Plant Sociology 58(2) 2021, 49–63 | DOI 10.3897/pls2021582/05
Società Italiana di Scienza
della Vegetazione (SISV)
Relevant habitats neglected by the Directive 92/43 EEC:
the contribution of Vegetation Science for their reappraisal
in Sicily
Riccardo Guarino1, Salvatore Pasta2, Giuseppe Bazan1, Alessandro Crisafulli3, Orazio Caldarella4, Gian Pietro Giusso Del
Galdo5, Alessandro Silvestre Gristina2, Vincenzo Ilardi1, Antonino La Mantia6, Corrado Marcenò7, Pietro Minissale5,
Saverio Sciandrello5, Leonardo Scuderi8, Giovanni Spampinato9, Angelo Troia1, Lorenzo Gianguzzi10
1 Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, Italy
2 Institute of Biosciences and BioResources (IBBR), Italian National Research Council (CNR), Unit of Palermo, Italy
3 Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences (CHIBIOFARAM), University of Messina, Italy
4 Via Maria SS. Mediatrice 38, Palermo, Italy
5 Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences (BIGEA), University of Catania, Italy
6 Via Giotto 64, Palermo, Italy
7 Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
8 Via Andromaca 60, Trapani, Italy
9 Department of Agricultural Sciences, Mediterranean University of Reggio Calabria, Italy
10 Department of Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences (SAAF), University of Palermo
Corresponding author: Riccardo Guarino (riccardo.guarino@unipa.it)
Subject editor: Daniela Gigante ♦ Received 6 December 2021 ♦ Accepted 19 December 2021 ♦ Published 31 December 2021
Abstract
Field investigation carried out by the Sicilian botanists in the last 20 years enabled them to identify eight habitat types of high biogeographic and conservation interest, neglected by the Directive 92/43, which deserve ad hoc conservation measures. For each of
these habitats, a syntaxonomic interpretation of the corresponding plant communities, their main ecological, physiognomic and
syndynamic traits and a list of diagnostic species are provided. Their classification into the macrotypes listed in the Annex I of the
Directive 92/43 and the respective correspondence in EUNIS habitat classification are proposed. The habitats here described integrate
those already proposed by the Italian Botanical Society, with the hope of an adequate recognition at national at supranational level.
Keywords
Habitat Directive, Natura 2000, Nature conservation, Sicily
Introduction
The Natura 2000 sites form a pan-European network
for the in situ protection of species and habitats, recognized as conservation targets “of Community Importance” on the basis of Directive 92/43 EEC, which represents the most important regulatory instrument for the
conservation of natural and semi-natural ecosystems in
Europe (Evans 2012).
Designed to support the long-term survival of Europe’s
most valuable species and habitats, Natura 2000 sites con-
stitute an environmental network to be managed through
initiatives that should also fulfil socio-cultural and economic requirements at the local scale, with the general aim at achieving the best balance between ecological
integrity and requirements of people living and working
nearby (Tsiafouli et al. 2013; Linnell et al. 2015).
Even if originating from a species-specific concept
(Kirk et al. 2016), the term “habitat” is frequently used
to designate an integral unit, supporting ecological functions and species assemblages (Morrison and Mathewson
2015). This happens both in the EUNIS habitat classifi-
Copyright Riccardo Guarino et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
50
Riccardo Guarino et al.: Relevant habitats neglected by the Directive 92/43 EEC in Sicily
cation (Rodwell et al. 2018) and in the Directive 92/43
EEC. Vascular plant communities are crucial to define EU
habitats, both because plants are the least vagile and most
visible component of terrestrial ecosystems, and because
the vegetation cover and classification are the criteria by
which the habitats of the Directive 92/43 (henceforth:
Habitat Directive) are identified, delimited and mapped.
The census of natural habitats from the same Directive
has given new impetus to basic taxonomic, syndynamic
and ecological research, involving different disciplines
(Blondet et al. 2017). Among these, vegetation science offered a significant contribution, considering that the units
codified in the Annex I of the Habitat Directive often refer to the species composition and the structure of plant
communities and sometimes explicitly refer to phytosociological units (Loidi et al. 2007; Tomaselli et al. 2016;
Angelini et al. 2018; Attorre et al. 2018).
The explicit mention of some syntaxa by the Habitat
Directive is important, also because this implicitly recognizes one fundamental postulate of phytosociology, that
is: each phytocoenosis corresponds to a specific range
of variability of environmental factors. Phytosociological studies carried out across the entire Sicilian territory during the last three decades pointed out the biogeographical importance of several habitats that deserve to be
included in the Annex I of the same Directive. This paper
aims to introduce these habitats and to discuss about the
urgent need for their adequate recognition.
Material and Methods
Study area
The Sicilian Natura 2000 network counts on 245 protected sites, unevenly distributed throughout the island
(Fig. 1). Among the Italian regions, Sicily is the one hosting the largest surface area of Special Areas of Conservation (SAC, based on the Habitat Directive), and Special
Protection Areas (SPA, based on the Directive 79/409).
These protected areas cover approximately a surface of
4710 km2, corresponding to 18.3% of the Sicilian territory, sea excluded (www.mite.gov.it). Altogether, Sicily
hosts 71 habitats listed in the Directive 92/43, of which 18
have priority conservation status. Additionally, 46 species
from Annex II of the same Directive and 92 birds from
the Directive 79/409 are recorded in Sicily.
The main feature of Sicily is a great geomorphologic
and bioclimatic diversity, which originate ecological gradients of different intensity, also influenced by the distance from the sea and by the orientation and elevation
of mountain ranges. In general, the natural patchiness of
the Sicilian landscapes has been increased up to critical
levels by human activities (Gianguzzi et al. 2016; Guarino
and Pasta 2017).
Land use and human demography have significantly
changed during the last seven decades, as a consequence
Figure 1. Natura 2000 sites in Sicily. Numbers indicate recently proposed new sites not yet approved by the Sicilian Regional Administration: 1. Maccalube e calanchi di Bissana, 2. Vallone di Ponte S. Biagio e calanchi di San Biagio; 3. Bosco e margi di Tumminia; 4. Punta Bianca; 5. Coste del Torrente Modica; 6. Castello della Pietra; 7. Parche di Bilello; 8. Versanti boscati umidi della Fiumara Tortorici.
Plant Sociology 58(2) 2021, 49–63
of the mechanization of agriculture, the decline of extensive land use and traditional agriculture. Emblematic, in
this case, is the almost complete abandonment of terraced
fields (Barbera et al. 2009). The development of new economic sectors, like tourist services and infrastructure,
promoted the concentration of people within a few miles
from the coastline, with an ever-increasing impact on
coastal habitats (Guarino and Guglielmo 2010). On the
other hand, many lands which were used by agriculture
or husbandry until recent times are currently abandoned,
particularly in the mountain districts. For these reasons,
two main kinds of Sites of Community Importance can be
found in Sicily: those occurring on mountains are on average quite large; the coastal ones, instead, are on average
rather small and set up in the attempt to save the savable,
i.e. the few coastal stretches escaped from the massive urbanization which took place in recent decades as a consequence of the human migration coastwards (Mikhaylov
et al. 2018). Indeed, the conservation and management of
the Sicilian coastal sites, exposed to the pressure of strong
economic interests, is quite problematic and poses several specific issues (Pasta et al. 2017; Guarino et al. 2021;
Sciandrello et al. 2021).
Survey approach
The vegetation survey aimed at identifying the Sicilian
habitats neglected by the Directive 92/43 was based both
on phytosociological literature and on-site investigations
conducted according to the Braun-Blanquet phytosociological approach (Braun-Blanquet 1964; Westhoff and van
der Maarel 1978). The habitat description, syntaxonomic
classification and designation of diagnostic species was
carried out based on expert knowledge, supported by literature data and by the Expert System for the European
EUNIS habitats (Chytrý et al. 2020).
The identification and nomenclature of vascular plants
was based on Pignatti et al. (2017–2019), whereas the animal species names mentioned throughout the text follow
Ruffo and Stoch (2005). The syntaxonomic nomenclature
follows Mucina et al. (2016) and subsequent updates for
Sicily (Guarino et al. 2017). The bioclimatic units refer to
Bazan et al. (2015).
Results
Among the relevant habitats neglected by the Directive 92/43 EEC, which deserve greater attention to ensure
their conservation in Sicily, it is worth mentioning:
a) relict communities dominated by plants at the edge of
a wider distribution range, such as: the birch woods of
Betula pendula subsp. etnensis (Cephalanthero longifoliae-Betuletum etnensis), restricted to the supramediterranean vegetation belt of Mount Etna (Brullo et al.
2012); the forest nuclei dominated by Celtis tournefortii
subsp. aetnensis (Pistacio terebinthi-Celtidetum aetnen-
51
sis), restricted to Sicani Mts., Nebrodi Mts. and Mount
Etna (Gianguzzi et al. 2014b) or by Ostrya carpinifolia,
scattered on the main mountain ranges of the island
(Brullo et al. 2012); the broomfields with Cytisus scoparius, Teline monspessulana and Adenocarpus spp. occurring under cool and humid climatic conditions on
the acidic soils of Etna, Nebrodi and Peloritani Mts.;
the vegetation of dripping and shady rocky faces with
Woodwardia radicans, occurring in few gorges of the
Peloritani Mountains (Crisafulli 2007).
b) some outstanding habitats barely taken into account by
the Directive and not adequately protected by national and regional laws, linked to localized and peculiar
geomorphological units and hosting several vegetation units. This is the case of the annual swards and
perennial grasslands, the sedge communities and the
brackish temporary ponds co-occurring near the mud
volcanoes and badlands of Macalube di Aragona, Terrapilata, Vulcanelli di Adrano, etc. (Pasta 2001; Brullo
et al. 2010, 2013); the vegetation of the gypsum outcrops of southern and inner Sicily (Guarino and Pasta
2017; Musarella et al. 2018).
c) traditional landscapes shaped by century-long
agro-forestry practices, such as the dehesa-like communities dominated by Ceratonia siliqua on the Hyblaean Plateau (SE-Sicily). This would reinforce the unit
63 of the Directive, i.e., sclerophyllous grazed forests
(dehesas), currently recognizing only the habitat 6310
(“Dehesas with evergreen Quercus spp.”).
The eight habitats described here integrate those already identified and proposed as additions to the Habitat Directive by the Italian Botanical Society (Table 1;
Genovesi et al. 2014). Each of the newly proposed habitats
is commented more in detail in the forms reported below.
1) Sicilian gypsum outcrops
Motivation: The plant communities growing on gypsum are a clear example of the strict relationship between
substrate and vegetation, as many plant species grow exclusively or preferentially on such peculiar substrates (Escudero et al. 2015, Musarella et al. 2018). Gypsum habitats have historically been perceived as sterile, degraded
areas with no special conservation interest that needed to
be afforested or that could be used as dumping sites for
urban waste (Escudero et al. 2015). Nowadays, they are
acknowledged as habitats worth preserving due to their
high number of endemic or exclusive plants (Escudero et
al. 2015). However, these same communities represent often a largely underrated or ignored habitat, with serious
consequences for both flora and fauna conservation (Musarella et al. 2018).
As already highlighted in Musarella et al. (2018), for
the vascular flora, and Puglisi et al. (2020) for bryophytes,
the Italian gypsum habitats could be included in the Habitat 1520* (Iberian gypsum steppes) extending its current
definition in the Manual of Habitat interpretation, also
Riccardo Guarino et al.: Relevant habitats neglected by the Directive 92/43 EEC in Sicily
52
Table 1. Synoptic table resuming all the new habitat proposals from Sicily, their macrotype according to the Habitat Directive and
the corresponding habitats in the EUNIS habitat classification.
MACROTYPE - Habitat
Directive
New proposed Habitat
EUNIS 2021 Red List
code
code
code Definition
15
Salt and gypsum inland
steppes
Sicilian gypsum outcrops
Salt and gypsum inland
steppes
Mud volcanoes and badlands in the
evaporitic outcrops of Sicily
31
Standing water
Fresh water sedge- and reedbeds
32
Running water
15
51
63
63
63
Sub-Mediterranean and
temperate scrub
Sclerophyllous grazed
forests
Sclerophyllous grazed
forests
Sclerophyllous grazed
forests
72
Other rocky habitats
72
Other rocky habitats
72
Other rocky habitats
92
92
EUNIS habitat classification
Montane brooks of southern Apennines
and Sicily
Meso- and supramediterranean
acidophilous Sicilian broomfields
Small woods dominated by Celtis
tournefortii subsp. aetnensis
“Chiuse” with Ceratonia siliqua of southeastern Sicily
Centuries-old olive groves with
evergreen oaks and arborescent matorral
Shady dripping cliffs with Woodwardia
radicans and other large ferns
Mediterranean dripping cliffs
Water springs with moss-rich vegetation
on siliceous or carbonatic substrates
S65
F6.7
S66
F6.8a
R61
Q51
Q53
E6.1
C5.1a
C5.2
C21a
C2.1a
S33
F3.1c
S51
F5.1
T24
G2.4
T24
G2.4
EUNIS-2020 habitat name
Mediterranean gypsum scrub
Mediterranean halo-nitrophilous
scrub
Mediterranean inland salt steppe
Tall-helophyte bed
Tall-sedge bed
Base-poor spring and spring brook
Lowland to montane temperate and
submediterranean genistoid scrub
Mediterranean maquis and arborescent matorral
Olea europaea-Ceratonia siliqua
forest
Olea europaea-Ceratonia siliqua
forest
U3D
H3.4
Wet inland cliff
U3D
C21b
C21a
H3.4
C2.1a
C2.1b
Mediterranean deciduous
Birch woodlands of Mount Etna
forests
T1D
G1.9b
Mediterranean deciduous
Ostrya carpinifolia woods of Sicily
forests
T1A
G1.7b
Wet inland cliff
Base-poor spring and spring brook
Calcareous spring and spring brook
Southern European mountain
Betula and Populus tremula forest
on mineral soils
Mediterranean thermophilous
deciduous forest
with the addition of the Italian vascular and moss gypsophytes. Similarly, the habitat has been recently recognized
in Cyprus (Manolaki Vogiatzakis 2017), at the opposite
side of the Mediterranean Basin, and it stretches northwards up to the submediterranean gypsum outcrops of
the Northern Apennine.
Macrotype: 15 Salt and gypsum inland steppes
Name: Sicilian gypsum outcrops.
Description: Garrigues, perennial grasslands and annual swards colonizing gypsum-rich shallow soils and
gypsum outcrops in the southern and central part of Sicily, under thermo- and mesomediterraean climatic conditions. These plant assemblages include several gypsophilous species, mainly belonging to the families Lamiaceae
(genera Micromeria, Teucrium, Thymus, Thymbra), Cistaceae (Fumana, Helianthemum), Asteraceae (Centaurea,
Jurinea, Santolina, Frankenia) and Brassicaceae (Alyssum,
Erysimum, Matthiola). All of them are adapted to several environmental stresses, such as: long-lasting seasonal
drought, base-rich substrates (especially in the most eroded sites and on lithosols), high solar radiation, exacerbated by the high reflectance of rock outcrops.
Diagnostic sentence: Garrigues, grasslands and annual
swards colonizing gypsum-rich substrates of the hilly areas of inner and southern Sicily.
List of diagnostic species: In addition to the species
already listed as gypsum-specialists by Musarella et al.
(2018) and Puglisi et al. (2020): Chaenorhinum rupestre,
Festuca gypsophila, Sedum gypsicola subsp. trinacriae,
Petrosedum ochroleucum subsp. mediterraneum, many
Proposed by Proposed
Genovesi et al. hoc loco
2014
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
other species prefer gypsum-rich substrates in Sicily, although not being exclusive of this substrate type. This is
the case of: Astragalus caprinus subsp. huetii, Brassica villosa subsp. tinei, Diplotaxis crassifolia, Echinaria capitata
var. todaroana, Erysimum metlesicsii, Gypsophila arrostii
subsp. arrostii, Scabiosa parviflora.
Dynamic contacts: Although gypsum outcrops have
for long time been interpreted as the result of the extreme degradation and erosion of previously forested areas, this is probably true only for gently sloping or almost
flat areas. Indeed, some small and scattered evergreen
(Quercus ilex) or semideciduous (Quercus pubescens) oak
forest fragments still occur nowadays on the deeper gypsum-rich soils of central and southern Sicily (Bazan et al.
2006; Brullo et al. 2009).
As for the steps of progressive vegetation dynamics on
gypsum-rich soils, in the absence of disturbance almost
bare rock outcrops only hosting moss- and lichen-rich
communities are gradually covered with annual gypsophilous sward (Sedo-Ctenopsion gypsophilae). If pedogenesis is not hindered by frequent disturbances, new
therophytic assemblages (referred to Stipion retortae or
Plantagini-Catapodion balearici) can develop and evolve
towards perennial grasslands (Hyparrhenion hirtae under
thermomediterranean bioclimatic conditions, Avenulo-Ampelodesmion under meso-mediterranean, Charybdido-Asphodelion under high grazing pressure). The most
mature communities currently found on gypsum-rich
substrates are garrigues, framed into the alliance Cisto-Ericion multiflorae.
Plant Sociology 58(2) 2021, 49–63
Phytosociological arrangement: Brassico tinei-Diplotaxietum crassifoliae Brullo Marcenò 1979 [Dianthion
rupicolae Brullo Marcenò 1979, Asplenietalia glandulosi
Br.-Bl. in Meier Br.-Bl. 1934, Asplenietea trichomanis (Br.Bl. in Meier Br.-Bl. 1934) Oberd. 1977]; Phagnalo saxatilis-Cheilanthetum maderensis Loisel 1970 corr. Pérez-Carro et al. 1989, aggr. with Sedum gypsicola subsp. trinacriae
and Petrosedum ochroleucum subsp. mediterraneum
[Phagnalo saxatilis-Cheilanthion maderensis Loisel 1970
corr. Pérez-Carro et al. 1989, Cheilanthetalia maranto-maderensis Sáenz de Rivas Rivas-Mart. 1979, ibidem];
Rosmarino officinalis-Thymbretum capitatae Furnari 1965
[Cisto eriocephali-Ericion multiflorae Biondi 2000, Cisto-Micromerietalia julianae Oberd. 1954, Ononido-Rosmarinetea Br.-Bl. in A. Bolòs y Vayreda 1950]; Hyparrhenietum hirto-pubescentis A. Bolòs y Vayreda O. de Bolòs
Br.-Bl. in A. Bolòs y Vayreda 1950 [Hyparrhenion hirtae
Br.-Bl., P. Silva Rozeira 1956, Cymbopogono-Brachypodietalia ramosi Horvatić 1963, Lygeo sparti-Stipetea
tenacissimae Rivas-Mart. 1978]; Astragalo huetii-Ampelodesmetum mauritanici Minissale 1995 [Avenulo-Ampelodesmion mauritanici Minissale 1995, ibidem]; Thapsio garganicae-Feruletum communis Brullo 1984, Ferulo
communis-Hyparrhenietum hirtae Brullo Siracusa 1996,
Carlino siculae-Feruletum communis Gianguzzi, Ilardi
Raimondo 1996, Cachryo siculae-Brachypodietum retusi Brullo, Giusso Scuderi 2010, aggr. with Elaeoselinum
asclepium [Charybdido pancratii-Asphodelion ramosi Biondi et al. 2016, Asphodeletalia ramosi Biondi in Biondi
et al. 2016, ibidem]; Ononido breviflorae-Stipetum capensis Brullo, Guarino Ronsisvalle 2000 [Stipion retortae
O. de Bolòs 1957, Brachypodietalia distachyi Rivas-Mart.
1978, Stipo-Trachynietea distachyae Brullo in Brullo, Scelsi Spampinato 2001], Filagini-Chaenorhinetum rupestris
Brullo, Marcenò, Minissale Spampinato 1989 corr. [Sedo-Ctenopsion gypsophilae Rivas Goday Rivas-Martínez
ex Izco 1974, Stipo-Bupleuretalia semicompositi Brullo in
Brullo, Scelsi Spampinato 2001, ibidem]; Atractylido cancellatae-Neatostemetum apuli Brullo, Scelsi Siracusa 1994
[Plantagini-Catapodion balearici Brullo 1985 nom. mut.
propos., ibidem].
2) Mud volcanoes and badlands in the
evaporitic outcrops of Sicily
Motivation: Already studied by early naturalists such
as Pliny the Elder and eminent geologists like Deodat de
Dolomieu and Charles Lyell, around 15 mud volcanoes
occur in the inland areas of Sicily. Mud volcanoes alternate an almost continuous degassing activity and episodes
with ejection of large quantities of mud. The protection
of these absolute naturalistic highlights gave birth to
many protected areas worldwide, namely in the SE-European and middle-central Asian countries bordering the
Black and the Caspian Sea, in the Indian Ocean and in
the Americas. In Italy, mud volcanoes also occur in Emilia-Romagna, Marche, Tuscany and Latium regions. Some
53
of them are nature reserves, such as the “Salse di Nirano“
in Emilia-Romagna, whilst many others are lacking any
protection.
Like other poorly vegetated but geologically peculiar
habitats (e.g. 8320: Fields of lava and natural excavations),
the Sicilian mud volcanoes and badlands are worth being included in the 92/43 EEC Directive as a whole, not
only for their naturalistic and aesthetic value, but also
for their increasing vulnerability, exacerbated by absurd
destinations (e.g., waste dumping grounds, go kart and
motocross trails) and disturbances such as wildfires, overgrazing by domestic herbivores, unsustainable cereal crop
cultivation practices, reforestation with alien trees, which
currently compromise many of these unique, hostile habitats by accelerating the natural erosive processes affecting
them.
Because many mud volcanoes and badlands are located in poorly investigated areas, their occurrence has
often been overlooked and, consequently, they have not
been included in the Sicilian Natura 2000 network. Indeed, some Sicilian endemics, like Tripolium sorrentinoi
(= Aster sorrentinii), Limonium calcarae, Allium agrigentinum, Malva agrigentina only grow on badlands or close to
mud volcanoes. Of these species, Tripolium sorrentinoi is
the only one mentioned in the Annex II of the 92/43 EU
Directive. All these plant species, classified as critically
endangered or vulnerable according to IUCN criteria, are
currently experiencing a rapid shrinkage, and some have
already gone extinct, as in the case of Puccinellia gussonei.
Hence, the inclusion of Sicilian badlands in the 92/43
EEC Directive is urgently required also for plant conservation purposes.
Macrotype: 15 Salt and gypsum inland steppes
Name: Mud volcanoes and badlands in the evaporitic
outcrops of Sicily
Description: Mud volcanoes with almost continuous
degassing activity and patchy halo-tolerant xerophitic
vegetation colonizing the top, the slopes and the base of
the steep to gently sloping and rounded badlands. Such
vegetation occurs on marly, clayey-marly and salty-clayey substrates of the geological unit “Formazione Gessoso-Solfifera”, including several sedimentary materials
accumulated during the Messinian Salinity Crisis. This
habitat is mostly concentrated in the inner part of Sicily
and hosts both xerophilous and hygrophilous grassland
communities, adapted to face different severe and counteracting stress factors (e.g., winter soil waterlogging and
oxygen shortage, summer water shortage and cracking).
Sicilian mud volcanoes occur in the Province of Agrigento, Caltanissetta and Catania (Cangemi Madonia,
2014). Some of these went destroyed during the last century, including the ones forming the famous lake Naphtia,
near Palagonia, home of the divine twins Palikoi, feared
and venerated by central-eastern Sicilians already three
thousand years ago. Clayey and marly badlands are more
widespread throughout the island, particularly in the
provinces of Agrigento, Caltanissetta, Enna and Catania,
54
Riccardo Guarino et al.: Relevant habitats neglected by the Directive 92/43 EEC in Sicily
with minor spots in the provinces of Trapani and Palermo
(Brullo et al. 2010, 2013; Pasta Guarino 2017).
Diagnostic sentence: Thermo- to mesomediterranean
sparsely vegetated clayey and marly evaporitic outcrops,
badlands and mud volcanoes of Sicily (local names: salinelle, calanchi, vulcanelli, macalube, caldare).
List of diagnostic species: Lygeum spartum, Caroxylon agrigentinum, Tripolium sorrentinoi, Limonium calcarae, Limonium optimae, Limonium opulentum, Malva
agrigentina, Allium agrigentinum (incl. A. castellanense),
Scabiosa parviflora, Moricandia arvensis, Eruca longirostris, Cardopatium corymbosum, Tyrimnus leucographus,
Scorzoneroides muelleri subsp. muelleri, Sphenopus divaricatus, Trifolium congestum, Anthemis muricata, Astragalus
raphaelis, Senecio leucanthemifolius subsp. pectinatus.
Dynamic contacts: Mud volcanoes are bare areas, totally devoid of vascular plant cover, but they may host interesting algal communities. The halo-nitrophilous scrub
communities of the harshest badlands (Salsolo oppositifoliae-Suaedion fruticosae, Pegano harmale-Salsoletea vermiculatae) are dominated by few species adapted to face
the hyperarid conditions and the intense erosion of the
steep slopes. Some sub-nitrophilous plant communities
referred to Artemision arborescentis may occur on more
humid badlands under meso-mediterranean bioclimatic conditions. The drought stress-tolerant communities,
framed into Moricandio-Lygeion sparti (Lygeo sparti-Stipetea tenacissimae), are dominated by few hemicryptophytes and are rich in narrow endemics. On clayey or
loamy compact soils, Lygeum-dominated grasslands are
often intermingled with halo-subnitrophilous sparse
ephemeral swards framed into Frankenion pulverulentae
(Saginetea maritimae), also colonising the gently sloping
margins of temporary ponds, while the bare ridges and
the steepest eroded slopes are characterised by the uneven
cover of therophytic assemblages referred to Gaudinio
fragilis-Podospermion cani. Badlands and mud volcanoes
may form complex landscapes hosting a patchwork of
hygrophilous communities referred to Charetea fragilis,
Isoeto-Nanojuncetea, Juncetea maritimi, Phragmito-Magnocaricetea and Nerio-Tamaricetea.
Phytosociological arrangement: Limonio opulenti-Salsoletum oppositifoliae Brullo, Grillo Scalia 1980, Limonio
catanzaroi-Salsoletum oppositifoliae Brullo, Guglielmo
Pavone 1986, Salsoletum agrigentinae Brullo, Guglielmo
Pavone 1986, Capparido siculae-Salsoletum oppositifoliae Brullo et al. 2012, Limonio calcarae-Suaedetum verae
Brullo et al. 2012 [Salsolo oppositifoliae-Suaedion fruticosae Rigual 1972, Salsolo vermiculatae-Peganetalia harmalae Br.-Bl. O. de Bolòs 1954, Pegano harmalae-Salsoletea vermiculatae Br.-Bl. O. de Bolòs 1958]; Atriplici
halimi-Artemisietum arborescentis Biondi 1988, Limonio
optimae-Salsoletum oppositifoliae Brullo et al. 2012, Lycio
intricati-Salsoletum oppositifoliae Brullo et al. 2012 [Artemision arborescentis Géhu Biondi in Géhu et al. 1986,
ibidem]; Eryngio dichotomi-Lygeetum sparti Gentile Di
Benedetto 1961 corr. C. Brullo et al. 2010, Tripolietum
sorrentinoi Venturella, Ottonello Raimondo 1984 nom.
mut. propos., Lavatero agrigentinae-Lygeetum sparti Brullo 1985 corr. C. Brullo et al. 2010, Phagnalo annotici-Lygeetum sparti Biondi Mossa 1993 [Moricandio-Lygeion
sparti Brullo, De Marco Signorello 1990, Lygeo-Stipetalia tenacissimae Br.-Bl. O. de Bolòs 1958, Lygeo sparti-Stipetea tenacissimae Rivas-Mart. 1978]; Hordeo maritimi-Spergularietum salinae Sciandrello 2005, Sphenopo
divaricati-Spergularietum maritimae Sciandrello 2007,
Polypogonetum subspathacei Gamisans 1992 [Frankenion
pulverulentae Rivas-Mart. ex Castroviejo Porta 1976
(incl. Polypogonion subspathacei Gamisans 1992), Frankenietalia pulverulentae Rivas-Mart. ex Castroviejo Porta
1976, Saginetea maritimae Westhoff, van Leeuwen Adriani 1962]; Podospermo cani-Parapholidetum pycnanthae
Brullo Siracusa 2000, Chamaemelo fuscati-Leontodontetum muelleri Brullo Siracusa 2000, Sphenopo divaricati-Spergularietum diandrae Brullo Siracusa 2000 [Gaudinio fragilis-Podospermion cani Brullo Siracusa 2000,
ibidem].
3) Meso- and supramediterranean
acidophilous Sicilian broomfields
Motivation: The meso- and supramediterranean
acidophilous Sicilian broomfields represent the most
south-eastern and isolated stands of pertaining to a group
of plant communities with Iberian-Atlantic distribution.
The chief species of this vegetation type spread in Sicily
during the hypsothermal period following the last glacial
event (during the Atlantic and Subboreal chronozones,
see Orombelli Ravazzi, 2002) and have persisted in local
areas where the summer aridity is buffered by orographic
moisture condensation and water-rich acidic soils. This
vegetation type migrated through southern France and
along the Tyrrhenian side of the Apennines and Calabrian
Massifs, until reaching north-western Sicily (De Beaulieu
et al. 2005). Here, the isolated populations in some cases
gave rise to new, autonomous lineages as a consequence of
the geographic isolation and the adaptation to mountain
ecosystems (Sciandrello et al. 2015). Owing to the biogeographical interest and the occurrence of exclusive endemic species, this habitat deserves adequate protection.
Macrotype: 51 Sub-Mediterranean and temperate
scrub
Name: Meso- and supramediterranean acidophilous
Sicilian broomfields
Description: Mesophilous forest fringes and shrublands dominated by Pteridium aquilinum and genistoid
nanophanerophytes with flexible and elongated green
branches, growing on humid, non-eroded, nutrient-poor
acidic soils. The dominant species, thanks to the symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, play an important role
in soil-formation processes. Such vegetation s widespread
in the western territories of the Mediterranean, sub-Atlantic and Atlantic regions, often as seral stages replacing
oak-dominated mixed deciduous woods. In Sicily, it is
rather common along the Peloritani and Nebrodi moun-
Plant Sociology 58(2) 2021, 49–63
tains and on Mount Etna, on soils deriving from quartz
sandstones, metamorphic siliceous rocks and volcanic
debris, within the meso- and supramediterranean subhumid to hyperhumid bioclimatic belts (Bartolo et al. 1994;
Guarino 1998; Siracusa 1997; Gianguzzi 1999). The vegetation included in this habitat thrives particularly well
on sea-facing submontane and mountain slopes, where it
benefits from the condensation of moist air currents rising from the sea.
Diagnostic sentence: Mesophilous forest fringes and
shrublands dominated by Pteridium aquilinum and genistoid nanophanerophytes, growing on nutrient-poor acidic soils, within the meso- and supra-Mediterranean, subhumid to hyperhumid bioclimatic belt.
List of diagnostic species: Cytisus infestus, Cytisus scoparius, Cytisus villosus, Erica arborea, Genista etnensis,
Orobanche rapum-genistae, Pteridium aquilinum, Spartium junceum, Teline monspessulana, Thymus longicaulis,
Tuberaria lignosa and the following endemic Sicilian or
Calabrian-Sicilian species: Adenocarpus commutatus, Anthemis messanensis, Euphorbia corallioides, Fritillaria messanensis and Viola aethnensis.
Dynamic contacts: Vegetation dynamically related to
mesophilous woods (particularly Erico-Quercetum virgilianae and Teucrio siculi-Quercetum ilicis) and thickets of
Ericion arboreae. On summit windy ridges it represents the
primary vegetation, forming a patchwork with herb-dominated pasturelands ascribed to the Plantaginion cupanii
(Molinio-Arrhenatheretea) and, if overgrazed, with transitional stages of Pteridio-Tanacetetum siculi (Onopordetea
acanthii).
Phytosociological arrangement: Cytiso infesti-Adenocarpetum commutati Bartolo, Brullo Pulvirenti 1994 mut.
Guarino Pasta 2017, Pteridio aquilini-Euphorbietum corallioidis Guarino 1998 nom. inval. [Violo messanensis-Adenocarpion brutii Mucina in Mucina et al. 2016 mut. Guarino Pasta 2017; Cytisetalia scopario-striati Rivas-Mart.
1974; Cytisetea scopario-striati Rivas-Mart. 1974]; Cytiso
infesti-Spartietum juncei Guarino 1998 nom inval. [All. to
be defined, Cytiso villosi-Telinetalia monspessulanae Rivas-Martínez, Galán Cantó in Rivas-Martínez, T.E. Díaz,
Fernández-González, Izco, Loidi, Lousã Penas 2002, ibidem].
4) Small woods dominated by Celtis
tournefortii subsp. aetnensis
Motivation: Celtis tournefortii is a widely distributed
species ranging along the south-eastern border of continental Europe, from the southern slopes of Caucasus to
the Balkan and Aegean regions (Browicz Zieliński 1984;
Tutin 1991; Boratyński et al. 1992). The Sicilian populations of the species, referred to the subsp. aetnensis, represent the most western and isolated outpost of its distribution range, testifying Miocene connections between
the Balkan and Tyrrhenian territories (Montelucci 1972;
Tomaselli 1972; Pezzetta 2010). These Sicilian populations
55
show a circumscribed and fragmentary distribution, occupying refuge habitats of remarkable phytogeographic
interest, worthy to be preserved.
Macrotype: 63 Sclerophyllous grazed forests
Name: Small woods dominated by Celtis tournefortii
subsp. aetnensis
Description: Small woods dominated by Celtis tournefortii subsp. aetnensis, 3-6 m tall, distributed in scattered
patches of 200-400 square meters, from 380 m to 1340
m a.s.l., between the upper dry thermomediterranean
and the sub-humid supramediterranean bioclimate. The
stands occur on stony sites with different outcropping
rocks, such as the lava flows (locally named "sciare") on
the south-western slopes of Mount Etna, quartz sandstones (southern slopes of the Nebrodi Mts. and Madonie Mts., near Gangi), marly-limestone screes (Sicani
Mountains and lower part of the southern slope of Rocca
Busambra), up to the summit ridges of Rocca Busambra,
on cryoturbated calcareous-dolomitic outcrops (Troia
1997; Schicchi Marino 2011; Gianguzzi et al. 2014).
Diagnostic sentence: Small woods dominated by Celtis tournefortii subsp. aetnensis, associated with Pistacia
terebinthus and evergreen species and lianas of the Mediterranean scrub. These woods consist of relict, scattered
patches settled in xeric and stony habitats, between the
dry thermomediterranean and the sub-humid supramediterranean bioclimatic belts.
List of diagnostic species: Celtis tournefortii subsp. aetnensis, Pistacia terebinthus, Olea europaea var. sylvestris,
Asparagus albus, Clematis cirrhosa, Smilax aspera, Ruta
chalepensis (Pistacio terebinthi-Celtidetum aetnensis -typicum); Rhamnus alaternus, Phillyrea latifolia (-rhamnetosum alaterni); Phlomis fruticosa (-phlomidetosum
fruticosae); Artemisia arborescens (-artemisietosum arborescentis).
Dynamic contacts: The vegetation at issue tends to
have a primary character and plays an important ecological role in stabilizing screes and detrital fans, representing
the most evolved aspect of the "Sicilian hilly and submontane, detrital, indifferent edaphic, thermo-mesomediterranean subhumid series of the Pistacio terebinthi-Celtido
aetnensis sigmetum". This edaphophilous series is strongly affected by frequent rock falls and landslides and by local microclimatic conditions, with remarkably wide daily
and annual temperature ranges. Towards the central part
of the detrital fan, the Pistacio terebinthi-Celtido aetnensis
sigmetum gets in catenal contact with the shrubby and
herbaceous vegetation of the scree microgeoseries, while
at the edge of the its habitat, the sigmetum can be in contact with woodlands dominated, either by: a) Quercus
ilex (habitat 9340), linked to rocky habitats with deeper
soil (e.g., Aceri campestris-Quercetum ilicis on the Sicani
Mountains, as well as Teucrio siculi-Quercetum ilicis on
Mount Etna); b) Quercus pubescens s.l. (habitat 91AA Eastern white oak woods), on deeper and more evolved
soils (e.g., Oleo sylvestris-Quercetum virgilianae on the Sicani Mountains and Rocca Busambra, as well as Celtido
aetnensis-Quercetum virgilianae and Festuco heterophyl-
56
Riccardo Guarino et al.: Relevant habitats neglected by the Directive 92/43 EEC in Sicily
lae-Quercetum congestae on Mount Etna). In the upper
part of its growing sites, the Pistacio terebinthi-Celtido
aetnensis sigmetum can also be in contact with the vegetation of rocky cliffs (habitat 8210, calcareous rocky
slopes with chasmophytic vegetation), or with the Mediterranean maquis ascribed to the habitat 5330 (Euphorbia dendroides-maquis), with the perennial and annual
dry grasslands of the habitat 6220* (Pseudo-steppe with
grasses and annuals of the Thero-Brachypodietea) or with
the thermoxeric sclerophillous woods ascribed to the
habitat 9320 (Olea and Ceratonia forests).
Phytosociological arrangement: Pistacio terebinthi-Celtidetum aetnensis Gianguzzi, Cusimano Romano
2014 [Oleo-Ceratonion Br.Bl.1936 ex Guinochet Drouineau em. Rivas-Martínez 1975, Pistacio-Rhamnetalia alaterni Rivas-Martínez 1975, Quercetea ilicis Br.-Bl.1947 in
Br.-Bl., Roussine Nègre 1952].
5) “Chiuse” with Ceratonia siliqua of southeastern Sicily
Motivation: The so-called chiuse represent a cultural
landscape of the south-eastern Sicily, characterised by an
intricate network of dry limestone walls delimiting regular polygons where pastureland or thermo-Mediterranean
garrigue are shaded by a very open canopy of carob trees
(Bianca 1881; Ente Fauna Siciliana 2003; D'Amato 2018).
Local agro-pastoral practices, mostly based on a biennial
rotation system, maintain good levels of productivity with
no need of chemicals for soil fertilization or against weeds
and pathogens. Such extensive land use, combined with
the lower impact of cattle grazing with respect to other
domestic herbivores, is responsible for the high species
richness recorded within chiuse (Baumel et al. 2018). Although chiuse host few preferential/differential plant species, they are home to many rare, protected, and endemic
plants, like the orchids Ophrys calliantha, Ophyrs discors
and Ophrys lunulata, the last being a priority species according to 92/43 EEC Directive. Chiuse also represent an
important habitat for prey birds (e.g., Buteo buteo, Falco
tinnunculus, Tyto alba), for the Sicilian Rock Partridge
(Alectoris graeca subsp. whitakeri) and for several important migratory birds (e.g., Alauda arvensis, Coturnix
coturnix).
Macrotype: 63 Sclerophyllous grazed forests
Name: “Chiuse” with Ceratonia siliqua of south-eastern Sicily
Description: The native status of the island’s carob populations is still under debate (Ramón-Laca 2004; Viruel et
al. 2020): in fact, ancient documents never mention forest
communities dominated by carob trees, while many of
them attest the extensive cultivation of this species since
the XVII century after huge forest clearings (e.g., in the
territory of Vittoria, once part of the Countee of Modica).
The construction of these fenced areas is intimately related to the stony and rugged characteristics of the Hyblaean Plateau. Since ancient times, to enhance agro-pastoral
activities local inhabitants used to create stone mounds
along border of their properties. These mounds were gradually transformed into dry limestone walls to delimit crop
fields, tree groves, or, more frequently, agro-silvo-pastoral
complex ecosystems with crop fields and pastures and an
uneven and scattered olive, almond, azerole and more frequently carob tree cover, with average low density of (often huge and aged) individuals (10-20 plants per hectare).
This complex landscape and its cultural landmarks (stone
walls, terraced groves, etc.) are generally well preserved;
they were able to survive across the centuries and to face
modernity because local rural economy, after experiencing some decades of economic crisis between 1970s and
2000s, re-started thanks to brilliant marketing initiatives
(e.g., eco-tourism) valorising local agro-pastoral activities
and products. For instance, the toasted flower obtained
from carob pods is used to produce the famous “chocolate of Modica”, while these pastures feed the free-roaming cows of a local breed called “modicana”, producing
the renowned “caciocavallo ragusano” cheese. Another
traditional knowledge linked to carob trees is the local
culinary use of Laetiporus sulphureus (whose vernacular
name is “funcia ri carrùa”), a mushroom frequently associated with Ceratonia siliqua.
During last decades many chiuse located near the coast
have been transformed into greenhouses for vegetable
production and have been lost forever. Today the major
threats to these man-made ecosystems are the abandonment of the land and traditional practices. Due to progressive succession processes, this agro-silvo-pastoral
system is slowly changing into an intricate Mediterranean
maquis. In addition, another threat for the “chiuse”, also
featured in the national catalogue of the rural historical landscapes (https://www.reterurale.it/flex/cm/pages/
ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/14376), is the transformation of ancient farms to make new private estates with
no respect for traditional building style and/or not using
local stone material.
Diagnostic sentence: Extensive land-use typical of
south-eastern Sicily, characterised by an intricate network
of dry limestone walls delimiting regular polygons where
pastureland or thermo-Mediterranean garrigue are shaded by a very open canopy of Ceratonia siliqua.
List of diagnostic species: Amygdalus webbii, Asparagus acutifolius, Asparagus albus, Asparagus aphyllus, Ceratonia siliqua, Olea europaea, Phillyrea latifolia, Pistacia
lentiscus, Prasium majus, Rubia peregrina, Smilax aspera
and Teucrium fruticans.
Dynamic contacts: Along the south-eastern coast of
Sicily the chiuse with carob trees get in contact with the
communities of the Periplocion angustifoliae and in particular with the association Calicotomo infestae-Rhoetum
tripartitae or with the communities of the Oleo-Ceratonion (Myrto communis-Pistacietum lentisci). In these contexts, the grazed chiuse host a mosaic of communities
framed into the Echio-Galactition, perennial grasslands
referred to the Hyparrhenietum hirto-pubescentis, annual grasslands (Plantagini coronopi-Catapodietum mari-
Plant Sociology 58(2) 2021, 49–63
ni, Anthemido secundirameae-Allietum lehmanii and, on
rocky outcrops, Thero-Sedetum caerulei). In the inland,
the chiuse are characterized by scattered remnant downy
oak forest stands ascribed to Oleo sylvestris-Quercetum
virgilianae and perennial grassland communities issuing
from woodland degradation (Avenulo-Ampelodesmion
mauritanici).
Phytosociological arrangement: Oleo-Ceratonion siliquae Br.-Bl. 1936 ex Guinochet Drouineau 1944 em.
Rivas-Mart. 1975 [Pistacio lentisci-Rhamnetalia alaterni
Rivas-Mart. 1975, Quercetea ilicis Br.-Bl. ex A. Bolòs y
Vayreda O. de Bolòs in A. Bolòs y Vayreda 1950].
6) Shady dripping cliffs with Woodwardia
radicans and other large ferns
Motivation: The Mediterranean dripping cliffs are
sometimes characterized by bryo-pteridophytic sciaphilous-hygrophilous communities hosting rare and endangered ferns of remarkable phytogeographic interest, such
as Woodwardia radicans, Osmunda regalis, Pteris vittata,
Pteris cretica, Asplenium scolopendrium, many of them
included in Italian Red List or Atlases of threatened species (Conti et al. 1992, 1997; Scoppola Spampinato 2005;
Rossi et al. 2013).
Woodwardia radicans is a conservation target included
in Annex II of Directive EEC 43/92 and in the IUCN Red
List with the status of “Endangered” for the Mediterranean basin (De Belair 2010) and “Vulnerable” for Europe
(Christenhusz et al. 2017). In Sicily, according to IUCN
criteria it is considered an “Endangered” species (Spampinato et al. 2008), a status recently confirmed (Crisafulli
et al. 2021).
The need for a specific habitat type concerning shady
dripping cliffs had already been highlighted by Spampinato Puglisi (2009) in the drafting of the Italian Manual for
the Interpretation of habitats under 92/43 EEC Directive.
Up to now the bryo-pteridophytic communities of the
class Adiantetea are not recognized as a habitat of Community interest, although they are important for the conservation of various hygrophilous and rupicolous species.
Due to climate change and the diversion of water flows
for agricultural or urban purposes, the extent of this habitat is continuously decreasing in Sicily: for instance, it
has disappeared on Mount Etna since a century and is
now found exclusively in a few localities in the Peloritani
Mountains (Crisafulli et al. 2021).
Macrotype: 83 Other rocky habitats
Name: Shady dripping cliffs with Woodwardia radicans
and other large ferns
Description: Dense, three-layered vegetation consisting of a dense moss carpet, thickly covered by the fronds
of Adiantum capillus-veneris, in turn loosely covered by
the fronds of large ferns, such as Woodwardia radicans,
Pteris vittata, Osmunda regalis, Phyllytis scolopendrium,
thriving near waterfalls and/or on shady rocky faces located in narrow ravines and gorges, constantly dripping with
57
clear and well oxygenated freshwater (Brullo et al. 1989),
in northeastern Sicily (Tyrrhenian side of the Peloritani
Mountains, no longer present on Mount Etna), within the
thermo- and mesomediterranean bioclimate.
Diagnostic sentence: Bryo-pteridophytic communities
with large ferns, covering rocky faces located in narrow
and shady ravines and gorges within the thermo- and mesomediterranean bioclimate.
List of diagnostic species: Woodwardia radicans,
Adiantum capillus-veneris, Asplenium scolopendrium,
Dryopteris affinis, Osmunda regalis, Pteris cretica, Pteris
vittata, Struthiopteris spicant, Bryum pseudotriquetrum
(Hedw.) P. Gaertn., B. Mey. Scherb. Eucladium verticillatum (Hedw.) Bruch Schimp., Didymodon tophaceus
(Brid.) Lisa, Pellia endiviifolia (Dicks.) Dumort., Conocephalum conicum (L.) Underw., Palustriella commutata
(Hedw.) Ochyra, Plagiomnium undulatum (Hedw.) T.J.
Kop., Pellia epiphylla (L.) Corda, Thamnobryum alopecurum (Hedw.) Nieuwl. ex Gangulee, Rhizomnium punctatum (Hedw.) T.J. Kop.
Dynamic contacts: This vegetation may come in contact with the forest communities ascribed to Habitat
“9180*: Tilio-Acerion forests of slopes, screes and ravines”,
mixed mesophilic broadleaved forests growing on steep
rocky slopes or gorges and with the evergreen forests
dominated by holm oaks of the habitat “9350 Quercus
ilex and Quercus rotundifolia forests”. In areas affected by
frequent fires, this habitat may come in contact with secondary woody communities such as tall shrublands dominated by Erica arborea.
Phytosociological arrangement: Adianto capilli-veneris-Osmundetum regalis Brullo, Lo Giudice Privitera 1989,
Adianto capilli-veneris-Pteridetum vittatae Brullo, Lo Giudice Privitera 1989, Conocephalo conici-Woodwardietum
radicantis Brullo, Lo Giudice Privitera 1989, Thamnobryo
alopecuri-Phyllitidetum scolopendrium Brullo, Privitera
Puglisi 1993 [Polysticho setiferi-Phyllitidion scolopendrii
Ubaldi ex Ubaldi Biondi in Biondi, et al. 2014, Adiantetalia capilli-veneris Br.-Bl. ex Horvatić 1939, Adiantetea
capilli-veneris Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl., Roussine Nègre 1952].
7) Birch woodlands of Mount Etna
Motivation: The Betula etnensis woodlands of Mount
Etna represent the most southern and isolated remnants
of a vegetation which spread in Sicily during the cold
phases of the Pleistocene glacial events and have locally
persisted in restricted areas where the summer aridity is
buffered by orographic moisture condensation, on welldrained acidic soils. The migration pattern of birch trees
developed through southern France and along the Tyrrhenian side of the Apennines and Calabrian Massifs,
until reaching Sicily (Agostini, 1981). Here, the isolated
populations of birch gave rise to a new lineage, slightly
diversified from Betula pendula, as a consequence of geographic isolation and adaptation to the new volcanic habitat (De Dato et al. 2020; Giusso del Galdo et al. 2021).
58
Riccardo Guarino et al.: Relevant habitats neglected by the Directive 92/43 EEC in Sicily
Owing to the biogeographical interest and the occurrence
of narrow endemic species, the habitat dominated by B.
etnensis deserves adequate protection.
Macrotype: 92 Mediterranean deciduous forests
Name: Birch woodlands of Mount Etna
Description: Mesophilous, edapho-xerophilous deciduous woodland physiognomically dominated by Betula
etnensis Rafin., a narrow endemic tree species exclusively found on Mt. Etna, where it was probably more widespread in the past and has been exploited for centuries
by local people, mainly for charcoal production (Strano
2010). This deciduous plant community is usually represented by open woods growing on volcanic scoriae, where
the soil evolution is hampered by the severe climatic conditions and by the frequent volcanic events, such as tephra rains. This woodland type ranges between 1400 and
2000 m a.s.l., chiefly on the north-eastern slopes, showing
its optimum within the upper supramediterranean humid-hyperhumid bioclimatic belt, with penetrations towards the oromediterranean belt (Brullo et al. 2012). This
community exhibits a remarkably pioneer character, occurring within the area potentially occupied by the beech
woods of the Epipactido meridionalis-Fagetum sylvaticae
above 1800 m a.s.l.
Diagnostic sentence: Deciduous birch woods of Betula etnensis, growing on volcanic scoriae, restricted to the
supramediterranean vegetation belt of the north-eastern
slopes of Mt. Etna.
List of diagnostic species: Cephalanthera longifolia,
Adenocarpus bivonae, Betula etnensis. Other frequent
species: Elymus panormitanus, Brachypodium sylvaticum,
Calamagrostis epigejos, Festuca circummediterranea, Vicia
cassubica, Orobanche rapum-genistae, Tanacetum siculum,
Daphne laureola, Rubus aetnicus, Juniperus hemisphaerica, Cytisus scoparius, Genista etnensis, Pinus nigra subsp.
calabrica, Quercus congesta, Erysimum etnense, Secale
strictum, Jasione montana, Silene sicula.
Dynamic Contacts: This association comes in contact
at lower altitudes with the edapho-xerophilous vegetation
of Daphno laureolae-Pinetum calabricae, at higher altitudes with the hedgehog-heaths ascribed to Astragaletum
siculi (Bagnato et al. 2014).
Phytosociological arrangement: Cephalanthero longifoliae-Betuletum aetnensis Brullo C. et al. 2012 [Pino
calabricae-Quercion congestae Brullo, Scelsi, Siracusa
Spampinato 1999, Quercetalia pubescenti-petraeae Klika
1933, Quercetea pubescentis Doing-Kraft ex Scamoni et
Passarge 1959].
8) Ostrya carpinifolia woods of Sicily
Motivation: Sicily hosts the southwesternmost stands
of Ostrya carpinifolia. This species is known for having
gone through alternate phases of expansion/regression
during the late Quaternary vegetation history of the
Mediterranean Basin; last maximum expansion occurred
between 8000 and 4500 years ago (Willis 1992; Tzedakis
1994; Denèfle et al. 2000). The current distribution of the
species in Sicily is restricted to steep valley slopes scattered in the main mountain ranges of the island, where it
participates to extremely localized broadleaved deciduous
mesophilic woods. The high biogeographical interest and
the relict connotation of these woods impose to consider
them an important conservation target for preserving the
Sicilian biodiversity.
Macrotype: 92 Mediterranean deciduous forests
Name: Ostrya carpinifolia woods of Sicily
Description: Three-layered thermophilous and aerohygrophilous broadleaved woods, thriving on steep valley
slopes, gorges and tributary detrital fans, scattered in the
main mountain ranges of Sicily on different soil parental
materials, from limestone to acidic metamorphic and volcanic rocks. The canopy is dominated by thermophilous
deciduous (with some evergreen) trees, among which Ostrya carpinifolia and sometimes Acer obtusatum provide
the floristic and physiognomic characterization of this
habitat. Under conditions of higher edaphic and environmental humidity, Laurus nobilis and Tilia platyphyllos
are also frequent, whereas under greater lighting Quercus
ilex and Fraxinus ornus also play an important role. These
woods largely depend on moist and fresh microclimatic conditions and range between 200 and 1200 m a.s.l.,
with optimum within the meso- and supramediterranean
humid bioclimate. This habitat is well represented in the
main gorges of the Hyblaean plateau, along the eastern slope of Mount Etna and in the mountain ranges of
NE-Sicily (Peloritani and Nebrodi Mts.; Brullo Marcenò
1985; Bartolo et al. 1992; Brullo et al. 1996; Minissale et
al. 2007). The scattered occurrence of many isolated spots
of Ostrya carpinifolia in the mounts near Palermo and on
the Sicani Mts. (Marcenò and Ottonello 1993; Venturella
et al. 1991; Marino and Ilardi 2007; Castellano et al. 2009;
Giardina et al. 2015) suggests that this habitat was once
more widespread also in western Sicily.
Diagnostic sentence: Thermophilous and aerohygrophilous broadleaved woods with Ostrya carpinifolia,
colonizing steep valley slopes, gorges, and tributary detrital fans, within the meso- and supramediterranean humid
bioclimate.
List of diagnostic species: Ostrya carpinifolia (dominant). Other frequent species: Acer campestre, A. obtusatum (incl. A. obtusatum subsp. aetnense), Quercus
ilex, Laurus nobilis, Fraxinus ornus, Quercus congesta, Q.
virgiliana, Tilia platyphyllos, Cytisus villosus, Bupleurum
fruticosum, Lonicera etrusca, Emerus majus, Athyrium
filix-foemina, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Daphne laureola,
Phyllitis scolopendrium, Polystichum setiferum, Symphytum tuberosum, Drymochloa drymeja, Thalictrum calabricum, Sorbus torminalis, Pistacia terebinthus.
Dynamic contacts: On gently sloping sites, the Ostrya carpinifolia woods get in contact with the zonal
forest vegetation of the surroundings, often represented
by Erico arboreae-Quercetum virgilianae, Sorbo torminalis-Quercetum virgilianae, Aceri campestris-Quercetum ilicis, Vicio cassubicae-Quercetum cerridis, Agropyro panor-
Plant Sociology 58(2) 2021, 49–63
mitani-Quercetum congestae, Arabido turritae-Quercetum
congestae, Doronico orientali-Quercetum ilicis, Teucrio
siculi-Quercetum ilicis, Ampelodesmo mauritanici-Quercetum ilicis. Contacts are also established with the comophytic vegetation of Bartramio-Polypodion cambrici and
with the chasmophytic vegetation of Tamnobryo alopecuri-Phyllitidetum scolopendrii, which colonize the outcropping rocks within the association.
Phytosociological arrangement: Aceri obtusati-Ostryetum carpinifoliae Brullo Marcenò 1985, Arabido
turritae-Quercetum congestae Brullo Marcenò 1985, Hieracio criniti-Aceretum aetnensis Brullo C. et al. 2012 [Tilio-Ostryon carpinifoliae Brullo, Scelsi Spampinato 2001,
Fagetalia sylvaticae Pawłowski in Pawłowski et al. 1928,
Carpino-Fagetea sylvaticae Jacuks Passarge 1968]; Ostryo
carpinifoliae-Quercetum ilicis Lapraz 1975 [Fraxino orni-Quercion ilicis Biondi, Casavecchia et Gigante in Biondi et al. 2013, Quercetalia ilicis Br.-Bl. ex Molinier 1934,
Quercetea ilicis Br.-Bl. ex A. Bolòs et O. de Bolos in A.
Bolòs y Vayreda 1950].
Discussion
The combination of a phytosociological and phytogeographical approach to habitat recognition represents
a convenient way to resolve the conundrum of habitat
identification. However, some appropriate additions to
the Habitat Directive would be highly desirable to ensure
adequate and explicit protection to the Sicilian habitats
listed above, that host rare species of phytogeographic
interest, highly localized edaphic specialists and, also, historical rural landscapes shaped by traditional land uses.
Some of these habitats have been forced into comparable units already codified by Directive 92/43 (http://vnr.
unipg.it/habitat/). However, an excessive ”stretching“ in
the habitat interpretation leaves room for ambiguity and
uncertainties in the correct identification and designation
of the conservation targets (Pasta La Mantia 2009).
For example, the recognition of the habitat here proposed as ”Meso- and supramediterranean acidophilous
Sicilian broomfields“ would eliminate the interpretative
impasse that forces some of these formations, either,
into habitat 5330 (Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub), together with thermomediterranean broom
fields (retamares) in Sicily represented by coastal formations dominated by Retama raetam subsp. gussonei or by
Genista tyrrhena, or, instead, into habitat 4090 (Endemic
oro-Mediterranean heaths with gorse), together with the
high-mountain vegetation dominated by Astragalus siculus or A. nebrodensis.
Similarly, the recognition of the habitats here proposed
as ”Mud volcanoes and badlands in the evaporitic outcrops of Sicily“ and ”Sicilian gypsum outcrops“ would
allow to consider as a whole the mosaic of contiguous
habitats that characterize these so peculiar geomorphological units (similarly to what happens with the Habitat
8320 “volcanic outcrops and lava fields”). This would en-
59
sure better protection also to the vegetation dominated
by some endemic taxa, such as Tripolium sorrentinoi
(Asteretum sorrentini, see Brullo et al. 2010) or Astragalus
caprinus subsp. huetii (Astragalo huetii-Ampelodesmetum
mauritanici, see Minissale 1995), currently lumped into
the omni-comprehensive and ubiquitous habitat 6220
(Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the Thero-Brachypodietea).
The choice of using a ”geology-based” criterion to
circumscribe the two above-mentioned habitats is justified by the difficulty of separating the tiles of a mosaic
in which vegetation units ascribed to different phytosociological classes (such as Pegano-Salsoletea, Lygeo-Stipetea, Saginetea maritimae, Thero-Brachypodietea, Juncetea
maritimi and others) intermingle in very close spatial
contiguity. The opportunity to propose as autonomous
some of these vegetation units would require an in-depth
comparative analysis of their physiognomic and structural characteristics, which is not always available apart few
exceptions (Brullo et al. 2013; Marcenò et al. 2019) and is
adventurous to pretend from an instrument, i.e. the Habitat Directive, whose main purpose is identifying conservation targets in the easiest and most practical possible
way. Moreover, designating mud volcanoes and badlands
as a whole habitat allows to safeguard the landscape unicum and its root causes, which are eminently geological,
and to ensure an unitary impact assessment to any project
of ”hydraulic-forestry amelioration“ with acacias or eucalyptuses or, worst, to any transformation of these sites into
landfills, photovoltaic power plants, go-cart tracks and, in
the case of gypsum outcrops, also into intensive vineyards
after gypsum-grinding.
The habitat ”mud volcanoes and badlands in the evaporitic outcrops of Sicily“ is akin to the habitat already
proposed (Genovesi et al. 2014) as ”halophilous and/or
subalophilous pioneer vegetation in badlands“. However,
the badlands of Peninsular Italy host a somewhat different
vegetation from that of Sicily, as it lacks the shrub component typical of the Pegano-Salsoletea class. Therefore, it
was decided to propose a new habitat for Sicily.
Also, the habitat “Ostrya carpinifolia woods of Sicily” is
similar the habitat already proposed (Genovesi et al. 2014)
as “hop-hornbeam Italo-Balkan woods”. However, the
latter has a floristic composition and ecological settings
quite different from those in Sicily and, with reference
to the EUNIS habitat classification, it is to be classified
among the “temperate and submediterranean thermophilous deciduous forest” (code: G1.7a) rather than the
“Mediterranean thermophilous deciduous forest” (code:
G1.7b), as it happens for the Sicilian stands.
Lastly, the habitat “Shady dripping cliffs with Woodwardia radicans and other large ferns” is similar to the
habitat “Mediterranean dripping cliffs”, also present in Sicily and already proposed (Spampinato and Puglisi 2009;
Genovesi et al. 2014) to be integrated into the Habitats
Directive. However, it is considered appropriate to treat as
a separate habitat the Adiantetea vegetation characterized
by the presence of large ferns (such as Woodwardia radi-
60
Riccardo Guarino et al.: Relevant habitats neglected by the Directive 92/43 EEC in Sicily
cans and Pteris vittata) which, due to their extreme rarity,
should be pertaining to priority habitat.
To fully understand the obvious gaps of the Habitat
Directive in Sicily, it is worth to consider that the Italian
botanists did not play a very active role in the definition
of the “Annexes” to the Directive, both as regards species
and habitats (Biondi et al. 2010). This lack particularly affects the surface areas of the Italian territory belonging
to the Mediterranean ecoregion, determining a gap that
could not be filled until today. In fact, since the publication of the Habitat Directive, no official integration of its
annexes has been allowed, with exceptions reserved only
to the countries involved in the EU enlargement.
In recent years, the regional administration of Sicily
has put significant effort to ensure the long-term management of the Natura 2000 sites, taking account of all potential sources of EU, national and regional funding. These
efforts include the implementation of management plans,
the recognition of new sites (Fig. 1) and the establishment
of a list of priority actions to be carried out in the next
decade. Unfortunately, these efforts are not sufficient to
ensure adequate protection to many relevant habitats and
species occurring in Sicily, due to the above-mentioned
shortcomings of the Habitat Directive and to some inconsistencies in the designation of the habitats already
included in the same Directive (Pasta La Mantia 2009).
As it happens for many habitats officially designated as
conservation targets, also the “neglected” habitats mentioned in this contribution are declining both in extent
and quality for different reasons, related to land abandonment, land-use change, destruction and alteration of the
local biota, pollution and eutrophication of water, wetland
reclamation, water abstraction, introduction of alien species, urbanisation and infrastructure development. These
pressures and threats act at different spatio-temporal
scales and vary across different habitat types (Bagella et
al. 2016; Gigante et al. 2016, 2018; Angiolini et al. 2017;
Guarino et al. 2021). In particular, the disappearance
or the exacerbation of anthropogenic disturbance (e.g.,
abandonment of traditional practices, cessation of grazing or, instead, overgrazing and increased fires frequency)
can compromise many of the habitats we have proposed.
Conclusions
Aim of every protected area in the world is to promote
in situ conservation strategies for threatened habitats and
species. This should be done by the set up of a network of
stakeholders, administrators and scientific experts which
will support capacity building, management and policy
actions. Unfortunately, these intentions are inevitably
constrained by the lack of scientific knowledge on the
ecosystem functioning and by the reality of limited economical resources. Conservation must therefore be based
on the establishment of priorities, in order to determine
how these limited resources could be best allocated (Guarino et al. 2011).
People’s perception of protected areas is, in most of the
cases, limited to the recreational or aesthetical function of
biotopes and biodiversity: a kind of “playground for ecologists” that can be used for outdoor activities and experiential marketing. This limited view should be widened
through the use of protected areas as living labs for the
environmental education, to raise the public awareness
on the function of ecosystems. Unfortunately, managers
and planners seem to be much more sensitive to the marketing and promotion of typical products and to the construction of infrastructure to improve accessibility and
usability of these areas. This is not necessarily a negative
aspect, but it can be so if it becomes the priority target
for the development of protected areas (Guarino 2021).
Too many habitats and natural sceneries have been irreparably spoiled by senseless interventions to “improve” accessibility and usability. This is the case, for example, of
the renowned Etnean “Rifugio Sapienza” and surrounding areas, where thousands of absent-mindedly tourists
are brought on Mt. Etna “to walk on the lava”, with best
regards to the superficiality that already characterizes the
average way of living of the urban people.
The only way to contrast these dangerous shortcuts is
a correct and unambiguous designation of the conservation targets, accompanied by appropriate conservation
measures, management plans, prioritized action framework, monitoring and periodical updating of the Habitat
Directive in the light of the new achievements emerging
from territorial research and thematic in-depth studies.
Last but not least, substantial resources have to be invested in education and dissemination campaigns, in order to
reach a societal consensus on the need for conservation
of the Natura 2000 sites and the Sicilian biodiversity in
general.
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