TREE SPECIES COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE IN UPPER HILL
DIPTEROCARP FOREST OF PAYEH MAGA HIGHLAND, LONG TUYO,
LAWAS
By
FAIQAH BINTI SIHABUDIN
A Project Report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement
for the Degree of Bachelor of Science Bioindustry in the
Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences
Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus
2017
ABSTRACT
A 1 ha of 25 plot was established in Payeh Maga Highland, Long Tuyo, Lawas,
Sarawak at 1263–1457 m in elevation for this study. A total of 662 trees with a
diameter at breast height (DBH) of 10 cm and above were identified, marked and
measured. Their DBH ranged from 10–94.8 cm, where most trees fell into the 10 to
19.9 cm DBH or Class 1 (60.57%) and 0.6% of them fell into Class 9 with DBH over
90 cm. The five largest trees were from the non-dipterocarp family. Tree height was
classified into five class begin with 0 to 9.9 m as Class 1 until 50 to 59.9 m as Class 6
recorded three tallest tree of Castanopsis costata, Calophyllum sp. and Elaeocarpus
pedunculatus. There were 179 species of trees representing 92 genera and 47 families
recorded. Myrtaceae, Elaeocarpaceae and Euphorbiaceae, showed the most dominance
tree families however Dipterocarpaceae marks among the least family distribution.
Shannon-Weiner index (H’) ranged from 3.213 to 4.547, the Simpson index ranged
from 0.006 to 0.181, evenness index ranged from 0.789 to 0.975, and Margalef index
ranged from 3.751 to 7.059. The information on tree species composition at the
highlands of Sarawak has seldom been reported as well as insufficiently known thus
this study will help to document tree species composition and to determine tree stand
structure in upper hill dipterocarp forest.
ii
ABSTRAK
1 hektar daripada 25 plot telah ditubuhkan di Payeh Maga Highland, Long Tuyo,
Lawas, Sarawak pada ketinggian 1263 sehingga1457 m untuk kajian ini. Sebanyak
662 pokok dengan diameter pada paras dada (DBH) 10 cm dan ke atas telah dikenal
pasti, ditanda dan diukur. DBH mereka antara 10–94.8 cm, di mana kebanyakan pokok
termasuk ke dalam 10–19.9 cm DBH atau Kelas 1 (60.57%) dan 0.6% daripada mereka
tergolong di dalam Kelas 9 dengan DBH lebih 90 cm. Lima pokok terbesar adalah dari
keluarga bukan dipterokarpa. Ketinggian pokok telah dikategorikan kepada lima kelas
bermula dengan 0–9.9 m sebagai Kelas 1 sehingga 50–59.9 m sebagai Kelas 6
mencatatkan tiga pokok tertinggi iaitu Castanopsis costata, Calophyllum sp. dan
Elaeocarpus pedunculatus. Terdapat 179 spesies pokok yang mewakili 92 genera dan
47 keluarga direkodkan. Myrtaceae, Elaeokarpaceae dan Euphorbiaceae merupakan
keluarga pokok yang paling banyak namun Dipterokarpaceae menunjukkan antara
penyumbangan famili yang paling kurang. Shannon-Weiner indeks (H ') adalah antara
3.213–4.547, indeks Simpson adalah di antara 0.006–0.181, indeks keserasian antara
0.789–0,975, dan indeks Margalef antara 3.751–7.059. Maklumat mengenai
komposisi spesies pokok di kawasan tanah tinggi di Sarawak jarang dilaporkan dan
juga belum dikenal pasti dengan itu kajian ini akan membantu untuk
mendokumentasikan komposisi spesies pokok dan untuk menentukan struktur
pendirian pokok di atas hutan dipterokarpa bukit.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Praise be to ALLAH S.W.T, with His blessing because willing to give the opportunity
for completing my final year project entitled “Tree Species Composition and Structure
in Upper Hill Dipterocarp Forest of Payeh Maga Highland, Long Tuyo, Lawas”. First
of all, I sincerely want to express my appreciation to my parent, Sihabudin bin Ahmad
and Rosnah binti Mat Rahim for giving a continuous support over this time.
I would like to give special gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Ong Kian Huat, who
faithfully trusting me with the task, giving some valuable advice and assisting me
throughout the time. With his great wisdom, I able to develop the critical aspect of my
work and helps to extend my knowledge in various fields.
My sincere appreciation to all staff from Department of Forestry Science and my
friends, especially Ms. Renee Sherna Laing, Ms. Nur Aishah Wahab, Mr. Miguel
Eduardo Cid, Ms. Janelae Estacio and Ms. Amanina Kamarulzaman for helping me
along the way in making this task successfully.
iv
APPROVAL SHEET
I certify that this research project entitled “Tree Species Composition and Structure in
Upper Hill Dipterocarp Forest of Payeh Maga Highland, Long Tuyo, Lawas” has been
examined and approved as a partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree
Bachelor Science Bioindustry in the Faculty of Agriculture and Food Science
Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus.
__________________________________
Dr. Ong Kian Huat
Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences
Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus
(Supervisor)
________________________________________
Dr. Zamri Bin Rosli
Dean
Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences
Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus
Date:
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
APPROVAL SHEETS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
CHAPTER
1
2
3
4
ii
iii
iv
v
viii
ix
xii
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Significant of Study
1
2
2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Tropical rainforest
2.2 Malaysian forest
2.3 Types of forest in Malaysia
2.4 Upper hill dipterocarp forest
3
5
7
10
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Site description and plot establishment
3.2 Tree enumeration
3.3 Data analysis
13
15
17
RESULTS
4.1 Plot 1
4.2 Plot 2
4.3 Plot 3
4.4 Plot 4
4.5 Plot 5
4.6 Plot 6
4.7 Plot 7
4.8 Plot 8
4.9 Plot 9
4.10 Plot 10
4.11 Plot 11
4.12 Plot 12
4.13 Plot 13
4.14 Plot 14
4.15 Plot 15
4.16 Plot 16
4.17 Plot 17
4.18 Plot 18
4.19 Plot 19
4.20 Plot 20
19
21
23
25
27
29
32
34
37
39
42
45
48
51
53
55
57
59
61
64
vi
4.21
4.22
4.23
4.24
4.25
4.26
4.27
4.28
5
6
Plot 21
Plot 22
Plot 23
Plot 24
Plot 25
One hectare plot
Species diversity index
Importance value index (IVI)
67
69
71
73
75
77
82
82
DISCUSSION
5.1 Tree stand structure
5.2 Tree species composition
5.3 Species diversity and Importance Value Index (IVI)
84
85
88
CONCLUSION
90
REFERENCES
91
PUBLICATION OF THE PROJECT UNDERTAKING
110
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1.
List of 3 forest group in Malaysia
7
2.
List of 4 overall ecological classification of forest
8
3.
Peninsular Malaysia forest class list
9
4.
Sarawak forest class list
9
5.
Sabah forest class list
9
6.
The top species distribution found in Upper Hill Dipterocarp Forest of
Payeh Maga Highland
Species diversity index of Upper Hill Dipterocarp Forest of Payeh
Maga Highland
Main family distribution documented in Upper Hill Dipterocarp Forest
of Payeh Maga Highland
IVI species of Upper Hill Dipterocarp Forest of Payeh Maga Highland
80
7.
8.
9.
viii
80
84
84
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1. 1Tropical rainforest map shows the rainforest location all over the world
5
2. 2Rainforest stratification
11
3. Upper hill dipterocarp forest at Gunung Jerai, Kedah.
11
4. Vegetation zones of main mountain in Malaysia
12
5. Location of Payeh Maga Highland from Lawas town (yellow star)
13
6. Standards points for measurement of d. a) level ground; b) sloping 16
ground; c) uneven ground; d) leaning tree; e) crook at d; f) defect at d;
g) forks at d; h) forks below d; i) buttress root
7. Tree diameter class of Plot 1
20
8. Tree height class of Plot 1
20
9. Forest stands in Plot 1 (20 × 20 m)
21
10. Tree diameter class of Plot 2
22
11. Tree height class of Plot 2
22
12. Forest stands in Plot 2 (20 × 20 m)
23
13. Tree diameter class of Plot 3
24
14. Tree height class of Plot 3
24
15. Forest stands in Plot 3 (20 × 20 m)
25
16. Tree diameter class of Plot 4
26
17. Tree height class of Plot 4
26
18. Forest stands in Plot 4 (20 × 20 m)
27
19. Tree diameter class of Plot 5
28
20. Tree height class of Plot 5
28
21. Forest stands in Plot 5 (20 × 20 m)
29
22. Tree diameter class of Plot 6
30
23. Tree height class of Plot 6
30
24. Forest stands in Plot 6 (20 × 20 m)
31
25. Tree diameter class of Plot 7
32
26. Tree height class of Plot 7
33
27. Forest stands in Plot 7 (20 × 20 m)
33
28. Tree diameter class of Plot 8
35
29. Tree height class of Plot 8
35
30. Forest stands in Plot 8 (20 × 20 m)
36
31. Tree diameter class of Plot 9
37
32. Tree height class of Plot 9
38
33. Forest stands in Plot 9 (20 × 20 m)
38
34. Tree diameter class of Plot 10
40
35. Tree height class of Plot 10
40
36. Forest stands in Plot 10 (20 × 20 m)
41
37. Tree diameter class of Plot 11
43
ix
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
Tree height class of Plot 11
Forest stands in Plot 11 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 12
Tree height class of Plot 12
Forest stands in Plot 12 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 13
Tree height class of Plot 13
Forest stands in Plot 13 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 14
Tree height class of Plot 14
Forest stands in Plot 14 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 15
Tree height class of Plot 15
Forest stands in Plot 15 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 16
Tree height class of Plot 16
Forest stands in Plot 16 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 17
Tree height class of Plot 17
Forest stands in Plot 17 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 18
Tree height class of Plot 18
Forest stands in Plot 18 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 19
Tree height class of Plot 19
Forest stands in Plot 19 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 20
Tree height class of Plot 20
Forest stands in Plot 20 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 21
Tree height class of Plot 21
Forest stands in Plot 21 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 22
Tree height class of Plot 22
Forest stands in Plot 22 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 23
Tree height class of Plot 23
Forest stands in Plot 23 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of Plot 24
Tree height class of Plot 24
Forest stands in Plot 24 (20 × 20 m)
x
43
44
46
46
47
49
49
50
51
52
52
53
54
54
55
56
56
57
58
58
59
60
60
62
62
63
65
65
66
67
68
68
69
70
70
71
72
72
73
74
74
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
Tree diameter class of Plot 25
Tree height class of Plot 25
Forest stands in Plot 25 (20 × 20 m)
Tree diameter class of all individual tree from 25 plot
Tree height class of all individual tree from 25 plot
xi
75
76
76
80
81
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ha
%
°C
m
ft.
km
mm
cm
PRF
UPMKB
FAO
HoB
GPS
DBH
DOB
SVS
Hectare
Percentage
Celcius
Meter
Feet
Kilometer
Milimeter
Centimeter
Permanent Reserved Forest
Universiti Putra Malysia Bintulu Campus,
Sarawak
Food and Agriculture Organization
Heart of Borneo
Global Positioning System
Diameter breast height
Diameter outside bark
Stand Visualization System
xii
CHAPTER I
1.1 Background
Forest can be defined as a large land area at least 0.5 ha and covered by tree canopy of
more than 10% with trees height with 5 m and above, hence agricultural production,
including agroforestry systems or urban land use, particularly residential development
are excluded from the definition of forest (MacDicken, 2012). This is a standard forest
definition when Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) assimilated the 10% tree
canopy for describing the minimal canopy mass based on naturally tree growth (Davis
and Holmgren, 2000).
The wood-based industries in Southeast Asia are depending on dipterocarp forests for
the supply of raw materials. Dipterocarp forest is substantially significant for
commercial timber stock at 70% of timber stock is used to be the Southeast Asia
foundation in the particular timber industry (Vivekanandan and Zabala, 1993).
Dipterocarp forest is divided into three main recognized types such as lowland
dipterocarp forest, hill dipterocarp forest and upper hill dipterocarp forest or usually
known as upper dipterocarp forest (WWF, 2017).
Thang (2013) claimed that upper dipterocarp forest approximately exists between the
ranges of 750 to 1200 m and might be found on many narrow belts of coastal ranges or
on distant mountains, nevertheless tree species composition is distinct unlikely founded
in hill dipterocarp forests. This is because the upper dipterocarp forest has some
dipterocarp species leading to less in quantity, reduced density and basal area (Ghazoul,
2016).
1
1.2 Objectives
The aims of the study are:
1.
To document tree species composition in upper hill dipterocarp forest of
Payeh Maga Highland, Long Tuyo, Lawas.
2.
To determine tree stand structure in upper hill dipterocarp forest of Payeh
Maga Highland, Long Tuyo, Lawas.
1.3 Significant of study
This study was conducted to record the species composition of upper hill dipterocarp
forest in Sarawak, precisely in Payeh Maga Highland, Lawas as information on tree
species composition at the highlands of Sarawak has seldom been reported. Moreover
one of the unique features of Payeh Maga believes to be the only highland area in the
state covered with peat forest and insufficiently known. This study will provide
information on tree stand structure in the upper hill dipterocarp forest of Payeh Maga
because tree diversity is vital to the total tropical rainforest diversity as trees provide
resources and habitat structure for other forest species (Cannon et al., 1998).
Quantitative inventory from this study brings advantageous information proposed to
forestry aspects assessment and expand the ecological identification knowledge
towards useful species in addition to concern special species leading to forest
biodiversity sustainability attempt in the future (Suratman, 2012).
2
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Tropical rainforest
Generally, there are three major types of forests in the world, classed according to the
latitude specifically tropical forest, temperate forest, and taiga forest. Tropical forest is
greatly influenced by rainfall distribution due to their location is close to the equator,
making the evaporation rate is higher (Smith, 2006). Tropical rainforest is allocated
into two categories for instance tropical broad-leaved evergreen forests and tropical
broad-leaved deciduous forests with tropical broad-leaved evergreen forest distribution
can be found at Amazon Basin, Panama isthmus, southern Mexico, Congo Basin,
southern fringe of West Africa, southeast coast of India, Malaysia, Indonesia as well as
Papua New Guinea (Gower et al., 2003).
These forests are globally outstanding for both bird and plant richness, with more than
380 birds and an estimated 10,000 plant species found within its boundaries.
Unfortunately, these forests have been rapidly converted to oil palm plantations or
commercially logged at unprecedented rates over the past ten years (WWF, 2017).
Based on the Köppen climate zone system, this ecoregion falls in the tropical wet
climate zone (National Geographic Society, 1999). Monthly rainfall exceeds 200 mm
year-round, and the temperature rarely fluctuates more than 10°C. The region's stable
climatic conditions have given rise to some of the world's richest assemblage of
flowering plants. Forests contain a high diversity of tree species, and dominant species
are uncommon. As many as 240 different tree species can grow within 1 ha, with
another 120 in the hectare adjacent (Ashton, 1989; Kartawinata et al., 1981).
3
Dipterocarpus and Shorea genus are important for south-eastern Asian commercial
timber with more than 200 species of trees per ha making it challenging to select
samples of representatives in some area since tropical rainforest hold large number of
families, genera and species. The timber species are often sold in mass with no
individual species identification. Tropical rainforest embrace the most complex
biodiverse ecosystems and have high level of endemism of all. There is little forest litter
on the forest floor as the decomposition process happen very rapidly while forest soil
quickly can lose their fertility if land clearing take place (Richards, 1996; Sands, 2013;
Whitmore, 1998). Majority of the plants growing in these forest are woody and trees
dimensions comprises seedling, sapling, shrubs and young woody climbers thus making
it one of it outstanding features. Forest lower layers or forest floor are composed of
different plant additionally the species composition is enormous with co-dominant
species and numerous dominant species is termed mixed forest yet the forest trees are
uniformly whole with straight trunk, commonly base plank buttresses, large leaves with
entire or nearly entire margins, compound leaves tend to have approximate size and
shape of leaflets, and greenish or whitish flowers (Richards, 1996).
Tropical rainforest signifies to physiognomically with typical features being similar, 25
m and above in height with evergreen canopy dominated by mesophyll-sized leaves,
richness of thick stemmed woody climbers, both herbaceous and woody epiphytes
despite the fact that the distinctive of equatorial tropics is averagely 27oC air
temperature throughout the year with normally 2000 mm rainfall per annum and
constantly have high relative humidity eventually making these forest can withstand
dry periods whether its prolonged, severe or droughts as ground water storage can be
retrieved by the trees (Gower et al., 2003; Turner, 2001). Tropical rainforest can be
found on all of the continents exist within the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn (Figure
4
1) such as the American, African, and Indo-Malesian (India, Thailand, Malaysia,
Indonesia, the Philippines, and Papua New Guinea) (Flenley, 1981; Rietbergen, 1993).
The tropical forest can be determined by physical barriers, for example Andean
mountains at South America and meeting points of Asian- and Australasian-dominated
biotas in central Indonesia (Johns, 1997).
Figure 1: Tropical rainforest map shows the rainforest location all over the world
(Source: http://www.smithlifescience.com/expertrainforest.htm)
2.2 Malaysian forest
Malaysia climate are uniform temperature, high humidity, and copious rainfall while
winds are normally in light movement. Malaysia is located in the area of equatorial
doldrum where northern hemisphere winds blow to the southwest and collide with
southern hemisphere making the wind to go through northeast (MetMalaysia, 2017).
The annual rainfall pattern shows that October and November are the months with
maximum rainfalls whereas February is the month with the minimum rainfall. The
month of March, April and May is maximum and June to July is minimum rainfalls are
5
absent (Jabatan Meteorologi Malaysia, 2015). The variation of Malaysia rainfall is
diverse and heavily influenced by monsoon. The rainy season in Malaysia occurred in
December until March. Malaysia influenced by two major monsoon, Northeast
monsoon and southwest monsoon.
In Sarawak, the wettest season appears from October to March as the northeast
monsoon brings a heavy rain. The mean annual rainfall is 3000 mm and Sabah and
Sarawak have more rainfall over 3000 mm compared to peninsular Malaysia. Most
precipitation is detected in the north and west part of Malaysia due to heavy moisturized
monsoon cloud when they are reached to the destination (Hua, 2013).
Malaysia is a blessed country with numerous kinds of natural resources and ranked 7th
position from 17 megadiverse countries in the world with 5% of the world’s flora
species and 20% of the world’s fauna species by Conservation International in 1998
(Kumar, 2015; Latiff, 1994).
Megadiversity countries are the countries possess more than 1% of the world’s plants
as endemics and marine ecosystems lies within its borders (Mittermeier et al., 2014).
On the other hand, Malaysia concentration of vascular plants placed 14th in the world
as 15500 species were documented in 2004 together with 2500 tree species and 120 tree
species are being utilized for timber production (Choy, 2015; Thang, 2013).
Peninsular Malaysia has an area of 131,600 km2 and Borneo 642,000 km2 with the
precise location is between 2oN and 6oN longitude (Brookfield et al., 1995: Dale, 1963).
A huge amount of Malaysian forest is entitled as the Permanent Reserved Forest (PRF)
6
with an estimated 14.3 million ha or 44% of total land area. Basically the portion were
divided as in total 4.7 million ha of PRF area found in Peninsular Malaysia while in
Sabah and Sarawak, the areas are 3.6 and 6.0 million ha respectively (Parlan et al.,
2011).
2.3 Types of forest in Malaysia
The Malayan flora have the richest or abundant in the world as the most distinctive
family of Malayan forests is the Dipterocarpaceae located and distributed in Borneo.
This third largest island on earth makes 1% of worlds land and have overall of 6% world
biodiversity especially in tropical rainforest. Furthermore, the range of species exist in
Borneo are from Orang utans to Rafflesia flowers are endemic but the diversity is
declining over the past three decades (WWF, 2016). Malaysia forest were classified by
Foxworthy (1927) covered into three general groups-littoral, lowland, and mountain or
hill forest which then being subdivided (Table 1). However Symington (1943) made up
the first complete ecological classification on main forest types with key reference
towards where dipterocarps exist (Table 2).
Table 1: List of 3 forest group in Malaysia
a) beach forests
b) mangrove swamps
(2) Lowland forests
a) fresh water swamp forest
b) ‘Lopak’ or seasonal swamp forest
c) ‘Belukar’ or secondary forests
d) high forest (above 2000 ft. above sea level)
(3) Hill forests
a) mid mountain forests (above 2000 ft. above sea
level)
b) high mountain forest
c) ridge forests
(1) Littoral forest
7
Table 2: List of 4 overall ecological classification of forest
I.
Climatic climax
formations
II.
Edaphic climax
formations
III.
Biotic climax
formations
Unstable forests
or forests of
uncertain
ecological
status
IV.
(1) Lowland
dipterocarp
forest
(2) Hill dipterocarp forest
(3) Upper dipterocarp forest
(4) Montane oak forests
(5) Montane
ericaceous
forests
(6) Mangrove
swamp
forests
(7) Beach forests
(8) Peat swamp forests
(9) Riparian fringers
(10) Other swamp forests
(11) Heath forests
(12) Limestone forests
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
a)
b)
c)
d)
Malayan type
Burmese type
Inland type
Coastal type
Riparian fringers consists of
a) Brackish type
b) Freshwater tidal type
c) Gallery forests
d) Saraca streams
e) Basong
(Alstonia
spathulata) swamps
f) Malabira
(Fagraea
crenulata) swamps
g) Bungor (Lagerstroemia)
swamps
h) ‘Lopak’
(seasonal
swamps)
Schima bamboo forests
Gelam (Melaleuca leucadendron) swamp forest
Coastal padang formation
Adinandra forests
Regenerated forests
There are 5.80 million ha of forest area in Peninsular Malaysia with 9 classes (Table 3).
Sarawak forest consist of 3 class of 7 million ha area (Table 4). The total of PRF
gazetted in Sabah’s land is 3.6 million ha governed by Forest Enactment 1968 under
Sabah Forestry Department jurisdiction. Totally Protected Areas (TPAs) area in Sabah
is 0.27 million hectares including PRFs Class I, VI, VII (Table 5). Area outside PRF
under Sabah Parks, Wildlife Sanctuary and Wildlife Conservation are estimated to be
in 1.55 ha or 21% of Sabah’s land mass (Sabah Forestry Department, 2015).
8
Table 3: Peninsular Malaysia forest class list
Forest class
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Class VI
Class VII
Class IX
Class X
Class XI
Class XII
Peninsular Malaysia PRF
Timber production forest under sustained yield
Soil protection forest
Soil reclamation forest
Flood control forest
Water catchment forest
Forest sanctuary for wild life
Virgin jungle reserved forest
Amenity forest
Education forest
Research forest
Forest for federal purposes
Table 4: Sarawak forest class list
Forest class
Class I
Class II
Class III
Sarawak PRF covering area
6 million ha of Permanent including Forest Estate, Forest
Reserves, Protected Forests and Communal Forests
1 million ha of Totally Protected Areas are National Parks,
Wildlife Sanctuaries and Nature Reserves
Stateland Forest
Table 5: Sabah forest class list
Forest class
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Class VI
Class VII
Sabah PRF covering area
1.04 million ha of Protection Forest
2.03 million ha of Commercial Forest
4,673 ha of Domestic Forest
12,409.45 ha of Amenity Forest
281,374.56 ha of Mangrove Forest
106,801.14 ha of Virgin Jungle Reserve
137,735.00 ha of Wildlife Reserve
9
2.4 Upper hill dipterocarp forest
This kind of forest is found on the higher hills 1200 m above sea level with altered
species than found in the hill dipterocarp forest as the forest structure at canopy level is
much even and the upper layer is less tall (24 m to 30.5 m) rarely less than 152.4 cm of
girth with few buttress root trees. Separate individuals of second and upper tree layers
are often less distinct (Figure 4).
The Dipterocarpaceae family is signified by only a few species at high elevation such
as Shorea platyclados, Callophylum spp. (C. coriaceum, C. floribundum, and C.
symingtonianum), Dipterocarpus costatus, Dipterocarpus retusus, Melanorrhoea spp.,
Shorea ciliate, Shorea ovata, Shorea submontana, are familiar in the upper hill
dipterocarp forest. Additionally, shrub layer in this forest is characterised by the
existence of rattans and dwarf palms, ground flora of Argostemma species from
Rubiaceae, Sonerila species by Melastomataceae, fern and leaf litter amount is fair.
Cratoxylon and Calophyllum species are common with 30 to 40 ft. tall because the
forest is dense and also soil is shallow on ridges (Wyatt-Smith, 1963).
There are 4 forest strata in the tropical rainforest begin with ground level or known as
forest floor is at 0 to 10 m height attached with shrub layer normally start at 5 m,
undercanopy layer also identified as understory layer grows up to 20 m height,
maincanopy or canopy layer is at 30 m to 40 m and emergents consist of the tallest trees
were above 40 m height (Figure 2). Upper attitudinal limits the lowland dipterocarp
formation predominantly shown by the upper hill dipterocarp forest at 867 m on
Gunung Jerai peak at Kedah (Figure 3).
10
Figure 2: Rainforest stratification
Figure 3: Upper hill dipterocarp forest at Gunung Jerai, Kedah.
11
Figure 4: Vegetation zones of main mountain in Malaysia
12
CHAPTER III
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Site description and plot establishment
The tree species composition study was carried out in the upper hill dipterocarp forest
of Payeh Maga, Long Tuyo, Lawas, Sarawak situated at the far north east of Sarawak
within areas dedicated under the Heart of Borneo (HoB) Initiatives. Payeh Maga can
be reached after 2 hours of driving from Lawas town (70 km) by using logging track
(yellow star marking on Figure 5).
Figure 5: Location of Payeh Maga Highland from Lawas town (yellow star)
The HoB Initiatives is the program for biodiversity conservation where forests on the
island remain intact and it is one of the largest transboundary rainforests in the world
as Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia and Malaysia were involved not only conserving
nature but also serving and defence natives livelihood from loggers or outsiders (WWF,
2016). Part of Payeh Maga forest was logged in lowland areas in 1984 thus enhancing
new forest regeneration, however, the upper forest area is still intact remains because
irregular weather pattern existed and improper logging method application (Yap, 2014).
13
This area has been utilized by the local Lun Bawang community for sources of
livelihoods for generations at their residence known as Long Tuyo. Payeh Maga or
known as swampy highlands in the Lun Bawang language and has three peaks mainly
Gunung Doa stands at 570 m, Gunung Tuyo is 1752 m on the east side and Gunung
Matallan is 1828 m of the highest peak located in the west quadrant. Probably, the peat
forest is the highest peat forest founded in the highland areas in Sarawak at the altitude
between 1400 m and 1600 m as Payeh Maga consists of four major vegetation’s – hill
dipterocarp forest, sub-montane forest, peat forest and mossy forest (Mohamad, 2016).
There are two campsites namely Camp One and Camp Two.
A total of 25 experimental plots with the size of 20 × 20 m were established within the
upper hill dipterocarp forest area. The plots were about 11 km from the main log road
to Ba’kelalan. Each plot was subdivided into four smaller subplots and plot location
was marked by using Global Positioning System (GPS) handheld for mapping or
surveying purpose.
14
3.2 Tree enumeration
Trees with 10 cm diameter breast height (d) at 1.3 m above ground height were
measured, tagged, and identified (Figure 6). Diameter word denotes the circular in cross
section of the trees or often assumed to be diameter outside bark (DOB) and was
traditionally given the symbol d (IUFRO, 1959). Tree diameter was measured by using
diameter tape whereas clinometer was used to measure tree heights and slope.
Recommended standard procedures are as follows (Husch et al., 2003):
a) Measure 1.3 m above ground height on uphill tree side or when trees are on uneven
ground.
b) Leaning tree measurement have to be measured parallel on the high side of the tree.
c) When the tree has an abnormality (crook, limb and bulge), it is better to take
measurement above the abnormality.
d) When the tree has 2 or more stems below d, separate the measuring process
according to the number of trunks and when the tree forks at or above d measure it as
one tree.
e)
When a tree has buttress root more than 1 m, measure the tree trunk at 30 cm after
the buttress root.
f)
When a tree has a paint mark on d, it is considered to measure at the top of paint
mark.
15
Figure 6: Standards points for measurement of d. a) level ground; b) sloping ground; c)
uneven ground; d) leaning tree; e) crook at d; f) defect at d; g) forks at d; h) forks below
d; i) buttress root
Each tree with 10 cm d and above were mapped using the traverse method. Location of
each tree was determined by measuring the distant and angle using compass from a
known location (a plot corner). The height of a tree was determined by measuring slope
angle using clinometer and distant from a tree. Calculation of height (h) is determining
using following formula:
ℎ=
(upper slope+lower slope)%
100
× 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(1)
The botanical specimens had been taken to the laboratory or to the herbarium section
of the Department of Forestry Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak
Campus if field identification is not possible. The field identification of plant guide
book was used such as Forester's Manual of Dipterocarps and Pocket Check List of
16
Timber Trees to assist the process of naming and detect the right species or genus in
the forest.
3.3 Data analysis
Based on the results from the individuals recorded in the discrete plot samples,
vegetation data were quantitatively analysed for basal area per tree, tree height reading,
crown measurement, and tree location. Tree structure composition was analysed by
comparing the tree diameter and tree height distribution classes correspondingly. The
data obtained were used to compute community indices such as species diversity (H’)
of different tree species and was calculated using the Shannon-Weiner Index (Shannon
and Weiner 1963):
H’ = -Ʃ (ni/n) / n(ni/n)
(2)
Where, ni/n denotes the importance probability of each species in a population, ni is the
importance of the value of species, and n is the total number of individuals of all species
in that vegetation type.
Species dominance (Cd) means a concentration of dominance were calculated from the
data following the index by Simpson (1949):
Cd = Ʃ (ni/n)
(3)
Where, ni and n are the same as those for Shannon-Weiner information function.
Equitability of evenness (e) refers to the degree of relative dominance of each species
in that area. The data were calculated according to Pielou (1966) as:
Evenness (e) = H’/log S
Where, H’= Shannon index, S = number of species.
17
(4)
Species richness (d) was determined by Margalef index (1968) as:
d = S = log N
(5)
Where, S is the number of species and N is the number of individuals.
The sum of relative frequency, relative density, and relative dominance of tree species
will help to determine the importance value index (IVI). The index is used to determine
the overall importance of each species in the community structure (Curtis and McIntosh
1950). Total basal area for every species was calculated from the sum of total dbh by
using the formula πd2/40000 (m2/ha). The number of plants within the quadrats
(abundance), its influence on the other species through its competition, shading or
aggressiveness (dominance), and its contribution to the community via its distribution
(frequency) is essential (Gibbs, 1966).
𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 =
𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 =
𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐥𝐨𝐭𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐰𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐡 𝐚 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐬
(6)
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐝
number of a species
(7)
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐝
𝐝𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 =
total basal area 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐬
(8)
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐝
𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 =
𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 =
𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐬
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐬
density of a species
total density of all species
𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐝𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 =
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
× 100
dominance of a species
total dominance of all species
× 100
(9)
(10)
(11)
The Stand Visualization System (SVS) was used to generate, project and describe tree
stand conditions of each plot (Forest Service, 2017).
18
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
4.1 Plot 1
A total of 30 individual tree species was found in Plot 1 which comprise about 20
species and 14 families. The dominant species found in this plot were Syzygium sp.,
Ardisia sp. and Horsfieldia grandis. The most dominate family was Myrtaceae which
is non dipterocarp family.
There were 15 individual trees in the 10–19.9 cm, eight individual trees in the 20–29.9
cm, three individual trees in the 30–39.9 cm, two individual trees in the 40–49.9 cm,
one tree in the 50–59.9 cm and one tree in the 60–69.9 cm diameter class. Majority of
trees found in this plot have diameter less than 30 cm (Figure 7). In this plot, 18
individual trees in the 10–19.9 m, seven individual trees in 20–29.9 m, and five
individual trees in 30–39.9 m height class meanwhile the highest height of 34.13 m was
recorded by Lithocarpus lucidus whereas the lowest height of 12.99 m was recorded by
Syzigium sp. (Figure 8).
There were 3 view layout derived from SVS showing the perspective view on the left
side, while on the upper right side is an overhead view, and lower rightside is profile
view for Plot 1 (Figure 9). The stand profile indicate two strata of trees within the plot.
Gaps were obviously observed between tree stands especially on the north-east side of
the plot.
19
16
Number of trees
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
15
20-29.9 cm
8
30-39.9 cm
3
40-49.9 cm
2
50-59.9 cm
1
60-69.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 7: Tree diameter class of Plot 1
20
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
18
20-29.9 m
7
Tree height (m)
Figure 8: Tree height class of Plot 1
20
30-39.9 m
5
Figure 9: Forest stand in Plot 1 (20 × 20 m)
4.2 Plot 2
In this plot, a total of 26 individual trees from 25 species and 12 families were recorded.
The main species found in Plot 2 were Syzigium sp., and Elaeocarpus sp. The dominant
family was Euphorbiaceae.
There were 16 individual trees in the 10–19.9 cm, eight individual trees in the 20–29.9
cm, and two individual trees in the 30–39.9 cm diameter class. Majority of trees found
in this plot have diameter less than 30 cm (Figure 10).
In this plot, majority of trees (15 individuals) were found in the 10–19.9 m. The highest
height of 36.79 m was recorded by Tristaniopsis beccarii whereas the lowest tree was
Lindera lucida with only 2.17 m (Figure 11).
21
Generally Plot 2 have two forest strata and tree stems distributed evenly with the plots.
However biggest trees were found on the south-eastern side of the plot (Figure 12).
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
16
20-29.9 cm
8
30-39.9 cm
2
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 10: Tree diameter class of Plot 2
16
Number of trees
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
0-9.9 m
1
10-19.9 m
15
20-29.9 m
9
Tree height (m)
Figure 11: Tree height class of Plot 2
22
30-39.9 m
1
Figure 12: Forest stand in Plot 2 (20 × 20 m)
4.3 Plot 3
There were 22 individual trees species found in Plot 3. The commonly found species
were Palaquium gutta, Diospyros lanceifolia, and Schima wallichii. Sapotaceae is the
dominant family can be found in this plot from a total of 11 families recorded.
Majority of trees (17 individuals or 77.3%) found in this plot have diameter less than
30 cm with only two trees recorded diameter more than 40 cm. The largest tree was
Lithocarpus sundaicus with diameter of 69.2 cm (Figure 13).
In this plot, 13 individual trees was found in the 10–19.9 m, seven individual trees in
20–29.9 m and two individual trees in 30–39.9 m height class (Figure 14).
23
Stand Visualisation System projection indicated that there was two forest strata within
this forest stand in Plot 3. A clear gap between tree stems was observed in the plot
(Figure 15).
14
Number of trees
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
12
20-29.9 cm
5
30-39.9 cm
3
40-49.9 cm
1
60-69.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 13: Tree diameter class of Plot 3
14
Number of trees
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
13
20-29.9 m
7
Tree height (m)
Figure 14: Tree height class of Plot 3
24
30-39.9 m
2
Figure 15: Forest stand in Plot 3 (20 × 20 m)
4.4 Plot 4
A total of 34 individual trees species was found in Plot 4 which comprise of 18 species
and 11 families. The dominant species found in this plot were Tristaniopsis beccarii,
Syzygium sp., and Gonystylus macrophyllus. The most dominate family in this plot was
Myrtaceae.
There were 20 individual trees in the 10–19.9 cm diameter class making up 58.82% of
total number of tree found in this plot. In the largest class diameter, seven individuals
were recorded (Figure 16).
Most of the trees (30 individuals) in this plot have height less than 30 m. Among four
trees found in the 30–39.9 m height class, Lithocarpus conocarpus was the taller tree
25
with height of 37.33 m (Figure 17). Tree stems in the plot were evenly distributed with
two clear forest strata (Figure 18).
25
Number of trees
20
15
10
5
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
20
20-29.9 cm
4
30-39.9 cm
2
40-49.9 cm
7
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 16: Tree diameter class of Plot 4
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
14
20-29.9 m
16
Tree height (m)
Figure 17: Tree height class of Plot 4
26
30-39.9 m
4
Figure 18: Forest stand in Plot 4 (20 × 20 m)
4.5 Plot 5
The main species found in Plot 5 was Syzigium sp. The dominant family was Myrtaceae.
In this plot, a total of 23 individual trees from 13 species and 9 families were recorded.
There were only six trees have diameter of 30 cm or more in this plot. The majority of
stems (52.2%) was found in the 10–19.9 cm diameter class. The largest tree was
Elaeocarpus velatonii with diameter of 60.1 cm (Figure 19).
In plot 5, Horsfieldia grandis was the shortest tree with height of only 12.95 m. Only
five individual trees found in 30–39.9 m height class in this plot (Figure 20).
27
A clear three layers of forest strata were observed in Plot 5. Trees were distributed
evenly with no gap in between them (Figure 21).
14
Number of trees
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
12
20-29.9 cm
5
30-39.9 cm
2
40-49.9 cm
1
50-59.9 cm
2
60-69.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 19: Tree diameter class of Plot 5
12
Number of trees
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
8
20-29.9 m
10
Tree height (m)
Figure 20: Tree height class of Plot 5
28
30-39.9 m
5
Figure 21: Forest stand in Plot 5 (20 × 20 m)
4.6 Plot 6
There were 38 individual tree species found in Plot 6. The commonly found species
were Syzygium sp., Endiandra rubescens, and Horsfieldia grandis. Myrtaceae is the
most dominant family in this plot from a total of 16 families recorded.
There were 26 or 68.4% trees in the 10–19.9 cm class diameter and one individual tree
in the 80–89.9 cm diameter class i.e. Shorea crassa of 82.7 cm (Figure 22). In this plot,
most of the trees (25 individuals) were found in 10–19.9 m height class with Syzygium
sp. Recorded the highest height of 33.6 m whereas the lowest was recorded by
Diospyros evena of 2.06 m (Figure 23).
29
Generally Plot 6 have two forest strata and tree stems were distributed uniformly within
the plots (Figure 24).
30
20
15
10
5
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
26
20-29.9 cm
9
40-49.9 cm
1
60-69.9 cm
1
80-89.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 22: Tree diameter class of Plot 6
30
25
Number of trees
Number of trees
25
20
15
10
5
0
Trees
0-9.9 m
1
10-19.9 m
25
20-29.9 m
11
Tree height (m)
Figure 23: Tree height class of Plot 6
30
30-39.9 m
1
Figure 24: Forest stand in Plot 6 (20 × 20 m)
31
4.7 Plot 7
A total of 30 individual tree species was found in Plot 7 which comprise about 15
species and 10 families. The dominant species found in this plot were Tristaniopsis
beccarii, Syzygium sp. and Palaquium gutta. The most dominate family was Myrtaceae
which is a non-dipterocarp family.
There were 26 trees recorded diameter lower than 30 cm and only two individual trees
in the 40–49.9 cm diameter class with the largest tree is 45.1 cm Schima wallichii
(Figure 25). In this plot, only four trees recorded height of more than 20 m. The highest
tree was Schima wallichii with 32.89 m in height while Garcinia sp. was the lowest
with 15.56 m (Figure 26).
The stand profile of this plot revealed two strata of trees and there was a gap between
tree stems in the middle of the plot (Figure 27).
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
16
20-29.9 cm
10
30-39.9 cm
2
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 25: Tree diameter class of Plot 7
32
40-49.9 cm
2
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
16
20-29.9 m
13
30-39.9 m
1
Tree height (m)
Figure 26: Tree height class of Plot 7
Figure 27: Forest stand in Plot 7 (20 × 20 m)
33
4.8 Plot 8
In this plot, a total of 36 individual trees which comprised of 20 species and 14 families
were recorded. The main species found in Plot 8 were Syzigium sp., Tristaniopsis
beccarii, and Alseodaphne borneensis. The dominant family was Myrtaceae.
Most of the trees found in this plot have diameter lower than 20 cm only 27.8% or 10
stems have diameter of 20 cm or more. The largest tree was Syzygium sp. with diameter
of 75 cm (Figure 28).
The majority of the trees (72.2%) was found in 10–19.9 cm diameter class and only one
individuals in the 40–49.9 m height class. The highest height was 41.17 m recorded by
Campnosperma auricultum (Figure 29).
Stand Visualisation System projection indicated that there was two forest strata within
the forest stand in Plot 8. A clear gap between tree stems was observed in the plot
between Campnosperma auricultum and Myristica borneensis (Figure 30).
34
30
Number of trees
25
20
15
10
5
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
26
20-29.9 cm
2
30-39.9 cm
4
40-49.9 cm
2
50-59.9 cm
1
70-79.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 28: Tree diameter class of Plot 8
30
Number of trees
25
20
15
10
5
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
27
20-29.9 m
7
30-39.9 m
1
Tree height (m)
Figure 29: Tree height class of Plot 8
35
40-49.9 m
1
Figure 30: Forest stand in Plot 8 (20 × 20 m)
36
4.9 Plot 9
The commonly found species were Syzygium sp., Alseodaphne sp., and Lithocarpus
lucidus. Myrtaceae is the dominant family found in this plot from a total of 11 families
recorded. There were 43 individual tree species found in Plot 9.
There were 32 individual trees in the 10–19.9 cm diameter class comprise 74.4% of
total number of tree found. Only two trees have more than 40 cm diameter and the
largest tree was recorded by Syzigium sp. with 52 cm (Figure 31).
The highest tree was Dehaasia corynantha whereas the lowest was Syzygium sp. in Plot
9. The majority of trees have height less 20 m in this plot and only individual found in
30–39.9 m height class (Figure 32).
Tree stems in the plot were randomly distributed with three clear forest strata (Figure
33).
35
Number of trees
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
32
20-29.9 cm
7
30-39.9 cm
2
40-49.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 31: Tree diameter class of Plot 9
37
50-59.9 cm
1
30
Number of trees
25
20
15
10
5
0
Trees
0-9.9 m
24
10-19.9 m
18
20-29.9 m
1
Tree height (m)
Figure 32: Tree height class of Plot 9
Figure 33: Forest stand in Plot 9 (20 × 20 m)
38
4.10 Plot 10
The most dominate family was Myrtaceae which is a non-dipterocarp family. A total of
32 individual tree species was found in Plot 10 which comprise about 22 species and
14 families. The dominant species found in this plot were Tristaniopsis beccarii,
Syzygium sp. and Palaquium gutta.
There were 17 individual trees in the 10–19.9 cm diameter class and nine trees (28.1%)
have diameter of 30 cm or more. Syzigium sp. was the largest tree found in this plot
with diameter of 66 cm (Figure 34).
Of the total 32 trees found in Plot 10, 21 individuals or 65.6% were found in the 10–
19.9 m height class. The highest tree have a height of 33.01 m was recorded by Garcinia
sp. (Figure 35).
A clear three layers of forest strata were observed in Plot 10. Trees were distributed
evenly within the plot (Figure 36).
39
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
17
20-29.9 cm
5
30-39.9 cm
5
40-49.9 cm
3
60-69.9 cm
2
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 34: Tree diameter class of Plot 10
25
Number of trees
20
15
10
5
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
21
20-29.9 m
9
Tree height (m)
Figure 35: Tree height class of Plot 10
40
30-39.9 m
2
Figure 36: Forest stand in Plot 10 (20 × 20 m)
41
4.11 Plot 11
A total of 28 individual tree species was found in Plot 11 which comprise about 22
species and 19 families. The dominant species found in this plot were Syzigium sp.,
Diospyros siamang, and Lithocarpus conocarpus. The most dominate family was
Myrtaceae which is non dipterocarp family.
There were 19 individual trees in the 10–19.9 cm, eight individual trees in the 20–59.9
cm, and one tree which is the largest diameter of 82.7 cm by Shorea crassa was
recorded in the 90–99.9 cm diameter class. Majority of trees found in this plot have
diameter less than 30 cm (Figure 37). In this plot, 16 individual trees in the 10–19.9 m,
and 12 individual trees in 20–49.9 m, meanwhile Calophyllum javanicum hold the
highest height of 47.15 m whereas the lowest height of 12.26 m was recorded by
Syzygium sp. (Figure 38).
Forest stand in Plot 11 can be said to have two forest strata and tree crown of tallest tree
Calophyllum javanicum and Lithocarpus andersonii are obviously seen at North side
of plot (Figure 39).
42
20
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
19
20-29.9 cm
4
40-49.9 cm
2
50-59.9 cm
2
90-99.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 37: Tree diameter class of Plot 11
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
16
20-29.9 m
8
30-39.9 m
3
Tree height (m)
Figure 38: Tree height class of Plot 11
43
40-49.9 m
1
Figure 39: Forest stand in Plot 11 (20 × 20 m)
44
4.12 Plot 12
In this plot, a total of 30 individual trees from 17 species and 8 families were recorded.
The commonly found species were Syzygium sp., Palaquium sericeum, and
Tristaniopsis beccarii. Myrtaceae is the dominant family can be found in this plot.
There were 15 individual trees in the 10–19.9 cm and 15 individual trees in the 20–59.9
cm diameter class. Tristaniopsis beccarii that has the largest diameter of 55.6 cm.
(Figure 40).
In this plot, 14 trees were found in the 10–19.9 m and majority of trees found in this
plot have height more than 20 cm. Litsea castanea have the lowest height of 12.30 m
whereas Syzygium sp. hold the highest height of 37.06 m (Figure 41).
The stand profile interpreted two strata of trees within the plot where tree stands were
lightly distributed with small hole shape in between them. Three view layout derived
from SVS showing the perspective view on the left side, while on the upper right side
is an overhead view, and lower rightside is profile view for Plot 12 (Figure 42).
45
16
Number of trees
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
15
20-29.9 cm
4
30-39.9 cm
4
40-49.9 cm
4
50-59.9 cm
3
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 40: Tree diameter class of Plot 12
16
Number of trees
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
14
20-29.9 m
11
Tree height (m)
Figure 41: Tree height class of Plot 12
46
30-39.9 m
5
Figure 42: Forest stand in Plot 12 (20 × 20 m)
47
4.13 Plot 13
There were 23 individual trees species found in Plot 13. The dominant species found in
this plot were Palaquium gutta, Syzygium sp., and Ardisia sp. Sapotaceae is the
dominant family can be found in this plot from a total of 16 species and 10 families
recorded.
Majority of trees (13 individuals or 56.52 %) found in this plot have diameter less than
30 cm with only one tree recorded diameter more than 70 cm with the largest diameter
of Alseodaphne sp. at 70.1 cm (Figure 43).
The highest height of 39.43 m been displayed by Alseodaphne sp. and the lowest height
of 11.21 m was recorded by Diospyros evena. In this plot, 12 individual trees in the 10–
19.9 m and 11 individual trees in 20–39.9 m height class (Figure 44).
A noticeable gap between tree stems was observed in the plot by two trees of Syzygium
sp. and Diospyros rigida. Stand Visualisation System projection showed that there was
two forest strata within the forest stand in Plot 13 (Figure 45).
48
14
Number of trees
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
13
20-29.9 cm
3
30-39.9 cm
3
40-49.9 cm
3
70-79.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 43: Tree diameter class of Plot 13
14
Number of trees
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
12
20-29.9 m
7
Tree height (m)
Figure 44: Tree height class of Plot 13
49
30-39.9 m
4
Figure 45: Forest stand in Plot 13 (20 × 20 m)
50
4.14 Plot 14
In this plot, a total of 21 individual trees from 14 species and 9 families were recorded.
The main species found in Plot 14 were Syzigium sp., Garcinia parvifolia, and Aporosa
granularis. The dominant family was Myrtaceae.
There were 17 individual trees in the 10–19.9 cm diameter class making up 80.95% of
total number of tree found in this plot. Castanopsis costata was found to have the largest
diameter of 83.2 cm in the 80–89.9 cm diameter class (Figure 46). Most of the trees (14
individuals) in this plot have height less than 30 m with the lowest height of 10.74 m
was recorded by Aporosa granularis. The highest height of 42.23 m was recorded by
Garcinia sp. in the 40–49.9 m height class (Figure 47).
A clear three layers of forest strata were observed in Plot 14. However biggest trees
were found on the north-western side of the plot (Figure 48).
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
17
20-29.9 cm
1
30-39.9 cm
2
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 46: Tree diameter class of Plot 14
51
80-89.9 cm
1
16
Number of trees
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
14
20-29.9 m
6
40-49.9 m
1
Tree height (m)
Figure 47: Tree height class of Plot 14
Figure 48: Forest stand in Plot 14 (20 × 20 m)
52
4.15 Plot 15
There were 22 individual trees species found in Plot 15. The commonly found species
were Syzygium sp. and Madhuca sericea. Myrtaceae and Sapotaceae are the dominant
family can be found in this plot from a total of 13 species and nine families recorded.
There were 14 individual trees in the 10–19.9 cm making up 63.63% of diameter class,
and seven individual trees in the 20–69.9 cm, and one individual tree in the 90–99.9 cm
diameter class as Castanopsis costata has the largest diameter of 93.7 cm (Figure 49).
The lowest height of Gluta wallichii is 8.94 m while Castanopsis costata hold the
highest height of 50.88 m in the plot of 11 individual trees in the 0–19.9 m and 11
individual trees in class height of more than 20 m–29.9 m (Figure 50).
Tree stems in the plot were randomly distributed with three clear forest strata (Figure
51).
16
Number of trees
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9
cm
14
20-29.9
cm
2
30-39.9
cm
2
40-49.9
cm
1
50-59.9
cm
1
60-69.9
cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 49: Tree diameter class of Plot 15
53
90-99.9
cm
1
9
Number of trees
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Trees
0-9.9 m
3
10-19.9 m
8
20-29.9 m
7
30-39.9 m
2
40-49.9 m
1
Tree height (m)
Figure 50: Tree height class of Plot 15
Figure 51: Forest stand in Plot 15 (20 × 20 m)
54
50-59.9 m
1
4.16 Plot 16
There were 28 individual tree species found in Plot 16. The commonly found species
were
Mallotus
sp.,
Hancea
penangensis,
and
Quercus
pseudoverticillata.
Euphorbiaceae is the most dominant family in this plot from a total of 20 species and15
families recorded.
There were 18 or 64.3% trees in the 10–19.9 cm class diameter and one individual tree
in the 90–99.9 cm diameter class i.e. Ficus sp. of 91.3 cm (Figure 52). In this plot, most
of the trees (19 individuals) were found in 10–19.9 m height class with Ficus sp.
recorded the highest height of 45.9 m whereas the lowest was recorded by Hancea
penangensis of 10.13 m (Figure 53).
The stand profile reveal three strata of trees within the plot where tree stands were
unevenly distributed (Figure 54).
20
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
18
20-29.9 cm
3
30-39.9 cm
4
40-49.9 cm
1
80-89.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 52: Tree diameter class of Plot 16
55
90-99.9 cm
1
20
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
19
20-29.9 m
5
30-39.9 m
3
Tree height (m)
Figure 53: Tree height class of Plot 16
Figure 54: Forest stand in Plot 16 (20 × 20 m)
56
40-49.9 m
1
4.17 Plot 17
A total of 17 individual tree species was found in Plot 17 which comprise about 13
species and 10 families. The dominant family was Lauraceae therefore the main species
found in Plot 17 were Alseodaphne sp., Aporosa lucida, and Elaeocarpus stipularis.
There were 17 trees recorded diameter lower than 60 cm and only one individual tree
in the 90–99.9 cm diameter class with the largest tree is 90 cm by Calophyllum sp.
(Figure 55). In this plot, only three trees recorded height of more than 30 m. The
highest tree was Calophyllum sp.with 51.15 m in height while Lithocarpus andersonii
was the lowest with 13.07 m (Figure 56).
Mostly Plot 17 have two forest strata and tree stems distributed quite uniformly within
the plots (Figure 57).
7
Number of trees
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
6
20-29.9 cm
5
30-39.9 cm
1
40-49.9 cm
3
50-59.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 55: Tree diameter class of Plot 17
57
90-99.9 cm
1
8
Number of trees
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
7
20-29.9 m
7
30-39.9 m
1
40-49.9 m
1
Tree height (m)
Figure 56: Tree height class of Plot 17
Figure 57: Forest stand in Plot 17 (20 × 20 m)
58
50-59.9 m
1
4.18 Plot 18
In this plot, a total of 20 individual trees which comprised of 16 species and 11 families
were recorded. The frequently found species were Syzygium sp., Lithocarpus sp.
(Lithocarpus leptogyne, Lithocarpus lampadarius, Lithocarpus conocarpus) and
Canarium denticulatum. The dominant family were Myrtaceae and Fagaceae.
Most of the trees found in this plot have diameter lower than 20 cm only 45% or 9 stems
have diameter of 20 cm or more. The largest tree was Diospyros pilosanthera with
diameter of 60 cm (Figure 58).
The majority of the trees (55%) was found in 10–19.9 cm diameter class and only one
individuals in the 30–39.9 m height class. The highest height was 37.91 m recorded by
Diospyros pilosanthera (Figure 59). Tree stems in the plot were randomly distributed
with three clear forest strata (Figure 60).
12
Number of trees
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
11
20-29.9 cm
3
30-39.9 cm
4
50-59.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 58: Tree diameter class of Plot 18
59
60-69.9 cm
1
12
Number of trees
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
0-9.9 m
1
10-19.9 m
10
20-29.9 m
8
Tree height (m)
Figure 59: Tree height class of Plot 18
Figure 60: Forest stand in Plot 18 (20 × 20 m)
60
30-39.9 m
1
4.19 Plot 19
The commonly found species were Syzigium sp., Memecylon sp. and Hancea
penangensis. Myrtaceae is the dominant family found in this plot from a total of 11
families recorded. There were 19 individual tree species found in Plot 19.
There were 16 individual trees in the 10–19.9 cm diameter class comprise 84.2% of
total number of tree found. Only two trees have more than 40 cm diameter and the
largest tree was recorded by Teijsmanniodendron holophyllum from Verbenaceae
family with measurement of 74.5 cm and maximum height of 29.52 m in Plot 19.
(Figure 61).
The highest tree was Dehaasia corynantha whereas the lowest was Syzygium sp. in Plot
9. The majority of trees have height less 20 m in this plot and only individual found in
30–39.9 m height class (Figure 62).
The stand profile indicate two strata of trees within the plot. Gaps were clearly observed
between tree stands especially on the north-east side of the plot. There were three view
layout derived from SVS showing the perspective view on the left side, while on the
upper right side is an overhead view, and lower right-side is profile view for Plot 19
(Figure 63).
61
14
Number of trees
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
12
20-29.9 cm
4
30-39.9 cm
2
70-79.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 61: Tree diameter class of Plot 19
14
Number of trees
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
0-9.9 m
1
10-19.9 m
13
20-29.9 m
4
Tree height (m)
Figure 62: Tree height class of Plot 19
62
30-39.9 m
1
Figure 63: Forest stand in Plot 19 (20 × 20 m)
63
4.20 Plot 20
Plot 20 have 10 families and a total of 27 individual trees from 13 species were
recorded. The dominant species found in this plot were Ardisia sp., Syzygium sp., and
Adinandra sp. The main family was Myrsinaceae.
There were 19 individual trees in the 10–19.9 cm diameter class and five trees (18.5%)
have diameter of 30 cm or more. Castanopsis psilophylla was the largest tree found in
this plot with diameter of 63.3 cm (Figure 64).
Of the total 32 trees found in Plot 20, 17 individuals or 63% were found in the 10–19.9
m height class. The highest tree have a height of 39.9 m was recorded by Castanopsis
psilophylla Castanopsis psilophylla (Figure 65).
Plot 20 have two forest strata with clear spacing can be seen in SVS and tree stems
distributed evenly within the plots. However highest trees were found on the northeastern side of the plot (Figure 66).
64
20
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
19
20-29.9 cm
3
30-39.9 cm
3
50-59.9 cm
1
60-69.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 64: Tree diameter class of Plot 20
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
0-9.9 m
1
10-19.9 m
17
20-29.9 m
6
Tree height (m)
Figure 65: Tree height class of Plot 20
65
30-39.9 m
3
Figure 66: Forest stand in Plot 20 (20 × 20 m)
66
4.21 Plot 21
There were 21 individual trees species found in Plot 21. The commonly found species
were Elaeocarpus pedunculatus, Syzygium sp. including Syzygium scartechinii and
Castanopsis oriformis. Elaeocarpaceae is the dominant family can be found in this plot
from a total of 11 families recorded.
Castanopsis oriformis has the largest diameter of 69.3 cm leading to 16 individual trees
found in the diameter less than 30 cm and one tree in the 60–69.9 cm diameter class
(Figure 67).
Plot 21 were having one tree in the 0–9.9 m as Semecarpus bumburyanus and
Goniothalamus macrophyllus have the same lowest height of 9.8 m, 4 individual trees
found in the height more than 30 m where Elaeocarpus pedunculatus hold the highest
height of 55.65 m (Figure 68). Stand Visualisation System projection showed that there
was three forest strata in the forest stand of Plot 21 (Figure 69).
14
Number of trees
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
13
20-29.9 cm
3
30-39.9 cm
2
40-49.9 cm
2
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 67: Tree diameter class of Plot 21
67
60-69.9 cm
1
12
Number of trees
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
0-9.9 m
2
10-19.9 m
11
20-29.9 m
4
30-39.9 m
2
40-49.9 m
1
Tree height (m)
Figure 68: Tree height class of Plot 21
Figure 69: Forest stand in Plot 21 (20 × 20 m)
68
50-59.9 m
1
4.22 Plot 22
22 was a total of individual trees found in Plot 22 consist of 14 genus, 17 species and
15 families. The dominant species found in this plot were Elaeocarpus sp., Lithocarpus
conocarpus and Polyalthia cauliflora. The family most dominate was Elaeocarpaceae
with 4 trees of Elaeocarpus sp.
Palaquium sericeae has the largest diameter of 67.5 cm comes from 11 individual trees
found in the 10–19.9 cm and two trees in the 60–69.9 cm diameter class (Figure 70).
Plot 22 were having ten individual tree in the 10–19.9 m as Polyalthia cauliflora
recorded the lowest height of 12.56 m and two trees in 40–49.9 m height class. Mastixia
sp. recorded the highest height of 43.8 m (Figure 71).
Tree stand structure in Stand Visualisation System of Plot 22 presenting left side of
perspective view is denser than the right side (Figure 72).
12
Number of trees
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
11
20-29.9 cm
2
30-39.9 cm
5
40-49.9 cm
1
50-59.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 70: Tree diameter class of Plot 22
69
60-69.9 cm
2
12
Number of trees
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 m
10
20-29.9 m
9
30-39.9 m
1
Tree height (m)
Figure 71: Tree height class of Plot 22
Figure 72: Forest stand in Plot 22 (20 × 20 m)
70
40-49.9 m
2
4.23 Plot 23
A total of 20 individual trees found in Plot 23 consist of 14 genus, 17 species and 11
families. The main species found in Plot 23 was Syzygium sp. had lowest height of 6.3
m and the dominant family were Myrtaceae and Euphorbiaceae.
Quercus argentata from Fagaceae family have the largest DBH of 67 cm in Plot 23. 18
individual trees were noted in the 10–49.9 cm and one tree in the 60–69.9 cm diameter
class (Figure 73).
46.94 m is the highest height of Alseodaphne elliptica in this plot leading to 11 tree in
the 0–19.9 m and four trees in 40–49.9 m height class (Figure 74).
Three forest strata were discovered from SVS and short trees visibly in first strata with
one glance gap (Figure 75).
12
Number of trees
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
10
20-29.9 cm
5
30-39.9 cm
2
40-49.9 cm
1
50-59.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 73: Tree diameter class of Plot 23
71
60-69.9 cm
1
12
Number of trees
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
0-9.9 m
1
10-19.9 m
10
20-29.9 m
6
Tree height (m)
Figure 74: Tree height class of Plot 23
Figure 75: Forest stand in Plot 23 (20 × 20 m)
72
40-49.9 m
3
4.24 Plot 24
The regularly found species were Lithocarpus andersonii, Macaranga tanarius, and
Syzygium sp. Fagaceae found in this plot as the dominant family from a total of 8
families recorded and 18 individual trees species found in Plot 24.
15 individual trees were noted in the diameter less than 30 cm and two trees in the 50–
59.9 cm diameter class (Figure 76).
35.14 m is the highest height of Ilex cymosa in this plot leading to one tree in the 0–9.9
m while the shortest tree of 8.9 m been documented by Lithocarpus andersonii and 2
individual trees in height more than 20 m (Figure 77).
SVS showed that tree stand structure of Plot 24 large gapping between trees and three
forest strata were discovered (Figure 78).
16
Number of trees
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
14
20-29.9 cm
1
30-39.9 cm
1
50-59.9 cm
2
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 76: Tree diameter class of Plot 24
73
16
Number of trees
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
0-9.9 m
1
10-19.9 m
15
20-29.9 m
1
30-39.9 m
1
Tree height (m)
Figure 77: Tree height class of Plot 24
Figure 78: Forest stand in Plot 24 (20 × 20 m)
74
4.25 Plot 25
Plot 25 covered 32 individual tree species, 19 genus, 20 species and 14 families.
Elaeocarpus sp. including Elaeocarpus valetonii and Elaeocarpus petiolatus, Quercus
pseudoverticillata and Diospyros evena are among the dominant species and family.
26 individual trees found in the diameter of 10–29.9 cm, five individual trees in the 30–
59.9 cm and one tree in the 60–69.9 cm diameter class (Figure 79). Plot 25 were having
two individual tree in the 0–9.9 m as Syzygium sp. recorded the shortest height of 8.37
m, 28 individual tree in the height of less than 30 m and two trees in 30–39.9 m height
class. Actinodaphne borneensis recorded the highest height of 36.75 m (Figure 80).
Tree stand structure in Stand Visualisation System of Plot 25 presenting compact
perspective view (Figure 81).
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Trees
10-19.9 cm
17
20-29.9 cm
9
30-39.9 cm
3
40-49.9 cm
1
50-59.9 cm
1
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 79: Tree diameter class of Plot 25
75
60-69.9 cm
1
20
18
Number of trees
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Total trees
0-9.9 cm
2
10-19.9 cm
18
20-29.9 cm
10
30-39.9 cm
2
Tree height (m)
Figure 80: Tree height class of Plot 25
Figure 81: Forest stand in Plot 25 (20 × 20 m)
76
4.26 One hectare plot
A total of 662 individuals were recorded in a one ha plot in the upper hill dipterocarp
forest of Payeh Maga Highland, Long Tuyo, Lawas, Sarawak which belong to 47
families, 96 genus and 179 species recorded (Appendix 1).
Among families, Myrtaceae (majorized almost all plots shows 25.08% with 166
individual tree), Elaeocarpaceae (37 individual tree listed in 16 plots) and
Euphorbiaceae (30 individual tree enumerated in 13 plots were most species diverse.
Since this forest is upper hill dipterocarp forest the presence of Vatica papuana from
Plot 1 and Shorea crassa from Plot 6 were the only 2 individual tree species from
Dipterocarpaceae as both trees are among the highest tree with biggest diameter means
0.3% of family contribution in this study (Table 6). Among species, Syzigium sp. was
the most common species found in 24 plots except Plot 17 followed by Tristaniopsis
beccarii both from Myrtaceae family comprise 159 from 622 individual tree recorded,
Palaquium gutta in Sapotaceae family listed 19 trees and 18 trees of Garcinia sp. in
Clusiaceae in 12 plots established (Table 7).
There are nine diameter class identified in this area based on 10 cm interval. The most
common trees were found in the 10–19.9 cm diameter class with 401 individual tree.
Actually, as the diameter class increase, the total number of individual tree decrease
being shown when 115 individual tree come from 20–29.9 cm, 63 individual tree in 30–
39.9 cm, 40 individual trees of 40–49.9 cm, 19 individual tree in 50–59.9 cm, 14
individual tree in 60–69.9 cm, three individual tree in 70–79.9 cm, three individual tree
in 80–89.9 cm and three individual tree in 90–99.9 cm diameter class (Calophyllum sp.
of 90 cm, Ficus sp. of 91.3 cm and Castanopsis costata of 93.7 cm) (Figure 82).
77
Based on 10 m interval, a total six height class were classified for this one ha plot. The
highest number of individuals was recorded in 10–19.9 m height class representing
55.7% of total trees recorded which is 369 individual tree. There were only three
individuals found in the largest height class of 50–59.9 m which are Elaeocarpus
pedunculatus 55.65 m is the highest tree calculated furthered by Castanopsis costata
with 50.88 m, and Calophyllum sp. with 51.15 m (Figure 83).
78
Table 6: The top species distribution found in Upper Hill Dipterocarp Forest of Payeh
Maga Highland
Num.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Dominant Tree species
Syzygium sp.
Tristaniopsis beccarii
Palaquium gutta
Alseodaphne sp.
Garcinia sp.
Lithocarpus andersonii
Memecylon sp.
Lithocarpus conocarpus
Elaeocarpus sp.
Horsfieldia grandis
Families
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Sapotaceae
Lauraceae
Clusiaceae
Fagaceae
Melastomataceae
Fagaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Myristicaceae
Total Individual Tree
122
37
19
18
18
16
16
15
14
12
Table 7: Main family distribution documented in Upper Hill Dipterocarp Forest of
Payeh Maga Highland
Num.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Families
Myrtaceae
Fagaceae
Lauraceae
Sapotaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Clusiaceae
Ebenaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Melastomataceae
Myristicaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Total Individual Tree
166
67
64
43
37
32
32
30
25
21
2
79
450
Number of trees
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
10-19.9 20-29.9 30-39.9 40-49.9 50-59.9 60-69.9 70-79.9 80-89.9 90-99.9
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
Trees 401
115
63
40
19
14
3
3
4
Diameter class (cm)
Figure 82: Tree diameter class of all individual tree from 25 plot
80
400
Number of trees
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Trees
0-9.9 m
38
10-19.9 m
369
20-29.9 m
189
30-39.9 m
51
40-49.9 m
12
50-59.9 m
3
Tree height (m)
Figure 83: Tree height class of all individual tree from 25 plot
81
4.27 Species diversity index
Tree species richness is an index for all species measurement presented in a sample
plot and obtained as randomly. Abundant plot of tree species composition shows the
highest value of H’ and the value of EH is constrained between 0 and 1 (Pielou, 1975).
Most ecological studies shows typical values are normally between 1.5 and 3.5 and the
index is rarely greater than 4. The Shannon index increases as both the richness and
the evenness of the community increase. In fact, the index incorporates both
components of biodiversity perceived both a strength and a weakness. It is a strength
because it provides a simple, synthetic summary, but it is a weakness because it makes
it difficult to compare communities that differ greatly in richness (Magurran, 2004).
EH or evenness is the actual species composition measurement that rely on the
abundance of species represented in a sample plot. The average H’ values in the upper
hill dipterocarp forest of Payeh Maga were high with the value of 3.7684, the value for
species dominance (Cd) that forest have is 0.0589 at average, evenness index (EH)
mean is 0.9313 and Margalef index median is 4.8882 indicating that species
composition is rich in this study area (Table 8).
4.28 Important Value Index (IVI) by species in one ha plot
There were 5 highest IVI of species reading among 181 species documented after IVI
reading being calculated by using the equation given. Syzygium sp. (Myrtaceae) with
122 individual tree stated the highest IVI of 0.4133, Tristaniopsis beccarii (Myrtaceae)
with 37 individual tree have IVI of species 0.1418, Alseodaphne sp. (Lauraceae) of 18
individual tree shows 0.0888, Lithocarpus andersonii (Fagaceae) have 16 individual
tree shows IVI reading of 0.0878, and Lithocarpus conocarpus (Fagaceae) IVI reading
0.086 recorded 15 tree (Table 9).
82
Table 8: Species diversity index of Upper Hill Dipterocarp Forest of Payeh Maga
Highland
Plot
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
H
4.095
4.547
3.789
3.668
3.439
3.228
3.213
3.877
3.871
3.329
3.995
3.572
3.849
3.463
4.061
4.012
3.572
3.572
3.682
4.106
3.880
3.823
3.984
3.419
4.164
Cd
0.039
0.006
0.035
0.086
0.076
0.181
0.143
0.075
0.097
0.115
0.037
0.099
0.036
0.081
0.022
0.040
0.037
0.026
0.035
0.029
0.029
0.039
0.021
0.052
0.036
EH
0.947
0.992
0.969
0.879
0.929
0.789
0.844
0.897
0.868
0.874
0.958
0.874
0.962
0.909
0.974
0.945
0.965
0.971
0.967
0.967
0.970
0.956
0.975
0.954
0.948
d
5.586
7.059
4.529
4.821
3.776
4.399
3.822
5.302
5.583
3.751
5.102
4.704
4.784
4.270
5.500
5.402
4.235
5.007
4.415
5.461
4.927
4.853
5.341
3.806
5.771
Table 9: IVI species of Upper Hill Dipterocarp Forest of Payeh Maga Highland
Tree species
Syzygium sp.
Tristaniopsis beccarii
Alseodaphne sp.
Lithocarpus andersonii
Lithocarpus conocarpus
Garcinia sp.
Palaquium gutta
Elaeocarpus sp.
Memecylon sp.
Palaquium sericeum
Family
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Lauraceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Clusiaceae
Sapotaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Melastomataceae
Sapotaceae
83
Total individual
122
37
18
16
15
18
19
14
16
8
IVI
0.4133
0.1418
0.0888
0.0878
0.0860
0.0769
0.0673
0.0608
0.0566
0.0486
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
5.1 Tree stand structure
The findings of this study clearly show that there were 662 of individual tree found in
the study area and comprised of 179 species and 47 families in one hectare plot with
total basal area 386993.09 m2 successfully determined the tree stand structure in upper
hill dipterocarp forest of Payeh Maga Highland, Long Tuyo, Lawas. Stand structure is
whole forest stand where its distribution element including the horizontal and vertical
appearance, species, size, height, diameter, tree stem and crown layers, shrubs,
herbaceous understory, snags and forest floor woody debris. The structure is the result
of several factors such as tree species growth habit, mainly the degree of shade
tolerance, conditions of ecological system, history of disturbance and management
(Brack, 1999; Helms, 1998). The range elevation of all 25 plot begin from 1263m to
1457m above sea level with mostly 1 gap between strata.
The forest structure in upper hill dipterocarp forest are understorey, canopy and upper
canopy layer, the forest forms a three-layered stand after being compared to lowland
dipterocarp forest where emergent trees are rare (Wyatt-Smith, 1963). Ground
vegetation is of moderate density. Almost half of the upper-story trees belong to the
Dipterocarpaceae family. There is no distinction is made between lowland and hill
dipterocarp forests in Sarawak. Usually they are stated to as mixed dipterocarp forest,
and their distribution is from the inland limit of the freshwater peat swamps to the
lower limit of the montane forests (Lee et al., 2001).
84
The differences in the basal area of tree layers among the study plots may be due to
differences in altitude, species composition, age of trees, and extent of disturbances
and successional strategies of the stands. Girth class frequency showed that the
population structure of trees exhibited in the study plots are in harmony with other
forest stands (Bhadra et al., 2010; Sahu et al., 2010). Tree distribution across different
girth classes revealed how well the growing forest is utilizing functional and structural
resources. The diameter distribution of trees has been often used to represent the
population structure of forests (Rao et al., 1990). Biodiversity indices are generated to
bring the diversity and abundance of species in different habitats to a similar scale for
comparison and the higher the value, the greater the species richness. The higher
values of the diversity indices revealed a forest with high tree species diversity and
abundance (Adekunle et al., 2013).
5.2 Tree species composition
Aiba and Kitayama (1999) found 2614 individual tree at Mount Kinabalu with 380
species and 64 families in one hectare plot shows that the current studied area has less
number of individual tree, fewer species, and fewer families than Mount Kinabalu tree
composition. According to Mardan et al. (2013), about 722 individual trees belonging
to 81 genera and 42 families cover the total research area of 160000 ha. The most
dominant families were Euphorbiaceae and Dipterocarpaceae. Contribution from
Euphorbiaceae was 44 species i.e. 10.5% from a total number of species; followed by
Lauraceae with 30 species 7.1%, Myrtaceae 24 species with 5.7% and Annonaceae 22
species with 5.2% from the total number of species. Euphorbiaceae was mainly
85
confined to the understory with medium-sized trees which did not generally exceed 50
cm dbh and family Dipterocarpaceae was the most abundant family in the overstory
canopy (Saiful et al., 2008) but in this study, contribution from Lauraceae was 24
species i.e. 13.4% from a total number of species; followed by Fagaceae with 18
species 10.06%, Euphorbiaceae 12 species with 6.7% and Ebenaceae 9 species with
5.03% from the total number of species. Syzygium sp. from family was the most
common species found with 122 individual trees and 67063.064 m2 from 386993.09
m2 gather up 17.33% total basal area. The distribution and quantity were larger
compared to other species recorded.
Knowing species diversity is a useful tool in plant ecology and forestry to compare the
composition of different species. Tree species diversity in tropical forests differ greatly
from location to location mainly due to variation in biogeography, habitat, and
disturbance (Neumann and Starlinger 2001; Padalia et al., 2004). The tree species
richness in the tropics showed a wide variation, ranging from a low value of 20 species/
ha in Ngovayang’s lowland forests, Cameroon (Gonmadje et al., 2011) to a very high
307 species/ha in Amazonia Ecuadar (Valencia et al., 1994). Species diversity was
significantly influenced by forest structure and species composition (Huang et al.,
2003) - high species diversity is often connected to more complex vertical structure.
Tree density can be affected by natural calamities, anthropogenic activities, and soil
properties. The plants' abundance is closely related to soil status of an area as soil
provide nutrients needed by the plant to grow. The differences in area, type of soils,
and nutrient value of these species compositions come with several factors. Plant
associations with environmental factors have been reported in many studies (Rahayu
et al., 2012 and Teixiera et al., 2008). Relationships between soil properties and plant
86
species abundance have been described in various habitats of grassland, savanna
inhabitants and tropical rainforest (Amorim and Batalha, 2007; Barruch, 2005; Slik et
al., 2012). Soil properties can be divided into 9 group such as texture, structure,
consistence, partiole density, bulk density, pore space, atterberg limits, soil colour and
soil permeability. For instance, physicochemical characteristic of soil and topography
influence the growth of Dryobalanops aromatica and Dyrobalanops lanceolate in
Sarawak (Hirai et al. 1995). The differences in species composition in the study area
and Mount Kinabalu happen based on two factor. The first factor that contributes to
this difference was probably the soil type. Different soil type carries different chemical
properties such as macronutrient amount of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and
potassium (K) or even micronutrient like boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese
(Mn) and molybdenum (Mo) (Kovari, 1984).
87
5.3 Species diversity and Importance Value Index (IVI)
A high value of Shannon H' indicates a large number of species with similar
abundances; a low value indicates domination by a few species. The effects of logging
on species richness and diversity for each size class are summarized in Table 3. The
higher values of the diversity indices revealed a forest with high tree species diversity
and abundance (Adekunle et al., 2013).
Shannon-Weiners’ index is standard indices applied in the forest structural diversity
analysis. The index is useful for different habitats comparison, especially when a
number of replicates have been taken. The increase in species diversity is actually an
indication of increasing environmental quality. Species number may directly
proportional with time at rates governed speciation and extinction ecological
interactions independently (Magurran, 1988; Rickles and Renner, 1994).
A total of 2227 individual tree of 44 families, 98 genera, and 129 species were
recorded. Importance value index reported Combretaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and
Anacardiaceae, are among the greatest value. The most species were contributed by
Euphorbiaceae and the tree density varied from 435 to 767 ha-1 with an average basal
area of 25.82 m2/ha. Shannon-Weiner index (H’) ranged from 3.76 to 3.96, the
Simpson index ranged from 0.96 to 0.97, evenness index ranged from 0.60 to 0.78,
and species richness index ranged from 10.04 to 11.24 (Naidu and Kumar, 2016).
Study area documented lower in total individual tree, though, higher families number
and more sum of species with only 0.01 difference in H’ Payeh Maga Highland from
the lowest H’ reading of Eastern Ghats of the Andhra Pradesh region. The highest
88
evenness index is 0.992 by studied area after compared to the highest reading of
Eastern Ghats which is 0.78. Syzygium sp. contributed 0.4133, meaning the basal area
of the Syzygium sp. was higher than other species for this one ha plot, which
contributed to the high IVI. Most of the species that ranked in the top 10 in IVI values
are from the non-dipterocarps which include Tristaniopsis beccarii, Alseodaphne sp.
Lithocarpus andersonii, Lithocarpus conocarpus.
The importance value index is an important parameter used in determining the
economic value of a forest, timber wise. If the species with the highest value happens
to be a valuable timber species, the forest stands to be classified as an economically
valuable stand. In this study, the IVI of timber species is not high enough to be
classified as such. In this study Syzygium sp. provided highest level of IVI
(0.413396688) and lowest for Diospyros sumatrana (0.004039186), whereas Shorea
crassa and Vatica papuana the two timber species which made it to this category only
have a value of 0.017722008 and 0.008207323, respectively.
89
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
Documented tree species composition in upper hill dipterocarp forest of Payeh Maga
Highland, Long Tuyo, Lawas shows woody plant species are key components of the
forest ecosystem and are responsible for forest architecture and influences the overall
composition of forest communities. Recording the patterns of tree diversity and their
distribution provides a good database, useful for management measures in these
forests. A comprehensive approach to forest management is needed for the
conservation of dominant tree species that are necessary for the canopy formation as
well as maintaining the ecological balance of the forests.
Hence, choosing diversity indices that are not most affected by the sample size is the
most appropriate for comparison of species richness and diversity particularly when
the sample differs from one habitat to another. Tree species density, distribution, and
population structure analyzed in this study should be useful to the conservation
researchers and scientists and also to the forest practitioners for effective management
of the forest conservation. The preservation of these forests is crucial not only for
conservation of their rich biodiversity, but also for meeting the basic needs of the local
population.
90
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94
Appendix 1
Species diversity in study area
Num.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
Dominant Tree species
Syzygium sp.
Tristaniopsis beccarii
Palaquium gutta
Alseodaphne sp.
Garcinia sp.
Lithocarpus andersonii
Memecylon sp.
Lithocarpus conocarpus
Elaeocarpus sp.
Horsfieldia grandis
Diospyros evena
Polyalthia cauliflora
Ardisia sp.
Gonystylus macrophyllus
Diospyros siamang
Heliciopsis artocarpoides
Lithocarpus lucidus
Mallotus sp.
Palaquium sericeum
Quercus pseudoverticillata
Elaeocarpus glaber
Pternandra azurea
Schima wallichii
Alseodaphne elliptica
Hancea penangensis
Adinandra excelsa
Alseodaphne borneensis
Canarium denticulatum
Diospyros lanceifolia
Elaeocarpus ferrugineus
Elaeocarpus pedunculatus
Elaeocarpus petiolatus
Glochidion sp.
Litsea oppositifolia
Syzygium lineatum
Teijsmanniodendron holophyllum
Actinodaphne borneensis
Aporosa granularis
Bhesa paniculata
Families
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Sapotaceae
Lauraceae
Clusiaceae
Fagaceae
Melastomataceae
Fagaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Myristicaceae
Ebenaceae
Annonaceae
Myrsinaceae
Thymelaeaceae
Ebenaceae
Proteaceae
Fagaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Sapotaceae
Fagaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Melastomataceae
Theaceae
Lauraceae
Euphorbiaceae
Theaceae
Lauraceae
Burseraceae
Ebenaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Lauraceae
Myrtaceae
Verbenaceae
Lauraceae
Phyllanthaceae
Centroplacaceae
95
Total Individual Tree
122
37
19
18
18
16
16
15
14
12
11
11
10
10
8
8
8
8
8
8
6
6
6
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
Calophyllum fragrans
Calophyllum sp.
Diospyros pilosanthera
Endiandra rubescens
Goniothalamus macrophyllus
Macaranga tanarius
Matthaea calophylla
Payena sp.
Phoebe opaca
Stemonurus umbellatus
Alseodaphne oblonglanceolata
Aporosa lucida
Aporosa sp.
Baccaurea macrocarpa
Calophyllum javanicum
Campnosperma auriculatum
Castanopsis costata
Castanopsis oriformis
Croton oblongus
Diospyros maingayi
Elaeocarpus stipularis
Elaeocarpus valetonii
Endiandra coriacea
Ficus sp.
Garcinia nervosa
Garcinia parvifolia
Gonystylus sp.
Ilex cymosa
Kibara coriacea
Knema laurina
Lithocarpus bennettii
Lithocarpus ewyckii
Lithocarpus lampadarius
Lithocarpus luteus
Lithocarpus sundaicus
Litsea castanea
Litsea costalis
Litsea elliptica
Litsea ferruginea
Litsea lancifolia
Madhuca sericea
Madhuca sp.
Mesua borneensis
Mesua micrantha
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Ebenaceae
Lauraceae
Annonaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Monimiaceae
Sapotaceae
Lauraceae
Stemonuraceae
Lauraceae
Phyllanthaceae
Phyllanthaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Clusiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Ebenaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Lauraceae
Moraceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Thymelaeaceae
Aquifoliaceae
Monimiaceae
Myristicaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Calophyllaceae
Calophyllaceae
96
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
Myristica sp.
Palaquium quercifolium
Palaquium ridleyi
Palaquium sp.
Pentace laxiflora
Polyalthia sp.
Pternandra sp.
Strombosia lucida
Ternstroemia coriacea
Xanthophyllum ellipticum
Actinodaphne glabra
Adenanthera pavonina
Agathis sp.
Aglaia crassinervia
Aglaia cumingiana
Aglaia edulis
Aglaia elaeagnoidea
Aidia densiflora
Anacolosa frutescens
Antidesma cuspidatum
Antidesma lunata
Antidesma neurocarpum
Aporosa henata
Aporosa lunata
Astronia smilacifolia
Austrobuxus nitidus
Beilschmiedia lucidula
Blumeodendron callophyllum
Blumeodendron kurzii
Calophyllum ferrugineum
Canarium hirsutum
Carallia sp.
Castanopsis elmeri
Castanopsis foxworthyi
Castanopsis psilophylla
Cleistanthus sp.
Cratoxylum formosum
Cryptocarya griffithiana
Dacryodes rugosa
Dehaasia corynantha
Dehaasia firma
Dehaasia sp.
Diospyros borneensis
Diospyros coriacea
Myristicaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Malvaceae
Annonaceae
Melastomataceae
Olacaceae
Pentaphylacaceae
Polygalaceae
Lauraceae
Fabaceae
Araucariaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Rubiaceae
Olacaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Phyllanthaceae
Phyllanthaceae
Melastomataceae
Picrodendraceae
Lauraceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Clusiaceae
Burseraceae
Rhizophoraceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Phyllanthaceae
Hypericaceae
Lauraceae
Burseraceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Ebenaceae
Ebenaceae
97
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171.
Diospyros rigida
Diospyros sumatrana
Durio sp.
Dysoxylum cauliflorum
Elaeocarpus submonoceras
Engelhardia serrata
Fagraea sp.
Ganua sp.
Garcinia nitida
Gluta wallichii
Gordonia borneensis
Gymnacranthera ocellata
Horsfieldia irya
Horsfieldia sp.
Knema latericia
Kokoona sp.
Licania splendens
Lindera lucida
Lindera sp.
Lithocarpus leptogyne
Litsea sp.
Magnolia candollei
Mangifera foetida
Mangifera sp.
Mastixia sp.
Melanochyla sp.
Meliosma sp.
Microcos triflora
Myristica borneensis
Nageia wallichiana
Nauclea subdita
Payena acuminata
Payena microphylla
Pentace erectinervia
Phoebe grandis
Pimelodendron griffithianum
Polyalthia longifolia
Porterandia anisophylla
Quercus argentata
Quercus subsericea
Saurauia sp.
Semecarpus bumburyanus
Shorea crassa
Syzygium fastigiatum
Ebenaceae
Ebenaceae
Malvaceae
Meliaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Juglandaceae
Gentianaceae
Sapotaceae
Clusiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Theaceae
Myristicaceae
Myristicaceae
Myristicaceae
Myristicaceae
Celastraceae
Chrysobalanaceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Fagaceae
Lauraceae
Magnoliaceae
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Cornaceae
Anacardiaceae
Sabiaceae
Malvaceae
Myristicaceae
Podocarpaceae
Rubiaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Malvaceae
Lauraceae
Euphorbiaceae
Annonaceae
Rubiaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Actinidiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Myrtaceae
98
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
Syzygium scartechinii
Teijsmanniodendron sp.
Tetramerista glabra
Tristaniopsis sp.
Vatica papuana
Xanthophyllum affine
Xanthophyllum flavescens
Xanthophyllum pulchrum
Myrtaceae
Verbenaceae
Tetrameristaceae
Myrtaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Polygalaceae
Polygalaceae
Polygalaceae
Total of individual
99
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
662
Tree genus recorded in study area
Num.
Genus
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
Actinodaphne
Adenanthera
Adinandra
Agathis
Aglaia
Aidia
Alseodaphne
Anacolosa
Antidesma
Aporosa
Ardisia
Astronia
Austrobuxus
Baccaurea
Beilschmiedia
Bhesa
Blumeodendron
Calophyllum
Campnosperma
Canarium
Carallia
Castanopsis
Cleistanthus
Cratoxylum
Croton
Cryptocarya
Dacryodes
Dehaasia
Diospyros
Durio
Dysoxylum
Elaeocarpus
Endiandra
Engelhardia
Fagraea
Ficus
Ganua
Garcinia
Glochidion
Gluta
Goniothalamus
100
Number of individuals
4
1
4
1
4
1
29
1
3
9
10
1
1
2
1
3
2
9
2
5
1
7
1
1
2
1
1
3
32
1
1
37
5
1
1
2
1
23
4
1
3
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
Gonystylus
Gordonia
Gymnacranthera
Hancea
Heliciopsis
Horsfieldia
Ilex
Kibara
Knema
Kokoona
Licania
Lindera
Lithocarpus
Litsea
Macaranga
Madhuca
Magnolia
Mallotus
Mangifera
Mastixia
Matthaea
Melanochyla
Meliosma
Memecylon
Mesua
Microcos
Myristica
Nageia
Nauclea
Palaquium
Payena
Pentace
Phoebe
Pimelodendron
Polyalthia
Porterandia
Pternandra
Quercus
Saurauia
Schima
Semecarpus
Shorea
Stemonurus
Strombosia
101
12
1
1
5
8
14
2
2
3
1
1
2
50
15
3
4
1
8
2
1
3
1
1
16
4
1
3
1
1
33
5
3
4
1
14
1
8
10
1
6
1
1
3
2
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
Syzygium
Teijsmanniodendron
Ternstroemia
Tetramerista
Tristaniopsis
Vatica
Xanthophyllum
Total of individual
102
128
5
2
1
38
1
5
662
Family diversity in study area
Num.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
Family
Actinidiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Annonaceae
Aquifoliaceae
Araucariaceae
Burseraceae
Calophyllaceae
Celastraceae
Centroplacaceae
Chrysobalanaceae
Clusiaceae
Cornaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Ebenaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Fabaceae
Fagaceae
Gentianaceae
Hypericaceae
Juglandaceae
Lauraceae
Magnoliaceae
Malvaceae
Melastomataceae
Meliaceae
Monimiaceae
Moraceae
Myristicaceae
Myrsinaceae
Myrtaceae
Olacaceae
Pentaphylacaceae
Phyllanthaceae
Picrodendraceae
Podocarpaceae
Polygalaceae
Proteaceae
Rhizophoraceae
Rubiaceae
Sabiaceae
103
Number of individuals
1
7
17
2
1
6
4
1
3
1
32
1
2
32
37
30
1
67
1
1
1
64
1
5
25
5
5
2
21
10
166
3
2
10
1
1
5
8
1
3
1
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
Sapotaceae
Stemonuraceae
Tetrameristaceae
Theaceae
Thymelaeaceae
Verbenaceae
Total of individual
104
43
3
1
11
12
5
662
IVI species of Upper Hill Dipterocarp Forest of Payeh Maga Higland
Tree species
Syzygium sp.
Tristaniopsis beccarii
Alseodaphne sp.
Lithocarpus andersonii
Lithocarpus conocarpus
Garcinia sp.
Palaquium gutta
Elaeocarpus sp.
Memecylon sp.
Palaquium sericeum
Horsfieldia grandis
Diospyros evena
Heliciopsis artocarpoides
Polyalthia cauliflora
Quercus pseudoverticillata
Castanopsis costata
Lithocarpus lucidus
Ardisia sp.
Gonystylus macrophyllus
Elaeocarpus glaber
Calophyllum sp.
Schima wallichii
Diospyros siamang
Teijsmanniodendron holophyllum
Calophyllum javanicum
Ficus sp.
Mallotus sp.
Pternandra azurea
Alseodaphne elliptica
Elaeocarpus valetonii
Diospyros pilosanthera
Elaeocarpus pedunculatus
Glochidion sp.
Calophyllum fragrans
Litsea oppositifolia
Shorea crassa
Actinodaphne borneensis
Canarium denticulatum
Alseodaphne borneensis
Castanopsis oriformis
Elaeocarpus petiolatus
Family
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Lauraceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Clusiaceae
Sapotaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Melastomataceae
Sapotaceae
Myristicaceae
Ebenaceae
Proteaceae
Annonaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Myrsinaceae
Thymelaeaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Clusiaceae
Theaceae
Ebenaceae
Verbenaceae
Clusiaceae
Moraceae
Euphorbiaceae
Melastomataceae
Lauraceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Ebenaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Phyllanthaceae
Clusiaceae
Lauraceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Lauraceae
Burseraceae
Lauraceae
Fagaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
105
Total individual
122
37
18
16
15
18
19
14
16
8
12
11
8
11
8
2
8
10
10
6
3
6
8
4
2
2
8
6
5
2
3
4
4
3
4
1
3
4
4
2
4
IVI
0.413397
0.141869
0.088809
0.087843
0.085953
0.076958
0.067373
0.060766
0.056578
0.048565
0.047156
0.043412
0.042695
0.041879
0.039887
0.039552
0.03813
0.037928
0.037587
0.036374
0.03107
0.030901
0.029821
0.028918
0.02875
0.028671
0.026438
0.024927
0.022533
0.022364
0.021868
0.021436
0.020708
0.019001
0.018653
0.017722
0.0174
0.017199
0.017168
0.016949
0.015841
Elaeocarpus ferrugineus
Hancea penangensis
Payena sp.
Palaquium quercifolium
Syzygium lineatum
Baccaurea macrocarpa
Diospyros lanceifolia
Adinandra excelsa
Diospyros maingayi
Madhuca sericea
Campnosperma auriculatum
Quercus argentata
Litsea ferruginea
Stemonurus umbellatus
Goniothalamus macrophyllus
Phoebe opaca
Endiandra rubescens
Ilex cymosa
Castanopsis psilophylla
Castanopsis foxworthyi
Mastixia sp.
Pentace laxiflora
Bhesa paniculata
Aporosa granularis
Matthaea calophylla
Mesua micrantha
Elaeocarpus stipularis
Lithocarpus bennettii
Pternandra sp.
Aporosa sp.
Ternstroemia coriacea
Gonystylus sp.
Myristica sp.
Lithocarpus lampadarius
Palaquium sp.
Madhuca sp.
Litsea elliptica
Aporosa lucida
Myristica borneensis
Knema laurina
Lithocarpus sp.
Strombosia lucida
Litsea castanea
Mesua borneensis
Elaeocarpaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Myrtaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Ebenaceae
Theaceae
Ebenaceae
Sapotaceae
Anacardiaceae
Fagaceae
Lauraceae
Stemonuraceae
Annonaceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Aquifoliaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Cornaceae
Malvaceae
Centroplacaceae
Phyllanthaceae
Monimiaceae
Calophyllaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Fagaceae
Melastomataceae
Phyllanthaceae
Pentaphylacaceae
Thymelaeaceae
Myristicaceae
Fagaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Lauraceae
Phyllanthaceae
Myristicaceae
Myristicaceae
Fagaceae
Olacaceae
Lauraceae
Calophyllaceae
106
4
5
3
2
4
2
4
4
2
2
2
1
2
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
0.015452
0.014851
0.014822
0.014812
0.014667
0.014612
0.014139
0.013916
0.013767
0.013746
0.013505
0.01295
0.012874
0.012723
0.012582
0.012467
0.012404
0.012312
0.011971
0.011666
0.011268
0.011178
0.010402
0.010353
0.010336
0.010331
0.010237
0.00988
0.009753
0.009684
0.009535
0.009479
0.009424
0.009306
0.009241
0.009213
0.009054
0.008805
0.008791
0.008738
0.008709
0.008685
0.008614
0.008608
Croton oblongus
Endiandra coriacea
Xanthophyllum ellipticum
Lithocarpus luteus
Kokoona sp.
Kibara coriacea
Polyalthia sp.
Vatica papuana
Lithocarpus ewyckii
Diospyros rigida
Macaranga tanarius
Carallia sp.
Litsea sp.
Teijsmanniodendron sp.
Castanopsis elmeri
Mangifera foetida
Alseodaphne oblonglanceolata
Nauclea subdita
Litsea costalis
Garcinia nervosa
Palaquium ridleyi
Calophyllum ferrugineum
Litsea lancifolia
Pimelodendron griffithianum
Elaeocarpus submonoceras
Garcinia parvifolia
Agathis sp.
Horsfieldia sp.
Astronia smilacifolia
Dehaasia corynantha
Syzygium scartechinii
Blumeodendron callophyllum
Licania splendens
Anacolosa frutescens
Phoebe grandis
Actinodaphne glabra
Aglaia cumingiana
Diospyros borneensis
Xanthophyllum pulchrum
Tetramerista glabra
Engelhardia serrata
Durio sp.
Lithocarpus leptogyne
Aporosa henata
Euphorbiaceae
Lauraceae
Polygalaceae
Fagaceae
Celastraceae
Monimiaceae
Annonaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Fagaceae
Ebenaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Rhizophoraceae
Lauraceae
Verbenaceae
Fagaceae
Anacardiaceae
Lauraceae
Rubiaceae
Lauraceae
Clusiaceae
Sapotaceae
Clusiaceae
Lauraceae
Euphorbiaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Clusiaceae
Araucariaceae
Myristicaceae
Melastomataceae
Lauraceae
Myrtaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Chrysobalanaceae
Olacaceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Meliaceae
Ebenaceae
Polygalaceae
Tetrameristaceae
Juglandaceae
Malvaceae
Fagaceae
Phyllanthaceae
107
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.008531
0.008505
0.008489
0.008406
0.008264
0.008252
0.00824
0.008207
0.00819
0.008114
0.008089
0.007984
0.007555
0.006893
0.006814
0.006768
0.006616
0.006586
0.006518
0.006457
0.006372
0.006338
0.006008
0.005981
0.005954
0.005939
0.005928
0.005800
0.005639
0.005405
0.005405
0.005262
0.005262
0.005095
0.005055
0.004977
0.004775
0.004775
0.004749
0.004732
0.004665
0.004524
0.004509
0.004501
Tristaniopsis sp.
Horsfieldia irya
Lindera lucida
Magnolia candollei
Payena microphylla
Gordonia borneensis
Lindera sp.
Ganua sp.
Adenanthera pavonina
Melanochyla sp.
Dysoxylum cauliflorum
Knema latericia
Porterandia anisophylla
Beilschmiedia lucidula
Dacryodes rugosa
Aglaia crassinervia
Diospyros coriacea
Meliosma sp.
Austrobuxus nitidus
Gluta wallichii
Mangifera sp.
Semecarpus bumburyanus
Syzygium fastigiatum
Gymnacranthera ocellata
Antidesma neurocarpum
Microcos triflora
Cleistanthus sp.
Antidesma lunata
Canarium hirsutum
Xanthophyllum affine
Quercus subsericea
Nageia wallichiana
Antidesma cuspidatum
Dehaasia firma
Polyalthia longifolia
Xanthophyllum flavescens
Garcinia nitida
Aglaia edulis
Aporosa lunata
Saurauia sp.
Blumeodendron kurzii
Cratoxylum formosum
Dehaasia sp.
Cryptocarya griffithiana
Myrtaceae
Myristicaceae
Lauraceae
Magnoliaceae
Sapotaceae
Theaceae
Lauraceae
Sapotaceae
Fabaceae
Anacardiaceae
Meliaceae
Myristicaceae
Rubiaceae
Lauraceae
Burseraceae
Meliaceae
Ebenaceae
Sabiaceae
Picrodendraceae
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Myrtaceae
Myristicaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Malvaceae
Phyllanthaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Burseraceae
Polygalaceae
Fagaceae
Podocarpaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Lauraceae
Annonaceae
Polygalaceae
Clusiaceae
Meliaceae
Phyllanthaceae
Actinidiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Hypericaceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
108
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.004458
0.004423
0.004409
0.004382
0.004356
0.00433
0.004324
0.004318
0.004311
0.004311
0.004299
0.004293
0.004293
0.004281
0.004281
0.004269
0.004263
0.004246
0.00424
0.004234
0.004228
0.004228
0.004228
0.004206
0.004195
0.004195
0.00419
0.004185
0.004185
0.004179
0.004164
0.004153
0.004148
0.004148
0.004143
0.004143
0.004114
0.004105
0.004105
0.004100
0.004091
0.004082
0.004073
0.004069
Payena acuminata
Aglaia elaeagnoidea
Aidia densiflora
Pentace erectinervia
Fagraea sp.
Diospyros sumatrana
Sapotaceae
Meliaceae
Rubiaceae
Malvaceae
Gentianaceae
Ebenaceae
109
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.004069
0.004060
0.004052
0.004047
0.004043
0.004039
PUBLICATION OF THE PROJECT UNDERTAKING
This is to certify that I have no objection to publish the project entitled “Tree Species
Composition and Structure in Upper Hill Dipterocarp Forest of Payeh Maga Highland,
Long Tuyo, Lawas” by the supervisor in a join authorship. However, it has to be
evaluated by the Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia
Bintulu Campus, Sarawak and published in the form approved by the faculty.
_____________________
Faiqah Binti Sihabudin
Date:
110
Faiqah Sihabudin