MAPIR CIAM- ANJE PROS TORO OVE A V MOD T ENSKE MAPP ERNIS LISTIN ING TH TIČNIH E OF CIA E SPA MEST CES O M’S A V KON F MOD THENS TEKST ERNIS CHART U NAČ T CITIE ER EL S WITH IN THE CONTE XT Zborn ik pri s Mapir pevkov m ednar anj od zgodo e urbanih prost ne konfere vinsk orov s nce p em ok loven viru: N skih m rojekta Proce o v a Goric eding est v a s i o n f n th Mapp jeni k ontek ing th e internat ional sti e Urb Histo a c n Spa onfer rical P e ces o erspe Conte f Slov nce of the ctive: xts e p n Mode rnism ian Cities roject fr in No va Go om the rica a nd its Nova Uredil Gorica i / Ed , 11.–1 ited b 3. ma y: Kat rec 20 arina 20 / N Moha ova G r, Bar orica, bara V March odopi vec 11–13 , 2020 MAPIRANJE PROSTOROV MODERNISTIČNIH MEST V KONTEKSTU NAČEL CIAM-OVE ATENSKE LISTINE Zbornik prispevkov mednarodne konference MAPPING THE SPACES OF MODERNIST CITIES WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF CIAM’S ATHENS CHARTER Proceedings of the International Conference Uredili / Edited by Katarina Mohar, Barbara Vodopivec Oblikovanje in postavitev / Design and layout Andrej Furlan Oblikovanje naslovnice / Cover design Nejc Bernik Prevodi povzetkov / Translations of summaries Manuela Dajnko, Nika Vaupotič, Amy Anne Kennedy Prva e-izdaja Ljubljana 2020 Izid publikacije je financirala Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije. Publikacija je nastala v okviru aplikativnega projekta Mapiranje urbanih prostorov slovenskih mest v zgodovinskem okviru: Nova Gorica in njeni konteksti (L6–8262), ki ga sofinancirajo Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije, Mestna občina Nova Gorica in Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti, in v okviru raziskovalnega programa Slovenska umetnostna identiteta v evropskem okviru (P6–0061). © 2020, ZRC SAZU, Umetnostnozgodovinski inštitut Franceta Steleta, Založba ZRC DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/9789610504344 KAZAL O TABLE OF CO N Založnik / Published by Založba ZRC Zanjo / Represented by Oto Luthar Vodja založbe / Head of Publishing House Aleš Pogačnik TENTS Izdajatelj / Issued by ZRC SAZU, Umetnostnozgodovinski inštitut Franceta Steleta / ZRC SAZU, France Stele Institute of Art History Zanj / Represented by Mija Oter Gorenčič 1 NASTANEK IN UTEMELJITEV FUNKCIONALISTIČNEGA MESTA THE FOUNDATION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF A FUNCTIONAL CITY 4 Tomaž Vuga: Nova Gorica in njen prostor / Nova Gorica and its Space Giuliana Di Mari, Caterina Franchini, Emilia Garda, Alessandra Renzulli: Adrianovo mesto: funkcionalizem izven okvirov / The City of Adriano: Functionalism out of the Box Marianna Charitonidou: Od Atenske listine do “povezovanja ljudi”: izpodbijanje predpostavk Listine o habitatu / From the Athens Charter to the “Human Association”: Challenging the Assumptions of the Charter of Habitat Olga Mykhaylyshyn, Svitlana Linda: Prikaz določil Atenske listine v arhitekturi masivne stanovanjske gradnje v Ukrajini od 1960-ih do 1980-ih / Display of the Athens Charter Provisions in Architecture of the Massive Residential Construction in Ukraine in 1960– 1980s Klavdija Figelj: Meblo, sodobno oblikovanje, ki je zgradilo identiteto mesta / Meblo, the Contemporary Design that Built the Identity of the City 5 Bogo Zupančič: Slovenski arhitekti in kongresi CIAM-a / Slovenian Architects and the CIAM Congresses 2 Helena Seražin: Komisija za verska vprašanja in gradnja sakralnih stavb v slovenskih povojnih modernističnih naseljih. Primer Nova Gorica / Commission for Religious Affairs and Building of Religious Buildings in Slovenian Post-war Modernist Settlements. The Case of Nova Gorica Barbara Vodopivec: Zapuščina prve svetovne vojne in identiteta Nove Gorice / Legacy of the First World War and Identity of Nova Gorica Tanja Poppelreuter in Lena Karim: Načrti kralja Faisala II. za Veliki Bagdad / King Faisal II’s Plans for Greater Baghdad 3 SAKRALNA ARHITEKTURA V NOVIH FUNKCIONALISTIČNIH MESTIH RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE IN NEW FUNCIONALIST TOWNS Marcus van der Meulen: Verske stavbe in povojna izgradnja socialistične utopije v Nemški Demokratični Republiki / Religious Buildings and the Post-war Construction of a Socialist Utopia in the German Democratic Republic SREDIŠČA FUNKCIONALISTIČNIH NOVIH MEST IN IDENTITETA MESTA THE CENTRES OF NEW FUNCTIONALIST TOWNS AND THE IDENTITY OF A TOWN Valentina Rodani: Modernost onkraj konflikta: arhitektura praznine v Gorici in Novi Gorici / Being Modern beyond the Conflict: the Architecture of Void in Gorizia and Nova Gorica POZABLJENA IN PROPADAJOČA INDUSTRIJSKA DEDIŠČINA THE FORGOTTEN AND DECAYING INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 6 SPOMENIKI V JAVNEM PROSTORU FUNKCIONALISTIČNIH MEST MONUMENTS IN THE PUBLIC SPACE OF FUNCTIONALIST CITY Svitlana Linda, Anna Fedak: Umetniška dediščina 1970-ih in 1980-ih v arhitekturi Lviva: problemi ovrednotenja in ohranitve / Artistic Heritage of the 1970–1980s in the Architecture of Lviv: Problems of Assessment and Preservation ENOLIČNOST ALI RAZNOLIKOST MODERNISTIČNE STANOVANJSKE ARHITEKTURE MONOTONY OR DIVERSITY OF MODERNIST RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE Ernesta Drole: Delovanje Kluba starih goriških študentov v mestu Nova Gorica / Activities of the Old Gorizia Students Club in Nova Gorica Alina Beitane: Kohezija lokalnega okolja in modernistične stanovanjske arhitekture v Latviji po drugi svetovni vojni / Cohesion of Local Environment and Modernist Residential Architecture in Latvia after the Second World War Gojko Zupan: Spomeniki v Novi Gorici in Sloveniji v času modernizma in danes / Public Monuments of Nova Gorica and Slovenia in the Time of Modernism and Today 4 Nadja Zgonik: Arhitekturna utopija na odprti meji. Primer novogoriškega hotela Argonavti (arhitekt Niko Lehrman in skupina OHO) / Architectural Utopia on the Open Border. An Example of the Argonavti Hotel in Nova Gorica (Architect Niko Lehrman and OHO Group) 5 MAPIRANJE IN VIZUALIZACIJA MESTNEGA PROSTORA MAPPING AND VISUALIZATION OF A TOWN Tanja Martelanc: Arhivski dokumenti prostorskega planiranja mesta Nove Gorice in goriške regije v Pokrajinskem arhivu v Novi Gorici. Predstavitev nedavno prevzetega arhivskega gradiva bivše občine Nova Gorica / Archival Documents on Spatial Planning for Nova Gorica and Gorizia Region, held in the Provincial Archives in Nova Gorica. Presentation of Recently Acquired Archives from the Former Nova Gorica Municipality NASTA N THE FO EK IN UTEM E UNDA TION A LJITEV FUN KC ND ES TABLIS IONALISTIČ N HMEN T OF A EGA MESTA FUNCT IONAL CITY Eirene Campagna: Mapiranje Berlina: Prostor spomenikov in percepcija obiskovalcev / Mapping Berlin: The Space of Monuments and the Perception of Visitors 1 7 6 7 From the Athens Charter to the “Human Association”: Challenging the Assumptions of the Charter of Habitat Marianna CHARITONIDOU Towards a universal user: “The Functional City” and its assumptions The modernist generation in architecture, including architects such as Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, was characterised by the tendency to define in a holistic and homogenised way the “fictive user” of architecture. During this period, the construction of the “fictive user” was focused on the assumption of the existence of a “universal user”. Representative of such a homogenised and generalisable approach is Le Corbusier’s Modulor, which is described by him as a “harmonious measure to the human scale universally applicable to architecture and mechanics.” A point of departure for this paper is the following claim of Reyner Banham regarding the stance of the generation of modernists, in a review of Le Corbusier’s Modulor published in 1955 in The Burlington Magazine: “To save himself from the sloughs of subjectivity, every modern architect has had to find his own objective standards, to select from his experience of building those elements which seem undeniably integral – structural technique, for instance, sociology, or – as in the case of Le Corbusier – measure.” Banham also maintained that “[t]he objectivity of these standards resides, in the first case, in a belief in a normal man, an attractive though shadowy figure whose dimensions Le Corbusier is prepared to vary from time to time and place to place, thus wrecking his claims to universality.”1 Five years later, in 1960, Reyner Banham chaired a symposium entitled “The Future of Universal Man,” in which he also addressed the issue of the fiction of a universal man in the case of modernism architecture.2 For Le Corbusier, the architect was the authority on living, as it becomes evident when he declares in The Athens Charter (Charte d’Athènes), originally written in 1933 in conjunction with the fourth CIAM (Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne), that the role of the architect is to know what is best for humans: “Who can take the measures necessary to the accomplishment of this task if not the architect who possesses a complete awareness of man, 1 Reyner BANHAM, “The Modulor,” The Burlington Magazine, 97/628 (1955), p. 231. 2 Reyner BANHAM, “The Future of Universal Man,” Architecture Review, 127/758 (1960), p. 253. 28 who has abandoned illusory designs, and who, judiciously adapting the means to the desired ends, will create an order that bears within it a poetry of its own?”3 Le Corbusier wrote the Charter of Athens in the framework of the fourth CIAM, which had as theme “The Functional City” and was held in 1933 on board of a ship in the Mediterranean during a trip towards Athens. The fourth CIAM was led was led by the architect Le Corbusier, the urban planner Cornelis van Eesteren and the art historian Siegfried Giedion. The fact that the fourth CIAM, held on the ship Patris II in the Mediterranean and in Athens in 1933 was entitled “The Functional City” shows how important for architectural epistemology had become at the time the notion of functionalism. Other titles that had been also considered for this congress were “The Constructive City” and “The Organic City.” The debates that were held during the fourth CIAM were based on the assumption that it is possible, through efficient architectural and urban design to there has, to achieve “a balance between the functions of the particular parts”4 of the city. Fig. 1: Le Corbusier and Ghyka on the board of Patris II during the CIAM IV, 1933 (© Foundation Le Corbusier, Paris). The first edition of Le Corbusier’s Charte d’Athènes was published, in 1943, a year after Josep Luis Sert’s Can Our Cities Survive? An ABC of Urban Problems, Their Analysis, Their Solutions.5 The simultaneity of these publications is interesting because it concerns two opposing stances vis-à-vis the reinvention of the how urban reality is understood. The two books, which are based on reflections carried out during the fourth CIAM suggest different conceptions of the user of the city. Sert, who had worked in Le Corbusier’s office in Paris, was the president 3 LE CORBUSIER, La Charte d’Athènes avec un discours liminaire de Jean Giraudoux suivi de Entretien avec les étudiants des écoles d’Architecture, Paris 1957; The Athens Charter, New York 1973, p. 142. 4 Martin STEINMANN (ed.), CIAM. Dokumente 1928–1939, Basel-Stuttgart 1979, pp. 160–163. 5 Josep Lluís SERT, Can Our Cities Survive? An ABC of Urban Problems, Their Analysis, Their Solutions, Cambridge 1942. Original edition: Charte d’Athènes, Paris 1943. 29 of these years for the transformation of architectural discipline the exhibition documented a series of episodes using artefacts of multiple scales (city to construction details) and forms (industrial objects to architectural plans). Its materials extended from products or posters of mass culture to specialised technical objects. The construction of its narrative was based on a sequence that is thematic rather than chronological. The classification of documentary materials into distinct phases was elaborated in order to shed light on the connections of episodes and on the direct and indirect impact of the war on architectural thinking. The main argument was that the architectural knowledge and discipline between the bombings of Guernica in 1937 and Hiroshima in 1945, a time full of research and transformation, was called upon to mobilise its field of experiences in such a way that war functioned as a creative force giving an unprecedented boost to research on prefabrication, and the use of new materials. Fig. 2: Front cover and back cover of Josep Lluís SERT, Can Our Cities Survive? An ABC of Urban Problems, Their Analysis, Their Solutions, Cambridge 1942. of the CIAM between 1947 and 1956. In 1952, he held a one-year Visiting Professorship at Yale University. The following year, he was appointed Dean of the Harvard Graduate School of Design, where he served as dean until 1969. There, in 1959, he initiated the first professional degree program in urban design. Second World War technologies and architecture: standardisation as epistemological shift In the exhibition “Architecture in Uniform: Designing and Building for the Second World War”6 curated by Jean-Louis Cohen, the materials were chosen and assembled according to the hypothesis that the Second World War was a key moment in the modernisation of architectural theory and practice. In order to convey about the importance of the experience The exhibition accomplished in an effective way the purpose of communicating that the contribution of architects to the post-war reconstruction proved to be as strategically indispensable as did the scientists and engineers. Every component of the show, from the interior perspective of Le Corbusier’s and Jean Prouvé’s 1940 “Flying Schools” project to the original model of Buckminster Fuller’s 1945 Dymaxion Dwelling House, as well as from Jean Prouvé’s 1941 bicycle frame to war-time guide books for the home, contributed to convincing the spectator about how methods developed under the pressures of war emergency were applied to peaceful purposes extending the field of architectural expertise and knowledge. All the different media, used in the exhibition, functioned as systems of coordinates, making operative the mapping of the historical territory under question. Through a comprehensive documentation of the events, design, and construction that took place during the war this exhibition revealed certain episodes of post- Second World War architecture and city planning that had been overlooked because of the invisibility and secrecy during the war. The communication of the main incidents, turning points, and inventions that contributed to the emergence of new types of buildings could not become possible without the detailed documentation and the narrative tricks of the exhibition. How architects around the globe responded to the changing conditions because of the war? The selection of the components, which serve as sequences of its narrative, was guided by the intention to reveal the main episodes that contributed to the emergence of new visual languages. Its pangeographic and chronotopic approach makes explicit that architecture is a major historical actor. The influence of the war-time technological experience on post-war architectural epistemology reminds us that inventions are the amplification of knowledge that give rise to new formalisations and normalisations through the constitution of symbols. An important figure for architecture’s standardisation is Albert Kahn.7 Kahn’s role for the 7 6 Jean-Louis COHEN, Architecture in Uniform: Designing and Building for the Second World War, New HavenMontreal, 2011. 30 W. Hawkins Ferry, The Legacy of Albert Kahn, Detroit 1970. See also Sonia MELNIKOVA-RAICH, “The Soviet Problem with Two ‘Unknowns’: How an American Architect and a Soviet Negotiator Jump-Started the Industrialization of Russia, Part I: Albert Kahn,” The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology, 36/2, 2010, pp. 57–80; Claire ZIMMERMAN, “The Labor of Albert Kahn,” The Aggregate website, http:// 31 bureaucratisation and typification of architecture should be taken into account if one wishes to understand how the architecture of bureaucracy and the concept of architectural corporation were intensified during the postwar period due to the incorporation of the war technologies in the common architectural practice8. This shift that was caused because of the typification of the different phases of the architects’ task is linked to the emergence of a new understanding of the concept of user, as it becomes evident in the pages of the journal Plus and especially in its first issue published in December 1938. The emblematic graphic design by Herbert Matter for this issue is telling regarding this mutation of the conception of the user that was taking place already before the beginning of the Second World War. The editors of the journal Plus were Wallace K. Harrison, William Lescaze, Willima Muschenheim, Stamo Papadaki and James Johnson Sweeney and among the journal’s collaborators was Albert Kahn. Two years earlier the publication of the first issue of Plus, Ernst Neufert had used “man as Normed Measure” in Bauentwurfslehre. The conception of man as normed measure goes hand in hand with the standardisation of the building procedures. This standardisation is associated with the emergence of the organisational diagrams, which could not have been so intensified without the incorporation of the war technologies in the milieus of industries. The concepts of standardisation and typification were so present in Neufert’s thought that he even used an index for his diary. The way organisational diagrams were linked to the mutation of the process of conceptualising architectural practice becomes evident in “The Kahn Organization” diagram, which accompanied an article published in The Architectural Record in June 1942, the organisational diagram shown in figure 2.36 by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, published in Bauen + Wohnen in April 1957, but also in the way Albert Kahn used the concepts of method, management and decentralisation in the case of the General Motors Building.9 Charles K. Hyde, in his article entitled “Assembly-Line Architecture: Albert Kahn and the Evolution of the U.S. Auto Factory, 1905-1940” explains how Albert Kahn incorporated new building materials in factory design. He also analyses the impact of the way Albert Kahn’s design of Henry Ford’s factories, but also other factories in Detroit on the American automobile industry at large.10 An expression of the impact of standardisation on architectural design strategies is a diagram that the Eames published, in Arts & Architecture in 1944. www.we-aggregate.org/piece/the-labor-of-albert-kahn (accessed 6 July 2018); Grant HILDEBRAND, Designing for Industry: The Architecture of Albert Kahn, Cambridge 1980. 8 Michael KUBO, “The Concept of the Architectural Corporation,” in: OfficeUS Agenda (eds. Eva Franchi Gilabert, Ana Milijački, Ashley Schafer and Amanda Reese), Zurich 2014, pp. 37–45. 9 Michael ABRAHAMSON, “’Actual Center of Detroit”: Method, Management, and Decentralization in Albert Kahn’s General Motors Building,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 77/1, 2018, pp. 56–76. 10 Charles K. HYDE, “Assembly-Line Architecture: Albert Kahn and the Evolution of the U.S. Auto Factory, 1905–1940,” IA. The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology, 22/2, 1996, pp. 5–24. 32 The humanisation of urban conditions in the fifties: Challenging the relationship between the urban centre and the its peripheries In order to grasp the climate in the early fifties and how intense was the interest in the connection between architecture and the city at the time, and how present was the theme of the “Core” or the “Heart” in the debates on architecture in the early fifties regarding the future of the city, we can recall that the theme of the eighth CIAM, held in 1951 in Hoddesdon in the UK., was the “Core”. The analogies between nature and architecture, as well as the analogies between human beings and architectural artefacts are significant for understanding what was at stake regarding the dominant conception of architecture’s addressee during the post-war period. Within this context, concepts such as “human association,” “core,” “heart,” “urban life” became central for the epistemological debates and replaced the four functions doctrine that classified the city functions in the following categories: dwelling, working, recreation and transportation. This reorientation of the way architects conceived the relationship between architecture’s addressees and the city is related to a shift from a universal logic of functionalism to an understanding of architecture’s experience based on the intention to grasp the quotidian and human aspect of urban life. The suburbanisation of the post-war cities led architects to challenge their models regarding the way they conceived the relationship between the urban centre and its peripheries. The architectural debates of the post-war years reflected the ambition of the architects to adapt the scope of architecture to the need of maintaining the role of architecture in the control of city’s expansion. This re-orientation of the scope of architecture during the post-war years should be understood in conjunction with the mutation of the way the inhabitation of buildings and cities were conceived. The dominant architectural discourse during the early fifties was characterised by an intensification of the interest in the humanisation of urban conditions, as it becomes evident in Ernesto Nathan Rogers’s text entitled “The Heart: A Human Problem”, which was published in 1952 in The Heart of the City: Towards the Humanisation of Urban Life11. The aforementioned book was the publication of the eighth CIAM held in Hoddesdon in 1951, during which Aldo van Eyck presented his famous playgrounds. That same year, the “First International Conference on Proportion in the Arts” was organised in the framework of the ninth Triennale di Milano. 11 Ernesto Nathan ROGERS, “The Heart: A Human Problem,” in: The Heart of the City: Towards the Humanisation of Urban Life (ed. Josep Luis Sert, Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and Ernesto Nathan Rogers), London 1952). 33 The rejection of the homogeneous functionalist model: The “Grid of Living” The Smithsons’ Urban Re-identification Grid signified a distancing from what Le Corbusier maintained, in The Athens Charter, where he asserted that “[t]he keys to urbanism are to be found in the four functions: inhabiting, working, recreation (in leisure time), and circulation”.12 The critique of the doctrine of modernism is connected to the emergence of Team 10 and the dissolution of the CIAM. The concern about reinventing the way architectural and urban artefacts are inhabited is reflected in the topic of the ninth CIAM, held in 1953 in Aix-enProvence in France, which was the “Grid of Living”. In the debates that took place during this CIAM, it became apparent that a new understanding of the user of the city has been gradually emerging. The Urban Re-identification Grid that Alison and Peter Smithson presented in the framework of this CIAM is significant for understanding how the conception of the user of architecture was transformed during the post-war years. It epitomises a turning point regarding the conception of the inhabitant of the post-war cities. In parallel, it was a declaration against the homogenised and simplified way that the fourth CIAM had treated urban reality. The photo of Chisendale Road by Nigel Henderson (1951) was part of the Smithons’ Urban Reidentification Grid. The Smithsons’ network of housing and streets in the air (fig. 7) and their collage for the competition for the Golden Lane Housing project (1952) were also illustrated in their Urban Re-identification Grid. The notions of “house,” “street,” “relationship,” “district” and “city” were upgraded to the dominant concepts of architectural epistemology. Fig. 3 Fig. 3: Detail of the “CIAM Grid,” as developed by Le Corbusier and the ASCORAL group, showing the division of the vertical axis into analytical themes. Drafted in Paris by the members of ASCORAL and adopted by the CIAM Council, this grid was published in June 1948 in a pamphlet entitled Grille CIAM d’urbanisme; mise en pratique de la Charte d’Athènes, Paris 1948 (© Foundation Le Corbusier, Paris). Fig. 4: Display Diagram showing how the Grid analysis is applied to a given problem (Source: Team 10 2005 (n. 20), p. 254; © Het Nieuwe Instituut Collections and Archive, Rotterdam, CIAM Congresses and Team 10 Meetings). 12 LE CORBUSIER (n. 3), 95–99. Fig. 4 34 35 Fig. 5: Alison and Peter Smithson, Urban Re-identification Grid, presented at the ninth CIAM in Aix-en-Provence in 1953 (Source: Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris). Fig. 7: Nigel Henderson, Chisendale Road, 1951 (Source: Nigel Henderson Collection, courtesy of Tate Archive; © Nigel Henderson Estate). Challenging the assumptions of the Charter of Habitat The theme of the tenth CIAM, held in Dubrovnik in 1956, was “towards a chart of Habitat” and its goal was to challenge the assumptions of the Charter of Habitat. During this CIAM meeting, the younger generation of the group – Aldo van Eyck, Jaap Bakema, Georges Candilis, Shadrach Woods, and Alison and Peter Smithson among other – who would form the Team 10, established a new agenda for mass housing under the title “Habitat for the Greater Number.” It was in this CIAM that the Smithsons presented their Fold Houses n. 1956, during the opening of the CIAM X held at Dubrovnik, Sert read Le Corbusier’s “Letter Fig. 6: Alison and Peter Smithson, Golden Lane Housing project, 1952, network of housing and streets in the air (Source: Helena Webster, Modernism Without Rhetoric: Essays on the work of Alison and Peter Smithson, Maryland 1997, p. 27). 36 to CIAM 10,” in which the latter was declaring that the ideology of the first era of CIAM was no longer relevant. Le Corbusier’s diagram is telling regarding how he conceived the relationship between the vision of the first CIAM and that of the late CIAM. 37 The Italian scene and Ludovico Quarani’s critique of functionalism Among the episodes that are defining for understanding what was at stake in the post-war Italian context are the foundation of the Associazione per l’architettura organica (APAO) by Pier Luigi Nervi and Bruno Zevi founded in 1945 and the approach that Ernesto Nathan Rogers developed in the pages of Casabella Continuità as its director during the post-war years. In 1957, the latter wrote, in “Continuità o Crisi?”: “Considering history as a process, it might be said that history is always continuity or always crisis accordingly as one wishes to emphasize either permanence or emergency”.13 Ernesto Nathan Rogers and Giuseppe Samonà, who insist on the necessity of an ethical consciousness of the architect, are often described as neohumanists. Fig. 8: Alison and Peter Smithson, Fold Houses, panels for the tenth CIAM of 1956 (Source: Team 10 2005 (n. 20), p. 50; © The Alison and Peter Smithson Archive, Special Collections, Frances Loeb Library, Graduate School of Design, Harvard University). The Italians were not very active in the CIAM. However, the CIAM in Bergamo in 1949 and in Venice in 1950 triggered the cross-fertilisation between the international modernist scene and the Italian modernist models. The Italians who participated to the CIAM of 1953, held in Aix-en-Provence, were: Franco Albini, Ludovico B. Belgioioso, Luigi Cosenza, Ignazio Gardella, Ernesto N. Rogers, Giovanni Romano, Giuseppe Samonà, Ignazio Gardella and Vico Magistretti. Giancarlo De Carlo and Ernesto N. Rogers attended the last CIAM, held in Otterlo in 1959. De Carlo was an active member of Team 10. The CIAM Summer School of 1951 took place in Hoddesdon, while those between 1952 and 1956 were held in Venice, under the direction of Franco Albini, Ignazio Gardella, Ernesto Rogers and Giuseppe Samonà14. De Carlo contributed to the CIAM summer school of 1956, which was held in Venice. A non-Italian member of the Team 10 that participated to this summer school was Jaap Bakema, who came as a guest critic. Ernesto Nathan Rogers did not attend the 1956 CIAM summer school, despite the fact he was invited. Ludovico Quaroni, who had just been appointed as professor in Florence, gave two lectures in the framework of the CIAM summer school of 195615 despite the fact that he was not among the Italian supporters of the CIAM. The most important effect of the CIAM Summer Schools, held in Venice, was on the pedagogical methods of the IUAV. Quaroni was one of the professors of Manfredo Tafuri. The latter collaborated with the former as teaching assistant and wrote a monograph on him, published in 1964, under the title Ludovico Quaroni e lo svillupo dell’architettura moderna in Italia.16 Denise and Robert Scott Fig. 9: Le Corbusier, Message to the tenth CIAM at Dubrovnik, “Crisis or Evolution?”, 23 July 1956 (Source: Archiv Institut für Geschichte und Theorie der Architektur (GTA), ETH Hönggerberg, Zürich, CIAM archives, 42-HRM-X-17). 38 13 Ernesto Nathan ROGERS, “Continuità o Crisi?,” Casabella Continuità, 215, 1957, pp. 3–4. 14 Giancarlo GUARDA, “Attualità di una scuola,” Casabella Continuità, 199, 1953, p. 41; Gabriele SCIMEMI, “La quarta scuola estiva del CIAM a Venezia,” Casabella Continuità, 213, 1956, pp. 69–73; Franco BERLANDA, “La scuola del CIAM a Venezia,” Urbanistica 13, 1953, pp. 83–86. 15 Herman VAN BERGEIJK, “CIAM Summer School 1956,” OverHolland, 9, 2010, pp. 113–124. 16 Manfredo TAFURI, “Ludovico Quaroni e la cultura architettonica italiana,” Zodiac, 11, 1963, pp. 130–145; Ludovico Quaroni e lo sviluppo dell’architettura moderna in Italia, Milan 1964. 39 Brown were among the English-speaking people in the audience when Quaroni gave his lecture in the framework of the CIAM Summer School of 1956. Scott Brown, who would later be married with Robert Venturi and would right with him and Steven Izenour Learning From Las Vegas, which would appear 16 years later, in 1972,17 was 25 years old at the time. The main question that Quaroni addressed in the lecture he delivered on 14 September 1956, entitled “The architect and town planning” was the interrogation regarding the ways in which the architect could be part of society. Its main focus was to shed light on the different ways of understanding the relationship between town planning and architecture. He underscored: “what we wanted to know was the kind of relationships between town planning and architecture.” He tried to explain “why […] town planning [should] be the architects’ concern,” drawing a distinction between an understanding of function as object and an understanding of function as principle. He said: “That’s why the latest development of the battle for modern art caused architecture to formulate as an object what is just a principle, namely that the form must rise from the functionalism.” Quaroni’s critique of functionalism could be interpreted as a critique of Le Corbusier’s categorisation of human actions into dwelling, working, cultivating mind and body and of his understanding of house as ”machine à habiter.” Quaroni criticized Le Corbusier’s understanding function in a quantitative and simplistic way. He believed that Le Corbusier had neglected the physical, special, psychological, and moral parameters implied by the notion of function. For this reason, he suggested a reinvention of the concept of function. He asserted: “not having fully digested the idea of function, in the long run, we identified it only with a question of form.” Quaroni maintained that “[a]ccording to Le Corbusier’s theory, the life of man was summarized in three actions: dwelling, working, cultivating mind and body.” He rejected Le Corbusier’s conception of the user as “machine-man” and his dwelling as “machine-house,” shedding light on the fact that the architect-conceiver, according do Le Corbusier’s approach, intended to control the manner in which the users should inhabit their dwelling. In parallel, Quaroni put into the same category Le Corbusier, Frank Lloyd Wright and Brunelleschi, claiming that “Le Corbusier as well as Wright are the last specimen of that generation of architects, the founder of which was perhaps Brunelleschi.” He asserted: “not having fully digested the idea of function, in the long run, we identified it only with a question of form: exactly like a century before.” He sustained that the “function cannot be determined by means of mere square or cubic meters, since it is a compound of physical, special, psychological, moral factors.” He also underlined the importance of the “the relations between the individual and the collectivity, for the new society.” Quaroni’s conception of culture was based on the belief that the architects are responsible for contributing to the unity of culture: “The architect is thus rebuilding that unity of culture which 17 Robert VENTURI, Denise SCOTT BROWN and Steven IZENOUR, Learning from Las Vegas, Cambridge 1972). 40 had been lost amidst the tragic splendours of the Renaissance. He succeeds in becoming again part of the cultural life, in operating again for the society, in gaining back the object of his activity.” Quaroni underscored the importance of understanding “architecture as a social function.”18 According to Quaroni, the contemporary city doesn’t have a homogeneous structure. This recognition is related to a different conception of the space/time relationship. Quaroni employed the concept of “marvellous” city, and the notion of “urban architecture,” which is linked the changes of the educational strategies in the Schools of architecture in Italy during the sixties. The Doorn Manifesto and the “re-humanisation” of architecture: The “Scale of Association” versus the four functions The post-war context was characterised by the intention to “re-humanise” architecture. The Doorn Manifesto was pivotal for this pr oject of architecture’s re-humanisation. The rediscovery of the “human” and the intensification of the interest in the proportions are two aspects that should be taken into account if we wish to grasp how the scope of architecture was transformed during the post-war period. In 1954, the Team 10 presented, in the Doorn Manifesto, their “Scale of Association”, which was a kind of re-interpretation of Patrick Geddes’ Valley Section. The “Scale of Association” shows the intention of the Team 10 to replace the four functions — dwelling, work, recreation and transport — of the Charter of Athens with the concept of the “human association”, on the one hand, and to incorporate in the scope of architecture the reflection regarding the impact of scale on the design process, on the other. One can read in the draft statement for the tenth CIAM: “This method is intended to induce a study of human association as a first principle, and of the four functions as aspects of each total problem”19 The post-war period and, especially, the historical moment at which the Team 10 prepared the Doorn Manifesto was not only characterised by an opening of the architectural scope towards the urban scale, but it was also closely connected to the belief that the architectural design process, its different phases and its hierarchies should be adapted to the scale of the project. This appreciation of the importance of the adjustment of the architectural and urban design strategies to the scale was related to the project of humanisation of architecture. The significance of the “Scale of Association” lies in the fact that it sets up, as Volker M. Welter mentions, a “comparable and synchronic scale that establishes a conceptual relation that binds the smaller communities into a hierarchically structured, larger whole”.20 In other words, 18 BERGEIJK (n. 15), 113–124. 19 NAi Collections and Archive, Rotterdam, CIAM Congresses and Team 10 Meetings, Draft statement for the tenth CIAM with Patrick Geddes’ valley Section. 20 Volker M. WELTER, “In-between space and society. On some British roots of Team 10’s urban thought in the 1950s,” in: Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present 1953–1981 (eds. Dirk van der Heuvel and Max Risselada), Rotterdam 2005, p. 260. 41 through the visualization provided by the diagram in the Doorn manifesto, which was inspired by Geddes, the Team 10 aimed to articulate a renewed individual-community assemblage. Thanks to the adjustment of architectural design processes to the needs related to scale that this diagram suggests, a mutation of the way the different scales of architectural and urban interventions are related to each other took place. This re-articulation of the connections between the different scales of the architectural project was part of the Team 10’s project to humanise architecture. The Team 10 placed particular emphasis on the capacity of architectural practice to contribute to the transformation of society. The addressee of the architectural scope was not any more understood as an individual user, and, for this reason, it seemed inadequate to reduce the architectural design process to the users’ activities – dwelling, work, recreation and transport. In contrast, what became the scope of architecture was the establishment of individual-community assemblages. In the case of Team 10’s approach, the question of scale, thus, was what counted most, instead of the categorisation of the satisfaction of the needs related to the user’s activities. The term “function”, and its universal and abstract connotations, was replaced by the culturally defined experience of the citizens and by the citizens’ interaction with the community to which they belonged. Architecture was, therefore, comprehended as a means that can and should enhance the encounter with the community to which the citizens belong, transforming the individual into a citizen, and treating the citizens as responsible for the future of their communities. As one can see in the “Scale of Association” diagram he attention was focused on the relations between the components of the urban fabric and not on its components per se. Team 10’s “version of architecture, while modern, was nevertheless capable of integrating the existing social order of a specific place and society.”21 Fig. 10: Draft statement for the tenth CIAM with Patrick Geddes’ valley Section. (Source: Team 10 2005 (n. 20), p. 48; © Het Nieuwe Instituut Collections and Archive, 21 Rotterdam, CIAM Congresses and Team 10 Meetings). WELTER (n. 20), p. 262. 42 43 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/9789610504344 © 2020, ZRC SAZU, Umetnostnozgodovinski inštitut Franceta Steleta, Založba ZRC Vse pravice pridržane. Noben del te izdaje ne sme biti reproduciran, shranjen ali prepisan v kateri koli obliki oz. na kateri koli način, bodisi elektronsko, mehansko, s fotokopiranjem, snemanjem ali kako drugače, brez predhodnega dovoljenja lastnika avtorskih pravic ©. Objavljeni prispevki niso recenzirani. Avtorji odgovarjajo za jezikovno in vsebinsko ustreznost svojih člankov in za pridobljena dovoljenja nosilcev avtorskih pravic. 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