district), Hedysarum magnificum Kudrjasch., Glaucium insigne Popov (Kuhitang ridge), Spirostegia bucharica (B. Fedtsch.) Ivanina (Panj district), Spryginia undulata Botsch. (Kelif-Sherabad ridge), and others. Tarkapchigay region is defined as a separate region in the western spurs of the Hissar ridge located south of Guzar town and Dehkanabad village, on the left bank of the Kichik-Uradarya River and in the Tarkapchigay River basin. These are several parallel sub-latitudinal low mountain ridges (Ellikbash, Sakyrtau, Kyzyltalla, Seypitau and others). The southeastern boundary of the region runs along the left watershed of the Tarkapchigay basin (TyubereOland and Kattapay Mountains) and further to the north-east along the Chuck- Figure 65 Rugged terrain with strong salinity on the bottoms of the ravines in the vicinity of the Kyzylcha village. Photograph by VA Popov. Chuck pass (Akrabad) and Karamas Mountains. The valleys of KichikUradarya and Guzardarya rivers are the northern limit of the region. The area ranges in elevation from 450-500 up to 2172 m a.s.l. There are the landscapes of foothills as well as arid low and middle mountains. Outcrops of red beds and gypsum with a very specific flora are widespread in this territoryFigure 64. Mesozoic-Cenozoic deposits of an ancient shallow warm salt sea formed here are saltiferous. After the retreat of the sea to the west, the ground of the exposed land contained a large amount of residual salts and gypsum accumulated in the sediments. Owing to the hot and dry climate, they preserved the sediment strata. The peculiarity of the landscapes of this region is the predominance of the foothills and lowlands with a saline and plastered the top layer of sediment, rugged terrain that is dissected mainly by dry erosion gullies and ravinesFigure 65. In geomorphological terms, this area is notably different from the neighboring regions as the intermountain Kitab-Shahrisabz depression located to the north-east, a monotonous plain of the Karshi steppe to the west and middle altitudinal mountain landscapes of the Kuhitang ridge in the south-east. Overall, the Tarkapchigay botanical-geographical region is distinguishable from the surrounding areas by its unique flora. Mountain Central Asian Province 158 Figure 66 Population of Ferula kuhistanica Korovin in the low mountains between Guzar and Dehkanabad. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. 159 The region is the western outpost of the Pamir-Alay Mountains with tanica distributed only in strongly developed gypsophilous vegetation. Despite the arid conditions the environs of the pass of the low mountains lying between Guzar and Dehkanabad, their vegeta- Tally Figure 67 . This is an tion is quite diverse. In addition to gypsophytes, the lower altitudinal belts interesting representative are characterized by ephemeral-ephemeroid and sagebrush-ephemeroid of the section Spiran- communities, formations of halophytes and Hammada leptoclada (Popov) thera Vved. ex Zonn. Iljin, and fragments of xerophytic shrubs (Amygdalus spinosissima, Rhamnus cori- & Ve l d k . a l l i e d w i t h acea (Regel) Kom.). Large areas are covered by rainfed crops and fallow lands the Western Tien Shan with ruderal vegetation. Tall herb, tall grass communities, sparse juniper species. An extremely woodlands, and large populations of a valuable medicinal species Ferula rare endemic Allium kuhistanica Korovin grow in the middle mountain beltFigure 66. botschantzevii is known The first herbarium specimens from the region were collected in the late th 19 Century by NA Maev, AE Regel, French botanists Capus and Bonth from the same area. Ewersmannia botschantzevii valot, and SI Korshinsky. In the early 20 Century, the area was investigat- is an endemic species ed by RY Roshevitz, BA Fedtschenko, MV Kultiassov, and MG Popov (who growing on the red beds discovered a number of unique endemic species, inhabitants of red beds and gypsum out- of the Ellikbash ridge, a crops). Although geobotanical research and studies of plant resources were representative of the oli- Figure 67 Tulipa uzbekistanica Botschantz. & Scharipov, a narrow endemic species of the Tarkapchigay region. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. conducted during Soviet period; the actual synopsis of the flora was still gotypic relict genus Ewersmannia Fisch. (Fabaceae). Large populations of not compiled. The main source was the “Vegetation of Guzar” (Kudrjashev, the relict species endemic to the Pamir-Alay Astragalus thlaspi Lipsky can 1941) published more than 70 years ago, which reported 399 species for this also be found. region. Additional information is contained in the thesis by SM Mustafaev Baysun region covers quite a large area on the southern slope of the (1966). The actual list of flora and even an estimate of the number of spe- Hissar ridge between the valley of the Machay River in the northwest, the cies are absent. The TASH herbarium has a limited amount of specimens valley of Sangardak River in the east and the valley of the Sherabad River collected from these mountains mainly by SN Kudrjashev, IA Linchevsky, in the southwest. The region includes several branches of the Hissar ridge EE Korotkova, AD Pjataeva, SM Mustafaev. (mountains Baysuntau, Ketmen-Chapty, Khoja Gurgurata, etc.). They are a rather high The endemic component of the flora is represented by several local mountain ridge (up to 3920 m a.s.l.) with strongly dissected relief, relatively species (Allium botschantzevii, Crambe gordjaginii Sprygin & Popov, Ewersmannia gentle north slopes, and abrupt rocky southern slopesFigure 68, 69. Variegated botschantzevii Sarkisova, Phlomoides gypsacea (Popov) Adylov, Kamelin & Makhm., Tulipa outcrops are widespread here from the foothills to the alpine belt, as in the uzbekistanica Botschantz. & Scharipov) and plants distributed within the neighbor- Kashkadarya region. As mentioned above, the boundary between the Bay- ing regions of the Western Hissar (Ferula tuberifera Korovin, Heliotropium bucha- sun and Sangardak-Tupalang regions as well as between the Baysun and ricum B. Fedtsch., Jurinea gracilis Iljin, Salvia lilacinocoerulea Nevski, Spryginia undulata, Surkhan-Sherabad regions should be clarified. etc.). One of the narrow endemic species of the region is Tulipa uzbekis- Mountain Central Asian Province 160 In the TASH herbarium, there are numerous specimens from this region 161 I-7 Western Hissar district that were collected by VP Botschantsev, AI Vvedensky, NK Merkulovich, LS Popova, AP Vassilkovskaya, MM Nabiev, RV Kamelin, RYu Kazakbaev, GM Shermatov, IG Levichev, OT Turginov, and others. An unpublished synopsis of flora of the Baysun region composed by OT Turginov in 2011-2015 in the framework of a state research project dedicated to the phytogeographical division of Uzbekistan includes 1558 species. More than 10 species from this list were newly recorded to the flora of Uzbekistan. Three new species were described recently (Allium decoratum Turginov & Tojibaev, Iris khassanovii Tojibaev & Turginov, Jurinea tscherneviae Tojibaev & Turginov). Other interesting findings were reported. For example, a population of Dionysia hissarica distant from the locus classicus was found in the Machay river basin. In addition, unknown populations of species included in the IUCN Red List, rare endemic species of the Hissar ridge, Ribes malvifolium Pojarkova, , were discovered, as well as the unknown location of Eremurus hissaricus, a species distributed mainly on the territory of TajikiFigure 68 North slope of the Baysun Mountains, alpine belt. Photograph by NYu Beshko. stan. Among the endemic plants of the region, many are rare and endangered species red-listed at the national level, e.g. representatives of the family Figure 69 Southern slope of the Baysuntau ridge. Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. Fabaceae, Calispepla aegacanthoides, Calophaca reticulata, Astragalus pseudanthylloides, etc. The southern part of the region, including the lower reaches of the river basins Ajrim, Pulihakim, and Khalkadzhar up to 1600-1700 m a.s.l. with the variegated oucrops and badlands, have not been explored sufficiently. This territory is characterized by communities of gypsophytes, xerophytes, and ephemeroids; a large area is occupied by rainfed crops. The flora and vegetation of the broad band of foothills and low mountains has a transitional character which complicates the boundary delineation between the Baysun and Surkhan-Sherabad regions. The species composition is typical for the piedmont plains and foothills of the Southwestern Pamir-Alay. Several endemic and sub-endemic species of the Surkhan-Sherabad valley grow here (e.g., Chrozophora cordifolia Pazij, Euphorbia triodonta Prokh., Plocama botschantzevii (Lincz.) M. Backlund & Thulin). A detailed study of the flora of this Mountain Central Asian Province 162 163 I-7 Western Hissar district area will help to define its place in the scheme of botanical-geographical ments of deciduous woodlands can be found; in the lower altitudinal belts, division of Uzbekistan. there are riparian forests and formations of halophytes. The characteristic Kuhitang region includes Kuhitang ridge, its northeast branch - the feature is the prevalence of xerophylous vegetation types, especially open Susyztau Mountains, and the southern slope of the Tyubere-Oland Mountains. In the Uzbek part of the Kuhitang ridge, on its south-east slope, there is the Surkhan Nature Reserve (24,554 hectares). The reserve was established in 1987. The north-western slope of the Kuhitang ridge belongs to the territory of Turkmenistan; there is the Koytendag (Kuhitang) Reserve with an area of 27,139 hectares. RV Kamelin (1973a) also attributed to this region the Akbash and Gaurdak ridges, mountains of the Tarkapchigay river basin, Kelif-Sherabad ridge, and other low mountains adjacent to the Kuhitang ridge. As mentioned above, we consider the Tarkapchigay river basin and low mountains between Guzar and Dehkanabad as a separate region. The boundary between Kuhitang and Tarkapchigay regions within Uzbekistan runs along the left watershed crest of the Tarkapchigay river basin, and in the territory of Turkmenistan, it passes along the Kuhitang river valley. The Kuhitang ridge is the south-western spur of the Pamir-Alay. This is an isolated mountain ridge, stretched to the 100 km from south-west to north-east. The southeast (Uzbek) slope of the Kuhitang is identified by the strong rugged terrain with deep canyons, abrupt slopes, and inaccessible rocky cliffs at the upper part of the ridgeFigure 70. The relatively gentle northwest slope, also crossed by numerous gorges, contains a unique “Dinosaur Plateau” with fossilized traces of prehistoric reptiles. The vegetation cover of the foothills of Kuhitang is composed of low herb ephemeral-ephemeroid communities and the vegetation of variegated gypsum strata. Tall grass savannoids and xerophytic open woodlands dominate in the lower mountain belt; juniper forests can be found in the middle mountain belt; and mountain xerophytes and fescue steppes are situated Figure 70 Rock cliffs in the upper part of the Kuhitang ridge are the feature of the landscapes of this region. Photograph by T. Kholikov. in the highlands. Communities of petrophytes are widespread, especially in the upper altitudinal belts. In some places of the alpine zone, there are juniper elfin wood and alpine lawns; in the middle mountains belt, frag- Mountain Central Asian Province 164 165 I-7 Western Hissar district woodlands represented mainly by almond, pistachio, and mixed bush com- of the Western Hissar munities, but there are also small groves of Celtis caucasica and Ziziphus district grow here: Acan- jujuba. At the present, the juniper forests are distributed in the Kuhitang tholimon majewianum, at altitudes ranging from 1300 to 2500 meters a.s.l., even though in the Ferula nevskii Koro- 1980s, juniper was found at 800-900 m a.s.l. The juniper forests with a vin, Jurinea tapetodes, stock density up to 0.7-0.9 were preserved on the territory of the Surkhan Moluccella bucharica, Reserve, but beyond this protected area, the juniper woodlands are sparse Phlomis spinidens, Sal- and greatly disturbed due to felling and overgrazing. via lilacinocoerulea The Kuhitang ridge has been visited by many famous botanists, such and others. Most of the as MG Popov, AI Vvedensky, AYa Butkov, A. Gnezdillo, MM Nabiev, UP endemic plants are pet- Pratov. In the collection of TASH, this area is represented by a significant rophytes or gypsophytes. number of herbarium specimens collected since the late 19th - early 20th There is also a significant Century. On the other hand, the region is not represented by a complete list number of sub-endemic of flora. The first and only published synopsis of the flora of Kuhitang was species linking the flora compiled by SA Nevsky (1937), who recorded only 675 species. According of Kuhitang with the Figure 71 Astragalus willisii Popov, a rare narrow to estimates of RV Kamelin, the flora of the Kuhitang ridge contains no Panj district (Cleome lipskyi, endemic of the Kuhitang. less than 1000 species; and the flora of Kuhitang with adjacent to the north Spirostegia bucharica, etc.) low mountains (which we referred to Tarkapchigay region) and the Kelif-Sherabad and species common to ridge has been assessed at 1435 species of 545 genera and 92 families with the Western Hissar and Hissar-Darvaz districts. A very interesting feature 119 endemic species (Kamelin, 1973a, 1990). RV Kamelin and FO Khassanov is the presence of several species with a disjunctive distribution in Nuratau (1987) provided 578 species for the flora of woody and shrub vegetation of and Kuhitang ridges (Lepidolopha nuratavica, Cicer grande (Popov) Korotkova). the ridge. For the territory of the Surkhan Nature Reserve, AZ Ibragimov Surkhan-Sherabad region covers the Surkhandarya intermountain de- (2010) reported 747 species of 372 genera and 77 families, including 22 en- pression (Surkhan-Sherabad valley) expanding from north to south, with alluvial demic species. valleys of the two tributaries of the Amudarya River, Surkhandarya, and The flora of Kuhitang is distinguished by a high rate of endemism. The Sherabad, bordered on the north by a wide strip of foothills stretched along local endemic species to the Kuhitang are Astragalus aemulans (Nevski) the piedmonts of the Hissar, Kuhitang, and Babatag ridges. The valleys Gontsch., A. plumbeus (Nevski) Gontsch., A. subschachimardanus Basil., of the Surkhandarya and Sherabad rivers are divided by the small upland, A. willisii Popov Figure 71 , Cousinia glabriseta Kult., Haplophyllum vve- Khaudaktau. denskyi Nevski, Iris vvedenskyi Nevski ex Woronow & Popov, Oxytropis Climatologists refer this territory as dry subtropics. On the foothills of megalorrhyncha Nevski, O. pseudoleptophysa Boriss., Seseli nevskii (Ko- the Surkhan-Sherabad region, there are widespread oucrops of gypsiferous rovin) Pimenov & Sdobnina, Silene natalii FO Khass. & I.I. Malzev, Xyl- rocks with specific relict gypsophilous vegetation, as well as formations anthemum rupestre (Popov) Tzvelev, etc. The following endemic species of Hammada eriantha Botsch. and H. leptoclada. Fragments of the ripar- 166 167 Mountain Central Asian Province I-7 Western Hissar district ian (tugay) vegetation are preserved in the floodplains of Surkhandarya and Sherabad rivers Figure 72 reaches of the Surkhandarya and Sherabad rivers belong to the Turan . Like other intermountain valleys of Central Asia, province. The authors of “Botanical geography of Kazakhstan and Middle the Surkhandarya river valley is an ancient agricultural oasis, so the flood- Asia” had a similar opinion (Rachkovskaya et al., 2003). In geological terms, the plain and above-floodplain terrace are transformed into farmland. In the Surkhan-Sherabad valley refers to the orogenic area (Atlas, 1982; Geographical foothills, there are rather large virgin areas, but they are strongly degraded Atlas, 2012). Therefore, it is appropriate that this intermountain depression is due to overgrazing. included in the Mountain Central Asian province. The flora of the Surkhan-Sherabad valley has transitional character be- At the present time, there are no approximate estimates of flora of this tween Central-Asian mountainous and Turanian floras. EP Korovin (1962) region, which has several interesting and extremely rare endemic and sub- included this area in the Bukhara district of the Turan desert province. endemic plants growing on the outcrops of variegated rocks or on sands RV Kamelin initially mentioned the Surkhan-Sherabad valley as a part of of Khaudaktau, e.g. Allium rhodanthum Vved. (a species known by several col- Turan province (1973a), but later in the “Flora of Syrdarya Karatau” (1990), lections from the foothills of the Baysun Mountains), Dipcadi turkestanicum Vved. he noted that the border between Mountain Central Asian and Turan prov- (a probably extinct narrow local endemic to the sands of the Khaudaktau; the species was inces in the region runs along the Khaudaktau hills, and thus the lower not found during the repeated special searches) Figure 73 Figure 72 Valley of the Sherabad River with the riparian vegetation. Photograph by VA Popov. , Zygophyllum bucharicum B. Fedtsch. (a gypsophilous sub-endemic spe- Figure 73 Dipcadi turkestanicum cies included in the IUCN Red List as globally Vved. is a probably extinct local endemic of the Khaudaktau sands. threatened), Phlomoides baburii (Adylov) Adylov (a narrow gypsophilous endemic species of the Surkhan-Sherabad ridge), Hamma- da eriantha (an endemic species growing on the outcrops of limestone and variegated rocks), Cephalorhizum oopodum Popov & Korovin. (a gypsophilous sub-endemic species distributed on the Kelif-Sherabad ridge, foothills of Baysuntau and Babatag ridges and low mountains of the southern Tajikistan). Mountain Central Asian Province 168 169 I-7 Western Hissar district jik). EI Rachkovskaya et al. (2003) stated that the South Tajik subprovince I-8. PANJ DISTRICT of Mountain Middle Asian province includes a larger area, covering the south-western foothills of Hissar ridge, Kugitang ridge, and Baysun Mountains. EP Korovin (1962) divided the district into three regions: Babatag pistachio, South Tajikistan semi-savannah, and Vakhsh semi-desert. RV Kamelin (1973a) also identified three regions: Babatag, Kafirnigan-Vakhsh, and Parkhar, but both authors did not provide the characteristics of the area The Panj botanical-geographical district is a territory located in southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and northern Afghanistan among the Surkhandarya, Kafirnigan, and Vakhsh rivers and covering the several parallel meridional low ridges (Babatag, Aktau, Aruktau, Gardaniushti, Karshitau, Rangontau, etc.). The largest of these ridges is Babatag, which has a length of about 125 km and a maximum altitude of 2290 m. The landscapes are piedmonts, low mountains, and middle mountains of arid type. The climate is dry subtropical with a long, hot, very dry summer and very mild winter, sometimes with weak frosts. The outcrops of variegated rocks are widespread in the area, valleys between the ridges are covered with loess, and soils in the lower altitudinal belts often are saline. The district is characterized by the so-called South-Tajik type of altitudinal zonality (Rachkovskaya et al., 2003). The piedmont plains (350-500 m a.s.l.) are occupied by formations of Artemisia, Hammada, ephemers, annual saltworts, with plots of sandy deserts covered by psammophilous shrubs (Haloxylon persicum Bunge ex Boiss. & Buhse, Calligonum sp.), and with tugay veg- etation along the river valleys. The foothills (500-800 m a.s.l.) are covered by ephemeral vegetation with xerophilous herbs (Phlomis bucharica Regel, etc.). The belt of xerophytic woodlands (pistachio and almond) begins at elevations of 700-800 meters a.s.l. At above 1800 m a.s.l., there are fescue steppes with fragments of juniper woodlands and rosaries. The communities of gypsophilous plants are developed on the gypsaceous slopes. Our opinion regarding the borders of this district is identical to the view of RV Kamelin (1973a) and EP Korovin (1962) (who named this district South Ta- Mountain Central Asian Province 170 and a description of the boundaries. The flora of this area has been studied insufficiently. For the flora of the Aruktau ridge and the eastern slope of Aktau (Gazimaylik) ridge, RV Kamelin (1973a) counted 726 species and noted that the flora of certain ridges of the district overall are similar to each other, despite the presence of local endemic species. In general, the flora of district has a high degree of similarity with the flora of the neighboring Hissar-Darvaz and the Western Hissar. In Uzbekistan, the Panj district is presented by Babatag ridge defined as the Babatag region. A large part of the mountain ridge lies within Uzbekistan, except for its northern part and a small area on the eastern slope at the southern end. Babatag region. Babatag is the southernmost of the mountain ridges of Uzbekistan. The vegetation cover has a xerophytic character; the elevation profile of the vegetation is short due to the relatively low altitude of the ridge and arid conditions, and the alpine belt is absent. The foothills are covered with ephemeral and semishrub vegetation with xerophilous perennials. A characteristic feature of the vegetation of this region is phytocoenoses of Hammada leptoclada with Poa bulbosa and Carex pachystylis distributed on slightly saline soils in the piedmonts of Babatag. The communities of gypsophilous plants on the variegated outcrops are widespread. The lower mountain belt of the xerophytic woodlands (pistachio and almond) is well developed. In some places, shrubs gave way to grass and ephemeral communities as a result of deforestation and overgrazing. On the other hand, there is one of the largest plots of pistachio woodlands (Pistacia vera) 171 I-8 Panj district purpurea C. Winkl. ex Iljin., Heliotropium fedtschenkoanum Popov, Oxytropis babatagi Abdusal., Reaumuria babataghi Botsch., Scutellaria baldshuanica Nevski ex Juz., S. striatella Gontsch., etc.). The number of species endemic to Babatag are relatively few (Allium gypsodictyum Vved., Cousinia candicans Juz., Echinops babatagensis Tscherneva, etc.) Figure 75 . As noted above in the description of the HissarDarvaz district, there is a Figure 74 Pistachio open woodlands on the Babatag ridge. Environs of the Chagam village. group of sub-endemic spe- Photograph by LV Nikolai. cies common to Babatag and Hissar-Darvaz. A large amount of the Pamir-Alay Figure 74 in Central Asia Figure 75 Cousinia candicans Juz., a narrow endemic of the Babatag ridge. . In the upper part of the belt, the grass cover is com- species shows a connection posed by tall herbs (Prangos pabularia). Patchy juniper woodlands are found of the flora of Babatag with on the middle mountain belt, mainly in the central part of Babatag, near its Western Hissar (Allium giganteum Regel, A. ophiophyllum, Astragalus indurescens highest peak. The Kafirnigan River valley is occupied by riparian vegeta- Gontsch., A. kulabensis Lipsky, A. oldenburgii B. Fedtsch., A. pseudomegalomerus Gontsch. tion with relict species of grasses, Erianthus ravennae (L.) P. Beauv. and & Popov, Echinops multicaulis Nevski, Jurinea botschantzevii Iljin, Phlomoides labiosissima Saccharum spontaneum L. (Pazij & Vved.) Adylov, Kamelin & Makhm., Cephalorhizum oopodum, Scutellaria bucha- Thus far, the synopsis of flora of this region has been not compiled, and rica Jus., Spirostegia bucharica). Significant number of species is common to the this area remains one of the “white spots” on the floristic map of Uzbeki- three districts, Panj, Hissar-Darvaz and Western Hissar. According to our stan. The flora of the Babatag region has a significant number of species estimates, the flora of Babatag has no less than 800 species. endemic to Panj district (32 species); most of them are inhabitants of variegated gypsiferous outcrops (Astragalus babatagi Popov, A. bischkendicus Gontsch, A. harpocarpus V.V. Meffert, A. pseudoeremophysa Popov, A. pseudorhacodes Gontsch, A. pseudopendulina Kamelin, Cousinia gontscharowii Juz., C. podophylla Tscherneva, Gypsophila vedeneevae Lepeschk. ex Botsch. & Vved., Jurinea botschantzevii Iljin, J. atro- Mountain Central Asian Province 172 173 I-8 Panj district II. Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province II-1. CENTRAL FERGANA DISTRICT RV Kamelin (1973a, 2010) divided the Turan (Turan-Dzungar) province into three subprovinces: the North Turan, South Turan and Dzungar. The flora of the province includes approximately 2000 species. T his district covers the plains of the Fergana valley, which is an original enclave of the Turan desert province that separates the mountain systems of Tien Shan and Pamir-AlayFigure 76. This district occupies the bottom of the Fergana intermountain depression transversed in the east-west direction by the Syrdarya river. The territory is represented mainly by landscapes of flat-undulating alluvial and proluvial plains, flat lake plains, and relatively small plots of sand dunes. From the north, the district is limited by the southern foothills of Kurama, Chatkal, and Fergana ridges. The southern boundary of the district runs Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 174 Figure 76 Akkum Sands in the Fergana valley.175 Photograph by KSh Tojibaev. along the northern foothills tugay formations extant only in small areas. One of the few remaining of the Alay and Turkestan plots of halophilic and psammophilous vegetation, the so-called Karakal- ridges. The eastern and west- pak Steppe, is located in the central part of the Fergana valley. In Uzbeki- ern parts of the district are stan, this place is the only habitat of two rare endemic species, Astragalus located outside the Republic rubellus Gontsch.Figure 77 and Calligonum elegans Drobow. Species endemic of Uzbekistan. to the district are Astragalus subauriculatus Gontsch., Cuscuta ferganensis The climate of this area Butkov and Oenanthe fedtschenkoana Koso-Pol. In general, an endemic is characterized by a hot and element of flora is represented by a small number of species. There are very dry growing season and several subendemic plants distributed on the foothills of ridges surround- very mild winters with mod- ing the valley erate frosts. lasiantha Iljin, etc.). (Anabasis ferganica Drobow, Gamanthus ferganicus Iljin, Halimocnemis There are different opin- According to MM Arifkhanova (1965, 1967), the flora of the Fergana val- Figure 77 Astragalus rubellus Gontsch. – a rare ions regarding the position ley in its natural boundaries delineated by the watershed crests of Kurama, local endemic species of the Central Fergana. of the Fergana valley in the scheme of phytochoria. EP Korovin (1962) included the Fergana valley in the South-Kyzylkum district of the Turan province, but he did not define this area as a separate region. RV Kamelin 2011) Figure 78 Valley of the Syrdarya river with plots of tugay vegetation in the center of the Fergana depression. Photograph by VA Popov. (1973a, 1990, also attributed the Fergana valley to the Turan province and consid- ered it together with the Hungry Steppe the Fergana district. ZA Maylun (1982) (Golodnaya Steppe, or Mirzachul) as identified the Fergana valley as the Fergana district in subprovince with the same name, which also includes the mountainous regions of the Western Tien Shan, Northern and Western Pamir-Alay. EI Rachkovskaya et al. (2003) referred to this area as a part of the West Tien-Shan – Pamir-Alay piedmont subprovince of the Central Asian Mountain province. Taking into account the peculiarity of landscapes, flora and vegetation of the plain part of the Fergana valley, it was considered necessary to distinguish it as a separate botanical-geographical district. Currently, almost the entire territory of the Fergana valley is occupied by agricultural land and human settlements. Severely degraded natural communities are represented by halophilic, psammophilous, gypsophilous, Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 176 177 Chatkal, Fergana, Alay and Turkestan ridges Syrdarya river basin) (i.e., the upper reaches of the has at least 2625 species. On the other hand, the data are significantly out of date, and there is no information on the number of spe- II-2. MIDDLE SYRDARYA DISTRICT cies in the plain part of the valley, as well as the number of species within each of the three states (Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan). This is a signifi- cant gap in the research and conservation of local biodiversity. Protected areas existing in the plain part of the Fergana valley are three Natural Monuments, “Mingbulak”, “Central Fergana” and “Yazyavan”, which have a very small area, low status, and cannot provide an effective conservation of ecosystems. The Central Fergana district includes two regions; the boundary between them runs along the line bordering the east sands of the Yazyavan Steppe. The Kayrakum-Yazyavan region covers the western part of the val- The Middle Syrdarya district of the Turan province occupies a vast Tashkent - Hungry Steppe depression in the middle reaches of the Syrdarya river, between the Kyzylkum desert and the mountain systems of the Tien Shan and Pamir-AlayFigure 79. Its right-bank part is represented by wavy and low-hilly landscapes of alluvial-proluvial plains, and the left bank is oc- ley comprised mostly by alluvial plains with landscapes of the floodplain, saline, and sandy desert. The East Fergana region occupies the eastern foothills of the Fergana depression with alluvial-proluvial plains and plots of piedmont landscapes. Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 178 Figure 79 Middle Syrdarya district of Turan province and neighbouring areas. Regions of the Middle Syrdarya district: II-2-a Chinaz, II-2-b Mirzachul. Regions of the Western Tien Shan district: I-1-a Tashkent, I-1-c Western Chatkal, I-1-d Kurama. Regions of the Nuratau district: I-4-a Nuratau, I-4-c Nuratau Relic Mountains. 179 II-2 Middle Syrdarya district cupied by the geosystems of sloped and flat alluvial-proluvial plains with shallow saltmarsh depressions. Almost the entire territory of the district currently is covered with anthropogenic landscape (irrigated lands and settlements), except for a few small plots of little disturbed natural ecosystemsFigure 80 . The eastern boundary of district is the western edge of the foothills of Chatkal and Kurama mountain ridges; the western boundary is the eastern edge of the sands of the Kyzylkum desert; in the south and south-west, the border runs along the piedmonts of Turkestan and Malguzar ridges; the northern boundary of the district passes the foothills of the low mountains Alymtau and Kazykurt beyond Uzbekistan. The climate of the Middle Syrdarya district is characterized by hot and dry summers and very mild winters with moderate frosts. In the northern part of the Hungry Steppe as well as in piedmonts of the Western Tien Shan Mountains, the winter season is slightly colder than in the central and southern parts of the district. This district is one of the insufficiently explored regions of Uzbekistan. The main publications on the flora of this area are the “An identification guide of plants of the Tashkent oasis” (Lapin, 1938) and the “An identification guide of wild plants of the Hungry Steppe” (Botschantzev et al., 1961). The flora of the district includes approximately 1000 plant species; a significant part of them are weeds and alien species. The endemic element is represented by only one species, Climacoptera malyginii (Korovin ex Botsch.) Botsch. (Chenopodiaceae). There is also a small number of sub-endemic species distributed within the adjacent desert areas (Climacoptera intricata (Iljin) Botsch., C. lachnophylla (Iljin) Botsch., C. minkwitzae (Korovin) Botsch.). The district is divided into two regions, Chinaz and Mirzachul, sepaFigure 80 Almost the entire floodplain of the middle reaches of the Syrdarya river is occupied by an anthropogenic landscape. Photograph by VA Popov. rated by the Syrdarya River. Chinaz region covers the plain part of the Tashkent oasis, the lower reaches of the rivers Chirchik and Akhangaran and the Dalverzin Steppe, i.e., the right bank of the middle reaches of the Syrdarya RiverFigure 79, from her bed to the piedmont of the ridges Mogoltau, Kurama, Chatkal, and Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 180 181 II-2 Middle Syrdarya district Figure 81 Bloomy poplar woodland in the Dalverzin game reserve. Photograph by NYu Beshko. Figure 82 Dalverzin Sands. Photograph by NYu Beshko. Karzhantau. The flora of the region has no endemic species. The most significant areas of natural tugay vegetation are on the territory of the Dalverzin game reserve (5,360 ha), which is located in the flood- to the foothills and low mountains of Central Asia (Allium griffithianum Boiss., plain of the Syrdarya river, 30 km north-west from the throat of the Fer- A. suworowii Regel, etc.). Weeds, such as Bromus tectorum L., Hordeum lep- Figure 81 . To the east of this forestry-hunting farm, there are small orinum Link, Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl, Sisymbrium altissi- undeveloped plots of the Dalverzin Sands covered with typical psammoph- mum L., Peganum harmala L., Tribulus terrestris L., are numerous. Small ilous vegetation; the largest site is around 1,000 ha . Even 100 years sand dunes of Dalverzin are covered with low bushes (Calligonum microcarpum ago, tugay vegetation existed along the floodplain of Syrdarya and in the Borszczow, C. murex Bunge, Astragalus villosissimus Bunge) and other typical inhab- gana valley Figure 82 lower reaches of the Chirchik and Akhangaran rivers, sand areas were in itants of sand deserts (Astragalus flexus Fisch., Goldbachia laevigata (M. Bieb.) DC., G. the vicinity of Chinaz town, and plots of virgin lands with ephemeroid and sabulosa (Kar. & Kir ). D.A. German & Al-Shehbaz, Sphaerophysa salsula (Pall.) DC.). sagebrush-ephemeroid vegetation were situated within the Tashkent oasis. Tugay is a unique type of floodplain ecosystems distributed in the arid A check-list of the flora of the Dalverzin game reserve and Dalverzin regions of the West and Central Asia. Tugay is a relic of the Tertiary pe- Sands includes 153 species of 113 genera 39 family (Beshko, Batoshov, 2015). riod, and include a complex of floodplain biocoenoses (gallery forests, reeds, The prevailing species are typical for the river valleys of Central Asia (Ko- halophytic shrub and herbaceous communities). This vegetation is resistant to salin- rovin, 1961; Maylun, 1973; Rachkovskaya et al., 2003). As the area is situated at the ity, high summer temperatures, periodic flooding, and soil drought. piedmonts of the Western Tien Shan, there are a number of plants specific Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 182 In the past, the riparian forests were widespread over the territory of 183 II-2 Middle Syrdarya district Central Asia; they were the habitat of Caspian tiger, Bukhara deer, and Murray, L. dasystemum Pojark.), tamarisk (Tamarix bungei Boiss, T. elongata Ledeb., T. several endemic subspecies of pheasant. The catastrophic decline of the laxa Willd., T. ramosissima Ledeb.). The herb layer is formed by camel thorn, area of the natural floodplain ecosystems as a result of human activities licorice, Karelinia caspia (Pall.) Less., halophytes (Girgensohnia oppositiflora (Pall.) was observed throughout their distribution range. The riparian woodlands Fenzl., Limonium otolepis (Schrenk) Kuntze, Zygophyllum oxianum Boriss.), grasses, and of Central Asia occupy less than 10% of their territory 50-60 years ago forbs. Herbaceous tugay is represented by cat-tail and reed, liquorice, Ravenna (Treshkin, 2011). At the present time, tugay ecosystems are preserved in Uzbekistan only grass, and grass-forb-camel thorn communities. in some local plots on the Zeravshan, Amudarya, and Syrdarya river ba- Mirzachul region covers the Hungry Steppe (Mirzachul) – an alluvial- sins, and their study is important. Followers of the classical formation ap- proluvial plain on the left bank of the Syrdarya River in its middle reaches proach to the typology of vegetation referred the floodplain vegetation to from the throat of the Fergana valley in the east to the Chardara water res- the edaphic type Potamophyta (tugay vegetation of river valleys on alluvial deposits) ervoir, Arnasay channel, lake Tuzkan, and Kly River in the west. The Hun- which includes three coenotic types, Potamodendra, Potamothamna and gry Steppe is limited by the foothills of Turkestan and Malguzar ridges on Potamopoia (tree, shrub and herbaceous tugay) (Maylun, 1973; Atlas, 1982; Geographical the south; in the north-west, it passes smoothly into the Kyzylkum desert. atlas, 2012). According to the modern classification scheme of the vegetation The area is approximately 10,000 km², and the altitude is 230-385 m a.s.l. of Central Asia (Rachkovskaya et al., 2003), tugay vegetation is considered to The Hungry Steppe is located on the three terraces of the Syrdarya River, be an eco-dynamic series of willow-oleaster, oleaster-poplar, shrubs, tall which are composed of loess, sandy loam, and loam, and in the southern grass, and herbaceous communities. part by proluvial deposits of streams of the northern slope of the Turkestan Riparian woodlands existing in the middle reaches of the Syrdarya are represented by bloomy poplar, or turanga communities (Populus pruinosa). and Malguzar ridges. Several depressions can be found along this flat plain (Dzhetysay, Sardoba, etc.). Willow (Salix songarica Andersson, Salix wilhelmsiana M. Bieb.), and oleaster (Elaeag- In the past, this region was an almost waterless desert with ephemeroid nus angustifolia L.) grow in local plots of the floodplain along the riverbed. In vegetation and fragments of salt marshes; they were used only as a spring more humid areas, the poplar stands have undergrowth of shrubs and dense pasture for nomadic herding. Consequently, this area was called the Hunger tall grass layers of licorice and reeds (Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Phragmites australis SteppeFigure 83, 84. That is how this region has been described by researchers (Cav.) Steud.); there are abundant liana (Clematis orientalis L., Cynanchum sibiricum and travelers of the second half of 19th - early 20th Century: “In the middle Willd., Trachomitum scabrum (Russanov) Pobed.). In the drier sites of the floodplain of summer ... it is a dull and bleak picture; the soil cracked from the heat is and abobe-floodplain terrace, the herbage is comprised of Gramineae (Eri- completely devoid of greenery, so here we have a desert in the full sense of anthus ravennae, Calamagrostis pseudophragmites (Haller f.) Koell., Elytrigia repens (L.) this word. On the other hand, an absolutely different picture is the Hungry Nevski, Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.), camel thorn (Alhagi pseudalhagi (M. Bieb.) Desv.), Steppe in spring. In early March, there appears the green shoots, and after ephemeroids (Poa bulbosa, Carex pachystylis, C. subphysodes Popov ex V.I. Krecz.), a month a blossoming green carpet of various low-growing plants spread- sagebrush (Artemisia absinthium L., A. diffusa), annuals, and weeds. ing before us. At this time, the Hungry Steppe cannot be called a desert. Shrub tugay communities are dense, often almost impenetrable thick- It is a real meadow, where the plants compose an entire dense cover ... In ets of thorny shrubs (Halimodendron halodendron (Pall) Druce, Lycium ruthenicum late April, the vegetation fades ... even a week - and the end of the growing 184 185 Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province II-2 Middle Syrdarya district Figure 83 Historical map of the Hungry Steppe (“Atlas of Asiatic Russia”, 1914). season begins. There is coming a long dormant period, which continues for nine months … In the summer, the Hungry Steppe is burnt to a yellowgray plain by the sun that gives to its name because of the scorching heat and the complete absence of life ... it is a dead, dusty space with the distant snowy peaks looming on the horizon and barely visible in the hot air. Here and there are scattered the bones of camels and pieces of stems of umbellifers dispersed by the wind and looking like bones, which further reinforce Figure 84 Vernal aspect of the ephemeroid vegetation. The western edge of the Hungry Steppe, the coast of the lake Tuzkan. Photograph by NYu Beshko. the depressive effect made at the time of the Hungry Steppe” (Dukhovny et al., 1976). “Mirza-chul is an excellent, classic example of the southern piedmont deserts of Central Asia, and all naturalists, particularly botanists, Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 186 187 Figure 86 Dead channel with the floodplain vegetation of the left bank of the Syrdarya river. Photograph by VA Popov. should visit it” (Popov, 1940). A characteristic feature of the Hungry Steppe was the absolute dominance of ephemeral-ephemeroid vegetation. In contrast, for example, from the Karshi Steppe or from the neighboring Farish Steppe (piedmont plain of the Nuratau ridge), communities with the participation of the xerophilous peren- nials or sagebrush did not play a significant role (Popov, 1940). At present, almost the entire region is occupied by anthropogenic landscapesFigure 85. Small areas of natural ecosystems exist only on the coast of lake Tuzkan, in the piedmonts of the Turkestan ridge, and along the CenFigure 85 Irrigated lands under crops in the Hungry Steppe. Photograph by VA Popov. tral Golodnostepsky collector. The vegetation is strongly degraded due to overgrazing. Nevertheless, small areas of tugay vegetation can be found on the left bank of the Syrdarya river even nowFigure 86. Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 188 189 II-2 Middle Syrdarya district II-3. KYZYLKUM DISTRICT half of the countryFigure 87. The Kyzylkum desert is situated between the rivers Amudarya and Syrdarya and is one of the largest Asian deserts. It is a plain with a general incline to the northwest (the altitude decreases gradually from 300 m a.s.l. in the southeast to 60-70 m in the northwest). Its natural border in the north-east is the river Syrdarya; in the east, it is bordered by the Chardara water reservoir, lake Tuzkan, and Pistalitau ridge; in the south, the Nuratau Mountains and the ancient delta of the Zeravshan River mark its border. In the west and northwest, the Amudarya River is a natural border between The Kyzylkum district is the largest among botanical-geographical districts the Kyzylkum desert and the Karakum. The vast territory of the Kyzylkum of Uzbekistan; it covers the entire territory of the Kyzylkum desert, almost (more than 300,000 km²) is occupied mainly by plain landscapes with fixed, semi-fixed, and moving sands, gravelly deserts, salt marshes and small plots of takyrs. Figure 87 The Kyzylkum district of the Turan province and neighboring areas. Regions of the Kyzylkum botanical-geographical district: II-3-a Kyzylkum, II-3-b Kyzylkum Relic Mountains. Regions of the Bukhara district: II-4-a Middle Zeravschan, II-4-b Lower Zeravschan, II-4-C KarshiKarnabchul. II-2-a Chinaz region of the Middle Syrdarya district. II-5-a North-East Karakum region of the Karakum district. Regions of the South Aral district: II-6-a Khorezm, II-6-b Amudarya Delta. Regions of the Nuratau district: I-4-a Nuratau, I-4-b Aktau, I-4-c Nuratau Relic Mountains. Regions of the Kuhistan district: I-5-a North Turkestan, I-5-b Malguzar, I-5-c Urgut, I-5-d Zirabulak-Ziadin. In the territory of the Kyzylkum, there are several closed saline depressions, Karakata, Molaly, Kukayaz, and Minbulak (where is located the lowest point of the country), and more than 15 isolated from each other insular eleva- tions (remnant low mountains), stretched in the latitudinal direction. The largest relic mountains of Kyzylkum are Tamdytau (highest peak is 922 m a.s.l.), Kuldzhuktau (784 m), Bukantau (764 m), Aristanatau (698 m), and Auminzatau (639 m). These low mountains are outcrops of Paleozoic (Hercynian) folded structures, an extension of the Nuratau ridge, raised by recent tectonic movements. This is a very peculiar kind of landscape that is distinguished from all other landscapes of Kyzylkum (Zakirov, 1971). Therefore, the district’s area has a complex landscape structure, including aeolian plains, arid low mountains surrounded with proluvial trains and erosion-deflation saline depressions. The climate of Kyzylkum is characterized by hot and very dry summers and mild winters, sometimes with medium frosts. The climate of this vast territory varies according to its different regions. Therefore, the annual rainfall is slightly higher and winters are relatively milder in the southeastern part of the district than in Central or Northern Kyzylkum. This desert has been transformed significantly due to human activity. Even 50 years ago, the Kyzylkum sands in the northwest almost reached Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 190 191 II-3 Kyzylkum district the shores of the Aral Sea. Now the territory of the dried bottom of the Aral Sea is occupied by a new desert, the Aralkum. In the past, the Aydar salt marsh and a number of small salty lakes were located in the large drainless depression in the south-eastern edge of Kyzylkum. With the beginning of intensive agricultural development of the Hungry Steppe, this depression was used to evacuate the drainage water from irrigated lands. In 1969, the water level was was extremely high; more than 21 km³ of water was discharged from the Chardara reservoir, the Aydar salt marsh was flooded completely (water level was raised by 22 m). As a result, a large drainless salty water body with the length about 180 km, up to 40-45 km width and an area of over 2,000 km² was formed; this is the Aydar-Arnasay lake system, which includes the significantly enlarged natural lake Tuzkan connected by narrow channel with a anthropogenic lake Aydarkul and the flow channel Arnasay joining the Chardara water reservoir and the Aydarkul lakeFigure 88. During 1993-2003, more than 33.7 km³ of water was discharged from the Chardara reservoir; the water surface level reached 244 m a.s.l. Lakes Tuzkan and Aydarkul merged into a single water body with an area exceeding 3000 km². This man-made water body, an antipode of the Aral Sea, holds the 4th position in Central Asia in order of size, after the Aral Sea, lakes Balkhash, and Issyk-Kul. The history of botanical research in Kyzylkum begins from the middle of the 19th Century (Ch. Pander, E. Eversmann, A. Lehmann, IG Borszczow and SM Smirnov). In the twentieth century, knowledge of the flora and vegetation of the Kyzylkum was enriched significantly by EP Korovin (1961, 1962), II Granitov (1964, 1967), ON Bondarenko (1964). The Karakalpak, Kenimekh and South Kyzylkum complex expeditions with the participation of many famous botanists made a great contribution to the investigation of the ecosystems of Kyzylkum. Although the teams of these expeditions collected Figure 88 Bird’s eye view on the Arnasay flow channel. Photograph by VA Popov. extensive herbarium material, their studies were focused on pastures. PK Zakirov (1971) explored the flora and vegetation of the low mountains of Kyzylkum and Nuratau ridge and published a list of the flora of this area covering the region of Kyzylkum relic mountains in the Kyzylkum district, Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 192 193 Nuratau and Nuratau relic mountain regions in the Nuratau district. This basic difference between list contains 983 species of vascular plants belonging to 312 genera and 65 the flora of the two adjacent families, 679 species of them recorded for the Nuratau ridge and 556 spe- deserts, the Kyzylkum and cies - for relic mountains (202 of which are absent in the Nuratau). Karakum (757 species according In the two-volume monograph “The plant cover of the South-Western to Geldikhanov, 1995). Kyzylkum” (1964, 1967), II Granitov provided the list of flora with 580 spe- The endemic species of cies (272 species of them were reported for relic mountains). Based on the data, RV Kyzylkum are localized Kamelin (1973a, 2011) estimated the entire flora of the Kyzylkum desert to be mainly in the relic moun- approximately 900 species. B Sherbaev (1988) published a synopsis of 1110 tainsFigure 89. For example, all species for the flora of Karakalpakstan, 732 species of them he referred to endemic species of the genus the Karakalpak Kyzylkum (including remnant mountains). A Geldikhanov (1995) Astragalus L. (A. adylovii F.O. reported 937 species from 386 genera and 76 families for Kyzylkum (but Khass., Ergashev & Kadyrov, A. the list is not available). According to FO Khassanov, HF Shomuradov, and G centralis Е. Sheld., A. holargyreus Kadyrov (2011), the flora of Kyzylkum contains no less than 1043 species Bunge, A. leiophysa Bunge and A. with 41 endemic and 11 sub-endemic species. Recent studies have shown remanens Nabiev) , as well as that some species previously considered to be strictly endemic to the Ky- Cousinia juzepczukii Tscher- zylkum, occur in the foothills neva, C. sylvicola Bunge, C. Figure 89 Astragalus centralis Sheld. is a rare narrow endemic species of the Kuldzhuktau and Tamdytau relic mountains. Photograph by H.F. Shomuradov. Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 194 Figure 90 Allium rinae F.O. Khass., Shomuradov & Tojibaev is an endemic species of the Bukantau and Sultan Uvays relic mountains. Photograph by NYu Beshko. of the north-western spurs of umbilicata Juz., Silene to- the Pamir-Alay (Beshko, Azi- mentella Schischk., Stipa aktauensis Roshev., etc. The inhabitants of relic mova, 2013). In accordance with mountains include a few endemic representatives of genus Allium L., A. our data, 34 species are strict- kysylkumi (reaches the foothills of the Nuratau Mountains) and A. rinae F. O. Khass, ly endemic to the Kyzylkum Shomuradov & TojibaevFigure 90. The species endemic to the low mountains district. This level of species of Kyzylkum allied mainly with the Central Asian and Iranian mountain diversity and a high rate of flora, and their genesis is based on the Western Pamir-Alay and Western endemism (3.9%, comparable to Tien Shan elements (Khassanov et al., 2011). The core of the flora of Kyzylkum some of the mountain floras) are as- as a relict desert flora is defined by the endemic species to Turan province sociated with the presence of overall. The district is divided into two regions. insular relic low mountains, Kyzylkum Relic Mountains. This botanical-geographical region include which are characterized by the remnant arid low mountains of central (Bukantau, Dzhetymtau, Tamdytau), a number of Central Asian southwest (Kuldzhuktau, Auminzatau, Kazakhtau etc.), and north-western Kyzyl- mountainous species and neo- kum (Sultan Uvays)Figure 69. In the vegetation of relic mountains, there are endemic taxa. This shows the two altitudinal belts, plains and foothills. Owing to the rugged terrain and 195 II-3 Kyzylkum district diversity of soil, there are a wide range of habitats. The dominant plant types of vegetation. There are a number of Central Asian mountain plants communities are perennial saltwort (Salsola arbuscula Pall., S. arbusculiformis (Anemone petiolulosa, Eranthis longistipitata Regel, Ranunculus sewerzowii Regel, Thal- Drobow, S. orientalis S.G. Gmel.), sagebrush (Artemisia diffusa, A. turanica Krasch.), ictrum isopyroides C. A. Mey., Lepyrodiclis holosteoides (C.A. Mey.) Fisch. & C.A. Mey., Convolvulus hamadae (Vved.) Petrov formations characteristic of gypsum Amygdalus spinosisima). RV Kamelin (1990) described the remnant ridges as the desert, as well as the formations of Astragalus unifoliolatus Bunge and A. exclave of mountainous Central Asia in the territory of the Turan province. villosissimus, psammophilous and halophilic communities; fragments of Currently, the most complete data are available on the flora of Sultan tugay vegetation are found on the dry riverbeds. This part of the Kyzylkum Uvays (Sultanuizdag) and Bukantau rigdes; the flora of the remaining low district is characterized by the richest plant diversity and a high level of mountains of Kyzylkum have received much less attention. In particular, R endemism. Approximately 2/3 of the endemic species of Kyzylkum grow Abdurakhmanov (1969) reported 240 species, and PK Zakirov (1971) listed in the relic low mountains (Zakirov, 1973; Khassanov et al., 2011). 246 species for the Sultan Uvays. According to B Sherbaev (1988), the flora A number of publications have focused on the flora of the remnant of Sultan Uvays ridge has 444 species from 226 genera and 51 families mountains of Kyzylkum. Most botanists studied these insular low moun- (nearly twice that amount given by Abdurakhmanov and Zakirov). This quantity was tains in the twentieth century (Korovin, 1961, 1962; Zakirov, 1971, 1973, etc.) and confirmed by the results of our research. We composed the actual unpub- regarded all relic mountains as a single group and referred them to one lished check-list of the flora of Sultan Uvays based on the expedition and botanical-geographical region of the Turan desert province. herbarium data; it included 448 plant species. In contrast to other researchers, B Sherbaev (1978, 1988) reported that The vegetation cover of the Sultan Uvays is peculiar and differs rather the flora of Sultan Uvays and other remnant mountains of Karakalpak- sharply from other low mountains of the Kyzylkum. It consists entirely of stan combine the features of the North Turan and South Turan flora with desert formations, while sporadic fragments of mountain altitudinal types the predominance of South Turan characteristics in the Sultan Uvays. He are characteristic of other relic mountains. Large areas (particularly on the considered that the inclusion of the Karakalpak relic mountains to the Ky- southern slope) strongly covered with gravel are practically devoid of vegeta- zylkum district is unjustified, and attributed them as an independent Sultan tion, except for single individuals of Ephedra, Artemisia, Anabasis, Sal- Uvays region of the desert Low Amudarya district. sola, Atraphaxis spinosa L.Figure 91. As mentioned above, the low mountains located on the southeastern The flora of Bukantau has been also well studied. LA Kapustina (1990) margins of the Kyzylkum near the Nuratau ridge (Pistalitau, etc.) have a reported 297 species for the vegetation of the Bukantau-Dzhetymtau group special position compared to other relic mountains. The results of recent of relict mountains. The latest research on the flora of Bukantau expanded research (Batoshov, Beshko 2013; Batoshov, 2016) have shown that this group of the check-list significantly. Currently, it contains 350 species (Serekeeva, insular ridges is a part of the Nuratau district of Mountain Central Asian 2012). Three new species were recently described from the Bukantau - province. Convolvulus afanassievii Luferov, Allium rinae, Scrophularia rudolfii F.O. Despite the difference in views on the botanical-geographical position Khass., Serekeeva & Kadyrov. The finding of several Western Tien Shan of certain relic ridges, the researchers have a consensus of opinion that the (Gagea taschkentica Levichev, Ferula aff. tenuisecta Korovin) and Iran-Central Asian genesis of flora of insular low mountains of Kyzylkum is related to the mountain species (Chalcanthus renifolius Boiss., Rhamnus sintenisii Rech. f.) in the mountainous regions of Central Asia despite the predominance of desert Bukantau was unexpected and very interesting. This is further evidence of 196 197 Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province II-3 Kyzylkum district istic psammophilous woodlands composed by saxaul (Haloxylon persicum, H. aphyllum), different species of Calligonum (C. aphyllum (Pall.) Gürke, C. arborescens Litv., C. caput-medusae Schrenk, C. eriopodum Bunge, C. leucocladum (Schrenk) Bunge, C. macrocarpum Borszczow, C. microcarpum Borszczow, etc.), sand acacia (Ammodendron conollyi Bunge ex Boiss.), shrubby saltworts (Salsola richteri (Moq.) Kar. ex Litv., S. paletzkiana Litv.), ephedra (Ephedra strobilacea), species of Astragalus section AmmodendronFigure 92. The grass cover of the sandy desert is formed by Carex physodes M. Bieb., Aristida karelinii (Trin. & Rupr.) Roshev., A. pennata Trin., Poa bulbosa, annual grasses and different dicotyledonous ephemers. The periphery of the sandy massifs is usually represented by shallow undulating sands with ephemeroid-semishrub (sagebrush or perennial saltwort) vegetation. The giant Umbelliferae (Ferula foetida) or Iris songari- ca often have a landscape roleFigure 93. Psammophilous vegetation, particularly desert woodlands, plays an Figure 91 Sultan Uvays relic ridge. Large areas almost without vegetation are typical. Photograph by NYu Beshko. Figure 92 Psammophilous woodlands define the unique landscape of the sandy deserts of Central Asia. The white saxaul forests in the south-eastern part of the Kyzylkum. Photograph by NYu Beshko. an affinity between the flora of the remnant Kyzylkum Mountains and the mountainous Central Asia. Lists of the flora of the remaining relic mountains have not been published. In the monograph by PK Zakirov (1971), there is a general list of 452 species from 233 genera and 46 families recorded for the all remnant mountains of Central and South-Western Kyzylkum united by author in the Bukan-Kuldzhuktau group. Kyzylkum region covers the rest of the Kyzylkum with sandy, gypsum, salt desert and fragments of tugay ecosystems. EP Korovin divided the area into two regions, East Kyzylkum and West Kyzylkum. The common patterns of vegetation and main vegetation types and plant formations of this region are described in the monograph “Vegetation cover of Uzbekistan” (1973, Vol. 2). The largest area within the region is occupied by sands with character- Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 198 199 Figure 94 Saxaul wood on one of the railway stations of Turkestan harvested as fuel for locomotives (early 20th Century). The diameters of the saxaul trunks in the center of the photograph deserve attention. Such large saxaul trees are not found in Central Asia. Historical photograph represented by VA Popov. important ecological role forming a unique landscape of sandy deserts of Central Asia and fixing sands. The emergence of moving sands in Kyzylkum, and in other desert regions of the planet, is the result of human activities (first of all, injurious felling of trees and shrubs for fuel and excessive grazing)Figure 94 . Therefore, vast areas of moving sands occur around settlements, oases, livestock farms, and wells, and the sands tend to fill cultivated lands. Often this process reaches disaster scale. In the past, moving sands have frequently caused the death of cities, oases, and even civilizations. In the Uzbek part of the Kyzylkum, the undisturbed desert forests exist only in sparsely populated areasFigure 95. Stony (gypsum) deserts with sagebrush and perennial saltwort vegetation Figure 93 Sandy plain covered by ephemeroid-sagebrush vegetation with Ferula foetida and Iris are found mainly in the south-western part of the regionFigure 96. Large and songarica. Photograph by NYu Beshko. small drainless depressions scattered throughout the area are occupied by communities of halophytes (Salicornia europaea L., Suaeda sp., Halocnemum strobilaceum (Pall.) M. Bieb., Halostachys belangerianus (Moq.) Botsch., Tamarix hispida Willd., etc. ), forming a peculiar type of salt marsh vegetation. Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 200 201 II-3 Kyzylkum district Another type of vegetation of the region, tugay, should be mentioned separately. In 1971, the Kyzylkum Nature Reserve was established for the conservation of riparian woodland in the middle reaches of the Amudarya Figure 96 Stony desert in the South-Western Kyzylkum. Photograph by NYu Beshko. by tugay forest. The territory of the nature reserve represents the unique combination of the riparian forest and typical sandy desert. As mentioned above, the relict tugay forest is one of the most endangered ecosystems in Central Asia. A list of the flora of the reserve includes approximately 160 species of vascular plants (Recommendations, 2013). Elements of herb and shrub tugay vegetation are distributed on the shores of the numerous small lakes in the Kyzylkum near artesian wells. The main dominants growing around these anthropogenic water bodies are Typha, Tamarix, and Alhagi species. All information available on the flora Figure 95 White saxaul woodland in the Central Kyzylkum. Photograph by VA Popov. of the region is a part of the data on the plant diversity of Kyzylkum overall (Granitov, 1964, 1967; Zakirov, 1971, Vegetation cover, vol. 2; 1973; Momotov, 1973b; EI Rachkovskaya et al., 2003; Khassanov et al., 2011). . The protected area (10,311 ha) extends for 30 km along the The region has original flora with numerous stenotopic psammophilous right bank of the Amudarya. Approximately half of the territory is covered species (e.g., representatives of sections Ammodendron Fisch. and Eremophysa Bunge of 202 203 River Figure 97 Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province II-3 Kyzylkum district II-4. BUKHARA DISTRICT Within Uzbekistan the Bukhara district occupies the Zeravshan river valley with the Samarkand and Bukhara oases, Karshi Steppe, the desert Karnabchul and Sundukli Sands. Approximately ¾ of the district lies on the left bank of the Amudarya River in the territory of Turkmenistan and Northern AfghanistanFigure 14. The endemic element of the flora of the district is represented by four species (Climacoptera pjataevae U.P. Pratov, Phlomoides desertorum (Regel) Salmaki, Figure 97 Territory of the Kyzylkum Nature Reserve represents the unique combination of Phl. eriolarynx (Pazij & Vved.) Adylov, Kamelin & Makhm., Phl. leiocalyx (Pazij & Vved.) riparian forest and typical sand desert. Photograph by NYu Beshko. Adylov, Kamelin & Makhm.). Sub-endemic species are Calligonum matteianum Drobow, C. molle Litv., C. paletzkianum Litv. distributed in the sand desert Sundukli near the Dengizkul lake and in the Karakum desert, Halimocnethe genus Astragalus). Many of them are endemic to the Turan province (e.g., mis latifolia Iljin distributed in Karshi Steppe and Kyzylkum, and Cousinia Acanthophyllum korolkowii Regel & Schmalh., Salsola paletzkiana, Climacoptera aralensis sogdiana Bornm. distributed in the sands of the Kyzylkum, Sundukli and (Iljin) Botsch., etc.). Representatives of the ancient xerophilous family Che- Karshi Steppe. nopodiaceae (currently included in Amaranthaceae) prevail among the species endemic to the Kyzylkum district. They are Climacoptera merkulowiczii The Uzbek part of the district includes three regions, Middle Zeravshan, Lower Zeravshan, and Karshi-Karnabchul. (Zakirov) Botsch., Salsola androssowii Litv., S. angusta Botsch., S. deser- Middle Zeravshan region includes the middle reaches of the Zeravshan ticola Iljin, etc. On the other hand, there are several interesting endemic river valley, from the border with Tajikistan to the narrowing of the valley species from other families (Bryonia melanocarpa Nabiev of Cucurbitaceae, Phlomoi- near Zirabulak station and Ziadin village. The Zeravshan valley (Zeravshan des aralensis (Bunge) Salmaki and Phl. transoxana (Bunge) Salmaki of Lamiaceae). depression), which is elongated in the latitudinal direction, was formed on the site of a synclinal trough; its edges are composed of Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks, and the bottom is filled by a thick layer of younger gravel. The Samarkand oasis situated in this area is one of the oldest agricultural oases in the Central Asia. Currently, almost the entire territory of the region is occupied by an anthropogenic landscape, with small fragments of Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 204 205 II-4 Bukhara district floodplain vegetation and degraded ephemeroid communities on the remaining unplowed sites of the ancient terrace. This is an ancient agricultural oasis occupied almost entirely by anthropogenic landscapes. There are numerous settlements, including regional The authors of the above-mentioned schemes of phytochoria considered centers of Bukhara and Navoi. Fields and gardens stretch along the Zer- this area to be a part of mountainous Central Asia, without detailed char- avshan river valley up to the foothills of the Nuratau and Zirabulak-Ziadin acteristics. Indeed, there are many mountainous and piedmont species, e.g. Mountains. Only fragments of depleted and degraded natural vegetation Iris narbutii, Tulipa korolkowii, T. micheliana, T. turkestanica Regel and exist. The remaining unplowed small areas of the floodplain, islands be- Colchicum kesselringii Regel. Although this part of the Zeravshan river tween the flow channels are saline and suffer from overgrazing. There are valley is located within the orogenic area, there are landscapes of alluvial developed communities of tugay and salt marsh vegetation with Tamarix plains and intermountain depressions belonging to the plain landscapes. sp., Halimodendron halodendron, Erianthus ravennae, Calamagrostis In the eastern part of the region, there is the Zeravshan Nature Reserve, pseudophragmites, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Phragmites australis, Typha lati- which was established in 1975 for the conservation of riparian woodlands folia L., T. minima Funck, Alhagi kirghisorum Schrenk ex Fisch. & CA of the Zeravshan floodplain. This protected area (2,352 ha) stretches as a Mey., A. pseudalhagi, Limonium otolepis, Cynodon dactylon, Climacop- narrow strip for 47 km along the right bank of the Zeravshan river. The tera lanata (Pall.) Botsch., Salsola collina Pall., S. paulsenii Litv., Suaeda reserve’s landscape is a floodplain transected by old riverbeds and current paradoxa (Bunge) Bunge, etc. Populations of ruderal species are wide- flow channels, and plots of the above-floodplain terrace occupied by typical tugay vegetation, which, as noted above, is the relict vegetation type requiring special protection in Central AsiaFigure 43. The flora of the reserve Figure 98 Tugay vegetation in the Zeravshan Nature Reserve. Photograph by NYu Beshko. contain 207 species, but a check-list has not been published (Recommendations, 2013). In the article by KhK Khaydarov et al. (2014), 267 species from 136 genera and 61 families were reported for the flora of the floodplain vegetation of Uzbek part of the Zeravshan valley, from the border village Ravathodzha to Navoi city (including the nature reserve). Lower Zeravschan region occupies the alluvial valley and the ancient delta of the Zeravshan River situated between the southern branch of the Nuratau Mountains in the north and the Zirabulak-Ziadin Mountains in the south. This region also includes clay and gravelly piedmont deserts, Malikchul and the eastern part of the Kenimekhchul. The eastern boundary of the region is the narrowing of the Zeravshan valley near the village Ziadin. In the scheme of the phytochoria by EP Korovin, the lower course of Zeravshan River from the outlet into the plain to the ancient delta was also identified as the Lower Zeravshan region, but as a part of the Southern Kyzylkum district of the Turan desert province. Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 206 207 spread (Xanthium spinosum L., Descurainia sophia, Sophora pachycarpa C.A. Mey.). Sol- bonariensis Link). The high rate of the adventive fraction and new findings of itary trees and groves of oleaster and willow are remained in some places, alien species suggests an active role of anthropogenic factors in the forma- but poplar riparian forests, which existed here in former times, have been tion of the flora of an oasis (Esanov, 2016). destroyed (Zakirov, 1955; Korovin, 1962; Khaydarov et al., 2014.). The vegetation of Karshi-Karnabchul region is limited by the ancient delta of the river the Malikchul and Kenimekhchul piedmont deserts is represented by salt- Zeravshan and Zirabulak-Ziadin Mountains in the north-west; in the east, wort, sagebrush-ephemeroid and iris-ephemeroid communities degraded it reaches the Kitab-Shahrisabz intermountain basin and the foothills of the due to intensive grazing and agricultural development. Hissar ridgeFigure 99. The south-western boundary is the Amudarya River. The main source of the flora and vegetation of the region is the monograph by KZ Zakirov (1955, 1961). For the Lower Zeravshan region, approx- Therefore, the region covers the lower, desert part of the Kashkadarya river basin. imately 320 species have been cited. Plant species typical for tugay, salt In general, landscapes and vegetation of the region are similar to the marshes, and secondary habitats prevail on this territory. Alien species and Kyzylkum and Middle Syrdarya districts. They represented all types of weeds play a significant role and are distributed widely along the canals, roads, on waste areas, fields and fallow lands (Abutilon theophrasti Medik., representatives of the genus Amaranthus, Hibiscus trionum L., Sonchus arvensis L., Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers., Stellaria media (L.) Vill., Xanthium strumarium, etc.). Desert species can be found in the dry habitats (e.g. Astragalus ammotrophus Bunge), A. turczaninowii Kar. & Kir., Carex physodes, C. subphysodes, Tulipa lehmanniana. Figure 99 Bukhara district and neighboring areas. Regions of Bukhara distict: II-4-a Middle Zeravshan, II-4-b Lower Zeravshan, II-4-c Karshi-Karnabchul. Regions of Nuratau district: I-4-a Nuratau, I-4-b Aktau. Regions of Kuhistan district: I-5-c Urgut, I-5-d Zirabulak-Ziadin. Regions of Western Hissar district: I-6-a Kashkadarya, I-6-b Tarkapchigay. The flora of the Lower Zeravshan region have no narrow endemic species. Two of four endemic species of the Bukhara district (Phlomoides desertorum and Phl. eriolarynx) and several sub-endemic species are distributed in the two neighboring districts of Turan province, Kyzylkum and Bukhara (Climacoptera merkulowiczii, Salsola androssovii, S. angusta, Halimocnemis latifolia). In the terri- tory of the region, there are also populations of Astragalus plumatus, a rare sub-endemic species distributed within the western parts of the Nuratau Mountains, Zirabulak-Ziadin Mountains and Kenimekhchul desert. In recent years, the flora of the Bukhara oasis with an area of more than 2,870 km² has been studied extensively. Kh Esanov compiled a check-list of the flora of the Bukhara oasis including 476 species of vascular plants (Esanov, 2016). Owing to the strong anthropogenic impact, the adventive fraction is 111 species from 51 families and 230 genera, or 23% of the flora. Some alien species have been recorded from this area for the first time for Uzbekistan (Conyza graminifolia Spreng.) and even for Central Asia (Erigeron Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 208 209 II-4 Bukhara district Central Asian deserts, sandy, gypsum, clay and saline. The Karnabchul desert and Karshi Steppe represent the second (after Mirzachul) large area of ephemeral-ephemeroid clay desert. Several small remnant mountains (Sarytash, Kaynagach, Buermana, Dzharkak, Kungyrtau, etc.) are situated within this region. In most of the area, the vegetation is degraded due to overgrazing and agricultural development. Undisturbed ecosystems are preserved only in the border areas, particularly in the surroundings of lake DengizkulFigure 100 . The flora of this region has received little research attention. S Ma- vlyanov (1972) compiled a list of 238 species for ephemeroid-sagebrush vegetation of the Karnabchul desert. Approximately 250 plant species are known in protected area of the rare animal nursery “Ecocenter Jeyran” located 40 km southeast of Bukhara on the border between the deserts Karnabchul and Sundukli. Within the framework of the state research project devoted to the botanical-geographical division of Uzbekistan, 458 species for this area were identified (the list is not published). In accordance with the available data, the flora of the Uzbek part of the Bukhara district can be estimated at 550-600 species. All four species endemic to the Bukhara district are recorded for this region. The characteristic feature is the presence of species linking this area to the Southwestern Pamir-Alay (Hammada leptoclada, Jurinea bucharica C. Winkl.), as well as representatives of flora of the southern subtropical des- erts (Seidlitzia rosmarinus Bunge ex Boiss., Lagonichium farctum (Banks & Soland) Bobr.). Weeds and alien species comprise a significant proportion of the flora of this region. Figure 100 Landscape of the Sundukli Sands near Dengizkul lake. Photograph by DI Golovtsov. Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 210 211 II-4 Bukhara district II-5. KARAKUM DISTRICT The Uzbek part of the Karakum district is represented by a small plot of the Northeast (Zaunguz) Karakum. It is a narrow strip of sandy desert (from 1-2 to 4-5 km wide) in the western part of the Khorezm administrative region, on the left bank of the Amudarya River, between the state border with Figure 101 Karakum, South Aral, Aral, and Ustyurt districts. II-5-a North-East Karakum region of the Karakum district. Regions of South Aral district: II-6-a Khorezm, II-6-b Amudarya Delta. Regions of Kyzylkum district: II-3-a Kyzylkum, II-3-b Kyzylkum Relic Mountains. II-7-a Aral Sea Bottom region of the Aral district. Regions of Ustyurt district: II-8-a North Ustyurt, II-8-b South Ustyurt. Figure 102 Landscape of the Uzbek part of the Karakum is represented by sand dunes covered with typical psammophilous vegetation. Photograph by NYu Beshko. Turkmenistan and the Lake collectorFigure 101. The landscape is represented by sand dunes covered with psammophilous shrubs (Ammodendron conollyi, Calligonum caput-medusae, C. leucocladum, C. microcarpum, Salsola richteri, Astragalus unifoliolatus, Eremosparton aphyllum (Pall.) Fisch. & C.A Mey.) and ephemersFigure 102. In the depressions, there are a number of small salty lakes surrounded by salt-marsh vegetation (Tamarix hispida, Halostachys belangeriana, Salicornia europaea, Suaeda sp.). The character of the flora and vegetation of this area is similar to the sandy and saline deserts of Northwest Kyzylkum. Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 212 213 II-5 Karakum district II-6. SOUTH ARAL DISTRICT canals, and reservoirs. The riverbed is unsteady; islands and banks often change their configuration. A large number of shallow salt lakes is scattered in the delta within the district. The climate is arid and sharply continental, with dry, hot summers, relatively severe winters and low rainfall (approximately 100 mm per year). The unique landscape of the region has been formed by the delta of the Amudarya, which together with ancient delta generations occupies a large This district occupies the lower reaches of the Amudarya valley and its area (approximately 7 thousand km²) (Trofimova, 2009). The lower (southern) border delta. The district is situated between the Karakum desert and the Ustyurt of the delta is currently located at the latitude of Nukus town. plateau in the west, the Kyzylkum desert in the east and southeast, the Until 1960, floodplain (tugay) plant communities dominated in the lower Tuyamuyun gorge in the south, and the dry bottom of the Aral Sea in the reaches and delta of the Amudarya. Their formation and development are Figure 101 north depended on the hydrological regime of the river. In the past, the annual . In the above mentioned schemes of the phytogeographical division of floods in the flood plain of the Amudarya provided favorable moisture con- Central Asia, there are significant differences in the understanding of this ditions for tugay vegetation. The most important dominant species of the area. EP Korovin (1962) defined this area as a part of the Amudarya district riparian forests of the lower reaches of the Amudarya are Populus euphra- of the Central Kazakhstan province. RV Kamelin (1973a) considered this tica Oliv., P. pruinosa, Elaeagnus angustifolia, Salix wilhelmsianaFigure 103. area as the Lower Amudarya district together with the floodplains of the Tugay forests often are braided with lianas: Clematis orientalis, Cynan- Amudarya from Kelif village to the Khorezm oasis. ZA Maylun (1982) chum sibiricum, Asparagus persicus Baker. Shrub tugay communities are included the territory of the Khorezm oasis in the rank of the Khorezm represented mainly by Tamarisk formation with a predominance of Tama- district in the Karakum subprovince of the Transcaspian province, and rix ramosissima. Most of the area of herbaceous floodplain vegetation is considered the Amudarya delta to be the Lower Amudarya district of the comprised of reed, cat-tail, camel thorn, and liquorice. Ustyurt-Mugodzhar subprovince of the Aral-Caspian province. The authors The Amudarya is one of the most full-flowing rivers of Central Asia. of the “Botanical geography of Kazakhstan and Middle Asia” attributed For centuries, local people used the water of its basin for irrigation. On the the lower reaches of the Amudarya and the Southern Aral Sea region to other hand, since the middle of the 20th Century, the water intake has been the West Southern Turan subprovince, together with the Southern Ustyurt increased significantly. The river flow was regulated by reservoirs and hy- (Rachkovskaya et al., 2003). drosystems; this led to a sharp reduction in the flow of water in the lower There are different plain landscapes: alluvial, lacustrine, and aeolian reaches of the Amudarya and changed the entire environment of the region. plains; ancient and modern alluvial-deltaic plains; and insular low moun- In 1982, the Tuyamuyun hydrosystem was set in operation and the floods tains. The terrain has a slight slope to the north, the relief is flat in general, have stopped completely. The stability of the ecosystems of the region has with only a few low remnant hills; the largest of them, Beltau, is a plateau been undermined; the soil, flora and vegetation have been degraded. Dry- about 60 km long with an elevation 142 m a.s.l. The territory of the district ing began and a decrease of all types of tugay ecosystems occurred; the is crossed by the Amudarya River, its numerous arms, irrigation channels, delta of the Amudarya and the entire Southern Aral Sea region underwent 214 215 Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province II-6 South Aral district desertification. The environment of the region has changed significantly. In the mid-1980s, the plant species diversity in the delta decreased by 40% compared to the 1950s. The number of trees and shrubs species have declined 1.6 times (Trofimova, 2009). The total area covered by tugay vegetation in 1950 reached 1.3 million hectares. The area of reeds in the 1950s was estimated at 600 thousand hectares. In the early 1980s, it was reduced drastically to 20-30 thousand hectares. Thickets of Typha angustifolia have been decreased from 23-25 thousand hectares in 1950s to 4-5 thousand hectares in 1980s, and licorice thickets have decreased 9 fold. Satellite images confirm that the riparian woodlands of the delta in the 1950s covered approximately 100-130 thousand hectares. In 1975, the woodlands covered 75.5 thousand hectares, 43.6 thousand hectares in 1982, and only 19.5 thousand hectares in 1988. Almost all the tugay forests were on the verge of death, and more than 50% of their area was represented by dead trees. The degree of degradation of riparian forests is increasing due to illegal logging for timber and fuel wood. In the late 1980s, the Amudarya delta was declared an ecological disaster zone (Sherbaev, 1988; Bakhiev et al., 1994; Trofimova, 2009; Treshkin, 2011). Even now, within the largest district in Central Asia there are plots of riparian woodlands. Although these sites are separated geographically and cover only 10% of the initial area, they represent 75% of the remaining riparian forests in Uzbekistan and 20% of the riparian woodlands in Central Asia (Bakhiev et al., 1994; Trofimova, 2009; Treshkin, 2011). For the protection of tugay ecosystems of lower reaches of Amudarya, the Baday-Tugay Nature Reserve was established in 1971 with an area of 6,462 hectares. In 2011, it was reorganized as the Lower Amudarya biosphere reserve with a total area of 68,717 hectares (including 11,568 hectares of core area)Figure 103. Figure 103 Tugay vegetation in the Amudarya delta. Photograph by NYu Beshko. There are very different estimates of the flora of the district in the literature. The flora of riparian forests of Uzbekistan overall was evaluated at 285 species of vascular plants belonging to 105 genera and 35 families (Vegetation cover of Uzbekistan, Vol. 2, 1973). B Sherbaev reported 239 species for the Southern Aral Sea region (Sherbaev, 1982). The database of the environ- Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 216 217 II-6 South Aral district ment of the Southern Aral Sea region contains 265 species recorded for Kuskanatau - 219 species (Sherbaev, 1978). In the mid 1970s, 167 species of the Amudarya delta (Trofimova, 2009). Different sources represent the flora of vascular plants were identified in the Baday-Tugay Nature Reserve (Sherbaev, lower reaches of Amudarya 655 plant species (Bakhiev, 1985) and 700 spe- 1980); however, during the surveys in 1985-1996, EV Kuzmina and SE Treshkin (2001) recorded only 61 species. This depletion of flora is caused by degradation of the ecosystems of the Amudarya delta. At the same time, with the disappearance of native tugay species, the number of invasive weeds (Xanthium strumarium, etc.) is being increased. According to preliminary estimates, the flora of the Lower Amudarya biosphere reserve within all three zones (core, buffer and transitional) contains 508 species. Only one endemic species is known for the flora of the South Aral district; it was recently described from the remnant hill Dzhumurtau Allium oxianum F.O. Khass. & Tojibaev. In addition there are several sub-endemic species common to this district and North-West Kyzylkum (Horaninovia excellens Iljin, etc.). There are two regions. Khorezm region covers the territory of the Khorezm oasis to the rem- nant ridge Sultan Uvays, the Akchadarya channel and the actual delta of the Amudarya. Within the territory of Uzbekistan, the small plots of the North-East Karakum desert belonging to the Karakum botanical-geographical district are adjacent to this region. The most preserved areas of riparian forests are concentrated here (Baday-Tugay, Sherimbet-Tugay, Nazarkhan, etc.). There are small fragments of salt marsh vegetation. In general, however, the region is occupied by an anthropogenic landscape. Amudarya Delta region includes the Akchadarya delta (ancient riverbed of the Amudarya) and Dzhanadarya (ancient branch of the Syrdarya). The territory of the region includes the remnant plateau Beltau. Figure 104 . Desertification in the riparian forests of the lower reaches of Amudarya. The Baday-Tugay woodland. Photograph by NYu Beshko. cies (Sherbaev, 1988), for the remnant plateau Beltau - 211 species, and for Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 218 219 II-6 South Aral district II-7. ARAL DISTRICT This botanical-geographical region includes all the dry bottom of the Aral Sea (the so-called Aralkum desert). The Aral Sea Basin is an internal drainage basin without connection with the high seas, so that a natural or anthropogenic decrease in the flow of the two rivers feeding the Aral Sea, the Amudarya and Syrdarya, would lead to its inevitable degradation. The geological age of the Aral Sea is approximately 140 thousand years. According to the available data, the Aral Sea has suffered several transgressions during the Neogene, at least three times this water body was almost extinct (The Aral Sea and the Aral Sea region, 2015). In prehistoric times, these changes were associated with natural climate variations and migrations of the riverbed of the Amudarya and Syrdarya. Since the formation Figure 105 Aral Sea on the historical map of 1914. of ancient civilizations in the basins of Amudarya and Syrdarya rivers, irrigation had a significant impact on the level of the Aral Sea. Geological, geomorphological and archaeological studies in the Aral Sea region have shown that in the previous 6000 years, the amplitude of fluctuations in the water surface level was more than 20 meters (Rubanov et al., 1987; Popov, 1990; Pinkhasov, 2000, 2003; The Aral Sea and the Aral Sea region, 2015). Fluctuations in the level of the Aral Sea occurred before 1960, but in the last 200 years their amplitude did not exceed 4 meters, and 1 m in the first half of the last century. The environmental situation in the region has been relatively stable before the 1950s. In the end of the 1950s, the Aral Sea has a water surface of 68 thousand km², maximum length of 428 km, maximum width of 284 km, water level of 53 m, and water volume of approximately 1,093 km³. The Aral Sea was the World’s fourth-largest inland water body after the Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 220 Caspian Sea, the Great Lakes of North America, and Lake Chad. It had a complex, highly rugged coastline and a number of islands Figure 105. The catastrophic process of desiccation of the Aral Sea in the second half of the twentieth century (since 1961) and the inability to restore it to its former dimensions were determined by the socio-economic development of Central Asia as part of the Soviet Union and after its collapse. The sharp increase in the withdrawal of water, as well as the natural aridity during 1960-1990 led to the disruption of the water-salt balance. Water inflow to the Aral Sea has declined more than 10 fold, and in some dry years, the flow of Amudarya and Syrdarya did not reached the sea. As a result, since 1961 the level of the Aral Sea constantly decreased (50 cm per year in average, and even 75-100 cm in some years), with a concomitant increase in salinity. 221 II-7 Aral district Desiccation intensity of the sea exceeds forecast rates. In 1986, the Aral Sea was divided into the Small Aral Sea in the north and the Great Aral Sea in the south; and in 2006, the Great Aral split into the deep narrow western part and shallow eastern part, which almost dried up in 2013-2014. Therefore, the Aral Sea no longer exists as a single water bodyFigure 106. Desiccation of the Aral Sea was resulted in formation of the large salt desert covering nearly Figure 106 Aral Sea on the satellite image of 50 thousand km². The drained 2014. bottom, informally called the Aralkum desert, almost immediately became populated by plants and animals; the primary succession began, i.e., a gradual process of soil and ecosystem formation ab initio. The Aralkum is a unique area, the largest area in the world with a predominance of primary succession. The flora and vegetation of the coast and islands of the Aral Sea before its catastrophic desiccation were reported by IG Borszczow (1865), SM Smirnov (1875), and LS Berg (1908). Data on the progress of succession on the dried bottom of the Aral Sea have been published by SK Kabulov (1990), W. Wucherer et al. (2001), EI Rachkovskaya et al. (2003), KhF Shomurodov et al. (2003), SG Sherimbetov (2009), and other authors. The pioneers, the first plants invading the drained areas, were Salicornia europaea, Suaeda acuminata (C.A. Mey.) Moq., Atriplex fominii Iljin, and Figure 107 Saxaul growth on the former Aral Sea bottom. Surroundings of the Muynak village. Photograph by NYu Beshko. other hyperhalophytes. By the early 1980s, these species were widespread around the entire coast of the Aral Sea. Subsequently, the halophilic shrubs (Halostachys belangeriana, Tamarix ramosissima, Haloxylon aphyllum) began to expand Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 222 223 in the direction from the original coast to the shore line. Sandy areas have been covered with psammophilous grasses (Aristida karelinii, A. pennata) and shrubs (Salsola richteri, Calligonum sp., Astragalus of section Ammodendron) in dry II-8. USTYURT DISTRICT plots aged 8-10 years. These communities have a low coverage and are in the stage of establishment. The increased overgrowth of the former seabed by halophytes, tamarisk, and saxaul was observed in the southern and eastern parts of the Aralkum (Rachkovskaya et al., 2003; Sherimbetov, 2009; The Aral Sea and the Aral Sea region, 2015)Figure 107. The vegetation of Aralkum is heterogeneous (as determined by the heterogeneity of the former seabed); it is a combination of salt-marsh, gravelly and sandy deserts and fragments of tugay communities. The dried bottom of the Aral Sea belongs to the marine plains landscape. According to the results of VA Popov’s research (Popov, 2009), three landscape areas are distinguished in the Uzbek part of the territory: the Western Aral with a predominance of sand desert covered by psammophilous vegetation, the East Aral with the domination of saline desert and halophilous vegetation, and the Akpetki with a combination of dried seabed This district occupies the territory of the Ustyurt plateau including cliffs. In general, Ustyurt is an elevated plateau occupying the northern part of the Aral-Caspian watershed; it is bordered by high cliffs on almost all sidesFigure 108 . The eastern cliff of Ustyurt is formed by the former western shore of the Aral Sea. The southern cliff falls to the Kunya-Darya ancient alluvial plain and the valley Uzboy; the western area falls to the Karynyaryk depression and to the sands of the northern part of the Karakum desert, and the northern part falls to the Caspian depression. This is transboundary area; the northern and western parts of the Ustyurt are situated within Ka- with halophilous vegetation and relic islands with Haloxylon communities. On the other hand, the floristic composition of the entire Uzbek part of Aralkum is quite uniform because it was formed by representatives of the flora of the Southern Aral region, the North-West Kyzylkum, and Ustyurt. Therefore, we propose to consider this territory as a single botanicalgeographical region, the Aral Sea Bottom, or Aralkum. There are the following data on the flora of Aralkum and its different parts: the Barsakelmes Nature Reserve in Kazakhstan, in northern part of Aralkum - 278 species, the Northern Aral Sea region and Eastern Aralkum - 300 species (Dimeeva, Kuznetsov, 1999), the entire dried bottom of the Aral Sea - 266 species (Wucherer et al., 2001), Southwest Aralkum - 135 species (Sherimbetov, 2009). Representatives of the Chenopodiaceae family dominate here; they are the main dominants of the plant communities and comprise approximately 1/3 of the flora. Figure 108 Eastern cliff of the Ustyurt plateau. Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 224 Photograph by NYu Beshko. 225 zakhstan. The south-eastern part belongs to Uzbekistan and southwestern part belongs to Turkmenistan. The Uzbek part of the Ustyurt comprises more than 7.2 million hectares. The highest point of the Uzbek part of the Ustyurt is located on the gently sloping ridge, the Uval Karabaur (287 m). The landscape is represented by clay and gypsum desert with plots of saline and sandy desert. The monotonous plain terrain of the plateau is diversified by drainless depressions, takyrs, remnant hills, and sinkholes. Some depressions are quite large. For example, the well-known Barsakelmes depression covers an area of approximately 2000 km², and one of the smallest, Shakhpakhty, has approximately 45 km²Figure 109. A very distinctive kind of landscape is limestone cliffs up to 350 m, dissected by deep ravines and cracks. The plateau has no permanent streams, but there are springs. The vegetation cover of Ustyurt has evolved under extreme xerothermic environmental conditions, saline and gypsiferous soils that determined the rather uniform, but original character of vegetation. It is a transitional area Figure 109 Southern Ustyurt. Remnant hills and salt marshes in the depression Shakhpakhty. between the northern (sagebrush-saltwort) and southern (ephemeral-sagebrush) Photograph by AV Esipov. deserts. The main flora in the landscape of Ustyurt are Salsola arbuscula, S. arbusculiformis, S. orientalis, Anabasis salsa (C.A. Mey) Benth., Artemisia terrae-albae Krash., and Haloxylon aphyllum, which usually form tion is not repeated anywhere else in the deserts of Uzbekistan, and is a monodominant communities with an even distribution of plants in an area. micro-complex combination of associations of Anabasis salsa, Artemisia Sometimes dominants and subdominants include Salsola gemmascens terrae-albae, Salsola arbuscula and some other plants. The characteristics Pall., Atraphaxis spinosa, Stipa richteriana Kar. & Kir., S. hohenackeriana of the northern deserts are highlighted by the vegetation of Ustyurt by the Trin. & Rupr., Nanophyton erinaceum, Haloxylon persicum. poorness of herbaceous plants, especially ephemers and ephemeroids. In In the south of Ustyurt, large areas are occupied by communities of Anabasis salsa forming a monotone gray background. In general, these the North Ustyurt, there are fragments of steppe vegetation represented by bunch grasses (mainly Agropyron fragile (Roth) Nevski). communities cover approximately 3.5 million ha in the territory of the The most diverse is the vegetation of cliffs that vary from its foot to the Karakalpak Ustyurt. The formation of Artemisia terrae-albae has the sec- top, and the species composition depends on the ground. Gypsophilous ond position in the occupied area. Only Rheum tataricum L. f., Atraphaxis and petrophytic plants grow mainly on the ledges of cliffs; at the bottom spinosa, Caragana grandiflora DC., and Stipa richteriana are visible on of ravines, there are shrubs (Crataegus korolkowii L. Henry, Elaeagnus oxycarpa the monotonous vegetation of sagebrush and perennial saltwort desert. In Schlecht, Tamarix), liana (Clematis orientalis, Cynanchum sibiricum), reed, and other the central and northern parts of Ustyurt, the original feature of vegeta- mesophilic herbaceous plants. Turan (Turan-Dzungar) Province 226 227 II-8 Ustyurt district The endemic element of the flora of the Uzbek part of the Ustyurt is cies of 256 genera and 56 families; the flora of entire territory of Ustyurt, represented by two species (Climacoptera ptiloptera U.P. Pratov and recently de- according to B Sarybaev (1994), included 724 species belonging to 295 scribed Allium ravenii F.O. Khass., Shomurodov & Kadyrov). Among the sub-endemic genera and 59 families. The representatives of the ancient xerophilous species, rare stenotopic plants linking the flora of Ustyurt with the relic family Chenopodiaceae occupy the leading position (162 species or more than mountains of Kyzylkum (Lepidium subcordatum Botsch. & Vved., Salsola chiwensis 22% of the flora) (Tadzhetdinova, 2014). From the recent botanical studies by HF Popov, Scorzonera bungei Krash. & Lipsch.), and a rare endemic of the Caspian and Shomurodov and DM Tadjetdinova, several new additions to the flora of Aral deserts Euphorbia sclerocyanthium Korovin & Popov can be found. Ustyurt have been made (Climacoptera turgaica (Iljin.) Botsch., Atriplex iljinii Aellen., The following North Turan species have a significant role in the flora of Salsola gossypina Bunge, S. laricina Pall., etc.), three new records for the flora of Ustyurt (Anabasis ebracteolata Korovin ex Botsch., Artemisia kelleri Krasch., Arthrophy- Uzbekistan have been found (Astragalus vulpinus Willd., Centaurea apiculata Ledeb., tum lehmannianum Bunge, Climacoptera aralensis (Iljin) Botsch., Ferula lehmannii Boiss., Jurinea schischkiniana Iljin), and a new endemic species Allium ravenii has Inula multicaulis Fisch. & CA Mey., Matthiola robusta Bunge, Rhaponticum nitidum Fisch., been described (Khassanov et al., 2011). Rheum tataricum). Malacocarpus crithmifolius (Retz.) Fisch. & C.A. Mey., a rare relict species of the monotypic Iran-Central Asian genus of the ancient xerophilous family Zygophyllaceae should be noted. Crambe edentula Fisch. & Mey. ex Korsh., a relict endemic representative of Turanian flora, is also found in Ustyurt. We propose to define two regions in the Uzbek part of the Ustyurt district. North Ustyurt region is located to the north of the ridge Karabaur and covers most of the Karakalpak Ustyurt. South Ustyurt region covers the Uval Karabaur ridge and territory of Information on the flora and vegetation of the plateau Ustyurt is contained in the reports by IG Borszczow (1865), EP Korovin (1934, 1961, 1962), SV Viktorov (1971), IF Momotov (1953, 1973a), ON Bondarenko (1964), BSh Sherbaev (1988), B Sarybaev (1981, 1994), A Allaniyazov (1995). During the expedition of the Central Asian University in 1944-1945, 165 species were collected on the Uzbek part of the plateau Ustyurt and the plateau to the south from this upland, including the Assake-Audan depression and the northern part of the ridge Kaplankyr. The boundary between these regions in the Uzbek part of the Ustyurt runs along the northern foot of the ridge Karabaur, then turns northeast, passes between the saline depressions Ayak-Agitma and Barsakelmes, and comes to the eastern cliff of the Ustyurt just north of its promontory Urga. cliffs (The Karakalpak Ustyurt, 1949). As a result of numerous expeditions to the The question about the position of cliffs arose when the Ustyurt district Karakalpak Ustyurt, AA Allaniyazov and K Koybagarov (1980) compiled a is divided into botanical-geographical regions. Cliffs have a linear, non-ar- list of 402 plant species belonging 211 genera and 46 families. B Sarybaev eal configuration in the small-scale and medium-scale maps, including all and S Saparov (1977) reported 426 species for the north-western Ustyurt; maps of natural zoning. Therefore, they cannot be identified as a separate for the eastern cliff, B Sarybaev (1981) identified 302 species. 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Central Asia (Middle Asia) - the core region of the Asian continent located between the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions. Historically, the Russian and Soviet geographers used two distinct terms: Middle Asia (Srednyaya Aziya), which included Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and southern part of Kazakhstan; and Central Asia (Centralnaya Aziya), which included Altay, Tuva, Mongolia, Tibet, and northern China. In this book, we adhered to the most common modern definition of Central Asia, which includes Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan. CIS - abbreviation of the Commonwealth of Independent States is a regional organization of 11 post-Soviet states (former Soviet Republics) created after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Ephemeroids - perennial plants, mainly bulbiferous, tuberiferous or rhizomatous, which have a vegetation period confined to the cool and wet season (autumn, winter and spring in arid and semi-arid zone of Central Asia), and with the dormant period in the summer. E.g., Poa bulbosa, Carex pachystylis, species of genera Anemone, Gagea and Tulipa. Eurytopic plants - plants that are found in a wide range of habitats, and is thus widely distributed. Exclave - an isolated plot of the distribution area separated from its main geographical range. GIS - abbreviation of the Geographic Information System, a computer system for capturing, storing, analysis, interpretation and visualization spatial or geographical data. Grey soils (or Luvic Calcisols) - automorphic soils of arid piedmonts formed on 248 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● loess or loess loams in conditions of winter-spring maximum of precipitation, hot and dry summer period. Grey-brown desert soils (or Calcic Gypsisols) - automorphic desert soils with strongly marked surface, porous crust, and slightly developed humus horizon. IUCN - abbreviation of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), an international organization established in 1948 and working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Mountain xerophytes - communities of xerophilous thorn dwarf shrubs and semishrubs, mainly cushion-like, peculiar to mountains of Western and Central Asia (species of genera Acantholimon, Astragalus, Onobrychis, Cousinia). Open woodland - a low-density forest or shrubbery forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. PAs - abbreviation of protected areas (or conservation areas), territories which receive protection because of their natural, ecological and/or cultural values. The level of protection varies depending on national legislation or the international regulations. The human occupation or the exploitation of resources is limited or prohibited. Phryganoids - communities of xerophylic dwarf shrubs and semishrubs. Pulvinates - cushion-like alpine plants, e.g. species of Oxytropis, Potentilla. Relic - a landform that has survived decay or disintegration, such as an remnant; or one that has been left behind after the disappearance of the greater part of its substance such as a remnant island. Riparian forest (gallery forest) - flood plain forest growing along rivers or wetlands. Sagebrush - a common name for representatives of genus Artemisia, subgenus Seriphidium (A. diffusa, A. sogdiana, A. tenuisecta, A. turanica, etc.). Saline soil (solonchak in Russian) - a type of intrazonal hydromorphic soil characterized by high concentration of soluble salt, often having a salt crust and mineral deposits, typically developed in poorly drained arid or semiarid areas and vegetated mostly by halophytes. Saltworts - a common name for various genera of flowering plants of Amaranthaceae (formerly Chenopodiaceae) family that dominate in salty environments (saline deserts, salt marshes, seashores), e.g. Salsola, Suaeda, Climacoptera, Anabasis, Salicornia, Halogeton, etc. Savannoids (Russian botanists also used terms “semi-savannah”, or “dry herbaceous steppe”) – a vegetation type endemic to the Central Asian mountains represented by xerophylous open woodlands and shrubs (species of genera Acer, Amygdalus, Crataegus, Pistacia, and Rosa), with the herbage of tall grasses, ephemeroids and sagebrush (Elytrigia trichophora, Hordeum bulbosum, Carex pachystylis, Poa bulbosa, Artemisia sp.). The general appearance of this vegetation resembles the savannah. Takyr - local name of peculiar type of desert ecosystem formed on periodically in- 249 Glossary ● ● ● ● ● ● ● undated areas, with primitive thin soil, mainly loamy, with smooth surface cracked in polygons; vegetation is represented with solitary plants or absent. Takyr-like soil - primitive thin desert soil with polygonal surface, formed as a result of takyr evolution without influence of underground water and inundation. TASH - The code of Central Herbarium of Uzbekistan situated in Tashkent city according to the Index Herbariorum (a global directory of herbaria maintained by the International Association for Plant Taxonomy). Tugay (or tugai) - local name of floodplain forests of river valleys in Central Asia. Umbellares - communities of tall Umbelliferae species, peculiar to mountainous Central Asia. The main dominants are species of Ferula and Prangos. Variegated rocks (variegated strata) - gypsiferous or saliferous sedimentary rocks or sediments, such as red beds or sandstone, showing variations of color in irregular spots, streaks, blotches, stripes, or reticulate patterns. WWF - abbreviation of the World Wide Fund for Nature (formerly named the World Wildlife Fund), an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961, working in the field of the wilderness preservation, and the reduction of anthropogenic impact on the environment. WWF’s Global 200 - the list of ecoregions (a relatively large terrestrial, marine or freshwater areas, containing a characteristic biomes and wildlife) of the Earth identified by WWF. . It focuses on each major habitat type of every continent. The Global 200 list actually contains 238 ecoregions including 142 terrestrial, 53 freshwater, and 43 marine. 250