Internal Medine
Section
DOI: 10.7860/JCDR/2015/14844.6899
Experimental Research
Croton membranaceus
Improves Some Biomarkers of
Cardiovascular Disease and
Diabetes in Genetic Animal Models
GEORGE AWUKU ASARE1, SAMUEL ADJEI2, DANIEL AFRIYIE3, AKUA BEMPOMAA APPIAH-DANQUAH4,
JONAS ASIA5, BERNICE ASIEDU6, SHEILA SANTA7, DEREK DOKU8
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) accounts for 17.3
million deaths per year globally. In Ghana, CVD accounts for 22.2%
of deaths. Croton membranaceus (CM) Mull. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae),
a medicinal plant in Ghana is mainly used traditionally for the
treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia and measles. However,
some hypoglycaemic and hypotensive effects have recently been
reported but not scientifically examined.
Aim: The study aimed at establishing whether Croton
membranaceus (CM) used for prostatitis had any effect on CVD
markers.
Materials and Methods: In experiment 1, lipid profile changes
were determined. Twenty four male Spontaneously Hypertensive
Rats (SHR) were divided into 4 groups. Low (LD), intermediate (ID)
and high dose (HD) groups received 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg b.wt.
CM aqueous root extracts (CMARE) for 60 days, respectively, the
controls received distilled water. In experiment 2, blood glucose
levels (BGL) were determined. 21 db/db mice were divided into 3
groups of 7 mice each alongside db/+ mice (7) (negative control).
Groups 1 and 2 received 250 mg/kg b.wt CMARE and metformin,
respectively. Group 3 (positive control) and db/+ mice (negative
control) received distilled water. Mice were monitored for 15 hours.
Data collected were analysed using SPSS version 20.
Results: Hypotriglyceridaemic effect was observed (p=0.005).
High Density Lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) and Low Density
Lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) showed significant increases
(p=0.013) and decreases (p=0.003), respectively. A significant
CRP reduction was observed for ID and HD groups (p = 0.010, p
= 0.011, respectively). BGL was reduced in Metformin and Croton
groups (p=0.000; p= 0.006, respectively) after 3 hours.
Conclusion: In conclusion, CMARE has positive effects on some
CVD biomarkers and a hypoglycaemic effect.
Keywords: Blood glucose, Inflammation, Lipid profile
INTRODUCTION
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) including stroke, heart attack and
heart failure, is the leading cause of disease and death in the
developed world, and is poised to become a significant health
problem in developing countries [1]. Cardiovascular disease
(CVD) accounts for 17.3 million deaths per year globally [2].
More people die of atherosclerosis and its complications, such
as stroke, myocardial infarction, and arrhythmias, than all other
medical problems combined [3]. Furthermore, cardiovascular
disorders pose an increasing burden on health resources of many
low and middle-income countries [4]. In the past few decades
many treatment strategies have been developed based on the
different pathomechanisms of CVD [5]. Inflammatory processes
are important contributors to atherogenesis. Atherosclerosis is
the dominant cause of cardiovascular disease. One of the most
extensively studied biomarkers of inflammation in cardiovascular
diseases is C-reactive protein (CRP), and high levels have been
shown to predict cardiovascular events and appear to confer
greater risk for cardiovascular disease [6]. Furthermore, people
with type 2 diabetes also have high rates of high blood pressure,
dyslipidemia, and obesity, which contribute to their high rates of
CVD [7].
Diabetes mellitus Type 2, is a chronic condition leading to microvascular complications such as nephropathy, neuropathy,
retinopathy and macro-vascular complications such as coronary
heart disease, peripheral vascular disease and stroke [8]. A WHO
2009 report, ranks hyperglycaemia third, when examining deaths
attributed to risk factors [1]. Type 2 diabetes is multi-factorial with
genetic predisposition as well as environmental factors of diet and
obesity [9]. There is a growing interest in herbal remedies due to
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some side-effects associated with conventional hypoglycaemic
agents and increasing scientific evidence of the efficacy of some
medicinal plants [10].
Furthermore, the use of medicinal plant preparations all over the
world exceeds that of conventional drugs by two to three times [11].
Medicinal plants including Crataegus oxycantha, and Astragalus
membranaceus, have been found to have therapeutic benefits for
the treatment of cardiovascular disease [12].
The α-adrenoceptor agonist drug (Doxazosin) used for treating
hypertension also appears to have therapeutic effects on benign
prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) [13]. The root extract of Croton
membranaceus Mull. Arg. (Euphobiaceae) has been used in the
treatment of BPH and prostate cancer. Many of the same risk factors
associated with CVDs also relate to risk factors for BPH. However,
the full potential of C. membranaceus in offering protection against
CVDs has not been explored. The primary aim of the study therefore
was to investigate the anti-lipidemic and anti-inflammatory effects
of C. membranaeceus using Spontaneously Hypertensive rats
(SHR), a genetic model of hypertension that is widely accepted in
medical research because of the features they share with idiopathic
hypertension in humans [14]. The secondary aim was to examine its
hypoglycaemic potential using diabetic mice.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant Material
The roots of Croton membranaceus were harvested in December
2012 and authenticated by the Center for Scientific Research
into Plant Medicine (CSRPM), Mampong, Akuapem, Ghana. The
sample of the plant was deposited at the herbarium of CSRPM with
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George Awuku Asare et al., C. membranaceus Improves Some CVD and DM Biomarkers
a voucher specimen number CSRP 2110. The aqueous root extract
was obtained as previously described [15]. The freeze-dried extract
was weighed and stored in a sealed container in a refrigerator at a
temperature of 5 ± 3oC until use.
Two experiments were carried out: In experiment 1, male SHR were
used to determine the hypolipidemic and anti-inflammatory effects
of C. membranaceus aqueous root extract (CMARE). In experiment
2, diabetic mice db/db and db/+ were used to determine the
hypoglycaemic effect of CMARE.
Animals
The protocol was approved by the Scientific and Technical committee
of the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR)
(STC 2009-02-3). SHR were provided by NMIMR and housed at the
University of Ghana Medical School Animal Experimentation Unit
in a temperature controlled room (25± 2ºC) under a 12h light /12h
dark cycle and allowed to acclimatize for 7 days prior to the studies.
Diabetic mice were also housed at NMIMR under similar standard
international housing conditions. Animals were treated humanely
and fed the standard pellet diet and water ad libitium.
Experiment 1: Effect of CMARE on Lipid Profile and
Inflammation
Male SHR were divided into four groups of 6 rats each. SHR in
group I (normal control) fed the standard chow diet and water only.
Rats in group II (low dose - LD) were orally administered with a
dose of 25 mg/kg b.wt. of CMARE, rats in groups III (intermediate
dose - ID) and IV (high dose- HD) were orally administered with
50 and 100 mg/kg b.wt. CMARE, respectively. All rats fed the
standard chow diet. After 60 days of extract administration, rats
were anesthetized {0.1 ml/100 g wt. ketamine hydrochloride and
xylazine hydrochloride (4:1)} and cardiac puncture performed on all
animals before euthanasia. 3ml of blood was dispensed into serum
separator gel tubes. Serum was used for Triglycerides (TG), Total
Cholesterol (TC), and High Density Lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL)
using BioSystem kits, Calibrators and standards (Madrid, Spain).
The assays were carried out according to the manufacturer’s
instructions on the A25 BioSystem autoanalyser (Madrid, Spain).
LDL cholesterol was calculated using the Friedwald equation {LDL=
TC-HDL-(TG/2.2)}.
CRP Determination
High levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) have been shown to
predict cardiovascular events and appear to confer greater risk for
cardiovascular disease. Therefore the assessment of CRP gives
an indication of the degree of inflammation. Serum was used for
C-reactive protein (CRP) determination using i-CHROMATM kits
(London, UK) on the i-CHROMATM reader (Gang-won-do, Republic
of Korea).
In brief, i-CHROMATM CRP is based on fluorescence immunoassay.
This technique uses a sandwich immune detection method that
allows the fluorescence-labeled detector anti-CRP antibody in a
buffer to bind to CRP antigens in the blood sample. The Ag-Ab
complex when introduced onto a test cartridge and the complex
allowed to migrate on the nitrocellulose matrix of the test strip by
capillary action is captured by a second antibody recognizing the
CRP Ag-Ab complex. Signal intensity of the fluorescence of the
detector antibody read on the i-CHROMATM microprocessor unit,
reflects the amount of CRP captured, hence the amount in the
blood sample. A CRP control was used for quality control.
Experiment 2: Effect of CMARE on Glycaemic Activity
Adult db/db and db/+ male mice weighing 30.5-46.5 g and 5-7
months old bred in NMIMR (Department of Animal Experimentation)
were used for the experiment. The strains db/db mice were used for
the test groups and positive controls, whereas db/+ mice were used
for the negative controls. Mice were kept in steel cages within the
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facility and allowed free access to water and standard mice pellets.
On transfer to the research area, mice were allowed one week
acclimatization period before commencement of the experiment.
The mice were deprived of food 12 hours prior to the experiment.
Pre-experiment Screening
At the commencement of the experiment, 32 db/db mice were
weighed using the Animal Scale TS 870 (TGC INT, Japan). The tails
of mice were cleaned with 70% ethanol and allowed to dry. The
level of Fasting Blood Glucose (FBG) of the mice was determined
using Lifescan Johnson and Johnson One Touch Ultra® glucometer
kit and One Touch Ultra 2 glucometer (Milipitas, CA) after obtaining
blood by tail tip pricking. The db/db mice with FBG< 9.0 mmol/l
were then excluded from the experiment whereas db/db mice with
FBG > 9.0 mmol/l were used for the experiment. These diabetic
mice (totaling 21) were then randomly selected into three groups (7
per group), Croton group, Metformin group, and the Positive control
group. The Negative control group db/+, was made up of 7 nondiabetic mice. Mice were individually labeled and handled according
to the International Convention for the use and care of experimental
animals [16].
Glycaemic Activity Test
CMARE and metformin tablets were dissolved in distilled water
and orally administered at a dose of 250 mg/ kg b. wt. to the
respective mice groups using calibrated syringes and ball-ended
administrative needles. The positive and negative control groups
were however not administered with either CMARE or metformin
but with an equivalent volume of distilled water. Mice were allowed
to feed continuously following CMARE, metformin or distilled water
administration and blood glucose level (BGL) was determined by tail
vein bleeding at 1, 2, 3 and 15 hours.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Data obtained was analysed using SPSS (Statistical Package for
Social Sciences) version 20.0. Means ± SEM were determined
for quantitative variables. To determine the existence of statistical
significance, student t-test (paired) was used while variables with
more than two outcomes, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used
followed by Bonferroni post-hoc test. A p-values ≤ 0.05 were
considered significant.
RESULTS
Effect of CMARE on Lipid Profile
In the low dose group there was no significant change in any of
the analytes estimated. TC did not show any significant change
among the various groups [Table/Fig-1]. In the intermediate group,
a significant hypotriglyceridaemic effect (p=0.005) was observed
[Table/Fig-2]. In the high dose group, HDL and LDL showed a
significant increases (p=0.013) and decrease (p=0.003), respectively
[Table/Fig-3,4]. ANOVA between the four groups for HDL, LDL, TG
and TC were all not significant. However, a post-hoc analysis (LSD)
showed a significant association between the control and high dose
LDL (p=0.021) and control and high dose HDL (p=0.046). CRP
values before and after for the four groups were as follows: C = 4.20
± 0.33 and 4.1 ± 0.35; LD = 4.0 ± 0.34 and 3.76 ± 0.33; ID = 4.3 ±
0.25 and 2.75 ± 0.25; HD = 4.01 ± 0.41 and 3.0 ± 0.43. All results
were expressed in mg/l. Significant differences were observed in the
ID and HD groups (p=0.010, p = 0.011, respectively) [Table/Fig-5].
Effect of CMARE on Glycaemic Activity
At 0 h there was no significant difference in fasting blood glucose
(FBG) in both the Metformin and Croton groups compared to the
positive control group. At 1 h, there was a significant reduction in
BGL in the Metformin group compared to Positive control group (p=
0.000), however, there was no significant reduction in the BGL of the
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George Awuku Asare et al., C. membranaceus Improves Some CVD and DM Biomarkers
Croton group compared to the Positive control group. At 2 hours
there was a significant reduction in BGL in the Metformin group
compared to the Positive control group (p= 0.000), whereas for
Croton group there was no significant reduction in BGL compared
to the positive control group (p=0.083). Contrary to the above trend
however, there was a significant reduction of the BGL in both the
Metformin and Croton groups (p=0.000; p= 0.006, respectively)
compared to the positive control group at 3 hours. Additionally, at
15 hours, BGL in the Croton group was 11.2 ± 1.56 mmol/l which
was lower than the level in the Metformin group (12.31 ± 1.63
mmol/l). However, differences were not significant compared to
the positive control group. The negative control demonstrated the
normal pattern of postprandial glucose levels. Area under the curve
(AUC) demonstrated significant hypoglycaemic effect of CMARE
compared to the positive control [Table/Fig-6].
DISCUSSION
Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) are excellent models of
primary or essential hypertension that occurs in humans. This
model of cardiovascular disease has been used extensively in over
4000 Medline references [17]. SHR follow the same progression
of hypertension in humans starting from pre hypertension to a
sustained hypertension phase with each lasting several weeks [18].
The combined abnormalities of lipids such as raised total cholesterol,
low High-Density Lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL), and Low-Density
lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) as well as their independent variables
have also been suggested to characterize hypertensive dyslipidemia,
and either of these abnormalities is independently atherogenic. Bay
leaves decreased LDL cholesterol by 32 to 40%, HDL cholesterol
increased by 20 and 29% and TG also decreased by 25-34% after
30 days of capsulated powdered leaves administration [19]. Other
studies have also shown that treatment with dandelion (Taraxacum
officinale) root, positively changed lipid profiles in cholesterol-fed
[Table/Fig-1]: Total cholesterol (TC) levels of the low dose (LD), intermediate dose
(ID) and high dose (HD) groups did not show any significant change after 60 days of
CMARE administration to spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR)
[Table/Fig-3]: HDL cholesterol significantly increased (p=0.013) in the high dose
group (HD) after 60 days of 100 mg/kg b, wt. CMARE administration to spontaneously
hypertensive rats (SHR)
[Table/Fig-2]: Significant triglyceride (TG) change (p=0.005) was observed in the
Intermediate dose group (ID) after 60 days treatment with 50 mg/kg b.wt. CMARE
administration to male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR)
[Table/Fig-4]: A significant difference (p=0.003) in LDL cholesterol was observed in
the high dose group (HD) after 60 days of 100 mg/kg b.wt. CMARE administration
to male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR)
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George Awuku Asare et al., C. membranaceus Improves Some CVD and DM Biomarkers
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rabbits, suggesting potential hypolipidemic effects [20]. In some
studies the root back extract of Nauclea latifolia not only lowered the
LDL and HDL levels positively, but also reduced cholesterol levels
[20]. Roots of Asparagus racemosus (AR) widely used in Ayurvedic
system of medicine in India is known for its steroidal saponin
content. The root extract reduces cholesterol levels by stimulating
bile production, which in turn binds cholesterol [20].
[Table/Fig-5]: The figure show reduction in CRP after SHR were orally administered
low dose (LD = 25 mg/kg b.wt), intermediate dose (ID=50 mg/kg b.wt) and high
dose (HD = 100 mg/kg b.wt) CMARE for 60 days. Mean CRP levels for the 50 mg/
kg b.wt. group were significant after treatment (p = 0.025)
In this aspect of the study, the significant effect of CMARE was seen
in the HD group. TC levels remained relatively unchanged at 3.0
mmol/l. This represents a much higher level compared with earlier
studies on SHR (1.46 mmol/l) [21]. LDL was significantly reduced
from 1.27 to 0.48mmol/l (p = 0.003) in the HD group. This was much
higher than results obtained from the study of Tomiyasu et al., (LDL
= 0.12 mmol/l) after SHR fed Hippophae rhamnoides for 60 days
[22]. Furthermore, HDL (high dose group) significantly increased
from 1.47 to 2.59mmol/l (p = 0.013) contrary to the decrease that
was observed in the study of Tomiyasu et al., [22]. HDL increase
is cardiovascular protective. TG in the ID group was initially 1.99
and reduced to 0.67mmol/l after 60 days which was statistically
significant (p = 0.005). Thus, TG levels dropped by 66%. Similar
results were obtained by Singh et al., using Cynodondactylon
extract in streptozotocin diabetic rats. In that study, TG reduced by
77% [23].
One biomarker of cellular events during inflammation is CRP. Few
medicinal plants have been implicated in lowering CRP. In this
study, CRP was lowered in C. membranaceus intermediate dosetreated group. Similarly, the Chinese monoherbal injection lowered
inflammatory markers including CRP when the inflammation induced
by carrageenan in the rat pleurisy model, and by xylene in the mice
ear edema model, were adopted to study the anti-inflammatory
activity of Houttuynia cordata [24]. Other inflammatory markers
may be employed in future studies to affirm the anti-inflammatory
properties of C. membranaceus.
[Table/Fig-6a&b]: Bar chart [Table/Fig-6b] of AUC [Table/Fig-6a] showing significantly reduced blood glucose level (BGL) in the db/db mice treatment groups
{Metformin Gp - 250 mg/kg b.wt. metformin) (p=0.02) and Croton Gp – 250 mg/
kg b.wt. CMARE (p=0.05)} compared to the untreated group (positive control) after
15 hours of single dose administration. However, differences between treatment
groups and negative control db/+ mice, were significant after 15 hours (p=0.001)
4
The incidence of CVD is increased 2-4 fold in people with type 2
diabetes [25]. Several therapies for reducing hyperglycaemia are
currently available. These include treatment by sulfonylureas that
stimulate pancreatic islet cells to secrete insulin, α-glucosidase
inhibitors that interfere with glucose absorption and metformin which
acts to reduce hepatic glucose production. However, because of
the numerous side effects and limited efficacy, alternative therapies
are being sought all over the world. Most plant extracts have several
activities against various ailments and have multiple target sites. In
this study CMARE reduced BGL from 17.99 to 11.07 mmol/l, 3
hours after administering CMARE. Levels were significantly lower
than values in diabetic mice. This significantly mild hypoglycaemic
activity was sustained at a much longer period than the effect of
metformin. Indeed at 15 h, values in the CMARE and metformin
groups were 11.21 and 12.31 mmol/l, respectively, suggesting
a sustained hypoglycaemic effect of CMARE, against the rapid
hypoglycaemic effect of metformin, hence the less tendency for
CMARE to cause hypoglycaemia in diabetic patients. The bark of
Croton cajucara Benth. (Euphorbiaceae) demonstrated a significant
hypoglycaemic activity in alloxan-induced diabetic rats, at oral
doses of 25 and 50 mg/kg body weight [26]. Similarly, the stem
barks of Croton cuneatus Klotz (Euphorbiaceae) had an antidiabetic
activity in hyperglycaemic rat models [2]. While the leaves of most
hypoglycaemic medicinal plants such as Croton zambesicus have
been documented, only few plants have such activities in the
roots [27]. Others like Biophytum sensitivum (Oxalidaceae), and
Carallumaedulis (Apocynaceae) stimulate the synthesis and release
of insulin from the pancreas [28]. Yet others like Calamintha officinalis
Moench (Lamiaceae) cause hypoglycaemia without affecting insulin
levels [29]. For other plants such as Cassia auriculata (Fabaceae)
there is a shift from gluconeogenesis to glycolysis [30]. The exact
mechanism by which C. membranaceus exerts its hypoglycaemic
effect is yet to be elucidated.
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George Awuku Asare et al., C. membranaceus Improves Some CVD and DM Biomarkers
LIMITATION
One animal model representative of cardiovascular disease and
diabetes would have been the ideal model instead of the two
different animal models used.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the findings of this study revealed that CMARE
significantly lowered triglyceride, CRP and glucose levels and may
be apposite in dealing with some aspects of CVD in addition to its
major therapeutic effect on BPH.
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PARTICULARS OF CONTRIBUTORS:
1. Faculty, Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences,
University of Ghana, P.O. Box KB 143, Korle bu, Accra, Ghana.
2. Faculty, Department of Animal Experimentation, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana.
3. Faculty, Department of Pharmacy, Ghana Police Hospital, Cantonments, Accra, Ghana.
4. Faculty, Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences,
University of Ghana, P.O. Box KB 143, Korle bu, Accra, Ghana.
5. Faculty, Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences,
University of Ghana, P.O. Box KB 143, Korle bu, Accra, Ghana.
6. Faculty, Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences,
University of Ghana, P.O. Box KB 143, Korle bu, Accra, Ghana.
7. Faculty, Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences,
University of Ghana, P.O. Box KB 143, Korle bu, Accra, Ghana.
8. Faculty, Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences,
University of Ghana, P.O. Box KB 143, Korle bu, Accra, Ghana.
NAME, ADDRESS, E-MAIL ID OF THE CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Dr. George Awuku Asare,
Chemical Pathology Unit, Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Biomedical and Allied Health Sciences,
College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, P.O. Box KB 143, Korle-bu, Accra, Ghana.
E-mail: gasare@chs.edu.gh
FINANCIAL OR OTHER COMPETING INTERESTS: None.
Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2015 Dec, Vol-9(12): OF01-OF05
Date of Submission: May 10, 2015
Date of Peer Review: Aug 17, 2015
Date of Acceptance: Aug 26, 2015
Date of Publishing: Dec 01, 2015
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