Noteworthy records of the lichens associated
with Juniperus phoenicea L. die-off
in El-Jabal El-Akhdar region, NE Libya
Manam W B SAAED1,2, *, Yacoub M EL-BARASI2, 3, Ahmed A EL-SHAIKHY2
1. Department of Botany, Faculty of Arts and Science, Al-Abyar Branch, Benghazi University, Libya.
2. Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, The Libyan Academy
of postgraduate studies, Benghazi Branch, Benghazi, Libya
3. Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Benghazi University, Benghazi, Libya
* Corresponding Author: manam.saaed@uob.edu.ly
Received: 25 September, 2021; First decision: 25 November, 2021; Revised: 4 December, 2021;
Final decision: 9 December, 2021.
Abstract
El-Jabal El-Akhdar region is the most vegetated
area in Libya dominated by a Mediterranean
evergreen maquis; the juniper trees (Juniperus
phoenicea L.) consist of about 70-80% of the
vegetation cover. These trees suffer a wide
die-off phenomenon for a few decades, which
put extra pressure on the ecosystems, in
addition to climate change and unsustainable
management. Notably, this phenomenon in
El-Jabal El-Akhdar region is associated with a
dense growth of lichens. This study aimed to
identify the lichens on the juniper trees and
record some ecological notes. According to our
results, a total of 15 taxa belonging to six families and eight genera were recognized on the
J. phoenicea trees. The main lichen life-forms
were crustose, fruticose, and foliose. However,
the densest growth was recorded for Ramalina
maciformis (Delile) Bory and Tornabea scutellifera (With.) J.R. Laundon., which appear in
most of the infected areas. However, Lecanora
gr. subfusca (L.) Ach. has dense growth in only a
few areas south El-Jabal El-Akhdar region. This
needs further investigation to understand why
they grow in such a way on the juniper in the
study area. The present study provides baseline
information for further progressions in understanding Libyan lichens’ species richness and
community composition at local and regional
scales.
Keywords: lichenology, list of species, Juniperus
phoenicea subsp. turbinata (Guss.) Nyman,
Mediterranean Maquis, Mediterranean shrubland,
Libya.
ecologia mediterranea – Vol. 47 (2) – 2021
Introduction
El-Jabal El-Akhdar region (Figure 1) is the
only remaining natural dense vegetated zone
in the whole way from Tunisia to Sinai in
eastern Egypt, in the southern part of the
Mediterranean Sea. This region consists of
about 1% of the Libyan territory but contains
about 65% of the country’s flora (El-Barasi &
Saaed, 2013). El-Jabal El-Akhdar region is a
part of the Mediterranean Basin biodiversity
hot spot (Myers et al. 2000; Mittermeier et al.
2004, 2011).
The Juniper tree (Juniperus phoenicea L.), a
member of the cypress family (Cupressaceae),
most probably J. phoenicea subsp. turbinata
(Guss.) Nyman (Pavon et al. 2020), makes up
70-80% of the vegetation cover in El-Jabal
El-Akhdar region. This region is characterized by a higher cryptogamic richness
and diversity, especially lichens, compared
to other Libyan areas. However, there is
a growing concern that the widespread of
Juniper tree die-off in this region may lead
to a significant decline in the green areas in
a country while about 95% of its land is a
hot desert (Great Sahara). J. phoenicea has a
wide geographical range and is not globally
threatened. However, its range in Libya is
shrinking to a dangerous level due to climate
change, anthropogenic pressures, and lately
41
MANAM W B SAAED, YACOUB M EL-BARASI, AHMED A EL-SHAIKHY
Figure 1 – The geographical location of the study area (El-Jabal El-Akhdar
region) showing the 14 study sites.
the tree die-off phenomenon. Despite the fact
that J. phoenicea can be a host plant for many
epiphytic lichens (Jüriado et al. 2015) and is
often incorporated into the group of epiphytes
on coniferous trees (Jüriado et al. 2015), the
El-Jabal El-Akhdar’s tree die-off is unique
in that it associated with a dense growth of
lichens (Figure 2).
Lichens can be found almost anywhere
worldwide. They grow readily on rocks, soils,
and trees (bark, wood, leaves). Lichens can
withstand harsh conditions such as freezing,
high light, and intense heat. Many of them
can dry out for long periods, then quickly
become active again when rehydrated. Trees
can provide a broad spectrum of microhabitats
for epiphytic vegetation (Peard 1983). The
physical and biotic factors that interact to
create these environments have been discussed
in great detail by Barkman (1958). Horizontal
and vertical gradients of light, water, and temperature depend upon the direction of trunk
exposure and height above ground; this along
with the tree vigour influence the presence and
growth of lichens. Bark hardness, texture,
water-holding capacity, and pH vary among
tree species and within species according to
the age of tree bark (Peard 1983). In general,
most lichen species grow best with sufficient
light and moisture within moderate temperature zones.
Figure 2 – Dense growth of lichens on Juniperus phoenicea L. trees from different locations in the study area
(El-Jabal El-Akhdar region).
42
ecologia mediterranea – Vol. 47 (2) – 2021
Noteworthy records of the lichens associated with Juniperus phoenicea L. die-off in El-Jabal El-Akhdar region, NE Libya
Lichens are a vital component of tree epiphytic
(lichens, bryophytes, and vascular plants) biodiversity with critical ecological roles in the
ecosystems and occupy small econiches from
the canopy to trunks (Gonzáles-Montelongo
& Pérez-Varga 2021). Lichens are, by definition, symbiotic organisms, usually composed of a fungal partner, the mycobiont, and
one or more photosynthetic partners, the photobionts, which are most often either a green
alga or cyanobacterium or both (Maphangwa
2010). This complex association makes it difficult to classify these organisms (Karagünlü
& Tufan-Çetin 2020). Lichens are perennials
and maintain a uniform morphology over
time. They grow slowly, have a large-scale
dependence upon the environment for their
nutrition, and in contrast to vascular plants,
they do not shed their leaves during growth
(Maphangwa 2010).
Traditionally, lichens are classified into four
primary growth forms: crustose, squamulose,
foliose, and fruticose. These forms, which are
in no sense natural divisions, are at best points
on a scale of continuous differentiation from
primitive to highly structured thalli with many
intermediates. Each form is characterized by
a particular arrangement of cortical, algal,
and medullary tissues and different modes
of attachment to the substrate (Maphangwa
2010).
Not surprisingly, many people mistakenly
blame lichens for the decline and death of
shrubs and trees in El-Jabal El-Akhdar region.
Because these unusual plant-like organisms
are commonly seen on the exposed limbs and
trunks of declining or dead trees and shrubs,
especially J. phoenicea and, to a relatively
less degree, on many other species, such
as Pistacia lentiscus L., Olea europaea L.,
Rhamnus oleoides L. However, lichens are not
responsible for the poor top growth or death
of shrubs and trees. Instead, their appearance
is often related to damage from environmental
stress or poor management. Exposed limbs on
damaged plants simply give lichens access to
the sunlight they need for growth with little
competition (Hagan 2004). With few exceptions, research has shown that lichens are
not parasitic or pathogenic on higher plants.
However, their growth may increase due to
increased light levels when branches lose
leaves and die (Hagan 2004).
The botanical exploration of the Libyan flora
has a long history dating back to the beginning
of the 18th century (Saaed et al., 2019), which
ecologia mediterranea – Vol. 47 (2) – 2021
has provided the basis for the compilation
of the checklist of Libyan vascular plants.
Despite the favourable natural conditions for
lichens in the northern parts of the country,
e.g., El-Jabal El-Akhdar region, the data on
the Libyan lichen biota are limited and scanty,
and lacking a comprehensive approach. The
exploration is still a work in progress, and
most of the country is still underexplored from
a lichenological point of view and almost certainly contains many lichen taxa yet to be discovered. Only a few lichenological collections
were conducted in Libya (e.g., Baroni 1892
Durand & Barrate, 1910, Zanfrognini 1913a,
b, Mameli 1913, Pampanini 1914, 1930, Thor
& Nascimbene 2010). The lichen and lichenicolous fungi biota of Libya probably remains
largely unknown (Thor & Nascimbene 2010).
A checklist compiled from literature up to
the year 1950 includes 151 taxa, and Thor &
Nascimbene (2010) added another 49 taxa.
A realistic estimate of the total number of
Libyan lichens and lichenicolous fungi could
exceed 1,000 species (Thor & Nascimbene
2010).
The lack of information added to the increased
die-off phenomenon associated with a dense
growth of lichens, mainly on J. phoenicea
were the main incentive to conduct this study.
The present article focused on lichen identification with some notes on their ecological
characteristics. It aims to start new lichenological studies in Libya and provide baseline
information of the lichens known to grow on
J. phoenicea associated with the die-off phenomenon in El-Jabal El-Akhdar region.
Material and methods
Study area
Libya is one of the largest countries in North
Africa, covering about 1.75 million km2. Its
territory is mainly covered by deserts or semideserts, whereas the Mediterranean vegetation is restricted to the coastal areas (Thor &
Nascimbene 2010). El-Jabal El-Akhdar (The
Green Mountain) is the most vegetated region
in Libya. It is a low to medium mountainous
region located in the country’s north-eastern
part at the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 1). It is
divided by many valleys that vary in depth and
length, and are oriented either towards the sea
in the north, or towards the south to end in the
desert (Sahara) (El-Barasi and Saaed 2013).
43
MANAM W B SAAED, YACOUB M EL-BARASI, AHMED A EL-SHAIKHY
El-Jabal El-Akhdar region covers an area of
about 8000 km2, and the dense vegetation
covers about 5000 km2. The vegetation consists
mainly of Mediterranean Maquis, e.g., short
trees, shrubs, sub-shrubs, and annuals after
rainfall in winter and spring in open areas. Tall
trees can be found in many valleys and seasonal rivers. The flora of El-Jabal El-Akhdar
comprises more than 1,350 species, which
consist of about 70% of the total number of
Libyan flora (El-Barasi & Saaed 2013; Saaed
et al. 2019). Important canopy species are met
like: Juniperus phoenicea L., Arbutus pavarii
Pamp., Olea europaea L., Ceratonia siliqua
L., Pistacia lentiscus L., Rhamnus lycioides
L., Pinus halepensis Mill., Cistus parviflorus
Lam., Quercus coccifera L., Searsia tripartita
(Ucria) Moffett (El-Barasi & Saaed 2013).
The northern parts of the study area are influenced by the Mediterranean climate, which
is characterized by hot, dry summers and
mild, rainy winters. About 75% of the rain
falls during the winter season (October to
February), while the dry period extends for a
period of six months (from April to September).
(El-Barasi & Saaed 2013). The rainfall in the
northern parts of El-Jabal El-Akhdar ranges
between 400 to 600mm/year and the evaporation rate about 2000mm/year. The southern
parts have a semi-desert climate showing low
and irregular rainfall, usually below 200mm/
year, and high evaporation rates that exceed
2000mm/year. (El-Barasi et al. 2011).
El-Jabal El-Akhdar region has been inhabited
since ancient times. The main human activities that have influenced the natural vegetation in this region are: gathering firewood,
charcoal production, collecting of medical
and aromatic species, and vegetation clearing
for agriculture practices, as well as grazing
(El-Barasi et al. 2011).
Lichen collection and identification
The study area was divided into three parts:
the northern, middle, and southern parts
according to the distance from the coast
and altitude (m asl), which mainly influence
the area’s climate and other environmental
factors. There were 14 survey sites selected
carefully to cover the whole areas of J. phoenicea distribution in El-Jabal El-Akhdar
region; four in the northern part, five in the
middle, and the other five in the southern
part (Table 1, Figure 1). In the northern part
(locations 1-4), the altitude of the survey locations ranged between 27 and 139 m asl, and
44
their distance from the coast between 0.23 to
3.15km. In the middle part (locations 5-9), the
altitude ranged between 334 and 517m asl,
and the distance from the coast between 5.81
and 24.77km. And in the southern part (locations 10-14), the altitude ranged between 310
and 779m asl, and the distance from the coast
between 11.60 and 40.10km.
The fieldwork was performed during the year
2020; several trips were conducted to each
site to collect lichen specimens only from
J. phoenicea trees (from trunks and limbs).
In each site, all different types of lichens were
described and collected carefully from the
juniper trees in a circular plot of 100 meters
in diameter. The lichen specimens were put in
a plastic cube (7 × 7cm) with a lid to ensure
maximum protection and then transferred to
the laboratory. In the field, other comments
were recorded such as site coordinates and
altitude, distance from the coast, lichen type,
number of infected trees, infection percentage
for each tree, lichen growth density on the
Juniper tree, which part of the tree is infected,
and any other infected plants.
Table 1 – Information about survey localities in the
study area (El-Jabal El-Akhdar region).
Locality
Coordinate
Altitude Distance
(m asl) from sea
coast (km)
Location 1
32 40 553 N
20 55 388 E
139
1.95
Location 2
32 51 928 N
21 55 248 E
324
3.15
Location 3
32 54 817 N
22 04 911 E
27
0.23
Location 4
32 52 172 N
22 19 945 E
34
0.28
Location 5
32 50 227 N
22 09 604 E
517
5.81
Location 6
32 42 361 N
21 25 247 E
354
8.97
Location 7
32 34 065 N
21 12 385 E
336
22.49
Location 8
32 32 535 N
21 06 667 E
465
24.77
Location 9
32 17 500 N
20 32 631 E
334
20.88
Location 10
32 19 710 N
20 54 971 E
539
35.43
Location 11
32 32 555 N
21 17 220 E
407
25.59
Location 12
32 34 274 N
21 40 250 E
779
40.10
Location 13
32 36 676 N
21 55 222 E
778
31.35
Location 14
32 40 609 N
22 33 841 E
310
11.60
ecologia mediterranea – Vol. 47 (2) – 2021
Noteworthy records of the lichens associated with Juniperus phoenicea L. die-off in El-Jabal El-Akhdar region, NE Libya
In the laboratory, the specimens were studied
in the usual way. First, the specimens were
cleaned with tap water and air-dried, then
examined with a stereomicroscope and a compound microscope with different objective
lenses up to 100x. Morphological and anatomical traits were inspected in an aqueous
solution, especially lichen growth form,
colour, type of photobiont and its pigmentation, mycobiont fruiting bodies, presence
and type of rhizines, presence of cifel or pseudocifels, size of spores, and the number of
spores per ascus, among others. With a razor
blade, all cuts were freehand performed.
The chemical reagents as K test (potassium
hydroxide 10%), C test (commercial bleach),
P test (alcohol solution of para-phenylenediamine), were used for the analyses of
secondary metabolic substances present in
lichens (Maphangwa 2010). The change in
colour resulting from the reaction with these
chemicals is an indication of the presence of
a certain lichen substance with a critical taxonomic key. The Chemotaxonomic tests were
carried out under the stereomicroscope using
white light and performed on part of young
thallus as available.
Lichen specimens were identified according
to several sources (Pampanini 1914, 1930;
Llimona 1982; Seaward & Sipman 2006; Thor
& Nascimbene 2010; Roux et al. 2021; Nimis
2021). The lichen classification was confirmed
through communication with Professor Göran
Thor (Department of Ecology, University of
Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden).
Also, a matching process of the classification
was carried out in cooperation with Professor
Sipman M. J Harrie (Dr. Honorary Curator
of Lichens, Botanical Garden and Botanical
Museum in Berlin, Dahlem, Germany).
Dubious status for some lichens was also
reported. GBIF (2021) and Index Fungorum
(2021) websites were used to update lichen
taxa names. In addition, the obtained list of
the lichens was compared with the work of
Durand & Barrate (1910), Pampanini (1914,
1930) and Thor & Nascimbene (2010).
Results and discussion
Lichen existence and distribution
In the study area, lichens are an indication
of poor plant health. Good plant vigour is
the best protection against the presence of
ecologia mediterranea – Vol. 47 (2) – 2021
lichens. Heavy invasions of lichens are most
common on trees and shrubs in declining or
poor health due to other factors (Hagan 2004),
e.g., prolonged drought, nutrient deficiency,
severe anthropogenic pressure, and sufficient
exposure of the lichen to the sun as a result of
the decline or fall of the tree foliage. Therefore,
the dense lichen growth on J. phoenicea and
other trees and shrubs in El-Jabal El-Akhdar is
probably a sign of vegetation degradation due
to prolonged drought and climate change (Ali
& El Shatshat 2015) and unfavourable anthropogenic impacts (El-Barasi & Saaed 2013).
Climatic, geographic, and environmental
conditions are quite heterogeneous across
El-Jabal El-Akhdar region, leading to substantial ecoregional diversity. This is reflected
in distinctive lichen distribution patterns
mainly between the northern, middle, and
southern parts of the study area, resulting in
significant differences in regional lichen distribution and local community compositions.
The northern locations of the study area
showed very little or no lichen growth on
J. phoenicea, the middle locations showed
little, moderate, dense, and very dense growth,
and the southern locations showed little,
moderate, and dense growth. The very low
or absence of lichens growth in the northern
parts that are very close to the sea is most
likely attributed to the salt sprays that come
with wind from the sea, particularly in winter,
which affect lichen growth as they depend
on air moisture to get water and nutrients as
well. Previous findings (e.g., Roux & Sigoillot
1987, Stammitti 1992) indicated the effect
of sea spray polluted by anionic surfactants
and hydrocarbons as a factor responsible for
the die-off of conifers and declining lichen
growth in European Mediterranean regions.
Meanwhile, the highest lichen growth was in
the middle locations of the mountain, which
have the highest rate of precipitation, air
humidity, and dew. Lichens, mainly fruticose
and foliose, are usually abundant in forests,
where fog is the predominant source of water
(Gonzáles-Montelongo & Pérez-Vargas
2021). This is not the case in the southern
locations of the study area, which have relatively higher temperatures and lower precipitation and air humidity rates.
Lichens are most numerous on limbs and
trunks of large mature trees and shrubs in
full sun, particularly those plants with badly
thinned canopies. As lichens love sunlight and
moisture, they are often found in sunny, wet
45
MANAM W B SAAED, YACOUB M EL-BARASI, AHMED A EL-SHAIKHY
spots and most lichens do not thrive on heavily
shaded twigs and branches of healthy woody
plants.
It is noteworthy to mention that young J. phoenicea trees and the new growth and branches
on old ones in all the survey sites are devoid
of significant lichen growth. This could be
related to the vigour of the young trees and
new growths. Also, young junipers have a
papery bark that is smooth and flaky, exfoliating in long vertical stripes, which may not
be suitable for the establishment and growth
of lichen colonies, because they do not retain
water from rains and mists for long enough.
Another important factor is the slow growth
of lichens, which takes many years to become
visible, this is infeasible in young trees and
new branches. This is consistent with the
finding of Peard (1983) in a forest area in
Colorado, in the USA, mainly composed of
Pinus ponderosa Laws. and Juniperus scopulorum Sarg. Jüriado et al. (2015) who studied
the lichens on Juniperus communis L. in calcareous grasslands north Europe found that
the composition and richness of lichens were
influenced by the vitality of the phorophyte
(proportion of dead branches) and its size
(height and width, and stem circumference).
This indicates the inter-correlated effects of
juniper age and size as well as indirect effects
of exogenous disturbances (like flooding,
drought, fire), which are known to influence
juniper vitality.
Table 2 – Information about survey localities in the study area (El-Jabal El-Akhdar
region).
Family
Species
1.
Cladoniaceae
Cladonia foliacea subsp. endiviifolia (Dicks.) Boistel
2.
Lecanoraceae
Lecanora gr. subfusca (L.) Ach.
3.
Lecanoraceae
Lecanora horiza (Ach.) Röhl.
4.
Lecanoraceae
Lecanora sp.
5.
Pertusariaceae
Pertusaria hymenea (Ach.) Schaer.
6.
Pertusariaceae
Pertusaria sp.
7.
Physciaceae
Tornabea scutellifera (With.) J.R.Laundon.
8.
Ramalinaceae
Ramalina maciformis (Delile) Bory
9.
Teloschistaceae
Polycauliona polycarpa (Hoffm.) Frödén, Arup & Søchting
Synonym: Xanthoria polycarpa (Hoffm.) Rieber.
10. Teloschistaceae
Seirophora lacunosa (Rupr.) Frödén
11. Teloschistaceae
Seirophora villosa (Ach.) Frödén
12. Teloschistaceae
Seirophora sp.
13. Teloschistaceae
Seirophora sp.
14. Teloschistaceae
15. Teloschistaceae
Seirophora sp.
Xanthoria parietina (L.) Beltr.
46
Species composition
Describing and identifying the lichen flora of
Libya is problematic since all of the previous
works were done by European scientists,
and most of the collections were deposited
in different herbaria outside the country. In
addition, the literature about the Libyan lichen
biota is very scarce. In this study, 15 different
lichens (Figures 3-14) were collected from
J. phoenicea trees belonging to six families
and eight genera (Table 2). Five of the lichens
could not be fully identified to the species
level. Seven lichens belonging to the family
Teloschistaceae, three to Lecanoraceae, two
to Pertusariaceae, and the Cladoniaceae,
Physciaceae, and Ramalinaceae each represented by only one taxon.
Most of the recorded lichens have a usual
growth form except for three species.
Ramalina maciformis and Tornabea scutellifera (With.) J.R. Laundon. appear in most
affected areas with die-off phenomenon and
have dense growth on infected J. phoenicea.
Lecanora gr. subfusca (L.) Ach. has dense
growth in few areas south El-Jabal El-Akhdar
region. These lichen species are more related
to the juniper die-off to the extent that their
abnormal growth indicates the infected trees.
Our list contains only two species in common
with the 15 lichens mentioned by Durand
and Barrate (1910); Xanthoria parietina (L.)
Beltr. and Cladonia foliacea subsp. endiviifolia (Dicks.) Boistel. Durand & Barrate
materials were mainly collected by P.H.
Taubert in 1887 from different localities and
from various sources; soil, rocks, and plants,
both in Cyrenaica and Tripolitania (Thor &
Nascimbene 2010). Pamapnini (1930) mentioned 49 lichens collected from Cyrenaica,
12 taxa collected from different tree types,
including J. phoenicea, of which five taxa
are shared with our list: Cladonia foliacea
subsp. endiviifolia [= Cladonia endiviaefolia (Dicks.) Fr.], Ramalina maciformis,
Xanthoria parietina, Tornabea scutellifera
(With.) J.R. Laundon.[= Anaptychia intricata
(DC.) A. Massal.], and Lecanora gr. subfusca
[= Lecanora allophana (Ach.)]. Nine taxa are
shared with the list of Thor & Nascimbene
(2010); Cladonia foliacea subsp. endiviifolia, Lecanora gr. subfusca, Lecanora horiza
(Ach.) Röhl., Tornabea scutellifera, Ramalina
maciformis, Polycauliona polycarpa (Hoffm.)
Frödén, Arup & Søchting [= Xanthoria polycarpa (Hoffm.) Rieber.], Seirophora lacunosa
(Rupr.) Frödén, Seirophora villosa (Ach.)
ecologia mediterranea – Vol. 47 (2) – 2021
Noteworthy records of the lichens associated with Juniperus phoenicea L. die-off in El-Jabal El-Akhdar region, NE Libya
Figure 3 – Xanthoria parietina (L.) Beltr.
Figure 4 – Seirophora villosa (Ach.) Frödén.
Figure 5 – Seirophora lacunosa (Rupr.) Frödén.
Figure 6 – Polycauliona polycarpa (Hoffm.) Frödén, Arup & Søchting.
Figure 7 – Seirophora sp.
Figure 8 – Seirophora sp.
Figure 9 – Ramalina maciformis (Delile) Bory.
Figure 10 – Tornabea scutellifera (With.) J.R. Laundon.
ecologia mediterranea – Vol. 47 (2) – 2021
47
MANAM W B SAAED, YACOUB M EL-BARASI, AHMED A EL-SHAIKHY
Figure 11 – Lecanora horiza (Ach.) Röhl.
Figure 12 – Lecanora gr. subfusca (L.) Ach.
Figure 13 – Pertusaria hymenea (Ach.) Schaer.
Figure 14 – Cladonia foliacea subsp. endiviifolia (Dicks.) Boistel.
Frödén, and Xanthoria parietina. Only one
taxon in our list, Pertusaria hymenea (Ach.)
Schaer., has not been mentioned by Durand &
Barrate (1910), Pampanini (1930), or Thor &
Nascimbene (2010).
In our list, only the remarkable species are
listed. Several species could not be determined
at the species level (Lecanora gr. subfusca,
Lecanora sp., Pertusaria sp., Seirophora sp.)
and it is likely that several species barely
visible and/or poorly known have gone unnoticed. These species will need to be reviewed
or researched for further study.
Further surveys are recommended to develop
a more detailed picture of the floristic composition and distribution of the lichen biota
in El-Jabal El-Akhdar region and Libya.
However, the remaining unanswered question
is why only three lichens, Ramalina maciformis, Tornabea scutellifera, and Lecanora
gr. subfusca have dense growth associated
with juniper die-off?
48
Acknowledgement
The authors are indebted to Professor Göran
Thor from the Department of Ecology,
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
Uppsala, Sweden, for confirming some lichens
classification. Also, our thanks are due to
Professor M. J. Harrie Sipman., Dr. Honorary
Curator of Lichens in the Botanical Garden
and Botanical Museum in Berlin, Dahlem,
Germany, for his insightful comments and
matching process of the lichen classification.
References
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