Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-00363-7 (2020) 16:14 RESEARCH Open Access Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines Mark Lloyd G. Dapar1,3*, Grecebio Jonathan D. Alejandro1,2,3, Ulrich Meve3 and Sigrid Liede-Schumann3 Abstract Background: The Philippines is renowned as one of the species-rich countries and culturally megadiverse in ethnicity around the globe. However, ethnopharmacological studies in the Philippines are still limited especially in the most numerous ethnic tribal populations in the southern part of the archipelago. This present study aims to document the traditional practices, medicinal plant use, and knowledge; to determine the relative importance, consensus, and the extent of all medicinal plants used; and to integrate molecular confirmation of uncertain species used by the Agusan Manobo in Mindanao, Philippines. Methods: Quantitative ethnopharmacological data were obtained using semi-structured interviews, group discussions, field observations, and guided field walks with a total of 335 key informants comprising of tribal chieftains, traditional healers, community elders, and Manobo members of the community with their medicinal plant knowledge. The use-report (UR), use categories (UC), use value (UV), cultural importance value (CIV), and use diversity (UD) were quantified and correlated. Other indices using fidelity level (FL), informant consensus factors (ICF), and Jaccard’s similarity index (JI) were also calculated. The key informants’ medicinal plant use knowledge and practices were statistically analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. (Continued on next page) * Correspondence: marklloyd.dapar.gs@ust.edu.ph 1 The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, España Boulevard, 1015 Manila, Philippines 3 Department of Plant Systematics, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s). 2020 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data. Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Page 2 of 60 (Continued from previous page) Results: This study enumerated the ethnopharmacological use of 122 medicinal plant species, distributed among 108 genera and belonging to 51 families classified in 16 use categories. Integrative molecular approach confirmed 24 species with confusing species identity using multiple universal markers (ITS, matK, psbA-trnH, and trnL-F). There was strong agreement among the key informants regarding ethnopharmacological uses of plants, with ICF values ranging from 0.97 to 0.99, with the highest number of species (88) being used for the treatment of abnormal signs and symptoms (ASS). Seven species were reported with maximum fidelity level (100%) in seven use categories. The correlations of the five variables (UR, UC, UV, CIV, and UD) were significant (rs ≥ 0.69, p < 0.001), some being stronger than others. The degree of similarity of the three studied localities had JI ranged from 0.38 to 0.42, indicating species likeness among the tribal communities. Statistically, the medicinal plant knowledge among respondents was significantly different (p < 0.001) when grouped according to education, gender, social position, occupation, civil status, and age but not (p = 0.379) when grouped according to location. This study recorded the first quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation coupled with molecular confirmation of medicinal plants in Mindanao, Philippines, of which one medicinal plant species has never been studied pharmacologically to date. Conclusion: Documenting such traditional knowledge of medicinal plants and practices is highly essential for future management and conservation strategies of these plant genetic resources. This ethnopharmacological study will serve as a future reference not only for more systematic ethnopharmacological documentation but also for further pharmacological studies and drug discovery to improve public healthcare worldwide. Keywords: Agusan Manobo, Cultural importance value, Ethnopharmacology, Mindanao, Molecular confirmation, Use diversity Introduction The application of traditional medicine has gained renewed attention for the use of traditional, complementary, and alternative medicine (TCAM) in the developing and industrialized countries [1, 2]. Conventional drugs these days may serve as effective medicines and therapeutics, but some rural communities still prefer natural remedies to treat selected health-related problems and conditions. Medicinal plants have long been used since the prehistoric period [3], but the exact time when the use of plant-based drugs has begun is still uncertain [4]. The WHO has accounted about 60% of the world’s population relying on traditional medicine and 80% of the population in developing countries depend almost entirely on traditional medical practices, in particular, herbal remedies, for their primary health care [5]. Estimates for the numbers of plant species used medicinally worldwide include 35,000–70,000 [6] with 7000 in South Asia [7] comprising ca. 6500 in Southeast Asia [8, 9]. In the Philippines, more than 1500 medicinal plants used by traditional healers have been documented [10], and 120 plants have been scientifically validated for safety and efficacy [11]. Of all documented Philippine medicinal plants, the top list of medicinal plants used for TCAM has been enumerated by [12]. Most of these Philippine medicinal plants have been evaluated to scientifically validate folkloric claims like the recent studies of [13–20]. Because of the increasing demand for drug discovery and development of medicinal plants, the application of a quantitative approach in ethnobotany [21] and ethnopharmacology [22] has been rising continuously in the last few decades including multivariate analysis [23]. However, few studies of quantitative ethnobotanical research were conducted despite the rich plant biodiversity and cultural diversity in the Philippines. In particular, the Ivatan community in Batan Island of Luzon [24] and the Ati Negrito community in Guimaras Island of Visayas [21] have been documented, while Mindanao has remained less studied. Despite the richness of indigenous knowledge in the Philippines, few ethnobotanical studies have been conducted and published [25]. The Philippines is culturally megadiverse in diversity and ethnicity among indigenous peoples (IPs) embracing more than a hundred divergent ethnolinguistic groups [26, 27] with known specific identity, language, sociopolitical systems, and practices [28]. Of these IPs, 61% are mainly inhabiting Mindanao, followed by Luzon with 33%, and some groups in Visayas (6%) [29]. One of these local people and minorities is the indigenous group of Manobo, inhabiting several areas only in Mindanao. They are acknowledged to be the largest Philippine ethnic group occupying a wide area of distribution than other indigenous communities like the Bagobo, Higaonon, and Atta [30]. The Manobo (“river people”) was the term named after the “Mansuba” which means river people [19], coined from the “man” (people) and the “suba” (river) [31]. Among the provinces dwelled by the Manobo, the province of Agusan del Sur is mostly inhabited by this ethnic group known as the Agusan Manobo. The origin of Agusan Manobo is still uncertain and immemorial; however, they are known to have Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Butuano, Malay, Indonesian, and Chinese origin occupying mountain ranges and hinterlands in the province of Agusan del Sur [32]. Manobo indigenous peoples are clustered accordingly, occupying areas with varying dialects and some aspects of culture due to geographical separation. Their historic lifestyle and everyday livelihood are rural agriculture and primarily depend on their rice harvest, root crops, and vegetables for consumption [33]. Some Agusan Manobo are widely dispersed in highland communities above mountain drainage systems, indicating a suitable area for their indigenous medicinal plants in the province [34]. Every city or municipality is governed with a tribal chieftain known as the “Datu” (male) or “Bae” (female) with his or her respective tribal healer “Babaylan” and the tribal leaders “Datu” of each barangay (village) leading their community. Their tribe has passed several challenges over the years but has still maintained to conserve and protect their ancestral domain to continually sustain their cultural traditions, practices, and values up to this present generation. This culture implies that there is rich medicinal plant knowledge in the traditional practices of Agusan Manobo, but their indigenous knowledge has not been systematically documented. Furthermore, there are no comprehensive ethnobotanical studies of medicinal plants used among the Manobo tribe in the Philippines to date. Documenting the ethnomedicinal plant use and knowledge, and molecular confirmation of species using integrative molecular approach will help in understanding the true identity of medicinal plants in the treatment of health-related problems of the people of Agusan del Sur. This will also help the entire Agusan Manobo community to implement conservation priorities of their indigenous plant species. Furthermore, the provincial government of Agusan del Sur may enforce the proper utilization of their plant resources from IPs. Ideas and knowledge about ethnomedicinal use and practices of medicinal plants give credence to the traditional methods and preparation of herbal medicine by ethnic groups. Despite the limited funds and qualified personnel in the region, it is very relevant to recognize the role of ethnopharmacology and species identification in the conservation of these plant genetic resources with medicinal properties. With the introduction of the application of molecular barcodes for species identification by [35], the problem of unauthenticated medicinal species can now be resolved [19, 36–43]. Significantly, researchers have recently developed the application of ethnopharmacological study into a quantitative approach with measuring values and indices to quantify the relationship between plant species and humans [44–48]. Page 3 of 60 This study, therefore, aims to (1) conduct quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation of traditional therapy, (2) evaluate the medicinal plant use and knowledge, and (3) utilize integrative molecular approach for species confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe in Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Materials and methods Study area Fieldwork was conducted in the province of Agusan del Sur, Philippines (8° 30′ N 125° 50′ E), bordered from the north by Agusan del Norte, to the south by Davao del Norte, and from the west by Misamis Oriental and Bukidnon, to the east by Surigao del Sur. Agusan del Sur is bounded with mountain ranges from the eastern and western sides forming an elongated basin or valley in the center longitudinal section of the land. The province is subdivided into 13 municipalities (from the largest to smallest land area): La Paz, Esperanza, Loreto, San Luis, Talacogon, Sibagat, Prosperidad, Bunawan, Trento, Veruela, Rosario, San Francisco, and Sta. Josefa; and the only component city, the City of Bayugan (Fig. 1). Forestland comprises almost two thirds (74%) of the province of Agusan del Sur, while alienable and disposable (A&D) areas constitute around one-third (26%) of the total land area [49]. Every city or municipality has a respective community hospital and health center with limited doctors and rural health workers. Typically, local people only visit the hospitals or health centers for surgical and obstetric emergencies. Most residents rely on their medicinal plants for disease treatment and medication due to cost and poor access to healthcare services. This study purposively covered areas of selected city and municipalities (Bayugan, Esperanza, and Sibagat) for accessibility, availability, and security reasons to barangays (villages) with Certification of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT) as endorsed by the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples—CARAGA Administrative Region (NCIP-CARAGA). Sampling and interview Fieldwork was undertaken from March 2018 to May 2019. It consisted of obtaining free prior informed consents, observing rituals, acquiring resolutions, certifications, and permits, conducting semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, plant and field observations, and medicinal plant collections in selected barangays (villages) of Bayugan, Sibagat, and Esperanza (Fig. 1). This study was initiated in coordination with the local government unit (LGU), NCIP-LGU, and Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office (PENRO) of Agusan del Sur. Consultation meetings and discussions were carried out together with the concerned parties (tribal leaders, tribal healers, and NCIP Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Page 4 of 60 Fig. 1 Study sites (barangays) from the only city (Bayugan), and the two selected municipalities (Esperanza and Sibagat) in the province of Agusan del Sur Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 officers) to discuss research intent as purely academic and to acquire mutual agreement and respect to conduct this study. As approved, the research intent was certified through resolution and certification duly signed by the tribal council of elders following the by-laws of NCIP for the welfare and protection of indigenous peoples, and finally certified by NCIP-CARAGA. Ethnopharmacological data were collected through semi-structured interviews with Manobo key informants through purposive and snowball sampling who were certified Agusan Manobo. A sampling of these key informants was coordinated with the provincial and local government administration together with the assistance of the tribal leaders and NCIP focal persons in every city or municipality to each of the barangays in selecting those who have knowledge of their medicinal plants and practices. The respective barangay tribal leaders assisted interviews among respondents with no appointments made prior to the visits. The semi-structured questionnaire used was modified and adapted from the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) template, as suggested by the Department of Health—Philippine Institute of Traditional and Alternative Health Care (DOH-PITAHC) (see Additional file 1). The Ethics Review Committee of the Graduate School, University of Santo Tomas (USTGS-ERC), approved the study and the questionnaire used with a valid translation to Manobo dialect (Minanubu) with the help of a community member and NCIP officer. It has series of questions about the common health problems encountered by the respondents; the actions undertaken to address such problems; the medicinal plants they used (local or vernacular name); the plant’s part(s) used, forms, modes, quantity or dosage, and frequency of administration; the source or transfer of knowledge; and the experienced adverse or side effects. Interviews were accompanied by nurses and allied workers as coordinated by the rural health center to verify reported diseases accurately by the informants. Meetings and focus group discussions were also performed to review the accuracy of acquired data among the respondents with the help of guided questions among the tribal council of elders comprising the NCIPrecognized indigenous peoples mandatory representatives (IPMRs), the tribal chieftains, the tribal healers, and the respective tribal leaders of every barangay tribal communities together with the NCIP officer. Plant collection and identification The collection of plant specimens was conducted through guided field walks with the aid of the traditional healers, expert plant gatherers, and members within the tribal community. The plant habit, habitat, morphological characteristics, vernacular names, and some indigenous terms of their uses were documented. Leaf Page 5 of 60 samples were placed in zip-locked bags containing silica gel for molecular analysis [50] in preparation for further molecular confirmation. Voucher specimens were deposited in the University of Santo Tomas Herbarium (USTH). Putative plant identification using vernacular names was compared to the reference of local names, Dictionary of Philippines Plant Names by [51]. Plant identification was assisted by Mr. Danilo Tandang, a botanist and researcher at the National Museum of the Philippines. Specimens unidentifiable by morphology were selected for molecular confirmation. All scientific names were verified and checked for spelling and synonyms and family classification using The Plant List [52], World Flora Online [53], The International Plant Names Index [54], and Tropicos [55]. The occurrence, distribution, and species identification were further verified using the updated Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines [56]. DNA extraction, amplification, and sequencing Collected plant specimens with insufficient material for identification due to lack of reproductive parts and unfamiliarity were subjected to molecular confirmation. The total genomic DNA was extracted from the silica gel-dried leaf tissues of samples following the protocols of DNeasy Plant Minikit (Qiagen, Germany). The ITS (nrDNA), matK, trnH-psbA, and trnL-F (cpDNA) markers were used for this study. Primer information and PCR conditions used for amplification using Biometra T-personal cycler (Germany) can be found in Table 1 for future parameter reference. PCR amplicons were checked on a 1% TBE agarose to inspect for the presence and integrity of DNA. Amplified products were sent to Eurofins Genomics (Germany) for DNA sequencing reactions. Sequences were then assembled and edited using Codon Code Aligner v4.1.1. All sequences were then evaluated and compared using BLASTn search query available in the GenBank (www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov). The BLASTn method estimates the reliability of species identification as a sequence similarity search program to determine the sequence of interest [62] regardless of the age, plant part, or environmental factors of the sample [63]. Quantitative ethnopharmacological analysis The use-report (UR) is counted as the number of times a medicinal plant is being used in a particular purpose in each of the categories [21, 24]. Only one use-report was counted for every time a plant was cited as being used in a specific disease or purpose and even multiple disease or purpose under the same category [64]. Multiple use-reports were counted when at least two interviewees cited the same plant for the same disease or purpose. The use value (UV) developed by [45] is used Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Page 6 of 60 Table 1 Gene regions, primers and amplification protocols used for polymerase chain reaction Gene region Primer name Reference Primer sequence (5′ ➔ 3′) PCR Protocol ITS (ITS1, 5.8S gene, and ITS2) p17F [57] 94 °C 5 min; 28 cycles of 94 °C 1 min, 48 °C 1 min, 72 °C 1 min; 72 °C 7 min; 10 °C paused 5′-TCCCGGTTCGCTCGCCGT TACTA-3′ 26S-82R 5 [58] 3F_kimF [59] psbA_F [60] c f 5′-CGTACAGTACTTTTGTGT TTACGAG-3′ 98 °C 45 s; 35 cycles of 98 °C 10 s, 52 °C 30 s, 72 °C 40 s; 72 °C 10 min; 10 °C paused 5′-GTTATGCATGAACGTAAT GCTC-3′ 95 °C 4 min; 35 cycles of 94 °C 30 s, 55 °C 1 min, 72 °C 1 min; 72 °C 10 min; 10 °C paused 5′-CGCGCATGGTGGATTCAC AATCC-3′ trnH_R trnL-F 94 °C 5 min; 30 cycles of 94 °C 1 min, 55 °C 1 min, 72 °C 1 min, 45 s; 72 °C 10 min; 10 °C paused 5′-ACCCAGTCCATCTGGAAA TCTTGGTTC-3′ IR_kimR psbA-trnH 5′-GGAAGTAAAAGTCGTAAC AAGG-3′ 5′-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3′ 4 matK 5′-CTACCGATTGAATGGTCC GGTGAA-3′ [61] 5′-CGAAATCGGTAGACGCTACG- 94 °C 3 min; 30 cycles of 93 °C 1 min; 55 °C 1 min, 72 °C 2 min; 10 °C 3′ paused 5′-ATTTGAACTGGTGACACGAG3′ to indicate species that are considered highly important by the given population using the following formula: UV = (ΣUi)/N, where Ui is the number of UR or citations per species and N is the total number of informants [47, 48]. High UV implies high plant use-reports relative to its importance to the community and vice versa. However, it does not determine whether the use of the plant is for single or multiple purposes [21, 24]. The relative importance of the plants was also determined by calculating the cultural importance value (CIV) by using the formula: CIV = Σ[(ΣUR)/N], where UR is the number of use-reports in use category and N is the number of informants reporting the plant [48]. The use diversity (UD) of each medicinal plant used was determined using the Shannon index of uses as calculated with the R package vegan [65]. The ICF introduced by [66] was used to analyze the degree of informants’ agreement based on their medicinal plant knowledge in each of the categories [21, 24]. This is computed using the formula: ICF = (Nur − Nt)/ (Nur − 1), where Nur is the number of UR in each category, and Nt is the number of species used for a particular category by all informants. Fidelity level (FL) developed by [67] is calculated using the formula: FL (%) = (Ip/Iu) × 100, where Ip is the number of informants who independently suggested a given species for a particular disease, and Iu is the total number of informants who mentioned the plant for any use or purpose regardless of category. The maximum value (1.00) means a high degree of informant agreement showing the effectiveness of medicinal plants in each ailment category [68]. However, a minimum value (0.00) implies no information exchange among the informants [69]. Jaccard’s similarity index (JI) by [70] was calculated to evaluate the similarity of medicinal plant species among the three studied areas. The formula of JI is represented as follows: J = C/(A + B), where A is the number of species found in habitat a, B is the number of species found in habitat b, and C is the number of common species found in habitats a and b. The number species present in either of the habitats is given by A + B (Jaccard). Statistical tools The plant URs were computed and analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics software v.23 [71]. Descriptive and nonparametric inferential statistics Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests were employed to test for significant differences at 0.01 level of significance. These two statistical analyses measure and compare the medicinal plant use and knowledge of informants when grouped according to location, education, gender, social position, occupation, civil status, and age. The basic values and indices (UR, UC, UV, CIV, UD) were correlated using the Spearman correlation coefficient to compare variables that are not distributed normally. Integrative molecular confirmation Selected plant samples unidentifiable by morphology were subjected to an integrative molecular identification approach as previously recommended by [42] for accurate species identification of plant samples. Selected plant samples were compared with the available morphological Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 characteristics, interview data on vernacular names and traditional knowledge, determining scientific names based on reference of local names using the Dictionary of Philippines Plant Names by [51], and utilizing multiple molecular markers, ITS (nrDNA), matK, trnHpsbA, and trnL-F (cpDNA) for sequencing and BLAST matching. Two sequence similarity-based methods using BLAST [72] were applied for molecular confirmation. BLAST similarity-based identification was adapted from the study of [42] with a slight modification. This identification involved using the simple method taking the top hits and optimized approach. All successfully sequenced samples were sequentially queried using megablast [72] online at NCBI nucleotide BLAST against the nucleotide database. For the simple method, all top hits within a 5-point deviation down of the max score were considered. If the max score (− 5 points) showed only a single species, then a species level identification was assigned. On the other Page 7 of 60 hand, if the max score (− 5 points) showed several species but similar genus, then a genus level identification was assigned. However, if the max score (− 5 points) showed multiple species in several genera of the same family, then a family level identification was assigned. In addition, within a 5-point deviation down of the max score, the highest max score and the highest percent identity were also determined. From the top 5 hits down of the max score, an optimized method using the formula, [max score (query cover/ identity)], was calculated. The integrative molecular confirmation combined the simple and optimized BLAST-based sequence matching results with reference of local names, and comparative morphology. As a result, all species identity and generic and familial affinity were further confirmed from the recorded occurrence and distribution of putative species in the study area based on the updated Co's Digital Flora of the Philippines [56]. Table 2 Sociodemographic profile of the Manobo key informants in Sibagat, Esperanza, and Bayugan City, Agusan del Sur Category Subcategory No. of informants % of informants Location Bayugan City 150 44.8 Sibagat 90 26.9 Esperanza 95 28.4 Primary 57 17.0 Secondary 167 49.9 Education level Higher education 111 33.1 Gender Male 229 31.6 Female 106 68.4 Social Position Tribal chieftain (Datu) 45 13.4 Tribal healer 3 0.90 Tribal IPMR 6 1.80 Occupation Civil Status Age Tribal leader 31 9.30 Manobo NCIP focal person 4 1.20 Manobo council of elders 7 2.10 Manobo members 239 71.3 Farming 205 61.2 Animal husbandry 47 14.0 Employed 49 14.6 Unemployed 16 4.80 Others 18 5.40 Single 187 55.8 Married 133 39.7 Others 15 4.50 18–34 years old 142 42.4 35–49 years old 103 30.7 50–65 years old 53 15.8 More than 65 years 37 11.0 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Results Demography of Informants A total of 335 Agusan Manobo key informants (more than 10% of the total Manobo population of selected barangays) including traditional healers, leaders, council, and members were interviewed comprised with 106 female and 229 male individuals in an age range from 18– 87 years old (median age of 42 years). We considered key informants those who are certified Agusan Manobo and knowledgeable with their medicinal plant uses and practices, may it be tribal officials, elders, and members of the community. Demographics by location, educational level, gender, social position, occupation, civil status, and age of participants are summarized in Table 2. Medicinal plant knowledge of Agusan Manobo The majority of the respondents (90.45%) cited their acquisition of medicinal plant knowledge from their parents. They also mentioned other sources of knowledge like fellow tribe band (67.76%), relatives (64.48%), community (61.49%), and through self-discovery (47.76%). However, the descriptive and inferential statistics revealed varying factors affecting the medicinal plant knowledge among the sampled key informants. When grouped according to location, there was no significant difference on their medicinal plant knowledge as revealed in Kruskal-Wallis test (p = 0.379) where the city of Bayugan had the highest number of UR (Md = 112, n = 150), followed by the two municipalities, Esperanza (Md = 111, n = 95) and Sibagat (Md = 108, n = 90). These results showed an exchange of information on these adjacent localities among the Manobo community might it be the council of elders and members who are medicinal plant gatherers, peddlers, and traders. However, when grouped according to education, respondents who had secondary level as their highest educational attainment (Md = 116, n = 167) showed the topmost medicinal plant knowledge when compared to primary (Md = 105, n = 57) and tertiary (Md = 92, n = 111) as revealed by the highly significant difference presented in Kruskal-Wallis test (p < 0.001). These results implied that respondents who finished tertiary were more educated with modern medicine and highly acquainted with commercial drugs available over-thecounter for immediate treatment and therapy of their health problems. On the other hand, members with lower educational levels had more medicinal plant knowledge, and most traditional healers, gatherers, and peddlers finished at most on the secondary level. When grouped according to gender, non-parametric tests revealed that men (Md = 116, n = 229) had more medicinal plant knowledge than women (Md = 104, n = 106), as demonstrated by the significant difference in both Mann-Whitney U test (p < 0.001) and Kruskal- Page 8 of 60 Wallis test (p < 0.001). It can be observed that men had more medicinal plant knowledge in Agusan Manobo culture, an observation supported by the fact that in two of the three selected localities, the tribal healers were males, and most of the tribal officials were also males. These results revealed contrary to the previous statistical findings of [21] in the Ati culture of Visayas where women were more knowledgeable than men because they were more involved in medicinal plant gathering and peddling, and women also played a big role in caring for their sick children. Also, knowledge of the participants when grouped according to social position varied significantly, as revealed by the Kruskal-Wallis test (p < 0.001). These results showed that the tribal healers remained the most knowledgeable (Md = 189, n = 3), followed by the Manobo tribal officials (Md = 172, n = 93) with more medicinal plant knowledge when compared to other members of the community (Md = 104, n = 239). The medicinal plant knowledge also varied among the Manobo tribal officials, namely tribal leaders (Md = 178, n = 31), tribal IPMRs (Md = 177, n = 6), tribal chieftains (Md = 172, n = 45), Manobo tribal council of elders (Md = 164, n = 7), and Manobo NCIP focal persons (Md = 160, n = 4). When grouped according to the occupation, nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test also significantly revealed (p < 0.001) that informants with occupation in farming (Md = 118, n = 205) and animal husbandry (Md = 116, n = 47) had more medicinal plant knowledge compared to employed (Md = 98, n = 49) and unemployed (Md = 96, n = 16) informants. These results suggested that Manobo people working in line with agriculture were more exposed to medicinal plant knowledge. They were farming crops or raising animals in hinterlands and mountainous areas where most medicinal plants were located. Also, when grouped according to civil status, married informants (Md = 136, n = 147) showed higher medicinal plant knowledge than single ones (Md = 92, n = 188) as revealed by the very high significant difference in both Mann-Whitney U test (p < 0.001) and KruskalWallis test (p < 0.001). These results implied that married respondents were more exposed during community gatherings, which involved discussions about medicinal plants with regard to their uses and applications. Exchange of information could be observed when couples were present during the scheduled tribal meetings. Finally, when grouped according to age, descriptive and inferential statistics revealed that respondents from the age group of more than 65 years old had the highest medicinal plant knowledge (Md = 173, n = 37), followed by 50–65 years old (Md = 155, n = 53), 35–49 years old (Md = 102, n = 103), and 18–24 years old (Md = 96, n = 142), as revealed by the highly significant difference Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 manifested in Kruskal-Wallis test (p < 0.001). These results corresponded to our expectation because older informants most likely had more knowledge of medicinal plant uses and practices based on their long-term experience. These results may also imply that younger generations were becoming more acquainted and educated with modern therapeutic treatment making them more reluctant in their traditional medicinal plant practices like gathering and peddling. This transforming awareness, social, and cultural experiences could influence their medicinal plant interest, traditional knowledge, and attitudes among the Agusan Manobo. Younger generations are becoming more privileged to be educated as part of the government scholarship programs for indigenous communities resulting in migration to urban communities. Medicinal plants used A total of 122 reported medicinal plant species belonging to 108 genera and 51 families were classified in 16 use categories, as shown in Tables 3 and 4. All informants interviewed agreed about the healing power of medicinal plants, but only 58.5% of the informants use medicinal plants to treat their health conditions. While some respondents (30.75%) directly relied on seeking for tribal healers in their community, still all these Babaylans utilized their known medicinal plants for immediate treatment and therapy. The Agusan Manobo community believed that the combined healing gift and prayers of their Babaylans could increase the healing potential of their medicinal plants. However, the minority (10.75%) of the key informants depended on seeing a medical practitioner and allied health workers in the treatment of their health conditions at a nearby hospital or health center. Integrative molecular approach Due to inconclusive morphological identification, unfamiliarity, and confusing species identity because of local name similarity, a total of 24 medicinal plant species were confirmed by DNA sequencing and by comparing the sequences with those present in the GenBank. This method supported ethnopharmacological data to be deposited in a repository, which is essential and helpful for future researchers and investigators for use by data mining approaches [73]. The molecular data can also be useful to the growing barcoding studies of medicinal plants. Putative identification based on literature, comparative morphology, and molecular sequences using the BLAST search query were tabulated (Table 5). The integrative approach combined with a priori data from putative identifications based on the interview data on local or vernacular names, local plant name dictionary, and assessment of available morphological Page 9 of 60 characteristics along with a posteriori data from multiple universal markers, occurrence, and distribution of putative species in the Philippines. This paper applied a more detailed taxonomic identification since all reported medicinal plant taxa were identified (nearly all to species level), as shown in Table 4. While all generic and familial affinities of medicinal plants were confirmed, four medicinal plants were not identified up to species level due to lack of morphological characteristics, concerning especially the reproductive parts of Piper and Ficus species, several cultivars and hybrids of Rosa species, and several species and varieties of Bauhinia species. Nevertheless, all generic and familial affinities of the medicinal plants documented here were verified combining similarity matching and a priori and a posteriori data as recommended by [42] to reduce ambiguity and to make it possible assigning a single species identification of their unidentifiable specimens. All determined plant samples with confusing identity having local name similarity and local species pairing, including plant samples with inconclusive morphological identification due to lack of reproductive parts upon collection, were accurately verified using an integrative molecular approach (Table 5). Plant local name similarity Most notable medicinal plants of Agusan Manobo have confusing species identity bearing similar local names, gender identity, and local species pairing. It is popular to use medicinal plants known as “Lunas” (meaning “cure”) with several plants associated under its name. For instance, the top three medicinal plants in terms of use value and cultural importance value have local name similarity, namely Lunas tag-uli (Anodendron borneense (King & Gamble) D.J.Middleton), Lunas bagon tapol (Piper decumanum L.), and Lunas kahoy (Micromelum minutum (G.Forst.) Wight & Arn.), respectively. These three medicinal plants with the initial word named “Lunas” had almost similar use-reports in nine use categories with high use diversity (UD > 2.0). Other “Lunas”-named specimens such as Lunas bagon puti (Piper nigrum L.), Lunas pilipo (Acmella grandiflora (Turcz.) R.K.Jansen), Lunas buyo (Piper aduncum L.), and Lunas gabi (Alocasia zebrina Schott ex Van Houtte) also shared similarities from the top three mentioned samples in terms of ethnomedicinal properties as a treatment for cuts and wounds. Also, another three medicinal plants were locally classified with the initial word named “Talimughat” (meaning “recover”), namely “Talimughat lingin” (Grewia laevigata Vahl), “Talimughat taas” (Friesodielsia lanceolata (Merr.) Steen.), and “Talimughat pikas” (Bauhinia sp.). These three medicinal plants were noted with high fidelity for postpartum care and recovery. Plant samples with high fidelity for anemia also had similar local names which were found to be same Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Page 10 of 60 Table 3 Use-reports (URs), use values (UVs), and informant consensus factors (ICFs) in every use category (UC). UC UC names and No. abbreviations Reported diseases or uses under each UC No. of usereport % of all usereports No. of % of UV species all species 1 Diseases caused by bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections (BVP) Ascariasis, chicken pox, herpes simplex, scabies, jaundice (hepatitis), mumps (parotitis), athlete's foot, warts, amoebiasis, white spot (tinea flava), impetigo, measles, colds (influenza), dengue fever, malaria, typhoid fever, ringworm 3588 8.70 61 9.49 3.04 0.98 2 Tissue growth problems (TGP) Cancer, cyst, tumor (myoma) 991 2.40 18 2.80 0.95 0.98 3 Endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic (ENM) Diabetes, tonic, beriberi, hormonal imbalance, goiter 1367 3.31 36 5.60 1.03 0.97 4 Diseases of the nervous system (DNS) Migraine, Parkinson's disease, nervous breakdown (depression, anxiety, mental stress, nervousness) 239 0.58 7 1.09 0.19 0.97 5 Diseases of the eye (EYE) Sore eyes, cataract, eye problem (blurred vision, conjunctivitis, eye infection) 308 0.75 8 1.24 0.25 0.98 6 Diseases of the ear (EAR) Ear congestion, ear infection, discharging ear (otorrhea) 410 0.99 8 1.24 0.36 0.98 7 Diseases of the circulatory system (DCS) Anemia, hypertension, varicose veins, heart problem (enlargement), internal bleeding, hemorrhage 1333 3.23 31 4.82 0.92 0.98 8 Diseases of the respiratory system (DRS) Asthma, pneumonia, emphysema, pulmonary tuberculosis, nasal 3896 congestion, lung nodule, cough, cough with phlegm, respiratory disease complex (rhinitis, tracheitis, bronchitis), sore throat (tonsillitis) 9.44 67 10.42 2.66 0.98 9 Diseases of the digestive system (DDS) Constipation, diarrhea, stomach trouble (dysentery, stomachache, 6322 bloating), vomiting (nausea), peptic ulcer, toothache, gum swelling, indigestion (dyspepsia), mouth sore (canker sore), stomach acidity (gastritis), swollen/bleeding gums (gingivitis), pancreatitis, liver problem (fatty liver), hemorrhoids, appetite enhancer 15.33 82 12.75 4.64 0.99 10 Diseases of the skin (DOS) Boils (furuncle/carbuncle), skin eruptions, skin rashes and itchiness (eczema, dermatitis), psoriasis, pimple and acne, hair loss, dandruff 2563 6.21 40 6.22 2.10 0.99 11 Musculoskeletal system and Joint pain (arthritis, gout), rheumatism, sprain, tendon mass connective tissue problems nodule, swollen muscles/swellings, muscle pain (MCP) 2597 6.30 42 6.53 2.23 0.98 12 Genito-urinary problems (GUP) Urination difficulty, kidney stones, kidney problem (high uric acid 2358 and creatinine), urinary bladder swelling, dysmenorrhea, delayed or irregular menstruation, urinary tract infection 5.72 39 6.07 1.72 0.98 13 Uses in pregnancy to delivery, maternal and infant care (PMI) Pregnancy (impotence and sterility), abortifacient, labor and delivery enhancer, childbirth tool, miscarriage, maternal care, postpartum care and recovery, new-born baby care, milk production enhancer 1914 4.64 40 6.22 1.25 0.98 14 Abnormal signs and symptoms (ASS) Abdominal pain, backache, body ache, headache, fever, weakness and fatigue (asthenia), baby teething, child sleeplessness, malaise and fatigue, “pasmo” (cramp and spasm), “bughat” (relapse), skin numbness (paresthesia), dizziness and fainting, body chills, gas pain and flatulence, hangover 8133 19.72 88 13.69 5.84 0.99 15 Other problems of external causes (OEC) Allergy, burns, cuts and wounds, fracture and dislocation, bruises 5023 and contusions, animal bites (snake, dog), insect bites (mosquito, wasp, scorpion), poisoning, contacts with plant or animal parts 12.18 70 10.89 3.98 0.99 16 Other uses (OTU) Circumcision antiseptic and anesthetic 0.50 6 0.93 0.27 0.98 species, namely “Mayana kanapkap” (Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth.) and “Mayana pula” (Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth.). Some medicinal plants also have attached “genders” (male or female) in their local names, which specify the more effective plant “gender” for a specific medicinal use or purpose. Examples are “Kapayas laki” (Carica papaya 205 ICF L., male), “Dupang bae” (Urena lobata L., female), and “Gapas-gapas bae” (Erechtites valerianifolius (Link ex Spreng.) DC., female) as effective treatments for dengue virus, postpartum care and recovery, and gas pain and flatulence, respectively. Besides, most species with high use values had local species pairing which were classified by the tribe according to distinct white and red Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV 1 Andrographis paniculata Nees Acanthaceae White flower USTH 015616 480 9 CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration 1.43 3.07 2.09 Jaundice, colds, Lf, Rt malaria; cancer; diabetes; hypertension, heart enlargement, atherosclerosis; cough, respiratory disease complex, sore throat; diarrhea, ulcer, dyspepsia, liver problem; abortifacient; fever, gas pain and flatulence Experienced adverse or side effects Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed Can cause abortion in pregnant women Wh E Apply decoction as wash 3–5 glasses Once a day or as needed None 2 Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz Acanthaceae Marvelosa or Serpentina USTH 015622 583 6 1.74 2.90 1.74 Colds; diabetes, beriberi; nervous breakdown; hypertension; diarrhea, stomachache; weakness and fatigue, cramp and spasm Lf I Drink decoction 1–3 glasses Once a day for None 3–5 days 3 Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae Kudyapa USTH 015589 211 9 0.63 2.75 2.06 Diabetes; anemia; cough, bronchitis; dysentery, constipation; urinary tract infection; fever Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Thrice a day or None as needed Labor and delivery enhancer Sd I Drink waterinfused powdered seeds 1–3 glasses Twice a day or as needed Boils, psoriasis, skin rashes, eczema, pimple, acne; snake and scorpion bite Lf E Apply leaves as poultice 3–5 leaves Thrice a day or None as needed Fr I 1–3 fruits Thrice a day or None Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Mangga USTH 222 5 0.66 2.85 1.47 Constipation Eat fresh None Page 11 of 60 4 (2020) 16:14 Boils, skin rashes and itchiness, dermatitis I Administration frequency Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration 015591 fruit directly Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz Anacardiaceae Abihid USTH 015599 372 4 3–5 glasses Twice a day or as needed None Diarrhea, stomach Bk trouble; headache I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Twice a day or as needed None Bk, Lf E Rub crushed leaves or scraped bark 3–5 leaves, 1 palmsized bark Twice a day or as needed None Bk, Lf I 3–5 glasses Once or twice a day for 3 days or as needed None Bk, Lf E Bath water- 1 pail infused leaves and scraped bark Once a day or as needed None 0.62 2.17 2.02 Cancer; diabetes; hypertension; dysentery Fr I Eat fresh 3–5 glasses fruit directly Once or twice a week or as needed In excess can cause blood viscosity Ascariasis; cough; stomach trouble, stomach acidity; urination difficulty, urinary tract infection Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once a day or as needed None Skin eruptions, eczema Lf, Sp E Apply leaf sap or crushed leaves as poultice 3–5 leaves As needed None Bk, Lf I 5–7 glasses Once or twice a day or as needed None Completely 3–5 times a None 1.11 2.33 1.39 Colds; diabetes; cough; fever Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson Annonaceae Annonaceae Guyabano Anangilan or Ilang-ilang USTH 015593 USTH 015577 209 358 8 7 1.07 2.47 1.85 Colds; cough; stomach trouble, ulcer; fever, body chills Scabies, athlete's Fl Drink decoction of leaves and scraped bark Drink decoction E Apply oil Page 12 of 60 Drink hot waterinfused leaves or decoction (2020) 16:14 7 Annona muricata L. as needed I Colds; fever 6 Experienced adverse or side effects Cough, cough Lf with phlegm, sore throat Scabies; cuts and wounds 5 Administration frequency Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration foot; pimple; rheumatism, swollen muscles or swellings, muscle pain; insect bites Administration frequency from steamed flowers on affected part day or as needed Experienced adverse or side effects Friesodielsia lanceolata (Merr.) Steen. Annonaceae Talimughat taas USTH 015558 198 3 0.59 2.08 0.90 Muscle pain; labor Bk, and delivery Lf, Rt enhancer, postpartum care and recovery; backache, body ache, weakness and fatigue, cramp and spasm, relapse I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day up to 3 days or as needed None 9 Uvaria zschokkei Elmer Annonaceae Bigo USTH 015662 195 5 0.58 0.70 1.56 Amoebiasis; hypertension; fever, weakness and fatigue I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None 1/2–1 cup As needed None 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None Hair loss; insect bites 10 Alstonia macrophylla Wall. ex G.Don Apocynaceae Dita USTH 015546 386 9 St St, Sp E Apply stem sap 1.15 2.71 2.04 Tonic; ear Bk, Lf I congestion; cough; stomach trouble, toothache; urinary tract infection; abdominal pain, weakness and fatigue, hangover Drink decoction E Apply 3–5 leaves crushed and heated leaves as poultice Once or twice a day or as needed None Scabies, impetigo, Bk ringworm; boils E Apply waterinfused powdered bark 1 glass Once or twice a day or as needed None Stomachache, snake bite E Drink local alcoholtinctured bark 1/2 to 1 glass As needed None Bk Page 13 of 60 Cuts and wounds, Lf bruises and contusions, sprain (2020) 16:14 8 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose 11 Anodendron borneense (King & Gamble) D.J.Middleton Apocynaceae Lunas tag-uli USTH 015639 1134 12 3.39 3.68 2.22 Cancer; diabetes; Sp, St I ear infections; diarrhea, stomach trouble, ulcer, toothache; arthritis, rheumatism; pregnancy; body ache, weakness and fatigue, cramp and spasm, relapse; poisoning St 1–3 glasses Drink local 1/2 to 1 alcoholglass tinctured or decocted stem Experienced adverse or side effects Once a day or as needed None Once or twice a day or as needed None E Apply coconut or Efficascent oil-infused stem Completely on affected part Once or twice a day or as needed None Page 14 of 60 Scabies, warts, St impetigo, typhoid fever; boils, skin eruptions, skin rashes, and itchiness; arthritis, rheumatism, swellings, muscle pain; backache, body ache, weakness and I Drink stem sap Administration frequency (2020) 16:14 Colon and prostate cancer, cyst, tumor; diabetes; hypertension; pulmonary tuberculosis; diarrhea, stomach trouble, ulcer, toothache, swollen gums; arthritis, rheumatism; impotence and sterility, postpartum care and recovery; body ache, weakness and fatigue, cramp and spasm, relapse, gas pain, and flatulence; sprain; poisoning Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects As needed None fatigue, cramp and spasm, relapse gas pain and flatulence; allergy, burns, cuts and wounds, sprain, animal and insect bites, contacts with plants and animal parts Apocynaceae Pikot-pikot USTH 015618 57 2 0.17 0.86 0.69 Boils; cuts and wounds Lf 13 Alocasia zebrina Schott ex Van Houtte Araceae Lunas gabi USTH 015614 44 1 0.13 0.60 0.00 Allergy, cuts and wounds, snake and insect bite, poisoning Lf, E Apply stem Sp, St or leaf sap Completely on affected part Once a day or as needed None 14 Homalomena philippinensis Engl. ex Engl. & K.Krause Araceae Payaw USTH 015597 466 7 1.39 2.00 1.83 Colds; body ache, headache, fever Lf, St I/ Sniff sliced E and pounded leaf and stem or tie leaf and stem around the neck 1–3 leaves Once a day or as needed None Tonsillitis; pregnancy, impotence and sterility, labor and delivery enhancer Rz I 1–3 cups Once to thrice a day or as needed None Rheumatism; cuts and wounds Rz E Apply extracted juice from crushed rhizome Completely on affected part As needed None Hemorrhoids Lf E Insert heated young leaf 1 leaf Once or twice a day or as needed None 0.78 1.78 1.39 Diabetes; hypertension; Lf I 3–5 leaves; 1 cup Once a day or as needed In excess can cause anemia, 15 Hydrocotyle vulgaris L. Araliaceae Goto Kola USTH 015563 263 4 E Apply Completely coconut on affected oil-infused part burned and powdered leaves Drink extracted juice from crushed rhizome Eat fresh leaves Page 15 of 60 Hoya imbricata Decne. (2020) 16:14 12 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration fever Cuts and wounds Administration frequency directly or drink decocted leaves Experienced adverse or side effects dizziness and weakening Lf, Sp E Apply leaf sap or crushed leaves as poultice 1–3 leaves As needed None Arecaceae Huling-huling USTH 015610 42 1 0.13 0.70 0.69 Breast cancer Rt I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once or twice a day or as needed None 17 Calamus megaphyllus Becc. Arecaceae Kapi USTH 015608 168 4 0.50 1.65 1.28 Hypertension; asthma; diarrhea, dyspepsia, gastritis, indigestion; arthritis, rheumatism Rz I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Twice a day or as needed None 18 Thottea affinis (Planch. ex Rolfe) ined. Aristolochiaceae Salimbagat USTH 015643 278 3 0.83 1.75 1.10 Amoebiasis; Lf, Rt cancer; toothache I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once a day or as needed None 19 Dracaena roxburghiana (Schult.f.) Byng & Christenh. Asparagaceae Espadaespada USTH 015647 78 2 0.23 0.67 0.69 Boils; snake bite Lf E Apply leaf sap or pounded leaves as poultice 5–7 drops As needed None 20 Acmella grandiflora (Turcz.) R.K.Jansen Asteraceae Lunas pilipo USTH 015548 396 4 1.18 2.40 1.33 Toothache; anesthetic Fl I 1–3 flowers As needed None E Apply crushed flower or leaves as poultice 1–3 flowers, As needed 5–7 leaves None I 1–3 cups Once a day or as needed Can cause abortion in pregnant women E Apply pounded leaves as poultice 1–3 leaves Once or twice a day or as needed None I 1–3 glasses Thrice a day or In excess can Fl, Lf Skin rashes and itchiness, psoriasis; cuts and wounds; anesthetic 21 Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae Albahaca USTH 015602 77 3 0.23 1.89 1.10 Abortifacient; weakness and fatigue Lf Cuts and wounds 22 Artemisia vulgaris L. Asteraceae Helbas USTH 365 4 1.09 1.60 1.24 Asthma, cough, Lf Apply fresh flower directly Drink decoction Drink Page 16 of 60 Areca catechu L. (2020) 16:14 16 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV 015619 CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration cough with phlegm; diarrhea, dyspepsia; delayed menstruation; relapse decoction Abdominal pain, Lf body ache, fever, cramp, and spasm 23 Bidens pilosa L. Asteraceae Tuway-tuway USTH 015582 218 5 Asteraceae Gabon Hagonoy USTH 015573 USTH 412 448 6 5 cause anemia, dizziness and weakening 3–5 leaves Once a day or as needed None I 3–5 glasses Once or twice a day up to 3 days or as needed None E Apply crushed leaves as poultice 3–5 leaves Once to thrice a day or as needed None Lf, Rt I 3–5 glasses Once or twice a day for 3 days or as needed None Headache Lf E Apply steamed or pounded leaves in the forehead 1–3 leaves Once a day or as needed None Boils, skin rashes Lf E Apply leaves as poultice 1–3 leaves Once or twice a day or as needed None Lf I 3–5 glasses Once a day for None 0.65 1.67 1.26 Colds; diarrhea; muscle pain; backache, body ache, fever, weakness and fatigue, cramp and spasm, relapse, gas pain, and flatulence Rt 1.23 2.60 1.58 Hypertension; cough, cough with phlegm; urination difficulty; postpartum care and recovery; body ache, headache, fever, weakness and fatigue, gas pain and flatulence 1.34 2.50 1.56 Tumor; Drink decoction Drink decoction Drink Page 17 of 60 Chromolaena Asteraceae as needed (2020) 16:14 25 Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC. Experienced adverse or side effects E Apply crushed leaves as poultice Cuts and wounds, Lf animal and insect bites 24 Administration frequency Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. Voucher no. UR UC UV 015632 CIV UD Disease or purpose hemorrhage; fever Boils; burns, cuts, and wounds 26 Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob. Asteraceae Kandingkanding USTH 015587 476 5 1.42 2.78 1.42 Colds, malaria; pulmonary tuberculosis; dog bite Erechtites valerianifolius (Link ex Spreng.) DC. Asteraceae Gapas-gapas bae USTH 015666 208 3 0.62 2.25 1.01 Stomachache, dyspepsia; body ache, headache, gas pain, and flatulence Cuts and wounds decoction Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects 3 days or as needed Lf E Apply leaf sap or crushed leaves as poultice 3–5 leaves As needed Lf, Rt I 3–5 glasses Thrice a day or None as needed Fl, Lf, E Bath waterRt infused leaves and roots or burn leaves and roots as incense 1 pail as bath or 1 bowl as incense Once or twice a day or as needed None Lf 3–5 glasses Once or twice a day or as needed None As needed None I Drink decoction Drink decoction None (2020) 16:14 Chicken pox, herpes simplex, measles; boils, skin eruptions, skin rashes and itchiness; weakness and fatigue, cramp and spasm 27 Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Lf, Sp E Apply sap 3–5 leaves or leaves as poultice Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr. Asteraceae Ashitaba USTH 015645 215 4 0.64 2.50 1.33 Emphysema, cough; diarrhea, stomach trouble; kidney stones; abdominal pain Lf I Drink brewed teaprepared leaves or decoction 3–5 cups Once or twice a day or as needed None 29 Mikania cordata (Burm.f.) B.L.Rob. Asteraceae Moti-moti USTH 015543 397 6 1.19 2.75 1.67 Cough; ulcer Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Twice a day or as needed None Lf, Sp I Drop leaf sap Completely on affected part As needed None 5–7 leaves As needed None Lf Skin rashes and itchiness; cuts and wounds, snake and scorpion E Apply leaf sap or crushed leaves as Page 18 of 60 28 Sore eyes Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration bites; circumcision antiseptic 30 Pseudelephantopus spicatus (Juss.) Rohr Asteraceae Kukog banog USTH 015564 500 5 1.49 2.50 1.44 Urination difficulty, kidney problem, urinary bladder swelling, delayed menstruation, urinary tract infection; fever, weakness and fatigue, cramp and spasm Lf, Rt I Drink brewed teaprepared leaves or decoction Pako-pako 32 Begonia contracta Warb. Begoniaceae 33 Ceiba pentandra (L.) Bombacaceae Gaertn. 34 Ehretia microphylla Lam. Boraginaceae USTH 015545 Once a day or as needed None Completely on affected part Thrice a day or None as needed 3–5 glasses Twice a day or as needed None 1–3 flowers, Once to thrice 1–3 leaves a day or as needed None None 212 5 0.63 1.92 1.56 Colds; cough; diarrhea, dysentery; labor and delivery enhancer, postpartum care and recovery; body ache, headache, fever Sh I Budag-budag USTH 015654 85 2 0.25 1.33 0.64 Pimple, dandruff; burns Fl, Lf E Apply crushed flower and leaves as poultice Doldol USTH 015535 140 5 0.42 2.14 1.55 Diabetes; pulmonary tuberculosis; diarrhea, dysentery; rheumatism, swollen muscles; snake bite Bk, Rt I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Alangitngit or USTH Tsaang-Gubat 015638 336 4 1.00 2.60 1.39 Diabetes; nervous breakdown; stomach acidity; food and drug Lf Drink teaprepared leaves 1/2 to 1 cup Once a day for None 3 days or as needed I Drink decoction Once to thrice a day or as needed Page 19 of 60 Athyriaceae 3–5 glasses (2020) 16:14 Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Experienced adverse or side effects poultice Sore eyes; Lf, Sp E Apply eczema, skin drops of rashes, and leaf sap itchiness; cuts and wounds, sprain, snake bite 31 Administration frequency Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects Fr Once to thrice a day or as needed None allergy 35 37 Abroma augusta (L.) Byttneriaceae L.f. Kleinhovia hospita L. Byttneriaceae Pinya USTH 015667 Samboligawn USTH 015637 Bitan-ag USTH 015631 226 329 146 7 8 6 0.67 1.71 1.85 Ascariasis, amoebiasis; cancer; diabetes; hypertension; constipation, stomach acidity Lf, Sh E Apply crushed shoot or leaves as poultice Completely on affected part As needed None Cancer; swellings Lf I/ Drink E decoction or apply decocted leaves 3–5 leaves Once a day or as needed None Bk, Lf, Rt I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once a day or as needed None Scabies; boils, skin Bk, Lf E Apply eruptions, decoction as wash dermatitis; cuts and wounds 1–3 glasses Once or twice a day or as needed None 3–5 glasses Thrice a day or None as needed 0.98 2.69 1.98 Diabetes, tonic; bronchitis; stomachache; dysmenorrhea, irregular menstruation; sterility 0.44 2.50 1.70 Tumor; asthma, pneumonia, cough; dyspepsia, liver problem; headache; baby teething Byttneriaceae Banitlong USTH 015649 265 4 0.79 1.76 1.24 Rheumatism; backache, body ache, headache Canker sore; burns Lf I Drink decoction Lf E Apply crushed leaves as poultice 3–5 leaves Once to thrice a day or as needed None Lf I 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None Lf E Apply leaves as 3–5 leaves Once a day or as needed None Drink decoction Page 20 of 60 Melochia umbellata (Houtt.) Stapf Eat fresh 1–3 slices fruit directly Headache, fever, weakness, and fatigue Scabies; psoriasis 38 I (2020) 16:14 36 Ananas comosus (L.) Bromeliaceae Merr. Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects poultice 39 40 Hippobroma Campanulaceae longiflora (L.) G.Don Carica papaya L. Caricaceae Elepanteng puti Kapayas laki USTH 015583 USTH 015668 213 659 5 6 I Apply chewed or pounded leaves 1–3 leaves Once or twice a day or as needed None Nervous breakdown; asthma, bronchitis; fever Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None Cuts and wounds Lf E Apply decoction 1 glass As needed None Fr I Eat fresh 1–3 slices fruit directly Once a day or as needed None Tonic; asthma; stomach problem Lf, Rt I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once a day or as needed None Dengue fever Lf, Sp I Drink leaf sap 5–7 leaves Thrice a day or None as needed 1.97 2.92 1.64 Constipation, dyspepsia; milk production enhancer Body ache, fever, Lf cramp, and spasm 41 42 Cratoxylum sumatranum (Jack) Blume Hellenia speciosa (J.Koenig) Govaerts Clusiaceae/ Guttiferae Costaceae Bansilay Tambabasi or Tawasi USTH 015541 USTH 015578 96 744 4 8 Apply 1–3 leaves crushed and heated leaves as poultice Twice a day or as needed None Bk, Lf, Rt I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None Toothache Lf I Apply chewed or pounded leaves 3–5 leaves Once to thrice a day or as needed None Impetigo; cuts and wounds Lf E Apply pounded leaves as poultice 3–5 leaves Once to thrice a day or as needed None 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day up to 3 days or as needed None 0.29 2.33 1.33 Colds; cough; dysentery 2.22 2.58 2.03 Diabetes, goiter; migraine; ear congestion; cough, lung nodule; urination difficulty, kidney problem; Lf, Rz I Drink decoction Page 21 of 60 I (2020) 16:14 Lf 0.64 1.83 1.56 Toothache Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects Diarrhea, stomachache, dysentery St I Drink stem sap 1/2 cup As needed None Sore eyes Lf I Apply leaf sap Completely on affected part As needed None 12 1.45 2.88 2.21 Diabetes; anemia, Lf hypertension; asthma; cough; constipation, diarrhea, stomach trouble, hemorrhoids; kidney stone; labor and delivery enhancer; fever I Drink decoction 3–5 leaves Once a day or as needed None headache, fever 43 44 Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. Rhynchospora colorata (L.) H.Pfeiff. Crassulaceae Cyperaceae Hanlilika Busikad USTH 015584 USTH 015571 486 254 6 Lf I Apply decocted leaves as wash 1–3 leaves Once a day or as needed None Abdominal pain, body ache, headache, fever Lf E Apply heated leaves as hot compress 1–3 leaves Once a day or as needed None Wh I Drink decoction 1–3 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None Fl I Drink waterinfused flower 1/2–1 glass Once to thrice a day None Rt I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once or twice a day for 3 days or as None 0.76 1.38 1.61 Chicken pox, measles; cancer; cough; stomach acidity; fever, relapse, gas pain and flatulence; sprain Baby teething 45 Stenomeris borneensis Oliv. Dioscoreaceae Banag USTH 015537 540 6 1.61 2.36 1.70 Myoma; migraine; arthritis, rheumatism; Page 22 of 60 Herpes simplex; hemorrhoids; boils, eczema; swellings; burns, cuts and wounds, bruises and contusions, insect bites (2020) 16:14 Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration urination difficulty, urinary bladder swelling; postpartum care and recovery; headache, cramp and spasm, relapse 46 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae Tawa-tawa USTH 015665 305 7 0.91 2.80 1.85 Colds, dengue fever; asthma; diarrhea, vomiting; fever Wh Euphorbiaceae Tuba-tuba puti USTH 015595 495 7 1.48 2.66 1.79 Colds; pulmonary tuberculosis; diarrhea; arthritis, rheumatism; backache, body ache, fever, weakness and fatigue, cramp and spasm, relapse, gas pain, and flatulence 48 Jatropha gossypifolia L. Euphorbiaceae Tuba-tuba tapol USTH 015586 810 9 2.41 2.83 1.94 Colds, malaria, typhoid fever; pulmonary tuberculosis; Drink decoction of whole plant except flowers 5–7 glasses Thrice a day or In excess can as needed cause thrombocytopenia I/ Apply leaf E sap or decocted leaves 5–7 leaves Thrice a day or None as needed I 1–3 leaves Once a day or as needed None Bk, Rt I/ Apply E decoction or pounded scraped bark as poultice 1–3 palmsized barks, 1/2–1 armsized roots As needed None Lf, Rt 1–3 leaves, 1/2–1 armsized roots Once a day or as needed None Lf, Rt I Drink decoction Drink decoction Page 23 of 60 Scabies, ringworm; ear infection, discharging ear; toothache; swollen muscles and swellings; cuts and wounds, fracture and dislocation, animal and insect bites I (2020) 16:14 Jatropha curcas L. Experienced adverse or side effects needed Ringworm; sore Lf eyes; boils, skin rashes, and itchiness; cuts and wounds 47 Administration frequency Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects Lf 1–3 leaves Once a day or as needed None 1–3 palmsized barks, 1/2–1 armsized roots As needed None 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None Bk, Fl, E Apply fresh Lf or heated flower, leaves, and bark; sometimes mixed with little salt 1–3 flowers, Once or twice 1–3 leaves, a day or as 1–3 palmneeded sized barks None Lf 3–5 leaves None diarrhea; arthritis, rheumatism; dysmenorrhea, irregular menstruation; backache, body ache, fever, weakness and fatigue, cramp and spasm, relapse, gas pain, and flatulence E Bath or wash decocted leaves (2020) 16:14 Ringworm; boils, carbuncles, dermatitis; swollen muscles and swellings, muscle pain; backache, body ache, fever; cuts and wounds Scabies, Bk, Rt I/ Apply ringworm; ear E decoction infection, or pounded discharging ear; scraped toothache, mouth bark as sore; cuts and poultice wounds, fracture and dislocation, animal and insect bites 49 Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex Blume) Rchb. & Zoll. Euphorbiaceae Awom USTH 015621 485 5 1.45 2.33 1.56 Beriberi; emphysema, cough; diarrhea, stomach trouble Fibroma; body ache, weakness, and fatigue Omalanthus macradenius Pax & Hoffm. Euphorbiaceae Banti puti USTH 015633 202 3 0.60 1.77 1.04 Impetigo; diarrhea, stomach trouble; cuts and Lf I Drink decoction E Apply pounded leaves as Once to thrice a day or as needed Page 24 of 60 50.1 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration wounds Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects poultice Once to thrice a day or as needed None 0.85 1.50 1.22 Rheumatism, Lf, St muscle pain; delayed menstruation; labor and delivery enhancer, postpartum care and recovery; backache, body ache, weakness and fatigue, cramp and spasm, relapse I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day up to 3 days or as needed None 5 0.25 1.60 1.24 Myoma; hormonal Rt imbalance; cough; constipation; fever, weakness and fatigue, relapse I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day up to 3 days or as needed None 6 0.46 1.83 1.68 Scabies; boils, skin Lf, Sp E Apply leaf eruption, skin sap or rashes, and pounded itchiness; cuts and leaves as wounds poultice Completely on affected part Once or twice a day or as needed None Eczema, Bk, dermatitis; arthritis Rt, and rheumatism; Sp burns, cuts and wounds, bruises and contusions E Apply sap Completely or on affected part decocted bark or root Once or twice a day or as needed None Abortifacient, postpartum care, and recovery Lf E Burn leaves as incense or apply heated leaves as hot compress 3–5 leaves Once a day or as needed None Body ache, headache, fever; fracture and Bk E Apply scraped bark as 1–3 palmsized barks Once a day or as needed None Euphorbiaceae Banti tapol USTH 015554 203 3 0.61 1.60 1.04 Impetigo; diarrhea, stomach trouble; cuts and wounds 51 Bauhinia sp. Fabaceae Talimughat pikas USTH 015575 284 4 52 Crotalaria incana L. Fabaceae Sagay-sagay USTH 015572 84 53 Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Steud. Fabaceae Madre de Cacao USTH 015620 153 Lf Page 25 of 60 3–5 leaves Omalanthus macradenius Pax & Hoffm. (2020) 16:14 E Apply pounded leaves as poultice 50.2 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration dislocation, sprain 54 Fabaceae Ormosia macrodisca Fabaceae Baker Hibi-hibi or makahiya Bahay USTH 015570 USTH 015625 355 522 8 5 Experienced adverse or side effects poultice 1.06 2.29 1.97 Diabetes; Rt hypertension; asthma, dysentery; urination difficulty; fever I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once a day or as needed None Drink waterinfused peeled roots 1/2 to 1 cup Once a day or as needed None 1/2 to 1 glass As needed None Once or twice a day or as needed None 1/2 to 1 cup Once or twice a day or as needed None Baby teething Rt I Mumps; boils; child sleeplessness, malaise, and fatigue Sh E Apply hot waterinfused shoots 1.56 2.36 1.56 Atherosclerosis (high cholesterol) Fr I Eat fresh 1–3 fruits fruit directly Typhoid fever; nervous breakdown; high cholesterol; kidney problem; fever Bk I Drink decoction or local alcoholtinctured bark Nervousness; skin numbness Bk, Rt E Apply Efficascent oil-infused bark and root Fill a 250 ml As needed glass bottle with bark and roots None Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth. Fabaceae Alibangbang puti USTH 015646 66 1 0.20 1.11 0.00 Internal bleeding, hemorrhage Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None 56.2 Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth. Fabaceae Alibangbang tapol USTH 015634 53 1 0.16 1.00 0.00 Internal bleeding, hemorrhage Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None 57 Callicarpa pedunculata R.Br. Lamiaceae Awoy USTH 015661 378 4 1.13 1.50 1.28 Ulcer, pancreatitis, Lf fatty liver; weakness and fatigue, cramp and spasm I Drink hot waterinfused leaves 1/2 to 1 cup Once or twice a day or as needed None 1–3 leaves None Asthma Lf E Burn leaves as incense Once or twice a day or as Page 26 of 60 56.1 (2020) 16:14 55 Mimosa pudica L. Administration frequency Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects needed E Apply leaves as poultice 1–3 leaves 58 59.1 Coleus amboinicus Lour. Lamiaceae Coleus scutellarioides Lamiaceae (L.) Benth. Kalabo Mayana kanapkap USTH 015617 USTH 015567 380 260 4 1.13 1.78 1.31 Asthma, cough, cough with phlegm; dyspepsia; abdominal pain, gas pain, and flatulence Lf I 1/2 to 1 cup Once to thrice a day or as needed In excess can cause anemia, weakness, and allergy Burns, bruised and contusions, insect bites Lf E Apply waterinfused leaves 1–3 glasses As needed None 5 Lf I 1–3 glasses Once a day for None 3–5 days or as needed 5–7 leaves Twice a day or as needed 0.78 1.67 1.47 Anemia; asthma, pneumonia, cough; dyspepsia; gas pain and flatulence Eat leaves directly or drink decoction Drink decoction Cuts and wounds, Lf, Sp E Apply leaf bruises and sap or crushed contusions, sprain leaves as poultice 59.2 Coleus scutellarioides Lamiaceae (L.) Benth. Mayana pula USTH 015644 414 6 1.24 2.25 1.59 Anemia; asthma, pneumonia, emphysema, pulmonary tuberculosis, cough; ulcer, dyspepsia; gas pain and flatulence Conjunctivitis Lamiaceae Gmelina USTH 335 5 1.00 1.83 1.49 Toothache, gum None I Drink decoction 1–3 glasses Once a day for None 3–5 days or as needed Lf I Apply decoction as drop Completely on affected part Once or twice a day or as needed None E Apply crushed leaves as poultice 5–7 leaves Twice a day or as needed None I 3–5 leaves As needed None Lf Apply Page 27 of 60 Gmelina arborea None Lf Cuts and wounds, Lf bruises and contusions, sprain 60 Once or twice a day or as needed (2020) 16:14 Lf Swollen muscles, muscle pain; backache, body ache Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Roxb. ex Sm. Voucher no. UR UC UV 015635 CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration swelling Discharging ear Fr Mentha arvensis L. Lamiaceae Sawan-sawan Herba buena USTH 015574 USTH 015669 498 174 7 6 I Drop 1–3 fruits extract of heated fruit As needed Poisonous when eaten E Apply leaves directly or as poultice 1–3 leaves As needed None Lf I Drink decoction or leaf sap 3–5 glasses decoction or 1/2 cup leaf sap (adult); 1/2 cup decoction or 1 teaspoonful leaf sap (baby) Once or twice a day or as needed None Delayed menstruation Rt I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None Toothache; cuts and wounds Lf E Apply crushed leaves as poultice 3–5 leaves As needed None I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once or twice a day or as needed None I Sniff crushed leaves or leaves infused with hot water 3–5 leaves As needed None 1.49 2.56 1.85 Colds, malaria; cough; diarrhea, stomachache; new-born baby care; fever, gas pain and flatulence 0.52 2.71 1.59 Measles; cough; Sh diarrhea, dysentery; dysmenorrhea; headache, fever, cramp and spasm, gas pain and flatulence Lf Page 28 of 60 Asthma; dizziness and fainting (2020) 16:14 62 Hyptis capitata Jacq. Lamiaceae Experienced adverse or side effects chewed or pounded leaves Stomach bloating; Lf maternal care; headache, gas pain and flatulence; cuts and wounds 61 Administration frequency Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. 63 Mentha canadensis L. Ocimum basilicum L. Family Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Local name Sencia Sangig Voucher no. USTH 015670 USTH 015630 UR 432 385 UC UV 9 9 CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects Toothache; headache, fever; insect bites Lf 1.29 2.81 2.04 Sinusitis, cough; Lf stomachache, vomiting; delayed menstruation; backache, body ache, headache, fever, gas pain and flatulence E Apply chewed or crushed leaves 3–5 leaves As needed None I Drink hot waterinfused leaves or decoction 3–5 glasses Once or twice a day or as needed None Ringworm; ear infection and congestion; toothache Lf I/ Apply leaf E sap Completely on affected part As needed None Muscle pain, abdominal pain; cuts and wounds, dislocation, snake bite Lf E Apply crushed leaves as poultice Completely on affected part Once a day or as needed None Skin rashes and itchiness, acne; rheumatism; cuts and wounds; animal and insect bites Lf E Apply decoction as wash 5–7 leaves Twice a day or as needed None 1.15 2.33 2.09 Cough, cough with phlegm; constipation, diarrhea, vomiting, hemorrhoids; delayed menstruation; postpartum care and recovery; headache, fever, gas pain and flatulence Drink decoction or add in soup 3–5 glasses Twice a day or as needed None Ear congestion, infection, and discharge Lf, Sp I Drop leaf sap 3–5 leaves As needed None Boils, skin rashes, and itchiness; Lf E Apply decoction 3–5 leaves Twice a day or as needed None Page 29 of 60 Lf, Sh I (2020) 16:14 64 Scientific name Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration arthritis, rheumatism; cuts and wounds, bruises and contusions Toothache; cuts and wounds, snake bites Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects 3–5 leaves, 1 shoot As needed None as wash Lf, Sh I/ Apply E crushed shoot or leaves as poultice Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. Lamiaceae Wachichao USTH 015550 513 6 1.53 2.96 1.58 Diabetes; Fl, Lf hypertension; diarrhea, stomachache; joint pain, gout, rheumatism; urination difficulty, kidney stones, kidney problem, urinary bladder swelling, prostate problem; labor and delivery enhancer I Drink brewed teaprepared leaves or decoction of leaves and flower 3–5 cups Once or twice a day or as needed None 66 Premna odorata Blanco Lamiaceae Abgaw USTH 015559 668 7 1.99 2.94 1.79 Colds; nasal Lf congestion, sinusitis, cough, cough with phlegm; diarrhea, ulcer; rheumatism; postpartum care and recovery; weakness and fatigue, gas pain and flatulence I Drink waterinfused leaves 3–5 glasses Once or twice a day for 3 days or as needed None 1–3 leaves Once or twice a day or as needed None 3–5 glasses Thrice a day or None as needed Cuts and wounds 67 Lamiaceae Kulipapa USTH 015603 128 4 0.38 1.18 1.24 Beriberi; muscle pain; labor and delivery; backache, body ache, cramp and spasm Rt, St I Drink decoction Page 30 of 60 Teijsmanniodendron ahernianum (Merr.) Bakh. E Apply crushed leaves as poultice (2020) 16:14 65 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose 68 Vitex negundo L. Lamiaceae Lagundi USTH 015562 475 5 1.42 2.69 1.55 Cough, cough Lf with phlegm; ulcer; rheumatism; postpartum care and recovery; headache, gas pain and flatulence 69 Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal Lauraceae Kaningag USTH 015585 908 8 2.71 3.22 1.93 Amoebiasis; cancer; hypertension; cough; diarrhea, stomach trouble, ulcer, stomach acidity; kidney problem, urinary tract infection; weakness and fatigue, cramp and spasm Cuts and wounds 70 Litsea cordata (Jack) Lauraceae Hook.f. 71 Machilus philippinensis Merr. 72 Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects I Drink decoction 1/4 glass Thrice a day or None (young leaf) as needed or 1/2 glass (mature leaf) Bk, I Br, Rt Drink decoction or local alcoholtinctured bark, stem and root 3–5 glasses Once or twice a day or as needed None Bk, E Apply Br, Rt coconut oil-infused bark, stem and root Completely on affected part As needed None USTH 015580 307 7 0.92 2.83 1.79 Mumps; cyst, tumor, myoma; goiter; asthma, pneumonia, emphysema, cough; ulcer; arthritis; kidney problem, dysmenorrhea Bk, Rt I Drink hot waterinfused bark or decoction 1–3 glasses Once a day in thrice a week for 2 months or as needed In excess can cause anemia, dizziness and weakening Lauraceae Efficascent USTH 015576 82 2 0.24 1.11 0.69 Cough; weakness and fatigue Sp, St I Drink sap from rubbed stem 1/2 cup Once a day or as needed None Lythraceae Banaba USTH 015596 384 4 1.15 2.57 1.26 Ulcer; urination difficulty, kidney stones, high uric acid, and creatinine; maternal care; backache, body ache, fever Lf Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None I Page 31 of 60 Loktob (2020) 16:14 Plant no. Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name 73 74 Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV Gossypium hirsutum Malvaceae L. Gapas USTH 015553 283 3 Sida rhombifolia L. Eskuba laki USTH 015601 768 8 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae Malvaceae Dupang bae USTH 015664 482 7 CIV UD Disease or purpose Administration frequency 0.84 2.14 0.95 Hemorrhage; postpartum care and recovery; body ache, fever, body chills Rt I Drink decoction 1 glass Once a day for In excess, can 3 days cause abnormalities in lactating mothers 2.29 2.55 1.87 Cough; stomach trouble; kidney stone, kidney problem, prostate problem, irregular menstruation Lf, Rt I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once a day or as needed None Chicken pox, herpes simplex, scabies; boils; swellings; backache, body ache, headache; cuts and wounds Lf, Rt E Apply leaves as poultice or leaf and bark decoction as wash 3–5 leaves As needed None Fever Bk I 1–3 palmsized barks Once or twice a day or as needed None I/ Drink or E apply decoction or burn as incense 1 bowl Once a day or as needed None Sh I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once or twice a day or as needed None Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None 1–3 leaves Once a day or as needed None 1.44 2.06 1.80 Stomach trouble; Wh arthritis, rheumatism; labor and delivery, postpartum care and recovery; fever; cuts and wounds, fracture and dislocation, bruises and contusion, sprain, animal bites Diabetes; sore throat; toothache; abdominal pain 76 Angiopteris evecta Sw. Marattiaceae 77 Medinilla teysmannii Melastomataceae Miq. Drink decoction Amampang USTH 015658 126 3 0.38 1.50 0.87 Muscle pain; Rt postpartum care and recovery; backache, body ache, weakness, and fatigue, cramp and spasm I Tampion USTH 015581 282 3 0.84 1.25 1.04 Swollen muscles and swellings, E Apply heated Lf Experienced adverse or side effects Page 32 of 60 Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration (2020) 16:14 75 Family Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration 3–5 glasses Once a day or as needed None 1–3 leaves As needed None Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Twice a day or as needed None Bk E Apply powdered bark Completely on affected part As needed None Bk, Fr, Lf I Drink decoction of mesocarp, leaves and scraped bark 3–5 glasses Once a day or as needed None Toothache Lf I Apply crushed leaves as poultice 1–3 leaves As needed None Boils, skin rashes and itchiness, dermatitis Lf E Apply decoction as wash 3–5 leaves Once or twice a day or as needed None Ringworm Bk E Apply pounded scraped bark as poultice 1–3 palmsized barks Once or twice a day or as needed None Sd I 1–3 glasses Once a day or as needed Can cause abortion in pregnant women muscle pain; gas pain and flatulence; sprain 78 79 Melastoma malabathricum L. Lansium domesticum Correa Melastomataceae Meliaceae Hantutuknaw puti Lansones USTH 015588 USTH 015565 274 103 3 4 0.82 1.89 0.96 Diarrhea, dysentery, stomachache, hemorrhoids; headache, fever Sh I Toothache; cuts and wounds Lf I/ Drop or E drink stem sap 0.31 1.52 1.28 Malaria; diarrhea, dysentery, dyspepsia; fever, gas pain and flatulence Insect bites 80 81 Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr. Meliaceae Swietenia mahagoni Meliaceae (L.) Jacq. Santol Mahogany USTH 015624 USTH 015671 464 334 7 9 leaves as hot compress 1.39 1.78 1.85 Tonic; hypertension; diarrhea, dysentery; postpartum care and recovery; abdominal pain, fever 1.00 2.29 2.14 Dysmenorrhea, delayed menstruation; abortifacient; Bk, Lf I Drink decoction Take powdered seed or drink Page 33 of 60 Experienced adverse or side effects (2020) 16:14 Administration frequency Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration abdominal pain Amoebiasis, malaria; cancer; tonic; hypertension; cough; diarrhea; miscarriage; fever 82 Menispermaceae Tinospora crispa (L.) Menispermaceae Hook. f. & Thomson Lagtang or Abutra Panyawan USTH 015600 USTH 015566 922 782 None decoction I Drink decoction 1–3 glasses Once a day or as needed Rt, St I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Thrice a day or Can cause as needed abortion in pregnant women Scabies; boils, skin Rt, St E Apply rashes and coconut itchiness; cuts and oil-infused wounds stem Completely on affected part Once or twice a day or as needed None Drink local 1–3 glasses alcoholtinctured or decocted stem Once or twice a day or as needed Can cause abortion in pregnant women Completely on affected part As needed None E Apply Completely coconut on affected oil-infused part stem or stem mixed with As needed Can cause abortion in pregnant women 10 2.75 3.23 2.14 Jaundice; tumor, myoma; diabetes, tonic; respiratory disease complex; diarrhea, dysentery, dyspepsia, ulcer, appetite enhancer; dysmenorrhea, delayed menstruation; abortifacient; fever 9 Experienced adverse or side effects 2.33 2.68 1.95 Malaria; tonic; diarrhea, stomach trouble, vomiting, ulcer, toothache; arthritis, rheumatism; dysmenorrhea; abortifacient; abdominal pain, backache, body ache, fever Bk (2020) 16:14 83 Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr. Administration frequency St I Scabies; sore eyes; Sp, St E Drop stem cuts and wounds sap St Page 34 of 60 Arthritis, rheumatism; abortifacient; abdominal pain, body ache; gas pain and Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration flatulence Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects None gasoline Ficus botryocarpa Miq. Moraceae Kabiya USTH 015672 53 1 0.16 0.96 0.00 Headache, fever I Drink decoction 1 arm-sized root Twice a day or as needed 85 Ficus cassidyana Elmer Moraceae Tobog tapol USTH 015551 492 8 1.47 3.00 1.89 Colds; diabetes; Bk, Rt I hypertension; asthma, cough, respiratory disease complex; diarrhea, stomachache; urinary tract infection; postpartum recovery, maternal care, milk production enhancer; weakness and fatigue, relapse Drink decoction 1–3 glasses Thrice a day or None as needed 86 Ficus concinna (Miq.) Miq. Moraceae Balete USTH 015552 608 4 Rt Diabetes; hypertension Fr I Eat fresh 1–3 fruits fruit directly Once a day or as needed None Body ache, headache, fever Lf E Apply leaves as poultice 3–5 leaves As needed None 1.81 2.66 1.37 Prostate cancer, cyst, tumor; arthritis, rheumatism; kidney problem, prostate problem Bk, Lf, Rt I Drink decoction 5–7 glasses Once a day in thrice a week for 2 months In excess can cause anemia, dizziness, and weakening Cuts and wounds Bk, Lf, Rt E Apply decoction as wash 1–3 glasses As needed None 1–3 palmsized barks or 1 armsized root Once a day or as needed Bark can cause skin allergy or burn 1–3 glasses Thrice a day or None as needed Fracture and Bk, Rt E Apply fresh dislocation, sprain and heated bark and root as poultice 87 Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Blume Moraceae Tobog puti USTH 015561 480 8 Drink decoction Page 35 of 60 1.43 1.62 1.89 Colds; diabetes; Bk, Rt I hypertension; asthma, cough, respiratory disease complex; diarrhea, stomachache; urinary tract (2020) 16:14 84 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects Diabetes; hypertension Fr I Once a day or as needed None Body ache, headache, fever Lf E Apply leaves as poultice 3–5 leaves As needed None None infection; maternal care, postpartum recovery, milk production enhancer; weakness and fatigue, relapse Eat fresh 1–3 fruits fruit directly Ficus pseudopalma Blanco Moraceae Lobi-lobi USTH 015636 331 7 0.99 2.38 1.80 Diabetes; Lf, Rt hypertension, atherosclerosis, hemorrhage; diarrhea, stomach trouble, dyspepsia; kidney stones; muscle pain; postpartum care and recovery; cramp and spasm I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Twice a day or as needed 89 Ficus septica Burm.f. Moraceae Lagnob USTH 015623 576 7 1.72 2.13 1.77 Stomach trouble; asthma, sinusitis; muscle pain; backache, body ache, headache, fever, weakness, and fatigue I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once a day for In excess can 3 days only cause intestinal weakening Lf, Rt (2020) 16:14 88 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Warts; cataract, eye problem Lf, Sp E Apply drops of leaf sap 3–5 leaves Twice a day or as needed None Herpes simplex; boils Rt, E Apply stem Sp, St and root sap Completely on affected part Thrice a day or None as needed Ficus sp. Moraceae Tuwa-tuwa USTH 015642 71 1 0.21 0.98 0.00 Pregnancy, impotence and sterility, postpartum care and recovery Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once a day for None 3–5 days or as needed 91 Morus alba L. Moraceae Tahibo USTH 015549 277 4 0.83 2.69 1.21 Colds; asthma, pneumonia, lung Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Twice to thrice In excess can a day for 3–5 cause acid reflux Page 36 of 60 90 Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration nodule, cough; muscle pain; cramp and spasm, relapse Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects days and hypocupremia Muntingia calabura L. Muntingiaceae Mansanitas USTH 015629 169 4 0.50 1.58 1.21 Colds; diarrhea, stomachache, vomiting, ulcer; prostate problem; abdominal pain, headache Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Twice a day or as needed None 93 Myristica agusanensis Elmer Myristicaceae Duguang kahoy USTH 015611 194 2 0.58 1.96 0.69 Measles; Bk respiratory disease complex I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once a day or as needed None 94 Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae Bayabas USTH 015663 275 5 0.82 2.15 1.43 Diarrhea, ulcer Bk, Lf, Rt I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None Constipation Fr I Eat fresh 1–3 fruits fruit directly Once to thrice a day or as needed None Scabies; toothache; skin eruptions; cuts and wounds Lf E Apply chewed or pounded leaves 3–5 leaves Once to thrice a day or as needed None Dandruff; cuts and wounds; circumcision antiseptic Lf E Apply decocted leaves as wash 3–5 leaves Once to thrice a day or as needed None Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. Pandanaceae Pandantsina USTH 015555 197 2 0.59 1.98 0.60 Heart Lf enlargement, high cholesterol; urination difficulty, kidney stone, kidney problem, urinary bladder swelling, prostate problem I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None 96 Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. Phyllanthaceae Talikod or Likod-likod USTH 015590 459 9 1.37 2.35 2.01 Jaundice, colds; Wh tonic; coughs; stomach problem; kidney stone, kidney problem, urinary bladder swelling; newborn baby care; I/ Drink E decoction or apply decocted leaves as wash 3–5 glasses decoction or 1/2 cup leaf sap (adult); 1/2 cup decoction or 1 Once or twice a day or as needed None Page 37 of 60 95 (2020) 16:14 92 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration fever Scabies, jaundice, ringworm; skin rashness and itchiness, dermatitis, eczema; cuts and wounds 97 Piper aduncum L. Piperaceae 98 Piper decumanum L. Piperaceae USTH 015568 193 2 Lunas bagon tapol USTH 015544 1018 9 Experienced adverse or side effects teaspoonful leaf sap (baby) Fr, Rt E Apply decoction as wash 3–5 glasses Thrice a day or None as needed 0.58 1.14 0.56 Skin rashes and Lf, St itchiness; cuts and wounds, animal and insect bites E Apply decoction Completely on affected part Once or twice a day or as needed In excess can cause intestinal weakening 3.04 3.45 2.06 Typhoid fever; St cancer, cyst, tumor; pulmonary tuberculosis; diarrhea, stomach trouble, ulcer; gas pain and flatulence; poisoning I Drink local alcoholtinctured stem 1/2 to 1 glass Once a day in thrice a week or as needed In excess can cause intestinal weakening St I Gargle local 1/2 to 1 alcoholglass tinctured stem Once or twice a day or as needed None Once or twice a day or as needed None Tonsillitis; toothache, gum swelling, canker sore E Apply coconut or Efficascent oil-infused stem Completely on affected part Page 38 of 60 Scabies, warts, St impetigo; boils, skin eruptions, skin rashes and itchiness, pimple, acne; arthritis, rheumatism, swellings, muscle pain; backache, body ache, gas pain and flatulence; allergy, burns, cuts and wounds, sprain, snake, dog and insect bites, contacts with plants and animal parts; anesthetic (2020) 16:14 Lunas buyo Administration frequency Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV 99 Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae Lunas bagon puti USTH 015560 824 9 CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration 2.46 2.41 1.20 Cancer, cyst, St tumor; tonsillitis; diarrhea, stomach trouble, ulcer, toothache, mouth sore, gum swelling; gas pain and flatulence; poisoning Piper sp. Piperaceae Buyo Pilipog USTH 015592 296 3 0.88 1.33 1.04 Asthma, cough; rheumatism; fracture and dislocation 101 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae Bilabila USTH 015569 481 11 1.44 3.04 2.34 Measles; diabetes; internal bleeding; cough; diarrhea; arthritis; kidney problem; postpartum care and recovery; fever, cramp, and spasm; fracture and dislocation Ringworm; hair loss; cuts and wounds 1/2 to 1 glass of local alcohol tincture or 3–5 glasses of decoction Once a day in thrice a week or as needed In excess can cause intestinal weakening St E Apply coconut oil-infused or decocted stem Completely on affected part Once or twice a day or as needed None Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once a day or as needed None Wh I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Thrice a day or None as needed Wh E Apply decoction 1 glass Once to thrice a day or as needed None Page 39 of 60 100 Drink or gargle local alcoholtinctured stem or drink decocted stem Experienced adverse or side effects (2020) 16:14 Scabies, warts, impetigo; breast cancer; boils, skin eruptions, skin rashes and itchiness, pimple, acne; arthritis, rheumatism, swellings, muscle pain; backache, body ache, gas pain, and flatulence; skin allergy, burns, cuts and wounds, animal and insect bites, contacts with plants and animals parts; anesthetic I Administration frequency Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV 102 Imperata cylindrica (L.) P.Beauv. Poaceae Kogon USTH 015605 107 4 CIV UD Disease or purpose 0.32 1.90 1.35 Urination difficulty Sh Chicken pox, measles; diarrhea, toothache; fever, baby teething 103 104 Paspalum conjugatum P.J.Bergius Poeaceae Rosa sp. Rosaceae Miligoy USTH 015627 124 3 0.37 2.30 1.04 Diarrhea, dysentery Rose USTH 015628 83 3 0.25 1.33 1.04 Colds; nasal congestion, sinusitis Rubiaceae Buyon USTH 015556 123 5 0.37 1.36 1.56 Jaundice, colds; dysentery, stomachache; fever; snake bite Asthma, cough 106 Uncaria lanosa Wall. Rubiaceae Kawilan USTH 015557 94 1 0.28 0.93 0.00 Stomach trouble Diarrhea Experienced adverse or side effects Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None Rt I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None Rt I Drink decoction 1 handful of Twice a day or roots as needed None E Apply decoction as wash 1 handful of Once a day or roots as needed None Fl I 1 glass Thrice a day or None as needed Fl E Apply hot waterinfused flowers as wash 1 glass As needed None Drink or sniff hot waterinfused flowers Bk, Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None Fl Eat fresh flower directly 1–3 flowers Once or twice a day or as needed None Sp, St I Drink stem sap 1/2 cup Once or twice a day or as needed None St I Drink local alcoholtinctured bark 1/2 to 1 glass As needed None I Melicope latifolia (DC.) T.G.Hartley Rutaceae Bagaynga USTH 015540 43 1 0.13 0.92 0.00 Cough Bk I Drink decoction of scraped bark 1–3 palmsized barks Once or twice a day or as needed None 108 Melicope triphylla (Lam.) Merr. Rutaceae Dahile USTH 015660 86 2 0.26 1.31 0.64 Pulmonary tuberculosis, Lf, Sp I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses or 3–5 Once to thrice a day or as None Page 40 of 60 107 (2020) 16:14 Mussaenda philippica A.Rich. Administration frequency I Hair loss; cuts and Rt wounds Cuts and wounds 105 Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration cough 109 needed Completely on affected part As needed None Capsicum annuum L. Rutaceae Solanaceae Lunas kahoy Sili na bisaya USTH 015538 USTH 015626 955 151 9 Drink local 1/2 to 1 alcoholglass tinctured or decocted stem Once or twice a day or as needed In excess can cause intestinal weakening Tonsillitis; toothache, gum swelling, canker sore Rt, St E Gargle local 1/2 to 1 alcoholglass tinctured stem Once or twice a day or as needed None Scabies, warts, impetigo; boils, skin eruptions, skin rashes and itchiness, pimple, acne; joint pain, rheumatism, swellings, muscle pain; backache, body ache, gas pain, and flatulence; allergy, burns, cuts, and wounds; snake, dog, and insect bites; contacts with plants and animal parts; anesthetic Rt, St E Apply coconut or Efficascent oil-infused stem Once or twice a day or as needed None 6 Once or twice a day or as needed None Once or twice a day or as needed None 2.85 3.28 2.03 Cancer, cyst; diarrhea, stomach trouble, ulcer; poisoning 0.45 2.48 1.61 Diabetes; hypertension Lf, Sp E Apply leaf sap Lf, St Fr I Completely on affected part Eat fresh 7 fruits fruit directly or add as spice in cooking E Rub crushed leaves or leaf sap 3–5 leaves Page 41 of 60 White spot, Lf athlete's foot; appetite enhancer; boils, skin rashes and itchiness, psoriasis, dandruff; insect I (2020) 16:14 110 Micromelum minutum (G.Forst.) Wight & Arn. Experienced adverse or side effects leaves of sap Snake bite or leaf sap Administration frequency Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day up to 3 days or as needed None Completely on affected part Once a day or as needed None bites 111 Grewia laevigata Vahl Sparmanniaceae Talimughat lingin USTH 015547 474 5 1.41 1.75 1.42 Diabetes; Bk, hypertension, Lf, Rt heart enlargement; rheumatism; labor and delivery enhancer, postpartum care and recovery; backache, body ache, fever, weakness, and fatigue, relapse I Drink decoction 112 Dendrocnide luzonensis (Wedd.) Chew 113 Urticaceae (2020) 16:14 Muscle pain; labor Bk, Rt E Apply and delivery coconut or enhancer, Efficascent postpartum care oil-infused and recovery; bark and backache, body root ache, fever, cramp, and spasm; relapse Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) USTH 015598 128 2 0.38 2.33 0.56 Diabetes; joint pain, swollen muscles, and swellings, muscle pain Rt I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None Leucosyke capitellata Urticaceae Wedd. Anagasi USTH 015542 28 1 0.08 0.96 0.00 Stomach trouble and vomiting Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once or twice a day or as needed None 114 Oreocnide rubescens Urticaceae (Blume) Miq. Kubi or Salinubod USTH 015676 151 3 0.45 1.89 1.04 Cough; diarrhea, stomach trouble; fever Lf I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Twice a day or as needed None 115 Pipturus arborescens Urticaceae (Link) C.B.Rob. Handamay USTH 015673 540 6 1.61 2.25 1.58 Depression, anxiety, nervousness; stomach acidity; backache, body ache, headache, fever, weakness, and fatigue Lf I Eat fresh leaves or drink water solution of leaves 3–5 glasses Thrice a day None for a month or as needed Herpes simplex, scabies; boils, dermatitis Lf E Rub crushed leaves 3–5 leaves Thrice a day or None as needed Page 42 of 60 Alingatong Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration Skin rashes and Bk infection; cuts and wounds 116 Poikilospermum acuminatum (Trecul.) Merr. Urticaceae Hanupi USTH 015655 243 6 0.73 2.06 1.67 Sore eyes; ulcer; postpartum care and recovery; fever 119 Verbenaceae Elepanteng lingganag Dianella ensifolia (L.) Xanthorrhoeaceae Ikug-ikug DC. Curcuma longa L. Zingerberaceae Duwaw yellow USTH 015594 USTH 015656 USTH 015674 396 164 248 5 3 6 1–3 palmsized barks Twice a day or as needed None 1 arm-sized stem Once or twice a day or as needed None E Apply decoction as wash 1 arm-sized root Once or twice a day or as needed None 1 arm-sized root Once to thrice a day or as needed Can cause abortion in pregnant women E Apply pulp made from scraped bark as poultice Drink stem sap or decoction stem 1.18 2.04 1.56 Ascariasis; abortifacient; fever Rt I Boils; bruises, sprain Lf E Apply crushed leaves as poultice 3–5 glasses As needed None I 3–5 glasses Once a day or as needed None None 0.35 1.39 0.95 Maternal care; Lf postpartum care and recovery, milk production enhancer Drink decoction Drink decoction Lf E Apply leaves as poultice 3–5 leaves As needed Herpes simplex Lf, Rt E Apply coconut oil-infused ashes of leaf and roots Completely on affected part Thrice a day or None as needed Rz I 1–3 cups Once or twice a day or as needed None Rz E Apply extracted Completely on affected As needed None 0.74 1.68 1.70 Diabetes; cough; arthritis, rheumatism; delayed menstruation; fever, gas pain and flatulence Burns, cuts and wounds, insect Drink grinded and brewed rhizome Page 43 of 60 Cuts and wounds (2020) 16:14 118 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl Experienced adverse or side effects Sp, St I Skin rashes and Rt, itchiness; cuts and Sp wounds; animal and insect bites 117 Administration frequency Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Plant no. Scientific name Family Local name Voucher no. UR UC UV CIV UD Disease or purpose Parts Preparation Quantity or useda and dosage b administration bites juice from crushed rhizome part Administration frequency Experienced adverse or side effects Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Rosc. Zingerberaceae Duwaw violet USTH 015645 83 2 0.24 1.88 0.69 Cough; fever Rz I Drink grinded and brewed rhizome 1–3 cups Once or twice a day or as needed None 121 Alpinia haenkei C.Presl Zingiberaceae Yanguas USTH 015641 86 3 0.26 1.26 1.04 Cough; stomachache; urination difficulty, urinary tract infection Rt I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Once to thrice a day or as needed None 122 Kaempferia galanga L. Zingiberaceae Kisol USTH 015579 200 7 0.60 1.44 1.89 Colds; tonic; cough, sore throat; dyspepsia, toothache; postpartum care and recovery; headache, fever Rz I Drink decoction 3–5 glasses Twice a day or as needed None Rz I/ Apply E grinded rhizome as poultice 1–3 rhizomes Thrice a day or None as needed Toothache; headache, fever (2020) 16:14 120 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 4 Medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo in Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Continued) Tonic; postpartum Sh care and recovery; headache, fever E Place 1–3 shoots washed clean shoot around the neck Once a day or as needed Cough; rheumatism, swollen muscle E Rub heated 1–3 leaves and crashed leaves Thrice a day or None as needed Lf None UR use-report, UC use category, UV use value, CIV cultural importance value, UD use diversity a Bk, barks; Br, branch; Fl, flowers; Fr, fruits; Lf, leaves; Rt, roots; Rz, rhizomes; Sd, seeds; Sh, shoots; St, stems; Wh, whole plant b I, internal; E, external Page 44 of 60 Taxon no. Local name Putative identification based on the Dictionary of Philippine Plant Names [51] Species determination using present morphology Molecular confirmation by BLAST-based sequence matching using multiple molecular markers ITS (nrDNA) matK (cpDNA) Simple BLAST Optimized BLAST [max score× (query cover/percent identity)] Simple BLAST Top 5 max core Highest max score Highest percent identity Premna spp. Premna serratifolia Top 5 max score Highest max score Highest percent identity Premna spp. Premna serratifolia Premna serratifolia Premna serratifolia Optimized BLAST [max score × (query cover/ percent identity)] Abgaw Premna odorata Premna sp. 2 Alibangbang (puti) Bauhinia monandra. Bauhinia purpurea Phanera sp. Bauhinia spp. Bauhinia nervosa Bauhinia semibifida Bauhinia touranensis NONE 3 Alibangbang (tapol) Bauhinia monandra. Bauhinia purpurea Phanera sp. Bauhinia spp. Bauhinia nervosa Bauhinia semibifida Bauhinia nervosa NONE 4 Awoy None Callicarpa cf. pedunculata Callicarpa spp. Callicarpa formosana Callicarpa formosana Callicarpa rubella Callicarpa spp. Callicarpa bodinieri Callicarpa giraldii Callicarpa bodinieri 5 Balete Ficus sp. Ficus sp. Ficus spp. Ficus cordata subsp. salicifolia Ficus spp. Ficus carica Ficus carica Ficus carica 6 Banag Dioscorea sp. Stenomeris sp. Dioscoreaceae Stenomeris borneensis Stenomeris borneensis Stenomeris borneensis 7 Banitlong Melochia umbellata Melochia sp. Malvaceae 8 Banti (puti) Homalanthus populneus Omalanthus sp. 9 Banti (tapol) Homalanthus populneus 10 Gapas-gapas (bae) 11 Ficus concinna Ficus glabella NONE Premna odorata Premna odorata Waltheria indica Convolvulaceae and Malvaceae Ipomoea setifera Ipomoea setifera and Waltheria indica Ipomoea setifera Euphorbiaceae Homalanthus nutans Homalanthus nutans Triadica sebifera Euphorbiaceae Homalanthus populneus Homalanthus nutans Homalanthus populneus Omalanthus sp. Euphorbiaceae Homalanthus nutans Homalanthus nutans Triadica sebifera Euphorbiaceae Homalanthus populneus Homalanthus nutans Homalanthus populneus Camptostemon philippinense Erechtites sp. Compositae Erechtites valerianifolia Erechtites valerianifolia Erechtites valerianifolia Compositae Jacobaea erucifolia Jacobaea erucifolia Jacobaea erucifolia Kaningag Cinnamomum celebicum Cinnamomum cf. mercadoi Cinnamomum spp. Cinnamomum paiei Cinnamomum paiei Cinnamomum paiei Lauraceae Cinnamomum reticulatum All are equal Cinnamomum reticulatum 12 Kawilan Uncaria laevifolia Uncaria cf. lanosa Uncaria macrophylla Uncaria macrophylla Uncaria macrophylla Uncaria macrophylla Rubiaceae Uncaria lancifolia Uncaria cf. scandens Neolamarckia cadamba 13 Lunas-bagon None (puti) Piper sp. Piper Piper Piper Piper subcaniramum subcaniramum subcaniramum cathayanum Piper spp. Piper chinense Piper chinense Piper chinense 14 Mayana Kanapkap Coleus blumei Plectranthus sp. Lamiaceae Isodon japonicus Plectranthus barbatus Isodon japonicus NONE 15 Mayana Pula Coleus blumei Plectranthus sp. Isodon spp. Isodon japonicus Isodon japonicus Isodon japonicus NONE Page 45 of 60 Waltheria sp. Waltheria indica (2020) 16:14 1 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 5 Integrative molecular identification coalescing a priori and a posteriori data Taxon no. Local name Putative identification based on the Dictionary of Philippine Plant Names [51] Species determination using present morphology Capparis micracantha Thottea cf. affinis Molecular confirmation by BLAST-based sequence matching using multiple molecular markers ITS (nrDNA) matK (cpDNA) Simple BLAST Top 5 max score Highest max score Highest percent identity Optimized BLAST [max score× (query cover/percent identity)] NONE Simple BLAST Optimized BLAST [max score × (query cover/ percent identity)] Top 5 max core Highest max score Highest percent identity Thottea spp. Thottea penitilobata, Thottea borneensis and Thottea dependens Thottea penitilobata, Thottea borneensis and Thottea dependens Grewia spp. Grewia biloba Grewia lasiocarpa Grewia biloba Annonaceae Friesodielsia spp. Friesodielsia desmoides 16 Salimbagat 17 Talimughat 1 Oxymitra (lingin) paucinervia Grewia cf. laevigata 18 Talimughat 2 Oxymitra (taas) paucinervia Friesodielsia cf. lanceolata 19 Talimughat 3 Oxymitra (pikas) paucinervia Bauhinia sp. Bauhinia spp. Bauhinia touranensis Bauhinia kockiana Bauhinia touranensis 20 Tobog (puti) Ficus botryocarpa Ficus cf. fistulosa Ficus spp. Ficus fistulosa Ficus fistulosa Ficus fistulosa Ficus spp. Ficus carica Ficus carica Ficus carica 21 Tobog (tapol) Ficus botryocarpa Ficus cf. cassidyana. Ficus spp. Ficus lepicarpa Ficus lepicarpa Ficus lepicarpa Ficus spp. Ficus carica Ficus carica Ficus carica 22 Tuba-tuba (puti) Jatropha curcas, Jatropha cf. Jatropha curcas gossypiifolia Jatropha curcas Jatropha curcas Jatropha curcas Jatropha curcas 23 Tuba-tuba (tapol) Jatropha curcas, Jatropha cf. Jatropha gossypiifolia gossypiifolia Jatropha spp. Jatropha gossypiifolia Jatropha gossypiifolia Jatropha gossypiifolia 24 Tuwa-tuwa None Ficus glabella Ficus glabella Ficus ingens Grewia spp. Grewia trichocarpa Grewia biloba Grewia trichocarpa NONE NONE NONE Jatropha spp. Jatropha gossypiifolia Jatropha podagrica Molecular confirmation by BLAST-based sequence matching using multiple molecular markers psbA-trnH (cpDNA) trnL-F (cpDNA) Simple BLAST Top 5 max score Highest max score Highest percent identity Optimized Simple BLAST BLAST [max Top 5 max score × (query score cover/percent identity)] Highest max score Jatropha gossypiifolia NONE NONE unsuccessfully amplified and/or sequenced Taxon no. Uvaria macrophylla (2020) 16:14 Ficus cf. ingens Ficus spp. Thottea penitilobata, Thottea borneensis and Thottea dependens Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 5 Integrative molecular identification coalescing a priori and a posteriori data (Continued) Highest mercent identity Optimized BLAST [max score × (query cover/ percent identity)] Integrative molecular identification approach Page 46 of 60 Taxon no. Molecular confirmation by BLAST-based sequence matching using multiple molecular markers psbA-trnH (cpDNA) trnL-F (cpDNA) Simple BLAST Optimized Simple BLAST BLAST [max Top 5 max score × (query score cover/percent identity)] Top 5 max score Highest max score Highest percent identity 1 Premna spp. Premna serratifolia Premna odorata Premna serratifolia 2 Fabaceae Lasiobema championii Lasiobema championii 3 Fabaceae Lasiobema championii 4 Callicarpa sp. 5 Optimized BLAST [max score × (query cover/ percent identity)] Integrative molecular identification approach Premna spp. Premna odorata Premna odorata Premna odorata Premna odorata Blanco Bauhinia nervosa Fabaceae Bauhinia yunnanensis Bauhinia yunnanensis Bauhinia yunnanensis Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth. Lasiobema championii Barklya syringifolia Fabaceae Bauhinia yunnanensis Bauhinia yunnanensis Bauhinia yunnanensis Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth. Callicarpa bodinieri Callicarpa dichotoma Callicarpa bodinieri Lamiaceae, Martyniaceae Callicarpa giraldii Callicarpa giraldii Craniolaria integrifolia Callicarpa pedunculata R.Br. Ficus spp. Ficus pachyclada Ficus simplicissima Ficus carica Ficus spp. Ficus carica Ficus carica Ficus carica Ficus concinna (Miq.) Miq. 6 Dioscoreaceae, Arecaceae Dioscorea brachybotrya Corypha lecomtei Dioscorea brachybotrya Dioscoreaceae Stenomeris borneensis and Blandfordiaceae Stenomeris borneensis Stenomeris borneensis Stenomeris borneensis Oliv. 7 Convolvulaceae and Malvaceae Waltheria indica Ipomoea setifera Waltheria indica Convolvulaceae and Malvaceae Ipomoea setifera Ipomoea setifera Ipomoea setifera Melochia umbellata (Houtt.) Stapf 8 Ebenaceae, Euphorbiaceae Diospyros geminata Triadica sebifera Diospyros geminata Euphorbiaceae Homalanthus populneus Homalanthus populneus Homalanthus populneus Omalanthus macradenius Pax & Hoffm. 9 Ebenaceae, Lauraceae Diospyros geminata Cinnamomum sp. Diospyros geminata Euphorbiaceae Homalanthus populneus Homalanthus populneus Homalanthus populneus Omalanthus macradenius Pax & Hoffm. 10 Compositae Erechtites valerianifolius Erechtites hieraciifolius Erechtites valerianifolius Compositae Erechtites valerianifolius Erechtites valerianifolius Erechtites valerianifolius Erechtites valerianifolius (Link ex Spreng.) DC. 11 Lauraceae Cinnamomum verum Cinnamomum verum Cinnamomum verum Cinnamomum spp. Cinnamomum insularimontanum Cinnamomum insularimontanum Cinnamomum insularimontanum Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal 12 Rubiaceae Uncaria laevigata Uncaria laevigata Uncaria laevigata Rubiaceae Uncaria lanosa Uncaria lanosa Uncaria rhynchophylla Uncaria lanosa Wall. 13 Piper spp. Piper nigrum Piper kadsura Piper nigrum Piper spp. Piper nigrum Piper mullesua Piper nigrum Piper nigrum L. 14 Lamiaceae Plectranthus scutellarioides Plectranthus scutellarioides Ocimum gratissimum Plectranthus spp. Solenostemon Solenostemon scutellarioides scutellarioides, syn. of Plectranthus scutellarioides Plectranthus fredricii Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth. 15 Lamiaceae Plectranthus scutellarioides Plectranthus scutellarioides Ocimum gratissimum Plectranthus spp. Solenostemon Solenostemon scutellarioides, scutellarioides, syn. of syn. of Plectranthus Plectranthus scutellarioides scutellarioides Solenostemon Coleus scutellarioides, syn. of scutellarioides (L.) Plectranthus scutellarioides Benth. Page 47 of 60 Highest mercent identity (2020) 16:14 Highest max score Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 5 Integrative molecular identification coalescing a priori and a posteriori data (Continued) Taxon no. Molecular confirmation by BLAST-based sequence matching using multiple molecular markers psbA-trnH (cpDNA) trnL-F (cpDNA) Simple BLAST Optimized Simple BLAST BLAST [max Top 5 max score × (query score cover/percent identity)] Highest max score Highest mercent identity Optimized BLAST [max score × (query cover/ percent identity)] Integrative molecular identification approach Highest max score Highest percent identity 16 Thottea spp. Thottea hainanensis Thottea hainanensis Thottea hainanensis Aristolochiaceae Thottea siliquosa Thottea siliquosa Thottea siliquosa Thottea affinis (Planch. ex Rolfe) ined. 17 Malvaceae Pterygota alata Pterygota alata Pterygota alata Malvaceae Microcos paniculata, syn. of Grewia nervosa Microcos paniculata, syn. of Grewia nervosa Microcos paniculata, syn. of Grewia nervosa Grewia laevigata Vahl 18 Annonaceae Friesodielsia sp. All are equal Friesodielsia sp. Annonaceae Monanthotaxis aquila Monanthotaxis aquila, Monanthotaxis pellegrinii, and Friesodielsia sp. Monanthotaxis aquila Friesodielsia lanceolata (Merr.) Steen. 19 Fabaceae Lasiobema championii Lasiobema championii Lasiobema championii Bauhinia spp. Phanera bidentata Phanera bidentata Phanera bidentata Bauhinia sp. 20 Ficus spp. Ficus hirta Ficus hirta and Ficus religiosa Ficus trigonata Ficus spp. Ficus carica Ficus carica Ficus carica Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Blume 21 Ficus spp. Ficus trigonata Ficus trigonata Ficus religiosa Ficus spp. Ficus carica Ficus carica Ficus carica Ficus cassidyana Elmer 22 Jatropha spp. Jatropha curcas Jatropha curcas Jatropha curcas Jatropha curcas Jatropha curcas Jatropha curcas Jatropha curcas Jatropha curcas L. 23 Jatropha spp. Jatropha gossypiifolia Jatropha gossypiifolia Jatropha gossypiifolia Jatropha spp. Jatropha gossypiifolia Jatropha gossypiifolia Jatropha gossypiifolia Jatropha gossypifolia L. 24 Ficus spp. Ficus carica Ficus simplicissima, Ficus hirta Ficus carica Moraceae Ficus pumila Ficus pumila Ficus pumila Ficus sp. (2020) 16:14 Top 5 max score Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Table 5 Integrative molecular identification coalescing a priori and a posteriori data (Continued) Page 48 of 60 Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Page 49 of 60 Table 6 The 24 molecularly confirmed species with confusing species identity Taxon no. Local name Family Species 1 Abgaw Lamiaceae Premna odorata Blanco Endemicity [56] 2 Alibangbang (puti) Fabaceae Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth. Conservation status LC [76] 3 Alibangbang (tapol) Fabaceae Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth. 4 Awoy Lamiaceae Callicarpa pedunculata R.Br. LC [77] LC [78] 5 Balete Moraceae Ficus concinna (Miq.) Miq. 6 Banag Dioscoreaceae Stenomeris borneensis Oliv. 7 Banitlong Byttneriaceae Melochia umbellata (Houtt.) Stapf 8 Banti (puti) Euphorbiaceae Omalanthus macradenius Pax & Hoffm. EN EN 9 Banti (tapol) Euphorbiaceae Omalanthus macradenius Pax & Hoffm. 10 Gapas-gapas (bae) Asteraceae Erechtites valerianifolius (Link ex Spreng.) DC. 11 Kaningag Lauraceae Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal 12 Kawilan Rubiaceae Uncaria lanosa Wall. 13 Lunas-bagon (puti) Piperaceae Piper nigrum L. 14 Mayana Kanapkap Lamiaceae Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth. 15 Mayana Pula Lamiaceae Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth. 16 Salimbagat Aristolochiaceae Thottea affinis (Planch. ex Rolfe) ined. 17 Talimughat 1 (lingin) Sparmanniaceae Grewia laevigata Vahl 18 Talimughat 2 (taas) Annonaceae Friesodielsia lanceolata (Merr.) Steen. 19 Talimughat 3 (pikas) Fabaceae Bauhiniasp. 20 Tobog (puti) Moraceae Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Blume 21 Tobog (tapol) Moraceae Ficus cassidyana Elmer 22 Tuba-tuba (puti) Euphorbiaceae Jatropha curcas L. 23 Tuba-tuba (tapol) Euphorbiaceae Jatropha gossypifolia L. 24 Tuwa-tuwa Asteraceae Ficus sp. EN VU [78] EN LC [78] EN LC [78] EN Endemicity: EN endemic Conservation status: LC least concern, VU vulnerable coloration, namely “puti” and “tapol,” respectively, with the latter as more effective than the former in treatment for various health conditions. The following recognized local species pairs as white and red plant samples, respectively, are “Alibangbang puti” (Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth.) and “Alibangbang tapol” (Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth.); “Banti puti” (Omalanthus macradenius Pax & Hoffm.) and “Banti tapol” (Omalanthus macradenius Pax & Hoffm.); “Lunas-bagon puti” (Piper nigrum) and “Lunas-bagon tapol” (Piper decumanum); “Tobog puti” (Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Blume) and “Tobog tapol” (Ficus cassidyana Elmer); and “Tuba-tuba puti” (Jatropha curcas L.) and “Tuba-tuba tapol” (Jatropha gossypifolia L.). Local species pairing of “Alibangbang puti” and “Alibangbang tapol” was found to be similar species (Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth.). Another species pair, “Banti puti” and “Banti tapol” was also found to be similar species (Omalanthus macradenius Pax & Hoffm.). However, molecular confirmation of all species pairs by the locals did not necessarily point to the same species but were mostly referring to another species. An example study resolving species identity of Piper species used by the Agusan Manobo being a sterile species and unidentifiable by present morphology having confusing local names with the initial word “Lunas” has been molecularly confirmed lately using integrative molecular approach [19]. Thus, it is always important in any ethnomedicinal, ethnobotanical, and ethnopharmacological studies to obtain the correct identification of medicinal plants by integrating molecular data like this for accuracy, consistency, and dependable species identity for future pharmacological evaluation and natural product investigations. Species molecular confirmation Most of all extracted samples for molecular analysis were successfully amplified and sequenced (90%) using multiple universal markers (Table 5). Some medicinal plants could not be successfully amplified using the given primer due to low levels of DNA present in the samples [74] or plant secondary metabolites present as inhibitory factors [75]. Molecular data obtained were Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 also subject to the availability of sequences of plant samples in the GenBank. The 24 species identified were tabulated in Table 6, showing six endemic species (27.3%) [56] and conservation status of all assessed species (37.5%) [76, 77] presented five least concern species (83.3%) and a vulnerable species, Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal (16.7%). All edited sequences of each of the four DNA markers in fasta file format were attached as supplementary materials (see Additional files 2–5) for future reference. The most certain identity confirmed by this molecular analysis is the familial and generic affinity wherein the specific epithet of each of the 24 medicinal plants presented had to be verified for its occurrence and distribution in the country. All species identified using simple and optimized BLAST-based sequence matching results were further reviewed on their present morphology using taxonomic keys and comparing images and specimens before consulting an expert. Some species names presented in BLAST search query have synonyms showing similar genus among species within 5 points deviation down of the max score. In contrast, others have several genera but under the same family. Two species with molecular data, namely Bauhinia sp. and Ficus sp., were only confirmed up to the genus level due to limited morphological material and because of a high number of varieties, species, and subspecies. A sterile Piper species was confirmed as P. nigrum based on its diagnostic characterization, which could be a new variety obtained only in the wild among the respondents and not the widely cultivated spice known as the world’s most consumed peppercorn. Of all DNA markers used in this study, two markers, psbA-trnH and trnL-F (cpDNA) successfully amplified and sequenced all 24 uncertain species (100%). A total of 21 species (88%) were amplified and sequenced using the marker ITS (nrDNA), while the coding marker, matK (cpDNA), recorded at least 17 amplified and sequenced species (71%). In this case, molecular data could increase its identification rate by using multiple universal markers. Several coding and non-coding regions were tested in plants, but a single locus has limited resolving capabilities for closely related species [79, 80]. While local names are essential in ethnopharmacological studies, complexities of these local names could lead to confusion and ambiguity, hence, a need for further molecular analysis [19]. A number of ethnobotanical studies consider vernacular names coupled with morphological and molecular confirmation as part of the identification diagnostics [19, 42, 81–83]. Page 50 of 60 community village (7.2%) and the houses (4.8%). Some local people were cultivating some of these medicinal plants near homes for their convenience, but collecting medicinal plants in the wild during seasonal times or in case of immediate treatment was highly encouraged for efficacy as the locals believed that the plants should grow in their natural setting rather than cultivation. Scientific studies tend to support the idea of medicinal plant collection in the wild because plant secondary metabolites will be mostly expressed in the natural setting under environmental stress and conditions, whereby they could not be comparably expressed under monoculture conditions [84]. Higher levels of secondary metabolites were also reported in wild populations where plants grow slowly, unlike in much faster-growing monocultures [85]. Plant parts used All plant parts were used from different plant species against a variety of diseases. The most frequently used plant parts were the leaves (41.6%), followed by roots (16.1%), barks (12.0%), stems (8.5%), sap or latex (6.7%), and flowers (4.1%) (Fig. 2). Sometimes, more than one plant part of the same species is used in combination, like leaves, barks, stems, and roots for preparation and administration, which the locals believed to have a synergistic effect and a more effective medication. Preparation and administration The primary preparation method was decoction (34.0%), followed by pounding, crushing, rubbing, grinding, and powdering (13.7%); poultice (12.3%); extracting (9.0%); directly applying or eating (8.5%); infusion (7.1%); applying as wash, bath, hot compress (5.5%); heating or warming (3.6%); tincture (2.7%); brewing (1.6%); burning (1.4%); and steaming (0.5%) as depicted in Fig. 3. The more common route of administration was internal (60%) rather than external (40%). This result is contrary to the previous reports in the other Philippine major island ethnic tribes like the Ati Negrito community of Visayas [21] and the Ivatan community in Luzon [24] where the external application was more common. While external administration could be safer, according to the Agusan Manobo, the internal application was more common since most of their health conditions were associated internally, making decoction as their most common preparation. In cases of external diseases and illnesses, more prolonged coconut oil infusions of medicinal plant stems and barks were often applied. Use categories (UC) Collection sites The majority (57%) of the medicinal plants were collected in the wild, while some were collected within the Reported medicinal uses of plants in this study were grouped into 16 category names based on the citations of informants and the likeness to the use category (Table Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Page 51 of 60 Fig. 2 Plant parts used by the Agusan Manobo for medicinal application. Bk, barks; Br, branches; Fl, flowers; Fr, fruits; Lf, leaves; Rt, roots; Rz, rhizomes; Sd, seeds; Sh, shoots; Sp, sap or latex; St, stems; Wh, whole plant 3). Reported uses and diseases in medical terms were verified by the assigned local physicians and allied workers, nearby hospitals and health centers to confirm disease occurrence and epidemiology in the area. A total of 120 reported uses or diseases treated by 122 plant species were documented in the study sites. Use-report (UR) and use value (UV) Both UR and UV represent the relative importance of medicinal plants for certain categorized uses or diseases. High values were considered the most important species among the Agusan Manobo. Five medicinal plants with the highest URs (more than 900) as well as UVs (more than 2.5) were Anodendron borneense (UR = 1134; UV = 3.39) in 12 categories, Piper decumanum (UR = 1018; UV = 3.04) in 9 categories, Micromelum minutum (UR = 955; UV = 2.85) in 9 categories, Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr. (UR = 922; UV = 2.75) in 10 categories, and Cinnamomum mercadoi (UR = 908; UV = 2.71) in 8 categories, as shown in Table 4. These high UR and UV plants were the most frequently used plant species based on high fidelity level for pregnancy (FL = 88%), skin rashes and itchiness (FL = 95%), hemorrhage (FL = 97%), tumor (FL = 87%), and stomach trouble (FL = 100%), respectively, (Table 11). The respondents consistently reported these in all study sites, but only harvested in the wild. Some other plants can be cultivated with high UVs, as shown in the top 20 species ranked by UV (Table 7). While high UV species can often be harvested for medicinal use and purpose, these important species call for conservation priority [86]. The four medicinal plants included among the top 10 recommended medicinal plants by the Department of Health (DOH) of the Philippines, were cultivated by the Agusan Manobo respondents within their community. These scientifically validated medicinal plants were also reported with high URs, namely “Bayabas” Psidium guajava L. (275) “Lagundi” Vitex negundo L. (475), “Gabon” Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC. (412), and “Tsaang gubat” Ehretia microphylla Lam. (336). Cultural importance value (CIV) CIV often identifies species with diverse use-reports in different use categories, which is relatively dependent on the sum of the proportion of informants who cited the medicinal plant use. The usefulness of species based on the number of informants for each species is not only accounted for this additive index but also its versatility [47]. The top 20 species ranked by CIV included some species with high UV and UD (Table 8). Use diversity (UD) UD determines medicinal plants dependent on the variety of uses in different use categories. This index Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Page 52 of 60 Fig. 3 Mode of preparation of medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo. Bn, burning; Br, brewing; Dc, decoction; Di, directly applying or eating; Ex, extracting; Ht, heating or warming; In, infusion; Pd, pounding, crushing, rubbing, grinding, powdering; Po, poultice; Sm, steaming; Ti, tincture; Ws, as wash, bath, hot compress considers the widespread contribution of each use category according to the number of reported diseases treated. The top 20 species with high UD did not include all high values of UV and CIV (Table 9). Correlation of the basic values and indices Table 10 presents the Spearman correlations among all the five variables used to quantify ethnopharmacological data. All correlations were moderate to strongly positive and significant at p < 0.01 (n = 125). That is, as one variable increases, the other also increases. Of all the variables, UV is entirely dependent on UR (1.00), while UD is highly dependent on UC (0.97). However, the subjectivity of selection criteria among the use categories was avoided as the researcher consulted with physicians and other medical experts in the locality. The correlation index between UV and CIV was quite high (0.73), meaning that the relative importance of medicinal plants used among the Agusan Manobo was relatively dependent on the number of use mentions among the key informants as counted in UR. An interesting point that appeared to corroborate these data is that the number of UR was positively correlated (0.71–1.00), among other basic values and indices. These variables were correlated with the number of uses for a particular ailment and the number of categories considered. Thus, it can be argued that the relative importance of medicinal plants documented in this study was relatively dependent at least, on the number of use-reports among the key informants and the number of use categories following an objective manner. Despite the advantages and uses of these values and indices in determining the relative importance and usefulness of medicinal plants, it is practical to note that no single index can give information about the complete picture of plant importance. Informant consensus factor (ICF) ICF measures the agreement among informants on the use of plant species for a particular purpose or disease category. While the agreement among the key informants varies in different categories, the ICF values are all greater than or equal to 0.97 (Table 3). These results showed that the exchange of information could be evident among the Agusan Manobo community on their Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Page 53 of 60 Table 7 The top 20 species ranked by use value (UV). Species which are on the top 20 lists ranked by cultural importance value (CIV) and use diversity (UD) are indicated by bold typeface in that column Table 8 The top 20 species ranked by cultural importance value (CIV). Species which are on the top 20 lists ranked by use value (UV) and use diversity (UD) are indicated by bold typeface in that column. Scientific name Scientific name UV CIV UD CIV UV UD Anodendron borneense (King & Gamble) D.J.Middleton 3.39 3.68 2.22 Anodendron borneense (King & Gamble) D.J.Middleton 3.68 3.39 2.22 Piper decumanum L. 3.04 3.45 2.06 Piper decumanum L. 3.45 3.04 2.06 Micromelum minutum (G.Forst.) Wight & Arn. 2.85 3.28 2.03 Micromelum minutum (G.Forst.) Wight & Arn. 3.28 2.85 2.03 Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr. 2.75 3.23 2.14 Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr. 3.23 2.75 2.14 Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal 2.71 3.22 1.93 Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal 3.22 2.71 1.93 Piper nigrum L. 2.46 2.41 Andrographis paniculata Nees 3.07 1.43 2.09 Jatropha gossypifolia L. 2.41 2.83 1.94 1.20 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. 3.04 1.44 2.34 Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson 2.33 2.68 1.95 Ficus cassidyana Elmer 3.00 1.47 1.89 Sida rhombifolia L. 2.29 2.55 1.87 Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. 2.96 1.53 1.58 Hellenia speciosa (J.Koenig) Govaerts 2.22 2.58 2.03 Premna odorata Blanco 2.94 1.99 1.79 Premna odorata Blanco 1.99 2.94 1.79 Carica papaya L. 2.92 1.97 1.64 Carica papaya L. 1.97 2.92 1.64 Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz 2.90 1.74 1.74 Ficus concinna (Miq.) Miq. 1.81 2.66 Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. 2.88 1.45 1.37 2.21 Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz 1.74 2.90 1.74 Mangifera indica L. 2.85 0.66 1.47 Ficus septica Burm.f. 1.72 2.13 1.77 Litsea cordata (Jack) Hook.f. 2.83 0.92 1.79 Stenomeris borneensis Oliv. 1.61 2.36 1.70 Jatropha gossypifolia L. 2.83 2.41 1.94 Pipturus arborescens (Link) C.B.Rob. 1.61 2.25 1.58 Mentha canadensis L. 2.81 1.29 Ormosia macrodisca Baker 1.56 2.36 1.56 Euphorbia hirta L. 2.80 0.91 1.85 Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. 1.53 2.96 1.58 Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob. 2.78 1.42 1.42 Pseudelephantopus spicatus (Juss.) Rohr 1.49 2.50 Mikania cordata (Burm.f.) B.L.Rob. 2.75 1.19 1.67 1.44 medicinal plant uses and practices. Among the 16 use categories, four categories, namely diseases of the digestive system (DDS), diseases of the skin (DOS), abnormal signs and symptoms (ASS), and other problems of external causes (OEC) had the highest ICF value of 0.99. Fidelity level (FL) FL implies the most preferred medicinal plant for a particular disease or purpose. FL value ranges from 1 to 100% depending on the URs cited by the informants for a given species for a particular ailment. Seven species were found with the maximum FL of 100%, including the identified species with the highest number of use mentions, Carica papaya, Premna odorata, Cinnamomum mercadoi, Tinospora crispa, Ficus concinna, Piper decumanum, and Pipturus arborescens which are used for dengue fever, cough with phlegm, stomach trouble, joint pain, fracture and dislocation, anesthetic, and herpes simplex, respectively (Table 11). Jaccard’s similarity index (JI) This is the first ethnopharmacological or ethnobotanical study of indigenous peoples in the province of Agusan del Sur. The variation of the medicinal plants used 2.04 among the three studied localities was shown in JI (Fig. 4). The most overlap of the obtained data and the Jaccard index (similarity) was between the city of Bayugan and the municipality of Sibagat (JI = 0.42), and the least one was between both municipalities of Esperanza and Sibagat (0.38). However, the degree of similarity among the three adjacent localities was proximate with JI ranged from 0.38 to 0.42. While JI conveyed a similarity index ca. 39.7%, the actual overlap is 52.5% (64 species cited among the localities). This similarity could be observed on their comparable ecological types being upland and well-drained areas and due to the active exchange of information on the uses of medicinal plants among the communities during monthly social meetings and preparations in the province of Agusan del Sur. Dosage, frequency, and experienced adverse or side effects of using medicinal plants For a detailed ethnopharmacological study, it is essential to consider the therapeutic use, medication action, and possible side effects. This study involved documenting the quantity or dosage, administration frequency, and experienced adverse or side effects, as shown in Table 4. A particular number of plant parts were followed in Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Table 9 The top 20 species ranked by use diversity (UD). Species which are on the top 20 lists ranked by use value (UV) and cultural importance value (CIV) are indicated by bold typeface in that column Scientific name UD Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. 2.34 1.44 UV CIV 3.04 Anodendron borneense (King & Gamble) D.J.Middleton 2.22 3.39 3.68 Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. 2.21 1.45 2.88 Swietenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq. 2.14 1.00 2.29 Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr. 2.14 2.75 3.23 Andrographis paniculata Nees 2.09 1.43 3.07 Ocimum basilicum L. 2.09 1.15 2.33 Piper decumanum L. 2.06 3.04 3.45 Amaranthus spinosus L. 2.06 0.63 2.75 Mentha canadensis L. 2.04 1.29 2.81 Alstonia macrophylla Wall. ex G.Don 2.04 1.15 2.71 Micromelum minutum (G.Forst.) Wight & Arn. 2.03 2.85 3.28 Hellenia speciosa (J.Koenig) Govaerts 2.03 2.22 2.58 Annona muricata L. 2.02 0.62 2.17 Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. 2.01 1.37 2.35 Abroma augusta (L.) L.f. 1.98 0.98 2.69 Mimosa pudica L. 1.97 1.06 2.29 Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson 1.95 2.33 2.68 Jatropha gossypifolia L. 1.94 2.41 2.83 Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal 1.93 2.71 3.22 their mode of preparation. Having leaves as the most frequently used medicinal plant part, 3–5 leaves (or at least an odd number) of decocted, heated, and pounded leaves should be applied. Most of the medicinal plants (82%) were reported by the key informants with no experience of adverse or side effects, while 18% of medicinal plants were experienced with adverse or side effects. There were seven medicinal plants reported to cause abortion in pregnant women once taken or applied. Other listed medicinal plants, when taken in excess, can cause other adverse or side effects. Four of these medicinal plants can cause anemia, dizziness, and weakening, while other plants can cause acid reflux and hypocupremia, burn, and allergy and are even poisonous Table 10 Spearman rank order correlations among all five variables: basic values and indices UC UR UC 0.74 UV CIV UD 1.00 0.73 0.71 0.74 0.71 0.97 UV CIV All the correlations are significant at p < 0.01 (n = 125) 0.73 0.71 0.69 Page 54 of 60 when eaten or applied. Other reported cases concern excessive intake, which can cause blood viscosity, intestinal weakening, thrombocytopenia, and abnormalities in lactating mothers. These reported adverse or side effects were verified by the attending local medical practitioners and allied medical workers during their hospital visits and in times of emergency. It can be argued that not all medicinal plants used by the tribe are safe for use with no side effects. Thus, it is essential to obtain the reported adverse effects or possible side effects of cited medicinal plants by the informants in all ethnopharmacological studies like this. Discussion This ethnopharmacological documentation recorded a total of 122 medicinal plant species belonging to 108 genera and 51 families across 16 use or disease categories. The majority of medicinal plants are trees (36%) and herbs (33%), which are mostly found in the wild, while some are cultivated. These are followed by 17% shrubs, 11% climbers, 2% grasses, and 1% ferns. The highest percentage of medicinal trees documented in this study is parallel with the earlier ethnobotanical studies [21, 87]. The highest frequency of using leaves and aerial plant organs was also reported in several ethnobotanical studies in the Philippines [21, 24, 25, 87–90] and other countries [91–93]. The highest frequency of decoction for preparation and administration is similar to previous ethnobotanical investigations [21, 87–90]. Lamiaceae was the most represented family with 12 species, followed by Asteraceae with 11, Moraceae with eight species, and Fabaceae with six species. This result is contrary to previous ethnobotanical studies in which Asteraceae were the most represented family [24, 88– 90]. The Lamiaceae (mint family) possess a wide variety of ornamental, medicinal, and aromatic plants producing essential oils that are used in traditional and modern medicine, food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industry [94]. This family is known for effective pain modulation with potential analgesic or antinociceptive effects, which includes several aromatic medicinal spices like mint, oregano, basil, and rosemary [95]. Asteraceae (the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family) are the largest family of flowering plants which were reported to have pharmacological activities such as antitumor, antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory [96] containing phytochemical compounds such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and diterpenoids [97, 98]. The Moraceae (fig family) was reported to have wide variety of chemical constituents with potential biological activities as previously investigated by [99] in Ficus racemosa L., and [100] in Ficus carica L., and [101] in Ficus benjamina L. Fabaceae (pea family) which is the third largest family also contain various bioactive constituents with potential Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Page 55 of 60 Table 11 The relative healing potential of the top 20 most cited medicinal plants used against particular disease No. Scientific name Particular use or disease Ip Iu 1 Carica papaya L. Dengue fever 158 158 FL% 100 2 Premna odorata Blanco Cough with phlegm 238 238 100 3 Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal Stomach trouble 223 223 100 4 Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson Joint pain 157 157 100 5 Ficus concinna (Miq.) Miq. Fracture and dislocation 41 41 100 6 Piper decumanum L. Anesthetic 68 68 100 7 Pipturus arborescens (Link) C.B.Rob. Herpes simplex 59 59 100 8 Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz Nervous breakdown 44 45 98 9 Stenomeris borneensis Oliv. Urinary bladder swelling 133 136 98 10 Micromelum minutum (G.Forst.) Wight & Arn. Hemorrhage 70 72 97 11 Piper nigrum L. Skin rashes and itchiness 203 214 95 12 Jatropha gossypifolia L. Discharging ear 59 63 94 13 Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. Diabetes 68 72 94 14 Ormosia macrodisca Baker Atherosclerosis 63 69 91 15 Sida rhombifolia L. Cramp and spasm 71 79 90 16 Pseudelephantopus spicatus (Juss.) Rohr Urinary tract infection 85 95 89 17 Anodendron borneense (King & Gamble) D.J.Middleton Pregnancy 38 43 88 18 Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr. Tumor 73 84 87 19 Hellenia speciosa (J.Koenig) Govaerts Goiter 44 52 85 20 Ficus septica Burm.f. Eye problem 32 39 82 FL% percentage of fidelity level, Ip the number of informants who independently cited the use of a species for a particular use or disease, Iu the total number of informants who mentioned the plant for any use or purpose regardless of category pharmacological and toxicological effects [102]. A member of this family which has long been cultivated and introduced in the Philippines, Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Steud., was investigated to have antimicrobial and antioxidant activities, as well as several phytochemicals present [13]. The Department of Health (DOH) of the Philippines has continually endorsed 10 medicinal plant species in its traditional health maintenance program: (1) Cassia alata L., (2) Momordica charantia L., (3) Allium sativum L., (4) Psidium guajava L., (5) Vitex negundo L., (6) Quisqualis indica L., (7) Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC., (8) Ehretia microphylla Lam., (9) Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth, and (10) Clinopodium douglasii (Benth.) Kuntze. Of all these 10 recommended and clinically tested medicinal plants, four species were included in this survey. Apparently, the societal gaps which differentiate educational level, gender, position, occupation, and age Fig. 4 Overlap in the medicinal plants collected in the three studied localities (city of Bayugan and the municipalities of Sibagat and Esperanza) Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 among the Manobo indigenous community may result in the disappearance of their medicinal plant knowledge and traditional practices. While there was no significant difference in their medicinal plant knowledge in different locations, it is still highly important to document their medicinal plant knowledge to perpetuate their cultural tradition and medicinal practices, as well as protect and conserve these important plant genetic resources. Many ethnobotanical studies include vernacular names as part of the putative identification. While vernacular names are useful in ethnopharmacology, pharmacognosy, and pharmacovigilance [83, 103], reliance on these vernacular names for species identification and classification can cause ambiguity and incorrect identification resulting to research invalidation [104]. DNA-based identification is a useful tool for accurate species identification. Correct identification of a medicinal plant should be examined using molecular data [105] for consistency of species and pharmacological investigations of natural products [106]. Although plant-based drug discovery from ethnobotanical data provides future drug leads, authentication of the plant material is a great challenge and opportunity [107]. Comparison with previous ethnobotanical studies Several ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal studies were conducted in the Philippines, but few involve quantitative analyses in their studies. The majority of ethnobotanical studies conducted in the Philippines purposively selected key informants who are just knowledgeable of their medicinal plants like residents, traditional healers, herbalists, gardeners, traders, and elders, but a limited count of researches focused on specific IPs or tribal communities in the country. Among the three major islands in the Philippines (Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao), the island of Mindanao is still underdocumented despite its largest population of indigenous cultural communities/indigenous peoples (ICCs/IPs) in the country. In Luzon, four indigenous groups were documented, namely the Kalanguya tribe in Tinoc, Ifugao [108]; the Ivatan in Batan Island Batanes [24]; the Ayta in Dinalupihan, Bataan [109]; and the Ilongot-Eǵongot in Maria Aurora, Aurora [110], communities. The plant utilization among local communities was also documented by [25] in Kabayan, Benguet Province, namely Ibaloi, Kankanaey and Kalanguya in addition to the earlier recorded tribes such as the Negritos [111], the Tasadays [112, 113], the Ifugao [114, 115] and the Bontoc [116]. Other studies of cultural communities involve indigenous knowledge and practices for sustainable management like the Ifugao forests in Cordillera, Philippines [117]. In Visayas, only the Ati Negrito of Guimaras island [21], while in Mindanao, three tribes were studied, Page 56 of 60 namely the Higaonon tribe of Iligan City [88], Subanen tribe of Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur [89]; Muslim Maranaos of Iligan City [90]; Subanen tribe of Lapuyan, Zamboanga del Sur [87]; and Tagabawa tribe of Davao del Sur [118]. Of all reported ethnobotanical studies in Mindanao, this is the first study utilizing detailed quantitative analysis of relative importance, effectivity consensus, correlation of indices, and the extent of the potential use of each medicinal plant species among the ICCs/IPs. Moreover, this study also integrated molecular confirmation for the first time applying multiple universal markers and coalescing a priori and a posteriori data for accurate species identification to resolve complex plant local or vernacular names and sterile or nonreproductive plant specimens. In comparison with existing ethnobotanical studies in the Philippines, a novel plant medicinal use was recorded, namely Anodendron borneense with no existing records of ethnobotanical and pharmacological investigations in the world to date. The ethnopharmacological profile of this medicinal plant is a novel finding in this study, which is consistently on the top list among the values or indices used (UR, UV, and CIV), which is only known among the Agusan Manobo in the province of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Incorporating data of experienced adverse or side effects in this study introduces a more detailed ethnopharmacological documentation in the Philippines, which could be a reference material for future ethnomedicinal, biological, and pharmacological studies. Limitations of the present study Ethnobotanical research broadly encompasses like ethnopharmacology, which involves field-based investigations. However, most of the remote areas and barangays in various municipalities and cities of the Philippines were not always safe from rebels and communists against the Philippine government. Majority of the Manobo tribes documented here live in far-flung hinterlands, remote upland areas alongside rivers, valleys, and creeks having security threats from the rebel movement known as the New People's Army (NPA). Study sites included here obtained security clearance from the provincial and local government administrations to ensure safety and accessibility in the area, and the availability of key informants on the actual documentation and field walks. Language barriers were barely encountered since most respondents could speak the national Filipino language and/or the regional Cebuano or Visayan language aside from their Minanubu dialect. Phenology and year-round seasonal variations are essential factors to consider for accurate observation of the plant and collection of specimens with complete reproductive parts. Some respondents are sometimes unwilling to share their medicinal Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 plant knowledge with others due to their previous experience being taken advantage of by business-related parties of drug and pharmaceutical companies. It was also observed that most respondents are becoming educated with the help of government education programs for IPs, which made them more resistant to allowing themselves to be the subject of study by visitors and outsiders. In spite of that, it is very important to gain trust, confidence, and respect among the Agusan Manobo community by embracing their rich cultural tradition through ritual observation and tribal immersion within their community. Although they maintain secrecy about their medicinal plant use and knowledge, it is also beneficial to practice keeping their knowledge from possible overexploitation of their medicinal plant resources. This study is the first in the country documenting the rich ethnopharmacological practices of indigenous tribes coupled with integrative molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used. It is highly important to recognize the role of indigenous cultural communities/indigenous peoples (ICCs/IPs) in the Philippines for shared information of ethnopharmacological practices for future preservation of knowledge and conservation priorities of their plant genetic resources. This will benefit their children and future generations before their knowledge becomes lost and forgotten. Research highlights 1. The current study revealed the rich ethnopharmacological practices, medicinal plant uses, and knowledge of the Manobo tribe in Agusan del Sur, Philippines. 2. Exchange of information among the Agusan Manobo communities was observed in different localities; however, the younger generation has a potential decline of interest due to their acquaintance of over-the-counter drugs and modern medicines. 3. This study reinforced the application of integrative molecular confirmation for medicinal plant species lacking reproductive parts upon collection and/or unidentifiable by present morphology (sterile or non-reproductive) plant material. 4. Novel medicinal use and some new ethnopharmacological information of medicinal plants were reported in this study. 5. The consolidated data of this quantitative ethnopharmacology study contributes to the repository of medicinal plant knowledge and the rich source of information for scientists, physicians, and experts such as botanists, taxonomists, phytochemists, pharmacists, environmentalists, Page 57 of 60 conservation biologists, medical doctors, and allied professionals. Conclusion This study concluded the culturally rich ethnomedicinal knowledge and ethnopharmacological practices of the Manobo tribe in Agusan del Sur, Philippines. The results of the study revealed a high diversity of medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo with 122 species utilized in 16 use categories. Like any other ethnolinguistic indigenous group in the country, traditional knowledge may be lost or forgotten due to possible migration, acculturation, and declining interest of the younger generation in response to the increasing availability of commercial over-the-counter medicine. Their medicinal plants are known by a limited number of individuals, mostly by their healers, elders, and tribal officials. This quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation is the first to show the high consensus and relative importance of medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo and provides molecular confirmation of their medicinal plant species with uncertain identity. The combined quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and species confirmation using an integrative molecular approach of medicinal plants used in traditional medicine is a breakthrough for obtaining more detailed and comprehensive findings that will be a valuable contribution to the repository of knowledge. The findings of this study will serve as reference material for future systematic, biochemical, and pharmacological studies. While the findings of this study are promising, regarding new potential therapeutic agents for healthcare improvement, it is of utmost concern to reconsider important medicinal plant species for conservation priorities as part of the government programs and initiatives to perpetuate the national and world heritage of traditional knowledge on medicinal plants used by many diverse cultural communities. Supplementary information Supplementary information accompanies this paper at https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13002-020-00363-7. Additional file 1: Semi-structured questionnaire with Manobo dialect (Minanubu) translation Additional file 2: Fasta file of ITS (nrDNA) sequences Additional file 3: Fasta file of matK (cpDNA) sequences Additional file 4: Fasta file of psbA-trnH (cpDNA) sequences Additional file 5: Fasta file of trnL-F (cpDNA) sequences Acknowledgements We are very grateful to the entire Agusan Manobo community of Bayugan City, Esperanza, and Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, for their active participation and support in the conduct of the study. The first author would like to thank his scholarship grant from the Department of Science and Technology—Accelerated Science and Technology Human Resource Development Program—National Science Consortium (DOST-ASTHRDP-NSC) Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 and the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation as a Junior Researcher. The second author thanks the Department of Health—Philippine Institute of Traditional and Alternative Health Care (DOH-PITAHC) for the funding and the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for a renewed research stay at the University of Bayreuth (Germany) in 2019. Page 58 of 60 7. Authors’ contributions MLD proposed the research study, carried out the fieldwork, molecular work, and wrote the manuscript as the major contributor of the study. DT assisted with species identification and authentication at the Philippine National Herbarium. GJA evaluated the data of fieldwork and molecular work for inclusion in the manuscript. UM and SCS reviewed, analyzed, and gave critical comments. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. 8. Funding The authors would like to express their heartfelt thanks and gratitude for the financial support of the Department of Health—Philippine Institute of Traditional and Alternative Health Care (DOH-PITAHC). 11. Availability of data and materials The authors declare that sequencing data of 24 species identified supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary information files. 9. 10. 12. 13. Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Ethics approval and consent to participate All necessary approval, free prior informed consent, permit, and certification were secured from the local government units (LGUs), provincial government administration, PENRO-LGU and NCIP-LGU of Agusan del Sur, and regional agencies of CARAGA administrative region (Region XIII) obtaining DENR-CARAGA wildlife gratuitous permit (no. R13-2019-12) and NCIPCARAGA certification (no. R13-2019-01). This study secured ethics approval from USTGS-ERC (protocol no. GS-2019-PN007). 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