2nd International Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World

Javid Kashefi

Since the success of an invasive species depends not only upon its intrinsic traits but also on particular characteristics of the recipient habitat, assessing the performance of an invader across habitats provides a more realistic analysis of risk. Such an analysis will not only provide insights into the traits related to invasiveness, but also the habitat characteristics that underpin vulnerability to invasion that, taken together, will facilitate the selection of management strategies to mitigate the invader’s effect. In the present study, we considered the Mediterranean basin islands as an excellent study region to test how the same invasive species perform in different habitats within a single island, and to scale up differences among islands with similar climate. We tested how the performance of three widespread plant invaders with clonal growth but contrasting life-history traits, a deciduous tree Ailanthus altissima, a succulent subshrub Carpobrotus spp., and an annual geophyte Oxalis pes-caprae, varied depending upon the species identity, habitat, and invaded island. The environmental parameters considered were habitat type, elevation, species diversity in the invaded plot, and several soil traits (% C, % N, C/N, pH, and relative humidity). The study documents that the performance of these three important and widespread plant invaders is dependent mainly on species identity, and less upon the invaded island’s general features. Likewise, differences in performance among habitats were only significant in the case of Ailanthus, whereas Carpobrotus and Oxalis appear to perform equally well in different environments. Ailanthus thus appears to have a broader spectrum of invasiveness, being able to invade a larger number of habitat types. On the contrary, Carpobrotus spp. have not yet invaded habitats different from those where the species have been originally introduced and where they are still commonly spread by humans. Oxalis distribution is mainly related to agricultural activities and disturbed sites, and the total area infested by this geophyte may be more reflection of the extent of suitable habitats than of invasiveness or ecological impact. Our results confirm the potential for these species to significantly alter the functioning of ecosystems in the Mediterranean islands and highlight the risk to other islands not yet invaded.

Invasive plant species are becoming increasingly widespread following accelerated anthropogenic activity in the Mediterranean region. Humans have played a central role in the expansion process, and it is important to incorporate such considerations into management plans. Using generalized linear models, our first aim was to describe how the invasion success of 862 prominent alien plant species on Mediterranean islands is

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235611564 2nd International Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World Book · February 2012 CITATIONS READS 7 533 4 authors, including: Sarah Brunel Ahmet Uludag Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi 61 PUBLICATIONS 1,349 CITATIONS 297 PUBLICATIONS 956 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Giuseppe Brundu Università degli Studi di Sassari 215 PUBLICATIONS 6,091 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: PRATIQUE View project Study of the emergence and early growth of Echinochloa crus-galli and Avena fatua View project All content following this page was uploaded by Sarah Brunel on 05 June 2014. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. SEE PROFILE 2nd International Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World 2010-08-02/06, Trabzon, Turkey Proceedings 2 Content Steering Committee of the Workshop…………….….…………………………. 4 Foreword ……………………….…………………………………………….....…7 Trabzon message………………………………………………………….….....…9 Content of the Proceedings…………………….…………….………………... 11 Presentation and outcomes of the thematic workshops..……………...……….19 Oral presentations……………..………………….............................………….. 47 Posters…………………………………………………………….……………..289 Emails of participants………………………...……………………….….…… 437 3 Steering Committee of the Workshop The steering committee is so far composed of experts from Mediterranean regions of the world: Local Committee Mr Güven Algün, Trabzon Agricultural Quarantine Directorate Mr Osman Nuri Baki, Province Directorate of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Mr Doğan Işik, Karadeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Samsun Prof Atalay Sökmen, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon Mr Süleyman Türkseven, Ege University, Izmir Mr Ahmet Uludag, European Environment Agency Prof Huseyin Zengin, Igdir University, Igdir International Committee Mr Ahmet Aslan, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Turkey Mr Anoir Al Mouemar, University of Damas, Syria Mr Christian Bohren, Agroscope Changins, Switzerland Mr Giuseppe Brundu, University of Sassari, Italy Prof Ramiro Bustamante, University of Chile, Chile Ms Sarah Brunel, OEPP/EPPO Ms Laura Celesti-Grapow, University "La Sapienza di Roma", Italy Ms Costanza dal Cin D‘Agata, Park for the Preservation of Flora and Fauna, Greece Mr Joe DiTomaso, University of California, Davis, California Mr Pierre Ehret, French National Plant Protection Organization, France Mr Eladio Fernandez-Galiano, Council of Europe Mr Guillaume Fried, French National Plant Protection Organization, France Mr Piero Genovesi, ISSG Prof. Vernon Heywood, University of Reading, United Kingdom Mr Geoffrey Howard, IUCN Prof Inderjit, CEMDE, University of Delhi, India Ms Elizabete Marchante, University of Coimbra, Portugal Ms Lindsey Norgrove, CABI Prof Baruch Rubin, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Prof Abdelkader Taleb, Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Morocco Prof David M. Richardson, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa Mr Andy Sheppard, CSIRO Entomology, Australia Ms Sarah Simons, Global Invasive Species Programme Ms Salma Talhouk, The American University of Beirut, Lebanon Ms Anna Traveset, Spanish Research Council (CSIC), Spain Mr Tuvia Yaacoby, Plant Protection and Inspection Services, Israel Prof Sinasi Yildirimli, Hacettepe University, Turkey 4 Editors of the Proceedings Ms Sarah Brunel, EPPO (Editor in chief) Mr Ahmed Uludag, EEA Mr Eladio Fernandez-Galiano, Council of Europe Mr Giuseppe Brundu, University of Sassari, Italy Reviewers Prof. Mohamed Bouhache, Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Morocco Ms Madeleine Mc Mullen, EPPO Prof. Pavol Elias, Dept. Of Ecology, Slovak Agricultural University, Slovakia Mr Vladimir Vladimirov, Institute of Botany Bulgarian Academy Of Sciences, Bulgaria Ms Ernita van Wyck, South African National Biodiversity Institute, South Africa Mr. İlhan Üremiş, Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey Mr. Pierre Ehret, French Plant Protection Organization, France Ms Judith Lorraine Fisher, University of Western Australia/Fisher Research, Australia Ms Elizabete Marchante, University of Coimbra, Portugal Mr Guillaume Fried, French National Plant Protection Organization, France Prof. Ramiro O. Bustamante, University of Chile, Chile. 5 6 Foreword At the 10th Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity, held in Nagoya (Japan) in 2010, world governments adopted targets aimed at reducing pressures on biological diversity. Target 9 concerned Invasive Alien Species, know to be one of the main causes of extinction of species at the global level: ―: By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritised, priority species are controlled or eradicated, and measures are in place to manage pathways to prevent their introduction and establishment‖, Mediterranean type regions are hotspots of biological diversity at the world level and thus an improved knowledge of how they are affected by invasive alien species and how to prevent their arrival and spread is vital to be able to preserve their biological richness. A First International Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World was held in Mèze (France) from 25 to 27 May 2008, helping bring together information and expertise on the topic. (http://archives.eppo.org/MEETINGS/2005_meetings/workshop_invasive/workshop.htm ) This second Workshop, co-organized by the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization, The European Environment Agency, the Council of Europe, Igdir University and The Turkish Ministry of Agriculture was held in Trabzon (Turkey), from 2 to 6 August 2010. It was attended by over 90 participants from 29 countries (Australia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Chile, Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Greece, Hungary, India, Iran, Israel, Italy, Lithuania, Malaysia, Morocco, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Sudan, Syria, Switzerland, Tunisia, Turkey, UK, USA). Experts from the other Mediterranean Type Regions of the World (Northern Chile, California, the Cape Region of South Africa, and Western Australia) presented their experience with invasive species. The workshop consisted in plenary presentations and small working groups, allowing participants to network and to discuss current and future projects. The conclusions of all small working groups, as well as either full contributions or abstracts of oral or poster presentations are available in these proceedings. A statement was also made at the workshop: the Trabzon message, focusing on the need for more science and more conservation action on invasive alien species in Mediterranean- type regions. The 3rd workshop of that series should be organized in 2014 in Tunisia. The Editors. 7 8 Trabzon message The participants of the 2nd workshop on invasive alien plants in the Mediterranean type regions of the world meeting in Trabzon, Turkey, from 2 to 6 th of August 2010: 1. Warmly thank Turkish authorities and the Igdir University for their warm welcome and excellent hosting of the meeting and the European Environment Agency, the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization, and the Council of Europe for their support, as well as the sponsors. 2. Recall the Mèze Declaration and note that Invasive Alien Plants are a major threat both to natural and semi-natural habitats and agriculture and that our societies would highly benefit from addressing the issue and taking further steps to control their spread and mitigate their impacts. 3. Encourage governments, the scientific community, conservation practitioners, the agriculture profession, the horticulture industry, National Plant Protection Organizations, and other appropriate stakeholders to publicize and implement the recommendations below which are the result of discussions in the different workshops from this meeting:  Promote awareness on IAP, targeting diverse public, by creating a well-planned and effective communication strategy, and organize a wide Mediterranean “cleanup day” including hands on activities to control IAP (2011 or 2012) which should be widely publicized;  Encourage the elaboration of lists of priority alien plants as a tool to raise awareness on emergent invasive alien species by biogeographical zones, particularly in Mediterranean countries where global databases are lacking, as it is planned to be done by a number southern Mediterranean countries with the EPPO prioritization process;  Promote the removal or eradication of invasive alien plants as a tool to be used as part of the integrated management of IAS, giving due consideration to its costs, feasibility and the health, economy and conservation gains; prioritize species and target habitats, monitor results and publicize and exchange information;  Take necessary steps to make Codes of conduct on invasive alien plants better known and used and to encourage their use, establishing a dialogue with the horticulture industry and its customers (including managers involved in landscaping operation); use meetings of the horticulture industry such as the one to be held in Turkey in 2016 to draw their attention to the need of cooperation; publicize the Council of Europe/EPPO Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants, and translate it into different languages and adapt it nationally;  Discourage the planting of Acacia species known to be invasive; establish a network to transfer knowledge so that management can be improved and risk assessment communicated; 9  Encourage and support the inclusion and integration of North African countries in the European early warning system being developed by organizing a workshop targeting representatives of national authorities and academics so as to raise awareness and promote the increase in knowledge;  Encourage cooperation on, training of specialists and early warning in the Black Sea region which is subject to high trade and fast spread of IAP and relatively difficult exchange of information;  Promote early warning and rapid response systems, including at the local and/or regional level; create awareness among governments and international bodies on the need to deal soon and effectively with new invasive alien plants; promote flexible mechanisms of early response, based on local expertise and resources; work towards and integrated European system such as the one proposed by the EEA.  Use risk assessment for the selection of biofuel crops, and monitor closely the plants that are used in order to assess their invasiveness in new cropping systems;  Launch a questionnaire on the important invasive alien plants in arable areas in Mediterranean countries to be spread to the participants and any relevant contacts, analyze and update these data on the Internet;  Focus research on new invasive alien plants under global change (e.g. aquacrop model of FAO);  Support the preparation of national inventories and herbaria of IAP as useful tools for IAS national strategies and promote local and regional exchange of information. 10 Thematic Workshops Section 1 : Plant invasions in the Mediterranean: where do we stand? Using the prioritization process for Mediterranean countries, Chaired by Mr Guillaume Fried and Ms Sarah Brunel……………………………………………………………………………………..20 Alien trees in the Mediterranean countries: focussing on Acacia spp., Chaired by Ms Genevieve Thomson and Mr Giuseppe Brundu……………………………………………………………….22 Similarities and differences between distribution of invasive alien plants in the Black Sea and Mediterranean area, Chaired by Mr Necmi Aksoy…………………………………...………….24 Section 2 : Early warning Building an Early Detection Rapid Response (EDRR) for the Mediterranean, Chaired by Mr Kassim Al-Khatib and Mr Ahmet Uludag……………………………………………….……….26 Identifying targets for eradication in the Mediterranean and eradication experiences, Chaired by Mr Eladio Fernandez Galiano…………………………………………………….……………….29 Cooperation/inclusion of North African Countries in European early warning system, Chaired by Mr Mohamed Bouhache and Mr Riccardo Scalera……………….………….……………32 Section 3: Communication, policies & strategies for tackling invasive alien plants Implementing Codes of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants for the Mediterranean, Chaired by Prof. Vernon Heywood……………………………………………………….……….34 How to communicate on invasive alien plants? Effective involvement of stakeholders in addressing IAPs, Chaired by Ms Elisabete Marchante………………….……………………..37 Biofuel crops in the Mediterranean: exploring the use of risk species, Chaired by Mr Pierre Ehret and Mr Roberto Crosti………………………..…………………………………………………….38 Section 4: Management of invasive alien plants Field Trip: hands on survey for alien weeds, Chaired by Mr Giuseppe Brundu and Mr Necmi Aksoy…………………………………………………………………………………….…………….40 Building a network for the control of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in the Mediterranean, Chaired by Mr Christian Bohren……………………………….……………………………………………….42 Measures preventing the introduction of invasive plants in arable crops, Chaired by Ms Garifalia Economou and Mr Ahmet Uludag………………………………………………………..……….44 11 Oral contributions Opening speeches The impacts of global change on plant life in the Mediterranean region and the spread of invasive species, Prof. Vernon Heywood, UK………………………………………………………..…….48 Flora of Turkey: Richness, updates, threats, Mr Necmi Aksoy, Turkey (Abstract)…………..….64 Role of soil communities and novel weapons in exotic plant invasion: an update, Prof. Inderjit, India……………………………………………..………………………………..….65 Invasive Weeds threats in Gangetic inceptisols of India, Prof. Ratikanta Ghosh, India………………………………………………………………...…….71 Niche modeling in invasive plants: new insights to predict their potential distribution in the invaded areas, Prof. Ramiro Bustamente, PC Guerrero, FT Peña-Gómez, Chile…….…...77 Bern Convention on invasive alien plants, the Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants, Mr Eladio Fernandez-Galiano, Council of Europe (Abstract)………..………..…89 EPPO activities on Invasive Alien Plants, Ms Sarah Brunel, EPPO (Abstract) …………..……90 Role of the European Food Safety Authority in risk assessment of invasive species potentially harmful to plants, Ms Sara Tramontini, V. Kertesz1, E. Ceglarska1, M. Navajas, G. Gilioli, EFSA (Abstract) ………..………………………………………………..…………..……91 Exploring options for an early warning and information system for invasive alien species in Europe, Mr Riccardo Scalera, P Genovesi, IUCN………………………………..…..……92 European Environment Agency: Activities addressing invasive alien species, Mr Ahmet Uludag, EEA (Abstract)....................................................................................105 Results of the survey on invasive alien plants in Mediterranean countries, Mr Giuseppe Brundu, Italy, Mr Guillaume Fried, France, Ms Sarah Brunel, EPPO. (Abstract)………………106 12 Section 1: Plant invasions in the Mediterranean: where do we stand? Chair: Prof Vernon Heywood Molecular research as tool for managing biological invasions: Acacia saligna as a case study, Ms Geneviève Thompson, JJ Le Roux, DU Bellstedt, DM Richardson, JRU Wilson, South Africa………………………………………………………………………………………..….…...107 Prioritization of potential invasive alien species in France, Mr Guillaume Fried, France………………………………………………….………………….120 Modeling range changes of invasive alien and native expanding plant species in Armenia, Mr George Fayvush, Kamilla Tamanyan, Armenia………..……….…………………….139 Noxious and invasive weeds in Greece: current status and legislation, Mr Petros Lolas, Greece……………………………………………..…………...………148 A tales of two islands: comparison between the exotic flora of Corsica and Sardinia, Mr Daniel Jeanmonod, Switzerland, and Mr Giuseppe Brundu, Italy (Abstract)………..….………155 New species threatening the biodiversity in Morocco: Verbesena encelioides (Asteraceae), Prof Abdelkader Taleb, M Bouhache & B El Mfadi, Morocco………………………...…156 Section 2: Early warning Chair : Mr Ahmet Uludag Stages in the Development of an Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) Program for Invasive Alien Plants in California, Mr Kassim Al-Khatib, Joseph M. DiTomas, USA….168 Early experiences in the establishment of a National Early Detection and Rapid Response Programme for South Africa, Mr Philip Ivey, John Wilson, Ingrid Nänni1 and Ms Hilary Geber, South Africa………..…………………………………………………...……....…175 The NOBANIS gateway on invasive alien species and the development of a European Early Warning and Rapid Response System, Ms Melanie Josefsson, Sweden (Abstract)…..…192 From mediocrity to notoriety - the case of invasive weedy rice (Oryza sativa) biotypes in Malaysian rice granaries, Mr Baki Bakar, Malaysia………..……………………….……193 Assessment and attempted eradication of Australian acacias in South Africa as part of an EDRR programme, Mr John Wilson, Haylee Kaplan, Carlo de Kock, Dickson Mazibuiko, Jason de Smidt, Rafael D. Zenni, Ernita van Wyk, South Africa………………….………..………206 The value of context in early detection and rapid response decisions: Melaleuca invasions in South Africa, Mr Ernita Van Wyck, Llewellyn Jacobs and John Wilson, South Africa…..213 13 Section 3: Communication, policies & strategies for tackling invasive alien plants Chair: Prof. Ramiro Bustamente Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants, Prof. Vernon Heywood, UK (Abstract) ………………………………………….………224 Industry view on importance and advantages of a Code of Conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants, Mr Anil Yilmaz, Turkey (Abstract) ………..………………………….……225 Effectiveness of policies and strategies in tackling the impacts on Invasive Alien Species on biodiverse Mediterranean ecosystems in southwest Australia, Ms Judy Fisher, Australia (Abstract) ………………………………………...…………226 Combining methodologies to increase public awareness about invasive alien plants in Portugal, Ms Elisabete Marchante, HMarchante, M Morais and H Freitas, Portugal………….…227 Outcomes of the Tunisian Experience on Farmer Field School Management of an invasive species Solanum elaeagnifolium, Mr Mounir Mekki, M. M’hafdhi, R. Belhaj and K. Alrouechdi, Tunisia………..…………………………………………………………...…240 Legislative, biological and agronomic measures to comply with the Bern Convention recommendation n141/2009 on "Potentially invasive alien plants being used as biofuel crops" by Contracting Parties in the Mediterranean Basin, Mr Roberto Crosti, Italy (Abstract) ………..…..……………249 Biomass crops in the Mediterranean: can experiments in Languedoc Roussillon help characterize the risk of invasiveness of the plants used? Mr Pierre Ehret, France……............………250 Section 4: Management of invasive alien plants Chair: Mr Giuseppe Brundu Management of alien plant invasions: the role of restoration - Insights from South Africa, Ms Mirijam Gaertner, Patricia M. Holmes & Mr Dave M Richardson, South Africa…….…256 A large-scale project of invasive plant coenosis control in Mediterranean sand coastal area: two case studies and a model to standardize the management criteria, Mr Antonio Perfetti, Italy (Abstract) ……………………………………...………….…267 Three tools to manage alien weeds in Swiss agricultural and non agricultural environments - a proposal, Mr Christian Bohren, Switzerland………………………………..……………268 Biology and control of the invasive weed Heterotheca subaxillaris (camphorweed), Ms Mildred Quaye, Tuvia Yaacoby and Baruch Rubin, Israel…………………...………274 Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora): A threat to agriculture and pastoralism in Sudan, Mr Abdel Gabar T Babiker, Nagat EM and Ahmed EAM, Sudan…………..……………283 Is bio control of Ambrosia spp. with Epiblema strenuana found in Israel possible? Mr Tuvia Yaacoby, Israel (Abstract)………..…………………………………..…….…288 14 Posters Section 1: Plant invasions in the Mediterranean: where do we stand? Inventories of invasive alien plants in Mediterranean countries Lists of invasive alien plants (IAPs) as a key issue/tool in effective management of invasive nonnative species, Mr Pavol Eliáš, Slovakia……..………...…………………………..….…290 Monitoring Invasive Alien Plants in the Western Black Sea Region of Turkey, Mr Necmi Aksoy, Ayşe Kaplan, Neval Güneş Özkan , Serdar Aslan , Turkey………...….304 Alien Plant Species in the Western Part of Turkey: Assessing their Invasive Status Mr Emin Ugurlu, Turkey & Mr Roberto Crosti, Italy (Abstract)……………………......309 Invasive plants in Armenia (current situation), Ms Kamilla Tamanyan & George Fayvush, Armenia……………………………….....…310 Invasive aquatic plants in the French Mediterranean area, Ms Emilie Mazaubert, Mr Alain Dutartre, Nicolas Poulet, France………...……………316 The inventory of the alien flora of Crete (Greece), Ms Costanza Dal Cin D’Agata, Greece, Ms Melpomene Skoula, Greece & Mr Giuseppe Brundu, Italy (Abstract)…………………..325 Cactaceae naturalized in the Italian Mediterranean region Mr Alessandro Guiggi & Mr Giuseppe Brundu, Italy (Abstract)…………...........……...326 Comparison of the alien vascular flora in continental islands: Sardinia (Italy) and Balearic Islands (Spain), Ms Lina Podda, Italy (Abstract)………………………………………………..327 Is it the analogue nature of species which enables their successful invasion in woodland and coastal ecosystems of the southwest Australian Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot? Ms Judith L. Fisher, D Merritt & K Dixon, Australia (Abstract)……………………..……..328 Inventories of weeds in Mediterranean countries Alien plants in cotton fields and their impact on Flora in Turkey, Mr İlhan Üremiş, Bekir Bükün, Hüseyin Zengin, Ayşe Yazlik, Ahmet Uludağ, Turkey (Abstract)………………….…….329 Some Invasive Weeds in Turkey: Diplachnea fusca, Chondrilla juncea, Bromus spp., Mr Demirci, M., Ilhan Kaya, H. Aykul, S. Türkseven, Y. Nemli, Turkey (Abstract)…………………………………………………….…………………….…….330 Some Important Invasive Plants Belonging to the Asteraceae Family in Turkey, Ms Ilhan Kaya, I. Tepe, R. Yergin, Turkey (Abstract)………………………………………………....……331 Some Invasive Obligate Parasitic Plants: Cuscuta spp., Orobanche spp., Phelipanche spp., Mr Yildiz Nemli, R. Yergin, Ş. Tamer, P. Molai, A. Uludag, Turkey…………………..……..332 Some invasive weeds in cereal areas of Northern Cyprus: Oxalis pes-caprae and Gladiolus italicus, A. Göksu, Y. Nemli, K. Vurana, B. Gökhan, S. Türkseven, M. Demirci, A. Erk, E. Hakel, Cyprus & Turkey (Abstract)…………………………………………….………..335 15 Section 2: Early warning Validation and use of the Australian Weed Risk Assessment in Mediterranean Italy, Mr Roberto Crosti, Ms Carmela Cascone & Mr Salvatore Cipollaro, Italy (Abstract)……..........….336 A proposal for a cooperation program on modeling the spread of invasive weeds, Mr Guillaume Fried, France, Mr Anwar Al Mouemar, Syria & Mr Henry Darmency, France (Abstract) ……………………………………………………….…...……...…...337 Impact of Humulus japonicus on riparian communities in the south of France, Mr Guillaume Fried, France (Abstract) ………........................................................……...338 Allelopathic effects of Oxalis pes-caprea on winter cereal crops, Mr Mohammed Bouhache, Prof. Adbelkader Taleb & M. A Gharmmate, Morocco………...…………….………………...339 Fitness of the populations of invasive volunteer sunflower, Ms Sava Vrbnicanin, Ms Dragana Bozic, Ms Danijela Pavlovic & Ms Marija Saric, Serbia (Abstract) ………….....……...348 Particular cases of invasive alien plants and weeds Nicotina glauca: an invasive alien with harmful potential, Mr Stephen L Jury & Mr JD Ross, UK (Abstract) ………...………………..…..…….....349 Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima) – Establishment and invasion in Croatia, Mr Veljko Lodeta, Mr Nemad Novak & Mrs Maja Kravarscan, Croatia………...………………….…….....350 Effect of Ambrosia artemisiifolia invasion on public health and agricultural production in Hungary, Ms Okumu Martha, É Lehoczky, Hungary………...…………………………...353 Heracleum sosnovskyi habitats and naturalization in Lithuania, Ms Ligita Baležentienė, Lithuania………...............................................................……...366 Distribution of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium) in Greece and invasiveness as related to leaf morphological characters, Ms Garifalia Economou, Ms Costas Fasseas, D. Christodoulakis & Ilias S. Travlos, Greece (Abstract) ………...…………………...…...373 Germination ecology of the invasive Acacia saligna (Fabaceae): interpopulation variation and effects of temperature and salinity, F Meloni, CA Dettori, F Mascia, L Podda, G Bacchetta, Italy……………….......……...374 Assessing the potential invasiveness of Cortaderia selloana in wetlands through seed germination study, Ms. Lina Podda, Italy (Abstract) ………................................……...386 16 Section 3: Communication, policies & strategies for tackling invasive alien plants Industry view on importance and advantages of a Code of Conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants, Mr Anil Yilmaz, Turkey (Abstract) ………...…...……………………..…...387 Anigozanthos hybrids: what are the chances of eradicating this flower-farm escapee? Mr Ivey Philip, South Africa (Abstract) ……………………………………..…...……...388 Use of ―native‖ Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) as a bioenergy crop in the Mediterranean basin: concerns regarding invasive traits of some taxa, Mr Roberto Crosti, Italy, & Ms Janet A. Leak-Garcia US………...…………………………………………………………….…...389 Section 4: Management of invasive alien plants Management of invasive alien plants in Mediterranean countries Control experiments on selected invasive alien species in the Bulgarian flora, Mr Vladimir Vladimirov & Ms Senka Milanova, Bulgaria (Abstract) ………...……………………...392 Management of Ludwigia peploides (water primrose) in the Vistre River (South-East of France): first results, Mr Alain Dutartre, Mr C. Pezeril, Ms Emilie Mazaubert, France (Abstract) ………......393 A project for the eradication and the control of Ailanthus altissima in a river park in Northern Italy, Ms Anna Mazzoleni, Elena Tironi, Eric Spelta, Gianluca Agazzi, Federico Mangili, Gabriele Rinaldi, Italy………...……………………………………………………..…...394 Solanum eleagnifolium, an increasing problem in Greece, Prof Eleni Kotoula-Syka, Greece....400 Plant invasion, soil seed banks and native recruitment in two urban Mediterranean woodland remnants, in southwest Australia, Ms Judith L. Fisher, Australia & Mr Roberto Crosti, Italy (Abstract) ………...………………………………………….…………….………….....404 Management and experiments of weeds in Mediterranean countries Applying cover crops to reduce impacts of Egyptian Broomrape in infested fields, Ms Mitra Ghotbi, Ms Marjan. Ghotbi, Iran, Ahmet Uludag, Turkey………..............................…...405 Biological characteristics of Giant sumpweed seed (Iva xanthifolia) and the possibilities for fighting it by using soil herbicides, Ms Dragana Marisavljevic,Mr Branko Konstantinovic, Ms Danijela Pavlovic, Ms Maja Meseldzija, Serbia………...……………..……………..409 Allelopathic potential of rice (Oryza sativa) cultivars on barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli), Ms Leila Jafari, Mr Hossein Ghadiri & Mr Ali Moradshahi, Iran…………….....………416 Biological control Solanum elaeagnifolium, an emerging invasive alien weed in the Mediterranean region and Northern Africa, Mr Javid Kashefi, Greece (Abstract) ………......................……...…...429 Evaluation of Indigenous Fungi as Potential Biological Control agents to Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium), Ms Alloub Hala, TT Abdeldaim, Sudan….…………….………..…….…...430 17 Presentation of the Thematic Workshops 19 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Thematic Workshop Session 1.1 Using the prioritization process for Mediterranean countries Chaired by Mr Guillaume Fried (fried@supagro.inra.fr) and Ms Sarah Brunel (sb@eppo.fr) Description of the project The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization is in the process of developing a prioritization process for invasive alien plants which aims: - to produce a list of invasive alien plants that are established or could potentially establish in the EPPO region; - to determine which of these invasive alien plants have the highest priority for an EPPO pest risk analysis. This process consists of assessing plants through simple and transparent criteria such as the spread potential of the plant, the potential negative impact of the plant on native species, habitats and ecosystems, etc. This process is currently under use and testing in France and in Belgium. It is being implemented through workshops where experts bring their results for specific plants, and compare and discuss these. Such a tool eases the dialogue among experts and the homogenisation of definitions, and allows lists of invasive alien plants to be drafted giving priority at a regional scale. This could be done at the scale of the Mediterranean area. Aims of the thematic workshop - to make the prioritization process known - to test the process for the 5 following invasive alien plants relevant to the Mediterranean area: Cortaderia selloana (Poaceae), Solanum elaeagnifolium (Solanaceae), Ludwigia grandiflora & L. peploides (Onagraceae) and Fallopia baldschuanica (Polygonaceae). Tasks for the coordinators prior to the workshop - the document describing the prioritization process will be sent to the participants of the thematic workshop Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - participants would have read the documents sent prior attending - the participants would have gathered information and run the process for the 5 species to be tested: Cortaderia selloana (Poaceae), Solanum elaeagnifolium (Solanaceae), Ludwigia grandiflora & L. peploides (Onagraceae) and Fallopia baldschuanica (Polygonaceae). Links with other thematic workshops This process will be presented during an oral presentation in session 1 by Guillaume Fried. General work on lists of plants for the Mediterranean would have been presented in the opening speeches by Giuseppe Brundu, Guillaume Fried and Sarah Brunel. The thematic workshops on eradication and early warning could take the prioritization process into account in their discussions. 20 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Conclusions of the thematic workshop Mr Fried went through the process with the case of Cortaderia selloana. The process raised questions: - on the potential impact of the species: shall species which are reservoir (i.e., host or vector for diseases, pathogens) be ranked higher? - on the spread of the species: shall planting for ornamental purposes be considered as an element to be taken into account in the spread potential of a species? - on the final use of the process in building lists and - on the audience targeted by the process. The group was concerned that a prioritization process should be as simple as possible so as to make fast assessments. The possibility to develop a tool that could be used by both the ministries of environment and agriculture was raised, and this should be attempted as much as possible as both ministries are trying to develop partnerships within EPPO countries. In general, the group concluded that the prioritization process is useful and feels a gap. Countries are willing to use it and to adapt it to their national peculiarity. It appeared that the experience in California is similar, setting criteria that need to be answered on a scale of 0 to 5. Experts from South Africa, Morocco, Tunisia, and Armenia wanted to be involved in the ongoing EPPO work on the prioritization process, and to test the process for the list of invasive alien plants recorded for their countries. The article on the prioritization process to be published in the EPPO bulletin will be circulated to the participants of the workshop. 21 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Thematic workshop Session 1.2 Alien trees in the Mediterranean countries: focussing on Acacia spp. Chaired by Ms Genevieve Thomson (gen@sun.ac.za) and Mr Giuseppe Brundu (gbrundu@tin.it) Description of the target species Many species of the genus Acacia have been voluntarily introduced by humans in numerous Mediterranean Type Regions of the World, mainly as silvicultural and ornamental species. There are however, many other uses including the stabilisation of sand dunes and land reclamation; the use as a livestock fodder, for leather tanning and fuel; as a medicine, paint or perfume. For instance, Acacia spp. are grown in the USA for sale as cut flowers. Acacia dealbata is a popular plant in Europe and has been grown in Southern France and Italy (since 1918), and sold as a cut flower under the local common name ―Mimosa‖. A. baileyana purpurea is also grown in Israel for its cut foliage. Today, products from a number of Acacia species are utilised commercially in Australia and throughout the world. The timber of A. melanoxylon is highly valued for building and furniture making, while lower quality timbers from other species have been used for fence construction. Plantations of fast growing Australian Acacia species are being planted in developing countries as a source of firewood, where population growth has led to the depletion of the native tree species which were traditionally used as a fuel source. More recently, Acacia is also being considered as a biomass producer in short rotation coppice systems. As with other invasive alien plants of the legume family, the success of many Acacia species outside their native ranges has been attributed to their ability to fix nitrogen, their tolerance to fire, high seed production, and allelopathic effects. Some of these traits are also responsible for rendering the eradication/control of acacias more problematic. Aims of the thematic workshop The scope of the workshop is to raise awareness on species within the Acacia genus in all Mediterranean Type Regions of the World; as well as to compile an inventory of all the introduced/naturalised species. Furthermore, the workshop aims to build a network of interested people/stakeholders for further research activities/projects and to prevent the un-regulated entry and spread of these species through common actions across the respective regions. Tasks for the coordinators prior to the workshop Prepare a general list of Acacia species cultivated/naturalised in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World with main cultivation purposes/introduction pathways. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop Collect information on Acacia species concerning their own country/region (species, sub-species or hybrids, pathways, distribution, threats, legislation, programme for eradication/control etc.) prior to attending. 22 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Links with other thematic workshops - General work on lists of plants for the Mediterranean. - Thematic workshops on eradication, early warning and the prioritization process should consider this thematic workshop in their discussions. Conclusions of the thematic workshop Fifteen people from 10 Countries (Chile, Croatia, France, Israel, Italy, Kenya, Malaysia, Portugal, South Africa, United Kingdom) took part to the workshop on Acacia spp. At the beginning of the workshop the background idea was presented as well as main research activities that are on-going in South Africa (which was also the subject of a general oral presentation). All participants then briefly presented their country situation with concern to main introduction pathways and purposes for Acacia spp., the most common species introduced, problems and impacts, activities for control and general perception of the status of these species in their countries. From the general discussion, more evidence was raised on the fact that many species of this genus have been voluntary introduced by man outside their native range, for many different purposes, and that many of them are naturalised to invasive elsewhere. In some cases the species are environmental weeds, and there is quite a lot of evidence of the general difficulties in control (in relation to plant main traits, such as resilience to fires, high seed production, seed hardiness, capability of vegetative spread), even if, for some species, biological control is already available. In spite of the invasiveness and/or of the potential risks, there are quite high diverse perceptions between relevant stakeholders in different countries. In some cases, local forestry politics and land managers seem not to be aware of potential risks, and still promote the introduction of the species, even at large scale plantations, as these species are among the few capable of growing in very dry or in highly degrade sites. Therefore, in spite of large removal interventions, e.g. those taking place in Portugal sand dunes (where different removal/control techniques are also under evaluation – including the review of the national legislation), or in Israel, in other countries Acacia spp. are broadly planted and introduced in novel habitats, e.g. for soil erosion, road side stabilisation, goat fodder, such as in Chile or in Kenya, or as ornamental (A. dealbata in France). In other countries, both new introductions and control activities are occuring. Furthermore, there is a general interest for new plantings of Acacia saligna for biomass production, in short rotation forest systems, e.g. in the south of Italy (where it is already described ad highly invasive in natural and semi natural habitats and as a strong coloniser of burned soils). A general oral workshop presentation addressed the problem of biofuels (on the 04/08) with reference to this problem. It is noteworthy that in Malaysia, where A. mangiun was introduced as a forestry species, there is now a general perception of it as a weed, also because production incomes are not as relevant as expected. Although not all expected outcomes of this thematic workshop were achieved, the general discussion was very useful to exchange knowledge on these species, and general information of species presence and status in different countries, and participants agreed to provide further country information for updating the list of Acacias species traded/planted/naturalised/invasive in the Mediterranean. So far, the list includes, e.g., A. cyclops A. dealbata, A. karoo, A. longifolia, A. mearnsii, A. melanoxylon, A. pycnantha, A. retinoides, A. saligna. 23 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Thematic workshop Session 1.3 Similarities and differences between distribution of invasive alien plants in the Black Sea and Mediterranean area Chaired by Mr Necmi Aksoy (necmiaksoy@duzce.edu.tr) Description of the project The main goal of this project is to evaluate the similarities and differences between the distribution of invasive plants in the Black Sea and in the Mediterranean Area, and in particular: - to understand the components of the Mediterranean Flora and the Euro-Siberian Flora in the Black Sea area; - to list the invasive alien plants common to the Black Sea and the Mediterranean areas; - to list the differences in invasive alien plants in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean areas; - to compare which of these plants pose the highest risk of invading the Black Sea and Mediterranean areas; - to observe the invasive characteristic of alien plants in the Black Sea and in the Mediterranean areas. The workshop consists of observing and identifying plants through their invasive characteristics through criteria such as the spread potential of the plants, their potential negative impacts on the native species, habitats and ecosystems in the Black Sea and Mediterranean areas. We may also develop new means to observe and compare the invasive plants of both regions. Through understanding the invasive plants in the Black Sea area wewill discuss and test whether it is possible to transfer the methods which are being implemented in the Mediterranean area. Aims of the thematic workshop - to define the differences and similarities of the alien plants in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean areas; - to make a list of the priority invasive alien plants in the Black Sea area; - to monitor some invasive alien species of the Black Sea area during the field trip of the workshop; - to consider methods to control the invasive plants in the Black Sea area. Tasks of the coordinator of the workshop - to send a document describing the Mediterranean Flora in the Mediterranean area and the Euro-Siberian Flora in the Black Sea area to the participants of the thematic workshop prior to the workshop; - to show some of the alien plants to the participants of the workshop during the field excursion. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - participants are advised to read the document prior to attending; - they are also advised to make the necessary preparations for the field excursion. 24 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Links with other thematic workshops This thematic workshop is particularly linked with the field trip. Conclusions of the thematic workshop The following invasive alien plants common to the Black Sea and the Mediterranean areas were listed: Abutilon theuphrasti, Phytolacca americana, Opuntia ficus-indica, Agave americana, Amorpha fruticosa. Similarities and differences between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea Region were discussed. Historical patway must be follow in two areass are important elements to understand plant colonization and need to be considered. The participants dicussed to observe the invasive characteristics of alien plants in the Black Sea and in the Mediterranean areas. They considered that the number of species per square meter, area size, and observations must be done every year. The participants also elaborated a list of the priority invasive alien plants in the Black sea area: 1. Abutilon teophrasti 2. Phytolacca americana 3. Opuntia ficus-indica 4. Agave americana 5. Solanum eleagnifolium 6. Robinia pseudoacacia 7. Eucalyptus camuldulensis 8. Conyza canadensis 9. Ambrosia elatior 10. Xanthium spinosum were listed The following suggestions to control invasive plants in Black Sea area were made: - To consider models developed by other countries - To collaborate with the ministry of agriculture - To collaborate with the European Union - To build a network of universities 25 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Thematic workshop Session 2.1 Building an Early Detection Rapid Response (EDRR) for the Mediterranean Chaired by Mr Kassim Al-Khatib (kalkhatib@ucdavis.edu) and Mr Ahmet Uludag (ahuludag@yahoo.com) Description of the project Early detection of invasive alien plants and quick coordinated responses are needed to eradicate or contain invasive plants before they become widespread and control becomes practically and/or financially difficult. Although early detection and rapid response are important elements of invasive plant management, currently there is no comprehensive regional system for detecting, and monitoring invasions of alien plants in the Mediterranean region. The group will discuss the existing EDRR in different locations of the region. EDRR system may exist in certain locations; however, inadequate planning and technologies, insufficient resources and information hindered EDRR efforts in other locations. The workgroup will discuss ways to develop plan to coordinate efforts and improve networking for the purpose of developing regional detection system. Aims of the thematic workshop - To determine critical needs and resources to develop regional EDRR - To develop and priorities species lists for EDRR - To allow access to reliable, effective, and affordable invasive plants management information - To facilitate rapid and accurate species identification - To establish procedure for rapid risk assessment - To discuss mechanisms for coordinating the efforts of regional agencies and authorities to address EDRR. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - Participants would have read this document prior attending - Prepare a short report on existing EDRR in your location - What is the preferred EDRR system for your location - Develop a vision of how you can contribute to a regional approach of EDRR and what are the limitations. Links with other thematic workshops and presentations - Related information will be presented and discussed in different session. Presentations of particular interest are: - Similarities and differences between distribution of invasive alien plants in the Black Sea area and Mediterranean area, Chaired by Mr Necmi Aksoy - Using the prioritization process for Mediterranean countries, Chaired by Mr Guillaume Fried and Ms Sarah Brunel 26 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world - Effectiveness of policies and strategies in tackling the impacts on Invasive Alien Species on biodiversity in Mediterranean ecosystems in South-West Australia, Ms Judy Fisher, Australia Conclusions of the workshop Participants from 11 countries participated, including Armenia, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Malaysia, Slovakia, South Africa, Sweden, Portugal, Turkey, USA. Early detection of invasive alien plants and quick coordinated responses are needed to eradicate or contain invasive plants before they become widespread and control becomes practically and/or financially difficult. Although early detection and rapid response are important elements of invasive plants management, currently there is no comprehensive regional system for detecting and monitoring invasions of alien plants in the Mediterranean region. The work group has discussed the existing Eealy Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) in different locations, limitation to EDRR in the region, coordination and cooperation between locations, and resources needed for EDRR. Below is the summary and conclusions from the workshop discussion. Current Status of EDRR  Inventories of invasive species - Slovakia has lists of invasive species and animals - Sweden has started the elaboration of a blacklist - Portugal has a list of species that must not be introduced. - France through the Botanical Conservatory networks have good lists of all plants including invasive species  Political will needs to be strengthened - EEA, EPPO and the European Commissionare are considering the development of an EDRR - Currently, there are 2 desk officers working on invasive alien species at DG-Environment in Bruseels. - Member States are encouraging the European Commission to act on invasive alien species.  Local legislation in place - Slovakia has law to offer protection of native composition of ecosystems to prevent the spread of invasive species. - Portugal has law forbidding sale of certain species  Some local support from Nurseries that have sympathy for the problem - In Bulgaria, some nurseries have removed invasive alien plants from their stock and selling lists. Nursery champions need to be encouraged. Needs to Build EDRR  Strengthen and encourage political will into actions and regulations - Resolve the issue of free trade versus environmental protection. Commission needs guidance; the stakeholders meeting in September 2010 will assist. - The European Commission needs to provide laws to allow countries to take legal action without fear of losing the challenge. 27 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world - Member countries need to be able to monitor plants being imported by other member countries and be able to prevent import of potentially invasive species (perception that the Netherlands is the major importer of live plant material which is then distributed across the continent, but other states may be responsible too, Turkey has 6-8 major plant importers). - If regulations are imposed then means are needed to enforce them  Need to strengthen law enforcement - In Portugal, species are meant to go through an impact assessment to clear species to enter the country, however, many species enter illegally by passing the impact assessment - Plants are grown illegally, misidentified and mislabeled  Create awareness - policy makers – target them and train them – e.g. perception that Armenia is mountainous and therefore not subject to this invasion in reality 3% of land surface is already invaded by invasive plants - nursery industry - members of the gardening public - school children – Portugal have some very good examples and projects  Establish local early warning system - Slovakia has no early warning system, as a result this type of scenario develops: inspectors in regions monitor the occurrence of invasive plants, they prepare a report on the elimination of particular species, no action is taken and since the report, the number of localities have increased five times and costs have increased five times as well. - In Portugal there is no early warning system in place. Researchers have applied for funding for such an early detection system but Nature Conservation has no plans to do this. - France has an early detection system working with all the environmental space managers and existing agriculture networks.  Taxonomists need to be involved - to assist with development of inventories - training of new taxonomists to take over from retiring taxonomists  An early warning email listserve e.g. google group could be created. 28 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Thematic workshop Session 2.2 Identifying targets for eradication in the Mediterranean and eradication experiences Chaired by Mr Eladio Fernandez Galiano (Eladio.FERNANDEZ-GALIANO@coe.int) Description of the project While eradications are considered a very efficient technique to manage invasive alien species, very few have been undertaken for plants in European and Mediterranean countries. One of the difficulties of such a task lies in the identification of those species that are still of limited distribution, but have the potential to have deleterious impacts and to spread further. The practical application of eradication, although being inexpensive and very cost effective if taken at an early stage, needs to be promoted through concrete cases. The Council of Europe has published a recommendation (no. 126 in 2004) of examples of invasive alien plants to be eradicated (see appendix below), and aims to help countries implement such action. The Council of Europe will work with its Member states to in the coming years to develop projects of eradication of invasive alien plants Aims of the thematic workshop - to identify 5 or 6 invasive alien plants in Mediterranean countries that represent good targets for eradication; - for each of the cases, to clarify the stakeholders involved, the technique(s) to be used, the material and personnel needed, the budget, and communication methods; - to identify international expertise to be associated with each eradication case. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - Participants should identify possible cases of eradication in their own country; - Participants should document each potential case of eradication (situation, stakeholders, method to be used, budget, communication, etc.). Links with other thematic workshops - the thematic workshops on the prioritization process (1.1), on EDRR (2.1) and on early warning in North-African countries (2.3) might highlight species that would be suitable for eradication. Concusions of the thematic workshop - Eradication and control of spread of invasive species are costly exercises. So much attention should be devoted both to their careful planning, long-term development and the choice of species to be controlled or eradicated. - There are already good methods to choose candidate species for eradication/control using criteria such as invasiveness, degree of impact on natural habitats or native species and present distribution (which can influence success of eradication). - Biological control should be systematically explored for invasive plants that are well spread and for which mechanical or chemical control are prohibited. 29 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world - - Eradication should be integrated in a much wider context of management and generally not used as a separate tool. Eradication in the early stages of invasion should be a priority, which speaks strongly in favor of the establishment of an early-warning rapid response system. Many eradications are a success and there is an urgent need to better document eradication/control operations, both those that are successful and those that are not and so often unreported. Eradication/control plans should integrate a strategy for re-vegetation or ecological restoration of areas left base by removal of the invasive species. While most eradications focus on a target species, more attention needs to be given to an ―ecosystem approach‖, controlling one or several invasive alien plants in a particularly vulnerable ecosystem (eg. Dunes wetlands). Eradication should be promoted for newly arrived species even if there are uncertainties on their invasiveness, applying the precautionary approach. Appendix The species listed in the recommendation 126 of the Council of Europe for which eradication or containment is recommended in Mediterranean countries are: Species Ecosystems Hydrocotyle ranunculoides Uncultivated Pueraria lobata Solanum elaeagnifolium Uncultivated Uncultivated and cultivated Countries in which the species occurs Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, the United Kingdom. Italy, Palestine, Israel. Italy, Switzerland. Algeria, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, ―the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Morocco, Serbia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia. 30 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Other examples of species that have high capacity of spread and potentially high impacts: Species Ecosystems Araujia sericifera Bothriochloa barbinodis Uncultivated Uncultivated and cultivated Countries in which the species occurs Spain, France France Cenchrus incertus Uncultivated and cultivated Spain, Italy, Romania Cotula coronopifolia Eichhornia crassipes Fallopia baldschuanica Uncultivated Uncultivated Uncultivated Hakea salicifolia Hakea sericea Myriophyllum heterophyllum Pistia stratiotes Senecio deltoideus Sesbania punicea Uncultivated Uncultivated Uncultivated Portugal, Spain, Italy Portugal, Spain Czech Republic, Spain, Italy, Slovenia, France, UK Portugal Portugal, France Spain, Germany Uncultivated Uncultivated Uncultivated Spain France Italy 31 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Thematic workshop Session 2.3 Cooperation/inclusion of North African Countries in European early warning system Chaired by Mr Mohamed Bouhache (m.bouhache@gmail.com) and Mr Riccardo Scalera (riccardo.scalera@alice.it) Why cooperation/inclusion? Biological invasions of alien plants and their pests do not only threaten biodiversity of concerned regions. They also affect the well-being and economies of human populations, endangering ecosystems and transforming landscapes. The movement of people and goods in the Mediterranean basin has favoured biological invasions in the regions since early times in human history. Today, since trade and tourism activities are very developed between Europe and North Africa, opportunities to exchange invasive alien species continue to be very high. Thus, our regions need to establish or to share an early warning framework and information system in order to be able to detect and react promptly to new invasions in order to respond to their ecological and economic threats. This requirement also complies with one recommendation of the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Specie adopted by the Council of Europe, which supports the development of effective systems to share IAS information with neighboring countries, trading partners and regions with similar ecosystems. While the European early warning strategies are in the course of being developed at both the EU level and at the level of single countries (e.g. Ireland) and regional networks (i.e. NOBANIS), the early warning and information system capacities of North African counties are still very limited. Aims of the thematic workshop - to make the European early warning system known to North African countries; - to include (or cooperate with) North African countries in European early warning system; - to define the scope and objectives of the cooperative actions; - to share concepts and terminology; - to identify countries and/or authorities concerned in North Africa. Tasks for the coordinators prior to the workshop - the document describing the European early warning system will be sent to the participants of the thematic workshop. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - participants would have read the document prior attending - develop ideas on how to launch this cooperation or inclusion. Links with other thematic workshops and sessions This workshop will be preceded by three oral presentations: - by Riccardo Scalera: Towards an early warning and information system for invasive alien species (IAS) threatening biodiversity in Europe (in opening speeches session); - by Kassim Al-Khatib: Stages in the Development of an Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) Program for Invasive Plants (in session 2) 32 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world - by Philip Ivey: Establishment of a National early detection and rapid response programme - some early lessons (in session 2). The recommendations of the thematic workshop on the prioritization process may be taken into consideration in the early warning workshop progress. Conclusions of the workshop Four participants took part in the workshop, and the following countries were represented: Morocco, Tunisia and Italy. The movement of people and goods in the Mediterranean basin has favoured biological invasions in the regions since early times in human history. Opportunities to exchange invasive alien species continue to be very high in the region, given the increasing levels of trade and tourism activities between Europe and North Africa. For this reason, initiatives to start the development of a regional early warning and information system for alien species should be undertaken as soon as possible. This would increase the capacity of Mediterranean countries to detect and react promptly to new invasions so as to respond to their ecological and economic threats. European early warning strategies are in the course of being developed at both the EU level and at the level of single countries (e.g. Ireland) and through regional networks (i.e. NOBANIS), but are not yet being duly considered in North African countries. In order to encourage and support the establishment of an early warning and information system in North African countries, to be coordinated and intergrated to the European one which is being developed, it is reccomended that a regional workshop is organised at the earliest convenience, so as to target the key representatives of the national authorities and academics. Such a workshop should be also aimed at raising awareness on the issue and promoting the increase in knowledge in the North African countries, and particularly in Morocco, Tunisia, Mauritania, Lybia and Algeria. In the meantime, as preparatory measures needed to guarantee a succesful implementation of the workshop, the participants agreed to start collecting all material and documents which might be useful to analise the state of the art in the region (inventories of alien species, studies on ecological and economic impact, examples of best practices and case studies, etc.) and a comprehensive list of contacts of concerned people from public adminstrations (ministry of agriculture, ministry of environment, etc.), universities and the private sectors, so as to start networking activities and identifing potential participants for the planned workshop. Both representatives from North African countries (Morocco and Tunisia) agreed to organise this workshop in their country, provided that some financial contribution be guaranteed by international organisations such as EPPO, FAO, CoE, EEA, etc. 33 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Thematic workshop Session 3.1 Implementing Codes of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants for the Mediterranean Chaired by Prof. Vernon Heywood (vhheywood@btinternet.com) Context The Code of Conduct on Horticulture and Invasive Alien Plants is a joint initiative of the Council of Europe (CoE) and the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO). It is addressed to governments and the horticultural industry and trade – plant importers, commercial nurseries, municipal nurseries, garden centres, aquarists – and to those who play a role in deciding what species are grown in particular areas, such as landscape architects, municipal parks and gardens departments, recreation and leisure departments. Its aim is to help prevent the spread of alien invasive species already present in Europe and prevent the introduction of possible new plant invaders into Europe. The Code is voluntary and its effectiveness will depend on how far the horticultural industry and trade are willing to adopt the guidelines and good practices proposed in it. To achieve this, it is necessary to raise awareness on this topic among the professionals concerned. Aims of the workshop - to examine how far the Code is being implemented in the countries bordering the Mediterranean; - to determine the main types of problem encountered in implementing the Code; - to seek solutions to the problems identified or propose how they may be addressed; - to consider whether there are any special factors that might affect the relevance and implementation of the Code to Mediterranean countries; - to examine links with other European, regional and national initiatives which aim to control or prevent entry of new and emerging invasive plant species. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - to familiarize themselves with the Code (it is available in English, French and Spanish); - to ascertain, as far as possible, the response to the Code in their country and prepare a short note summarizing this; - to find out if there are other national Codes of conduct that may be relevant to the CoE/EPPO Code and its implementation in the Mediterranean. Links with other thematic workshops Most of the other thematic workshops address issues that are relevant such as prioritization, identification of target species, early warning, control and eradication and the need for communication with stakeholders. 34 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Conclusions of the thematic workshop - Codes of conduct are a useful approach to deal with invasive alien plants but should not preclude governments to take a more restrictive, law-based approach if this is necessary to avoid the entry, release and spread of invasive alien plants. - Codes of conduct will only work if the industry (horticulture, agriculture, forestry) adopts them and not if they are simply given to them to apply. - While European Codes of conduct can serve as a source of inspiration for government/industry practice, it is fundamental that they are modulated to the problems, language and culture of each particular state or region, so that national, regional codes become the real operative tool. - The elaboration of national or regional codes of conduct should serve as an excellent way to foster dialogue with the industry and the public on IAS. - A particular effort should be done to make Codes of conduct better known and used by clients (of the horticultural industry, or forest industry) both private and institutional. - Codes of conduct are a good tool to publicise the problem of invasive alien species to a wider public. 35 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Thematic workshop Session 3.2 How to communicate on IAP? Effective involvement of stakeholders in addressing IAPs Chaired by Ms Elisabete Marchante (elizabete.marchante@gmail.com) The control and management of widespread invasive alien plants (IAPs) is extremely difficult and costly. Therefore, the best way to deal with invasive alien species is to start by preventing their introduction. Because every person is a potential vector for species introduction, it is necessary to start by educating the different publics about the problem and the species involved. A well-informed public can then contribute to the prevention, early-detection and management of invasive alien species. This thematic workshop aims to explore ways how scientists and practitioners engage with the public. Aims of the thematic workshop - to understand the importance of science communication on IAPs; - to discuss different approaches used to communicate on IAPs; - to discuss ways to assess success of communication on IAPs. Tasks for the coordinators prior to the workshop - to select amongst the abstracts received from the participants 4 or 5 examples and suggestions to be presented and discussed during the thematic workshop. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - Participants would have prepared and sent to the coordinator a small abstract about ways/strategies they use (or would like to test) to communicate on IAPs. Links with other thematic workshops The thematic workshops on eradication and early warning could take communication into account in their discussion. Conclusion of the thematic workshop Although communication on IAPs is essential to prevent, early-detect and manage IAPs, this is still lacking. A round table during the thematic workshop highlighted that in Mediterranean type regions, several activities or documents have been used to communicate and raise public awareness about IAPs by different countries, namely: Czech Republic, France, Italy (Sardinia), Portugal, Slovakia, South Africa, Turkey, etc. Strategies used include: leaflets and printed documents, dedicated days to provide information, web pages, scientific meetings and publications, etc. ―Taking action on management‖ is also a good communication strategy. Specific legislation can be used to raise awareness, but if not properly publicized may not be effective by itself. The effectiveness of using leaflets and other paper documents to raise public awareness on IAPs is in general seldom measured. Although difficult to measure, evaluation is essential to 36 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world sustainably use the available funding in approaches that will be most effective in changing attitudes. In Portugal, the evaluation of the effectiveness of the approaches used was initiated for some activities, which represents one of the leading experiences in Europe. From the Portuguese experience, it appears that in general, the use of leaflets is more effective if combined with a talk, or with some practical, hands-on, interactive activities/approaches. As stated by different participants, funding is insufficient and often a limitation in communication on IAPs. It was nevertheless mentioned that financial support for these activities can be included in the context of research and management projects or through specific measures, e.g., LIFE+ Information and Communication. Additionally, some communication approaches can focus on stimulating the different publics to promote actions themselves. Ideally, information about biological invasions and IAS should be included on school curricula, so as to start educating the new generations, who, in addition, are very important vectors of information. For that, it is necessary to start training the schoolteachers. However, communication on IAS cannot rely only on the younger generations, and has to target different publics and stakeholders: the horticultural industry, politicians, policy makers, scientists, municipalities, forestry associations, conservation managers, farmers, etc. Media should also be highly involved. The participants also concluded that strengthened collaborations, sharing experiences, successes and failures in communication is essential and should be sought after. In many countries much work has been done in communication, including non-Mediterranean countries, but information is often too scattered. Different websites and approaches used could be gathered in a common website aiming at aggregating much of the information available about communication on IAPs, and making it more easily available. It was also stressed during the workshop that communication strategies may need to be prepared with the collaboration of communication experts. An effort should be done to develop ways to measure the effectiveness of communication campaigns, i.e., publications, actions, etc. This can be achieved, at least partially, if part of the management budget is directed to the evaluation of the communication actions. As a result of this workshop, it is proposed to organize a ―Mediterranean wide Cleanup day‖, including hands-on activities to control/remove IAPs, which would be widely publicized, engaging the media and stakeholders. This could be organized simultaneously by countries of all Mediterranean regions of the world, and be planned for 2011 or 2012. Note: It should be kept in mind that participants in the thematic workshop may not be representative of their countries or regions, i.e., there are other communication and public awareness actions taking place elsewhere, as shown by other talks at the workshop (Switzerland, USA, other activities in Italy, etc.), and also many activities developed by non-participants entities/researchers and countries. 37 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Thematic workshop 3.3 Biofuel crops in the Mediterranean: exploring the use of risk species Chaired by Mr Pierre Ehret (pierre.ehret@agriculture.gouv.fr) nd Mr Roberto Crosti (roberto.crosti@isprambiente.it) Increase demand for energy in the Mediterranean Regions enhanced the development of large scale biofuel cropping systems consisting of the use of plant biomass for energy production. Energy can be generated from ethanol, oil and combustion produced from plant material. In addition, recently, many businesses are investing in technologies (molecular genetics and engineering) to provide fuel from microalgae. To gain real environmental benefits, however, biofuel crops need to be farmed in an environmental sustainable manner. Major concerns include the loss of biodiversity, as a consequence of the potential escapes of aggressive crops cultivars which can compete, in the wild, with native vegetation. Several biofuel species or cultivars have traits in common with invasive species and may harm both the farmland biodiversity and functionality. Many of those potential biofuel crop species, selected for broad ecological amplitude, rapid growth, high seed production, vegetative spread, resistance to pests and diseases are, in fact, potentially invasive. Furthermore, in farmlands, habitat modification, distorted water balance and nutrient cycle, altered fire regimes and abandonment of arable lands might contribute to the establishment of invasive species in new or temporarily ―vacant niches‖. Planting massive quantities of vigorous plant varieties on a large scale by repeated introductions, often supported by economic subsidies, in different climates and soil conditions increases the propagules pressure and likelihood of ―crop escape‖, with subsequent, establishment of new biological invaders. Many of the proposed biofuel crops in the Mediterranean basin are already considered invasive elsewhere. On the other hand, some biofuel crops may have showed less aggressive trends, but this kind of information might not be often published and would be useful to share. During the WS a presentation of the preliminary results of a survey on Short Rotation Coppicing species which under the EU common agricultural policy (CAP) are granted support payments (each member state defines the species). Aims of the workshop - To raise awareness of potential invasiveness of biofuel species; - To set up a network to monitor both ―field escapes‖ and ―legislative acts‖; - To verify if, in Mediterranean type Regions, escapes have already occurred and if native habitats have been harmed; - To share experience concerning monitoring systems of biofuel species. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - registered participants will get, by e-mail, several papers on the topic; - to respond to the questionnaire. Tasks for the coordinators prior to the workshop - the chairmen of the thematic workshop will circulate a questionnaire and several papers and aggregate the results to be presented during this thematic workshop. 38 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Links with other thematic workshops Posters and talks in the meetings (e.g. by the chairmen in the same day of the workshop). Conclusion of the thematic workshop The thematic workshop began with the presentation of the survey launched by Roberto Crosti on "tree species getting EU Common Agricultural policy‖. Nine (9) countries out of 27 UE member states had provided a response. The lists are related to an EU directive on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources (2009/28/EC) that is asking to produce a list of trees that can get the same kind of subsidies as annual or herbaceous perennials crops if planted as short rotation coppices. In some countries, several known invasive species are on such lists. Participants from the following countries presented their knowledge of the situation of species planted as biofuel crops in their countries: Australia, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Israel, Turkey and Sudan. Besides Italy and France, having presented papers just before in the general session, none of the participants had activities in direct connection with the biofuel crop production sector. From the round table, it appeared that: - There is a lack of interest from relevant institutions toward the biofuel crop planted that will not be harvested and that produce high quantities of propagules. - farming systems in most of the places under Mediterranean climate are not well adapted to biofuel feedstock production (small plots, small scale farms) and are more subject to invasion due to the presence of perennial neighbouring crops and to the low distance between cultivated land and almost natural or unmanaged land. Information was exchanged about particular species: - Pauwlonia elongata: this "new" fast growing species might need attention even if it is promoted as non invasive. - Acacia saligna: a strong consensus among participants from countries where the species is invasive was reached to alert other countries on the danger of planting this species. From a rural development point of view, it was stressed that there is a need to support local activities based on land use in rural areas with Mediterranean climate. Indeed these areas are often less competitive for agriculture or livestock production than other regions (particularly in EU countries). The group wondered if biofuel crops represent a good choice, and concluded that some other solutions may be more suitable to local farming systems. As a summary: - Biofuel feedstock cultivation does definitively select alien plants that have many traits in common with invasive plants and has therefore to be closely evaluated and monitored. - Some species are already well known as costly and difficult to manage invasive plants, in particular Acacia saligna, and there is a strong consensus to recommend the ban of plantation of this species. 39 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Thematic workshop 4.1 Field Trip: hands on survey for alien weeds Chaired by Mr Giuseppe Brundu (gbrundu@tin.it) and Mr Necmi Aksoy (necmiaksoy@duzce.edu.tr) Description of the activity and related final workshop The idea behind the two-day field excursion is not only to visit remarkably interesting sites from the environmental and cultural point of view, but also locations that, so far, are poorly studied from the point of view of plant invasions and exotic floras and inventories, thus to collect useful information and eventually to write an excursion report or possibly a short paper that could represent a preliminary contribution towards the exotic flora of a larger area. Field activities will be discussed during a workshop. Aims of the activity During the two days of the excursion different sites will be visited. In each site, according to the number of participants, the group could be divided in 2-3 sub-groups, having the possibility to survey a larger area, taking photos, recording locations by GPS positioning and other relevant information or data, and collecting plant samples. Tasks for the coordinators prior the workshop It is advisable to collect as much available information as possible on the study area in advance. The local botanists will be in charge to provide local "grey" literature on (invasive) alien plants and copies of the Turkish flora (or parts of it) that could be used for plant identification (and possible other "botanical" tools for plant identification and collection tools, such as lenses, paper sheets etc.). Tasks for the participants during the field-trip and the workshop During the field trip it is advisable to assign specific task to each component of the group, even if the same task (e.g. making photographs) could be done by more than one person. Example of specific tasks are e.g., making photographs, taking notes, collecting specimens as herbarium samples, interviewing people, taking note, collecting GPS locations, etc. At the end of the field trip participants will be asked to share the collected data, photos and information with the other participants and with workshop coordinators, and will be involved in writing the report of the excursion as co-authors and in discussing the results. Those that are not interested will be only acknowledged as participants. Collected herbarium samples will be available for further determination and for documenting the activity and as a basis for the exotic flora of the surveyed sites. Samples will be stored in Turkey. Links with other thematic workshops The thematic workshops on Mediterranean lists, eradication and early warning could take the hands-on results into account in their discussions. 40 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Conclusions of the thematic workshop The presence, distribution or abundance of many invasive alien plants is positively correlated with roads, so roads need to be taken into consideration when planning a survey in a poorly studied area. During the two field surveys organized in the framework of the 2nd Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World, 81 alien species were observed in the investigated area, i.e. 70 neophytes and 11 archeophytes (including 9 doubtful species), with 54 new records for the DAISIE inventory. Three of these species, Acalypha australis, Microstegium vimineum and Polygonum perfoliatum, were recorded near a tea factory, and the import of material for tea processing is expected to have been their pathway of introduction. The results of this survey in the region of Trabzon in North-East Turkey show that roadside surveys are a useful tool for early detection efforts, in compiling and updating national or regional inventories (especially with time and budget constraints). This survey, being organized in the framework of an international workshop, enabled knowledge to be shared between experts in the field, and training of students and researchers. These survey methods could be adapted, improved, and used elsewhere by others seeking to use early detection as part of their overall weed strategy or to gather baseline data on invasive alien plants in a poorly studied area. These results have been the object of a publication in the EPPO Bulletin, so as to promote the initiative and the emerging invasive alien plants found: Brundu G, Aksoy N, Brunel S, P. Elias P & Fried G (2011) Rapid surveys for inventorying alien plants in the Black Sea region of Turkey. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 41, 208–216. 41 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Thematic workshop 4.2 Building a network for the control of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in the Mediterranean Chaired by Mr Christian Bohren (christian.bohren@acw.admin.ch) and Ms Martha Okumu (nelmak2212@yahoo.com) Description of the project Ambrosia artemisiifolia is an invasive alien plant causing severe allergies. It is present in many European countries (Croatia, France, Italy, Switzerland, etc.). Networks of experts including botanists, agronomist and allergists have been created to monitor this species and raise awareness among the public. The European Weed Research Society is deeply involved in the topic, and has built a network to share information on the species and enhance research into its biology and management. Aims of the thematic workshop - To raise awareness on the plant; - To build a network of experts interested in contributing to the existing networks on Ambrosia artemisiifolia. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - To investigate the presence/absence, distribution and abundance of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in his/her country; - The effects and control strategies being adopted to combat the spread of A. artemisiifolia in participant's respective countries Links with other thematic workshops The thematic workshops on) Early Detection and Rapid Response (2.1) and on early warning in North-African countries (2.3) might help monitor the species in additional countries. Conclusions of the thematic workshop The thematic workshop on Building a network for the control of Ambrosia artemisiifolia was attended by 12 participants from a wide range of countries including Chile, France, Hungary, India, Israel, Italy, Serbia, South Africa and Switzerland. The participants shared experiences on the presence of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in their respective countries. This included the different pathways of entry, allergenic effects of the pollen on human, control methods being employed in the management of the weed, and presence or absence of networks of experts to tackle the plant in the various countries. The pathways of entry for Ambrosia artemisiifolia seeds in the countries include: water courses, bird mixtures (sunflower seeds) and human helped spread pathways like transport by construction machines, agricultural products and machinery/equipment. 42 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world The participants identified the need for more information on the following topics: - Pollen distribution in the air and its allergenic effects. - Monitoring and control methods (strategies) for this weed. - Biological control agents – how to use, when and where since the implementation part is very important. - Mapping – production of a single map showing the distribution of the weed in the Mediterranean region climate. - Other invasive and problematic Ambrosia species, other than Ambrosia artemisiifolia. The thematic workshop ended with the remark that Integrated Pest Management methods were the best approach for the control of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in the Mediterranean region. It was agreed that networking for the control of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in Mediterranean region was a noble idea. The existing networks include the European Weed Research Society (Invasive Plants Working Group) and the International Ragweed Society (not yet well established). It was suggested that the exchange of email addresses and constant communication and sharing of information could enhance networking among participants. This was to be reinforced by the creation of a Google Group account for the participants. 43 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Thematic workshop 4.3 Measures preventing the introduction of invasive plants in arable crops Chaired by Ms Garifalia Economou (cagr2ecg@noc.aua.gr) and Mr Ahmet Uludag (ahuludag@yahoo.com) Description of the project Biological invasions are large-scale phenomena of widespread importance, which represent one of the major threats to European biodiversity. Regardless of the mechanism, it is clear that the impact of the invasive species on natural plant communities, may also cause major economic problems, with invasive species becoming established as highly persistent and vigorous agricultural weeds, damaging manmade environments or choking open spaces and waterways. Several economic and environmental drivers markedly increase ecosystem vulnerability to invasion such as agriculture land and particularly arable crops. Species such as Solanum eleanifolium, Ipomoea hederacea in corn, Avena fatua, in winter wheat and Conyza albida in alfalfa are considered as the most problematic, fast- growing, easily propagated and vigorous competitors in the arable crops listed above in the Mediterranean zone. It is widely known that the application of conventional weed control methods has proved inadequate to prevent the rapid dispersal of these invasive species to a variety of habitats and therefore to enter crop fields. The prevention and mitigation of impacts of invasive species demands the action of ―developing measures aimed at the control of invasive alien genotypes as well as specific actions including an early warning system‖. Through this workshop the experts will draw on their experience in order to create a baseline for priorities definition at a regional scale. Aims of the thematic workshop Documentation of the problem - Reference to the arable crops invaded by alien species - Reference to the main invasive alien plants - Assessment of the invasive plants abundance and population trends - Effect of climatic change on alien plant invasion - Proposed control methods Tasks for the coordinators prior the workshop A document will be circulated to the participants describing: - the thematic issues in order to collect updated data in respect to their experience - the control methods that proved ineffective at a regional scale - the agronomic practices and the land use change at a regional scale - Climatic data at a regional / country scale Task for the participants prior to the workshop The participants should have collected information prior to attending. 44 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Links with other thematic workshops - General work on list of alien plant invasion - Thematic workshops on eradication and early warning. Conclusions of the thematic workshop Fifteen (15) colleagues participated in the thematic workshop from nine (9) countries: Armenia, Greece, Iran, Lithuania, Morocco, Serbia, Sudan, Tunisia and Turkey. The concept of the project was driven by the need to investigate the agronomic and environmental factors that increase the arable crops vulnerability to invasion of alien species. Arable crops, related either to human diet (cereals, corn, sunflower) or to human life improvement (fibber plants, biofuel crops) are of major importance. Taking action for developing measures to control invasive alien genotype is primordial, including an early warning system. Arable crops are characterized by a small life cycle and are bad competitors with alien plants which have a fast and vigorous growth and spread easily. In addition, the application of the conventional weed control methods proved inadequate to prevent their rapid spread. The aim of the thematic workshop was to document the problem at a country/regional scale with particular reference a) to the main invasive alien plants, b) to the arable crops invaded by alien species, c) to the assessment of the invasive plants abundance and population trend, d) to the effect of climatic change on alien plant invasion and e) to propose control methods. The participants achieved the following results during the thematic workshop: - The elaboration of a questionnaire about Invasive Alien Plants in Arable Crops, - The distribution of the questionnaire to the participants in order to be completed with additional tasks, data and comments for improvement, - To focus on the effects of climate change on alien plants invasions taking into consideration the parameters proposed by the model ―AquaCrop‖ registered by FAO with the objective to ―Estimate Climate Change Impacts on cotton, wheat, maize and sunflower in Greece using FAO‘s Crop Water Productivity Model AquaCrop‖, - To establish a permanent scientific process as a Small Working Group in order to create a baseline for priorities definition at a regional scale in each represented country, - To analyze the data, this will be gathered through a questionnaire, to be potentially published by EPPO if possible. Links with other thematic workshops - General work on list of alien plant invasion - Thematic workshops on eradication and early warning. Conclusions of the thematic workshop Fifteen (15) colleagues participated in the thematic workshop from nine (9) countries: Armenia, Greece, Iran, Lithuania, Morocco, Serbia, Sudan, Tunisia and Turkey. The concept of the project was driven by the need to investigate the agronomic and environmental factors that increase the arable crops vulnerability to invasion of alien species. 45 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 46 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Oral presentations 47 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world The impacts of global change on plant life in the Mediterranean and the spread of invasive species V H Heywood School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AS, UK. E-mail: v.h.heywood@reading.ac.uk The Mediterranean region is a focus of attention because of its unique climatic features. It is widely agreed that it is one of the areas that will be severely impacted by accelerated climate during the 21st century with higher temperatures and increasing aridity projected by most models. Because of the lack of a hinterland that characterizes the climatic zone of the comparable Saharan hinterland, a new no-analogue climate will develop in Mediterranean Europe. The migration of plant species from south to north during the timescale of concern will be limited by the barrier that the Mediterranean Sea represents. As a result of this new climate and its interaction with other components of global change such population movements and changes in disturbance regimes (e.g. increased frequency and duration of forest fires), substantial changes in the composition of the vegetation may be anticipated as a result of the differential success of individual species in adapting to the changing climate, migrating to track their climate envelope or becoming extinct and no-analogue communities will develop. This will be particularly notable in the case of forest communities and tree species. Some species will probably arrive through long-distance dispersal and these will compete with the remaining resident species. The new species assemblages will be vulnerable to invasive and weedy species, and it is probable that those invaders which already occur there will persist or extend their ranges while new species will become established. Strategies to try and mitigate the expected increase in the impacts of alien invasive species in the region need to take into consideration not just the conditions today but the new climates and species assemblages that will develop as a consequence of global change. Introduction ‗Scientific and societal unknowns make it difficult to predict how global environmental changes such as climate change and biological invasions will affect ecological systems‘, Hellmann et al. (2008) An increased risk of invasion by non-native species is one of the commonly cited consequences of climatic and other aspects of global change (Peterson et al., 2008; NAS, 2002; Hulme et al., 2009). In the case of the Mediterranean, the general perception until recently has been that the region‘s ecosystems are less vulnerable to invasion than similar ecosystems elsewhere, largely because of the long history of human interaction with the environment which 48 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world has left them with greater resilience (Lavorel, 1999 1). Such a view is no longer tenable, especially for Mediterranean islands (Traveset et al., 2008; Hulme et al., 2008) and a notable increase in invasive species has been recorded in recent years (Hulme, 2004; see below). This is partly as a consequence of major anthropogenic impacts in the region arising out of population growth and movements, industrialization, changes in agriculture, a massive growth in tourism and increased globalization, and partly as a result of better reporting. While some countries such as Spain have invested considerable resources in recording invasive alien species (e.g. SanzElorza et al., 2004; Andreu & Vilà, 2010; Crosti et al., 2010) underreporting of invasive species is still a major problem in the Mediterranean region, especially in the east and south of the region. A global scale survey of indicators of biological invasion by McGeoch et al. (2010) indicated that the number of documented invasive alien species may be affected by country development status which is associated with low investment in research and data collation. It has also been suggested that because the Mediterranean region has already been subjected to a major extinction event in an earlier period, it is more resistant now to further change (Greuter, 1995). The emphasis in this paper is deliberately on the consequences of global change, not just accelerated anthropogenic climate change, on the region‘s plant life and its implications for the extent of plant invasion in the Mediterranean. Global change comprises demographic change and population movements, changes in disturbance regimes such as fire, and the various components of climate change, all of which interact with each other (Box 1). In addition societal and technological changes also need to be taken into account. As Hellmann et al. (2008) have noted, ‗Scientific and societal unknowns make it difficult to predict how global environmental changes such as climate change and biological invasions will affect ecological systems‘, It is essential to take into account all the interacting drivers of global change in attempting to assess their impacts on plant invasions in the Mediterranean. These interactions make it difficult to disentangle the role of individual drivers and increase our uncertainty as to their effects (Pyšek et al., 2010). As Vilà et al. (2007) comment, ‗these ongoing changes … decrease our capacity to predict which introduced species are most likely to become invaders and which ecosystems are most vulnerable to invasion‘. Consequently, in assessing the likely extent of invasion in the Mediterranean region as a consequence of global change, we need to know what kinds of ecoclimatic scenarios will develop in the region and the socio-economic conditions and therefore the answers to a series of interrelated questions:  What will be the new climatic conditions that will develop and prevail in the region (e.g. anticipated changes in temperature and precipitation leading to increased aridity)?  What impact will these changes have on disturbance regimes such as fire, agricultural practices?  What demographic changes and population movements will occur and what will be the new pattern of tourism?  What kind of flora and vegetation will develop as a consequence of all these changes? 1 Lavorel cautions against the misuse of the term ‗resilience‘ 49 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Box 1 - The main components of global change Population change Human population movement/migrations Demographic growth Changes in population pattern Changes in land use and disturbance regimes Deforestation Degradation, simplification or loss of habitats Loss of biodiversity Climate change (IPPC definition) Temperature change Precipitation change Atmospheric change (greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide) Other climate-related factors Distribution of Nitrogen deposition Global dust deposition (including brown dust and yellow dust) Ocean acidification Air pollution in mega-cities Only then can we make any confident predictions as to the likelihood of existing invasive species persisting or spreading and of new alien invasive species successfully arriving by whatever pathway, competing with the old and new resident species and becoming established and spreading. Predicting potential invasions is notoriously difficult even in relatively stable conditions. Doing so in a context of global change, and accelerated climate change in particular, is a challenge whose complexity we are only just beginning to understand. The Mediterranean climate The Mediterranean region has attracted a great deal of attention because of its unique characteristics: its semi-enclosed sea, elongated shape, large topographic contrasts and climate gradient from mid-latitude to subtropical and its great sensitivity to climate change (Lionello et al.,2008). The climate is transitional between the dry tropics and temperate Europe and is unique because of the lack of a hinterland that characterizes the climatic zone of the comparable Saharan hinterland. This combination of circumstances makes it a no-analogue climate and the vegetation that has developed there is also transitional and highly sensitive to relatively small climatic changes. As Ortolani & Pagliuca (2006) note the Mediterranean region ‗is highly sensitive to variations in climate and environment. Indeed, shifts in the climate bands towards north or south by only a few degrees of latitude may result in dramatic changes in soil surface conditions. This may cause, for example, desertification in areas that previously had a humid climate or vice versa‘. 50 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world While it is widely recognized that the normally benign climate of the Mediterranean basin has been favourable to the development of several civilizations over time , it shows considerable variation – in temperature and precipitation according to latitude, longitude, altitude, topography, regional winds (Mistral, Tramontane, Bora, Etésiens, Sirocco) and other factors even within short distances (Harding, 2006) – and frequently presents episodes of extreme temperature, prolonged drought and torrential rainfall that demand a fair degree of resilience from its inhabitants. Predicted changes in the Mediterranean climate A review of climate change projections over the Mediterranean region by Giorgi & Lionello (2008) based on the latest and most advanced sets of global and regional climate model simulations gives ‗a collective picture of a substantial drying and warming of the Mediterranean region, especially in the warm season (precipitation decrease exceeding − 25–30% and warming exceeding 4–5 þC). The only exception to this picture is an increase of precipitation during the winter over some areas of the northern Mediterranean basin, most noticeably the Alps. Interannual variability is projected to generally increase as is the occurrence of extreme heat and drought events‘. There is still uncertainty regarding precipitation trends but an increase of up to 10 per cent in winter precipitation and a decrease of 5 to 15 per cent in summer precipitation by the latter half of the 21st century are suggested by some models (Karas, 2000). The long-term projection is for continued warming as the influence of greenhouse gases increases over time. A global temperature increase of 2þC is likely to lead to a corresponding warming of 1 to 3þ in the Mediterranean (Giannakopoulos et al., 2005). Temperature scenarios for the Mediterranean have been estimated by Hertig & Jacobeit (2008) whose assessment indicated that even with a high level of uncertainty regarding the regional distribution of climate change in the region, ‗substantial changes of partly more than 4 oC by the end of the century have to be anticipated under enhanced greenhouse warming conditions‘. Temperatures are likely to be higher inland than along the coast and the largest increase will take place during the summer (Giannakopolous et al., 2005). This will have a serious impact on the evaporation rates and water budget and availability in the region which is likely to be at increased risk of water shortages, forest fires and loss of agricultural land. Gao & Giorgi (2008) used three measures of aridity to estimate the possible effects of late 21st century climate change on the Mediterranean area and their analyses suggest that the region might experience a substantial increase in the northwards extension of dry and arid lands, especially in central and southern parts of the Iberian, Italian, Hellenic and Turkish peninsulas and in areas of southeast Europe, the Middle East, north Africa and the islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily. They identified the southern Mediterranean region as especially vulnerable to water stress and desertification as a result of these climate changes. The frequency of extreme weather events such as heat waves, torrential rains and droughts are expected to increase. The overall effect of these changes will be a northward shift and expansion of the Mediterranean-climate zone with a ‗saharization‘ in the southern part. 51 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world A different approach was taken by Klausmeyer & Shaw (2009) who determined the projected spatial shifts in the Mediterranean climate extent (MCE) over the next century for the five Mediterranean climate regions of the world 2. They showed that the median projection of the future MCE in the Mediterranean Basin is larger than the current MCE, but most of the atmosphere-ocean general circulation models (AOGCM) simulations project contractions in Morocco and in the Middle East (see their Fig. 2). They note that high topographic diversity and contiguous land toward the nearest pole provide room for the expansion of the MCE in Greece, Turkey, Spain and Portugal whereas in Morocco, the Atlas Mountains provide topographic diversity, but the Mediterranean Sea blocks expansion toward the north. Interaction with other factors of global change An important consideration is how the projected climate changes in the Mediterranean will interact with other components of global change, notably changes in disturbance regimes. Sinclair et al. (2010) suggest that ‗changed patterns of habitat fragmentation and connection are likely to have at least as large an impact as climate change in the medium term, both as problems and solutions…‘. Human transformation of the Mediterranean landscapes can affect the ability and rate of migration of species in response to climate change (cf. Midgley et al., 2007). Wild-fire risk Fire has been a powerful factor in shaping the landscapes and plant communities in the Mediterranean region and in the evolution and differentiation of the flora. In European Mediterranean countries in particular, large fires induced by past land-use changes are the main driving factor in landscape and ecosystem dynamics. Fire was the driving force in the coevolution of Mediterranean humans and landscapes in the Pleistocene (Naveh,1991) and since the beginnings of this interaction between humans and the environment, the causes of wildfires have been increasingly anthropogenic and today account for 90–95% of the fires recorded. About 600 000 ha of Mediterranean forest burns each year. Land use changes such as movement away from the countryside in the northern rim has led to the development of large areas of continuous vegetation that are susceptible to wild fires (MRFA, 2009). Climate change with higher summer temperatures and reduced precipitation is expected to lead to an increase in fire risk and disruption of natural fire regimes. There is evidence that the incidence of heat waves shows a correlation with the amount of forest burned (e.g. Colacino & Conte (1993a, b)). The area of fire-risk will expand northwards in line with the climate shift and also in the eastern and southern Mediterranean (e.g. Syria, Lebanon, Algeria) according to MFRA (2009). Changes in land use will not only affect the migration of species in the face of climate change but also the dispersal and spread of invasive alien species as they have to move across landscapes. As Vilà et al. (2007) comment, it is surprising that there have been so few studies on the interactions between the patterns of invasion and changes in land use or cover. They used Aschmann‘s (1973) ‗conservative‘ definition of the Mediterranean climate and excluded areas traditionally included in the biome nsuch as the south coast of France, western Italy, northeastern Spain. 2 52 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world As well as the major transformations that have taken place in the landscapes in earlier periods, the Mediterranean basin has witnessed considerable changes in land use in recent decades, especially in the agricultural sector – where there are considerable differences between the trends in the northern part of the basin and the southern and eastern parts in terms of area under cultivation, crop substitutions, and agricultural intensification – and the forestry sector, and the balance between them and the native vegetation. In the northern part, movement from the land and abandonment of cultivation has led to an increase in forests, giving rise to large continuous areas of unmanaged forests and scrubland while urban development and tourism, especially in coastal areas has led to habitat fragmentation and biodiversity loss. In the eastern and southern sectors, there has been considerable conversion of forests into grazing and agricultural cropland while others have been degraded. This has resulted in land degradation and desertification. Land use changes often lead to the disturbance and fragmentation of natural habitats which are well known to favour plant invasions. These changes will be intensified by climate change in the Mediterranean as the differential adaptation/survival, migration and extinction of individual species leads to the disassembly plant communities and the formation of new assemblages of species and the creation of gaps that will provide opportunities for the entry of invasive species which, if they establish successfully, will form part of the ‗new‘ species groupings. Tourism The Mediterranean is the leading tourist destination in the world visited by 147 million international tourists in 2003, representing 22% of the international tourism market, and generated US$113 billion for the region (WT0, 2003. 70% of these tourists visited just two countries, Italy and Spain. Over 12 million tourists visit the Mediterranean islands each year. On the other hand, the response to uncomfortably high summer temperatures in the Mediterranean could change the timing of visits with higher tourist numbers in the spring, autumn and winter. Also, predicted warmer temperatures in non-Mediterranean Europe could change the destination of tourists with adverse effects on the Mediterranean economy. The increase of tourism has led to massive urban and tourist-related development with accompanying infrastructural effects such as irrigation, drainage, desalinisation, large-scale transport infrastructures and so on which has led to the phenomenon known as ‗coastalization‘3 – the concentration of population and economic activities on coastal spaces which has inevitably led to an impoverishment of biodiversity, loss or fragmentation of habitats. The effects on the landscapes are all too visible but what is not so obvious is that this radical transformation of entire areas caused by tourism leads to soil erosion, increased pollution discharges into the sea, loss of natural habitat , increased pressure on endangered species and Described as ‗Linear and nuclear concentrations along the coast […] phenomena that are directly linked with intensive housing development, indiscriminate land occupation, and the possession of large reserves of land which it is possible to build on‘ in the conclusions of the International Congress, ‗Sustainable Tourism in the Mediterranean: The Participation of Civil Society‘, 1998. MED Project ULIXES 21. For Sustainable Tourism in the Mediterranean. 3 53 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world heightened vulnerability to forest fires. Significantly, it puts a strain on water resources, which are already a critical issue in the Mediterranean: it is estimated that for instance, an average Spanish inhabaitant uses 250 litres of water per day while the average tourist uses up to 880 litres. The influx of tourists can also lead to the disruption of traditional cultures. One of the unexpected consequences of tourism is the increased threat of invasive plants being introduced as part of the landscaping schemes of the tourist hotels and complexes. The Mediterranean region is already the adopted home of many tropical and subtropical plants, notably trees, shrubs and palms and new species are being introduced through nurseries for both landscaping and domestic use. The nursery trade has developed and expanded considerably in the Mediterranean in the last two decades: the Pistoia region of Italy, for example, has the largest concentration of plant nurseries in Europe covering more than 5,500 ha. Given that the horticultural trade is the major pathway for plant invasions (Reichard & White, 2001) great vigilance is needed to ensure that this expansion of the ornamental nursery trade does not lead to a corresponding rise in new plant invaders. Predicting the impacts of climate change on the Mediterranean flora and vegetation It is widely agreed that the flora and vegetation of the Mediterranean region are the most vulnerable in Europe to climate change because of their sensitivity to drought and rising temperatures and the fact that they are already under stress (EEA 2005; Giannakopoulos et al., 2005; Lavorel, 1999). The challenges of predicting the impacts that climate change will have on ecosystems are complex and have been addressed by modeling, experimental and observational approaches (Midgley et al., 2007). The major difficulty is that individual species react in different ways to climate change and it is the outcome of these reactions in combination if these that makes up the ecosystem response. As Klausmeyer & Shaw (2009) observe, ‗Projecting how plant assemblages will shift in response to climate change is subject to significant uncertainty because it requires compounding the uncertainty with projecting climate change with the uncertainty inherent in projecting future distributions of individual species‘. The tool that is most frequently used in attempting to predict the responses of species to climate change is bioclimatic modelling. Bioclimatic models (bioclimatic envelope models) are a special case of ecological niche or distribution models. Today, most current projections of the future migration of plants are based on the use of ‗climate envelope‘ or bioclimatic modeling techniques (Nix, 1986; Guisan & Thuiller, 2005) in which projected future distributions are based on the current climate in the species‘ native range. These modeling techniques combine computer-based models of the current climate on the one hand, with information on the current distribution of species on the other hand, to establish a bioclimatic 4 niche model and this model of optimal environmental parameters is then fitted to a range of future climate scenarios to establish likely shifts in environmental optima for species. The models are used to help predict the potential geographic range responses of species to climate change. Bioclimatic modeling has been applied extensively in Europe and other parts of the world. There is no single standard 4 also known as edaphic, fundamental, environmental or Grinellian models. 54 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world approach and techniques are constantly being developed (for a review see Elith & Leathwick, 2009). Bioclimatic models are of course simplifications of reality and primarily important aids to research as Thuiller et al. (2008) point out. Modeling techniques aim defining the climate ‗envelope‘ that best describes the limits to its spatial range for any choosen species by correlating the current species distributions with selected climate variables. Although they are commonly referred to as predictions, their proper role is to contribute to the information base on which predictions of future change are made. Climate envelope modelling is a valuable and powerful tool in our efforts to understand the interaction between species distributions and climate and to work out the likely impacts of climate change on biodiversity. However, the models currently employed have severe limitations and make a number of assumptions that reduce their value and effectiveness (Jeschke & Strayer, 2008). Most models are unable to take into account factors such as dispersal capacity, migration processes, biotic interactions, the capacity of species to adapt to climate change and the range of genetic variation in species populations (Heikkinen et al., 2006; Brooker et al., 2007; Thuiller et al., 2008; Buisson et al., 2010) while those that do make simple assumptions about migration such as nomigration or complete migration. Many species migration will be hindered by natural barriers such as mountains or lakes and by large scale landscape developments such as urbanizations, industry and roads which will limit the connectivity necessary for successful range shifts as an adaptation to climate change. The models are rarely tested by independent validation (Jeschke & Strayer, 2008). Moreover, the quality of the niche models depend on the quality and sufficiency of underlying data, and in many cases lack of detailed data on distribution of species is a limiting factor for resolution, coverage or both. Bioclimatic models have also been criticized by Willis & Bhagwat (2009) and Ackerly et al. (2010) for their coarse spatial scale so that they fail to take into account microtopography and their use may therefore exaggerate the scale of loss of species. The latter suggest that ‗Fine-scale spatial heterogeneity may provide a critical buffer at a landscape and reserve scale, enhancing genetic and species diversity and reducing gene and organismal dispersal distances required to offset climate change, at least in the short run‘. On the other hand, in the case of many Mediterranean mountain/alpine species with highly specialized habitat requirements, their limited dispersal capacity and the non-availability of suitable niches are likely to be limiting factors in their survival, no matter how fine the scale of modelling applied. Buisson et al. (2010) propose that forecasts of the impacts of climate change should always carry an assessment of their uncertainty, so that those charged with making management and conservation decisions can do so in the full knowledge of the reliability of the models. A further important consideration, and one that has received less attention as Fitzpatrick & Hargrove (2009) point out, is that the bioclimatic models are usually extrapolated into environments which differ from those that characterize the region in which the models are calibrated. In the case of the Mediterranean basin, new, no-analogue environments will be created as a consequence of the climatic shifts and other elements of global change. 55 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Models must be interpreted on the basis of our knowledge of the biology of the organisms being modelled although for many species such knowledge is often quite limited and it is clear that we need to undertake much more research into the biological characteristics, dispersal capacity and adaptive range of species that are likely to be at risk. Moreover, the long-term human impacts on the vegetation of the Mediterranean have had long-term consequences for the dynamics of the current landscapes which have also to be taken into account in modelling the impacts of climate change (Pausas, 1999). Various studies have been made of the likely impacts of climate change on Mediterranean flora and vegetation (Bakkenes et al., 2002; Thuiller et al., 2005; CEC, 2007; Schröter et al. 2005; Berry et al. 2007a, b) which suggest that many species would have to migrate north or altitudinally to track their climatic envelope. While it is not anticipated that there will be biome shifts, Peðuelas & Boada (2003) have in fact documented such a shift in Mediterranean mountains in recent times: they compared historical data and correlated them with climate data over the last 50 years that showed a temperature increase of 1.4þC and no change in the total precipitation. They found that Quercus ilex progressively replaced heather (Calluna vulgaris) and beech (Fagus sylvatica) in the higher elevations. A number of ecological modeling approaches have been developed that estimate vegetation development (productivity or vegetation type) under climate change. These include statistical species distribution models, gap models, landscape models; biogeochemical models and dynamic global vegetation models. For a discussion of these see Robinson et al. (2008). While we can use various types of model to predict the possible migrations of species to track their new climatic envelopes, what we cannot do with existing modeling approaches is to predict with sufficient accuracy what the new vegetation cover will be nor the overall environmental conditions, in areas impacted by climate change. This applies both to the move-out areas and the move-in areas, a distinction that is not often made but which may be critical in some parts of Europe such as the Mediterranean zone as mentioned above. Since the likelihood of survival and multiplication of migrant species will depend on the environmental context into which they move, not to mention stochastic factors which may intervene, we have to accept that our present understanding of the consequences of climate change is severely limited and sometimes dependent on little more than intelligent speculation. If we add to this the level of uncertainty that still surrounds the details of the extent of climate change and their impact at a local level, much of our planning has to be broadly based rather than site-specific, such as modifying or enhancing our protected area systems, or precautionary such as employing ex situ complementarity (Heywood, 2010) As noted above, it is often asserted that climate change will favour invasive species or increase the risk of invasions but as Hellmann et al. (2008) comment few authors have identified specific consequences. They then propose five potential consequences:  Invasion pathways: altered mechanisms of transport and introduction  Altered climatic constraints  Changes in distribution of existing alien species  Changes in impacts of existing invasive species  Changes in effectiveness of management strategies 56 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Bioclimatic models have been used to project the future ranges of invasive species but are of course subject to the same limitations and constraints as other species (Jeschke & Strayer 2008) Non-modelling approaches Although bioclimatic modeling is the commonest method of suggesting the likely response of species to climate change, the vulnerability of species to climate change can also be assessed on the basis of their biological and ecological characteristics, and other factors, that determine their sensitivity, adaptive capacity and exposure to climate change (Gran Canaria Group, 2006; CBDF/AHTEG 2009) (see Box 2). Box 2 - Criteria for identifying taxa vulnerable to climate change (Gran Canaria Group, 2006) Taxa with nowhere to go, such as mountain tops, low-lying islands, high latitudes and edges of continents; Plants with restricted ranges such as rare and endemic species; Taxa with poor dispersal capacity and/or long generation times; Species that are susceptible to extreme conditions such as flood or drought; Plants with extreme habitat/niche specialization such as narrow tolerance to climate-sensitive variables; Taxa with co-evolved or synchronous relationships with other species; Species with inflexible physiological responses to climate variables; Keystone taxa important in primary production or ecosystem processes and function, and Taxa with direct value for humans or with potential for future use. Species migrations in the Mediterranean region At the core of projections of the future distribution of species in the face of climate change is their migration capacity and the dispersal ability. The ability of species to track their shifting climate space and their ability to adapt to the conditions in the new habitats are critically influenced by the individual dispersal capacity of species (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2008; Massot et al., 2008). However, as Thuiller et al. (2008) comment, although the importance of plant migration in response to global change is widely acknowledged, few modelling studies explicitly include migration processes when simulating geographical plant responses. In practice, our knowledge of the potential migration rate of species is seriously inadequate for most species and this limits our current capacity to predict the impacts of accelerated climate change on the future geographic distribution of species (Midgley et al., 2007). Faced with a changing climate and changing environmental conditions, plant species will react in different ways: they may persist in situ and keep their current range or in the case of short-lived species they may adapt to the new conditions over time through selection of suitable genotypes; or they may respond with range expansions through migration or their distribution area may contract or shift. 57 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world  Some species will be able to migrate out of the current Mediterranean zone and track their climatic envelope northwards or altitudinally.  Some species will be able to adapt in situ to the changing climate  Some species will migrate from the southern to the northern shores of the Mediterranean by long-distance dispersal  Some species will not be able to adapt in situ or to migrate and therefore will become locally, or in the case of range-restricted species, totally extinct.  Some existing invasive species will colonize niches left vacant and spread  Some new alien invasive species will successfully occupy vacant niches and spread Although our understanding of the ability of plants to respond to their environment has developed greatly (van Kleunen & Fischer, 2005; Valladares et al., 2007), for most species the precise range of their phenotypic and physiological responses to the present climate, let alone changing climatic conditions, is very limited and much further research is needed to gain a deeper understanding of the adaptation possibilities of individual species in situ to climate change. Also, our knowledge of the amount of genetic variation in their existing populations is generally poor. In addition, there has been an increased interest in the role of epigenetic variation and processes in the ecology and evolution of plant species (Bossdorf et al., 2008; Richards et al. 2010 a,b) and a recent paper has shown that the environment can alter the epigenetic context of individual species of European common marsh orchids and that Darwinian selection acts on epigenetic variation in the same way as on the genetic information, leading to adaptation and divergence between species within a small number of generations (Paun et al., 2010). This has given rise to the hope that some plant species may be able to adapt more quickly to environmental change than previously thought and thus be able to combat rapid climate change. Population epigenetics is however in its infancy and is still a matter of intense debate and one can only speculate about its true significance and potential role in adapting to climate change. The lack of a hinterland will act as a major constraint on the availability of migrants and coupled with the barrier of the Mediterranean Sea to northward migration makes it difficult to imagine what type of vegetation will occupy this space without extensive migration of species from North Africa although some species will probably arrive through long-distance dispersal. The whole issue of long-distance dispersal takes on a new importance when considering the migration of species due to climate change and there had been renewed interest in the potential role of rare long-distance dispersal (LDD) events as drivers of rapid plant migrations (Pearson & Dawson, 2005). It is of course possible that low probability LDD events may allow propagules of some species to reach the southern shores of the Mediterranean within the short timescale envisaged, although there is no guarantee that this will lead to successful establishment or spread as this will depend on habitat availability and its permeability, life history and biological characteristics (Higgins & Richardson, 1999). The vegetation will be vulnerable to invasive and weedy species and it is probable that those which already occur there will persist or extend their ranges while new species will become established. If the gaps created by the migration of species tracking their climate envelopes, are not filled by inward migration, the vegetation will be vulnerable to invasive and weedy species and its is 58 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world probable that at least some of those invasive plants which already occur there will persist or extend their ranges while new ones will become established. On the other hand, as already noted, the impacts of climate change on the invasive potential of species are still poorly understood. The plants and vegetation of Mediterranean Europe will experience unique problems and the region will see a major increase in weedy, alien invasive and pioneer species in coastal and lowland habitats. Some restricted area endemics, especially in mountain habitats, are expected to become extinct but will not be affected by alien invasive species. Consequences of climate change for Mediterranean forests While it is not possible to predict with any degree of accuracy the composition and nature of the new species assemblages that will develop in the new climatic spaces of the Mediterranean, we can gain some idea of the impacts on some of the major vegetation types through tracking the likely movements of keystone forest species such as the oaks and pines. Although Mediterranean forest and woodlands cover only 73 million ha or about 8.5% of the region‘s area (MRFA, 2009), they represent an important component of the vegetation (Palahi et al., 2008) and house a significant proportion of plant and animal diversity, including c.290 species of indigenous trees (Quézel & Médail, 2003). The ways in which global change affects them in the coming decades is therefore a matter of considerable concern. How far forests and their keystone species will be resilient to climate change, especially higher temperatures and increasing aridity, has been studied in a number of instances. Some studies have been made on the effects of climate change on the distribution of Mediterranean forests and their adaptation (see summary by Regato, 2008). A review by Resco de Dios et al. (2007) suggests that ‗Climate change compounded with trends of rural abandonment are likely to diminish forested areas within the Mediterranean basin that will be replaced by fire prone shrub communities. This could be favoured by outbreaks of pathogens, fire and other large scale disturbances. Landscape fragmentation is expected to impede species migration‘. Modelling studies on individual tree species have been carried out, for example in the Iberian Peninsula (Benito Garzñn et al., 2008; Linares & Tiscar, 2010), or in France (Gaucherel et al., 2008). The dynamics of changes in forest tree species ranges are, however, difficult to predict, as Regato (2008) notes, because of lags in adult mortality and the self-regulatory mechanisms of forest populations which may create resistance to range contractions. Also, it should be remembered that the current species distribution ranges may differ significantly from the potential species‘ climate envelope. In such cases they may greater potential for in-situ adaptation to climate change before reaching their migration threshold. Conclusions The Mediterranean basin possesses a unique and diverse climate which is matched by the varied topography of the region. Combined with a long history of human interaction, this has resulted the great diversity and richness of the vegetation that exists today. Although the region had previously not been considered at serious risk from invasion by alien plant species, recent 59 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world evidence has shown such a view is not correct and there is now the concern global change, especially accelerated climate change, will increase the extent of invasions. It is notoriously difficult even in relatively stable conditions to predicting potential invasions but doing so in a context of global change is a challenge whose complexity we are only just beginning to understand. Before we even begin to attempt to do so, we firstly have to try to interpret the evidence of how the climate will change and how it will interact with other factors such as population change and movements and changes in disturbance regimes. Only when we have as good evidence as possible about the movements of climate space can we attempt to project the impacts of these changes on the species and ecosystems. There is still considerable uncertainty in modelling projections of climate change and the use of bioclimatic models to project the future distributions of individual species. Bioclimatic modelling has proved to be a valuable tool in helping project the future distributions of species (including potential IAS) but the limitations of the models need to be acknowledged and it noted that they are usually extrapolated into environments which differ from those that characterize the region in which the models are calibrated. A new no-analogue climate will evolve in the Mediterranean. As a consequence of these new climatic conditions and the barrier that the Mediterranean Sea represents for plant migration, new species assemblages will develop, although their detailed composition cannot be predicted accurately, and are likely to be vulnerable to invasion by expansion of the ranges of existing alien species or by those new species that are able to reach them. This will pose major challenges for the prediction of invasions and the development of strategies to prevent them or mitigate their effects. Until further improvements are made to bioclimatic models and they are validated independently, we need to be cautious about interpreting the results and pay more attention to trying to determine the future climatic and ecological conditions of the areas of concern and the migration and dispersal capacity of both the native species and the potential invaders. 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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 10, 8245-8250. Thuiller W, Albert C,. Araújo MB, Berry PM, Guisan A, Hickler T, Midgley GF, Paterson,J, Schurr FM, Sykes MT & Zimmermann NE (2008) Predicting climate change impacts on plant diversity: where to go from here? Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 9, 137–152. Traveset A, Brundu G, Carta M, Mprezetou I, Lambdon P, Manca M, Me´dail F, Moragues E, Rodriguez-Perez J, Siamantziouras S, Suehs CM, Troumbis A, Vila` M, Hulme PE (2008) Consistent performance of invasive plant species within and among islands of the Mediterranean basin. Biological Invasions 10, 847–858 Valladares F, Gianoli E & Gñmez JM (2007) Ecological limits to plant phenotypic plasticity. New Phytologist 176: 749–763. Vilà M, Corbin JD, Dukes JS, Pino J & Smith SD (2007) Linking plant invasions to global environmental change. In: Terrestrial Ecosystems in a Changing World (Eds Canadell J, Pataki D & Pitelka L), pp. 93-102. Springer, New York Willis KJ & Bhagwat SA (2009) Biodiversity and climate change. Science 326, 806–807. WTO (2003) Tourism Market Trends, 2003 Edition, World Tourism Organization, Madrid. 63 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Flora of Turkey: Richness, updates, threats Necmi Aksoy Düzce University Forest Faculty, Department of Forest Botany & DUOF Herbarium, Beçiyörükler, Düzce, Turkey, E-mail: necmiaksoy@duzce.edu.tr The flora of Turkey is rich and diverse with over 11 000 flowering taxa recorded in the 9-volume set of Prof. P.H. Davis‘ monumental work and its two supplements. Turkey is situated at the junction of three important phytogeographic regions, namely Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian, and Euro-Siberian. The Black Sea‘s coastal areas are in the Euro-Siberian region. Areas surrounding the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Marmara Seas enjoy the characteristics of the Mediterranean regions, and finally, the large part of Turkey stretching from the Central Anatolian Plateau to the borders with Iran and Iraq to the East and Southeast lies in the Irano-Turanian region. Endemic species are largely found in the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian regions. The Anatolian flora, especially in the steppe areas, is said to be in an active state of diversification. According to the Flora of Turkey, the flora contains just over 11000 infrageneric taxa, of which 34.5 % are endemic. In the flora of Turkey, percentage endemism is high in some families: Boraginaceae (61%), Campanulaceae (60%), Scrophulariaceae (52%), Rubiaceae (48%), Caryophyllaceae (46%), Labiatae (45%), Leguminosae (40%), Compositae (37%). At generic level, examples of the rate of endemism are: Bolanthus (90%), Ebenus (90%), Alkanna (8l%), Sideritis (78%), Acantholimon (76%), Paronychia (75%), Verbascum and Gypsophila (71%), Paracaryum (70%), Cousinia (68%), Centaurea (65%), Astragalus (63%). The flora of Turkey contains over 11 000 vascular plant taxa, a considerable number of which are used by humans. Non-food uses of plants include medicinal, aromatic, ornamental, pesticides as well as raw materials for making household goods, toys, musical instruments. The flora of Turkey is estimated to contain over 3000 aromatic plants. The wide biodiversity of the flowering plants of Turkey is reflected in the 11-volume set of books titled Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands. The second supplement (Vol. 11) reported 532 new taxa for the flora of the region. Recently, publications reported that 48 new recorded and 135 new species are added to the Flora of Turkey and the following genus were recently included : Clastopus, Adenostyles, Araujia, Perilla, Oreopoa, Diplachne, Asperuginoides, Leptaleum, Stroganowia, Loncomelos, Scopolia, Oclopoa, Chamaespartium, Lophanthus, Clerodendrum, Cymbopogon , Schistophyllidium, Sicyos, etc. If the alien and cultivated taxa are included, the number of taxa occurring in the Flora of Turkey then rises to 11 500. Of 3504 endemic plants in Turkey, 12 are known to have been extinct and 3492 (99 %) are still being threatened. The main threats to the survival of Turkey‘s endemic plants are: clearing grounds for fields, overgrazing and reform of barren lands, construction of dams, industrialization and urbanization, exportation and domestic use, plant protection and pollution, tourism, forestation and fires. 64 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Role of soil communities and novel weapons in exotic plant invasion: an update Inderjit Department of Environmental Biology, 2Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems (CEMDE), University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India, Emails: inderjit@cemde.du.ac.in; inderjitdu@gmail.com A large number of empirical studies are carried out to understand why some exotic plants often form monocultures and suppress native residents while they coexist in species-diverse communities in their native area. Here some recent studies that support the interaction of chemicals produced by exotic plants and soil communities in plant invasions are discussed. There is a need to understand the ‗expanded‘ effects of novel chemicals; for example, novel chemicals-microbial interactions in the non-native ranges that benefit the donor plant and thereby harm the neighbouring plant species. Introduction A question that fascinates most ecologists is why some exotic plants form monocultures in non-native ranges and suppress their neighbours while they coexist in species-diverse communities in their native range (Callaway et al., 2008; Ridenour et al., 2008). A large number of non-exclusive hypotheses have been proposed to explain invasion success of exotic plants in their non-native ranges (Inderjit et al., 2005; Catford et al., 2009). Any discussion on each of the proposed hypotheses is beyond the scope of this article. Recent empirical work has generated some convincing evidence in support of evolution of increased competitive ability (Handley et al. 2008; Hull-Sanders et al., 2007; Feng et al., 2009), endophyte-mediated alteration of soil biota (Rudgers & Clay 2007; Rudgers & Orr 2009), accumulation of soil pathogens (Eppinga et al., 2006; Mangla et al., 2008), impact of local soil communities (Inderjit & van der Putten 2010; Scharfy et al., 2010), novel weapons (Inderjit et al., 2006; He et al., 2009; Thorpe et al., 2009), and improved our understanding of biological invasions. Below I discuss novel chemicals, soil communities, and evolution of increased competitive ability in order to highlight their contribution to exotic plant invasion. Evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) and novel chemicals Exotic plants upon introduction are either partially (enemy reduction; Beckstead and Parker 2003) or completely (enemy release; Keane & Crawley, 2002) released from specialist enemies. Müller-Schärer et al. (2004) described enemy release process as regulatory or compensatory. When a plant has low resistance to specialist enemies in its native range, the loss of its enemies in the introduced range results in direct survivorship; in this case the release is called regulatory release. On the other hand, when the plant in its native range is well defended against specialist enemies by producing defense metabolites, the loss of enemies in non-native ranges would have little consequences to the plant; in this case the release is called compensatory release. Resource allocation of the exotic plant to quantitative defense is expensive, however, plants could evolve 65 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world to reallocate for better growth and competitive ability. This mechanism is known as the evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA; Blossey & Notzhold, 1995). Plants are known to release chemicals in the environment that could suppress growth and establishment of neighboring plants (allelopathy). Callaway & Ridenour (2004) examined allelopathy as one of the potential causes of invasion success of exotic plants by taking a biogeographically approach, and termed it as the Novel Weapons Hypothesis (NWH). In this biogeographically approach, the allelopathic potential of the plant in its native range is compared with that they express in the non-native range (Inderjit et al., 2008). Compared to traditional approach to study allelopathy, biogeographically approach considers the possibility of the evolution of allelopathy (Inderjit et al., 2008). Novel weapons hypothesis has a strong support on the evidences that the general effects of Eurasian invader Centaurea maculosa, and chemicals contained in its roots exudates, were more effective against species in invaded region (North America) than in native regions (Callaway & Ridenour, 2004). The major assumption of NWH is that native species are not adapted to novel chemicals brought to non-native range by exotic plants, which is further supported by Grøndahl & Ehlers (2008). These authors studied the effects of 2 terpenes, carvacrol and β-caryolphyllene produced by Tyhmus pulegiodes and T. serpyllum on the growth of neighbouring plant species. In general, local species showed adaptation to these chemicals in the native range and therefore are not sensitive to chemicals and have potential to break down chemicals released by the plant. One of the major criticisms of allelopathy is the lack of field evidence (Inderjit & Weiner, 2001; Inderjit & Callaway, 2003). However, novel weapons hypothesis, however, provide convincing field evidence in the support of novel chemicals playing an important role in invasion success of an exotic plant (see Thorpe et al., 2009; He et al., 2009; Barto et al., 2010a). Allelopathy hypothesis is suggested as a sub-set of the EICA hypothesis (Callaway & Ridenour, 2004; Inderjit et al., 2006) because novel chemicals in the non-native range provide competitive advantage to the exotic plant over the native ones. Callaway & Ridenour (2004) proposed that selection for greater allelopathic output could be an alternative mechanism for the evolution of the increased competitive ability and coined this hypothesis the allelopathic advantage against resident species. These authors speculated that higher allelopathic potential of invaders compared to their native populations could be due to production of higher amounts of potent chemicals and due to sensitive neighbours and soil communities. Müller-Schärer et al. (2004) viewed that invaders generally have not completely escaped from their enemies, and proposed to revise EICA hypothesis to include the role of generalist herbivores. It is important to conduct a rigorous re-examination of C. maculosa invasion in the light of the refined EICA hypothesis proposed by Müller-Schärer et al. (2004), comparing levels of herbivory by generalist and specialist herbivores in the invaded and native range. While examining trade-offs between growth and defense, Ridenour et al. (2008) showed that plants of N. American C.maculosa were larger than plants from native European populations, which supports the EICA hypothesis. However, N. American C. maculosa were better defended against generalist in terms of better resistance and tolerance because invasive populations had tough leaves and more trichomes. Their study showed that EICA may not always lead to trade-offs between growth and defense. 66 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Recently, Feng et al. (2009) examined the reallocation of nitrogen (N) from defense to growth in the invaded ranges of the Ageratina adenophora, a Mexican invader in China and India. Seeds of A. adenophorafrom the native (Mexico) and non-native (China and India) ranges were collected and grown in common-garden experiments. It was found that A. adenophora in nonnatives ranges allocates N to growth but in its native ranges, it allocates Nitrogen to cell wall in order to have better defenses. Moreover, the higher growth rate of this plant in its non-native ranges compared to its native range, is an evidence supporting the EICA. The examination of a presumed increase in chemicals products in the non-native range was not studied for A. adenophora. Toxicity mediated by novel environment The role of novel chemicals in suppressing native resident plants in the non-native range of exotic plants is well discussed in literature but the role of native communities (plants and microbes) in contributing to the allelopathic potential of an exotic plant is not discussed. Exotic plants may bring chemicals that do not exert any toxicity against neighboring plants but native plants and soil communities of the non-native range may transform innocuous novel compounds to toxic compounds. Recently, Bains et al. (2009) have shown that Phragmites australis, an exotic invasive plant in marsh communities in North America, produces higher quantities of gallotannins compared to native, non-invasive populations. These authors have demonstrated that the enzyme tannase produced by native plants and microorganisms have the property to transform innocuous gallotannins into gallic acid, a toxic compound. This is a good example showing the participation of native plants and soil communities in producing novel chemicals which in turn contributed to the invasive success of P. australis. Invasion mediated by soil microbes Recently, Inderjit & van der Putten (2010) discussed the effects of soil microbial communities on exotic plant invasion and the impact of exotic plant invasion on soil communities as well. In addition to the potential of exotic plants to escape soil pathogens (Klironomos 2002) and positive (Callaway et al., 2004) or negative (Knevel et al., 2004) impacts of soil communities on exotic plants, exotic plant could accumulate soil biota that suppress the seedlings of neighboring plant species. While working on the invasion success of Chromolaena odorata, a native of Caribbean and an aggressive invasive weed in the Western Ghats of India, Mangla et al. (2008) has found that rhizosphere soils of C. odorata accumulate high concentrations of a local soil pathogen, which creates a negative impact on the seedlings of native plants. These results support an earlier general hypothesis proposed by Eppinga et al. (2006), a hypothesis known as accumulation of soil pathogens. Whether chemicals exuded by roots of C. odorata favors the accumulation of soil pathogen is not proven experimentlly. Mangla et al. (2008), however, provided some indirect evidence that root leachates of C. odorata promotes higher number of spores of soil pathogens. The negative impacts of L. arundinaceum on native plant species are mediated through a aboveground fungal endophyte, Neotyphodium coenphialum present in the non-native grass Loilium arundinaceum (Rudgers & Orr, 2009; Rudgers et al., 2004). By altering soil biota, endophyte in L. arundinaceum exerts negative impacts on tree species such as Elaeagnus umbellata, Fraxinus pennsylvanica and Platanus occidentalis. Rudgers & Orr (2009) highlighted 67 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world the importance of above- and belowground microbial communities in providing competitive advantage to the non-native grass, L. arundinaceum. Callaway et al. (2008) reported that Alliaria petiolata, an eurasian invader from N. American forests, disrupt the mutualistic associations between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and tree species. These authors found that A. petiolata when was present in N. American soils had negative impact on AMF and the regeneration of native mycorrhizal tree seedlings. Such effects were not observed when A. petiolata grown in native European soils. In contrast, Barto & Cipollini (2010b) found that A. petiolata extract had no impact on AMF colonization of roots or soils, and suggested that potential alleopathic effects of A. petiolata could be due to direct inhibition of plant seedlings and fungus before the formation of symbiosis. Concluding remarks Callaway and his co-workers have proposed the biogeographically approach to examine the dimension in allelopathic studies. This approach has contributed to a better understanding about the ecological and evolutionary aspects of allelopathy in the context of plant invasion ecology. Lankau (2009) examined the glucosinolate content in the Alliaria petiolata of different invasion history in N. America. He observed a significant decline in the production of glucosinolates from A. petiolata over a span of more than 50 years from its invasion, which resulted in the decline of the invasiveness of this invasive plant in N. American forests. Recent studies have shown that enemy release, EICA, plant-soil feedback and novel weapons interact with each other in a complex way (Feng et al., 2009; Inderjit and van der Putten 2010). Moreover, in allelopathy studies, the importance of microbial interactions is underemphasized (see Kaur et al., 2009). In this vein, the scope of novel chemicals/allelopathy should be broadening to identify the chemical-microbial interactions that benefit the focal exotic plant and thereby suppress neighboring native plant species. Other factors such as propagule pressure could bean important factor that can be consistently correlated to the invasive success (Lockwood et al., 2005). Massive seed production appeared to be a requirement for dominance, and in the absence of a massive seedbank, even competition that is potentially assisted by allelopathic chemicals, is inadequate to maintain the dominance of this species. It is important to examine the ways an exotic plant multiplies in the non-native ranges, its potential to take advantage of new resources and conditions compared to local species and its potential to manipulate abiotic and biotic soil factors. Acknowledgements This paper was presented at the 2nd International Workshop on Invasive Alien Plants in the Mediterranean Type of Regions of the World, Trabzon, Turkey, August 2010. I thank Ahmet Uludag and Sarah Brunel to invite me to the workshop. Funding provided by the European Environment Agency (EEA) is gratefully acknowledged. References Bains G, Kumar AS, Rudrappa T, Alff E, Hanson TE & Bais HP (2009) Native plant and microbial contributions to a negative plant-plant interaction. Plant Physiology 151, 2145-2151. 68 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Barto K, Powell JR & Cipollini D (2010a) How novel are the chemical weapons of garlic mustard in North America forest understories. Biological Invasions 12, 3465-3471. Barto K, Friese C & Cipollini D (2010b) Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi protect a native plant from allelopathic effects of an invader. Journal of Chemical Ecology 36, 351-360. Beckstead J & Parker IM (2003) Invasiveness of Ammophila arenaria : release from soil-borne pathogens? Ecology 84, 2824-2831. Blossey B & Notzgold R (1995) Evolution of increased competitive ability in invasive non-indigenous plants: a hypothesis. Journal of Ecology 83, 887-889. Callaway RM & Ridenour WM (2004) Novel weapons: invasive success and the evolution of increased competitive ability. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2, 436-443. Callaway RM, Cipollini D, Barto K, Thelen GC, Hallett SG, Prati D, Stinson K & Klironomos J (2008) Novel weapons: invasive plant suppresses fungal mutualists in America but not in its native Europe. Ecology 89, 1043-1055. Callaway RM, Thelen GC, Rodriguez A & Holben WE (2004) Soil biota and exotic plant invasion. Nature 427, 731-733. Catford JA, Jansson R & Nilsson C (2009) Reducing redundancy in invasion ecology by integrating hypotheses into a single theoretical framework. Diversity & Distribution 15, 22-40. Eppinga MB, Rietkerk M, Dekker SC, Ruiter PC & van der Putten WH (2006) Accumulation of local pathogens: a new hypothesis to explain exotic plant invasions. Oikos 114, 168-176. Feng YL, Lei Y, Wang R, Callaway RM, Valiente-Banuet A, Inderjit, Li Y-P & Zheng Y-L (2009) Evolutionary tradeoffs for nitrogen allocation to photosynthesis versus cell walls in an invasive plant. Proceedings National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 106, 1853-1856. Grøndahl E & Ehlers BK (2008) Local adaptation to biotic factors: reciprocal transplants of four species associated with aromatic Thymus pulegiodes and T. serpyllum. Journal of Ecology 96, 981-992. Handley RJ, Steinger T, Trier UA & Muller-Scharer H (2008) Testing the evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) hypothesis in a novel framework. Ecology 89, 407-417. He WM, Feng Y, Ridenour W, Thelen GC, Pollock JL, Diaconu A, Callaway RM (2009) Novel weapons and invasions: biogeographic differences in the competitive effects of Centaurea maculosa and its root exudates (±)-catechin. Oecologia 159, 803-815. Hull-Sanders HM, Clare R, Johnson RH & Meyer GA (2007) Evaluation of the evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) hypothesis: loss of defense against generalist but not specialist herbivores. Journal of Chemical Ecology 33, 781-799. Inderjit & Van der Putten WH (2010) Impacts of soil microbial communities on exotic plant invasion. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 25, 512-519. Inderjit & Callaway RM ( 2003) Experimental designs for the study of allelopathy. Plant and Soil 256, 1-11. Inderjit & Weiner J (2001) Plant allelochemical interference or soil chemical ecology? Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution & Systematics 4, 3-12. Inderjit, Callaway RM & Vivanco JM (2006) Plant biochemistry helps to understand invasion ecology. Trends in Plant Science 11, 574-580. Inderjit, Seastedt TR, Callaway RM, Pollock J & Kaur J (2008) Allelopathy and plant invasions: traditional, congeneric, and biogeographical approaches. Biological Invasions 10, 875-890. Inderjit, Cadotte M & Colautti RI (2005) The ecology of biological invasions: past, present and future.Invasive Plants: Ecological and Agricultural Aspects (ed Inderjit), pp. 19-44. Birkhauser-Verlag AG, Basel (Switzerland). Kaur H, Kaur R, Kaur S, Baldwin IT & Inderjit (2009) Taking ecological function seriously: soil microbial communities can obviate allelopathic effects of released metabolites. PLoS One 4(3), e4700. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004700 Keane RM & Crawley MJ (2002) Exotic plant invasions and the enemy release hypothesis. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 17, 164-70. Klironomos J (2002) Feedback with soil biota contributes to plant rarity and invasiveness in communities. Nature 417, 67-70. Knevel IC, Lans T, Menting FBJ, Hertling UM & Van der Putten WH (2004) Release from native root herbivores and biotic resistance by soil pathogens in a new habitat both affect the alien Ammophila arenaria in South Africa. Oecologia 141, 502-510. 69 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Lankau RA, Nuzzo V, Spyreas G & Davis AS (2009) Evolutionary limits ameliorate the negative impacts of an invasive plant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106, 15362-15367. Lockwood JL, Cassey P & Blackburn TM (2005) The role of propagulepressure in explaining species invasion. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20, 223-228. Mangla S, Inderjit & Callaway RM (2008) Exotic invasive plant accumulates native soil pathogen which inhibit native plants. Journal of Ecology 96, 58-67. Müller-Schärer H, Schaffner U & Steinger T (2004) Evolution in invasive plants and implications for biological control. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19, 417-422. Ridenour WM, Vivanco JM, Feng Y, Horiuchi J & Callaway RM (2008) No evidence for trade-offs: Centaurea plants from America are better competitors and defenders. Ecological Monographs 78, 369-386. Rudgers JA & Orr S (2009) Non-native grass alters growth of native species via leaf and soil microbes. Journal of Ecology 97, 247-255. Rudgers JA, Koslow JM & Clay K (2004) Endophytic fungi alter relationships between diversity and ecosystem properties. Ecology Letters 7, 42-51. Rudgers JA & Clay K (2007) Endophyte symbiosis with tall fescue: how strong are the impacts on communities and ecosystems? Fungal Biology Reviews 21, 107-124. Scharfy D, Gusewell S, Gessner MO & Venterink HO (2010) Invasion of Solidao gigantean in contrasting experimental plant communities: effects on soil microbes, nutrients and plant-soil feedbacks. Journal of Ecology 98, 1379-1388. Thorpe AS, Thelen GC, Diaconu A & Callaway RM (2009) Root exudate is allelopathic in invaded community but not in native community: field evidence for the novel weapons hypothesis. Journal of Ecology 97, 641-645. 70 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Invasive weed threats in Gangetic inceptisol of India and their management R. K.Ghosh, FAPS, FISWS Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, (BCKV)Mohanpur-741252, West Bengal, India, Email: rajbckv@rediffmail.com Climate change and the import of foodgrains & seeds are the two major causes for the invasion of the many weeds in the Gangetic Inceptisol of India. Holding 2.4% Worlds‘ land area and 10 Bio geographical zones, India has 8% of worlds‘ biodiversity and is 10th among plant rich nations of the World (4th among Countries of Asia). India has 42 Vegetation types, 16 major Forest types, approximately 126,188 species covering all 5 Kingdoms including 9000 higher plant species (flowering plants are 17,000 species). In recent decades the reduction in India‘s plant species is approximately 10 % in flowering plants including more than 150 Medicinal plants. More than 32 weed pests have invaded since the mid 1990s via the import of seed. In India production losses due to pests is 33% and out of this, the major pest weed plant alone causes 37% yield losses. Management of these invasive weed pests is therefore urgently needed in addition to proper management of soil and water resources to increase the food production for India‘s food security. Survey & Surveillance under the National Weed Surveillance Programme, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India revealed that in the anaerobic ecosystems (puddle condition, semi aquatic and aquatic situation) Eichhornia crassipes, Oryza rufipogon, Aneilema vaginata, Panicum repens, Eriocaulon sieboldtianum, Eleocharis congesta, Fimbristylis dichotoma, Scirpus mucronatus, Cyperus microiria, Cyperus serotinus, Cyperus polystschyos, Cyperus fulvo-albescens, Alternanthera philoxeroides etc. and in aerobic ecosystems (no water stagnation condition) Elatine triandra, Phalaris minor, Tithonia rotundifolia, Cynoglossum germinacum, Polygonum plebium, Desmodium triflorum, Trichodesma indicum, Euphorbia heleoscopia, Euphorbia heterophylla, Cardenthera triflora etc. are common invasive weeds. In the non-crop areas, roadsides & wasteland ecosystems Parthenium hysterophorus, Cleome rufidosperma, Solanum incanum, Pergularia daemia, Rouvolfia tetraphylla, Hibiscus subdarifa, Acanthus ilicifolius, Desmodium laxiflorum, Solanum viarum, Solanum miriacanthum, Solanum indisanum, Solanum diphyllum, Miscanthus sacchariflorus etc. have also invaded, some of them now entering crop fields. During 2007-08 five more invasive weeds Cenchrus tribuloides, Ambrosia trifida, Viola arvensis, Cynoglossum officinale and Solanum carolinenses have entered in India with imported wheat food grains. Research on biology of these invasive weeds during the past decade showed the possibilities for their management. Utilizing this invasive weed flora in various agricultural and social purposes including compost making, biopesticides, biogas, biofuel, herbal technology etc. that create employment are so far identified as the best measure in addition to usually applied chemical 71 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world or physical method of weed control. Awareness through public participation including the farmers is the most common strategy for tackling these alien invasive weed pests. Introduction The population of India is estimated to reach 1.2 billion during 2011; 17.7 % more than that of 2001 and the National foodgrains demand based on medium dietary requirement is also estimated as 253 mt. The food production in 2009-10 was only 219.2 mt (ICAR, 2010). Therefore, within just one year 33 mt more production is an arduous task. In such situation the ‗System of Intensification’ or the unique Best Management Practice (BMP) where ‗Rainbow Revolution‘ is followed with the advance bio-products and available resources based technology combining with the wisdom of the age old practices of the art of cultivation (ITK) is the best alternative methodology. The major four components of this technology are Management of improved Seed; Management of Nutrients; Management of Water & Management of Pest in integrated approaches giving priority to Weed Management, and to the major pests causing maximum losses (Ghosh et. al., 2009). In the management of improved seed (meaning more than 99 % germination capability, viable and pure seed) climate change and the import of food grains and seeds are the two major causes for the invasion of many alien plants or pests. The numbers of days of more than 12 mm rainfall have decreased by 78 per cent in the last 53 years (Current Science, August 25, 2005, scientific article of PV Joseph, scientist at the Cochin University of Science and Technology).Weed Species of Quarantine Significance to India according to special provisions for Quarantine weeds [class 3(12)] & Schedule VIII of Plant Quarantine order 2005 showed that already 33 weed species were invaded India (DWSR, 2010). Further Survey & Surveillance under the National Weed Surveillance Programme, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India (2007-08-200910) revealed that in the anaerobic ecosystems Eichhornia crassipes, Oryza rufipogon, Aneilema vaginata, Panicum repens, Eriocaulon sieboldtianum, Eleocharis congesta, Fimbristylis dichotoma, Scirpus mucronatus, Cyperus microiria, Cyperus serotinus, Cyperus polystschyos, Cyperus fulvo-albescens, Alternanthera philoxeroides etc. and in aerobic ecosystems Elatine triandra, Phalaris minor, Tithonia rotundifolia, Cynoglossum germinacum, Polygonum plebium, Desmodium triflorum, Trichodesma indicum, Euphorbia heleoscopia, Euphorbia heterophylla, Cardenthera triflora etc. are common invasive weeds. In the non-crop areas, roadsides & wasteland ecosystems Parthenium hysterophorus, Cleome rufidosperma, Solanum incanum, Pergularia daemia, Rouvolfia tetraphylla, Hibiscus subdarifa, Acanthus ilicifolius, Desmodium laxiflorum, Solanum viarum, Solanum miriacanthum, Solanum indisanum, Solanum diphyllum, Miscanthus sacchariflorus etc. have also invaded and some of them are now entering the crop fields. During 2007-08, five more invasive weeds Cenchrus tribuloides, Ambrosia trifida, Viola arvensis, Cynoglossum officinale and Solanum carolinenses have entered India with imported wheat food grains (Annual Report, NIWS, BCKV Centre, 2009-10). The production as well as social losses caused by these invasive weed plants is gradually increasing. Therefore, managing these weed plants is an urgent need for the food security in the world (DWSR, 2009). 72 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Ecology and biology of invasive weed plants The biology studies of some of the invasive weed plants revealed that grain setting in Gangetic inceptisol of Oryza rufipogon is only during June sowing. Phalaris minor in winter is now distributed from wheat field to road side in the North-West of India and also invades Eastern India. Solanum carolinense was found in Southern India during 2009 (Annual Report, NIWS, Bangalaru & Tamil Nadu Centre, 2009). Most of these invasive weed plants contain allelochemicals which may be utilized as biopesticides. Some of these chemicals were already isolated such as Benzoic acid; Cinnamic acid, Phenolic acid, Cumarins, Hydroquinones, Cineoles, Alkaloides, Tannins, Benzoquinones, Thiopenes, Juglone, Gallic acid Dhurin, Oxalates, Glocosides, Trymethyl xanthene, Prussic acid, etc. Calotropis gigantea and Calotropis procera are two very common species of Rooster tree. These are generally found along the roadsides and locally known as Akanda, Mandara, Vellerukka or Ark. These shrubs are also wasteland weeds. Calotropis gigantea is bigger than Calotropis procera. The leaves are simple, opposite, sub-sessile, oblong and acute. Flowers are pink, spotted with purple, buds globose, corolla scales with purple, seeds broadly ovate, flattened, comose (Naidu et al., 2005). This Swallo-wort plant is commonly propagated by seeds which are broadly ovate flattened with silky hairs at the apex, light brown in color and slightly reticulate. Parthenium hysterophorous is an invasive weed commonly found along roadsides. It is locally known as Congress grass. It was first found at Pune, India in 1955 and in 1975 at Dankuni, West Bengal. It is now covering 35 m ha in India (DWSR 2010) and has been termed ‗National weed‘ since 2005-06. It enters crop fields from the roadsides. It is a shrub, commonly completing three life cycles in one year in this region (February, June and October). The plant mainly propagates by seeds. One plant contains 15,000-25,000 seeds which are very light and easily dispersed by air and water. It grows well in moist conditions but cannot tolerate water stagnation. It is very difficult to control unless at a time the eradication of this weed plant is done in all places of a region. The pollen allelopathy, a rare phenomenon inhibiting the germination of the pollen of other species in their respective stigma shown by Parthenium pollen may result in yield loss of crops.. It is reported for out burst of the diseases like tomato leaf curl, bud necrosis of groundnut and sunflower, stem necrosis of groundnut, powdery mildew, collar rot, leaf spot, milly bug and rust of various crops. Recently, Parthenium has been responsible for out burst of bud necrosis of groundnut in Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Karnataka. In India, it is estimated to lower the yield of field crops by 40% and forage crops by 90% in severely infested areas. In Australia, its damage is put at 16 million dollars per annum from pasture and crops. Pollen grains of Parthenium are reported to inhibit fruit set in tomato, bringal, beans, capsicum and maize (DWSR, 2010; Ghosh et al., 2009). Parthenium is also causing health hazards to human and animals 73 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Management of invasive weed plants Research on the management of these invasive weeds revealed that Calotropis plant is used as green manure and for fibre making. Calotropis latex is used for curing swellings and pain. The juice contains Mudarine used as purgative (Ghosh et al., 2007). Calotropin, the extract of roots is also used for fertility control in plants (Naidu et al., 2005). The tribal peoples of Medinipur are using the extracts of Calotropis against scabis and antifungal by mixing with mustard oil and extracts of Heliotropium indicum (Ghosh et al., 2008). The Calotropis raw leaf and stem extracts has been used as herbicide and it has been found that the raw extract applied at 5 ml/ litre of water as pre emergence in Soybean (Ghosh, 2008) and also in Paddy found useful to control grass and broadleaves categories of weeds (Adhoc project under Rastrya Krishi Bikash Yajana, 2010). Young non-flowered Parthenium is useful for compost making and this is the best way of managing this weed (Ghosh, 2009). Use of this young plant as green manure is also very useful to manage this weed as it contains 3.6 % Nitrogen and around 1.0 % Phosphorus and Potash (Dolai et al., 2010). Parthenium contains Sesquiterpene lactones (Ambrosin; Hymenin and Parthenin) besides Phenols and other Phenolic acids. The Parthenium extracts are also useful as bio herbicides, 5% water extract is able to control the grassy weeds. The root powder is used as herbicide to control Cyperus rotundus (Ghosh et al., 2007). A good quality fibre is obtained from its stem fibre. It is used for paper pulp purpose. Pre flowered Parthenium provide a potential source of protein, vitamin A, vitamin E and xanthophylls. It is used in biogas production. The extracts of plant parts may be used as an insecticide to control the cotton insect Spodoptera litura. Procedure of Parthenium compost preparation              Make a pit of 3 ft depth x 6 ft width x 10 ft length. It should be in open upland place. Cover the base surface and side walls of the pit by stone chips or make soil surface compact to protect the absorption of compost nutrients by the soil surface by using Lime. Use 40 kg soil and 30 kg FYM / Vermicompost in each of 4 layers a pit. Collect young Parthenium plants from nearby areas and spread 50 kg on the surface of the pit in each layer. Use 10 liters of water and spray it on the surface of the layer. Sprinkle 500 g Urea or 3 kg Rock phosphate over this for each layer. Add Trichoderma viridi @ 50 g layer-1 Repeat this type of biomass compact layer till 4 layers. Cover the pit with soil, dung and husk making a 1 – 1.5 ft dome shape. After 4-5 months the well decomposed compost is ready. Sieve final compost with 2 cm x 2 cm mesh for packaging in bags. Apply 3-5 t ha-1 this eco-friendly balanced Parthenium compost. Similar way preparing the field side compost by using the weed plants in the crop, vegetables or orchards and also by using aquatic weeds like Eichhornia crassipes which is abundantly available in India could be done. These composts have no harmful effects 74 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world and are more nutrient rich & less costly than the traditional FYM or even the Vermicompost. Name of the compost Nitrogen % Vermicompost 1.61 FYM 0.45 Parthenium Compost (DWSR) 1.05 Parthenium Compost (BCKV) 1.21 (Ghosh, 2010 and DWSR, 2010) Phosphorus % 0.68 0.30 0.84 0.89 Potash % 1.31 0.54 1.11 1.34 Awareness Programmes Creating awareness among the peoples including the farmers is the another alternative for mass eradication of these invasive weeds. In India during the last few years many awareness programmes have been conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), the Directorate of Weed Science Research (DWSR), the Directorate of Agriculture in different States, etc. In West Bengal more than 100 such programmes have been conducted per annum by Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya (BCKV) during the last five years through the Directorate of Extension Education, Krishi Vigyan Kendra and adhoc projects sponsored by Corporates or ICAR. The Weed Science, Department of Agronomy alone has been conducting around 25 such awareness programmes per anuum at various districts of West Bengal since 2006-07 (Ghosh 2005- 10) organized by the author. The benefits of these awareness programmes are reported to be satisfactory. Conclusion In conclusion invasion of plants is a natural phenomenon. Surveys and surveillance are essential to find out about the spreading of these species. Research is to be done to find out how to limit these weeds through their possible uses. Awareness is needed to make known the possible management actions through uses of these species. Lastly, all sectors of the Society – the scientists and officers of institutions, government & NGOs, farmers, students and even the general public should be involved in managing these invasive plants. References Directorate of Weed Science Research (DWSR), ICAR (2010) Compost making from Parthenium – Technical Extension Bulletin; 2010. Directorate of Weed Science Research (DWSR), ICAR (2010) Biological Control of Parthenium – An Eco friendly Approach; Technical Extension Bulletin; 2010 Dolai AK, Bera S, Jana PK & Ghosh RK (2010) Studies on Prospect of Parthenium as Green Manure and Mulch in different Cropping Sequence in Inceptisol of West Bengal. Paper presented in ―International Conference on Mother Earth- Save it for Future Generations‖; February 13-15, 2010. Organized by Department of Environmental Science, The University of Burdwan, West Bengal, India. Gr. VI Abstract No. 6.15 Pp 131 Ghosh RK (2005) Invasive weed Parthenium menace and its management at Inceptisol: Paper presented in 2nd International Conference at Bangalore during December 5-7, 2005. Ghosh RK (2005-10) Awareness Programmes on System of Intensification; Awareness Programme on National Parthenium Week. Awareness Programme on State Parthenium Management Week, etc. Ghosh RK, Mondal SS & Maiti S (2007) Modern Weed Science Manual; Published from Department of Agronomy, BCKV. 75 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Ghosh RK, Dolai AK & Pal D (2008) Weed utilization as medicine; Paper presented in the National Symposium on Medicinal Plants; FTC, BCKV; March 2008 Ghosh S (2008) Integrated Weed Management of Rapeseed – Soybean crop sequence; Ph.D. Thesis , Department of Agronomy, BCKV (Unpublished) Ghosh RK (2009) Invited Paper on Weed utilization- Workshop at DWSR, ICAR, Jabalpur October 20-21, 2009. Ghosh RK (2009) Parthenium Compost – an Ecofriendly Balanced Biofertilizer : Leaflet published from BCKV in both Bengali and English version. Ghosh RK (2009) Management of Invasive weed Parthenium through Integrated approach: Leaflet published from BCKV in both Bengali and English version. Ghosh RK, Bhattacharyya A & Varshney JG (2009) Ecorestoration of Soil and Water, Production of oils and Employment generation by utilizing weed plants. Presentation of Lead Paper in ―National Consultation on Weed Utilization‖, 20-21 October 2009 organized by Directorate of Weed Science Research, ICAR, Jabalpur, M.P. Abstracts Pp 34-35. Ghosh RK (2010) System of Intensification- The Best Alternate Technology for Modern Agriculture : Leaflet published from BCKV in both Bengali and English version. Ghosh RK (2010) Dynamics of Anthrophytes in West Bengal: Management of Invasive weed Parthenium through Integrated approach: Leaflet published from BCKV in English version. Ghosh RK (2010) Published Book Plant Protection Manual -Weed management Chapter ; Directorate of Agriculture, Government of West Bengal Ghosh RK, Sharma L, Barman S & Dolai AK (2009) System of Intensification: The Alternate Approach for Increasing Production of Field Crops. Journal of Crop and Weed 5(2), 63-67. Joseph PV (2005) Published paper by the Scientists at the Cochin University of Science and Technology; Current Science, August 25, 2005 National research Centre for Weed Science (NRCWS), ICAR (2008) Making Pathenium Compost– Technical Extension Bulletin 35; 2008 76 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Niche modeling in invasive plants: new insights to predict their potential distribution in the invaded areas Ro Bustamante1,2, PC Guerrero1,2, FT Peða-Gñmez1,2 1 Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile. 2 Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity. E-mail: ramironte@gmail.com The explosive spread of some invasive plant species worldwide is an issue of major concern for biodiversity conservation. The prediction of future distribution of invasive plants as well as the causes of spread are essential for the prioritization, the early detection and the control of this global threat. Niche-based models have proven to be useful to address these questions. In this chapter, we provide the conceptual basis of the niche modeling approach; we briefly discuss the methods of common use and the strategies of frequent use in invasion ecology as well as some limitations. We present an example of the niche modeling of an herbaceous plant originating from California and a successful invader in Mediterranean ecosystems. Finally, we present some caveats about the potentialities and limitations of this approach. Introduction Biological invasions represent a growing threat to the conservation of biodiversity (Pimentel 2002). A general feature of species invasion is that once exotic species establish into a new environment, it is very difficult to eradicate and/or predict its spread. These difficulties are critical in the case of some invaders whose spread encompasses in some cases entire continents (Elton, 1958; Garcìa-Ramos & Rodrìguez 2002; Brooenniman et al., 2007). The understanding of the causes of these geographical expansions as well as their ecological consequences is a central issue in ecology and conservation biology. Niche-based models have proven to be useful in predicting future distribution of invasive plants which is essential for priorization, early detection and control. In this essay, we examine the conceptual bases of niche-based modeling; we provide one example of niche modeling using Eschscholzia californica, a perennial herb originating from California (California poppy) and a successful invader across Mediterranean ecosystems. We then discuss the potentialities as well as the limitations of this approach to predict geographic distributions of invasive species. The niche and the biotope The niche is a central concept in ecology and evolution (Wiens et al., 2005; Pearman et al., 2008). The definition, formerly proposed by Hutchinson (1957), can be summarized as an ―ndimensional hypervolume, every point in which correspond to a state of the environment which would permit a species to exist indefinitely‖. Two components are recognized within this concept: the fundamental niche, i.e. the hyper-volume of one species in absence of biotic/abiotic constraints and the realized niche i.e. the resulting hyper-volume including ecological 77 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world interactions. The fundamental niche is greater than the realized niche, given that negative interactions are predominantly important in natural communities (Hutchinson, 1957). Although the multivariate niche proposed by Hutchinson is an abstract concept, ecologists early recognized a reciprocal correspondence between the niche and the physical space in which species live (Grinnell, 1917; Hutchinson, 1978). More recently, this correspondence was formalized asserting a reciprocal duality between the niche and the biotope (Cowell & Rangel,2009); the biotope being the geographical space where individuals, populations or species occur, defined by the suitable configuration of the environmental variables, relevant for their fitness. Basically, the duality refers to a reciprocal correspondence between each point in the hyper-volume niche of one species and one or more points in the geographical space (the biotope), thus giving rise to the spatial distribution of the species. Thus, according to this duality, niche theory is contributing to identify to what extent changes of the biotope (habitat fragmentation, deforestation and climatic change) is contributing to shape the geographical distribution of a species. The niche-based modeling The reciprocal duality between the niche and the biotope constitutes the conceptual basis of the niche-modeling approach. The main goal of this approach is to search for predictive quantitative models based on the correlation of environmental data with species occurrences (Thuiller et al., 2007). In this approach, the biotope is represented as the area and the empirical points of occurrences characterized by a vector of n niche variables. Currently, climatic variables are available for these purposes at global scale (Hijman et al. 2005), thus, they are useful to model the ―climatic niche‖ and the biotope worldwide. The duality allows the projection of each point within the climatic niche onto the geographic space. As a single point within the niche corresponds commonly to many points in the biotope, it is possible to project the potential geographic distribution of a species beyond the observed occurrences, assuming no biotic or dispersal constraints. The niche modeling assumes that the distribution of species at geographic scales depends mostly on climatic factors (Pearman et al., 2008). Indeed, the climatic niche is constructed with the occurrences of species (the raw data from which we put the models to work), thus representing the portion of space that includes the climatic conditions sustaining survival and reproduction minus the sites where occurrences are prevented due to negative interactions and/or dispersal limitation. The more the biotic and dispersal limitations become less important, the more the climatic niche will resemble the fundamental niche. Niche modeling and invasive species The niche modeling has been a useful tool to predict the spread of invasive species (Bradley BA & Mustard, 2006; Beaumont et al., 2009; Broennimann et al., 2007; Broennimann & Guisan,  Duality refers to phenomena having a twofold nature and characterized by states that are mutually exclusive. The duality is also a principle that allows that one concept defined in one dominium be transported to other dominium; this operation may be reciprocal (if dual of A is B, then the dual of B is A). 78 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 2008; Fitzpatrick et al., 2007; Kadoya et al., 2009). Since species invasions in global and regional scales are thought to be regulated by climatic conditions (Guisan & Zimmermann 2000; Pearson & Dawson 2003; Thuiller et al., 2005), these models are mostly applied in the assessment of the invasion risks across the new invaded areas (Bradley & Mustard 2006), and also attempt to anticipate species invasions in a context of global change (Hughes 2003; Peterson et al., 2002; Pearson & Dawson, 2003; Root et al., 2003; Thomas et al., 2004; Hijmans & Graham 2006; Bradley et al. 2009). Different strategies have been proposed to predict the potential distribution of invasive species: (i) to predict the invasion by means of the projection of the original niche to potentially invaded areas. This strategy assumes niche conservatism i.e. the tendency of the invasive species to maintain ancestral ecological requirements (Wiens & Graham 2005). This assumption may not necessarily hold true for some species for which niche evolution is well documented (Broenniman et al., 2007). (ii) to predict the invasion by projecting a ―regional niche‖ to potentially invaded sites constructed with the pooled occurrences collected across native and invaded ranges (Broennimann & Guisan 2008; Beaumont et al., 2009). This strategy is more accurate than strategy (i) because it encompasses more information for the prediction but it shares the assumption of the niche conservatism. (iii) to compare the projected distributions in the invaded area from the ―native niche‖ with the projected distribution in the same area from the ―introduced niche‖. This strategy assumes the possibility of niche evolution; if the niche is conserved, then no discrepancies exist between comparisons; when distributions do not coincide between each other, then evolutionary phenomenon is a possible option (Fitzpatrick et al., 2007; 2008). More recently, these reciprocal comparisons have been improved assessing quantitative evaluations of niche similarity (when the niches of two species are more similar than expected by chance) and niche equivalency (when the niches of two species are identical) (Warren et al., 2008). Niche modeling of Eschscholzia californica: Chile versus California Eschscholzia californica Cham. (Papaveraceae), is an endemic plant, originating from western North California and is regarded as a successful invader in other Mediterranean zones of the world such as Central Chile, Southafrica and medierranean basin, Europe (Stebbins, 1965; Leger & Rice, 2007). It is a perennial, self-incompatible and insect-pollinated plant (Cook, 1962). Seed dispersal is explosive, spreading seeds up to 2 m away from the mother plant. This plant is a successful colonizer across a wide range of environmental conditions either in native and introduced ranges, often occupying open, naturally disturbed environments and the edges of the roads (Cook, 1962; Leger & Rice, 2003). In Chile, the introduction of E. californica probably occurred from multiple introductions during the mid-1800s to early 1900s. It was introduced into botanic gardens in coastal and inland cities (Frias et al., 1975; Arroyo et al., 2000), and it is also likely that it was accidentally introduced through the commercial importation of alfalfa seed (Hillman & Henry, 1928). In Central Chile, E. californica is a very common plant. Although it is known to occur punctually at the northernmost of Chile at 18þS (3000 m.a.s.l.), the main distribution range is between 18þ to 38þ latitude S and from 0 to 2200 m.a.s.l. in Chile (Arroyo et al., 2000). A 79 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world remarkable phenotypic variation across a variety of environments have been document, product of local adaptation (Leger & Rice, 2007). Of the five Mediterranean-type climate regions of the world, central Chile and California have the highest similarity in climates and geomorphology (Mooney et al., 1977; di Castri, 1991; Sax, 2002; Jimenez et al., 2008). Both regions also show a parallel latitudinal-climatic gradient, with higher precipitations and lower temperatures at higher latitudes, which shape the patterns of distribution of natural vegetation vegetation (Mooney et al., 1977; Sax, 2002; Jimenez et al, 2008). Furthermore, coastal and interior mountain ranges and central valleys are remarkably comparable between Chile and California, having equivalent local climatic effects (Mooney et al., 1977). Under this climatic similarity, it is expected that Eschscholzia californica would established successfully in Central Chile with no further evolutionary change. Occurrence data from California were obtained from the ―Consortium of California Herbaria‖ and from CALFLORA. Occurrence data from Chile were obtained from the herbarium of the University of Concepcion (CONC) and the National Natural History Museum (SGO). We gathered additional occurrence data from field excursions conducted across Central Chile (Spring to Summer 2009). The occurrences were associated with temperature and precipitation variables, obtained from BIOCLIM (Hijmans et al. 2005, Hijmans & Graham 2006). The variables selected in this case were: BIO1, BIO5, BIO10, BIO11, BIO12, BIO15, BIO18, BIO19. For climatic niche comparison between Chile and California, we conducted a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) (Broennimann et al., 2007; Fitzpatrick et al. 2007), using the occurrence data and the climatic variables obtained from BIOCLIM. Basically, the PCA summarizes the most important climatic variables that better explain the occurrences; thus, using the values of occurrences associated to the Principal Components, it is possible to compare statistically the climatic niche between regions (Graham et al. 2004; Broennimann et al., 2007; Fitzpatrick et al. 2007). For the niche projection into the biotope we used MAXENT (Philips et al 2006), a machinelearning algorithm that models the species potential distribution using the occurrences and the environmental predictors obtained from BIOCLIM. In different tests, MAXENT has revealed better results than comparative methods and is relatively insensitive to a low number of occurrences which may be the case in some studies (Elith et al. 2006; Hernandez et al. 2006; Pearson et al., 2007). Basically, MAXENT finds a distribution of probability occurrences that satisfies the constraints imposed by environmental variables and occurrence data (Phillips & Dúdik 2008). In order to do that, the software selects the distribution that maximizes the entropy, in this case, the uniform distribution. The spatial resolution of maps displaying the potential distribution is 1 x 1 km2. MAXENT also allows to test the models by the calculation of the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) which represents the relationship  BIO1: mean annual T, BIO5: maximum T, warmest month; BIO10: maximum T, warmest quarter, BIO11: Mean T, coldest quarter, BIO12: Annual PP, BIO15: PP seasonality, BIO18: PP warmest quarter, BIO19: PP coldest quarter. (T: temeperature; PP: precipitation) 80 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world between the ability of the model to predict occurrences given that they effectively occur versus the ability to predict occurrences given that they do not occur (Phillips et al., 2006). For good models, the slope of this relationship must be higher than 0.8. The current geographic distribution of Eschscholzia californica was compared in Chile with the projected distribution. Specifically, we compared the distribution model projected in Chile from the climatic niche described for California (Californian niche) against the distribution model projected in Chile from the climatic niche described for Chile (Chilean niche). In order to do that we used the statistic proposed by Warren et al. (2008): 1 H ( p x , p y )   ( p x ,i  p y ,i ) 2 . In this case, px,i (or py,i) H ( px , p y ) , 2 i denotes the probability distribution assigned to species i onto the coordinate (x,y) from the distribution model projected from the Californian and from Chilean niche, respectively. This statistic ranges from 0 (no similarity) to 1 (total similarity). The differences between distribution models were statistically tested by randomnization procedures using the software ENM Tools (Warren et al. 2010). If the niche of Eschscholzia californica is conserved, then both distribution models should be significantly similar; if niche shift has occurred, then the distribution models should be tend to be dissimilar each other. I ( px , p y )  1  Niche comparison The eight selected climatic variables were reduced into two Principal Components Principals: PC1, explained approximately 75% total variance of data, thus representing mainly precipitation; PC2, represented aprox 15% total variance and represented temperatures. A graphic representation of the niche space indicates that the occurrences of E. californica in California encompassed a larger portion of the niche space while in Chile, they are restricted to the more mesic and coldest portion of the niche space; globally, the Chilean niche is nested within the Californian niche (Figure 1), particularly concentrated in the more mesic and coldest part of the environmental gradient. This result is presumably the consequence of a non-random arrival of E. californica propagules that shared similar climatic requirements. In fact, the geographic projection of the Californian occurrences that were inside the Chilean niche, indicated that they are located exclusively at the coastal range of California (Peða et al. unpublished data) which suggests that the introductions were multiples and occurred exclusively from coastal populations. Given that the Chilean niche occurs almost completely inside the Californian niche, this nestedness is also an evidence of niche conservatism i.e. the set of invaders that arrived to Chile maintained their original requirements without further shift in the invaded range. Genetic analysis and interregional comparisons will be appropriate to shed further light on these questions. 81 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Figure 1 - Climatic niche space of Eschscholzia californica for California (Californian niche, open dots) and Chile (Chilean niche, black dots) obtained from the Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The first two axes of the PCA represent variation of precipitations (Principal Component 1) and temperature (Principal Component 2), respectively. The two ellipsoids include the 95% confidence intervals for California and Chile. Projections of E. californica in Chile The geographic distribution of E. californica in Chile projected from the Chilean niche and the Californian niche are shown in (Figure 2A and 2B). The Californian niche projected a larger distribution area (234798 km2) than the Chilean niche (area: 79809 km2) (Figure 2a and 2B). In fact, the Californian niche projected a potential distribution to coastal deserts in Chile and to the Patagonian Argentina, but with fairly low occurrence probabilities (P(O) < 0.3) (Figure 2B). However, both projections concentrate the highest occurrence probabilities (P(O) ≥ 0.50) at the coastal range of central Chile (aprox. 31þ to 36þ latitude S; Figure 2A and 2B). Statistical comparison indicated that the estimated similarity index between the two projected distribution (I = 0.559) is higher than the critical value (I crit = 0.558), which indicates that the two projected geographic projection are significantly similar each other (Figure 3). 82 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Figure 2A - Geographic distribution of Eschscholzia californica in Chile projected from the Chilean niche. Grey tonalities represent different occurrence probabilities. Black dots represent the occurrence data for the construction of the model. 83 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Figure 2B - Geographic distribution of Eschscholzia californica in Chile projected from the Californian niche. Grey tonalities represent different occurrence probabilities. Black dots represent the occurrence data for the construction of the model. 84 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world BACKGROUND SIMILARITY TEST 35 30 25 20 15 FREQUENCY (N) 10 5 0 0,5493 0,5507 0,5500 0,5521 0,5514 0,5536 0,5529 0,5550 0,5543 0,5565 0,5558 0,5572 SIMILARITY INDEX (I) Figure 3 - Similarity index (I) to compare the geographic distribution projected from the Californian niche and the geographic distribution projected from the Chilean niche. This histogram was obtained comparing the similarity between 400 pairs of pseudo-replicated distributions obtained from re-sampling methods (Warren et al. 2008). The black arrow represents the estimated similarity index (I = 0.5559) between the Chilean and the Californian distribution. Broken line shows the critical value (I = 0.5558) that integrates the 95% of the total probability distribution. It is interesting to note that the geographic distribution of Eschscholzia californica projected from the Californian niche, extends to the northern desert of Chile and to the Patagonia region of Argentina. The projection to the northern Chile may be explained because in California this occupies desert ecosystems (Clark, 1978). We have preliminary evidence which indicates that this species really occurs at San Carlos de Bariloche (Argentinian Patagonia) (Bustamante pers. obs.) a fact that supports the projection of the Californian niche to these regions. These results may have profound implications for the potential spread of E. californica as the Andean Range should act as a biogeographic corridor rather than a barrier at intermediate altitudes, thus allowing the spread of this species beyond Andean ranges. Caveats The use of ecological niche models will increase in the future because they are based on a well accepted theoretical background (niche theory). They are also based on occurrence data which are relatively easy to gather relative to other measurements of plant performance such as 85 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world reproductive outputs, survival or density. An additional advantage is that the global climatic information and appropriate software to conduct niche modeling are available (for free) in the web (www.worldclim.org). However, there are some conceptual/methodological limitations that should be considered during the use this correlative approach. Firstly, niche may evolve during the invasive process, thus projected distribution may be underestimated drastically if we assume niche conservatism. Secondly, biotic factors may be as important as climatic factors to drive the geographic spread in invasive plant; this information is often unavailable to be included in these models and therefore a strong effort should be made to fill this missing issue. Thirdly, human activities impose notable changes in the landscape, not always considered in niche modeling of invasive species, even though, humans are a major vector in species spread. Thus, it is mandatory to get detailed spatial data describing the human footprints across landscapes (disturbances, roads, cities, population density). Fourthly, niche-based models are sensitive to the number of climatic variable selected: too many variables can over-fit the models and therefore fail to predict the full invasive potential of a species, but too few can leave out relevant climatic variables where a species could have shifted or expanded. Acknowledgements This study was supported by project FONDECYT 1100076 to RO Bustamante and project ICM P05 – 002; Pablo Guerrero is a fellow of CONICYT (D-21070301, AT-24090076, 75100024) and Fulbright (15103515). WE acknowledge the assistance and help of Lua Alves and Juan Pablo Martinez for the data analysis and help during the execution of this study. References Arroyo MTK, Marticorena C, Matthei O & Cavieres L (2000) Plant invasions in Chile: present patterns and future predictions. In Invasive Species in a Changing World (eds Mooney HA & Hobbs RJ), pp 385–421. Island Press, Washington DC. 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Diversity & Distributions 8, 193 – 210. 87 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Stebbins GL (1965) Colonizing species of the native California flora In: The Genetics of Colonizing Species (eds Baker HG & Stebbins GL). Academic Press, New York. Thuiller W, Richardson DM, Pysek P, Midgley GF, Hughes GO & Rouget M (2005) Niche-based modelling as a tool for predicting the risk of alien plant invasions at a global scale. Global Change Biology 11, 2234–2250. Thuiller W, Richardson DM & Midgley GF (2007) Will climate change promote alien plant invasions? In Ecological studies (eds Nentwig W), pp. 197–211. Springer Berlin, Berlin. Thomas CD, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ, Collingham YC, Erasmus BFN, Ferreira de Siqueira M, Grainger A, Hannah L, Hughes L, Huntley B, van Jaarsveld AS, Midgely GE, Miles L, OrtegaHuerta MA, Peterson AT, Phillips OL & Williams SE (2004) Extinction risk from climate change. Nature 427, 145–148. Warren DL, Glor RE & Turelli M (2008) Environmental niche equivalency versus conservatism: quantitative approaches to niche evolution. Evolution 62, 2868-2883. Warren DL, Glor RE & Turelli M (2010) ENMTools: a toolbox for comparative studies of environmental niche models. Ecography 33, 607- 611. Wiens JJ & Graham CH (2005) Niche conservatism: integrating evolution ecology and conservation biology. Annual Review Ecology Evolution and Systematics 36, 519 – 536. 88 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Bern Convention on invasive alien plants, the Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants Eladio Fernandez-Galiano The Council of Europe, 67075 Strasbourg Cedex, France, E-mail: eladio.fernandezgaliano@coe.int The Council of Europe was founded in 1949 and seeks to develop throughout Europe common and democratic principles based on the European Convention on Human Rights and other reference texts on the protection of individuals. The Council of Europe is composed of 47 member countries and one applicant country. The Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats was adopted in Bern in 1979. It counts at present 44 Contracting Parties, one of which is the European Commission. The Convention has a three-fold objective: - To conserve wild flora and fauna and their natural habitats - To promote co-operation between states - To give particular emphasis to endangered and vulnerable species and endangered natural habitats. The Bern Convention gathers Ministries of Environment and is managed by a Conference of the Parties called ―Standing Committee‖ which has met 20 times since the entry into force of the Convention in 1982. Activities on Invasive Alien Species (IAS) started in 1984 with the launch of a general recommendation for member countries. Specific recommendations were then adopted on the control of Caulerpa taxifolia, on the control of the Ruddy Duck Oxyura jamaicensis, on the introduction of the American cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus sp.) into Europe, on the control of the Grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and other alien squirrels into Europe, on the eradication of vertebrates, etc. In 2002, the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species was adopted aiming to provide more guidance to countries to draw up and implement a national strategy on IAS. In November 2008, the ―Code of conduct for Horticulture and Invasive Alien Plants‖, project developed in partnership with EPPO, was launched. 89 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world EPPO activities on Invasive Alien Plants, Sarah Brunel The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization, 21 Bld Richard Lenoir, 75011 Paris, France. E-mail: Brunel@eppo.fr The European and Mediterranean Plant Organization (EPPO) and the Council of Europe have conjointly drafted a Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants for European and Mediterranean countries, which was published in 2009. In Europe, it is estimated that 80% of the invasive alien plants are voluntarily introduced for ornamental purposes, and international trade is increasing yearly. This major pathway must be addressed urgently to prevent entry and spread of invasive alien plants, as at present, few legislation and management programmes are in place. Voluntary measures to tackle the problem and raise awareness among the horticultural sector and the public are therefore considered a priority. This Code of conduct provides essential information for Governments and the horticultural and landscape sectors on regulation concerning invasive alien plants, plant waste disposal, labelling of plants, proposing alternative plants, publicity, etc. This new and promising initiative now requires promotion and implementation within countries. 90 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Role of the European Food Safety Authority in risk assessment of invasive species potentially harmful to plants Sara Tramontini1, V. Kertesz1, E. Ceglarska1, M. Navajas2, G. Gilioli2 1 European Food Safety Authority, Risk Assessment Directorate, I-43100 Parma, Largo Palli Natale 5A, Italy 2 European Food Safety Authority, Scientific Panel on Plant Health. E-mail: sara.tramontini@efsa.europa.eu The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) provides independent scientific advice and transparent communication on risks relating to the safety and security of the food chain in the European Community. The EFSA Scientific Panel on Plant Health addresses the increasing demand of EU risk managers for scientific advice on risks posed by organisms harmful to plants and plant products. Advice is published as scientific opinions which provide a basis for consideration of phytosanitary measures to protect against the introduction and spread of harmful or invasive species in the European Community, under Council Directive 2000/29/EC. Since its inception in 2006, the Panel has delivered forty-five scientific opinions on the risks posed by species of invasive plants, invertebrate pests and pathogens, and pathways for pest movement. In addition, two guidance documents have been published: the first one on the evaluation of pest risk assessment and the second on the harmonized process for pest risk assessment and the identification and evaluation of pest risk management options. A new mandate for the preparation of a third guidance document on the environmental risk assessment (ERA) of plant pests (invertebrates, diseases and plants) has recently started. The approaches and methodologies currently under discussion in the EFSA ERA Working Group for the evaluation of the potential impact of invasive species to the EU environment will be presented. An important development foreseen will be the opportunity for collaboration between the Working Group and the scientific world engaged in the preparation of environmental risk assessment related to the introduction of exotic plants in the EU Mediterranean area. 91 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Exploring options for an early warning and information system for invasive alien species in Europe R Scalera1 and P Genovesi1 1 Invasive Species Specialist Group (IUCN/SSC), Email: scalera.riccardo@gmail.com In order to respond adequately to the threat of alien species in Europe, an effective early warning and rapid response (EWRR) system should be based on a framework of policies and activities. These include measures to detect the occurrence of new propagules and invaders, supported by activities to diagnose new species correctly and acquire all related information. Such information represents a necessary basis for science-based risk assessments that evaluate the severity of the threat and consequently identify the best options for managing the species. Each element of the framework should be under the responsibility of one or more competent authorities acting at the European, national or local level. The procedure and protocols for an optimal circulation of information can vary according to the species in question, the region targeted and the available knowledge and tools (including legal instruments, when available). However, the efficiency of the system is guaranteed by an optimal and rationalised circulation of information among all involved actors through an effective European information system. For this reason, a key element for adequate coordination of all the activities in a regional EWRR is the establishment of a dedicated European technical scientific body. Such a body should ensure prompt and transparent access to high level scientific knowledge and expertise on the different aspects of the EWRR system, with the primary task of implementing and maintaining a European information system on alien species. Five possible options for establishing a dedicated technical scientific body are identified, implying varying levels of commitment by EU institutions and Member States (including differing budgetary and personnel needs). A dedicated structure could take the form of a scientific panel, an observatory, or a centralised agency at the pan-European level. A further alternative is a simple network of experts and/or scientific institutions from individual European countries. Introduction A priority at the EU level is the development of an early warning and rapid response (EWRR) system aimed at ensuring a transparent, prompt and reliable flow of information needed to support Member States (MSs) in identifying and undertaking appropriate responses to new biological invasions. In fact, several studies have shown that until a comprehensive EU strategy on IAS will be available, the European capacity to respond to such threat will be limited (see Genovesi et al., 2010, Shine et al., 2010, Hulme at al., 2009). The urgency to tackle biological invasions has been formally recognised by the European Commission (EC) in its recent 92 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Communication ―Our life insurance, our natural capital: an EU biodiversity strategy to 2020‖ (COM(2011) 244 final). According to the target 5 of this Communication ―By 2020, Invasive Alien Species and their pathways are identified and prioritised, priority species are controlled or eradicated, and pathways are managed to prevent the introduction and establishment of new IAS‖. In addition, in its Communication ―Halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010 and beyond: sustaining ecosystem services for human well–being‖ (COM(2006) 216 final) the EC stressed the need for coordinated action to reduce substantially the impact of IAS on EU biodiversity. Similarly, in its Communication ―Towards an EU Strategy on Invasive Species‖ (COM(2008) 789 final), the EC has committed to develop a policy on the issue, as well as to establish an early warning system. These commitments have been endorsed also by the Council of European Ministers in the Conclusions adopted at their 2953rd meeting ―Council Conclusions on a midterm assessment of implementing the EU Biodiversity Action Plan and Towards an EU Strategy on Invasive Alien Species‖ (Luxembourg, 25 June 2009). Indeed, also the G8 Environment, in 2009, has stressed the urgent need to combat invasive species, calling the world community to establish a global early warning system. In this context, a European Environment Agency (EEA) report titled ―Towards an early warning and information system for invasive alien species (IAS) threatening biodiversity in Europe‖ has been recently published by Genovesi et al. (2010). This study, which has been also used as a basis for the present work, describes the EWRR as a framework aimed at responding to biological invasions through a coordinated system characterised by a specific workflow of key activities. Such activities include the detection of the occurrence of new propagules and invaders, supported by activities aimed at a sound diagnosis of the new species and at the acquisition of all related information. This should be followed by science based risk analysis aimed at the evaluation of the severity of the threat and consequently at the at the resolution best suited for their management, and at the enforcement of such measures. In practice, the EWRR ―workflow‖ includes 6 key steps, which are linked to each other in the following order: 1) surveillance and monitoring activities, 2) data processing (including diagnosis of invading species), 3) assessment of risks (and/or quick screening), 4) identification of appropriate management response, 5) reporting to competent authorities, 6) enforcement of management response and monitoring/assessment of success of measures carried out. Each component should be under the responsibilities of competent EU, national or local authorities, and the efficiency of the system is guaranteed by an optimal and rationalised circulation of information and following a clear shared protocol of actions, setting up procedures which can vary according to the species and region targeted, and the available knowledge and tools (both technical and legal). In any case, in order to guarantee a EU-level leading role in establishing and coordinating a common information system to support early detection and effective action against newly recorded invasive species (before they spread beyond a point at which eradication is no longer possible) a EU dedicated structure on invasive alien species should be established. Such dedicated structure could have the form of a scientific panel, an observatory, or a centralised 93 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world agency at the European level. In alternative, a simple network of experts and/or scientific institutions from single European countries could be established. Whatever the form, it is essential that the above mentioned activities representing the ideal workflow for a sound early warning and information system are implemented in a coordinated efficient way. Indeed, an effective EWRR system acting at the EU level can be established only after the implementation of the following preliminary steps: 1) Establishment of an EU technical structure, dedicated to invasive alien species, capable of guaranteeing (among other tasks) the coordination of the foreseen activities. 2) Development and maintenance of a EU information system on invasive alien species, also facilitating the access to high level scientific expertise. 3) Development of a system capable of ensuring the circulation of information to the competent national/local authorities regarding the data collected (e.g. as a results of the surveillance and monitoring activities) and analysed (e.g. as a consequence of the quick screening/risk analysis), as well as the recommended response actions (e.g. management measures). 4) Establishment of a mechanism to monitor the prompt and correct implementation of the measures for contingency planning and rapid response as recommended by the EU technical structure to the competent national/local authorities. The EU technical structure dedicated to invasive alien species With regard to the establishment of a dedicated EU structure on alien species, the EEA report (Genovesi et al., 2010) contributed to the identification of five options, which take into account different levels of commitment by EU institution and Member States, and which also reflects differential budgetary and personnel requirements. Such options are the result of an evaluation of costs and benefits made on the basis of similar panels of experts, observatories and agencies already established and acting at the pan-European level, and that are characterised by the same kind of needs as invasive alien species (e.g. EPPO, NOBANIS, EFSA, Joint Research Centre JRC). The essential role of such a technical body would be to provide a European-wide central scientific body, with access to high level scientific expertise on the different aspects of a EWRR, and with the key task of implementing and maintaining a European information system on alien species. It must be stressed that a EU structure on alien species would not only support an EWRR system, but would also provide the technical basis for other crucial aspects of a EU strategy and policy on biological invasions, such as the development of regional black or white lists of regulated pests, the support to decision making on trade regulations, the development and update of indicators, etc. The details of the different options 0, A, B, C, D and E are discussed below. Option 0: Do nothing In this case, the development of an early warning system or of a part of its components is left to the responsibility of the national and local authorities of the interested countries. Therefore it does not require any EC support. This option is the least costly but also the least effective because of the total sum of the costs incurred by each single country in order to tackle the 94 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world problem of IAS. To ensure the needed performances the cost to support single early warning systems in all MSs is likely to exceed 10 million €/year. This would be much higher than the cost of establishing a EU centralised framework able to support MSs (which would significantly reduce the costs of national activities by gradually increasing synergies among countries, as shown by the other options below). This option might be apparently the least onerous for the EU institutions, but would lead to a number of major shortcomings:  Limited coordination, limited harmonisation and risk of inconsistencies among actions undertaken by different countries;  No significant progress from the present – unsatisfactory – level of action;  Inadequate action by even a single country would put at risk the entire community, including other more active countries;  The lack of mandatory commitment might prevent the effective establishment of a comprehensive network, with the inherent risk of failure of the entire strategy and compliance with the provisions suggested by the recent EC communications;  Lack of adequate exploitation of the successful results achieved through the resources so far invested by the EC and/or MSs for developing projects such as DAISIE, NOBANIS, PRATIQUE, etc. Option B: Non-institutional EU panel of experts (DAISIE-NOBANIS approach) This option foresees the establishment of a technical/scientific panel of experts and institutions and/or government agencies (such as the DAISIE consortium and the NOBANIS network). It is therefore an independent non-institutional initiative, not necessarily supported by national authorities. The structure would be very simple and low cost, easy to manage and would mostly act by maximising the use of existing technical instruments. The panel would be only an advisory body, with no regulatory role, therefore the enforcement of measures is entirely left to the voluntary commitment of countries. On the basis of the experience by members of the DAISIE consortium, it is estimated that the panel should be coordinated by one chair and one program officer working full time, and should be composed by a team with expertise on the key aspects of biological invasions, and with ad hoc coordinators for each taxonomic group (i.e. 10 experts covering main taxonomic groups, and with competence across management techniques). Some additional part-time specialists should be employed by the scientific institutions forming the consortium, under the supervision of taxonomic coordinators. Periodic meetings (1-2/year) should be foreseen. Depending on the availability of funds, basic duties of the panel would be to:  Maintain and update a freely accessible portal and database;  Regularly update information for the database;  Circulate general information on invasive species to all involved/competent actors;  Provide advice and information to national authorities and management bodies to assist in the identification of new species, assessment of risks, identification of possible responses;  Raise awareness and improve national response efficacy by circulating information among national authorities and the general public. The costs for the creation of the network of experts (employment of part time scientific staff and central coordination staff), organisation of meetings and maintenance/updating of the inventory is estimated at 500 000 €/year. 95 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Basically, the panel would depend on the commitment of the involved partners, with the concrete risk of lack of continuation due to uncertainty in resources allocation. The financial resources could be partly covered for a limited number of years with existing EU financial instruments (i.e. LIFE+), and/or with contributions from authorities and institutions of single states (e.g. as in NOBANIS) and private sponsors. However, this would not guarantee the activities in the medium-long term, and the lack of a legal basis and political mandate would reduce the efficiency of the internal organisation of work, as well as the impact of the work in terms of early warning and rapid response. Option C: EU observatory based on clear political mandate (NISC approach) This option foresees the establishment of a permanent Observatory on Invasive Species (OIS) through a formal policy decision by EC and/or MSs. The decision could be taken within the adoption of a EU policy on invasive alien species, and would therefore not necessarily require a complex decision process. The main task of this sort of intergovernmental body (like in EPPO), would be to coordinate and assist MSs in enforcing policies and measures consistent with EC general directions, without a binding role on national actions. However, the limited institutional role may facilitate – although not guarantee – improved enforcement of measures by national authorities. For this purpose, the OIS should host a EU information system on invasive species to support decision making and management. The OIS should be led by a steering committee or council to define a program of activities and ensure implementation, and should include a core management team of 5-7 full time specialists, (with expertise covering the most abundant/problematic taxonomic groups) plus some additional staff for IT support and secretariat work (2 full time positions). Work structure could include the organisation of technical/scientific panels (i.e. taxonomy, risk assessment) and of ad-hoc thematic working groups. Funding and structures should be provided in order to guarantee long term activities such as:  Hosting and maintaining a freely accessible portal and database on IAS and relative experts, constantly updated;  Establishing a voluntary reporting mechanism by MSs - based for example on memorandums of understandings signed by OIE and MSs - on new detected incursions, enforced response activities, etc.;  Providing assistance for identifying newly recorded taxa, if required;  Performing quick screening of risks when appropriate, and developing alarm lists, watch lists, etc.;  Performing formal risk analysis when appropriate (in coordination with relevant European bodies such as EFSA or the EEA if needed);Collecting and disseminating information on specific management techniques;  Developing technical recommendations to countries and European institutions;  Circulating general information on invasive species. Considering the limited staff, the OIS could be hosted by an already existing technical or scientific institution (such as JRC, EEA or EPPO) to reduce the costs for infrastructure. The overall budget should be of about € 2 million (of which € 500 000 for the maintenance of a dedicated information system). The budget may be covered through national voluntary contributions (as in the EPPO system) with additional financial support from either the EC or the hosting country. 96 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world The presence of specialised permanent staff would guarantee a major improvement in the technical capability to deal with the complex tasks of an EWRR framework. Continued financial support would ensure the sustainability of the results and the possibility to make best use of the available information systems and tools in the medium term. In addition, a more solid structure would enable the OIS to provide more solid technical support to MSs and more efficient coordination with existing EU or European institutions (EPPO, EFSA, etc.) Option D: EC Agency with legal mandate and financial continued support (ECDC approach) This option aims at the establishment of a Community Agency through a founding regulation, based on a new or revised EC legislation (e.g. with an approach similar to that used to found the European Centre for Disease Control - ECDC). The EU Agency on Invasive Species (EAIS) should promote enforcement of legal provisions on the issue, coordinating national actions and assisting MSs in the enforcement of policies on the issue, by supporting the detection of new incursions of alien species, assessing the inherent risks, identifying appropriate responses. The EAIS should be governed by a management board, laying down the general guidelines and adopting the work programmes, including available resources and political priorities. The executive director would be responsible for all activities of the agency and the proper implementation of its work programmes. The Agency should be supported by a scientific committee made up of leading experts on the issue, covering the main taxonomic groups of interest. In total, the structure should consist of 10-15 scientific experts, and 3-5 IT experts (in total about 30-40 people, including administrative staff). The EAIS should be an independent scientific body, working in close collaboration with the EC, the national authorities and other competent bodies (EPPO, EFSA, European Maritime Safety Agency - EMSA, etc). Moreover the agency should work in compliance with other community and European alert systems (e.g. animal health, food safety, EPPO, etc) and should ensure open consultation with key stakeholders. EAIS should host the European information system on invasive species, and therefore should be provided with adequate and secured funds and structures to make best use of such an agency, and to enhance linking with other existing European and global tools. The role of the EAIS should be partly regulatory, for example producing opinions on proper responses to be adopted by MSs. For this reason a standardised and transparent mechanism to process the information on the basis of rigorous scientific criteria should be ensured. The main possible tasks of EAIS would be:  Hosting and maintaining a freely accessible portal and updated database;  Collecting information from single experts/institutions/MSs;  Establishing a reporting mechanism (similar to the EPPO one, but covering also taxa other than plants and plant pathogens) on new detected incursions, enforced response activities, etc;  Providing assistance for identifying taxonomy of specimen;  Maintaining and constantly updating an experts registry;  Performing quick screening and risk assessments when appropriate;  Performing independent evaluation of risk analysis carried out by otherauthorities;  Accessing and disseminating information on management techniques;  Developing technical recommendations, in the form of formal opinions, to MSs and European institutions; 97 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world  Developing and circulating to MSs and competent authorities alarm lists, watch lists, etc.;  Coordinating the initiatives regarding the implementation of measures of broader interest/impact with other relevant institutions such as EFSA, EPPO, EMSA, etc.;  Promoting and supporting campaigns of eradication/control in emergency cases;  Circulating general information on invasive species. The need to create a European agency has been stressed by Hulme et al., (2010). This paper called on Europe to establish a new European agency (European Centre for Invasive Species Management; ECISM) based on the experience of the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). ECDC had an initial budget of € 4.8 millions, that has grown to € 90 millions in 2010; EAIS budgetary level may be comparable to the costs foreseen for the initial phase of ECDC, with a permanent staff of about 30-40 people, organisation of working groups, and maintenance and updating of the information system, requiring a total budget significantly smaller than the average budget of other European agencies. On the basis of these considerations, the estimated budget of EAIS would thus be between 3 and 6 million €/year. As for all Community Agencies, EAIS should be financed by a Community subsidy (part of the costs may be also covered by hosting MS). Efficacy of the EAIS partly depends on the legislative approaches that will be adopted by the EU (implementing the Strategy on IAS). However, it is clear that the institutional role would enable the effective improvement in enforcing actions by national and European authorities. Moreover the establishment of specialised staff would ensure best use of synergies and technical ability in terms of EWRR. Indeed, permanent financial support would ensure the possibility to make best use of the available information systems and tools in the long term. It would also enable best internal coordination, networking and internal synergy. Increased synergy with other European institutions and structures would be also guaranteed as well as an improved interaction with other involved sectors (trade, tourism, agriculture, etc.). Option E: creating a EU biosecurity body As suggested by the experience of other countries and regions of the world (i.e. New Zealand) the most cost-effective option to reduce impacts of IAS is a framework merging sectors of the most relevant EU authorities involved in the issue, throughout a coordinated and comprehensive biosecurity policy centralised at the EU level. Such an ambitious approach would require a complex redesigning of the entire EC legal aquis, by re-designing of the entire existing legal framework regulating the different involved sectors (agriculture; plant, animal and human health; etc), with significant effects also in terms of national legislations. In addition, there are financial considerations that are worth mentioning. In fact, based on the figures available for New Zealand, where the biosecurity policy costs about 0.13% of the national GDP, and for Australia, where in 2007-2008 the quarantine framework has been estimated to account for about 0.07% of the national GDP (budget for the biosecurity activities in Australia approximately = AU$544 millions; overall AU$ 793.4 billions) we can hypothesise that a EU biosecurity framework would require a budget in the order of magnitude of € 10 billions. Though apparently expensive, the rationale for considering such an option is that the costs for a EU biosecurity policy are well below the economic impacts caused by invasive species in the region (estimated to be over € 12 billions/year; Kettunen et al., 2009). Moreover the budget needed to implement this biosecurity policy would not be an additional expense for Europe, but would largely rely on a optimised 98 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world reallocation of the budget currently available in the health, agriculture and trade sectors (i.e. by promoting synergies and avoiding inconsistencies). An EU information system for early warning In order to guarantee a successful implementation of a sound EWRR system it is fundamental to develop and maintain a joint information system coordinated at both the EU and the national/local level to collect, analyse and exchange information on invasive alien species and related management strategies, so as to react to biological invasions more rapidly and effectively at the regional level. Such an information system should be characterised by a number of technical/scientific tools which should be available to the competent authorities to support the decision process for rapid detection and early warning of new invasions. Such decision support tools can be distinguished into the following main categories: 1) Databases and inventories 2) Experts register 3) Species identification tools 4) Alarm lists Additional tools which are fundamental for the implementation of a EWRR system are black and white lists (for a more detailed description of such tools see Shine et al., 2010), the legal instruments needed/available at the EU and local level, as well as all current financial tools. The information system and its components listed above need to be designed in a way that secures distributed efforts from all MSs and incorporates a coordinating function. A basic requirement is that the central coordinating body (i.e. the dedicated structure described below, possibly supported by an expert steered group) guarantees that all MSs participate in all aspects of developing and maintaining such a system (e.g. similarly to EEA and EIONET programme), so as to guarantee its long term sustainability. Many information tools that have already been developed in Europe and the rest of the world could provide support to the activities reported above, from species identification, to management options, to access to expertise. It is therefore crucial that any EU information system is linked to other existing information tools. Here follows a brief description of the 4 main decision support tools listed above. 1) Databases and inventories The capacity to identify, prevent and mitigate IAS threats depends on accurate and updated information that is easily accessible at the right scale. This requires the creation/maintenance of a single EU portal for IAS information/interoperability of national IAS databases and inventories. Among the main information mechanism on IAS currently available at the regional level, the most comprehensive and updated are DAISIE and NOBANIS (see Conclusions §35 of the above mentioned 2953rd Environment Council meeting: ―establishment and maintenance of a comprehensive inventory of IAS which could be based on the DAISIE list of alien species in 99 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Europe and other existing European inventories and mechanisms such as NOBANIS‖). A new database should be implemented, based on a common and agreed data shell, and on the integration of the information already made available by the DAISIE and NOBANIS projects. 2) Experts register Decision making requires access to the most advanced scientific expertise on very different aspects, from the species taxonomy and biology (also for species not yet recorded in Europe), to management alternatives, to legal aspects. In this regard it is important to ensure the rapid involvement of key experts, to be contacted not only in Europe but also in the rest of the world. Contact details of experts should be readily available to competent authorities and all EWRR involved actors at national and regional levels (e.g. customs and quarantine services), i.e. by means of a comprehensive and updated expert registry. Such a contact list could be further developed and updated on the basis of the registry already produced by the DAISIE project. 3) Species identification tools Correct taxonomic diagnosis of species is essential to respond to biological invasions. In this respect, the information system shall contain or include references/links to the most advanced tools to assist species identification. Species profiles should be populated with detailed descriptions, possibly including dichotomous keys, photographs, illustrations, etc. To enhance response to invasions, the information system should integrate information on the most effective and/or practicable management options to target new invaders. 4) Alarm lists Central to an EWRR system is the prompt detection and identification of newly arrived alien species, and of the characterisation of alien species that are already present in Europe, but have not yet become invasive and/or widespread. A comprehensive and regularly updated species alert list (including information to be readily available for highest-risk IAS about host commodities; source regions; seasonal/environmental factors important for their introduction and establishment; and actual/potential pathways for their introduction) should be available to EU and national/local authorities. Coordinated surveillance and monitoring activities Monitoring and surveillance are fundamental activities to promptly report all records of alien species and to guarantee rapid response actions to prevent the establishment of newly-introduced IAS. Surveillance includes activities aimed at promptly identifying alien species new to the country and therefore is a pivotal element of prevention of further establishments. Dedicated surveillance programs should be established at entry points (i.e. point of import) where border controls and quarantine measures should be implemented in order to prevent or minimise the risk of introduction of alien species that are or could become invasive, or in particularly vulnerable areas, such as islands. Surveillance programs need to be implemented on a regional scale of action in order to guarantee an optimal efficacy. In this regard, it is important to launch a European surveillance system, policy involving all MSs, based on agreed priorities and common reporting standards, with the task of optimising use of existing capacity, involving key societal 100 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world sectors, promoting standardised procedures to collect, analyse and promptly circulate information on new incursions. An alarm list of key invasive species at risk of arrival can help to prioritise areas for surveillance. Monitoring programmes aim to acquire a better understanding of the ecology, distribution, patterns of spread and response to management of IAS, which are key elements to strengthen the capacity to predict the consequences of alien species introductions. Therefore monitoring programmes provide critical information to support IAS prevention, mitigation and restoration programmes and as such a stronger scientific basis for decision-making and allocation of resources. Thus it is clear that the ability of institutions and national governments to effectively respond to new incursions of alien species can be improved only by increasing the number of monitoring programs dedicated to invasive alien species. Monitoring programmes already exist in EU countries, e.g. further to the implementation of the Habitats and Birds directives. With regard to the alien species issue, it is necessary to bridge the gaps in taxonomy and environments not covered by existing programs, and ensure integration/coordination with other existing monitoring programs already focusing on native species. IAS-specific monitoring actions need to be prioritised, i.e. based on categorisation of threats, mapping of high-risk areas for incursions (scope for EU involvement in delimiting surveys). EU financial tools (LIFE+, Research Framework Programmes, etc) should support projects that respond to these criteria. An effective implementation of the surveillance and monitoring activities needs to rely on a clear definition of roles and responsibilities (focal points/competent authorities). For this reason, clear protocols for the identification of ―who is in charge of doing what‖ have to be developed, so as to prevent flaws in the information flow and allow a sound response to face the threat of new alien species entering a country. Notification and reporting procedures (what, how, to whom) could be based on the experience from other existing programmes (e.g. see the Habitats and Birds directives, Bern Convention, EPPO, etc.). In order to enable better coordination among national surveillance and monitoring efforts, national or taxonomic databases (e.g. DAISIE, NOBANIS) should be regularly updated with the information collected throughout surveillance and monitoring activities. It should be possible/necessary to link to existing monitoring programmes and indicators to acquire information available from other sources and ensure coherence with other policies (e.g. agriculture, transport, etc.). Risk analysis or quick screening? The data and information collected following the implementation of the surveillance and monitoring activities, need to be duly analysed and circulated to the competent authorities. For this reason, another fundamental element of the EWRR system is the risk analysis. The risk analysis represents the necessary step that builds on the information collected by the EU dedicated structure on a target alien species (before or soon after its introduction) and that leads to a decision on the actual measures which should be undertaken as a response action so as to 101 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world prevent its introduction or its permanent establishment (e.g. eradication, control, regulation of trade, etc.). The assessment of the risks connected to the introduction of an alien species can be done at different levels of accuracy, depending on the objectives of the assessment: when deciding how to respond to a new incursion, a quick screening of the risks connected to the introduced species is in general more than sufficient to identify the proper response (Genovesi et al., 2010). When the exercise aims to prioritise action, or to support regulations of trade, then a full and comprehensive risk analysis is required (Genovesi et al., 2010). Therefore, whenever a new incursion is detected, a quick screening of the potential risks (based on available records of invasiveness in other situations, available information on ecological characteristics, etc.) should be promptly done, so as to provide a sufficient basis to decide how to react (for example in the case of detection of an organism included in the list of species with records of invasiveness elsewhere in Europe, eradication measures should be undertaken without further investigations). Basic elements to take into account when performing a quick screening on a species include: distribution (already widespread, present and invasive, localised, etc), species status (invasive in other European contexts, not yet present in Europe and invasive elsewhere, considered as low risk, etc) and biology (native range with similar climatic conditions to Europe, high spread potential, etc). The evaluation process should be as transparent as possible and based on concrete and documented but rapidly accessible information. In contrast, a risk analysis – in accordance with the IPPC terminology - is the process of evaluating biological or other scientific and economic evidence to determine whether an alien species will become invasive and, if so, how it should be managed. A risk analysis includes both risk assessment and risk management. The risk assessment is the comprehensive evaluation of the likelihood of entry, establishment or spread of an alien species in a given territory, and of the associated potential biological and economic consequences, taking into account possible management options that could prevent spread or impacts. The risk management is the evaluation and selection of options to reduce the risk of introduction and spread of an invasive alien species. Elements to be considered in a risk analysis include: objectives of the assessment, history of invasiveness of the taxon elsewhere, analysis of known pathogens or parasites, assessment of suitability of environmental conditions for persistence, probability of establishment and spread anywhere in the area of concern, potential impacts and available mitigation options. The result of a risk analysis should be given a formal/legal value so as to guarantee a consistent follow up (inclusion in black lists, endorsement of management measures, including control, eradication, regulation of trade, monitoring of introduced populations, etc.). In fact, the efficacy and consistency of a sound risk analysis (and quick screening) would be guaranteed only if done at a EU regional level (though considering the local situations and conditions) and the results jointly endorsed by all interested countries. A local approach might limit the actual impact of this exercise and would negatively affect any follow up in terms of response actions. Some European countries have already started regulating the movement/introduction of species on the basis of the results of detailed risk analysis. Therefore, a good number of best 102 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world practices are already available to this regard (e.g. EPPO, EFSA, UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs - DEFRA, etc.). Contingency planning and rapid response Once a new incursion is detected, and associated risks are preliminarily screened, it is crucial to decide promptly what measures have to be implemented (either eradication, control, containment or no action), what techniques have to be applied and who should enforce them. It is difficult to predict with any certainty the length of the critical period during which eradication is feasible after a species being introduced/detected in a new area. In fact, there is only a limited period of time in which eradication is a practicable option, before the invasive species reaches a certain level of population and/or range expansion. However, in order to reduce as far as possible the time between documenting an introduction and implementing a response, a clear allocation of roles and powers and the development of contingency plans for eradicating newly detected alien species should be guaranteed. To this purpose, all competent authorities (including local authorities and protected area authorities) should have sufficient powers to remove IAS or alien species with a high potential to become invasive, in accordance with national law and policy. The use of emergency orders should be also considered where urgent eradication action is needed. Contingency plans (preidentification of appropriate response) should be also considered so as to be ready to apply for eradicating groups of species with similar characteristics (e.g. plants, invertebrates, marine organisms, fresh-water organisms, fresh-water fishes, reptiles, amphibians, birds, small mammals, large mammals) and streamline the authorisation process for rapid response. Resource constraints make prioritisation necessary. Therefore mechanisms should be established in order to identify clear prioritisation of Community involvement, for example, the EC should be responsible (financially and technically) for the implementation of measures for major pests (listed in a EU black list), while for other pests the responsibility should be left to national/local authorities. For this reason, adequate funds and equipment for rapid response to new invasions as well as resources to train relevant staff to use the selected control methods, should be available. Follow up A final but essential element of the EWRR is reporting by the authorities in charge of the enforcing response actions. Such reporting addresses the progress of management measures and assesses their impact once the task is considered complete. Such reporting can allow a follow-up by the European technical structure and the European institutions, to inform other countries of the efficacy of the management options applied and to aid preparation should similar incursions occur elsewhere. This part of the communication flow is crucial to enable independent technical evaluation of the activities and a more transparent supply of information on progress to the entire community of states and stakeholders. 103 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Acknowledgements We would like to thank all our friends and colleagues who provided valuable information and comments for the present work, among which Sarah Brunel, David Roy, Wojtek Solarz, plus many experts, particularly from the EEA, ISPRA, EPPO and the Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN/SSC. This work is based on the results of a study financed by the EEA (Contract No. 3606/B2008/EEA.53386). Reference Genovesi P, Scalera R, Brunel S, Solarz W & Roy D (2010) Towards an early warning and information system for invasive alien species (IAS) threatening biodiversity in Europe. European Environment Agency, Tech. report 5/2010. 52 pp. Hulme PE, Nentwig W, Pysek P, & Vilà M (2009) Common market, shared problems: time for a coordinated response to biological invasions in Europe? In: Pyšek, P. & Pergl, J. (Eds) (2009): Biological Invasions: Towards a Synthesis. Neobiota 8, 3–19 Hulme PE, Pysek P, Nentwig W & Measures P (2010) Will Threat of Biological Invasions Unite the European Union? Science, 4-5. Kettunen M, Genovesi P, Gollasch S, Pagad S & Starfinger U (2009) Technical Support to EU Strategy on Invasive Alien Species (IAS) Assessment of the impacts of IAS in Europe and the EU. Institute for European Environmental Policy, London and Brussels. Shine C, Kettunen M, Genovesi P, Essl F, Gollasch S, Rabitsch W, Scalera R, Starfinger U, ten Brink P (2010) Assessment to support continued development of the EU Strategy to combat invasive alien species. Draft Final Report for the European Commission. Institute for European Environmental Policy (IEEP), Brussels, Belgium. 104 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world European Environment Agency: Activities addressing invasive alien species Ahmet Uludag European Environment Agency, Kongens Nytorv 6, 1050 Copenhagen, Denmark E-mail: ahuludag@yahoo.com The European Environment Agency (EEA) assists the European Union and its Member States in designing effective tools to improve the environment, integrating environmental considerations into economic policies and moving towards sustainability. One key EEA task is coordinating the European environment information and observation network. In this context, EEA prepares reports, organizes outreach activities and develops tools and systems to assess the environment, mitigate harm and sustain ecosystem health. Invasive alien species (IAS) play an increasingly important role in EEA activities. IAS are considered the second most important threat to Europe‘s biodiversity after habitat fragmentation. Historically, EEA reports on the state of the environment have provided indications of IAS impacts on Europe‘s environment. The most recent report on the pan-European environment, the 2007 ‗Europe‘s Environment- The fourth assessment‘, provided more detailed information. IAS are among the indicators of threats to biodiversity in the SEBI 2010 (Streamlining European Biodiversity Indicators) indicator set. IAS are expected to acquire a more prominent role in future reporting processes. There is a political will to establish an early warning and rapid response system (EWRR) in Europe, as apparent in the European Commission‘s Communication COM(2008) 789 Final and Council conclusions in 2009 (2988th Environment Council meeting, conclusions on international biodiversity beyond 2010). On that basis, EEA is supporting efforts to establish an active and effective EWRR covering all EEA member and associate countries. 105 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Results of the survey on invasive alien plants in Mediterranean countries Giuseppe Brundu 1, Italy, Guillaume Fried 2, France, Sarah Brunel 3 1 Department of Botany, Ecology ang Geology, University of Sassari, Italy E-mail: gbrundu@tin.it (Presenting author) 2 Laboratoire National de la Protection des Végétaux, Station de Montpellier, CBGP, Campus International de Baillarguet, CS 30016, 34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez Cedex, France. E-mail : fried@supagro.inra.fr 3 The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization, 21 Bld Richard Lenoir, 75011 Paris, France. E-mail: Brunel@eppo.fr A major step in tackling invasive alien plants consists of identifying those species that represent a future threat to managed and unmanaged habitats. The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization reviews and organizes data on alien plants in order to build an early warning system. A survey has been launched prior to the workshop through the internet to any expert of the Mediterranean countries on plant considered invasive, elaboration of lists and sources of information used on the topic as well as eradication actions undertaken. The survey has received a good participation as about 30 answers were received from Armenia, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Malta, Morocco, Portugal, Serbia, Spain, Tunisia, Turkey, as well as from California. Although in recent years there have been efforts to produce Europe-wide databases of invasive alien plants, these data sets have to main limits, i.e. they need continuous updating and they do not take into considerations many of the Countries facing the Mediterranean basin. The lists of invasive alien plants provided by the respondents will be aggregated to produce a overview of plants considered invasive in Mediterranean countries, although such meta list is not intended to be exhaustive. Within the EPPO framework, a prioritization system is being developed to select species that represent emerging threats and require the most urgent pest risk analysis to implement preventive measures and to perform eradication and management measures. So far, previous surveys and rapid assessments of spread and impact have allowed identification of emerging invasive alien plants for Mediterranean countries: Alternanthera philoxeroides (Amaranthaceae), Ambrosia artemisiifolia (Asteraceae), Baccharis halimifolia (Asteraceae), Cortaderia selloana (Poaceae), Eichhornia crassipes (Pontederiaceae), Fallopia baldschuanica (Polygonaceae), Hakea sericea (Proteaceae), Humulus japonicus (Cannabaceae), Ludwigia grandiflora and L. peploides (Onagraceae), Hydrilla verticillata (Hydrocharitaceae), Microstegium vimineum (Poaceae), Myriophyllum heterophyllum (Haloragaceae), Pennisetum setaceum (Poaceae), Pistia stratiotes (Araceae), Salvinia molesta (Salviniaceae) and Solanum elaeagnifolium (Solanaceae). Applying the prioritization process to the new meta list produced through the survey may allow identifying new emerging invasive alien plants. All respondents are invited to be associated to such task. The extraction of the information provided in the survey will also allow the elaboration of an inventory of plant eradication actions. Sharing knowledge and promoting existing initiative shall raise awareness on eradication, which although very effective remains too scarcely used in European and Mediterranean countries. 106 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Molecular research as tool for managing biological invasions: Acacia saligna as a case study GD Thompson1*, JJ Le Roux1, DU Bellstedt2, DM Richardson1, JRU Wilson1,3 1 Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa. 2 Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa 3 South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Gardens, Claremont 7735, South Africa. *Corresponding author: GD Thompson, Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Natural Sciences Building, Private Bag X1, University of Stellenbosch, Matieland, 7602, South Africa. Genevieve.D.Thompson@gmail.com Molecular ecological approaches can inform ecologists about the introduction dynamics of invasive species, and potentially provide insight into effective management. Australian acacias are a widely distributed group of woody invaders of economic importance that are well represented in South Africa (RSA). We chose the Acacia saligna (Labill.) H. L. Wendl. species complex (four proposed subspecies native to Western Australia) as a case study, and used microsatellites to compare native and invasive populations. Our results suggest the presence of a novel genetic entity that has likely arisen due to cultivation of the species in RSA. Our findings provide support for A. saligna’s history of multiple introductions to RSA. Novel genotypes in the introduced range have often been linked to increased fitness in other invasive plant species; and may be incompatible with a single, specific natural enemy. We suggest that multiple introductions of biological control agents from across A. saligna‘s native range may enhance control via improved host specificity to the novel entity of A. saligna present in RSA. Introduction Determining how and why some species become major invaders can allow prediction of future invasions based on common ‗invasive‘ characteristics (Kolar & Lodge, 2001). Biotic characteristics and interactions (e.g. life history traits, intra-specific diversity and hybridization, Novak & Mack, 2005); and/or abiotic characteristics (e.g. invasion history, mode and purpose of introduction, Lockwood et al., 2007) can provide an indication of the invasive potential of a species. For instance, the introduction history of a species could influence the amount and structure of genetic diversity introduced to the new range (Le Roux et al. 2011). In the case of cryptic species, their introduction dynamics would significantly affect their invasive intraspecific diversity, the opportunity for intra-specific hybridization (e.g. Tamarix spp., Gaskin & Schall, 2002) or the development of novel genotypes or hybrids (e.g. Schinus terebinthifolius, Williams et al., 2005). Molecular research has been used as a tool for managing biological invasions to, among other things: reconstruct invasion histories (e.g. Prentis et al., 2009; Rollins et al., 2009; Bock et al., 107 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 2011); assess the role of sexual versus clonal reproduction in invasive spread (see Okada et al., 2009); identify source populations (e.g. Baker & Dyer, 2011) and allocate resources to prevent further introductions (e.g. Frankham et al., 2005; Tang et al., 2009; Le Roux et al., 2011). The most common management recommendation in the recent literature has been to limit the dispersal of the introduced species, irrespective of the genetic signature (high, low or no genetic diversity) in the introduced range (Appendix, Gaskin et al., 2009; Okada et al., 2009; Prentis et al., 2009; Rollins et al., 2009; Tang et al., 2009; Bock et al., 2010; Baker & Dyer, 2011; Hsieh et al., 2011; Le Roux et al., 2011; Mendes et al., 2011). This was the case across a range of organisms (plant or insect) and breeding systems. However, a number of studies on invasive plants have suggested that high genetic diversity acts a driver of invasive success as a result of the large genetic base on which local selection can act (Ellstrand & Schierenbeck 2000, Mack et al., 2000; Lavergne & Molofsky, 2007). The literature shows that understanding the dynamics of species invasions, including the mode, pathway, site, source and number of introductions (Simberloff, 2009) has the potential to significantly enhance management approaches. Australian acacias and their molecular ecology There are 1,012 recognised Australian acacias (species in subgenus Phyllodineae that have Australia as part of their native range), of which around a third have been introduced to countries outside of Australia (Richardson et al., 2011). Several Australian Acacia species invade Mediterranean-type regions of the world, where they displace native biodiversity and considerably alter ecosystem structure and function (Macdonald et al., 1988, Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011). There are fourteen invasive acacias in South Africa (RSA) that have considerable negative effects on native biodiversity (van Wilgen et al., 2011; Wilson et al., 2011 this volume). To obtain a global overview of these fourteen acacias, we collated records from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, 2010, http://www.gbif.org) and digitised their distributions at a global scale (Fig. 1a); and at a national scale in RSA (Fig. 1b). The global distributions clearly show that the Australian acacias that occur in RSA, also occur in several other Mediterranean-type regions around the globe (Fig. 1a). Invasive acacias in RSA represent a novel system where several different species have been introduced to a single region, ranging in number, timing, and mode of introduction (see Poynton, 2009; Roux, 1961; Shaughnessy, 1980; van Wilgen et al. 2011). Their reason for introduction can be linked to the number of introductions and the species‘ invasive range size, i.e. silvicultural species are most commonly introduced on multiple occasions and are often widely dispersed. In addition, numerous microsatellite markers have been developed for acacias (A. saligna, A. mangium) (Butcher et al., 2000; Millar & Byrne, 2007) and their relatives (P. lophantha; Brown et al., 2011) and may be transferable to other species in the genus. Microsatellite markers enable fine-scale genetic processes to be quantified and compared at spatial scales. This provides opportunities to compare the genetic differences between the native and introduced range of Acacia species to their introduction dynamics, invasive intra-specific diversity and genetic population structure. In addition, several concepts in invasion biology can be concurrently tested including: novel genotypes, multiple introductions (or propagule pressure), and increased genetic diversity as stimuli of invasive success (Le Roux and Wieczorek, 2009). Thus, acacias in RSA provide an appropriate biological system to test the influence of a species‘ introduction history on its genetic signature in the introduced range. 108 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Figure 1 - Global distribution of fourteen Acacia species classified as major invaders in South Africa (van Wilgen et al., 2011) based on records from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, 2010, http://www.gbif.org). Their distributions are represented (a) at a global scale in their native (green circles) and introduced ranges (red circles), and (b) in their introduced range in South Africa. Occurrences for A. saligna in South Africa are represented by red crosses. In order to select an Australian acacia species for a population genetic study, we collated information on the introduction history of the fourteen invasive acacias in RSA, and their 109 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world anthropogenic uses (Table 2). Generally, the introduction history of a species can be associated with a distinct genetic signature, and the latter can be used as a proxy for introduction history for those species with poor historical records. The primary purpose of introduction of the fourteen major Acacia invaders to RSA varies from silviculture to dune stabilisation. Table 2 lists the fourteen major invaders, their purpose and date of introduction (Poynton, 2009), their invasive range sizes in quarter-degree grid squares (QDGS) (Henderson, 2001; Wilson et al., 2007) and whether they were introduced on multiple or single occasions (Poynton, 2009). Despite the fact that Acacia saligna occupies a relatively small range in RSA (160 QDGS, Appendix), it is still considered one of the most problematic, and highly abundant (see Fig. 1b, red crosses) invasive plant species in the Cape Floristic Regions (Macdonald & Jarman, 1984; Nel et al., 2004; Yelenik et al., 2004; Richardson et al., 1992). Table 2 - Fourteen major invasive Acacia species occurring in South Africa. Details of the introduction histories are given as the purpose and year of introduction, as well as their invasive range size in South Africa. Multiple Invasive Speciesφ Reason for introduction Date introductions † range size* Acacia baileyana ornamental 1919 yes 87 Acacia cyclops dune stabilisation 1835 yes 167 Acacia dealbata silviculture 1858 yes 256 Acacia decurrens silviculture 1880 yes 101 Acacia elata ornamental 1904 yes 38 Acacia implexa unknown c. 1880 unknown 3 Acacia longifolia dune stabilisation 1827 yes 95 Acacia mearnsii silviculture 1858 yes 432 Acacia melanoxylon silviculture 1848 yes 138 Acacia paradoxa unknown c. 1850 unknown 1 Acacia podalyriifolia ornamental 1894 yes 56 Acacia pycnantha dune stabilisation, tanbark 1865 yes 35 Acacia saligna dune stabilisation, tanbark 1833 yes 160 Acacia stricta unknown unknown 2 ? Note: * Invasive range size is a crude estimate, and is based on the number of quarter-degree grid cells occupied by each species (Henderson et al., 2001; Wilson et al., 2007). One quarter-degree grid cell is equal to approximately 25 km2. φ van Wilgen et al., 2011. ý Poynton, 2009. Acacia saligna As a case study, we chose the Acacia saligna (Labill.) H. L. Wendl. species complex because it has been introduced on multiple occasions and has been widely dispersed in RSA (Henderson, 2001). Genetic research has been conducted in the native range (see George et al., 2006; Millar et al., 2008) providing the molecular markers for further research in RSA and other Mediterranean-type climates. Several management approaches for Acacia saligna are currently in place in RSA, including mechanical (Holmes et al., 1987), chemical and biological control 110 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world (Wood & Morris, 2007). For a general review on Australia acacia management see Wilson et al. (2011). The A. saligna species complex (four subspecies) is native to Western Australia (WA) (Maslin, 2004) and contributes to the invasion of several million hectares of RSA by invasive woody species (van Wilgen et al., 2001). It is also considered invasive in several other Mediterranean regions including California, Israel, Italy, France, Greece, Portugal and Spain (ILDIS, 2010). The taxonomy of the A. saligna species complex is complicated (Le Houerou & Pontanier, 1987; Maslin & McDonald, 2004; Millar et al., 2008; Millar et al., 2011). Furthermore, field identification of the subspecies of A. saligna by both managers and scientific researchers is problematic as only a few distinguishing morphological features are present (Maslin & McDonald, 2004). We aim to use population genetics to determine the number of genetic lineages and spatial genetic structure of A. saligna in RSA and native WA. In doing so we would like to reconstruct A. saligna‘s known introduction history, identify possible source populations, and assess intraspecific diversity in RSA. Materials and Methods Phyllode material was collected from individuals of A. saligna from across native Western Australia (WA) and invasive RSA. A total of 12 populations were sampled, 8 populations from WA, and 4 populations from RSA. Genomic DNA was extracted following the methods of Millar et al. (2008). Ten nuclear microsatellite loci previously developed for A. saligna (Millar & Byrne, 2007) were PCR-amplified following methods described by Millar and Byrne (2007). Microsatellite loci were genotyped, and the allele sizes were visualized and scored using GENEMAPPER version 3.4 (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, USA). GENALEX v 6.2 (Peakall & Smouse, 2006) was used to permute a co-variance standardized Principle Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) to determine the extent of population genetic structure between native and invasive populations. We used FSTAT 293 (Goudet, 2001) to test for statistical differences in genetic diversity indices: allelic richness (RS), unbiased gene diversity (HS) between native and invasive ranges. RSA individuals were assigned to the reference populations linked to each subspecies identified in the native range by Millar et al., (2011) using Bayesian methods in STRUCTURE v 2.3.2 (Pritchard et al., 2000; Falush et al., 2007). We assumed independence among loci, allowed admixture and computed 100,000 iterations, following a burn-in period of 10,000 for each value of K (number of populations) (Pritchard et al., 2000). Delta K (ΔK) was calculated according to the method of Evanno et al. (2005). Results Using the reference populations from Millar et al. (2011), Bayesian methods did not assign any introduced South African populations to any native populations collected in the study (Fig. 2). Furthermore, Bayesian methods clustered all native populations into three groups, consistent with the genetic groups identified in Millar et al. (2011) (Fig. 2). At the population level, and consistent with the Bayesian analysis, the PCoA indicated that all native and invasive 111 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world populations were grouped into four separate groups (Fig. 2a). The first two axes of the PCoA explained 66% of the total genetic variance, with PC1 explaining 43% and PC2 explaining 23% of the variation, respectively. The PCoA identified 1 invasive cluster, and 2 native clusters (Fig. 2a). The first cluster comprised all invasive populations from RSA (diamonds, Fig. 2a). The second cluster comprised 4 native populations: 2 populations representative of A. saligna subspecies lindleyi (triangles, Fig. 2a) and 2 populations representative of A. saligna subspecies stolonifera (squares, Fig. 2a). The third cluster comprised 4 native populations: 2 populations representative of A. saligna subspecies saligna and 2 populations representative of A. saligna subspecies pruinescens (circles, Fig. 2). Analyses of genetic diversity showed that Western Australia had marginally higher allelic richness and gene diversity (2.048 and 0.474 respectively) compared to RSA (1.981 and 0.477 respectively, Fig 2b). Discussion The fourteen major Acacia invaders considered here cover a large area in RSA and several other Mediterranean-climate regions. The largest introduced range size in RSA is for those species that were introduced for silviculture, supporting the conjecture that economically valuable species are usually introduced on multiple occasions, locations, and in high numbers (propagule pressure). Species that were introduced for dune stabilisation and not simply for economic purposes (i.e. A. cyclops, A. longifolia, and A. saligna) are also subject to several management approaches, and this may also account for smaller range sizes compared to those species introduced for silviculture (e.g. A. dealbata and A. mearnsii). Comparative analyses of native and invasive populations of A. saligna show that invasive populations are comprised of genetic entities different to those present in the native range. Further that the introduced range has lower levels of genetic diversity compared to the native range. This suggests that A. saligna‘s history of multiple, sympatric introductions may have potentially facilitated novel genetic combinations over the ca. 170 years since its introduction; and that founder events followed by drift may have altered the species‘ invasive genetic diversity and structure. Indeed, reduced levels of genetic diversity in introduced populations of A. saligna in RSA have been reported compared to Australian populations (Le Roux et al., 2011). We speculate that genetic drift, followed by intensive cultivation of the species in RSA has facilitated the evolution of the novel genetic entity in RSA. These results are consistent with A. saligna’s history of extensive and widespread cultivation and planting in RSA. Management implications Correct identification of the subspecies of A. saligna is necessary to collate prior species knowledge for the development of management strategies. Generally management plans treat an introduced species as a single genetic entity (Regan et al. 2005) i.e. possessing similar genetic diversity to the native range. Considering A. saligna‘s problematic field identification (at the subspecies level), reduced levels of genetic diversity, and the presence a novel genetic entity in RSA, implications of our findings for management should be considered. The success of biological control programmes is largely dependent on the host-specificity of biological control agents (Blossey & Nötzold, 1995; Schaffner, 2001; Goolsby et al., 2006b). A number of studies have employed molecular methods to identify damaging natural enemies by 112 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world matching native and introduced populations of a weed at a subspecific level (e.g. shoot bud gall on Melaleuca quinquenervia, Giblin-Davis et al. 2001; a rust on blackberry Evans et al. 2005). Novel hybrids are problematic as they have no co-evolutionary history with potential control agents (insects or diseases). Figure 2 - Clustering of native and introduced populations of Acacia saligna using a) covariance standardized Principle Coordinate Analysis (PCoA); and b) the geographical distribution of the same populations assigned to genetic groups using Bayesian methods in their native range in Western Australia and their introduce range in South Africa. Bayesian methods identified four separate genetic clusters in the native and introduced range: three in Western Australia (circles, triangles and squares), and one in South Africa (diamonds). Introduced populations displayed reduced levels of genetic diversity (allelic richness and gene diversity) compared to the native range. 113 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Acacia saligna has been subject to several types of management in RSA (Rouget et al., 2003; Richardson & Kluge, 2008). A gall-forming rust fungus, Uromycladium tepperianum (Sacc.) McAlpine, and a seed-eating weevil, Melanterius servulus (Impson et al., 2004) have proved useful in controlling A. saligna’s spread (Wood & Morris, 2007). Considering the novel entity of A. saligna present in RSA, it is unlikely that the current native control agents will be sufficiently host-specific to RSA populations of A. saligna i.e. it is unlikely that any native biological control agent will be effective against a novel form of A. saligna (e.g. Casuarina spp., Gaskin et al., 2009). Other cases of new genotypic combinations in invasive species coupled with multiple introductions and its implications for biocontrol have been documented (e.g. Goolsby et al., 2006a; Gaskin et al., 2009; Prentis et al., 2009). Given the novel entity of A. saligna in RSA, and the diversity of Uromycladium species in A. saligna’s native range (Old et al., 2002); we speculate that multiple introductions of U. tepperianum (increased genetic diversity) to RSA may provide increased host specificity, and increased overall control efficacy. From a mechanical and chemical control perspective, management should consider the strong propensity of the native intra-specific variants of A. saligna towards vegetative reproduction via suckering. Our study, and numerous others (Gaskin et al., 2009; Okada et al., 2009; Prentis et al., 2009; Rollins et al., 2009; Tang et al., 2009; Bock et al., 2010; Baker & Dyer, 2011; Hsieh et al., 2011; Le Roux et al., 2011; Mendes et al., 2011) have shown the value of molecular research in the development of management strategies for invasive species. The molecular tools developed for A. saligna, and the genetic information presented herein may prove to be useful in other regions where A. saligna (or other invasive plants) is known to occur, e.g. in the Mediterranean. Acknowledgements The authors would like to sincerely thank the European Weed Research Society who funded the travel for G.D. Thompson to attend the workshop in Trabzon, Turkey. We would also like to acknowledge the DST-NRF Centre for Invasion Biology, the Working For Water Programme, and Stellenbosch University for financial support for this research. References Baker SA, RJ Dyer (2011) Invasion genetics of Microstegium vimineum (Poaceae) within the James River Basin of Virginia, USA. Conservation Genetics. Bock DG, Zhan A, Lejeusne C, MacIsaac HJ and Cristescu ME (2011) Looking at both sides of the invasion: patterns of colonization in the violet tunicate Botrylloides violaceus. Molecular Ecology, 20, 503-516. 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Restoration Ecology, 12, 44-51. 117 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Appendix - Summary of recent literature combining molecular ecology and invasive species management. * Citations: 1) Mendes et al., 2011; 2) Hsieh et al., 2011; 3) Baker & Dyer, 2011; 4) Le Roux et al., 2011; 5) Bock et al., 2010; 6) Rollins et al., 2009; 7) Prentis et al., 2009; 8) Okada et al., 2009; 9) Gaskin et al., 2009; 10) Tang et al., 2009. Organism * Form Native range Pittosporum undulatum 1 tree south-east Australia insect, agricultural pest Possibly India Microstegium vimineum 3 grass Asia Anigozanthos sp.4 herb Western Australia Botrylloides violaceus 5 marine invertebrate Northwest Pacific, Japan Sturnus vulgaris 6 bird Eurasia Macfadyena unguis-cati and Jatropha gossypiifolia 7 plants Neotropics Bemisia tabaci 2 Introduced range Arores Archipelago, Portugal Marker Introduced genetic Management recommendation signature ISSRs High diversity genetic Develop commercial use for species to reduce its spread. Relatively low cpDNA, genetic diversity Global SSRs and low population structure Variable- high and eastern United low genetic AFLPs States diversity South Africa cpDNA Limit dispersal of the species among greenhouses in the region Focus on limiting dispersal between populations in close proximity due to diffusive spread of the species. Genetic diversity Trade in South Africa should be based on genome restricted, subject to the outcome of sizes detailed risk assessments. Coasts of North America, Low genetic cpDNA, Limit dispersal of asexual Australia, Italy, diversity but high SSRs propagules via aquaculture practices. UK, Ireland, population structure Netherlands Long-term genetic monitoring to High genetic assess dispersal, changes in Global SSRs diversity population size and effectiveness of control. M. unguis-cati: locally adapted M. unguisnatural enemies should make the cati (single best control agents. Global SSRs haplotype); J. gossypiifolia: high genetic J. gossypiifolia high diversity suggests selection of biogenetic diversity control agents will be complex 118 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Ludwigia hexapetala and L. grandiflora 8 aquatic plant South Mexico and South America California, United States AFLPs Casuarina sp. 9 tree Australia Florida, United AFLPs States Parthenium hysterophorus 10 herb Tropical and subtropical America China, Australia, India, Africa cpDNA No genetic Target vegetative diversity due to growth clonal reproduction dispersal and Novel hybrids have no coevolutionary history with any Hybridisation giving rise to novel insects or diseases, which may be problematic for biological control hybrids efforts. International and domestic to prevent new High genetic quarantine introductions, hybridisation and /or diversity gene flow. 119 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Prioritization of Potential Invasive Alien Plants in France Guillaume Fried LNPV, CBGP, Campus International de Baillarguet, CS 30016, 34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez Cedex, E-mail : fried@supagro.inra.fr Given the number of alien species already present in France and the time needed to conduct a full pest risk analysis (PRA), a prioritization process appears to be a useful tool for a preliminary selection step. Existing screening processes often lack considerations about the technical feasibility of control and the current distribution of the species which are necessary to make a decision concerning eradication. The author therefore applied the latest version of the Prioritization Process developed by the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO PP) on a selection of 303 alien species occurring in France or already invasive in neighboring countries. In a first step, this process classifies species into four categories: species not considered invasive, species on an observation list, potential invasive species and invasive species. A second step was to select those which are priority for a PRA from those already identified as potential and invasive species. This paper compares the results with those provided by the risk assessment system developed by Weber & Gut (Journal for Nature Conservation 12 (2004) 171-179). This latter identifies three risk classes according to species scores based on their attributes and their environmental impact: low (3-20), intermediate (21-27) and high risk (28-39). Overall both methods yield similar results except for agricultural weeds which are not taken into account by Webber & Gut. Solidago canadensis (38), Acacia dealbata (36), Baccharis halimifolia (31) or Reynoutria japonica (34) were identified among the species with the highest risk. These species are also considered invasive by the EPPO PP but they are already too widespread for the outcomes of the PRA to be worthwhile. The advantage of the EPPO PP is that it makes it possible to identify among species with high impact, emergent invasive (or potential invasive) species for which preventive action will be most profitable in France, e.g. Alternanthera philoxeroides, Eriochloa villosa, Humulus japonicus, Myriophyllum heterophyllum. Introduction The management of invasive alien plant species usually focuses on species already widely distributed, with negative impacts on ecosystems (e.g. in France: Ludwigia grandiflora, Reynoutria japonica, Ambrosia artemisiifolia). This is of course necessary, but not sufficient since new plant species are regularly introduced with the globalization of trade. In order to tackle the fraction of the new introduced species that have a high probability to become widely established and invasive, we need to develop a more global strategy including early detections and preventive eradications in parallel to regular management actions. One important part of such preventive strategies includes Weed Risk Assessments (WRA) which are science-based risk analysis tools for determining the weed potential of new species 120 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world introduced or detected on the territory. To develop an effective WRA-based strategy, we should first have a clear understanding of all alien species established on the national territory and be able to rapidly detect new arrivals on this territory. This means developing a national inventory of alien species that should be regularly updated (Genovesi & Shine, 2002) as well as an early detection system. Lists of alien plant species in France To date, despite a lot of existing information on invasive alien species e.g., the review of the current state of knowledge by Muller (2004), there is no comprehensive list of alien plants in France. Yet, these national inventories are widely recognized as providing a crucial source of information and are an important tool for invasion research and management (Cadotte et al. 2006; Richardson & Pyšek 2006). Lists focusing on the most relevant species have nonetheless already been compiled at the national level (Aboucaya, 1999) or for several French administrative regions (see the full list in Table 1). More recently, the DAISIE project has identified nearly 1,300 introduced and 700 established plant species in France (Lambdon et al., 2008). These various lists define several categories of alien species: casual versus established species, major invasive species, potential invasive species or species only requiring monitoring (observation list), with sometimes finer subdivisions within these broad categories (Lacroix et al., 2007). As a consequence, the current criteria used to define invasiveness are far from homogeneous. This situation clearly shows the need to build a standardized approach, to be used as a basis for producing reference lists of non-native plants in order to highlight the species that need priority actions. Risk analysis as tools for preventive actions In Europe, plant protection services in line with the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) activities, have historically used Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) to identify the probability of introduction, establishment and impact of pest species (insects, diseases) in a defined area, and if necessary, PRA defines what are the most appropriate measures of preventive control. Since 2002, EPPO has extended the use of the PRA scheme to study invasive plants (Schrader et al., 2010). However, regarding the number of potentially invasive species already present on the European continent (or absent but with a high probability of being introduced), it is not possible to perform a full PRA for all these species as the scheme is long and very detailed. For this reason, EPPO is currently developing a tool for quick and transparent prioritization (EPPO Prioritization Process for Invasive Alien Plants, abbreviated EPPO PP in the following text) in order to i) provide a clear overview of invasive and potentially invasive alien plants present in 50 European and Mediterranean countries in the EPPO region, ii) establish priorities among the species requiring a PRA. During the last 15 years, other risk assessment tools have been more specifically developed for invasive plants: - The Australian Weed Risk Assessment (Phelloung, 1995), one of the first and still the most acknowledged and used throughout the world (Gordon et al., 2008). The assessment of a species is probably shorter than with a PRA but still relatively long to be used as a quick assessment tool. 121 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Table 1 - Numbers of alien, established and invasive species reported in the recently published regional floristic atlases, regional floras or other available publications about invasive species in France. Established Invasive taxa taxa Regions Alien taxa1 Auvergne ~ 614 (24%) ~ 205 (8%) Basse-Normandie 287 (18%) Bourgogne - 125 (7%) Bretagne - - - Côte-d‘Armor - - - Finistère 380 (34%) - Ille-et-Vilaine 200 (15%) - Morbihan 344 (20%) 191 (11%) - - - 103 (9%) Corse Drôme 404 (17%) 72 (3%) 153 (6%) 74 (3%) Franche-Comté - - Île-de-France - Essonne - - Centre - Loiret - Eure-et-Loir 12 * (0.5%) 56** (2%) 11* (0.7%) 16** (1%) 36 (2%) 17* 21** 8* (0.7%) 12** (1%) 13* (1%) 21** (2%) 9* (0.7%) 16** (1%) 9* (0.7%) 18** (1%) 7* (0.5%) 15** (1%) 30 (1%) 16 (0.7%) 38* 49** 23 (2%) 8* (0.6%) 45** (3%) 10* (0.9%) 12** (1%) Total number of taxa2 References 2560 Antonnetti et al. (2006) 1847 Provost (1993) ; Zambettakis & Magnanon (2008) Bardet et al. (2008) - Magnanon et al. (2007) 1150 Philippon et al. (2006) 1129 Quéré et al. (2008) 1373 Diard (2005) 1694 Rivière (2007) 1620 1382 Pujol et al. (2007) 2397 2385 Jeanmonod & Gamisans (2007) Garraud (2003) - Ferrez (2006) 1215 Arnal & Guittet (2004) 1366 Dupré et al. (2009) 1089 Filoche et al. (2006) 129 (9%) 65 (5%) 269 (25%) 127 (12%) 1253 351 60 - Brunel & Tison (2005) - - - - Lacroix et al. (2007) 360 (19%) 204 (11%) - 1850 Dupont (2001) - Sarthe 364 (24%) 173 (11%) 1525 Hunault & Moret (2009) - Mayenne 105 (7%) 1441 David et al. (2009) Seine-SaintDenis Mediterranean area Pays de la Loire LoireAtlantique et Vendée 10* (0.7%) 12** (0.8%) - 1 Alien species gathers all introduced species including established species, casual aliens and subspontaneous species, 2 the total number of taxa includes both introduced and native taxa *: invasive species, ** : potential invasive species, -: no data available. - In the United States, precise tools for assessing environmental impacts have been developed during the 2000s (Warner et al., 2003, Morse et al., 2004, Randall et al., 2008). Conducting such an analysis however needs a lot of information about the impact on ecosystem processes or about recent population dynamic which are often not available for emergent species. 122 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world - For Central Europe, Weber & Gut (2004) have developed a much shorter assessment (twelve questions). Andreu & Vila (2009) have tested it for Spain and found very similar results compared to the Australian WRA. In France, a specific risk assessment or an adaptation of an existing tool is still lacking. To date, the Plant Health Laboratory (LNPV) is involved in the development of the EPPO PP while the Federation of National Botanical Conservatories (FCBN) has tested the Weber & Gut risk assessment in order to update the list of species regulated by the Environmental Code (prohibition of sale and introduction into the wild). Currently this list only contains two species: Ludwigia grandiflora and Ludwigia peploides. Seventy-three species have been assessed and could potentially be added in the next years after negotiations with the different stakeholders. Aims of the study The first aim of this work was to use a first check-list of the most relevant alien plant species in France, in order to identify emergent invasive species which are priority species for several kinds of actions according to the threat they represent to natural and semi-natural ecosystems or to agricultural activities. At the national level, the present study is a part of a longer-term project which intends to i) inventory the comprehensive list of all nonindigenous plants recorded in France and ii) build a transparent and standardized protocol that can be used to decide which species of this list are invasive and which should be subject to management measures. With this end in mind, the present study has the objective to test and to compare the two methods of prioritisation already in use, i.e. the EPPO PP and the risk assessment of Weber & Gut (2004) for central Europe. Finally, at the European level, this study aims to validate the EPPO PP by applying it to a large list of alien species which has been, at least partially, previously classified by expert judgement (Aboucaya, 1999). Material & Methods Species assessed A plant data set gathering 370 species of various statuses was pre-selected to be tested through the 2 prioritization methods: - The initial list included 217 alien species present in France and identified by Aboucaya (1999) as major invasive species (61 taxa), as potential invasive species to monitor (65 taxa) or as presenting less risk (91 taxa part of an observation list). - this initial list has been updated with a data set containing 91 species reported in more recent check-lists published at the regional scale (see Table 1). - species acknowledged as invasive at the European scale by EPPO have been added : 15 species out of the 21 of the EPPO Alert List, 2 out of the 9 species of the EPPO A2 list (species of serious phytosanitary concern which are recommended for regulation by EPPO) and 1 out of the 38 species of the EPPO List of invasive alien plants. - species which are already invasive in neighbouring countries but not yet present in France were also added, based on the following published lists: o Italy : Celesti-Grapow et al. (2009), o Spain : Dana et al. (2004), o Belgium : Invasive Species in Belgium (2010), o Switzerland : Swiss Commission for Wild Plant Conservation CPS/SKEW (2006). 123 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Description of the risk assessment methods used All the 370 species were assessed using the EPPO Prioritization process (Brunel et al., 2010) while 288 species for which sufficient information is available were also evaluated with the risk assessment developed by Weber & Gut (2004) for Central Europe (abbreviated W-G WRA in the remainder of the document). It contains twelve questions dealing with : the area of origin, range size in the risk area, invasiveness elsewhere, mode of reproduction and dispersal, plant height and life form, population size and type of habitat invaded. As the W-G WRA was developed for continental areas, question 11: ―Habitats of species. Allocate species to one of the following. If more than one statement applies, take the one with the highest score. Riparian habitats (3), Bogs/swamps (3), Wet grasslands (3), Dry (xeromorphic) grasslands (3), Closed forests (3), Lakes, lakeshores, and rivers (3), Other (0)” was adapted to the French conditions, adding ―Dunes and coastal cliffs‖ as a relevant habitat. For more details on the latter protocol, please refer to the corresponding publication. The EPPO PP consists in eleven questions including key aspects as invasiveness elsewhere in the world, climate match, spread capacity, impact on agriculture and environment. The first part of the process aims at classifying plants into several categories. According to the possible combination of scores for spread potential and adverse impact, three outcomes are possible (Figure 1). Adverse impacts Spread potential Low Low Minor concern Medium Minor concern Observation list High Observation list Observation list Medium Minor concern High List of Observation List of (potential) (potential) list invasive plants invasive plants Figure 1 - Matrix of spread potential and adverse impacts of assessed species with the corresponding outputs. If the species qualifies as an invasive alien plant of major concern through this first set of questions, the second section of the process then investigates the efficiency of international measures (to be justified through a pest risk analysis) to prevent the entry and spread of the species and whether the species still has a significant suitable area for further spread (in order to exclude species which are already too widespread and can no more be controlled at low cost). For the most important questions (climate matching, spread potential and impacts), a level of uncertainties is defined. This relativizes the risk and identifies points where research efforts must be driven.  In the latest version of the EPPO PP (Brunel et al., 2010), species with medium spread and high impact are on the observation list, in order to select only the most invasive species. 124 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Source of data The necessary information for the species were obtained from various sources. The status of the species in France (only cultivated, casual, established) was obtained from Kerguélen (1993) updated by Bock (2005) and from various recent floristic atlases (Table 1). Geographical distribution data for Europe was obtained from the DAISIE website. I only considered the number of countries where the species are clearly established (excluding casual and unknown occurrences). Native areas of alien species were checked with the online database from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland (http:// www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/tax/index.html), as well as from recent standard European floras (e.g. Flora Iberica, Flora d‘Italia, Flora Helvetica, Nouvelle Flore de Belgique, etc.). Climatic match was determined by considering the origin of the species, its current distribution and the World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification (Kottek et al., 2006). The potential area for further spread was determined according to current distribution in France or elsewhere in the world and the extent of the remaining suitable climates and habitats in the area under consideration. Status of the species as a weed elsewhere was taken from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW) (Randall, 2007). As the GCW probably exacerbates invasiveness, the author decided that to be considered as invasive elsewhere, a species has to combine at least three of the following qualifiers: ―agricultural weed‖, ―environmental weed‖, ―noxious weed‖, ―sleeper weed‖ and ―weed‖. Species traits (life form, seed number and viability, vegetative reproduction, dispersal mode) were extracted from various publications (species fact sheets, previous weed risk assessments in other countries). Data on habitats and the ecology of the species and local abundance were taken from recent regional floristic atlases (Table 1) and other botanical publications. Frequency and impact in cultivated fields was taken from Jauzein (1995) and Mamarot (2002) while herbicide resistance was checked with Heap (2010). Concerning the population density in natural and semi-natural habitats as well as the impact in agricultural lands, if the species under assessment is not present in France, I used data within the European range or within another area where the species has been introduced with a similar climate to France. The uncertainty associated to these questions was ranked as medium if data was taken from another European country, or as high if data was taken from a country with similar climate elsewhere in the world. This also introduces a distinction between invasive species (with observed impacts in France) and potential invasive species (not yet present in France but already invasive under similar ecological conditions). Results & Discussion Global results The list of invasive species resulting from the EPPO Prioritization Process and the scores from the W-G WRA are given in Appendix. Out of the 370 species assessed with the EPPO Prioritization Process, 127 were classified as invasive or potentially invasive species, of which 32 were identified as priorities for PRA, 232 species were of minor concern and placed on the observation list and 8 species were not considered as invasive or potentially invasive. 125 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world The scores of the 288 species assessed by the W-G WRA ranged from 12 to 38, with 95 species presenting a high risk, 147 species presenting an intermediate risk (further observation needed) and 30 species having only a low risk. Comparison of the two methods of prioritization Comparing the previous classification of alien species based on expert judgments (Aboucaya, 1999), a substantial agreement with EPPO Prioritization Process (Cohen‘s Kappa = 0.75) and the Weber & Gut Protocol (Cohen‘s Kappa = 0.73) was found. Table 2 shows that the agreement between the EPPO Prioritization Process and the Weber & Gut Protocol is also good (Cohen‘s Kappa = 0.75). For example, among the 32 species which are priority for a PRA according to EPPO PP, 24 have also a high risk and 8 an intermediate risk according to the W-G WRA. Table 2 - Comparison of the classification of the 280 alien species as either invasive or not by the EPPO Prioritization Process and by the Weber & Gut Risk assessment. Weber & Gut WRA EPPO PP Lists High Risk Intermediate risk Low Risk Total 8 Priority for a PRA 24 32 32 Invasive Species 59 91 107 24 Observation List 18 149 3 5 Not Invasive 8 Total 101 150 29 280 The differences between the two methods can be explained in two ways. Most of the 40 species that were only identified as invasive by the EPPO PP (Table 2), are agricultural weeds with economical impact on crop production (e.g., Abutilon theophrasti, Bidens subalternans, Conyza spp., Panicum spp., Xanthium spp.). The W-G WRA (and the previous national and regional check-lists, Table 1) only aims at identifying species at risk for biodiversity: the scores of agricultural weeds are therefore low because they are mostly annuals and species restricted to man-made habitats (on average, these traits lead to - 5 points). This is also true for small annual species whose impacts are probably less than perennial or woody invasives but can nevertheless be reported as forming dense monospecific stands threatening native vegetation like Eragrostis pectinacea in sandy areas of the Loire valley (Dupont, 2001) or Claytonia perfoliata in coastal sand dunes (Quéré et al., 2008). On the other hand, the 18 species that were only identified as invasive by the W-G WRA are species that do not yet have an invasive behaviour in France. If a species is already present in France, the EPPO PP mainly relies on its effective impact in natural or seminatural habitats and pays less attention to its behaviour elsewhere. For example Eupatorium adenophorum is established in riparian habitats in Corsica without forming dense populations (Jeanmonod & Gamisans, 2007). According to the intrinsic biological traits of this species (vegetative reproduction, life form, plant height and seed dispersal), the W-G WRA has identified it as presenting a high risk, which is consistent with the invasive behaviour of this plant in Spain (however, if the EPPO PP was applied at the EPPO region scale, it would also have ranked this species as invasive). This illustrates the greater predictive power of the W-G WRA more suitable for species that are not yet present. So, the W-G WRA appears as a good complement to the EPPO PP, particularly in order to identify future potential weeds. 126 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world The observation list obtained through the EPPO PP The observation list contains 232 species. The mean score of the species on the observation list with the W-G WRA was 24.2 but it ranged from 12 to 32, with 18 species recognised as being potentially invasive (score>28), meaning that some species have intrinsic traits that confer them the ability to spread and invade. Lag phase can sometimes last several decades before an introduced species suddenly occupies a wider range of habitats and/or become invasive (Kowarik, 1995). Two broad groups of species can be distinguished: those which are confined to ruderal and man-made habitats environments (epoecophytes) and those that are already established in natural or semi-natural habitats (hemi- and holo-agriophytes). The first group contains a significant proportion of annuals typically found in disturbed areas: Bidens bipinnata, Eleusine indica, Eragrostis mexicana, Euphorbia maculata, Veronica persica. They are of minor concern as they are well controlled in cultivated crops. For some species considered as invasive in previous lists, like Nicotiana glauca (Jeanmonod & Gamisans, 2007) or Araujia sericifera (Brunel & Tison, 2006), there are some uncertainties: they are forming dense stands but the naturalness of the invaded habitats is not certain. I have taken the decision to downgrade such species to the observation list, paying closer attention to the nature of the invaded habitats. Special attention must also be given to Conyza floribunda, which is reported as a ruderal species over most of the territory but seems able to penetrate into natural habitats in areas where it is currently expanding, e.g., in Normandy (Zambetakkis & Magnanon, 2008) and in the Côtes-d'Armor (Philippon et al., 2006). The second group gathers species that have already crossed the environmental barriers. Among these species, some have been eliminated because of their low dispersal ability, due for example to few or no production of viable seeds, coupled with a lack of long-distance dispersal mechanisms (Elaeagnus x submacrophylla, Spiraea spp.). Other species have not (yet) been observed to form dense monospecific populations: Amelanchier spicata, established in oak forests on acid soils in Burgundy (Bardet et al., 2008), Arctotheca calendula, Aptenia cordifolia or Tetragonia tetragonoides, which are established in coastal sand dunes. Finally some species are considered as well integrated in their new habitat, e.g., Juncus tenuis or Eleocharis bonariensis (Dupont, 2001). Some of the 18 species on the observation list that should be put under particular surveillance are highlighted here as they are already serious plant invaders in neighbouring countries and as their score with the W-G WRA was superior to 27, meaning that they present a high risk: Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) King & H. Rob. [syn: Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng.] (WG-WRA Score: 32): established along rivers in Corsica (Jeanmonod & Gamisans, 2007) and in the Alpes-Maritimes department (Carles & Thébaut, 2010). In the South of Spain and in the Canary Islands, this species is spreading and forms dense stands along rivers and in riverine forests (Dana et al., 2004). It has a prolific asexual seed production (apomixis) which can reach 60 000 seeds/m² (Weber, 2003). Asclepias syriaca L. (WG-WRA Score: 34), established since at least the mid 19 th century (Garraud, 2003) in the Center and the South of France. Most of the time the species is only reported as escaped from gardens where it is cultivated. In the South of the Rhone Valley, it can however exhibit an invasive behaviour in riparian habitats, without forming populations exceeding 80% coverage, the stands can however reach high densities. 127 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Hakea sericea Schrad. & J.C.Wendl. (WG-WRA Score: 30), established in the Esterel mountains both in the Var and the Alpes-Maritimes departments. It is invasive in Portugal, mainly in disturbed habitats (roadsides) but also in undisturbed shrublands. It is cold, drought and wind resistant. It is adapted to fires which lead to mass release of seeds and stimulates germination. This is why Hakea sericea could rapidly become dominant in the Pine forests of the Esterel mountains which are prone to regular fires during summer. Delairea odorata Lem. [syn.: Senecio mikanioides Otto ex Walp.] (WG-WRA Score: 29). It is cultivated and sometimes escapes from gardens in Bretagne, locally in the Finistère department, it can form dense stands several meters high, smothering trees and shrubs (Quéré et al., 2008). It is also established on the coastal areas of Provence. The plant spreads by vegetative growth, the stolons fragment easily and can quickly produce new plants. Mahonia aquifolium (Pursh) Nutt. (WG-WRA Score: 29) is considered invasive in dunes, rock outcrops, grasslands and woodlands in Belgium where its clonal growth could lead to dense populations that are likely to overgrow and outcompete native species and accelerate the colonisation of open habitats by woody vegetation. In France, this species is largely cultivated and well established in different kind of habitats: dunes in the North of France (Toussaint et al., 2008), hedges and cool temperate forests in Burgundy (Bardet et al., 2008), edges of grasslands (Antonnetti et al., 2006); however no dense stands have been yet reported in these habitats. The List of Invasive Species obtained through the EPPO PP One hundred and twenty seven (127) species have been identified as invasive or potential invasive species by the EPPO PP. This list can be subdivided according to the extent of the invaded territory and according to the type of impact (environmental or economical). Forty widespread invaders are already widely dispersed in all or several biogeographical regions of France (e.g., Reynoutria japonica, Acer nedundo, Senecio inaequidens) while 77 regional invasive species that are still restricted to only one biogeographical region, in either atlantic (Polygonum polystachyum, Rhododendron ponticum, Spartina alternifolia), continental (Cotoneaster horizontalis, Rudbeckia laciniata) or Mediterranean climates (Acacia dealbata, Lonicera japonica). Ninety-six species are environmental weeds exhibiting, at least in one locality, large, dense and persistent populations in natural or semi-natural habitats with can have a cover at least 80 %. 30 species represent a major concern for agricultural activities (6 species are both agricultural and environmental weeds: Artemisia verlotiorum, Galega officinalis, Lindernia dubia, Phyla filiformis, Phytolacca americana and Sicyos angulatus). The mean score with the W-G WRA was 29.8, ranging from 21 to 38. The species with the highest score was Solidago gigantea (38) which combines high dispersal capacity, efficient vegetative reproduction and dense stands in wet meadows. Other environmental weeds with high scores include some aquatic invasive species that fragment easily and can rapidly cover entire water bodies: Azolla filiculoides Lam. (34), Elodea nuttalii (Planch.) H.St.John (34), Ludwigia grandiflora (Michx.) Greuter & Burdet (33), Ludwigia peploides (Kunth) P.H.Raven (36) and Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc (34). Some trees like Acacia dealbata (36), Prunus serotina (35), Ailanthus altissima (33) or Acer negundo (32) also achieve high scores. 128 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Table 3 - List of invasive and potential invasive plants with high priorities for a PRA in France ranked according to their score with the W-G WRA. Species Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L.f. Rosa rugosa Thunb. Senecio angulatus L.f. Acacia saligna (Labill.) H.L.Wendl. Origin2 Am. E. As. S. Afr. Aust. Area3 [M]AC A M M Crassula helmsii (Kirk) Cockayne Aust. A[C?] Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) R.Br. Afr., Arab. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms S.Am. M MA Elide asparagoides (L.) KerguŢlen S. & E. Afr. M Pistia stratioides L. Sesbania punicea Benth. S. Am. S. Am. MA M Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willd. Aust. M Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) S. Am. Griseb. Cyperus esculentus var. Am. leptostachyus Böck.1 Humulus japonicus Siebold & Zucc. E. As. Periploca graeca L. E. Med. Salpichroa origanifolia (Lam.) Baill. Senecio deltoideus Less. Sicyos angulatus L. Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. S. Am. S. Afr. N. Am. Am. Acacia retinodes Schltr. Aust. Cabomba caroliniana A.Gray Phyla filiformis (Schreider) Meikle Akebia quinata Decne. Setaria faberi F.Herm. Hypericum majus (A. Gray) Britton Am. S. Am. T. As. T. As. N. Am. Habitat I4 Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies E Coastal dunes and sandy shores E Coastal shrublands, roadsides, wastelands E Heathlands, coastal scrub and beaches, forests E Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies, edges E of ponds, lakes. Wastelands, roadsides, torrents of river [E] Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies [E] Roadsides, wastelands, riversides, edges of E scrublands Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies E Riparian habitats, wetlands, ruderal habitats E Riparian habitats, woodlands, grasslands, E coastal dunes and scrub Score 34 33 32 31 31 31 30 30 30 30 29 [M]A Rivers, lakes, ponds, and irrigation canals [EA] 29 AC Maize fields, riparian habitats AE 29 M[AC] Riverbeds, alluvial deposits rich in nutrients E[A] Riparian habitats, Populus alba forests, sand M E dunes MA Coastal dunes, ruderal habitats E M Wet areas E MA Maize fields, riparian habitats AE M Wastelands [potentially in all cultivated fields] [A] Mediterranean woods, ruderal habitats, coastal M E sands [M]AC Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies E M Damp meadows, edges of ponds E [M]A Riparian habitats [E] [M]A[C] Roadsides, highways, potentially maize fields [A] C Wetlands, edges of ponds E 29 [MA] Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies [E] 33 [M] [A] [MAC] [MAC] Riparian habitats, forest edges, woodlands Estuaries, interdital marine habitats Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies Riparian habitats, maize fields [E] [E] [E] [AE] 32 30 29 28 [C] Forest fringes, riparian habitats in floodplains [E] 26 [C] Maize fields, hedgerows, riversides [A] 24 29 29 29 29 28 27 27 26 25 25 23 Alert List (species not yet established in France) Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitch. S. Am. Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi As. Spartina densiflora Brongn. S. Am. Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michx. N. Am. Apios americana Medik. N. Am. Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) Torr. & N. Am. A.Gray Eriochloa villosa (Thunb.) Kunth E. As. 1 Cyperus esculentus var. esculentus is native at least in the mediterranean part of France. The variety leptostachyus Boeck is native from America and naturalized in the South-West; the variety sativus Boeck is naturalized around horticultural farms. 2 Abbreviations used for area of origin : Afr.=Africa, Am.=America, Arab.=Arabic Peninsula, As.=Asia, Aust.=Australia, E.=East, N.=North, S.=South, W.=West, Med.=Mediterranean, 3 Three main biogeographical areas have been distinguished : M. for Mediterranean, A. for Atlantic (oceanic) and C. for continental. Letters between brackets means that the species is not (yet) recorded in the corresponding area but this area is however at risk. 4 Impact of the species: A.=Agricultural impact, E.=Environmental impact. Letters between brackets mean that the species has not yet had an impact. 129 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world One original component of the EPPO PP is to take into account species which threaten agricultural activities. Most alien weeds are just considered as one more weed, without particular difficulties in managing them in a context of intensive practices based on the use of herbicide. Agricultural weeds included in the present list of Invasive species are those that are reported to form dense stands within fields despite a classical weed control program. These species generally require specific measures due to a lack of control of the available herbicides and/or due to other weedy traits like an effective vegetative reproduction. Most of these species occur in maize fields (Amaranthus spp., Panicum spp., Sicyos angulatus) or in Mediterranean vineyards (Bidens subalternans, Conyza spp.). Some species are of concern in pastures due to their toxicity for cattle (Galega officinalis) or because they are not grazed and thus decrease the quality of forage (Phyla filiformis). Invasive Species requiring a PRA Among the list of Invasive species, 25 species that still have a limited distribution compatible with a possible eradication or containment at low cost were identified. Seven species not yet established in France but invasive in neighbouring countries were also identified as potentially invasive in France. These 32 species have therefore the highest priority for a national PRA in France. Table 3 shows that aquatic and riparian habitats as well as the Mediterranean area are the most threatened. Aquatic species Wet biotopes are considered as more vulnerable to invasions than dry biotopes. Two third of the species with high priority (Table 3) are affecting riparian habitats, damp meadows or aquatic habitats. PRAs at the EPPO scale have already been performed for three out of the six species invading static or slow-flowing water bodies: Crassula helmsii, Eichhornia crassipes and Hydrocotyle ranunculoides. All three species are now on the EPPO A2 List (regulation as quarantine pests is recommended). Crassula helmsii invades edges of ponds in less than 20 locations in Bretagne and Normandie. Eradication is still possible and is under development at least in Finistère (Quéré et al., 2008). Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratioides are only casual aliens in France. Episodic blooms of Pistia stratioides have already been recorded in the South-West (Jalle de Blanquefort) during the 2003 summer (Dutartre, pers., comm., 2010). In the South and the South-West of France, Eichhornia crassipes has no stable populations. The monitoring of habitats at risk should continue for these two species. In Corsica, an invasive stand of E. crassipes had been detected in lagoon basins, near the Figari airport, and is currently under eradication (Jeanmonod & Schlüssel, 2008). Cabomba caroliniana A.Gray. was first observed in France in 2005 invading 15 km along the Burgundy canal near Dijon (Dutartre et al., 2006). More recently, it was also recorded in two locations in the « Canal du Midi » near Toulouse (Enjalbal, 2009). However, the EPPO PRA does not conclude that there is a clear risk. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. is localized along the Garonne and Tarn rivers in the South-West without yet exhibiting an invasive behaviour (Georges, 2004). It should be closely monitored because it has recently been observed spreading on the Arno River in Italy (Brunel et al., 2010). Mediterranean region The impact of Acacia dealbata is well known (even if this species is still widely sold and planted in areas at risk). Some other Acacia sp. (A. longifolia, A. retinodes, A. saligna) are still of limited distribution in the Var department and in Corsica. According to their impact in other Mediterranean areas (e.g. Portugal), Acacia sp. should be eradicated where and when possible and should be used anymore in plantations. Several Senecio sp. also represent a risk, 130 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world particularly Senecio angulatus which already forms dense stands in coastal scrublands or in wet habitats. Alert List An awareness campaign could be implemented in order to prevent the introduction of species not yet established in France. Among species used in aquaria, Myriophyllum heterophyllum and Salvinia molesta should be prohibited or at least, a warning label should alert people not to discard these species in natural areas. Both species can invade static or slow flowing waters and can rapidly reach high coverage. Salvinia molesta is a free floating perennial fern, probably of hybrid origin. It is sterile and spreads by vegetative growth and fragmentation. It is one of the most invasive aquatic plants in tropical and southern Africa, in tropical Asia and Australasia (Weber, 2003). In Europe, it is already invasive in Italy: it has covered the entire water surface (around 1.7 ha) of a lake in less than three months (Giardini, 2004). Myriophyllum heterophyllum has been recorded in Germany and Austria and has shown invasive behaviour where it has been introduced in western North America (Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board Website, 2010). Several species used as ornamentals should also be subject to preventive measures (these species should no longer be available for purchase in garden centers or nurseries, or at least advices on their proper use and disposal should be provided). This is the case for two vine species not yet established in natural areas in France: Echinocystis lobata and Pueraria lobata. Echinocystis lobata is an annual fast-growing species, covering large areas in floodplains, riparian habitats and forest fringes in a large part of Central Europe (Germany, Poland). Its spatial occupation competes with native species (Klotz, 2007). Pueraria lobata is a perennial native from eastern Asia. It is invasive in Italy and in the south of Switzerland. It has negative effects on crop production, forestry production and the natural environment, as it smothers existing flora. The severity of its impact has justified its addition to the EPPO A2 List in 2006. Several Spartina sp. are already serious invaders in estuaries all along the French Atlantic coast. Another species, Spartina densiflora is invasive in Portugal and Spain but is not yet recorded in France. As for other invasive Spartina, invasions by S. densiflora may deeply change the structure of foreshores previously occupied by annuals Salicornia sp. These dense clones may also slow the flow of water, and thus increase the rate of sedimentation. Introduction of contaminated seeds is harder to prevent. Maize fields are the most at risk for the establishment of new alien weeds due to several favourable conditions (empty ecological niche for summer annuals, irrigation, Etc.). Therefore, the national arable weed monitoring implemented in France (Biovigilance Flore network, see Fried et al., 2007) should particularly look after Apios americana, already invasive in Italy and Eriochloa villosa, invasive in North America and spreading rapidly in Central Europe. Conclusions & Perspectives The first aim of this work was to identify priority species to perform national PRAs on and to raise awareness on those species that can still be subject to early detections and preventive eradications. As a secondary outcome, this study provided an observation list and a list of invasive species which are both ranked according to spread potential and effective impact 131 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world reported in France. Such lists can have many possible uses. I propose some examples here and the LNPV strongly encourages their development. Actions to develop on the ranked lists of invasive species Prioritized lists of invasive species can provide information for the development of appropriate regulations and voluntary restrictions on intentional plantings. To date, only two species are regulated in France: the sale, purchase, use and introduction into the wild of Ludwigia grandiflora and Ludwigia peploides is forbidden by the Order of May 2, 2007 (Articles L. 411-3 and R. 411-1 to R. 411-5 of the Environmental Code). Many other invasive species have the same level of impact and should also be added to the list of regulated species. With this end in mind, the French national botanical conservatories have used the WG WRA to assess and to rank a list of 73 species (unpubl. doc.). Nurseries and garden centers that want to develop environmental-friendly actions can use this list to remove invasive plants from their catalogues (for more details, see the EPPO Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants). Unlike other countries such as Belgium or Switzerland, France has no Black List of invasive species. Even if such a list has no regulatory or legal value, it can have an authoritative value and provide useful information for people in nearby countries or in more distant areas with similar climates who want to identify species with a high likelihood of spread and impacts. Thus, prioritized lists of alien species can be a useful tool to exchange information with other countries in the framework of an early detection system at the European scale. Land managers facing numerous invasive species in nature reserves can also use such categorized lists to determine priorities for control programs. Last but not least, this work also highlights species for which further research is needed to determine their spread capacity and the exact nature of their impact. Toward an invasive plant risk assessment council This list is still a working document that will need to be validated by a committee gathering other partners such as, regional experts from national botanical conservatories and scientists working on plant invasion in France. Moreover, it is important to note that prioritisation of alien plants is not a static process. When new information becomes available, species will be re-evaluated especially if new data could influence the ranking of the species. This invasive plant risk assessment committee that could be established, could also validate a specific risk assessment method for identifying invasive species in France and oversee the future work on the inventory of non-native plants in France. 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Letters between brackets means that the impact is only potential. 4 Agriophyte are species which occur in natural or semi-natural habitats while epocophytes are species restricted to disturbed habitats. Species name Reg.1 Main habitats Score2 I3 Status4 Widespread invasive species (impact are reported in all three biogeographical regions of France) Ludwigia peploides (Kunth) P.H.Raven MAC Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies 36 E Agriophyte Reynoutria japonica Houtt. MAC Riparian habitats, roadsides, wastelands 34 E Agriophyte Ludwigia grandiflora (Michx.) Greuter & Burdet MAC Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies 33 E Agriophyte Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle MAC Ruderal habitats, riparian habitats 33 E Hemiagriophyte Acer negundo L. MAC Alluvial forests 32 E Agriophyte Elodea canadensis Michx. MAC Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies 32 E Agriophyte Elodea nuttalii (Planch.) H.St.John MAC Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies 32 E Agriophyte Paspalum distichum L. MAC Wetlands : riversides, riverbeds 32 AE Agriophyte Senecio inaequidens DC. MAC Ruderal habitats, pastures, dunes, rocks 31 E Hemiagriophyte Buddleja davidii Franch. MAC Ruderal habitats, riversides, forests 31 E Hemiagriophyte Reynoutria x bohemica Chrtek & Chrtkova MAC Riparian habitats, roadsides, wastelands 31 E Agriophyte Robinia pseudoacacia L. MAC Ruderal habitats, forest, calcareous or sandy grassland 31 E Agriophyte Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. MAC Arable fields, ruderal habitats, riverbeds 30 A(E) Epoecophyte Bidens frondosa L. MAC Riverbeds 30 E Agriophyte Phytolacca americana L. MAC Ruderal habitats, maize fields, riparian habitats, forest logging 29 AE Hemiagriophyte Impatiens glandulifera Royle MAC Riparian habitats, forest edges 29 E Agriophyte Lemna minuta Kunth MAC Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies 29 E Agriophyte Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist MAC Arable fields, ruderal habitats, riverbeds 27 A Epoecophyte Abutilon theophrasti Medik. MAC Maize fields, wet wastelands, sandy river banks 25 A Epoecophyte Panicum capillare L. MAC Maize fields, ruderal habitats, riverbeds 25 A Epoecophyte Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx. MAC Maize fields, ruderal habitats, riverbeds 25 A Epoecophyte Panicum miliaceum L. MAC Maize fields, ruderal habitats 25 A Epoecophyte Amaranthus retroflexus L. MAC Cultivated fields, wastelands, ruderal habitats 25 A Epoecophyte Amaranthus hybridus L. MAC Cultivated fields, wastelands, ruderal habitats 23 A Epoecophyte 135 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Invasive species with impacts in one or two biogeographical regions in France (widespread species but still lacking in a large area of the country) Solidago gigantea Aiton MC Ruderal habitats, damp meadows, disturbed forest 38 E Agriophyte Solidago canadensis L. MC Ruderal habitats, damp meadows, disturbed forest 36 E Agriophyte Azolla filiculoides Lam. MA(C) Aquatic habitats : stagnant rivers, ponds, waterways 34 E Agriophyte Helianthus tuberosus L. M(A)C Alluvial floodplain, riverbed and riparian habitats 34 E Agriophyte Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. (M)AC Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies 34 E Agriophyte Reynoutria sachalinensis (F.Schmidt) Nakai (M)AC Riparian habitats, roadsides, wastelands 34 E Agriophyte Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L.f. [M]AC Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies 34 E Agriophyte Aster x salignus Willd. M(A)C Wetlands 33 E Agriophyte Cortaderia selloana (Schult. & Schult.f.) Asch. & Graebn. MA Wetlands, sandy soils, dunes 32 E Agriophyte Baccharis halimifolia L. MA Ruderal habitats, wetlands, saltmarshes 31 E Agriophyte Carpobrotus edulis (L.) N.E.Br. MA Coastal sand dunes and cliffs, salt marshes 31 E Agriophyte Lagarosiphon major (Ridl.) Moss (M)AC Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies 31 E Agriophyte Pistia stratioides L. MA Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies 30 E Agriophyte Hemiagriophyte Cyperus esculentus var. leptostachyus Böck. AC Maize fields, riparian habitats 29 A Sicyos angulata L. MA Maize fields, Riparian habitats 29 AE Agriophyte Egeria densa Planch. (M)AC Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies 28 E Agriophyte Amorpha fruticosa L. MC Riparian habitats, alluvial forests, coastal estuaries, dunes 27 E Agriophyte Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) E.Walker MA(C) Wastelands, Roadsides, ruderal habitats, riversides 27 A Epoecophyte Cabomba caroliniana A.Gray [M]AC Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies 27 E Agriophyte Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennell (M)AC Edges of ponds, sandy riverbanks 26 E(A) Agriophyte Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist MA(C) Arable fields, ruderal habitats, riverbeds 25 A Epoecophyte Regional invasive species (whose impacts are restricted to one biogeographical area) : more or less widespread in one region or very localized Artemisia verlotiorum Lamotte M(AC) Ruderal habitats, riparian habitats 36 E(A) Agriophyte Acacia dealbata Link M(A) Riparian habitats, wastelands, open forests 36 E Agriophyte Rudbeckia laciniata L. C Damp meadows, riparian habitats 36 E Agriophyte Aster lanceolatus Willd. (A)C Ruderal habitats, wetlands 35 E Agriophyte Prunus serotina Ehrh. (A)C Forests on acid soils 35 E Agriophyte Paspalum dilatatum Poir. M(AC) Riversides, wet meadows, ruderal habitats 34 E Agriophyte Prunus laurocerasus L. A(C) Wastelands, forests, human-modified forests, riparian habitats 33 E Agriophyte Lemna turionifera Landolt A(C) Aquatic habitats (eutrophic quite and warm waters) 33 E Agriophyte 136 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Spartina x townsendii n-var. anglica (C.E.Hubb.) Lambinon & Maquet A Coastal (intertidal zone) 33 E Agriophyte Rosa rugosa Thunb. A Coastal dunes and sandy shores 33 E Agriophyte Spartina alterniflora Loisel. A Coastal (intertidal zone) 33 E Agriophyte Aster novi-belgii L. (A)C Ruderal habitats, wetlands 32 E Agriophyte Cotula coronopifolia L. M(A) Saline and freshwater marshes, swampedges, streambanks 32 E Agriophyte Helianthus x laetiflorus Pers. M Riverbeds, wastelands. 32 E Agriophyte Senecio angulatus L.f. M Coastal shrublands, ruderal habitats 32 E Agriophyte Cotoneaster dammeri C.K. Schenid. C Dry calcareaous grasslands 32 E Agriophyte Cotoneaster horizontalis Decne. C Dry calcareaous grasslands 32 E Agriophyte Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) R.Br. M Ruderal habitats, torrents of rivers, wetlands 31 E Agriophyte Carpobrotus aff. acinaciformis (L.) L.Bolus (M) Coastal sand dunes and cliffs, salt marshes 31 E Agriophyte Fallopia baldschuanica (Regel) Holub + F. aubertii M(AC) Riparian forests, riverbeds, dunes, ruderal habitats 31 E Agriophyte Lonicera japonica Thunb. ex Murray M(A) Wet forests, riparian habitats 31 E Agriophyte Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. M(AC) Arable fields, ruderal habitats 31 A Epoecophyte Acacia saligna (Labill.) H.L.Wendl. M Grassland, coastal scrub and beaches, forests 31 E Agriophyte Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. m Dry grasslands, garrigue, rocks, ruderal habitats, dunes 31 E Agriophyte Crassula helmsii (Kirk) Cockayne A(C) Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies, edges of ponds, lakes 31 E Agriophyte Parthenocissus inserta (A.Kern.) Fritsch M(AC) Riparian habitats, ruderal habitats, hedges 30 E Agriophyte Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw. M Dry grasslands, garrigue, rocks, ruderal habitats, dunes 30 E Agriophyte Aster squamatus (Spreng.) Hieron. M(AC) (Damp) wastelands, riparian habitats, (damp) cultivated fields 30 E Agriophyte Vitis riparia Michx. M Riparian habitats, alluvial forests 30 E Agriophyte Agriophyte Sesbania punicea Benth. M Riparian habitats, wetlands, ruderal habitats 30 E Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms M(A) Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies 30 E Agriophyte Elide asparagoides (L.) KerguŽlen M Ruderal habitats, riparian habitats, edges of scrublands 30 E Agriophyte Oenothera glazioviana Micheli m Wastelands 30 E Hemiagriophyte Periploca graeca L. M Riparian habitats (Populus alba forest), dunes 29 E Agriophyte Humulus japonicus Siebold & Zucc. M[AC] Riverbeds, alluvial deposits rich in nutrients 29 E Agriophyte Cyperus eragrostis Lam. M(A) Riparian habitats and wetlands 29 E Agriophyte Heteranthera reniformis Ruiz & Pav. M Rice fields 29 A Epoecophyte Yucca filamentosa L. M Sand dunes, rocky shorelines 29 E Agriophyte Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willd. M Riparian habitats, coastal dunes and shrubland 29 E Agriophyte Salpichroa origanifolia (Lam.) Baill. M(A) Coastal dunes, ruderal habitats 29 E Agriophyte Senecio deltoideus Less. M Wetlands 29 E Agriophyte Pyracantha pauciflora (Poir.) M.Roem. M Wastelands, human-modified forests 29 E Agriophyte 137 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. [M]A Rivers, lakes, ponds irrigation canals, riparian habitats 29 E Agriophyte Elaeagnus angustifolia L. M(A) Ditches, sand dunes, salt meadows 29 E Agriophyte Yucca gloriosa L. M Dunes 29 E Agriophyte Tradescantia fluminensis Vell. M Riverbeds, fresh rocks. 28 E Agriophyte Rhus typhina L. C Riparian habitats, forests clearings, dry grasslands 28 E Agriophyte Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. M Wastelands, potentially arable fields 28 A Epoecophyte Impatiens parviflora DC. (MA)C Moist to wet forests from floodplains to beech forests 27 E Agriophyte Xanthium italicum Moretti M(AC) Cultivated fields, riparian habitats, beaches 27 A Epoecophyte Acacia retinodes Schltr. M Forests, ruderal habitats, coastal sand dunes 27 E Agriophyte Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier (MA)C Wastelands, riparian habitats, damp meadows, forest margins 27 E Agriophyte Bidens subalternans DC. M Cultivated fields, ruderal habitats 26 A Epoecophyte Bunias orientalis L. (A)C Ruderal habitats, crop edges, pastures and damp meadows 26 A Hemiagriophyte Cytisus striatus (Hill) Rothm. M(A) Scrublands, roadsides 26 E Agriophyte Oxalis pes-caprae L. M Ruderal habitats, riverbeds, dunes, shrublands 26 E Agriophyte Phyla filiformis (Schreider) Meikle M Damp meadows 26 E Agriophyte Rhododendron ponticum L. A Deciduous forests 26 E Agriophyte Eragrostis pectinacea (Michx.) Nees A Sandy soils in wastelands, along riverbeds, arable fields 26 E Agriophyte Medicago arborea L. M Coastal shrublands 25 E Agriophyte Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv. subsp. pycnocoma (Steud.) M(C) Arable fields, ruderal habitats 25 A Epoecophyte Akebia quinata Decne. [M]A Riparian habitats 25 E Agriophyte Setaria faberi F.Herm. [M]A[C] Roadsides, highways, potentially maize fields 25 A Epoecophyte Agave americana L. M Coastal cliffs, dunes, rocky places, distubed sites. 25 E Agriophyte Galega officinalis L. (MA)C Fresh grassland & pastures, ruderal habitats, river alluvium 25 AE Hemiagriophyte Echinochloa oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch M Rice fields 25 A Epoecophyte Echinochloa phyllopogon (Stapf) Koso-Pol. M Rice fields 25 A Epoecophyte Heteranthera limosa (Sw.) Willd. M Rice fields 24 A Epoecophyte Hypericum majus (A. Gray) Britton C Etanges exondés 25 E Agriophyte Impatiens balfouri Hook.f. M(AC) Riparian habitats, alluvial forest, ruderal habitats 24 E Agriophyte Aristolochia sempervirens L. M Riparian woods 24 E Agriophyte Bothriochloa barbinodis (Lag.) Herter M Vineyards, ruderal habitats 24 A Epoecophyte Rumex cristatus DC. M Riparian habitats, damp arable fields 21 E Agriophyte Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora (Lemoine) N.E.Br. A Dunes, heathlands, grasslands, riparian habitats, ... 21 E Agriophyte 138 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Modeling range changes of invasive alien and native expanding plant species in Armenia George Fayvush & Kamilla Tamanyan Institute of Botany, National Academy of Sciences of Armenia, Acharyan str. 1, Erevan 0063, Armenia, E-mail: gfayvush@yahoo.com, ktamanian@yahoo.com The article shows the research results of the spread of four invasive alien and four native expanding plants in Armenia (Ailanthus altissima, Echinocystis lobata, Impatiens glandulifera, Robinia pseudoacacia, and Astragalus galegiformis, Clematis orientalis, Silybum marianum, Tanacetum vulgare). Based on the current distribution of these species, the forecast of their further spread was considered using the DIVA-GIS and Bioclim software, with different climate change scenarios. Maps show the current distribution of the investigated species, with forecasted changes of their distribution. Temperature increase will allow the majority of species currently occupying insignificant territories in the lower mountainous belt to expand their distribution and habitat ranges considerably. The forecasted decrease in the quantity of precipitation will not hinder this process. These 8 species represent as a whole a threat to natural ecosystems and biodiversity, it is hence necessary to design and implement preventive measures. Introduction Armenia is a South Caucasian republic, neighbouring Georgia, Azerbaijan, Turkey and Iran. It is a landlocked country with a total area of 29,740 km2, at a distance of about 145 km from the Black Sea and 175 km from the Caspian Sea. It is mountainous country, having its lowest point at 375 m above sea level and culminating at 4095 m, with an average altitude of 1850 m. Variations in altitude have important effects on the climatic and landscape zones, and consequently on the vegetation of the country. In Armenia practically all main climate types from dry subtropical to cold alpine are observed. Rainfall is distributed unevenly with an average of 592 mm, in Ararat valley and Meghri region it is only 200-250 mm, while more than 1000 mm are recorded at the highest altitudes. The flora and vegetation of Armenia are very rich and diverse. More than 3600 species of vascular plants are present (123 of them are narrow local endemics), and all main vegetation types of the Caucasus are registered (excluding vegetation of wet subtropics). Changes (e.g. changes in the use of the landscape, road constructions, urbanization, etc.) are occurring fast and are seriously threatening both environment and accordingly human living conditions and the biodiversity including plant species and ecosystems as a whole. Current preliminary list of invasive alien and expanding species involves more than 100 taxa (Fayvush, 2008; Tamanyan, 2008). We have included in this list: (1) four species which are ab origine in Armenia, which in the last years enlarged considerably their range in Armenia and that 139 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world are known as invasive alien species in different countries of the World; and (2) four invasive alien species, which occurred in Armenia in the last 5 decades. We modeled potential shifts of distribution of 8 plant species according to different scenarios of climate change using the softwares DIVA-GIS and Bioclim. Those 8 species where chosen as a first examples, the work with other species will be continued. The main criterion for them was rather small area of current distribution and some time evidences of its enlargement in the last years. Modeling climate change in Armenia The climate change in the territory of Armenia is mostly conditioned by the influence of Global climate change. Climatologists have estimated possible temperature changes and amount of precipitation in the republic territory for the case scenarios of the greenhouse gas A2 and B2 emission for the period of 2030, 2070 and 2100 using MAGICC/SCENGEN (5.3v2) and PRECIS softwares. It was shown that by the end of 21st century the average temperature depending on the scenario can increase from 4,8 to 5,7 ˚С. Moreover the highest increase of the temperature is expected to be in the spring-summer period in the Southern and Central regions of the republic; the temperature increase in the North and East will be mild. The precipitation change forecast remains greatly indefinite – its decrease is supposed to be 1-27%. In the meantime a decrease of precipitation is expected in the summer period. In the fall-winter-spring period precipitation decrease is expected in foothills, but slight increase is expected in mountains (Second National report on Climate Change, 2010). Climate forecasts allow supposing the shift of the current ecological conditions up to 300-400 meters in the mountain profile and to the increase of the aridity both the whole republic territory and especially its foothills and lower regions. The climate change here will also allow disturbances in the sustainable natural ecosystems. Modeling the change of the spread of invasive alien and expanding plant species All ecosystems of Armenia have been under anthropogenic influence for millennia, but in earlier times low human population and traditional regulated use of natural resources maintained the balance of ecosystems. Over the last 1000 years human impact on the land increased, mainly through deforestation and increased grazing pressure. The problems intensified since 1920 over recent years due to unprecedented population growth and urbanisation. The main consequence was loss of natural woodlands, grasslands and wetlands due to agriculture and overgrazing, urbanisation and road building, drainage and flooding, and afforestation. During last years (since 1992) the economic and energy crisis mainly endangered Armenia‘s forests. Poor forest management combined with illegal wood cutting for fuel and construction has damaged about 10% of the total forest area. At the same time, overgrazing has destroyed the grasslands surrounding the villages and degraded the formerly unspoilt pastures of remote mountains. Unfortunately, negative influence on the natural ecosystems continues to be the case nowadays. If at least some semblance of the order exists in Armenia in the forestry sector, the development of the mineral resource industry related to the open-cast mines of the natural mineral resources, infrastructure development and building of enormous number of accessory communications leads to degradation and full destroying of the natural ecosystems. 140 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world The Global climate change has its effect on occurring processes and also facilitates the spread of invasive alien species, changing existing ecosystems and creating new ecological niches which are becoming easily occupied by the species with large ecological amplitudes. In the meantime, the threat for many plant species consists in climate change itself – as changed conditions will not allow them to find appropriate niches and will lead to their total disappearance. The new edition of the Red Book of Armenia (2010) includes 452 species of plants, which are under threat due to the various reasons. For approximately one third of them climate change is the threat for their existence. Regarding invasive alien species having large ecological amplitude and easily adjusting to the new conditions, climate change will enlarge the possible area of distribution of many thermophilic invasive alien plants, which grow at present on restricted territory of the lower mountain belt in Armenia.. Here we present results of modeling the change of the spread of 8 invasive and expanding plant species. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle is a very aggressive invasive species originating from Asia. It was introduced in 1940s for planting in settlements of Armenia. Then it escaped and in 1970s was found in disturbed and seminatural areas in neighborhood of different cities and towns. The distribution of this species in Armenia is shown in figure 1. These territories are still of limited distribution. The black territories show a possible spread of A. altissima to additional natural habitats. Ailanthus is quite hygrophilous, and forecasts of climate change only suggest increase of precipitation amounts in some alpine regions which are not suitable for the species. Supposed natural habitat will be relatively restricted, although forecasted change of the climatic conditions will allow this species to enlarge the area of distribution on humid habitats. Astragalus galegiformis L. is an expanding species, native to Armenia and the Caucasus. The distribution and possible spread of this species is shown in figure 2. Only two populations of this species were known before the 1980s – in forest edges and along streams of mountain river in the Northern Armenia. The habitats that this species colonize (roadsides, abandoned fields, disturbed habitats as well as meadows and steppes) have largely expanded in last years, and new populations of the plant have been found forming mono-dominant communities. Climate change modeling shows that this species will expand the current occupied habitats even more and will occupy larger areas. The conditions will become favorable for this species practically in the whole territory of the republic and in case of the spread of the seeds to further distance, the distribution of this species will appear to be much larger. It is necessary to note that this forecast has already started to be confirmed, as during field surveys in 2009 and 2010 new large populations of the species were found. The quality of pastures penetrated by this species is decreasing very rapidly. Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. – this Mediterranean species was known as weed on the territories of Georgia and Azerbajdzhan. In the first time it was found in 1967 in the South Armenia along roadside. Since then its range enlarged, and new populations were found in North and South Armenia (fig.3). Now it grows not only in disturbed areas, along roadside, in abandoned fields and in orchards, but also in natural communities – steppes and shibliak. Further spread of this species is forecasted. 141 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Figure 1 - Distribution of Ailanthus altissima in Armenia (white-colored area – current situation, black – predicted distribution) Figure 2 - Distribution of Astragalus galegiformis in Armenia (white triangles – habitats known before 1980th, black-colored areas – current situation, grey shaped territory – predicted distribution) 142 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Figure 3 - Distribution of Silybum marianum in Armenia (white-colored areas – current situation, black – predicted distribution) Figure 4 - Predicted distribution of Robinia pseudoacacia in the Caucasus according to Kikodze et al., 2009) 143 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Robinia pseudoacacia L. originates from North-America and was used in artificial plantations in Armenia very broadly, especially along roads. At present it shows a weak invasive potential, but grows along streams and on wetlands in North and South-East Armenia. Kikodze et al. (2009) forecast the spread of this species in Armenia in the Ararat valley (fig.4). The present study disagrees with the forecast of Kikodze et al. (2009) in this part of the country since it is supposed that precipitation will decrease in most of Armenia, while this species is relatively hygrophilous. The current habitats invaded by this species and forecasted further spread are shown in the fig. 5. It supposes further spread of the species only in the North and South-East of the country where insignificant change of precipitation is expected. Clematis orientalis L. – native expanding species (it is known from Armenia, the Caucasus, Anatolia and Central Asia) was considered a rare species in Armenia (was even included in the Red book of Armenia, 1989). This plant currently spreads intensively in the central and southern parts of Armenia, showing a strong expanding potential. The habitats it colonizes which were known before 1990 and predicted distribution are shown on the map (fig 6). This liana used trees and shrubs mainly along rivers as natural habitat. Now besides that number of populations and area of distribution of this species are increased, the number of plants in known populations is extremely high, and sometimes it covers the ground along road and river sides. Figure 5 - Current and predicted distribution of Robinia pseudoacacia in Armenia (white triangles – current habitats, black area – predicted distribution) 144 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Figure 6 - Current and predicted distribution of Clematis orientalis in Armenia (white triangles – habitats known before 1990, black – predicted distribution) Tanacetum vulgare L. is wide distributed in Temperate Eurasia, including the Caucasus, but was recorded in a few number of collections from disturbed habitats from northern part of Armenia (fig7). During the last years new big populations have registered in the North and South of Armenia (besides roadsides it was registered in steppes and meadows on forest edges). Further expansion of this species is forecasted. Figure 7 - Current and predicted distribution of Tanacetum vulgare in Armenia (whitecolored area – distribution of the species before 2000; black – predicted distribution) 145 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) Torr. & Gray (fig.8) and Impatiens glandulifera Royle (fig.9) – are widespread invasive species in Europe (www.nobanis.org). Currently suitable habitats are known predominantly in the North of Armenia. Climate change could allow those species to spread in Northern parts of Armenia where rather high amount of precipitation will remain. Figure 8 - Distribution of Echinocystis lobata in Armenia (white triangles – current habitats, black area – predicted distribution) Figure 9 - Distribution of Impatiens glandulifera in Armenia (white triangles – current habitats, black area – predicted distribution) 146 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Conclusions Preliminary results of the research on invasive alien and native expanding species started in Armenia in last years emphasize the importance of the problem. First of all it is necessary to monitor the current distribution of investigated species, which will provide the basis for the evaluation of their impacts on the natural ecosystems and biodiversity. The research carried out has shown the possibility of forecasting the changes in distribution of invasive alien and expanding native species in relation to climate change. These forecasts will also allow prioritizing species for estimating the level of the future threat to the natural ecosystems and biodiversity. References Fayvush G (2008) Investigation of invasive plant species in Armenia. Abstr. of 5th European conference on biological invasions “Neobiota: towards a synthesis”, Prague (Czech Republic), 23-26 September 2008, p.72. Kikodze D, Memiadze N, Kharazishvilii D, Manvelidze Z, Mueller-Schaerer H (2009) The alien flora of Georgia. Tbilisi. Red Data Book of Armenian SSR (Plants) (1989). Yerevan. Second National Communication of the Republic of Armenia under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (2010) Yerevan. Tamanyan K (2008) Invasive plant species and agriculture in Armenia. Abstr. of 5th European conference on biological invasions “Neobiota: towards a synthesis”, Prague (Czech Republic), 23-26 September 2008, p. 114. Tamanyan K, Fayvush G, Nanagyulyan S, Danielyan T (eds.) (2010) The Red Book of plants of Armenian Republic (higher plants and fungi). Yerevan. 147 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Noxious and invasive weeds in Greece: Current status and legislation P C Lolas Professor, University of Thessaly, Dep. Agriculture, Crop Production and Rural Environment, Fytoko Str, GR-384 46, Volos, Greece, E-mail: lolaspet@agr.uth.gr Weeds, generally, are a major limiting factor in crop production almost in any agro- ecosystem. However, not all weeds are equally aggressive and important. Noxious and invasive alien weeds are two groups of weeds that not only threaten agricultural production but also in many cases cause serious economic, social and environmental losses. Invasive alien weeds and generally invasive alien plants damage native ecosystems as well. The importance of these weeds has been recognized in the U.S.A. and ‗‘noxious weed lists‘‘ with relevant legislation have been established by the United State Department of Agriculture and most U.S.A. States. Similarly, Australia and N. Zealand developed such lists and legislation (declared species). Also, in these and a number of other countries there are lists of invasive weeds and a lot of research is conducted. Despite all this, it is important to notice that in the EC and in Greece there is no any legislation concerning noxious and invasive weeds. Directive 2000/29/EC as amended by Directive 2009/118/EC concerning introduction into the EC of organisms harmful to plants or plant products does not include weeds. The EPPO Alert List is an indicative list developed by an international organization and not a mandatory legislation of the EC or of a Member State. Examples of local weeds to be characterized in Greece as noxious (Orobanche spp., Solanum eleagnifolium, Solanum rostratum), new weeds introduced in Greece (Ipomoea hederacea, Sida spinosa), or weeds (Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Solanum carolinense, Striga spp.) to be excluded from entering Greece are given. Due to the fact that there is no any national or EC legislation concerning noxious and invasive weeds such a legislation is urgently needed and suggested. The Greek Weed Science Society initiated a study to suggest to the Greek Department of Agriculture lists of noxious and invasive weeds in Greece. Noxious and invasive alien weeds importance Weeds constitute a significant limiting factor in crop production in almost all agroecosystems. Nowadays introductions of many plant species beyond their natural range are rising sharply because of increased trade, transport, travel and tourism, all associated with globalization. However, weeds are not equal in their importance and aggressiveness. Two groups of weeds that not only threaten agricultural production but cause also in many cases serious economic, social and environmental losses are noxious weeds and invasive alien weeds. Invasive alien plants damage native ecosystems as well. In the U.S.A. it is estimated that each year more than $1.3 billion are spent to fight noxious weeds and invasive alien plants are considered as the second great threat to the forests, after fire (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2007). Sala et al. (2000) 148 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world considered invasive alien species to be the second cause of global biodiversity loss after direct habitat destruction and to be among the top drivers of global environmental change. The importance of invasive alien plants has also been recognized by EPPO, and Alert Lists of invasive alien plant species have been developed (www.eppo.org). Estimates of losses due to noxious and / or invasive alien plants are not available for Greece. Indicative of the significance of noxious and invasive weeds are the noxious weed lists developed not only by the USDA Department of Agriculture (Federal List) but also by most U.S.A. States (State Lists), Australia and New Zealand (declared species), South Africa ( major invaders, emerging invaders), and a number of other countries. To prevent and/or limit the impact of these weeds, considerable effort is allocated not only for their control but for research as well. Defining Noxious and Invasive alien weeds In this paper the meaning of noxious and invasive weeds follow the definitions of Radosevich et al. (2007), and Weber (2003). Noxious weed means any living stage, such as seeds and reproductive parts, of any parasitic or other plant of a kind, which is of foreign origin, is new to or not widely prevalent in an agroecosystem, and can directly or indirectly injure crops, other useful plants, livestock, or poultry or other interests of agriculture, including irrigation, navigation, the fish or wildlife resources or the public health (www.plants.usda. gov/java/noxious). Invasive alien weeds are species that do not naturally occur in a specific area (ecosystem) and whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2007). A discussion with comments on the definition of invasive plants can be found in Brunel & Tison (2005). Also well recognized definitions of an invasive alien species is given by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Invasive alien species is an alien species (a species, subspecies, or lower taxon, introduced outside its natural past or present distribution; includes any part, gametes, seeds, eggs, or propagules of such species that might survive and subsequently reproduce), whose introduction and/or spread threaten biological diversity (www.cbd.int/decision/cop/?id=7197) Status in countries other than Greece Noxious and Invasive weeds regulations in the U.S.A. There are national and State (more than 40) lists for noxious weeds (www.plants.usda.gov/java/noxiousDriver). The species, the number (from 2 in one State to 242 in California) and the characterization such as category A, B, C, or Primary, Secondary or simply Noxious or Restricted, differ from State to State. It is also important to notice that the same weed is noxious in one State but it is not in another and in the U.S.A list. In North Carolina and California where climatic conditions and weeds resemble those in Greece, noxious weeds are grouped in three categories, as A- not currently present or distribution is still limited (e.g. Avena sterilis), as B- distribution is still limited to portion of State (e.g. Tribulus terrestris), or as Ceither already widespread or of special interest (e.g. Tribulus terrestris in California). In California, some weeds (both native or alien) listed as noxious are Cynodon dactylon – (C), 149 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world (present in other 38 States, noxious only in one, California), Avena sterilis (quarantine, present in 5 States, noxious in 9 States and U.S.A list), Cardaria draba –(C), Cirsium arvense –(B), Cyperus spp.-(B) (present in 21 States, noxious in 4), Convolvulus arvensis –(C), (in 21 States), Sonchus spp. –A, Solanum eleagnifolium – B. All these weeds are very common and troublesome in Greece and it is suggested to be included in a noxious weed list in Greece. Noxious and invasive alien weeds regulations in Australia- New South Wales About two-thirds (1831) of the established alien plants in the Australian environment are escaped plants from gardens. They contribute substantially to the estimated $4 billion annual costs caused by weeds in agricultural ecosystems in Australia (Groves et al., 2005). As an example, in New South Wales the noxious weeds are regulated by the Noxious Weed Act 1993 as amended in 2006. According to this regulation, noxious weeds (429 species) are grouped in 5 control classes (see the website of the Department of Primary Industry of New South Wales for further information) Class 1, State Prohibited Weeds, Class 2, Regionally Prohibited Weeds, Class 3, Regionally Controlled Weeds, Class 4, Locally Controlled Weeds, Class 5 Restricted plants. Class 1 and 2 weeds must be eradicated, Class 3 weeds must be continuously suppressed and destroyed, not propagated, not moved in other places, while Class 4 weeds are managed according to local Governments. For Class 5 weeds restrictions on their sale and movement are imposed. EPPO regulations EPPO elaborates lists of pests (including weeds and invasive alien species) whose regulation is relevant for the whole, or large parts of the EPPO region (www.eppo.org). The List A1 includes pests not present in the EPPO region. The List A2 refers to pests present in the EPPO region but not widely distributed as absent from or not widely distributed in endangered areas in certain countries. Solanum eleagnifolium included in the A2 List is a weed present in Greece. Other EPPO Lists refer to invasive species including also the weeds Cyperus esculentus, Oxalis pes-caprae, Sicyos angulatus present in Greece. It is important, however, to notice that the EPPO Alert Lists are indicative lists developed by EPPO experts and not a mandatory legislation of the EC or of a Member State. Noxious and invasive weeds legislation in the E.U. Based on existing legislation, regulations and Directives (see below), one could say that in Europe, invasive alien plant species are considered not to constitute such a serious problem as in the United States, Australia, South Africa and other parts of the world. However, their negative economic, social and environmental impact is often highly damaging and likely to increase as a consequence of climate change, mobility of populations, transportation, increased tourism and travel activities, globalization of trade, and especially the opening of EU borders. Miller et al. (2006) provide a review of the existing legal and policy framework for Invasive Alien Species at international, EU and Member State levels. The authors, based on the information on the existing international, EU and national legal/policy frameworks, identify gaps in the existing EU invasive alien species legislation and make recommendations for filling such 150 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world gaps. At the national level, some countries (Germany, Great Britain, Portugal) have legislation and/or regulations aimed at preventing possession, transport, trade or release in the wild of specific invasive alien plants (www.issg.org). Information may be found either from National Plant Protection Organizations (i.e. Ministries of Agriculture) or from Ministries of Environment in individual countries. Habitat Directive 92/43/EEC The Habitat Directive 92/43/EEC provides amongst other provisions that individuals in general should be aware that under this Directive, deliberate introduction into the wild of non native species is regulated or prohibited, so as not to prejudice natural habitats or the wild native fauna and flora. The Directive has no any special statement for weeds generally and especially for noxious or invasive alien plants. Plant health Directive- EC Directive 2000/29 (amended by Directive 2002/89/EC) The Plant Health Directive concerns the ‗‘protective measures against the introduction into the Community of organisms harmful to plants or plant products and against their spread within the Community‘‘. Article 2 defines that the harmful organisms shall be considered to mean any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products. One of the most important measures in the Directive consists in listing the particularly dangerous harmful organisms whose introduction into the Community must be prohibited and also the harmful organisms whose introduction into the Member States when carried by certain plants or plant products must also be prohibited (listed in Annexes I-VII of the Directive). It is very important to notice and underline the fact that the Directive includes in the meaning of harmful organisms certain insects, mites, nematodes, bacteria, fungi, viruses, plants, but no weeds, except the parasitic plant Arceuthobium spp. originating out of Europe (Annex Ι Part Α). Recommendation 126/Council of Europe The recommendation was decided in the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Council of Europe) based on previous recommendations and on Article 8.h and Decision VI/23 of the 6th Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Recommendation suggests to contracting Parties 1. eradication of invasive alien plants which are not widespread and represent a threat at the regional scale or, when the invasion is taken at a late stage, containment or management action (appendix 1), 2. consider taking similar action against alien plant species having a high capacity of spread and presenting a very limited distribution (appendix 2). Plant species for which eradication or containment is recommended in Mediterranean countries are the weed Solanum eleagnifolium present in Greece and two alien species Hydrocotyle ranunculoides, Pueraria lobata not reported yet in Greece. European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species A number of European States have agreed to and approved the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species concerning principles on invasive alien species which was approved by the Convention on Biological Diversity (Genovesi & Shine, 2004). Notice that it is not a legislation to be implemented and also does not explicitly refers to noxious weeds. 151 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Noxious and Invasive weeds legislation in Greece In Greece, as in other countries in Europe, the importance of noxious and / or invasive alien weeds and their serious negative impacts not only in agro ecosystems but also in natural ecosystems has not yet been realized. This can be inferred from the absence of any legislation or regulations for these two weed categories. The Presidential law 365/2002 adopts and complies with Directive EC Directive 2000/29. There is no any provision and /or criteria for characterizing, preventing introduction or eradicating noxious and / or invasive weeds. Therefore it is obvious that for these weeds it is essential that not only Greece but also EC centrally and the Member States (MS) adopt and harmonize all the necessary measurements for management of these weeds regarding characterization (Lists), prevention of their introduction from third countries, between MS, spreading inside of each MS, and of course the eradication in cases it is feasible economically and agriculturally (for example parasitic weeds not possible to be controlled by other means). List of proposed noxious alien weeds present in Greece In Greece more than 150 plant species are considered as important weeds causing economic losses (Lolas 2007). However, as already mentioned above there is not yet any legislation/regulation or official definition or List of noxious weeds in Greece. Arianoutsou et al. (2010) assessed 343 plant species as alien flora of Greece and its traits with no reference specifically to weeds, noxious or invasive. However, of the 343 alien taxa presented, 26 species characterized by the authors as naturalized alien species and of them, 13 with invasive behavior are included in the list of common weeds in Greece (Greek Weed Science Society). The authors report also that the species Oxalis pes-caprae, Erigeron (Conyza) bonariensis and Amaranthus albus, considered as weeds (Greek Weed Science Society), are typical cases of plants characterised as invasive, having established in almost all the habitat groups identified. It is interesting to note that 8 of the 13 species characterised by Arianoutsou et al. (2010) with invasive behaviour are proposed below to be included in the list of noxious weeds in Greece. More and specific information on invasive alien plant species for Europe and Greece can be found in the site of DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway (www.europe-aliens.org) Data on the environmental/economic impact for Oxalis pes-caprae as alien plant can be found in Vilà et al (2006) and as weed in Damanakis & Markaki (1990), while for the weeds Ipomoea hederacea, Panicum dichotomifolium and Sicyos angulatus in Anagnou-Veroniki et al. (2008) and for Galinsoga ciliata, Sida spinosa in Limperopoulou & Giannopolitis (2009). The weed species reported by Anagnou-Veroniki et al. (2008) and Limperopoulou & Giannopolitis (2009), known as very serious weeds in the USA, are currently under acclimatization in Greece but not widespread yet. The Greek Weed Science Society accepted the suggestion of the author to develop a List of weeds considered to be noxious under the conditions in Greece. Main criteria for a weed to be included in the List were competitiveness, ecological impact, propagation mechanism, control difficulty, extent of distribution, and in case of invasive weeds also their biological potential for invasion. The List will be sent to the Greek Ministry of Agriculture with the suggestion to develop relevant regulations. Some weeds (native and alien) that are proposed to be included in this List are: Ambrosia artemisiifolia (present but not yet widespread, Arianoutsou et al., 2010, Bergmeier, 2008) Cuscuta campestris, Orobanche spp., Ampelamus albidus, Arundo donax, Asphodelus aestivus, Avena sterilis, Carduus nutans, Centaurea diffusa, Centaurea solstitialis, Cirsium arvense, Conyza bonariensis, Conyza canadensis, Cyperus rotundus, Equisetum spp., Euphorbia nutans (present but not yet 152 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world widespread), Imperata cylindrica, Opuntia spp., Oryza sativa (red rice), Oxalis pes-caprae, Phragmites australis, Pteridium aquilinum, Solanum eleagnifolium, Solanum rostratum and Xanthium spinosum. All these weeds meet the above mentioned three criteria, are very common and troublesome causing serious losses in the habitats in which they are present (arable land, orchards, pastures, or natural ecosystems) and are reported as noxious in some other countries. List of proposed noxious alien weeds not present in Greece Some species, among many others, considered to be potentially noxious if they enter Greece are:Acroptilon repens, Eichhornia crassipes, Ipomoea spp. (except I. hederacea), Parthenium hysterophorus, Solanum carolinense, Solanum torvum, Solanum viarum, Striga spp. (holoparasite with no practically effective control method).These and other weeds are found in climates and habitats very similar to those in Greece, and it is therefore expected that any of them intentionally or unintentionally introduced in Greece would establish and spread to become serious and troublesome weeds in anthropogenic and /or natural ecosystems as in their original habitat. List of potential invasive alien weeds in Greece Although it is difficult to determine which biological characteristics are good indicators of invasiveness and there are no generally recognized characteristics that apply to plants that become invasive, such species often have some of the following characteristics: rapid growth and reproduction, ability to colonize disturbed or weedy areas, short growth cycle, early flowering and seeding, production of large quantities of seeds, effective vegetative propagation and spread, different phenology from native species allowing them to be strong competitors and to dominate. Many weeds share part of these characteristics that predispose them to becoming invasive (Dehnen-Schmutz, et al., 2007). Plants with some of the above features can be considered as potentially invasive. Some of these plants not yet present in Greece are Acroptilon repens, Cenchrus incertus (already present, Arianoutsou et al., 2010) Centaurea maculosa, C. iberica, Conyza albida, Eichhornia crassipes, Ipomoea spp. (except I. hederacea), Parthenium hysterophorus, Pueraria montana, Senna spp., Sesbania spp. This is not a conclusive list. Obviously, many other plant species may find their way to arrive in the country and become invasive. Some weeds are considered as both noxious not present in Greece and potentially invasive because they are reported as noxious in their original habitat and one cannot exclude the fact that these weeds may find their way, for example through seed lots, to arrive in Greece as it happened with so many other alien species until now. For certain weeds, as for example Striga spp. it is essential that all measures are taken so that the absolute prevention of its introduction in Greece be possible, or it is eradicated at its first observation before it spreads. Conclusions Noxious and invasive alien weeds constitute a serious threat to productivity in agro ecosystems and natural ecosystems. Local, national, European, and international coordinated action is needed to minimize their negative economic, social and environmental effects. It is now the time that EU and particularly Greece ensure legislation and regulations for noxious and invasive alien weeds so as to prevent and/or limit the introduction and spread of these plants and any other that are potentially invasive because of their known behaviour and negative impact elsewhere. 153 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Acknowledgments Sarah Brunel, Giuseppe Brundu and Ilhan Uremis are greatly acknowledged for their very useful, constructive and detailed comments which improved considerably the manuscript. References Anagnou-Veroniki M, Papaioannou –Souliotis P, Karanastasi E, & Giannopolitis CN (2010) New records of plant pests and weeds in Greece, 1990-2007 Hellenic Plant Protection Journal 1, 55-78 Arianoutsou M, Bazos I, Delipetrou P. & Kokkoris Y (2010) The alien flora of Greece: taxonomy, life traits and habitat preferences. Biology Invasions 12, 3525–3549 Bergmeier E (2008) Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.; Hesperis matronalis subsp. cladotricha (Borbαs) Hayek. In: Greuter, W. & Raus, Th. (eds.), Med-Checklist Notulae, 27. – Willdenowia 38, 466-467. Brunel S & Tison JM (2005) A method of selection and hierarchisation of the invasive and potentially invasive plants in the continental Mediterranean France. p 49-64 In Brunel S (ed). Invasive plants in the Mediterranean type regions of the world. Proceedings, pp. 428 Damanakis M, & Markaki M (1990) Studies on the biology of Oxalis pes-caprae L. under field conditions in Greece. Zizaniology 2, 145-154 Dehnen-Schmutz K, Touza A, Perrings C. & Williamson M. (2007). The horticultural trade and ornamental plant invasions in Britain. Conservation Biology 21, 224–231. Genovesi P. & Shine C. 2004. European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species. Nature and Environment n 137. Council of Europe publishing, Strasbourg, pp 67. Groves RH, Boden R & Lonsdale WM (2005) Jumping the Garden Fence: Invasive garden plants in Australia and their environmental and agricultural impacts, a CSIRO report for WWF-Australia. 173. Kaufman SR & Kaufman W. (2007) Invasive plants. A Guide to Identification and the Impacts and Control of Common North American Species Stackpole books, pp.458. Lolas P (2007) Weed Science, Weeds, Herbicides, Fate and behaviour in the environment, Synchrony paideia, Thessaloniki, pp. 628. Lymperopoulou S. & Giannopolitis CN 2009) Galinsoga ciliata (Raf.) S.F.Blake and Sida spinosa L., two new weed records from Greece. Hellenic Plant Protection Journal 2, 37-4 Miller, C, Kettunen, M. & Shine C. (2006) Scope options for EU action on invasive alien species (IAS) Final report for the European Commission. Institute for European Environmental Policy (IEEP), Brussels, Belgium. 109 pp + Annexes. Radosevich, SR, Holt, J S & Ghersa C M (2007) Biology of weeds and invasive plants. 3d ed. Wiley, pp. 454. Sala OE, Chapin III FS, Armesto JJ, Berlow R, Bloomfield J, Dirzo R, Huber-Sanwald E, Huenneke LF, Jackson RB, Kinzig A, Leemans R, Lodge D, Mooney HA, Oesterheld M, Poff NL, Sykes MT, Walker BH, Walker M, & Wall DH (2000). Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science 287, 1770-1774 Vilà M, Tessier M, Suehs CM, Brundu G, Carta L, Galanidis A, Lambdon P, Manca M, Medail F, Moragues E, Traveset A, Troumbis AY, Hulme PE (2006) Local and regional assessments of the impacts of plant invaders on vegetation structure and soil properties of Mediterranean islands. Journal of Biogeography 33, 853–861 Weber E (2003) Invasive plant species of the world. A reference guide to Environmental weeds. CABI Publishing, Wallingford Internet sites, (date of consultation, 12/12/2010) CBD, www.cbd.int/decision/cop/?id=7197 Council of Europe, https://wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=Rec(2007)126&Language=lanEnglish&Ver= original&Site=COE&BackColorInternet=DBDCF2&BackColorIntranet=FDC864&BackColorLogged=FDC864 DAISIE, www.europe-aliens.org Dep. of Primary Industry of New South Wales www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pests-weeds/weeds/definition EPPO, www.eppo.org ; GISD, www.issg.org/database/reference/index.asp Greek Weed Science Society, www.eze.org.gr IPCC, www.ipcc.ch/pdf/glossary/ar4-wg2.pdf ; USDA, www.plants.usda. gov/java/noxious 154 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world A tales of two islands: comparison between the exotic flora of Corsica and Sardinia Daniel Jeanmonod 1and Giuseppe Brundu 2 1 Laboratory of Plant systematic and biodiversity, University of Geneva, Conservatoire et jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève, Switzerland E-mail : Daniel.jeanmonod@ville-ge.ch 2 Department of Botany, Ecology and Geology, University of Sassari, Italy E-mail: gbrundu@tin.it (Presenting author) Alien plant species have been introduced to Europe throughout history. There are regions, such as the Mediterranean basin islands, where for thousands of years man has been responsible for the spread of ever-increasing numbers of plants taxa, introduced for different purposes or quite often entered accidentally and rarely controlled. The two geographically close islands of Corsica and Sardinia share similar features concerning the geological history, the native vegetation, the endemism rate and the land use dynamics in the coastal areas and surrounding islets. Nevertheless there are also specific differences, mainly in the inner mountain areas, where average altitude is markedly higher in Corsica than in Sardinia. These insular systems represent a local hotspot for native biodiversity and an area of international interest for habitats and nature conservation. Coastal areas of both islands also share similar features concerning the composition of their exotic floras and the distribution patterns and impacts of the main invasive aliens, such as Carpobrotus spp., Cortaderia selloana, Oxalis pes-caprae, to mention a few. Due to the geographical position, the two islands are in fact interconnected and there are frequent trade exchanges and tourism flux between them, thus increasing the probability for similar sensitive habitats to be invaded by the same invasive taxa. In this paper we compare the naturalised and casual alien plants of the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, highlighting common features and the main differences, with some indications for management. 155 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Nouvelle espèce menaçant la biodiversité au Maroc: Verbesina encelioides (Asteraceae) A Taleb, M Bouhache & B El Mfadi Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, B.P. 6202 Rabat-Instituts, Rabat, Maroc, Emails : a.taleb@iav.ac.ma; abdeltaleb@yahoo.fr; m.bouhache@iav.ac.ma; m.bouhache@gmail.com Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) Benth. et Hook. ex Gray est une plante exotique récemment introduite au Maroc. Elle a envahi totalement le périmètre de Souss–Massa (région d‘Agadir) et depuis, elle s'est propagée vers d'autres régions : Safi, Rabat, Larache, Sefrou, Fès. Le présent travail a été entrepris dans le but d'évaluer l'état d'infestation, de décrire les caractéristiques morphoécologiques de V. encelioides, de faire le point sur les dangers inhérents à cette nouvelle plante et d‘étudier le comportement des akènes vis-à-vis de certaines variantes de l'environnement : la température, la photopériode, le stress hydrique et la profondeur d'enfouissement. Les enquêtes ont permis de mettre en relief l'importance sa présence dans des milieux plus ou moins perturbés par l'homme ainsi que son effet attractif sur la mouche blanche. Le test de viabilité a révélé une moyenne de 92% d‘akènes viables. La cinétique d‘imbibition est rapide et importante pendant les premières 12 heures d‘incubation et elle se ralentit au delà. Les essais de germination ont démontré la capacité des akènes à germer dans la gamme thermique allant de 8þC à 35þC avec un optimum de 15þC/25þC, et une indifférence totale vis-à-vis de la lumière. Aussi, la diminution du potentiel hydrique jusqu‘à -0,6 MPa n‘affecte pas la capacité de germination des akènes. Cependant, la diminution du potentiel hydrique de -0,6 MPa à -1,3 MPa engendre une chute du pourcentage de germination. L‘émergence des plantules a été remarquée jusqu‘à 3,5 cm de profondeur. Le maximum des émergences a été enregistré à la profondeur de 1,5 cm suivie par 0 et 2,5 cm et 3,5 cm de profondeur. A partir de 7 cm de profondeur, aucune plantule n‘émerge ? Concerne sa croissance et son développement, V. encelioides parvient à accomplir son cycle de développement, de l‘émergence à la maturité des premiers akènes, en 80 jours. Durant son cycle, elle favorise la croissance de la partie aérienne et elle investit plus dans la formation de la tige et des rameaux dans un premier temps, les inflorescences apparaissent ensuite à partir du stade floraison. La production des semences est importante et échelonnée dans le temps. Introduction A l‘instar des autres pays du bassin méditerranéen, le Maroc n‘est pas à l‘abri des invasions biologiques. Ces dernières années a en effet été noté l‘apparition de nouvelles espèces au sein de la flore marocaine (Ameur & Bouhache, 1994; Qorchi & Taleb, 1997; Tanji & Taleb, 1997; Taleb & Bouhache, 2005). 156 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) Benth. et Hook. ex Gray a été introduite au Maroc et spécialement dans la région du Souss (Agadir) vers les années 90. C‘est une espèce dotée d‘une large amplitude écologique. Elle s‘accommode avec sa nouvelle aire d‘introduction et s‘y propage naturellement (Kaul et Mangal, 1987). La première phase de son invasion est agressive et rapide grâce à sa capacité à fleurir et à produire des semences durant toute l‘année (Tuvia, 1998). Elle commence par l‘occupation des terrains incultes et les bordures de routes et s‘étend ensuite aux terrains cultivés, toutes cultures confondues (Kaul & Mangal, 1987; Tuvia, 1998). C‘est une plante annuelle, nitrophile, mésotherme, caractérisée par une grande souplesse et une grande plasticité de germination et de croissance. Dans son aire d‘origine, elle pousse dans différents types de sols et sous des conditions de température et d‘humidité très variables (Kaul & Mangal, 1987). V. encelioides occasionne des nuisances diverses. En plus de la compétition avec d‘autres plantes (Grichar & Sestak, 1998), elle peut exercer un effet allélopathique en libérant des toxines dans le sol (Usha, 1987). Elle est aussi hautement toxique vis-à-vis du bétail en provoquant un arrêt rapide de la respiration (Baker et al., 1992; Campero et al., 1996). Néanmoins, le danger le plus redoutable est celui de la transmission du virus de la maladie bronzée de la tomate, TSWV. Elle héberge à la fois le virus et son vecteur, à savoir les thrips (Cho et al., 1988; Bautista & Mau, 1994; Forrest et al., 1996). Le TSWV s‘attaque à une large gamme d‘espèces d‘intérêt économique; les Solanaceae, les légumineuses, les plantes ornementales, etc. Cette maladie peut avoir un caractère épidémiologique et envahir des surfaces culturales très étendues (Forrest et al., 1996). Compte tenu de ces données et en absence de toute étude préalable sur cette espèce au Maroc, une étude a été entreprise dans le but d'évaluer l'état d'infestation, de décrire les caractéristiques morpho-écologiques de V. encelioides, de faire le point sur les dangers inhérents à cette nouvelle plante et d‘étudier le comportement des akènes vis-à-vis de certaines variantes de l'environnement: la température, la photopériode, le stress hydrique et la profondeur d'enfouissement. Historique Le genre Verbesina L. appartient à la famille des Asteraceae (Composées). Ce genre comprend plus de 60 espèces originaires principalement des régions chaudes (Amérique boréale et australe). Verbesina encelioides est connue sous plusieurs noms : Butteer daisy, Golden Crown daisy, Grown beard, American dogweed, South africain daisy. La plante a été décrite pour la première fois par le botaniste espagnol Antonio José Cavanilles (1745-1804) mais sous un autre genre. Après, Georges Benthan (1800-1884) et Hooker (18171911) ont placé la plante dans sa position taxonomique actuelle. Cependant, son nom n'a été publié officiellement qu'en 1876 quand le botaniste américain Asa Gray (1810-1888) l'a citée dans son article « Botany of California ». 157 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Matériel et méthodes 1. Matériel végétal Pour les essais de viabilité, d‘imbibitions et de germination, les semences utilisées proviennent de la région d‘Agadir (Souss), et plus précisément des zones de Khmiss Aït Amira et de Biougra. La collecte est faite manuellement et d‘une manière aléatoire sur des pieds en fin de maturité. Après deux jours d‘exposition à l‘air libre au laboratoire afin d‘éliminer toute trace d‘eau à la surface des akènes, ces derniers ont été conservés dans des sachets en papier dans un milieu sec et à température ambiante jusqu'à leur utilisation. Il est à noter qu‘au sein de la zone de collecte, les prospections et les prélèvements ont été effectués dans différentes situations : terres incultes, champ de carotte, champ de maïs, serre vide, etc. Pour l‘étude morpho-écologique, les plantes ont été collectées dans les différentes régions du Maroc ou l‘espèce a été signalée. 2. Test de viabilité Ce test est entrepris dans le but d‘estimer le pourcentage des akènes viables et non viables au sein de 6 lots de 200 akènes, correspondant aux différentes stations de collecte. Pour la réalisation de ce test, nous avons utilisé le chlorure du tetrazolium à 1% (Chlorure de 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium). La viabilité des semences est appréciée d‘après la coloration rougeâtre de l‘embryon observé sous une loupe binoculaire. Les observations sont faites à un intervalle de 4 heures (Weber & Wiesner, 1980). 3. Test d’imbibition Il consiste à mettre les semences sur un papier filtre, Wathman Nþ1, qui surmonte une couche d‘éponge de 3 mm d‘épaisseur saturée d‘eau distillée. L‘ensemble est mis dans des boites de pétri préalablement stérilisées. Nous avons utilisé 4 lots de semences de 50 akènes qui ont été pesés au préalable. Des mesures de poids ont été faites après : 0,5 h, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h, 6 h, 8 h, 10 h, 12 h, 24 h, 36 h, 48 h, 60 h et 72 h du début de test. Le test d‘imbibition a été mené au laboratoire à température ambiante et dans des conditions hydriques non limitantes. 4. Essais de germination sous des conditions contrôlées : Ces essais ont été entrepris dans le but de mieux connaître le comportement et les exigences des akènes de V. encelioides vis-à-vis de la température, de la lumière et de l‘eau. 158 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world  Les régimes thermiques Dans le choix des régimes thermiques, nous avons essayé de respecter les critères suivants : - tester des degrés de température à l‘intérieur de la gamme permettant la germination de V. encelioides qui s‘étale de 5þC à 40þC (Mahmoud et al., 1984), ainsi que des extrêmes thermiques ; présenter trois régimes thermiques : froid (hiver), frais (printemps) et chaud (été). - La photopériode adoptée est de 12 h / 12 h. Traitements T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Température °C Jour 10 15 25 30 35 40 Nuit 8 10 15 17 20 22  Les régimes hydriques Cet essai vise à étudier l‘effet du stress hydrique et la détermination du potentiel critique minimal permettant la germination des semences de V. encelioides dans des conditions spécifiques. Pour simuler les différents potentiels hydriques nous avons utilisé le polyéthylène glycol 20.000 (PEG 20.000). Le PEG 20.000 présente l‘avantage, par rapport aux autres agents osmotiques (i.e. les sels, monitol, etc.) d‘être inerte, non toxique, et non absorbable par les semences (Yessef, 1984). Les niveaux du potentiel hydrique adoptés sont les suivants (Yessef, 1984) : Solution S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 Concentration du PEG en Potentiel hydrique g/l d’eau distillée (MPa) 0 -0.03 160 -0.3 210 -0.6 270 -0.9 340 -1.3 Potentiel hydrique (bar) -0.3 -3 -6 -9 -13  Emergence à différentes profondeurs d’enfouissement Cet essai est conduit dans le but d‘étudier le comportement des akènes en termes d'émergence en fonction de la profondeur du semis. Il a été conduit dans une parcelle du jardin botanique de l‘Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II à Rabat. 159 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Le semis a été fait dans des pots de 16 cm de diamètre et 22 cm de hauteur confectionnés à partir de bouteilles en plastique de 5 l perforées à leur base pour évacuer l‘excès d‘eau. Le sol a été stérilisé à l‘autoclave pendant 4 h, avec un intervalle de 24 h entre les 2 h, sous une pression de 1 bar. Les différentes profondeurs ont été choisies sur la base des études qui ont été faites par d‘autres auteurs, dans d‘autres conditions et avec des populations autochtones de V. encelioides, à savoir Kaul & Mangal, (1987). Les profondeurs de semis testées sont : 0 ; 1 ; 2,5 ; 3,5 ; 7 ; 14 et 20 cm.  Croissance et développement des plants de V. encelioides Le but de cet essai est de décrire la croissance et le développement des plants de V. encelioides à travers un ensemble d‘observations et de paramètres mesurés et calculés. Le semis a été fait à une profondeur de 2 cm dans des pots confectionnés, du même type que ceux de l‘essai précédent, à raison de 10 akènes par pots. La terre utilisée a été stérilisée au préalable à l‘autoclave. Une fois que les akènes ont germés et que les plantules se sont stabilisées, nous avons gardé une seule plantule par pot afin d‘éviter toute compétition pouvant s‘établir entre les plantules au dépend de leur croissance. Nous avons fixé cinq stades végétatifs comme repère pour faire les prélèvements et les observations: - Stade plantule. - Stade rosette. - Stade redressement. - Stade floraison. - Stade maturité. Résultats 1. Origine de son introduction V. encelioides a été rencontrée aux USA, en Argentine, au Mexique, au Moyen Orient, en Algérie (observée à Mostaganem en 1874 par Pomel et puis par D‘Alleizette en 1919) et au Maroc à la fin des années 90. Cette espèce n'a jamais été signalée dans le catalogue des plantes du Maroc (Jahandiez & Maire, 1931-1934). Elle vient s'ajouter aux 12 espèces introduites ces dernières années au Maroc (Tanji & Taleb, 1997 ; Taleb & Bouhache, 2005). L'origine de l‘introduction de V. encelioides est inconnue. Au Maroc, sa date d'apparition remonte à plus de 10 ans dans la zone de Souss–Massa (Sud du Maroc). Il est soupçonné qu'elle y ait été introduite comme plante ornementale. Les premiers foyers ont été constatés aux alentours de l'ancien aéroport d'Inzegane et puis elle a envahi tout le périmètre. Elle s'installe dans les entourages des habitations, les terrains incultes et les terrains cultivés. Certaines 160 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world personnes interrogées déclarent qu'elle aurait été introduite avec le fumier, d'autres ajoutent que les akènes sont disséminés par le vent et l'eau d'irrigation pompée à partir du barrage. 2. Description de la population marocaine de V. encelioides Des observations et des mesures effectuées sur un ensemble de pieds prélevés dans les différentes stations ont permis de décrire cette espèce végétale et de déterminer ses particularités. V. encelioides se présente comme une plante herbacée d'un vert grisâtre. La racine est pivotante pouvant dépasser les 30 cm de longueur, associée à un système de racines fasciculées très développé. A signaler, la présence, parfois, d'une racine latérale, de taille moyenne, prenant naissance à partir de la zone subérifiée de la racine principale et qui se développe juste au dessous de la surface du sol. La tige est très ramifiée et comporte jusqu'à 17 rameaux. Sa longueur atteint, pour certains pieds, les 130 cm. Les feuilles basales de la tige et des rameaux sont opposées, les autres sont alternes. Les capitules, ou inflorescences, se situent aux extrémités de la tige et des rameaux à différents degrés de maturité. Sur le même pied, on trouve des capitules immatures, d'autres en phase d'épanouissement et d'autres en début ou en fin de maturité des akènes. Ils sont supportés par des pédoncules dont la longueur varie en fonction de position des capitules, ceux du centre sont plus longs que les périphériques. Grossièrement, le nombre moyen des capitules par pieds est de 36, mais de 6 à 470 capitules ont été dénombrés. Chacun est constitué de deux types de fleurs : des fleurs périphériques, radiées, jaunes et triplement dentées dont le nombre varie de 13 à 21 par capitule ; et des fleurs centrales, tubulées, et hermaphrodites constituées par un long tube partiellement soudé. Leur nombre varie de 145 à 200, avec une moyenne de 167. Chacune de ces fleurs tubulées est associée à une écaille qui s'attache à sa base. L'ensemble est inséré au niveau du réceptacle floral. Les deux types de fleurs produisent des akènes. Les akènes issus des fleurs radiées sont noirs, côniformes et allongés, non ailés, durs avec une surface rigoureuse et mesurent environ 4 mm de longueur. En revanche, les akènes issus des fleurs tubulées sont pourvus de deux ailes de couleur beige claire. Leur nombre peut dépasser les 200 akènes par capitule avec une moyenne de 180. Il existe un polymorphisme relativement léger chez ce type d'akènes, on y trouve des akènes possédant trois, quatre, ou cinq ailes. 3. Infestation et répartition Les enquêtes ont permis de mettre en relief l'importance de l'infestation et de la présence de la plante dans des milieux plus ou moins perturbés par l'homme ainsi que son effet attractif sur la mouche blanche. V. encelioides se rencontre dans les régions de Souss (Agadir), de Safi (Had Hrara), de Taroudant, de Rabat (région de Témara), d‘Assila, de Larache, de Tétouan (Nord du Maroc), de Marrakech et de l‘Oriental. 4. Importance agronomique Des enquêtes lors des relevés ont montré que V. enceloides commence à envahir les champs cultivés (maïs, cultures sous serres). De plus, elle est susceptible de constituer un réservoir pour une gamme diversifiée d'agents de maladies et de viroses de plusieurs plantes cultivées, à savoir : - Cucumber mosaic (cucumovirus), - Dahlia mosaic (caulimovirus), 161 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world - Hogweed mosaic nepovirus), - Pepper veinal mottle (potyvirus), - Strawberry latent ringspot (nepovirus), - Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (Tospovirus) Des études ont montré qu'au moment de la floraison, le thrips (Franfliniella occidentalis) préfère se nourrir et pondre sur V. encelioides plutôt que sur d'autres plantes comme Datura stramonium L., d'où le risque de transmission du Virus Tomato Spotted Wilt (Tospovirus) (Bautista & Mau, 1994; Bautista et al., 1995; Mitchell & Smith, 1996). De plus, V. enceloides a causé des cas de toxicité du bétail au Maroc cette année, ce qui a été rapporté aux USA (une dose de 5 g de solution de la plante par Kg de poids vif administré à un mouton le tue après 72 heures). Ainsi, l'animal intoxiqué présente les symptômes suivants : perturbation de la fonction respiratoire, - forts exsudats des narines, - hydrothorax avec 2 à 3 l de liquide thoracique avec des traces de fibrine, - œdème dans les poumons. Cette toxicité est due à la concentration (0,08%) de galégine dans la plante (Keeler et al., 1992; Lopez et al., 1996). Figure 1 - Evolution du gain de poids relatif en fonction du temps pour les akènes de Verbesina encelioides 162 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 5. Test de viabilité Les pourcentages de viabilité (moyenne 92%) des akènes reflètent leur grande capacité germinative. Tenant compte de la production élevée par pied (moyenne de 6480 d‘akènes), nous pouvons déduire qu‘une fraction importante d‘akènes est viable et capable de germer lorsque les conditions environnementales sont adéquates. 6. Test d’imbibition Le processus d‘imbibition (d‘absorption d‘eau) est entamé dès le premier contact eau-akène. La cinétique d‘imbibition est rapide et importante pendant les premières 12 heures d‘incubation et elle se ralentit au-delà. Vers 72 heures, le gain de poids est de 2,7 fois (Fig. 1). Figure 2 - Pourcentages cumulés de la germination des akènes en fonction de différents régimes thermiques (T1: 8þC/10þC; T2: 10þC/15þC; T3: 15°C/25°C; T4: 17þC/30þC; T5: 20þC/35þC) 7. Essais de germination en conditions contrôlées  Les régimes thermiques Ces essais ont été entrepris dans le but de mieux connaître le comportement et les exigences des akènes de V. encelioides vis-à-vis de la température, de la lumière et de l‘eau. Les essais de germination ont démontré la capacité des akènes à germer dans la gamme thermique allant de 8þC à 35þC avec un optimum de 15þC/25þC (Fig. 2) et une indifférence totale vis-à-vis de la lumière.  Les régimes hydriques La diminution du potentiel hydrique jusqu‘a -0,6 MPa n‘affecte pas la capacité de germination des akènes. Cependant, la diminution du potentiel hydrique de -0,6 MPa à -1,3 MPa engendre une chute du pourcentage de germination (Fig. 3). 163 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Figure 3 - Evolution de la germination de Verbesina encelioides en fonction de la diminution du potentiel hydrique (à quoi correspondent S1, S2, S3, S4 et S5 ?)  Essai d'émergence à différentes profondeurs d’enfouissement En ce qui concerne la profondeur de semis, la levée des plantules a été initiée 8 jours après semis. Parmi les profondeurs testées, uniquement quatre se sont révélées positives vis-à-vis de l‘émergence (à 0 ; 1,5 ; 2,5 et 3,5 cm de profondeur) (Fig. 4). L‘émergence des plantules a été remarquée jusqu‘à 3,5 cm de profondeur. Le maximum des émergences a été enregistré au niveau de la profondeur 1,5 cm suivie par 0 et 2,5 cm et ensuite 3,5 cm. A partir de 7 cm de profondeur le pourcentage d‘émergence devient nulle.  Croissance et développement Concernant sa croissance et son développement, V. encelioides parvient à accomplir son cycle de développement, de l‘émergence à la maturité des premiers akènes, en 80 jours. Durant son cycle, elle favorise la croissance de la partie aérienne et elle investit plus dans la formation de la tige et des rameaux dans un premier temps, les inflorescences apparaissent ensuite à partir du stade floraison. Du 69 au 71ième jour approximativement, les premiers capitules éclos commencent à perdre les fleurs périphériques et la formation des akènes est entamée. Ainsi, la première vague des akènes mûrs est enregistrée 80 jours après l'émergence des plantules. La production des semences est importante et échelonnée dans le temps. Dans la plupart des zones prospectées, V. encelioides existe sous différents stades phénologiques ; du stade plantule au stade fin de maturité. Ceci témoigne de l'échelonnement de la croissance et du développement de cette espèce et de sa capacité à germer, à fleurir et à produire des semences tout au long de l'année. 164 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Figure 4 - Evolution des pourcentages d‘émergence de Verbesina encelioides en fonction de la profondeur du semis Discussion L‘extrapolation de ces résultats de terrain met en les possibilités d‘établissement et de prolifération de V. enceloides. En se basant sur le classement des différentes régions du Maroc dans le système climatique d‘Emberger, on constate que le climat du pays, en général, paraît favorable pour la croissance et le développement de cette espèce. Du point de vue pluviométrique, à l‘exception des zones sahariennes, les précipitations sont assez abondantes et ne constituent pas un facteur limitant. Du point de vue des températures, l‘étude a prouvé la capacité de la plante à germiner entre 8 þC et 35þC. En fonction des régions, des températures similaires se présentent tout au long de l‘année sur la zone côtière et durant le printemps et l‘été sur la zone continentale. Les potentiels hydriques qui ont été testés sont compris entre l‘humidité au point de flétrissement et ‘humidité à la capacité au champ c‘est à dire l'eau occupe alors ce qu'on appelle la microporosité et ne circule plus que très lentement et le sol ne se dessèche que par évaporation directe pour les couches les plus superficielles. Mais le plus remarquable est le fait que les degrés d‘humidité enregistrés a niveau de -1,3 MPa sont très proches de l‘humidité au point de flétrissement, pour chaque type de sol. Ceci met en valeur la capacité de V. enceloides à germer dans des situations hydriques très difficiles et sa tolérance au stress hydrique. De point de vue texture, Al Faraj & al. (1988) et Kaul et Mangal (1987) confirment que V. enceloides préfère les sols sablonneux, et l‘importance de la germination diminue avec l‘augmentation de la fraction argileuse dans le sol. 165 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Références Al Faraj & MM, Hassan HM & Al Dosoky RA (1988) Germination studies on Verbesina enceloides (Cav.) Benth. Et Hook. Ex A. Gray (Astercaeae). Journal of Arid environments 15, 169-174. Ameur A & Bouhache M (1994) Projet Morelle Jaune (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.). Synthèse des travaux effectués au Maroc. IAV Hassan II, INRA et DERDA. 141 p. Baker DC, Keeler RF, & Panter KE (1992) Concentration of Galigine in Verbesina encelioides and Galega oficinalis and the Toxic and Pathologic Effects Induced by the Plants. Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology 11(2), 11-17. Bautista RC & Mau R FL (1994) Preferences and development of western flowers thrips on plant hosts of tomato spotted wilt tospovirus. Environmental Pathology 23, 6 Bautista RC & Mau RFL, Cho JJ & Custer DM (1995) Potential of tomato spotted wilt tospovirus plant hosts in Hawaii as virus reservoirs for transmission by Franfliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Phytopathology. St. Paul, Minn.: American Phytopathological Society Vol. 85 9, 953-958. Campero CM, Caracino M, Chayer R, Cosentino B & Lopez TA (1996) Experimental Toxicity of Verbesina encelioides in Sheep and Isolation of Galegine. Vet. Human Toxicol. 38(6), 417-419. Cho JJ, Mitchell WC, Tabashnik BE & Yudin LS (1988) Colonization of Weeds and Lettuce by Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Environmental Entomology 17(3), 522-526. Forrest LM & Smith JW, JR (1996) Influence of Verbesina encelioides (Asteraceae) on Thrips (Thysanoptera: Terebrantia) Populations and Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus Epidemics in South Texas Peanut Fiels. Journal of Economic Entomology 89(6): 1593-1600. Grichar WJ & Sestak DC (1998) Control of Golden Crownbeard (Verbesina encelioides) in Peanut (Arachis hypogea) with Postemergence herbicides. Peanut Science 25, 39 – 43. Jahandiez E & Maire R (1931-1934) Catalogue des plantes du Maroc, 3 tomes, éd. Lechevallier, Paris, 913 p. Kaul MLH & Mangal PD (1987) Phenology and germination of Crownbeard (Verbesina encelioides). Weed Science 35, 513-518. Keeler RF, Baker DC & Panter KE (1992) Concentration of galegine in Verbesina encelioides and Galegia officinalis and the toxic pathological effects induced by the plants. Journal of Environmental Pathology 11, 275-81. Lopez TA, Campero CM, Chayer R, Cosentino B & Caracino M (1996) Experimantal toxicity of Verbesina encelioides in sheep and isolation of galegine. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. Manhatan, Kan.: Kansas States University, Vol. 38 6, 417-419. Mitchell FL & Smith JW Jr (1996) Influence of Verbesina encelioides (Asterales, Asteraceae) on thrips (Thysanoptera: terebrantia) population and tomato spotted wilt virus epidemics in south Texas peanut fields. Journ. Econ. Entomol. Lanham, Md.: Entomological Society of America Vol. 89 6, 1593-1600. Qorchi M & Taleb A (1997) Situation Actuelle de l'infestation par la Morelle Jaune dans les Différents Périmètres Irrigués du Maroc. Journée nationale sur la morelle jaune: Ampleur du problème et stratégie de lutte, pp 58. Tuvia Y (1998) The dispersion of the invasive weeds Heterotheca subaxillaris and Verbesina encelioieds in Israel. 6th EWRS Mediterranean Symposium, Montpellier, pp. 56-57. Usha G (1987) Allelopathic Effects of Verbesina encelioides Cav.. Annals of Arid Zone 26(4), 287-291. Taleb A & Bouhache M (2005). Etat actuel de nos connaissances sur les plantes envahissantes au Maroc. International Workshop "Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World" - 25-27 May 2005 in Montpellier; France Tanji A & Taleb A (1997) A newly species recently introduced into Morocco. Weed Research 37, 27-31. D‘Alleizette Ch (1919) Note sur une compose nouvelle pour la flore d‘Algérie, Verbesina enceloides Bent & Hook (Ximenesia enceloides Cavan.). Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Afrique du Nord, Alger. Yessef M (1984) Contribution à l'étude de l'installation et de la survie de l'armoise blanche (Artemisia herba alba Asso). Germination, développement des plantules et survie des différentes catégories d'individus. Mémoire de 3ième cycle Agronomie I. A. V. Hassan II Rabat. 166 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world New species threatening the biodiversity in Morocco: Verbesina encelioides (Asteraceae) Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) Benth. et Hook. ex Gray is an invasive alien weed recently introduced in Morocco. It invaded completely the perimeter of Souss–Massa (region of Agadir). From there it was disseminated towards other areas: Safi, Rabat, Larache, Fez, Sefrou, etc. This study was conducted in order to evaluate the infestation area, describe the morphological and ecological characteristics of V. encelioides, to point out threats of this species, on one hand, and to study the effect of certain environmental factors on its seeds germination (temperature, photoperiod, water stress and burial depth) on the other hand. The surveys pointed out the importance of its presence in areas more or less disturbed by man and the fact it attracts the white fly. The viability test of seeds revealed an average of 92% of viable akenes. The kinetics of imbibition was fast during the first 12 hours of incubation and it was slowed down beyond that. The tests of germination showed the capacity of the akenes to germinate in a temperature range of 8þC to 35þC with an optimum at 15þC/25þC, light and dark. Also, a reduction of water potential until -0,6 MPa did not affect germinative capacity of the akenes. However, the reduction of the water potential from –0.6 MPa to –1.3 MPa reduced the percentage of germination. The emergence seedlings occurred up to 3.5 cm of depth. The maximum of emergences was recorded at 1.5 cm followed by 0 and 2.5 cm and then 3.5 cm burial depth. Beyond 7 cm burial depth, the emergence did not occur. Regarding the growth and development, V. encelioides achieve life cycle (from emergence to the maturity of first akenes) in 80 days. It allocated more biomass to stems and branches and then inflorescences (starting from the flowering stage). Seed production was abundant and continuous for as long growing conditions permit. 167 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Stages in the Development of an Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) Program for Invasive Alien Plants in California Kassim Al-Khatib and Joseph M. DiTomaso University of California, Davis. USA, E-mail: Kalkhatib@ucdavis.edu To develop an effective Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) program, several factors need to be considered. Initially, a comprehensive list of current and potentially invasive alien species needs to be established in the region of interest. The California Invasive Species Advisory Committee recently developed such a list for invasive alien plants and other invasive taxa. Secondarily, a system must be established to rapidly and accurately identify new invasive alien plants within an area. A third important phase of an EDRR program is the ability to predict the potential range of invasive alien plants. This can be accomplished by climate matching models. Preliminary work by the California Invasive Plant Council (Cal-IPC) mapped the distribution of 36 of the top 200 invasive alien species in the state. Using the climate matching program CLIMEX, they determined the potential suitable range under current and climate change conditions (+3 o C). The fourth phase in the establishment of an EDRR program requires a thorough understanding of the control methods that can effectively eradicate new incipient infestations. To achieve this, several groups in California have been working to develop appropriate management strategies, including Cal-IPC, the California Department of Food and Agriculture, the University of California (UC) Cooperative Extension, and members of the state Weed Management Areas. Much of this information is available on three primary websites associated with Cal-IPC, the UC Weed Research and Information Center, and the UC IPM program. Eventually, management options will be linked to the online diagnostic identification tool. Finally, a funding system must be in place to allow rapid response to new potentially damaging invasive alien plants. Legislative activity at both the state and national level are attempting to provide this funding source. While none of these phases are yet completed in California, all are now underway and may eventually lead to an effective EDRR program. Introduction The annual cost of losses and environmental damage due to invasive alien species in the United States has been estimated to be $120 billion (Pimentel et al. 2005). Invasive alien plants alone cause an estimated $35 billion in losses, damages, or control costs including $27B for crop weeds, $6B for weeds in pasture, $1.5B from weed in lawns, gardens, and golf courses, and the remaining for aquatic weeds and melaleuca. The high cost of invasive alien species is, in part, attributed to the lack of an effective means for early detection and control of emerging invasive alien species before they are widespread. Therefore, it is critical to develop a systematic approach for detection, reporting, rapid risk assessments, and response to new invasive alien plants. Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) of invasive alien plants and other 168 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world organisms is a management approach that focuses on surveying and monitoring at-risk areas to find infestations at their earliest stages of invasion. Along with prevention, this method is the most successful and cost effective means of control. In the United States, several federal and state agencies have historically cooperated to encourage invasive alien plants prevention. These agencies included U.S. Geological Survey (USGC), United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA APHIS), state departments of agriculture, and University Cooperative Extension services. The first attempt to develop a National EDRR Plan started in 2000 when a planning workshop was hosted by USGS and USDA. Immediately following the workshop, the first regional Invasive Plant Atlas for the northeast was published. A USDA-APHIS conceptual design plan for the National EDRR System was developed in 2003. Over the past ten years, most of the States have developed Invasive Species Councils, and advisory committees. Progress in addressing new invasive alien plants is being made by a number of task forces. Additionally, the National Plant Diagnostic Network (NPDN) was established to coordinate land grant institutions, national agencies and state departments of agriculture efforts in data gathering, diagnostic collaboration, and other activities of plant diagnostics. NPDN consists of five regional plant diagnostic centers located at Cornell University (NEPDN); Michigan State University (NCPDN); Kansas State University (GPDN); University of Florida (SPDN); and University of California, Davis (WPDN). NPDN uses a common software interface to process diagnostic requests and share information among diagnostic laboratories. In California, there is a great concern about introducing invasive alien plants that may damage ecosystem processes such as community diversity, hydrology, fire regimes, and soil chemistry. Research has shown that invasive alien plants have a competitive advantage because they are no longer controlled by their natural predators or pathogens, and can quickly spread out of control. The concern about invasive alien species in California is ubiquitous because the state shares a long border with other States and neighbors Mexico where invasive alien plants may be established there before entering California, and also has three major sea ports and several international airports. In addition, California has the largest nursery and seeds industry in the country that may facilitate the introduction of many new plants. In California, approximately 20% of the plant species established and growing under natural or non-cultivated conditions are non-native, with 3% considered harmful invasive alien plants (DiTomaso and Healy, 2007). Although the percentage is small, these invasive alien plants inhabit a large proportion of the landscape. Early eradication of invasive alien species is the most cost-effective approach for the economic welfare of California, the United States, and other counties around the world. By comparison, once an invasive alien species becomes widespread, eradication is almost never economically feasible (Rejmanek & Pitcairn 2002). While management of well established invasive alien plants in California is important, it is equally critical to protect natural areas yet uninfested. 169 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world California Early Detection and Rapid Response Program Invasive alien plants inventory Generating a list of invasive alien species provides a foundation for setting strategic priorities and resource management. Three lists of invasive alien species were developed in California. The oldest list, which is the only one with legal authority, was developed by California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA). The CDFA Noxious Weed List was developed to address the obligations of the Department to protect the state‘s agricultural industry and prevent the introduction and spread of injurious plant pests. Plant species that have been designated as noxious weeds are subject to various restrictions including the statutory provisions for weed-free areas, noxious weed control, prohibitive interstate transport, and provisions of the California Seed Law. Management or control activities taken against noxious weeds may both protect California's agricultural industry and important native plant species. CFDA Noxious Weed List includes 180 species, most of them of agricultural importance. The list has been revised over the years; however, the process is relatively slow and may not serve EDRR objectives. CDFA list of noxious weeds are classified into five categories (CDFA, 2010). Category ―A‖ Noxious Weeds include plants (62 species) of expected economic or environmental damage and are present in limited distribution within the state. These species are often targeted for eradication. Approximately 16 A-rated plant species have been successfully eradicated in recent years. A-rated species and their reproductive parts are legally prohibited from entering the state. Category ―B‖ Noxious Weeds include plants (84 species) with known economic or environmental detriment and are considered regionally widespread, but are not present in many areas of the state. Eradication, containment, suppression, control, or other holding action is at the discretion of the individual county agricultural commissioner. Category "C" Noxious Weeds include plants (30 species) of known economic or environmental detriment and are generally widespread in the state. They are subject to regulations designed to reduce spread, but little funding is provided for their control, except when they are the target of biological control efforts. Category "Q" Noxious Weeds include plants (3 species) that are not present in the state and agricultural or environmental damage is suspected or known to occur elsewhere. These species are typically new to the state and can be treated as A-rated plants. Such species can be the prime target of an EDRR program. Category "H" plants (1 species) are potentially invasive alien plants derived from nursery grown material. The second list of invasive alien plants in the state was developed by the California Invasive Plant Council (Cal-IPC). The list is focused on plants with potential to cause significant ecological damage in natural areas, including displacing native plants and wildlife, increasing wildfire and flood danger, consuming valuable water, degrading recreational opportunities, and destroying productive range and timber lands. The majority of plants on this list do not infest row-crop agricultural systems. While the Cal-IPC list is based on a transparent and published set of criteria, it does not have any regulatory authority within the state. However, local authorities in California often use the list to regulate plant introduction and landscape plantings. 170 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world The objectives of the Cal-IPC plant inventory are to provide a uniform methodology for categorizing non-native invasive alien plants that threaten wildlands; provide a clear explanation of the process used to evaluate and categorize plants; provide flexibility so the criteria can be adapted to the particular needs of different regions and states. The system generates a plant's overall rating based on an evaluation of 13 criteria, which are divided into three sections assessing Ecological Impacts, Invasive Potential, and Ecological Distribution (Cal-IPC, 2010). Evaluators assign a score of A (severe) to D (no impact) for each criterion, with U indicating unknown. Based on this scorecard, invasive alien plants were grouped in three categories, High (plants with severe ecological impact), Moderate (plants with substantial and apparent ecological impacts), and Limited (plants whose ecological impacts are either minor or are very limited in range). In total, the Cal-IPC list includes about 205 plants. The newly established California Invasive Species Advisory Committee (CISAC) has recently developed a comprehensive list of species that have a reasonable likelihood of entering or have entered California for which an exclusion, detection, eradication, control or management action by the State might be taken. The list included 508 plant species with 320, 96, and 92 herbaceous, grass, and woody species, respectively. Among these species only 98 species are included as highest priority species, when evaluated for their spread rate and ecological, agricultural, structural, and health damage/benefit (CISAC, 2010). Unlike the CDFA list, this list is based on clearly defined and transparent criteria. While the criteria are similar to the Cal-IPC list, the CISAC list includes invasive alien species of both agricultural and non-agricultural areas. However, like the Cal-IPC list, it does not yet have any legal authority. While California has develop excellent lists of invasive alien plants, the next critical step in the process is to provide a single list of priority species of both agricultural and natural areas that has regulatory authority within the state. Because of the legal authority of CDFA, the list should be housed and maintained by CDFA. Such a comprehensive and centralized list that increases the knowledge base of target organisms, including economic and ecological impacts is the first step in an effective EDRR program. Invasive alien plant diagnostics Several universities, state and federal herbaria have historically provided an excellent resource for the identification of both native and non-native plants in California. The collection and diagnostic capabilities of the University of California, Davis, and CDFA, in particular, have specialized in invasive alien plant identification, and both have extensive herbarium collections on non-native species. In addition, the flora of California (Hickman, 1993) is an excellent resource and a revised edition is already online (http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/jepsonmanual /review/), with a hard copy expected to be published within the next couple of years. There are also a number of local floras in the state that can be of great assistance in plant identification. In addition to these well established diagnostic facilities and resources, California has the most comprehensive weed identification manual (DiTomaso & Healy 2007) developed for any state within the United States. The book includes over 3000 color photographs and descriptions for over 750 weed species, including agricultural weeds, nearly all of the invasive alien plants 171 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world included in the Cal-IPC inventory, the noxious weeds on the CDFA list, and the invasive alien plants listed by CISAC. Although these resources are readily available for professionals working in the field, they are encyclopedic or require considerable training to use and, thus, play a limited role in training volunteer groups and many other land managers not adept in plant identification. However, the effectiveness of an EDRR program depends heavily on volunteer groups and organizations, as well as a wide variety of field practitioners. Furthermore, the critical identification timing for effective eradication or management of an incipient invasive alien population is before flower and seed production, when plants are immature. Most dichotomous keys found in floras rely on flowers and mature plant characteristics for identification. Furthermore, color photographs found in guidebooks are often of flowering plants. To increase the ability of individuals to identify invasive alien plants at all stages of development, an interactive identification program was developed in California and is available on compact discs (http://calweeds.com). This software program allows for selection of over 200 characteristics of a plant, including many vegetation features. The program narrows the choices down with every characteristic selected until one or a few choices remain. Photos and descriptions can then be used to determine the correct species. The advantage of this approach is that it allows for identification of seedlings and immature plants. However, this tool also requires some knowledge of plant morphology. Another recently developed online resource is a much simpler interactive web-based tool (http://wric.ucdavis.edu). This tool can be custom developed to include any group of plants of interest, including only invasive alien species. The website was developed for use by individuals with little training in plant identification and can be used to train volunteers on invasive alien plant identification. The tool can also be used on Smart Phones. Furthermore, new innovative technology is becoming available that allows entry of new species of invasive alien plants with photo verification using Smart Phone technology. With all the key tools already available to accurately identify invasive alien species, the last critical step is to develop a centralized system that combines field identification, verification, data entry, and data retrieval. Such a system is critical in the development of an effective EDRR system. In California, this centralized location is best housed in a university environment, primarily because of the extensive Information Technology (IT) expertise found in these institutions, as well as the extensive herbarium facilities used to identify and house archival collections. Predictive range expansion The third important phase of an EDRR program is the ability to predict the potential range of invasive alien plants, and thus, determine where these plants are likely to invade. This can be accomplished by climate matching models. While Mapping the risk based on climate maching models give useful information, such model cannot correctly predict all the area at risk (Gallagher et al. 2010). The University of California at Davis has worked in partnership with Cal-IPC to develop an innovative ―risk mapping‖ approach for invasive alien plants. The maps generated from this pilot project compare the current distribution of 36 invasive alien plants in California with their potential distribution based on the climate matching model CLIMEX. The approach combined two types of data into a GIS map, including expert opinions on current 172 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world distribution and invasion trends (increasing or decreasing), and CLIMEX modeling based on each plants global range. Hall (2006) and Steinmaus (2002) included data from 321 weather stations in California. This greatly increased the spatial resolution of the CLIMEX model. This spatial data provides baseline information for the regions of the state where each of the 36 species is expected to expand, based on the climate conditions currently present in the state. Such maps provide a more efficient method for selecting early detection priority species in any particular region in the state. In addition, using the average estimate of temperature increase in California (+3 oC), additional maps can be developed to predict the potential range under a climate change scenario. Similar maps should be developed for all invasive alien plants in the state and for invasive alien plants anticipated to invade California. This information can be linked to an online interactive program that would allow land managers or agencies to predict invasive alien plants likely to invade a particular area and habitat. These specific ―Watch Lists‖ would be far more efficient in training programs for volunteers or those not completely familiar with the California flora. Invasive alien plant management The final phase in the establishment of an EDRR program requires a thorough understanding and adoption of methods that can effectively prevent, eradicate, or control new incipient or established infestations, as well as providing a clearinghouse for the dissemination of this information. Another key element to a successful EDRR program is good coordination between federal agencies/regulators as well as states, local entities, industry and other interested parties. To initiate an effective management program, it is first necessary to develop a statewide strategic plan. While California developed a strategic plan for invasive alien plants in 2005 (Schoenig, 2005), this plan is currently being expanded by CISAC to include all taxa in a more unified approach. Within the plan, it is important to include a strong prevention strategy. Prevention is the most cost-effective method of invasive alien plant management and is the first line of defense against the spread of invasive alien species. Once introduced, the spread of new localized populations of invaders should be considered for eradication. Eradication efforts on small populations are far more cost effective compared to populations that have spread to large area (Rejmanek & pitcaim, 2002).To be successful, it is essential that invaders be detected at early establishment stages through a well developed EDRR program. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) should be considered a guiding principle to any management program (Flint & Gouvelia, 2001). An IPM approach should be used when invaders are well established and widespread. IPM is a science-based decision-making process that reduces risks from pests and pest management strategies. It includes coordinating the use of pest biology, environmental information, and available technology to prevent unacceptable levels of pest damage by the most economical means while posing the least possible risk. Several complementary methods may be implemented in an overall IPM strategy to protect ecosystems and aid in their recovery. There are several groups in California that have been working to develop appropriate management strategies and educational outreach and training materials for invasive alien plants 173 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world over the years. These include scientists and researchers associated with Cal-IPC, CDFA, University of California (UC) Cooperative Extension, Weed Management Areas, and private entities. Through these efforts, there are many examples of successful control strategies for specific species and ecosystems. Much of this information is available on three primary websites associated with Cal-IPC (http://cal-ipc.org), UC Weed Research and Information Center (http://wric.ucdavis.edu), and the UC IPM program (http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/). As the final step in an effective EDRR program, two additional aspects are required. First, an online clearinghouse for information on prevention strategies, methods to prioritize eradication efforts, management options, and follow-up monitoring programs are necessary. This information should be linked to the invasive alien plant inventory, online diagnostic identification tools, and the predictive range expansion program. This would allow volunteers and land managers to anticipate species that are likely to invade particular areas, rapidly identify new incipient populations, and response quickly with eradicate or containment efforts when these populations are discovered. To be successful, however, a funding system must be in place to allow rapid response to new potentially damaging invasive alien plants. Legislative activity at both the state and national level are attempting to provide this funding source. While none of these phases are yet completed in California, all are now underway and may eventually lead to an effective EDRR program. References Bossard CC, Brooks ML, DiTomaso JM, Randall JM, Roye CL, Sigg J, Stanton AE & Warner PJ (2006) California Invasive Plant Inventory. California Invasive Plant Council, Publ. #2006-02. Berkeley, CA. 39 pp. CA-IPC, California Invasive Plant Council (2010) Invasive Plant Inventory. http://www.calipc.org/ip/inventory/index.php. CDFA, California Department of Food and Agriculture (2010) Weed List-Pest Ratings of Noxious Weed Species. http://www.extendinc.com/weedfreefeed/list-b.htm. CISAC, California Invasive Species Advisory Committee (2010) The California Invasive Species List. http://www.iscc.ca.gov/species.html. DiTomaso JM & Healy EA (2007) Weeds of California and Other Western States. Univ.Calif. Div. Ag. Nat. Res. Publ. 3488. 1809 pp. Flint ML & Gouvelia P (2001) IPM in Practices: Principle and Methods of Integrated Pest Management. 2001. University of California ANR Publication 3418. Oakland, CA. Gallagher RV, Beaumont LJ, Hughes L & Leishman MR (2010) Evidence for climatic niche and biome shifts between native and novel ranges in plant species introduced to Australia. J. Ecology 98, 790-799. Hall J (2006) Modeling climatic preferences of an invasive woody shrub, Ulex europaeus L., and a biological control agent, Tetranychus lintearius Dufour, in California. M.S. Thesis. Cal-Poly-San Luis Obispo, San Luis Obispo, CA. Hickman JC (ed.) (1993) The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. Univ. Calif. Press. 1400 pp. Ielmini M & Ramos G (2003) A National Early Detection and Rapid Response System for Invasive Plants in the United States. http://www.fws.gov/ficmnew/FICMNEW_EDRR_FINAL.pdf Pimentel D, Zuniga R & Morrison D (2005) Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alieninvasive species in the United States. Ecological Economics 52, 273-288. Rejmanek M & Pitcairn MJ (2002) When is eradication of exotic pest plants a realistic goal? In C. R. Veitch, M. N. Clout, [eds.]. Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species, 249-253. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland. Schoenig S (2005) California Noxious and Invasive Weed Action Plan. CDFA, 45 pp. Steinmaus S (2002) Predicting Plant Invasion with Modeling. CalEPPC News. 1, 5-9. Warner PJ, Bossard CC, Brooks ML, DiTomaso JM, Hall JA, Howald AM, Johnson DW, Randall JM, Roye CL & Stanton AE (2003) Criteria for Categorizing Invasive Non-native Plants that Threaten Wildlands. California Exotic Pest Plant Council and Southwest Vegetation Management Association. http://www.calipc.org/ip/inventory/pdf/Criteria.pdf. 174 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Early experiences in the establishment of a National Early Detection and Rapid Response Programme for South Africa Philip Ivey1, John Wilson1,2, Ingrid Nänni1 and Hilary Geber3 1 Early Detection and Rapid Response Programme for Invasive Alien Plants, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Gardens, Claremont 7735, South Africa. E-mail: P.Ivey@sanbi.org.za 2 Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, South Africa 3 Centre for Learning, Teaching and Development, University of the Witwatersrand, 1 Jan Smuts Avenue, Braamfontein 2000, Johannesburg, South Africa The Working for Water Programme is an initiative of the South African Government to manage invasive alien plants through job creation in a country with chronic unemployment. It provides opportunities for people to learn new skills, gain self-confidence, at the same time as reducing threats to the country's natural resources. To date, most of the work has focussed on area-specific clearing operations, but in 2008 a National Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) Programme for Invasive Alien Plants was established. As of 2010, the Working for Water programme in South Africa has devoted 1.43% of its budget of seven hundred million Rand (€63,000,000, July 2010) to EDRR. This paper will explore the challenges and opportunities of setting up such a programme in the context of the job creation goals of Working for Water and the unique challenges of South Africa. In particular we discuss monitoring approaches, which species to target, engagement of stakeholders, staffing issues, a programme designed to provide mentorship for staff, institutional arrangements, and how political pressures have affected the operation. We conclude that the EDRR programme is an important new addition to invasive alien plant management in South Africa, and that, to be most effective, the programme should continue with its remit of using stake-holder networks to combine early detection with eradication. Background With a budget of seven hundred million Rand (€63,000,000, July 2010) allocated for management of invasive alien plants the South African government, through its Working for Water (Department of Water Affairs Website) has shown that it takes the threat of invasive alien plants to biodiversity, ecosystems, environmental services and human livelihoods seriously. The management of invasive alien plants also has benefits in terms of job creation where unemployment is high. However, a labour-intensive approach to the management of invasive alien species, whilst enjoying relatively well-recognised success, is not necessarily the most cost effective way of managing all aspects of the problem. A disproportionately small amount is devoted to preventing the arrival of new invasive alien species and even less on detecting the early establishment of new alien plant species. Early detection and possible eradication of new 175 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world invasive alien plants may be more cost effective if efficient systems of early detection and successful eradications are achieved. The South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) was formed with the promulgation of the National Environmental Management and Biodiversity Act, 2004. SANBI‘s mission is ‗To promote the sustainable use, conservation, appreciation and enjoyment of the exceptionally rich biodiversity of South Africa, for the benefit of all people’. Among the functions of SANBI listed in the Act are that it must monitor and report to the Minister on the status of invasive alien species (National Environmental Management and Biodiversity Act (NEM:BA), 2004, Chapter 2, Part 1, 11.1.a.iii) and it may co-ordinate and implement programmes for the prevention, control or eradication of listed invasive alien species (NEM:BA, 2004, Chapter 2, Part 1, 11.1.m.ii). The draft regulations (section 9.4.f) pertaining to this Act state that SANBI should collate information on invasive alien species management programmes including: "research into any aspect of the invasiveness of an alien or listed invasive species or the prevention, eradication or control of such invasiveness". In March 2008 SANBI was contracted by the Working for Water Programme of the Department of Water Affairs to develop, in partnership with other stakeholders, a programme of Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) for Invasive Alien Plants. In this paper we will describe how the initial strategic plan was formulated, the current focus of efforts, and some of the challenges faced. Development of a Strategic plan In February and March 2008 a range of stakeholders from relevant government departments, scientific institutions and non-governmental organisations were consulted on the role EDRR should take. They were keen to see a practical, not overly ambitious programme that would make a real difference in reducing the likelihood of new plant invasions. The strategic plan outlined four key areas of implementation, 1. Early detection, 2. Identification and verification, 3. Risk assessment and response planning, 4. Rapid response, and specified that these should be supported by the following services: good information management, advocacy and awareness raising, and research. At this early stage of strategic planning a possible stumbling block emerged as although SANBI is clearly mandated to work on the first three key areas, it did not feel it had a definite remit to carry out actual implementation of rapid response to eradicate or control invasive alien plant outbreaks. The EDRR programme and work plan were influenced by this lack of clarity regarding rapid response roles. Stakeholders also emphasized the need for a co-ordination of effort as much work has already been done by key stakeholders such as the Department of Agriculture, the Agricultural Research Council, Universities, and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. SANBI was encouraged to work in partnership to ensure that efforts were not duplicated and limited 176 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world resources were not wasted. In particular, many databases and systems were already in place for managing knowledge and information on invasive alien species. The final strategic plan proposed a national co-ordination unit that would work with a number of regional co-ordination units to direct the efforts of volunteer invasive alien plant ‗spotters‘. Each regional unit would develop a regional list of species to be monitored, and conduct more general monitoring at key sites. The vision was that when spotters detected a new invasive alien plant, the regional co-ordinators would be contacted, and the regional co-ordinator would employ taxonomists at SANBI Herbaria to verify the identity of the plant. The risk posed by each new incursion was then to be assessed by a to-be-formed Invasive Plant Assessment Panel, which in turn would make recommendations as to the appropriate response. Regional Rapid Response teams would then be responsible for executing and reporting the outcome of their actions. To a greater or lesser extent each of these aspects have been explored and developed during the first year and a half of operation. The degree of successful achievement still needs to be assessed and changes need to be recommended and implemented given our revised understanding of the situation. In particular, the programme is adopting a more proactive model than the linear model described above (see Fig. 2 below). The stated mission of the Early Detection and Rapid Response Programme is to protect ecosystem services from the negative impact of invasive plants through surveillance that enables early detection of invasions and allows for appropriate action. The programme, in accordance with applicable legislation and the needs of stakeholders, aims to achieve the following objectives: 1. Co-ordinate surveillance through an early detection programme for emerging invasive alien plants. 2. Develop capacity and systems to allow for rapid and accurate identification and verification species detected by the surveillance teams. 3. Ensure optimum institutional co-operation to facilitate risk assessment of emerging invasive alien plants in South Africa. 4. Co-ordinate the organization of rapid response teams to respond when invasions have been detected and the course of action decided and approved. 5. Develop and co-ordinate effective information management systems that allow for readily accessible, rapid and accurate exchange of information between all those involved in the programme and also to provide appropriate information to wider audiences. 6. Initiate and execute relevant research on early detection, risk assessment and rapid response aimed at continuously improving the programme. 7. Plan and implement an advocacy and awareness raising programme to elevate the profile of the early detection programme and the issue of invasive alien plants. 177 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 8. Design and implement a monitoring and evaluation programme to assess effectiveness of the above programmes and to recommend improvements. 9. If appropriate, plan for SANBI to take full control of the programme and ensure permanent financial support from the South African Government Treasury. Objectives one to four include the key implementation areas of the whole programme. Objectives five, six and seven support the programme and are essential for the successful achievement of the first four objectives. Objectives eight and nine will ensure the development, improvement and longevity of the programme. Planned and actual programme activities The programme has been going for one and a half years. Thus far the results of the programme have been encouraging, but a flexible approach to the problems and situations has had to be adopted in order to make progress. Here we discuss the four main planned activities of the EDRR, namely early detection of plant invasions, identification and verification of the invasive alien species, risk assessment and response planning, and rapid response actions. In each case we discuss some of the key factors limiting progress, and potential solutions to them. 1. Early detection Background In many respects South Africa already has a system for the detection of invasive alien plants in the form of the Southern African Plant Invader Atlas (SAPIA). SAPIA arose from road-side survey work initiated in 1979 by Lesley Henderson, and over the past 31 years this atlas project has gathered distribution data on invasive alien species across Southern Africa. As at March 2010, it contains ~70,000 locality records of ~660 naturalized alien plant species in South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho (Henderson, 2010). The project has utilized the skills and enthusiasm of ‗volunteer‘ observers who have submitted records to add to the ‗professional‘ collection of records carried out by Lesley Henderson, the project co-ordinator, but throughout some form of record verification was attempted (be it simply asking for a photograph or a sample if the contributor did not have much botanical experience). The importance of the SAPIA database was acknowledged at the outset of the EDRR, and stakeholders encouraged the programme to use these data as a foundation, and to feed information back into the data-base. How was the EDRR programme, in its infancy, to best utilize the SAPIA data? With 660 species listed on SAPIA, which of these could be considered suitable case studies to prove the value of an Early Detection programme? Nel et al. (2004) developed a classification system in an attempt to establish priority species and areas for management action. In 2004, 117 of the over 500 species on SAPIA were considered to be major and established invasive alien species and through using their classification system some 84 were considered "emerging" invasive alien species. They concluded that management actions should ―aim to eradicate invasive alien plants that are confined to small areas or just beginning to become invasive‖. Although the definition "emerging" was not explicitly linked to species that were potential targets for eradication. 178 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Determining which species to work on In two provinces of South Africa the Early Detection team utilized the SAPIA data to develop a list of species to be considered by stakeholders in order to assist with priority setting. Species that occurred in 10 quarter degree squares or fewer in the provinces of KwaZulu-Natal and Western Cape were arbitrarily deemed "emerging" invasive alien plants, again the phrase was not explicitly linked to potentially management options or legislation. At a workshop in KwaZulu-Natal in March 2009 a great diversity of opinion emerged about what species should be on the list. It was resolved that further criteria be developed to assess the species and to set the order of priorities for action. In July 2009 at a workshop in the Western Cape the stakeholders were asked to consider a similar list of species for the winter rainfall region. However stakeholders recommended that the team focus on a few case studies that showed promise of being able to generate results quickly (i.e. "low-hanging fruit") to prove the value of EDRR. The case studies currently being investigated by the EDRR team are listed in Appendix. Developing networks During the planning of the EDRR Programme it was recognized as essential to incorporate local knowledge of invasive alien species and environments, and that a broad range of people should be encouraged to report early signs of new invasions. Based on the experiences of SAPIA, there are probably 30–40 highly knowledgeable, enthusiastic, and dedicated people in South Africa with field experience who are able to ‗spot‘ invasive plants amongst the 22 000 indigenous and 8 000 exotic species in the country. There are many more potential observers who spend time observing the vegetation they walk and work in and who can determine changes in plant communities and, if trained, identify noticeable plants. For early detection to be effective, clearly both groups needed to be utilised. Regional co-ordinators have encouraged support for the programme from people with strong local knowledge, e.g. farmers involved in stewardship programmes, mountain club members, Botanical Society Members, and professional botanists engaged in field work. Regional coordinators have also met with a wide range of stakeholders and have begun to establish networks of ‗spotters‘. Wittenberg & Cock (2001) suggest general surveys, site-specific surveys, and species-specific surveys as three main ways to achieve the early detection of invasive alien species. At present the general surveys are essentially those conducted by SAPIA, and the links to the plant spotter network. In terms of site-specific surveys, the regional teams, through their work on case studies and in response to calls from observers, have identified a number of locations (including arboreta, abandoned farm homesteads, land adjacent to plant nurseries, dams and waterways, conservation sites, truck stops near to international borders) that need to be monitored regularly and form the foundation for future site-specific surveys. Each regional co-ordinator will develop a site-specific monitoring plan for their area of responsibility. In terms of species-specific surveys, we are currently not looking for specific alien plants that are not yet recorded in South Africa, although such a prohibited list is part of the regulations, such focussed surveys are perhaps more appropriate for early detection of animals. We do, however, distribute leaflets on each species that we are working on to relevant bodies with the aim of identifying any other sites of naturalisation or spread. 179 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Figure 1 - The current spread of the chosen case study species when compared with all the species on the SAPIA database. The red histograms indicate species that are currently receiving attention by EDRR. The majority of case study species (red) are recorded in SAPIA as occurring in one or two quarter degree grid cells in Southern Africa. 2. Identification and verification Accurate identification of invasive alien plants is essential for numerous reasons but specifically: 1. For assessment of invasive potential. If the species is not correctly identified then invasive potential cannot be assessed, as invasiveness of the same taxon elsewhere in the world is a prime indicator of whether a species is likely to be invasive. 2. The course of action to take is determined by the species. If the species is not accurately identified then action planning is not possible. Appropriate treatment and herbicides cannot be considered without good taxonomic information. However, identification to genus level may sometimes be sufficient to allow for general action plans to be made (as was the case with Melaleuca species discovered in the Western Cape Province). 3. Legislation cannot be drawn up against the species if it is not correctly identified. 180 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world SANBI has three Herbaria: the National Herbarium in Pretoria, the KwaZulu-Natal Herbarium in Durban, and the Compton Herbarium in Cape Town. The identity of plant specimens gathered by the programme have been confirmed and verified by taxonomists at these herbaria. The programme has employed taxonomists and herbarium assistants to co-ordinate the identification efforts. However, as a result of limited taxonomic capacity within South Africa two of the six taxonomic support posts catered for in the EDRR programme remain unfilled. The need for taxonomic expertise has been apparent in some of the case studies. In the case of Melaleuca quinquenerva and Melaleuca ericifolia the confirmed identification has been slowed as specimens had to be sent to overseas herbaria for accurate identification. There is expertise for genetic analysis in South Africa and this was used to accurately identify the Anigozanthos species and hybrids of concern in the Kleinmond area (Le Roux et al., 2010), but such molecular diagnostics were only investigated because the issue had been previously raised by an expert in the group. EDRR will continue to use molecular tools to aid taxonomic identification, particularly where issues of hybridisation or polyploidism may occur, but as a programme, more emphasis is required on field identification, and formal herbarium identification skills. EDRR offers the opportunity to develop taxonomic capacity, and this is clearly of potential broad benefit to biodiversity research in South Africa. 1. Co-ordinate Early Detection • Establish a network of observers • Develop and implement both site specific and species specific monitoring plans • Detect locations of alien species Provide information to observer network to maintain interest and enthusiasm 2. Identification and verification • Herbarium taxonomists and molecular work • Confirm identity of plant species • Assess presence of hybrids or varieties 3. Assessment and response planning • Assessment of current status of species and future risks including review of potential threats and benefits, models to understand distribution, population dynamics, impact and pathways • Hold stakeholder meeting to discuss management options 4. Rapid response • • • Initial response to prevent further spread Assess the efficacy of management options through control actions Attempt eradication 5. Change legal status of invasive species Species too widespread, national management strategy to be compiled outside EDRR Species eradicated Figure 2. Schematic representation of current organisation of EDRR programme 181 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 3. Risk assessment In 2010, South Africa has a new National Environmental Management and Biodiversity Act (2004) but has not promulgated regulations which allow aspects of this act to be enforced. The impasse caused by lack of regulations has had an impact on the programme. Currently invasive alien plants are categorised under the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act using a series of questions which roughly equate to a risk assessment but this approach has not been legally specified. A new risk assessment framework to be used to assess invasive alien species is yet to be drawn up in terms of the act and will only occur once the regulations have been promulgated. In the strategic plan it was proposed that an Invasive Plant Assessment Panel be formed with permanent representation of the government departments of Agriculture, Water Affairs and Environmental Affairs, and co-opted experts from research institutions to evaluate different species as appropriate. This panel would make rapid assessments of new incursions and propose appropriate plans of action to be undertaken. However, it was recognised that the information required to make informed decisions was in many cases missing—the infestations detected were sometimes the only record of invasiveness world-wide, and the initial reports did not accurately reflect the infestations (Jacobs et al. in these proceedings, and Wilson et al ibid). Field-work was essential to adequately determine risk (see Jacobs et al. in these proceedings). Therefore, the programme has decided not to worry too much about the lack of framework, but to gather valid information in order to enable accurate risk assessment to be carried out. Information will be gathered for each species that has been selected as a case study. This information will cover taxonomic details, known current distribution in South Africa, projected distribution and spread, impacts and benefits, and a short review of the relevant literature. A clear feed-back between publicity and awareness-raising, implementation, early detection and risk assessment has also emerged. For example, in the case of Triplaris americana, a horticultural subject introduced into the Durban- eThekwini Municipality, the impact of taking action resulted in newspaper coverage and numerous reports of the species in various localities were received. The co-ordinator in this case is continuing to monitor the impact of publicity on the number of reports of the species. Similarly, after an initial clearing exercise of populations of a cholla cactus (Cylindropuntia sp. poss. tunicata or rosea) outside a national park (conservation area) and a presentation at a farmers‘ meeting there was a dramatic increase in reports of this species. It is now evident that this species was severely under-reported and recorded on SAPIA, and as a consequence eradication in the short to medium term does not appear feasible. Only after some initial work was a realistic assessment of risk and potentially feasible responses possible. 4. Rapid response planning and implementation Determining institutional responsibility Finding the correct institutional arrangement for Rapid Response activities has proved a challenge. At the outset SANBI felt that its remit did not include the actual implementation of rapid response to eradicate or control invasive alien plant outbreaks. This will need to be the responsibility of another entity. While it may not be appropriate for SANBI, a public entity 182 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world tasked with biodiversity research and policy development responsibilities, to actually implement activities involving physical and chemical control of invasive alien plants, there is merit in SANBI being involved in the full scope of EDRR (i.e. Early Detection, Identification and Verification, Risk Assessment, and Rapid Response implementation). This is particular important as efforts of rapid response were found to feed-back to detection of new infestations and such information can be important for updating risk assessments (Fig. 2). Moreover, a clause in the National Environmental Management and Biodiversity Act states that SANBI may coordinate and implement programmes for the prevention, control or eradication of listed invasive species. This could be interpreted that SANBI is legally mandated to carry out Rapid Response activities. The initial plan developed in March 2008 suggested that SANBI should not be responsible for implementation of Rapid Response activities. By November 2008 it was apparent that for effective research to be conducted rapid response activities had to be integrated with early detection and risk assessment (e.g. Zenni et al., 2009). The SANBI executive agreed that the Early Detection programme could take on discreet Rapid Response work. However, concerns regarding SANBI‘s role in management and clearing of invasive alien plants were again raised as this is not SANBI‘s core competence and the Working for Water programme did have structures in place to carry out this type of work. In November 2009 it was agreed that a national coordination unit for Rapid Response activities would be established within the Working for Water programme. In May 2010 SANBI was requested to manage greater Rapid Response activities with a larger budget. As the programme is maturing, we are recommending that some specific and delimited rapid response responsibilities are retained in perpetuity as these are integral to EDRR as a process. Pompom weed: an exercise in containment The case that perhaps has been most important in defining the extent to which EDRR is involved in implementation is the case study of Campanuloclinium macrocephalum (Pompom Weed). In 2009 Pompom Weed was listed in 93 quarter degree squares across six different provinces in South Africa, far more widely than any other targeted species (Table 1 and Figure 1). Why then, was Pompom Weed considered a good case study for EDRR? The Working for Water programme that sponsors the EDRR has as its key focus clearing of large woody and water consuming invasive alien plants. This is most efficiently done by clearing a range of species from key water catchments and by working on an area basis. Pompom weed, an herbaceous perennial, is distributed along roadsides sparsely in five provinces and densely in one province (Gauteng). This discontinuous linear distribution required a species-specific management approach rather than an area management approach. The EDRR team was requested to manage this species as part of the Rapid Response programme as the approach was different to that usually followed by Working for Water. This species gave the team an opportunity to develop a rapid response methodology that would suit a species-specific approach, aimed at species containment. During the first year of operation the team managed only one clearing contract in a single province. During the second year of operation the team managed 39 clearing contracts in four provinces. The aim of the Pompom Weed management programme is to contain the species into a single province whilst options for biological control are being investigated. However, the emphasis is strongly on implementing temporary 183 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world containment, and as such it is much less clear that it fits within SANBI's mandate. Indeed one of the challenges of EDRR will be to develop a process of exiting species that need to come under general management operations, and where classical biological control options should be explored. We are recommending that in future a separate, but perhaps related, process to EDRR be developed for such containment efforts, otherwise the potential for eradication could again be overlooked by the continued resources required for containment efforts. Building the program There were several key challenges for the program, first building human capacity, second enabling field-reports to be accurately captured, and third integrating data collection with existing databases. The second and third challenges are being addressed through development of appropriate and efficient processes. A novel mentoring programme has been used to tackle the first challenge of human capital development. Mentor programme fostering human capital development The first major hurdle for EDRR has been to recruit 21 staff to offices around the country within one year. In order to build the capacity of the early-career staff appointed to the project a mentor program was implemented by matching ―silverbacks‖ with 30+ years of experience to each staff member. The training for the mentors and the EDRR team, including the National Co-ordinator and administrative staff, was developed around the Transformational model of mentoring (Geber, 2006). Transformational mentoring involves the establishing of learning alliances for professional development and a commitment to social and organisational change (Geber 2003). Mentoring with a transformation emphasis is particularly important in mentoring training, where mentors guide less experienced colleagues in order to help them achieve requirements for educational and organisational change, which is part of the South African national agenda. Each member of the team had a mentor who provided 16 hours of mentoring per month. In a review of the progress of the mentoring after almost a year, mentors and mentees said they had benefitted greatly from their partnerships. Mentees expectations of their mentors in achieving their goals included being guided, advised and pointed in the right direction. They expected support and to learn to understand the work environment. They expected their mentors to share experiences with them but also for the pairs to learn together. They expected their mentors to promote the Early Detection programme and help with relationship building with others in the field. Most of the mentees‘ expectations were met and in many cases exceeded for both their professional and personal growth. Mentees reported on specific areas of research where their mentors had helped them with their higher degree studies and other research proposals. Mentees commented that having access to the mentors‘ networks enabled them to do their research faster and have avenues of which they were previously unaware opened for them. They said that their research was more innovative than they could have anticipated. This confirms the findings of de Janasz & Sullivan (2004). 184 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Mentees also spoke about how the mentoring had affected other areas of their lives. Several mentees have begun to see themselves in a new light, as professionals in an important national programme (i.e. no longer simply graduates or postgraduates working for the Early Detection programme, but serious players in their field and competent young professionals). They said that the connections they had made through their mentors‘ networks had allowed them to operate at levels beyond their expectations and to speak to senior officials and CEOs much earlier in their careers than they would have otherwise. Nevertheless they could still make individual contributions outside SANBI to the wider community. They now have some influence in the field because their mentors have expert reputations. Through the mentor programme team members have been introduced to wider networks and this has resulted in information being shared between co-ordinators and an ever increasing network of volunteer observers. The mentees said that the field trips with their mentors were very valuable and necessary and that they learnt an enormous amount during the field trips. The field trips were included in the 16 hours per month which the mentors spent with the mentees and some mentees felt that there was not enough time for their other meetings and would have liked more mentoring time in their daily work environment as well. The investment in the mentoring was higher than many programmes of this nature. This was generously funded by The Working for Water Programme of the Department of Water Affairs. The money and time spent by mentors meant a rapid capacity development among mentees. This is evident in the range of goals and skills they managed to achieve and develop in a relatively short time. The programme also built capacity in mentors as, through experience, they learned how to do cross cultural mentoring better. The programme provided access to mentoring, especially for young black women, that they are unlikely to have accessed without a formal programme (Stone, 2005) The mentoring programme has spread awareness of the need for such professional development in science / biodiversity in South Africa as revealed by the mentor feedback. The mentoring of young researchers in the Early Detection programme stands out as a rare and exceptional example of good practice in mentoring and the design and implementation of a mentoring programme for capacity building of young biodiversity researchers and practitioners. Biodiversity programmes in South Africa and worldwide can benefit from such mentoring programmes. The major disadvantage of using mentors in such a programme is that the goals and methods used by the programme have taken much longer to be standardised, with the mentors pulling in different directions to where the program as a whole was headed. Certainly such mentorship activities while needed at an early stage, are also most disruptive in a new programme where the processes and aims are still to be determined. In a more developed programme the expectations of the mentors can be set out much more clearly. 185 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Data capturing using Cyber-Tracker technology In order to facilitate ease of data capturing amongst volunteer and professional observers software is being developed that will allow for ease of identification of the species for which the Early Detection team is seeking information. Cyber-Tracker is a world recognised software application that melds the technological world of computer software with the ancient skills of trackers. The application for the Early Detection programme has been designed to:  Allow validation of species identification. Electronic Field Guide pages will include images, text and known distribution maps of the up to 660 species on the Southern African Plant Invader Atlas.  Provide a number of taxonomic filters. The software will calculate the number of possible species after each filter operation, so that the user can skip to a series of photographs and plant names at any stage of the identification process. If the user is unable to make a definitive identification, the final result will include all the possible species. A photograph and herbarium specimens may be used for validation by a taxonomic specialist.  Contain up to 700 species, with each species containing about five images installed onto a high performance microSD card for efficient distribution.  Automatically capture required Meta data, such as the name of the observer, contact details, methods used, etc. Meta data should also include a record of decisions made by the user when selecting taxonomic filters.  Utilize the integrated camera to capture photos attached to GPS position and attribute data. Capture GPS timer track data that can be used to create lines and polygons to plot areas of alien vegetation infestation.  Transmit data captured in the field via a Cellular modem to a specified ftp site hosted by SANBI. Data transmission should be verified before clearing the data from the Handheld Computer.  Provide an Efficiency Report to show the number of observations, time spent and distance covered per day by each field observer.  Include a real-time GPS navigation map to enable users to find previously recorded alien plants for treatment. Include a map maker to produce maps for the Handheld Computer. The moving map feature should indicate the position of the user in real time and display the path followed, and  Most importantly the software should be Open Source and free for conservation use worldwide. This software application is almost fully developed and field testing was carried out during last quarter of 2010. Conclusion and way forward The EDRR work needs to have a clear mandate and link to the legislation. Due to the large number of alien plant species that could be considered, it was proposed that species-specific activities be restricted to three groups. First, category 1a species as categorized by the National 186 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Environmental Management and Biodiversity Act. These are Invasive species requiring compulsory control. Remove and destroy. Any specimens of Category 1a listed species need, by law, to be eradicated from the environment. No permits to have these species will be issued. The second list is a Species under Surveillance List which currently does not have appropriate legal standing but is a list of species that are of concern but which still require a formal assessment before any legally-binding categorisation. And the third group are any new records of naturalisation. As such EDRR is focussing on species where the possibility of eradication has not been ruled out (although this may simply be because of a lack of available information). Good progress has been made towards the establishment of a functioning national EDRR. However, some early problems and lessons can be summarised as follows: a. The high number of invasive alien plant species already in South Africa that could be construed as ―emerging‖ invasive aliens made it difficult to know where to start. Initially a priority setting process was embarked upon, but stakeholders suggested targeting a few ―case studies‖ may be a more appropriate way forward. The fact that EDRR has fasttracked a few projects has actually been to the benefit of the programme as a whole, as already broader lessons are being learnt (e.g. at what point is a desk-top risk assessment appropriate). b. The case study focus, however, has detracted from the development of regional monitoring strategies but it has given guidance as to how these strategies should be structured in future. The foundations for a long term programme of EDRR need to be strengthened through establishment and implementation of site and species surveys and monitoring. c. The limited availability of taxonomic skills has meant that not all positions have been filled, this needs to be a focus particularly early on in an EDRR programme (Fig. 3). d. A delay in starting the programme combined with a restricted funding timeframe created pressure to employ capacity as quickly as possible, and led to excess budget available in the first six months of the programme. This skewed some decisions (e.g. the staff structure), but these are being resolved with time. e. There is value in all processes of EDRR being managed by a single entity. Indeed, response activities should be an integral part of activities and feed-back into early detection and risk assessment (i.e. EDRR should not be a linear or cyclic process but more integrative, particularly given the need to act quickly). f. The relatively inexperienced team has been supported by very experienced mentors that have enabled team members to develop both professionally and personally. And while, the mentorship scheme has meant EDRR programme has taken longer to settle on shared goals and methodologies, the mentor programme has given the team members guidance and support which has contributed to good retention of staff. 187 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world In the future we anticipate the workloads in the four different focus areas to change with time as illustrated in Figure 4. As the programme progresses, more time will be spent on Early Detection and contingency planning as the programme is now working through the ‗backlog‘ of species that have not been fully assessed. The existing high level of identification of species will tail off as species currently not identified are checked and verified. Subsequent to this high work load the need for identification of species will increase alongside the number of new species being detected. Although it is still to be formally assessed, we believe EDRR has the potential to continue to be an important feature of the control of invasive organisms in South Africa for many years to come. Figure 4 - Anticipated change in work load on each component as the EDRR programme develops References de Janasz SC & Sullivan SE (2004) Multiple mentoring in academe: Developing the professorial network .Journal of Vocational Behavior 64, 263–283 Department of Water Affairs Website http://www.dwaf.gov.za/wfw/ (Accessed July 2010) Geber HM (2004) Mentoring of early career academics in South African Higher Education: A Transformation Strategy. Ph.D. Thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. Geber HM (2003) Fostering career development for Black academics in the New South Africa. In: Global perspectives on mentoring: Transforming contexts, communities, and culture, eds. F. Kochan and J. Pascarelli. Information Age Publishing. Henderson L (2010) Surveys of alien weeds and invasive plants in South Africa, - Southern African Plant Invaders Atlas (SAPIA) Phase II, Final Report to Working for Water April 2005 – March 2010 Jacobs, Van Wyk and Wilson in these proceedings Should Melaleuca be an eradication target in South African fynbos? Looking beyond population data. Le Roux JJ, Geerts S, Ivey P, Krauss S, Richardson DM, Suda J, & Wilson JRU (2010) Molecular systematics and ecology of invasive Kangaroo Paws in South Africa: management implications for a horticulturally important genus. Biological Invasions, DOI 10.1007/s10530-010-9818-4 188 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, Act 10, 2004, Government Gazette, Vol. 467 Cape Town 7 June 2004 No. 26436 http://www.environment.gov.za//PolLeg/Legislation/2004Jun7_2/Biodiversity %20Act -7%20June%202004.pdf Nel JL, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Mgidi TN, Mdzeke N, Le Maitre DC, van Wilgen BW, Schonegevel L, Henderson L & Neser S (2004) A proposed classification of invasive alien plant species in South Africa: towards prioritizing species and areas for management action. South African Journal of Science 100 January/February 2004 Stone K, & Coetzee, M. (2005) Levelling the playing field: reducing barriers to mentoring for women protégés in the South African organisational context. SA Journal of Human Resource Management 3(3), 33-39 Wilson et al. these proceedings Eradication and monitoring of Australian Acacias in South Africa as part of an EDRR program, can species with long-lived seed banks be eradicated? Wittenberg R, & Cock MJW (eds.) (2001) Invasive Alien Species: A toolkit of Best Prevention and Management Practices. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK, xvli – 228. Zenni et al. (2009) Evaluating the invasiveness of Acacia paradoxa in South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 75, 485–496. 189 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Appendix - EDRR is actively working on about 18 invasive alien plant species as of July 2010, either in terms of assessing current status and future risk (step 3 on Fig. 2); or containment or eradication plans are being implemented (step 4). Plans are in place to start full scale assessments on several other species not listed here in the next year, while in some cases taxonomic issues relating to the list below still need to be resolved (step 2). Species Biome Categorisation Range size Records of naturalisation or 4 under South (quarter degree invasiveness African law1 grid cells) at project initiation2 Acacia implexa Fynbos 1a 2 South Africa only (Wilson et al. these proceedings) Acacia paradoxa Fynbos 1a 2 Australia (extra-limital), U.S.A. (California), Israel, New Zealand, South Africa (Zenni, et al. 2009; Wilson et al. these proceedings) Acacia stricta Fynbos 1a 5 New Zealand, South Africa (Wilson et al. these proceedings) Anigozanthos flavidus / Fynbos Surveillance list 1 Australia (extra-limital), South Africa (Le Anigozanthos rufus Roux, et al. in press) Banksia ericifolia Fynbos Not listed 1 South Africa only Campuloclinium Grasslands 1a or 1b depending 85 Southern Africa only macrocephalum on the province Cylindropuntia fulgida var. Arid 1b 7 (variety not Australia, South Africa mamillata specified) Cylindropuntia rosea / Arid Genus on 0 Australia, Cuba(?), South Africa Cylindropuntia tunicata surveillance list Fucraea gigantea (Fucraea Tropical Not listed 0 Various foetida) coastal Hydrilla verticillata Water bodies 1a 2 South Africa, Mozambique Lythrum salicaria Wetlands 1a 1 Various 190 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Melaleuca ericeafolia Fynbos wetlands Surveillance list 0 Present in 5 countries (GBIF), Australia (extra-limital), but not currently classified as invasive in this country (Jacobs et al. these proceedings) Present in 22 countries (GBIF) (Jacobs et al. these proceedings) Various South Africa Australia, Hawaii? Fynbos Surveillance list 0 wetlands Spartinia alternifolia Estuaries Not listed 0 Tephrocactus articulatus Arid 1a 5 Triplaris americana Tropical 1b 1 coastal 1 According to the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, Draft Alien and Invasive Regulations 2009. 1a species require compulsory control; 1b species are controlled as part of an invasive alien species control programme; the surveillance list refers to species that have been identified as potential risks. 2 EDRR was initiated in April 2008. Data are from the South African Plant Invaders Atlas (SAPIA), http://www.agis.agric.za/wip/. ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria. 3 New records can be from any source, and need not be attributable to EDRR, but the values here are as recorded by EDRR staff (in some cases prior to integration with SAPIA). 4 Data are from Global Compendium of Weeds, http://www.hear.org/gcw, accessed 20 July 2010; and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, http://data.gbif.org, accessed 20 July 2010. Melaleuca quinquinerva 191 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world The NOBANIS gateway on invasive alien species and the development of a European Early Warning and Rapid Response System Melanie Josefsson Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Natural Resources, SE106 48 Stockholm, Sweden. E-mail: melanie.josefsson@snv.slu.se NOBANIS (the European Network on Invasive Alien Species) is a gateway to information on invasive alien species in Europe. Eighteen countries in North and Central Europe participate in the NOBANIS network, which originally was funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers (20032008), but is now funded by member countries. The focus of NOBANIS is to provide information on IAS for environmental managers working with preventative measures, control and eradication of IAS in all environments. The NOBANIS gateway provides information on alien species and populations in distributed but integrated databases with more than 14,520 records, fact sheets on 59 of the most invasive alien species in the region, an identification key for alien species in the marine environment and a library on national regulations and literature. A charting function enables the user to produce figures from the databases for example trends in introduction, pathways of introduction, habitats invaded. After a workshop on developing a European Early Warning and Rapid Response System in June 2010, the focus of work within NOBANIS is continued improvement of the databases and on developing the early warning aspects of the gateway. A quarterly newsletter is produced to facilitate exchange of information. A ―species alert‖ function on the portal is under development. A pilot project has been initiated to implement a biogeographic approach in the databases to facilitate early warning functions in the future. 192 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world From mediocrity to notoriety – the case of invasive weedy rice (Oryza sativa) biotypes in Malaysian rice granaries Baki B. Bakar Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, E-mail: baki@um.edu.my Weedy rice (WR), Oryza sativa L., aggregates are a scourge in the Malaysian rice granaries. We collated and analyzed field survey and experimental data on the extent of the infestation, the economic losses and the economics of control of WR for the past 20 years. Albeit season-mediated fluxes with erratic infestations from small pockets measuring less than 50 ha in total in 1987 to ca. 56,790 ha out of 230,000 of rice granaries in 2009 in Malaysia. Different degrees of both season- and field-mediated infestations were displayed, ranging from <1% to >50%. Based on conservative estimates of 5% yield loss due to WR infestation nationwide and the national average of 5 tons/ha, a yield loss of 0.25 tons/ha or 115,000 tons/year of rice yields valued at MYR172.5 million/year based on the government guaranteed price of MYR1,500/ton can be envisaged. The average input and labor costs of thorough land preparation, herbicides and application as well as manual weeding, roughing and panicle slashing of WR amount to MYR1,250/ha or MYR285.7 million/year nationwide. These costs augmented with monumental yield loss impacted not only on farmers‘ income but also the national target of self-sufficiency level of 86% of rice production by 2010. Future trends are discussed. Introduction “If there is no man, there will be no woman. If there is no weed science there will be no agriculture. If there is no agriculture, there will be no mankind” (Baki B.B. 2005). Oryza sativa or weedy rice (WR) aggregates including red rice (RR) and their wild relatives remain a universal scourge in rice fields worldwide. They grow side-by-side as sympatrics where the crop is direct-seeded (Vaughan & Morishima 2003; Baki & Shakirin 2010). Together they represent some of the noxious and millennial weed species (Gressel 2000) in rice ecosystems globally (Chin et al. 2000; Baki 2005; Shakirin 2009; Baki & Shakirin 2010). The spread of weedy rice in Malaysia became significant due to the shift of rice culture from transplanting to direct seeding (Azmi et al. 2000). The cultural practices of direct- and volunteer seeding in the 1980‘s is suspected to be the most plausible uses for the origin and spread of weedy rice in Malaysia. In Malaysia and in the nieghboring countries such as Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, and elsewhere, the practices of dry-seeding culture using seeds from previous season are thought to be the most important factors causing the infestation of weedy rice in rice crop (Sadohara et al. 2000). The use of contaminated rice seeds and the movement of farm machinery between granaries are also factors related to this problem. With shorter maturation period compared with commercial rices and the manifestation of easy grain shattering, weedy rice 193 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world seems to be able to out-compete commercial rices. Since its first reported occurrence in 1987 by Wahab & Suhaimi (1991) in Malaysia, weedy rice inflicts yield losses to the rice crop, thus representing one of the most serious threats to rice production in Malaysia. Weedy rice infestations impact on rice production. Impact studies of WR or RR on the rice industry registered measurable loss in terms of yields and quality of harvest by farmers (Fisher & Ramirez 1993; Chin et al. 2000; Baki 2004; Shakirin 2009). Weedy rice infestation reduced growth and yields of commercial rice and is undesirable to rice farmers, to the milling industry, and to consumers alike. These reductions are augmented with parallel increase in the costs of crop management and care. Azmi et al. (2000) recorded cultivar-mediated variations in yield reductions due to WR interference, ranging from 8 to 34%. Weedy rice contaminants in the rice harvest lead to quality reduction and lower market value. Baki (2004, 2007) estimated that 5% field infestation of weedy rice in Malaysian rice fields led to an economic impact in yield loss of ca. 64,880 tons of rice valued at MYR 137,876,375/year or US$35,999,053/year. Millers complain that WR reduce total and head rice recovery, and lowers grain quality (Menzes et al., 1997; Azmi, pers. comms.), besides inflating the processing cost when WR are separated from milled rice. The Malaysian rice millers imposed premium penalties in grain harvest contaminated with weedy rice, thereby fetching lower prices at the mills (Azmi, M. pers. comm). This communication traces the infestation of weedy rice from a non-entity among weed populations in the late 1980s to its current status as the most important invasive weed in the Malaysian rice granaries. A brief treatment on weedy rice biotypes or aggregates, and socioeconomic impacts and losses due to ensuing infestation of weedy rice in the Malaysian rice ecosystems are also made. Management protocols of weedy rice in the rice eco-systems for the past decades with special emphasis on direct, and indirect, preventive, and substitutive agrotechnical and cultural methods of control of weedy rice were made. The rationale and approaches of integrated weed management including the economics of control of weedy rice are also discussed. The paper ends with a note on future challenges faced by the rice industry in managing weedy rice in Malaysia. Weedy rice aggregates, impacts and status of infestation in Malaysia “We sow rice seeds but weeds grow and establish” (Malay proverb). Weedy Rice Aggregates -Infestation and Spread. While pockets of Oryza officinalis, O. rufipogon, O. nivara grow sympatrically with commercial rices, weedy accessions of O. sativa infest extensively the Malaysian rice fields (Watanabe et al., 2000; Baki, 2006b, Shakirin 2009). Since its first detected occurrence in Tanjung Karang rice field, weedy rice has spread to other rice granaries in Peninsular Malaysia. The infestation has spread to Muda Agricultural Development Authority (MADA) MADA in 1990, Besut in 1995, Sungai Manik/Kerian in 1996, Seberang Prai in 1997, Seberang Perak and Kemubu in 2001 (Baki, 2006b) (Table 1). Albeit season-mediated fluxes with erratic infestations of the scourge from small pockets measuring less than 50ha in total in Selangor North-West Project in 1987 to ca. 49,000 ha out of 230,000 ha of rice granaries in Malaysia in 1997. The parallel figures of infestation for 2007, 2008 and 2009 were ca. 11,735 ha, 32,370 ha and 56,790 ha, respectively. Different degrees of both season- and 194 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world field-mediated infestations were displayed, ranging from <1% to >50%. Intriguingly, the scourge has spread to the rice fields in northern Sabah some 3,000 km away (Baki, unpublished data 2010). In the Muda region of Kedah, weedy rice was present in 82% of the farm blocks in 2001. About 91% of the farm blocks were infested by weedy rice in 2005 with 88% of the farm blocks having at least a 10% infestation (Baki et al., 2000; Shakirin, 2009; and Baki & Shakirin (2010). In Selangor North West Project, the infestation acreages dropped in 2000 and this was principally attributed to a successful weed control by farmers and consistent campaigns and advice by the government and other related organizations to alleviate the problem in the area (Azmi et al., 2004). The chronological appearance of weedy rice in Peninsular Malaysia was described by Baki (2006b)(Fig. 1). 1996 200 1 1996 1997 1999 198 8 Figure 1 - The chronological occurrences of weedy rices in the granaries of Peninsular Malaysia (after Baki 2006b). PA1, PA2…PA125, weedy rice accessions; [●], rice-growing areas and granaries. 195 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Weedy Rice Aggregates - Origin and Morphological Traits. The origin of weedy rices in Malaysia is essentially unknown and this intricacy remains to be unfolded. Weedy rices comprise 2 principal categories, one sympatric with wild rices, and another which occur in localities where no wild rice is found. In the former case genes introgression occurs commonly from the commercial varieties domesticated to the wild type, but the opposite direction of gene flow is rare because of the low fertility of the pollen grains and the high out-crossing rate in the perennial type type. The recurrent gene flow in this direction may lead to the production of a weedy type having an indica-type nuclear genome and a japonica-type cytoplamic genome (Sato, 2000). Abdullah et al. (1996) and Vongsaroj (2000) argued that the origin of weedy rice was through the segregation of the deciduous ―off-types‖ from extensively planted cultivars during the periods of volunteer seeding. Table 1 - The chronological estimates of weedy rice infestations in Peninsular Malaysia from 1995 to 2007 (updated from Shakirin 2009; Baki & Shakirin 2010) Granary MADA** Pulau Pinang Peraka Selangor** Negeri Sembilan Johor/Pahangb Terengganu Kelantanc Sabah Total + Area (ha) 96459 14846 42966 18320 1095 1995 ? n n 1996 300 n** 9660 - 1997 225 40 n** 36664 - Degree of infestation (ha) 1998 1999 2000 2001 <50 992 1104 1340 87 95 91 390 n 550 1107 1530 11256 399 113 200 950 2002 2321 458 1593 210 150 2003 1110 480 1666 220 - 2005 980 770 2367 178 - 2007 1867 890 2569 1007 - 1267 14405 38740 25000 228098 n 10000 19960 12000 48929 U 11393 280 3122 10 8144 2890 58 478 8902 3890 380 1367 9832 4523 879 2555 14280 U 2036 100 750 3265 250 1687 10 6357 With 25-35% field infested with WR; ** First detected: MADA 1990; Selangor 1987; aKrian-Sungai Manik, Perak -1996; Seberang Perak -1997; bEndau Rompin, cInside & outside KADA; n - Negligible acreage; -, Not detectable; U, Unknown. Interestingly, weedy rice populations in Malaysia are phenotypically variable in growth traits, highly polymorphic but display strong crop mimicry with the cultivated counterparts suggesting natural hybridization with rice (Abdullah, M. Z., pers. comm., 2010). They are in fact a collection of indica-like red rice (Oryza sativa), including wild relatives namely O. rufipogon, O. officinalis, O. nivara, O. ridleyi, O. meyeriana, and O. minuta, being true indigenes of tropical Asia, display a range of morphological, anatomical and physiological traits. Following intraspecific crossing and gene flow between WR or WR and rice, these self-propagating individuals, may have been the resultant populations displaying high levels of seed dormancy and heavy seed shattering. These innumerable ecotypes or morphological variants with enhanced compatibility with the local habitat, displaying morphological characteristics with respect to leaf color, plant type and grain characteristics resembling rice cultivars (Abdullah, M.Z., pers. comm., 2010). Cluster analysis of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) bonding patterns revealed that weedy rice is genetically more similar to cultivated rice at the DNA level than wild rice (Abdullah, M.Z., pers. comm., 2010). Azmi & Baki (2003), Baki (2007, 2008), Shakirin (2009), and Baki & Shakirin (2010) noted wide phenotypic variations among weedy rice accessions in Malaysia. Such phenotypic variations and different population sizes and concentrations were manifested in many weedy rice populations in the Muda, Kemubu, Kerian Sungai Manik and Tanjung Karang rice granaries. These WR biotypes are almost indistinguishable from their commercial counterparts at the 196 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world seedling stage. The gross morphological differences of WR biotypes compared with the commercial varieties at the tillering and post-tillering stages are the following: longer and slender tillers, leaves are more often hispid on both surfaces, taller plant stature, the easyshattering or deciduousness traits of seeds, pigmentation of several plant parts, principally the pericarp, and the presence of awns of variable lengths. These traits in many instances, make weedy rices more recognizable compared with the commercial varieties. Some of the undesirable traits and evolutionary characteristics of WR in are illustrated in Table 2. Table 2 - Undesirable traits and evolutionary characteristics of weedy rice (modified from Watanabe, 1995) Type of Characteristics Traits Morphological Characteristics Type of Interference Culm Grain Tall, prone to lodging Variable length Competitive edge over rice Reduce grain quality Pigmented, coloured Presence/absence Mimics rice crop Lower market price of grains Awn Plant mimicry Pericarp Ecological Physiological Difficult to identify Threshability Grain deciduousness Reduce rice yield, increase seedbank Dormancy Seed longevity Seed dormancy Viable in soil for months Difficult to control Difficult to reduce size of seedbank Germination Herbicide Variable Tolerant Adapted to wet-seeded fields Less effective to herbicides, normally used in rice cultivation In the late 1980s and 1990s in Peninsular Malaysia weedy rices used to be taller than cultivated rice and was therefore easily identified. Earlier work by Mislamah & Baki (1999) recorded no less than 27 taller biotypes of weedy rices in Peninsular Malaysia. The new biotype accessions stand were observed to be as tall as the cultivated rice which became a new threat for the rice production in Malaysia (Baki & Shakirin, 2010). Generally, these new biotypes of weedy rice display strong crop mimicry with the existing cultivated rice, namely, MR220, MR219, and MR84 with similar heights increasing the difficult in identifying them even at maturity. Baki & Shakirin (2010) identified no less than 16 such biotypes. These biotypes display open and close panicle type. The grains are short or long with or without awns, and the pericarp colors are red or white. All biotypes showed >50% grain shattering except the weedy rice Acc. 15. Integrated Management of Weedy Rice “The story of agriculture is indeed the story of weed interference “(Dekker 1997). No single weed management component or control method can effectively control WR in rice (Azmi et al., 2000; Noldin, 2000a, 2000b; Valverde, 2004). Farmers normally employ a battery 197 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world of indirect and direct control methods to achieve satisfactory results. These include, principally, the agro-technical and preventive methods comprising land preparation and tillage, water management and manual weeding; crop manipulation through seeding rates, planting density, and a choice of competitive cultivars; and chemical weed control (Noldin, 2000 a,b). Indirect Methods of Control: Preventive, Substitutive, Agro-technical and Cultural. The indirect control measures of WR are shown in Table 3. Each of these methods has its own merits and demerits, and when used within the context of integrated weed management systems, should augment each other in reducing WR populations. Preventing the introduction of invasive weedy rice is the most effective method for their management and is an essential component of a noxious weed management strategy. However, this is difficult to enforce. The major elements of a prevention programme are to stop the introduction of weedy rice seeds or vegetative propagules, to reduce the susceptibility of the ecosystem to invasive weedy rice establishment, and to develop effective education and extension materials and activities, and establish a programme for early detection and monitoring. Strict quarantine enforcement preventing free movement of animals, vehicles and farm machines from infested lands should also be carried out. This is a difficult and an expensive routine to carry out. This would mean only certified high quality weed-free rice seeds should be planted by farmers (Baki et al., 2000; Vongsaroj, 2000). This is an achievable target with close monitoring and political will of the policy makers especially the quarantine office and the extension agents. In Malaysia only 35 -40% of the certified seeds are available to rice farmers and such situation aggravates further weedy rice problems now and for the future. The fact that certified rice seeds are not easily available or inadequate in supply and the fact that farmers rely on their own collection of seeds for planting, higher risks of weedy rice being a contaminant. Seed longevity in the soil is an additional character that enables population persistence over cropping seasons. Furthermore, the inherent seed dormancy in some variants of weedy rice makes control measures more difficult in rice cultivation. Reducing seed longevity or seed bank is a long-term strategy to reduce the deleterious effects of weedy rices on their commercial counterparts. This is a pre-requisite to long-term eradication of the scourge in the rice fields. Therefore, holistic control measures have to be developed which integrate indirect control such as thorough land preparation, high quality seeds, appropriate seeding rate and crop establishment technique. Cultural practice of WR include the use of stale bed techniques, water-seeded rice with pregerminated seeds, crop rotation, and management practices to reduce WR seed bank. WR seed longevity increases when the seed is buried deep in the soil (Nordin, 1995, Watanabe et al., 1996; Azmi et al., 2000; Vongsaroj, 2000). Following harvest, rice fields infested with WR should be left as a fallow, leaving the WR seeds near or on the soil surface, allowing them to germinate thus losing their viability faster than when buried deep in the soil. The size of seed bank plays an important role in determining the severity of infestation by weeds, including WR. Proper tillage must be undertaken to reduce this seed reservoir. Land preparation, especially puddled soils and harrowing, provides a weed-free environment for planting and often aids in the good crop establishment while minimizing weed growth and proliferation in the established crop. Azmi et al. (2000) advocated sequential tillage operations 198 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world within the framework of integrated weed management to reduce WR populations in directseeded fields (Fig. 2). The initial tillage should be shallow enough to encourage sizeable germination of WR seeds while subsequent tillage must be thorough enough to ensure that all volunteer seedlings are annihilated. Three rounds of tillage at 10-day intervals are effective in reducing WR populations. To ensure total kill, pre-planting or pre-seeding sprays with nonselective herbicides such as glyphosate or glufosinate ammonium are occasionally needed. Minimum or zero tillage (MZT) systems are used in many areas with severe WR problems. This is done either by seed drilling or water-seeding 15 - 20 days after land preparation and spraying of the fields with non-selective herbicides such as glyphosate or glufosinate ammonium (Nordin, 2000; Azmi et al., 2004). Appropriate water management is singularly important for controlling weeds irrespective of rice cultures. Inundation of rice fields suppresses weed emergence and establishment, including WR. Rice fields should be flooded soon after rice emergence, preferably at 5 -10 cm until booting stage, otherwise WR control is ineffective. In water-seeded rice, pre-germinated seeds are broadcasted in the water in leveled fields soon after seedbed preparation. This system warrants permanent levees, and offers one of the best alternatives for WR control in Brazil and elsewhere. Field drainage is monitored so as not to expose soil to air and increases in oxygen concentration in the soil, thereby stimulating WR germination. Table 3 - Components of indirect control methods of weedy rice (modified from Baki, 2006b). Control components Merits / Demits Quarantine measures, difficult & expensive to enforce; use of Prevention/Eradication WR- free certified seeds effective in long-term control, require effective quarantine and extension services. Panicle cutting of WR before maturity; expensive to carry out in large farms. Tillage/Stale seedbed 2-3 rounds of tillage, augmented by blanket or spot sprays with low doses of glyphosate. Field levelling is necessary. Tillage implements should be free from WR contaminants, difficult to enforce in systems where farmers hire tillage/harvesting machines. Water management Fields inundated 5 -10 cm, 5 days after wet-seeding or 14 days after dry seeding. Inundation of rice fields suppresses WR emergence and establishment. Seeding technique/rate seeding Pre-germinated wet seeding gives better seedling establishment than dry of 80-100kg/ha vis-à-vis the optimum 60kg/ha seeding rate as insurance against establishment uncertainties. Crop rotation Rice-maize rotation grown at alternate years for 4 years controlled WR effectively and this brings about changes to the overall crop-weed ecology. Allows rotation of herbicides; prevent subsequent build-up of weed resistance. Farmers plant high-priced market-driven produce, rather than rice for better income. Choice of cultivars/planting date Competitive short maturation cultivars can out-compete WR, e.g. MQ 95. 199 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Our limited studies indicated that two rounds of thorough soil ploughing or rotovation in the land preparation followed by leveling would enable weedy rice seeds to germinate and establish before herbicidal treatments with non-selective herbicides such as glyphosate (0.8 – 1.7 kg ae ha1 ) or glufosinate ammonium (0.6-1.1 kg a.i. ha-1) 10-14 days later gave measurable control against WR seedlings at 3-4 leaf stage. An important component in the indirect cultural and preventive weed control methods in rice is the use of suppressive and competitive rice cultivars against WR. A short-maturing variety, such as MQR 95, out-competes WR, and this will indirectly help reduce the WR seed bank where early harvesting of the rice crop when WR is still at its flowering stage (Azmi et al., 2000). Puckridge et al. (1988) recommended the planting of cultivars with distinguishing colour traits (e.g. Khao Niew Dam), such as a cultivar with purplish stems and leaves to differentiate crop from weedy forms, to aid in manual weeding. However, this tactic will only be successful in the long term and if hybridization with wild rice is prevented, with prudent choice of planting dates. Figure 2 - Integrated approach in weedy rice control in direct-seeded fields in Malaysia (after Azmi et al., 2000). Developing Herbicide-Tolerant Rice Cultivars. Malaysia through the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) has developed some promising lines of imidazolinone- resistant rice biotypes. This was made possible by crossing Clearfield® rice cultivar with locally produced modern rice cultivars (Azmi, M., pers. comm. 2010). So far five such lines have been identified showing resistance to imidazolinone. According to Croughan (1994), an ethyl methane sulfonate-induced mutation of the acetolactate synthase (ALS) gene is the basis for herbicide resistance in the imidazolinone rice varieties, conferring resistance to imidazolinones and certain sulfonylurea herbicides. These Malaysian IMI-rice cultivars are yet to be released to the rice farming communities. Due to the fear of possible introgressions with 200 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world weedy rice, the arguments made by Riches & Valverde (2002) and Madsen et al. (2002), among others, that prior to the introduction of HR crops including HR/HT rice, their short- and longterm risks should be thoroughly assessed should be followed. I believe that scientists at MARDI have yet to undertake such risk analyses following the release of IMI-rice to the rice farmers in the country. Generally, the cultivation of HR/HT rice would lead to parallel increase of volunteer rice crop problems (Sankula et al., 1998). Further, WR plants may emerge out in frequent timemediated flushes, and hybridization, however, low in frequency, may still prevail. If we were to follow the arguments of Madsen et al. (2002), using a ten-year run, predicting that resistance to glufosinate would occur within 3 -8 years of monoculture, then the basis of releasing IMI-rice in Malaysia would equally be flawed and risky with the possibility of weedy rice biotypes acquiring resistance over time. There are enough evidences that the introduction of these herbicide-tolerant (HT) or herbicide-resistant (HR) rices accentuate the risks of gene flow into weedy relative, the WR (Gealy et al., 2003; Shivrain et al., 2004) or the potential development of herbicide-resistant or ferality in WR (Gealy & Estorninos, 2004). Such risks are monitored through simple sequence repeat (SSR) marker and phenotypic analyses of segregating populations to identify, quantify, and track the WR hybrids in farmers‘ and research fields. Being sympatrics, rice and WR are primarily self-pollinated, but can cross-pollinate one another, providing avenue for the transfer of genetic traits such as herbicide resistance from rice to weedy rice. Direct Methods of Control. Physiological similarities between WR and cultivated rice limit chemical control options (Jordan & Sander, 1999). With the absence of herbicides for WR control in commercial rice, Malaysian rice farmers are encourages to rotate rice fields with other crops. This option is not readily acceptable to Malaysian for the very reasons of irrigation regimes in the rice granaries although such rotation of crops not only will bring about changes to the overall crop-weed ecology, but also prevent the continuous use of same herbicide(s) and the subsequent build-up of weed resistance (De Datta & Baltazar, 1994; Valverde et al., 2000). Except for glyphosate and glufosinate ammonium, most of graminicides for WR control are used in the presence of the rice crop. Application of oxadiazon at 250 g a.i. ha -1 or oxadiargyl at 72 -100 g a.i. ha-1 to control WR, obtained significantly higher rice yields than the control (Chin et al., 2000; Azmi et al., 2000). Slight injuries to cultivated rice were observed under drained field conditions. Measurable control of WR in Malaysia was reported with molinate at 4.5 kg a.i. ha-1 and thiobencarb at 300 g a.i. ha -1, respectively (Azmi et al. 2000). Graminicides such as clethodim, fluazifop-P, quizalofop-P and sethoxydim were more efficient for the control and seed head suppression of WR especially at booting stages than when applied at early growth although the efficacy was dependent on application timing and environmental conditions during treatment. High levels of WR control were ranging from 84 to 92% with PRE applications of alachlor, dimethenamid, metolachlor, acetolachlor at the respective rates of 2.4, 1.4, 2.5, and 1.5 kg a.i. ha-1. The parallel figures of WR control with POST applications of glyphosate, glufosinate, or quazilafop-ethyl were 92, 89, 81 and 100%, respectively. Pre-flood applications of glufosinate at 0.42 kg ha-1 at 2-3 leaf rice initially, and at the early tillering stage, and glyphosate at 0.42 - 0.84 kg ha-1 also gave consistent control of WR. Manual roughing of WR seedlings or plants before heading are being practiced by farmers in tropical Asia and Latin American countries (Azmi et al., 2000a; 2000b). This method of control is limited as it is labor intensive, and can be expensive, especially in countries relying on foreign 201 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world labor. I believe strongly that if back-breaking manual weeding is still instituted in weed control against WR or any weed species for that matter in this so called post-modern era of the new millennium, then something is wrong with our attitude towards humanity as a whole. Either the world community is not sensitive to the needs and suffering of the human race, or there are real gaps in our extension activities to help modernize farmers weed management effort and boost their rice yields. Economics of control of Weedy Rice and impact of its infestation in Malaysia The costs incurred to manage weedy rice vary according to the granaries. These differences stem out partially on the level of infestation prevailing in the rice fields, and also in the costs of the labor input to carry out chemical, manual weeding or roughing and panicle slashing of weedy rice. Labor is increasingly scarce in Malaysian rice fields due partly to the aging of farmers. Lately foreign labor from neighboring countries is contracted in rice farming from land preparation to harvesting, even with combine harvesters. Recent surveys (1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, and 2010) conducted in Malaysian rice granaries indicated that the costs of herbicide sprays ranged from MYR 15 – MYR 50/ha depending on the localities Manual roughing and panicle slashing of weedy rice cost MYR 500-MYR 650/ha. If the costs of thorough land preparation as indirect costs of weedy rice management as well as herbicide inputs are taken into account, the total costs would be in the region MYR 1000 –MYR 1250/ha. On the higher extreme, the costs of managing weedy rice in the country would be estimated at MYR285.7 million nationwide based on rice growing areas of 624,000 ha. With granary- and season-mediated differences in infestation levels of WR, it is quite difficult to ascertain the yield loss due to WR in Malaysian rice fields. Our conservative estimate of 5% field infestation of WR nationwide would inflict yield loss of no less than 0.25 tons/ha based on the national average yield of 5 tons/ha or 115,000 tons/year of rice yields valued at MYR172.5 million/year based on the government guaranteed price of MYR1,500/ton. Our surveys in 2000, 2003, 2005, and 2007 registered field WR infestations ranging from 25 to 35 % with the respective acreages of 3265, 8144, 8902, 9832, and 14,280 ha (Table 1). However, there were many rice fields in the country that registered infestation ranging from <1%, while others on the extreme recorded >50% infestation, depending on the levels of control undertaken by the farmers either through agro-technical or herbicide-based control measures. Our field studies indicated that with 35% of WR infestation, density-mediated yield losses would in the regions of 50-60%, or 3.20 - 3.84 tons/ha/season valued at MYR4,800 – MYR5,670/ha/season. Baki (2007) estimated that 5% field infestation of weedy rice in Malaysian rice fields led to an economic impact in yield loss of ca. 64,880 tons of rice valued at MYR 137,876,375/year or US$35,999,053/year. Additionally, weedy rice infestations incur further costs to Malaysian rice farmers. Farmers need to practice thorough land preparation, water management, and herbicide-based weed management to ensure total control of weedy rices and other weeds prior to seeding. Measures of proper agronomic practices and proper crop care will inevitably lead to more hours spent in the fields. For some farmers these valuable hours should be spent elsewhere to generate better income or better-paid jobs. In the same vein, inculcation of the zero-tolerance concept and practice of weed infestation among farmers is difficult and expensive, especially among aging 202 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world rice farmers in the country. This failure will aggravate weedy rice problems for many years to come. One of the actions needed to bring down the infestation of WR is to change the rice culture presently from direct seeding to transplanting. Such a change would enable manual weeding to be done under transplanting rice culture compared with direct seeding. Transplanting rice culture would incur extra cost to rice farmers ranging from MYR850/ha to MYR1,200/ha compared with MYR200/ha in direct seeding rice culture, inclusive of the costs of seeds. Future Challenges The new millennium witness food security and food scarcity (FSFS) as major issues haunting the world populace at large and Malaysia is no exception. With our current needs exceeding our domestic supply, Malaysia imports about 27% of the rice from Thailand and Vietnam, and lately from Cambodia and Myanmar. The government targets 86% of self-sufficiency level (SSL) in rice by2010. This aim should be attained through serious action and mitigation to increase rice supply with more than US$1 billion allocation to improve infrastructures, drainage and agricultural inputs. It becomes the responsibility of rice farmers and those involved in the rice industry to produce enough rice for domestic consumption. The demand for rice outclassing supply coupled with the increasing world‘s population spell uncertainty in the world rice market. Malaysia being a net rice importer is likely to be affected by this spin-off. Recently, two of the world‘s biggest supplier of rice, Thailand and Vietnam, plagued by drought and floods, announced shortfalls in supply, hence the reduction in export quantity of the commodity. A perennial issue facing rice farmers in Malaysia is pest outbreak with weeds being the most important. The advent of recalcitrant, hard-to-control millennial weeds like WR, coupled with increasing incidences of herbicide-resistant weed species in rice ecosystems worldwide including Malaysia are challenges that the rice industry at large has to face, requiring farmers to invest higher input costs to control these weeds. The ability to implement control measures against WR with minimal input costs yet inflicting no yield loss to commercial rice warrants the commitment of farmers, extension agents and other players in the rice industry. The WR infestations inflict yield loss to a variable degree. The ability of extension agents to inculcate awareness among rice farmers that WR infestations inflict yield loss to a variable degree, and that integrated control measures against the scourge must be carried out early enough, are key challenges facing the rice industry. This is especially important to small-scale peasantry rice farming communities, where state of the art control inputs and credit facilities are not always at their disposal. Farmers must be advised that intensive rice monoculture breeds resistance in other weed species. The use of certified WR-free rice seeds, the sharing or use of WR-clean tillage and harvesting implements, and cutting of immature WR panicles are other ways to prevent the spread in non-infested fields. Truly the advent of invasive WR from a non-entity in the late 1980s to a largely recalcitrant scourge in the new millennium is worrisome to the players in the rice industry. This is aggravated by increasing costs of inputs in rice production in the country. There is a need to institute aerobic rice production in the country in the face of increasing competition for water – a move that is likely to increase WR and other millennial weed problems further. Intensive research to find solutions to WR problems based on IWM concepts and practice will go a long way to help achieve the 100% SSL in rice production in the country. 203 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world With innumerable accessions the deciduous ―off-types‖ of WR segregants from extensively planted cultivars during the periods of volunteer seeding (Abdullah et al., 1996; Vaughan et al., 2001; Valverde, 2004; Shakirin, 2009), the problems of WR in rice fields are here to stay. Our ability to manage these WR populations below the economic threshold levels season after season requires the sharing of knowledge and experience for the common good of humanity. The establishment of global databases and of a WR management network is one way that the entire world rice community can share and benefit from each other. The MED-Rice is one of such network. Such networking facilities are not common in rice-growing areas of the developing countries for a variety of reasons. The technological gap between the rice-growing areas of USA, Europe and Japan, and those in the developing world like Malaysia is one reason for the ―apparent lack of dialogue and cooperation‖ to solve WR problems worldwide. The weed science fraternities, especially those working in WR management need to bridge this gap. I can say with pride that rice farmers in Malaysia enjoy not only price-support system and subsidies in many forms from the government but also good extension and technical-support services from government-run agencies. In this way fair price to the farmers are assured while providing affordable rice to the Malaysian consumers. References Abdullah MZ, Vaughan DA, Watanabe H & Okuno, K (1996) The origin of weedy rice in Peninsular Malaysia. MARDI Res. J. 24(2), 169-174. Azmi M, Abdullah MZ & Fujii Y (2000) Exploratory study on allelopathic effect of selected Malaysian rice varieties and rice field weed species. J. Trop. Agric. & Food Sci. 28, 39-54. Azmi M, Mislamah AB & Mohd Rafee U (2004) A Technology Manual For Weedy Rice Management. MARDIDepartment of Agriculture, Publication, Kuala Lumpur, 36p. Baki BB (2005) The world‘s landscapes of weedy rice: An overview. Proc. 20thAsian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference (Ho Chi Minh City) 1, 45-52. Baki BB (2006a) Shaping the Future of Weed Science to Serve Humanity. University of Malaya Press, Kuala Lumpur, 178p. Baki BB (2006b) Weed Ecology and Management in Rice Ecosystems. University of Malaya Press, Kuala Lumpur, 373p. Baki BB (2007) A Review on Invasive Plants in Malaysia. Abstract – International Symposium on Invasive Alien Plants in Asia, 5-7 October 2007, National Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences (NIAES), Tsukuba, Japan. Baki BB, Mislamah MA & Azmi M (2000) Weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Peninsular Malaysia. In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 51-54. Baki BB & Shakirin MM (2010) Spatio-temporal Distribution Pattern of New Biotypes of Weedy Rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Selangor North-West Project, Malaysia. Korean J. Weed Science (2010)(in press). Chin DV, Tran VT & Le VT (2000) Weedy rice in Vietnam.In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 45-50. Croughan TP (1994) Application of tissue culture techniques to the development of herbicide resistant rice. Lousiana Agric. 3, 25-26. De Datta SK & Baltazar AM (1994) Paper presented at the Conference on Herbicide Use in Asian Rice Production, March 28-30, 1994, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA, 8p. Dekker J (1997) Weed diversity and weed management. Weed Sci. 45, 357-363. Fisher AJ & Ramirez A (1993) Red rice (Oryza sativa): competition studies for management decisions. Intl. J. Pest Mgmt. 39, 133-138. Gealy DR, Mitten DH & Rutger JN (2003) Gene flow between red rice (O. sativa) and herbicide-resistant rice (O. sativa): Implications for weed management. Weed Technol. 17, 627-645. 204 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Gealy DR & Estorninos Jr LE (2004) Hybridization between red rice and rice in the U.S.: Implications for gene flow and ferality. Abstract: 4th Intl. Weed Sci. Congr. p. 76. Gressel J (2000) Novel controls of millennial weeds. Abstracts 3rdIntl. Weed Sci. Congr., p.1 Harlan JR (1969) Evolutionary dynamics of plant domestication. Japanese J. Genetics 44 (suppl.), 337-343. Jordan D & Sanders DE (1999) Pest Management. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University AgCenter, Louisiana Rice Production Handbook. Publ. 2321, pp.37-50. Madsen KH, Valverde BE & Jensen JE (2002) Risk assessment of herbicide-resistant crops: A Latin American perspective using rice (Oryza sativa) as a model. Weed Technol. 16, 216-223. MED-Rice Network (2005) Web page: http://www.medrice.unito.it/. Accessed May 2010. Menzes VG, da Silva PRF, Carmona R, Rezera F & Mariot CH (1997) Red rice interference on milling yield of irrigated rice cultivars. Lavoura Arrozeira 50, 3-6. Mislamah AB & Baki BB (1999) The spatio-temporal pattern of distribution of weedy rice accessions in Sungei Burong rice granary of Tanjung Karang, Selangor. Proc. 17th Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference 1(A), 105-115. Noldin JA (1995) Characterization, seed longevity, and herbicide sensitivity of red rice (Oryza sativa L.) ecotypes, and red rice control in soyabeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. PhD dissertation, Texas A & M. University, College Station, Texas, 218p. Noldin JA (2000a) Weedy rices. Abstracts: 3rdIntl. Weed Sci. Congr., p.246. Noldin JA (2000b) In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 21-24. Puckridge DW, Chankasom L, Vonsaroj P, Thongbai P & Chinawong S (1988) Effect of tillage and sowing methods on control of wild rice. Proc. Intl. Deep Water Rice Workshop (Manila), IRRI, pp. 593-598. Riches CR & Valverde BE (2002) Agricultural and biological diversity in Latin America: Implications for development, testing, and commercialization of herbicide-resistant crops. Weed Technol. 16, 2000-214. Sadohara H, Watanabe O & Rich G (2000) Control of red rice. In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 87-90. Sankula S, Braverman MP & Oard JH (1998) Genetic analysis of glufosinate resistance in crosses between transformed rice (Oryza sativa) and red rice (Oryza sativa). Weed Technol. 12, 209-214. Sato Y (2000) Origin and evolution of wild, weedy, and cultivated rice. In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 7-16. Shakirin MM (2009) Descriptive analyses of new biotypes of weedy rice in the Selangor North West Project, Malaysia. MSc thesis, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 245p. Shivrain VK, Burgos NR & Rajaguru SN (2004) Cultivar and planting date affect gene flow between Clearfield rice and red rice. Abstract: 4th Intl. Weed Sci. Congr. (Durban), p. 53. Valverde BE, Riches CR & Caseley JC (2000) Prevention and Management of Herbicide Resistant Weeds in Rice: Experience from Central America with Echinochloa colona. San Jose, Costa Rica. Camara de Insumos Agrorecuarios de Costa Rica, 123p. Valverde BE (2004) Characteristics, impact and management of weedy rice (Oryza spp.) in rice (O. sativa) in Latin America. Abstract: 4th Intl. Weed Sci. Congr. (Durban), p. 11. Vaughan LK, Ottis BV, Prasak-Harvey AM, Bormans CA, Sneller C, Chandler JM & Park WD (2001) Is all red rice found in commercial rice really Oryza sativa? Weed Sci. 49, 468-476. Vaughan DA & Morishima H (2003) Biosystematics of the Genus Oryza . In: Rice, Oreigin, History, Technology and Production (C.W. Smith, R.H. Dilday, eds.). John Wiley & Sons Inc., Hoboken, NJ, pp. 25-65. Vonsaroj P (2000) Wild and weedy rice in Thailand. In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 59-68. Wahab AH & Suhaimi O (1991) Padi angin, adverse effects and methods of eradication. Teknologi Padi 7, 27-31. Watanabe H, Azmi M & Md Zuki I (1996) Ecology of weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.), locally called padi angin, and its control strategy. In: Ecology of major weeds and their control in direct seeding rice culture of Malaysia. MARDI/MADA/JIRCAS Collaborative Study (1992-1996) (Watanabe, H., Azmi, M. & Md. Zuki, I., eds.), pp. 112-166. Watanabe H, Vaughan DA &Tomooka N (2000) Weedy rice complex: case studies from Malaysia, Vietnam, and Surinam. In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 25-34. 205 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Assessment and attempted eradication of Australian acacias in South Africa as part of an EDRR programme John R. Wilson1,2*, Haylee Kaplan1, Carlo de Kock3, Dickson Mazibuiko1, Jason de Smidt 3, Rafael D. Zenni1, Ernita van Wyk2 1 Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, South Africa 2 South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Gardens, Claremont 7735, South Africa. 3 Invasive Species Control Unit, South African National Parks, Ground Floor Westlake Square, Corner Steenberg Road & Westlake Drive, Cape Town, South Africa * Corresponding author, Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa, john.wilson2@gmail.com, Tel: +27 (0)21 808 3408, Fax: +27 (0)21 808 2995 One of the targets of the initial phase of the South African National Programme for Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) of Invasive Alien Plants has been introduced wattles (Acacia subgenus Phyllodineae (DC.) Ser.). While 15 Australian acacias are listed in South African regulations on invasive plants, only eleven are widespread. The remaining four species (A. adunca, A. implexa, A. paradoxa, A. stricta) have not been investigated in depth, nor has there been a concerted or sustained effort to manage these invasive populations. In this paper we describe EDRR's involvement in Australian Acaica species, in particular: current plans to eradicate A. paradoxa from Table Mountain; initial field and risk assessments for A. implexa and A. stricta; and surveys to determine the status of other introduced Australian Acacia species. Introduction Australian Acacia species (or wattles, i.e. Acacia subgenus Phyllodineae) are regarded as a model group in invasion biology (Richardson et al., 2011). Management practices around the world have focussed on the most widespread invaders, but given the difficulties of long-lived persistent seed-banks, preventing or eradicating new invasions before invasions become established will be the best strategy (Wilson et al., 2011). South Africa is in the process of developing a strategic plan for managing biological invasions, and wattles have been used as a test case (van Wilgen et al., 2011). Draft South African regulations on invasive alien species (National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2009) lists fifteen species of wattles. Eleven of these have been subjected to substantial investigation and are found at several sites throughout the country (Figure 1). These species are undisputably invasive (category E according to the scheme proposed by Blackburn et al. (2011)); are the subject of on-going management; and are propsed under the draft regulations either as category 1b if they are not widely used, or as 2 or 3 if they still provide benefits in some instances. 206 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world The remaining four species (A. adunca, A. implexa, A. paradoxa, A. stricta) are proposed to be listed as category 1a (defined as "requiring compulsory control"). For management purposes this is taken to mean they are eradication targets. While A. implexa, A. paradoxa, and A. stricta are spread over several hundred hectares (and so are category E), given its restricted distribution, A. adunca is taken to be category D1. One more species, not included in the legislation, A. viscidula¸ is also recorded as naturalised and spreading from a single site (D1). Figure 1 - Frequency distribution of invasive alien plants range sizes in South Africa, with fifteen invasive Acacia subgenus Phyllodineae shown in black. Data are from the South African Plant Invaders Atlas (accessed 2009). Continental South Africa covers 1944 quarterdegree grid cells (QDGCs). The total number of species recorded in SAPIA changes through time with taxonomic revisions and new findings, in particular the numbers shown here do not reflect the revised results from the EDRR work. Another nineteen species of wattle have been introduced to Southern Africa for commercial reasons according to a recent review (Poynton, 2009). A further sixty or so species are recorded in South African Herbaria, suggesting they have been introduced at some time or other. See Richardson et al. (2011) for a compliation of all the species lists. In this article we describe the work done by the South African National Programme for Early Detection and Rapid Response of Invasive Alien Plants (EDRR) (Ivey et al., this volume) to combat wattle invasions. The specific aims are to: a) implement the eradication of A. paradoxa 207 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world from Table Mountain through adaptive management; b) provide both initial field and risk assessments for A. implexa and A. stricta; and c) determine the status of other introduced Australian Acacia species. Eradication of A. paradoxa from Table Mountain (Cape Town, SA) Acacia paradoxa D.C. (Kangaroo Thorn) is currently restricted in South Africa to around ~3.1 km2 on Table Mountain (Devil‘s peak) (Moore et al., 2011). The current population is thought to be the result of a few plants initially introduced as a curiosity around the end of the nineteenth century, followed by a long history of neglect (Zenni et al., 2009). Alien plant clearing operations started targetting the plant in the mid-1990s. While the intention of the recent management efforts was to eradicate the population, the clearing until now can be categorised as sporadic and partial, focussing mostly on the largest and presumably oldest plants. The first detailed survey of the population was conducted in 2008 as part of a student project (Zenni et al., 2009), and since then targetted efforts have been co-ordinated by EDRR to ensure the population is eradicated. General alien clearing operations in the affected area (based on figures from 2009/2010) cost around 400–600 Rands. ha-1, with the return time in any one location approximately 3–5 years. However, this is insufficient to prevent plants producing seeds, particularly as one year old plants can possibly set seed and plants over 2m tall are missed during the clearing. In an area of 45 000 m2 evaluated 3 years after general alien clearing operations, around 1 000 A. paradoxa plants were found, most showing signs of reproduction (Zenni et al., 2009). Fortunately, the population does not appear to have spread far from the initial point of introduction, and the seed-bank is confined almost exclusively to below the canopy. If annual search-and-destroy operations systematical survey the affected area during the flowering season (i.e. August–October) (Fig. 2), it is likely that seed-set can be prevented. Indeed, a recent decision analysis suggested that the optimal management goal for this population is eradication (Moore et al., 2011). After the first year of clearing in response to the report of Zenni et al. (2009) , a wild-fire in early 2009 went through much of the affected area. This allowed an assessment of the effect of fire on seed germination. In both field assessments and lab trials, fire stimulated up to 90% seed germination compared to an average of around 10% in normal conditions (D. Mazibuko, unpublished data). Despite the fact that in the dense areas there was 100% cover with A. paradoxa following the fire, there was a substaintial regrowth of species other than A. paradoxa. This new species-specific approach that was not confined to previous operating plans was one of the reasons for developing an EDRR (Ivey et al., this volume). 208 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world a) b) Figure 2 - Example of surveying work on Acacia paradoxa on Table Mountain in December 2009. a) physical area surveyed; b) track-lines recorded and plotted on Google Earth. Each icon represents the location of an Acacia paradoxa that was found and treated. The survey consisted of teams of three or four, walking up, then down with one of the surveyers carrying a GPS. So at least four people walking parallel to each other will have surveyed in the gap between tracks (see Zenni et al., 2009 for more details). The project is now in a follow-up phase involving further search-and-destroy surveys and pulling of seedlings that have emerged following the Vredehoek fire in May 2009. In 2010 the unburnt areas (1.45 km2), were resurveyed costing 64 000 Rands, and about a hundred adult 209 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world plants were found (not found on previous surveys). Later in the year and in the start of 2011, in the burnt section over 600,000 seedlings were hand-pulled on a contract costing 400 000 Rands. As such the exercise is much more expensive than general clearing operations (which will still continue in the area separate to the A. paradoxa work). Initial estimates suggest that working in groups of 2–4 people, each person can cover 1–2 ha per day (so a total requirement of around 200 person field days per year). However, this approach is estimated to be much more costeffective than if either no action is taken, or containment is attempted (Moore et al., 2011). The total cost estimate if control is successful is 5.4 million Rands spread over 20 years. In addition to the walked search-and-destroy surveys (Fig. 2), areas immediately adjacent to the park will be surveyed (EDRR provides a more flexibile mandate than if the process was controlled solely by South African National Parks); and in steep areas within Table Mountain National Park, specifically trained and equipped "high angle teams" will be used, and plants treated as before. As for most of the invasive Australian Acacias in South Africa (Richardson & Kluge, 2008), A. paradoxa has a significant long-lived seed-bank of >1000 seeds m-2 in places, and our concern is that in dense areas, the seed-bank will persist for decades. Given the fact that Table Mountain National Park is a World Heritage Site, alien clearing operations are likely to be a part of land management for many years to come. Nonetheless, efforts to reduce the seed-bank would be advisable. Unfortunately, the infested site is very close to Cape Town (see Figure 1), and as such the requirements for allowing fires in this area are stringent. The main future steps in the eradication will be to assess the success and control of current practices and assess the likely benefits of using different methods to reduce the seed-bank. Initial field and risk assessments for A. implexa and A. stricta The initial assessment of A. implexa was started in 2009, and was completed in early 2011 confirming the view that this species should also be an eradication target (Kaplan et al. in review South African Journal of Botany). Three populations of A. implexa have been identified, mapped, and studied as part of a student project funded by EDRR. The survey found approximately 30 000 A. implexa individuals within a total invaded area of 6 km2 across the three sites. While A. implexa produces a prodigious amount of seed, it appears not to have spread widely yet (perhaps through poor dispersal and high seed mortality), although it is beginning to spread along one water-course. Control is problematic given its strong ability to sucker, but general clearing operations (co-ordinated but not managed by EDRR) are on-going. The exact delimitation of the species in South Africa is not certain as the species is difficult visually to separate from Acacia melanoxylon R.Br. in W.T.Aiton. Indeed, several new reports of sightings have subsequent been confirmed as A. melanoxylon. We have distributed identification leaflets asking for new sightings, and if many new reports are confirmed, then the project will need to be reassessed. But given the relatively slow spread, but the threat it poses to biodiversity, it will remain an eradication target for the present. Acacia stricta (Andrews) Willd. is only known from a few populations scattered through the Kynsna and Wilderness areas of the Southern Cape. Much of the population appears to be 210 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world situated close to road-sides in pine plantations, though it is reaching high densities in places, and is again a prolific seed producer. It is unclear how it reached the area, but has been there for at least 15 years, perhaps being spread by vehicles or road resurfacing work. Control of mature plants appears to be relatively straight-forward, although the seed-bank may represent a major challenge for eradication, and certainly the populations along the major highway (the N2) were of concern regarding its potential spread. A thorough survey of the area in September 2010 found eight populations of A. stricta and a total of ~ 20 000 plants, all of which occured on plantation land. The infestations straddle various land-owners and management areas (in particular the Mountain to Ocean Forestry Company). EDRR facilitated a meeting of all stakeholders involved in May 2011, and the group are developing a joint management plan. This is a good example where EDRR can act as an independent co-ordinator to ensure that appropriate control occurs wherever plants are found (see paper by Ivey et al., this volume). Surveys of other introduced Australian Acacia species Records of Australian acacias in the Southern African Plant Invaders Atlas as well as records in South African Herbaria are being collated and followed up. Acacia adunca Cunn. ex Don is currently known to have naturalised in only one site in South Africa, ―Bien Donné‖ Experimental Farm in the Franschoek Valley, and the population is being assessed. However, it has not spread widely and is not an immediate priority for eradication. Several other species have also been found. Acacia viscidula Benth. is invading Newlands Forest on the slopes of Table Mountain in Cape Town, and a few plants of Acacia ulicifolia (Salisb.) Court and Acacia retinoides Schldl. have naturalised at Tokai Arboretum in Cape Town (i.e. category C3). Reports of Acacia fimbriata Cunn. ex Don in Grahamstown have been followed up, but no plants were found (potentially category A2). We still need to confirm if a reported naturalised population of A. cultriformis Cunn. ex Don from Ladybrand exists. There are also arguable two species that are planted in some numbers but are not recorded as invasive Acacia pendula Cunn. ex Don and Acacia floribunda (Vent.) Willd. (potentially category B2), but again more work is required to confirm their status as not naturalised. Conclusions Given the number and diversity of Australian acacias introduced to South Africa, they represent an excellent test case both for general theories of invasivenss and for our ability to conduct eradications. The long history of introduction and plantings means that there is a high possibility for many species that are currently at low density to become invasive in later years, and the long-lived seed bank represents a challenge for control. We would, however, conclude that specific EDRR type projects are warranted on Australian Acacia species as: they allow the flexibility to look at infestations across administrative and management boundaries; they provide continuity of funding; and EDRR provides the focus required for eradication. The last point is particularly important given the number of invasive Australian Acacia species that require general management. 211 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Acknowledgements This work was funded by South Africa‘s Working for Water Programme (WfW) of the Department of Water and Environmental Affairs, with support from the DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology. The work would not have been possible without numerous field assistants and clearing teams, we would particularly like to thank Agnes Sogiba and Douglas Euston-Brown. We would also like to thank Chris Botes of SAN Parks for bringing several new sightings to our attention. References Blackburn TM, Pyšek P, Bacher S, Carlton JT, Duncan RP, Jarošìk V, Wilson JRU & Richardson DM (2011) A proposed unified framework for biological invasions. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 26, 333–339. Moore JL, Runge MC, Webber BL & Wilson JRU (2011) Contain or eradicate? Optimising the goal of managing Australian acacia invasions in the face of uncertainty. Diversity and Distributions 17, DOI: 10.1111/j.14724642.2011.00809.x. National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (2009) Draft Alien and Invasive Regulations (eds Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism). Government Gazette, Pretoria, South Africa. Poynton RJ (2009) Tree planting in southern Africa: vol. 3 other genera. Department of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries. Richardson DM, Carruthers J, Hui C, Impson FAC, Miller J, Robertson MP, Rouget M, le Roux JJ & Wilson JRU (2011) Human-mediated introductions of Australian acacias—a global experiment in biogeography. Diversity and Distributions 17, (in press no DOI yet). Richardson DM & Kluge RL (2008) Seed banks of invasive Australian Acacia species in South Africa: Role in invasiveness and options for management. Perspectives in Plant Ecology Evolution and Systematics 10, 161177. Southern African Plant Invaders Atlas, http://www.agis.agric.za/wip/ [Accessed 2009]. ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria. van Wilgen BW, Dyer C, Hoffmann JH, Ivey P, Le Maitre DC, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Wannenburgh A & Wilson JRU (2011) A strategic approach to the integrated management of Australian Acacia species in South Africa. Diversity and Distributions 17, DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00785.x. Wilson JRU, Gairifo C, Gibson MR, Arianoutsou M, Bakar BB, Baret S, Celesti-Grapow L, Dufour-Dror JM, Kueffer C, Kull CA, Hoffmann JH, Impson FAC, Loope LL, Marchante E, Marchante H, Moore JL, Murphy D, Pauchard A, Tassin J, Witt A, Zenni RD & Richardson DM (2011) Risk assessment, eradication, containment, and biological control: global efforts to manage Australian acacias before they become widespread invaders. Diversity and Distributions 17, DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00815.x. Zenni R, Wilson JRU, Le Roux JJ & Richardson DM (2009) Evaluating the invasiveness of Acacia paradoxa in South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 75, 485–496. 212 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world The value of context in early detection and rapid response decisions: Melaleuca invasions in South Africa Ernita van Wyk1 and Llewellyn Jacobs2 and John Wilson1,3 1 South African National Biodiversity Institute. P/Bag X7. Claremont 3357. Cape Town. South Africa 2 CapeNature. Scientific Services. Private Bag X5014. Stellenbosch 7599. South Africa 3 Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, South Africa In the context of the South African Early Detection and Rapid Response Programme, decisions around risk and response have to be made as quickly as possible using available data. In an adaptive management framework, control is coupled with the collection of data on e.g. history of species behaviour elsewhere, presence of traits associated with invasiveness and spatial distribution at known sites. As data collection proceeds, estimates of risk of spread are revised. This paper uses an example of Melaleuca invasions in a mediterranean ecosystem (fynbos) in the Western Cape, South Africa as an illustration of how risk and response should be updated as more information becomes available. We describe how contextual insights augment the fundamental understanding of the invasion system. We show how the consideration of aspects such as expected ease of effort, population data, history of introduction, and site history all enrich the initial assessments made on the basis invasiveness elsewhere and species traits. Such considerations are expected to enhance understanding of the broader system variables that influence risk assessment of invasive species within mediterranean fynbos. We produce a conceptual framework to illustrate this finding. Introduction Most governments and societies endorse the allocation of resources to the protection of biological diversity. They also support resource allocation to reduce the risks associated with threats to biodiversity such as those posed by invasive alien organisms (McGeoch et al., 2010). However, the resources to address the invasive alien problem are limited and must be prioritised in order to leverage acceptability of results for any given investment. Within the South African Early Detection and Rapid Response Programme (EDRR) context (see Ivey et al. this issue), the focus of resource allocation is on species that have naturalised but are not yet widespread. Given a set budget and the large number of potential targets, only a few species can be prioritised. Such prioritisation needs to consider both the invasion risk posed and the ease with which goals can be achieved given the management context (Moore, 2010). Because such risk decisions are intended to direct human behaviours and financial resources, approaches to the assessment of invasion risk is a well debated and much researched topic. According to Giampietro (2004), ‗risk‘ is a situation in which it is possible to assign a distribution of probabilities to a given set of possible outcomes. The assessment of risk can be based on the knowledge of probability distribution over a known set of possible outcomes 213 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world obtained using validated inferential models. Alternatively, risk can be determined in terms of agreed-upon subjective probabilities. However, Giampietro (2004) is quick to remind us of the difference between a complex natural system and the scientific representation of that system, the latter being a construct that confines our efforts to understand the system to what we believe to be relevant attributes of the system. In this sense, a risk assessment is a representation of the complex natural system based on criteria believed to be most influential in determining the invasive potential of a species. Typically, invasive alien risk assessments are based on biological, ecological and biogeographical criteria, the measures of which are used to populate risk models. Commonly used criteria include climate and distribution, undesirable traits, weedy relatives and weediness elsewhere (Pheloung et al., 1999; Nel et al., 2004 and Mgidi et al., 2007; Brunel et al., 2010). Even in cases where risk and prioritisations are based on subjective expert agreement (Roura-Pascual et al., 2009) and where non-biological traits are incorporated into risk models (e.g. Burns, 2006) the derivation of risk tends to be mechanistic rather than aimed at developing an interpretive understanding of the wider ecological and the even wider social-ecological system (Stirling et al., 2007). In this paper, we examine an example from invasive melaleucas in the South African mediterranean climate region. Our observations of populations of two exotic Melaleuca species with apparently similar residence time, but which have shown surprisingly ‗uncharacteristic‘ spread rates, have provided an opportunity to interrogate our assumptions about how we determine invasive potential and risk and ultimately the decisions we have made in the EDRR Programme. We use this example to illustrate how contextual information can enrich risk-based decision-making and the allocation of public resources. Based on these insights, we develop a conceptual framework that prompts interpretive thinking about the larger system beyond what we can know about the biology and ecology of the species of interest. Although some literature on biological invasions suggest a more holistic approach to understanding the invasion system (see Lockwood et al., 2007; Simberloff, 2009), none of these attempt explicit conceptual advances in this direction. This paper presents an example from the Melaleuca invasions in South Africa to illustrate how contextual information contributes to risk and decision-making. Approach We use a grounded approach (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) to reflect on and document some key considerations that have affected our understanding of the system of selected Melaleuca invasions in South Africa and which have encouraged us to revise our response. The points made are not intended to be exhaustive, but rather aim to illustrate the value of incorporating contextual aspects into an understanding of an invasion system. Melaleuca invasions in South Africa Members of the Melaleuca genus have long been popular garden and urban street ornamentals in South Africa, indeed one of the most popular varieties takes its name from the financial capital: hybrid Melaleuca bracteata var. "Johannesburg Gold". None of the species have been widely cultivated in the country although M. alternifolia is planted for its medicinal and culinary uses. Historically, melaleucas were also common features of botanic gardens. Despite apparent opportunities for spread, reports of naturalisation and invasiveness are relatively rare: the only 214 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world records prior to the study described here are of M. hypericifolia and M. wilsonii naturalising on the Cape Peninsula and from a flower farm in the Western Cape respectively; and M. quinquenervia recruiting at the Tokai arboretum in Cape Town (source: SAPIA database). First records and initial risk assessment During 2007 and 2009 respectively, staff of a provincial conservation agency (CapeNature) discovered two relatively small, naturalising populations of M. ericifolia and M. quinquenervia on and close to the Waterval Nature Reserve near Tulbagh in the mediterranean climate region of the Western Cape. The Tulbagh sightings mentioned here were the first records of major invasion events by melaleucas into natural areas in South Africa. Conservation staff initially required confirmation of the species identity, in particular whether it was native or alien to the region. In May 2009, this information was passed on to the newly formed national EDRR Programme which operates as part of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). As EDRR was embarking on a 3-year pilot phase, the melaleuca discovery at Waterval presented an excellent opportunity for SANBI-EDRR, CapeNature and others to form a partnership to better understand and manage these invasions. The discovery of M. quinquenervia in South Africa, a few months after the discovery of M. ericifolia, was especially interesting because of the extensive and well documented M. quinquenervia invasions in the Florida Everglades and the comprehensive and costly U.S. investment spanning several decades (Laroche & Ferriter, 1992; Laroche, 1999; Pratt et al., 2003; Dray et al., 2006). This example is well known in the invasion ecology and management circles and M. quinquenervia has been listed as one of the 100 worst invasive alien organisms globally (Lowe et al., 2000). In contrast, we have not been able to source any scientific records of M. ericifolia being invasive, apart from weediness in south-eastern Australia (Global Compendium of Weeds). However, there is much known about the ecology of M. ericifolia because it is used as an indicator of wetland dynamics in its native range in Australia (Robinson, 2007; Salter et al., 2010). Both M. quinquenervia and M. ericifolia prefer growing in seasonal wetlands (Hamilton-Brown et al., 2009) suggesting that these habitats are considered the most at risk. Figure 1 shows a mind-map indicating how species knowledge and invasiveness elsewhere were the factors that initially influenced EDRR perception of risk. As per convention, the EDRR team set out to measure selected variables that would provide us with baseline data to characterise the M. quinquenervia and M. ericifolia populations. In a destructive sampling exercise, we recorded plant height, width, basal stem diameter, number of growth rings (age) where possible and the exact geographical coordinate of each live stem. The information gathered allowed us to characterise each population precisely such that we are able to quantitatively monitor population response to treatment. The information also allows us to model potential rate of spread. We furthermore spent many hours at the respective sites and beyond, observing the plants, debating variables of interest and conversing with various land managers about the Melaleuca populations. 215 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Species knowlesge e.g. M. ericifolia ecology well studied Habitat requirements Actual distribution Invasiveness and impacts elsewhere e.g. M. quinquenervia well studied & control techniques refined Preliminary estimation of risk Response planning, prioritisation, resource allocation and action Figure 1 - A mind-map showing the factors that initially influenced EDRR perception of risk. Melaleuca quinquenervia was introduced into the U.S. more than a dozen times for a variety of reasons and in large numbers since 1815 and now covers approximately 200 000 ha of wetlands in southern Florida (Dray et al., 2006). Its invasive tendencies were recorded from around the 1920s. The species is well adapted to growth in both tropical and temperate climates, indicating that it may be adapted to invade all areas of South Africa apart from the driest interior. Large-scale and intensive efforts by the U.S. government to manage M. quinquenervia in Florida began in 1988 (Laroche, 1999). As part of their efforts to control the species, they have refined herbicide application techniques and have isolated the active ingredients most effective against the plant. In addition, the U.S. task team for M. quinquenervia have made their lessons and experience available on a website (http://tame.ifas.ufl.edu/) which has greatly facilitated fasttracked learning by the South African EDRR team. In many ways, the well-researched and wellpublicised U.S. example has had the effect of raising the risk perception of the species in South Africa, improving our readiness to respond to the problem. Knowing which herbicides are most effective has also been beneficial in response planning. These aspects show that being able to learn from others‘ experiences improves the likelihood of preventing the spread of a species and providing a robust motivation for allocating resources to a project. Figure 2 shows how our initial perception of risk was increasingly enhanced by new information and notably by information that was not related to the biology of the species. Initial EDRR field observations and measurements One of the first intriguing observations was that the naturalised M. quinquenervia population near Tulbagh was much smaller than that of M. ericifolia (0.02 km2 vs. > 0.4 km2). Preliminary estimates of age ring counts suggested that the M. ericifolia population currently being removed is aged between 9 and 11 years. The M. ericifolia population residence time may be older, since we found 3 large plant remains of what would have been M. ericifolia mother trees, amongst the live plants in an area which is likely the source of the infestation. Stems in the M. quinquenervia 216 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world populations were too soft and papery to produce age rings, but some had basal stem diameters of up to 23 cm. From observations of large charred plants, the population survived the most recent fire in 1988 (source: CapeNature fire records) and thus the M. quinquenervia population must be at least 22 years old. Based on these observations, M. ericifolia seems to have been released from a lag phase and has spread across an area at least 50 times the size of the M. quinquenervia population. In Florida, M. quinquenervia thrives in permanent wetlands in subtropical climate (similar to its native Australian climate) whereas in Tulbagh M. quinquenervia occurs in a seasonal wetland is subject to a typical mediteranean climate. Consequently, at this stage, we are regarding M. quinquenervia as an eradication possibility whilst eradication potential for M. ericifolia needs further assessment. The initial expectation was therefore that M. quinquenervia represented a much large threat, and that perhaps M. ericifolia was of low risk, but that for M. quinquenervia much management information was readily available (See Figure 2). Stage Melaleuca ericifolia Melaleuca quinquenervia Notes First report of invasiveness LOWMEDIUM Not initially reported Learning from invasions elsewhere LOWMEDIUM VERY HIGH Field observations and measurements HIGH HIGH Understanding HIGH HIGH Initial reports of an invasion from CapeNature (M. ericifolia) indicated a species to be considered. Only on the first site visit was another species naturalising mentioned. Based on experience in other countires, M. quinquenervia was immediately prioritised as of concern, but there was no indication M. ericifolia was particularly widespread. Mapping exercise quickly showed that M. ericifolia occupied a substantial range at increasing densities. With a small range there was little indication that M. quinquenervia had spread far. By raising awareness new populations of M. ericifolia were identified. Understanding how and why the species were introduced was essential to determining where to look, though given the precautionary principle the risk assessments were not changed. the context Uncertainty Diversity of information sources Figure 2 - Qualitative risk perceptions were updated during the course of the ongoing investigation. These risk perceptions were combined with management context (e.g. ease of eradication) to determine the response. The Waterval Nature Reserve staff manages a number of mountain catchments in the area for biodiversity protection and water conservation. This conservation area is fringed by agricultural land and plantations. Because of poor soils and insufficient rainfall, the state owned commercial 217 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world forestry industry in the Western Cape has embarked on a strategy to reduce its activities in areas where wood cannot be grown viably. As forestry decommissioned some of their plantations, these areas were returned to conservation authorities for rehabilitation. Both the M. quinquenervia and M. ericifolia populations are found on previously forested sites, with the melaleucas emerging after eucalypt and pine trees were felled and not replanted. During 2009, the staff at the Kluitjieskraal forestry office learnt of the melaleucas at Waterval, and approached the EDRR Programme, indicating that M. ericifolia has become widespread in the understory of the plantation forests managed by them. A site visit confirmed this and indicated that the M. ericifolia population is much larger than we had initially thought. At first, the known population of M. ericifolia covered approximately 40ha. A further 40ha was discovered (Kluitjieskraal wetland) and since plants were found to be relatively widespread in the plantation forest understory, we currently estimate the total area under M. ericifolia to be greater than 100ha (1km2). Importantly, it prompted us to understand more about a possible linkage between commercial forestry practices and the Melaleuca populations relevant to EDRR. In terms of risk perception, even though risk remains high (unchanged), awareness of new populations changes the management context and the perception of ‗ease of eradication‘ decreases (See Figure 2). Making sense of context History of introduction Given that the Kluitjieskraal forestry station and its associated nursery are the second oldest in the country (established in 1877; MTO Forestry, pers. comm.), we considered the possibility that Melaleuca seeds had arrived to be grown as ornamentals. However, a recent review of tree plantings in Southern Africa (Poynton, 2009) does not mention any introductions of Melaleucas for commercial reasons. We are busy investigating the Kluitjieskraal import and nursery records, but as yet there is no direct evidence of deliberate introduction, and as such introduction as a soil contaminant is a possibility. We also spent some time browsing the area in and around the Kluitjieskraal estate. We found other bottlebrush species (e.g. Callistemon rigidis and Melaleuca styphellioides) beginning to naturalise in the Kluitjieskraal wetland. This would support the notion that there was a historical collection of imported Myrtaceae in the area, but again this remains to be seen. In either case, plants appear to have established and spread as a result of the ideal seasonal wetland conditions and the removal of competition by the felling of commercial eucalyptus and pine species. As a consequence, EDRR staff decided to direct their surveillance strategies towards forest plantations and conservation areas that had previously been forested, to determine the true extent of M. ericifolia populations. Ease of eradication Having the benefit of the U.S. experience, together with the small size of the M. quinquenervia population in South Africa presents an attractive and cost-effective eradication opportunity. Costs for the South African project so far (based on 12 months of effort) amounts to R15 000 (Assuming a cost of R120 per person day, accommodation and meals, equipment and transport since July 2009). An estimation of future costs (the next 15-20 years) still needs to be made. In comparison, the U.S. spent US$ 25 million between 1988 and 1998 and they estimated that the cost of no action in the Florida Everglades would be US$ 161 million per year in lost revenue (Laroche, 1999). As with the American control project, the South African project enjoys 218 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world good political and financial support as well as the benefit of effective collaborations to support both research and management. These factors are all in line with Dan Simberloff‘s five key requirements for likely success in eradication (Simberloff, 2009): (1) early detection and quick action, (2) sufficient resources for the full duration of the project, (3) a dedicated authority to drive agency co-operation, (4) sufficient information about the species, and (5) enthusiastic project leaders. In contrast, the feasiblitiy of eradicating M. ericifolia has yet to be determined, since the population is larger and more scattered widespread than initially estimated and our confidence in knowing the extent of the population is still low. Precautionary principle For both Melaleuca species we invoke the ‗precautionary principle‘, accepting that we should not wait for impacts to be measurable before we act (Blossey et al, 2001; Simberloff, 2003) and while there is political and financial backing, to commit to the best possible efforts for eradication and containment. For M. quinquenervia, even though its spread seems currently to be very limited, our risk perception is heightened by the commonly used risk criterion of ‗invasiveness elsewhere‘ and thus choose to act to caution against its spread. In contrast, we cannot lean on the same criterion for M. ericifolia. However for this species, we still use the precautionary principle and allocate resources to control, since our perception of risk for this species is triggered by our on-site observations that it is spreading successfully across the landscape. A conceptual framework We considered the contextual aspects discussed and realised that have substantially influenced our perception of risk, and therefore planning and actions. Figure 3 (see appendix) presents a mind-map of how we see contextual information contributing to risk estimation and response management of Melaleuca invasions in South Africa. Discussion Our findings highlight several lessons for EDRR. Firstly, we show that risk-criteria commonly used such as invasiveness or weediness elsewhere, are not perfectly predictive. Even though in the cases shown we would be prudent to attach high risk to M. quinquenervia, on-site observations for M. ericifolia suggest that we should attach as much risk to this species as to M. quinquenervia and that this should be reflected in response planning and action. This finding highlights the need to update preliminary risk assessments with site- and context-specific information. Our findings also show that decisions in terms of response planning and action are as much influenced by opportunity as risk. In other words, decision-making is not purely riskbased. Ease of eradication and sustained political will provide two points that affect how we motivate for species prioritisation and resource allocation in EDRR. These factors also highlight the limitation of population data as it can provide only a partial insight into risk estimation and response planning that will lead to likely success. 219 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world In general our findings have led us to expand our understanding of the drivers of risk for the two Melaleuca species and we have used these insights to understand how we have rationalised our adjustments of risk perception for the two species. We also found that contextual information can affect how we think about, and possibly lead us to adjust our responses. Directly measured population data provide quantitative information about the attributes of the population and built into a model, can produce predictive indications of risk of future spread. This provides essential base-line against which management efficacy needs to be measured, and is necessary to convince interested and affected parties that action is required. But, these parameters (reflecting the ‗current state‘ of invasion) are symptomatic of underlying drivers of the invasion system and the social system that is both the cause and the response mechanism. We suggest that contextual information provides us with possible key driving variables that aid us in developing a more fundamental understanding of the system and the ‗problem‘ or ‗symptom‘ that we see (Senge et al., 2008). In taking this approach, we recall Giampietro‘s point by attempting to develop a more comprehensive and more fundamental representation of the system we are interested in. A good example from the South African melaleucas is the link with plantation forests in the area as a possible source of infestation. Importantly, this has led us to consider directing resources to future surveillance strategies to plantation forests and recovering natural areas that were previously under plantation. It has also drawn our attention to the forest industry as an important collaborator in our EDRR efforts. In the end, we affirmed both species to be high-risk candidates, but we have gained a better understanding of the underlying drivers of the patterns of invasion. An interesting point from our experience with the melaleucas is that the new contextual insights did not come about in an anticipated manner. Instead, the new information emerged as a result of planned as well as unplanned collaborations between various agencies. For EDRR, this indicates the importance of collaborative links in the promotion of information sharing and the generation of new insights. It also means that gathering contextual insights typically cannot be done in a mechanistic way, but are emergent properties of a collaborative knowledge creation system. The performance of EDRR staff in South Africa is in part evaluated on their collaborations, with the intention to motivate staff to develop inter-organisational linkages. In summary, a broader and more context-based understanding of the invasion system has prompted us to inform our risk assessment with a more diverse knowledge contribution. The emergence of natural resource approaches such as place-based management (Manuel-Navarrete et al., 2006) and implementation-oriented research (Bammer, 2005) signify a recognition of place-based insights and diverse knowledge contributions to an improved understanding of whole system functioning. The melaleuca example indicates the importance of both human and natural history in an EDRR context (see Dayton & Sala, 2001). The challenge for EDRR will be to ensure these aspects are meaningfully combined in response planning and action. The Melaleuca species project in South Africa is in its infancy and many challenges await. However, we are encouraged by an approach that is more sensitive to context and believe that incorporating these aspects into a more fundamental understanding of the invasion system will promote more effective responses. 220 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge our partners, MTO Forestry and CapeNature staff at Waterval. We also kindly acknowledge our funder, the natural Resource Management Programme of the Department of Environmental Affairs. References Bammer G (2005) Integration and implementation sciences: building a new specialisation. Ecology and Society 10(2), 6. Blossey B, Skinner LC & Taylor J (2001) Impact and management of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in North America. Biodiversity and Conservation 10, 1787-1807. Brunel S, Schrader G, Brundu G & Fried G (2010) Emerging invasive alien plants for the Mediterranean basin. EPPO Bulletin 40, 219-238. Burns J (2006) Relatedness and environment affect traits associated with invasive and non-invasive introduced Commelinaceae. Ecological Applications 16(4),1367-1376. Craven LA (2006) New combinations in Melaleuca for Australian species of Callistemon (Myrtaceae). Novon 16, 468-475. Dayton PK & Sala E (2001) Natural history: the sense of wonder, creativity and progress in ecology. Scientia Marina 65(2), 199-206. Dray FA, Bennet BC & Center TD (2006) Invasion history of Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S.T. Blake in Florida. Castanea 71(3), 210-225. Giampietro M (2004) Multi-scale integrated analysis of agroecosystems. CRC Press. Florida. Global Compendium of Weeds. Accessed 20 July 2011: http://www.hear.org/gcw/. AgWest and the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project. Hamilton-Brown S, Boon PI, Raulings E, Morris K & Robinson R (2009) Aerial seed storage in Melaleuca ericifolia Sm. (Swamp paperbark): environmental triggers for seed release. Hydrobiologia 620, 121-133. Laroche FB (1999) Melaleuca Management Plan. Ten years of successful Melaleuca management in Florida, 19881998. Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. Laroche FB & Ferriter AP (1992) The rate of expansion of Melaleuca in South Florida. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 30, 62-65. Lockwood JL, Hoopes MF & Marchetti M (2007) Invasion Ecology. Blackwell Publishing. Massachusetts. Lowe S, Browne M, Boudjelas S & De Poorter M (2000) 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species. A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. Published by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) a specialist group of the Species Survival Commission of the World Conservation Union. Manuel-Navarrete D, Slocombe S & Mitchell B (2006) Science for place-based socioecological management: Lessons from the Maya Forest (Chiapas and Petén). Ecology and Society 11(1), 8. McGeoch MA, Butchart S HM, Spear D, Marais E, Kleynhans EJ, Symes A, Chanson J & Hoffmann M (2010) Global indicators of biological invasion: species numbers, biodiversity impact and policy responses. Diversity and Distributions 16, 95-108. Mgidi TN, Le Maitre DC, Schonegevel L, Nel JL, Rouget M & Richardson DM (2007) Alien plant invasions – incorporating emerging invaders in regional prioritization: a pragmatic approach for southern Africa. Journal of Environmental Management 84, 173-187. Moore JL, Rout TM, Hauser CE, Moro D, Jones M, Wilcox C & Possingham HP (2010) Protecting islands from pest invasion: optimal allocation of biosecurity resources between quarantine and surveillance. Biological Conservation 143, 1068-1078. Nel JL, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Mgidi TM, Mdezeke N, Le Maitre DC, van Wilgen BW, Schonegevel L, Henderson L & Neser S (2004) A proposed classification of invasive alien plant species in South Africa: towards prioritising species and areas for management action. South African Journal of Science 100, 53-64. Pheloung PC, Williams PA & Halloy SR (1999) A weed risk assessment model for use as a biosecurity tool evaluating plant introductions. Journal of Environmental Management 57, 239-251. Poynton R J (2009) Tree planting in Southern Africa: vol. 3 Other Genera. Department of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries. Pratt PD, Slone DH, Rayamajhi MB, Van TK & Center TD (2003) Geographic distribution and dispersal rate of Oxyops vitiosa (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a biological control agent of the invasive tree Melaleuca quinquenervia in South Florida. Environmental Entomology 32(2), 397-406. 221 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Robinson R (2007) Regeneration mechanisms in swamp paperbark (Melaleuca ericifolia Sm.) and their implications for wetland rehabilitation. PhD thesis. Victoria University, St. Albans, Victoria, Australia. Roura-Pascual N, Richardson DM, Krug RM, Brown A, Chapman RA, Forsyth GG, Le Maitre DC, Robertson MP, Stafford L, van Wilgen BW, Wannenberg A & Wessels N (2009) Ecology and management of alien plant invasions in South African fynbos: accommodating key complexities in objective decision making. Biological Conservation 142(8), 1595-1604. Salter J, Morris K, Reed J & P.I. Boon (2010) Impact of long-term, saline flooding on condition and reproduction of the clonal wetland tree Melaleuca ericifolia (Myrtaceae). Plant Ecology 206, 41-57. South African Plant Invader Atlas (SAPIA) database. Agricultural Research Council. Plant Protection Research Institute. South Africa. Accessed 2009. Available online: http://www.agis.agric.za/wip/ Senge P, Smith B, Kruschwitz N, Laur J & Schley S (2008) The Necessary Revolution. How individuals and Organisations are working together to create a sustainable world. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. London. pp.406. Simberloff D (2009) We can eliminate invasions or live with them. Successful management projects. Biological Invasions 11, 149-157. Simberloff D (2003) Eradication - preventing invasions at the outset. Weed Science 51, 247-253. Stirling A, Leach M, Mehta L, Schoones I, Smith A, Stagl S & Thompson J (2007) Empowering Designs: towards more progressive appraisal of sustainability. STEPS Working Paper 3, Brighton, STEPS Centre. Strauss A & Corbin J (1998) Basics of Qualitative Research. Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. (2nd Edition). SAGE Publications. London. pp. 312. Wilson J RU, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Procheş Ş, Amis MA, Henderson L & Thuiller W (2007) Residence time and potential range: crucial considerations in modelling plant invasions. Diversity and Distributions 13, 1122. 222 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world APPENDIX Figure 3. Mind-map of how we see contextual information contributing to risk estimation and response management of Melaleuca invasions in South Africa Denotes application of the precautionary principle Species knowledge e.g. M. ericifolia ecology well studied Habitat suitability Invasiveness and impacts elsewhere e.g. M. quinquenervia well studied & control techniques refined Forestry nursery records? Other Melaleuca species found on forestry estate Rate of spread Biological data Actual distribution Emergence pattern Emergence following plantation clear fell and in forest understory > surveillance strategy adapted On-site observations of extent and recruitment e.g. M. ericifolia not invasive elsewhere but considered high-risk Refined estimated RISK Response planning, prioritisation, resource allocation and action (i.e. risk reduction) Ease of eradication e.g. M. quinquenervia 223 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants V H Heywood Centre for Plant Diversity & Systematics, School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, RG40 6AS, UK. Email: v.h.heywood@reading.ac.uk It is estimated that about 80% of invasive alien plants in Europe have been are introduced through the horticultural industry and trade for ornamental purposes. This major pathway must be addressed to help prevent further entry and spread of invasive alien plants in Europe. Currently, only a few legislation instruments are in place and management programmes are limited. As an urgent first step, voluntary measures to tackle the problem and raise awareness among the horticultural sector and the public are needed. It is in this context that the Council of Europe and the European and Mediterranean Plant Organization (EPPO) have cooperated in preparing a code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants for European and Mediterranean countries,. This code of conduct, published in 2009, provides essential background information and a set of guidelines for Governments and the horticultural and landscape sectors on regulation concerning invasive alien plants, plant wastes disposal, labelling of plants, proposing alternative plants, publicity, etc. The code is voluntary and requires action at the country level to promote and implement its recommendations. 224 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Industry view on importance and advantages of a Code of Conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants Anil Yilmaz Antalya Exporter Unions General Secretariat, Turkey. E-mail: yilmaza@aib.org.tr The International Association of Horticultural Producers (AIPH) represents horticultural producers' organisations all over the world. The horticultural industry supports the aim to preserve the biological diversity. The reinforcement of the biological diversity in urban areas, the improvement of the greening in cities is considered and supported as the essential aim of national strategies for biological diversity. Therefore AIPH has interest in the prevention of introduction and spread of invasive plants. Their interest is that a Code of Conduct is set up by the sector itself or in partnership with government and/or NGO‘s. A code may not just be layed upon the sector by the authorities. The rules have to be made by and in agreement with the target group. They also can agree on the sanctions, within ethical and legal boundaries. Introducing a Code of Conduct can only be successful if there is awareness of the problem and stakeholders find it their responsibility to take preventive measures. The organisation that edits the Code of Conduct has to be representative for the sector. The form and the content have to be accessible, consistent, applicable, realistic and feasible. To be effective a Code needs incentives, compliance and assurance. Major reasons to encourage self-regulations are 1) preventing government regulation, 2) concern for the image of the sector, 3) concern for the environment and 4) corporate social responsibility. Although Code of Conducts is not a new way of self-regulation, in the horticultural sector it is relatively new. Since the middle of the 90-ties codes of conduct or code of practice have been introduced in the field of environment and social aspects. Some Codes of Conduct or Code of Practice for preventing the spread of invasive plants have been introduced in the last few years. Other initiatives like Action Plans or Management Plans towards invasive species, edit by governments, are more compulsory. 225 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Effectiveness of policies and strategies in tackling the impacts of Invasive Alien Species on biodiverse Mediterranean ecosystems in South-West Australia Judy Fisher School of Plant Biology University of Western Australia / Fisher Research, PO Box 169, Floreat, Perth, Western Australia 6014, Australia. E-mail: ecologist@waanthropologist.com When policies, strategies and prioritization processes for invasive alien species (IAS) are based on individual species, whether it is at a global, regional or whole of country level, discrepancies can occur resulting in long term negative impacts on highly biodiverse ecosystems. The Convention on Biological Diversity (Bonn, 2008) invited Parties to consider the impacts of IAS on biodiversity, utilizing an ecosystem approach for specific biogeographical regions, and to focus on the restoration and rehabilitation of ecosystems degraded by the presence of IAS. Research organizations were called on to study the impact of IAS on socio-economic factors, health and the environment. Plant invasions in Mediterranean Regions of the world provide the opportunity to consider ecosystem impacts of invasive species with ecosystems the focus, rather than the invading species. Examples will be provided within woodland, coastal and wetland ecosystems in the South-West Australian mediterranean biodiversity hot spot, where financial assistance based on individual invasive species, of ―national significance‖, has led to limited resources being directed to highly biodiverse ecosystems and consequent ecosystem decline. The Copenhagen Meeting on Climate Change (December 2009) identified the vulnerability of ecosystems to a changing climate and the importance of maintaining and increasing their resilience through good management, thus enhancing their climate mitigation potential via the sequestration and storage of carbon in healthy forests, wetlands and coastal ecosystems. In the examples provided the decline in the functioning of invaded biodiverse ecosystems will be demonstrated. Questions will be raised as to whether investment in invasive species research and management would be more effective for biodiversity protection if the strategies and policies directing investment were focused on the ecosystem approach rather than a single species approach. A diagrammatic representation, based on evidence based ecosystem research, will be presented outlining the limited potential to restore transformed invaded ecosystems without early intervention. 226 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Combining methodologies to increase public awareness about invasive alien plants in Portugal Elizabete Marchante1, Hélia Marchante 2, Maria Morais 1 & Helena Freitas 1 1 CFE-Centre for Functional Ecology. Department of Life Sciences. University of Coimbra. PO Box 3046. 3001-401 Coimbra. Portugal; elizabete.marchante@gmail.com, maria.morais@ci.uc.pt, hfreitas@ci.uc.pt; 2CERNAS-Centre for Studies of Natural Resources, Environment and Society, Department of Environment. Escola Superior Agrária de Coimbra, 3040-316 Coimbra, Portugal. hmarchante@gmail.com Citizens represent a vector of introduction and spread of invasive alien species (IAS) and, on the other hand, can play a major role in helping to prevent and control IAS. Even though IAS and their consequences are recognised by the Portuguese law since 1999, a large proportion of the population is still unaware of biological invasions. To reduce this gap, the research team has devoted a considerable effort to promote public awareness and engage the public with IAS, namely invasive plants. A web page was developed, field-work projects for university students and training courses for professionals dealing with exotic plants and for schoolteachers were organized. Online questionnaires were performed targeting municipalities, forestry associations, horticultural trade, etc. Additionally, printed documents about invasive plants in Portugal, including a field guide, a technical document about identification and control, bookmarks and postcards were produced. Finally, workshops and other initiatives were organized. At the same time, an effort is being made to evaluate the effectiveness of these various approaches. Overall, public awareness about IAS is increasing, but more work is needed. Future work will involve diversifying the field actions, namely by establishing protocols with local and regional administrative entities, and planning a pilot early-detection programme. Introduction Biological invasions represent one of the main threats to biodiversity worldwide, they alter ecosystem services and have significant economic impacts (Mooney & Hobbs 2000, Lambdon et al. 2008, Gaertner et al. 2009, Hulme et al. 2009, Vilà et al. 2009). In Europe alone, the known economic impacts are estimated at about €10 billion/year (Hulme et al. 2009). Scientists, politicians (Commission of the European Communities 2008, Ministério do Ambiente 1999) and Global Organizations (ISSG, UICN, Millennium Assessment), all recognize the magnitude of the problems caused by invasive alien species (IAS), stressing the need for strategies that reduce their impacts on biodiversity. Although establishment of invasive species can be prevented if they are controlled soon after introduction, management and control of IAS already established and spread is a complex and generally difficult and costly task. Therefore, the more cost-efficient strategy is to prevent the introduction of IAS. To achieve this, a strong investment in prevention and public awareness about IAS is essential. The general public is an important vector of introduction and spread of IAS (Ruiz & Carlton, 2003), but, if strongly engaged, a public well 227 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world informed can help to prevent further introductions of IAS and have a major role in helping to control or mitigate them. Furthermore, in order to develop sustainable management programs for IAS, scientists and other professionals dealing with exotic species, as well as decision-makers, need to be adequately informed about IAS. Importantly, public awareness activities need to be carefully evaluated in order to allocate available resources to the approaches that are the most successful at changing attitudes and actively engage the target publics. In Portugal, although IAS and their consequences are recognized by the Portuguese law since 1999 (Decreto-Lei nº 565/99), many people are not aware of biological invasions and of the problems they cause. Even though the main focus of the research team is on scientific research, soon after initiating work on invasive plants we realized both the huge lack of awareness of the Portuguese population about this theme and the importance of communicating it countrywide. Therefore, we have made a strong commitment to engage the public with IAS, specifically by including public awareness tasks and activities in our research projects as much as possible. Since 2003, several initiatives and methodologies have been used to raise awareness about invasive plants in Portugal (Table 1): 1) development of a web-page, 2) summer field-work projects, 3) training courses, 4) online questionnaires aiming to survey the awareness of different target publics, 5) printed documents about invasive plants in Portugal and 6) other activities, namely thematic workshops, participation in forums, school talks, public events, etc. These initiatives and methodologies have reached about 0.2% of the Portuguese population (excluding the outreach of the web-page which is available to a larger population), including very diverse target publics. Funding for the activities came mainly from research and science communication projects, being designed specifically only for some of the activities, namely for field-work projects and printed documents, while for others the estimates are mostly based on man-working days (Table 1). Development of a Web page Aims: to produce simple available information about invasive plant species in Portugal and biological invasions in general; to communicate results of scientific projects and multiple public awareness activities. Description: a web page was developed and is available at http://www.uc.pt/invasoras; this was the first web page in Portugal with information about invasive alien plants at the country level. All information is available in Portuguese, since the main target public is the Portuguese population, but several menus are available also in English. The menus in the web page include: 1) biological invasions (with basic information about the process of plant invasion, characteristics, impacts and management of invasive plants, etc.); 2) invasive plants in Portugal (including detailed information about the plant species listed as invasive in the Portuguese legislation and some other species not yet listed but with invasive behaviour; and including also a list of potentially invasive plants – information about these species will be further developed in the near future); 3) research and other projects (namely objectives, tasks and main results of some of the on-going research projects about invasive species); 4) on-going activities of public awareness; 5) publications and outputs and 6) news. Additionally, an e-mail address is available for users to consult experts about invasive plants. 228 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Table 1 - Initiatives and methodologies used to raise public awareness about invasive plants in Portugal by a team from CFE and CERNAS. Type of Target public activity/methodology Web-page General public http://www.uc.pt/invasoras Field-work projects University students and professional, mainly of environmental, forestry and biological sciences Training courses: Identification and control Technical publics of IAP** dealing with IAP** Biological invasions and Schoolteachers environmental education Public reached* > 130 200 Online questionnaires Municipalities Forestry associations Higher education courses Horticultural industry Botanical gardens 81 51 52 33 4 Technical publics dealing with IAP** General public 8 to 12 years old general public > 2 ...................... > 2 000 > 2 000 > 10 000 Available since 2005 (out of print) Available since 2009 (out of print) Available since 2009 Available since 2009 6 400 .... 18 000 Mainly students, but also the general public General public and students General public, students, horticultural trade, conservation experts, foresters, etc. sub-total (not considering the web page): total: > 650 > 1 500 > 1 500 10, since 2008 4, since 2008 > 30, since 2007 5 000 Printed documents: Plant species technical profiles Invasive plants field guide Postcards to color Bookmarks collection Other initiatives: Thematic workshops Science and nature forums and fairs Talks Time frame Available since 2003 Costs (€) *** 5 500 > 170 9 annual editions 180 since 2003 (1 week 000 each) 40 3 editions: 2005, 3 500 2006 & 2007 (25h each) 1 200 1 edition: 2009 (25h) Distributed during 2 500 2006 and 2007 25 > 20 000 (~0.2% Portuguese population) > 150 000 60 100 * Approximate numbers; **IAP – invasive alien plants; *** some values are rough estimates based on man-days to develop the activities, though such values were not, in most of the cases, specially allocated to fund these tasks. 229 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Results and evaluation: the web page is available from April 2003 and since then more than 130 200 visitors accessed it, corresponding to more than 605 000 ―clicks‖. Although a large percentage of visitors are from Portugal and Portuguese speaking countries, users from over 80 countries have visited the page. Numerous people and institutions use the page e-mail address to request technical assistance on control methodologies and species identification, as well as to ask for collaboration in public awareness activities and environmental education sessions. These contacts enable this web page to be validated as an effective awareness tool. Field-work Projects Aims: to increase awareness amongst university students and young professionals, mostly from areas related to environmental, forestry and biological sciences, namely through training and collaboration on control of invasive plants in Conservation Areas. Description: the projects include different approaches to engage the target public: 1) participation in control of invasive plant species, namely Acacia longifolia, A. dealbata, Cortaderia selloana and Carpobrotus edulis, 2) short courses about IAS and Nature Conservation, and 3) small projects involving invasive plants, namely scientific experiments and public awareness activities for the general public and schools (Figure 1). The philosophy behind these projects is to strongly engage the target public with this theme, through learning about IAS, hands-on activities to control invasive plants and creation of a healthy and fun working/learning environment. In 2003, when the first project was organized, this type of project was quite innovative in Portugal and the public was very receptive and enthusiastic. Although activities were planned for 20 volunteers in each field-work project, the number of inscriptions has been always much higher, reaching more than 80 in some cases. These projects were developed mostly in summer vacations, occasionally at Easter Time, for one week, with volunteer groups sharing accommodation, meals, learning, working and leisure time. a b c Figure 1 - Field-work projects. a. control of Carpobrotus edulis at Reserva Natural das Dunas de São Jacinto (2004), b. development of scientific experiments, c. short-courses about invasive plants. Results and evaluation: nine field-work projects were organized in four Conservation Areas in Portugal involving more than 170 volunteers, who contributed to the control of four invasive plant species. These projects were very effective and successful in training people and increasing 230 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world awareness, especially among university students and young professionals. Due to the continuity of the projects, usually one each year since 2003, the target public has grown accustomed to them and frequently unknown people request information about the future events. This type of activity showed to be engaging and effective: after participating, several volunteers became involved in invasive species projects, and some of them now work professionally in this subject. Furthermore, it has been a good way to encourage the Conservation Areas staff and to publicize their work on the management and control of invasive plants. A questionnaire is currently being prepared targeting all the previous participants in order to better quantify the effectiveness of this approach. Training courses Aims: to provide tools to capacitate the trainees to 1) identify and manage invasive plants present in Portugal (technical courses for professionals dealing with exotic and invasive plants) and 2) develop educational projects and activities about invasive species (courses for school teachers). Description: the courses involved theoretical sessions, laboratory and field practical sessions and field trips to areas invaded by different species. Three courses (ca. 25h each) about identification and control of invasive plants were organized in 2005, 2006 and 2007. The target public was technicians from municipalities and nursery industry, conservation and forestry experts, researchers, and other technical staff who deal with exotic and invasive species. In 2009, a different course was offered to school teachers, as they are in a privileged position to disseminate information about this theme among young people. The program was adapted from the technical course, focusing more on the theory behind biological invasions and considering environmental education projects and activities that could be developed and used in school classes. Results and evaluation: ca. 40 technicians and 25 teachers attended the courses. This approach has proved to be very effective in changing attitudes. Some technicians have actively integrated the knowledge gained in the course in their regular activities, namely in invasive control programs or excluding invasive species from their lists of ―working species‖. Some of the teachers developed programs to be applied during the forthcoming school year in their schools and as a consequence many students have heard about this theme and many have been involved in hands-on activities. Online questionnaire Aims: to survey the knowledge/awareness of different target publics who deal with exotic and invasive plants about their use and related legislation. At the same time, the questionnaire aimed to raise public awareness about IAS and Portuguese legislation about non-indigenous species, start the mapping (presence vs. absence only) of invasive plants in continental Portugal and survey the control actions being developed in the country. Description: a questionnaire was undertaken targeting technical publics who deal with exotic and invasive plant species, namely municipalities, forestry associations, horticultural trade and industries, botanical gardens and higher education institutions/courses in which forestry, 231 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world environmental and biological sciences are part of the curricula. Most questionnaires were carried out online and sent to a list of institutions previously selected. While municipalities, botanical gardens and institutions of higher education were all surveyed, although not all responded, forestry associations and horticultural trade and industry were more difficult to trace and consequently the ―total‖ public was sub-sampled. Concerning horticultural trade and industry, in person questionnaires were also performed at a horticultural fair. Questionnaires were performed during 2006 and 2007 and they were adapted to each target public, with some questions shared and other distinct from each other. Full text versions of the questionnaire and results may be seen at http://www.uc.pt/invasoras (in Portuguese). Results and evaluation: 221 institutions returned the questionnaire; from these, 81 were municipalities, 51 forestry associations, 52 higher education departments/courses, 33 horticultural trade and industries and 4 botanical gardens. Municipalities and horticultural trade and industry were the target publics with the lowest percentages of response to the questionnaire (Figure 2a). Although Portuguese legislation about non-indigenous species is from 1999, ca. 8 years after, the results showed that unawareness about IAS, amongst these target publics still exists, with ca. 33% of the horticultural traders and industries and forestry associations being unaware of the legislation (Figure 2 Figure 2b). Establishment/courses of higher education were asked if biological invasions/invasive species were part of the curricula and if legislation was referred to during the classes: from the 52 respondents, 44 said biological invasions were a subject in classes, but only 24 referred to the present legislation. Respondents (%) 100 80 60 40 20 0 Municipalities Awareness about legislation (%) a Forestry associations Botanical gardens Horticultural trade Higher education institutions b 100 80 60 40 20 0 Municipalities Forestry associations Botanical gardens Horticultural trade 232 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Figure 2 – a. Percentage of inquired from each target public that responded to the questionnaire about invasive plants and related legislation. b. Awareness about Portuguese legislation concerning non-indigenous species. Trandescantia fluminensis Spartina densiflora Senecio bicolor Robinia pseudoacacia Pittosporum undulatum Oxalis pes-caprea Myriophyllum brasiliensis Ipomoea acuminata Hakea sericiea Hakea salicifolia Galinsoga parviflora Eryngium pandanifolium Erigeron karvinskianus Elodea canadensis Eichhornia crassipes Datura stramonium Conyza bonariensis Carpobrotus edulis Azolla filiculoides Arctotheca calendula Ailanthus altissima Acacia retinodes Acacia pycnantha Acacia melanoxylon Acacia mearnsii Acacia longifolia Acacia karroo Acacia dealbata Acacia cyanophylla Senecio bicolor Oxalis pes-caprea Hakea salicifolia Galinsoga parviflora Acacia karroo Eryngium pandanifolium Eichhornia crassipes Datura stramonium Acacia retinodes Acacia pycnantha Pittosporum undulatum Erigeron karvinskianus Acacia mearnsii Robinia pseudoacacia Carpobrotus edulis Ailanthus altissima Acacia saligna Acacia longifolia Hakea sericea Acacia melanoxylon Acacia dealbata 0 a 20 40 60 80 0% 100 Species perceived as problematic by the different entities (%) b 20% intentional 40% 60% acidental 80% 100% unknown Figure 3 - a. Invasive species perceived as problematic by municipalities and forestry associations responding the questionnaire. b. Mode of introduction of invasive plant species, according to answers from municipalities and forest associations. The questions from municipalities and forestry associations‘ questionnaires were, in general, the same. However, results showed that both publics have quite different knowledge and perception about invasive plants, which is probably related to their distinct professional aims and obligations. Ninety percent (90%) and 65% of the forestry associations and municipalities, respectively, declared to have invasive species present in their territories. Perception that these species cause problems was different, with 74% of the forestry associations recognizing that invasive species promote negative impacts while only 40% of the municipalities had that view. However, only 6% of the forestry associations develop management action in order to control invasive plants, claiming that such actions were out of their duties, while 57% of the municipalities responded that they make an effort to control invasive plants. The problems associated to invasive plants were also distinct for both target publics: while municipalities elected reduction of biodiversity (67%) and economic problems (57%) as the main impacts associated with these species, forestry associations recognized economic (85%) and productivity (59%) problems, and only 50% considered invasive plants to be a threat to biodiversity. When 233 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world asked directly about which invasive species cause more problems, the answers revealed that the most widespread species are not always perceived as the ones causing more negative impacts: Acacia dealbata, A. melanoxylon, Hakea sericea, A. longifolia, A. saligna, Ailanthus altissima, Carpobrotus edulis and Robinia pseudoacacia were the species most often quoted as problematic by municipalities and forestry associations; some invasive plant species were not perceived as causing problems by these publics (Figure 3a). The perceived mode of introduction of the different invasive species was also surveyed. Although results differed from species to species (Figure 3), for most species (70%) the reason for introduction was unknown to the respondents, while for 23% and 7% intentional and accidental introductions were evoked, respectively. Figure 4 - Distribution maps of selected invasive plant species in Portugal according to responses to questionnaires sent to municipalities and forestry associations. b black k one or more municipality or forestry association responded to the questionnaire and signalled the species as present in the area; g grey y municipality or forestry association responded to the questionnaire, but none signalled the species as present in the area; white, area where no municipality or forestry association responded to the questionnaire. 234 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Answers from municipalities and forestry associations allowed the mapping of the major invasive plants along the continental Portuguese territory to be initiated, considering presence/absence per area of municipality (see Figure 4). Results show that some invasive species are already present in many Portuguese municipalities. However, the lack of answers from non-respondent municipalities or forestry associations has obvious implications in the maps, with data missing for many regions. Considering this limitation and although these results do not allow the mapping of abundance of each species, results suggest that Acacia dealbata is the most widespread invasive species, which is in agreement with our own perception (Marchante et al. 2008). On the other hand, for example Eichhornia crassipes was signalled by few municipalities or forestry associations, but it is present in more regions of the country (Marchante et al. 2008). When analyzing the results of the questionnaires, it is important to keep in mind that they reflect the knowledge and sensitivity/awareness of the respondents, which may sometimes not reflect rigorously the actual situation, since species that are more problematic and frequent are more easily spotted and remembered. In addition, only a proportion of the target population answered the questionnaire. Other point that must also be taken into account when interpreting the results is that species may have been sometimes mistaken by some other species. These questionnaires were an important source of information about the awareness of legislation, invasive plant species distribution, perception of species which are problematic, their perceived mode of introduction, etc. In addition, such survey increased public awareness, and nowadays many technicians from these target publics contact our team asking for information or consultation about management of invasive plants. Printed documents about invasive plants in Portugal Aims: to produce printed documents that can be used to raise awareness about invasive plants. Description: the different activities organized and the contact with the public highlighted the need of printed documentation about invasive plants. To fill this gap, different documents were produced, targeting different publics (Figure 5). Plant species technical profiles (2005): technical document about identification and control of the most common and problematic species in Portugal (Marchante et al. 2005). This document includes the profiles of the 30 plant species considered invasive by the Portuguese legislation, plus three other species that are also invasive although not yet listed in the legislation. This publication targets technical publics dealing with invasive plants, and was made available both online (in two platforms – www.uc.pt/invasoras and www.pluridoc.com) and in a printed version. The printed version was distributed to professionals working with exotic plants and public and private institutions responsible for the management of areas invaded by alien plants. Invasive plants field guide (2008): publication of the first field guide of invasive alien plants in continental Portugal (Marchante et al. 2008). More than 80 plants species were included, considering invasive plants and other potentially invasive plants (casuals and naturalized), which are either invasive in other regions of the world with similar climate, show sporadic invasive behaviour in Portugal or belong to genera which include invasive plants in the country. The guide includes as well an introduction to biological invasions and invasive plant species. 235 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Booklet with postcards to color (2008): although this theme can be somewhat complex to young children, it is important to raise awareness from an early age. A small booklet, with a collection of postcards, of 13 of the worst invasive plant species in Portugal was developed targeting school children. The booklet includes a fixed part (to keep, with simple information) and postcards to detach. Each postcard is the drawing of an invasive plant; the reverse is an ordinary postcard to write a message – the idea is that each child can learn a bit about invasive plants, personalize the card, colouring it, and write a message to friends and family about this theme, working themselves as ―vectors of dissemination of information‖. Postcards were initially made for children from 8 to 12 years old, but worked also fine with younger and older students. Bookmarks collection (2008): 13 bookmarks were made about the worst invasive plants in Portugal. Each bookmark has simple information about invasive plants in general, information about a specific invasive plant and the link of the website where more information and contacts can be looked after. These are targeted to the general public, and used for different publics and activities. The idea was to have available a simple, appealing (and cheap) publication that can be given to everyone. a b c d Figure 5 Examples of printed documents about invasive alien plants in Portugal. a. ―Plantas Invasoras em Portugal – guia para identificação e controlo‖ [technical profiles about identification and control of invasive plants in Portugal], b.‖Guia prático para a identificação de Plantas Invasoras de Portugal Continental‖ [field guide about invasive plants in continental Portugal], c. Postcard from the ―Booklet with postcards to color‖, d. Bookmark about Eichhornia crassipes. Results and evaluation: the technical profiles about invasive plants are available in a platform where they are the third most downloaded document amongst several thousand, with more than 2000 downloads since July 2007; the printed version (500 copies) is out of print. Frequent requests for the printed version and consultation concerning control of different invasive plant species are received. Two thousand free copies of the field guide were printed and are now out of print; the reviews/criticisms to this first edition were very good and a new edition is being planned. This edition was distributed, mainly under direct request, to several official entities and people interested in the theme, reaching very distinct publics; it was also distributed to some public and school libraries, being available to people all over the country. The bookmarks were mostly distributed to entities dedicated to science communication and environmental education, 236 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world but also to conservation areas, schools and the general public in nature and science festivals and other events. Distribution is still ongoing, and the distribution together with a national newspaper is being prepared. Postcards were mainly used for school children and activities organized for this specific public. As much as possible, the printed documents were used together with different initiatives organized in order for them to be understood in context. Other initiatives Aims: to raise awareness about invasive plants and to communicate results of research projects to different publics. Description: thematic workshops were organized, mainly targeting school students, but also the general public. These workshops included different activities (Figure 6), such as short talks, hands-on activities for the control of invasive plants, interactive games and invasive plant identification games (Reis et al. submitted). Further dissemination of information about invasive plants was attained through participation in several environmental conferences, forums, conference and school talks, etc, targeting very diverse publics (the general public, school children and students, university students, foresters, horticultural trade, conservation experts, etc). Results and evaluation: since 2005, more than 30 talks were given, 10 workshops and handson activities were carried out, and science and nature forums and fairs for different publics were joined. The contexts and publics of these initiatives were very diverse. As a result, over the past few years and all over the country many citizens became aware about invasive plants. Effectiveness of the workshops organized for schools was accessed through questionnaires sent to schools, one year later, targeting students who attended the workshop as well as a control group who did not attend it. Results showed that, after one year, the participants in the workshop knew significantly more about invasive species and recognized more invasive plant species than non-participant students (Reis et al. submitted). a b c d f e Figure 5 - Thematic workshop about invasive plants. a-b. short-talks, c-d. recognition games, e-f. interactive games. 237 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Final considerations and future work After several years communicating about invasive alien plants in Portugal, our perception is that awareness about biological invasions has increased, although lack of awareness is still a substantial reality. There is still a lot to be done! Nevertheless, information on invasive alien species is nowadays more frequent in the media and many people and institutions have contributed, and are committed to continue, to raise public awareness. The diversified methodologies and strategies used by the team from CFE and CERNAS are slowly contributing to change mentalities and attitudes, making the public better educated on the topics of invasive plants and biological invasions. This public can then have an important role in the prevention, early-detection and the control of invasive species. After using different approaches, our perception is that methodologies which include handson or interactive activities and involve the participants for a longer time are more engaging and efficient in increasing awareness about invasive plant species (Reis et al. submitted). The estimated number of people reached by the different activities/approaches is higher than 150 000 (Table 1). However, the main contribution to this number is the web page, which effectively contributes to raise awareness and provide information, but which is probably less effective to make people change their attitudes about exotic and invasive plant species than more interactive activities. A stronger effort and investment needs to be made in order to better evaluate the activities/approaches used to communicate on IAS. Evaluation of effectiveness is not always easy. Nevertheless, funding for communication is often scarce and so it is important that it can be used in the most efficient way, targeting approaches that are more effective in changing attitudes and engaging the public with this subject. The collaboration of experts on communication is also of utmost importance if a well-coordinated and effective campaign is to be promoted. We are committed to this challenge of engaging the public with IAS and will continue to do so along with our research activities. For that, we are planning to diversify activities in the field, establishing protocols with local and regional administrative agencies, implementing new tools and interactive maps on the web page, extending the questionnaires to conservation experts, forestry authorities, and general public, preparing updated versions of the printed materials and initiating a pilot early-detection programme. Acknowledgements Special thanks to volunteers of field-work projects, to Catarina Reis and to all who helped and participated in the different activities. FCT-MCES & FEDER (POCI2010) are acknowledged for funding the projects INVADER (POCTI/BSE/42335/2001), INVADER II (POCI/AMB/ 61387/2004) and CV-127-107. References Commission of the European Communities (2008) Towards an EU strategy on invasive species - Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/index_en.htm [accessed on January 2009] 238 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Gaertner M, Den Breeyen A, Cang H & Richardson DM (2009) Impacts of alien plant invasions on species richness in Mediterranean-type ecosystems: a meta-analysis. Progress in Physical Geography 33(3), 319-338. Hulme PE, Pyšek P, Nentwig W & Vilà M (2009) Will Threat of Biological Invasions Unite the European Union? Science 324 (5923), 40-41. Lambdon PW, Pyšek P, Basnou C, Hejda M, Arianoutsou M, Essl F, Jarošìk V, Pergl J, Winter M, Anastasiu P, Andriopoulos P, Bazos I, Brundu G, Celesti-Grapow L, Chassot P, Delipetrou P, Josefsson M, Kark S, Klotz S, Kokkoris Y, Kühn I, Marchante H, Perglová I, Pino J, Vilà M, Zikos A, Roy D & Hulme PE (2008) Alien flora of Europe: species diversity, temporal trends, geographical patterns and research needs. Preslia 80, 101–149. Marchante H, Marchante E & Freitas H (2005) Plantas Invasoras em Portugal – guia para identificação e controlo. Ed. dos autores. Coimbra. (in Portuguese) Marchante E, Freitas H & Marchante H (2008) Guia prático para a identificação de Plantas Invasoras de Portugal Continental. Coimbra Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra. 183 pp. (in Portuguese) Ministério do Ambiente (1999) Decreto-lei n.º 565/99 de 21 de Dezembro. In: Diário da República - I Série - A. 295: 9100-9114. (in Portuguese) Mooney HA & Hobbs RJ (2000) Invasive Species in a Changing World. Island Press, Washington DC. Reis CS, Marchante H, Freitas H & Marchante E. Public perception of invasive plant species: assessing the impact of workshop activities to promote young students awareness. Submitted to Public Understanding of Science. Ruiz G M & Carlton JT (2003) Invasive Species: Vectors and Management Strategies (p. 484). Island Press. Vilà M, Basnou C, Pyšek P, Josefsson M, Genovesi P, Gollasch S, Nentwig W, Olenin S, Roques A, Roy D, Hulme PE & DAISIE partners (2009) How well do we understand the impacts of alien species on ecosystem services? A pan-European, cross-taxa assessment. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment 8(3), 135-144. 239 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Expérience tunisienne des Champs Ecoles Paysans sur la lutte intégrée contre une plante exotique envahissante : Solanum elaeagnifolium M. Mekki1, M. M‘hafdhi2, R. Belhaj2 and K. Alrouechdi3 Institut Supérieur Agronomique de Chott Meriem, BP 47, 4042 Chott Meriem (Tunisie) ; email : mekki.mounir@iresa.agrinet.tn 2 Direction Générale de la Protection et du Contrôle de la Qualité des Produits Agricoles, 30 Rue Alain Savary, 1002 Tunis (Tunisie) ; e-mail : ridha.belhaj@iresa.agrinet.tn 3 FAO, Plant Production & Protection Division (AGP), Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00153 Rome, (Italy) ; e-mail : Khaled.Alrouechdi@fao.org 1 La morelle jaune (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. # SOLEL) est originaire du continent américain. Actuellement, elle est considérée une plante exotique envahissante (PEE) dans les cinq continents. En 2008, la FAO a lancé un programme de coopération technique (TCP/RAB/3102) entre le Maroc et la Tunisie pour la gestion des plantes envahissantes et en particulier SOLEL. Les activités de ce programme ont duré 18 mois (juillet 2008-décembre 2009) et l‘un de ses objectifs était l‘installation de trois Ecoles Champs Paysans (CEP) sur la lutte intégrée contre SOLEL. Ces CEP ont concerné trois régions du pays (Kairouan, Sidi Bouzid et Mahdia) et ils ont impliqué environ 75 agriculteurs et techniciens. Les participants se sont rencontrés au moins sept fois, à raison d‘au moins 3 heures par rencontre. Le programme des rencontres prévoyait des échanges et des activités aux champs relatifs à la caractérisation de SOLEL (identification et bio-écologie) et les moyens de lutte contre cette espèce (sarclages manuel et mécanique, désherbage chimique, co-compostage, cultures étouffantes, etc.). Ces CEP étaient une bonne occasion d‘analyser avec les agriculteurs et les techniciens agricoles les pratiques actuelles de lutte contre SOLEL et de leur proposer des pratiques alternatives pour mieux gérer cette espèce. Introduction En Tunisie, plusieurs plantes exotiques sont introduites dans le pays de façons intentionnelle ou accidentelle. L‘absence d‘un système de gestion des Plantes Exotiques Envahissantes (PEE) et l‘insuffisance des moyens matériels et humains pour surveiller le territoire afin d‘empêcher l‘introduction et l‘établissement de ces espèces a permis à la morelle jaune (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. # SOLEL) d‘entrer dans le pays, de s‘y établir silencieusement durant quelques décennies et de devenir envahissante depuis quelques années (Mekki, 2007). SOLEL est une mauvaise herbe très redoutable dans son aire d‘origine (Boyd et al., 1984). Les parcelles fortement infestées sont souvent abandonnées et leur valeur foncière et locative est très réduite. De plus, cette plante est reconnue comme toxique pour les animaux et elle menace la biodiversité des milieux infestés. Elle est très fréquente dans les milieux perturbés (bordures de routes, aménagements paysagers, pâturages, cultures, etc.). Dans la région méditerranéenne, elle figure sur la liste A2 des PEE de l‘Organisation Européenne de Protection des Plantes (OEPP) et est recommandée pour réglementation. En Tunisie, elle a été signalée pour la première fois en 1985 240 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world à l‘office des terres domaniales d‘El Alem - délégation de Sbikha. On présume qu‘elle n‘était pas présente dans le Pays avant 1960 (Mekki, 2006). Actuellement, elle est rapportée dans 16 gouvernorats du pays (Tableau 1). Tableau 1 - Distribution géographique de la morelle jaune en Tunisie (DGPCQPA1, 2009) Gouvernorat Superficie infestée (ha) Biotopes infestées2 Kairouan 20 000 TC, TNC Sidi Bouzid 15 000 TC, TNC Sousse > 100 TC, TNC Sfax > 70 TC, TNC Ariana > 30 TC, TNC Manouba < 10 TC, TNC Mahdia < 10 TC, TNC Zaghouan < 10 TC, TNC Monastir < 10 TC, TNC Ben Arous < 10 TC, TNC Nabeul <1 TNC Gabes <1 TNC Gafsa <1 TNC Mednine <1 TNC Beja <1 TNC Le Kef <1 TNC 1 : DGPCQPA : Direction Générale de la Protection et du Contrôle de la Qualité des Produits Agricoles 2: TC : terres cultivées ; TNC : terres non cultivées Depuis 2005, la Tunisie a accru son intérêt pour la gestion des PEE et plus particulièrement pour SOLEL. Le pays a donc sollicité le soutien du bureau sous régional de l‘Organisation des Nations Unies pour l‘Agriculture et l‘Alimentation (FAO-SNE) pour mener un programme de coopération technique régional sur la gestion des PEE et en particulier SOLEL. Ce programme (TCP/RAB/3102) a démarré en juillet 2008 et a été clôturé en décembre 2009. Il avait pour objectifs de : 1. Sensibiliser les agriculteurs, les autorités et les Organisations Non Gouvernementales (ONG) concernées par la protection des plantes et de l‘environnement aux risques que SOLEL représente. 2. Renforcer les compétences des techniciens et des agriculteurs en matière de lutte intégrée contre SOLEL. 3. Elaborer une stratégie nationale de gestion de SOLEL et des PEE. 4. Etablir un réseau national pour appliquer la stratégie nationale de gestion de SOLEL et des PEE. 5. Préciser la distribution de SOLEL dans le pays. 6. Analyser les Risques Phytosanitaires (ARP) de SOLEL. 7. Dresser une liste des plantes exotiques potentiellement envahissantes pour le pays. 8. Préparer un projet régional relatif à la gestion des PEE, qui implique le maximum de pays méditerranéens. 241 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Les Champs Ecoles Paysans (CEP) ont été développés en Indonésie pour limiter les impacts négatifs des pesticides agricoles et développer la lutte intégrée contre les ennemis des cultures. La base des CEP est l‘apprentissage par la découverte, la pratique et l‘expérimentation (Braun et al. 2006). Ces espaces d‘apprentissage et d‘échange fournissent aux participants l‘opportunité de découvrir des pratiques alternatives afin d‘améliorer leurs conditions. La première expérience des CEP a été réalisée en 1989 et a impliqué 200 agriculteurs dans un programme de lutte intégrée contre les ennemis des rizières. Depuis, cette expérience s‘est répandue dans plusieurs pays du monde. Dans le cadre du TCP/RAB/3102 nous avons installé 3 CEP sur la lutte intégrée contre SOLEL afin d‘amener les participants à adopter volontairement cette approche de lutte. Matériel et Méthodes Lors de l‘atelier national sur la gestion intégrée des plantes envahissantes, en particulier SOLEL, tenu à Sousse du 19 au 21 janvier 2009, les participants ont défini les lieux d‘installation des CEP sur la lutte intégrée contre SOLEL (Figure 1) :  La délégation la plus infestée du gouvernorat de Kairouan (Sbikha),  La délégation la plus infestée du gouvernorat de Sidi-Bouzid (Jelma) et  Le gouvernorat de Mahdia qui est peu infesté par SOLEL. Figure 1 - Localisation des trois Champs Ecoles Paysans en Tunisie La planification des CEP a démarré dès novembre 2008 et les rencontres se sont étalées tout au long du cycle biologique de SOLEL de mars à novembre 2009. Environ 75 agriculteurs et techniciens du Ministère de l‘Agriculture, la Pêche et les Ressources Hydrauliques ont participé à ces rencontres qui ont regroupé à chaque fois :  1-2 responsables techniques régionaux,  2-3 techniciens vulgarisateurs locaux,  Le coordinateur national du TCP,  Le consultant national du TCP, et  Une vingtaine d‘agriculteurs. 242 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Le programme d‘activités de ces CEP était axé sur les thèmes suivants :  Identification de SOLEL à ses différents stades de croissance,  Exploitation des caractéristiques bio-écologiques de SOLEL dans sa gestion,  Analyse des pratiques actuelles de lutte contre SOLEL (arrachage, labour, sarclage, etc.), et  Evaluation des nouvelles pratiques de lutte contre SOLEL (sarclage, herbicides, cultures étouffantes, compostage). Les participants se sont rencontrés au moins 7 fois, tout au long du cycle biologique de SOLEL, à raison de 3 à 4 heures par rencontre. Les nouvelles pratiques évaluées sont :  Comparaison des différents types de charrues (à disques, à pattes d‘oie et à lames),  Comparaison des différents traitements herbicides (glyphosate et glufosinate),  Comparaison de deux types de pulvérisations (manuelle et tractée),  Comparaison de deux luzernières,  Evaluation pratique de la technique de co-compostage de SOLEL avec le fumier et les déchets organiques. Résultats et Discussion Installation des CEP Les premières rencontres ont permis de constater que les agriculteurs des CEP de Jelma et Sbikha sont très préoccupés par SOLEL qui s‘avère très nuisible et difficile à maîtriser par les pratiques classiques de désherbage. Les agriculteurs pensent qu‘ils sont incapables de faire face à ce fléau et ils sollicitent le soutien du gouvernement pour maîtriser cette mauvaise herbe. A Mahdia, la situation était différente, puisque SOLEL est peu répandue et n‘est présente à des seuils inquiétants que chez très peu d‘agriculteurs. Ceci explique le peu d‘intérêt qu‘accordent les agriculteurs à SOLEL dans cette zone. Les participants ont souligné la nécessité de l‘intervention de l‘Etat pour maîtriser la situation avant qu‘elle ne devienne plus inquiétante et difficile à cerner. Caractéristiques bio-écologiques de SOLEL La majorité des participants aux CEP de Jelma et Sbikha était familiarisée avec SOLEL, vu son abondance et sa nuisance agronomique. La situation était un peu différente pour les participants au CEP de Mahdia où l‘espèce commence à déranger un petit nombre d‘agriculteurs. Peu de participants de Mahdia étaient capables d‘identifier correctement la plante. Quant à son origine géographique, plusieurs agriculteurs pensent qu‘elle provient d‘autres régions du pays et ignorent qu‘il s‘agit d‘une PEE. L‘ignorance de son statut handicape sa gestion, car il est inopportun de gérer les PEE comme les plantes nuisibles. En effet, le meilleur moyen de gestion des PEE est la prévention de leur introduction et de leur établissement dans un nouveau territoire. Concernant sa première apparition dans leurs champs, les agriculteurs n‘étaient pas unanimes ; certains pensent qu‘elle est présente depuis des dizaines d‘années et d‘autres ne l‘ont observée que depuis quelques années. Par ailleurs, la majorité des participants savait que SOLEL se multiplie végétativement et se reproduit sexuellement mais ils sont incapables d‘exploiter cette 243 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world information dans sa gestion puisqu‘ils se contentent des pratiques de lutte classiques contre les plantes nuisibles, notamment le labour et l‘arrachage manuel. Contrôles manuel et mécanique de SOLEL Les échanges entre les participants sur leurs pratiques actuelles de lutte contre SOLEL ont mis en évidence les conclusions suivantes :  Les participants pensent que SOLEL est très difficile à contrôler par les pratiques conventionnelles (arrachage, sarclage à la sape, sarclage à la charrue, etc.) et ils attendent l‘homologation d‘herbicides en mesure de contrôler efficacement et durablement cette espèce.  Certains agriculteurs pensent que les pratiques conventionnelles sont en mesure de maîtriser cette espèce, si elles sont appliquées avec acharnement dès son introduction. L‘analyse de ces pratiques nous a permis de constater ce qui suit :  Les agriculteurs labourent les terres infestées par SOLEL, sans aucun encadrement technique : ils utilisent des charrues inadaptées à la lutte contre les vivaces, interviennent tardivement, et ne renouvellent pas assez souvent ces pratiques.  Les agriculteurs pratiquent l‘arrachage et le sarclage manuels en début de saison estivale et les abandonnent dès que l‘exploitation de leurs cultures devient peu rentable.  L‘arrachage et le sarclage manuels de SOLEL sont très répandus chez les petits paysans qui pratiquent une agriculture vivrière.  Les pratiques actuelles ont favorisé la propagation et la dissémination de SOLEL. L‘évaluation de l‘entretien mécanique des terres (jachère et vergers) fortement infestées par SOLEL avec deux sarcleurs (pattes d‘oie ou pattes d‘oie et lames) a permis aux participants de constater ce qui suit :  Le sarcleur à pattes d‘oie n‘arrache pas tous les pieds de SOLEL. En général, les sarcleurs à trois rangs sont plus efficaces que ceux à deux rangs.  Le sarcleur combiné (pattes d‘oie et lames) arrache la quasi-totalité des plants de SOLEL. Il est très efficace sous des climats chauds et secs et sur sols bien nivelés, meubles et moyennement infestés.  Durant la période estivale et en absence d‘irrigation, le sarclage mécanique peut réprimer efficacement SOLEL durant 4-6 semaines.  Les sarclages à la herse combinée ont donné de très bons résultats. En effet, deux sarclages ont suffit pour affaiblir SOLEL et empêcher sa fructification. Ces sarclages étaient accompagnés d‘un sarclage manuel aux pieds des arbres. En général, 4-6 croisements sont nécessaires pour prévenir la production de semences et épuiser les réserves des organes souterrains. Toutefois, en absence de pluie et d‘apport d‘eau 3-4 croisements peuvent suffire. Il est possible d‘appliquer 2-3 sarclages jusqu‘à la fin de l‘été et d‘appliquer un traitement herbicide à la suite des premières pluies d‘automne.  Les sarclages en été permettent de conserver l‘eau du sol et d‘assurer ainsi un bon démarrage des cultures automnales. Deux sarclages mécaniques, durant la période estivale, d‘une jachère fortement infestée par SOLEL ont permis de: (i) minimiser la fructification de SOLEL, (ii) épuiser ses réserves souterraines et (iii) préserver les réserves hydriques du sol. Ainsi, l‘agriculteur a profité des premières pluies d‘automne 244 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world pour semer de l‘orge sur cette parcelle. Au mois de novembre, les participants aux CEP ont constaté une faible infestation du site et un bon établissement de la culture. Techniques culturales Les échanges entre les participants sur la lutte intégrée contre SOLEL ont permis de constater que la majorité des agriculteurs n‘a aucun plan de lutte contre cette plante en Tunisie, ce qui explique sa propagation dans les champs. On peut résumer les pratiques actuelles de lutte contre SOLEL comme suit :  Le choix des cultures et leur installation ne tiennent pas compte du degré d‘infestation des parcelles par SOLEL. Par exemple, les cultures fourragères sont pratiquées selon les besoins des éleveurs et non pour lutter contre SOLEL.  Dans les cultures maraîchères, les seuls moyens de lutte sont les sarclages manuel et mécanique et l‘arrachage. Généralement, les maraîchers nettoient les parcelles et négligent leurs bordures et ces pratiques sont négligées dès que l‘exploitation des cultures devient peu rentable.  Plusieurs maraîchers s‘approvisionnent en fumier à partir des zones infestées et aucun agriculteur ne pratique le compostage du fumier avant son épandage au champ.  Dans les vergers, la lutte est axée sur le labour 1-2 fois par saison. Souvent, les interventions sont peu efficaces, voire même favorables à la propagation de SOLEL.  La lutte dans les jachères est quasi absente car elles sont exploitées pour le pâturage des ovins. D‘ailleurs, ce mode d‘exploitation des terres a certainement contribué à la dissémination de SOLEL. L‘analyse de ces pratiques de lutte montre clairement que les agriculteurs n‘ont aucun plan de lutte contre SOLEL et que les pratiques actuelles sont souvent peu efficaces, voire même favorisent sa dissémination. Un des objectifs des CEP était d‘envisager de nouvelles pratiques, telle que l‘établissement de luzernières dans les parcelles fortement infestées par SOLEL. Mais certains agriculteurs étaient sceptiques à l‘idée de réprimer SOLEL par la luzerne. Pour permettre aux agriculteurs de juger eux même de l‘intérêt de la luzerne, deux luzernières ont été installées vers la fin du mois de mai dans des parcelles fortement infestées par SOLEL, une à Sbikha et l‘autre à Jelma. L‘agriculteur de Sbikha a raté l‘installation de la luzernière car il a négligé son irrigation et le contrôle des mauvaises herbes. Il estimait inutile de contrôler les mauvaises herbes dans une culture fourragère. Il a par ailleurs expliqué le manque d‘irrigation de la luzernière par des problèmes techniques. L‘agriculteur de Jelma, a quant à lui réussi l‘installation de sa luzernière car il a arraché manuellement SOLEL. Les agriculteurs habitués à cette culture savent bien qu‘il est indispensable de soigner son implantation pour garantir une répression efficace et pérenne de SOLEL. Par ailleurs, il a été recommandé de privilégier l‘installation de la luzerne au cours de l‘automne car au printemps SOLEL est très compétitive et peut freiner l‘établissement de la luzerne si elle n‘est pas contrôlée systématiquement tout au long de l‘été. Cette expérience nous a permis de confirmer la capacité de la luzerne d‘étouffer SOLEL, dès sa deuxième année d‘établissement. Contrôle chimique de SOLEL Les échanges entre les participants sur la lutte chimique contre SOLEL permettent de mettre en évidence les constats suivants:  Les agriculteurs de Jelma n‘ont jamais utilisé d‘herbicides contre SOLEL. 245 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world    Certains agriculteurs de Sbikha ont utilisé occasionnellement des herbicides et même du pétrole pour combattre SOLEL mais sans grand succès. A Mahdia, SOLEL n‘est pas très répandue dans les parcelles et les agriculteurs n‘ont par conséquent pas d‘expérience avec les herbicides. La majorité des participants attendent une solution chimique pour contrer SOLEL mais ils ignorent que la lutte chimique contre SOLEL ne peut être satisfaisante que si elle est pratiquée selon un plan pluriannuel et en combinaison avec d‘autres méthodes de lutte. A ce jour, la lutte chimique contre SOLEL est très peu répandue en Tunisie. D‘ailleurs, aucun herbicide n‘est homologué contre cette espèce. Habituellement, les herbicides sont peu utilisés dans les régions semi-arides. Cette situation a certainement contribué à favoriser la dissémination de SOLEL. L‘essai sur le terrain d‘herbicides à base de glyphosate et de glufosinate a permis aux participants de constater ce qui suit :  Un traitement par saison à base de glyphosate est insuffisant pour réprimer durablement SOLEL.  Le glyphosate est plus efficace contre SOLEL quand il est appliqué à une faible dose (1-1,5 kg/ha), avec une fréquence de 2-3 traitements par saison, alors que son efficacité est courte s‘il est appliqué une fois par saison à dose complète (2-3 kg/ha).  Un mois après l‘application des traitements, le glufosinate (Basta) était plus performant que le glyphosate (Round up Plus). Mais la reprise de SOLEL après les premières pluies d‘automne était plus vigoureuse dans la parcelle traitée avec le glufosinate. Co-compostage du fumier, de SOLEL et des déchets organiques L‘objectif principal de cette activité était de vulgariser la technique de co-compostage pour valoriser le fumier et les déchets organiques des exploitations agricoles et de détruire les semences de SOLEL. Les participants n‘étaient pas très familiarisés avec la technique de compostage comme moyen de : (i) valoriser le fumier et les déchets organiques des exploitations agricoles, et (ii) limiter la dissémination de SOLEL. Cette activité était une occasion pour se rappeler que le fumier ovin est un facteur important de dissémination de SOLEL et d‘apprendre que le cocompostage du fumier avec SOLEL, provenant des chantiers de désherbage manuel, peut être une technique très utile dans la lutte intégrée contre cette mauvaise herbe. En effet, le cocompostage permet de monter la température du fumier à plus de 60 þC et de provoquer ainsi la mortalité des semences de SOLEL et d‘autres semences de mauvaises herbes. Rencontre des CEP L‘objectif principal de cette rencontre était de favoriser les échanges d‘expériences entre les agriculteurs des trois CEP et de sensibiliser les agriculteurs et les techniciens des régions peu infestées aux dangers potentiels de SOLEL et des PEE. Evaluation des CEP La rencontre d‘évaluation des CEP, du 24 novembre 2009, a permis de constater que la formule originale des CEP, telle qu‘elle a été conçue en Indonésie et appliquée en Asie et en 246 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Afrique sub-saharienne n‘est pas bien adaptée à la mentalité des agriculteurs des régions de Kairouan, Sidi-Bouzid et Mahdia. En effet, au lieu de discuter entre eux, les agriculteurs préfèrent discuter avec les personnes ressources. De plus, même s‘ils sont conscients que SOLEL a atteint des niveaux d‘infestation inquiétants, ils expriment souvent d‘autres préoccupations, telles que l‘électrification des puits de surface et les prix des intrants agricoles. Pour faire face à cette PEE, ils utilisent les méthodes classiques de désherbage des cultures. En général, ces méthodes permettent de minimiser les pertes de rendements tant que les parcelles sont peu infestées mais sont incapables d‘arrêter l‘invasion de SOLEL. Les agriculteurs comptent beaucoup sur l‘Etat pour résoudre ce problème. Malgré ces difficultés, les CEP ont permis de tester et de valider de nouvelles techniques de lutte contre SOLEL en Tunisie (herbicides, sarcleurs à lames, luzernières, et co-compostage). Cette expérience a été très fructueuse et elle nous a amené à recommander :  d‘adapter la formule originale des CEPs au contexte tunisien.  de favoriser les programmes de lutte concertée contre SOLEL au sein des collectivités locales, des Associations à Intérêt Collectif (AIC), etc.  d‘envisager l‘éradication de SOLEL dans les régions peu infestées.  d‘adopter la technique de sarclage mécanique avec un sarcleur combiné (pattes d‘oie + lames) pour l‘entretien des jachères et des vergers tout au long de la saison chaude dans les terres fortement infestées.  d‘homologuer des herbicides contre SOLEL.  de généraliser la technique de co-compostage pour valoriser le fumier et les déchets organiques et limiter la dissémination de SOLEL.  d‘encourager l‘établissement des luzernières dans les parcelles fortement infestées. Remerciements Les auteurs tiennent à remercier tout le personnel du bureau sous régional de la FAO pour l‘Afrique du Nord, de la Direction générale de la Protection et du Contrôle de la Qualité des Produits agricoles, des Commissariats Régionaux de Développement Agricole de Kairouan, Mahdia et Sidi Bouzid, et des cellules territoriales de vulgarisation de Jelma, Sbikha, Essouassi, Ksour Essef, et Mahdia. Particulièrement, ils remercient Messieurs Ezzeddine Chalgaf, Béchir Saida, Belgacem Omri et Tayeb Jelayli. Références Boyd JW, Murray DS & Tyrl RJ (1984) Origine, distribution et relation à l‘homme de la morelle jaune, Solanum elaeagnifolium. [in English] Economic Botany 38, 210-216. (en anglais) Braun A, Jiggins J, Röling N, van den Berg H and Snijders P (2006) A Global Survey and Review of Farmer Field School Experiences. Report prepared for the International Livestock Research Institut, Endelea, Rietveldlaan, 3 6708 SN Wageningen, The Netherlands. http://www.infobridge.org/asp/documents/1880.pdf [accédé le 27 juillet 2010] Mekki M (2006) Potential threat of Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. to the Tunisian fields. Invasive Plants in Mediterranean Type Regions of the World, pp. 235–242. Environmental Encounters Series No. 59, Council of Europe Publishing. Atelier international sur les plantes envahissantes des régions de type méditerranéen, 25-27 mai 2005, Mèze (Hérault), France. Mekki M (2007) Biologie, Distribution et Impacts de la morelle jaune, Solanum eleaeagnifolium. [in English] OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 37 (1), 114-118. (en anglais) 247 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Outcomes of the Tunisian Experience on Farmer Field School Management of an invasive species Solanum elaeagnifolium Silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. # SOLEL) is thought to be native to the South-Westem USA and Northern Mexico. It has spread to many arid regions of the world. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) supported a regional programme (TCP/RAB/3102) on management of exotic invasive weeds, in particular SOLEL. This programme was effective in Morocco and Tunisia from July 2008 to December 2009. Several options for management of SOLEL have been evaluated in three Farmer Field Schools (FFS) located at two heavily infested regions (Kairouan and Sidi Bouzid) and a recently infested one (Mahdia). FFS involved about 75 farmers and technicians and an average of seven meetings/FFS. The treated subjects were:  SOLEL identification to prevent its establishment in non infested areas,  SOLEL biology as a tool for its practical management,  Cultural and hand weeding options against SOLEL,  Alfalfa ability to suppress SOLEL,  SOLEL control with herbicides,  Manure composting to kill SOLEL seeds and prevent its spread. These FFS were an occasion to enhance farmer‘s capacity to analyze SOLEL control methods, identify their restrictions, test possible solutions and eventually adopt the most suitable practices. Several options have given adequate results. Therefore, it is evident that an integrated management approach will be needed against SOLEL. 248 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Legislative, biological and agronomic measures to comply with the Bern Convention recommendation n141/2009 on "Potentially invasive alien plants being used as biofuel crops" by Contracting Parties in the Mediterranean Basin Roberto Crosti ISPRA- Dipartimento Difesa della Natura-Tutela biodiversità, Via Curtatone 3 00185 ROMA, Italy. E-mail: roberto.crosti@isprambiente.it Recently the Standing Committee of the Council of Europe Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention), worried that the increase of biofuel cropping systems may lead to escapes from cultivation of invasive alien taxa with subsequent negative effect on native biological diversity, adopted a recommendation (n. 141) for Contracting States on ―Potentially invasive alien plants being used as biofuel crops‖. Loss of biodiversity, caused by escaped aggressive crops cultivars competing/crossbreeding with native species and causing impacts on natural habitats, is an important issue (together with food security, loss of soil fertility and land changes) to take into consideration to ensure sustainable bioenergy production. Several biofuel species, have traits in common with invasive species and may harm both the agroecosystems biodiversity (i.e. harming native hedgerows, semi-natural and remnant vegetation) and functionality (i.e. obstructing river channels or reducing the harvest yield). These crop species, being selected for broad ecological amplitude, rapid growth, high seed production, vegetative spread, resistance to pests and diseases are, in fact, potentially invasive. Furthermore, in farmlands habitat modification or degradation due to fragmentation, distorted water balance and nutrient cycle, altered fire regimes and abandonment of arable lands might contribute to the establishment of invasive taxa in new or temporarily ―vacant niches‖. Planting massive quantities of vigorous plant varieties on a large scale by repeated introductions, in different climates and soil conditions increases the propagules pressure and likelihood of ―crop escape‖, with subsequent, establishment of new biological invaders. This conference paper exemplifies which are the appropriate actions that Bern Convention Contracting Parties should undertake to be able to comply with recommendation n. 141. To reduce the potential risk of invasiveness (applying the precautionary principle) it is important to avoid the use of crops species which are already recognised as invasive elsewhere and to undertake a pre-cultivation screening on potential invasiveness for each proposed genotype and region. In addition the cropping system needs to consider the possibility of reducing propagules occurrence and dispersal even if this will effect agronomic and economic efficiency. Between the crop field and natural vegetation there is the need to interpose a buffer zone (i.e. made with non invasive crops) that acts as a biological barrier. The extension of the zone needs to be calibrated according to the invasiveness capacity of the crop. In addition, considering the fact that in the near future biofuel algae will be selected or engineered to increase photosynthetic efficiency, biomass productivity and survival in open ponds, farming and processing need to be undertaken in full containment in order to avoid any risk of environmental contamination. 249 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Biomass crops in the Mediterranean: can experiments in Languedoc-Roussillon help to characterize the risk of invasiveness of the plants used? Pierre Ehret Ministère de L'Alimentation, de l'Agriculture et de la Pêche, Sous-Direction de la Qualité et de la Protection des végétaux, DRAAF/Service Régional de l'Alimentation, Maison de l'Agriculture, Place, Antoine Chaptal, CS 70039, 34 060 Montpellier Cedex 02, E-mail : pierre.ehret@agriculture.gouv.fr Increasing scarcity and cost of fossil fuels and the challenge of reducing CO 2 emissions influence proactive policies promoting renewable energy in Europe. Energy crops are part of the portfolio renewable energy and are providing an evenly and diversified supply of biomass that can be used for heating and power production. The Languedoc-Roussillon faced important changes in agriculture that led to the uprooting of vineyards and liberated land for cultivation. The use of agricultural land to produce energy crops has resulted in various projects implementing production or experimentation plots that are testing cropping systems developed in other climates, under the Mediterranean constraints. Exotic trees and shrubs are used in various soil and climatic conditions, mainly in short or very short rotation coppice in order to find the desired species with high production potential that can withstand the long summer dry period and provide enough biomass to be economically viable despite harsh agronomic conditions. As some plots are already established, it is necessary to propose protocols for monitoring the biology of the exotic species that are used in order to characterize their potential risk to express invasive characters. It might be a good opportunity to establish contacts with the biofuel industry to prepare a better risk mitigation of a new potential source of invasive plants. The Trabzon workshop gives an opportunity to share this new concern for the Mediterranean climate part of France. Introduction Crop-based biofuel production is developing in France, as in many other European countries, in response to increasing scarcity and raising cost of fossil fuels with the aim to reduce CO 2 emissions. Besides traditional crops like rapeseed (Brassica napus var. napus L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) or grain, used for ethanol or bio-diesel production, non-food crops used for cellulose production are also being developed. These are traditional annual crops harvested in whole plant form (such as triticale - ×Triticosecale Wittm. ex A. Camus), conventional forage crops (alfalfa - Medicago sativa L., fescue - Festuca L.), new perennial crops harvested annually (Miscanthus Andersson, switchgrass -Panicum virgatum L., etc.) or short rotation coppices of known woody species (poplar - Populus sp., Eucalyptus sp., etc.). 250 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Table 1- list of trees getting support to farming under the common agricultural policy when used in agricultural land for short rotation coppice, in France Botanical name Status Acer pseudoplatanus Native Alnus glutinosa Native Betula pendula Native Carpinus betulus Native Castanea sativa native or acclimated since the development of agriculture Eucalyptus gunnii and Eucalyptus Exotic gundal (E. gunnii x dalrympleana) Fraxinus excelsior Native Prunus avium Native Populus sp. native or exotic Quercus rubra Exotic Robinia pseudoacacia Exotic Salix sp. mainly native Sequoia sempervirens Exotic Many researches, field trials or development of small to medium scale plantations in relation with energy production companies already take place. Most of these crops are well known or documented as non-invasive. Before 2010, the monitoring of biofuel crop development was not considered as a priority by the French NPPO, in the framework of a still emerging activity related to invasive alien plants risk mitigation. Information gathered in the beginning of 2010 shows that a farmer in the north east of France is planting a cultivar of Reynoutria sacchalinensis (F.Schmidt) Nakai, a plant known for its high invasion capacity5. This kind of cultivation has highlighted the need for a better knowledge of this new activity (LNPV, 2010), in accordance with the EPPO Council recommendation on plants for renewable energy (EPPO, 2007). Potentially invasive plants are not currently regulated in France because they do not qualify as quarantine pests as defined within the European Union quarantine regulation, and because they were not yet evaluated by a national risk assessment system. The organisation of such a system has to be defined between the Ministry in charge of the Environment and the Ministry in charge of Agriculture. The cultivar, called « Igniscum » is promoted as non invasive, but no precise information on the biology of the plant as been found at this time. 5 251 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Many on-going biofuel projects try to assess the acceptance or the relevance of fuel crops from an energy, social, economic or environmental standpoint. A first broad survey on the Internet publication of these projects shows that the environmental aspects mainly focus on CO2 balance or biomass combustion, but have only limited references to biological invasion concern when they deal with exotic species. The presentation of the outcomes of a project called CULIEXA (Nguyen, 2009) in April 2010 in southern France, gave the NPPO the opportunity to make contact with researchers and extension workers in charge of biofuel projects and to get informed about a new project conducted by the "Chambre d'Agriculture de l'Aude". The Mediterranean region in France: climate and soil constraints for biofuel production, but available land and demand for energy The department of Aude is located between the Mediterranean Sea and the Pyrenees mountains, and is a part of the region Languedoc-Roussillon. The department is under the influence of a Mediterranean climate, but has several contrasts in climate: mountainous climate influences due to altitude, oceanic influence with heavier precipitation in the west, while in the east the climate is purely Mediterranean. It is one of the windiest French departments, with 300 to 350 days of wind per year, which promotes installation of many wind turbines and the presence of companies developing decentralised energy production. Wine production is the main agricultural production of the department, and vineyards covered more than 85 000 ha in the beginning of the years 2000 and only more than 72 000 ha in 2008 (Agreste, 2010). The shift of the demand of wine types and the incentives to uproot some of the vineyards, make agricultural land available for other cropping systems. The Chamber of Agriculture has decided to put in place trials of a broad range of perennial plants that could be used for biomass production. Beside woody or cellulosic species that can be burnt, other species, harvested with more leaves and higher water content were chosen in order to be added to waste in biogas production systems. The global aim is to propose plants and sustainable production systems for future biofuel solutions that can fit to strongly Mediterranean influenced climates and farming systems. Seven places were selected in locations representing the diversity of soils and climates of cultivated areas of the department and 30 plants species are or will be planted between the end of 2009 and the end of 2010. The choice of the species (5 annual grasses, 4 perennial grasses and 21 woody shrubs or trees) was made through expert judgment of the extension workers of the chamber, after discussion with the nursery industry and horticulturists. The knowledge of the risk related to the invasive character of some exotic species causing economic and environmental damage was taken into account for some well documented species, like Cortaderia selloana (Schult. & Schult. f.) Asch. & Graebn., which was not selected for the trials, despite of the well appreciated characters of rapid growth and easy propagation. 252 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Table 2 –Initial information gathered from a literature search on the exotic plants selected for the trials Species DAISIE ISI Web of Global Weed Compendium (Present KnowledgeSM Number Status(es) compiled of on the (Number of references/research database) referenc on species name and es in the term invasiv*) GWC Atriplex canescens No 12 agricultural weed, naturalised, 8 weed Atriplex nummularia Yes 3 cultivation escape, naturalised, 11 noxious weed, weed Eucalyptus gunii x No 0 / 0 dalrympleana (gundal clones) Eucalyptus gunnii Yes 36 casual alien, cultivation escape, 4 naturalised Eucalyptus No 17 casual alien, naturalised 2 dalrympleana Gleditsia triacanthos Yes 22 agricultural weed, casual alien, 39 cultivation escape, environmental weed, garden thug, naturalised, noxious weed, weed Panicum virgatum Yes 32 agricultural weed, casual alien, 15 (Switchgrass) naturalised, weed Paulownia tomentosa Yes 16 casual alien, cultivation escape, 20 environmental weed, garden thug, naturalised, noxious weed, sleeper weed, weed Photinia x fraseri No 0 / 0 Photinia glabra No 0 / 0 Photinia serrulata No 0 naturalised, weed 6 Rhus lancea No 1 Robinia pseudoacacia 100 worst 89 IAS Rosa banksiae No agricultural weed, 6 environmental weed, naturalised, noxious weed, weed agricultural weed, casual alien, 19 cultivation escape, environmental weed, garden thug, naturalised, noxious weed, sleeper weed, weed naturalised, weed 2 6 7 0 references on insect gal present on this species reference on Phytophtora present on the species 253 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Monitoring propagule spread and biology of biofuel crops in new cropping system The project provided an opportunity to look at the literature concerning the weedy potential of proposed new biofuel crop species (Buddenhagen 2009, CAST 2007, Crosti 2009, CSIRO 2010), and it was clear that the exotic grasses, shrubs or trees that are proposed for the trials in order to find the desired species with high production potential that can withstand the long summer dry period and provide enough biomass to be economically viable despite harsh conditions might fit the ideotype of an invasive plant. The only species selected for the trial in France that is documented in the ongoing EPPO prioritization process for invasive alien plants in France (Fried, 2010) is Robinia pseudoacacia L., a widely used and promoted exotic tree. Most of the other species are less documented, and their biology in cropping systems for biofuel needs to be better known. Table 2 shows that their might be some concern about the invasive capacity of some of the species planted, but proposing a ban or delay for experimentation would have been neither pragmatic nor acceptable, first of all because the introduction of non-native species for horticultural or agronomic purposes is not regulated in France. As it is promoted by EPPO in horticulture, the involvement of the producers who are growing biofuel crops could be a useful way to prepare a regulation or a code of conduct to restrict the sale and distribution of species and cultivars that pose quantifiable threats to native species and ecosystems. One interesting first step will be to work with the extension services involved in the trials in order to monitor the propagule dissemination and biology of biofuel crops in the new cropping systems that are tested. This has still to be prepared, along with the gathering of available data on the biology of the various species involved. The knowledge already available in other Mediterranean type climates and countries might provide useful insights. Acknowledgments Many thanks to Frédéric Prigent, from the chamber of agriculture de l'Aude, for his welcoming of these additional activities related to his trials, and to Guillaume Fried, from the Laboratoire National de la Protection de Végétaux, for his help for access to scientific databases. References Agreste (2010) Mémento régional Languedoc-Roussillon 2009 – La viticulture http://agreste.agriculture.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf_R9109C04.pdf [accessed on 28 July 2010]. Buddenhagen CE, Chimera C & Clifford P (2009) Assessing Biofuel Crop Invasiveness: A Case Study. PLoS ONE 4(4): e5261. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005261 http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0005261 [accessed on 28 July 2010] The Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) (2007) Biofuel Feedstocks: The Risk of Future Invasions. CAST Commentary QTA 2007-1. CAST, Ames, Iowa http://www.fs.fed.us/ficmnew/documents/notices/Biofuels2007.pdf [accessed on 28 July 2010] Crosti R (2009) Invasiveness of biofuel crops and potential harm to natural habitat and native species,- final version - Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats and native species. Conseil de l'Europe , Strasbourg CSIRO (2010) Biosecurity in the new economy, OCDE Forum, 24 p. http://www.csiro.au/resources/2009-Biosecurity-Symposium-Booklet.html [accessed on 28 July 2010] 254 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world EPPO (2007) Council recommendation on plants for renewable energy and Invasive Alien Plants http://www.eppo.org/STANDARDS/position_papers/bioenergy.htm [accessed on 28 July 2010] Fried G (2010) Prioritization of potential invasive alien species in France, 2nd International Workshop Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World 2010-08-02/06, Trabzon, Turkey (in these proceedings) LNPV (2010) Evaluation du risqué simplifié pour le cultivar Igniscum de la Renouée de Sakhaline, 10 p. N'guyen The N (2009) CULIEXA - Analyse des déterminants techniques et socioéconomiques au développement des cultures de biomasse ligneuse dans les exploitations agricoles http://www.fondation-tuck.fr/pdf/2009/resume1-NGUYEN-THE-Culiexa.pdf [accessed on 28 July 2010] 255 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Managing alien plant invasions: the role of restoration – Insights from South Africa Mirijam Gaertner1, Patricia M. Holmes2 & David M. Richardson1 1 Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa 2 Cape Ecological Services, 23 Dreyersdale Road, Bergvliet, 7945, South Africa Email: gaertnem@sun.ac.za*, rebelo@telkomsa.net, rich@sun.ac.za *corresponding author Invasions can reduce ecosystem resilience - ―the magnitude of disturbance that a system can absorb before it changes to alternative (stable) states‖. If resilience is reduced below a certain threshold the system will change to an alternative state. Alternative ecosystems can shift (often very abruptly) between two or more states and may have dynamics that are fundamentally different from those of pristine ecosystems. The trajectory to recovery will therefore differ in unpredictable ways from a pristine state to a degraded state. If the invaded ecosystem reaches a certain degree of degradation it might shift to a hybrid or even to a novel ecosystem state; depending on the interactions between biotic and abiotic changes triggered by invasive species. Traditional restoration practices have focused on re-establishing ―historic‖ disturbance regimes and biotic and abiotic conditions. However, in view of the significant changes caused by invasive species, new approaches recognize the existence of alternative (stable or transient) ecosystem states. The aim of this paper is to highlight the growing challenges in restoring ecosystems affected by invasive alien plants, to illustrate a framework for restoring ecosystems degraded by invasions adopting concepts of alternative states, thresholds and novel ecosystems, and to identify new questions and research needs for the development of a general framework for restoring ecosystems affected by alien plant invasions. Introduction Restoration is an integral part of managing invasive alien plants. Many restoration projects focus almost exclusively on the removal of species that are considered to have ―degraded‖ an ecosystem in some way. In many cases the removal of alien species is an important element in achieving other goals such as recovery of endangered species or repair of ecosystem function. However, in some cases, invasive species removal has become a goal in itself. Many restoration efforts have succeeded in mitigating negative impacts of invasive species, with important benefits. However, restoration efforts often have unforeseen consequences that sometimes even exacerbate rather than mitigate the ―problem‖ that triggered the restoration effort. Several factors that account for these unforeseen consequences have been identified. Firstly, biological invasions can cause major changes in ecosystem composition, structure and functions. These changes often lead to a decrease in ecosystem resilience. Resilience is defined by ―the magnitude of disturbance that a system can absorb before it changes stable states‖ 256 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world (Gunderson, 2000). The degree of resilience of an ecosystem is an important measure for restoration ecologists as it defines the ability of an ecosystem to return to a state or condition which is still consistent with its former functions and feedbacks (Walker & Salt, 2006). Invasions can reduce the resilience of an ecosystem to a point where restoration to a former state is very difficult or practically impossible. The concept of ecosystem thresholds has been identified as a helpful tool to determine the degree of ecosystem degradation. An ecosystem threshold is the point where the maximum level of species resilience to degradation is reached. In the case of biological invasions, resilience can be reduced through the alteration of biotic factors (e.g. changes of species composition) and/or abiotic changes (e.g. changed nutrient cycles). If biotic changes and abiotic changes occur in concert a two-threshold model (introduced by Hobbs & Norton (1996)) can be adopted. The first threshold is reached when biotic interactions within communities change. This is sometimes followed by a second threshold after a longer timeframe of degradation. This second threshold is harder to reverse and can either be caused by amplified biotic interactions or by abiotic changes or a combination of the two (Suding & Hobbs, 2009). In a later stage of degradation invasives may alter the ecosystem in their own favour, and thus increase the rate of invasions (positive feedback loop). If positive feedback loops occur, a third threshold may be crossed – we therefore refer to the ―three-threshold model‖ of invasions. Changes to ecosystems often persist well after the removal of the invasive species. These so called ‗legacy effects‘ can cause increasing problems for restoration following invasion. Secondly, if the resilience of an ecosystem is reduced below a certain threshold, the ecosystem may shift between alternative stable states. Dynamics of invaded ecosystems (in terms of structure, functions and feedbacks) may consequently be different from those of pristine ecosystems and the trajectory to recovery might differ in unpredictable ways from that of the degradation (Suding et al., 2004). Traditional restoration efforts are based on the assumption that a sudden change in one direction (in this case provoked by alien invasion) can be reversed, and that some form of intervention can direct the system in the opposite direction to the forces of degradation (towards a more natural state) (Suding & Hobbs, 2009). The assumption was that alteration to ecosystems can be predicted, controlled and reversed. The intuitive management recommendation in terms of alien invasions was therefore to reduce the disturbance by clearing the alien species and to re-initiate recovery by sowing seeds of native species. However, these management strategies often failed as ecosystem conditions had already changed beyond thresholds and resulted in alternative states (Firn et al., 2010). Inappropriate management often results in ―secondary invasions‖ - the rapid replacement of the removed invasive species by others that capitalize on the disturbance caused by the control operations and/or resource alteration caused by the invasive species. Thirdly, if the invaded ecosystem reaches a certain degree of degradation it might shift to a hybrid or even novel ecosystem state. According to Hobbs et al. (2009) hybrid ecosystems result if a system experiences some changes (obtaining novel elements) but nevertheless retains original characteristics. For most of the hybrid systems restoration remains feasible. A system which experiences larger changes comprising different novel species combinations, interactions and functions can be defined as novel ecosystem. In a novel ecosystem changes are unlikely to be returned to a previous state because of the presence of restoration thresholds. Another challenge is that invasive species management can also degrade ecosystems and negatively affect native species. In some cases alien species invade by infiltrating ecosystem networks, notably pollination and dispersal networks and food webs, where they forge novel functions. Removal of these alien species can cause trophic collapses. Restoration efforts can also be compromised by conflicts of interest, for example in situations 257 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world where invasive species provide habitat for rare native species. Such examples point to the need for more careful consideration of all implications of planned control and restoration programs. So far challenges in dealing with the restoration of invaded ecosystems have been identified (Zavaleta et al., 2001) and theoretical models engaging with these challenges are in place (e.g. Hobbs, Higgs & Harris, 2009; e.g. Suding & Hobbs, 2009). However, the implementation of these new approaches raises many questions and research needs. Here we (1) highlight challenges in restoring alien invaded ecosystems; (2) using Acacia invasions, we illustrate a framework for restoration of ecosystems degraded by alien invasions adopting concepts of alternative states, thresholds and novel ecosystems; and (3) identify questions and research needs for a framework for restoration after alien invasion. Managing alien plant invasions: challenges and unforeseen consequences Invasions reduce ecosystem resilience Biological invasions are increasing in importance as drivers of degradation, causing many types of impacts in ecosystems (e.g. Levine et al., 2003; e.g. Parker et al., 1999). Some manifest at the level of populations or communities, whereas others, usually at later stages of invasion, may produce impacts at the ecosystem level or even at higher trophic levels. Impacts of alien invaders not only have major implications for biodiversity and ecosystem function, but also greatly complicate restoration efforts by reducing the resilience of ecosystems (Richardson et al., 2007). Reduction in ecosystem resilience due to alien invasions can be triggered by biotic interactions: For example, upon invading an ecosystem, invasive species may initially reduce resilience by changing community composition and structure and/or species diversity. Gooden et al. (2009) showed that Lantana camara L. invasion in New South Wales (Australia) reduced native species richness significantly once a certain threshold was reached: below an abundance of 75% cover of Lantana camara native species richness remained stable, but declined rapidly above this threshold level. Depending on the type of ecosystem invaded and the identity of the invading species, biotic changes can be followed and/or accompanied by abiotic changes (i.e. accumulation of nutrients). Abiotic changes include alterations of nutrient cycles (Marchante et al., 2008; Rossiter-Rachor et al., 2009; Yelenik et al., 2004) and increased water use (Le Maitre et al., 1996), another concern is increased erosion in alien invaded habitats (Reed et al., 2005). Positive feedback loops and alternative ecosystem states The most frequent scenario however, is that alien invasions change biotic and abiotic conditions in concert to create positive feedback loops. Positive feedbacks occur when the ecosystem response is to change a variable even more in the same direction, driving the system away from its original state; eventually resulting in a directional shift to an alternative state (Suding & Hobbs, 2009). Positive feedback loops can be triggered by competitive advantage of invasive species, for example Phalaris arundinacea invasions cause rapid shifts from diverse native vegetation to a Phalaris monotype (Healy & Zedler, 2010). Positive feedback loops initiated by the creation of nutrient cycling patterns that favour the invader have been extensively investigated (Ehrenfeld et al., 2001; Kulmatiski et al., 2008; Liao et al., 2008). For example Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata, an evergreen shrub native to South Africa, causes alterations in nutrient cycling in Australian dune ecosystems in favour for their survival but at the expense of native species (Lindsay & French, 2005). Other invasive species alter ecosystem properties to facilitate the establishment of their seedlings. Siemann and Rogers (2003) showed 258 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world that Chinese tallow trees (Triadica sebifera) established in grasslands in the southern United States can indirectly favour their seedlings in competition with neighbouring herbaceous vegetation through changes in resource levels (through increased soil fertility and reduced light levels). An emerging area of interest is the positive feedback loops that are initiated by altered microbial processes brought about by invasions (Reinhart & Callaway, 2006; Vogelsang & Bever, 2009; Wolfe & Klironomos, 2005). Sanon et al. (2009) investigated positive feedbacks exerted by Amaranthus viridis through alterations of microbial activities (combined with changes in nutrient cycling) in Senegal. The results suggest a significant negative effect on the growth of native Acacia species. A change in fire regime is a positive feedback loop which has been suggested to be the most important cause of large scale ecosystem alterations (Brooks et al., 2004; D'Antonio et al., 2000). Especially invasive grasses create positive feedback loops by increasing fire frequency and altering fire intensity, often changing habitats previously dominated by woody plants into grassland (Rossiter-Rachor et al., 2008; Rossiter et al., 2003). However, invasive species can also reduce fire frequency (e.g. Stevens & Beckage, 2009). Since positive feedback loops frequently forge novel functions; unpredictable responses may occur even after invasive species disappear following control efforts. These so called legacy effects are for example soil-nutrient changes caused by invasive species which often persist after their removal (Marchante et al., 2008; Maron & Jeffries, 2001; Yelenik et al., 2007). This persistence may hamper the restoration of native communities for a long period. Moreover, it has been suggested that symbionts (i.e. mycorrhizal fungi) may have the capacity to survive after eradication of the alien plant and to extend into native ecosystems establishing symbiosis with native species potentially out-competing native symbionts (Diez, 2005). Another critical concern for restoration is that these legacies of invasive species often cause secondary invasions of other weedy species (Zavaleta, Hobbs & Mooney, 2001). Framework for restoration of ecosystems degraded by alien invasions In managing degraded ecosystems we have to accept that (1) ecosystems occur in alternative stable states; and that (2) the dynamics of degradation may differ from that of recovery. The first step in a restoration project is therefore to classify the state of ecosystem degradation (i.e. to determine the probability that an ecosystem will respond to an invasion event in a defined way) and, where appropriate, to identify novel ecosystem dynamics. The second step involves evaluating different restoration strategies. The last step is to decide which type of intervention is appropriate. This decision will not only depend on the degree of degradation of the ecosystem but also on the conservation value of the ecosystem and other practical considerations (e.g. availability of resources). Resilience, alternative states and options for restoration – a case study of Acacia invasion in South Africa As an example, we consider the case of invasions by Australian Acacia species in South Africa‘s Cape Floristic Region (CFR). The CFR is a biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al., 2000) with more than 9000 plant species being found in a relatively small area (ca. 90 000 km2) (Bond & Goldblatt, 1984). Alien invasions pose a serious threat to the region‘s biodiversity, and Australian Acacia species are among the most widespread and damaging invaders. Several species have a huge invasive potential and strong persistence due to the production of massive loads of long-lived seeds (Richardson & Kluge, 2008). Dense invasive stands radically increase 259 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world biomass and change fuel properties and therefore fire behaviour in fynbos ecosystems (van Wilgen & Richardson, 1985). Alien Acacia species also alter the nutrient dynamics of fynbos systems by radically increasing nitrogen levels (Yelenik, Stock & Richardson, 2004). Thus projects focusing on the restoration of Acacia invaded sites encounter a variety of problems. Firstly, soil nutrient changes can persist after the removal of Acacia species and may hamper the restoration of native communities for a long period (Yelenik, Stock & Richardson, 2004). Autogenic recovery following Acacia clearing is therefore considered to be little successful with extensive regeneration of alien species but only a negligible recovery of indigenous species (Reinecke et al., 2008). Secondly, Acacia invasions cause a significant reduction in native seed bank density and richness, it has hence been suggested to include the re-introduction of native species into restoration strategies following Acacia invasions (Holmes & Cowling, 1997). However, the competitive advantage of fast growing Acacia species in combination with changed nutrient levels inhibits the re-establishment of native species. Thirdly, the high longevity of the extensive Acacia seed bank is a major obstacle for its successful control (Richardson & Kluge, 2008). We suggest that restoration of areas invaded by Australian Acacia species could be substantially improved by considering the concepts discussed above. This will involve: 1. Exploring extent to which extent ecosystem resilience has been reduced and whether thresholds have been reached; 2. Defining likely ―alternative‖ states; and 3. Considering different options for restoration. At the early stage of invasion Acacia species may change biotic structural components (e.g. altered native species composition). With increasing duration of invasions these changes in biotic structure result in alterations of biotic functions (i.e. suppression of native species). The dominance of Acacia species and the decrease of native species numbers and abundances will reduce ecosystem resilience. After a certain duration of invasion, a threshold will be reached; beyond this the system will change to an alternative state. Native species composition and structure are changed and the native seed bank may be depleted. This state can be defined as a hybrid state; although biotic components have been altered, the system is still capable of autogenic recovery if the stressors (invasive acacias) are removed, as long as key abiotic components are intact (Figure 1, B). As the invasion duration increases, biotic changes will be accompanied by abiotic structural changes (i.e. shading and accumulation of soil nitrogen). Impacts on the native ecosystem might be increased competition for light or altered soil nitrogen availability. This can lead to further reductions of native species abundances and/or numbers – a second threshold is reached. At this stage native community composition and structure are severely affected and the community will be dominated by Acacia species. We would still refer to this as a hybrid state. Restoration at this stage needs to adopt strategies to reverse the abiotic changes. Until now, restoration strategies have involved mechanical clearing of the invasive plants, burning and sometimes sowing of native species. One problem that has been experienced is the secondary invasion of alien herbaceous species but also a rapid recovery of Acacia species. Following the approach of Firn et al. (2010) other control strategies based on the alternative states model will need to be implemented to successfully reduce Acacia invasions (Figure 1, C). If structural and functional 260 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world changes of biotic and abiotic components cause positive feedback loops (i.e. increased soil nutrient levels lead to enhanced growth of Acacia species) a third threshold will be reached: Acacia species will form monocultural stands suppressing any growth of native species. Positive feedback loops will most likely create thresholds for restoration; in this case the system has shifted to a novel ecosystem. Restoration of a novel ecosystem will be very difficult (although not impossible). Here the high conservation value of the CFR will definitively influence decision making. Whether restoration to a ―natural‖ state is possible or not will obviously depend on available resources. However, management should at least include clearing of the invaded areas to prevent spread to other regions. Crucial, especially with the massive seed producing Acacia species, is the reduction of the soil seed bank. Among other options preventing the accumulation of seed bank by limiting seed production through biological control is by far the most effective strategy reducing seed numbers (Richardson & Kluge, 2008). Because of the high number of rare and endemic species in the CFR restoration to a state as close to natural as possible should be the paramount objective for restoration (Figure 1, D). However, when an ecosystem reaches a novel state such as ‗D‘ (extreme alteration in structure and functions) it is unreasonable to set restoration goals that strive to attain a pristine or near-pristine ecosystem state. Native Low degradation/ recent invasion Hybrid Novel A B C D positive feedbacks High degradation/ long invasion Biotic threshold Abiotic threshold Bioticabiotic feedback threshold Figure 1: Three-threshold model (modified from Whisenant 2002) illustrating the concept of thresholds which indicate break points between alternative ecosystem states: (A) native ecosystem state, no threshold reached (e.g. altered species composition but aboveground vegetation and/or seed banks intact); (B) hybrid ecosystem state, biotic threshold is reached (e.g. altered species composition and structure, seed bank depleted); (C) hybrid ecosystem state abiotic and biotic thresholds are reached (e.g. altered water and nutrient availability); (D) positive feedbacks trigger threshold to be reached (e.g. changed abiotic functions favor the growth of invasive species but causes extinctions of native species). 261 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Evaluation of restoration strategies – which intervention is appropriate in which situation Our example refers to a particular region which is acknowledged as biodiversity hotspot; restoration of the ecosystem to a state as close as possible to historic conditions would usually be first priority. As resilience theory argues that this (restoration to historic conditions) is impossible (due to pervasive human-mediated modifications and effects of climate change etc) an alternative approach is to define a value-based ‗desired state‘ and to deduce the desired ecosystem state from that (Rogers & Bestbier, 1997). (In other situations (e.g. if the conservation importance of the system is not of paramount importance) deciding on the restoration intervention will depend on other considerations such as the functions and services that could potentially be provided by the ecosystem in the future. Although studies on invasions mainly report negative impacts of invasions on the native ecosystem (e.g. Gaertner et al., 2009; Hejda et al., 2009; Yurkonis et al., 2005), invasive species may also have positive impacts, by providing certain ecosystem functions. If invasive species invade on ecosystem long enough they can get integrated into native ecosystem networks providing functions of native species which have been either replaced or even extinct (Affre et al., 2010). In such cases restoration practitioners need to consider whether removal of the invader will largely or even entirely remove a function from that system which has become necessary for other biota (Zavaleta, Hobbs & Mooney, 2001) or (pragmatically) desirable, in terms of the future use of the ecosystem in question. In certain pollinator networks for instance alien plants serve as resources for pollinators where native plants have gone extinct (Graves & Shapiro, 2003; Severns & Warren, 2008). In other cases alien plant species might provide a usable habitat for native species, the most prominent example probably being invasive salt cedar (Tamarix sp.) in riparian ecosystems in the south-western United States (Shafroth et al., 2005). In some situations invaders can even facilitate the growth of native species. Rodriguez (2006) reviewed different mechanisms of facilitation including habitat modification, trophic subsidy, pollination, competitive release, and predatory release. Habitat modification was the most frequently documented mechanism, in other cases invasive species provide a limiting resource, increase habitat complexity, functionally replace a native species, or ameliorate predation or competition. To summarise: In determining appropriate restoration strategies and deciding on a suitable type of intervention one has to consider the degree of ecosystem degradation and the conservation value of the ecosystem. Furthermore, ecosystem services and functions of the degraded ecosystem have to be evaluated and traded against negative impacts of invaders. Last but not least, economical considerations (i.e. prioritisation of investment) also play an important role. To provide a framework for decision making, we categorized the different steps and summarised them in Figure 2. Research needs We present a preliminary outline of a scheme for adopting concepts of alternative ecosystem states, resilience and thresholds, and novel ecosystems into a framework for the restoration of ecosystem degraded by invasive species. We acknowledge and emphasize that our framework can only be regarded as a starting point. For further development of this framework and especially for its implementation we will need to address the following questions: 1. Although studies on impacts (and the underlying mechanisms) of plant invasions are manifold, specific investigations on ecosystem resilience and thresholds are scarce (but see 262 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Gooden et al., 2009). How do we determine the degree of resilience of an ecosystem? Which ecosystem properties will give an indication of its resilience? What are the links between resilience and diversity (or species richness) of an ecosystem? How do we determine whether an ecosystem has reached a threshold and changed from its original state to an alternative state? 2. Although studies by Hobbs et al. (2009) provide some guidelines for the distinction between hybrid and novel ecosystems, the difference between the two types remains somewhat arbitrary. Hobbs et al. (2009) suggest that the classification of an ecosystem as hybrid or novel depends on the trajectory of ecosystem change away from the historic configuration. These trajectories are largely based on whether biotic and abiotic changes occur separately or in concert. In some degraded ecosystem this distinction might be easy to make. However, with alien invasions biotic and abiotic changes are sometimes difficult to separate. 3. If an ecosystem is defined as ―novel‖, the decision on whether to restore or not will often create conflicts of interest between different conservation groups. Here, more information is needed on the adverse effects of destructive invasive species and the positive impacts of some invasive species which may be lost if the invader is removed. 4. The notion of ‗alternative states‘ appears to suffer from different and possibly conflicting interpretations coming from resilience theorists and restoration theorists. A review of the philosophical origins and development of different sets of interpretations will provide a fundamental contribution to an improved understanding of the framework offered here. 5. The framework suggested could provide powerful motivation for investment early detection and rapid response (EDRR). The implications of EDRR for state changes and restoration is therefore an extremely exciting avenue for further study. Native ecosystem degradation Hybrid ecosystem = restoration feasible biotic changes Ecosystem is able to autogenic recovery after invasives have been removed biotic and abiotic changes positive feedback loops occur Determine appropriate restoration strategies based on alternative state model (e.g. Firn et al. 2010) Novel ecosystem= restoration thresholds occur: restoration will only be possible with major input of significant management resources Region of conservation value Region of low conservation value If sufficient resources are available, restore as close as possible to natural state. If resources are insufficient control invasives to avoid further spread. Consider ecosystem services provided by invasives, maximise beneficial changes and reduce less beneficial aspects. Control invasives to avoid further spread. Figure 2: Framework for the restoration of ecosystems degraded by alien invasions (following the concept of novel ecosystems developed by Richard Hobbs et al. (Hobbs et al., 2006; Hobbs, Higgs & Harris, 2009). 263 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Conclusions Restoration ecologists dealing with ecosystems degraded by alien plant invasions are facing a variety of challenges including legacies and secondary invasion after alien species control, unexpected outcomes of control operations and conflicts of interest between different stakeholders. Although new and exciting concepts to tackle these challenges are in place, the implementation thereof is still pending (but see Firn, House & Buckley, 2010; but see Gooden et al., 2009). We suggest that combined efforts of sharing knowledge and conducting research and its implementation between restoration ecologists, resilience ecologists and theorists and invasion biologists could provide answers to open questions and help to control invaders more successfully. References Affre L, Suehs CM, Charpentier S, Vilà M, Brundu G, Lambdon P, Traveset A & Hulme PE (2010) Consistency in the habitat degree of invasion for three invasive plant species across Mediterranean islands. Biological Invasions 12, 2537-48. Bond P & Goldblatt P (1984) Plants of the Cape flora: A descriptive catalogue. South African Journal of Botany 13, 1-13. Brooks ML, D'Antonio CM, Richardson DM, Grace JB, Keeley JE, DiTomaso JM, Hobbs RJ, Pellant M & Pyke D (2004) Effects of invasive alien plants on fire regimes. Bioscience 54, 677-88. D'Antonio CM, Tunison JT & Loh RK (2000) Variation in the impact of exotic grasses on native plant composition in relation to fire across an elevation gradient in Hawaii. Austral Ecology 25, 507-22. Diez J (2005) Invasion biology of Australian ectomycorrhizal fungi introduced with eucalypt plantations into the Iberian Peninsula. Biological Invasions 7, 3-15. 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Holmes PM & Cowling RM (1997) The effects of invasion by Acacia saligna on the guild structure and regeneration capabilities of South African fynbos shrublands. Journal of Applied Ecology 34, 317-32. Kulmatiski A, Beard KH, Stevens JR & Cobbold SM (2008) Plant-soil feedbacks: A meta-analytical review. Ecology Letters 11, 980-92. 264 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Le Maitre DC, VanWilgen BW, Chapman RA & McKelly DH (1996) Invasive plants and water resources in the Western Cape Province, South Africa: Modelling the consequences of a lack of management. Journal of Applied Ecology 33, 161-72. Levine JM, Vila M, D'Antonio CM, Dukes JS, Grigulis K & Lavorel S (2003) Mechanisms underlying the impacts of exotic plant invasions. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 270, 77581. Liao CZ, Peng RH, Luo YQ, Zhou XH, Wu XW, Fang CM, Chen JK & Li B (2008) Altered ecosystem carbon and nitrogen cycles by plant invasion: A meta-analysis. New Phytologist 177, 706-14. Lindsay EA & French K (2005) Litterfall and nitrogen cycling following invasion by Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata in coastal Australia. Journal of Applied Ecology 42, 556-66. Marchante E, Kjoller A, Struwe S & Freitas H (2008) Short- and long-term impacts of Acacia longifolia invasion on the belowground processes of a Mediterranean coastal dune ecosystem. Applied Soil Ecology 40, 210-17. Maron JL & Jeffries RL (2001) Restoring enriched grasslands: Effects of mowing on species richness, productivity, and nitrogen retention. Ecological Applications 11, 1088-100. Myers, N, Mittermeier, R A, Mittermeier, C G, Da Fonseca, G A B & Kent, J (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403, 853-58. Parker IM, Simberloff D, Lonsdale WM, Goodell K, Wonham M, Kareiva PM, Williamson MH, Von Holle B, Moyle PB, Byers JE & Goldwasser L (1999) Impact: Toward a framework for understanding the ecological effects of invaders. Biological Invasions 1, 3-19. Reed HE, Seastedt TR & Blair JM (2005) Ecological consequences of C-4 grass invasion of a C-4 grassland: A dilemma for management. Ecological Applications 15, 1560-69. Reinecke MK, Pigot AL & King JM (2008) Spontaneous succession of riparian fynbos: Is unassisted recovery a viable restoration strategy? South African Journal of Botany 74, 412-20. Reinhart, K O & Callaway, R M (2006) Soil biota and invasive plants. New Phytologist 170, 445-57. Richardson DM, Holmes PM, Esler KJ, Galatowitsch SM, Stromberg JC, Kirkman SP, Pyšek P & Hobbs RJ (2007) Riparian vegetation: Degradation, alien plant invasions, and restoration prospects. Diversity and Distributions 13, 126-39. Richardson DM & Kluge RL (2008) Seed banks of invasive Australian Acacia species in South Africa: Role in invasiveness and options for management. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 10, 16177. Rodriguez LF (2006) Can invasive species facilitate native species? Evidence of how, when, and why these impacts occur. Biological Invasions 8, 927-39. Rogers KH & Bestbier RX (1997). Development of a protocol for the definition of the desired state of riverine systems in South Africa. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, South Africa. Rossiter-Rachor NA, Setterfield SA, Douglas MM, Hutley LB & Cook GD (2008) Andropogon gayanus (Gamba grass) invasion increases fire-mediated nitrogen losses in the tropical savannas of northern Australia. Ecosystems 11, 77-88. Rossiter-Rachor, N A, Setterfield, S A, Douglas, M M, Hutley, L B, Cook, G D & Schmidt, S (2009) Invasive Andropogon gayanus (gamba grass) is an ecosystem transformer of nitrogen relations in Australian savanna. Ecological Applications 19, 1546-60. Rossiter NA, Setterfield SA, Douglas MM & Hutley LB (2003) Testing the grass-fire cycle: Alien grass invasion in the tropical savannas of northern Australia. Diversity and Distributions 9, 169-76. Sanon A, Beguiristain T, Cebron A, Berthelin J, Ndoye I, Leyval C, Sylla S & Duponnois R (2009) Changes in soil diversity and global activities following invasions of the exotic invasive plant, Amaranthus viridis L., decrease the growth of native sahelian Acacia species. Fems Microbiology Ecology 70, 118-31. Severns PM & Warren AD (2008) Selectively eliminating and conserving exotic plants to save an endangered butterfly from local extinction. Animal Conservation 11, 476-83. Shafroth PB, Cleverly JR, Dudley TL, Taylor JP, Van Riper C, Weeks EP & Stuart JN (2005) Control of Tamarix in the Western United States: Implications for water salvage, wildlife use, and riparian restoration. Environmental Management 35, 231-46. Siemann E & Rogers WE (2003) Changes in light and nitrogen availability under pioneer trees may indirectly facilitate tree invasions of grasslands. Journal of Ecology 91, 923-31. Stevens JT & Beckage B (2009) Fire feedbacks facilitate invasion of pine savannas by Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius). New Phytologist 184, 365-75. Suding KN, Gross KL & Houseman GR (2004) Alternative states and positive feedbacks in restoration ecology. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 19, 46-53. 265 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Suding KN & Hobbs RJ (2009) Threshold models in restoration and conservation: A developing framework. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 24, 271-79. van Wilgen BW & Richardson DM (1985) The effects of alien shrub invasions on vegetation structure and fire behaviour in South African fynbos shrublands: A simulation study. Journal of Applied Ecology 22, 955-66. Vogelsang KM & Bever JD (2009) Mycorrhizal densities decline in association with nonnative plants and contribute to plant invasion. Ecology 90, 399-407. Walker BH & Salt D (2006) Resilience thinking: sustaining ecosystem and people in a changing world. Island Press, Washington D.C. Wolfe BE & Klironomos JN (2005) Breaking new ground: Soil communities and exotic plant invasion. Bioscience 55, 477-87. Yelenik SG, Stock WD & Richardson DM (2004) Ecosystem level impacts of invasive Acacia saligna in the South African fynbos. Restoration Ecology 12, 44-51. Yelenik SG, Stock WD & Richardson DM (2007) Functional group identity does not predict invader impacts: Differential effects of nitrogen-fixing exotic plants on ecosystem function. Biological Invasions 9, 117-25. Yurkonis KA, Meiners SJ & Wachholder BE (2005) Invasion impacts diversity through altered community dynamics. Journal of Ecology 93, 1053-61. Zavaleta ES, Hobbs RJ & Mooney HA (2001) Viewing invasive species removal in a whole-ecosystem context. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16, 454-59. 266 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world A large-scale project of invasive plant coenosis control in Mediterranean sand coastal area: two case studies and a model to standardize the management criteria Antonio Perfetti Regional Park of Migliarino San Rossore Massaciuccoli, Manager of Nature Conservation Service, Palazzo degli Stalloni, Cascine Vecchie di San Rossore, I-56122 PISA, Italy. E-mail: a.perfetti@sanrossore.toscana.it Psammophilic coastal ecosystems are extremely limited in nature. In addition, they are also very selective for the species that live there. For these reasons the control of invasive alien plant communities gives a good opportunity to consider effectiveness on a larger scale area in respect to a cost-benefit framework. In this paper I analyze two case studies that concern 8 km of coastline and 80 ha of psammophilic vegetation. In this area there is a rich mosaic of phytocoenosis (13 habitats of conservation interest according to Habitat Directive definitions) where the Regional Park has carried out a complex restoration project with the control of 6 ha of alien coenosis of Amorpha fruticosa in the inter-dune wet habitat and the control of over 280 patches of Yucca gloriosa scattered in the dune xeric habitat. A monitoring program before and post intervention clearly shows the changes with respect to the hydrogeological and biological environment. Finally, I discuss ecosystem benefits from a local and a strategic view and analyze the technique and the financial constraints to model and understand the key parameters and criteria to reduce errors and enhance effectiveness when planning this kind of interventions. 267 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Three tools to manage alien weeds in Swiss agricultural and non agricultural environments – a proposal Christian Bohren Research Station Agroscope Changins-Wädenswil ACW, route de Duillier, CH- 1260 Nyon, Switzerland, E-mail: christian.bohren@acw.admin.ch Information on alien weed species interfering in agricultural and non agricultural zones is manifold, but is always directed to a certain objective, with a certain background. Many leaflets on weeds might appear incomplete to the reader. General guidelines are needed to concentrate financial and human resources for invasive alien species. Three elements – a collection of weak point sheets for noxious native and invasive alien weed species, a list of costs for control methods and a list of restrictions for use of control methods in environmental zones, the latter adapted to a country – would allow any civil servant in any region to choose adequate control methods. Practical tools on the control of invasive and other noxious plant species are proposed. The first tool consists in a sheet per plant containing an exact description of the weak points in the life cycle of the species. A collection of sheets would address all species relevant for a certain region or country. The second tool is a list containing details on costs of machines, labour and additional efforts for control methods. This must be adapted to each country situation, and it must be updated regularly. The third tool is a list containing detailed information on restrictions – adapted to a region or country – for the use of herbicides or other control methods in all existing zones such as water surface, water lines, forest, traffic lines, public and private green, agricultural, horticultural, industrial and residential zones, unproductive zones in mountain areas and others. Introduction Men have been trading products since the beginning of civilisation. Weed seeds as contaminants in cereal grains have been displaced from the Middle East to Europe since the earliest beginning of cereal production. Farmers have been controlling native weeds in native crops – as well as alien (exotic) weeds in newly invented crops – since the beginnings of agriculture. Weeds have always been able to accommodate themselves to new crops and to new cropping techniques (Zwerger & Ammon, 2002). Plant invasions depend always on the life-form of the species, as well as on the type of land use and last but not least on the climate of the affected region (Hulme, 2009). Moreover the enemy release hypothesis (Elton, 1958) is based on the observation that invasive alien plants do intend to profit from reduced enemy (herbivore, fungal or viral pathogens) damage, as compared with the same species in its native range; species may possess traits that make them pre-adapted for invasion (Müller-Schärer & Schaffner, 2008). It is very difficult to predict the invasiveness of an exotic plant species. This impracticality to predict plant invasions often hampers a timely start 268 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world of control measures. Information exchange is a key component for effective responses to biological invasions (Browne et al., 2009). Invasions are often detected only after the invader might be newly established. Therefore a complete eradication of an invasive plant species might be very difficult to impossible (Weber, 2003). Control methods must aim at minimizing the impacts of an invader. Effective control strategies must be developed to minimize the spread and impact of invasive alien species (CBD, 2011). Costs of control of invasive alien plants might be covered in most cases by public funds. Once control measures against a certain plant species have been initiated, a long term expenditure of money is foreseeable. Annual invasives cannot be controlled effectively in one year because of the seed bank in the soil; any short term control of perennials cannot be effective because of their strong reproductive ability. Time of reaction is an important factor increasing control costs. Public funding is always subject to political decisions; but for taking decisions politicians need to understand quickly the problem. Weed science must elaborate specific control information in the view of timely decisions. In addition, research is needed on the success of control methods. The objectives of this review are to present the actual situation of invasive alien plants in Swiss agriculture. Based on these experiences some conclusions are drawn in order to improve tools for a rapid response to plant invasions. Examples of species In Switzerland, 3 species are currently subject to intensive discussions and are abundant in agricultural areas: Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Solidago Canadensis and Cyperus esculentus (Bohren et al., 2008). Ambrosia artemisiifolia: This annual weed invades residential zones as well as agricultural zones. Several nationwide information campaigns informed the public on the highly allergenic pollen of the species via television, radio and newspapers. Around 12 % of the population is sensible to A. artemissifolia pollen and therefore concerned with the prevention of the species. An obligation to control A. artemisiifolia and to announce new findings of the species is legally anchored in the Swiss ordinance on plant protection (Bohren, 2006). Farmers and the general public need to know to recognize the weed and the possibilities to control it. Medical, ecological and agricultural specialists push continuously on effective control measures. A. artemisiifolia can be considered under control. Solidago canadensis: Solidago species are commonly used as ornamental plants. The available are the result of breeding and selection programs. The plants are long-lived and adaptable. The flowers vary in shade of yellow depending on cultivar and bloom in late summer or fall. Solidago is propagated by rhizomes and seeds. In Switzerland Solidago often invades roadsides as well as railways and abandoned construction areas (CPS-SKEW, 2011). The intensive yellow colour of the magnificent flowers is not associated with the danger of an 269 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world invasive plant. The general public may not be easily convinced why this plant must be contained. Solidago invades wild flower strips which have been established on agricultural fields in the scope of the ecological compensation system (Bohren, 2010). The invasion of Solidago is going on. Cyperus esculentus is an aggressive perennial neophyte creating problems in vegetable and arable crops. It can be effectively managed with a consistent integrated control program that combines cultural, mechanical and chemical methods. It is troublesome in intensive vegetable production. In private gardening or public greens C. esculentus is neither troublesome nor well known. Actually C. esculentus only affects farmers; the number of populations has increased in the last couple of years. No public interest exists while it is necessary to control this neophyte. Cantonal agricultural services are busy advising farmers on how to control Cyperus (Strickhof, 2011). Legal aspects The Swiss Commission for Wild Plant Conservation (CPS/SKEW) has elaborated factsheets on alien plants containing non legally-binding guidelines to control these species. The Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) has amended the Release Ordinance (RO 814.911) with a list of Prohibited Invasive Alien Organisms containing 11 alien plants. Handling of these plants is forbidden; but there is no direct mandate to control these species. The cantons may decide to amend cantonal law for official control of invasive alien plants. In 2006 the Federal Office for Agriculture (FOA) has amended the Ordinance on Plant Protection (PSV 916.20) and declared A. artemisiifolia subject to official control (Bund, 2010), which forces farmers to control it. Cantonal agricultural advisory services are responsible to manage A. artemisiifolia in agricultural zones, but so far there is no federal legal base for the control of the other species listed. Needs There is lack of basic information on control know-how. For better understanding of control measures the weak points in the life cycle of a plant need to be identified. The weak points should always be the angle of attack of control measures. Politicians need facts to understand why rapid response is necessary and how it could be afforded. Practical users need facts in order to respond rapidly. Financial and human resources need to be invested usefully in recognized problems. Practical tools on rapid response to plant invasions especially in non agricultural areas are needed, and not only in Switzerland. Simple tools should enable authorities and politicians to create legally based guidelines for the control of invasive plants. Research is needed on the long term efficiency of control measures. Three Tools Alien Plants Weak point-factsheets: A proposal is to establish a one page sheet per species containing an exact description of its life cycle and its point of attack for efficient control ―weak point‖. Some general information on control measures might be simply described, such as uprooting, cutting, herbicide application, use of biological control agents and others. Basic information that will not be subject to changes in the future must be given. Consequences of 270 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world incomplete control and reasons for failure of control measures should also be mentioned in the sheet. Then, the necessity of effective control measures and of post-treatments should be mentioned. Two examples are provided in tables 1 and 2. A collection of sheets would represent all species relevant for a certain region or country. Control Methods Expenses-list: The collection of sheets needs to be accompanied by a list containing details on costs of machines, labour and additional efforts to control the plant. This list would enable the user to estimate roughly the costs for control measures. The Swiss research station Agroscope ART publishes periodically a list of almost all costs relevant to the Swiss agriculture (Gazzarin et al., 2010). This list could be adapted to the needs of invasive plants control and be updated annually. Control Methods Restrictions-list: A second list needs to be established, containing detailed information on restrictions (adapted to a region or country) for the use of herbicides or other control methods in all existing zones, such as water surface, water lines, forest, traffic lines, public and private green, agricultural, horticultural, industrial and residential zones, unproductive zones in mountain areas and others. This list must be updated as need arises. Table 1: Example of text in a Weak point-factsheet for Fallopia japonica Weak point (point of attack for efficient control): Fallopia species multiply by small buds placed on the root system; 1 bud per 2 cm root length. Cut stem lying on wet and fertile ground produce roots and sprout; 1 bud per 15 cm Control method mechanical biological excavating* ground (m3) and cleaning* / disposal* of and excavated material Sequence of cutting* in Purchase* and release* late spring and herbicide treatment* in early autumn of control agents* and as well as disposal of plant disposal* of plant material material* (compost) Uprooting* is not recommended because not all roots can be uprooted Cutting* solely is not recommended because of A combination of unsufficient efficacy; biological control methods herbicide treatment* with mechanical / chemical underlies various restrictions methods is recommended for environmental reasons Questions comments What is the most effective control method? Efficacy of control Reasons for is reduced if pieces failure of control of roots remain in method? the ground What type post-treatment necessary? mechanical / chemical of is Efficacy of control may be reduced by surviving plants (e.g. fast re-growth after cutting or insufficient herbicidal efficacy) Efficacy of control may be reduced by surviving plants (e.g. in case of unsufficient number of control agents) Efficiency control in the following year is always necessary; sequential control measures may be necessary *= see control method expenses list 271 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Table 2: Example of text in a Weak point-factsheet for Ambrosia artemisiifolia Weak point: Ambrosia survives winter The plant must be destroyed before flowering and seed production. Control method mechanical Mowing* with mower* or scythe* and or trimmer* Questions comments What is the most Uprooting by effective control hand* effective in method? small stands; Comments: deposit* of plant material mechanical / chemical as seed biological Purchase* Mowing* treatment* only. and and herbicide release* of control agents* (at present not available) Mowing* solely is not A combination of recommended because of biological control unsufficient control; methods with Herbicide treatment* solely is not mechanical / chemical recommended because of methods is ecological impact; combination of recommended methods is recommended Reasons for failure The treated plant re-sprouts in case of incomplete control success and forms – even of control method? in reduced quantities – pollen and grains What type of afterEfficiency control in the following year is always necessary; sequential control treatment is measures may be necessary necessary? Conclusions Public authorities should provide a legal base for an effective control by promoting rapid response to newly invading plants; established invaders must be controlled where they cause damage to landowners. A weak point-factsheet should simply answer questions regarding prevention of species such as: which part of the plant needs to be destroyed; which type of propagules needs to be found and destroyed; how must the plant material removed be treated. Reasons for failure of control methods must be mentioned, and the type of post-treatment must be commented. All these data must be formulated so that the information cannot be outdated. Those types of fact sheets could be translated and used in other countries. The described three elements – a collection of weak point sheets for noxious native and exotic weed species, a detailed list of costs for control methods and a detailed list of restrictions for the use of control methods in environmental zones, both adapted to a country or region – would allow any civil servant to choose adequate control methods. It may be helpful for a rapid response to a plant invasion to know early enough which part of the plant need to be eliminated in order to break down the invasion. This information concept could work in every region or country. The Working Group on Invasive Plants of the European Weed Research Society (EWRS www.ewrs.org ) would provide a good network and a platform to elaborate the proposed type of weak-point factsheet and to distribute it. Local advisory services would elaborate and update an expenses-list. Local authorities would elaborate and update a restrictions-list. 272 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world References Bohren C (2006) Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. – in Switzerland: concerted action to prevent further spreading. Nachrichtenblatt des deutschen Pflanzenschutzdienstes 58, 304-308. Bohren C, Delabays N & Rometsch S (2008) Invasive Pflanzen: Herausforderung für die Landwirtschaft? Agrarforschung 15, 314-319 (in German). Bohren C (2010) Exotic weeds contamination in Swiss agriculture and non agriculture environment – a review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development http://www.springerlink.com/content/w310264466h72kln/fulltext.pdf (accessed on 10 June 2011). Browne M, Pagad S & De Poorter M (2009) The crucial role of information exchange and research for effective responses to biological invasions. Weed Research 49, 6-18. Bund (2010) Ordinance of Plant Protection, SR 916.20, AS 2006/2531. Classified Compilation of Federal Legislation, Bern (CH). CBD (2011) Convention on Biological Diversity. COP 6 Decision VI/23. http://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/?id=7197 (accessed on 10 June 2011). CPS-SKEW (2011) Commission suisse pour la conservation des plantes sauvages. http://www.cpsskew.ch/fileadmin/template/pdf/inva_deutsch/inva_soli_can_d.pdf (accessed on 10 June 2011) (in German and French). Elton CS (1958) The ecology of invasionsby animals and plants. Methuen, London (UK). Gazzarin C & Vögeli GA (2010) Maschinenkosten 2009/2010 ART Bericht 717, http://www.agroscope.admin.ch/data/publikationen/ART_Bericht_717_D.pdf (accessed on 10 June 2011) (in German). Hulme PE (2009) Relative roles of life-form, land use and climate dynamics of alien plant distributions in the British Isles. Weed Research 49, 19-28. Müller-Schärer H & Schaffner U (2008) Classical biological control: exploiting enemy escape to manage plant invasions. Biological Invasions 10, 859-874. Strickhof (2011) www.strickhof.ch (accessed on 10 June 2011). Weber E (2003) Invasive plant species of the world: a reference guide to environmental weeds. CABI Publishing, Cambridge (UK). Weber E, Köhler B, Gelpke G & Perrenoud A (2005) Schlüssel zur Einteilung von Neophyten in der Schweiz in die schwarze Liste oder die Watch-Liste. Botanica Helvetica 115, 169-194. Zwerger P & Ammon HU (2002) Unkraut – Ökologie und Bekämpfung. Eugen UlmerVerlag Stuttgart (DE) (in German). 273 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Biology and Control of Heterotheca subaxillaris (Camphor weed) in Israel Mildred Quaye1, Tuvia Yaacoby1,2 and Baruch Rubin1 1 The Robert H. Smith Faculty of agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 76110 Israel, E-mail: mildyq@yahoo.com 2 Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Plant Protection and Inspection Services, P. O. Box 78 Bet Dagan 50250 Israel Heterotheca subaxillaris (camphor weed) a dicotyledonous winter annual weed of the Asteraceae family, is a native to North America. The plant invaded Israel during the last 20 years occupying a wide range of habitats, rapidly infesting cultivated and non cultivated ecosystems such as orchards, nature resorts, range land, open fields, waste grounds, road sides and railroad embankments. We found that optimum germination occurs at 28/22þC (day/night) in both light and dark conditions, but high germination rate were recorded even at 34/28þC. Highest emergence (88%) was recorded when seeds were sown at a shallow depth (0-1cm) in sandy soil. However, less than half of the seeds emerged from the shallow depth (0-1cm) in the heavy (clay) soil while no seedlings emerged from deeper layers. H. subaxillaris is very sensitive to herbicides commonly applied in road sides and non-cultivated areas such as atrazine, diuron, sulfometuron and imazapyr at their appropriate recommended rates. In addition, trifloxysufuron, imazapyr and fluroxypyr applied post-emergence effectively controlled young seedlings (4-6 leaves stage), whereas paraquat + diquat, glyphosate and fomesafen were less effective as the injured plants recovered few weeks after treatment. No control of H subaxillaris was observed even when oxyfluorfen was applied post-emergence at the highest dosage (960g ai/ha). Our results indicate that H. subaxillaris can be managed with the existing pre- and some of the post- emergence herbicides as other cultural methods (mulching and tillage). Introduction Heterotheca subaxillaris (Lam.) Britton & Rusby (Camphor weed) is a dicotyledonous winter annual herb belonging to the Asteraceae family; it reproduces by seed and thrives well in sandy and disturbed soils (Baskin & Baskin, 1976). H. subaxillaris possesses a tap root system, grows to an average height of about 0.3 - 1.8 m and branches profusely near the ground. Depending on the time of germination and winter conditions, it may behave as a biennial weed (Awang & Monaco, 1978). The leaves having toothed margins are alternatively arranged along the hairy stem and contain characteristic camphor-like odor when crushed, giving the plant its vernacular name ‗camphor weed‘. H. subaxillaris is a self-incompatible species (Olsen, 1997), developing flower buds in summer and blooming during midsummer and fall. The plant produces two kinds of seed/achenes either from the ray (ligulate) or the disc (tubular) flower, and exhibits different size and germination characteristics (Baskin & Baskin 1976). The seeds produced from the ligulate flowers are dormant upon maturity, they do not germinate when dispersed as they undergo physiological after-ripening processes and may germinate only at high temperatures and 274 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world under light conditions. The seeds developed from the tubular flower heads are not dormant when mature they germinate shortly after their dispersal in both light and dark conditions and under a wide range of temperatures. These characteristics exhibited by the seeds (germination dimorphism) serves as a survival mechanism for the species to have more than one chance of establishment in any particular habitat (Harper, 1965; Datta et al., 1970; Unger, 1971; Baskin & Baskin, 1988). Camphor weed, is an invasive alien species considered to be a native to North America (Grin, 2000;) growing throughout the year in Israel and rapidly covering cultivated and non-cultivated land areas including orchards, open areas, range land, waste places, highways and railroad embankments (Yaacoby, 1998). H. subaxillaris competes with crops for space and nutrients and makes farming activities difficult. It possesses strong allelopathic properties that inhibit growth of other plants species by making the plant persistent in different habitats. Despite the invasive nature and rapid dispersal of its seeds, there has not been much recent account in literature concerning the biology, life cycle and methods for controlling this weed. This paper is therefore aimed at studying the biology and control of H. subaxillaris. Materials and Methods Seeds of H. subaxillaris were collected from an open field in Rehovot on January 2009, and were cleaned by removing hair attached and other foreign material that might interfere with the germination process. Germination at constant and varying day/night temperatures In order to study the germination characteristics of H. subaxillaris with respect to the various growth conditions, four replicates of 20 seeds, each in light and dark conditions were sown in 9 cm diameter Petri dishes lined with 2 layers of Whatman No 1 filter paper moistened with 4 ml of distilled water. For seeds to be germinated in the dark, the Petri dishes were wrapped with aluminum foil to prevent light penetration. The Petri dishes both covered and uncovered were then kept in the laboratory (25 þC) or in the various growth rooms (at the temperatures of 34/28þC; 28/22þC; 22/16þC and 16/10þC) in the phytotron for 7 days and the daily number of germinated seed was recorded. Germination was determined by the protrusion of the radicle through the pericap as described by Sung et al., (2008). Another experiment was conducted in order to determine the contribution of ray and disc seeds to the proliferation of the weed species by sowing 20 seeds each of ray and disc types in four replicates under light and dark at 25 þC for 7 days. To determine the influence of the soil types and depths on the germination and emergence of H. subaxillaris, twenty seeds were sown at 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 cm depths in both light (100% sand of Rehovot soil) and heavy (48.1% clay of Naan soil) soils in separate experiments. The experiments were terminated 8 WAT (weeks after treatment) when there were no further seedlings emergence. Emerged seedlings were counted and recorded. 275 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Pre and post emergence Herbicide treatments In these experiments we accessed the efficacy of the various pre and post-emergent herbicides on H. subixillaris. Commercial formulations of atrazine, diuron, oxyflourfen, fluridone, sulfometuron, and imazapyr which were to be applied at the following recommended rates 1000 g ai/ha, 800 g ai/ha, 480 g ai/ha, 500 g ai/ha, 37.5 g ai/ha and 500 g ai/ha respectively were applied pre-emergence onto the soil surface of pots (7x7x8 cm containing 5 seeds each) using a chain driven sprayer at the these rates: atrazine (0, 500, 1000 and 2000 g ai/ha); diuron (0, 800 , 1600 and 3200 g ai/ha); oxyfluorfen (0, 240, 480 and 960 g ai/ha); fluridone (0, 250, 500, and 1000 g ai/ha); sulfometuron (0, 7.5, 37.5 , 150 g ai/ha) and imazapyr (0, 250, 500 and 1000 g ai/ha). A non-treated control (NTC) treatment was included in each herbicide. The treatments were done on the same day and kept under similar conditions in the screen house. Commercial formulations of glyphosate(480g ai/ha) oxyfluorfen(480g ai ha), paraquat + diquat(400g ai/ha), trifloxysufuron (7.5g ai/ha), fomesafen (625g ai/ha), imazapyr (500g ai/ha) and fluroxypyr (200g ai/ha) at the above recommended rates were applied post-emergence using a chain driven sprayer delivering 300L/ha to 4-6 leaves plants grown in pots as described above. These herbicides were applied at the following rates: glyphosate (0, 480 , 960 and 1920 g ai/ha); oxyfluorfen (0, 240, 480 and 960 g ai/ha); paraquat + diquat (0, 200, 400 and 1000g ai/ha); trifloxysufuron (0, 7.5, 15 and 30 g ai/ha); fomesafen (0, 250, 625 and 1250 g ai/ha); imazapyr (0, 250, 500 and 1000 g ai/ha) and fluroxypyr (0, 200 , 400 and 600 g ai/ha). Rate of damage was scored every other day after the treatment (DAT). The experiments were terminated 30 DAT and seedlings shoot weights were recorded. A non treated control (NTC) treatment was included in each herbicide. Statistical analysis Data were analyzed using the "Sigma Plot" software and Micro Soft Excel. The concentration of herbicides that inhibited 50% of weed growth (ED 50) was calculated from the dose response equation. Fig. 1: Germination rate of unsorted (A) and sorted (B) seeds of H. subaxillaris exposed to light or dark at 25þC for 7 days. The data represent means ± SE of 4 replicates. 276 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Results Effect of constant or varying day/night temperatures on the germination of camphor weed Initial germination test conducted with unsorted and sorted seeds of H. subaxillaris showed a maximum germination percentages when seeds were sown in both light and dark at 25þC (Fig. 1A). 80 and 70% of the disc seeds germinated in light and dark respectively, however, only 10% of the ray seeds germinated in light while no germination occurred in dark. High germination rates were recorded in all temperature regimes tested (34/28 þC; 28/22 þC; 22/16 þC; and 16/10 þC) 7 DAT. Germination rates of 65% and 63% were observed during the second day at 28/22þC and 22/16þC respectively with seeds exposed to light (Fig. 2A). The rates increased till the fourth day when then no further germination was recorded. Similarly, high germination rates were recorded in the dark too, during the period of the second to the fifth days (Fig. 2B). Fig. 2: Germination rates of H. subaxillaris seeds in light (A) and dark (B) at varying day/night temperatures during 7 days. The data represent means ± SE of 4 replicates. We studied the effects of the various soil types and depths of sow on seedling emergence of camphor weed. In the sandy soil, 88% of the seedlings emerged from the shallow depth (0-1cm), 29% from 2-3 cm depth and no emergence was observed from deeper treatments (4-5 and 6-7 cm). (Fig 3 A). Fewer seedlings (45%) emerged at the shallow depth (0-1cm) in the clay soil and no seedling emerged when sown at 2-3; 4-5 and 6-7 cm depths (Fig. 3B). Effects of Pre and post emergence herbicide applications All herbicides applied pre-emergence reduced emergence rates and seedling growth of the weed. A rate of 898 g ai/ha of diuron reduced 50% of the seed germination and seedling growth, as well as 1.5 g ai/ha of sulfometuron (Fig. 4A). At twice the recommended rate (page 3) 277 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world atrazine, oxyfluorfen and fluridone reduced seedlings Fresh weight of the weed by 100%. All herbicides applied post-emergence reduced more than 50% of the seedlings fresh weight, except oxyfluorfen which did not control the weed even when applied at a highest dosage (960 g ai/ha) (Fig. 4B). The different rates of injury observed at various intervals after treatment (DAT) show that paraquat + diquat reduced 90% of the weed growth at 3 DAT however, the plant recovered afterwards. (Fig. 5). Fig. 3: Influence of soil type and sowing depths on the emergence of H. subaxillaris seedlings in sandy (A) clay (B) soils. 120 120 Fresh shoot weight (% control) 80 60 40 Atrazine Diuron Oxyfluorfen Fluridone Sulfometuron Imazapyr 20 0 0.1 1 B 100 Fresh shoot weight (% control) A 100 80 60 40 Glyphosate Oxyfluorfen Paraquat +Diquat Trifloxysufuron Fomesafen Imazapyr Fluroxypyr 20 0 10 100 Herbicide rate( g ai/ha) 1000 10000 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 Herbicibe rate (g ai/ha) Fig. 4: Response of H. subaxillaris to various herbicides applied pre- (A) and post- (B) emergence at different rates. Discussion Our results shows that germination rates of 86% and 82% were recorded for one week old seeds exposed to 25þC under light and dark conditions respectively (Fig. 1A). Such high germination rates may be an indication of a higher germinability of seeds shortly after dispersal. A lower (10%) germination rate was recorded for ray seeds (Fig 1B). This result is consistent with Baskin & Baskin (1988) who concluded that ray seeds are dormant upon maturity, and hence will not germinate when dispersed. The optimal rate of germination was recorded at any day/night temperatures (34/28 þC; 28/22 þC; 22/16 þC; and 16/10 þC) between 2 and 4 days in both light 278 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world and dark conditions. (Fig. 2A and 2B). The high germination rate in the very first days of seed dispersal could account for the tremendous increase in population size of the weed in any location within a short time after its establishment. This high germination rate in the first days of dispersal could also mean a higher growth rate that provides the weed an advantage over other weed species within the same location. This result conformed to Baskin & Baskin (1988) who reported rapid germination of the weed seeds shortly after dispersal. 100 Day 3 Control (%) 80 60 Day 6 40 Day 9 20 Day 12 0 Herbicides Fig 5. Estimated injury rate of H. subixillaris seedlings scored 3 to 21 DAT with various herbicides. The wide range of alternating day/night temperatures at which the seeds germinated in this experiment suggests that H. subaxillaris growth and development could be favoured in both warm and cold seasons. According to Awang & Monaco (1978), germination of H. subaxillaris occurs over a wide range of temperatures starting as low as 3þC, but this applies to disc achenes only, whereas ray achenes will only germinate under high temperatures. This may also explain the reason of persistent and continuous growth of the weed throughout the year in Israel. For most agricultural weed species, germination is initiated by seeds exposure to light. This however, varies from species to species as some will only germinate when exposed to light, while others will germinate in both light and dark conditions. Our results show an appreciable germination rate when seeds were exposed to both light and dark (Fig. 1A and B, 2A and B). A number of seeds germinate in the dark indicating that H. subaxillaris seeds will germinate even when the soil surface is covered with mulching material, or when seeds are buried into a shallow depth of soil. Although seeds germinated in the dark, the seedlings were weak and etiolated and hence might not develop healthy and competitive mature plants if compared to the plants emerged in light. Mulching therefore may help in managing this weed. Burial depths and soil types did affect the emergence of the seedlings in our experiment (Fig. 3 A and B). As burial depth increase, the number of emerged seedlings decreased. An emergence percentage of 88% was recorded when seeds were sown at 0-1cm depth, 29% emerged at 2-3 cm depth, while no emergence was recorded at 4-5 and 6-7 cm depths in the sandy soil. In clay soil, 279 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world only 45% of seedlings emergence was found at the shallow depth (0-1cm), and no emergence was recorded when the sowing depth increased. Zhang & Maun (1994), concluded that emergence of seedling is directly related to the seed size and the depth at which seeds are buried. Excessive burial may prevent seedlings emergence and survival (Hue & Maun, 1999). These statements are true for the present findings as H. subaxillaris inability to emerge from a deeper depth might be due to its small seed size. A bigger seed means more energy reserve and hence greater vigor and higher chance for the seedlings to emerge from deeper depths (Waller, 1985). Table 1: ED50 (rate that caused 50% growth inhibition) values of different herbicides and their modes of action on H. subaxillaris. Herbicides Glyphosate ED50 (g ai/ha) 537 Mode of action Inhibition of EPSP enzyme Paraquat +diquat 162 Inhibition of PSI Trifloxysufuron 14 Inhibition of ALS enzyme Fomesafen 368 Inhibition of Protox enzyme Imazapyr 183 Inhibition of ALS enzyme Fluroxypyr 398 Disruption of plant cell growth Diuron 898 Inhibition of PSII Sulfometuron 1.5 Inhibition of ALS enzyme Imazapyr emergence) (pre- 411 Inhibition of ALS enzyme Similarly, lower emergence (45%) in the heavy soil (clay) even at the shallow depth may be attributed to the seed size which is unable to penetrate through the soils layers, due to the compactness of the soil. The non germinated seeds may also be those formed from the ray flowers that might be dormant at the time of sowing, and may germinate only after-ripening. Our results suggest that cultivating the soil to a minimum of 4 cm depth will reduce emergence of the weed seedlings and improve the management of H. subaxillaris. All herbicides applied pre- or post-emergence reduced the plant growth (seedlings fresh weight) more than 50%, except for oxyfluorfen which when applied post-emergence was inferior and reduced fresh weight by 32% only, but inhibited more than 50% of seed germination when applied pre-emergence (Fig 4, and 5 ). The mechanism by which the young weeds resisted the herbicide effect is not yet known. However, it could be due to poor retention and poor penetration of the herbicide applied post-emergence due to leaf surface (hairy) or texture (epicuticule thickness). Herbicide detoxification by unknown enzymes could be an option as 280 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world well. In order to overcome this phenomenon, a surfactant and/or synergist should be added to the herbicide in order to increase the retention on and the penetration into the leaves. Oxyfluorfen may suppress seed germination and seedling growth when apply onto the soil prior to crop emergence since in this study, the pre-emergence treatment using oxyfluorfen controlled the weed. Different rates (g ai/ha) at which the various herbicides reduced 50% of the weed growth could be related to their different modes of actions. Sulfometuron at the rate of 1.5 g ai/ha reduced the weed growth by 50%, while diuron needs approximately 900 g ai/ha for such reduction (Table 1). The mixture of paraquat + diquat acts rapidly and reduced 90% of the fresh seedling weight within 3 DAT. However, the plant recovered and the weed control decreased to 80% at 15, 18 and 21 DAT (Fig. 5). Since paraquat and diquat translocation is limited in the plant (described as contact herbicides by Mosier et al., 1990), the herbicide will be effective only when applied to immature weed leaf surface, and when the whole foliage is covered with the chemical in order to induce the necessary injury to the weed. Conclusions The ability of H. subaxillaris seeds to germinate in both light and dark conditions suggests that application of mulching materials will have less influence on the seed germination; however, dark will result in weak seedlings that might not develop into healthy plants. The germination of seeds in both cold and warm temperatures may explain the invasive nature of the weed and its wide spread and survival in different environmental conditions. Failure of ray seeds to germinate shortly after dispersal may increase the weed seed bank in the soil and seed longevity. Increased depth of sowing to a minimum of 4 cm will inhibit emergence of the weed seedlings. Cultivating the land prior to crop sowing will bury newly dispersed seeds deep into the soil, thereby inhibiting their emergence ability. Sulfometuron and diuron were effective in controlling seed germination and seedling growth when applied pre-emergence at 1.5 and 898 g ai/ha, respectively. Similarly, glyphosate, a mixture of paraquat + diquat, imazapyr, fluroxypyr, trifloxysufuron, and fomesafen, applied post emergence reduced weed growth by more than 50%. In order to avoid/prevent recovery of treated weeds species, addition of adjuvant that might improve the retention on the leaf surface or/and increase the penetration into the leaf tissue might enhance the efficacy of the herbicides. Our experiments have shown that oxyfluorfen was effective when applied pre-emergence but cannot control the emerged weed seedlings. The mechanism for the weed resistance is not yet known, indicating the need for more research to understand the mechanism exploited by the weed to escape from oxyfluorfen effect and develop ways to manage it. References Awang MB & Monaco TJ (1978) Germination, growth, development, and control of Camphor weed (Heterotheca subaxillaris). Weed science 26, 51-57. Baskin JM & Baskin CC (1976) Germination dimorphism in H. subaxillaris var subaxillaris. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical club 103, 201-206. Baskin JM & Baskin CC (1988) Germination ecophysiology of herbaceous plants species in a temperate region. American Journal of Botany 75,286-305. Datta SC, Evenari M & Gutterman Y (1970) The heteroblasty of Aegilops ovate L. Israel Journal of Botany 19, 463483. 281 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Grin (2000) http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/tax/index.html (Accessed 25th May 2009). Harper JL (1965) Establishment, aggressiveness and cohabitation in weedy species. In: Genetics of Colonizing Species ed. Baker, H.G. & Stebbins, G.L. Academic Press New York. pp. 243-268. Hua C & Maun MA (1999) Effects of sand burial depth on seed germination and seedling emergence of Cirsium pitcheri. Plant Ecology 140, 53-60. Mosier DG, Peterson DE & Regehr DL (1990) Herbicide mode of action. P 1-11 http://www.weedresearch.com/Articles/5059.PDF. (Accessed: 21st June 2009). Olsen KM (1997) Pollination effectiveness and pollinator importance on the population of H. subaxillaris. Oecologia 109, 114-121. Sung Y, Daniel JC, Russell TN & Warley MN (2008) Structural changes in lettuce seed during germination at high temperature, altered by genotype, seed maturation temperature and seed priming. Journal of American Society Horticultural Science 133, 300-311. Ungar IA (1971) Atriplex patula var. hastate seed dimorphism. Rhodora 73:548-551 Weller, S.G. (1985) Establishment of Lithospermum caroliniense on sand dunes; the role of nutlet mass. Ecology 66, 1893-1901. Yaacoby T (1998) The dispersion of the invasive weeds Hetherotheca subaxillaris and Verbesina encelioides in Israel. 6th Mediterranean Symposium EWRS, Montpellier, France. 56-57. Zhang J & Maun MA (1994) Potential for seed formation in seven Great lake sand dune species. American Journal of Botany 81, 387-394. 282 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora): A threat to agriculture and pastoralism in Sudan Babiker, AGT-1, Nagat EM-2 and Ahmed EAM-3 1- College of Agricultural Studies, Sudan University of Science and Technology Khartoum Sudan. Sustech.edu, E-mail: agbabiker@yahoo.com 2Fedral Plant Protection Directorate Khartoum Sudan 3Agricultural Research Corporation, Sennar Research Station, Sennar, sudan Common mesquite [Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) DC] is a multipurpose ever green leguminous tree native to the Americas. The tree was introduced into Sudan in 1917 to combat desertification. Successful establishment and ability to fix sand dunes encouraged further introductions and deliberate distribution within the country. The tree was planted as shelterbelts around towns, cities and agricultural schemes in places threatened by desertification. Underutilization, mismanagement, over exploitation of natural vegetation, coupled with the invasive nature of the plant, enhanced rampant spread of mesquite and fostered colonization of variety of habitats. Currently the area under mesquite is estimated to be over one million hectares. The tree has become a national pest and is a threat to agriculture, biodiversity and pastoralism. The wide spread of mesquite in Sudan, the huge seed reserves in soil, the ability to regenerate from cut stump, coupled with high cost made eradication of mesquite an unlikely possibility. Management, which resides on containment, utilization and eradication of satellite foci seems to be the plausible solution. Prosopis spp. (mesquite) are multi-purpose ever green leguminous trees or shrubs. The genus comprises 44 species of which 40 are native to the Americas (Pasiecznik, 2001). Mesquite grows in arrays of environments and is not restricted by soil type, pH, salinity or fertility. In Sudan flowering is year-round (Babiker, 2006). The fruiting period, which peaks from December to June, coincides with the dry season. Mesquite leaves are unpalatable, while pods, renowned for their high sugar (16%) and protein (12%) contents are attractive to animals. The high degree of self incompatibility promotes hybridization and results in genetic variability, which as noted in similar situations, confers plasticity and allows colonization of a wide range of habitats (Hierro & Callaway, 2003). Common mesquite (P. juliflora Swartz, DC.), often multi-stemmed with a spreading crown of pendulous branches hanging down to the ground, is a copious seed producer (Babiker, 2006). The seeds, characterized by coat imposed dormancy, germinate in flushes and establish a huge persistent seed bank. Long distance transport of seeds is ensured by animals and water (Babiker, 2006). Following germination mesquite seedlings grow vigorously (Ahmed, 2009). Tap roots reach deep water tables and extensive lateral roots spread well beyond the crown. The rapidly growing root system and un-palatability of foliage increase seedling survival rate and competitiveness particularly in heavy grazed areas and/or on uncultivated fallows. The high coppicing ability of 283 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world mesquite ensures recovery of the plant when cut and often results in multistemmed trees. The trees have many competitive advantages over other plants however, the seedlings are somewhat sensitive (Pasiecznik, 2001). They colonize disturbed, eroded, overgrazed or drought-ridden land associated with unsustainable agronomic practices (Pasiecznik, 2001). The trees are believed to deplete groundwater reserves and to smother and suppress, through both allelopathic and competitive effects, growth of neighbouring plants (Ahmed, 2009). Prosopis pollens are said to be a major cause of allergic reactions and the thorns are poisonous and/or promotive to secondary infections on prickling (Takur & Sharma, 1985). Mesquite, at its centre of origin, the arid areas in South America, has played an important social role. In addition to its role in combating desertification and supply of high-value mechanical wood products, firewood and charcoal, mesquite provides shelters, animal feed and food for humans in areas where protein intake is very low and under adverse conditions of drought and famines (Ibrahim, 1989). The plant is important for fencing stalks, and as bee forage for honey production. Mesquite pods are a source of good quality flour and syrup which may be utilized in making foodstuffs at household levels (Pasiecznik, 2001; Felker et al., 2003). Mesquite species exude a water soluble gum that has been used as a substitute for gum Arabic during periods of restricted trading or international market shortages (Vilela & Ravtta, 2005). Mesquite species have ameliorating effects on soil under canopy. The tree fixes nitrogen and the leaf litter, when incorporated, improves soil physical and chemical properties. Leaves of mesquite are valued as compost (Pasiencznik, 2001). Foliage of mesquite contains several chemicals which are effective against several weeds; insects, fungi and some are of medical and/or industrial value (Pasiecznik, 1999). Moreover, mesquite, when properly managed, is a suitable tree for agroforestry in low-input low-rainfall areas (Luukkanen et al., 1983). Mesquite was introduced into several countries with the primary objective of curbing desertification and providing fire wood and thus preserving indigenous trees (Babiker, 2006, Chog & Chikamai, 2006). However, in most of the countries, where it was introduced, mesquite has spread outside where it was originally planted and has become a serious weed (ElHouri, 1986). Ease of spread of mesquite is consistent with its invasive nature, ease of adaptations to novel environments, lack of natural enemies and underutilization and mismanagement (Ali & Labrada, 2006; Babiker, 2006; Kathiresan, 2006). It is noteworthy that exploitation of mesquite for wood and non-wood products in Sayun and Tarim in Yemen, in addition to the benefits realized by the community, curtailed spread of the tree and lessened its importance as a weed (Ali & labrada, 2006). P. juliflora, was introduced into Sudan in 1917 from South Africa and Egypt and planted in Khartoum (Broun & Massey, 1929). The success attained in establishment and the ability to tolerate drought, fix sand dunes and capacity to furnish shade, fuel, timber, fodder and edible pods provided the impetus for repeated introductions of the tree into various agroecosystems with emphasis on dry areas (Babiker, 2006). In the period 1978-1981 the tree was planted as shelterbelts on premises of major cities in eastern Sudan (Elsidig, et al., 1998). Moreover, introductions were made into various places in western and central Sudan. The tree was planted in shelterbelts around farms, irrigated schemes and along the Nile. Repeated introductions of mesquite from unknown sources (Pasiecznik, 2001), its deliberate distribution within the country, prevailing drought, livestock and feral animal‘s movement coupled with decreased land284 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world use, land tenure, under utilization of the plant, mismanagement and over exploitation of natural vegetation have led to spread of mesquite into various locations where it has become a national pest (Elhouri, 1986). The plant constitutes a threat to agriculture, biodiversity and may lead to deterioration of natural vegetation and pastures and thus jeopardize the livelihood of a large proportion of the population, particularly, where livestock keeping and subsistent farming are the main avenues for income generation. The bulk of mesquite infestation (>90%) is in eastern Sudan, where livestock keeping and subsistence cultivation constitute the main source of income. Invading mesquite tends to form dense, impenetrable thickets. In pastures it reduces grass cover and stocking density, interferes with mustering of stalk and threatens the livelihood of traditional pastoralists. Invasion into agricultural land, along irrigation channels and water courses is also a major problem. (Elsidig et al., 1998). In Sudan as in most of the countries, where mesquite has been introduced, it is underutilized. Its use, beside sand dune fixation is limited to fuel wood and charcoal production (Babiker, 2006). Animal rearing constitutes the main livelihood of landless and resource poor farmers in many of the mesquite endemic areas. Unpalatability of P. juliflora leaves to livestock limits their use as animal feed. Results from trials on feeding mesquite pods to sheep were also disappointing and over 90% of livestock owners in eastern Sudan regard mesquite as a liability (Elsidig et, al., 1998). Several efforts were made in Sudan to eradicate mesquite (Babiker, 2006). However, because of high cost and complexity of the problem, most of the efforts were not successful or sustainable. In 1995 the government approved a bill on mesquite management. The tree is to be eradicated where it constitutes a threat to agriculture or biodiversity and preserved in areas threatened by desertification. Active eradication programmes, using both mechanical and manual methods for uprooting mesquite, were implemented in various locations in the country, at very high cost, and with variable results (Babiker, 2006). Soil disturbance resulting from uprooting brings mesquite seeds to the surface soil and aids its regeneration (Ahmed, 2009) Global experience showed clearly that eradication of mesquite is neither desirable nor tenable (Pasiecznik, 1999). Mesquite, if properly managed, through containment, utilization and eradication of satellite foci, could be a boon to the rural poor. Mesquite, in addition to curtailment of sand dunes, provides several wood and non-wood products which could be of benefits to rural communities in dry areas where no other trees could grow and flourish. However, when not properly managed mesquite proved to be a serious invasive weed. Peattie (1953) concluded that mesquite is an elemental force comparable to fire too valuable to extinguish completely and too dangerous to trust unwatched. Mesquite seeds are the main vehicle for long distance transport. Satellite foci are pivotal for establishment of colonies (Babiker, 2006). Mesquite, as is the case with many invasive alien plants, spreads by seed dispersal and repeated establishment of satellite foci from a founder population (Moody & Mack, 1988). Environments with open niches, abandoned land or overgrazed and drought stricken sites are the most vulnerable to invasion. Mesquite, upstream, on rivers, water courses and irrigation canals or in premises of irrigated schemes displays a high 285 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world tendency to spread. The huge seed bank and basal buds endow mesquite with a high capacity for regeneration after cutting and/or uprooting. Efforts have to focus on containment and maximum utilization. To curtail mesquite invasion seed movement should be discouraged or the seeds should be devitalized, satellite foci should be denied establishment, over exploitation of natural vegetation and overgrazing of marginal land should be discouraged. Land tenure in mesquite endemic areas should be reviewed. Satellite foci and mesquite infestations on strategic and high risk areas such as irrigation canals, water courses and agricultural land should be eradicated. Ways and means for utilization of the removed mass should be designed to generate income for farmers and pastoralist. Following destruction mesquite has to be replaced by appropriate trees and/or crops. The treated area has to be vigilantly observed and interventions by chemical and/or mechanical mean should be implemented to discourage regeneration. Mesquite when not a threat to agricultural lands or biodiversity and in areas prone to desertification should be conserved and ways and means for its management and utilization should be developed. At present a research programme with the prime objective of developing sustainable and economically viable management site specific strategies which offer several options have been proposed. The strategies, based on containment and utilization, are to take into account distribution of mesquite, infested areas, their possible contribution to further spread of the plant, socio-economic aspects of mesquite, its environmental impact, indigenous methods of management and utilization and their possible improvement through research generated technologies. References Ahmed EA (2009) Studies on Some Aspects of Mesquite Biology and Management. Ph.D Thesis Sudan Academy of Sciences. PP 162 Ali A & Labrada R (2006) Problems posed by Prosopis in Yemen. In: Labrada R (ed.) Problems Posed by the Introduction of Prosopis spp. in Selected Countries. Plant Production and Protection Division, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations Rome, pp 21-28 Babiker AG (2006) Mesquite (Prosopis spp.) in Sudan: history, distribution and control. In: Labrada R (ed.) Problems Posed by the Introduction of Prosopis spp. in Selected Countries. Plant Production and Protection Division, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations Rome, pp 11-20 Broun AF & Massey RE (1929) Flora of the Sudan: Thomas Murby and CO., p 376 Chog SK & Chikamai BN (2003) Experiences of Prosopis utilization and management from outside Kenya. In: Proceedings of the Workshop on Integrated Management of Prosopis Species in Kenya (Choge, S. K. and Chikamai, B. N. eds.) pp 78-92. Kenya Forest Research Institute (KEFRI) El Houri AA (1986) Some aspects of dry land afforestation in the Sudan, with special reference to Acacia tortilis (Frosk) hayne, Acacia seyal Willd. and Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stunz. Forest Ecology and Management 16, 209-221. Elsidig NA, Abdelsalam AH & Abdelmagid TD (1998) Socio-Economic, Environmental and Management Aspects of Mesquite in Kassala State (Sudan) Sudanese Social Forestry Society. pp 96. Felker P, Grados N, Cruz G & Prokopiuk D (2003) Economic assessment of flour from Prosopis alba and P. pallida pods for human food applications. Journal of Arid Environment 53, 517-528 Hierro JL & Callaway RM (2003) Allelopathy and exotic plant invasion. Plant and Soil 256, 29-39 Ibrahim KM (1989) Prosopis species in the South-western United States, their utilization and research. In: Dutton RW, Powell M, Ridley RJ (edits) Prosopis Species Aspects of their Value, Research and Development. Proceedings of the Prosopis Symposium. Cord, University of Durham, pp. 83-115 Kathiresan RM (2006) Invasion of Prosopis juliflora in India. In: Labrada R (ed.) Problems Posed by the Introduction of Prosopis spp. in Selected Countries. Plant Production and Protection Division, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations Rome, pp 3-10 286 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Luukkanen O, Turakka & Holmberg G (1983) Forest nursery and afforestation experiments in the White Nile and north Kordofan provinces in Sudan. Sudan-Finland Consulting Programme in Forestry Technical Report 7, pp.25 Moody ME & Mack RN (1988) Cotrolling the spread of plant invasions: The importance of nascent foci. Journal of Applied Ecology 25, 1009-1021 Pasiecznik NM (2001)The Prosopis juliflora- Prosopis pallida Copmlex: A Monograph. HDRA the Organic Organization. Pp 162 Peattie DC (1953) Natural History of Western Trees. Riverside Press, Cambridge, Boston, USA (Cited Pasiecznik, 1999) Takur IS & Sharma JD (1985) Isolation and characterization of allergens of Prosopis juliflora pollen grains. Biochemistry Intenational 11, 903-912. Vilela AE & Ravetta DA (2005) Gum exudation in South-American species of Prosopis L. (Mimosaceae) Journal of Arid Environment 60, 389-395 287 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Is bio control of Ambrosia spp. with Epiblema strenuana found in Israel possible? Tuvia Yaacoby Plant Protection and Inspection Services, P. O. Box 78 Bet Dagan 50250 Israel. E-mail: tobyy@moag.gov.il Several new species of Ambrosia were found in Israel during the last years. Ambrosia maritima L. is the only species of this genus present in the Israeli flora. A. trifida and A. artemisifolia were found in the Northern Galilee in a feeding birds (Cranes) migration field with corn grains imported from the USA. Another species of Ambrosia was found in the central regions of the country. A. confertiflora was found in the Heffer valley area along the Alexander river banks spreading in a nature reserve area, sub-tropic orchards and affecting farmers‘ incomes and biodiversity. An update survey carried out in summer 2007 indicates that this species was introduced to Heffer valley from Nablus (Palestine authority) via sewage and rainfall water which ran downhill towards the Alexander River. More recently we found other populations of the weed far away from the initial growing areas probably introduced by agri-machinary or transfer of soils. Another species, A. tenuifolia was found North-West of the Heffer valley exhibit supreme adaptation to the places invaded. Like A. confertiflora this weed produces underground rhizomes and seeds. Both, A. confertiflora and A. tenuifolia are hard to kill, perennial noxious weeds and extreme rates of non selective herbicides like 2,4-D, fluroxypyr and glyphosate are needed to manage them. During a survey carried out in summer 2008 a few larvae of the stem galling moth were found in the small population of A. tenuifolia indicating that this moth was introduced to Israel sometime earlier. A survey carried out in summer 2009 reveals the "good" news of finding this moth on A. confertiflora plants too. The Australian experience using such bio control agent against these types of invasive weeds will serve the Israeli P.P.I.S authorities as a base for starting a program using Epiblema strenuana as bio control agent. 288 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Posters Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 289 Lists of invasive alien plants as a key issue/tool for effective management Pavol Eliáš Dept. of Ecology, Slovak Agricultural University, Marianska 10, Sk – 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia, E-mail: pavol.elias@uniag.sk Lists of invasive alien species (IAS) are considered as a key issue and tool for the effective management of the invasive non-native species in a region (a country). These lists are generally composed of the non-native (alien) species that exhibit an invasive behaviour in a region. These lists predominantly indicate the invasive status and/or the environmental impacts of the listed species. They provide information on/identify the species which represent highest priorities action, including quarantine measures. It means they highlight problem species and focus attention on non-native species considered to be a risk for native biodiversity and environment. Lists are used for early warning, monitoring, eradication and control, education and communication at local, regional and global scales. The author analysed and compared existing current lists of invasive alien plants (IAPs) across the world and distinguished four types of IAPs lists which differ in species. They are: (i) worst invasive species lists (top ―ten‖, dirty, ―the most invasive‖, ―the most important‖ species etc.), (ii) global, regional, national, local lists of invasive species, (iii) quarantine pests lists (black, white, watch, alert=alarm lists, etc.), and (iv) annexes of national and international specific legislation (used as official documents for management activities in a country/region/globe). Important differences in number of listed species found can be caused by differences in the definitions (concepts) and criteria used for the identification and categorisation of the invasive non-native species, by different levels of knowledge about the status and distribution of non-native species, methods of list preparation and subjectivity of experts‘ opinion. In this task the lists have to be based on continuous field research of invasive behaviour of the alien species and not only on simple inventories and/or compilation of current floristic/faunistic data. Scientific make researches on the invasive behaviour of non-native species and on invasion processes are needed to collect data for quantitative criteria of invasiveness and for better understanding of the ecological process. The lists have to be up-to-dated in a 5 to 10 year periods by re-assessment of non-native species due to high dynamics of the process of invasions and changes in landscape. The lists are also important tool for communication with policy makers, planners, managers of natural resources, stakeholders, land owners, the public, increasing their interest in invasive non-native species management, providing the up-dated information on invasive non-native species. Introduction The effective management of alien (non-native) plants in a region (or in a country) is firstly dependent on the identification of those plant species which have the highest priority for actions. To this purpose the species are usually listed in the lists of invasive species. The lists consist of the non-native (alien) species that exhibit invasive behaviour in new Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 290 environment (region), rapidly increasing the area occupied (spread), establish local populations and form metapopulations in new environments, penetrate into semi-natural and natural communities (habitats), forming mono-dominant dense stands and suppressing native species (Eliáš, 1997; 2009) (Table 1). Table 1 Characteristics of invasive behaviour of alien (non-native) species in a region (Eliáš, 2005; 2009) Invasive behaviour of non-native species: (i) rapid increasing of distribution in the occupied area (spread), (iia) establishment of new local populations in the region and (iib) formation of metapopulations in new environment (colonization), (iii) penetration into semi-natural and natural communities (habitats) in new region (invasion sensu stricto), (iiib) formation mono-dominant dense stands in occupied sites (habitats), and (iv) suppression of native species in the recipient region. Lists of invasive alien species (IAS) are important tools for management of non-native organisms from different aspects. They predominantly: (a) highlight problem species and focus attention on non-native species considered to be a risk for native biodiversity and environment. (b) indicate invasive status and/or environmental impacts of listed species, (c) provide information on/identify the highest priority IAS which need action, including quarantine measures, as well as (d) provide guidance to environmental managers and raise public awareness on the impacts of the most harmful invaders. The first step in tackling IAS consists in identifying those species that can behave invasively and, therefore, could represent a potential threat to managed and unmanaged habitats. Identifying future invaders and predicting their likely sites of invasion are of immense scientific and practical interest (Mack et al., 2000). In practical terms, it could reveal the most effective means to prevent future invasions. The sixth aim of the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species involves early detection and rapid response (Genovesi & Shine, 2004). It recommends that parties have comprehensive and cost-effective surveillance procedures in place. The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) reviews and organizes data on alien plants in order to build an early warning system. It developed a prioritization system to select species that represent emerging threats and require the most urgent pest risk analysis to implement preventive measures and to perform eradication and management measures (Brunel et al., 2010). One of EPPO‘s tasks is therefore to draw up lists of pests that present a phytosanitary risk, and which regulation is relevant for the whole of, or parts of, the EPPO region, composed of 50 European and Mediterranean countries. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 291 Material and methods Current lists, catalogues as well as databases of non-native plant species published and/or presented in the literature and in documents on invasive alien species and their management in Europe and other continents (cf. Sellers et al., 2010) were collected and analysed (Table 2). The lists were compared by set of species, priorities, The lists of IAPs in six neighbouring Central-European countries – Austria, Czech republic, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Slovenia (Fig. 1) were compared by set of listed species and differences in number of species were identified. Table 2. Lists of IAS as tool for effective management on global, regional, national and local levels (Eliáš 2000; 2009, addition) Level Management Priorities 1. Global International Cooperation Global Early Warning System 2. Regional 3. National 4. Local Invasive Alien Lists and databases 100 of the World´s Worst Invasive Alien Species (IUCN/ISSG) Global Invasive Alien Species Database (GISD) Migration path control Invasion process research on global level Prevention – regional The worst invasive alien species quarantine threatening biological diversity in Europe (EEA 2007) Regional early warning and One hundred of the most rapid response system invasive alien species in Europe Monitoring and early detection DAISIE database Risk assessment EPPO Alert list and database Spread reduction Metapopulation size regulations Integrated ecosystem management Landscape management Biotic invasion research Education, training Prevention – Quarantine on national level Public education Environmental managers training Ecosystem protection Eradication Regulation of local population size Restoration of habitats and ecosystems NOBANIS database Country lists, catalogues and databases Non-native (alien) species lists Administrative unit/District lists Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 292 To demonstrate the legislation process delay the list of the most important invasive species in Slovakia (Eliáš, 1998; 2001) was compared with list in Annex of the Act No. 24/2003 Ministry of Environment of the Slovak Republic and EPPO Alert list – terrestrial plants only (Table 6). Results and discussion Types of invasive alien species lists Our survey and analysis of the lists of invasive alien plants have shown that we can distinguish four different types of IAPs lists. (1) Lists of worst invasive species whith limited numbers of species, selected to prioritizing methods based on their invasiveness and/or impacts. These lists are usually published as ―top ten‖, ―dirty‖ ―the most invasive‖, ―the most important‖ etc. alien species. (2) Lists related to geographical boundaries such as global, regional, national, local lists of invasive species. They indicate the alien species that exhibit invasive behaviour in the considered scale/level, e.g. in a continent (Europe), a country (Turkey) or a microregion (locality). In the context several alien lists, catalogues and databases of this type have been published and/or prepared as tools for the effective management (Table 2). (3) Quarantine pests lists (black, white, watch, alert=alarm, etc.) which have been used as a tool within quarantine measures to stop the introduction of highly invasive non-native species (with a high invasive potential), ranked as invasive in other countries, or simply listed in national lists of neighbouring countries. (4) Official lists published in the framwork of national and international legislation in force or in their annexes. The non-native species listed by the regulations are usually declared by Acts and/or Directives/Conventions and are used as official documents for management activities in a country/region/globe. The worst invasive species The first type of the lists, the worst invasive species lists are prepared as a global list (GISD-Global Invasive Species Database), continental lists (e.g. Europe, Worst invasive alien species threatening biodiversity in Europe, EAS/SEBI 2010, EEA 2007), and many different national lists (e.g. Slovakia by Eliáš, 1997, 1998, 2001, Germany by SchererLorenzen et al., 2005, etc.), microregional lists etc. The global list of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) called "One Hundred of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species", is a part of the Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). It lists invasive species which have been recognised globally as a major threat to biodiversity (the collected wealth of the world´s species of plants, animals and other organisms) as well as to agriculture and other human interests. These species were selected for the list according to two criteria: their serious impact on biological diversity and/or human activities, and their illustration of important issues surrounding biological invasion. To ensure the inclusion of a wide variety of examples, only one species from each genus was selected. Absence from the list does not imply that a species poses a lesser threat (Love et al., 2000). The European Environmental Agency (EEA) has produced, within the SEBI 2010 project, a list of the worst invasive alien species threatening biological diversity in Europe (EEA 2007). This list contributes to the general indicator of changes in biological diversity caused by invasive alien species. The list identifies species that should be a priority for more detailed Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 293 monitoring, research and management (EEA 2007). Another list produced by the DAISIE research project listed ‗One hundred of the most invasive alien species in Europe‘ (Vilà et al., 2009). The criteria used were different, predominantly a serious impact on biological diversity (e.g. for the European list: severe impacts on ecosystem structure and function; replacement of a native species throughout a significant proportion of its range; hybridisation with native species; threats to unique biodiversity (e.g. endemic species). And also negative consequences for human activities, health and/or economic interests (e.g. is a pest, or a vector of disease). Regional lists of most invasive alien were prepared for the North European and Baltic region (Gollasch et al., 1999; NOBANIS 2007) and also for the Mediterranean Sea (CIESM 2007). EPPO also drafted in the earlier stages of its work a list highlighting the most invasive alien plants in the EPPO region (the EPPO List of Invasive Alien Plants). This list aims to draw attention to those species whose entry into EPPO countries should be prevented, or should be submitted to control measures to prevent further spread (Brunel et al., 2010). These types of lists of the most prominent alien invaders are considered as one of the primary tools for raising awareness on biological invasions (Vilà et al., 2009). Quarantine pests Quarantine pest lists identify those alien species that may become invasive and therefore require special attention (McNeely et al., 2001). Effort to prevent the opportunity for invasions by prohibiting the entry of the non-native species into new range is required (Mack et al., 2000). Quarantine pests are pests of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and not yet present there, or present but not widely distributed and being officially controlled (IPPC 2005). The identification of the quarantine pest themselves - e.g. at customs, may be an important first step in preventing the introduction of non-native species in new areas. The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) developed international standards for phytosanitary measures at the global, regional and national levels (IPPC 2005). Listing of the species is one effective tool for dealing with IAS issues (Wittenberg et al., 2001; Shine et al., 2000, Mooney et al., 2005). Global Strategy on Invasive Aliens Species (GSIAS) distinguished three different types of quarantine lists: • Black lists: list of invasive alien plants that currently cause damage in the areas of biodiversity, health, and/or economy. The establishment and the spread of these species must be prevented. The species listed are known to be invasive and so harmful that their introduction should be prohibited under national legislation. • White lists: species known on the basis of stringent criteria to have such a low probability of invasion that they can be introduced. The species through passing a risk assessment analysis can reasonably be declared as safe (put on a "white list"), though monitoring is still required to ensure that the prediction remains accurate over time. • Grey lists: listed species whose probability of becoming invasive is unknown. The potential invasiveness of the majority of the world's species is unknown and they should be placed on a "grey list" (Wittenberg et al., 2001). The European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species (Genovesi & Shine, 2004) has used the same categories as possible components of an agreed listing system for alien species in Europe: Black list, White list, and Grey (holding) list. This approach have been Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 294 implemented also by the Council of Europe in a document entitled ―Towards a black list of invasive alien species entering Europe through trade, and proposed responses‖ (Genovesi & Scalera 2007), which led to Recommendation No. 125 (2007) of the Standing Committee, adopted on 29 November 2007, on trade in invasive and potentially invasive alien species in Europe. In quarantine measures a watch list is also recognised – this is a list of invasive alien plants which have the potential to cause damage. Their spread needs to be monitored and if necessary prevented. The species already cause damage in neighbouring countries. Brunel et al. (2010) identified, on the basis of surveys and rapid assessments of spread and impact, emerging invasive alien plants for Mediterranean countries These species represent priorities for action. Some other species were placed on the observation list, due to lack of information (available information does not allow them to be counted among the worst threats). The EPPO Alert List, part of the pest warning system managed by the EPPO Secretariat and information on pests, listed in the Alert List is published in the EPPO Reporting Service (see EPPO Website, 2010). It is not a quarantine list, and does not constitute a recommendation for phytosanitary action. The Early warning and information system for invasive alien species (IAS) threatening biodiversity in Europe (EEA 2010) suggested the development of an Early warning and rapid response system (EWRR): a framework designed to respond to biological invasions through a coordinated system of surveillance and monitoring activities; diagnosis of invading species; assessment of risks; circulation of information, including reporting to competent authorities; and identification and enforcement of appropriate responses. The identification of alien species that are already or are likely to become invasive is central to prevention and rapid, targeted action to combat invasive species within Europe. An effective response relies on being able to pinpoint those species currently absent from Europe but likely to enter at some future time, as well as species that are already present but that have not yet become invasive and/or widespread. Species can be assigned to the following three broad categories: Alert lists (alarm list): list of alien species not yet present in a territory or present only in a very limited range that pose risks to the invaded area, and for which it is recommended to apply particular surveillance and monitoring efforts in order to enhance prompt response in the case of arrival/expansion. Black list: a list of alien species that have been shown through risk assessment to pose risks to the environment, economy or human well being. Watch list: a list of alien species not yet present in a territory - or present only in a limited range - that are considered potentially to pose risks to the invaded area and for which it is recommended to monitor arrival, expansion and impacts, and/or application of prevention measures. Differences between the lists The above four types of IAPs lists differ in species listed because of their aims, goals, application and role in the management of non-native species. The second (and to some extent the first) type of lists are based on scientific data resulting from field research of invasive behaviour of non-native species in a region. The third and fourth types are based on surveys Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 295 and/or compilations of published data and are included into early warning systems for quarantine invasive species. Figure 1 - Numbers of invasive alien plant species in six Central European countries published in official national lists. Numbers in parenthesis indicate invasive + potential invasive alien plants (Eliáš 2008). It should also be noted that the lists of the same type can be different in the same region. The comparison of lists of IAPs in neighbouring Central-European countries (Fig. 1) has shown large differences in number of listed species (from 27 to 79). It was concluded that the differences can be caused not by ecological and socio-economic conditions in the countries (they are very similar) but predominantly due to/by differences in definitions (? concepts) of invasive alien species and criteria used for identification and categorisation of the invasive non-native species (Eliáš, 2006; 2008). Table 3. Comparison of different approaches to definitions of terms ‗invasion‘ and ‗invasive species‘ (Eliáš, 1997; 2009). Approach 1. Biogeographical 2. Ecological 3.Anthropocentric and environmental Priority Origin of species Process Introduction and expansion out of original range Behaviour of local (massive/sudden?) population(s) of a penetration, entry species into a community (biocoenosis) and ecosystem Impact, effect, Economic and consequence ecological losses, changes in structure and diversity, biodiversity threats Terms used Alien, Imported, Exotic, Introduced, Non-native Invasive species Invading species Colonist, Colonizer species weed, pest, environmental weed („invader―), problem species, biological pollutant, transformer species Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 296 The term ―invasive‖ has no standard definition (Shine et al., 2000). It is interpreted in varying ways (cf. Eliáš 1997; 2009; Richardson et al., 2000, Table 3) and sometimes used interchangeably with well-established terms such as ―pest‖ or ―weed‖ that can apply to native as well as alien species (Table 4). Table 4 Differences between weeds and invasive plants in origin (evolution), condition (habitat, environment) and impacts (Eliáš, 2005) Characteristics (Agricultural) Weed Invasive alien plant Origin (evolution) unwanted plants in cultivated introduced plants which areas, adopted to frequent have become naturalized and anthropogenic disturbances have invaded natural ecosystems Environmental condition Arable fields, cultivated sites, invaded native ecosystems, (habitat, environment) agroecosystems disturbed sites in native habitats Impacts Economic losses, they can adversely affect the survival compete with cultural plants of indigenous flora and for resources such as space, fauna, can compete with nutrients, water etc. reduced indigenous plants for their growth and production resources such as space, nutrients Serious negative impacts on native biodiversity and/or economic losses as criteria of invasiveness are also subject of scientific discussion. Richardson et al. (2000) suggested that ―invasive‖ should be used with reference to their ―biogeographic/demographic‖ status of a species without any connotation of impact. Different levels of knowledge about the status and distribution of non-native species, ways of list preparation and subjectivity of experts opinion can also caused the differences in the IAPs lists. In this task, therefore, the lists have to be based on continuous field research of invasive behaviour of the aliens and not only on simple inventories and/or compilation of current floristic/faunistic data. The list of the 100 most invasive alien species in Europe species is based on expert opinions: species were nominated to the list by experts working within the DAISIE research project. They are perhaps better considered as representatives of all main taxonomic groups and all environments and were selected to represent diverse impacts on ecology, socio-economic values and human and animal health (cf. Vila et al., 2009). Until now such compilations have been available only for few countries. Organisms in the EPPO Alert list are selected by the EPPO Secretariat (based on literature review, new occurrences, new records of invasiveness) or are proposed by National Plant Protection Organisations. The section 'possible risk' is not the result of a full PRA according to EPPO Standard PM 5/3(1) but is a preliminary attempt by the EPPO Secretariat to identify the main elements of risk. The addition of pests to the list is marked by an article in the EPPO Reporting Service. All pests on the Alert List are selected because they may present a phytosanitary risk for the EPPO region. There are various reasons for considering inclusion on the Alert List: pests which are new to science, new outbreaks, reports of spread, etc. The Alert List is reviewed critically every year by the Panel on Phytosanitary Measures (EPPO Website, 2010). Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 297 Different lists of species considered invasive by different experts from many countries in the Mediterranean area were collected; they have been shared with all participants of the workshop and interested experts, but have never been published. Invasive status categories Non-native species differ in their invasive behaviour in new regions and these differences have to be indicated by invasive status category. For assessment of invasive behaviour of aliens we need more invasive categories to indicate different invasive status of non-native species in a region. The following invasive status categories have been distinguished: not-established (casual), established and/or escaped, naturalized, potential invasive, local invasive, regional invasive, transformer, and post–invasive species. Not-established (casual) is alien plant that may flourish and even reproduce occasionally in an area, but which do not form self-replacing populations. Established and/or escaped, Naturalized plants are alien plants that reproduce consistently and sustain populations over many life cycles without direct intervention by human. Potential invasive Local invasive, Regional invasive plant Transformers are those species (taxa) that have evident impacts on ecosystems. Those alien species, invasive plants which change the character, condition, form or nature of ecosystem over a substantial area relative to the extent of that ecosystem (Wells et al., 1986, Richardson et al., 2000). Post–invasive species The categorisation process is based on data from field research in the region. We need quantitative criteria to assess of invasive status of non-native species in a region. The criteria for quantitative assessment of invasive status of non-native species in a region are shown in Table 5. Table 5. Criteria for quantitative assessment of invasive status of non-native species in a region Quantitative criteria for assessing invasiveness (1) Reproduction and dispersal (production of large amount of offspring in short period). (2) Spread (expansion) rate (increasing number of localities and/or area occupied). (3) Establishment of local populations and formation of metapopulation (increasing number of local populations and number of occupied habitats by metapopulations in a region). (4) Environmental negative impacts (identification of hazards, damage to native species, communities and ecosystems). Quantitative criteria of invasiveness of non-native species are dependent, as shown above, on science-based data. Scientific research of invasive behavior of non-native species and invasion process are needed (i) to collect data for evaluation/assessment of invasion status of non-native species by quantitative criteria of invasiveness and (ii) to understand the ecological process better. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 298 The first three criteria (Tab. 5) indicate an ability of an alien species to establish and spread in a region (geographical distribution). The fourth criterion indicates ecological, environmental and socio-economic impacts of invasive behaviour of non-native species in a region. It is related to the third criterion related to forming of dense stands in occupied (colonized) habitats. Risk assessment Impacts of invasive behaviour of non-native species in a region can be predicted by risk assessment (RA) procedure. It can evaluate (i) high probability of establishment, expanding and causing damage, (ii) invasive behaviour risk (species that could become invasive) as well as (iii) negative impact risk (environmental, economic, health-related, ?political). The risk assessment process is commonly used to rate and rank known or suspected invasive species. The objectives are a prediction of whether or not a species is likely to be invasive and relative ranking of risk (Wittenberg et al., 2001). Since 2006, EPPO has been engaged in the drafting of a method for prioritizing alien plants, based on relatively simple but robust criteria. As performing full Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) for all the invasive alien plants already present within the EPPO region would require a vast input of resources, the general philosophy of the prioritizing process is to select those species for which a PRA constitutes an adequate tool (Brunel et al., 2010). Ranking of relative risk have been assess by a simple qualitative or semi-quantitative rating of three scores: ―high‖,―medium‖ and ―low‖. Also in the RA procedure to assess the risk precise quantitative criteria and data based on scientific research and monitoring is needed. In Canada, for organisms of forestry concern, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency and the Canadian Forest Service work closely to develop science-based policies and regulations (Allen & Cree, 2005). The maintenance of the lists Invasion of non-native species is a dynamic process. Changes in geographical distribution of species, number of localities and metapopulations as well as impacts. Invasiveness of alien species can vary with tine, genetic composition of the introduced population, and changes in human behaviour. The lists (white lists, watch lists, etc), therefore, have to be re-assessed in appropriate intervals (cf. also Wittenberg et al., 2001). The lists could be kept up to date in 5 to <10 year periods by re-assessment of non-native species due to high dynamics of the process of invasions and changes in landscape. The tentative list of Worst invasive alien species threatening biodiversity in Europe should be updated every five years. The ESIAS listing system should be dynamic, making it possible to transfer a species to a different list if scientifically justified (e.g. if a white-listed species is repeatedly introduced over a long period, the risk should be reassessed if there is new evidence of potential invasive behaviour) (Genovesi & Shine, 2004). Species listing and decision-making need to be based on scientific criteria that are periodically reviewed and are transparent (e.g. New Zealand and Australia publish decisionmaking protocols on their respective websites and invite public and stakeholder input when they develop new import risk analyses and import standards) (Genovesi & Shine, 2004). Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 299 Legislation to support management of IAS Legal frameworks are essential to support efforts to manage IAS, working at both national and international levels. Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) has produced a Guide for Designing Legal and Institutional frameworks on IAS (Shine et al., 2000), seeking to provide an essential tool in this regard. Any legal framework at the national level needs to include adequate provisions for mitigating the impacts of IAS, a challenge that faces numerous constraints (e.g. lack of resources). Table 6. Comparison of list of the most important invasive species in Slovakia (Eliáš 1998, 2001) with list in Annex of the Act No. 24/2003 Ministry of Environment of the Slovak Republic and EPPO Alert list – terrestrial plants only Invasive plants of Slovakia Acer negundo (= Negundo aceroides) Ailanthus altissima Annex species EPPO Alert list – terrestrial plants only Abutilon theophrasti Acer negundo Acroptilon repens Ailanthus altissima Ambrosia artemisiifolia Amelanchier spicata Aster novi-belgii agg., Aster lanceolata Bidens frondosa Bunias orientalis Cenchrus incertus Cyperus esculentus Echinocystis lobata Fallopia japonica, F. Fallopia japonica, F. Fallopia japonica, F. sachalinensis, F. x bohemica sachalinensis, F. x bohemica sachalinensis, F. x bohemica Galinsoga ciliata, G. parviflora Helianthus tuberosus Helianthus tuberosus Heracleum mantegazzianum Heracleum mantegazzianum Heracleum mantegazzianum Heracleum sosnowskyi Impatiens glandulifera Impatiens glandulifera Impatiens glandulifera Impatiens parviflora Impatiens parviflora Licium barbatum Lupinus polyphyllus Lupinus polyphyllus Panicum spp. Prunus serotina Rhododendron ponticum Robinia pseudoacacia Rudbeckia laciniata Senecio inaequidens Solanum elaeagnifolium Solidago canadensis, S. Solidago canadensis, S. Solidago canadensis, S. gigantea gigantea gigantea Sorghum halepense Spartina anglica Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 300 The legislation process have to be followed the lists re-assessment and actualisations and annexes, therefore, have to be updated. The delay in the legislation process can support spread of many invasive non-native species in new regions due to limit financial sources for eradication, more intensive monitoring, early warning and control, as well as other instruments used in environmental management. In Slovakia, for example, more than 20 invasive species are listed in the national list of the most important invasive plants (Eliáš 2001) but the Act of 2003 listed only 7 invasive alien plants (Table 6). It was mentioned that the "invasive" classification is quite separate from jurisdictional or administrative boundaries. If an alien species is invasive, it is unlikely to stay within the boundaries of the ecosystem, municipality or region to which it was introduced. One consequence for legal systems is that site specific restrictions (for example, a prohibition on introducing alien species into protected areas) can never be more than a partial strategy for preventing or mitigating impacts of invasions. Thus, regional collaboration between countries in regard to IAS is essential. Numerous legal principles, approaches, and tools have been developed for dealing with problems of IAS (Shine et al., 2000). Tool for communication The IAS lists are an important tool for communication with policy makers, planners, managers of natural resources, stakeholders, land owners, the public, and others involved in invasive species issues. They increase interest in invasive non-native species management and provide updated information on invasive non-native species (Eliáš 2009). Good experience and the importance of the role of the tools has been shown by the IUCN‘s 100 of the World‘s Worst Invasive Species list (Love et al., 2000) which has been very influential in raising awareness and supporting the development of policy conservation instruments relevant to biological invasions (Shine et al., 2000). The DAISIE accounts of the 100 of the most invasive species may play a major role in raising public awareness and supporting the activities of a broad spectrum of professionals including land-use and wildlife managers, environmental policymakers, environmental educators, journalists, students and other stakeholders (Vilà et al., 2009). Conclusions Lists of invasive alien plants (IAPs) are a key issue/tool in effective management of invasive non-native species in regions (countries). The lists are needed and used for early warning, monitoring, eradication and control, education and communication at local, regional and global scales. Differences in definitions (concepts), invasive status categories and criteria are reflected in lists of IAPs produced in different countries, regions, communities. Quantitative criteria of invasiveness and science-based data are needed to minimise subjectivity of experts opinions / assessment of invasive status of non-native species. The lists have to be updated every 5 to <10 years by re-assessment of non-native species. References Allen E, Cree L (2005) Science and regulation: a Canadian approach to invasive alien species. In IPPC Secretariat. 2005. Identification of risks and management of invasive alien species using the IPPC framework. Proceedings of the workshop on invasive alien species and the International Plant Protection Convention, Braunschweig, Germany, 22-26 September 2003. Rome, Italy, FAO. xii + 301 pp. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 301 Brunel S, Schrader G, Brundu G & Fried G (2010) Emerging invasive alien plants for the Mediterranean Basin. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 40, 219–238 CIESM (2007) The Mediterranean Science Commission (2007) Atlas of exotic species in the Mediterranean. www.ciesm.org/online/atlas/index.htm. Cited Sept 2010. EEA/SEBI2010 (2006) Expert Group on trends in invasive alien species EEA (2007) Halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010: proposal for a first set of indicators to monitor progress in Europe. European Environment Agency, Technical Report 11/2007 EEA (2010) Towards an early warning and information system for invasive alien species (IAS) threatening biodiversity in Europe. Copenhagen, 2010 - 52 pp. Eliáš P (1993) Invasive behaviour of alien annuals. In: Plants invasions – theory and application. Workshop Abstracts, Kostelec and Ţernými lesy, p. 7. Eliáš P (ed.) (1997) Invasions and Invasive Organisms. Proceedings of the scientific conference on invasions and invasive alien species, Nitra, November 2006. Slovak National Committee for SCOPE et SEKOS-Slovak Ecological Society, Bratislava, 213 pp. Eliáš P (1998) The most important invasive species in Slovakia (Central Europe). In: Gluchov OZ et al (eds) Industrial Botanz. Current stage and Perspective of the Development (Promyslova botanika. Stan ta perspektiva razvitku). Multipress Doneck, 1998, p. 127-128. Eliáš P (2001) Management strategies for introduced alien species escaped into the wild. Livro de resumos do 10 Simpñsio sobre espécies exñticas (1st Symposium of exotics. Introduction, causes and consequences). Lisbon, Portugal, 24th-25th March 2000, p. 22-23. Eliáš P (2001) Invasive potential of introduced plant species and possibilities of its estimation (In Slovak with English summary). – Životne Prostredie (The Environment), Bratislava, 35(2), 83-86. Eliáš P (2003) Invasive species. In: Rydén, L., Migula, P., Andersson, M., (eds.), Environmental Science. The Baltic University Press, Uppsala, p. 230-239. – ISBN 91-970017-1-6 Eliáš P (2005) Invasive plants as environmental weeds. In Slovak. Ţivotné Prostredie }The Environment) 39 4, p. 200–203. Eliáš P (2006) How many invasive species in Central Europe ? In: Neobiota Conference, Wien, Book of Abstracts. Eliáš P (2008) How many is invasive plants in Central Europe ? In Slovak. Ecological studies, SEKOS, Nitra 7, 53-62. Eliáš P (2009) Biotic invasions and management of alien species. 1 st Edition. In Slovak. Slovak Agricultural University, Nitra. 186 pp. EPPO Website (2010) Reporting Service http://www.eppo.org/PUBLICATIONS/reporting/reporting_service.htm [Accessed on September 2010]. ESIS (2004) European Strategy for Invasive Alien Species. Bern Convention. Genovesi P & Scalera R (2007) Towards a black list of invasive alien species entering Europe through trade, and proposed responses. Convention on the Conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats. Standing Committee 27th Meeting, Strasbourg, 26–29 November 2007. T-PVS/Inf 9 Genovesi P & Shine C (2004) 'European strategy on invasive alien species.' Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Habitats (Bern Convention). 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Scherer-Lorenzen M, Elend A, Nollert S & Schulze D (2000): Plant invasions in Germany: general aspects and impact of nitrogen deposition. In: Mooney, H.A., Hobbs, R.J. (Eds.), Invasive species in a changing world. p. 351-368. Island Press, Washington, Sellers E, Simpson A & Curd-Hetrick S (2010) (Last Updated). List of Invasive Alien Species (IAS) Online Information Systems. A 'living document' based on a preliminary draft document, prepared for the Experts Meeting Towards the Implementation of a Global Invasive Species Information Network (GISIN), Baltimore, Maryland, USA, 6-8 April 2004. http://www.gisinetwork.org/Documents/draftiasdbs.pdf Shine C, Williams N & Gündling L (2000) A guide to designing legal and institutional frameworks on alien invasive species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland Cambridge and Bonn. Xvi + 138 pp. Smith IM (2005) EPPO‘s regional approach to invasive alien species. In: IPPC Secretariat. 2005. Identification of risks and management of invasive alien species using the IPPC framework. Proceedings of the workshop on invasive alien species and the International Plant Protection Convention, Braunschweig, Germany, 22-26 September 2003. Rome, Italy, FAO. xii + 301 pp. Vilà M, Basnau C, Gollasch S, Josefsson M, Pergl J & Scalera R (2009) One hundred of the most invasive alien species in Europe. In: DAISIE Handbook of alien species in Europe. Springer, Dordrecht. P. 265–268 Wittenberg R & Cock MJW (eds) (2001) Invasive alien species: A toolkit of best prevention and management practices. Global Invasive Species Programme, CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK. Xii + 228 pp Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 303 Monitoring Invasive Alien Plants in the Western Black Sea Region of Turkey Necmi Aksoy1, Ayşe Kaplan2, Neval Güneş Özkan1, Serdar Aslan1 Düzce University Forest Faculty Department of Forest Botany & DUOF Herbarium, Beçiyörükler, Düzce, Turkey, E-mail: necmiaksoy@duzce.edu.tr 2 Zonguldak Karaelmas University Faculty of Art-Science Department of Biology, Zonguldak, Turkey 1 In this study, information on the distribution of the following invasive alien plants in the Western Black Sea Region of Turkey is provided: Abutilon theophrasti Medik., Amorpha fruticosa L., Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist, Rosa multiflora Thumb., Lavatera arborea L., Oenothera biennis L., Opunthia ficus-indica (L.) Miller, Phytolacca americana L., Ambrosia elatior, Abutilon theophrasti, Amorpha fruticosa, Lavatera arborea. These species were found as a new record for the Düzce Region and were deposited at the DUOF herbaria. As a result of our observations, it was found that these plants could be invasive and naturalized in the near future. We discuss their monitoring possibilities with pollen data and land observations in the Western Black Sea Region. Introduction Düzce is situated on the Melen River Basin in the Western Black Sea Region of Anatolia. It is located in the north of the Elmacık Mountain range and in the south of the Kaplandede Mountain. The Düzce region is in the A3 grid square by considering the categorization of Davis (1965-88). It is under the influences of the Euro-Siberian, Mediterranean and IranoTuranian phytogeographic regions. The Düzce region shows a transitory character between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean climate. Compared to other Black Sea regions, it is less rainy in winter and temperatures are lower in winter and summer. No dry period is observed in the research area. Material and Method 1. Land survey Data from the literature were used to elaborate a detailed database of alien plant species in the Düzce region (Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands Vol:1-9 (Davis 1965-1988)). This information was updated by local botanists using data from their own field observations and collections (The Vegetation of Elmacık Mountain (Aksoy 2006), Flora and Ethnobotany of the Akçakoca District (Koca 2003) and the flora of Hasanlar Dam Lake and its surroundings (Güneş Özkan 2009). The number of total vascular plants reaches to more than one thousand taxa in the Düzce Region (Figure 1). Information from the Düzce and the Western Black Sea Region was exclusively obtained from the most recent literature as reported above. Herbaceous and woody plant samples including some organs like spores, flowers, fruits, cones, buds, leaves, stems and roots were collected as research material. Photographs of this material were taken and some information was noted like habitus, coordinate, altitudes, etc. Collected samples were dried in a wooden plant press. Dry samples were put in the freezer during 3 days for disinfection. The samples were then identified using Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 304 a stereo microscope. Plants collected from the study area were deposited in the herbarium of the Forest Faculty of the Düzce University (DUOF). Figure 1 - Map of Düzce province 2. Airborne pollen monitoring A Burkard Seven-day Recording Volumetric Spore Trap (BST) and Durham gravimetric sampler were used to monitor the airborne pollen and fungal spores at the city center (Figure 2) and the University Campus (Figure 3). The Durham sampler was installed on the roof of the Yimpaş Holding building in 2006 and the Burkard sampler was installed on the roof of the Forest Faculty in 2007 at 9 m above ground level for two years. During the investigation period, Pinus, Gramineae, Corylus, Ambrosia elatior, Carpinus, Fraxinus, Cupressus, Chenopodiaceae, Morus, Quercus, Fagus, Juniperus, Platanus, Ostrya, Abies, Alnus, Acer, Castanea were observed as dominant taxa in Düzce atmosphere (Serbest et al., 2008). Results and discussion The species have been sorted according to invasive behaviour (from higher to lower). Within the most aggressive, species have been sorted by their morphology (herbaceous, woody, habitat and so on). These species with the invasion scale (1. Low invasive, 2. Invasive, 3. Highly invasive 4. Extremely invasive) are presented in Table 1. Weekly Ambrosia elatior L. pollen dispersal per cm2 in 2006 by using the Durham sampler and per m3 in 2007 by using the Hirst Burkard Trap. Monthly Pollen concentrations reached a maximum level in August (53 g/cm2 in 2006, 635 g/m3 in 2007). Weekly pollen concentrations reached a high level at the 34th week (41 g/cm2 in 2006, 497 g/m3 in 2007). Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 305 The total number of pollen grains was 98 g/cm2 in 2006, 1174 g/m3 in 2007 (Table 2, Table 3, Figure 4). Table 1 - List of alien plants considered as invasive in the Düzce and the Western Black Sea Regions (1. Low invasive, 2. Invasive, 3. High invasive 4. Extremely invasive) Plant Name Determination Method Habitat Abutilon theophrastii Sandy, ruderal areas Field trip Medik., Malvaceae railroad Ailanthus altissima embankments, (Miller) Swingle, highway medians, Field trip Simaroubaceae fencerows, and roadsides Pollen Ambrosia elatior L., Damp acid grassland monitoring Asteraceae near coast. field trip Woodland garden; Amorpha fruticosa L., sunny edge; dappled Field trip Leguminosae shade In moist conditions, Conyza canadensis often near sea costs (L.) Cronquist, Field trip and weed of Asteraceae cultivation Dense woods, Rosa multiflora prairies, along stream Thunb. ex Murr., banks and Field trip Rosaceae roadsides and in open fields and pastures Lavetera arborea L., Coasts Malvaceae Meadow; Oenothera biennis L., beds Onagraceae Field trip cultivated Field trip Opuntia ficus-indica Dry, stony soils, often Field trip (L.) Miller, Cactaceae near villages. Phytolacca americana Slopes, fields, scrub L., Phytolaccaceae Field trip Destruction Property Degree of Invasion Invades fields. 1 near Invades cemeteries, 4 various natural areas + Invades ruderal areas, roadsides 3 and parks Invades Parks, natural areas and 3 ruderal areas Invades ruderal areas and near 4 fields Invades hillside pastures, and 3 roadsides to forest edges Invades Sea sides, dune areas and rocky slopes Invades roadsides, ruderal areas and parks Invades roadsides, stony slopes and near living places. Invades roadsides, near field areas and parks Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 2 2 1 4 306 Figure 2 - The Durham sampler located on Figure 3 - Burkard Spore Trap (BST) on the roof of the Yimpaş Building the roof the Forest Faculty Building Ailanthus altissima, Conyza canadensis and Phytolacca americana have been described as invasive species Ambrosia elatior, Amorpha fruticosa and Rosa multiflora have high invasive characters in curben parks and natural woodlands. Especially, Ambrosia elatior is widespread in the parks in the Düzce province. Phytolacca americana is occurs at the hedge of hazelnut tree plantation areas. Ambrosia elatior was firstly described by airborne pollen monitoring system after having been collected during a field trip in Düzce Univeristy Campus and Parks of Düzce City. Table 2 - Weekly Ambrosia elatior pollen dispersal per cm2 in 2006 and per m3 in 2007 by using Durham sampler and Hirst Burkard Trap. Weeks 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 Total 2006 2 0 2 10 10 28 0 2 2 1 0 41 98 g/cm2 2007 22 0 19 497 119 122 330 0 28 22 15 0 1174 g/m3 Table 3 - Monthly Ambrosia elatior pollen concentration in 2006 and 2007 by using gravimetric and volumetric methods, respectively. Months July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total Methods Gravimetric 2 53 42 1 98 grains/cm2 (1 cm2) (2006) Volumetric 22 635 502 15 1174 grains/m3 3 (1m ) (2007) Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 307 Figure 4 - Ambrosia elatior pollen grains. Aknowledgements Field trip study was sponsored by the Düzce University, Scientific Research Project (No: 2008.02.01.016) and airborne pollen monitoring study was supported by the Zonguldak Karaelmas University, Scientific Research Project (No: 2007-13-06-07). References Aksoy N (2006) The Vegetation of Elmacık Mountain, İ.Ü. Science Institute, Forest Botany, PhD thesis, İstanbul (TR). Davis PH (ed.) (1965-88) Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, Volume: 1-10 Edinburgh Universty Press, Edinburgh (UK). Güneş Özkan N (2009) The flora of Hasanlar Dam Lake and its surroundings, Düzce University, Science Institute, MSc thesis, Düzce (TR). Koca A (2003) Flora and Ethnobotany of the Akçakoca District, Hacettepe University, Science Institute, Department of Biology, MSc thesis, Ankara (TR). Serbes AB, Kaplan A, Aksoy N, Özdoğan Y & Güneş N (2008) Düzce İli Atmosferinin Polen Analizi, Ulusal Hava Kalitesi Sempozyumu (30-31 Mayıs 2008) Konya (TR) Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 308 Alien Plant Species in the Western Part of Turkey: Assessing their Invasive Status Emin Ugurlu 1 & Roberto Crosti 2 1 Department of Biology, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey, E-mail: emin.ugurlu@bayar.edu.tr 2 c/o ISPRA Dipartimento Difesa della Natura Tutela biodiversità Via Curtatone 3 - 00185 Roma, Italy The flora of the Mediterranean Basin contains about 24 000 plant species in a surface area of about 2.3 million km2, that is 10% of all known plant species in a quite small area; In contrast, non Mediterranean Europe covers about 9 million km2 but has only around 6 000 plant species. According to the Flora of Turkey, more than 9 000 species occur in the country of which approximately 1.5% are alien species. The Mediterranean type climate region of Turkey also has a very rich flora. In spite of, or due to, flora species richness many alien plants native from South Africa, Central and South America and North America occur in the region. For many alien species, however, the invasive status is unknown. This paper deals with the ecological features, occupancy and distribution of alien plants occurring in the Mediterranean Western part of Turkey (Western Anatolia). It is also an attempt to review the status of the alien plant species in order to assess the invasiveness, the stage in the invasion process, and the degree of naturalization of these species. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 309 Invasive alien plants in Armenia Kamilla Tamanyan & George Fayvush Institute of Botany, National Academy of Sciences of Armenian, Acharyan str. 1, Erevan 0063, Armenia, E-mail: ktamanian@yahoo.com, gfayvush@yahoo.com Preliminary estimation results of the threat of invasive alien plants to the natural ecosystems and biodiversity in Armenia is given. The problem of invasive alien plants in Armenia used to be underestimated. It was considered that due to the mountainous and indented landscapes and the absence of big plain territories, invasive alien plants could not harm natural ecosystems. By our efforts, the attitude towards the problem of invasive species has changed. Our research has shown that in Armenia one invasive alien plant cannot occupy large territories. Actually, a huge number of invasive alien plants are distributed in suitable habitats for them, and occupy relatively small areas by now, but all together they occupy a lot of space. The list of species requiring immediate attention contains: invasive alien plants that spread very fast, penetrate natural ecosystems and are considered as a real threat to natural ecosystems (for example Ailanthus altissima, Silybum marianum); species known as invasive in other regions of the world that enlarge their distribution, but do not show their invasive potential in Armenia yet (for example Ambrosia artemisifolia, Robinia pseudoacacia); native plant species that have enlarged their distribution range in the last years and represent a real threat to natural ecosystems and biodiversity nowadays (for example Astragalus galegiformis, Onopordum armenum, Tanacetum vulgare). Introduction Invasive alien plants are now one of the greatest threats to natural ecosystems and their control is one of the priorities in nature conservation. Until now, the problem of invasive species was practically not under consideration in Armenia. Within the last 50 years segetal flora and vegetation of the republic was investigated at different levels of detail. There were no dedicated investigations carried out on invasive alien plants. New species detected on the territory of Armenia with herbarium sample were stored in the herbarium of the Institute of Botany of the Republic of Armenia (ERE). Species that were specially introduced and used for town and settlement greenery or artificial afforestation and that further penetrated into natural ecosystems were totally out of attention. The first national report on Armenian biodiversity (1999) had a small section dedicated to invasive alien species. A small list of species was provided, which is now almost totally revised by the authors of this article. The main reason for this lack of studies on invasive alien plant in Armenia is probably due to the underestimation of the problem by the scientific community and governmental structures. It was considered that due to the mountainous and indented landscapes of the country and the absence of big plain territories, invasive alien plants could not harm natural flora and vegetation of the republic. Thanks to our efforts, the attitude towards invasive alien plants in Armenia changed a little. In 2005, a scientific research topic was approved and funded by the government, that included Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 310 the study of the spread of the main invasive alien plants in the territory of Republic. This funding is of course insufficient to get an exhaustive knowledge of the situation on invasive alien plants, but the first step is done and field investigations started. Invasive alien and spreading native plants in Armenia According to the results of a preparatory work (through literature and herbarium materials review), as well as of fields investigations, we created a list of plant species that would require immediate attention. It includes about 100 species and contains both species known as invasive in other regions of the world that are recently recorded in Armenia, and native spreading plants (table 1). Our investigations showed that in the mosaic-like conditions of the mountains of Armenia, these species cannot occupy large territories. Actually, a huge number of invasive alien plants are distributed in suitable habitats. About 100 species occur in disturbed areas or penetrated into natural ecosystems. Each of these species occupies rather small areas, but all together they occupy considerable space. Some of these species were introduced as ornamentals (Fayvush, 2008; Tamanyan, 2008). The species of most concern is currently the alien tree Ailanthus altissima, which is spreading in natural ecosystems in the north and south of Armenia, as well as in disturbed ecosystems of the central part of the country. Robinia pseudoacacia penetrates into natural ecosystems rather intensively in North Armenia. Silybum marianum spreads very intensively in North and South Armenia and needs constant control. Other species that occur only occasionally (Ambrosia artemisifolia, Galinsoga parviflora, Galinsoga ciliata, Sphaerophysa salsula, etc.) require constant control to prevent their spread. However, indigenous spreading species (Astragalus galegiformis, Onopordum armenum, different Cirsium, Carduus, Tripleurospermum species, Cardaria draba, Cardaria boissieri, Geranium tuberosum and many others), especially those growing plentifully in abandoned fields, require most attention, as they form reserves of seed and penetrate into natural ecosystems. There is a big concern connected with modern agricultural system in Armenia. Small individual economies, which were established during the land privatization in the 1990s, have become unprofitable in the majority of cases. As a result on the one hand the process of enlargement of agricultural economies started, and on the other hand big territories of agricultural land became abandoned. They became a source of conservation and distribution of seeds of many invasive species like Cirsium arvense, Cirsium incanum, Cirsium vulgare, Geranium tuberosum, Leucanthemum vulgare, and others. They are intensively spreading in abandoned fields and penetrating into natural ecosystems. The investigation of potentially invasive alien plants in Armenia may be very important for countries around the World. Biological control of alien pests is commonly used in many countries worldwide. Being one of the centers of biodiversity Armenia may provide potential material (insects, fungi and other) for fighting species invading natural ecosystems both in the country and abroad. It should be mentioned that many invasive alien plants in Armenia have the same potential and are pollutant in natural ecosystems in other countries. For example, 38 species in the Armenian flora are very dangerous invasive alien species in North America, and 4 Armenian plant species are included in the list of ―100 of the World‘s Worst Invasive Alien Species‖ (ISSG/IUCN). Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 311 Table 1 - Invasive alien and native spreading plants that are a potential threat for natural ecosystems of Armenia Species Acalypha australis Acer ibericum Acer negundo Achillea filipendulina Acroptilon repens Ailanthus altissima Alliaria petiolata Amaranthus retroflexus Status Potentially invasive species Spreading species Threat* Spreading in abandoned fields and semi-deserts 1 Intensively spreading in arid and semi-arid communities - 3 Potentially invasive Independently spreading in towns and settlements, species more rarely in disturbed habitats - 2 Spreading species Intensively spreading in disturbed habitats - 3 Spreading species Plentiful on disturbed habitats, abandoned fields 2 Invasive alien species Intensively penetrates natural ecosystems - 4 Spreading species Widespread in Armenian forests, but not plentiful and do not represent an immediate threat - 1 Spreading species Widespread in Central Armenia, especially in disturbed areas and in towns - 2 invasive First found in the north of Armenia in1983 (Gabrielian & Tamanyan 1985, Avetisyan 1995), currently spreading in north and central regions of Armenia - 2 Anchusa arvensis Spreading species Intensively spreading in disturbed habitats - 3 Anemone fasciculata Spreading species Intensively spreading in sub-alpine meadows - 2 Anthemis cotula, Spreading species Intensively spreading in meadows, abandoned Anthemis triumfettii fields and edges of forests - 4 Arctium palladinii Spreading species Intensively spreading on disturbed habitats, especially on forest glades - 2 Artemisia vulgaris Spreading species Intensively spreading in disturbed habitats - 2 Astragalus Spreading species Intensively spreading on forest edges, roadsides, galegiformis steppes in North and Central Armenia - 4 Bunias orientalis Spreading species Intensively spreading in ruderal habitats, roadsides, fields - 2 Caltha palustris Spreading species Intensively spreading in wetlands in middle and upper mountain belts - 2 Cardaria boissieri, Potentially invasive Intensively spreading in disturbed habitats, Cardaria draba species abandoned fields - 3 Carduus hamulosus, Spreading species Intensively spreading in disturbed habitats - 2 Carduus nutans Carthamus Spreading species Intensively spreading on disturbed habitats and turkestanicus penetrates into natural ecosystems in semi-desert and steppes - 3 Centaurea behen Spreading species Intensively spreading in steppe communities - 3 Centaurea diffusa Potentially invasive Weed in cereals fields, penetrating into steppes - 1 species Centaurea iberica Spreading species Intensively spreading in disturbed habitats in arid and semi-arid zones - 3 Centaurea solstitialis Potentially invasive Widespread in disturbed habitats - 3 species Chamaesyce maculata Spreading species Widespread in disturbed habitats in semi-desert 1 Chenopodium botrys Spreading species Widespread in disturbed habitats - 1 Chondrilla juncea Potentially invasive Widespread in disturbed habitats - 3 species Ambrosia artemisiifolia Potentially species Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 312 Circaea lutetiana Spreading species Cirsium anatolicum, Spreading species Cirsium arvense, Cirsium congestum, Cirsium incanum, Cirsium vulgare Clematis orientalis Spreading species Conium maculatum Consolida orientalis Conyza canadensis Crupina vulgaris Descurainia sophia Echinocystis lobata Erigeron acris, Erigeron annuus Erodium cicutarium Intensively spreading in disturbed forest habitats 2 Intensively spreading in disturbed habitats, especially in abandoned fields – 2-3 Intensively spreading along rivers of the Ararat valley - 3 Spreading species Intensively spreading in disturbed habitats, the spread in sub-alpine communities is registered - 3 Spreading species Intensively spreading in steppes, semi-deserts, very plentiful in abandoned fields - 2 Invasive species Intensively spreading in forests, especially in disturbed areas - 1 Spreading species Intensively spreading in steppes - 1 Spreading species Growing mainly in ruderal habitats, penetrating forests and meadows - 1 Potentially invasive Now is rather rare in North Armenia - 1 species Spreading species Intensively penetrating steppes and meadows - 1 Spreading species Intensively spreading in disturbed habitats in arid and semi-arid zones - 2 Euclidium syriacum Spreading species Intensively spreading in disturbed habitats in arid and semi-arid zones - 2 Euphorbia Spreading species Intensively spreading in steppe pastures by first seguieriana signs of overgrazing - 2 Galinsoga ciliata, Potentially invasive Widespread in towns, settlements; not registered Galinsoga parviflora species yet in natural ecosystems - 1 Geranium tuberosum Spreading species Intensively spreading in abandoned fields - 2 Glechoma hederacea Spreading species Intensively spreading in disturbed forest habitats 2 Gleditschia Potentially invasive Spreading along irrigation channels in the Ararat triacanthos species valley - 2 Goebelia Spreading species Intensively spreading in wetlands, in abandoned alopecuroides fields in the Ararat valley and the Vayots Dzor province - 3 Helianthus tuberosus Potentially invasive Cultivated on small squares, rarely occur in species ruderal and disturbed habitats - 1 Heracleum Spreading species Spreading intensively in disturbed habitats in antasiaticum, humid and semi-humid zones – 2-3 Heracleum schelkovnikovii, Heracleum sosnowskyi, Heracleum trachyloma Hyppophae Spreading species Was introduced in different regions of Armenia rhamnoides (mainly in the Sevan basin), now is spreading in natural habitats - 3 Impatiens glandulifera Potentially invasive Found in North Armenia, needs special control - 1 species Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 313 Iva xanthifolia Leontodon hispidus Lepidium latifolium, Lepidium ruderale Leucanthemum vulgare Lythrum salicaria Onopordum acanthium Onopordum armenum Papaver macrostomum Peganum harmala Picris hieracioides Polygonum alpinum Populus alba Rhynchocorys orientalis Robinia pseudoacacia Potentially invasive Found in West Armenia, needs special control - 1 species Spreading species Spreading in steppes and meadows - 2 Spreading species Spreading in disturbed habitats - 2 Spreading species Intensively spreading in abandoned fields, penetrates meadow and steppe communities - 4 invasive Widespread in wetlands - 2 Potentially species Potentially invasive Spreading in disturbed habitats - 1 species Spreading species Very intensively spread in disturbed habitats and penetrates into natural habitats, especially in central and west parts of Armenia. Enlarged a lot its area in the last years - 4 Spreading species Intensively spreading in steppe and meadow communities - 2 Spreading species Spreading in disturbed habitats - 1 Spreading species Spreading in disturbed habitats - 1 Spreading species Intensively spreading in sub-alpine communities 2 Spreading species Spreading in wetlands - 1 Spreading species Intensively spreading in meadows - 3 Invasive species Salix caprea Sanicula europaea Scandix stellata Spreading species Spreading species Spreading species Siegesbeckia orientalis Silybum marianum Spreading species Solidago virgaurea Sonchus oleraceus Sphaerophysa salsula Spinacia tetrandra Tagetes minima Tanacetum parthenium Tanacetum vulgare Rarely occcurs in natural communities, not threat yet. Very intensive spread in neighboring countries - 3 Intensive spread in disturbed forest habitats - 2 Intensive spread in disturbed forest habitats - 2 Intensive spread in abandoned fields, penetrates meadow and steppe communities - 2 Spreading lower mountain belt - 1 Invasive species Enlarged a lot its area in South and North Armenia within last years - 4 Potentially invasive Widespread in forest and meadow communities species 1 Spreading species Spreading in wetlands - 1 Invasive species First recorded in Armenia in 1990 (Zakharian & Fayvush 1991); within those years it spread in the Ararat valley - 1 Spreading species Spreading in semi-deserts - 1 Invasive species Was introduced as an ornamental plant, now spreads in disturbed ecosystems - 1 Spreading species Spreading in steppes - 2 Invasive species Tribulus terrestris Spreading species Tripleurospermum caucasicum, Tripleurospermum transcaucasicum Spreading species Enlarged a lot its area in the whole of Armenia within last years - 3 Intensively spreading in disturbed habitats in arid and semi-arid zones - 1 Intensively spreading in meadow and steppe communities, especially because of overgrazing 4 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 314 Veratrum album Spreading species Intensively spreading in meadow associations because of overgrazing - 2 Intensively spreading in abandoned fields and disturbed habitats, penetrate steppes - 2 Verbascum Spreading species georgicum, Verbascum laxum, Verbascum paniculatum Xanthium italicum, Potentially invasive Widespread in disturbed habitats - 2 Xanthium spinosum, species Xanthium strumarium Xeranthemum Spreading species Intensive spread in steppes and semi-deserts, squarrosum especially in disturbed habitats - 2 4 - Invasive or spreading species intensively penetrating into natural ecosystems; 3 - Invasive or spreading species widely distributed in disturbed habitats, and rarely penetrating into natural ecosystems; 2 - Invasive or spreading species distributed in disturbed habitats, but not recorded in natural ecosystems yet; 1 - Plants with great invasive potential (known as invasive in other countries), but not threatening natural ecosystems of Armenia yet. References Avetisyan V (1995) Genus Ambrosia. In: Flora of Armenia (ed. Takhtadjan A L), 9, 494 (in Russian). Koeltz Scientific Books, Koenigstein. Biodiversity of Armenia. First National Report. (1999).Yerevan. Fayvush G (2008) Investigation of invasive plant species in Armenia. Abstr. of 5 th European conference on biological invasions ―Neobiota: towards a synthesis‖, Prague (Czech Republic), 23-26 September 2008, p.72. Gabrielian E & Tamanyan K (1985). New genus and rare species for the flora of Armenia. Biological journal of Armenia 38, 164-166 (in Russian). Tamanyan K (2008) Invasive plant species and agriculture in Armenia. Abstr. of 5th European conference on biological imnvasions ―Neobiota: towards a synthesis‖, Prague (Czech Republic), 23-26 September 2008, p. 114. Zakharian M & Fayvush G (1991) Sphaerophysa (Fabaceae) - a new genus for the flora of Armenia. Biological journal of Armenia 44, 53-54 (in Russian). Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 315 Invasive aquatic plants in the French Mediterranean area. First results of a French survey Emilie Mazaubert 1, Alain Dutartre1, Nicolas Poulet 2 1 REBX, Cemagref, 50 avenue de Verdun, 33612 Cestas Cedex, France, E-mails : emilie.mazaubert@cemagref.fr; alain.dutartre@cemagref.fr 2 Onema-DAST, Direction Générale, "Le Nadar" Hall C, 5 square Félix Nadar, 94300 Vincennes, France nicolas.poulet@onema.fr Following the request of the French Working Group on Biological Invasions in Aquatic Environments (BIAE), a survey has been launched to assess the current situation of the management of biological invasions in aquatic environments in France. Since October 2009, we gathered information about invasive alien plant presence, impacts and effectiveness of control attempts. This article summarizes the results obtained for invasive alien plants in the French Mediterranean region. Out of 27 responses, the majority of records are affiliated with watershed local authorities or associations. The most common species recorded in this survey are similar to those most cited at the national scale, i.e. the water primrose (Ludwigia sp.) and the Japanese knotweed, (Fallopia sp.). We also analyzed the different types of impacts and management actions associated with each plant species recorded. The results are similar to those obtained for the whole French territory. The management costs were also examined. A second phase of investigation should help clarify all this data and refine the analysis and interpretation. Introduction Increasing numbers of plant and animal species are introduced intentionally or accidentally by humans in areas often very remote from their native location. These introductions are facilitated by globalization, increased trade and transcontinental communications and travel. A proportion of these introduced species can adapt to their new environment and under certain conditions become invasive. (Richardson et al., 2000). The problems caused by invasive species are due to their ability to grow rapidly and reproduce prolifically, and thus to colonize space, often to the detriment of native species. This phenomenon often comes along with negative impacts on the environment and on human activities (fishing, boating, etc.) but also on human health (transmission of diseases, allergies, etc.) that can have significant economic consequences. (Pimentel et al., 2005; Kettunen et al., 2008) For all these reasons, the problem of invasive alien species (IAS) is of growing concern for researchers and institutions tasked with the management of natural resources (Mazaubert, 2008). Thus, within the framework of an agreement between the French National Agency for Water and Aquatic Environments (Onema) and the Cemagref (Institute for Research in Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 316 Science and Technology for the Environment), a Working Group on Biological Invasions in Aquatic Ecosystems (BIAE) was instituted in January, 2009. Under the coordination of the Onema, this working group gathers managers, institutional investors and researchers. The main objectives of the WG BIAE are: - To generate a set of guidelines for the management of biological invasions in aquatic ecosystems - To develop operational tools of species management intended for managers and policy makers - To define strategic longer term research issues The discussions of this group include: - Identification of environmental, economic and social stakes of IAS management, - Identification of the involved actors and the mobilizable capacity for the implementation of coordinated actions, - Definition of the steps required to properly meet the challenges, - Conception of tools and protocols for the implementation of the national strategy on IAS, (Muller & Soubeyran, 2010) - National contribution at the European level (European Water Framework Directive, standardization, etc.). The management representatives in the working group felt that management issues were not adequately represented in these original objectives. They insisted on the needs and expectations of local managers, including providing recommendations for practical interventions. As a consequence of these comments, a survey on invasive alien species in aquatic environments and their management was initiated. The objectives of this survey are: - To answer to this specific request of the members of the working group by: creating a synthesis of management actions on aquatic alien species already undertaken in France, providing access to already existing results and sharing knowledge, - To allow exchanges between managers and to participate, in the longer term, to the realization of maps of management actions at the national level. Thus, this survey includes information on managers and users of aquatic environments, on the territories they have to manage, on the invasive alien animal and/or plant species found, and on the management actions undertaken and their efficiency. The final objective of this survey was to produce a synthesis of the management interventions of invasive aquatic species in France. It also aims to identify the methods most commonly used for a particular species, their cost and their efficiency. We aim to gather the maximum amount of information possible for dissemination on a large scale in order to optimize future management actions. The survey To achieve the objectives described above, the volume of data required from this survey dedicated to managers and/or users of the aquatic environment had to be very large; it was therefore decided to conduct a 2-step survey. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 317 The first step, currently underway, includes a questionnaire to collect all the information available about the observer, the institutional structure to which he/she is affiliated and the territory concerned with regards to the observation. For each species, information about the identification is required as well as the habitats colonized, the frequency of invasion, the presumed impacts of the IAS and the management methods used. This first phase also offered the opportunity for observers to indicate if they already had provided information on this subject and, if necessary, for which purpose. This prevented observers from providing the information twice. A sufficient number of responses was needed to conduct complete analyses and to have an overall view of the distribution of species and management actions at the national scale; the survey was distributed as widely as possible. Members of the WG BIAE had in charge to relay the questionnaire to various organizations and institutions (e.g. the Water Agencies, natural reserves, Fishing Federations, etc.). This first step helped in defining new targets for the questionnaire. After contacting the observers, the second step was to collect various information about the management methods, their effectiveness and their cost. We expected that this approach would also allow further identification of other potential cooperating agencies. (Mazaubert & Dutartre, 2010) First exploitation results on invasive plant species in the Mediterranean region Although the WG BIAE is in charge of both invasive alien animals and plants, only the results on invasive alien plants in the French Mediterranean region were analysed. These results can be compared with results from the whole French area. General Information The French Mediterranean region includes three administrative regions (see Figure 1). We sent the questionnaire to several tens institutions during six months. We receive back 2, 11 and 14 responses respectively for Corsica, Languedoc-Roussillon and Provence-Alpes-Côte d‘Azur; i.e. 27 responses were obtained for the Mediterranean French region. This corresponded with 10% of all current responses to the survey. Figure 1 - Administrative regions of the Mediterranean area in France Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 318 Moreover, distribution of the survey had to concern all agencies or institutions confronted with the presence and impact of invasive alien species and / or having already realized the management actions on these species. The diversity of the respondents was significant (associations, local authorities, federations, parks, etc.) (Mazaubert & Dutartre, 2010). Most observers in the Mediterranean regions belong to watershed local authorities or associations (see Figure 2) and those observers gathered under the label "Other" are part of the public institutions (MNHN and VNF) or a research centre. 7 6 6 5 5 4 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 Figure 2 - Number of responses by type of institutions in the French Mediterranean region Information species by species In the first part of the questionnaire, respondents were asked to indicate, from lists of proposed species, the species present in their territory, and to provide an indication of the frequency of observations of different species. This frequency can correspond to both an extensive geographical distribution of these species and/or to species better identified by the observers for various reasons (because they are more visible in ecosystems, cause greater/more numerous/more easily identifiable impacts; Mazaubert & Dutartre, 2010). Among the 18 species listed in the questionnaire, 15 were cited as present in the Mediterranean region (see Figure 3). The survey allowed to give information on additional species observed. Among the additional species listed, only Baccharis halimifolia can be considered as an alien aquatic species. This species is taken into account in a further detailed analysis in this article. The following questions were asked per species in order to gather detailed information. Among these issues, some concern the impacts caused by the species while other questions were related to management interventions (see Figure 3). Figure 3 shows the discrepancy between knowledge of the presence of a species and more detailed information about the impacts and management for that species. Indeed, for half of the species whose presence is reported in the Mediterranean region, information on the presence is not accompanied by detailed information on the impacts or the management. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 319 Of the 16 alien aquatic plant species listed as present in the Mediterranean region, water primerose (Ludwigia sp. and knotweed (Fallopia sp.) were the most documented species. Both were also better represented at the national level. The presence of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) and common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) was also frequently mentioned, but the details are scarce. The same observation can be made at national level for the black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Ambrosia artemisiifolia Azolla filiculoides Baccharis halimifolia Buddleja davidii Carprobrotus sp. Caulerpa taxifolia Presence in Mediterranean Region Impacts Egeria densa Management Elodea sp. Fallopia sp. Heracleum mantegazzianum Impatiens sp. Lagarosiphon major Ludwigia sp. Myriophyllum aquaticum Polygonum polystachyum Robinia pseudoacacia Figure 3 - Number of observations Impact of species It was important to gather presence data as well as management data about the invasive alien species in order to assess the impacts caused by the plant species on the aquatic environment. To facilitate manager response and to structure subsequent analysis of the data (Mazaubert & Dutartre, 2010), the questionnaire presented several types of possible impacts: Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 320 environmental characteristics (flow modifications, water quality modifications, shoreline erosion, bottom erosion), biodiversity (competition with native species, predation of native species, a vector of pathogens, standardization of landscape) and the use of the environment (access, hunting, fishing, commercial or recreational navigation, agriculture, bathing, irrigation, industrial water intake, drinking water). Descriptions of the generated impacts are provided for seven plant species in the Mediterranean region (see Figure 3). As for the national level, the results of the survey show that the impacts of invasive plants are numerous and varied (see Figure 4). On environmental features 0% 14% Flow modifications Water quality modifications Shoreline erosion 29% 57% Bottom erosion On biodiversity 38% Competition with native species Predation of native species Pathogen vector 0% 4% Standardization landscape 58% On the use of the environment Environment access 0% 8% 4% 4% 0% Hunting 16% Fishing 36% 24% 8% Navigation (commercial or recreational) Agriculture (direct impact on crops) Bathing Irrigation Industrial water intake Drinking water Figure 4 - Impacts of invasive plants in the French Mediterranean area Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 321 In the Mediterranean region, flow modifications caused by spread of plant population is the main impact identified while at the national level, flow and water quality modifications, and shoreline erosion have the same proportions of quotations. This difference could be explained by the lower diversity of species for which information is provided on the impacts in the Mediterranean region or by higher hydrological sensitivity of the aquatic Mediterranean waterbodies. However, the main impacts on biodiversity (competition with native species and unified landscape) and on use (accessible environments and fisheries) in the Mediterranean regions are similar to the national level. At the scale of the Mediterranean region as in the case nationally, these impacts can be partly explained by the development of dense plant beds in stagnant waterbodies which can cause asphyxia or large deposits of organic material or plant proliferation causing bank erosion and reduced accessibility for users. On the other hand, the impacts can be linked together: e.g., a plant species that thrives in the body of water can reduce the ecological quality and cause a decrease in the presence of fish and thus have a negative effect on fishing activities. Species management Different modalities of management of alien plant species were proposed in the questionnaire: mechanical intervention (e.g. grubbing, clearing, dredging), manual intervention, biological control (e.g. grazing), physical regulations (e.g. drought, shading, filters), thermal and chemical treatment or "other" (requiring clarification). Descriptions of generated impacts are provided for each of the eight plant species in the Mediterranean region for which the information is detailed (see Figure 3). Different methods can be used for the management of the same species. A comprehensive analysis of the relative use of different management techniques was realised for the group of these plant species (see Figure 5). 7% 0% 4% 26% 7% Mechanical interventions Manual interventions 4% Biological regulation Physical control Chemical or thermal treatment Renaturation waterbodies 52% Other (scarification for Ambrosia artemisiifolia) Figure 5 - Invasive plants management methods Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 322 As at the national level, the management methods most often used for plants are manual and mechanical interventions. Cost of management actions We asked respondents to provide an estimate of the cost of managing invasive alien species ("Cost in Euros associated with the management of these species per year (all methods)"). It was not our intention to obtain specific information about a species or a management approach. Rather, a response and an estimate of value were considered as sufficient. This provides an estimate of the cost of management. (Mazaubert & Dutartre, 2010). Of the 27 responses in the Mediterranean region, only 12 included data about costs of management, this represents less than half of the observations in this region and only 4% of the observations at the national level. The range of unit costs reported in the responses of the Mediterranean region is from € 0 to € 80,000 and a total annual sum is € 253,000, which represents about 8% of the total sum calculated at the national level. The poor response numbers probably lead to a very important underestimation of the actual costs of managing invasive alien species in aquatic environments. Even if some individual answers may correspond to an effective cost, responses currently available do not provide a complete picture. As a matter of fact, these responses do not cover the whole country and we could not determine how representative these responses are. Moreover, it is not possible to determine whether the amounts listed include all costs that may be involved in the management of these species (equipment, personnel, operations themselves, transport costs, recycling costs, etc). Thus, more detailed information should be obtained during the next step of the investigation. On this occasion, it will also be interesting to study the zero-sum data probably corresponded at some volunteer management actions. Conclusion and the future Based on results from our preliminary study, the French Mediterranean region does not appear to be different from the whole French territory. Indeed, the presence of a large number of plant species has been reported but these species (except Caulerpa taxifolia) are also present in the country. Apart from slight differences in the proportions, the impacts of these species reported in the Mediterranean region are the same as the national level. Similarly, the main methods used for their management remain manual and mechanical removal. However, responses in the Mediterranean are scarce. Therefore, it is difficult to have a global vision from the 27 responses received which do not cover the entire Mediterranean region, and to state on the representativeness of results, including all species or the cost of management. Another investigation should be carried on in order to increase the number of responses and to enhance the current database with a new request for the target audience that did not respond in the first round, but also through disseminating the questionnaires specifically to new potential partners. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 323 Afterward, a more detailed mapping analysis will be conducted to draw a broader picture of the species distribution and of the management actions implemented by species across the country. Comparing these maps may also help to identify the absence of management in particular cases and help identify the reason(s) for these gaps. Compilations and surveys have been conducted in France for over a decade, with various goals: first inventories (Dutartre et al., 1997), definition of status of invasion (Aboucaya, 1999), assessment of management challenges for invasive plants (native or exotic) (Moreau & Dutartre, 2001) or state of the biological invasions in French Nature Reserves (Touzot et al., 2002). The investigation reported on here has broader objectives and the data analyses of the information gathered during the next phase will contribute to better define the practical implementation of a national strategy for the management of invasive alien species. The network facilitating information exchange between managers and the working group BIAE may also contribute to disseminate information and thoughts in this field. Acknowledgements The implementation of this survey on invasive alien species and their management in aquatic environments has prompted many reflections since February 2009. We thank all members of the WG BIAE who participated in the creation of the questionnaire and Katell Petit of International Office of Water (IOW) allowing its availability on the Internet. We also thank everyone who took the time to complete this survey and that allowed us to construct a preliminary but valuable database on the topic. Thanks to Sebastien Boutry for his mapping approach (Figure 1), Maud Menay for her comments on previous versions of the manuscript and Soizic Morin and Florian Delrue for their help in the English writing. References Aboucaya A (1999) Premier bilan d'une enquête nationale destinées à identifier les xénophytes invasifs sur le territoire français (Corse comprise). Actes du colloque " Les plantes menacées de France", Brest, 15-17 octobre 1997. Bulletin de la Société Botanique Centre Ouest, N. S., nþ spécial 19, 463-482. Dutartre A, Haury J & Planty-Tabacchi AM (1997) Introduction de macrophytes aquatiques et riverains dans les hydrosystèmes français métropolitains. Bulletin Français sur la Pêche et la Pisciculture 344/345, 407426 Kettunen M, Genovesi P, Gollasch S, Pagad S, Starfinger U, Ten Brink P & Shine C (2008) Technical Support to EU Strategy on Invasive Species (IS) - Assessment of the Impacts of IS in Europe and the EU (Final Module Report for the European Commission). Brussels, Belgium. Mazaubert E (2008) Les espèces exotiques envahissantes en France : évaluation des risques en relation avec l'application de la Directive Cadre Européenne sur l'Eau. Bordeaux, Cemagref, Laboratoire d'hydrologie-environnement de l'Université Victor Segalen (Bordeaux 2), pp. 124. Mazaubert E & Dutartre A. (2010) "Enquête sur les espèces exotiques envahissantes en milieux aquatiques en métropole et leur gestion. Réalisation et première analyse des résultats (Rapport d'étape)." Rapport Cemagref, pp.43. Moreau A & Dutartre A (2000) Elaboration d'un guide de gestion des proliférations de plantes aquatiques. Synthèse des données d'enquête. Rapport de phase 2. Agence de l'Eau Adour Garonne. Cemagref, Unité de Recherche Qualité des Eaux, pp. 21 + annexes. Muller S & Soubeyran Y (coords.) (2010) Mieux agir contre les espèces exotiques envahissantes. Conférence française pour la biodiversité, 10-12 mai 2010. Note de cadrage, pp. 26. Pimentel D, Zuniga R & Morrison D (2005) Update on the Environmental and Economic Costs Associated with Alien-Invasive Species in the United States. Ecological Economics 52, 273-288. Richardson DM, Pysek P, Rejmánek M, Barbour MG, Panetta FD & West CJ (2000) Naturalization and Invasion of Alien Plants: Concepts and Definitions. Diversity and Distributions 6(2), 93-107. Touzot O, Dutartre A, Leveau D & Pont B (2002) Enquête sur les plantes introduites dans les réserves naturelles : bilan 1998. Rapport Cemagref, Réserves Naturelles de France, pp. 95. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 324 The inventory of the alien flora of Crete (Greece) Costanza Dal Cin D‘Agata 1, Melpomene Skoula 1 & Giuseppe Brundu 2 1 Park for the Preservation of Flora and Fauna, Technical University of Crete, Michelogianni str. Prof. Ilias - SODY 73100, Chania, Greece E-mail cdagata@isc.tuc.gr; mskoula@mail.tuc.gr 2 Department of Botany, Ecology and Geology, University of Sassari, Italy E-mail: gbrundu@tin.it (Presenting author) The island of Crete (8,729 km2) lying between Greece and Libya, is the most southerly region of Greece and Europe. Relatively high mountains dominate the rugged landscape, the climate is typically Mediterranean where mean annual rainfall decreases from west to east and from north to south, but increases with altitude. The Mediterranean basin region has been subject to human intervention for millennia, so that little remains of native natural ecosystems, especially in the coastal area, where urban and tourism pressure are remarkable severe. Yet the region in general and Crete in particular, is still an important biological resource for native phytodiversity. The aim of this study, started in 2005 and presently in progress, is to carry out the first comprehensive inventory of the alien flora of Crete and distribution mapping of the main invasive alien species. Data from literature and field observations were used to develop a preliminary information database for the inventory that includes, so far, 272 alien taxa, 85 of which are naturalized, 51 are casual and 21 are considered invasive. The woody component comprises 142 species of trees, shrubs and sub-shrubs, woody vine and succulent. For each species the following information has been collected: origin, status, distribution, life form, phenology, habitat preferences, altitudinal range and introduction pathway. Mapping data has been stored in a geodatabase using GIS software, and preliminary analysis of the main features of the Crete alien flora is herewith presented. The most abundant and invasive alien species in Crete are Oxalis pes-caprae, Ailanthus altissima, Robinia pseudoacacia, Carpobrotus edulis, Nicotiana glauca and Ricinus communis. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 325 Cactaceae naturalized in the Italian Mediterranean region Alessandro Guiggi 1 & Giuseppe Brundu 2 1 Viale Lombardia 59, 21053 Castellanza (VA), Italy. E-mail: alex.guiggi@libero.it Department of Botany, Ecology and Geology, University of Sassari, Italy. E-mail: gbrundu@tin.it (Presenting author) 2 The Mediterranean region has recently been interested by the introduction and invasion of new taxa of Cactaceae. Climate change, horticulture and deliberate introduction in the urbanwild interface are some the principal drivers of this phenomenon. A revision and updating of the previous published Catalogue of the Cactaceae naturalized in Italy is now published and presented here. Two new genera (Cereus, Mammillaria) and five new species (Cereus hildmannianus, Cylindropuntia spinosior, Mammillaria bocasana, M. elongata and M. polythele) are recorded for the first time and described for Italy. Noteworthy, species of the genus Mammillaria are recognized for the first time as naturalized in Europe. A total of 26 taxa belonging to 8 genera have been recorded in the Mediterranean region of Italy. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 326 Comparison of the alien vascular flora in continental islands: Sardinia (Italy) and Balearic Islands (Spain) Lina Podda Centro Conservazione Biodiversità (CCB), Dipartimento di Scienze Botaniche, Università degli Studi di Cagliari., Italia. E-mail: linap68@yahoo.it This paper provides a comparison of the vascular alien flora of the island of Sardinia and that of the Balearic Islands, both territories belonging to the Western Mediterranean biogeographic subregion. The study has recorded 531 exotic taxa in Sardinia (18.8% of the total flora) while 360 (19%) were recorded in the Balearic Islands; 10 are new to Sardinia (3 for Italy) and 29 are new for the Balearic Islands. The alien flora of Sardinia is included in 99 families; Fabaceae is the richest (49 taxa), followed by Poaceae (33) and Asteraceae (31) while in the Balearic Islands the alien flora is included in 90 families, with a predominance of Fabaceae (32), Asteraceae (31) and Poaceae (27). The comparison of the biological spectrum reveals that in Sardinia phanerophytes are the most represented, while therophytes are the most represented in the Balearic Islands. A detailed analysis shows that many of the exotic taxa (246) are shared by both territories with a clear dominance of neophytes rather than archaeophytes. A study of the geographical origin shows supremacy of the American element over the Mediterranean. The most occupied habitats are the semi-natural, agricultural and synanthropic for both territories, but for invasive plants, coastal habitats in Sardinia and wetlands in the Balearic Islands are the most sensitive. An important part of the work deals with the causes of fragility and low resilience of the different habitats. Further analyses have been undertaken to compare the densities of exotic species per area unit between Sardinia, the Balearic Islands and other continental and oceanic islands. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 327 Is it the analogue nature of species which enables their successful invasion in woodland and coastal ecosystems of the southwest Australian Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot? Judith L. Fisher 1, D Merritt 2 & K Dixon 1, 2 1 School of Plant Biology University of Western Australia / Fisher Research, PO Box 169, Floreat, Perth, Western Australia 6014, Australia. E-mail: ecologist@waanthropologist.com (Presenting author) 2 Science Division Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority, Perth Western Australia An analogue species will be defined as an invasive alien species which mimics, to some extent the resident native species. The potential causes for the successful invasion of two analogue species, in different ecosystems i.e. woodland and coastal in the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot of southwestern Australia will be investigated. Investigations have been conducted between the resident woodland species Austrostipa flavescens and the invasive Ehrharta calycina and the coastal Acacia rostellifera with the invasive Retama raetam. All native and invasive species are perennial, a trait of 75% of the resident native species. A comparison of seed biology traits between the analogue and native species has been made. We will provide preliminary data to determine if in fact it is the analogue nature, which has enabled them to establish in their new Mediterranean environment, with the differences in seed production and germination enabling them to be come invasive. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 328 Alien plants in cotton fields and their impact on Flora in Turkey İlhan Üremiş 1, Bekir Bükün 2, Hüseyin Zengin 3, Ayşe Yazlik 4, Ahmet Uludağ 3 1 Univ. of Mustafa Kemal, Fac. of Agriculture, Dep. of Plant Protection, Hatay/Turkey E-mail: iuremis@yahoo.com 2 Univ. of Harran, Fac. of Agriculture, Dep. of Plant Protection, Sanliurfa/Turkey 3 Univ. of Igdir, Fac. of Agriculture, Dep. of Plant Protection, Igdir/Turkey 4 Atatürk Central Horticultural Research Institute, Yalova/Turkey Cotton is one of the most important crops in Turkey. Weeds are among the factors which interfere with cotton production. Some alien plants such as Amaranthus spp., Conyza spp, and Physalis spp. as well as native ones such as Sorghum halepense create problems in cotton fields. In addition these weeds are a problem in the other summer crops and orchards. Turkey is like a small continent for biodiversity as it has three bio-geographic zones (Europe-Siberia, Mediterranean and Irano Turanian) and transitions, and it also serves as a bridge among continents with big variations in climate and geographic features within a short time span which helps Turkey to be an important source of biodiversity. The flora of Turkey has more than 10 000 species of which 1/3 of them are endangered. Turkey is also a main source of genetic material and species richness for the whole world. Invasive species are a main threat to the biodiversity. There are no works on invasive species in Turkey. In this presentation we will use Physalis species which were recently introduced to our country and cause major problems in the fields. Only one Physalis species was listed in the flora of Turkey (P. alkekengi). Previous surveys performed in cotton fields did not report this species. However, surveys after 1990 showed that P. angulata, P. philedalphica var. immaculata ve P. lanceifolia are most abundant and widespread species in cotton fields. This study will focus on Phyaslis species to show invasive alien plants are a problem in arable areas explaining possible introduction/spread ways and possible measures. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 329 Some Invasive Weeds in Turkey: Diplachnea fusca, Chondrilla juncea, Bromus spp. Mehmet Demirci1, , Ilhan Kaya2, H. Aykul2, Süleyman Türkseven3, Yıldız Nemli3 1 Agrobest group, Izmir, Turkey Yuzuncu Yil University, Agriculture Faculty, Plant Protection Department, 65080 Van, Turkey E-mail: ilhank@yyu.edu.tr (Presenting author) 3 Ege University, Agriculture Faculty, Plant Protection Department, Izmir, Turkey 2 Chondrilla juncea L. grows naturally in the edges of fields and gardens in Turkey and in many European Countries. However, this plant has been known as invasive weed in Australia and has been causing serious problem since 1970 in wheat fields. Puccinia chondirilla, which is the natural enemy of C. Juncea, is widespread in Turkey and European Countries. The introduction of the P. chondirilla to Australia allowed an efficient biological control of C. Juncea. Biological control has been made successfully since its introduction. The aquatic plant Diphlachne fusca (L.) P. Beauv. was introduced into Turkey in the year 2003 and has been recorded as invasive in rice fields. It is spreading every year. There is no record of its presence in the Flora of Turkey dated 1975. The genuses of Avena, Phalaris, Alopecurus and Lolium have always been considered the most important monocotyledon weeds in wheat fields in Turkey. In recent years, Bromus spp. grown at the edges of the fields has begun causing damage in wheat fields. Bromus tectorum L. and Bromus japonicus Thunb. were found as two important weeds species. These two species have been reported as invasive plants. For the control of these invasive plants the sulfosulfuron, proxycarbazonsodium+mezosulfuron methyl-sodium herbicides have been recently preferred. The excessive weed control practices damaging the natural flora and weed transmission between countries have resulted in the adaptation of new weeds to the new areas and subsequently weed invasion of fields. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 330 Some Important Invasive Plants Belonging to the Asteraceae Family in Turkey Ilhan Kaya, Işık Tepe, Reyyan Yergin Yuzuncu Yil University, Agriculture Faculty, Plant Protection Department, 65080 Turkey/Van E-mail: ilhank@yyu.edu.tr (Presenting author) In this study, the origins, introductions, infestations and problems caused species belonging to the Centaurea, Cirsium and Onopordum genera (Asteracea family) are discussed. Centaurea diffusa Lam. (diffuse knapweed), Centaurea solstitialis L. (yellow starthistle), Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. (Canada thistle) and Onopordum acanthium L. (cotton thistle) are important invasive weeds for Turkey. These species originate from Europe and spread from this origin to other countries. C. diffusa is widespread in the Western part of North America, the Balkans, Ukraine, Russia. In Turkey, the species is generally seen in the Marmara Region. In USA, it is the main problem in alfalfa. This plant is mainly seen on roadsides, pastures and uncultivated land. C. solstitialis is introduced to Africa, Asia, West and Central America from Europe. It is found in almost all regions of our country and causes damage in meadow-pasture and uncultivated land. C. arvense is seen in the Caucasus, Iran, Afghanistan, North Asia, North America and in the whole of Turkey. This plant can cause yield reduction in cereals, maize, sugar beet, potatoes, sunflowers, legumes, vegetables gardens, fruit orchards, meadows, pastures and forage crops. O. acanthium was spread to Central Asia and North America from Europe. In Turkey, it is seen in Eastern, Northern and Southern Anatolia, mainly in roadsides and cultivated areas. These plants, belonging to the Asteraceae family, have spread between countries and have been creating important problems in the introduction areas. These plants were originally introduced from Europe and gained considerable attention as invasive weeds of agricultural and non-agricultural areas. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 331 Some Invasive Obligate Parasitic Plants: Cuscuta spp., Orobanche spp., Phelipanche spp. Yıldız Nemli 1, Reyyan Yergin 2, Şeyma Tamer 1, Peyman Molaei 1, Ahmet Uludag 3, Süleyman Türkseven 1 1 Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection, 35100, Izmir, Turkey 2 Yuzuncu Yil University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection, 65080, Van, Turkey 3 Igdır University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection,76000, Igdır, Turkey E-mails: yildiz.nemli@ege.edu.tr, reyyanyergin@yyu.edu.tr, seyma85tamer@hotmail.com, molaei.p59@gmail.com, ahuludag@yahoo.com, suleyman.turkseven@ege.edu.tr Cuscuta, Orobanche and Phelipanche spp. are important parasitic plant genera in Turkey as well as worldwide. Two cuscuta species one native to the old world, C. approximata, and the other native to the new world, C. campestris, became problematic in both worlds due to their invasiveness. Orobanche spp. and Phelipanche spp. parasitize many crops such as tomato, tobacco, sunflower, lentil and faba bean in Mediterranean countries which represent their native range. They are known as invasive and problematic in the USA. It is concluded that parasitic plants are invasive plants can create problems in introduced areas in their native places. Introduction Turkey has a very rich and diverse flora with 8707 vascular plants and 85 non vascular plants reported (Davis, 1988). Endemic plants represent approximately 30% of the flora while many other plants are clasified as rare or endangered. Few species are documented as alien. Parasitic plants also contribute to the richness of Turkey‘s flora. Parasitic plant species from the Cuscutaceae, Loranthaceae, Orobanchaceae, Rafflesiaceae, Santalaceae, Scrophulariaceae families have been recorded in the flora of Turkey (Uludag & Nemli, 2009). Parasitic plants have been detected in both agricultural and non-agricultural areas. The most economically important parasitic plants in Turkey are broomrapes (Orobanche spp. and Phelipanche spp.) followed by dodders (Cuscuta spp.). Some of these species are introduced, but most of them are native to the Mediterranean basin. This presentation discusses broomrapes‘ and dodders‘ origins, introductions, infestations and problems caused, illustrated with some examples. Dodders (Cuscuta spp.) Dodders (Cuscuta spp.) are holoparasitic plants belonging to Cuscutaceae which parasite stems and branches of their hosts. Approximately 120 dodder species have been recorded all over the world (Yuncker, 1932). There are 15 dodder species in Turkey (Plitmann, 1978; Nemli, 1978). Economicaly important dodder species are C. campestris Yunck, C. approximata Bab., and C. monogyna Vahl. (Table 1). These three species have different invasion patterns as explained below. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 332 Table 1 - The main dodders species and their host in Turkey (Nemli, 1978, Nemli, 1986) Species Host C. campestris Yunck. Capsicum annuum L., Medicago sativa L., Allium sativum L., Daucus carota L., Pimpinella anisum L., Carum carvi L. C.ampproximata Bab. Medicago sativa L. C. monogyna Vahl. Vitis vinifera L., Rubus spp., Rhus coriaria L., Paliurus spinacristi Mill., Quercus coccifera L. C. campestris, native to the USA, is distributed all over the world. It is thought that C. campestris was introduced in Turkey in 1925 via seeds imported. It infests over 40 plants species that are wild or domesticated in all regions of Turkey (Nemli, 1978). C. approximata is native to the old world, and had been introduced into North America. It isa ―noxious weed‖ in many countries (Yunker, 1932). It attacks lucerne and is called alfa alfa dodder. In many case, C. approximata infests lucerne with C. campestris. C. monogyna is native to the old world, from France, North Africa, Europe, Central Asia to Aganistan and Persia including Turkey. Its hosts are woody plants. It is found in large areas on Vitis vinifera around the Cappadocia (Ürgüp). Its hosts in Turkey are Rhus coriaria, Styrax officinalis, Pistacia vera, Rubus sp., Rosa sp., Quercus coccifera, Crataegus sp., Poliurus spina-cristi (Nemli, 1978). It is not being found in North America. It spreads around his native area and not introduced to other continent. Broomrapes (Orobanche spp. and Phelipanche spp.) Parasitic plants from the genera Orobanche and Phelipanche are called broomrapes (Joel, 2009). In most of the literature these two genera are considered as one genus as Orobanche (Gilli, 1982 ). Although we recognize separated genera as Joel (2009) indicates, we will use Orobanche only because we will follow Flora of Turkey (Gilli, 1982) in this paper. Traditional morpholgy is of limited value in Orobanche, because of reduced plant body (Musellman, 1994). Traditional plant anatomy, polen morphology, seed-microstructure caracteres are necessary to clarify the identity of the plants. Broomrapes are holoparasitic plants and attack roots of their host. There are 35 broomrape species in Turkey (Gilli, 1982). Four broomrape species are widespread and serious problem in agricultural crops (Table 2). Those species are O. crenata Forsk., O. cernua Loefl., O. ramosa L., and O. aegyptiaca Pers.. Broomrapes are native to the Mediterranean region (i.e., North Africa, the Middle East, and southern Europe), and Western Asia, where they cause significant crop damage (Parker & Riches, 1993). Broomrape species have spread in many parts of the world. According to Musselman (1994) the first serious infestation of O. ramosa in the USA was in Kentucky (German, 1903). In the same time, it has spread to California and then to Texas in 1982. The distribution of Orobanche species extended to central Europe, which were first recorded in Serbia in 1951 (Mašireviš & Mediš-Pap, 2009). Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 333 Table 2 - Major species and some of their hosts ( Parker, 1986; Nemli et al., 2009 Species Host O. crenata Forsk. Vicia faba L., Pisum sativum L. Cicer arietinum L. Lens culinaris Medick. O. cernua Loefl. Helianthus annuus L. (Syn: O.cumana Waller) O. ramosa L. / O. aegyptiaca Pers Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanum melongena L. Solanum tuberosum L. Lens culinaris Medick. Conclusions In this paper, it has been shown that parasitic plants also can show invasive characters. Broomrape species, which are native to Mediterranean areas, have reached central Europe. Their further spread might be expected due to climate change. Two dodder species one native to the old world, C. approximata, and the other native to the new world, C. campestris, became problematic in both worlds due to their invasiveness. Their occurrence in lucerne fields in both areas might help to figure out their introduction pathways: seed import/export, which highlights the importance of quarantine measures to prevent the spread of invasive plants. References Davis PH (1988) Flora of Turkey and East Aegean Islands. Vol:10, Edinburg University Press. Gilli A (1982) Orobanche L. In: Flora of Turkey and East Aegean Islands (Ed. Davis PH), Vol. 7 pp. 3-23, Edinburg University Press. Joel D (2009) Taxonomic and evolutionary justifications for considering Phelipanche as a separate genus. In: Proceedings 10th World Congress on Parasitic Plants, 8-12 June 2009, Kusadasi, Turkey (Ed. Rubiales D, Westwood J & Uludag A). pp. 15. Mašireviš S & Mediš-Pap S (2009) Broomrape in Serbia from its occurrence till today. Helia 32, 91-100. Musselman LJ (1994) Taxonomy and Spread of Orobanche. In: Biology and Management of Orobanche, Proc. Of the Third International Workshop on Orobanche and related Striga research (Ed. Pieterse AH, Verkleij JAC & ter Borg SJ). Pp. 27-35. Royal tropical Institute. Amsterdam, The Netherlands,. Nemli Y (1986) Anadolu‘da kültür alanlarında bulunan küsküt türleri (Cuscuta spp.); yayılışları ve konukçuları üzerinde araştırmalar. E.Ü.Z.F. Dergisi 23 (3), 11-21. (in Turkish). Nemli Y (1978) Çiçekli Parazit Bitkilerden Cuscuta L.‘nin Anadolu Türleri Üzerinde Morfolojik ve Sistematik Araştırmalar. Doktora Tezi, Ege University (in Turkish). Nemli Y, Uludag A, Türkseven S, Demirkan H & Kaçan K (2009) Research on broomrape control in tomato fields in western Turkey. In: Proceedings 10th World Congress on Parasitic Plants, 8-12 June 2009, Kusadasi, Turkey (Ed. Rubiales D, Westwood J & Uludag A). pp. 90. Parker C (1986) Scope of agronomic problems caused by Orobanche species. Proc. Biology and Control of Orobanche. (Ed. Ter Borg SJ). pp:11-17. LH/VPO, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Parker C & Riches CR (1993) Parasitic Weeds of the World: Biology and Control. CAB International Plitmann U (1978) Cuscuta L. In: Flora of Turkey and East Aegean Islands (Ed. Davis PH), Vol. 6 pp. 222-237, Edinburg University Press. Uludag A, Nemli Y (2009) Parasitic flowering plants in Turkey. In: Proceedings 10th World Congress on Parasitic Plants, 8-12 June 2009, Kusadasi, Turkey (Ed.Rubiales D, Westwood J & Uludag A). pp. 57. Yuncker TG (1932) The Genus Cuscuta. Memoirs of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 18, 113-331. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 334 Some invasive weeds in cereal areas of Northern Cyprus: Oxalis pes-caprae and Gladiolus italicus A. Göksu 1, Y.Nemli 2, K. Vurana 1, B.Gökhan 1, S. Türkseven 2, M. Demirci 3, A. Erk 1, E. Hakel 1 1 Ministry of Agriculture of Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Ege University, Izmir, Turkey 3 Agro Best Group, Izmir, Turkey 2 There are 69.2 thousands hectares of agricultural area of which 89% is under dryland farming, in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Cereals cover 60% of the agricultural area. Barley is the main cereal, representing 92% of the production. Two common weeds from barley fields will be discussed in this presentation: Gladiolus italicus and Oxalis pes-caprae. G. italicus is a perennial plant of Eurasian origin. Its pink blossom, which occurs in February and March, is its most noticeable character. The plant can reach up to 1 m high. It is common in barley fields in Carpaea Region which is one of the rainy parts of Cyprus. Its Turkish name is ―arpa otu‖ which means literally ―barley‘s weed‖. O. pes-caprae is a South African geophyte which spreads vegetatively by bulbils and underground shoots, and easily colonizes many areas. It has been introduced into many Mediterranean and temperate regions of the world. It has spread in many islands. Similarly to G. italicus, it is common in the Carpea region. It does not let other plants grow around it and invades a whole field. It is observed that another common weed of the region, Sinapis alba cannot spread in the same field infested by O. pes-carpae. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 335 Validation and use of the Australian Weed Risk Assessment in Mediterranean Italy Roberto Crosti 1, Carmela Cascone 2 & Salvatore Cipollaro 2 c/o ISPRA Dipartimento Difesa della Natura Tutela biodiversità Via Curtatone 3 - 00185 Roma, Italy E-mail: robertocrosti@libero.it 2 ISPRA Dipartimento Difesa della Natura-Uso Sostenibile Risorse Naturali, Rome, Italy 1 A biological invasion is always an irreversible process which often leads to ecological and economic harm. The capacity to pre-screen potential invasiveness of plant species is, consequently, important for the conservation and management of natural habitats, especially within agro-ecosystems. In this type of anthropogenic manipulated ecosystem, many factors increase the creation of newly available niches. As a consequence, the presence and establishment of invasive species with the potential to spread and cause harm, or constrain elements of semi-natural habitat or vegetation remnants, may increase. The invasiveness of weedy germplasm may also be accelerated by the propagule pressure of cultivated species that are able to escape from fields through crop movement or on livestock. The future use of agricultural land for widespread and intensive cultivation of biofuel crops for energy production increases the need for a pre-entry screening tool both for species that are new to the Italian cropping system and for the management of existing weedy species. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of adapting the Australian and New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment (WRA) to the geographic, climatic and weed management context of Italy. We evaluated the performance of the adapted WRA on several alien plant species of known invasiveness in Mediterranean Central Italy. WRA score results were compared with a priori independent opinions of botanists with field experience in the evaluated region. The assessment procedure correctly identified 93% of invasive species and 75% of non-invasive species. Further evaluation was needed for 20% of the tested species and was conducted through a secondary screening. Throughout the whole process, only one (5%) of the investigated species could not be assessed. The results of the Receiver Operating Characteristic analysis, the consistency of the outcomes with those found in other WRA studies, the Chi Square testing categories and the high correlation between the a priori and WRA score corroborated the predictive accuracy of the WRA for determining invasive from non-invasive species. This confirmed the effectiveness of the screening process and an assessment was subsequently carried out on proposed biofuel species detecting some potential invaders. The WRA can thus be used to assess the introduction of new cropping systems and for weed management. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 336 A proposal for a cooperation program on modeling the spread of invasive weeds Guillaume Fried 1, Anwar Al Mouemar 2 & Henry Darmency 3 Laboratoire National de la Protection des Végétaux, Station de Montpellier, CBGP, Campus International de Baillarguet, CS 30016, 34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez Cedex, France. E-mail : fried@supagro.inra.fr 2 Faculty of Agronomy, Damas, Syria 3 INRA, Dijon, France 1 Evidence of northern spread of Solanum eleagnifolium and Echhornia crassipes in Syria is certainly a marker of the global warming effect. A few casual occurrences are also noticed in the Mediterranean area in France. It is likely that the distribution of these weeds will continue to progress northward. Since there are few efficient control methods, preventive actions where the weeds are not yet established seems to be the best way to manage the threat. Consequently, monitoring the habitats which are prone to the entry and establishment of these weeds, as well as sensitive habitats with threatened species or plant communities, is the only but urgent measure that countries of the northern border of the Mediterranean Sea must set up. Ecological and biological characteristics drawn from the experience and knowledge of countries where the invasive weeds are already present and continue to occupy new areas can provide suitable data to model the favorable habitats and the endangered areas. More precise measurements of certain key aspects of the life cycle should improve current available models. Reciprocally, such predictive models can provide new insights into the possible management of habitats allowing better control of the invasive weeds. The eco-climatic conditions in Syria and in the South of France fit the described situation and provide the opportunity to launch a bilateral cooperative program on this topic. We invite all colleagues from any countries to join us and to propose a more global program. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 337 Impact of Humulus japonicus on riparian communities in the south of France Guillaume Fried Laboratoire National de la Protection des Végétaux, Station de Montpellier, CBGP, Campus International de Baillarguet, CS 30016, 34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez Cedex, France. E-mail : fried@supagro.inra.fr Japanese hop (Humulus japonicus Sieb. et Zucc., syn. H. scandens Lour. Merrill) is an annual fast-growing vine, native to deciduous forests of East Asia (Japan, China, Korea, Russian Far East). It was introduced to Europe in 1886 for ornamental purposes. So far, its naturalisation was only known from Hungary, North Italy and Slovenia. In France, the plant was observed for the first time in 2004 in a riparian habitat near the Gard river (south of France). In Hungary, dense stands are reported to endanger the vegetation along rivers. Since precise data on impacts were lacking, vegetation in invaded and uninvaded plots with similar site conditions was sampled. In stands of H. japonicus mean species richness per m² only reached 3.63 (range: 0-6). In comparison, non-invaded neighbouring areas contained an average of 9.33 species per m² (range: 5-14). The most frequent species associated with H. japonicus were Chenopodium album, Galium aparine and Rumex obtusifolius. We observed a high competitive ability of H. japonicus: even tall species such as Sorghum halepense or Arundo donax were bent under the load of its thick, heavy and shady mesh. Only two species: Parthenocissus inserta and Cucubalus baccifer, with a similar biological life form (climbing stems) were observed at high coverage with H. japonicus. If species richness is reduced by 60%, the invaded communities do not present a high floristic interest as they are mostly composed of ruderal and nitrophilous species (Atriplex prostrata, Torilis arvensis), or other invasive species (Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Artemisia verlotiorum, Helianthus tuberosus). Moreover, H. japonicus forms an important litter that can modify the substrate for many years. The potential impact of this species on other riparian communities should therefore not be overlooked. Finally, it should be remembered that the pollen of H. japonicus is allergenic and could provoke health problems. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 338 Allélopathie chez Oxalis pes-caprae comme mécanisme potentiel d’invasion des céréales d’automne M Bouhache, A Taleb & A Gharmmate Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, B.P. 6202, Rabat –Instituts, Maroc E-mail : m.bouhache@gmail.com & a.taleb@iav.ac.ma Originaire d‘Afrique du Sud, Oxalis pes-caprae L. (= O. cernua Thumb.) (oxalide en français) est une adventice envahissante largement distribuée dans toutes les régions à climat méditerranéen. C‘est une espèce dicotylédone bulbeuse et rhizomateuse qui se reproduit végétativement par bulbilles. Au Maroc, cette espèce a été introduite au début du 19ème cycle. Elle a été considérée comme espèce naturalisée et rudérale. Actuellement, elle infeste les écosystèmes agricoles. Cette étude a été conduite dans le but d‘étudier les effets allélopathiques des extraits aqueux d‘O. pes-caprae sur la germination et la croissance des céréales d‘automne (blé tendre, blé dur et orge). Aux stades végétatif et floraison de l‘oxalide, les extraits aqueux des parties aérienne et racinaire à l‘état frais et sec ont réduit significativement la germination des semences (mises dans des boites de Pétri) des trois céréales. En outre, ces extraits ont également réduit la longueur et la biomasse des racines et des coléoptiles des céréales. L‘effet allèlopathique dépend de l‘espèce de céréale, mais aussi de l‘organe et du stade de l‘oxalide pour l‘extraction des substances allélopathiques. L‘effet inhibiteur des extraits s‘est révélé très prononcé à la concentration la plus élevée (extrait non dilué). Introduction L'oxalide pied de chèvre (Oxalis pes-caprae L.) est une adventice vivace, dicotylédone, appartenant à la famille des Oxalidaceae, originaire d‘Afrique du Sud et qui a envahi différentes régions du monde à climat méditerranéen. Son introduction au Maroc est plus récente puisqu‘elle est présente dans plusieurs régions du Maroc depuis le début du siècle ? (Jahandiez & Maire, 1931). Au début de son introduction, l‘oxalide se comportait comme une espèce rudérale et était cantonnée le long des routes, des clôtures ou haies, au voisinage des bâtiments et le long des cours d‘eau. Actuellement, son aire d‘invasion s‘est élargie et l‘espèce a gagné les jardins privés et publics, les paysages urbains, les vergers et les cultures. Le niveau d'infestation de cette espèce dans les milieux cultivés a ainsi beaucoup augmenté. En culture des céréales, une densité de 135 pieds/m2 d‘oxalide a été notée dans la région de la Chaouia (Rsaissi, 1994). L‘oxalide est ainsi considérée comme l'une des espèces problématiques des céréales dans plusieurs régions du Maroc (Tanji, 1988 ; Tahri, 1993 ; Rsaissi, 1994). Un tel niveau d‘infestation cause une perte de rendement en grain des céréales d‘automne de 35 à 42 % (Rsaissi, 1994). Sur la base des processus écologiques, l‘épuisement des ressources (compétition, utilisation des ressources et allélopathie) est l‘une des trois catégories de mécanismes d‘invasion biologique utilisées par les plantes (Ren & Zhang, 2009). L'allélopathie consiste à émettre ou à libérer des substances organiques par divers organes d'une plante (vivante ou Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 339 morte) dans un milieu et ces substances peuvent inhiber ou stimuler la croissance des plantes avoisinantes ou succédantes. En d'autres termes, il s'agit de l'interaction biochimique entre deux plantes (Rice, 1984). En effet, Qasem (1995a) avait démontré que les extraits aqueux ou la matière sèche des parties aériennes au sol de plusieurs espèces adventices, accompagnatrices du blé en Jordanie, ont un effet allèlopathique sur la germination et la croissance de cette céréale. En absence d'investigation sur le phénomène d'allèlopathie des mauvaises herbes des céréales au Maroc, cette étude a pour objectif de vérifier l'existence d'un tel phénomène chez l'oxalide afin de comprendre sa recrudescence dans ces cultures. Matériel et méthodes 1. Origine du matériel végétal Les lots de semences des céréales non traitées (blé dur, blé tendre et orge) ont été offerts par le Service de Certification des Semences et des Plants (D.P.V.C.T.R.F.). Trois variétés de chaque espèce ont été retenues: Marzak, Karim et Oum Rabia pour le blé dur ; Merchouch, Kanz et Achtar pour le blé tendre et enfin Tamellalt, Tiddas et Tissa pour l'orge. L'oxalide (Oxalis pes-caprae L.) a été récoltée à l'état frais à partir d'une parcelle infestée naturellement à l'Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II à Rabat, aux stades végétatif et floraison. 2. Préparation des extraits de l'oxalide Une quantité de 150g de chaque partie de l'oxalide fraîche a été lavée avec de l'eau potable. Seules les racines ont été mises dans une solution de l'hypochlorite de sodium à 10% (v/v) pendant 5 mn et nettoyées avec de l'eau potable puis avec de l'eau distillée. Les deux parties ont été broyées séparément dans un mixeur pendant 5 mn dans un litre d'eau distillée. Le mélange a été laissé à décanter pendant une demi-heure. Le broyât est filtré au moyen d'un tamis de 0,75 mm de maille dans la première étape et dans une deuxième à travers le papier Wattman nþ l. La même procédure a été suivie pour les échantillons secs. Toutefois, les quantités prises ont été de 17,2 et 16,4 g respectivement de la partie aérienne et souterraine. Ces quantités représentent l'équivalent de 150 g de leurs poids frais. L'oxalide fraiche a été séchée à la température de 80þC pendant 48h. 3. Mise en germination des semences de céréales Un lot de 10 semences de chaque variété des céréales a été placé sur le papier filtre dans des boites de Pétri (diamètre = 8,5 cm). Des volumes d'extraction de l'oxalide des parties aériennes et souterraines (fraîches ou sèches), ont été ajoutés à des proportions de 0, 3, 6 et 10 ml dans chaque boite de Pétri. Le volume final a été ramené à 10 ml avec l'ajout d‘eau distillée, ce qui nous a permis d'obtenir les concentrations suivantes: 0, 30, 60 et 100%. Les boites de Pétri ont été mises à incuber pendant 10 jours à la température ambiante de laboratoire et à l'obscurité. Au troisième jour de mise en germination, 2 ml d'une solution à base de bénomyl (fongicide) à la concentration de 3 g/l ont été ajoutés dans chaque boite de Pétri. Ce traitement a été fait pour éviter toute contamination par des champignons. 4. Mesures et observations A la fin de la durée d'incubation (10 jours), les paramètres suivants ont été mesurés: Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 340 - pourcentage de germination (%), - longueur moyenne du coléoptile (cm), - longueur moyenne de la radicule (cm) - poids frais moyen du coléoptile (g), - poids frais moyen de la radicule (g). 5. Analyses statistiques Avant de soumettre les données obtenues à l'analyse de la variance, la transformation arc sin de la racine carrée a été adoptée pour les pourcentages de germination. Dans les cas de la longueur et du poids, la transformation Log (x+l) a été utilisée après vérification de l'homogénéité des variances avec le test de Hartley. Pour chaque espèce de céréale, les résultats présentés sont les moyennes des trois variétés. Résultats L'analyse des résultats a permis de relever que les extraits aqueux de l'oxalide, aux stades végétatif et floraison, ont un effet allèlopathique sur la germination et la croissance des trois céréales étudiées. L‘importance du phénomène dépend de l‘espèce de céréale, mais aussi du stade, de l‘organe et de l‘état de l‘oxalide (Tableaux 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 et 6). Tableau 1 - Effet des extraits aqueux de l'oxalide au stade végétatif sur la germination et la croissance du blé dur. Partie de la plante Concentration Germination (%) Poids moyen (g) Longueur moyenne (cm) Radicule Coléoptile Radicule Coléoptile Aérienne Fraîche 0 30 60 100 85,5 a* 80,0 a 53,3 b 37,8 b 0,12 a 0,04 b 0,03 c 0,01 c 0,08 a 0,06 b 0,05 b 0,05 b 16,2 a 3,9 b 2,9 c 1,5 d 10,0 a 8,6 b 6,4 b 3,9 c Aérienne Sèche 0 30 60 100 80,0 a 82,9 a 64,4 b 55,6 b 0,08 a 0,08 a 0,05 b 0,04 b 0,12 a 0,12 a 0,10 b 0,09 b 11,2 a 10,4 a 7,8 b 5,7 c 15,4 a 14,4 a 13,3 b 11,1 c Racinaire Fraîche 0 30 60 100 94,4 a 90,0 a 64,4 b 45,6 c 0,12 a 0,05 b 0,03 c 0,02 c 0,08 a 0,08 a 0,06 b 0,04 b 18,1 a 7,5 b 2,9 c 2,4 c 11,4 a 9,4 a 7,5 b 7,0 b Racinaire Sèche 0 30 60 100 77,8 a 77,8 a 71,1 a 47,8 b 0,10 a 0,07 b 0,06 b 0,05 b 0,13 a 0,12 b 0,13 a 0,10 b 12,3 a 9,7 b 8,2 b 6,9 c 16,2 a 14,2 a 15,4 a 11,6 b *Pour chaque partie de la plante et pour chaque état de l‘oxalide, les chiffres d‘une même colonne de la même lettre ne sont pas différents significativement selon le test de StudentNewman-Keuls à p=0,05. 1. Stade végétatif En général, le pourcentage d'inhibition de la germination du blé dur, du blé tendre et de l'orge tend à augmenter avec la concentration de l'extrait d‘oxalide. A la concentration de Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 341 100%, la germination a été réduite de 30,4 à 68,6% selon les espèces. En général, l'effet allèlopathique est plus important avec les extraits des parties fraîches de l'oxalide. De même, la partie aérienne fraîche a tendance à avoir plus d'effet que la partie racinaire. Une fois séchée, la partie racinaire a tendance à inhiber la germination des semences de céréales plus que la partie aérienne. A la concentration de 30%, l'effet négatif des extraits aqueux n'est pas significatif ou a été stimulateur de la germination en comparaison avec le témoin. En général, la germination de l'orge est plus affectée que celle des blés (Tableaux 1, 2 et 3). La présence des extraits aqueux de l'oxalide dans le milieu de germination a un effet inhibiteur sur le poids et la longueur de la radicule et du coléoptile des plantules des trois céréales tableaux 1, 2 et 3). Le poids et la longueur de la radicule ont été plus touchés que ceux du coléoptile. Ainsi, les pourcentages de réduction du poids de la radicule et du coléoptile ont varié de 44 à 92% et de 0 à 54,5%, respectivement. Les longueurs de la radicule et du coléoptile ont été réduites de 42 à 92% et de 5,2 à 61%, respectivement. En général, les extraits aqueux des parties fraîches ont plus d'effet sur la radicule que ceux des parties sèches. Aux concentrations intermédiaires (30 et 60%), la croissance du coléoptile n'est pas affectée négativement ou est stimulée en comparaison avec le témoin. La croissance de la radicule du blé dur est plus inhibée par les extraits que celle du blé tendre et de l'orge (Tableaux 1, 2 et 3). Tableau 2 - Effet des extraits aqueux de l'oxalide au stade végétatif sur la germination et la croissance du blé tendre Partie de la plante Concentration Germination (%) Poids moyen (g) Longueur moyenne (cm) Radicule Coléoptile Radicule Coléoptile Aérienne Fraîche 0 30 60 100 98,9 a* 93,3 b 70,0 c 47,8 d 0,09 a 0,06 b 0,02 c 0,01 c 0,07 a 0,07 a 0,05 b 0,05 b 13,3 a 6,5 b 2,4 c 1,4 c 8,4 a 8,6 a 5,9 b 5,0 b Aérienne Sèche 0 30 60 100 82,3 a 71,1 a 66,6 a 55,8 a 0,09 a 0,07 ab 0,06 b 0,03 c 0,11 b 0,12 a 0,10 b 0,06 b 11,6 a 10,6 ab 8,4 b 3,8 c 13,1 a 13,5 a 11,9 a 8,1 b Racinaire Fraîche 0 30 60 100 97,8 a 86,7 b 76,7 b 52,2 c 0,09 a 0,07 b 0,05 c 0,02 d 0,07 b 0,09 a 0,08 a 0,05 b 13,2 a 9,1 b 5,0 c 2,1 d 9,8 b 12,6 a 11,6 a 7,2 b Racinaire Sèche 0 30 60 100 85,6 a 83,3 a 68,9 a 57,8 b 0,09 a 0,09 a 0,06 b 0,05 b 0,09 b 0,13 a 0,11 ab 0,09 b 12,0 a 10,7 b 7,5 c 6,0 d 11,5 a 13,0 a 12,3 a 10,9 a *Pour chaque partie de la plante et pour chaque état de l‘oxalide, les chiffres d‘une même colonne de la même lettre ne sont pas différents significativement selon le test de StudentNewman-Keuls à p=0,05. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 342 Tableau 3 - Effet des extraits aqueux de l'oxalide au stade végétatif sur la germination et la croissance de l'orge Partie de la plante Concentration Germination (%) Poids moyen (g) Longueur moyenne (cm) Radicule Coléoptile Radicule Coléoptile Aérienne Fraîche 0 30 60 100 92,2 a* 90,0 a 76,7 b 28,9 c 0,12 a 0,07 b 0,04 c 0,02 c 0,11 a 0,08 ab 0,09 b 0,05 b 13,2 a 5,9 b 3,3 c 1,1 d 10,5 a 8,6 ab 7,2 ab 5,6 b Aérienne Sèche 0 30 60 100 66,7 a 72,2 a 60,0 b 42,2 b 0,09 a 0,07 ab 0,07 ab 0,0‘ b 0,16 a 0,16 a 0,16 a 0,13 a 10,0 a 8,4 b 6,8 bc 5,8 c 15,3 a 16,8 a 14,9 a 13,1 a Racinaire Fraîche 0 30 60 100 95,6 a 93,3 a 74,4 b 44,4 c 0,11 a 0,07 b 0,05 b 0,03 c 0,11 a 0,12 a 0,09 b 0,07 b 14,2 a 8,1 b 4,4 c 2,0 d 11,9 a 12,7 a 9,8 a 6,9 b Racinaire Sèche 0 30 60 100 76,7 a 77,8 a 65,6 a 38,9 b 0,10 a 0,07 b 0,05 bc 0,04 c 0,16 a 0,17 a 0,14 ab 0,13 b 10,1 a 8,5 a 5,6 b 4,3 b 15,6 ab 16,3 a 14,8 ab 13,3 b *Pour chaque partie de la plante et pour chaque état de l‘oxalide, les chiffres d‘une même colonne de la même lettre ne sont pas différents significativement selon le test de StudentNewman-Keuls à p=0,05. 2. Stade floraison L'inhibition de la germination par les extraits aqueux de l'oxalide dépend de l'espèce de céréales et de la concentration de l'extrait. La germination du blé tendre est moins sensible aux extraits aqueux en comparaison avec le blé dur et l'orge. Plus la concentration de l'extrait est grande plus le pourcentage d'inhibition est important. A la concentration de 100%, la germination a été réduite de 5,8 à 55,9%. Contrairement aux parties souterraines de l'oxalide, les parties fraîches aériennes ont plus d'effet que les parties aériennes sèches. De même, les extraits aqueux de la partie aérienne de l'oxalide ont plus d'effet allélopathique que la partie racinaire (Tableaux 4, 5 et 6). La croissance en termes de poids et de longueur de la radicule et du coléoptile a été affectée par l'ajout des extraits aqueux de l'oxalide dans le milieu de germination. A ce stade, le poids et la longueur de la radicule des céréales ont été plus réduits que ceux du coléoptile. Les pourcentages de réduction du poids de la radicule et du coléoptile varie de 0 à 73 et de 0 à 39%, respectivement. Par ailleurs, la longueur de la radicule et du coléoptile a été réduite de 1,1 à 87,5% et de 0 à 47%, respectivement. Les extraits aqueux de la partie aérienne fraîche ont été plus nocifs que ceux de la partie aérienne sèche. Les extraits de la partie racinaire sèche ont beaucoup plus inhibé la croissance des céréales que ceux de la partie racinaire fraîche (Tableaux 4, 5 et 6). En général, un effet allélopathique négatif négligeable et/ou un effet stimulateur de la croissance des céréales a également été observé aux concentrations intermédiaires. La croissance radiculaire du blé dur est plus inhibée que celle du blé tendre et de l'orge par les extraits de la partie aérienne de l'oxalide, alors que la racine de l'orge est plus affectée par les extraits de la partie racinaire de l'oxalide que celle des blés. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 343 Tableau 4 - Effet des extraits aqueux de l‘oxalide au stade floraison sur la germination et la croissance du blé dur Partie de la plante Concentration Germination (%) Poids moyen (g) Longueur moyenne (cm) Radicule Coléoptile Radicule Coléoptile Aérienne Fraîche 0 30 60 100 93,3 a* 85,6 b 67,8 c 41,1 d 0,11 a 0,08 b 0,04 c 0,03 c 0,09 a 0,12 a 0,06 b 0,06 b 14,3 a 11,1 b 4,1 c 2,4 d 12,1 ab 15,0 a 7,5 b 6,4 c Aérienne Sèche 0 30 60 100 72,2 a 63,3 a 65,5 a 50,0 a 0,08 a 0,07 ab 0,06 ab 0,05 c 0,09 a 0,10 a 0,07 b 0,06 b 15,0 a 10,7 b 8,7 b 4,9 c 11,7 a 11,1 a 10,1 a 8,5 b Racinaire Fraîche 0 30 60 100 88,9 ab 94,4 a 91,1 ab 82,2 b 0,11 b 0,13 a 0,12 ab 0,11 b 0,11 c 0,12 b 0,15 a 0,12 b 18,9 a 19,0 a 18,9 a 18,4 a 12,2 b 16,2 a 16,9 a 15,9 a Racinaire Sèche 0 30 60 100 74,4 a 66,7 a 66,7 a 56,7 a 0,07 a 0,06 a 0,04 b 0,03 b 0,09 a 0,09 a 0,07 b 0,06 b 14,4 a 8,4 b 6,5 b 4,9 c 12,7 a 11,3 a 10,7 a 10,3 a *Pour chaque partie de la plante et pour chaque état de l‘oxalide, les chiffres d‘une même colonne de la même lettre ne sont pas différents significativement selon le test de StudentNewman-Keuls à p=0,05 Discussion Bien que l‘oxalide soit une géophyte (vivace), elle arrive à boucler son cycle végétatif avant la maturation des céréales et sa partie végétative aérienne disparaît complètement du champ. De ce fait, seules les bulbilles persistent dans le sol et y restent vivantes pour ré-infester le champ la campagne agricole suivante (Ater, 2005). Les peuplements denses de cette adventice sont parfois la cause de pertes considérables (jusqu‘à 42%) de rendement de céréales infestées et d‘ intoxications du bétail (Rsaissi & Bouhache, 2005). En outre, Vilà et al. (2006) ont démontré expérimentalement dans quelques îles méditerranéennes que la présence de l‘oxalide dans un milieu pourrait changer la structure de la végétation et/ou réduire la diversité et la richesse du milieu envahi. Cependant, lors d‘une étude sur la compétition entre O. pes-caprae et Lolium rigidum (espèce annuelle), Sala et al. (2007) ont démontré que l‘oxalide est moins compétitive que le ray-grass. Ainsi, cette constatation laisse penser que l‘oxalide est dotée d‘un autre mécanisme d‘invasion tel que l‘allélopahtie en plus de sa grande production des bulbilles et sa compétition vis à vis de l‘eau et les minéraux du sol. Les résultats obtenus dans cette étude ont permis de démontrer qu‘effectivement l'oxalide émet des substances allélopathique auquelles sont sensibles les céréales. L'inhibition de la germination des semences et la réduction de la croissance des plantules de ces cultures laisse penser que les extraits aqueux de l'oxalide contiennent des substances al1élopathiques. Le même phénomène a été mis en évidence par Travlos et al. (2008) sur la base des essais au laboratoire et sous serre. Ils ont démontré que les extraits aqueux à partir des pétioles et des racines d‘O. pes-caprae réduisaient la biomasse de la lentille d‘eau, de la tomate, de l‘avoine Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 344 et de la laitue. De même, Paspatis et al. (2003) ont trouvé que l‘effet allelopathique de l‘oxalide était responsable de l‘inhibition de la germination et de la croissance de certaines mauvaises herbes telles que Parietaria sp., Amaranthus sp. et Chenopodium sp. qui sont considérées difficiles à combattre dans les vignobles. Dans ce cas, ils recommandaient d‘exploiter les infestations de l‘oxalide dans un programme de gestion intégrée des mauvaises herbes des vignobles. Tableau 5 - Effet des extraits aqueux de l'oxalide au stade floraison sur la germination et la croissance du blé tendre Partie de la plante Concentration Germination (%) Poids moyen (g) Longueur moyenne (cm) Radicule Coléoptile Radicule Coléoptile Aérienne Fraîche 0 30 60 100 88,9 a* 84,5 a 77,8 a 61,1 b 0,09 a 0,08 a 0,05 b 0,03 c 0,09 a 0,08 a 0,09 a 0,08 a 15,5 a 12,9 b 12,5 b 12,2 b 9,9 a 11,0 a 11,2 a 10,6 a Aérienne Sèche 0 30 60 100 75,6 a 72,2 a 65,6 a 58,9 a 0,08 ab 0,10 a 0,08 ab 0,06 b 0,12 b 0,14 a 0,14 a 0,11 b 12,2 a 12,7 a 11,1 a 8,1 b 12,5 b 14,4 a 13,9 ab 11,6 b Racinaire Fraîche 0 30 60 100 94,4 a 93,3 a 90,0 a 91,1 a 0,10 b 0,13 a 0,12 a 0,09 c 0,10 a 0,09 a 0,11 a 0,10 a 17,8 a 19,3 a 18,3 a 17,6 a 9,0 b 11,2 a 10,7 a 10,9 a Racinaire Sèche 0 30 60 100 82,2 a 76,7 a 73,3 a 73,3 a 0,07 a 0,08 a 0,06 a 0,05 a 0,10 b 0,14 a 0,14 a 0,10 b 13,2 a 14,1 a 9,2 b 5,5 c 11,8 b 13,6 a 13,6 a 11,2 b *Pour chaque partie de la plante et pour chaque état de l‘oxalide, les chiffres d‘une même colonne de la même lettre ne sont pas différents significativement selon le test de StudentNewman-Keuls à p=0,05. La réaction des blés dur et tendre et de l'orge varie avec l'état et le stade de l'oxalide et avec la concentration des extraits. Les substances allélopathiques ont un comportement semblable à celui des herbicides. Comparativement au coléoptile, l'effet allélopathique des extraits aqueux a été remarquable sur les racines. Ceci s'explique par le fait que les racines ont été exposées d'une façon permanente aux substances allélopathiques. Ces substances sont absorbées préférentiellement par le système souterrain et agissent au niveau des racines. De même, elles pourraient subir des transformations d'inactivation lors de leur translocation vers le système aérien. Ou au contraire, ces substances ont été absorbées par les parties racinaire et aérienne et ont subit une transformation d'activation au niveau des racines ou tout simplement il y avait une sélection des molécules au niveau des deux parties des plantules des céréales. D‘autres études expérimentales sont nécessaires pour vérifier ces hypothèses. L'effet des substances s‘est traduit par une réduction du poids et de la longueur du coléoptile et de la radicule des céréales qui pourrait être une conséquence de l'inhibition de la division cellulaire et/ou de l'élongation cellulaire. Effectivement, Qasem (1994) avait rapporté que plusieurs substances allélopathiques sont soupçonnées d'inhiber l'effet des hormones de Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 345 croissance telles que la gébberel1ine et l‘auxine. L'effet allélopathique de la partie aérienne de l'oxalide a tendance à être plus important que celui de la partie racinaire. Ce résultat confirme celui de Qasem (1995b) qui avait étudié l'effet allélopathique des amarantes sur le blé dur. L'effet allélopathique de l'oxalide à l'état frais laisse penser soit que certaines substances impliquées dans le phénomène sont volatiles et ont été perdues lors de séchage, soit que certaines molécules ont été modifiées par la chaleur. Tableau 6 - Effet des extraits aqueux de l'oxalide au stade f1oraison sur la germination et la croissance de l'orge Partie de la plante Concentration Germination (%) Poids moyen (g) Radicule Coléoptile Longueur moyenne (cm) Radicule Coléoptile Aérienne Fraîche 0 30 60 100 83,3 a* 91,1 a 78,9 b 37,8 b 0,10 a 0,08 b 0,06 c 0,03 d 0,13 a 0,13 a 0,11 a 0,08 b 13,6 a 8,0 b 6,6 b 1,7 c 13,8 a 14,8 a 13,9 a 9,5 b Aérienne Sèche 0 30 60 100 83,3 a 71,1 b 61,1 b 44,4 c 0,07 b 0,10 a 0,06 bc 0,05 c 0,13 b 0,15 a 0,11 b 0,11 b 13,2 a 12,6 b 10,4 c 6,6 d 13,0 ab 14,1 a 12,0 bc 11,2 c Racinaire Fraîche 0 30 60 100 94,4 a 90,0 a 92,2 a 88,9 a 0,13 b 0,15 a 0,11 c 0,10 d 0,13 b 0,17 a 0,15 a 0,17 a 17,2 a 18,2 a 16,7 b 14,4 b 13,9 b 17,0 a 16,2 a 16,9 a Racinaire Sèche 0 30 60 100 81,1 a 72,2 a 61,1 ab 45,6 b 0,09 a 0,08 a 0,06 b 0,03 c 0,12 a 0,12 a 0,11 a 0,09 b 14,0 a 11,7 b 7,3 c 4,1 d 13,2 a 12,9 a 12,1 a 10,6 b *Pour chaque partie de la plante et pour chaque état de l‘oxalide, les chiffres d‘une même colonne de la même lettre ne sont pas différents significativement selon le test de StudentNewman-Keuls à p=0,05. Comparativement au témoin ne contenant que de l'eau distillée, la croissance des blés dur et tendre et de l'orge aux faibles concentrations des extraits de l'oxalide laisse penser que la stimulation du poids et/ou de la longueur est dû soit aux apports des substances minérales et organiques, soit au fait que les extraits aqueux de l'oxalide agissent comme des phytohormones à des faibles doses (Qasem, 1994). En conclusion, l'oxalide a un effet allélopathique certain sur la germination et la croissance du blé dur, du blé tendre et de l'orge à travers ses extraits aqueux. Le phénomène d‘allélopathie mis en évidence chez O. pes-caprae est une autre facette de ses potentialités concurrentielles avec les plantes endémiques ou cultivées. Cependant, d'autres recherches sont nécessaires pour élucider ceci, connaitre la nature des substances impliquées pour chaque organe et pour chaque stade, s‘assurer de la constance et/ou de la stabilité de ces substances et exploiter cette voie de concurrence entre les végétaux pour comprendre les mécanismes d‘invasion biologique. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 346 Références Ater M (2005) Quelques aspects de la biologie de la reproduction d’Oxalis pes-caprae L. au Maroc. Proceedings du Symposium National sur les Adventices Vivaces. Association Marocaine de Malherbologie, Rabat (Maroc).pp. 73-79. Jahandiez E & Maire R (1931) Catalogue des Plantes du Maroc. Lechevalier, Paris (FR). Tome 1. Paspatis EA, Kisarakis I & Psomadeli H (2003) Integrated weed management in oxalis infested vineyards of Crete. Integrated Protection and Production in Viticulture. IOBC/wprs Bulletin 26 (8), 309-311. Qasem J (1994) Allelopathic effect of white top (Lepidium draba) on wheat and barley. AIlelopathy Journal 1, 29-40. Qasem J (1995a) Allelopathic effect of some arable land weeds on wheat (Triticum durum L.): a survey. Dirasat 22, 81-97. Qasem J (1995b) The allelopathic effect of three Amaranthus spp. (pigweeds) on wheat (Triticum durum). Weed Research 35, 41-49. Ren M-X & Zhang Q-G (2009) The relative generality of plant invasion mechanisms and predicting future invasive plants. Weed Research 49, 449-460. Rice EL (1984) Allelopathy. 2nd edition. Academic Press, London (GB). Rsaissi N (1994) Lutte chimique contre le brome rigide (Bromus rigidus Roth.) et 1‘oxalide (Oxalis pes caprae L.) dans la culture du blé dur (Triticum durum Desf.) dans la Chaouia. Mémoire de 3ème cycle Agronomie, option Protection des Végétaux, I.A.V. Hassan II, Rabat (Maroc). Rsaissi N & Bouhache M (2005) Oxalide (Oxalis pes-caprae L.) : biologie, impact agro-économique et moyen de lutte. Proceedings du Symposium National sur les Adventices Vivaces. Association Marocaine de Malherbologie, Rabat (Maroc).pp. 145-153. Sala A, Verdaguer D & Vilà M (2007) Sensitivity of the invasive geophyte Oxalis pes-caprae to nutrient availability and competition. Annals of Botany 99 (4), 637-645. Tahri M (1993) La flore adventice messicole du périmètre irrigué du Haouz (Maroc occidental). Journées Nationales de Protection des Plantes, A.M.P. P., Rabat (Maroc). Tanji A (1988) Lutte contre l'oxalide (Oxalis pes caprae L.) en Chaouia. Rapport d'activité annuel, INRA, Settat (Maroc) Travlos IS, Paspatis E. & Psomadeli E. (2008) Allelopathic potential of Oxalis pes-caprae tissues and root exudates as a tool for integrated weed management. Journal of Agronomy 7, 202-205. Vilà M, Tessier M, Suehs CM & al. (2006) Local and regional assessments of the impacts of plant invaders on vegetation structure and soil properties of Mediterranean islands. Journal of Biogeography 33, 853-861. Allelopathy of Oxalis pes-caprae L. as potential invasion mechanism of winter cereal crops Native to southern Africa, Oxalis pes-caprae L. (= O. Cernua Thumb.) is an invasive weed widespread in areas of the world with Mediterranean climate. It is a perennial bulbaceous and rhizomatous dicotyledonous species which reproduce asexually by bulbils in the invaded range. In Morocco, this species was introduced in the beginning of the nineteenth century. It was regarded as a naturalized and ruderal species. Actually, it is infesting agricultural ecosystems. This study was conducted in order to investigate the effects of aqueous extracts of O. pes-caprae on seed germination and growth of three winter small grain cereal crops (soft wheat, durum wheat and barley). At vegetative and flowering growth stages of O. pes caprae, both fresh and dried shoot and roots aqueous extracts significantly reduced germination of the three cereal crops seeds grown in Petri dishes. In addition, these extracts decreased also length and biomass of cereal crops roots and coleoptiles. The allelopathic effect depends on cereal species, organs and growth stage of the weed. The inhibitory effect of extracts was more pronounced at full strength concentration. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 347 Fitness of the populations of invasive volunteer sunflower Sava Vrbnicanin 1, Dragana Bozic 1, Danijela Pavlovic 2 & Marija Saric 1 1 Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Institute for plant protection and environment, Belgrade, Serbia E-mail: sava@agrif.bg.ac.rs 2 Fitness or organism capability to sustain itself, survive and reproduce is the main reason for the spread of invasive alien weed in an ecosystem. In Serbia, in agricultural areas, edges of crop fields, uncultivated areas, and along roadsides we see more and more populations of volunteer sunflower (Helianthus annuus ruderale). This species is acting as an aggressive and invasive weed whose numbers are increasing from year to year and present problems in certain crops e.g. hybrid sunflower. To be able to estimate survival and spread it is important to study fitness: reproductive (vegetative and sexual) and competitive capability, possibility for hybridization, seed germination, and other physiological and genetic characteristics as indicators of capacity for spreading under conditions where herbicides were and were not applied. In this experiment we studied three different populations of volunteer sunflower under field vs. controlled conditions and with and without application of herbicide nicosulfuron. Two populations originated from areas where herbicides ALS-inhibitors were used for many years (P1 and P2) and the third population originated from areas where herbicides have not been applied (P3). The following parameters were evaluated: plant height, fresh weight, leaf surface area, anatomical characteristics, effects to increasing nicosulfuron rates, amount of chlorophyll, activity of ALS enzymes in vitro, seed germination, yield and yield parameters. In general, population fitness depended on the year in which the sampling was conducted and was better with presumably resistant populations (P1 and P2) vs. susceptible population (P3) for larger numbers of evaluated parameters (fresh weight, leaf surface area, amount of chlorophyll, yield parameters, seed germination, activity of ALS enzymes in vitro) under conditions without nicosulfuron and when nicosulfuron was applied (height, fresh weight, leaf surface area, amount of chlorophyll, seed germination, leaf anatomical characteristics). In summary, relative fitness of different populations (susceptible and presumably resistant populations) of volunteer sunflower under conditions w/o herbicide applications is one of the most important factors which influence its survival and spread as an invasive alien weed species in an ecosystem. Our strategies for prevention of spread of volunteer sunflower need to be developed according to fitness. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 348 Nicotina glauca: an invasive alien with harmful potential Stephen L Jury & JD Ross School of Biological Sciences, Harborne Building, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AS, UK E-mail: s.l.jury@reading.ac.uk In recent years Nicotiana glauca Graham has spread considerably throughout the Mediterranean and has even been recorded recently in ruderal situations in Southern England. Regular fieldwork in Spain and Morocco has enabled us to undertake projects and obtain detailed observations. The species is native to Argentina and Bolivia where it is hummingbird pollinated. However, the breeding system has changed allowing regular high seed production in its well naturalized regions of Europe, North Africa, North America, Australia and New Zealand. This, in association with its ability to colonise dry watercourses, allows it to spread rapidly in frostfree drier regions. The temperature of the leaves indicates a high transpiration rate demonstrating the plant‘s ability to obtain water, even in semi-arid conditions coupled with a very high photosynthetic rate, characteristic of such nitrophilous invasive species. Additionally, it is a vigorous resprouter if cut back, and accumulates anabasine, a highly poisonous alkaloid, giving protection against most herbivores, although remarkably not a deterrent to a narrow range of caterpillars, whitefly and molluscs. Very recently we have seen it infected by tobacco mosaic virus, making it a potential danger to locally cultivated tomato, aubergine and pepper crops, as well as the cucurbits, also well known as susceptible to this pathogen. However, websites show some seed suppliers offering innocent amateur gardeners an opportunity to grow and evaluate the species for ornamental horticulture. The continued spread of this species must be checked in order to preserve native habitats and protect economically important crop production. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 349 Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) – Establishment and invasion in Croatia V. Lodeta, N. Novak, M. Kravaršţan Croatian Centre for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Institute for Plant Protection, Svetošimunska 25/V, 10040 Zagreb, Croatia. E-mails: veljko.lodeta@zg.t-com.hr, nenad.novak@hcphs.hr, maja.kravarscan@hcphs.hr Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle, family Simaroubaceae, order Sapindales) is a deciduous tree native to China. It was introduced into Europe in the late 1700s as an ornamental species. Nowadays, it is distributed in warm climatic areas of the world. A. altissima is one of species listed on the EPPO List of invasive alien plants. It grows quickly and can reach a height of 2.5 m in its first year. It can grow rapidly up to 35 m, while its trunk can reach more than 1 (1.5) m in diameter. The bark and leaves reportedly produce allelopathic chemicals that accumulate in the soil and can cause mortality in other vegetation. The foliage is unpalatable to browsing wildlife and can cause allergic reactions on the skin. Because of its rapid growth, foresters use to plant this species for erosion control. In ornamental plantations it is often used as decorative plant. In Croatia, it is present in the whole country but is especially aggressive in the Adriatic coastal part (from Istria to South Dalmatia). In some parts of the continental regions, in costal parts and in some islands, it kills native vegetation and often forms dense monocultures. This species reproduces both from seed and root sprouts. Young plants emerge near to adult trees in very large numbers and commonly distribute locally. Human impact is a very important factor of Ailanthus colonization. It is usually found near busy roads, in towns, building sites and industrial yards. It is hardly ever found in undisturbed environments and stable ecosystems. Introduction and distribution Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle, family Simaroubaceae, order Sapindales) is a deciduous tree native to China (Press, Hosking 1992., http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/). It was introduced into Europe in the late 1700s as an ornamental species (http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/aial1.htm). The propagation with seeds and root buds is simple and plant producers like this species (Toogood & Anderson, 2006.). Because of its rapid growth, foresters used to plant this species for erosion control. In ornamental plantation it is often used as a decorative plant. Nowadays, it is distributed in warm climatic areas of the world (http://www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/ias_plants.htm). Ailanthus altissima is one of species listed on the EPPO List of invasive alien plants. It is distributed in warm climatic areas of Africa, America, Australia, New Zealand and in Europe from Bulgaria to the British Isles, with a Northern distribution bordering Germany (http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Götterbaum). In Croatia, it is present in many places. It can be found almost everywhere. It is especially aggressive in the Adriatic coast, from Istria to Southern Dalmatia (Novak et al 2009.). In Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 350 some parts of the continental regions, in many locations on coast and islands, it kills native vegetation and often forms dense monocultures (Lodeta, Novak, 2010.). Human activities are a very important factor in the colonization and spread of tree of heaven. Usually it is found near traffic roads, in towns, in building sites and in industrial yards. It is hardly found in stable ecosystems and untouched environment (Radoshevich et al. 2007.). Reproduction and colonisation Tree of heaven is intolerant to shade (Grime 1979 cit. Radoshevich 1984). In natural habitats reproduction is primarily from seeds. They are easily windblown and high percentages of them are viable, 30% germination rate for seeds that overwintered on parent trees and dispersed in spring (Kowarik, Saumel, 2008. & Hunter, 1995. cit Fryer, 2010). Many young plants are emerging at the base of mother plants. Tree of heaven grows quickly and can reach a height of 2.5 m in its first year. It can grow rapidly to 25 m (Weber, 2005). A fact sheet states that tree-of-heaven may reach 80 feet (20 m) tall and 6 feet (2 m) in diameter in 10 years (Evans et al., 2006) The trees are typically short-lived (30-50 years), though some have survived for over 150 years. In our climatic and weather condition the plant can rich the high of 20 m and the trunk diameter until 50 cm. (Vukiţeviš, 1974) Flowers are unisexual, small and yellow, in large panicles at the end of the branches. Fruit are dry, indehiscent, light brown to yellowish, winged samaras of 25-50 mm length and 6-10 mm width, containing one seed of 3-5 mm diameter in the centre (Weber, 2005). Tree of heaven grows mostly in sunny positions on humid soils. It can resprout rapidly after being cut (Sušiš, Radek, 2007). It has been noted as a drought-tolerant plant (http://www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/ias_plants.htm), storing water in its root system allowing its survival on shallow karst soils in Croatian Mediterranean region. The seeds are produced in spring from the mother plants, both on Croatian Mediterranean and continental area. During summer, drought slows down further development of young plants on shallow karst soils, but it is important to note that the tree of heaven survives these poor conditions and can spread further after this period (Lodeta, Novak, 2010.). Tree of heaven has the ability to grow in poor soils and under environmentally stressful conditions such as low nutrient and oxygen content and can tolerate barren rocky hills if annual rainfall is above 750 mm (Zheng, 1988 cit. http://www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/ias_plants.htm). A. altissima is found at a range of altitudes up to 2400 m. Tree of heaven grows best on loose and porous soils, but can grow on a variety of soil types from heavy clays, sandy or clayey loams to calcareous dry and shallow soils. Tree of heaven doesn‘t grow in closed forests or parks as it does not tolerate overshadow (Grime, 1979 cit. Radoshevich, 1984) and stays more or less on borders although it competes well with many plant species (Lodeta, Novak, 2010). Non-arable land near roads, railways, industrial sites and streets are suitable for the development of tree of heaven. In continental area of Croatia, unfavourable winter conditions can cause the deterioration of the plant (cold and wind, saprophyte fungi, mechanical stem damages and salt for snow melting). In such conditions, Ivy (Hedera helix L.) sometimes overgrow tree of heaven. Control measures Control measures are only used sporadically in Croatia, no awareness on invasive alien plants exists and there is no legislation about mandatory control measures for the containment Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 351 or the eradication of A. altissima. To prevent damages of invasive alien species it is necessary to have a good communication among agricultural, forestry and other experts involved in plant growing to avoid any misunderstanding in the whole EPPO region. Informing the general public is a very important control measure for all invasive alien species. Conclusions - A. altissima gradually and successfully colonize many areas of Croatia; - On many locations, tree of heaven kills native vegetation and forms dense monocultures - Tree of heaven is especially aggressive in the Adriatic coastal area - It tolerates droughts better than many other species - Established plants of A. altissima are permanent source of new seeds; - When a mother plant is weak or damaged young plants emerge from root buds; - Non-arable land near roads, railways, industrial sites and streets are suitable for the development of tree of heaven; - Tree of heaven doesn‘t grow in closed forests or parks because it doesn‘t tolerate overshadow stays on border although it competes well with many plant species; - Young trees of heaven as well as the old ones grow through bushes, in poorly maintained courtyards, near parking places etc; - Winter conditions influence on the deterioration of the plant (cold and wind, mechanical stem damages and salt for snow melting); - The consequences of these unfavourable conditions are damages and deteriorations caused by saprophyte fungi; - Ivy (Hedera helix L.) sometimes overgrow tree of heaven, weakens its growth and development and causes deterioration. References EPPO data sheet on Invasive Plants, Ailanthus altissima http://www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/ias_plants.htm Evans CW, Moorhead DJ, Bargeron CT & Douce GK (2006) Invasive plant responses to silvicultural practices in the South. Bugwood Network BW-2006-03. Tifton, GA: The University of Georgia Bugwood Network. 52 p. Fryer JL (2010) Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html Grime JP (1979) Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes. Wiley New York. Lodeta V, Novak N (2010) Unpublished Data of the 4 years Monitoring Programme Invasive Alien Plants in Croatia. Novak N, Lodeta V, Sušiš G & Radek V (2009) Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle) - Invasive Alien Species in Croatia, BIOLIEF – World Conference on Biological Invasions and Ecosystem Functioning, 27th-30th October 2009, Porto, Portugal page 135 Press B, Hosking D (1992) Trees of Britain and Europe. New Holland Publishers, London. p. 182. www.newhollandpublishers.com Radosevich SR, Holt JS & Ghersa CM (2007) Ecology of Weeds and Invasive Plants, 3th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, USA, pp. 56-62. Sušiš G & Radek V (2007) Project: Developing and management plan for alien invasive plant and animal species on the Island of Cres Toogood A & Anderson P. (2006) Propagating Plants, 2nd Edition. The Royal Horticultural Society, Dorling Kindersley Limeted, London, 75. Vukiţeviš E (1974) Dekorativna dendrologija (Decorative dendrology). ICS (Izdavaţko-informativni centar studenata (ICS) Beograd. P. 284. Weber E (2005) Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing, page 32. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 352 Effect of Ambrosia artemisiifolia invasion on public health and agricultural production in Hungary MN Okumu, É Lehoczky University of Pannonia Georgikon Faculty, Institute of Plant Protection H-8360, Deák F. Str. 57. Keszthely, Hungary. E-mail: nelmak2212@yahoo.com Ambrosia genus which consists of about 40 species is considered to be the most dangerous invasive alien species of Europe. Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) is the most important invasive plant species with an allergenic effect. This plant originates from North America and has evolved to suit a dry climate and open environment. In Hungary, almost 80% of the arable land is infested and ragweed has become the most important weed in agricultural crops during the last 20 years. Twenty five percent of the Hungarian population suffer from allergy to its pollen. In Europe, all the highest pollen counts on peak days are reported from the Carpathian Basin, Serbia and Hungary. It has been shown from several studies, that A. artemisiifolia contains allelochemicals, which may play an important role in artificial and natural ecosystems. The importance of A. artemisiifolia as an acceptor species is less known. Introduction The distribution of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in Europe started after the First World War (Comtois 1998). The results of the Four National Weed Surveys in Hungary proved that big social changes preceded A. artemisiifolia invasion, which is closely linked to human activities. Its introduction and naturalization in Europe was as a result of a high volume of movement of transports of food-products and war equipment from the USA towards Europe during the First Word War (Makra et al., 2005). Its rapid distribution is in close relation with the cereal transport during the Second World War and land distribution to farmers in Hungary after the war. A. artemisiifolia in the last two decades has become the most recognized weed species in Eastern-Europe. This is because so many people developed allergies to its airborne pollen, thus forcing national governments to initiate programs aimed at bringing attention to this noxious weed (Járai-Komlñdi, 1998). The objective of this paper is to give details on the biology of Ambrosia artemisiifolia, its entry pathway and distribution in Hungary, its effects on public health and agricultural production and the legal regulations put in place to combat the spread of the weed. Biological characteristics of Ambrosia artemisiifolia Common ragweed (A. artemisiifolia) is a summer annual branchy herb (Soñ, 1970, Ujvárosi, 1973) with rough, hairy stems. It belongs to the Asteraceae family, and to the genus Ambrosia, which has 42 species. Common names include common ragweed, annual ragweed, low ragweed, ragweed, Roman wormwood, short ragweed and small ragweed. It is a therophyte with an erect and is a rather tall plant reaching a maximum height of 2 metres usually with many branches (Basset et. al., 1975). Ramification starts about 2-4 cm above the ground and may include numerous side-branches. Leaves are short-stalked, hairy, ovate in outline, with lobed segments on each side. The lower leaves are arranged oppositely while upper leaves are often arranged alternately on the stem. Female flowers are inconspicuous, Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 353 located solitarily or in small groups at the base of upper leaves. Male flowers are green and small (2-4 mm) grouped in spike-like flower heads (racemes) at the end of the upper branches. Juhasz (1963) reported the appearance of three Ambrosia species in Hungary, namely, A. elatior, A. artemisiifolia and A. psilostachya. On the basis of the latest taxonomic research, A. elatior and A.artemisiifolia are considered as the same species and are synonym names of each other. The presence of the perennial A. psilostachya was reported in Csepel and Szigetvár towns in Hungary along the railway stations. Life cycle of A. artemisiifolia in Hungary Field emergence of A. artemisiifolia shows seasonal changes in Hungary (Béres & Hunyadi, 1980), with a beginning at the end of March. On the basis of a 20-year research observation (1976-1996), the appearance of the first seedlings can be expected between March 15 and April 12 in Keszthely (Zala county, Hungary) (Table 1). The germination peak is in April and May. Sixty percent of seeds germinate between April 10 and May 20. A part of the seeds fail to germinate from middle of May due to the secondary dormancy, therefore germination decreases by this time. Due to the hot summer periods, secondary dormancy may be induced in the seeds (Milanova & Nakova, 2002). Table 1 - Beginning dates of Ambrosia artemisiifolia (Keszthely, Hungary, 1976-1996, after Béres, 2003) Years Average temperature Beginning of of March (°C) germination 1976 7.2 20thMarch 1977 7.8 25thMarch 1978 6.3 30thMarch 1979 9.6 22ndMarch 1980 5.0 28thMarch 1981 8.3 25th March 1982 5.8 26thMarch 1983 6.8 17thMarch 1984 5.0 29thMarch 1985 3.7 2ndApril 1986 2.6 5thApril 1987 0.1 10thApril 1988 4.8 24thMarch 1989 8.7 20thMarch 1990 8.9 18thMarch 1991 6.8 20thMarch 1992 6.2 24thMarch 1993 4.4 28thMarch 1994 8.9 15thMarch 1995 4.4 30thMarch 1996 1.4 12thApril phenophases under field conditions Beginning of flowering 18thJuly 25thJuly 3rdAugust 12thJuly 31stJuly 21stJuly 25thJuly 21stJuly 28thJuly 23rdJuly 24thJuly 30thJuly 20thJuly 20thJuly 20thJuly 17thJuly 18thJuly 20thJuly 15thJuly 3rdAugust 18thJuly Beginning of seed ripening 2ndOct 3rdOct 6thOct 4thOct 12thOct 5thOct 11thOct 30thSept 14thOct 14thOct 20thOct 26thOct 3rdOct 5thOct 1stOct 3rdOct 2ndOct 4thOct 2ndOct 28thOct 13thOct After May, germination rate increases again but never reaches the April maximum. From August, germination decreases drastically again, though it can occur continuously until the Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 354 first frosts. Temperatures suitable for seed germination of A. artemisiifolia ranges from 8 to 360C (Hsu, 2005). After germination, the weed grows rapidly during the juvenile phase under optimum conditions promoting the competitive ability of the plant. Intensive growth continues to its maximum directly before flowering. Common Ragweed germinating in cereal fields may remain in the juvenile stage until the crop is harvested and then start to grow when exposed to light (Bohren, 2006). Figure 1 - Life cyle of A. artemisiifolia in Hungary (Béres & Bìrñ, 1993) The plants usually flower in the period July to October and seeds are produced from mid August. The appearance of the first female flowers can be expected between July 12 and August 3. The first ripened seeds occur on September 30. The rather late flowering and maturation of the seeds limits the distribution of the plant to climate zones with a long growing season. (Béres – Hunyadi, 1980, Kőmìves et al., 2006). Reproduction strategy As a summer annual, A. artemisiifolia can propagate only by seeds, 95% of the plants are monoecious. Seed production varies between 0 and 62,000 seeds per plant, depending on plant size, growing technologies, competition and ecological factors. Under average conditions, 3000 seeds per plant are established when seeds germinate at the beginning of April. When seeds germinate in August, only 4-6 seeds develop (Béres & Hunyadi, 1980). In the experiments of Bassett & Crompton (1975), A. artemisiifolia plants produced 32000 seeds when germination was before middle of May and only 3100 seeds when germination was later, in July. Viability of freshly harvested seeds in Hungary varies between 92 and 96% and remains viable after 20 years of burial. Twelve to fifteen weeks must be attained after seed harvesting; by the second half of February, for germination rate to be above 80% (Hartmann et al., 2003). Freshly harvested seeds in autumn are in primary dormancy (Béres, 1981), which is due to the inhibitors present in the pericarpium (Wareing, 1975). The ability of A. artemisiifolia to adapt to germination characteristics can be explained by its pioneer disturbing strategy. After soil Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 355 cultivation, light reaches the seeds. Therefore, germination occurs but not all seeds germinate, in order to ensure survival of the species. On the other hand, secondary seed dormancy in summer prevents germination under less favourable conditions (Szigetvári & Benkő, 2004). Adaptability and Survival under adverse conditions Ambrosia artemisiifolia is a plant with remarkable flexibility in its biology which has contributed to its ability to exploit new habitats. In Hungary, this weed was able to enter the ecosystem in areas far outside its normal geographical range and adapted to different climatic and soil conditions (Berés & Hunyadi, 1980). This ragweed species produces different forms (varieties) as an effect of adaptation to different conditions. Seeds may survive for many years in conditions insufficient for the development of other plants. Common ragweed is able to adapt to mowing, trampling and grazing and responds to, and counteracts the effects of cultivation and ploughing, by the longevity of its seeds (Toole & Brown, 1946). Habitat description and countrywide distribution The rapid distribution of A. artemisiifolia began after the Second World War. A. artemisiifolia is greatly distributed on the Southern part of Europe, the Balkan Peninsula (Kovacevic & Miller, 1958), middle and South America, Asia and Australia. There are three main regions invaded by Ambrosia in Europe: the valley of the Rhone (France), Northern Italy and the Carpathian Basin (Rybnicek & Jager, 2001). Seeds of A. artemisiifolia were introduced into Hungary through the Adriatic ports of the historic Austro-Hungarian Empire as a contaminant of agricultural products (Makra et al., 2005). Its spread took place along linear structures, such as highways, railways and watercourses. By now, extensive A. artemisiifolia populations are in Hungary and France, extensive spreading beginning in Italy, Germany, Austria and Switzerland. On the basis of the latest surveys, rapid distribution of A. artemisiifolia can be observed in Austria, Slovakia, Poland, Turkey and Korean Peninsula. Northern border of its contiguous distribution is on the southern part of Poland and Germany (Kazinczi et al., 2008). As an arable weed, A. artemisiifolia was reported in the first half of the 1920‘s. Its first appearance was proven in 1922, on the South- Transdanubian part of Hungary, near Somogyvár (Somogy county). A. artemisiifolia was introduced from the neighbouring parts of the former Yugoslavia, and after then it spread to other parts of Hungary (Kazinczi et al., 2008). At present it is generally distributed throughout Hungary, except places with extreme soil conditions and higher lands with cold climates. Lengyel (1923) reported A. artemisiifolia in Somogy, Zala and Veszprém counties, Szigetszentmiklñs and Somogyvár (Moesz, 1926) and in Örkénytábor (Boros, 1938). Between the Danube and Tisza rivers, A. artemisiifolia was distributed from Szeged town towards the Northern parts of Hungary (Tìmár, 1955). Its occurrence near Csurgñ was reported by Héjjas and Borhidi (1960). A. artemisiifolia infested an area of more than 380 000 hectares in 1986. In 2003, the weed was present on 5.4 million hectares, of which 700 000 hectares were heavily infested (Tñth et al., 2004). Sixty percent of Ambrosia infested areas consist of such fields, which are greater than 5 ha. The last boom in its spread could be linked to the political transitions that led to the formation of young democracies in Eastern Europe. During that process, virtually all socialisttype agricultural co-operatives were closed and their lands subdivided and redistributed to their former owners or descendants, who in many cases did not continue to cultivate them for Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 356 years. The large and formerly well-kept agricultural fields were abandoned and quickly colonized by A. artemisiifolia (Makra et al., 2005). In addition, new roads, motorways and shopping centres were built, but little effort was put into landscape management. This created large disturbed areas, where the weed readily became established. In less than a decade, A. artemisiifolia became the most widespread weed species in both agricultural and urban areas in Hungary, as well as many neighbouring countries, with the notable exception of Austria, where landscape management remained unchanged (Kiss and Béres, 2006). It is interesting to note that the Eastern European spread of A. artemisiifolia is associated not only with the collapse of communism, but also with its inception. Soon after 1945, when socialist-type cooperatives began to be formed, A. artemisiifolia populations started to spread in many fields (Béres, 2003). Figure 2 - Phases of A. artemisiifolia distribution and spread in Hungary (Priszter 1960, Béres & Hunyadi 1991). A. artemisiifolia was reported in Lithuania and Ukraine (Gudzinska, 1993). The plant quarantine service in Russia reported the occurrence of A. artemisiifolia in Kuban Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 357 (Vysokopoyasnyi, 2004) and in the Rostov region, southern Russia. It is suggested that A. artemisiifolia was introduced into western Ukraine through infested grain from southern regions (Zagolovski et al., 2004). In Bulgaria, the weed was found for the first time in the region of Kostinbrod in 1995, by the railway. The species is distributed in the Danubian Plain and Sofia Region (Assyov et al., 2001). A. artemisiifolia is included in the list of quarantine weeds in Bulgaria. In Hungary, A. artemisiifolia is considered to be a common weed in field crops, especially in sunflower and maize. During harvest, cucurbit fields (especially pumpkin and melon) become strongly infested with A. artemisiifolia (Szentey et al., 2004). It also occurs in pastures, meadows, vineyards, orchards and forestations, along road and railway sides and ditches. A. artemisiifolia, as a pioneer species of secondary succession, is dominant in undisturbed areas in the first year and it is replaced by perennials in the subsequent years (Maupin & Apparicio, 2004). It prefers full sun and warm areas, with nutrient rich and slightly acidic soils (Wittenberg, R. (ed.) 2005) and can tolerate dry soil conditions (Maupin & Apparicio, 2004). It is dominant on haplic cambisols, sandy soils and on fluvisols (Béres & Hunyadi, 1991). The most favorable for its development are the slightly acidic (pH, 6.6-7.0) sandy adobe and muddy loam soils. On the summarized list of weed flora of winter wheat and maize at the time of the First National Weed Survey in 1950, A. artemisiifolia was the 21st most important weed (Tñth et al., 1999). Forced creation of collective farming which ended in the late 1950‘s, followed by the establishment of large scale farms and distribution of land gave further impetus to the spread of A. artemisiifolia. This weed species moved to 8th and then 4th place in the dominance order of weeds in 1970 and 1988, respectively. Figure 3 - Ambrosia infestation in Hungary based on the results of the Fifth National Weed Survey (2007-2008) Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 358 Effects of Ambrosia artemisiifolia on Public health – Pollen allergy Common ragweed represents a very serious health risk for humans as a pollen-allergenic plant (Taramarcaz, et al., 2005). At least six groups of allergenic agents have been identified in ragweed pollen (Wopfner et al., 2005). Some of these are called ‗major‘ for their predominant role in causing allergy in humans. Allergies to Ambrosia pollen were first described by Wyman in the United States during the second half of the 19 th century. Pollen of ragweed is among the most potent triggers of hay fever and allergic rhinitis. In addition to allergic rhinitis, ragweed allergy often causes severe asthma-like symptoms. Its impact is not restricted to areas invaded by the plant. Due to wind-borne spreading of the very large amounts of light pollen, ragweed may cause allergy in distances over 200 km off the site where it is growing. Very low concentrations, e.g. 5-10 pollen per cubic meter of air suffice to trigger allergic reactions in hyper-sensitised individuals. Concentrations between 6 and 10 pollen grains per cubic meter air represent a moderate load of ragweed pollen (Wopfner et al., 2005). About one-third of Hungarian inhabitants have some type of allergy, two-thirds of them have pollen sensitivity and at least 60% of this pollen-sensitivity is caused by Ambrosia (Járai-Komlñdi, 1998) with 50-70% of allergic patients being sensitive to ragweed pollen. Pollen counts identified airborne A. artemisiifolia pollen in Hungary for the first time in the late 1960s and since then, its concentration, measured during its main pollination period has increased dramatically. The number of patients with registered allergic illnesses has doubled, and by the late 1990s the number of cases of allergic asthma has over the last 40 years become four times higher in Southern Hungary. Therapeutic costs of allergic people and connected losses are estimated around 30 billion HUF (110 million EURO) per year (Tñth et al., 2004). Beside its pollen allergy, the plant can cause contact dermatitis. Volatile oils of A. artemisiifolia pollen have a photo sensible effect, causing phyto - photodermatitis (Hjorth et al., 1976). In annual totals of pollen counts of various plants measured between 1990 and 1996 in Southern Hungary, A .artemisiifolia produces about half of the total pollen production (47.3%). Although this ratio highly depends on meteorological factors year by year (in 1990 this ratio was 35.9%, while in 1991 it was 66.9%), it can be considered the main aero allergenic plant in Hungary (Makra et al., 2004). It was found that the daily Ambrosia pollen counts are over 20-30-50 pollen grains per m3 of air for 33-61, 27-57 and 16-50 days respectively of its 3-month long season, indicating severe pollen load in the air (Makra et al., 2005). The air is most polluted with Ambrosia pollen grains in August and September. The period of pollen load with pollen counts over 50 pollen grains per m3 per day was found to be between mid-August and mid-September. Skin prick test for radio allergosorbent test reactions to A. artemisiifolia allergens in pollen allergic European patients performed in the late 1990s gave positive results of more than 80% in Hungary, nearly 70% in northern Italy, 30 to 40% in the Rhone area (France), approximately 35% in Prague, 25 to 30% in Vienna (Austria) and approximately 19 to 25% in Brno (Czech Republic) (Rybnicek & Jager, 2001). The strong allergenic characteristic of A. artemisiifolia pollen is due to its very effective antigens with rapid diffusion ability. After reaching the mucous membrane of the nose, the allergens can diffuse within a few seconds from the pollen, therefore symptoms are expressed rapidly. Two novel serine endopeptidases from A. artemisiifolia pollen have been described Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 359 which possess the ability to exacerbate the complications of allergic rhinitis and polleninduced asthma. It is suggested that A. artemisiifolia proteolytic enzymes described may play a crucial role in the diseases associated with pollen exposure. Table 2 - Annual total counts of A. artemisiifolia pollen (list of the highest reported counts, pollen grains m3 of air) in Hungary and neighboring countries. (Makra et al., 2005) City Country Year Annual total count Novi Sad Serbia 2001 20559 Szeged Hungary 1994 17242 Szeged Hungary 1991 16781 Szeged Hungary 1992 16111 Pécs Hungary 1994 15092 Pécs Hungary 1993 13625 Novi Sad Serbia 1999 11246 Szekszárd Hungary 1994 9938 Zalaegerszeg Hungary 1994 8478 Budapest Hungary 1993 6753 Debrecen Hungary 1993 3202 Vienna Austria 1992 1869 Brno Czech Republic 1995 1685 Bratislava Slovakia 1994 1569 Lugano Switzerland 1994 932 Sofia Bulgaria 1993 179 In Europe, all the highest counts on peak days were reported from the Carpathian Basin, Serbia and Hungary. Novi Sad (Vajdaság region of Serbia-Montenegro), the southern part of the Great Hungarian Plains (Szeged) and southwest Hungary (Pécs) have the highest concentrations of A. artemisiifolia pollen, not only in the Carpathian Basin itself but in the whole European continent. Values recorded in Europe on peak days have never exceeded that of the 3247 pollen grains m3 of air recorded in Novi Sad in 2001. When considering annual totals, the highest Ambrosia pollen counts in Novi Sad and Szeged are several times higher than the total amount of pollen in the most intensely polluted cities of Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Switzerland and Bulgaria (Makra et al., 2005) (Table 2). High pollen concentrations of 9000m3 per day or more frequently occur in Hungary (Kőmìves et al., 2006). The early pollen production of Ambrosia is unimodal, starting around 8 a.m. and with a maximum around noon (Makra et al., 2005). Besides Hungary, other European countries have also detailed data about Ambrosia pollinosis. In 2002, A. artemisiifolia pollen was detected in the air of Wroclav city in Poland and the grain density ranged from 10 to 145 m3/hr (Malkiewicz & Wasowicz, 2003). Spread of A. artemisiifolia and Ambrosia pollinosis has become a rapidly emerging problem in Italy (Politi et al., 1992). In 21 cities across Italy, among 2934 patients with respiratory diseases of suspected allergic origin, Ambrosia pollen was shown to provoke asthma much more frequently than any other pollen grain (Corsico et al., 2000). Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 360 Effect on Agricultural production A. artemisiifolia is a noxious agricultural weed (Kazinczi et. al., 2008). By the time of harvest, the weed can create a dense stand in cereals and continuous ground cover in wheat stubbles. It can suppress other weed species, due to its allelopathic and competitive ability. It can cause considerable yield losses, mainly in row crops. It is very harmful in maize, due to its rapid growth. In the first two years after soil cultivation, A. artemisiifolia is expected to become the dominant weed species on fallow land. As succession proceeds, its dominance is considerably reduced and it is replaced by perennials. A. artemisiifolia appears in large quantities among stubbles in the Great Hungarian Plain (Kazinczi et al., 2008). Since Ambrosia is not an old adventive species of the Hungarian flora, it does not have any natural competitors. It has been proven, that A. artemisiifolia, similar to other plants, contains allelochemicals (Takács et al., 2004). Under laboratory conditions, in bioassay studies, the inhibitory effects of the plant extracts on different test species (amaranth, winter wheat, Trifolium spp, white mustard) were proven. The effect of the leaf extracts was the strongest, similar to that of the flower extracts (Brückner, 2001). In germination tests, water, alcoholic and acetonic extracts of A. artemisiifolia plants reduced the germination rate of soybean, maize, sunflower, pea and bean by 20-54% (Kazinczi et al., 2008). Phenoloids, terpenes, sesquiterpene lactones and volatile materials were responsible for the allelopathic effects (Geismann et al., 1969). Management and control options for common ragweed in Hungary Results of a research carried out in Hungary showed that the time and number of mowing greatly influence the vegetative biomass and pollen production of A. artemisiifolia (Kazinczi et. al., 2008). When mowing was done in the middle of May, considerable increase in fresh weight and pollen production was observed. After mowing, the plant developed strong side shoots, the leaf number and leaf area increased as compared to control (unmowed) plants. When mowing was done at the end of June, the height and the fresh weight of A. artemisiifolia plants considerably reduced. If mowing was to be done once a year, the best time to do it would be directly before flowering (in the middle of July). In this case, the number of the male flowers could be reduced by 87.7%, as compared to the control plants (Kazinczi et. al., 2008). In case of two mowings, the height of the plants and number of male flowers reduced by 49.5%. Three times mowings resulted in a 43% and 90% reduction in plant height and number of male flowers, respectively. In Switzerland, Bohren (2006) reported that at least four mowings may be successful. From the point of biological control, Tarachidia candefacta and Zygogramma suturalis insects have been used for classical biological control in the former Soviet Union (Goeden & Teerink, 1993). In Hungary, no insect introduction has been permitted so far. A. artemisifolia plants as a host of different aphids and biological decline of A. artemisiifolia plants due to the strong aphid infestation were studied under glasshouse conditions. Basky (2007) reported significant reduction in the plant height, length of flower spikes, dry weight of the plants, number of male inflorescences and the airborne pollen emission of the ragweed plants artificially infested with 5 aptera individuals of Aphis fabae, Brachycaudus helichrysi and Myzus persicae indigenous aphid species. Until now the occurrence of ten phytopathogen fungi was identified from Ambrosia plants (Kiss et al., 2003). In the rainy year of 1999, a Phyllacora ambrosiae epidemic seemed to be Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 361 promising for biological control. The disease symptoms were observed in all parts of Hungary at the same time. The epidemic caused considerable damage to A. artemisiifolia. The pollen emission season was shortened by one month (Kiss et al., 2001). Unfortunately, the Phyllachora epidemic did not recur and after 1999, the fungi rapidly disappeared. In 2001, Plasmopara halstedii attack on Ambrosia caused a 90% reduction in pollen concentration (Kiss et al., 2003). Unfortunately, this fungus is considered to be one of the most important pathogens of sunflower. On the basis of Kiss et al. (2003), six fungi from America (Puccinia xanthii, P. canaliculata, P. conoclinii, Entyloma polysporum, E. compositarum and Protomyces gravidus) seem to provide promising prospects for the biological control of A. artemisiifolia. Recently, a new Septoria species, S. epambrosiae was isolated from A. artemisiifolia in Hungary, which may also be used as a biocontrol agent for this noxious weed (Farr & Castlebury, 2001). The chemicals available for common ragweed control are constrained by country, regional and local regulations. A. artemisiifolia rarely occur in dense, autumn-sown crops such as cereals and winter rape, but in thinned stands and stubbles it may be dominant. Generally, control in the autumn-sown rape and cereals is not necessary, because of spring germination of A. artemisiifolia. When it occurs, triasulfuron in pre-emergence and post-emergence treatments is effective in winter wheat. In spring, hormone-type herbicides (2,4-D, MCPA, dicamba), and some sulfonylureas ( sulfosulfuron, chlorsulfuron) are effective against the weed. In rape, clopyralid+picloram combination is effective (Szentey et al., 2004). In IMI maize, imazamox gives an excellent weed control whereas in imidazolinone and tribenuronmethyl tolerant sunflower varieties, imazamox and tribenuron-methyl can be effectively applied as post-emergence treatments without phytotoxicity on sunflower (Kazinczi et. al., 2008). Legal regulations and measures taken in Hungary regarding Ambrosia artemisiifolia Two pieces of legislation address biological invasions in Hungary. One is the Convention on Biological Diversity, ratified in 1995, and the other is the Act on Nature Conservation (1996). Neither, however, provides directives for control. The agricultural administration in Hungary has legal measures to control weeds, but these regulations appear to be largely insufficient to avoid further invasion and expansion of certain species. The abundance of ragweed has been monitored at 410 locations within Budapest since 1994. Authority arrangements by Self-governments, inhabitants, Directorate of Plant Protection and Soil Conservation, civil organizations and State Medical Officer Services have already achieved considerable results in urban areas. Ten years ago, a countrywide anti-Ambrosia campaign was launched within the framework of the National Environmental Health Action Program. Hundreds of the 3600 Hungarian settlements introduced special regulations against A. artemisiifolia invasion. The campaign was supported by the Ministry of Welfare (Farkas et al., 1998). Since 1992, a regular monitoring of pollen concentration is done in Hungary. There is effective pollen predicting system since 2005, between May and September with the active work of 19 pollen traps in the country. Hungarian State Geological Institute and Institute for Land Measuring and Remote Sensing make the ragweed map of the country on the basis of the infested areas of the previous year, space photos, field surveys and other data. Before the beginning of the growing season, all of Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 362 the 19 Directorate of Plant and Soil Conservation in Hungary organize trainings for the field owners on the ecology, biology and control of A. artemisiifolia (Kacinczi et al., 2008). On the basis of plant protection laws, the protection against A. artemisiifolia is compulsory for the farmers until 30 th of June of each year. Since 2007, the prevention of the formation of flower-buds is required. In crops, general protection is recommended if the percentage (%) coverage of A. artemisiifolia exceeds 30. After 30th of June, local checking of control is done by Field Officers (specialists) stationed in every large town. In 2004, an ―Ambrosia-free Interdepartmental Committee‖ was formed in Hungary, with the active support of 8 ministries. In 2007, self-governments together with the local civil organizations announced the ―Ambrosia-free House action‖, whose purpose is to reach Ambrosia-free surroundings by the active help of the civil organizations (Kacinczi et al., 2008). Conclusions Invasion of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in Hungary deserves the attention of researchers, decision makers, policy formulators, opinion leaders and the public as well. 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CABI Bioscience Switzerland Centre report to the Swiss Agency for Environment, Forests and Landscape. Wopfner N, Gadermaier G, Egger M, Asero R, Ebner C, Jahn-Schmid B & Ferreira F (2005) The Spectrum of Allergens in Ragweed and Mugwort Pollen. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 138, 337–346. Zapolovski SA, Derecha AA, Dazhuk MA & Rybalchenko, SL (2004) Common ragweed in the Zhitomir region. Zashchita i Karantin Rasteniì 11, 38-39. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 365 Heracleum sosnowskyi invasion in Lithuania L. Baleţentiene Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Studentu 11, Akademija LT-53361, Kaunas dist. Lithuania. E-mail: ligitaba@gmail.com Heracleum sosnowskyi is among the 6 most dangerous invasive species that spread along roadsides and naturalized in Lithuanian habitats. This species outcompetes with native autochthones species, thus changing community composition and structure. Habitat assessments of the establishment and abundances of H. sosnowskyi in native plant communities at an individual location scale were carried out in Lithuania. Eight locations (10 m2 each) distributed in a 6 km transect along the highway Via Baltica near Kaunas, in the centre of Lithuania, were inventoried for the establishment and abundance of H. sosnowskyi. Four H. sosnowskyi population types were found: 1) individuals or small groups of 1-2 fruited individuals; 2) groups of n×10 m; 3) strips of 1-10 m width and different lengths along forests, roads, Nemunas river banks; and 4) large pure colonies consisting of nx10 individuals in 10 m2 and with relative coverage of 60-80% or even 100%. Species‘ abundance was structured according to the distance from highways and significantly correlated (r=0.7) with native plant community type. H. sosnowskyi find opportunities for colonization and reproduction resulting in decrease of natural diversity in areas where established. Species invasion success was highest in roadsides (12.3%), abandoned grasslands (6.7%), and wastelands (2.4%). Introduction Increasing human activity and transportation have resulted in a concomitant increase of alien plant spread into new countries and habitats worldwide (Gulezian & Nyberg, 2010; Landis, 2004; Miller et al., 2010). Several species of the genus Heracleum (Apiaceae) were introduced into Europe from south-west Asia in the 19th century and are now widespread in many countries (Jahodová et al., 2007). Heracleum sosnowskyi Mand. (cow parsnip, Sosnovski hogweed) is one of those introduced species and it is considered highly invasive due to its threat to native species, biodiversity and ecosystems in the EPPO region (Giant Alien Project, 2005; EPPO List of invasive alien plants, 2006) and in Lithuania (List of invasive organisms in Lithuania, 2009). In particular, in Lithuania Heracleum sosnowskyi is an invasive tall forb listed among the six most dangerous invasive alien species that spread across roadsides, natural riparian zones and forest edge habitats in Lithuania (Order No D1-663, 2009), where it changes community composition and structure and landscape. H. sosnowskyi outcompetes with native species and changes the composition as well as the structure of plant communities due to its high competition characteristics. H. sosnowskyi is native to the Caucasus where it occurs in the upper forest belt of the southern slopes, mainly in meadows, clearings and forest edges (Nielsen et al., 2005). This species was originally described as a separate species by I. Mandenova in 1944 (Lapiņš et al. 2002; Oboļeviţa, 2001). It was promoted as a crop in northwest Russia, where it was first introduced in 1947. From the 1940s onwards, it was Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 366 introduced as a potential forage crop in Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine and the former German Democratic Republic (Nielsen et al., 2005). Initially H. sosnowskyi was introduced as a fodder plant in the sixth decade of the last century at Research Station of Lithuanian University of Agriculture (Krikšţikas, 1970 unpubl.). The species therefore has been probably spread over Lithuania through several independent introductions: formerly escape from cultivation, it is now currently spreading from roadside (Gudzinskas, 1998; SGP, 2005). H. sosnowskyi is able to form pure stands and to change ecosystems diversity by outcompeting autochthones species in native habitats thus making huge damage to native flora and landscapes. Since plant competition is mainly for access to light, plants that grow higher biomass create negative feedback in the form of more self shading and shading of its neighbors (Finnoff & Tschirhart, 2009; Kowarik, 2003). It establishes in the following habitats: pastures, river banks, roadsides and rail networks, and wastelands (Pimentel et al., 2005). Responding to one of the greatest EU goals to prevent biodiversity degradation up to 2010, effective measures to choke off the spread of H. sosnowskyi in Lithuanian natural grassland and forest habitats need to be established. The objective of this article is to assess the impacts of H. sosnowskyi on native habitats in Lithuania and to record the distribution and abundance of the species in the most heavily invaded habitat types. Materials and Methods H. sosnowskyi and other allied species belong to Heracleum sect. Pubescentia (H. pubescens, H. mantegazzianum, H. sosnowskyi and H. sommieri). The distribution of this group covers nearly all Europe except the arctic, Mediterranean regions, the temperate zone of Asia and North America (Weber, 2003). Table 1 - Assessed habitat and other land-cover types Habitat type Key traits Abandoned More or less nutrient rich sites which have not been subject to regular grasslands land use in recent years Open riverbanks Unshaded riverbanks with herbaceous vegetation Open roadsides Unshaded roadsides (verges, embankments) with herbaceous vegetation Wastelands Heavily disturbed sites, such as sand pits etc. Forest edge Ecotonal zone between forest and adjacent vegetation and the outermost 10m of the forest itself Housing areas Areas of coherent plots used for housing The type of H. sosnowskyi impact (i.e., ecological, socio-economic or human health) was determined through literature review (Nielsen et al., 2005; Oboļeviţa, 2001). Lithuania lies in the very Centre of Europe on the Baltic sea and houses a temperate climate with 660 mm precipitation (Olenin, 2002), 17þC and 4þC summer and winter mean temperature respectively. A plant data set (6 km × 10 km area) was pre-selected for screening in the central part of Lithuania, near the intensive traffic highway ‗Via Baltica‘. The invasion degree (%) of H. sosnowskyi was defined as the ratio between the area of species stands and the total area of the respective habitat type (as indicated in Table 1) within the study areas Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 367 (Thiele & Otte, 2008). Habitat saturation was defined as the ratio of the area covered by H. sosnowskyi within the stands and the total area of the habitat type (Pyśek & Pyśek, 1995). Data of H. sosnowskyi invasion regional patterns were used to create a ranking of invasion intensity by summing up weights allocated to estimated frequency classes and maximum stand sizes, with higher frequencies and larger stand sizes receiving higher weights. Both published and unpublished floristic data were analyzed. The alien plant was ranked as a transformer using the categories of the Richardson et al. (2000) classification system. Results and Discussion H. sosnowskyi has great competition facilities due to its giant size and high reproductivity: a mature plant has pinnately divided leaves of 1 m in size, a hollow flowering stem up to height with 3 m (up to 4.5 m) tall regrowing in spring from the large fleshy tap root, stem diameter in basal part is 12-15 cm, the main inflorescence has a diameter up to 0.5 m and produces over 8000 fruits. This monocarpic perennial plant is resistant to cutting and fire. During the 1st year, a plant grows rather heavily and starts to grow intensively in the 2 nd and 3rd years, bringing up only basal leaves. Having accumulated appropriate amounts of resources needed for flowering, the plant matures on the years 4–5 (6–9 or 12–13 in unfavourable conditions). The plant flowers in June-July (August-October) with total seed production range from 10,000 to 100,000 (Table 2). Approximately a half of this amount of seeds produces the main inflorescence. The plant does not spread vegetatively, but is reported to live up to 6 years when planted for biomass and silage production (Satsyperova, 1984). Table 2 - H. sosnowskyi life stages in Lithuania Life stage Date Germination April-September Seedlings 1st vegetation season Leaf clusters (rosette plants) each year (for 2-5 years) until the plant flowers Maturity on the year 4–5 (6–9 or 12–13 year in unfavorable conditions) Flowering June-July (after cutting – in August-October) Seeds producing August-September As many invasive alien species (Wadsworth et al., 2000), H. sosnowskyi generally spreads from roads and establishes the largest populations in wastelands, rangelands, along roadsides, but also penetrates in semi natural and natural habitats (slopes, meadows, river banks, forest edges) (Fig. 1). Mean linear speed of this species was estimated 10 m per year in Lithuania (Gudzinskas & Rasomavicius, 2005). As was observed on slopes along a roadside near Kaunas, this invader spread over 600 m during 2000-2010 or may therefore colonize suitable neighbour habitats with average linear speed of 60 m per year. It can be noted that the observed linear speed is higher than that reported by former authors. Such robust spread of H. sosnowskyi is mostly determined by certain advantageous biological characteristics: intensive light competition due to giant height and diameter (3 m); high seed germination (78%±0.15) and seedling growth in early spring before the start of other plants; high survival of juvenile individuals; just 1 seedling is able to proceed a new invasion; high seed production and intensive short-distance seed spread (>10 m/yr). Establishing in new territories a plant can form different size and density populations; developed plantations (0.5 ha) expand 1200 m-2 per year. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 368 Meadow Wasteland River bank Forest edge H. sosnowskyi Tree and bush Population of H. sosnowskyi Succesional communities with H. sosnowskyi Unemployed Figure 1 - Successional scheme of H. sosnowskyi colonies These plant peculiarities resulted in its successfull spread over all Lithuanian territory during 20-30 years (Fig. 2). 1990 2005 Figure 2 - Distribution of H. sosnowskyi during five years in Lithuania (Gudzinskas & Rasomavicius, 2005) Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 369 Depending on environmental conditions and population age H. sosnowskyi forms populations of different type and size which area covers from several m2 to several ha includes several hundred matured fructiferous individuals (Table 3). Table 3 - Population types of H. sosnowskyi in Lithuania Population type Habitat type Area Solitary individuals Roadside, abandoned n × m2 grassland, forests, housing areas Groups of Roadside, abandoned 1- 10 m2 individuals grassland, forests Fructiferous individual in 10 m-2 1-2 Density (plant 10 m2 ) 1-3 Coverage (%) 1-3 3-8 20- 30 2-8- n × 10 10-30 1-3 (20) – n × 10-1000 individuals 60-80% (100%) Along river banks, 1-10 m 1-3 - n × 10 forests edge, roadside width × n×10-100 m length Large pure Roadside, abandoned n × 10-100 colonies grassland, wastelands Strips 5-10 H. sosnowskyi successfully passed habitats filters demonstrating high ecologic plasticity and invasiveness extent penetrating in anthropogenized, semi natural and natural communities (Kolar & Lodge, 2001; Landis, 2003). This species had spread in 17 administrative districts until 1990 and was registered in all regions of Lithuania over an area of 100 km2 in 2005 (Gudzinskas & Rasomavicius, 2005). 80 % of H. sosnowskyi colonies were established in anthropogenized areas: wastelands, roadsides and housing areas, and only 20% of colonies penetrated in natural habitats: forests and their edges (about 0.2 km2), riverbanks, meadows etc. The most evident floristical changes occurred in pine forest (Vaccinio-Pinetum) habitats: specific mosses to these forests (Pleurozium schreberi, Ptilium crista-castrensis) changed into species found in deciduous and mixed forests (Plagomnium undulatum, Eurlynchium angustirete, Atrichum undulatum). H. sosnowskyi transformed plant communities of forest edges resulting in the establishment of spring ephemerides (Ficaria verna, Pulmonaria obscura), shade-tolerant (Geum rivale, Glechoma hederacea, Lysimachia nummularia) and ruderal (Anthriscus sylvestris, Cirsium arvense, Urtica dioica) species (Table 4). Hogweed stressed native communities changing their structure and composition. Hogweed pushed out indigenous species, only some shade tolerant plants remained, landscape consequently lose their original habitats (Finnoff & Tschirhart, 2009). Such an aggressive invader that change character, condition, form or nature of ecosystems over substantial areas may be named ‗transformers‘ (Richardson et al., 2000, Pyśek et al., 2004; Weber, 2003). Significantly (r=0.7) the highest invasion percentage (12.3%) was found in open roadsides and was followed by abandoned grasslands (6.70%), wasteland areas (2.40%), and open riverbanks (1.20%) (Fig. 3). Invasion percentages of less than 1% were observed in the remaining invaded habitat types. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 370 Table 4 - Frequency (%) of constant species in different communities with H.sosnowskyi Constant species Urtica dioica Anthriscus sylvestris Artemisia vulgaris Cirsium arvense Dactylis glomerata Festuca pratensis Salix caprea Frangula alnus Alnus incana Geum rivale Lysimachia nummularia Chelidonium majus Eurhynchium angustirete Acer platanoides Padus avium Plagomnium undulatum Wastleands 2.40% Open roadsides 12.30% Grass communities 71.5±0.14 51.9±0.11 80.9±0.13 56.9±0.10 76.2±0.20 77.1±0.18 Forest edge 0.30% Bush communities 88.6±0.15 66.5±0.21 55.7±0.14 55.7±0.11 44.5±0.21 44.7±0.12 25.3±0.10 26.1±0,12 Housing areas 0.01% Tree communities 74.9±0.23 75.0±0.18 75.1±0.11 65.4±0.20 62.5±0.12 62.5±0.15 62.4±0.19 62.4±0.20 62.4±0.14 Abandoned grasslands 6.70% Open riverbanks 1.20% Figure 3 - Invasion (%) of H. sosnowskyi in different habitat Conclusions Highway roadsides represent the main invasion corridor of H. sosnowskyi in Lithuania. Because the rapidly increasing H. sosnowskyi has significant negative consequences for both human enterprise (Nielsen et al., 2005) and native ecological systems, there is a pressing need to mitigate the impacts of this species by finding effective control measures. Evaluation of this invasive alien plant representing an ecological risk is an initiating task for future studies at the national level. Analyses covering larger area are also necessary. References Finnoff D & Tschirhart J (2009) Plant competition and exclusion with optimizing individuals. Journal of Theoretical Biology 261(2), 227-37. Giant Alien Project (2002-2005). European Commission, 5th Framework Programme, Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development‘, project no. EVK2-CT-2001-00128 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 371 Gudzinskas Z & Rasomavicius V (2005) Communities and habitat preferences of Heracleum sosnowskyi in Lithuania. 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Ecological Economics 52, 273–288. Pyśek P & Pyśek A (1995) Invasion by Heracleum mantegazzianum in different habitats in the Czech Republic. Journal of Vegetation Science 6, 711–718. Pyśek P, Richardson D M, Rejmánek M, Webster G, Williamson M & Kirschner J (2004) Alien plants in checklists and floras: towards better communication between taxonomists and ecologists. Taxon 53, 131-143. Rejmánek M, Richardson DM, Higgins SI, Pitcairn MJ & Grotkopp E (2005) Ecology of invasive plants: state of the art. Invasive alien species: searching for solutions (ed. by Mooney HA, Mack RM, McNeely JA, Neville L, Schei P & Waage J), 104–161. Island Press, Washington, D.C. Richardson DM, Allsopp N, D‘Antonio CM, Milton SJ & Rejmánek M (2000) Plant invasions - the role of mutualisms. Biological Reviews 75, 65–93. Satsyperova IF (1984) Hogweeds in the Flora of the USSR: New Forage Plants. Nauka, Leningrad. (In Russian) SGP (2005) Removal of Invasive Specie Sosnowski's Cow Parsnip in Marijampole County LIT/05/15. Thiele J & Otte A (2008) Invasion patterns of Heracleum mantegazzianum in Germany on the regional and landscape scales. Journal for Nature Conservation 16, 61–71. Wadsworth RA, Collingham YC, Willis SG, Huntley B & Hulme PE (2000) Simulating the spread and management of alien riparian weeds: are they out of control? Journal of Applied Ecology 37, 28–38. Weber E (2003) Invasive plant species of the world a reference guide to environmental weeds. CABI Publishing, Wallingford. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 372 Distribution of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium) in Greece and invasiveness as related to leaf morphological characters Garifalia Economou 1, Costas Fasseas 2, D. Christodoulakis 3 & Ilias S. Travlos 1 1 Laboratory of Agronomy, 2Laboratory of Electron Microscopy E-mail: economou@aua.gr, cagr2ecg@noc.aua.gr 2 Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, Athens 11855, Hellas 3 Department of Botany, Faculty of Biology, University of Athens, 15701, Hellas Solanum elaeagnifolium is a noxious and invasive alien weed, against which international measures have to be taken in many areas, according to EPPO guidelines. It has been introduced from America to Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia, and in many cases it is considered as an important weed of croplands and pastures, mostly in cultivated land, disturbed areas, overgrazed areas, canal banks and human environments. In Greece, this invasive species causes major economic impacts related to its prevention, control and eradication (e.g. damage to crops, damages in urban areas, congestion in waterways, etc.). According to surveys undertaken during the last three years across the main cultivated zone in Greece, S. elaeagnifolium was found locally naturalised, it rapidly expands its habitat, progressively becoming a weed of agronomic importance. Currently, it exhibits an adaptation to a great variation of abiotic factors within its dispersal in Greek agroecosystems showing a particular preference in regions with low annual rainfall. According to our preliminary field experiment the occurrence of silverleaf nightshade in corn resulted in a maximum grain yield loss ranging from 14 to 47% for early emerging weed plants and less than 7% yield loss when the weed seedlings occurred later than the V4 corn growth stage. From this point of view, silverleaf nightshade obtains an emerging competitiveness in corn crop inducing the need of taking measures to prevent its potential introduction in other arable crops. The invasiveness of this weed is known to be aggravated by high seed production and an extensive root system that promotes vegetative multiplication, one of the main components making its control ineffective. It is widely known that the application of conventional weed control methods proved inadequate to prevent the rapid dispersal to a variety of habitats. Taking into account the role of leaf morphology, in terms of the ineffective control by means of foliage herbicides, the usual control strategy, we studied the leaf structure. Several morphological traits such as amphistomaty, abundance of palisade tissue, and hairs give an additional advantage to S. elaeagnifolium under the stressful Mediterranean conditions and significantly contribute to its noticeable invasiveness. The study of the silverleaf nightshade‘s leaf morphology may help the future investigations on minimizing the negative impact of herbicides use and improving the control measures. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 373 Germination ecology of the invasive Acacia saligna (Fabaceae) in Sardinia: interpopulation variability and effects of temperature and salinity F Meloni*, CA Dettori*, F Mascia*, L Podda**, G Bacchetta* *Centro Conservazione Biodiversità (CCB), Department of Botanical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Viale Sant’Ignazio 13, 09123 Cagliari (Italy), E-mail: info@ccb-sardegna.it **CRITERIA S.r.l. via Cugia 14, 09129 Cagliari (Italy). E-mail: l.podda@criteriaweb.it Acacia saligna (Labill.) Wendl. (Fabaceae) is a phanerophyte native to Australia. It was introduced in Sardinia for afforestation, mainly in coastal areas, and at present it is considered as naturalized, becoming invasive in sand dune habitats. In this work germination tests were carried out at the Sardinian Germplasm Bank (BG-SAR), testing different temperatures and percentages of NaCl, on seeds belonging to five accessions from four populations, in order to obtain data concerning the potential invasiveness of A. saligna, with particular attention to coastland habitats. The optimal temperature range for seed germination of all populations of A. saligna was 15-20þC; salt concentration increase influenced the germinative capacity causing a decrease in final percentages. At 1% of NaCl concentration the germination fell remarkably, final values stayed rather high only at 15þC, being nearly always above 50%. At 2% of NaCl concentration final germination percentages was relatively low (below 40%) and it occurred almost only at 15þC. The work is intended to represent a contribute to the knowledge of the seed ecology and germination behavior of the species, also providing new data on the interpopulation and interannual variability, and relating them with the invasion dynamics of A. saligna in the coastland habitats of the island. Introduction Acacia saligna (Labill.) H.L. Wendl. (Fabaceae) is a phanerophyte native to Australia. It forms a dense shrub, usually 2–5 m tall that may grow treelike to 8 m tall with a single main stem whose diameter can reach up to 30 cm. The species does not withstand frost and grows better where the winter and summer mean temperatures are 13þC and 30þC respectively (NAS, 1980). It can therefore live throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world, mainly on sandy, coastal plains, but it can also be found in a wide range of habitats, from swampy sites and riverbanks to rocky hills and coastal slopes (Groves, 1994). As noted by Doran & Turnbull (1997) it occurs on many soil types, especially poor and calcareous sands, but also on moderately heavy clays, while Simmons (1987) reported that it is tolerant to alkaline and saline soils. This tolerance to many different substrates even with low level of nutrients, together with an early reproductive maturity, a large seed production and the ability of seeds to survive fire, contributed to turn A. saligna into an invasive species outside its natural range (Cronk & Fuller, 1995). At present it is considered invasive in Chile, Cyprus, South Africa and, as regards Europe, in Spain, Portugal and Italy. In the Cape floristic region of South Africa, where it appears to alter N-cycling regimes through long-term invasions, it is regarded as one of the most important invasive alien plants Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 374 (Henderson, 2001). The main impacts that the invasive acacias have in natural and semi-natural ecosystems in this region include changes in plant community structure, increased flammability (Van Wilgen & Richardson, 1985) and modifications in the soil chemistry leading, among other things, to increased invasion by alien species (Richardson et al., 2000). Furthermore dense stands lead to reduced native species diversity (Richardson et al., 1989). In riparian habitats, dense formations of A. saligna transform native communities with marked alteration of ecosystem functioning (Holmes et al., 2005) and in coastal habitats they naturally stabilize mobile sand dunes, altering coastal sediment movement and leading to extensive beach erosion (Lubke, 1985). It also infests water courses (sometimes decreasing the water availability for irrigation), and has proved to be difficult to eradicate (NAS, 1980). Acacia saligna is a neophyte in Europe, and one of the forestry species introduced for restoration of damaged areas (Vilà et al., 2008). It was introduced in Sardinia in the 1950s for afforestation (Aru, 1967; Mayer, 1995) and at present it is commonly recorded as naturalized (Bacchetta, 2006; Bocchieri & Iiriti, 2003; Conti et al., 2005; Fenu & Bacchetta, 2008) or invasive (Brundu et al., 2004; Camarda et al., 2002; Podda et al., 2010) in coastal habitats and mainly in sand dunes (Bacchetta et al., 2009). This is confirmed by the recent national inventory of the Italian non-native flora by Celesti-Grapow et al. (2009), in which A. saligna is listed as invasive in Basilicata, Calabria and Sardinia. In other Italian regions it is reported as naturalized (Apulia, Campania, Sicily and Tuscany), while it is only casual in Liguria and Molise. One of the factors that may have a strong influence on A. saligna invasiveness is the great profusion of seeds; in fact Richardson & Kluge (2008) report the annual seed rain of A. saligna measured on the ground, recorded as 5,443 seeds per m², producing a soil seed bank with a density of seeds of about 46,000 per m². About 2–8% of the seeds can germinate immediately (Milton & Hall, 1981), while the vast majority of the seeds are added to the soil seed bank where they remain dormant but viable for more than 50 years until the seed coat is sufficiently damaged to be permeable to water and germinate (Milton & Hall, 1981). Only recently (Richardson & Kluge, 2008) the right attention has been given to understanding the role of soil seed banks in the invasiveness and long-term persistence of populations, concluding that the reduction of the soil seed bank is crucial. According to Baskin & Baskin (1998, 2004), A. saligna shows physical dormancy (PY), based on the structure and impermeability of the seed coat. A marked variation among seeds is pointed out as far as the toughness of the seed coat is concerned (Piotto & Di Noi, 2003); this feature enables the formation of soil seed banks so that germination occurs over a long period. Furthermore the seeds are fire adapted with an elaiosome that predisposes them to vertical dispersal into the soil by ants (Richardson & Kluge, 2008). In order to surmount dormancy and induce germination in A. saligna, Aref (2000) applied different pre-treatments, consisting in soaking the seeds in boiling water for different durations. Seeds without pre-treatment only reached 1.92% of germination and also after treatments with soaking the final germination percentage remained under 5%. The best result (32.05%) was obtained by placing seeds in boiling water. The recommended protocol by ISTA (2006) for the genus Acacia consists in chipping/filing/piercing the seeds and then soaking them for 3 hours. Piotto & Di Noi (2003) undermine the integrity of the seed coats by soaking the seeds in water at a high temperature for 12-24 hours or, alternatively, by chemical or mechanical scarification Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 375 (with sandpaper) and then soaking in water. The Seed Information Database (Liu et al., 2008) reports a final germination percentage of 96%, obtained after mechanical scarification (chipping with scalpel) in agar 1% with a photoperiod 12/12 at 21þC; 100% was reached in the same conditions but with a photoperiod 8/16 at 20þC. The aims of the present work are to investigate the seed germination behavior of A. saligna, with particular attention to the poorly previously investigated interpopulation and interannual variability (testing fresh and dry seeds), and the effects of temperature and salinity, in order to assess the potential invasiveness of the species in coastal habitats. Materials and methods Populations data and seed collection Four populations of Acacia saligna located in Southern Sardinia (Figure 1) were investigated (Table 1). Acacia saligna VIL, MAS and TEU populations grow on coastal sands originated principally from granites, living therefore on a saline substrate with NaCl from marine spray and layer. CAG population occupies clays on a limestone hill, with different salts. VIL population has been monitored since 2008 through the placement of study plots (75 m2) in stabilized dunal zone in order to check the invasive behavior of the species (Podda et al., 2009). Preliminary results of the monitoring are put in connection with the results of this study. Seeds were harvested at the time of natural ripening and dispersal from about 20% of the reproducers among total individuals, according to criteria that guarantee a high quality and representativeness of the collected material (Guarino et al., 1995). Seeds were manually removed from pods and stored at the Sardinian Germplasm Bank (BG-SAR), where they were placed in the dry room at 15% R.H. and 15þC (for the accessions collected in 2008) or immediately subjected to germination trials (as in the case of all the accessions collected in 2009). Figure 1 - Studied populations of Acacia saligna in Southern Sardinia. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 376 Table 1 - Populations data and seed lot details. Accession Collection Collection s Date site VIL 24/10/200 8 CAG 08 07/08/200 8 CAG 09 30/09/200 9 MAS TEU Coordinates Serra de 39þ7'8.40"N Morus (Villasimius 9þ31'15.44"E ) Tuvixeddu (Cagliari) 39þ13'44.34" N 9þ 6'11.59"E 30/09/200 9 Is Solinas 39þ1'16.23"N (Masainas) 8þ34'42.73"E 30/09/200 9 38þ53'42.87" N 8þ48'50.70"E Tuerredda (Teulada) Altitud e (m) Substrate Lithology Thermotyp Salt in Invaded e substrat vegetation Ombrotype e Habitat Directive 92/43/EEC NaCl Termomedit. from marine Inf. spray and Dry sup. sea layer *Coastal 1 year at dunes with 15þC and Juniperus spp 15% R.H. (2250) Pistacio lentisciJuniperetum macrocarpa e Storage condition s 2 Coastal sands/ Granites 55 ThermoCompacted Mediterranea Termomedit. Asparago Different clays/ Inf. albi-Oleetum n and presalts Limestone desert scrub Dry inf. sylvestris s (5330) 3 Coastal sands/ Granites NaCl Termomedit. from marine Inf. spray and Dry inf. sea layer Pistacio lentisciJuniperetum macrocarpa e *Coastal dunes with Fresh Juniperus spp seeds (2250) 2 Coastal sands/ Granites NaCl Termomedit. from Inf. marine Dry inf. spray and sea layer Pistacio lentisciJuniperetum macrocarpa e *Coastal dunes with Fresh Juniperus spp seeds (2250) Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 1 year at 15þC and 15% R.H. Fresh seeds 377 Germination protocols and salt tolerance According to international protocols (Bacchetta et al., 2006, 2008; ISTA, 2006), trials at different temperatures were performed. A pre-treatment was applied in order to overcome the physical dormancy, consisting in a mechanical scarification with sandpaper and then soaking in water. Based on previous works on germination of Acacia saligna, that indicated 20þC and 21þC as the best temperatures for this species (Liu et al., 2008), a range of temperatures from 15þC to 30þC was selected for the trials. Four replicates of 10 seeds per treatment of each population were sown on the surface of 1% agar water in 90 mm plastic Petri dishes and incubated at 15þC, 20þC, 25þC and 30þC with 12 hours light and 12 hours dark. Germination was scored daily for 90 days and germinated seeds were removed; they were considered to have germinated at the emergence of the radicle. The T50 parameter, time to reach 50% of the total germination, was also calculated. At the end of the germination tests, a cut test was carried out to determine the viability of the remaining seeds. The final germination percentage was calculated as the mean of the four replicates (± 1 standard deviation) on the basis of the total number of filled seeds. At the same conditions (15þC, 20þC, 25þC, 30þC with 12 hours light/12 hours dark), four replicates with 10 seeds in each were sown with 1% and 2% NaCl concentrations in 1% agar water. Germination was scored daily, T50 parameter was calculated. Statistical analysis Data were analyzed by Two-Way ANOVA to verify if there were any differences among populations and between fresh and dry seeds, and by One-Way ANOVA followed by the post hoc Fisher‘s LSD test to verify differences among temperatures and salinity treatments. The analyses were carried out using STATISTICA 7.0 software (Statsoft). Results Germination tests The optimal temperature range for germination of all populations of Acacia saligna was 1520þC, but also at 25þC germination was very high (Table 2, Figure 2). The accessions showed a quite similar behavior, although with some differences: VIL and CAG 09 populations reached their best result at 15þC but they were also very high at 20þC; CAG 08 population, on the contrary, germinated better at 15þC and 25þC. MAS and TEU were the two accessions that had the most similar behavior between each other: the highest values were found at 20þC, followed by 25þC, 15þC and finally 30þC. In spite of this heterogeneity, all the values reached at 15þC, 20þC and 25þC did not significantly differ one with the other (p > 0.05 by One-Way ANOVA followed by the post hoc Fisher‘s LSD test), with the exception of CAG 09 at 25þC. The only condition that seemed to represent a significant limit for A. saligna germination in all accessions was the temperature of 30þC (p < 0.01 by One-Way ANOVA followed by the post hoc Fisher‘s LSD test). Comparing the germination values for the accessions CAG 08 and CAG 09, originating from the same population (Table 1), they did not show significant differences at 15þC, 20þC and 25þC (p > 0.05 by One-Way ANOVA followed by the post hoc Fisher‘s LSD test); but in both accessions the germination fell remarkably and significantly at 30þC. In particular, CAG 09 reached a significantly lower final seed germination percentage not only with respect to CAG 08 but also to the other seed lots (Table 2, Figure 2). On the whole, it may be said that the two seed lots do not show a relevant interannual variability and that the year of storage at the BGPosters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 378 SAR had no influence on the viability and germination response of seeds of CAG 08 with respect to those of CAG 09. In fact, neither an interpopulation nor an interannual effect was detected on final seed germination percentages (p > 0.05 by Two-Way ANOVA). From the cut test carried out at the end of the trials, the total viability of the seeds (germinated plus viable) was of 100.00 ± 0.00. Figure 2 - Final germination at tested temperatures (15þC, 20þC, 25þC, 30þC) with a photoperiod of 12 hours light/12 hours dark for the seeds belonging to the five accessions of Acacia saligna. Data are the mean of four replicates (± standard deviation), p < 0.05 by OneWay ANOVA followed by the post hoc Fisher‘s LSD test. Salt tolerance Salt concentration increase influenced the germinative capacity (Table 2, Figure 3), causing a decrease in final percentages. At 1% of NaCl concentration the germination fell remarkably; the final values stayed rather high only at 15þC, being almost always above 60% with the exception of CAG 08. At 20þC, with the exception of CAG 09 and TEU, it went under 50%. Of these latter cases, only the germination percentage of CAG 09 turned out to be statistically similar to the values reached at 15þC by VIL, CAG 09, MAS and TEU (p > 0.05 by One-Way ANOVA followed by the post hoc Fisher‘s LSD test) (Table 2, Figure 3). At 25þC only VIL, MAS and TEU germinated but reached very low values, significantly different both with respect to those at 15þC and to those at 20þC (with the exception of VIL at 20þC). Finally, at 30þC none of the accessions were able to germinate. At 2% of NaCl concentration, final germination percentages stayed relatively low and it occurred almost only at 15þC (Table 2, Figure 4). The accession that germinated better was CAG 08 followed by VIL, CAG 09 and MAS, being the latter two statistically different (p < 0.05 by OneWay ANOVA followed by the post hoc Fisher‘s LSD test). At 20þC only CAG 08 could germinate, this value being significantly different from VIL, CAG 08, CAG 09 and MAS at 15þC (p < 0.05 by One-Way ANOVA followed by the post hoc Fisher‘s LSD test). Conversely, at 25þC and 30þC none of the accessions germinated. Again, there were no statistical differences in Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 379 the final seed germination percentages neither among populations nor between storage conditions (p > 0.05 by Two-Way ANOVA). Figure 3 - Final germination at tested temperatures (15þC, 20þC, 25þC, 30þC) with a photoperiod of 12 hours light/12 hours dark for the seeds belonging to the five accessions of Acacia saligna with 1% NaCl in the medium. Data are the mean of four replicates (± standard deviation), p < 0.05 by One-Way ANOVA followed by the post hoc Fisher‘s LSD test. Figure 4 - Final germination at the tested temperatures (15þC, 20þC, 25þC, 30þC) with a photoperiod of 12 hours light/12 hours dark for the seeds belonging to the five accessions of Acacia saligna with 2% NaCl in the medium. Data are the mean of four replicates (± standard deviation), p < 0.05 by One-Way ANOVA followed by the post hoc Fisher‘s LSD test. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 380 NaCl concentration in the medium caused not only a decrease in the final germination percentages but also a delay of this latter. In fact comparing the T50 values (Table 2) for the trials at 15þC (the only temperature that allowed germination at both NaCl concentrations), it is important to notice that they augmented with the enhancement of salinity (see Table 2). Table 2 - Final germination percentages (± standard deviation) and T50 values (in italics) of Acacia saligna at 15þC, 20þC, 25þC, 30þC in the control test (0% NaCl), with 1% and 2% NaCl in the medium. Data are the means of four replicates. Accession Control test, 0% NaCl 15°C 20°C 25°C 1% NaCl 30°C 2% NaCl 15°C 20°C 25°C 30°C 15°C 20°C 25°C 30°C VIL 100.00 95.00 ± 0.00 10.00 0.73 0.83 75.00 ± 75.00 ± 60.00 ± ± 30.00 18.26 10.00 7.71 11.00 7.80 12.50 ± 12.58 8.50 7.50 ± 9.57 8.50 0.00 ± 0.00 30.00 0.00 ± ± 8.16 0.00 18.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 CAG 08 92.50 82.50 ± 9.57 9.57 1.93 1.55 50.00 ± 95.00± 52.50 ± ± 5.77 15.00 14.14 3.56 17.42 10.17 40.00 0.00 ± ± 14.14 0.00 17.80 0.00 ± 0.00 40.00 7.50 0.00 ± ±9.57 ± 29.44 22.00 0.00 35.89 0.00 ± 0.00 CAG 09 95.00 ± 10.00 2.27 90.00 11.55 0.64 82.50 ± 80.00 ± 12.50 ± ± 8.16 18.93 5.00 0.73 0.83 7.10 72.50 0.00 ± ± 5.00 0.00 13.20 0.00 ± 0.00 5.00 0.00 ± ± 5.77 0.00 21.50 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 MAS 82.50 90.00 ± 5.00 8.16 2.16 0.67 75.00 ± 85.00 ± 80.00 ± ± 12.91 8.16 20.82 2.00 9.82 8.00 42.50 ± 17.08 11.63 2.50 ± 5.00 3.00 0.00 ± 0.00 2.50 0.00 ± ± 5.00 0.00 25.50 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 TEU 87.50 82.50 12.91 ± 5.00 0.77 2.23 62.50 ± 82.50 ± 47.50 ± ± 23.36 9.57 17.08 4.33 14.50 5.50 52.50 ± 15.00 7.29 7.50 0.00 ± ± 8.16 0.00 18.50 20.00 0.00 ± ± 23.09 0.00 24.25 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Discussion According to the germination tests‘ results, seeds belonging to the Sardinian populations of Acacia saligna show the capacity to germinate to a great extent at all tested temperatures. This result can be interpreted as a sign of the capacity of this species to rapidly adapt to environmental changes. The result of the cut test carried out at the end of the germination trials, with all seeds full and viable, confirms the effectiveness of the dispersal mechanism of this species that can set up a persistent seed bank (PSB). This result is also coherent with previous studies carried out by Milton & Hall (1981) and Richardson & Kluge (2008). The strong interaction between salt and temperature must be pointed out: it is clear that with salt presence, the germination capacity of A. saligna seeds is higher at low temperatures and it Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 381 progressively decreases as the temperature increases. This fact is ecologically significant, indicating a need for a reduction in soil salinity for seed germination to occur. In fact, seed germination in saline environments usually occurs in spring when the temperatures are lower and soil salinity is reduced by precipitation in the late winter and spring (Katembe et al., 1998; Ungar, 1995; Zehra & Kahn, 2007). The above mentioned behavior is common to the seeds of most of species, including halophytes, that show optimal germination in fresh water (Boorman, 1968; Khan & Ungar, 1984; Macke & Ungar, 1971; Waisel & Ovadia, 1972) while increased salinity leads to a reduction in germination of both halophyte and glycophyte seeds (Ungar, 1995; Waisel & Ovadia, 1972). Sometimes, as in the case of A. saligna, salt may affect germination rate to an equal or greater extent than germination final percentage (Lovato et al., 1994). Furthermore the germination of halophytes shows a characteristic pattern in response to increased salt levels, with higher resistance up to a certain critical concentration and then a rapid decrease in final germination beyond this (Meloni et al., 2008); glycophytes, on the other hand, show a concomitant reduction in germination with increasing salinity (Rogers et al., 1995). The present germination data therefore suggest that A. saligna is a salt-tolerant glycophyte, that it is able to live in many different substrata and in a wide range of habitats, while halophytes are generally restricted to saline environments, thus indicating either a requirement for relatively high salt concentrations, a tolerance for excess salts, or a decreased competitive ability with other plants in less stressful environments (Katembe et al., 1998; Ungar, 1995). The hypothesis is also supported by the first results of the in situ monitoring in the SIC area ―Isola dei Cavoli, Serpentara e Punta Molentis‖ in the administrative territory of Villasimius (SE Sardinia) (Podda et al., 2009). During the monitoring study the invasiveness and expansion of the species has been detected and recognized as a threat to the prioritary habitat ―2250 Coastal dunes with Juniperus spp‖ of the Habitat Directive 92/43/EEC (European Community, 1992). In fact, phytosociological relevés highlighted the dominance of A. saligna over Juniperus oxycedrus L. subsp. macrocarpa (Sibth. & Sm.) Neilr., with cover indexes that reached up to 100%. Nevertheless, preliminary data show that A. saligna shrub formations principally evolve towards fixed dunes. The expansion of the species towards the coastline is limited by the presence of the salt marine spray that probably represents the main limiting factor together with the wind speed and sand transport rates. Rather, the colonization of the species towards the inland sector seems not be limited by any factor. In fact, A. saligna appears to be strongly favored in the perturbed sector, where the formations with J. oxycedrus subsp. macrocarpa are affected by continuous cuts and openings that consequently degrade the habitat and enhance the penetration of alien woody species. Considering the threat posed by this species for coastal habitats, especially for the prioritary European habitat ―2250 Coastal dunes with Juniperus spp‖, it is important to take into account the management measures which are necessary to limit the invasion of this species, incorporating them in the territory planning. Due to the danger of dramatically altering the dunes ecosystem structure, A. saligna is really difficult to control through mechanical methods such as the removal of adult individuals. Richardson & Kluge (2008) suggest the use of controlled fires in order to limit the soil seed bank, which is an inappropriate method to apply in important and fragile ecosystems such as coastland dunes. The interaction between temperature and salt concentration in the germination stage of A. saligna allows identifying spring as the season when most germination takes place in coastal habitats with presence of NaCl. We therefore suggest that the manual eradication of the seedlings in the appropriate season, together with the cut of adult Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 382 individuals, is probably the only method that could give a contribution to the effective control of this species, preventing further development of individuals before they turn into threats and, at the same time, reducing any disturbance to autochthonous species and plant communities. With regard to climate change, the global increase of temperatures is projected to enhance the expansion of alien species coming from hot areas, and to facilitate opportunist and fast-growing taxa (Kriticos et al., 2003; Middleton, 2006). Our investigations demonstrate that the germination capacity of A. saligna decreases with the increase of temperatures, this behavior being emphasized by the presence of salt in the germination substrate. For this reason it is presumable that the projected increase in temperatures and in summer drought length could limit the distribution of this species to more reduced areas. On the other hand, according to the results of germination tests, A. saligna shows a tolerance to NaCl at the germination stage, and a certain amount of interpopulation variability that can be interpreted as a sign of the capacity of this species to rapidly adapt to environmental changes. These factors will likely lead, either in Sardinia as well as in other Mediterranean territories, to an expansion of the populations of this species. The present work contributes to the knowledge of the seed ecology and germination behavior of the invasive A. saligna in the Mediterranean basin, by bringing new data on the response of the species to different temperatures regimes and salinity concentration. The article also provides new data about the interpopulation and interannual variability. Acknowledgements This study has partially been supported by the Doctoral School of ―Ingegneria e Scienze per l‘Ambiente e il Territorio‖ of the Università degli Studi di Cagliari and has received a RAS research grant cofinanced by PO Sardegna FSE 2007-2013 L.R.7/2007 ―Promozione della ricerca scientifica e dell‘innovazione tecnologica in Sardegna‖. Authors want to thank Emanuela Bacchetta for English revision. References Aref IM (2000) Effects of pre-germination treatments and sowing depths upon germination potential of some Acacia species. Research Bulletin of King Saudi University 95, 5-17. Aru A (1967) [Observations on ―Is Arenas‖ soils (Oristano).] Typography R. Coppini & C. (in Italian). Bacchetta G (2006) [The flora of Sulcis (South-Western Sardinia).] Guineana 12, 1-369 (in Italian). Bacchetta G, Fenu G, Mattana E, Piotto B & Virevaire M (eds) (2006) Manuale per la raccolta, studio, conservazione e gestione ex situ del germoplasma. Manuali e Linee guida APAT 37/2006 (IT). Bacchetta G, Bueno Sánchez A, Fenu G, Jiménez-Alfaro B, Mattana E, Piotto B & Virevaire M (eds) (2008) Conservación ex situ de plantas silvestres. Principado de Asturias, La Caixa (SP). Bacchetta G, Mayoral Garcìa-Berlanga O & Podda L (2009) [Checklist of the exotic flora of Sardinia (Italy).] Flora Montiberica 41(1), 35-61 (in Spanish). Baskin CC & Baskin JM (1998) Seeds–ecology, biogeography and evolution of dormancy and germination. Academic Press, San Diego, CA (US) Baskin JM & Baskin CC (2004) A classification system for seed dormancy. Seed Science Research 14, 1-16. Bocchieri E & Iiriti G (2003) [Flora of Teccu, a basaltic promontory of the Central-Eastern Sardinia.] Atti della Società Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Serie B, 110, 35-53 (in Italian). Boorman LA (1968) Some aspects of the reproductive biology of Limonium vulgare Mill. and Limonium humile Mill. Annals of Botany 32, 803-824. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 383 Brundu G, Camarda I, Hulme PE, Vilà M, Troumbis A, Traveset A, Moragues E & Suehs C (2004) Comparative analysis of the abundance and distribution of alien plants on Mediterranean islands. Proceedings of 10th MEDECOS, International Conference on Ecology Conservation and Management of Mediterranean Climate Ecosystems. Rhodes (GR). Camarda I, Brundu G, Carta L, Manca M, Satta V (2002) Invasive alien plants in the National Parks of Sardinia. In Global challenges of parks and protected area management (eds Camarda I, Manfredo MJ, Mulas F & Teel T). Proceedings of the 9th ISSRM. Carlo Delfino Ed., Sassari (IT). Celesti-Grapow L, Alessandrini A, Arrigoni PV, Banfi E, Bernardo L, Bovio M, Brundu G, Cagiotti MR, Camarda I, Carli E, Conti F, Fascetti S, Galasso G, Gubellini L, La Valva V, Lucchese F, Marchiori S, Mazzola P, Peccenini S, Pretto F, Poldini L, Prosser F, Siniscalco C, Villani Mc, Viegi L, Wilhalm T & Blasi C (2009) The inventory of the non-native flora of Italy. Plant Biosystems 143(3), 386-430. Cronk QCB & Fuller J (1995) Plant Invaders. Chapman & Hall, London (UK). Conti F, Abbate G, Alessandrini A & Blasi C (eds) (2005) An Annotated Checklist of the Italian Vascular Flora. Palombi Editori, Roma (IT). Doran J & Turnbull J (1997) Australian trees and shrubs: species for land rehabilitation and farm planting in the tropics. ACIAR, Canberra (AUS). European Community, 1992. Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21.5.92. Official Journal of the European Community. L. 206 of 22/7/1992. Fenu G & Bacchetta G (2008) [The vascular flora of the Sinis peninsula (Western Sardinia).] Acta Botanica Malacitana 33, 91-124 (in Italian). Groves RH (ed) (1994) Australian vegetation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK). Guarino L, Ramanantha Rao V & Reid R (eds) (1995) Collecting Plant Genetic Diversity. Technical guidelines. CABI. Wallingford, Oxon (UK). Henderson L (2001) Alien weeds and invasive plants. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 12. Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria (ZA). Holmes PM, Richardson DM, Esler KJ, Witkowski ETF & Fourie S (2005) A decision-making framework for restoring riparian zones degraded by invasive alien plants in South Africa. South African Journal of Science 101, 553-564. ISTA (2006) International rules for seed testing. Edition 2006. The International Seed Testing Association (ISTA), Bassersdorf (CH). Katembe WJ, Ungar IA & Mitchell JP (1998) Effect of salinity on germination and seedling growth of two Atriplex species (Chenopodiaceae). Annals of Botany 82, 167-175. Khan MA & Ungar IA (1984) The effect of salinity and temperature on germination of polymorphic seeds and growth of Atriplex triangularis. American Journal of Botany 71, 481-489. Kriticos D, Sutherst R, Brown J, Adkins S & Maywald G (2003) Climate change and the potential distribution of an invasive alien plant: Acacia nilotica ssp. indica in Australia. Journal of Applied Ecology 40, 111-124. Liu K, Eastwood RJ, Flynn S, Turner RM & Stuppy WH (2008) Seed Information Database http://www.kew.org/data/sid [release 7.1, May 2008]. Lovato MB, Martins PS & Lemos JPD (1994) Germination in Stylosanthes humilis populations in the presence of NaCl. Australian Journal of Botany 42(6), 717-723. Lubke RA (1985) Erosion of the beach at St Francis Bay, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Biology Conservation 32, 99127. Macke AJ & Ungar IA (1971) The effect of salinity on germination and early growth of Puccinella nuttalliana. Canadian Journal of Botany 49, 515-520. Mayer A (1995) Comparative study of the coastal vegetation of Sardinia (Italy) and Crete (Greece) with respect to the effects of human influence. Libri Botanici 15. Meloni DA, Gulotta MR & Martìnez CA (2008) Salinity tolerance in Schinopsis quebracho colorado: seed germination, growth, ion relations and metabolic responses. Journal of Arid Environments 72(10), 1785-1792. Middleton B (2006) Invasive species and climate change open-file report 2006-1153. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey (US). Milton SJ & Hall AV (1981) Reproductive biology of Australian acacias in the southwestern Cape Province, South Africa. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 44, 465-487. National Academy of Sciences (N.A.S.) (1980) Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. US National Academy of Sciences, Washington DC (US). Piotto B & Di Noi A (eds) (2003) Seed propagation of Mediterranean trees and shrubs. National Agency for the Environmental Protection (ANPA). Roma (IT). Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 384 Podda L, Meloni F, Dettori CA, Mascia F, Soriano García JA & Bacchetta G (2009) Weed risk assessment of Acacia saligna in Sardinian coastland habitats through ex situ germination study and in situ monitoring. Book of Abstract 45° International Congress SISV & FIP. Cagliari (IT). Podda L, Fraga i Arguimbau P, Mayoral Garcìa-Berlanga O, Mascia F & Bacchetta G (2010) [Comparison of the vascular exotic flora in continental islands: Sardinia (Italy) and Balearic Islands (Spain).] Anales Jardin Botanico de Madrid 67(2), 157-176 (in Spanish). Richardson DM, MacDonald IAW & Forsyth GG (1989) Reductions in plant species richness under stands of alien trees and shrubs in the fynbos biome. South African Forestry Journal 149, 1-8. Richardson DM, Pyšek P, Rejmánek M, Barbour MG, Panetta FD & West CJ (2000) Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. Diversity and Distributions 6, 93-107. Richardson DM & Kluge RL (2008) Seed banks of invasive Australian Acacia species in South Africa: role in invasiveness and options for management. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 10, 161177. Rogers ME, Noble CL, Halloran GM & Nicolas ME (1995) The effect of NaCl on germination and early seedling growth of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) populations selected for high and low salinity tolerance. Seed Science Technology 23, 277-287. Simmons MH (1987) Study the growing acacias establishment of planted tree seedlings. Marcel Kenthurst Kangaroo Press, Publishing (AU). Ungar IA (1995) Seed germination and seed-bank ecology in halophytes. In Seed development and germination (eds Kigel J & Galili G), pp. 599-628. Marcel Dekker, New York (US). Van Wilgen BW & Richardson DM (1985) The effects of alien shrub invasions on vegetation structure and fire behaviour in South African fynbos shrublands: a simulation study. Journal of Applied Ecology 22, 955-966. Vilà M, Valladares F, Traveset A, Santamarìa L & Castro P (eds) (2008) Invasiones biológicas. CSIC, Madrid (SP). Waisel Y & Ovadia S (1972) Biological flora of Israel. Suaeda monica Forsk. ex J.F. Gmel. Israel Journal of Botany 21, 42-52. Zehra A & Khan MA (2007) Comparative effect of NaCl and sea salt on germination of halophytic grass Phragmites karka at different temperature regimes. Pakistan Journal of Botany 39(5), 1681-1694. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 385 Assessing the potential invasiveness of Cortaderia selloana in Sardinian wetlands through seed germination study. Lina Podda, Italy Centro Conservazione Biodiversità (CCB), Dipartimento di Scienze Botaniche, Università degli Studi di Cagliari., Italia E-mail: linap68@yahoo.it The present work focuses on the study of abiotic factors that may favour seed germination and the potential invasiveness of C. selloana, with particular attention to wetlands. Germination tests were conducted at the Sardinian Germplasm Bank (BG-SAR), testing different temperatures and percentages of NaCl in order to determine the optimal ecological conditions at which germination occurs and the effect of salt on seeds germination and viability, as well as on seedling development. Seeds completely germinated at every tested temperature, yet the higher germination rate was found at 25þC. Salinity did not prevent seeds from germinating, but it affected germination rate and seedling vigour. The population that has been taken into account in this study is located in a continental and non-artificial wetland context, whose vegetation is represented by hygrofile formations with Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud and by Carex sp.pl. in the banks, belonging to Phragmito-Magnocaricetea Klika in Klika et Novàk 1941, followed by communities of the order Juncetalia maritimi Br.-Bl. ex Horvatic 1934 in the depressed areas and by therophytic formations of the class Isoëto-Nanojuncetea in temporary wetlands. The results of the germination tests that have been carried out prove the potential invasiveness of C. selloana in habitats such as lagoons and salt marshes. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 386 Industry view on importance and advantages of a Code of Conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants Anil Yilmaz Antalya Exporter Unions General Secretariat, Turkey E-mail: yilmaza@aib.org.tr The International Association of Horticultural Producers (AIPH) represents horticultural producers' organisations all over the world. The horticultural industry supports the aim to preserve the biological diversity. The reinforcement of the biological diversity in urban areas, the improvement of the greening in cities is considered and supported as the essential aim of national strategies for biological diversity. Therefore AIPH has interest in the prevention of introduction and spread of invasive plants. Their interest is that a Code of Conduct is set up by the sector itself or in partnership with government and/or NGO‘s. A code may not just be layed upon the sector by the authorities. The rules have to be made by and in agreement with the target group. They also can agree on the sanctions, within ethical and legal boundaries. Introducing a Code of Conduct can only be successful if there is awareness of the problem and stakeholders find it their responsibility to take preventive measures. The organisation that edits the Code of Conduct has to be representative for the sector. The form and the content have to be accessible, consistent, applicable, realistic and feasible. To be effective a Code needs incentives, compliance and assurance. Major reasons to encourage self-regulations are 1) preventing government regulation, 2) concern for the image of the sector, 3) concern for the environment and 4) corporate social responsibility. Although Code of Conducts is not a new way of self-regulation, in the horticultural sector it is relatively new. Since the middle of the 90-ties codes of conduct or code of practice have been introduced in the field of environment and social aspects. Some Codes of Conduct or Code of Practice for preventing the spread of invasive plants have been introduced in the last few years. Other initiatives like Action Plans or Management Plans towards invasive species, edit by governments, are more compulsory. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 387 Anigozanthos hybrids: what are the chances of eradicating this flower-farm escapee? Ivey Philip Early Detection Programme, SANBI, Private Bag X7, Claremont, 7735, South Africa E-mail: p.ivey@sanbi.org.za Anigozanthos species (Kangaroo paws) endemic to Western Australia were introduced as a possible cut flower to a farm outside Kleinmond, in the Western Cape, South Africa. The species is well adapted to the climatic conditions and fire regimes of the Cape floristic region and has the potential to spread and threaten wetland habitats in the adjacent Kogelberg Biosphere reserve. While the threat to water resources and environmental services is likely to be low, the threat to indigenous and possibly endangered wetland species being displaced by monocultures of Anigozanthos is high. After initial assessments and surveys that delimited the known distribution of the hybrids to six populations, long term monitoring sites have been set up and physical clearing of the species has begun. Based on initial understanding of the population dynamics developed from data gathered during clearing operations, this paper will explore the likelihood of eradication of the species. The Nursery Industry has yet to be convinced of the invasive potential of this genus and its hybrids and claim the right to import ‗sterile‘ hybrids of Anigozanthos. The complexities of dealing with a stakeholder that has an economic interest in a potentially invasive species will also be explored. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 388 Use of “native species” as a bioenergy crop in the Mediterranean basin. Concerns regarding invasive traits of some domesticated taxa: the case of Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) Roberto Crosti Roberto 1and Leak-Garcia Janet A2 c/o ISPRA Dipartimento Difesa della Natura -Tutela biodiversità, Roma, Italy. E-mail: roberto.crosti@isprambiente.it 2 Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, USA 1 Biofuel crops have many traits in common with the ideotype of an invasive species, thus several reports and agroenergy feasibility plan suggest using native species (sensu latu), rather than alien, as biofuel crop to avoid that invasive alien germplasm could lead to habitat loss and biodiversity harm. It should be noted, however, that even native species that are dominant within particular habitats are not efficient in phytomass production. So to be harvested for biofuel production, most of the species ―claimed‖ as native in cropping systems are, in fact, species with a ―wild relative/genotype‖, selected or domesticated for specific traits which may confer, among the others, greater invasiveness capacity. In different countries of the Mediterranean Basin, the ―native‖ cardoon (Cynara cardunculus var. altilis –DC) has been an object of research in order to study the biological and agronomic responses of different cultivars for biofuel production. Cardoon, as a consequence of being domesticated from the ―genetic pool‖ of the native wild artichoke Cynara cardunculus var. sylvestris is adapted to mediterranean environments. Spread of germplasm of the ―wild related‖ species into natural habitat may impact native biological diversity as it can compete with native vegetation and increase hybridization (impacting the genetic integrity) with congeneric native species. New hybrids, in addition, can compete better for resources with the other species of the native plant community. Since the initial alert of the scientific community (Crosti & Forconi 2006; Raghu et al. 2006) and of relevant conservation organization or international bodies (GISP 2008; IUCN 2009, CoE 2009) concerning the potential risk of several biofuel species, which many countries are promoting as an alternative to fossil fuels, to ―escape the field‖ and become invasive and harm the natural environment, many feasibility plan of biofuel crops suggest the use of native species. In agro-ecosystems, in fact, anthropogenic manipulation of land for agricultural production has greatly changed the original natural ecosystem and the agriculture practices facilitate the spread of invasive alien plants, making the natural environment more susceptible to invasions. Indeed, farmlands are habitats prone to new introductions, plant naturalisation and invasion. Worldwide and in Europe, most invasive alien species were introduced for agricultural and horticultural purposes and biofuel crops have many traits in common with the ideotype of an invasive species including broad ecological amplitude, rapid growth, high seed production, common occurrence of vegetative spread, and resistance to pests and diseases. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 389 The use of native species (sensu latu), rather than alien, as biofuel crop to reduce habitat loss and biodiversity harm, subsequent to alien plant invasiveness, is thus commonly suggested. It should be noted, however, that even native species that are dominant within particular habitats (i.e. in grasslands or in high stand forests) are not efficient in industrial phytomass production. So to be harvested for biofuel production, most of the species ―claimed‖ as native in cropping systems are, in fact, species with a wild relative, selected or domesticated for specific traits which may confer, among the others, greater invasiveness capacity. In different countries of the Mediterranean Basin, the ―native‖ cardoon (Cynara cardunculus var. altilis –DC) has been an object of research in order to study the biological and agronomic responses of different cultivars. Subsequently it has been proposed for use as a drought resistant biofuel crop capable of producing high yields especially in dry summer climate conditions. The species can be used for biomass from the stalk, sugar from the roots and oil from seeds. Cardoon plants used for the biofuel industry are harvested dry from the end of the summer, thus eliminating the great cost of moisture contents in crops that affect harvesting, transportation and storage. Cardoon, as a consequence of being domesticated from the ―genetic pool‖ of a native species (Rottemberg et al., 2005), is adapted to mediterranean environments. Cardoon grows mainly from seed and was domesticated from the wild artichoke, Cynara cardunculus var. sylvestris which is a perennial species which remains completely interfertile with cardoon (Sonnante et al., 2007) and with many local genotypes; in Sicily i.e. Raccuia et al. (2004) found out, using genetic markers, that eco-geographical groups within wild cardoon are clearly separated, and reflect the geography of the different collection areas. According to Wiklund (1992) the species‘ var. sylvestris can be divided into two different taxa: ssp. cardunculus (occurring in Italy and on the eastern side of the Mediterranean basin) and ssp. flavescens (occurring in Sicily, in Spain and as a weed in other med-type climates regions). The physiological and reproductive traits of cardoon make it a potentially invasive species. When Cynara cardunculus var. altilis potential invasivity was estimated through an adaptation of the Australian Weed Risk Assessment (Crosti et al., 2010), the final score, which could have been underestimated due to absence of agronomic information of new cultivars, was high (16) and the final outcome assessed that the species should be rejected from being cultivated. The assessment gives a low score for domesticated species, but by contrast it is not the case for the cardoon, reduces weediness. Consequently the germplasm escaped from cardoon plantation could harm different types of habitats such as: the Mediterranean, arid and semi-arid, grassland habitats of native thistle plant communities (Onopordetea acanthi- Artemisienea vulgaris; [Ordo]-Carthametalia lanati); the Natura 2000 habitats of pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals (Thero-Brachypodietea); the old fields (Brometalia rubenti-tectorum) where they could slow down the secondary succession vegetation dynamic of the re-naturalization processes. In addition, within agroecosystems, grazing increases the species presence due to its inedibility. Cardoon was initially domesticated for its stalk size and then selected for biofuel cultivations, especially from Spanish genotypes. Cardoon as a biofuel crop is distinguished by its rapid growth, efficient use of water resources and great reproduction capacity (Pignatelli et al., 2006). Surveys undertaken in Southern Italy‘s mediterranean habitats within experimental farmland fields showed that cardoon ―crop escape‖ Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 390 was already underway (Crosti et al., 2008). Consequently, the taxon poses a double threat: it may lead to hybridization with different populations of wild artichokes, and it may compete for natural resources with other native species especially in disturbed habitats. Species selected traits, together with the cropping system (annual planting, large scale intensive cultivations in different areas, harvest dry at senescence when pollination and seed dispersion are likely to have already occurred) make it a potentially invasive species even though domestication generally leads to reduced fertility. Cardoon is already considered a pest in other Mediterranean-type climate regions such as California, Western Australia and S. Africa (Marushia et al., 2008). In particular the Spanish genotype seems to be much more aggressive than the Italian one and in California it appears to have evolved into larger and more fecund individuals since their introduction (Holt & Garcia, 2009). For these reasons, when the species is selected and cultivated as a biofuel crop, specific cultivation criteria are needed to limit the weedy behaviour (i.e. use of non aggressive cultivars, cutting of flower heads to prevent breeding, harvesting before seed dispersal, and establishment of a buffer zone). Spread of ―wild relative‖ species into natural habitats may impact native biological diversity as it can compete with native vegetation and increase hybridization with congeneric native species (impacting genetic integrity). New hybrids, in addition, are better competitors for resource and space than are species of the native plant community. References Crosti R, Bianco P, Cardillo A & Piscioneri I (2008) Cynara weedness alert: quando coltivazioni intensive di un ―wild related‖ possono arrecare danno alla biodiversità delle specie spontanee. Cantieri della biodiversità: La sfida delle invasioni biologiche, come rispondere? Siena 11-12 2008 Crosti R, Cascone C & Cipollaro (2010) Use of a weed risk assessment for the Mediterranean region of Central Italy to prevent loss of functionality and biodiversity in agro-ecosystems. Biological Invasion 12, 1607-1616. Crosti R & Forconi V (2006) Espansione delle colture da biomassa sul territorio italiano: incognite legate all‘introduzione di specie aliene potenzialmente invasive. In Colture a scopo energetico ed ambiente. Atti Convegno APAT 2006. GISP (2008) Biofuel Crops and the Use of Non-native Species: Mitigating the Risks of Invasion. GISP, Nairobi, Kenya. Holt J & Garcia Jl (2009) Relationship of artichokes and cardoon to invasive artichoke thistle:should they be discouraged in the home garden? IUCN (2009) Guidelines on Biofuels and Invasive Species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Marushia RG & Holt JS (2008) Reproductive strategy of an invasive thistle: effects of adults on seedling survival. Biological Invasions 10, 913-924. Pignatelli V, Piscioneri I, Sharma N (2006) Prospettive di sviluppo delle colture da biomassa negli ambienti dell‘Italia meridionale. In Colture a scopo energetico ed ambiente. Atti Convegno APAT 2006. Raccuia SA, Mainolfi A, Mandolino G & Melilli MG (2004) Genetic diversity in Cynara. Cardunculus L. revealed by AFLP markers: wild and cultivated taxa comparisons. Plant Breeding 123, 280-284. Raghu S, Anderson RC, Daehler CC, Davis AS, Wiedenmann RN, Simberloff D & Mack RN (2006) Adding biofuels to the invasive species fire? Science 313, 1742. Rottemberg A & Zohary D (2005) Wild genetic resources of cultivated artichoke. Acta Horticulturae 681, 307-311. Sonnante G, Pignone D & Hammer K (2007) The domestication of artichoke and cardoon: from Roman times to the genomic age. Annals of Botany 100, 1095-1100. Wiklund A (1992) The genus Cynara L. (Asteraceae: Cardueae). Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 109, 113 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 391 Control experiments on selected invasive alien species in the Bulgarian flora Vladimir Vladimirov1 & Senka Milanova2 1 Institute of Botany, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. Georgi Bonchev St., bl. 23, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria. E-mail: vdvlad@bio.bas.bg (Presenting author) 2 Plant Protection Institute, Kostinbrod, Bulgaria Ailanthus altissima, Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Amorpha fruticosa, Fallopia × bohemica and Iva xanthiifolia are among the worst invasive alien species in the Bulgarian flora. During the past few decades they expanded their distribution ranges in the country and threatened to native biodiversity and/or human health. Therefore, experiments for control of these species have been designed and carried out within the project ‗Biology, ecology and control of the invasive alien species in the Bulgarian flora‘ (2009-2011). Ambrosia artemisiifolia and Iva xanthiifolia have been subjected to competition with selected forage plants such as Medicago sativa, Lolium perenne, Dacylis glomerata and Elymus repens. The latter species, especially L. perenne, D. glomerata and M. sativa, proved to be a reliable means to suppress the growth and seed production of the invasive species. Ailanthus altissima, Amorpha fruticosa and Fallopia × bohemica have been subjected to various combinations of mechanical (cutting, eradication, coverage) and chemical control (gliphosate treatment) measures. The three species, and especially F. × bohemica, showed high resistance to lower concentrations of glyphosate. The poster presents the experimental design and the results after the first year of the implementation of the control measures. Financial support of the Bulgarian National Science Fund under the project DO-02-194 is gratefully acknowledged. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 392 Management of Ludwigia peploides (water primrose) in the Vistre River (South-East of France): first results Alain Dutartre 1, C. Pezeril 2, Emilie Mazaubert 1 1 Cemagref, REBX, 50, Avenue de Verdun, 33612 Cestas Cedex, France E-mail : Emilie.mazaubert@cemagref.fr (Presenting author) 2 SMBVV, 7 avenue de la Dame, 30132 Caissargues, France The water primrose, Ludwigia peploides, is an alien invasive aquatic species in the Mediterranean part of the South-East of France. It can invade many types of static or slow-flowing waters: rivers, shallow ponds and lakes, wetlands, etc. The biomass abundance and monospecific stands lead to local loss of floral and faunal biodiversity. L. peploides invaded many biotopes in the Vistre River, a 46 km long river highly affected by strong hydraulic modifications, close to the urban area of Nîmes (Gard). The impact of this species on native hydrophytes (for example Myriophyllum spicatum) is significant in some sites. A new watershed management plan was built in 2001 by the managers of the "Syndicat Mixte du Bassin Versant du Vistre" to increase the ecological functioning of the river. Among the management operations, the reduction of the invasion of L. peploides has been undertaken since 2008 by mechanical and manual removal. In 2008, 5 km of river were managed and the volume of removed plants was 173 m3 of wet plants, with about 100 m3 mechanically removed, for 75 work days. In 2009, the length of managed river increased to 14 km in other parts of the river and in its affluents with 152 m 3 of manually removed plants for 85 work days. Several sites managed in 2008 showed little recolonization by the invasive plant. A long term management of this plant is necessary to minimize all impacts of L. peploides and insure better ecological functioning of the river in the context of the European Water Framework Directive. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 393 Control and local eradication of Ailanthus altissima in a river Park in Northern Italy Anna Mazzoleni1, Elena Tironi1, Eric Spelta1, Gianluca Agazzi2, Federico Mangili2, Gabriele Rinaldi2 1 Parco del Basso Corso del Fiume Brembo (www.parcobassobrembo.it; E-mail: info@parcobassobrembo.it) 2 Bergamo Botanical Garden (www.ortobotanicodibergamo.it; E-mail: ortobotanico@comune.bg.it) The ―Parco del Basso Corso del fiume Brembo‖ park was instituted by 7 municipalities along the Brembo River, in Northern Italy, Region of Lombardia. The Park covers nearly 10 km2 of the river floodplain and is situated in one of the most populated and urbanized areas in Europe. Despite the impact of urbanization, the Park conserves natural environments including semi-natural dry grasslands and riparian forests, habitats that are rich in rare herbaceous plants. The safeguard of these residual environments is essential both in protecting the ecosystem biodiversity of Brembo River and in contributing to the resident population‘s lifestyle. The increasing spread of the invasive alien tree Ailanthus altissima in the Park is favoured by the closely interwoven hydrographic network crossing the Park and is threatening the conservation of its natural habitats, in particular semi-natural dry grasslands. Consequently, the eradication (in selected localised areas) and control of A. altissima became one of the primary aims of the Park‘s management. A six year long experimental project was initiated and co-financed with regional funds. The project, started in August 2010, is focused on chemical treatments and involves the use of low-impact techniques such as stem injection, localized treatment of cut stump and basal bark. The herbicide (a combination of triclopyr and fluroxipyr) has been chosen as the most selective and least impacting on natural environment, among the formulations registered in Italy for use on woody plants. The efficacy of the treatments and their effect on the environment will be monitored, with the purpose of defining and communicating a procedure for the efficient and sustainable managing of A. altissima in protected areas of Northern Italy. Strategic guidelines will also include ongoing prevention of new potential infestations, through education programmes and the involvement of local administrations, farmers and citizens. Introduction The increasing spread in the environment of invasive alien plants is a serious threat to nature conservation and land management, especially in the case of protected areas. The tree Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven) is a very common species of the Italian alien flora and it is considered invasive in the whole Country (Celesti-Grapow et al., 2009; 2010a, 2010b) in Europe and in the rest of the world (e.g. Aldrich et al., 2008). According to Aldrich et al. (2008) it incorporates many of the strategies employed by invasive species including (a) early and prolific seed production (Feret 1973) as a single adult can produce more than 300,000 seeds in a year (DAISIE 2006), (b) long-distance seed dispersal (Matlack Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 394 1987), (c) aggressive clonal reproduction (Miller 1990, 2000), and (d) a reliance on high sunlight (Grime and Jeffrey 1965). Moreover, (e) Ailanthus produces toxins that inhibit plant growth and appear to render it unpalatable to many herbivores (Heisey 1990a, b, 1996; De Feo et al. 2003). For a recent review of the biology of Ailanthus altissima see Kowarik and Sämuel (2007), and for its impact on Mediterranean islands Vila et al. (2006). Its spread in the ―Parco del Basso Corso del Fiume Brembo‖ park is threatening the conservation of natural and semi-natural residual habitats (in particular dry grasslands) and is fuelled by the dense hydrographical network crossing the Park. Ailanthus altissima, well adapted to rocky substrates which limits the growth of other tree species, behaves as a pioneer plant onto the soils of the Brembo river floodplain. In the absence of interspecific competition, it can colonize grasslands growing in thick monospecific clusters. Moreover, the allelopathic substances produced by the roots of A. altissima cause the total disappearance of herbaceous species from the infested areas, with huge damages to biodiversity. The conservation of these residual environments is essential both to the protection of biodiversity in Brembo River ecosystem and to the quality lifestyle of the resident population. In fact, the inhabitants are increasingly requiring the presence and maintenance of natural areas. Consequently, the control and eradication of A. altissima in the natural habitats of Brembo River floodplain became a priority issue for the Park management which, according with the local administrations, developed an experimental six-year long project focused on this topic. Site description Parco del Basso Corso del Fiume Brembo is a park instituted by 7 municipalities along Brembo River, in the Region of Lombardia in Northern Italy. The park covers nearly 10 km2 of the river floodplain and is included in one of the most populated, urbanized and industrialized areas in Europe (Table 1). Table 1 - Land surface and population of the municipalities of the Park of Brembo River Demographic Park Park area on Municipality density area municipality Municipality Inhabitants area (km2) 2 (inhabitants/km2) (km ) area (%) Boltiere 5,402 4.13 1,308 0.93 22.52% Bonate Sotto 6,404 6.36 1,007 2.39 37.58% Dalmine 22,741 11.96 1,901 1.34 11.20% Filago 3,138 5.45 576 2.13 39.08% Madone 3,911 3.06 1,278 0.69 22.55% Osio Sopra 4,959 5.16 961 0.98 18.99% Osio Sotto 11,279 7.66 1,472 1.29 16.84% Total 57,834 43.78 1,321 9.75 22.27% Despite the impact of urbanization the Park contributes significantly to semi-natural dry grasslands and riparian forests which contain, among others, rare herbaceous communities. Dry Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 395 grasslands, along the river‘s banks, host rare and valuable species, almost disappeared in the rest of the Region. The plant community is described by Directive no.92/43/CEE ―Habitat‖ as ―Natural and Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (FestucoBrometalia)” - habitat 6210. This is a priority type habitat due to its richness of orchids (EC 2007a), such as Orchis coriophora, O. morio, O. tridentata, Ophrys fuciflora, Spiranthes spiralis. A survey aiming to evaluate the extent of A. altissima invasion was made by the Voluntary Ecologic Guardians of the Park in 2007. Over 1 invaded km2 was recorded in the Park and its surroundings. In this area A. altissima provides mainly clonal populations, presenting infestation nucleus of 15-20 years old trees surrounded by large clusters of young rootsprouts. A little number of trees seeds producing was found. It appeared that invaded areas are located mainly along the riparian network and in proximity of construction sites, where soil has been disturbed or imported from external areas. This can be interpreted as a demonstration that urbanizing dynamics, as road buildings, continuously occurring near and across the Park, enhance the spread of invasive plants inside the Park habitats by disturbing the stability of the soils. The project on invasive alien plants: aims and description In 2009, the Park management developed a pilot project to control invasive alien plants in the Park and a regional fund of 230,000.00 Euros was allocated. This project was effective in 2010 and is conceived to run six years. Its aims are: - The eradication of Ailanthus in the Park (priority areas) and the restoration of original habitats; - The definition and the testing of a procedure for an efficient and sustainable management of A. altissima to be possibly shared with neighbouring municipalities and institutions. A procedure is considered ―environmentally sustainable‖ when it produces positive effects on native biodiversity and ―economically sustainable‖ if it can be supported by the local available resources. The project aims to define firstly an environmentally sustainable procedure. The economical sustainability can be reached through a large scale cooperation, actually often lacking. Since funding and other available resources were not sufficient to manage all the invaded areas, a selection of priority sites for intervention was required. The prioritization criteria were as follows: - The ecological fragility and environmental richness of the invaded habitats; - The site proximity to watercourses, as these networks are important routes for the spread of Ailanthus altissima seeds. A total of 70,000 m2 of heavily invaded land (up to 10 stems/ m2) had been identified as priority areas, on which the massive control of Ailanthus altissima will be activated. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 396 Control and eradication methods Experimental evidences reported in international literature prescribe chemical treatments as the most effective technique able to control Ailanthus altissima (Burch and Zedaker 2003, Meloche and Murphy 2006, DiTomaso and Kyser 2007). Direct observations and experimental trials in the project sites confirmed this finding. Therefore, the project involves the use of chemical treatments applied through low-impact techniques as stem injections, localized treatment of cut stump and basal bark. The herbicide used is a systemic formulation combining triclopyr and fluroxipyr. This herbicide has been chosen as the most selective and least impacting on natural environment, among the formulations registered in Italy for use on woody plants. Moreover, the seeds found in the project sites are collected by hands and destroyed. Project cycle and management problems Several difficulties are expected to interfere with the project aims and have to be addressed. First of all, it is very important to verify the effects of the chemical treatments on native flora. For this purpose, the project includes ongoing environmental monitoring, led and performed by Bergamo Botanical Garden. The monitoring focuses on sample areas, selected on the basis of A. altissima population typology and the presence of indicator species and rare species. Floristic surveys following the treatment will be conducted for a period of 3 years in order to evaluate changes in biodiversity. As already stated, the Park area belongs to 7 different local communities, interesting the lowest part of the course river. Considering the whole extension of the river course, the number of territorial institutions increases to several tens. This implies a fragmentation of land management and, lacking an over-local coordination, limits the effectiveness of the localized treatments. Therefore, the project aims to involve neighbouring parks and municipalities; in particular, it looks necessary to control the seeds production in the invaded areas upstream located, for preventing and limiting the new seedlings colonisations in the treated areas. That notwithstanding, new outbreaks of A. altissima are to be expected in the Park‘s area even after the project conclusion, due both to seeds brought by the watercourses from the invaded upstream areas and to the construction works which cause soil displacement from untreated areas to other sites. Another hindrance is the prevalence of private property land in the Park, including the priority areas. The control of invasive alien plants, in case of A. altissima, is not considered a work of public interest: consequently municipalities cannot enforce it. The voluntary involvement of land owners is therefore necessary in order to reach the project aims. Information campaigns and education programs, addressing citizens, farmers and land owners, appear to be essential instruments to raise potential stakeholders‘ awareness and facilitate their approval and cooperation to the project. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 397 Conclusions A definitive eradication of A. altissima inside the Park of Brembo River appears to be very difficult because its territory suffers the negative effects of the neighbouring urbanized areas. On the other side, a strategy of control and management of A. altissima looks to be possible and necessary to the safeguard of the Park‘s habitats. The project is not only designed to control this invasive alien plant in the territory of the Park, but also stands up as a pilot-project, with the purpose of defining and communicating a tested procedure for the efficient and sustainable management of A. altissima in sensitive areas of Northern Italy. The environmental monitoring carried out by the Bergamo Botanical Garden will give information about the effect on biodiversity of the tested procedure and will measure its environmental sustainability. The proximity of the Park to important urban and industrial centers is the main cause of its ecological fragility but, in the meantime, it poses also its surplus value, because the local citizens and civil associations are showing an increasing sensitiveness to environmental issues and can be easily involved in the Park‘s safeguard programs. Their involvement is very important for reducing the costs and reaching the goal of economical sustainability. For example, the early detection of new infestations can be carried out by the team of Voluntary Ecologic Guardians of the Park, without additional costs. Subsequently, the Park management will devise ongoing programs aimed to rapid response to new infestations. Nevertheless, it is necessary to underline that an effective and economically sustainable strategy for A. altissima control requires the involvement of a network of institutions (inside and outside the target area), the cooperation of the resident population and the adaptation of the law, for instance through enforcing a regulation of the soil movements and permitting the eradication of invasive alien plants in private areas even without the owner‘s permission. Acknowledgments We gratefully acknowledge the Mayors, administrators, officers and Voluntary Ecologic Guardians of the municipalities of the Park for actively supporting the project development; Mr Leonardo Bacci (Dow-AgroScience-Italy) for providing precious technical information and suggestions about chemical treatments in natural areas; Ms Paola and Elisabetta Mangia for improving and correcting our English. References Aldrich PR, Brusa A, Heinz CA, Greer GK & Huebner C (2008) Floral Visitation of the Invasive Stinking Ash in Western Suburban Chicago. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 101, 1-12. Blasi C (2010) Non-native flora of Italy: species distribution and threats. Plant Biosystems 144(1): 12-28. Burch PL & Zedaker SM (2003) Removing of invasive tree Ailanthus altissima and restoring natural cover. Journal of Arboriculture 29(1), 18-24. Celesti-Grapow L, Alessandrini A, Arrigoni PV, Banfi E, Bernardo L, Bovio M, Brundu G, Cagiotti MR, Camarda I, Carli E, Conti F, Fascetti S, Galasso G, Gubellini L, La Valva V, Lucchese F, Marchiori S, Mazzola P, Peccenini S, Poldini L, Pretto F, Prosser F, Siniscalco C, Villani M.C, Viegi L, Wilhalm T & Blasi C (2009) The inventory of the non-native flora of Italy. Plant Biosystems 143, 386-430. Celesti-Grapow L, Pretto F, Carli E & Blasi C (eds.) (2010b) Flora alloctona d‘Italia. CD-ROM. Allegato a CelestiGrapow L. et al. (eds.) Le invasioni di specie vegetali in Italia. Palombi, Roma. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 398 DAISIE (2006) Ailanthus altissima facsheet. Basnou C. & Vilà M. (eds). Available at: http://www.europealiens.org/pdf/Ailanthus_altissima.pdf [Accessed 30 September 2010]. De Feo V, De Martino L, Quaranta E & Pizza C (2003) Isolation of phytotoxic compounds from Tree-of-Heaven (Ailanthus altissima Swingle). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51, 1177-1180. DiTomaso JM & Kyser GB (2007) Control of Ailanthus altissima using stem herbicides application techniques. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 33(1), 55-63. Feret PP (1973) Early flowering in Ailanthus. Forest Science 19, 237-239. Grime JP & Jeffrey DW (1965) Seedling establishment in vertical gradients of sunlight. Journal of Ecology 53, 621642. Heisey RM (1996) Identification of an allelopathic compound from Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae) and characterization of its herbicidal activity. American Journal of Botany 83(2), 192-200. Heisey RM (1990a) Allelopathic and herbicidal effects of extracts from tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima). American Journal of Botany 77, 662-670. Heisey RM (1990b) Evidence for allelopathy by tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima). J. Chem. Ecol. 16, 2039-2055. Kowarik I & Sämuel I (2007) Biological flora in central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology. Evolution and Sistematics 8, 207-237. Matlack GR (1987) Diaspore size, shape, and fall behavior in wind-dispersed plant species. American Journal of Botany 74, 1150-1160. Meloche C & Murphy SD (2006) Managing tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima) in parks and protected areas: a case study of Rondeau Provincial Park (Ontario, Canada). Environ. Manage 37, 764-772. Miller JH (1990) Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle ailanthus. In: Burns, R. M., and B. H. Honkala (Tech. coords.) Silvics of North America: Vol. 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654. Washington, DC, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, pp. 101-104. Miller JH (2000) Ailanthus altissima. USDA Forest Service. [http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/ silvicsmanual/ volume_2/ailanthus/altissima.htm]. Vilà M, Tessier M, Suehes CM, Brundu G, Carta L, Galanidis A, Lambdon P, Manca M, Médail F, Moragues E, Traveset A, Troumbis AY & Hulme PE (2006) Local and regional assessment of the impacts of plant invaders on vegetation structure and soil properties of Mediterranean islands. Journal of Biogeography 33, 853-861. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 399 Solanum elaeagnifolium, an increasing problem in Greece Eleni Kotoula-Syka Democritus University of Thrace. E-mail: kotoulaeleni@yahoo.gr Silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium), is thought to be native to the southwestern USA and northern Mexico. It was observed in California before 1900 and in Greece before 1975. During the last 20 years this troublesome weed has spread in all Greece, especially Thessaloniki and Chalkidiki counties because of the intensive human activities (constructions of new roads, buildings or agricultural activities). Most fields with arable, horticultural and perennial crops as well as waste places and roadsides have been infested by this weed. S. elaeagnifolium foliage has star shaped hairs. Mature berries contain high levels of solanine and solanosine, which are toxic to livestock. Large infestations can reduce harvest yields by competing with desirable plants of nutrients and soil moisture, and have allelopathic effects especially in cotton fields. Plants develop colonies from extensive systems of creeping horizontal and deep vertical roots, both of which produce new shoots. Flower clusters are modified cymes the lower flowers are bisexual and the upper ones are functionally male. Seeds are yellowish-brown to dark yellow-brown. The plant blossoms from May to September with light to dark blue-lilac or white color flowers. Silverleaf nightshade reproduces by seeds and creeping roots. Fruits and seeds disperse with agricultural activities, water, mud, soil movement and animals. Colonies of silverleaf nightshade are difficult to control by mechanical methods or by biological means because there is currently no registered biocontrol agent for use against this plant. In Greece the only method used against silverleaf nightshade in irrigated summer and perennial crops consists in weekly mowing that prevents the production of new shoots or the establishment of new seedlings during summer months. However, this practice does not solve permanently the problem, as shallow cultivation does not disturb enough the root system while it increases the problem by dispersing rhizome fragments in non contaminated areas. Introduction Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav., silverleaf nightshade, is considered native to southwestern USA and northern Mexico. It was introduced from US during the 40s and was recorded in Greece for the first time before 1975. Since the last 20 years this troublesome weed has spread in all Greece, especially in the Thessaloniki and Chalkidiki counties because of the intensive human activities (constructions of new roads, buildings or agricultural activities). This plant usually grows in places disturbed by people of livestock, especially those with a high summer moisture or irrigation. The plant can tolerate considerable drought because if its deep root system. Silverleaf nightshade colonizes fields, roadsides, agronomic and vegetable Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 400 crops, especially cotton and tomatoes, orchards, vineyards, pastures, rangeland, forest openings, waste places. It grows best on light sandy soils, but tolerates most soil types, except those subject to flooded conditions. Most fields in the above mentioned counties, with arable, horticultural and perennial crops as well as waste places and roadsides have been infested by this weed. Foliage and berries of this species, contain variable amounts of several glycoalkaloids and can be toxic when ingested by livestock or people. Dried plant material does not lose its toxicity. Finally, this plant is an alternative host for disease and insect pests for a broad range of crops in Greece. Silverleaf nightshade can be troublesome in agricultural fields and pastures, especially those receiving summer irrigation. It may reduce crop yields through direct competition for resources. Large infestations can reduce harvest yields or crops and the carrying capacities of pasture by competing with desirable plants of nutrients and soil moisture. There are also indications of allelopathic effects on several important crops especially in cotton fields. In this paper, plant features and control methods of silverleaf nightshade are presented. The aggressiveness and difficulties of containment of this species are discussed. Plant traits Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. is a perennial erect herb to sub- shrub with creeping roots which reaches the height of 1 m. Prickles straight, fine, often reddish, some times yellowish, to about 5 mm long, sometimes lacking on stems, often lacking on leaf veins. Leaves dull silvery-to pale yellowish-green from dense covering of star-shaped hairs. Fruits contain solanosine, a steroid compound used commercially to synthesize steroid hormones. New shoots from roots resemble seedlings, but lack of cotyledons. Silverleaf nightshade cotyledons are narrowly lanceolate to elliptic. Upper surfaces glossy green, lower surface light green. Stalk below cotyledons (hypocotyl) often purple-tinged, covered with short, stiff, downwards pointing hairs. Plants develop colonies from extensive systems of creeping horizontal and deep vertical roots, both of which produce new shoots. Horizontal roots can extent outwards to 1 m or more before developing new shoots. Vertical roots can penetrate soil to depths of 2 m or more. Roots store large quantities of carbohydrates and have a high regenerative capacity. Silverleaf nightshade roots can generate shoots from soil depths to 50 cm. Fragments 1 cm long can regenerate from depths of 20 cm or more in loose moist soil. Regeneration depths for small root fragments are much less in dry, saturated, or heavy soils. Root fragments tolerate some desiccation, but not freezing. Silverleaf nightshade fragments (5 cm long) can survive for up to 15 months under moist conditions. The weed flowers from May to September. Flower clusters are modified cymes (oldest flower at tip of main axis). Often lower flowers are bisexual while upper flowers have reduced female parts and are functionally male. Corona star-shaped, 5-lobed. Sepals lack prickles. Anthers erect, longer than filaments, spreading or loose around style. Seeds yellowish-brown to dark yellow-brown, 2,5-3,5 mm long, 1,8-2,5 mm wide, smooth semiglossy. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 401 Foliage of silverleaf nightshade dies back after the first fall frost, and dead stems may persist for several months, loosing prickles and having a few wrinkled yellowish fruits. The weed reproduced by seeds and vegetatively from creeping roots. Fruits and seeds are dispersed by agricultural activities, water, mud and soil movement, and animals. Root fragments are dispersed primarily by cultivation or other human activities. In winter, roots of silverleaf nightshade go dormant and foliage dies back. Roots generate new shoots in spring. Seeds germinate spring through summer, and berries mature in 4-8 weeks. Each berry might contain up to 76 seeds. Seeds are typically highly viable, but germination is often sporadic from year to year. Three to 10 year old seed can have higher germination percentages than newly matured seed. Factors controlling seed germination are poorly understood. Fluctuating temperatures appear to play a role. Seed is coated with a mucilaginous material that may inhibit germination until it is leached or degraded. Seed ingested by animals often survives and is more likely to germinate. Under favourable conditions, seed germination percentages can be high (about 80%). Seed can remain viable for at least 10 years. Control methods There are few control options against S. elaeagnifolium: prevention, mechanical, biological and chemical control methods. Infestations should be promptly controlled to prevent further spread. Clean equipment before leaving contaminated fields, and avoid spreading root fragments by cultivation equipment. Check hay for nightshade berries, before feeding to cattle. This will prevent both livestock poisoning and the introduction of seed into uninfected areas. Silverleaf nightshade can regenerate from root cuttings of less than 1 cm in length. Tillage may spread rootstocks to new areas, where establishment can occur. Small infestations may be hand pulled or hoed, but control has to be repeated several times during the growing season. Any root material that is dug should be collected, dried and burnt. Repeated mowing through the summer may nearly eliminate seed production. However, the plants will take on a flat, rosettelike growth form that is capable of replenishing root carbohydrate reserves. The nematode, Orrina phyllobia, is most specific for silverleaf nightshade. Augmentative releases of this nematode may eventually help reduce populations. However, these are no currently registered biocontrol agents for use on silverleaf nightshade. Few herbicides effectively control silverleaf nightshade and their application is dependent upon the land use. Herbicides should be applied late bud to early flower. Glyphosate in a 2% solution can be applied as a spot treatment. Dicamba and 2,4-D can be applied at 0.5-1.0 and 1.02.0 lb ae/A, respectively. Triclopyr can be applied at 1-3 ib ae/A. Regrowth will occur with any of these treatments and retreatment will be necessary. Picloram has provided excellent control of this species, but is not currently labeled for this reason while clopyralid has not provided good control of silverleaf nightshade. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 402 Gyphosate is a non-selective herbicide and will injure or kill any foliage it contacts. Dicamba, 2,4-D, and triclopyr will injure or kill most other broadleaf plants. These factors should be considered when applying these herbicides. Conclusions Colonies of S. elaeagnifolium with creeping roots are difficult to control or eliminate by mechanical methods in Greece as in other agricultural areas in the invaded range. Shallow and deep tillage does not disturb enough of the root system to eliminate infestations and can increase the problem by dispersing root fragments. Deep ripping under dry conditions may reduce but typically does not eliminate infestations of silverleaf nightshade. Weekly mowing prevents most seed production and can help weaken roots by reducing carbohydrate reserves, but does not eliminate infestations. Confine livestock from infected pasture for 6-7 days before moving animals to uninfected areas prevent introduction of seed. It is clear that more comprehensive and integrated approach requires containing this invasive alien plant. References Boy JW & Murray DS (1982) Growth and development of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium). Weed Science 30, 238-243. Eleftherohorinos IG, Bell CE & Kotoula-Syka E (1993) Silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium) control with foliar herbicides. Weed Technology 7, 808-811. Green JD, Murray DS & Verhalen LM (1987) Full-season interference of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium) with cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Weed Science 35, 813-818. Parker PE (1986) Nematode control of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium); a biological control pilot project. Weed Science 34, 33-34. Westerman RB & Murray DS (1994) Silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium) control in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) with glyphosate. Weed Technology 8, 720-727. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 403 Plant invasion, soil seed banks and native recruitment in two urban Mediterranean woodland remnants, in South-West Australia Judith L. Fisher 1 & Roberto Crosti 2 1 School of Plant Biology University of Western Australia / Fisher Research, PO Box 169, Floreat, Perth, Western Australia 6014, Australia E-mail: ecologist@waanthropologist.com (Corresponding author) 2 ISPRA- Dipartimento Difesa della Natura-Tutela biodiversità, Via Curtatone 3 00185 ROMA, Italy E-mail: roberto.crosti@isprambiente.it The Mediterranean South-West of Australia is listed within the world‘s 25 biodiversity hot spots where fire is important for the persistence and stability of plant communities. The dominant Banksia woodland is a complex fire adapted ecosystem, has a diversity of plant functional groups, with highly complex species interactions required to maintain ecological processes and resilience to disturbance. The diversity of life forms is critical for ecosystem renewal and reorganization following disturbance, providing a mechanism for resistance to change. An association has been found between structural and functional changes in plant community assembly and the frequency of fire and invasion, in two urban woodland remnants of Kings Park and Bold Park, in Perth southwest Australia. Soil seed bank studies, in situ and ex situ, and native recruitment studies, with and without invasion, have been conducted and provide an understanding of the plant communities‘ response to invasive species. The results of these studies have been utilised to determine new and effective management intervention techniques resulting in the conversion of a plant community once dominated by transformer invasive species to a resilient native plant community. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 404 Applying cover crops to reduce impacts of Orobanche spp. in infested fields Mitra Ghotbi1, Marjan Ghotbi 2 & Ahmet Uludağ3 1* Department of Agronomy, Agriculture Faculty, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran E-mail: mitra.ghotbi@gmail.com 2 European Environment Agency, Faculty of Natural Resource and Agriculture, Science & Research branch of Azad University, Tehran, Iran 3 Igdir University, Faculty of Agriculture, Igdir, Turkey Broomrapes (Orobanche spp.) are aggressive and damaging parasitic weeds which have a tremendous impact on agriculture in East Africa, the Mediterranean region besides the Middle East. Management with herbicides is partially effective; thus, non- chemical economical methods such as using cover crops could be an effective way to prevent broomrape from spreading. To achieve this aim, having the knowledge of the host range including hosts, false hosts or non-host seems essential. Through the current review; Host categories besides their impacts as cover crops to decline infestation of broomrape were investigated. Cover crops besides exerting a strong influence on weed infestation may have an impact on water availability, soil improvement and yield of the cultivated crops in the rotation. Several studies have defined cotton as a trap crop which is not only can increase tomatoes yield but also would be able to alleviate Orobanche aegyptiaca infestation. Substituting sufficient cover crops with chemo-herbicides which are cheaper as well as more effective than other attempts could be rational method to pursue. Overall, if even prevention measures are taken to limit the spreading of these parasitic weeds we constrict Orobanch complaints in infested territories. Introduction Broomrapes (Orobanche spp.) are aggressive and damaging parasitic weeds which have a tremendous impact on agriculture in East Africa, the Mediterranean region besides the Middle East. Most of the species attacked by Orobanche belong to the Asteraceae (20 species), Fabaceae (9 species), Rosaceae and Chenopodiaceae (7species) (Romanova et al., 2001; Abanga et al., 2007). Currently, there is no consistent and sustainable method for the control of Orobanche (Goldwasser & Kleifeld, 2004). Crop rotation with trap (Ross et al., 2004) and catch (Acharya et al., 2002) has long been proposed and practiced as control measure for broomrape in infested soil. Like et al. (1989) reported a 30% reduction in the crenata broomrape (Orobanche crenata Forsk.) seedbank after one catch crop cycle. In Oregon, USA, wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was reported to be a false-host of O .minor (Ross et al., 2004), and therefore, has the potential to be implemented in to an integrated O.minor management system. Sorghum (Sorghum Vulgare pers.), maize (Zea mays L.), mung been (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) have been mentioned as trap crops for O. ramosa (Parker and Riches,1993) and sweet pepper has been reported as a trap crop for Egyptian broomrape. Flax (linseed) has been cited as Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 405 an efficient trap crop for O. crenata Forsk., O. crenua Loefl. and O. ramosa (Krishnamurty et al., 1977). Applying Cover Crops in rotation against brοοmrape Rotation may have direct and indirect impacts on parasitic plants in infested areas. Some legume crops increase soil fertility that contributes to the ability of susceptible crops to compete with their parasites. The increase in soil fertility may also stimulate a reduction of the secretion of germination stimulants by the crop roots (Yoneyama et al., 2007). Asteraceae: Sunflowers, safflower alsoconeflowers, goldenrods, and many other crops belong to this family. It is one of the important families among those which are attacked by Orobanchaceae (Sauerborn et al., 2007; Qasem & Foy, 2007). Poaceae: These crops are often grown to produce income, but they also make excellent cover crops due to the many ecological benefits they provide to the farming system. They establish quickly, produce high biomass and dense fibrous root systems (to prevent soil erosion, sequester carbon, increase soil organic matter content, and improve soil quality), and can scavenge and store available soil nutrients. Allelopathic substances from Rye, Sorghum and other cover crops have been shown to inhibit the emergence and early growth of many weeds (Abebe et al., 2005; Clark 2007). Malvaceae: Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L) in Malvaceae family is a dominant example of trap crops utilization. It is the source of the first isolated germination stimulant strigol, probably for all Orobanche and Phelipanche species (Fernandez-Aparicio et al., 2008). Moreover, since cotton can be grown in a variety of soils from light sandy soil to heavy alluvium and calcareous clay, in addition to its tolerance to salt it is an efficient plant to apply as a cover crop in rotation for most territories. Fabaceae: Legumes are a large group of plants in the bean family (Fabaceae). Most plants in this group have a beneficial relationship with specific soil bacteria (Rhizobium spp.). Legumes can produce substantial biomass, attract beneficial insects, suppress weeds through competition and in some cases, allelopathy through intercropping methods (Abebe et al., 2005; Clark, 2007). Conclusion Trap crops probably cannot completely eliminate the O. aegyptiaca soil seedbank in a single cycle (Lins et al., 2006). With this in mind, integrated management of O. aegyptiaca must be utilized to broaden the focus of control strategies. Flax in Linaceae family which has been suggested by many investigators as a trap crop for Orobanche (O. ramosa; O. cernua; O. crenata), was severely parasitized by O. aegyptiaca. So utilizing flax as a trap crop in rotation can decline O. aegyptiaca infestation in soil. Clover was suggested as a trap crop by Al-Menoufy (1989) for O. crenata, mung bean was suggested by Krishnamurty et al. (1977) for O. crenua; both were heavily parasitized by O. aegyptiaca. Ten potential trap crops from different crop families were examined by Abebe and his colleagues (2005) Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum), Linseed / Flax (Linum usitatissimum), Alfalfa (Lucern), Cotton (Gossipium spp), Onion (Allium spp), Garlic (Allium sativum), Pepper (Capsicum annum), Snap bean (Phaseolus vulgar), Maize (Zea mays), Sesame (Sesamum indicum), Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) as a (Check). They defined that Maize (Zea mays) in Poaceae family and Snap bean (Phaseolus vulgare) in Fabaceae family between others remarkably reduced soil seed bank of O. ramose and Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 406 O. cernua by 74 and 71%, respectively. Subsequently, they concluded that the Orobanche shoot count was significantly reduced for trap crop planted plot than the check and tomato yield was increased as a result of reduction of Orobanche shoot count (Abebe et al., 2005). FernandezAparicio reported that cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) (the source of the first isolated germination stimulant strigol) probably for all Orobanche, Phelipanche species, linseed (Linum usitatissimum) for P. ramosa and P. aegyptiaca, mungbean (Phaseolus aureus) for P. aegyptiaca, Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) for O. crenata, sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea) and mung bean (Vigna radiata) for O. cernua rolled as trap crops. Fenugreek stimulates P. ramosa seed germination, but not the seeds of O. foetida; O. crenata seed germination is inhibited (Fernandez-Aparicio et al., 2008), which all given traps can mitigate Orobanche and Phelipanche infestation in field. Discussion Climate change by which parasite seeds are transferred from one place to another place into the hands of the parasites and may soon lead to a broomrape ‘‘epidemic‘‘ in many other countries as well. If care is not immediately taken to limit the introduction of parasitic weed seeds and to educate farmers and others to be on alert for new infestations, large areas of new territory will be at risk of invasion (Grenz & Sauerborn, 2007). Based on the current knowledge of the weedy Orobanche and Phelipanche species, scientists strongly believe that, early prevention of the problem include of using suitable crop sequence is much cheaper and more effective than a late effort to control the parasites in the field (Rubiales et al., 2009). References Abebe G, Sahile G & Al-Tawaha ARM (2005) Evaluation of potential trap crops on Orobanche soil seed bank and Tomato yield in the central rift valley of Ethiopia. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2, 148-151. Abanga MM, Bayaaa B, Abu-Irmailehb B & Yahyaouia A (2007) A participatory farming system approach for sustainable broomrape (Orobanche spp.) management in the Near East and North Africa. Crop Protection 26, 1723-1732. Acharya BD, Khattri GB, Chetri MK & Srivastava SC (2002) Effect of Brassica campestris var. toria as a catch crop on Orobanche aegyptiaca seed bank. Crop protection 21, 533-537. Al-Menoufy OA (1989) Crop rotation a control measure of Orobanche crenata in Vicia faba fields. In: Wegmann K& Musselman LJ, eds. Prgrress in Orobanche Research. Germany: Eberhard-Karl-Universitat Tubingen, 241-7. Clark A (2007) Managing cover crops profitably.Handbook Series 9 Published by the Sustainable Agriculture Network, Beltsville, MD 233. Ferna´ Ndez-Aparicio M, Andolfi A, Evidente A, Pe´ Rez-Deluque A & Rubiales D (2008) Fenugreek root exudates show species-specific stimulation of Orobanche seed germination. Weed Research. 48, 163-168. Goldwasser Y& Kleifeld Y (2004) Recent approaches to Orobanche management: a review In: Weed Biology and Management (ed. Inderjit), 439-466. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Germany. Kleifeld Y, Goldwasser Y, Herzlinger G, Joel DM, Golan S & Kahana (1994) The effects of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) and other crops as trap and catch crops for control of Egyptian broomrape (Orobanche aegyptiaca Pers.) Weed Res. 34, 37-44. Krishamurty GVG, Lar R & Nagaraja K (1977) Further studies on the effect of various crops on the germination Orobanche seeds. Pest Articles and News Sum 23, 206-8. Lins RD, Colquhoun JB & Mallory-Smith CA (2006) Investigation of wheat as a trap crop for control of Orobanche minor, Weed Research. 46, 313-318. Parker C, Riches CR Parasitic (1993) Weeds of the World: biology and Control, CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 111-164. Qasem JR and Foy CL (2007) Screening studies on the host range of branched broomrape (Orobanche ramosa). J. Hort. Sci. Biotech. 82, 885-892. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 407 Romanova V, Teryokhin E & Wegmann K (2001) Investigation of intraspecific taxonomy in Orobanche cernua Loefl. By the method of biological tests. Age 80 in Fer A, Thalouarn P, Joel DM, Musselman LJ, Parker C & Verkleij AC, eds. Proceeding of the 7th International Parasitic Weed Symposium; Nantes, France: University of Nantes. Ross KC, Colquhoun BJ & Mallory-Smith CA (2004) Small broomrape (Orobanche minor) germination and early development in response to plant species. Weed Sci. 52, 260-266. Rubiales D, Ferna´ Ndez-Aparicio M, Wegmann K & Joel DM (2009) Revisiting strategies for reducing the seedbank of Orobanche and Phelipanche spp. Weeds Research. 49, 23-33. SauerbornJ, Müller-Stöver D& HershenhornJ (2007) The role of biological control in managing parasitic weeds. Crop Prot. 26, 246-254. Yoneyama K, Xie X& Kusumoto D et al. (2007) Nitrogen deficiency as well as phosphorus deficiency in sorghum promotes the production and exudation of 5-deoxystrigol, the host recognition signal for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and root parasites. Planta 227, 125-132. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 408 Biological characteristics of Iva xanthifolia (Giant sumpweed ) and its controll by soil herbicides D. Marisavljevic 1, B. Konstantinovic2, D. Pavlovic1 and M. Meseldzija2 1 Institute for plant protection and environment,Teodora Drajzera 9, 11000 Belgrade (Serbia). Email: marisavljevicd@yahoo.com 2 Agricultural faculty, Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 8, 21 000 Novi Sad (Serbia) Iva xanthifolia Nutt. is an invasive alien weed species which has intensively spread over the territory of Serbia, and it has gradually moved from noncrop areas to crop fields. On average, a single I. xanthifolia plant can produce up to 50 000 seeds. As a part of extensive research into its spreading, bioecological characteristics and possibilities of chemical control with herbicides were examiden in this study The study has been carried out on I. xanthifolia seeds and the conditions for its germination. The aim of the research was to determine the time and pace of I. xanthifolia growth, and therefore develop a better strategy against its spread. In addition, the possibilities for the chemical control of I. xanthifolia by using soil herbicides have been tested aiming to prevent its massive spread. Seed of I. xanthifolia from our areas can be categorized into two groups: larger seeds, which are 1-1.6 mm long, and smaller seeds, which are 0.75 mm long, and they stand in relation 65% (larger seed) to 31% (smaller seed). The germination starts at the temperature of 5 0C, and the greatest germination % is at 10 0C (45%) and the lowest % of germination is at 20 0C (18%). Regarding the time for the beginning of the germination, the shortest period is 4 days, at 20 0C, and the longest period which is 12 days is at 5 0C. However, in the temperatures below 20 0C seedlings are well developed, while at the temperature above 20 0C a great number of deformed seedlings has been noticed. The most widely applied soil herbicides have been used in this experiment for testing the possibilities of controlling I. xanthifolia and all of the tested soil herbicides showed good efficiency. Introduction Iva xanthifolia Nutt. was recorded in Serbia for the first time in 1966 in Vojvodina, near Novi Sad (Šajinoviš & Koljadţinski, 1966) and later described by Mijatoviš (1973). The results of the research carried out from 1973 to 1977 (Šajinoviš & Koljadţinski, 1978) showed that I. xanthifolia could already be found in 21 places in Vojvodina. In addition to these studies, I. xanthifolia was mentioned as a typical plant of noncrop habitats. Until 1996, when Veljkoviš (1996) pointed out that this plant was spreading, there had not been any additional studies. Since the late 1990's the spread of I. xanthifolia has been intensified in the whole territory of Vojvodina, while its expansion has been noticed in certain parts of Srem. Furthermore, it already appeares in all row crops, even in cereals in parts of field where the number of plants is lower (Kojiš & Ajder, 1996). This kind of spread of I. xanthiifolia was expected because field observations, in addition to immense scientific studies (Marshall & Moonen, 2002; Gabriel et al., 2005), suggest that weeds which carry lots of seeds from noncrop habitats (even with preventive Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 409 measures) gradually enter the crops, especially row crops. Entering the crops, the weeds adjust to agrofitocenoses and in spite of their plasticity, if the crop is more competitive, the number of weeds decreases together with the production of their seeds (Grundy et al., 2004; Debaeke, 1988). Therefore, it happens that in row crops there is a smaller number of individually welldeveloped plants which are better developed than in densely populated noncrop habitats. The total sum of the seeds is usually smaller than the one in the areas where we can find a higher number of poorly developed plants (Benjamin & Aikman, 1995). From this point of view, the spread of weeds, I. xanthifolia being one of them, can also be observed through the quantity of seeds in the soil. However, there is no correlation between the quantity of weed seeds in the seed bank and the germination of seeds in the crops as demonstrated by Rahman et al. (2004). These authors have studied the weed seed-bank in a maize and discovered an average weed seed germination of 2.1-8.2 % of all present species. Nevertheless, the relationship between the quantity of seeds of certain species, which are present in the soil, and their germination cannot be established, especially for species whos seeds are the most frequent. This fact makes the weed control more difficult, especially when it comes to newly introduced and poorly studied species like I. xanthifolia. In order to prevent massive spread of I. xanthifolia in Serbia, when this species appeared in the crops, preliminary studies of the possibility of controlling this weed in sugar beet, soybean, sunflower and maize crops were carried out (Marisavljeviš & Veljkoviš, 2000, 2002). These studies show the difficulties in finding the optimum solutions for controlling I. xanthiifolia. With the aim of preventing the damage to the plant production I. xanthifolia is included in the A2 List of quarantine damaging organisms found on the territory of the ex Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and due to its spread, I. xanthifolia has become an invasive species in Serbia (Vrbniţanin et al., 2004). The aim of the research was to determine the time and pace of I. xanthifolia growth, and therefore develop a better strategy against its spread. In addition, the possibilities for the chemical control of I. xanthifolia by using soil herbicides have been tested aiming to prevent its massive appearance in agrofitocenose. Material and methods Germination tests of I. xanthiifolia seeds I. xanthifolia (Asteraceae) – false ragweed or giant sump weed - is an annual, termophyl native to Canadia (Scoggan, 1978). Seeds of I. xanthifolia were collected from different sites at Nova Pazova in 2004 and 2005. The study was carried out in 2006 together with the tests of germination faculty. Seed size, quantitative ratio of seed sizes and weight of 1000 seeds were measured. Twenty seeds were placed in Petry dishes (9 cm in diameter) with filter paper (following Miloševiš & Široviš, 1994). The moisture content of the filter paper was kept constant by adding water. The seeds germinated from July to December 2006. The first measurement of seed germination (―seed energy―) was performed when the first normally developed seedlings appeared, while the final measurement (―full germination―) was carried out when there were no more new seedlings (and when the base was infected by microorganisms to such extent that the germination could no longer be observed). The length of the study of seed germination was influenced by the temperature as well. In preliminary studies, the seeds were disinfected using the 2 % mixture of fungicides, but it was noticed that the full germination was decreased compared to Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 410 the control seeds, so this treatment was omitted in latter stages of the study. Seeds germinated in a growth chamber at the temperature of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 0C. Each treatment was repeated five times. The optimal temperature for germination was also determined according to the biggest number of germinated seeds, and the characteristics of hypocotyls and epicotyls of germinated seeds were visually assessed. Impact of herbicides on the germination of I. xanthiifolia seeds Seeds of I. xanthifolia were used for the biotest in March 2005. The seeds were prepared by holding them between two pieces of damp filter paper inside Petry dishes, in order to accelerate swelling. After that, the seeds with the broken seed coat were moved to Petry dishes (9 cm diameter) on the filter paper. The applied herbicides are the most commonly used soil herbicides in Serbia: 1. Prometrin 500 (prometryn, 500 g a.m. L-1): 1.27; 0.95; 0.63; 0.47; 0.32 mg/5 ml or 2.00; 1.50; 1.00 and 0.50 L ha-1, 2. Trifluralin 48 EC (trifluralin, 480 g a.m./L): 1.20; 0.60; 0.30 and 0.15 mg/5 ml or 2.00; 1.00; 0.50 and 0.25 L ha-1 3. Frontier 900 EC (dimethenamid, 900 g a.m. L-1): 1.36; 1.13; 0.90; 0.68 mg/5 ml or 1.20; 1.00; 0.80 and 0.60 L ha-1, 4. Guardian (acetochlor, 840 g a.m. L-1): 2.48; 2.04; 1.69; 1.01 mg/5 ml or 2.20; 1.80; 1.50 and 0.90 L ha-1, 5. Dual Gold 960 EC (s-metolachlor, 960 g a.m. L-1): 1.69; 1.20; 0.84 and 0.60 mg/5 ml or 1.40; 1.00; 0.70 and 0.50 L ha-1 Twenty seeds were put in each Petry dish, and 5 ml of herbicide mixture at different concentrations (described above) were added, plus untreated control. Mixtures were created by adjusting the quantities of herbicides applied to the size of the Petry dish. The quantity of liquid was chosen to suit the filter paper and retain moisture at the beginning of the experiment. During the experiment, moisture of filter paper in Petry dishes was controlled by adding water. Each variant was repeated five times. The condition of seedlings was followed daily, and a visual assessment of the condition (vitality) of seedlings and measurements of the length of radicles were performed every three days. The experiment lasted 14 days, until the radicles of the seed from the control variant started decomposing. Statistical analysis Statistical analysis was performed with the SigmaPlot 4.0 software (1997). The experimental results of germination studies were examined visually. Values on the germination of seeds under the influence of tested herbicides were analysed using LSD test (multiple comparsion statistical test) . Results and discussion By testing the characteristics of I. xanthifolia seeds, the following results were obtained:  The average length of the seed is 0.75 (min) -1.80 (max) mm and on the basis of these values 2 basic seed groups were defined: seed >1 mm and seed <1 mm.  The relation between the two seed groups was 61: 39,  The weight of 1.000 seeds is 1.72 g for larger seeds and 1.22 g for smaller seeds. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 411 Seeds germination. Tests of the germination of I. xanthifolia seeds (Table 1) showed that the seed begins to germinate at 5þC. The major percentage of germinated seeds was obtained at 10 þC (45%), and the smallest percent at 20 þC (18%). The higher percentage of germinated seeds was observed with seed group > 1mm. With rises in temperature from 5 þC to 10 þC and 15 þC, the seed germinates faster and maintains that tendency until the temperature reaches 20 þC. With further rises in temperature, the germination slows down, so that it takes 11 days for the seed to germinate at 25 þC (Table 1). Concerning the time necessary for the beginning of germination of I. xanthifolia seeds, the shortest period was observed at 20 þC (4 days), and the longest at 5 þC (12 days). These results are in accordance with the data on the speed of I. xanthifolia germination by Milanova (2001). At temperatures below 20 þC the seed germinated slower, but the seedlings were well-developed, while at the temperature of 20 þC a higher number of deformed I. xanthifolia seedlings was discovered. Table 1 - Average I. xanthifolia germination at different temperature and time duration Temperature Seed size 5 0C 10 0C 15 0C 20 0C 25 0C 25 % 39 % 21 % 14 % 12% < 1.00 mm 22 % 45 % 24 % 18 % 16% > 1.00 mm 12 10 6 4 11 Time duration (days) The impact of herbicides on the germination of I. xanthifolia All tested soil herbicides were efficient in preventing the germination of I. xanthifolia seeds. During the experiment in four tests the growth of seedlings (length of radicle) was observed. In the first assessment, three days after the start of the test, the seeds from all variants have started germinating, but the growth of the radicle of the treated seeds decelerated after three days only i.e. the radicles started to rot. Fourteen days after the beginning of the germination, radicles were completely rotted in all variants of tested herbicides. The values of Iva xanthifolia Nutt seed germination under the influence of tested herbicides are showed in Tables 2-6. Table 2 - Germination of I. xanthifolia seeds treated with Trifluralin 48 EC Marks Relation of treatments I II III IV -1 ** ** ** ** K : 2.00 Lha -1 ** ** ** ** K : 1.00 Lha -1 ** ** ** ** K : 0.50 Lha ** ** ** ** K : 0.25 Lha-1 -1 ns ns ns ns 2.00 : 1.00 Lha ns ns ns ns 2.00 : 0.50 Lha-1 -1 ns ns ns ns 2.00 : 0.25 Lha -1 ns ns ns ns 1.00 : 0.50 Lha ns ns ns ns 1.00 : 0.25 Lha-1 -1 ns ns ns ns 0.50 : 0.25 Lha p < 0.01 ** ; ns no significant differences Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 412 Table 3 - Germination of I. xanthifolia seeds treated with Dual Gold 960 EC Marks Relation of treatments I II III IV -1 ** ** ** ** K : 1.40 Lha ** ** ** ** K : 1.00 Lha-1 -1 ** ** ** ** K : 0.70 Lha ** ** ** ** K : 0.50 Lha-1 -1 ns ns ns ns 1.40 : 1.00 Lha -1 ns ns ns ns 1.40 : 0.70 Lha ns ns ns ns 1.40 : 0.50 Lha-1 -1 ns ns ns ns 1.00 : 0.70 Lha ns ns ns ns 1.00 : 0.50 Lha-1 -1 ns ns ns ns 0.70 : 0.50 Lha p < 0.01 ** ; ns no significant differences Table 4 - Germination of I. xanthifolia seeds treated with Frontier 900 EC Marks Relation of treatments I II III IV ** ** ** ** K : 1.20 Lha-1 -1 ** ** ** ** K : 1.00 Lha ** ** ** ** K : 0.80 Lha-1 -1 ** ** ** ** K : 0.60 Lha ns ns ns ns 1.20 : 1.0 Lha-1 -1 * ns ns ns 1.20 : 0.80 Lha -1 ns ns ns ns 1.20 : 0.60 Lha -1 ns ns ns ns 1.00 : 0.80 Lha -1 ns ns ns ns 1.00 : 0.60 Lha ns ns ns ns 0.80 : 0.60 Lha-1 p < 0.01 ** ; P < 0.05 *; ns no significant differences Table 5 - Germination of I. xanthifolia seeds treated with Prometrin 500 Marks Relation of treatments I II III IV ** ** ** ** K : 2.00 Lha-1 -1 ** ** ** ** K : 1.50 Lha -1 ** ** ** ** K : 1.00 Lha ** ** ** ** K : 0.50 Lha-1 -1 * ns ns ns 2.00 : 1.50 Lha ns ns ns ns 2.00 : 1.00 Lha-1 -1 ** ns ns ns 2.00 : 0.50 Lha -1 ns ns ns ns 1.50 : 1.00 Lha -1 ns ns ns ns 1.50 : 0.50 Lha -1 * ns ns ns 1.00 : 0.50 Lha p< 0.01 **; P < 0.05 *; ns no significant differences Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 413 Table 6 - Germination of I. xanthifolia seeds treated with Guardian Marks Relation of treatments I II III -1 ** ** ** K : 2.20 Lha ** ** ** K : 1.80 Lha-1 -1 ** ** ** K : 1.50 Lha ** ** ** K : 0.90 Lha-1 -1 ns ns ns 2.20 : 1.80 Lha -1 ns ns ns 2.20 : 1.50 Lha ns ns ns 2.20 : 0.90 Lha-1 -1 ns ns ns 1.80 : 1.50 Lha ns ns ns 1.80 : 1.50 Lha-1 -1 ns ns ns 1.50 0.90 Lha p < 0.01 **; ns no significant differences IV ** ** ** ** ns ns ns ns ns ns After the analysis of the obtained data the following conclusions were drawn:  there are statistically significant differences between control (without herbicide) and each herbicide concentration on germination of I. xanthifolia seeds  there were no statistically significant differences between tested concentrations of each tested herbicide rate. Conclusions The results of the study on I. xanthifolia seed characteristics show that the conditions of our habitats fit this invasive species. This corresponds with the findings regarding the two main seed groups ced: major portion is represented by larger seeds. Larger seeds show better germination ability, and the temperatures which suit this plant for optimum germination are also present in our country during the spring season (from 5 to 20 0C). The tests of the performance of soil herbicides on I. xanthifolia Nutt germination suggest that this plant is very sensitive to soil herbicides, which means that application of tested soil herbicides can be an effective way of controlling it. Moreover, the results suggest that besides standard reccomended quantities of these herbicides, with the aim of decreasing the application of soil herbicides, I. xanthifolia can also be controlled with half the amount of above tested soil herbicides. References Kojiš M & Ajer S (1996) [Problems of biodiversity in agrarian ecosystems] Problemi biodiverziteta u agrarnim ekosistemima, Proceedings of the 5th Weed Symposium, Banja Koviljaca, 35-63. Marshall E & Moonen A (2002) Field margins in northern Europe: their functions and interactions with agriculture. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 1-2, 5-21. Gabriel D, Thies C & Tscharntke T (2005) Local diversity of arable weeds increases with landscape complexity. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 7, 85-93. Grundy A, Mead A & Burstons S (2004) Seed production of Chenopodium album L. in competition with field vegetable. Weed Research 44, 271-281. Deebaeke P (1988) Population dynamics of some broad-leaved weeds in cereals II. Survival Luecke and seed production. Weed Research 28, 265-279. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 414 Benjamin L & Aikman D (1995) Predicting growth in stands of mixed species from that in individual species. Annals of Botany 76, 31-42. Marisavljeviš D & Veljkoviš B (2000) [Iva xantaifolia Nutt.- new weed in our fields and the possibility of chemical control] Iva xantaifolia Nutt. – novi korov na našim poljima i mogušnost hemijskog naţina suzbijanja.. Proceedings of the 11th Yugoslav Symposium on Plant Protection with international character, Zlatibor, 109. Marisavljeviš D & Veljkoviš B (2002) Iva xanthifolia Nutt.: A problematical weed in sugar beet in Yugoslavia. Proceedings of the 12th Symposium European Weed Research Society, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 210211. Rahman A, James T, Mellsop, JM & Grbavac N (2004) Predicting broadleaf weed populations in maize from the soil seedbank. Proceedings of a conference, Hamilton, New Zealand, 281-285. Scoggan HJ (1978) The flora of Canada. Natural Museum Nat.Сci. (Ottawa) Publ.Bot. 7(1) - 7(4). 1711. Šajinoviš B & Koljadţinski B (1966) [New adventive species Iva xanthifolia Nutt. (Cychachaena xanthifolia Fresen) in our country] Nova adventivna vrsta Iva xanthifolia Nutt. (Cychachaena xanthifolia Fresen) u našoj zemlji. Pamphlet of Natural History Museum, Belgrade, Ser. B 21, 217-220. Šajinoviš B & Koljadţinski B (1978) [Addition to the studies of the process of naturalisation of adventive plant species- Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. 1753. and Iva xanthifolia Nutt. 1818. (Asteraceae) in Vojvodina] Prilog prouţavanju procesa naturalizacije adventivnih biljnih vrsta - Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. 1753. i Iva xanthifolia Nutt. 1818. (Asteraceae) u Vojvodini. Biosistematika 14, 81-92. Veljkoviš B (1996) [Distribution of newly introduced weed species Ambrosia arthemisiifolia L. and Iva xanthifolia Nutt. in Yugoslavia] Rasprostranjenost novounešenih korovskih vrsta Ambrosia arthemisiifolia L. i Iva xanthifolia Nutt. u Jugoslaviji. Procedings of the 5th Weed Symposium, Banja Koviljaca, 351-363. Vrbniţanin S, Karadţiš B & Dajiš-Stevanoviš Z (2004) [Adventive and invasive weed species on the territory of Serbia] Adventivne i invazivne korovske vrste na podruţiju Srbije. Acta herbologica 13, 1-13. Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 415 Allelopathic potential of rice (Oryza sativa) cultivars of barnyard grass (Echinochloa crusgalli) Leila Jafari1, Hossein Ghadiri2 and Ali Moradshahi3 1- Former MS Student of Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, and current faculty member of Hormozgan University, Iran. E-Mail address: leilajaf@yahoo.com 2- Professor of Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Iran. 3- Associated professor of Department of Biology, College of Science, Shiraz University, Iran. Laboratory and greenhouse studies were conducted to assess the allelopathic potential of 12 rice cultivars on barnyard grass. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) was used to determine the influence of osmotic potential on the bioassay materials. Effect of different concentrations (5, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 60%) of stem, root, and leaf aqueous extracts of rice cultivars on seed germination, radicle and primary shoot length of barnyard grass seedlings, and rate of respiration of root pieces were investigated in the laboratory experiments. Shoot height and dry weight of weed stands were studied in the greenhouse. Also total peroxidase activity, chlorophyll pigment and mitotic index were determined. Results indicated that, among rice cultivars, Mehr, Tarom-mahali, G3, Nemat, and Shahpasand caused the most inhibition effects on investigated factors. Amol-3 showed the least negative effects on growth of seedlings and stands of barnyard grass. In laboratory, the Mehr cultivar demonstrated the maximum inhibitory effects by reducing barnyard grass seed germination percentage (88%), radicle length (100%), primary shoot length (83%), and root respiration (85%) Cell division, expressed as mitotic index, was significantly reduced in the presence of rice aqueous extracts. Mehr cultivar had higher inhibitory effect on mitosis compared to Amol-3 and leaf extract in both species. In greenhouse, the same cultivar showed the maximum inhibitory effect by reducing barnyard grass height (45%) and dry weight (64%). With increase in extract concentration, the inhibitory effect increased. Leaf extract from rice plants was more effective compared with the root and stem extracts. These results suggest that rice leaf extracts may be a source of natural herbicide. Introduction Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the most important cereal crop in the developing world and is the staple food of over half the world‘s population (Juliono,1993). Increasing population pressures in rice- consuming nations require more attention toward novel approaches to increasing production. Yield increases must be achieved through agronomic approaches that are environmentally safe. Controlling weeds though sustainable methods, is a focal point for researchers working to ensure the world food supply for future generations (Olofsdotter et al., 1999). Weeds are the most severe and the most widespread biological constraint to rice production (Zimdahl, 1999; Rao, 2000). They are the constant component of agroecosystems unlike insect pests and plant diseases that attack periodically (Raju, 2000). Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crusPosters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 416 galli L.) is the most troublesome weed in both tropical and temperate regions of the world. This weed is very competitive in rice and can reduce yields to zero (Rice, 1984; Maun and Barrett, 1986). To cope with increasing weed problems, herbicide use is increasing rapidly all over Asia. Concerns about human health and environmental pollution, in addition concerns about the development of herbicide- resistant weeds, make the development of weed management methods with a minimal use of chemicals an area of interest. . One option to reduce herbicide dependency would be to use the allelopathic potential of a species (Olofsdotter et al., 1999). Rice (1984) defined allelopathy as any direct or indirect harmful or beneficial effect by one plant (including microorganisms) on another through the production of chemical compounds that escape into the environment. Allelopathic compounds are released into the environment through leaching or emission from living plant parts, root exudation, volatilization, and residue decomposition (Inderjit, 1996; Putnam and Tang 1986). Considerable attention has been paid on the positive aspects of allelopathy as an ecological control by selecting rice cultivars with greater allelopathic potentials (Chung et al., 2001; Dilday et al., 1998; Hassan et al., 1998; Lin et al., 1992; Mousavi, 2000; Olofsdotter, 1997; Jung et al., 2004). Bioassay was conducted to examine the allelopathic effects of different parts of rice plants, and the genetic and phenotypic characters of rice varieties, on barnyard grass (Jung et al., 2004). Several accessions of rice germplasm in the field were found to decrease the growth of ducksalad Heteranthra limosa (Sw.) Willd, an annual broadleaf weed (Dilday et al., 1998). At IRRI, laboratory screening and field experiments have shown that 19 of 111 rice cultivars tested were able to suppress the growth (dry matter) of barnyard grass by more than 40%. Suppression in the field was comparable with root reduction observed in laboratory screening (Navarez and Olofsdotter,1996; Olofsdotter and Navarez, 1996). The rice accessions with allelopathic potential originated from 37 countries indicating that allelopathy is widespread in rice germplasm. One thousand rice accessions have been screened for allelopathic potential against barnyard grass and variable flatsedge (Cyperus difformis) in field experiment in Egypt. Of these 30 accessions showed promising allelopathic potential (50-90%weed reduction) against barnyard grass and 15 were allelopathic (30- 75% weed reduction) against flatsedge. Five cultivars showed strong allelopathic potential for both weed species (Hassan et al., 1998). Chung et al. (2001) evaluated 47 domestic rice cultivar extracts for allelopathic potential against barnyard grass. Also, they reported that there may be genetic differences among rice cultivars for allelopathic potential on barnyard grass using 44 cultivars hull extracts. In a study, Dali et al (2000) evaluated the allelopathic effect of rice varieties on weeds. Results showed the inhibitory effect of rice on the root growth of barnyard grass was higher than the effect on shoot growth. The putative compound causing the inhibitory effect of rice was isolated from rice root exudates, and the chemical structure of the inhibitor was determined by spectral data as 3,20-epoxy-3α-hydroxy9β-pimara-7,15-dien-19,6β-olide (momilactone B) and 3β-Hydroxy-9β-pimara-7,15-diene-19,6βolide (momilactone A) (Kato-Nouguchi et al., 2008; Kato-Noguchi and Ino, 2005; Kato-Noguchi, 2004). Also flavone (5,7,4′-trihydroxy-3′,5′-dimethoxyflavone), cyclohexenone (3-isopropyl-5acetoxycyclohexene-2-one-1) and a liquid mixture of low polarity, containing long-chain and cyclic hydrocarbons, were isolated from leaves of allelopathic rice accession PI 312777 using column chromatography (Kong et al., 2004). Bioassays showed that both the flavone and cyclohexenone significantly inhibited the growth of weeds barnyard grass, flatsedge and ricefield flatsedge (Cyperus iris) (Kong et al., 2004). On the other hands, Kong et al. (2008) showed that allelopathic rice can have great impact on the population and community structure of soil Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 417 microbes (Kong et al., 2008). The aim of this study was to identify and screen Iranian rice cultivars for possible allelopathic activity against barnyard grass. Materials and methods Plant materials Based on a preliminary experiment (data not shown), twelve rice cultivars out of twenty-one were selected from different areas in Iran, eleven of which had potential allelopathic effect (Mehr, Champa, Tarom -mahali, Fajr, Nemat, Anbori -siyah, Shahpasand, G3, G8, 1658- 4- 261- 1 and 1658- 5- 3- 1- 1), and one (Amol – 3) did not show any potential allelopathic effect. Mature seeds of barnyard grass were scarified with a rotating scarifier which rubs the seeds together and against an abrasive surface. Extraction Rice stems, roots, and leaves were sampled at the three-to four-leaf stage of plants that were grown in the greenhouse. Fresh plant samples were stored at –20 C. One hundred milliliters of distilled water were added to 10 grams of fresh leaf, stem or root and crushed (Ebana et al., 2001). Each sample was stirred on a rotary shaker for 24 h and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15min. This extract, considered as full strength (100%), was recovered and stored in a refrigerator until it was used as a crude water-soluble extract. Aliquots of the extract were taken and diluted to 75, 60, 50, 40, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10 and 5% strength with distilled water. Bioassay in the laboratory Osmotic potential was measured by Cryoscopy method (Moustafa et al., 1996). The osmotic potential of each cultivars stem, root, and leaf extract was almost similar. Polyethylene glycol, PEG an inert, nonionic, long-chain polymer: HOCH2- (CH2-O-CH2) X CH2 OH (carbowax 6000) has been widely used in experimental media at predetermined water potential values (Steuter et al., 1981). Under the same conditions, experiments with extracts of leaf, root, and stem of rice cultivars and PEG experiment were concurrently conducted to distinguish between the inhibitory effects of substances and osmotic potential of extract concentrations. The same measurements were performed using PEG instead of different extracts. Thirty barnyard grass seeds were placed on two Whatman No.2 filter papers in 9-cm petridishes. Seven milliliters of the appropriate extract in 5, 10, 20, 40, and 60% concentrations and distilled water as the control were applied to the seeds. PEG was used on the bioassay materials to determine the influence of osmotic potential. Petridishes were incubated at 25C in the dark for 5d. The number of germinated seeds was recorded and the length of radicles, primary shoots and root respiration rate of 6 d old seedlings were measured and averaged for each replicate with each treatment. A factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with three replications was used. Bioassay in the greenhouse A greenhouse experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of stem, root, and leaf extract of rice plants on the height and dry weight of barnyard grass. At the three-leaf stage of barnyard grass, pots were irrigated with 250 ml of the appropriate extract (25, 50 and 75%) or with distilled water (control treatment). Ten days after the addition of extracts to pots, barnyard grass seedlings were harvested and their heights (from the basal node to the end of leaf) measured. Then, plants were dried in the oven at 70˚C for 48 h and their dry weights recorded. A factorial Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 418 experiment based on completely randomized design with three replications was used. Data were analyzed by the analysis of variance procedure, and the means were separated using Duncan‘s new multiple range test at the, α = 0.05 level of significance (SAS, 2000). All experiments replicated twice. Based on laboratory and greenhouse experiments results, two rice cultivars (Amol-3 and Mehr) were selected to determine total peroxidase activity, chlorophyll content and mitotic index. Preparation of aqueous leaf and root extracts Aqueous leaf and root extracts of two rice cultivars were prepared by homogenizing 10 g of fresh tissues in 100 ml deionized water. The homogenates were stirred for 2 h on magnetic stirrer at room temperature and then centrifuged at 5000 g for 20 min. The supernatants were diluted with deionized water to give required concentrations. Extraction and determination of total peroxidase activity Seeds of barnyard grass were soaked in 1% sodium hypochlorite for 15 min and then thoroughly rinsed with deionized water. The seeds were germinated in plastic containers at room temperature. After seven days, uniform size seedlings were transferred to plastic pods containing 1 L half strength Hoagland solution and kept in a growth room set at about 24º c and 16 h photoperiod. After two days, seedlings were treated with proper concentrations of extracts for three days and total peroxidase was extracted from the roots of 12 d old barnyard grass seedlings and assayed according to Mac-Adam et al (1992). Changes in absorbance at 430 nm were recorded at 10 sec intervals and the slopes of the lines were calculated and enzyme activity was expressed as percentage of the control. Chlorophyll extraction and measurement Seedlings grown in plastic containers and treated with different concentrations of rice extracts as above were used for chlorophyll determination. Fully expanded leaves were taken randomly from the seedlings and their fresh weights were determined. Chlorophyll pigments were extracted and measured according to Arnon (1949). Determination of mitotic index Onion (Allium cepa L.) bulbs rooted in water in the laboratory were used to measure the effects of rice shoots and roots extracts on cell division. The rooted onions were placed on top of 100 ml beakers with roots immersed in different concentrations of rice leaf or root aqueous extracts. After 24 h, root tips, 5 mm in length, were cut and stained with Schiff‘s reagent (Ruzin, 1999) and used to determine mitotic index (Moradshahi et al., 2002). The design for each of the laboratory experiment was completely randomized design with three replications. All experiments were replicated twice. Results and discussion Allelopathic potential of rice cultivars in laboratory bioassay Significant differences were observed among rice cultivars in extract concentrations of 5, 10, 20, 40, and 60% (data not shown). Maximum seed germination was obtained in the presence of 5% concentration of Amol-3 (89%) and minimum seed germination (15%) resulted when 60% concentration of Mehr was used. In all extract concentrations, Amol-3 cultivar and PEG caused relatively similar reduction in barnyard grass seed germination. PEG concentration of 20% Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 419 significantly reduced seed germination of barnyard grass as compared to the lower PEG concentrations. The inhibition in barnyard grass seed germination increased with an increase in the concentration of rice extract. Chung et al (2001) reported that barnyard grass seed germination percentage was significantly inhibited as the extract concentration increased. Further investigations on interactions between rice cultivars and stem, root, and leaf extracts showed that maximum barnyard grass seed germination resulted from the application of Amol-3 cultivar stem extract (77%) and the minimum seed germination resulted from leaf extract of Mehr cultivar (51%) (Table 1). Amol-3 cultivar was significantly different from the others. In this study, the inhibition of barnyard grass germination using different parts of rice reflects the allelopathic potential of individual rice varieties. Results are in agreement with Chung et al. (2003) and Jung et al. (2004) who reported inhibition of barnyard grass seed germination by allelopathic effects of rice cultivars. Jung et al. (2004) indicated that, the inhibitory effect on barnyard grass emergence induced by a leaves-plus-straw mixture was extremely high for the Damagung strain (95.9%). Table 1 - Effects of different parts extracts of rice cultivars on seed germination and radicle length of barnyard grass. † Rice cultivar Amol-3 1658-5-3-1-1 1658-4-26-1-1 G8 Anbori-siyah Champa Fajr Nemat G3 Tarommahali Shahpasand Mehr PEG Rice extract Barnyard grass germination (%) Stem Root Leaf 77Aa 76Aa 75Aa 64Bca 61Ba 63Ba 64Bca 56Cb 62BCa 65Bca 66Cb 60BCc 64Bca 60Cb 60BCa 65Bca 58Cb 59CD b 66Ba 59Cb 55DEc 65Bca 60Cb 58CD b 66Ba 60Cb 59CD b 63Bca 62Ca 54EFb 63Bca 62Ca 77Aa 63Ca 56Cb 76Aa 54DEb 51Fc 75Aa seed Barnyard grass radicle length(cm) Mean 76A 63B 60BC 62B 62B 62B Stem 1.88Aa 1.86Aa 1.70Ba 0.92Ca 0.92Ca 0.92Ca Root 1.32Ab 0.86B-Eb 0.87BCDb 0.88BCDb 0.91Ba 0.89BCa Leaf 1.33Aa 0.86Bb 0.83Bc 0.83Bc 0.84Bb 0.84Bb Mean 1.52A 1.15B 1.13B 0.88C 0.89C 0.88C 61BC 61B 0.84Da 0.83Da 0.84CDEa 0.83DEa 0.67Cb 0.66CDb 0.78D 0.77D 61B 0.83Da 0.64CDEb 0.77D 59BC 0.83Da 0.84BCDE a 0.83Dea 0.63CDEb 0.76D 61BC 56C 76A 0.83Da 0.83Da 1.89Aa 0.81Ea 0.81Ea 1.33Ab 0.61DEb 0.60Eb 1.34Ab 0.75D 0.75D 1.53A † Means within each row followed by the same letters (small letters) are not significantly different (Duncan 5%). † Means within each column followed by the same letters (capital letters) are not significantly different (Duncan 5%). Effects of rice cultivars and rice stem, root, and leaf extracts indicated that the lowest inhibitory effect on barnyard grass radicle length was established by stem extract of Amol-3 and 1658- 5- 3- 1- 1 cultivars and the highest by leaf extract of Mehr cultivar (Table 1). Kong et al. (2004) showed that both the flavone and cyclohexenone were isolated from leaves of allelopathic Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 420 rice significantly inhibited the growth of weeds barnyard grass, flatsedge and ricefield flatsedge (Cyperus iris). Maximum radicle length (1.52 cm) resulted from the application of Amol-3 cultivar and minimum radicle lengths (7.5-7.8 mm) resulted from the application of Mehr, Shahpasand, Tarom-mahali, G3, Nemat and Fajr cultivars extract. These cultivars showed significant differences from other cultivars and PEG. Our results indicated that leaf extracts have less inhibitory effect on primary shoot length (data not shown) when compared with radicle length. Interaction effects of rice cultivars and extract concentrations on radicle length showed that the minimum negative effect on radicle length was related to the application of G 8 rice cultivar extract concentration of 5% (2.64 cm) (Table 2). Maximum negative effect on radicle length was caused from using Mehr, Shahpasand, Tarom-mahali, G3, Champa, Nemat, and Anbori-siyah rice cultivar extract concentration at 60%. In 60% extract concentration, all cultivars with the exception of Amol-3 reduced barnyard grass radicle length about 100%. This value clearly shows the inhibitory effect on barnyard grass seedling growth. Radicle length of barnyard grass seeds was unaffected by PEG concentrations of 5 and 10%. This indicates that any reduction in barnyard grass seed radicle length using 5 and 10% extract concentrations of different rice cultivars must have been the result of allelochemicals in the extracts. Rice cultivars and extract concentration interactions indicated that, in the presence of 5% concentration, Amol-3, resulted the lowest inhibitory effect on primary shoot length (Table 2). The application of Mehr and Tarom-mahali at 60% concentration had the most, inhibitory effect on primary shoot length (83.45%). With 5% concentration, except for Amol-3 cultivar, no significant differences existed between cultivars. All rice cultivars at all concentration showed significant differences as compared to Amol-3 cultivar and PEG. Primary shoot length of barnyard grass seeds was affected by different PEG concentrations. In all cultivars, significant differences were observed between PEG and all cultivars expecte Amol-3. This different influence of extracts and PEG concentrations suggests that the reduction in seed germination and seedling growth is the result of allelochemicals in the extracts. Some allelochemicals in rice extracts were known by authors, and the most important of these compounds, are mamilactons (Kato-Noguchi and Ino, 2005; Kato-Noguchi, 2004; Kato-Nouguchi et al., 2008). The similarity between the influences of Amol-3 extract and PEG concentrations shows that the effect of this cultivar was osmotic. This suggests that any reduction in barnyard grass seed primary shoot length using extract ar different concentrations of rice cultivars may have been the result of either the osmotic potential of the extracts or allelochemicals in the extracts. Barnyard grass radicle growth was quite sensitive to rice extracts. These findings are in agreement with Ebana et al. (2001) who indicated that the stem and root extracts were less effective in comparison with the leaf extract. Lin et al. (2000) indicated that the inhibition in weed growth increased with an increase in the concentration of rice extract, and radicle length was more sensitive to aqueous extract than hypocotyls length. Pheng et al. (1999) reported that, under laboratory conditions, 11 rice cultivars provided 58-78% and 32-58% root and shoot reductions respectively. These results confirm the results reported by Dali (2000), Olofsdotter and Navarez (1996), and Kim and Shin (1998) that the inhibitory effect of rice on the radicle growth of barnyard grass is higher than the effect on shoot growth. In a similar study, Olofsdotter and Navarez (1996) observed that, root growth of barnyard grass was significantly inhibited by some rice cultivars, while there was no significant effect on barnyard grass shoot length among the tested rice cultivars. The results of their study showed that the root extracts of rice were less effective than leaf extracts. In constrast to these finding, the oat allelopathic effects against Brassica kaber of several accessions appeared Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 421 Table2 - Effects of different concentrations of rice cultivars on radicle length and primary shoot length of barnyard grass. † Rice Rice extract Concentration (%) Cultivar Barnyyard grass radicle length (cm) Barnyardgrass primary shoot length (cm) 0 5 10 20 40 60 0 5 10 20 40 60 Amol-3 2.62Aba 2.63Aa 1.42Ab 1.05 Ac 0.82Ad 0.61Ae 6.19Aa 5.70Ab 5.47Ac 4.98Ad 3.97Ae 3.56Af G8 2.63Aba 2.64Aa 0.84Bb 0.62Bc 0.11Bd 0.06Be 6.08Aa 5.04Bb 5.07Bc 4.39Bd 2.53Ce 1.36Bf 1658-4-26-l-l 2.61ABCa 2.63Aa 0.84Bb 0.62Bc 0.08BCDe 0.02Be 6.02Aa 4.91Bb 4.89CD 4.30Cc 2.61Bd 1.24Ce 4.26CD 2.62Bd 1.16De 2.40Dd 1.07Ee 2.40Dd 1.03Efe 2.36Ed 1.03Efe 4.16Dd 2.41De 1.04EF 4.03Fd 2.40De b 1658-5-3-1-1 2.61ABCa 1.16Bb 0.85Bc 0.60Bd 0.08BCDe 0.01Be 6.02Aa 4.88Bb 4.91Cb e Fajr 2.63Aba 1.14Bb 0.87Bc 0.61Bd 0.09BCe 0.02Be 5.97Aa 4.81Bb 4.80Db 4.15CD c Anbori- 2.60ABCa 1.15Bb 0.86Bc 0.62Bd 0.06BCDe 0.00Be 5.97Aa 4.81Bb 4.79Db Nemat 4.14DE c siyah 2.60ABCa 0.88Cb 0.74Cc 0.48Cd 0.03CDe 0.00Be 5.93Aa 4.81Bb 4.83Db 4.14DE c Champa 2.58ABCa 0.87Cb 0.71Cc 0.47Cd 0.03CDe 0.00Be 5.90Aa 4.81Bb 4.73DE c 4.70DE f G3 2.58ABCa 0.87Cb 0.69Cc 0.47Cd 0.01De 0.00Be 5.93Aa 4.80Bb Tarom 2.54Ca 0.85Cb 0.68Cc 0.46Cd 0.01De 0.00Be 5.96Aa 4.80Bb 4.68Ec 4.14Dd 2.40De Shahpasand 2.57Bca 0.86Cb 0.69Cc 0.46Cd 0.01De 0.00Be 5.93Aa 4.79Bb 4.68Ec 4.10Ed 2.42De 0.98Ff Mehr 2.56Bca 0.85Cb 0.67Cc 0.45Cd 0.01De 0.00Be 5.92Aa 4.76Bb 4.68Ec 4.03Fd 2.38DE 0.98Ff c 1.03EF f 1.02EF f mahali e PEG 2.65Aa 2.65Aa 2.64Aa 1.07Ab 0.80Ac 0.61Ad 6.18Aa 5.69Ab 5.43Bc 5.01Ad 2.99Ae 3.58Af † Means within each row followed by the same letters (small letters) are not significantly different (Duncan 5%). † Means within each column followed by the same letters (capital letters) are not significantly different (Duncan 5%). Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 422 to be associated with the relative amount of scopletin that was exuded from the roots (Fay and Duke, 1977). A weak association of the effect of the root extract with the allelopathic effect in the field can be explained by an immediate release after translocation from the leaves. Another possibility is that rice allelochemicals are not released from roots but are leached directly from the leaves (Ebana et al., 2001). Effects of rice cultivars in different extract concentrations on barnyard grass respiration rate showed that extract concentrations of 30 and 60% were significantly different (Table 3). Maximum inhibitory effect resulted from Tarom-mahali, Mehr, and Nemat at extract concentration of 60% (0.4, 0.5, and 0.5 μl/f.w, respectively). Patrick and Koch (1958) indicated that the phytotoxins inhibited the respiration, germination and growth of several different kinds of plants. Allelochemicals may stimulate or inhibit respiration, both of which may be harmful to this energy-producing process. In the case of stimulation (enhanced O 2 uptake) the oxidative phosphorylation sequence may be uncoupled, resulting in a lack of ATP (energy) formation. Juglone has been shown to uncouple oxidative phosphorylation, as have a variety of aromatic acids, phenolics, aldehydes, flavonids, and comarin compounds (Rice, 1984). Several compounds isolated from soils have been shown to inhibit the respiration of plant roots. Juglone is particularly effective in this regard, causing more than a 90% reduction in the respiration of corn roots after 1h exposure (Koeppe, 1972). Table 3 - Effects of rice cultivars and extract concentrations on seedling root respiration rate (µl/hr/g.f.w) of barnyard grass.† Rice cultivar Amol-3 G8 1658-5-3-1-1 1658-4-26-1-1 Anbori-siyah Shahpasand Champa Fajr G3 Nemat Mehr Tarom-mahali Rice extracts concentration (%) Barnyard grass seedling root respiration rate (µl/hr/g.f.w) 0 30 60 3.6Aa 3.4Aa 1.5Ab 3.6Aa 3.4Aa 1.4Ab 3.5Aa 3.4Aa 1.4Ab 3.5Aa 3.4Aa 1.4Ab 3.5Aa 3.3Aa 1.4Ab 3.6Aa 3.3Aa 1.4Ab 3.5Aa 3.3Aa 1.4Ab 3.2Ba 3.3Aa 1.4Ab 3.2Ba 3.3Aa 0.9Bb 3.4Aba 2.9Bb 0.5Cc 3.4Aba 2.9Bb 0.5Cc 3.5Aa 2.9Bb 0.4Cc † Means within each row followed by the same letters (small letters) are not significantly different (Duncan 5%). † Means within each column followed by the same letters (capital letters) are not significantly different (Duncan 5%). Allelopathic potential of rice cultivars in greenhouse bioassay Response of shoot height of barnyard grass to rice cultivars and extract concentrations indicated that with extract concentrations of 50% and 75%, significant differences were observed among rice cultivars (Table 4). The most, inhibitory effect resulted from using Mehr cultivar extract concentration of 75% (48.5%). 423 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Table 4 - Effects of rice cultivars and extract concentrations on shoot height and shoot dry weight of barnyard grass. † Rice extracts concentration (%) Barnyard grass shoot height(cm) 0 25 50 75 32Aa 32Aa 32Aa 31Aa 32Aa 32Aa 31Aa 21Bb 33Aa 32Aa 30Aa 21Bb 33Aa 33Aa 29Ab 21Bc 33Aa 32Aa 29Ab 21Bc 33Aa 32Aa 29Ab 21Bc 32Aa 32Aa 29Ab 21Bc 32Aa 32Aa 24Bb 18BCc 33Aa 32Aa 25Bb 18BCc 33Aa 31Aa 24Bb 18BCc 33Aa 32Aa 25Bb 18BCc 33Aa 32Aa 25Bb 17Cc Rice cultivar Amol-3 1658-5-3-1-1 1658-4-26-1-1 G8 Fajr Nemat Champa Anbori-siyah Shahpasand G3 Tarom-mahali Mehr Barnyard grass shoot dry weight(g) 0 3.52Aa 3.52Aa 3.52Aa 3.52Aa 3.53Aa 3.52Aa 3.52Aa 3.52Aa 3.52Aa 3.52Aa 3.52Aa 3.52Aa 25 3.51Aa 3.49Aa 3.49Aa 3.49Aa 3.49Aa 3.49Aa 3.19Bb 3.09Cb 3.09Cb 3.04Db 3.05Db 3.08Cb 50 3.48Aa 2.78Bb 2.79Bb 2.79Bb 2.79Bb 2.79Bb 2.36Cc 2.35Cc 2.36Cc 1.96Dc 1.99Dc 1.98Dc 75 2.58Ab 1.47Cc 1.60Bc 1.59BCc 1.58BCc 1.59Bc 1.28Dd 1.61Bd 1.61Bd 1.27Dd 1.29Dd 1.27Dd † Means within each row followed by the same letters (small letters) are not significantly different (Duncan 5%). † Means within each column followed by the same letters (capital letters) are not significantly different (Duncan 5%). Interaction effects of rice cultivars and extract concentrations on shoot dry weight of barnyard grass showed that in all concentrations, Mehr, Tarom-mahali, Shahpasand, G3, Anbori-siyah, and Nemat extracts had the most inhibitory effects which resulted in the significant reduction of shoot dry weight of barnyard grass as compared with other cultivars. In extract concentrations of 50 and 75%, Amol-3 significantly showed the least inhibitory effects among cultivars. The 50% extract concentration of this cultivar was similar to the control. However, extract concentration of 75% was different from the control. Table 5 - Effects of different parts extracts of rice cultivars on shoot height and shoot dry weight of barnyard grass. † Rice extracts Stem Root Leaf Mean Rice extract concentration (%) Barnyard grass shoot height(cm) 0 33Aa 33Aa 32Aa 33Aa 25 32Aa 33Aa 32Aa 32a 50 31Aa 28Bb 24Cb 28b 75 25Ac 22Bc 15Cc 21c Mean 30A 29A 26B Barnyard grass shoot dry weight(g) 0 3.5Aa 3.5Aa 3.5Aa 3.52a 25 3.5Ab 3.3Bb 3.2Cb 3.21b 50 3.2Ac 2.3Bc 2.1Cc 2.55c 75 1.7Ad 1.5Bd 1.4Cd 1.53d Mean 3.0A 2.7B 2.5C † Means within each row followed by the same letters (small letters) are not significantly different (Duncan 5%). † Means within each column followed by the same letters (capital letters) are not significantly different (Duncan 5%). Effects of rice stem, root, and leaf extract and extract concentrations on shoot height of barnyard grass seedlings were also investigated (Table 5). The lowest height of shoot resulted from using 75% leaf extract concentration (15 cm). In extract concentrations of 50 and 75%, stem, root, and leaf extracts showed significant effects on shoot height. In extract concentrations 424 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world of 25%, stem, root, and leaf extracts showed no effects on shoot height. With increase in extract concentration, reduction trend continued and in extract concentrations of 75%, shoot height was 21cm. This value indicates that the inhibitory effect on barnyard grass seedling growth is about 37%. In general, extract concentrations of stem, root, and leaf caused significantly different effects on shoot dry weight of barnyard grass (Table 5). All extract concentrations of 25, 50, and 75% significantly reduced barnyard grass shoot dry weight. As compared with root and stem extracts (22.86 and 14.3% respectively), rice leaf extract was the most, inhibitory of barnyard grass shoot dry weight (28.58%). Results of greenhouse experiment showed that dry weight of barnyard grass seedlings was more sensitive than seedling height. As compared with root and stem extracts, rice leaf extract caused the maximum inhibitory effect on height and shoot dry weight of barnyard grass. These findings are in agreement with previous works that indicated that rice residues significantly suppressed the rice radicle growth; and the dry weight decreased significantly while increasing amounts of straw applied; however, rice coleoptile growth was not inhibited (Chou and Lin, 1976). In a field study, Chung et al (2001) reported that the Juma 10 cultivar has demonstrated the most, inhibitory effect by reducing barnyard grass dry weight (68%). Leather and Einhellig (1986) suggested that measuring the dry weight of the germinated seed and radicle may be as effective as radicle elongation. Reduction in the dry weight of weed by several cultivars indicated the existence of gene(s) for allelochemicals production like acetic, propionic, butyric, vanilic, syringic, and p-comaric acids which are known to cause reduction in plant growth, total biomass and act as herbicide (Young et al., 1989). Total peroxidase activity, chlorophyll content and mitotic index determination. Total peroxidase increased significantly in the presence of all rice extracts (Table 6). Leaf extract of Mehr cultivar had the highest stimulatory effect on peroxidase activity. At 50 g l -1, root extracts of Amol-3 and Mehr cultivars increased total peroxidase by 20.1 and 32.9%, whereas leaf extracts caused 41.5 and 96.6% increase in enzyme activity, respectively. Changes in enzyme activity such as peroxidase by allelochemicals have been reported by several investigators (Moradshahi et al., 2003; Moradshahi et al., 2002; Baziramakenga et al., 1995). Lin et al (2000) indicate that, in biochemical analysis, aqueous extracts significantly blocked the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase, thereby increasing free radicals, consequently resulting in growth reduction of banyardgrass seedling. Activities of ATPase and amylase at different germination times of barnyard grass were also significantly inhibited by aqueous extracts, but the reverse was true in proxidase and IAA oxidase. In soybean roots, low concentration of cinnamic acid increased peroxidase activity whereas at higher concentrations, peroxidase was inactivated (Baziramakenga, et al., 1995). Since some peroxidases are involved in cell wall tightenning process, it is possible that observed growth reduction in barnyard grass by rice extracts is partly due to increase in cross-linkage between cell wall polymers catalyzed by peroxidases. Leaf and root extracts from both Amol-3 and Mehr cultivars reduced chlorophyll contents of barnyard grass leaves. Mehr cultivars had higher effect compared to Amol-3 (Table 7). Decrease in chlorophyll content in the presence of allelochemicals has been reported by other investigators (Baziramakenga, et al., 1994; Patterson, 1981). Since the chlorophyll content is closely related to 425 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world plant dry matter production (Bottery and Bozzel; 1977), reduction in leaf chlorophyll content would decrease photosynthesis and thus total plant growth. Cell division, expressed as mitotic index, was significantly reduced in the presence of rice aqueous extracts (Table 8). Root extract of Mehr cultivar had higher inhibitory effect on mitosis compared to Amol-3 and leaf extract in both species. At 50 gl-1, leaf extracts of Amol-3 and Mehr cultivars inhibited mitosis by 35 and 69%, respectively. Decreased DNA synthesis and thus cell division by 1,8-cineole has been reported by Koitabashi et al (1997). Crude volatile oil and aqueous leaf extract of Eucalyptus cumaldolensis severely reduced mitosis in root apical meristem of Allium cepa (Moradshahi et al., 2003). These results clearly show that reduced plant growth by allelochemicals in partly due to their effects on cell division. In this study, cultivars were genetically different. This could probably be a reason for their different allelopathic activity. The inhibition of barnyard grass germination by rice extracts may reflect the allelopathic potential of individual. The magnitude of allelopathic effects varied among the rice cultivars studied. Results of this study emphasize the variation in allelopathic activity among cultivars which has been mentioned by other studies (Kato-Nouguchi et al., 2008; Kato-Noguchi and Ino, 2005; Kato-Noguchi, 2004; Chung et al, 2003; Ahn and Chung, 2000; Olofsdotter and Navarez 1996; Dilday et al., 1991). In future studies, more rice cultivars should be screened for their allelopathic effects and allelochemical compounds released from all plant parts should be identified. Table 6 - Effects of aqueous extracts of two rice cultivars on leaf total peroxidase activity of barnyard grass (values are percent activity relative to control). † Rice cultivar Amol - 3 Mehr Leaf extract (g/l) 0 25 100A 115.2A 100A 126.6B 50 141.5B 196.6C Root extract (g/l) 0 25 100A 98.3A 100A 120.2B † Means by the same letters are not significantly different (Duncan 5%) 50 120.1B 132.9B Table 7 - Effects of aqueous extracts of two rice cultivars on leaf total chlorophyll of barnyard grass (values are percent activity relative to control). † Rice cultivar Amol - 3 Mehr Leaf extract (g/l) 0 25 3.65A 2.44B 3.52A 2.17B 50 3.14A 2.66B Root extract (g/l) 0 25 3.65A 3.11A 3.52A 2.48B † Means by the same letters are not significantly different (Duncan 5%). 50 4.81B 2.51C Table 8 - Effects of aqueous extracts of two rice cultivars on mitotic index in root apical meristems of Allium cepa. † Rice cultivar Amol - 3 Mehr Leaf extract (g/l) 0 25 6.49A 5.67A 6.49A 4.33B 50 4.19B 2.02C Root extract (g/l) 0 25 6.49A 4.39B 6.49A 5.01B † Means by the same letters are not significantly different (Duncan 5%). 50 2.76B 2.41B 426 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world References Ahn JK & Chung IM (2000) Allelopathic potential of rice hulls on germination and seedling growth of barnyard grass. Agronomy Journal 92, 1162-1167. Arnon DI (1949) Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplasts. Polyphenol oxidase in Beta vulgaris. Plant Physiology 24, 1-15. Baziramakenga R, Lrroux GD & Simard RD (1995) Effects of benzoic and cinnamic acids on membrane permeability of soybean roots. Journal of Chemical Ecology 21,1271-1285. Baziramakenga R, Simard R. R & Leroox GD (1994) Effects of benzoic and cinnamic acids on growth, mineral composition and chlorophyll content of soybean. Journal of Chememical Ecology 20, 2821-2833. Bottery BR & Bozzell RI (1977) The relationship between chlorophyll content and rate of photosynthesis in soybean. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 57, 1-5. Chou CH & Lin HJ (1976) Autointoxication mechanisms of Oryza sativa. L. Phytotoxic effects of decomposing rice residues in soil. Journal of Chemical Ecology 2, 353- 367. Chung IM, Kim KH, Ahn KJ, Lee SB, Kim SH & Hahn SJ (2003) Comparison of allelopathic potential of rice leaves, straw and hull extracts on barnyard grass. Agronomy Journal 95, 1063-1070. Chung IM, Ahn HJ & Yun SJ (2001) Assessment of allelopathic potential of barnyard grass on rice cultivars. Crop Protection 20, 921-928. Dali W, Ruixia M & Xiufen L (2000) A preliminary study on the allelopathic activity of rice germplasm. Scientia Agricultura Sinica 33, 94-96. Dilday RH, Nastasi P, Lin J & Smith Jr RJ (1991) Allelopathic activity in rice (Oryza sativa L.) against ducksalad [Heteranthera limosa (Sw.) willd.]. In : Sustainable Agriculture for the Great Plains J D Hanson et al. (Eds) pp. 193- 201. Proc., Beltsville, MD. 19- 20 Jan. ARS- 89. USDA- ARS, Springfield, MD. Dilday RH, Yan WG, Moldenhauer KAK & Gravois KA (1998) Allelopathic activity in rice for controlling major aquatic weeds. In: Allelopathy in rice. M. Olofsdotter (Ed) pp. 7-26. IRRI, Manila, Philippines . 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Journal of Plant Physiology 161, 271-276. Kato-Noguchi H & T Ino (2005) Concentration and release level of momilactone B in the seedlings of eight rice cultivars. Journal of Plant Physiology 162, 965-969. Kato-Noguchi H, T Ino & K Ota (2008) Secretion of momilactone A from rice roots to the rhizosphere. Journal of Plant Physiology 165, 691-696. Kim KU & Shin DH (1998) Rice allelopathy research in Korea . Proceedings of the Workshop on Allelopathy in Rice (ed Olofsdotter M) pp. 39-44. Manila, Philippines. 25- 27 Nov. 1996. Int. Rice Res. Inst., Makati city, Philippines. Koeppe DE (1972) Some reactions of isolated corn mitochondria influenced by Juglone. Physiologia Plantarum. 27, 89-94. Koitabashi R, Suzuki T, Kawazu T, Sakai A, Kuroiwa H & Kuroiwa T (1997) 1,8-cineole inhibits root growth and DNA synthesis in the root apical meristem of Brassica campestris L. Journal of Plant Research 110, 1-6. 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Patrick Z H & Koch L.W (1958) Inhibition of respiration, germination, and growth by substances arising during the decomposition of certain plant residues in the soil. Canadian Journal of Botany 36, 631-647. Patterson D T (1981) Effects of allelopathic chemicals on growth and physiological responses of soybean (Glycine max). Weed Science 29, 53-59. Pheng S, Adkins S, Olofsdotter M & Jahn G (1999) Allelopathic effects of rice (Oryza sativa L.) on the growth of awnless barnyard grass (Echinochloa colona L.): A new form for weed management. Cambodian Journal of Agriculture 2,42- 49. Putnam AR & Tang CS (1986) Allelopathy: state of the science. In The science of allelopathy (eds Putnam AR & Tang CS), pp. 1-19 New York: John Wiley and Sons. Raju R.A (2000) Glimpse of Rice Technology. Agrobios (India). 247 pp. Rao VS (2000) Principles of Weed Science. 2nd Ed. Science Publishers, Inc., NH, USA. 555 pp. Rice EL (1984) Allelopathy. 2nd Ed. 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Academic Publishers, New York. 556 pp. 428 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Solanum elaeagnifolium, an emerging invasive alien weed in the Mediterranean region and Northern Africa Javid Kashefi USDA ARS EBCL, Tsimiski 43, 7th floor, 54623 Thessaloniki, Greece E-mail: javidk@afs.edu.gr Solanum elaeagnifolium (Solanacea) is native to the Southern United States and Northern Mexico and an invasive alien weed to North and Central Greece with rapid expansion to other regions. Because of its deep root system, resistance to drought and lack of natural enemies which could keep its population under control, the weed is becoming a nightmare for farmers and ranchers in the infested areas. In protected areas and national parks the weed is heavily suppressing the endemic plant population and is affecting the balance of natural ecosystems in these areas. Climate change in the region with increase of temperature and reduction of rain fall can affect dramatically the speed of expansion of the weed in the Balkan Peninsula and other countries in southern Europe. One of the major obstacles to controlling the weed is the high number of commercial, medicinal and ornamental plants which are closely related to the weed. In an effort to reduce the weed‘s population and its spread, USDA ARS European biological control laboratory and Benaki Plant Pathology Institute recently started a joint biological control program to investigate the possibility of introduction and testing of the weed‘s natural enemies from United States and to study their suitability for release in Greece and the European Union to stop the spread of the weed. 429 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Evaluation of Indigenous Fungi as Potential (Xanthium strumarium) Biological Control Agents to Cocklebur HE Alloub and TT Abdeldaim Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Gezira, P. O. Box 20, Medani, Sudan. E-mail: halaalloub@yahoo.com Cocklebur became a serious weed, which is newly introduced in Sudan. This study was conducted to investigate the feasibility of using indigenous fungal plant pathogens as biological control agents to control cocklebur. Different infested locations were surveyed for collection of naturally infected plants of cocklebur. Fungi belonging to eight genera were found associated with the weed. They were identified as: Alternaria helianth, Bipolaris sp., Cercospora sp., Curvularia lunata, Exserohilum rostratum, Fusarium oxysporum, Phoma sp. and a Rhizectonia sp. Isolated fungi were tested for pathogenisity and host specificity. Alternaria helianthi, Bipolaris sp.,Cercospora sp., Exserohilum rostratum and Phoma sp. were highly pathogenic to cocklebur when applied on the weed at 2-3 leaf stage. Among them, Cercospora sp. showed good degree of selectivity towards the weed when initially screened against cotton, sorghum, sunflower, tomato or Sonchus corntus. Furthermore, the effect of growth age of cocklebur seedlings on disease development by Cercospora sp. was studied and the result showed that growth age had a significant effect on disease development, 2 to 5 leaf stages were the most susceptible stages to Cercospora sp. infection. Therefore, Cercospora sp. may be considered as a potential biocontrol agent to cocklebur. Introduction Weeds constitute a serious problem to crop production. Yield losses due to competition by weeds were estimated to 12 % worldwide (Pimental and Pimental, 1997). Xanthium strumarium L. is a serious annual broad leaf weed newly introduced in Sudan and fastly became problemetic in many agricultural areas, waste lands and/or along water canals and river banks. Cocklebur is a problem in sheep farming, because the young seedlings are poisonous to grazing animals, and burs cling on wool reduce its quality. The most common methods used for cocklebur control are tillage and hand weeding, Several herbicides can effectively control the weed. However, most non-selective herbicides do not persist in the soil to control the new flushes of weed seedlings. Recently, there has been increased interest in developing new approaches for controlling weeds due to high cost of hand weeding, lack of suitable selective herbicides, concerns to the society and the environment associated with extensive use of chemicals. Moreover, the continious use of some herbicides has led to development of herbicide resistance in some weed species worldwide. Therefore, safe and improved weed management strategies are needed. The use of indigenous fungi for biological control of weeds or mycoherbicides could be an alternative for cocklebur control. The prospect of developing mycoherbicides for control of cocklebur in 430 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Sudan is promising since there is no selective measure for its control. Therefore, the present research was undertaken to study the feasibility of using indigenous fungi as mycoherbicides for cocklebur control in Sudan. Materials and methods Collection, Isolation and Identification of Fungi Field trips were made to collect cocklebur plants with disease symptoms from naturally infected populations in six infested regions in Sudan namely, Gadarif, Rahad, Gezira, Damazin, Rosaris and Zeidab. Plant parts from each collection were dried in a plant press, cut into 2 mm 2 and then stored in envelopes at 4 oC for processing in the laboratory. Plant parts were surface sterilized in 0.5% sodium hypochlorite solution for three minutes, rinsed twice with distilled water and placed on potato dextrose agar (PDA) in 9 cm diameter sterile petri dishes. Three days after incubation, fungi growing from lesions were transferred to fresh PDA in petri dishes. Pure isolates were made by 2 successful transfers of conidia to fresh PDA and were maintained on PDA slant in test tubes as stock to be used later for inoculation. The isolated fungi were identified based on their colony characters, conidial morphology and growth characteristics on media. For each isolate, 25 conidia were measured. Inoculum production A small piece of agar mycelium from the stock culture of each fungus was transferred to PDA in 9 cm diameter petri dishes. The plate were sealed with parafilm and incubated at room temperature (25-28 oC) for three days under a 12 hrs light provided by 15W fluorescent lamp. Small piece of mycelium (6 mm diameter) from the margins of the actively growing colonies were placed in the center of PDA petri dishes, sealed with parafilm and incubated at room temperature under a 12 hrs light provided by 15W fluorescent lamp to induce sporulation. Ten days after incubation, inoculum was prepared for each isolate by adding 10 ml distilled water containing 0.01% Tween 20 to the petri dish and scraping the spores from the surface of the colonies with a glass slide. Resulting suspensions were filtered though 2 layers of cheesecloth and the final concentration of 1 x 106 conidia/ml was adjusted with water containing 0.01% Tween 20 with a haemocytometer. Pathogenicity of Isolated Fungi To determine pathogenicity of isolates, eight seeds of cocklebur were planted in 10 cm diameter plastic pots in sandy clay soil. The soil was steam sterilized for one hour at 120 oC. The pots were maintained in a glasshouse at a temperature range of between 25 to 30 oC and 75 to 90% relative humidity. Emerging seedlings of each group were thinned to 3-seedlings per pot. For each of the eight isolates, 3-4 leaf stage seedlings of cocklebur were sprayed to run off (10 ml) with 2 x 106 conidia/ml suspension containing 0.01% Tween 20 using a hand sprayer. Control plants were sprayed with distilled water containing 0.05% Tween 20. Inoculated and control plants were enclosed in plastic bags and sealed for 24 hrs. The pots were arranged in CRD with 4 replications. 431 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Disease severity (DS) was used to evaluate disease development on cocklebur seedlings. DS was rated daily for 30 days after inoculation as percentage of leaf area affected based on a scale of 0-4, where: 0 = no symptoms; 1 = < 25% of leaf area affected; 2 = 26-50% of leaf area affected; 3 = 51-75% of leaf area affected; 4 = 76-100% of leaf area affected. ∑[(scale value) x (Number of plants/scale)] % DS= x 100 [(Total number of plants) x (highest scale)] The pathogens were reisolated from lesions and the test was repeated to confirm koch‘s postulates. Primary Host Range Test Pathogenic isolates were tested against (a) cocklebur as a positive control, (b) three important field crops in Sudan namely, cotton cv Acala, sorghum cv Wad Ahmed, and a sunflower variety, (c) tomato as an important vegetable crop and (d) Sonchus corntus as one of the common weeds. Test plants were planted in 9 cm diameter plastic pots in a sterilized sandy clay soil. All plants were maintained in the glasshouse. Test plants at 3 to 4 leaf stages were inoculated with 2 x 10 6 conidia/ml containing 0.01% Tween 20. Control plants were sprayed with distilled water containing 0.01% Tween 20. Both inoculated and control plants were covered with plastic bags for 24 hr and arranged in a CRD with 4 replications. DS and disease index (DI) were used to measure disease development of each isolate on cocklebur seedlings. DS was rated daily as in the pathogenicity test. DI was calculated from the disease severity scale as follows: ∑[(scale value) x (Number of plants/scale)] % DI= (Total number of plants assessed) The value of DI was rounded to whole number. 0= immune plant; 1= resistant plant; 2 = tolerant plant; 3= severe damage; 4= complete death Efficacy of Cercospora sp. on different Cocklebur Growth Stages Seedlings of cocklebur at 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, 6-7 and 9-10 leaf stages grown in 9 cm diameter plastic pots in a sterilied sandy clay soil were inoculated with 2 x 10 6 conidia/ml suspension containing 0.01% Tween 20. A check with distilled water containing 0.01% Tween 20 was included. After inoculation, the plants were covered with clear polyethylene bags for 24 hr. DS was rated daily and a final rating was made at 15 days. Statistical Analysis All experiments were done twice. Data were subjected to ANOVA. Percentage data were arcsine transformed before statistical analysis. Treatment means were tested using Duncan‘s multiple range test at the 5% level of significance. 432 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Results Collection, Isolation and Identification of Fungi Table 1 showed the 10 locations in the six infested regions in Sudan from which fungi found associated with cocklebur were isolated. Seven different species of pathogenic fungi were isolated and identified as: Alternaria helianthi; Bipolaris sp.; Cercospora sp.; Curvularia lunata, Exserohilum rostratum; Fusarium oxysporum; Phoma sp. and a Rhizectonia sp. C. sp.; E. rostratum; F. oxysporum; Ph. sp. and Rh. sp.; were the most dominant isolated from all locations sampled (Table 1). Table 1 - Results of surveys undertaken in Sudan for potential fungi on cocklebur Region Location Isolated Fungi Habitat Sorghum field Rhizectonia sp. Gadarif Damazin Maize field Annual crops field Alternaria helianthi Bipolaris sp., Cercospora sp., Cuvularia lunata, Exserohilum rostratum and Rhizectonia sp. Rosaris Along riverbank Fruit Orchard Alternaria helianthi, Bipolaris sp., Cercospora sp., Cuvularia lunata, Exserohilum rostratum and Rhizectonia sp. Gezira Along roadsides Okra field Cercospora sp., Phoma sp., F. oxysporum and Rhizectonia sp. Rahad Along riverbank Annual crops field Cercospora sp., Eserohilum rostratum, F. oxysporum and Phoma sp. Ziedab Along roadsides F. oxysporum Pathogenicity of Isolated Fungi Results of preliminary screening for pathogenicity against cocklebur were shown in Table 2. Significant differences in pathogenicity were observed. A. helianthi; B. sp.; C. sp., E. rostratum were highly damaging resulting in 100% DS followed by Phoma sp. isolate and lesser pathogenicity were obtained by C. lunata and F. Oxysporum. Rh. sp. was non-pathogenic to cocklebur and was not evaluated further in this study. Primary Host Range Test Reactions of tested plants to five isolates are summarized in Table 3. All tested isolates were highly pathogenic to cocklebur. However, Alternaria helianthi, Bipolaris sp., Exserohilum rostratum and the Phoma sp. severely damaged or completely killed sunflower. Cercospora sp. showed good degree of selectivity towards the weed when initially screened against cotton, sorghum, sunflower, tomato or Sonchus corntus. The isolate caused severe infection to cocklebur, while only producing slight to moderate infections to other plants tested. The results from the primary screening suggest that Cercospora sp. has potential as biocontrol agent against cocklebur. 433 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Table 2 - Pathogenicity of the isolated fungi on cocklebur Isolates Disease severity* Alternaria helianthi 100a Bipolaris sp. 100a Cercospora sp 100a Curvularia lunata 50c Exserohilum rostratum 100a Fusarium oxysporum 48c Phoma sp. 81.7b Rh. sp. 0.0d Se ± 0.06 * Based on a scale: 0 = no symptoms; 1 = < 25% of leaf area affected; 2 = 26-50% of leaf area affected; 3 = 51-75% of leaf area affected; 4 = 75-100% of leaf area affected. Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 0.05% level using DMRT. Table 3 - Reactions of tested plant species on primary host range test to the different isolates Common Name Cultivar Lycopersicon esculentum Helianthus annuus Gossypium hirsutum Sorghum bicolor Tomato 0 Sunflower Castle rock Baran Cotton Sorghum Sonchus coruntus Xanthium strumarium Molita Tested plants Cocklebur Isolated disease severity index * A. helianthi Bipolaris sp. Phoma sp. Cercospora sp. E. rostratum 0 0 0 0 4 3 0 4 3 Acala 0 0 0 0 0 Wad Ahmed Baladi 2 0 0 2 0 3 2 1 0 1 4 4 4 4 4 *0=immune; 1= resistant; 2= tolerant; 3= severe damage; 4=death. Efficacy of Cercospora sp. on different Cocklebur Growth Stages Growth age of cocklebur seedlings had a significant effect on disease development (Table 4). Cocklebur seedlings at 2-3 and 3-4 leaf stages (Plate 1) at time of inoculation were completely killed by Cercospora. sp. with 2 x 106 conidia/ml suspension containing 0.01% Tween 20 (DS 100%) followed by 4-5 leaf stage seedlings (56.3%). The lowest disease severity was observed on 9-10 leaf stage seedlings (25%). 434 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Table 4 - Efficacy of Cercospora sp. on different cocklebur growth stages Growth stage Disease severity* 2-3 leaves 100a 3-4 leaves 100a 4-5 leaves 56.3b 6-7 leaves 31.3c 9-10 leaves 25.0d Se ± 0.3 * Based on a scale: 0 = no symptoms; 1 = < 25% of leaf area affected; 2 = 26-50% of leaf area affected; 3 = 51-75% of leaf area affected; 4 = 75-100% of leaf area affected. Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 0.05% level using DMRT. A B A: Control B: Treated plant Figure 1 - Cocklebur seedlings (3-4 leaf stage) inoculated with 2 x 106 conidia/ml of Cercospora sp. containing 0.01% Tween 20. Discussion In the present study five isolated fungi were highly pathogenic to cocklebur. However, in development of a bioherbicide safety to non-target plants or host specificity is one of the most important factors. Our findings showed that Alternaria helianthi, Bipolaris sp., Exserohilum rostratum and the Phoma sp. were non selective to sunflower which is an important oil crop in the Sudan. Cercospora sp., showed selectivity to cocklebur. However, further screening of this isolate against more plant species or cultivars is needed to insure adequate specificity towards the weed. In agreement with our findings, fungi belonging to the genera Alternaria, Cercospora, Curvularia and Fusarium, were reported associated with cocklebur (Roy et. al., 1999). Abbas et. al. (1999), reported that Alternaria helianthi was highly pathogenic to cocklebur and sunflower. In Brazil, a local isolate of Cercospora apii was reported pathogenic to cocklebur (Rocha et. al., 2007). In previous studies in Sudan powdery mildew and Exserohilum rostratum have been found associated with cocklebur (Gamiel et al., 2002; Ahmed and Eltayeb 2009). 435 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world From the present study, it is apparent that Cercospora sp., applied as 2 x 106 conidia/ml suspension containing 0.01% Tween 20 has a strong potential to be developed as a mycoherbicide for cocklebur due to its ability to kill the seedlings of cocklebur in a few days and safety to economically important crops in the Sudan. These results indicated that Cercospora sp. was effective in controlling cocklebur seedlings under glasshouse conditions. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Agricultural Research Corporation, Damazin for the invaluable assistance during the surveys. References Abbas HK, Pantone DJ & Paul RN (1999) Characteristics of multiple-seeded cocklebur: a biotype of common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium L.). Weed Technology 13, 257–263. Ahmed NE and Eltayeb SM (2009) leaf blight: A new disease of Xanthium strumarium cause by Exserohilum rosturatam in sudan. University of Khartoum Journal of agricultural science 17, (3):407 - 412. Gamiel SA, Ahmed NE, Inanaga YS & Sugimoto Y (2002) More important weed species as a host plants of powdery mildew. Journal of Agricultural Sciences 10, 134-141. Pimental D & Pimental M (1997) Food, energy and society options and solutions. Network Focus 3, 52-59. Roy K.W, Miller WA & Mc Len LS (1994). Survey of pathogenic genera of fungi on foliage weeds in Mississippi. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 16, 25-29. Rocha FB, Pereira OL & Brreto RW (2007) Cerecospora apii causing leaf spots in two Brazilian toxic weeds: Solanum glaucophyllum and Xanthium stramurium. Barazilian Journal of Microbiology 38, 142-144. 436 Posters 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world E-mails of participants 437 E-mails of Participants 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world E-mails of participants Armenia Mr. George Fayvush Institute of Botany of National Academy of Sciences of Armenia E-mail: gfayvush@yahoo.com Australia Ms. Judith Lorraine Fisher University of Western Australia/Fisher Research, E-mail: ecologist@waanthropologist.com Azerbaijan Ms. Vasila Salamova State Phytosanitary Control Service, E-mail: vasila-s@rambler.ru, dfnx@mail.az Bulgaria Mr. Vladimir Vladimirov Institute of Botany Bulgarian Academy Of Sciences, E-mail: vdvlad@bio.bas.bg Chile Prof. Ramiro O. Bustamante, University Of Chile, E-mail: ramironte@gmail.com Croatia Ms. Maja Kravarscan Croatian Centre for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Institute for Plant Protection, E-mail: maja.kravarscan@hcphs.hr Czech Republic Mr. Jan Samanek State phytosanıtary administration, E-mail: jan.samanek@srs.cz France Mr. Pierre Ehret French Plant Protection Organization, E-mail: pierre.ehret@agriculture.gouv.fr Mr. Guillaume Fried Laboratoire National de Protection des Végétaux, E-mail: fried@supagro.inra.fr Ms. Enora Leblay Federation des Conservatoires botaniques nationaux, E-mail : enora.leblay@fcbn.fr Ms. Emilie Mazaubert CEMAGREF, E-mail: emilie.mazaubert@cemagref.fr Greece Ms. Garifalia Economou-Antonaka Agricultural University of Athens, E-mail: cagr2ecg@noc.aua.gr; economou@aua.gr 438 E-mails of Participants 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Mr. Javid Kashefi USDA ARS EBCL, E-mail: javidk@afs.edu.gr Prof. Eleni Kotoula-Syka Democritus University of Thrace, E-mail: kotoulaeleni@yahoo.gr Prof. Petros Lolas Universty Thessaly, E-mail: lolaspet@agr.uth.gr Hungary Ms. Martha Nelima Okumu University of Pannonia, E-mail: nelmak2212@yahoo.com India Prof. Ratikanta Ghosh Faculty of Agriculture, Bidman Chandra Krishi, E-mail: rajbckv@rediffmail.com Prof. Inderjit Singh Delhi University, E-mail: inderjit@cemde.du.ac.in Iran Ms. Leila Jafari Hormozgan University, E-mail: leilajaf@yahoo.com Ms. Mitra Ghotbi Shahed University of Tehran, E-mail: mitra.ghotbi@gmail.com Ms. Marjan Ghotbi Azad University, Tehran, Iran, E-mail: marjan.ghotbi@gmail.com Israel Ms. Mildred Quaye Hebrew University of Jerusalem, E-mail: mildyq@yahoo.com Mr. Tuvia Yaacoby Plant Protection and Inspection Services, E-mail: tobyy@moag.gov.il Italy Mr. Giuseppe Brundu University of Sassari, Department of Botany, Ecology and Geology E-mail: gbrundu@tin.it Mr. Roberto Crosti ISPRA Dipartimento Difesa della Natura, E-mail: roberto.crosti@isprambiente.it Ms. Anna Mazzoleni Parco del Basso Corso del Fiume Brembo, E-mail: anna.mazzoleni@gmail.com 439 E-mails of Participants 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Mr. Antonio Perfetti Ente Parco Regionale Migliiarino San Rossore Massaciuccoli, E-mail: a.perfetti@sanrossore.toscana.it Ms. Lina Podda Department of Botanical Sciences, University of Cagliari, E-mail: linap68@yahoo.it Lithuania Ms. Ligita Balezentiene Lıthuanian unıversity of agriculture, E-mail: ligitaba@gmail.com Malaysia Prof. Baki Bakar Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, E-mail: baki_um@yahoo.com Morocco Prof. Mohamed Bouhache Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, E-mail: m.bouhache@gmail.com; m.bouhache@iav.ac.ma Prof. Abdelkader Taleb Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, E-mail: a.taleb@iav.ac.ma; abdeltaleb@yahoo.fr Portugal Ms. Elizabete Marchante Centre for Functional Ecology, University of Coimbra, E-mail: elizabete.marchante@gmail.com Saudi Arabia Mr. Thobayet Alshshrani King Saud University, E-mail: thobayet@yahoo.com Serbia Ms. Dragana Marisavljevic Institute for plant protection and environment, E-mail: marisavljevicd@yahoo.com Ms. Danijela Pavlovic Insitute for plant protection and environment, E-mail: pavlovicdm@gmail.com Ms. Sava Vrbnicanim Insitute for plant protection and environment, E-mail: sava@agrif.bg.ac.rs Slovakia Prof. Pavol Elias Dept. Of Ecology, Slovak Agricultural University, E-mail: pavol.elias@uniag.sk 440 E-mails of Participants 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Slovenia Mr. Mario Lesnık Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences Maribor, E-mail: mario.lesnik@uni-mb.si South Africa Ms. Mirijam Gaertner Stellenbosch University, E-mail: gaertnem@sun.ac.za Mr. Philip Ivey Early Detection Programme, SANBI, E-mail: p.ivey@sanbi.org.za Ms. Genevieve Thompson Stellenbosch University, E-mail: gen@sun.ac.za Ms. Hilary Geber University of the Witwatersrand, E-mail: hilary.geber@wits.ac.za Ms. Ernita van Wyck South African National Biodiversity Institute, E-mail: Er.vanWyk@sanbi.org.za Mr John Wilson Stellenbosch University, E-mail: jrwilson@sun.ac.za Sudan Mr. Abdel Gabar Babiker Sudan University of Science and Technology, E-mail: agbabiker@yahoo.com Ms. Hala Eltahir Mahmoud Alloub University of Gezira, E-mail: halaalloub@yahoo.com Switzerland Mr. Christian Bohren Agroscope ACW, E-mail: christian.bohren@acw.admin.ch Tunisie Prof. Mounir Mekki Institut Superieur Agronomique, E-mail: Mekki.mounir@iresa.agrinet.tn Turkey Mr. Necmi Aksoy Duzce University,Faculty of Forestry, E-mail: necmiaksoy@duzce.edu.tr Mr. Güven Algün Quarantine Directorate, Trabzon, E-mail: guvenalgun@hotmail.com Mr. Ünal Asav Quarantine Directorate, Trabzon, E-mail: unalasav@hotmail.com 441 E-mails of Participants 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Mr. İsmail Aslan, Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Trabzon, E-mail: i.aslan@hotmail.com Ms. Selma Aydın Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Trabzon, E-mail: selma47aydin@hotmail.com Mr. Sinan Aydin Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Trabzon, E-mail: sinanaydin59@hotmail.com Ms.Nuray Aydoğan Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Trabzon, E-mail: nurozan@hotmail.com Mr. Osman Nuri Baki Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Trabzon, E-mail: osmannuribaki@hotmail.com Mr. Muharrem Bozoğlu Quarantine Directorate, Trabzon, E-mail: mbozoğlu61@hotmail.com Ms.Fikriye Çakır Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Trabzon, E-mail: fikriye52@hotmail.com Mr. Salih Çolak Quarantine Directorate, Trabzon, E-mail : scolak1974@hotmail.com Mr. Bektaş Erdoğan, Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Trabzon, E-mail: berdo60@hotmail.com Ms. Hümeyra Aykul Gepdiremen Ege University, E-mail: humeyragepdiremen@hotmail.com Mr. İhsan Güner Quarantine Directorate, Trabzon, E-mail : ihsanguner61@hotmail.com Mr. Doğan Işık Karadeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Samsun E-mail: zorludogan@hotmail.com 442 E-mails of Participants 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Mr. Koray Kaçan Bornova Plant Protection Research Institute, Izmir, E-mail: koraykacan@yahoo.com Mr. B. Ali Kadı Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Trabzon, E-mail: bitkikoruma61@hotmail.com Prof İzzet Kadıoğlu Gazi Osman Paşa University, Tokat, E-mail: izzetk@gop.edu.tr Ms. Songül Kadıoğlu Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Rize, E-mail: s.kadioglu@hotmail.com Mr. İsmet Kahraman Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Trabzon, E-mail: ismetkahraman_61@hotmail.com Mr. Ali Yaşar Kan Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Trabzon, E-mail: aliyasarkan@hotmail.com Ms. Ayşe Kaplan Zonguldak Karaelmas University, E-mail: a_kaplan007@yahoo.com Ms. İlhan Kaya Yüzüncü Yıl University, Van, E-mail: ilhank@yyu.edu.tr Mr. Mustfa Mazlum Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Trabzon, E-mail: trabzon.idari@tarimnet.gov.tr Mr. Peiman Molei Ege University, İzmir, E-mail: molaei.p59@gmail.com Prof. Yıldız Nemli Ege University, İzmir, E-mail: yildiz.nemli@ege.edu.tr Ms. A. Hülya Ofluoğlu Quarantine Directorate, Trabzon, E-mail : hulya-ofluoglu@hotmail.com Mr. Sedat Saral Eastern Blacksea Development Project, Trabzon, E-mail: saralsedat@hotmail.com 443 E-mails of Participants 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Mr. Tansel Serim General Directorate of Research, Ministry of Agriculture, Ankara, E-mail: tserim@tagem.gov.tr Mr. Vedat Sizer Bayer Türk AS, Şanlıurfa, E-mail: vedat.sizer@hotmail.com Mr. Harun Sümbül Province Directorate of Agriculture, Trabzon E-mail: 61BitkiKoruma@kkgm.gov.tr Mr. Süleyman Türkseven Ege University, İzmir, E-mail: suleyman.turkseven@ege.edu.tr Mr. Çetin Uçak Eastern Blacksea Development Project, Trabzon, E-mail: cetinucak25@hotmail.com Mr. Emin Uğurlu Celal Bayar Unıversıty, Manisa, E-mail: ugurlu@yahoo.com Mr. İlhan Üremiş Mustafa Kemal University, Antakya, E-mail: iuremis@yahoo.com Mr. Servet Uslu Quarantine Directorate, Trabzon, E-mail: servetuslu61@hotmail.com Prof. Yusuf Yanar Gazi Osman Paşa University, Tokat, E-mail: yyanar@gop.edu.tr Ms. Ayşe Yazlık Atatürk Central Horticultural Research Institute, Yalova, E-mail: ayseyazlik77@hotmail.com Mr. Reyyan Yergin Yüzüncü Yıl University, Van, E-mail: reyyanyergin@yyu.edu.tr Mr. Anıl Yılmaz Antalya Exporter Unions General Secretariat, E-mail: yilmaza@aib.gov.tr Mr. Erdal Yiğci Province Directorate of Agriculture Ministry, Trabzon, E-mail: eyigci@hotmail.com 444 E-mails of Participants 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world Mr. Hüseyin Zengin Igdır University, E-mail: drzengin@hotmail.com UK Prof. Vernon Hilton Heywood University of Reading, E-mail: vhheywood@btinternet.com Mr. Stephen Jury University of Reading, E-mail: s.l.jury@reading.ac.uk USA Prof. Kassim Al-Khatib University of California, E-mail: kalkhatib@ucdavis.edu Council of Europe Mr. Eladio Fernandez Galiano Council of Europe, Bern Convention, E-mail: eladio.fernandez-galiano@coe.int EEA Mr. Ahmet Uludağ European Environment Agency, E-mail: ahmet.uludag@eea.europa.eu, ahuludag@yahoo.com EFSA Ms. Sara Tramontini Europen Food Safety Authority, E-mail: Sara.TRAMONTINI@efsa.europa.eu EPPO Ms. Sarah Brunel EPPO / OEPP, E-mail: brunel@eppo.fr IUCN Mr. Riccardo Scalera IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group, E-mail: scalera.riccarda@gmail.com NOBANIS Ms. Melanie Josefsson Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, E-mail: melanie.josefsson@snv.slu.se 445 E-mails of Participants 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world 446 E-mails of Participants 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world View publication stats

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2nd International Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World

2nd International Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World

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