Handbook of herbs and spices
Volume 3
Edited by
K. V. Peter
CRC Press
Boca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC
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Contributor contact details
(* = main point of contact)
Editor
Professor K. V. Peter
Kerala Agricultural University
KAU-PO
Vellanikkara, Thrissur – 680656
Kerala State
India
Chapter 3
Dr A. Sharma
Food Technology Division
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Mumbai – 400 085
India
E-mail: ksarun@apsara.barc.ernet.in
E-mail: kvptr@yahoo.com
Chapter 1
Dr D. Heperkan
Department of Food Engineering
Istanbul Technical University
34469 Maslak
Istanbul
Turkey
E-mail: heperkan@itu.edu.tr
Chapter 2
Dr K. J. Venugopal
G – 339
‘Aparna’
Panampilly Nagar
Kochi 682 036
Ernakulam District
Kerala
India
E-mail: venukj@yahoo.com
Chapters 4 and 12
Dr C. K. George
7520 Weymouth Hill Road
Clifton, VA 20124
USA
E-mail: ckgeorge@gmail.com
Chapter 5
Ms K. King
Gourmet Garden
PO Box 128
Palmwoods
Queensland
Australia 4555
E-mail: Kerri.King@gourmetgarden.com
xiv
Contributor contact details
Chapter 6
Ms C. Kehler
Canadian Herb, Spice and Natural Health
Product Coalition
Saskstchewan Herb and Spice Association
Box 60 Belle Plaine
Saskatchewan S0G 0G0
Canada
Chapter 9
Dr Satyabrata Maiti* and Dr K. A. Geetha
National Research Centre for Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants
Boriavi 387 310
Anand
Gujarat
India
E-mail: shsa@imagewireless.ca
E-mail: satyabratamaiti@hotmail.com
geethaka99@yahoo.com
Jan Schooley
Box 587 Simcoe
Ontario
Canada N37 4NS
E-mail: jan.schooley@omafra.gov.on.ca
Chapter 7
Dr T. S. C. Li
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
PARC Summerland
4200 Hwy 97
Box 5000
Summerland BC
Canada V0H 1Z0
E-mail: lit@agr.gc.ca
Chapter 8
Dr H. A. Collin
11 Johnsons Close
Westminister Park
Chester CH4 7RB
UK
E-mail: H.A.Collin@liverpool.ac.uk
Chapter 10
Dr C. C. Tassou
National Agricultural Research
Foundation
Institute of Technology of Agricultural
Products
S Venizelou 1
Lycovrissi 14123
Greece
E-mail: microlab.itap@nagref.gr
Chapter 11
Dr T. J. Zachariah* and Dr N. K. Leela
Indian Institute of Spices Research
Marikunnu (PO)
Calicut-673 012
Kerala
India
E-mail: john@iisr.org
Chapter 13
Dr Gabriel O. Sozzi*
Cátedra de Fruticultura
Facultad de Agronomía
Universidad de Buenos Aires and
CONICET
Avda. San Martín 4453
C 1417 DSE – Buenos Aires
Argentina
E-mail: gsozzi@agro.uba.ar
Contributor contact details
Dr Ariel R. Vicente
Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en
Criotecnología de Alimentos
CONICET–UNLP
47 and 116
B 1900 AJJ – La Plata
Argentina
xv
Chapter 17
Dr A. A. Farooqi* and K. N. Srinivasappa
Division of Horticulture
University of Agricultural Sciences
GKVK
Bangalore
India
E-mail: aa.farooqi@rediffmail.com
Chapter 14
Dr K. Nirmal Babu* and
Dr M. Divakaran
Indian Institute of Spices Research
Marikunnu (PO)
Calicut – 673 012
Kerala
India
E-mail: nirmalbabu30@hotmail.com
Dr K. V. Tushar and Dr P. N. Ravindran
Centre for Medicinal Plants Research
PS Warriers Arya Vaidya Sala
Kottakkal
Kerala
India
E-mail: pnravi2003@yahoo.co.in
Chapters 15 and 18
Dr S. K. Malhotra
National Research Centre for Seed Spices
Ajmer – 305 206
Rajasthan
India
E-mail: malhotraskraj@yahoo.com
Chapter 16
Dr S. Kumar*, Dr R. Kumar and
Dr J. Singh
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research
Post Box 5002
Varanasi
India
E-mail: sanjeetk1@sify.com
Chapter 19
Dr H. Chen
Beijing Vegetable Research Centre
(BVRC)
Banjing West Suburb
P. O. Box 2443
Beijing 100089
China
E-mail: rlzong@yahoo.com
Chapter 20
Dr P. N. Ravindran* and Dr G. S. Pillai
Centre for Medicinal Plants Research
Arya Vaidya Sala
Kottakkal – 676 503
Kerala
India
E-mail: pnravi2003@yahoo.co.in
pn-rnair@hotmail.com
Chapter 21
Dr P. N. Ravindran* and
Dr I. Balachandran
Centre for Medicinal Plants Research
Arya Vaidya Sala
Kottakkal – 676 503
Kerala
India
E-mail: pnravi2003@yahoo.co.in
pn-rnair@hotmail.com
xvi
Contributor contact details
Chapter 22
Dr K. R. M. Swamy* and
Dr R. Veere Gowda
Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research
Hessaraghatta Lake Post
Bangalore 560 089
India
E-mail: krmswamy@yahoo.co.in
Dr P. N. Ravindran and
Professor K. V. Peter
Centre for Medicinal Plants Research
Arya Vaidya Sala
Kottakkal – 676 503
Kerala
India
E-mail: avscmpr@sify.com
avscmpr@yahoo.co.in
Chapter 23
Dr H. Turhan
Department of Field Crops
Faculty of Agriculture
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University
Terzioglu Campus 17020
Canakkale
Turkey
Chapter 26
Dr M. H. Mirjalili*
Medicinal Plants and Drug Research
Institute
Shahid Beheshti University
Tehran
Iran
E-mail: hturhan@comu.edu.tr
E-mail: M-Mirjalili@cc.sbu.ac.ir
Chapter 24
Dr Baby. P. Skaria*, Dr P. P. Joy,
Dr S. Mathew and Dr G. Mathew
Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research
Station
Odakkali
Asamannor PO
Ernakalam-683 549
India
E-mail: amprs@satyam.net.in
Chapter 25
Dr K. Nirmal Babu* and
Dr M. Divakaran
Indian Institute of Spices Research
Calicut – 673 012
Kerala
India
E-mail: nirmalbabu30@hotmail.com
Dr J. Javanmardi
Department of Horticulture
Faculty of Agriculture
Shiraz University
Shiraz
Iran
E-mail: jmljvn@yahoo.com
Chapter 27
Dr S. Wongpornchai
Faculty of Science
Chiang Mai University
239 Huay Kaew Road
Chiang Mai 50200
Thailand
E-mail: scismhth@chiangmai.ac.th
Contributor contact details
Chapter 28
Dr P. Pushpangadan*
Amity Institute for Herbal and Biotech
Products Development
c/o Ranjeev Gandhi Center for
Biotechnology
Thiruvananthapuram
India
Chapter 30
Dr U. B. Pandey
Jain Irrigation Systems Limited
Agri Park, Jain Hill
Shirsoli Road
Jalgaon 425 001
India
E-mail: agripark@jains.com
E-mail: palpuprakulam@yahoo.co.in
Dr S. K. Tewari
National Botanical Research Institute
Lucknow – 226 001
India
Chapter 29
Dr P. N. Ravindran*
Centre for Medicinal Plants Research
Arya Vaidya Sala
Kottakkal – 676 503
Kerala
India
E-mail: avscmpr@sify.com
avscmpr@yahoo.co.in
Dr M. Shylaja
Providence Women’s College
Calicut – 673 009
Kerala
India
Chapter 31
Dr N. K. Patra and Dr B. Kumar
Central Institute of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants
PMVD Division
CIMAP
P.O. CIMAP
Lucknow – 226 015
(UP) India
E-mail: dr_nkpatra@yahoo.co.in
birenk67@yahoo.co.in
xvii
Introduction
Herbs and spices play a pivotal role in the day-to-day life of mankind as important
flavouring agents in foods, beverages and pharmaceuticals and also as ingredients in
perfumes and cosmetics. The manufacturers of foods, beverages, cosmetics and
pharmaceuticals are responding to the growing wave of consumer resistance and
legislative limitations set for products containing chemical additives. Spices as sources
of natural colours and flavours present welcome opportunities in the international
market. The nutritional, antioxidant, antimicrobial and medicinal properties of spices
also have widespread applications.
I.1
Production of quality spices
Production of quality clean spices without any pesticide/chemical residues is important
in this era of free international trade resulting from globalisation. Organic spices
which fetch 20 to 50% higher prices than spices from conventional farms are devoid
of pesticides and chemical residues and are superior in quality. Adoption of good
agricultural practices helps to reduce the above contaminants. Quality assurance
systems such as HACCP is of great relevance in the production of quality spices.
Decontamination techniques and proper packaging and storage techniques play a
major role in maintaining quality of spices.
I.1.1 Rational uses of pesticides and controlling the pesticide/chemicals
residues in herbs and spices
All over the world, people are becoming more and more conscious of health problems
due to consumption of foods contaminated with pesticide residues. It is estimated
that a large number of people suffer from pesticide poisoning and suffer every year
due to the toxic effects of chemicals. Promotion of a farming technique adopting
ecologically sound plant protection measures, organic recycling and bio-waste
management would go a long way in bringing back the health of soil and reducing the
pesticide residues of farm produce. The role played by various beneficial microorganisms
including mycorrhizae, biocontrol agents and plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria
are enormous in enhancing crop growth and disease control without leaving any
chemical residues on plants. The effective bioagents for the control of major diseases
of spice crops are listed in Table I.1.
xx
Introduction
Table I.1
Effective bio agents for the control of major diseases in spice crops
Crops
Major diseases
Causal organisms
Bio control agents
Cardamom (small)
Azhukal
Phytophthora meadii,
P. nicotianae var.
nicotianae
Rhizoctonia solani,
Pythium vexans
Trichoderma viride
T. harzianum
Laetisaria arvalis
Gliocladium virens
Arbiscular Mycorhizal
Fungi (AMF)
Trichoderma sp.
Pseudomonas
fluorescens
Bacillus subtilis
Rhizome rot
Black pepper
Vanilla
Seed rot
Seedling rot
Fusarium oxysporum
R. solani, P. vexans
Root rot
F. oxysporum
Foot rot
(quick wilt)
Phytophthora capsici
Slow decline
(slow wilt)
Rodophilus similies,
Meloidogyne incognita
Root rot
Fusarium oxysporum,
Sclerotium rolfsi
P. meadii, F. oxysporum
Sclerotium rolfsii
F. oxysporum,
Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides
Stem rot, stem
blight, beans rot,
beans yellowing
and rotting shoot
tip rot
Ginger
Soft rot
(rhizome rot)
AMF
T. viride, T. harzianum,
Gliocladium virens
Paecilomyces lilacinus
G. virens, T. viride
T. harzianum, AMF
Verticillum,
Chlamydosporium sp.
Pasteuria penetrans
T. viride, T. harzianum
B. subtilis
P. fluorescens
T. viride
T. harzianum
P. fluorescens
Ginger yellows
Pythium
aphanidermatum,
P. myriotylum,
Fusarium sp.
Turmeric
Rhizome rot
Storage rots
Rhizoctonia solani,
Sclerotium rolfsii
Trichoderma sp.
Chillies,
Paprikas
Damping off in
seedlings
Pythium sp.,
Phytophthora sp.
Anthracnose
(fruit rot)
Colletotrichum
lindemuthianum
T. viride
T. harzianum
P. fluorescens
B. subtilis
P. fluorescens
B. subtilis
Trichoderma sp.
Thyme
Wilt disease
Leaf rot
F. oxysporum
F. oxysporum
T. viride
T. harzianum
Rosemary
Sage
Thread blight
Wilt
Rhizoctonia solani
R. solani
T. harzianum
T. harzianum
Mint
Wilt
F. oxysporum
T. harzianum
Horse-radish
Leaf blight
Root rot, wilt
Colletotrichum sp.
Verticillium sp.
T. harzianum
T. harzianum
Burmese-coriander
Marjoram
Wilt
Leaf blight
Leaf spot
Leaf spot
Fusarium sp.
Colletotrichum sp.
Phoma sp.
Curvularia lunata
T.
T.
T.
T.
Oregano
T. viride
T. harzianum
Trichoderma sp.
harzianum
harzianum
harzianum
harzianum
Introduction
xxi
Guidelines for production of organic spices are developed for various producing
countries. The Spices Board of India (2001) published the guidelines for production
of organic spices in India. The nutrient composition of selected organic cakes and
recommended quantity of organic manure for various spice crops are presented in
Table I.2.
I.1.2 Radiation processing to decontaminate spices
Radiation processing offers good scope for increasing shelf life, enhancing quality
and microbial safety without changing the natural flavour attributes of spices. This
technique is widely practised in North America and Europe to decontaminate imported
Table I.2 (a) Nutrient composition of selected organic cakes and (b) recommended quantity of
organic manure for various spice crops
(a)
Oil cakes
Nutrient contents (%)
Edible cakes
Coconut cake
Niger cake
Sesamum cake
Sunflower cake
Groundnut cake
Non-edible cake
Cotton seed cake (with shells)
Mahua cake
Neem cake
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potash
3.0
4.7
6.2
7.9
7.3
1.9
1.8
2.0
2.2
1.5
1.8
1.2
1.2
1.9
1.3
6.4
2.51
5.22
2.9
0.80
1.08
2.2
1.85
1.48
(b)
Spice crops
Organic manure
Quantity
Black pepper
Small cardamom
Farmyard manure
Neem cake/FYM/Vermicompost/Poultry
manure
Cattle manures/organic cakes
Farmyard manure/Vermicompost
Farmyard manure/
Sheep manure/
Neem cake
Farmyard manure/
Neem cake
Farmyard manure/
Neem cake
Farmyard manure
Farmyard manure
Farmyard manure
Farmyard manure
Farmyard manure
Farmyard manure
Farmyard manure
4–10 kg/plant
4–5 kg/plant
Large cardamom
Vanilla
Chilli
Ginger
Turmeric
Fennel
Coriander
Cumin
Fenugreek
Celery
Clove
Nutmeg
Source: Spices Board of India (2001).
2 kg/plant
4–5 kg/plant
4–5 t/ha
3–5 q/ha
3–4 q/ha
5–6 t/ha
2 t/ha
5–6 t/ha
2 t/ha
10–12 t/ha
4 t/ha
4–5 t/ha
4–5 t/ha
10–12 t/ha
15–40 kg/plant
15–40 kg/plant
xxii
Introduction
spices. The various producing countries also started installing facilities for radiation
processing of spices. Radiation sterilisation along with good agricultural and
manufacturing practices help to produce clean, high quality spices free from pesticide
and chemical residues. Being a cold process, it does not affect the delicate aroma and
flavour compounds in spices. The risk of post-treatment contamination can be eliminated
by subjecting the pre-packed spices to irradiation. Table I.3 gives the list of countries
that have approved irradiation processing of food products and spices items permitted
for irradiation under the Indian Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) rules.
Low doses of irradiation (< 1 K.Gy) help to inhibit sprouting in onion, garlic,
ginger, etc. A medium dose application (1–10 K.Gy) eliminates spoilage microbes
and food pathogens and high dose application (>10 K.Gy) sterilises food for special
requirements and for shelf-stable foods without refrigeration.
I.1.3 Packaging in spices for maintenance of quality
Spice products are hygroscopic in nature and being highly sensitive to moisture,
Table I.3 (a) Countries which have approved radiation processing of food products and (b) spice
items permitted for irradiation under Indian Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) rules
(a)
S. no. Country
S. no. Country
S. no. Country
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Argentina
Australia
Austria
Bangladesh
Belgium
Brazil
Canada
Chile
China
Costa Rica
Croatia
Cuba
Czech Republic
Denmark
Egypt
Finland
France
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Hungary
India
Indonesia
Iran
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Republic of Korea
Libya
Luxemburg
Mexico
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Pakistan
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Russian Federation
South Africa
Spain
Sweden
Syria
Thailand
Turkey
Ukraine
UK
Uruguay
USA
Vietnam
Yugoslavia
(b)
Name of spice
Onion
Shallots (small onion)
Garlic
Ginger
Spices
Source: Sharma et al. (2003).
Dose of irradiation
Minimum
Maximum
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
6.0
0.09
0.15
0.15
0.15
14.0
Purpose
Sprout inhibition
Sprout inhibition
Sprout inhibition
Sprout inhibition
Microbial decontamination
Introduction
xxiii
absorption of moisture may result in caking, discolouration, hydrolytic rancidity,
mould growth and insect infestation. As spices contain volatile aromatic principles,
loss of these principles and the absorption of foreign odours as a result of inefficient
packaging may pose serious problems. In addition, heat and light accelerate deterioration
of aroma and flavour components.
Spices containing natural colouring pigments need protection from light (capsicum,
cardamom, turmeric and saffron). Spice powders like onion and garlic contain highly
volatile sulphur compounds and need rigorous protection from loss/absorption of
flavour. The essential oil components naturally present in most of the spices are
subject to oxidation by atmospheric oxygen, particularly at high storage temperature
resulting in the development of off-flavours. Packing of spice oils and oleoresins is
done in epoxy lined steel drums and high-density polythene containers. For certain
oils and oleoresins, aluminium and stainless steel containers are used. Polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) bottles, which possess very good odour barrier properties and
food-grade high-molecular-weight high-density polyethylene (HMHDPE) containers
are also used for storing essential oils and oleoresins. Most of the whole spices are
protected by pericarp and the natural antioxidants present therein, and need less
rigorous protection than ground spices. The packaging materials suitable for different
spice products are listed in Table I.4.
Table I.4
Packaging in spices
Spice
Product
Type of packaging
Packing material
Black pepper
Whole pepper
Bulk
Whole pepper
Ground pepper
Retail
Retail
Green cardamom
Bulk
Cardamom seed
Retail
Cardamom powder
Retail
Ginger
Turmeric
Dry ginger
Dry turmeric
Turmeric powder
Turmeric powder
Bulk
Bulk
Retail
Bulk
Chilli
Dry chilli
Bulk
Chilli powder
Retail
Gunny bags (burlap bags)
polyethylene-lined double burlap
bags.
HDPE pouches 200 gauge
Laminated heat stable
aluminium foil (polyethylene
coated)
Moisture-proof cellulose film
Double-lined polyethylene bags
Wooden boxes or tins lined with
heavy gauge black polyethylene,
metal foil or waterproof paper.
Air-tight tin. Wooden chests
lined with aluminium foil laminate
Lacquered cans, PVDC and
HDPE pouches
Single/double gunny bags
Double gunny bags
Aluminium foil laminate
Fibreboard drums, multiwall
bags and tin containers
Wooden crate dunnage with a
layer of matting
Plastic laminate and aluminium
combination pouches with
nitrogen gas.
3000 gauge low-density
polyethylene pouches
Cardamom
Source: Pruthi ( 1993).
xxiv
I.2
Introduction
Herbs and spices as sources of natural colours and flavours
The food sector is now experiencing a trend back towards natural colourants due to
changes in legislation and consumer preference as synthetic food colourants pose
health hazards like cancer, asthma, allergy, hyperacidity and thyroidism. But low
tinctorial power, poor stability (to changes in pH, oxygen, heat and light), low solubility,
off-flavour and high cost limit the use of natural colours. These problems can be
overcome by improving the traditional extraction methods using enzymes,
microorganisms, super-critical CO2, membrane processing and encapsulation techniques.
Before synthetic colours came into existence, spices like chilli, saffron, turmeric,
etc., were used in Indian cuisines to add colour. The Central Food Technological
Research Institute of India (CFTRI) has developed technology for the manufacture of
certain natural food colours such as kokum (red) and chillies (red). Kokum contains
2–3% anthocyanin and is regarded as a natural colour source for acidic foods.
Garcinol is the fat soluble yellow pigment isolated from rind of kokum fruit. Garcinol
is added at 0.3% level to impart an acceptable yellow colour to butter. Colour components
present in spices and natural shades available with spices are presented in Table I.5.
I.2.1
Sources of natural colours in spices
Paprika
The colour in paprika is due to carotenoids, namely capsanthin and capsorubin,
comprising 60% of total carotenoids. Other pigments are cryptoxanthin, xeaxanthin,
violaxanthin, neoxanthin and lutein. The outer pericarp of paprika is the main source
of capsanthin and capsorubin. Indian paprika oleoresin is orange in colour which is
less preferred in the international market. Oleoresin contains up to 50% capsorubin.
Paprika oleoresin is insoluble in water whilst being readily soluble in vegetable oil
and is made dispersible in water by the addition of polysorbate.
Applications are in sausages, cheese sauces, gravies, salad dressings, baked goods,
snacks, icings, cereals and meat products.
Table I.5
Colour components in spices
Colour component
Tint
Spice
Carotenoid
β-carotene
Cryptoxantein
Lutin
Zeaxanthin
Capsanthin
Capsorubin
Crocetin
Neoxanthin
Violaxanthin
Crocin
Flavonoids
Curcumin
Chlorophylls
Reddish orange
Red
Dark red
Yellow
Dark red
Purple red
Dark red
Orange yellow
Orange
Yellowish orange
Yellow
Orange yellow
Green
Red pepper, mustard, paprika, saffron
Paprika, red pepper
Paprika, parsley
Paprika
Paprika, red pepper
Paprika, red pepper
Saffron
Parsley
Parsley, Sweet pepper
Saffron
Ginger
Turmeric
Herbs
Source: Ravindran et al. (2002).
Introduction
xxv
The ingredients of paprika colour are paprika oleoresin and refined vegetable oil.
Stability is as follows:
Heat
pH (colour range)
Light
Concentration
good
pale pinkish
good
40000 IU
Turmeric
Curcumin is the golden-yellow pigment present in turmeric, regarded as the pure
colouring principle with very little of flavour components. It is produced by
crystallisation from the oleoresin and has a purity level of 95%. Pure curcumin is
insoluble in water and hence is dissolved in food grade solvent and permitted emulsifier
(Polysorbate 80). Curcumin gives a lemon-yellow colour in acidic pH. It is used at
levels of 5–20 ppm. Curcumin is available in two basic forms, oleoresin and curcumin
powder, both are used as food colourants.
The ingredients of turmeric colour (oil soluble) are curcumin and turmeric oleoresin
Stability is as follows:
Heat
pH (colour range)
Light
Application
very good
greenish yellow to reddish yellow
poor
butter, margarine, cream desserts, fruit wine, bread,
biscuit and cakes.
It is blended with other natural colours such as annatto and beetroot red for use in
confectionary, ice cream, dairy products such as yoghurts.
Saffron
Saffron gives a wonderful golden colour to food but due to its powerful and distinctive
flavour, it is prized in soups, stews, bread and rice dishes in many global cuisines.
Saffron is perceived as luxurious and expensive and hence its use is restricted in
foods. The intensive colour of saffron is caused by carotenoids, especially crocetine
esters with gentobiose. Other carotenoids present are alpha and β carotene, lycopene
and zeaxanthin.
I.2.2 Spices as sources of natural flavours
The increasing demand in developed countries for natural flavour offers tremendous
potential for spice crops as sources of natural flavours. The main flavour compounds
present in herbs and spices are presented in Table I.6. The recovery of essential oil
and oleoresin from various spices and the major aromatic principles present in spices
are illustrated in Table I.7. Extraction of oils and oleoresins is accomplished using a
range of methods, including steam distillation, hydrocarbon extraction, chlorinated
solvent extraction, enzymatic treatment and fermentation, and super-critical carbon
dioxide extraction.
Carbon dioxide extraction from solid botanicals is now adopted on a commercial
scale. The resulting essential oils have no solvent residue, fewer terpenes and enhanced
black notes. Enzymatic treatment and fermentation of raw botanicals also result in
greater yields and quality of essential oil. More recently, the use of genetic engineering
xxvi
Introduction
Table I.6
Important flavour compounds in spices
Spice
Important flavour compounds
Allspice
Anise
Black pepper
Caraway
Cardamom
Cinnamon, cassia
Chilli
Clove
Coriander
Cumin
Dill
Fennel
Ginger
Mace
Mustard
Nutmeg
Parsley
Saffron
Turmeric
Vanilla
Basil, sweet
Bay laurel
Marjoram
Oregano
Origanum
Rosemary
Sage, Clary
Sage, Dalmation
Sage, Spanish
Savory
Tarragon
Thyme
Peppermint
Spearmint
Eugenol, β-caryophyllene
(E)-anethole, methyl chavicol
Piperine, S-3 Carene, β-caryophyllene
d-carvone, crone derivatives
α-terpinyl acetate, 1-80-cineole, linalool
Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol
Capsaicin, dihydro capsacin
Eugenol, eugeneyl acetate
d-linalool, C10-C14-2-alkenals
Cuminaldehyde, p-1,3-mentha-dienal
d-carvone
(E)-anethole, fenchone
Gingerol, Shogaol, neral, geranial
α-pinene, sabinene, 1-terpenin-4-ol.
Ally isothiocynate
Sabinene, α-pinene, myristicin
Apiol
Safranol
Turmerone, Zingeberene, 1,8-cineole
Vanillin, p-OH-benzyl-methyl ether
Methylchavicol, linalool, methyl eugenol
1,8-cineole
e- and t-sabinene hydrates, terpinen-4-ol
Carvacrol, thymol
Thymol, carvacrol
Verbenone, 1-8-cineole, camphor, linanool
Salvial-4 (14)-en-1-one, linalool
Thujone, 1,8-cineole, camphor
e- and t-sabinylacetate, 1,8-cineole, camphor
Carvacrol
Methyl chavicol, anethole
Thymol, carvacrol
1-menthol, menthone, menthfuran
1-carvone, carvone derivatives
and recombinant DNA technology have resulted in in vitro production of natural
esters, ketones and other flavouring materials. Cloning and single cell culture techniques
are also of benefit to the flavourist.
I.2.3 Herbs and spices as medicinal plants
The medicinal properties of spices have been known to mankind from time immemorial.
Spices were used extensively in the traditional systems of medicines such as
Ayurveda, Sidha and Unani. In the recent past, there has been increasing interest in
the biological effects of spices as they are safe and cause no side effects to humans.
Extensive studies are going on in developed countries for the separation of medicinal
components from spices and evaluation of their biological properties. A classic example
for such study is the Piperine alkaloid separated from black pepper and marketed as
Bioperine (98% pure piperine). This alkaloid could increase bioavailability of certain
drugs and nutrients like beta carotene. The medicinal properties of spices are summarised
in Table I.8.
Introduction xxvii
Table I.7
Recovery of essential oil and oleoresin from spices and the major aromatic principle
Spice
Essential oil (%)
Aromatic principle
Oleoresin (%)
Black pepper
Cardamom (small)
Cardamom (large)
Ginger
Turmeric
Nutmeg
Clove
Cinnamon
1–4.0
6–10
1–3
1–2.5
2–6
7–16
16–18
1–3
10–13
10–12
–
5–10
8–10
10–12
20–30
10–12
Allspice
1–3 (leaf oil)
3–4.5 (berry oil)
Terpin hydrate
α–terpinyl acetate 1,8–cineole
1,8–cineole
Zingiberine
Turmerone
Myristicine Elemicin
Eugenol
Cinnamaldehyde
(bark oil)
Eugenol (leaf oil)
Camphor (root bark oil)
Eugenol
Table I.8
–
Medicinal properties of spices
Spice
Medicinal property
Black pepper
Carminative, antipyretic, diuretic, anthelminthic, antiflammatory and
antiepileptic
Antidepressive, carminative, appetizer, diuretic
Carminative, anti nauseant, diuretic, antiflatulence, antihistaminic, aphrodisiac
and cholesterol lowering
Carminative, antibiotic, antiflatulence, antiseptic and anti-inflammatory
Antimicrobial, diuretic, diaphoretic, antiflatulence, cholesterol lowering and
anti-inflammatory
Antiflatualnce, analgesic, stimulant, carminative and antinauseant
Stimulant, carminative, astringent, aphrodisiac, anti-inflammatory
Stiumlant, Carminative, astringent, aphrodisiac, anti-inflammatory
Carminative and antirheumatic
Stimulant, stomachic and anticarcinogenic
Stimulant, digestive and carminative
Stomachic, anthelminitic, diaphoretic, expectorant, antipyretic carminative,
stimulant, diuretic, demulcent
Stimulant, narcotic
Stomachic, carminative, anthelminitic, lactagogue
Stimulant, tonic, diuretic, carminative, emmenagogue, anti-inflammatory
Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, aphrodisiac, emmenegogue, anti-inflammatory
Carminative, diuretic, tonic, stimulant, stomachic, refrigerent, aphrodisiac,
analgesic, anti-inflammatory
Stimulant, carminative, stomachic, astringent and antiseptic
Carminative, stomachic, antipyretic
Stimulant, carminative, stomachic, emmenagogue
Carminative, tonic, aphrodisiac
Stimulant, expectorant
Carminative, expectorant, tonic, astringent
Stimulant, stomachic, carminative, antiseptic
Stimulant, carminative and antispasmodic
Stimulant, carminative, stomachic, diuretic, diaphoretic and emmenagogue
Stimulant, diuretic, carminative, emmenagogue, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory
Mild irritant, carminative, stimulant, diaphoretic
Mild tonic, astringent, carminative
Aperient, stomachic, stimulant, febrifuge
Antispasmodic, carminative, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, spasmodic, laxative,
stomachic, tonic, vermifuge
Cardamom
Ginger
Turmeric
Garlic
Clove
Nutmeg
Cinnamon
Chilli
Saffron
Allspice
Basil, sweet
Bayleaves (laurel)
Caraway
Celery
Chive
Coirander
Cumin
Dill
Fennel
Fenugreek
Leek
Marjoram
Mint (peppermint)
Mint (spearmint)
Oregano
Parsley
Rosemary
Sage
Tarrgon
Thyme
xxviii
Introduction
This volume is the third in the series Handbook of herbs and spices and has two
parts. The first part deals with general aspects referred to the industry such as quality
spice production, quality assurance systems, decontamination techniques, packaging,
spices as sources of natural colours and flavours, effect of Agreement on Agriculture
on spice production and export, etc. The second part deals with detailed information
on individual spices. It is hoped that this book will form a good reference source for
those who are involved in the study, cultivation, trade and use of spices and herbs.
I.3
References and further reading
APARNATHI, K.D.
and BORKHATRIYA, V.N. 1999. Improved extraction and stabilization of natural food
colourants. Indian Fd. Ind. 18(3): 164–168.
DOWNHAM, A. and COLLINS, P. 2000. Colouring our foods in the last and next millennium. Int. J. Fd.
Sci. Technol. 35(1): 5–22.
HENRY, B. 1998. Use of capsicum and turmeric as natural colours in the food industry. Indian Spices
35(3): 9–11.
PETER, K.V. (ed.) 2001. Handbook of Herbs and Spices, Vol. I. Woodhead Publishing Limited,
Abington, UK.
PETER, K.V. (ed.) 2004. Handbook of Herbs and Spices, Vol. II. Woodhead Publishing Limited,
Abington, UK.
PRUTHI, J.S. 1993. Major spices of India – Crop Management Post-harvest Technology. ICAR, New
Delhi.
PRUTHI, J.S. 2000. Minor Spices of India – Crop Management and Post-harvest Technology. ICAR,
New Delhi.
PURSEGLOVE, J.W., BROWN, E.G., GREEN, C.L. and ROBBINS, S.R.J. 1981. Spices Vols I and II (Tropical
Agriculture Series), Longman, London.
RAVINDRAN , P.N., JOHNY, A.K. and NIRMAL BABU, K. 2002. Spices in our daily life. Satabdi Smaranika
Vol. 2 Arya Vaidya Sala, Kottakkal, Kerala, India.
SHARMA, A., KOHLI, A.K., SHARMA, G. and RAMAMOORTHY, N. 2003. Radiation hygienization of spices
and dry vegetable seasonings. Spice India 1(1): 26–29.
SPICES BOARD OF INDIA. 2001. Guidelines for production of organic spice in India. Spice Board,
Kochi, Kerala, India.
Contents
Contributor contact details ................................................................................
xiii
Introduction ........................................................................................................
xix
I.1
Production of quality spices ...........................................................
xix
I.2
Herbs and spices as sources of natural colours and flavours ....... xxiv
I.3
References and further reading ...................................................... xxviii
Part I
1
2
3
Improving the safety of herbs and spices .......................................
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs
and spices ..................................................................................................
D. Heperkan, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
1.1
Introduction .....................................................................................
1.2
Naturally occurring mycotoxins in herbs and spices ....................
1.3
Mycobiota of spices and herbs and possible mycotoxin
production .......................................................................................
1.4
Detecting mycotoxins in herbs and spices ....................................
1.5
Preventing and controlling mycotoxin contamination ..................
1.6
Future trends ...................................................................................
1.7
Sources of further information and advice ....................................
1.8
References .......................................................................................
Controlling pesticide and other residues in herbs and spices ...........
K. J. Venugopal, AVT McCormick Ingredients (P) Ltd, India
2.1
Introduction .....................................................................................
2.2
The regulation of pesticide residues ..............................................
2.3
Analytical methods for detecting pesticide residues ....................
2.4
Control of pesticide residues in herbs and spices .........................
2.5
Integrated pest management and organic production ...................
2.6
Acknowledgements .........................................................................
2.7
References.......................................................................................
Irradiation to decontaminate herbs and spices ...................................
A. Sharma, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India
3.1
Introduction .....................................................................................
3.2
Quality considerations ....................................................................
1
3
3
4
13
19
27
33
34
34
41
41
42
44
49
54
58
58
60
60
61
vi
Contents
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
4
5
6
Other decontamination techniques for
herbs and spices .......................................................................................
C. K. George, Peermade Development Society, India
4.1
Introduction .....................................................................................
4.2
Preventive measures against contamination ..................................
4.3
Organic production .........................................................................
4.4
GAP, GMP, ISO 9000, HACCP, and ISO 22000 ..........................
4.5
Decontamination techniques ..........................................................
4.6
Sterilization of herbs and spices ....................................................
4.7
Detoxification .................................................................................
4.8
Sources of further information and advice ....................................
4.9
References .......................................................................................
Packaging and storage of herbs and spices ..........................................
K. King, Gourmet Garden, Australia
5.1
Introduction .....................................................................................
5.2
Consumer trends driving innovation .............................................
5.3
Herb and spice product formats and packaging techniques .........
5.4
Essential oils ...................................................................................
5.5
Oleoresins .......................................................................................
5.6
Storage requirements for fresh and dried herbs and spices .........
5.7
Types of packaging materials ........................................................
5.8
Printing ............................................................................................
5.9
Microbiological safety of herbs and spices ...................................
5.10 New packaging materials used in herbs and spices ......................
5.11 Future trends ...................................................................................
5.12 References.......................................................................................
67
70
71
71
72
73
74
74
75
79
79
80
82
83
84
85
86
86
86
87
91
92
93
94
97
98
100
100
101
QA and HACCP systems in herb and spice production ....................
C. Kehler, Canadian Herb, Spice and Natural Health Coalition,
Canada and J. Schooley, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Canada
6.1
Introduction .....................................................................................
6.2
HACCP planning for herb and spice production ..........................
6.3
Plant identification practice ...........................................................
6.4
Future trends ...................................................................................
6.5
Acknowledgement ..........................................................................
6.6
Bibliography ...................................................................................
103
Herbs and spices as functional ingredients and flavourings .....
111
The range of medicinal herbs and spices .............................................
T. S. C. Li, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food
Research Centre, Canada
7.1
Introduction .....................................................................................
113
Part II
7
Application of ionizing radiation ...................................................
Nutritional and safety aspects ........................................................
International approval .....................................................................
SPS application to boost international trade .................................
Detection of irradiated spices and herbs .......................................
References and further reading ......................................................
103
104
108
110
110
110
113
Contents
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
8
9
The role of medicinal herbs and spices .........................................
Major constituents and therapeutic uses of medicinal herbs
and spices ........................................................................................
Future trends ...................................................................................
Sources of further information ......................................................
References .......................................................................................
vii
118
118
121
121
121
Herbs, spices and cardiovascular disease .............................................
H. Collin, University of Liverpool, UK
8.1
Introduction .....................................................................................
8.2
Chemical composition of herbs and spices ...................................
8.3
Herbs spices and cardiovascular disease .......................................
8.4
Measurement of antioxidants .........................................................
8.5
Complex mixtures versus single compounds ................................
8.6
Conclusions .....................................................................................
8.7
References .......................................................................................
126
Herbs, spices and cancer .........................................................................
S. Maiti and K. A. Geetha, National Research Centre for Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants, India
9.1
Introduction .....................................................................................
9.2
What is cancer? ..............................................................................
9.3
Cancer therapy in modern medicine ..............................................
9.4
Complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) ......................
9.5
Mechanism of action of herbs and spices .....................................
9.6
Evidence supporting the functional benefits of herbs and spices
9.7
Botany of some important herbs in cancer therapy ......................
9.8
References .......................................................................................
138
126
127
129
132
134
135
135
138
139
139
140
142
142
145
149
10 Herbs, spices and gut health ..................................................................
C. C. Tassou, National Agricultural Research Foundation, Greece
10.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
10.2 Herbs and spices as digestive stimulants ......................................
10.3 The effects of herbs and spices on enteric bacterial pathogens ...
10.4 Herbs and spices as growth promoters in animal studies.............
10.5 Anti-inflammatory activity .............................................................
10.6 Effect on gut immunity ..................................................................
10.7 Adverse effects ...............................................................................
10.8 Future trends ...................................................................................
10.9 Sources of further information ......................................................
10.10 References .......................................................................................
151
11 Volatiles from herbs and spices ..............................................................
T. J. Zachariah and N. K. Leela, Indian Institute of Spices
Research, India
11.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
11.2 Classification of volatiles ...............................................................
11.3 Biosynthesis of the components of volatile oils ...........................
11.4 Volatiles and plant sources .............................................................
11.5 References .......................................................................................
177
151
152
154
159
161
163
165
166
167
167
177
177
179
183
211
viii
Contents
Particular herbs and spices ...........................................................
219
12 Asafetida ....................................................................................................
C. K. George, Peermade Development Society, India
12.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
12.2 World trade .....................................................................................
12.3 Chemical constituents ....................................................................
12.4 Extraction ........................................................................................
12.5 Processing .......................................................................................
12.6 Quality issues ..................................................................................
12.7 Main uses ........................................................................................
12.8 References .......................................................................................
221
13 Capers and caperberries .........................................................................
G. O. Sozzi, Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICET, Argentina
and A. R. Vicente, CONICET–UNLP, Argentina
13.1 Introduction: brief description .......................................................
13.2 Chemical composition ....................................................................
13.3 Cultivation and production .............................................................
13.4 Uses in food processing .................................................................
13.5 Functional and health benefits .......................................................
13.6 Quality issues and future trends ....................................................
13.7 References .......................................................................................
230
14 Carambola .................................................................................................
K. N. Babu and D. Minoo, Indian Institute of Spices Research,
India and K. V. Tushar and P. N. Ravindran, Center for
Medicinal Plants Research, India
14.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
14.2 Description ......................................................................................
14.3 Origin and distribution ...................................................................
14.4 Cultivars and varieties ....................................................................
14.5 Climate ............................................................................................
14.6 Propagation .....................................................................................
14.7 Planting ...........................................................................................
14.8 Soils, water and nutrients ...............................................................
14.9 Pests and diseases ...........................................................................
14.10 Harvesting and yield ......................................................................
14.11 Keeping quality ..............................................................................
14.12 Food uses ........................................................................................
14.13 Food value ......................................................................................
14.14 Medicinal uses ................................................................................
14.15 Other uses .......................................................................................
14.16 References .......................................................................................
257
15 Caraway ....................................................................................................
S. K. Malhotra, National Research Centre on Seed Spices, India
15.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
15.2 Cultivation .......................................................................................
15.3 Chemical structure ..........................................................................
15.4 Main uses in food processing ........................................................
270
Part III
221
224
225
225
226
227
227
229
230
231
233
243
245
247
247
257
258
258
260
260
261
261
262
262
263
263
264
265
267
267
267
270
272
277
280
Contents
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
ix
Functional properties ......................................................................
Toxicity ...........................................................................................
Quality specifications .....................................................................
References .......................................................................................
285
290
291
293
16 Cayenne/American pepper .....................................................................
S. Kumar, R. Kumar and J. Singh, Indian Institute of Vegetable
Research, India
16.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
16.2 The genus Capsicum ......................................................................
16.3 Pod types and quality breeding goals ............................................
16.4 Uses in food processing .................................................................
16.5 Cultivation .......................................................................................
16.6 Conclusions .....................................................................................
16.7 References .......................................................................................
299
17 Celeriac ......................................................................................................
A. A. Farooqi, C. Kathiresan and K. N. Srinivasappa, University of
Agricultural Sciences, India
17.1 Introduction and description ..........................................................
17.2 Production .......................................................................................
17.3 Further Reading ..................................................................................
313
299
300
301
301
307
309
311
313
314
316
18 Celery .........................................................................................................
S. K. Malhotra, National Research Centre on Seed Spices, India
18.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
18.2 Cultivation .......................................................................................
18.3 Post-harvest handling .....................................................................
18.4 Cultivars ..........................................................................................
18.5 Chemical structure ..........................................................................
18.6 Main uses in food processing ........................................................
18.7 Functional properties ......................................................................
18.8 Quality specifications .....................................................................
18.9 References .......................................................................................
317
19 Chives ........................................................................................................
H. Chen, Beijing Vegetable Research Centre, China
19.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
19.2 Chemical composition and nutritional value .................................
19.3 Cultivation and production .............................................................
19.4 Varieties ..........................................................................................
19.5 References and further reading ......................................................
337
20 Galanga .....................................................................................................
P. N. Ravindran and G. S. Pillai, Centre for Medicinal Plants
Research, India
20.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
20.2 Cultivation and production .............................................................
20.3 Tissue culture studies .....................................................................
20.4 Functional properties ......................................................................
20.5 Chemistry ........................................................................................
20.6 Uses .................................................................................................
347
317
319
321
321
322
324
328
331
334
337
337
340
343
344
347
348
349
350
351
352
x
Contents
20.7
20.8
K. rotunda .......................................................................................
References and further reading ......................................................
353
353
21 Galangal ....................................................................................................
P. N. Ravindran and I. Balachandran, Centre for Medicinal Plants
Research, India
21.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
21.2 Production .......................................................................................
21.3 Molecular pharmacology ................................................................
21.4 Functional properties ......................................................................
21.5 Alpinia officinarum Hance (lesser galangal, Chinese ginger) ......
21.6 Alpinia calcarata (lesser galangal) ................................................
21.7 References and further reading ......................................................
357
357
359
360
360
362
363
363
22 Leek and shallot .......................................................................................
K. R. M. Swamy and R. Veere Gowda, Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research, India
22.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
22.2 Leek .................................................................................................
22.3 Cultivation and production .............................................................
22.4 Uses in food industry/processing ...................................................
22.5 Functional properties ......................................................................
22.6 Quality issues ..................................................................................
22.7 Shallot .............................................................................................
22.8 Cultivation and production .............................................................
22.9 Uses in food industry/processing ...................................................
22.10 Quality issues ..................................................................................
22.11 References .......................................................................................
365
23 Lemon balm ..............................................................................................
H. Turhan, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
23.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
23.2 Chemical composition ....................................................................
23.3 Cultivation and production .............................................................
23.4 Main uses ........................................................................................
23.5 Functional/health benefits ..............................................................
23.6 Quality issues ..................................................................................
23.7 References .......................................................................................
390
24 Lemongrass ...............................................................................................
B. P. Skaria, P. P. Joy, S. Mathew and G. Mathew, Aromatic and
Medicinal Plants Research Centre, India
24.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
24.2 Species and varieties ......................................................................
24.3 Origin and distribution ...................................................................
24.4 Cultivation and processing .............................................................
24.5 Physiology and Biochemistry ........................................................
24.6 Chemical composition ....................................................................
24.7 Uses in food processing .................................................................
24.8 Functional properties ......................................................................
24.9 Quality issues ..................................................................................
400
365
366
370
378
378
380
381
383
386
387
387
390
391
392
394
394
397
397
400
400
401
401
408
408
409
413
414
Contents
24.10 References .......................................................................................
25 Long pepper ..............................................................................................
K. N. Babu and M. Divakaran, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India;
P. N. Ravindran, Centre for Medicinal Plants Research, India; and
K. V. Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India
25.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
25.2 Chemical composition of long pepper ..........................................
25.3 Uses .................................................................................................
25.4 Cultivation .......................................................................................
25.5 Quality specifications .....................................................................
25.6 Biotechnology .................................................................................
25.7 Future ..............................................................................................
25.8 References .......................................................................................
xi
416
420
420
423
428
431
434
434
435
436
26 Lovage ........................................................................................................
M. H. Mirjalili, Shahid Beheshti University, Iran and
J. Javanmardi, Shiraz University, Iran
26.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
26.2 Chemical composition ....................................................................
26.3 Cultivation and production .............................................................
26.4 Use in food .....................................................................................
26.5 Functional/health benefits ..............................................................
26.6 References .......................................................................................
438
27 Pandan wangi ...........................................................................................
S. Wongpornchai, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
27.1 Description ......................................................................................
27.2 Cultivation, production and processing .........................................
27.3 Chemical structure ..........................................................................
27.4 Uses in food ....................................................................................
27.5 Functional properties ......................................................................
27.6 References .......................................................................................
453
28 Peppermint ................................................................................................
P. Pushpangadan and S. K. Tewari, National Botanical Research
Institute, India
28.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
28.2 Description ......................................................................................
28.3 Cultivation and production .............................................................
28.4 Chemical composition ....................................................................
28.5 Commercial uses ............................................................................
28.6 Quality issues ..................................................................................
28.7 References .......................................................................................
460
29 Perilla .........................................................................................................
P. N. Ravindran, Centre for Medicinal Plants Research, India and
M. Shylaja Providence Women’s College, India
29.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
29.2 Crop production and management .................................................
29.3 Chemical composition ....................................................................
482
438
439
443
446
448
450
453
454
455
457
458
458
460
460
462
470
471
475
478
482
484
486
xii
Contents
29.4
29.5
29.6
Biotechnological approaches .........................................................
Functional properties and pharmacological studies ......................
References and further reading ......................................................
487
488
491
30 Potato onion (Multiplier onion) .............................................................
U. B. Pandey, National Horticultural Research and Development
Foundation, India
30.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
30.2 Chemical composition and uses ....................................................
30.3 Production .......................................................................................
30.4 Uses in food processing .................................................................
30.5 Medicinal properties .......................................................................
30.6 Toxicity ...........................................................................................
30.7 Quality.............................................................................................
30.8 References .......................................................................................
494
31 Spearmint ..................................................................................................
N. K. Patra and B. Kumar, Central Institute of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants, India
31.1 Introduction .....................................................................................
31.2 Chemical composition, biosynthesis and genetics of
essential oil ....................................................................................
31.3 Cultivation and production ............................................................
31.4 Diseases, pests and their control ...................................................
31.5 Food uses ........................................................................................
31.6 Medicinal uses ................................................................................
31.7 Functional benefits .........................................................................
31.8 Quality issues ..................................................................................
31.9 References .......................................................................................
502
Index .................................................................................................................
520
494
495
496
498
498
499
499
500
502
503
504
510
512
512
512
516
517
Part I
Improving the safety of herbs and spices
1
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin
contamination of herbs and spices
D. Heperkan, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
1.1 Introduction
Spices have been used in foods, mainly as flavouring and colouring agents as well as
for their functional properties such as being antioxidant and antimicrobial. While
some spices inhibit growth of microorganisms and some retard their growth others
reduce mycotoxin production (Bullerman et al., 1977; Akgül and Kıvanç, 1998; Yin
and Cheng, 1998; Beuchat, 2001; Juglal et al., 2002). They can be invaded by
bacteria, yeast and moulds themselves immediately after harvesting till final consumption
(Schwab et al.,1982; Garrido et al.,1992; McKee, 1995; Erdogrul, 2000; Garcia et
al., 2001). Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by different genera of moulds
under favourable conditions. Moulds can contaminate agricultural commodities during
harvesting, drying, processing and storage and some of them are capable of producing
secondary metabolites, causing acute or chronic diseases in human and animals.
Mycotoxins can also be found in animals and animal products through the ingestion
of mouldy feed.
There are approximately two secondary metabolites per fungal species which
means that there are potentially 20,000 to 300,000 unique mycotoxins (CAST, 2003).
Among these mycotoxins, the ones that have world-wide importance and are currently
considered are aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, T-2 toxin and
zearalenone (WHO/FAO, 2001). This evaluation has been based on significant impact
on human health and animal productivity (WHO/FAO, 2001), however, the emphasis
can vary from country to country or among regions, altering the ranking. For example,
fumonisin presence in corn is not considered to be an important hazard in Australia,
because corn is not a frequent item in the diet (Pitt and Hocking, 2004). On the other
hand, fumonisin in corn is considered to be among the primary important mycotoxins
in the USA (Miller, 2002). Similarly, aflatoxin does not pose an important threat to
consumers in Europe, since it does not appear in high concentrations due to inconvenient
temperatures, and moreover the limits are extremely low and inspections are strict on
imported products. It keeps its importance in countries where the temperature is
convenient, such as in the USA (Bhatnagar et al., 2004), Africa (Shephard, 2004;
Njapau and Park, 2005), and Asia (Park et al., 2005).
4
Handbook of herbs and spices
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a wide spread toxin found in crops in Europe and appears
frequently in bread and flour (Jorgensen and Petersen, 2002). Actually, blood and
milk analyses carried out in Europe show that consumers have been exposed to OTA
(Skaug et al., 2005). The kidney disease called Balkan Endemic Nefropati (BEN)
particularly seen in the Balkans, has been proved to be a result of crop consumption
containing ochratoxin A and citrinin (Vrabcheva et al., 2000; Pfohl-Leszkowicz et
al., 2002). In the light of these evaluations, although it is difficult to arrange a general
list according to their importance, covering every country and every product, researchers
have agreed that aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, trichotecenes and zearalenone
(ZEN) are important mycotoxins (Anklam and Stroka, 2002; Park, 2002a).
The most important element in defining the type of mycotoxin humans are exposed
to, is the dietary habits of communities. For example, herbs and spices constitute an
important part of the daily menu for some societies and are consumed in large
quantities. It is customary to add red pepper to almost every dish in the southern and
eastern regions of Turkey. Similarly, spices are more frequently used in countries in
the Middle East, South Asia, some parts of Europe and South America. Hence
contaminated spices and herbs will constitute a health hazard to consumers (Geeta
and Kulkarni, 1987; Freire et al., 2000; Thirumala-Devi et al., 2000; Elshafie et al.,
2002). In essence aflatoxins are known hepatocarcinogens (Henry et al., 2002); OTA
is nephrotoxic and teratogenic (Walker, 2002); fumonisin has been associated with
several fatal diseases in animals, including equine leukoencephalomalacia and esophegal
cancer in humans (Yoshizava et al., 1994; Bullerman et al., 2002); trichothecenes
inhibit proteins, causing dermal necrosis and gastroenteritis (Bullerman, 2000; CAST,
2003) and zearalenone has estrogenic activity (Ryu et al., 2002); therefore their
presence in foods and feeds should be eliminated.
1.2
Naturally occurring mycotoxins in herbs and spices
Spices can be obtained from fresh fruits after drying and grinding or they may be
different parts of plants like the seed, the bark or the roots. Herbs are usually the leafy
parts of the plant (Farkas, 2000) and are more commonly used for medicinal or
therapeutic purposes. During harvesting and sun drying, spices and herbs can be
contaminated with moulds. Many strains of moulds, while growing under favourable
conditions, produce metabolites that are toxic to humans and animals. These toxic
secondary metabolites are called mycotoxins.
The growth of mould and the production of mycotoxins are influenced by intrinsic
and extrinsic factors as well as stress factors and physical damage of kernels. Intrinsic
factors are related to the properties of the products such as moisture content or water
activity (aw), pH, redox potential (Eh), nutrient content (substrate), inhibitors and
osmotic pressure. The extrinsic factors are related to environmental conditions such
as temperature, relative humidity (ERH) and gases in the environment. Intrinsic and
extrinsic factors promoting mycotoxin production can differ from mould to mould.
For example P. verrucosum is an important ochratoxin-producing mould in temperate
climates like Central and Northern Europe. The temperature range for its growth is
0–31 °C. The same range for ochratoxin production is 4–31 °C (FAO, 2001). It has
already been shown in Denmark that ochratoxin A production in cereal depends
strongly on climatic conditions (Jorgensen and Petersen, 2002). A. carbonarius is
another OTA-producing mould which grows at high temperatures and produces
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices
5
ochratoxin in tropical climates (Heenan et al., 1998; Pitt, 2002). The maximum
temperature for the growth of A. carbonarius is approximately 40 °C, whereas the
optimum temperature 32–35 °C (WHO/FAO, 2001). Deoxynivalenol is produced
under conditions of low oxygen tension. In growing crops, DON is not found (Miller
et al., 1983). In contrast, zearalenone requires oxygen saturation for optimal production,
a condition seen after field crop senescence (Miller, 2002).
The optimum temperature for aflatoxin production is 25–30 °C and the maximum
is 48 °C. The higher temperatures and drought conditions also may favour A. flavus
over other fungi because of its ability to grow on substrates with low water activity
(CAST; 2003). These conditions should be present simultaneously; the presence of
only one is not sufficient (Payne, 1998). Researchers found that peanuts grown with
adequate moisture did not contain aflatoxin. Similarly, peanuts grown under prolonged
drought with temperatures less than 25 °C or greater than 32 °C were free of aflatoxin.
Colonisation by A. flavus and aflatoxin contamination maximised at 30.5 °C (CAST,
2003). In addition to the production of aflatoxin before harvesting, the adverse conditions
during drying, transporting and storing cause accumulation of higher amounts of
aflatoxin. Aflatoxin synthesis starts after 24 hours depending on the conditions and
reaches its maximum level between 36–60 hours (Cary et al., 2000).
Mycotoxins found in spices and herbs and the analysis method used are presented
in Table 1.1. As seen from the table, among spices and herbs the most frequently
studied spice is red pepper and the most frequently encountered mycotoxins are
aflatoxin and ochratoxin. Several mycotoxins were detected in spices and herbs such
as aflatoxin, fumonisin, ochratoxin A, mycophenolic acid, penitrem A, zearalenone
and trichothecenes.
1.2.1 Red pepper
Mycotoxins and their maximum levels detected in red pepper were 969 µg/kg AFB1
(Reddy et al., 2001), 50.4 µg/kg OTA, 15.4 µg/kg ZEN, and 81 µg/kg trichothecenes
(Patel et al., 1996). Aflatoxin can be produced before and after harvest in red pepper.
Taydaş and Aşkın (1995) determined AFB1 with maximum concentration 1.45 µg/kg
in three of 33 red pepper pod samples, collected from fields before harvest. Reddy et
al., (2001) studied 124 samples of three different qualities of chili pods and found
that aflatoxin contamination could be correlated with sample grades such as 50% in
grade 1, 66% in grade 2, 93% in grade 3. The highest concentration of 969 µg/kg
AFB1 was found in one sample representing grade 3 (low quality).
Heperkan and Ermiş (2004) studied 36 ground (flakes) red pepper samples obtained
from different producers from four regions in Turkey. Aflatoxin B1 was detected in
five samples (14%) at levels between 10.5–31.2 µg/kg. The amount of toxin was
higher but the incidence was lower than that noted by other researchers (Taydaş and
Aşkın, 1995) who studied similar areas in Turkey. AFB2 (El-Dessouki, 1992) and
AFG1 (El-Dessouki, 1992; Dokuzlu, 2001) were also detected in addition to AFB1, in
red pepper.
The amount of aflatoxin in red pepper listed in Table 1.1 was higher than the limits
of EC standards (2 µg/kg) except for one study. Low levels of aflatoxin B1 (0.8 µg/
kg) were found in one of two red pepper samples (Taguchi et al., 1995). In addition
to aflatoxins and ochratoxin A, other mycotoxins such as fumonisin, zearalenone and
trichothecenes (Patel et al., 1996) were also determined in red pepper.
Table 1.1
Spice
Mycotoxins in spices and herbs
Property/country
Red pepper-pod (Capsicum annuum)
Turkey
High quality
(grade 1)
India
(grade 2)
India
Low quality)
(grade 3)
India
Red pepper-ground (Capsicum annuum)
Chillies/cayenne
Germany
Paprika(a)
Turkey
Red pepper
Turkey
Red pepper-powder (Capsicum annuum)
Chilli
Imported
samples/USA
Sweet and hot/
Paprika(a)
Germany
Chillies
Germany
Methods
Incidence
Mycotoxins (µg/kg)
range or amount of toxin/
type of toxin/incidence
References
TLC +
fluorescence
spectrofotometer
ELISA
3/33
1.45 µg/kg Aflatoxin B1 (max)
Taydaş and Aşkın, 1995
21/42
Reddy et al., 2001
ELISA
25/38
ELISA
41/44
<10 Aflatoxin B1 16/42
11–30
3/42
>31
2/42
<10 Aflatoxin B1 10/38
11–31
6/38
>31
9/38
<10 Aflatoxin B1 21/44
11–32
4/44
>31
16/44
TLC
11/22
Majerus et al., 1985
TLC +
fluorescence
spectrofotometer
HPLC
30/30
< 5 Aflatoxin B1 7/22
8.4–24 Aflatoxin B1 4/22
1.2–15.9 Aflatoxin B1
Taydaş and Aşkın, 1995
5/36
10.5–31.2 Aflatoxin B1
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
9/12
10 AFs (total) avarage
30 Aflatoxin max
2.8–14.5 Aflatoxin B1
10.1–1.7 Aflatoxin B2
2.9–15.3 AFs (total)
9.6–211 Aflatoxin B1
30.3–7.1 Aflatoxin B2
0.2–18.3 Aflatoxin G1
10.2–218.4 AFs (total)
Wood, 1989
TLC
7/15
TLC
13/24
Reddy et al., 2001
Reddy et al., 2001
El-Dessouki, 1992
El-Dessouki, 1992
Table 1.1
Continued
Spice
Property /country
Methods
Incidence
Mycotoxins (µg/kg)
range or amount of toxin/
type of toxin/incidence
References
Paprika(a)
Turkey
121 samples of
ethnic foods UK
28/31
% 90.3
Max 28.5 Aflatoxin B1
Chilli
TLC + fluorescence
spectrofotometer
Red pepper
Imported foods/
Japan
1/2
Red pepper
Samples
collected from
Egypt, analysed
in USA
Turkey
TLC +
fluorescence
TLC scanner
LC
1.1–5.4 Aflatoxin B1
1.6–50.4 Ochratoxin A
4.5–15.4 Zearalenone
8–81 Trichothecenes
0.8 Aflatoxin B1
Taydaş and Aşkın,
1995
Patel et al., 1996
1/2
10 Aflatoxin B1
Selim et al., 1996
TLC
14/30
Dokuzlu, 2001
HPLC + IAC
8/12
5–25 µg/kg 13/30 Aflatoxin B1
5–15 µg/kg 1/30 Aflatoxin
B1, G1
1–20 Aflatoxin B1
Martins et al., 2001
HPLC + IAC
5/5
2–32 Aflatoxin B1
Martins et al., 2001
HPLC + IAC
3/8
1–5 Aflatoxin B1
Martins et al., 2001
ELISA
17/43
Reddy et al., 2001
HPLC + IAC
4/6
2/6
<10 Aflatoxin B1 12/43
11–33 Aflatoxin B1 1/43
>30 Aflatoxin B1 and
Ochratoxin A 4/43
5.60–69.28 Aflatoxin
2.34–4.91 Ochratoxin A
Aflatoxin B1 5.1 max.
Red pepper
Paprika(a)
Cayenne pepper
Chilli
Chilli
Prepackaged
samples/Portugal
Prepackaged
samples/Portugal
Prepackaged
samples/Portugal
Capsicum annuum/
Indıa
Chilli
Bay leaf
The Netherlands
TLC
Taguchi et al., 1995
Abdulkadar et al., 2004
Beljaars, 1975
Table 1.1
Continued
Spice
Property /country
Methods
Incidence
Mycotoxins (µg/kg)
range or amount of toxin/
type of toxin/incidence
References
Black pepper
Samples collected
from Egypt,
analysed in USA
Brazil
LC
1/2
33
Selim et al., 1996
Freire et al., 2000
Black pepper
Black pepper
Seed
Grain/imported
from India/
Portugal
ELISA
HPLC with
fluorescence
detection
14/26
3/4
Cinnamon
Samples collected
from Egypt,
analysed in USA
Germany
Seed
Prepackaged
samples/Portugal
LC
2/2
Chaetocin, penitrem A,
xanthocillin
15–69 Ochratoxin A
0.2–4.2 Aflatoxin B1
0.08–0.3 Aflatoxin B2
0.08–21 Aflatoxin G1
0.08 Aflatoxin G2
10 and 42 Aflatoxin B1
TLC
ELISA
HPLC+IAC
2/12
20/50
3/7
< 5.2 Aflatoxin B1
10–51 Ochratoxin A
1–5 Aflatoxin B1
Majerus et al., 1985
Thirumala-Devi et al., 2001
Martins et al., 2001
Patel et al., 1996
2/5
0.4–61.2 Aflatoxin
1.8–23.9 Ochratoxin A
1.2–10.8 Zearalenone
15–230 Fumonisins
7–281 Trichothecenes
1–5 Aflatoxin B1
1/3
4.2–13.5 Aflatoxin
2.1–7.5 Ochratoxin A
trace levels of trichothecenes
2 AFs (total) max
Wood, 1989
2/25
23/80 Ochratoxin A
Thirumala-Devi et al., 2001
Black pepper
Coriander
Coriander
Cumin
Curry powder
Curry powder
Ginger
Ginger
Ginger
Prepackaged
samples/Portugal
Imported samples/
USA
Powder/India
TLC
HPLC+IAC
ELISA
Thirumala-Devi et al., 2001
Ferreira et al., 2004
Selim et al., 1996
Martins et al., 2001
Patel et al., 1996
Table 1.1
Continued
Spice
Property /country
Methods
Incidence
Mycotoxins (µg/kg)
range or amount of toxin/
type of toxin/incidence
References
Ginger
Mouldy
ginger/Denmark
India
Field
experiment
HPLC
17/20
Mycophenolic acid
Overy and Frisvad, 2005
44/100
Sahay and Prasad, 1990
Bilgrami et. al., 1991
Nutmeg
Nutmeg
The Netherlands
Germany
TLC
TLC
30/32
11/28
Nutmeg
Japan
2/3
Nutmeg
Prepackaged
samples/Portugal
TLC +
fluorescence
TLC scanner
HPLC + IAC
Aflatoxin B1
106*; 35** Aflatoxin B1 first
planting date
110*; 56** Aflatoxin B1 second
planting date
272*; 279** Aflatoxin B1 third
planting date
23.2 Aflatoxin B1 max
< 5 Aflatoxin B1 (8/28 )
5.4–7.7Aflatoxin B1 (3/28)
0.4–0.6Aflatoxin B1
8/10
Saffron
Prepackaged
samples/Portugal
Powder/India
Japan
HPLC + IAC
ELISA
TLC +
fluorescence
TLC scanner
TLC
HPLC + IAC
Mustard seed
Mustard seed
Turmeric
White pepper
White pepper
White pepper
Brazil
Prepackaged
samples/Portugal
Beljaars et al., 1975
Majerus et al., 1985
Taguchi et al., 1995
2/5
1–5 Aflatoxin B1 3/10
6–20 Aflatoxin B1 3/10
21–60 Aflatoxin B1 2/10
1–5 Aflatoxin B1
Martins et al., 2001
9/25
1/13
11–102 Ochratoxin A
0.6 Aflatoxin B1
Thirumala-Devi et al., 2001
Taguchi et. al., 1995
3/7
Tenuazonic acid
1–5 Aflatoxin B1
Freire et al., 2000
Martins et. al., 2001
Martins et al., 2001
Table 1.1
Continued
Spice
Property /country
Methods
Incidence
Mycotoxins (µg/kg)
range or amount of toxin/
type of toxin/incidence
References
White pepper
Grain/imported
from India/Portugal
HPLC with
fluorescence
detection
powdered/imported
from India/Portugal
HPLC with
fluorescence
detection
0.09–1.1 Aflatoxin B1
0.036–2.1 Aflatoxin B2
0.07–5.3 Aflatoxin G1
0.07–0.45 Aflatoxin G2
0.07–5.1 Aflatoxin B1
0.6–6.3 Aflatoxin B2
0.09–7.2 Aflatoxin G1
0.09–4.5 Aflatoxin G2
0.16–5.12 Aflatoxin
0.86 Ochratoxin A
Ferreira et al., 2004
White pepper
7/10
5/10
7/10
7/10
4/8
2/8
4/8
3/8
5/6
1/6
Mixed spices
powder
a: author’s preferences.
∗: first year.
∗∗: second year.
HPLC + IAC
Ferreira et al., 2004
Abdulkadar et al., 2004
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices 11
1.2.2 Black pepper and white pepper
Black pepper was contaminated with AFs (Selim et al., 1996; Freire et al., 2000),
OTA (Thirumala-Devi et al., 2001), penitrem A, chaetocin and xanthocillin (Freire et
al., 2000). White pepper was contaminated with AFs (Martins et al., 2001; Ferreira
et al., 2004) and tenuazonic acid (Freire et al., 2000). However, other scientists did
not detect any aflatoxins in black pepper (0/4 samples) (Taguchi et al., 1995) (Elshafie
et al., 2002). In white pepper, the incidence (1/13) and the amount of aflatoxin B1
(0.6 µg/kg) were low (Taguchi et al., 1995).
Freire et al., (2000) studied mycoflora and mycotoxins in Brazilian black and
white pepper. Twenty metabolites were observed from black pepper, and seven from
white pepper which were also detected in black pepper. Tenuazonic acid was identified
in the acid fraction of white and black pepper. Chaetocin and penitrem A were
identified from the neutral fraction and xanthocillin from the acid fraction of black
pepper. The toxicities of the metabolites were also studied. Chaetocin was cytostatic,
xanthocillin was not known, tenuazonic acid inhibited plant growth, and penitrem A
was tremorgenic (Freire et al., 2000).
Madhyastha and Bhat, (1984) studied the growth of A. parasiticus and production
of aflatoxin on black and white pepper and found that black pepper supported fungal
growth and aflatoxin production better than white pepper, the values being 62.5 µg/
kg and 44 µg/kg respectively under laboratory conditions. In spite of these high
aflatoxin values, researchers claim that both black and white pepper could be considered
as poor substrates for fungal growth and aflatoxin production because they found that
piperine and pepper oil inhibited A. parasiticus growth and aflatoxin production.
Ferreira et al., (2004) studied 18 samples of white and four samples of black
pepper imported from India. They used silica and C18 columns together which
provided good clean up of pepper extracts for HPLC analysis, with sensitivity at the
low µg/kg–1 level. Only one white pepper sample was found to be heavily contaminated
with aflatoxins (total aflatoxins > 20 µg/kg). Most of the analysed samples contained
two or four aflatoxins, however, they were below the limit of 20 µg/kg fixed by the
European Union. No aflatoxin was detected in one black pepper and seven white
pepper samples.
Aziz and Youssef (1991) examined 130 spice samples used in meat products for
aflatoxins and aflatoxigenic moulds in a study conducted in Egypt. Spice samples
used in the investigation were collected from local meat-processing companies. Aflatoxin
B1 was detected in four samples of black pepper (35 µg/kg) and four of white pepper
(22 µg/kg). The most commonly isolated moulds were Aspergillus flavus (24 isolates)
and A. parasiticus (16 isolates). Aflatoxin contamination of processed meat was
found to be correlated with the addition of spices to fresh meat ingredients.
1.2.3 Other spices and herbs
Cinnamon oils were found to suppress the growth of A. parasiticus (Juglal et al.,
2002) completely. On the other hand, cinnamon samples collected from Egypt and
analysed in the USA were contaminated with aflatoxin B1 with high levels (Selim et
al., 1996). Coriander was contaminated with two types of mycotoxins namely, AFB1
(Majerus et al., 1985) and OTA (Thirumala-Devi et al., 2001). However no aflatoxin
was found in the coriander sample in another research (Selim et al., 1996).
Cumin was contaminated with AFB1 at levels above the tolerance level set by the
World Health Organization (Roy and Chourasia, 1990; Martins et al., 2001). Curry
12
Handbook of herbs and spices
powder is rich in mycotoxins, contaminated with AFB1 (Patel et al., 1996; Martins et
al., 2001), OTA, ZEN, FUM, and trichothecenes (Patel et al., 1996).
Ginger was contaminated with AFs (Patel et al., 1996; Wood, 1989), OTA (Patel
et al., 1996; Thirumala-Devi et al., 2001) and mycophenolic acid (Overy and Frisvad,
2005). Mycophenolic acid produced by Penicillium brevicompactum may cause
secondary mycotoxicosis by affecting the immune system of humans, thus making
them more susceptible to bacterial infections and foodborne diseases (Overy and
Frisvad, 2005).
Mustard is a susceptible substrate for aflatoxin contamination (Sahay and Prasad,
1990; Bilgrami et al., 1991). Bilgrami et al., (1991) found mustard seeds of preharvested crops to be contaminated with various levels of aflatoxin. Delayed planting
resulted in a high incidence of aflatoxin. The amount of aflatoxin detected in the
samples of the third planting date was 272 and 279 µg/kg during the first and second
years respectively. These values were significantly higher than the amounts detected
in the samples of the first (106; 35 µg/kg) and second (110; 56 µg/kg) planting dates
of the respective years. Differences between the two varieties with respect to aflatoxin
contamination can be attributed to the variation in their maturity period as well as
their ability to resist aflatoxin elaboration. However, aflatoxins were not detected in
mustard (0/3 samples) (Taguchi et al., 1995).
Nutmeg and saffron were also found contaminated with AFs (Beljaars et al., 1975;
Martins et al., 2001). High levels of OTA (110 µg/kg) were detected in turmeric,
which is one of the most widely used spices in Indian cooking (Thirumala-Devi et
al., 2001) Elshafie et al., (2002) screened fifteen samples of spices (ginger, cumin,
cinnamon, clove, black pepper, cardamom and coriander) that were heavily contaminated
by A. flavus, for the presence of aflatoxins using HPLC. No aflatoxins were detected
on the samples.
Abou-Arab et al., (1999) collected medicinal plant samples such as peppermint,
chamomile, anise, caraway and tilio, randomly from the Egyptian market and analysed
for aflatoxins. A. flavus was predominant in most samples with the highest level in
peppermint. Aflatoxin contamination was not detected in any of the samples. In
another study it was found that spices such as coriander, cardamon, pippali, and
emblic are contaminated with aflatoxin B1 at levels above the tolerance level set by
the World Health Organization (Roy and Chourasia, 1990).
Herbs and medicinal plants commonly used in Egyptian foods were collected
from Egypt and analysed in the USA by reversed phase liquid chromatography with
UV detection. Aflatoxin B1 was found in Karkadia (24 µg/kg), Halfa bar (camel’s
hay) (64 µg/kg), rawind (48 µg/kg), khashab keena (cinchona bark) (49 µg/kg), misht
ballot (26 µg/kg), kesher romman (pomegranate peel) (105 µg/kg), somowa (cleme)
(26 µg/kg) and salamakka (senna pods) (48 µg/kg) (Selim et al., 1996).
The results of a survey by Majerus et al., (1985) on 185 spices yielded aflatoxins
in 16 cases less than 5 µg/kg (eight nutmeg, one coriander and seven chilies/cayenne)
and in eight cases more than 5 µg/kg (three nutmeg: 5.4–7.7 µg/kg; one coriander:
5.2 µg/kg; four chilies: 8.4–24 µg/kg). Ochratoxin A and sterigmatocystin could not
be detected. However Reddy et al., (2001) have detected aflatoxin above 30 µg/kg in
chili powder and at the same time ochratoxin A above 30 µg/kg.
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices 13
1.3 Mycobiota of spices and herbs and possible mycotoxin
production
Fungi can infect spices and herbs in the field, during harvesting, drying, sorting,
grinding, processing, packaging and storage. Pre-harvest mycotoxin production occurs
when environmental conditions are suitable for mould growth. Most of the time,
these conditions are beyond the control of man (Park and Troxell, 2002). Whereas
post-harvest contamination can be controlled through several factors such as agricultural
practices, handling during harvesting, methods and time spent for drying, conditions
during storage and the quality of the seed and minimisation of physical damage.
Aflatoxins are a group of mycotoxins produced by different species such as
Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, A. nomius (Samson et al., 2002), A. ochraceoroseus,
Emerciella venezuelensis (Frisvad et al., 1999), A. argentinicus and A. bohemicus
(Ostry et al., 1999). Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus are the most commonly
encountered species in food. Moulds isolated from spices and herbs and their possible
mycotoxin contamination (from literature) are shown in Tables 1.2 to 1.8.
Spices and herbs were seen to be contaminated by a number of fungi including
potentially mycotoxigenic species. Among the spices red, black and white peppers,
caraway, cardamom, cinnamon, coriander, cumin, ginger, mustard, peppermint,
rosemary, tilio and turmeric were found to be contaminated with A. flavus and/or A.
parasiticus. On the contrary, bay leaves and oregano did not contain aflatoxin-producing
moulds. However, there is only one study in the literature (Beljaars et al., 1975) that
reports that bay leaf contained aflatoxin.
There are three types of pepper used as spice. The difference between them is not
only their colour, their botanic names and properties are also different. Red pepper is
a member of the Capsicum genus; the sweet red peppers belong to the Capsicum
annuum species whereas the hot peppers to Capsicum frutescens (Bosland, 1994).
Black and white peppers belong to the Piper nigrum L. Both are the grape-like fruit
of the plant. Black pepper is obtained from immature corn if it is directly ground after
drying; if the thin skin is removed from mature corn before grinding white pepper is
produced. Unlike other peppers and spices, red pepper can be consumed fresh, in
ground or powdered form. For this reason studies are included covering all three
types, separately, in Table 1.1. However, there are various names related to red
peppers in literature such as paprika in the USA, paprika and chili in Europe for
sweet red pepper, cayenne and chili for hot pepper (Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004).
Therefore under the common title red pepper in Table 1.1, the original names have
also been kept.
Mycobiota, mycotoxigenic species and possible mycotoxin production (from
literature) from these toxic species in red pepper, black pepper and white pepper are
shown in Tables 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 respectively. As seen in Table 1.2, nine different
species of Aspergillus were found in red pepper. Most of them are able to produce
different types of mycotoxins. Mycotoxigenic Aspergillus species in red peppers are
Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, A. niger, A. ochraceus, A. oryzae, A. terreus, and
A. versicolor. In addition to Aspergillus species other mycotoxigenic species isolated
from red peppers include Emerciella nidulans, Penicillium brevicompactum, P.
chrysogenum, P. crustosum, P. griseofulvum and P. viridicatum. Trichoderma sp. was
also isolated but not in species level. In the literature, T. virens and T. viride produce
mycotoxins (Frisvad and Thrane, 2002).
When the data is compared with the literature, it can be observed that in addition
14
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 1.2
Mycobiota, mycotoxigenic species and possible mycotoxin production in red pepper
Mycobiota
Absidia sp.
Chaetomium
jodhpurense
Aspergillus
alutaceus
A. flavus
Incidence
(%)
Mycotoxins produced
by moulds according
to the literaturea
References
80*a
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
30
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Flannigan and Hui, 1976;
Bhat et al., 1987;
Martinez-Magana et al.,
1989;Abdel-Hafez and El Said,
1997; Heperkan and Ermiş,
2004
Flannigan and Hui, 1976;
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
43–100
Aflatoxin B1
Cyclopiazonic acid
3-nitropropionic acid
A. niger
12.5–100
Ochratoxin A
A. ochraceus
12.5
A. oryzae
10
A. parasiticus
60
Penicillic acid
Ochratoxin A
Xanthomegnin
Viomellein
Vioxanthin
Cyclopiazonic acid
3-nitropropionic acid
Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2
A. sclerotia
A. terreus
33
7
A. versicolor
3
Emerciella
nidulans
(A.nidulans)
Eurotium
amstelodami
E. chevalieri
10–30
10–50**
E. rubrum
3–50**
Gibberella*
(Fusarium)
Monascus ruber
Mucor sp.
P. brevicompactum
50
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
3
90
7
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
P. chrysogenum*
P. crustosum
30
3
P. corylophilum*
P. griseofulvum
40
3
Citrinin
Citreoviridin
Patulin
Sterigmatocystin
Nidulotoxin
Sterigmatocystin
Nidulotoxin
33–70**
Mycopenolic acid
Botryodipliodin
Roquefortine C
Roquefortine C
Penitrem A
Roquefortine C,
Cyclopiazonic acid
Patulin
Griseofulvin
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Bhat et al., 1987
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices 15
Table 1.2
Continued
Mycobiota
Incidence
(%)
Mycotoxins produced
by moulds according
to the literaturea
References
P. viridicatum
30
Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004
Rhizopus sp.
Scopulariopsis
brevicaulis
Stachybotrys*sp.
(Melanopsamma)
Trichoderma*sp.
40
3
Xanthomegnin
Viomellein
Vioxanthin
Viridic acid
Penicillic acid
70
40
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Heperkan and Ermis, 2004
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
(T.virens, T. viride)
Gliotoxin
Emodin
Trichodermin
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
a: adopted from Frisvad and Thrane, (2002).
*Cellulose agar.
**50% sucrose agar.
to aflatoxin, ochratoxin A, trichothecenes and zearalenone, secondary important
mycotoxin production such as; citrinin, cyclopiazonic acid, patulin, sterigmatocystin
is also possible in red pepper. The presence of moulds in food does not necessarily
mean that mycotoxins are also present; environmental conditions such as temperature
and relative humidity should also be favourable as well as the type and structure of
the food (Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004).
The mycobiota of the red pepper flakes collected from four different regions in
Turkey consisted mainly of Aspergillus (56%), Eurotium (17%) and Penicillium
(16%) species, while Monascus and Scopuloriopsis were detected only once in two
different samples. Among the Aspergillus species, A. niger and A. flavus-A. parasiticus
mould counts were higher 17% and 16% of the mycobiota, respectively, followed by
A. sclerotia (12%). E. amstelodami (12%) and P. viridicatum (11%) (Heperkan and
Ermiş, 2004). Red pepper flakes are produced by drying fresh pepper followed by
coarse grinding. Bhat and co-workers (1987) studied the microbial profile on chilli
powder (red pepper) in the USA. Aflatoxin producing A. flavus and A. parasiticus
were detected in 88% of the chilli samples. Heperkan and Ermiş, (2004) found that
36% of red pepper flake samples were contaminated with aflatoxigenic fungi such as
A. flavus and A. parasiticus.
As seen in Table 1.3 and Table 1.4 mycobiota were similar in black pepper and
white pepper. Important mycotoxins and their potential producers isolated from black
pepper and white pepper were as follows; aflatoxin producers such as A. flavus;
ochratoxin producers such as A. ochraceus and A. niger; trichothecenes producers
such as F. equiseti and zearalenone producers such as F. equiseti and F. semitectum.
Other mycotoxin-producing moulds such as A. fumigatus, A. tamari, A. terreus, A.
versicolor, Emerciella nidulans, P. brevicompactum and P. glabrum were also isolated.
The only exception was A. parasiticus which was isolated from black pepper but not
from white pepper.
Martinez-Magana et al., (1989) studied the mycobiota of pepper and found that
16
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 1.3
Mycobiota, mycotoxigenic species and possible mycotoxin production in black pepper
Mycobiota
Incidence
(%)
A. flavus
15–43.8
A. fumigatus
13
A. niger
16–48
A. ochraceus
3.8–26
A. parasiticus
A. restrictus
15
A. sydowii
A. tamarii
4
7.2
A. terreus
4–5.8
Alternaria alternata
Chaetomium sp.
15.3
Circinella
Cladosporium sp.
Cunninghamella
Curvularia
Emerciella nidulans
(A. nidulans)
References
Garcia et al., 2001
Aspergillus
aureolus
A. candidus
A. versicolor
Mycotoxins produced
by moulds according
to the literaturea
13
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Garcia et al., 2001
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Aflatoxin B1, B2
Cyclopiazonic acid
Geeta and Kulkarni, 1987
3-nitropropionic acid
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Freire et al., 2000
Gliotoxin Verrucologen
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Fumitoxins Fumigaclavines Garcia et al., 2001
Ochratoxin A
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Garcia et al., 2001
Geeta and Kulkarni, 1987
Freire et al., 2000
Elshafie et al., 2002
Penicillic acid
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Ochratoxin A Xanthomegnin Freire et al., 2000
Viomellein Vioxanthin
Garcia et al., 2001
Geeta and Kulkarni, 1987
Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2
Moreno-Martinez and
Christensen, 1972
Rami et al., 1995
Chourasia, 1995
Geeta and Reddy, 1990
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Cyclopiazonic acid
Moreno-Martinez and
Christensen, 1972
Rami et al., 1995
Chourasia, 1995
Geeta and Reddy, 1990
Freire et al., 2000
Citrinin
Elshafie et al., 2002
Citreoviridin
Patulin
Sterigmatocystin
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Nidulotoxin
Freire et al., 2000
Moreno-Martinez and
Christensen 1972
Rami et al., 1995
Chourasia, 1995
Geeta and Reddy, 1990
(C.globosum)
Moreno-Martinez and
Chaetoglobosins
Christensen, 1972
Chetomin
Rami et al., 1995
Chourasia, 1995
Geeta and Reddy, 1990
Garcia et al., 2001
(C.herbarum)
Freire et al., 2000
Cladosporic acid
Garcia, et al., 2001
Garcia, et al., 2001
Sterigmatocystin
Freire et al., 2000
Nidulotoxin
Elshafie et al., 2002
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices 17
Table 1.3
Continued
Mycobiota
Incidence
(%)
Eurotium chevalieri 6.5
E.rubrum
4
Fusarium oxysporum
F. sacchari
F. solani
Geotrichum
candidum 5
Mycelia sterilata
P. brevicompactum
15
P. glabrum
R. oryzae
Syncephalastrum
racemosum
Trichoderma sp
T. artroviride
8.3
10
Mycotoxins produced
by moulds according
to the literaturea
References
Freire
Freire
Freire
Freire
Freire
Freire
Mycopenolic acid
Botryodipliodin
ctromycetin
3.5
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.,
al.,
al.,
al.,
al.,
al.,
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
Elsafie et al., 2002
Freire et al., 2000
Freire et al., 2000
Freire et al., 2000
Elshafie et al., 2002
Garcia et al., 2001
a: adopted from Frisvad and Thrane, (2002).
Aspergillus and Penicillium were the main components of the flora. The most common
aspergilli were A. flavus (group) (46%) and A. niger (20%). They also found that 28%
of 72 strains of A. flavus isolated from spices were toxigenic. Freire et al., (2000)
studied mycoflora and mycotoxins in Brazilian black and white pepper and found
that A. flavus and A. niger were isolated more frequently from black than from white
pepper. A total of 42 species was isolated from surface sterilised corns of the two
pepper types. A. flavus was most frequently isolated and was more prevalent on black
pepper than white pepper (43.8 and 3.4%). A. niger was the second dominant species
on both peppers (16.2 and 4.5%). Other potential mycotoxigenic species isolated
were: A. ochraceus (3.8% black pepper), A. tamarii (7.2 and 4.0%), A. versicolor (5.8
and 2.5%), E. nidulans (13.0% black pepper), Chaethomium (15.3 and 3.7%), P.
brevicompactum (15 and 12.5%), P. citrinum (7.4%), P. islandicum (2.4%), P. glabrum
(2.4% black pepper). The high fungal contamination of black pepper and white
pepper and the high incidence of potential producers of mycotoxins show that these
peppers can be a means of contamination of food.
Cinnamon, coriander and ginger are suitable substrates for mould growth and
mycotoxin production. Mycobiota and possible mycotoxin production are shown in
Tables 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7 respectively. Mycotoxigenic fungi isolated from cinnamon
samples were A. flavus, A. niger, A. fumigatus, A. ochraceus, Chaethomium globosum,
E. nidulans, P. chrysogenum, P. citrinum, and P. oxalicum (Table 1.5). As seen in
Tables 1.6 and 1.7, A. flavus, A. niger, A. terreus, E. nidulans, F. equiseti and F.
semitectum were isolated from coriander whereas A. flavus A. fumigatus, A. parasiticus,
A. niger, E. nidulans and several mycotoxin producer Penicillium species were isolated
from ginger.
Mycobiota and mycotoxigenic species in anise, bay leaves, caraway, cardamom,
cumin mustard, oregano, peppermint, rosemary, tilio and turmeric are shown in Table
1.8. Alternaria and Fusarium species dominated over other fungi of mustard seed
from the mixed cropping treatment in India. A. flavus, however had the highest
incidence among mono-cropping samples (Bilgrami et al., 1991).
18
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 1.4
Mycobiota, mycotoxigenic species and possible mycotoxin production in white pepper
Mycobiota
Incidence
(%)
A. candidus
2
A. flavus
3.4–47
A. fumigatus
12
Emerciella nidulans
(A. nidulans)
A. niger
6
4.5–24
A. ochraceus
6
A. tamarii
4
A. terreus
6
A. versicolor
2.5
Chaetomium
globosum
Cunninghamella
elegans
Curvularia lunata
Eurotium
(A.glaucus)
E. chevalieri
Fusarium
oxysporum
Microascus cinereus
P. brevicompactum
3.7
Mycotoxins produced
by moulds according
to the literaturea
Aflatoxin B1, B2
Cyclopiazonic acid
3-nitropropionic acid
Gliotoxin
Verrucologen
Fumitoxins
Fumigaclavines
Sterigmatocystin
Nidulotoxin
Ochratoxin A
(few isolates)
Penicillic acid
Ochratoxin A
Xanthomegnin
Viomellein
Vioxanthin
Cyclopiazonic acid
Citrinin,
Citreoviridin
Patulin
Sterigmatocystin
Nidulotoxin
Chaetoglobosins
Chetomin
References
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Freire et al., 2000
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Freire et al., 2000
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Freire et al., 2000
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Freire et al., 2000
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Freire et al., 2000
Freire et al., 2000
1.5
Freire et al., 2000
2.2
18
Freire et al., 2000
Martinez-Magana et al., 1989
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Freire et al., 2000
Freire et al., 2000
2
1.5
2.5
12.5
P. citrinum
P. islandicum
7.4
2.4
Rhizopus oryzae
Sporendonema sp.
Spormiella minima
Trichoderma
artroviride
5.5
1
2.3
1.5
Mycopenolic acid
Botryodipliodin
Citrinin
Rugulosin
Luteoskyrin
Islanditoxin
Cyclochlorotine
Erythroskyrin
Emodin
a: adopted from Frisvad and Thrane, (2002).
Freire et al., 2000
Freire et al., 2000
Freire et al., 2000
Freire et al., 2000
Freire
Freire
Freire
Freire
et
et
et
et
al.,
al.,
al.,
al.,
2000
2000
2000
2000
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices 19
Elshafie et al., (2002) detected mycobiota of seven different spices from a group
consisting of one hundred and five samples. Coriander was found to be the most
heavily fungal contaminated among the spices (18 out of 20) followed by black
pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cumin, and cardamom. Clove was the least contaminated
spice due to its microbial inhibitory effect. Cinnamon was found to be contaminated
by a number of fungi (11 out of 20) including potentially mycotoxin producing fungi.
Fifteen samples of spices (ginger, cumin, cinnamon, clove, black pepper, cardamom,
ginger and coriander) that were heavily contaminated by A. flavus were screened for
the presence of aflatoxins using HPLC. No aflatoxins were detected on the samples.
Of the seven spices studied, clove was found to be the least contaminated, while
cumin was the most heavily contaminated.
Medicinal plants such as peppermint, chamomile, anise, caraway and tilio were
analysed for moulds and aflatoxins (Abou-Arab et al., 1999). Samples were
collected randomly from the Egyptian market. Aspergillus and Penicillium genera
were more frequently detected and in greater abundance in the samples than
other genera of fungi. For the A. flavus infection, the results showed that all tested
medicinal plants were infected with the exception of packed tilio. The highest percentage
of infection was in peppermint (15.8%) followed by non-packed tilio (15.4%) as
well as non-packed caraway (13.5%). The other tested medicinal plants showed
a low percentage of A. flavus. However, natural aflatoxin contamination was not
detected.
Rizzo et al., (2004) studied toxigenic fungi on 56 species of medicinal and aromatic
herbs, which were used as raw material for drugs in Argentina. A. flavus and A.
parasiticus were the predominant species isolated, 50% out of 40 isolates were
toxigenic, 26% of isolates produced OTA in low concentrations, 27% of the isolates
were F. verticilloides and F. proliferatum, which produced fumonisin B1 and fumonisin
B2. Other Fusarium species were able to produce neither group A and B trichothecenes
nor zearalenone.
Martins et al., (2001) studied microbiological quality of seven species (chamomile,
leaves of orange tree, flower soft linden, corn silk, marine alga, pennyroyal mint and
garden sage) of 62 medicinal plants in Lisbon, Portugal. Corn silk samples were the
most contaminated. Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp., A. flavus and A. niger were
predominant in all samples with the exception of garden sage.
1.4
Detecting mycotoxins in herbs and spices
Various methods have been published to determine the mycotoxin content of foodstuffs
by international organisations such as the Association of Official Analytical Chemists
(AOAC), the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the European
Standardization Committee (CEN). However, an official method related to the
determination of mycotoxin in herbs and spices does not exist. The aim of this
section is not to repeat a specific method developed by the official bodies mentioned
above, but to present information regarding issues to be considered during method
selection and application for herbs and spices together with alternative methods that
can be used in mycotoxin analyses of herbs and spices and the recent development in
the field.
20
Handbook of herbs and spices
1.4.1 Mycotoxin determination methods in spices and herbs
All mycotoxin analyses consist of three steps; sampling, sample preparation and
analytical procedure. Sampling should be performed such as to collect a representative
amount of the lot. The sample size in the EU is 30 kg. Sample preparation is the
second step, where the sample is ground to particle sizes as small as possible and
Table 1.5
Mycobiota, mycotoxigenic species and possible mycotoxin production in cinnamon
Mycobiota
Absidia spp.
Aspergillus
alutaceus*
A. flavus
Incidence
(%)
100
70
A. fumigatus
60
A. ochraceus
Mycelia sterilata
Mycosphaerella
tassiana
Myrothecium*sp.
Nectria*sp.
P. chrysogenum
P. citrinum**
P. corylophilum
P. oxalicum*
Rhizopus
nigricans
R. stolonifer
Stachybotrys*sp.
Syncephalastrum
racemosum
Trichoderma*sp.
100
30
100
70
40
60
Aflatoxin B1
Cyclopiazonic acid
3-nitropropionic acid
Ochratoxin A
Gliotoxin
Verrucologen
Fumitoxins
Fumigaclavines
Penicillic acid
Ochratoxin A
Xanthomegnin
Viomellein
Vioxanthin
Chaetoglobosins
Chetomin
Sterigmatocystin
Nidulotoxin
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997,
Elshafie et al., 2002
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Elshafie et al., 2002
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Elshafie et al., 2002
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
30
30
40
60
30
30
40
References
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
50
A. niger
Chaetomium
globosum*
Emerciella
nidulans*
E. amstelodami**
E. chevalieri**
E. rubrum**
Mucor sp.
Mycotoxins produced
by moulds according to
the literaturea
Roquefortine C
Citrinin
Secalonic acid F
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Elshafie et al., 2002
50
30
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
Elshafie et al., 2002
40
Abdel-Hafez and El Said, 1997
a: adapted from Frisvad and Thrane, (2002).
*Cellulose agar.
**50% sucrose agar.
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices 21
Table 1.6
Mycobiota, mycotoxigenic species and possible mycotoxin production in coriander
Mycobiota
Incıdence
(%)
A. flavus
A.niger
References
Aflatoxin B1, B2
Cyclopiazonic acid
3-nitropropionic acid
Ochratoxin A
Rami et al., 1995
Elshafie et al., 2002
Citrinin
Cireoviridin
Patulin
A.terreus
Alternaria alternate
A. longissima
A. porri
Ascochyta spp.
Botryodiplodia
Botrytis cinerea
Cephalasporium
acremonium
Colletotrichum
capsici
Curvularia lunata
Drechslera bicolor
D. rostrata,
D. tetramera
Emerciella nidulans
Sterigmatocystin
Nidulotoxin
Fusarochromanone
Trichothecenes type
A&B
Zearalenone
Fusarium equiseti
F. oxysporum
F. semitectum
F. solani,
Macrophomina
phaseolina
Myrothecium
roridum
M. verrucaria
Paecilomyces,
Penicillium spp.
Phoma spp.
Protomyces
macrosporus
Pythium spinosum
Rhizopus nigricans
Syncephalastrum
racemosum
Verticillium
alboatrum
Absidia sp.
Mycotoxins produced
by moulds according
to the literaturea
Zearalenone
Rami et al., 1995
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Hashmi
Hashmi
Hashmi
Hashmi
Hashmi
Hashmi
Hashmi
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
Ghaffar,
Ghaffar,
Ghaffar,
Ghaffar,
Ghaffar,
Ghaffar,
Ghaffar,
1991
1991
1991
1991
1991
1991
1991
Hashmi and Ghaffar,
Hashmi and Ghaffar,
Rami et al., 1995
Hashmi and Ghaffar,
Hashmi and Ghaffar,
Hashmi and Ghaffar,
Rami et al., 1995
Elshafie et al., 2002
Hashmi and Ghaffar,
1991
1991
1991
Hashmi
Hashmi
Hashmi
Hashmi
1991
1991
1991
1991
and
and
and
and
Ghaffar,
Ghaffar,
Ghaffar,
Ghaffar,
1991
1991
1991
Hashmi and Ghaffar, 1991
53
a: adapted from Frisvad and Thrane, (2002).
Hashmi and Ghaffar, 1991
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Hashmi and Ghaffar, 1991
Hashmi and Ghaffar, 1991
Hashmi and Ghaffar, 1991
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Hashmi and Ghaffar, 1991
Garcia, et al., 2001
22
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 1.7 Mycobiota, mycotoxigenic species and possible mycotoxin production in ginger
Mycobiota
Incidence
(%)
Absidia sp.
A. flavus
Aflatoxin B1, B2
Cyclopiazonic acid
3-nitropropionic
acid
Gliotoxin
Verrucologen
Fumitoxins
Fumigaclavines
Aflatoxin B1,
B2, G1, G2
Ochratoxin A
A. fumigatus
A. parasiticus
(dominant)
A. niger
Alternaria alternate
Cladosporium
herbarum
Emerciella nidulans
Mycotoxins
produced by
moulds according
to the literaturea
96.7
Sterigmatocystin
Nidulotoxin
Eurotium amstelodami
Fusarium spp.
Mucor sp.
Paecilomyces variotii
Penicillium
brevicompactum
P. crustosum
85
55
P. polonicum
35
P. cyclopium
25
P. aurantiogriseum
10
P. steckii,
P. bialowiezense
P. freii
10
10
10
P. allii
P. commune
P. viridicatum
5
5
5
P. expansum
5
P. discolor
Rhizopus nigrificans
Syncephalastrum
racemosum
5
a: adapted from Frisvad and Thrane, (2002).
Mycopenolic acid
Botryodipliodin
Roquefortine C
Penitrem A
Penicillic acid
Verrucosidin
Penicillic acid
Xanthomegnin
Viomellein
Penicillic acid
Verrucosidin
Xanthomegnin
Viomellein
Vioxanthin
Penicillic acid
Cyclopiazonic acid
Xanthomegnin
Viomellein
Vioxanthin
Viridic acid
Penicillic acid
Roquefortine C
Patulin
Citrinin
Chaetoglobosin C
References
Aziz et al., 1998
Aziz et al., 1998
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Aziz et al., 1998
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Aziz et al., 1998
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Aziz et al., 1998
Aziz et al., 1998
Elshafie et al., 2002
Aziz et al., 1998
Overy and Frisvad,
2005
Overy and Frisvad,
2005
Overy and Frisvad,
2005
Overy and Frisvad,
2005
Overy and Frisvad,
2005
Overy and Frisvad,
2005
Overy and Frisvad, 2005
Overy and Frisvad, 2005
Overy and Frisvad, 2005
Overy and Frisvad, 2005
Overy and Frisvad, 2005
Overy and Frisvad, 2005
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices 23
Table 1.8 Mycobiota, mycotoxigenic species and possible mycotoxin production in other spices and
herbs
Spices
and
herbs
Mycobiota
Incidence
(%)
Anise
Alternaria sp.
Aspergillus flavus
100
50
Fusarium spp.
Penicillium spp,
Trichoderma sp.
Aspergillus
fumigatus
50
100
50
Bay
leaves
Caraway
A. niger
Alternaria sp.
Cunninghamella sp.
Cladosporium sp.
Monilia sp.
Penicillium spp.
Paecilomyces sp.
Trichodermasp.
Aspergillus
crothecium
Penicillium sp.
Rhizoctonia sp.
Fusarium sp.
A. flavus
A. niger
A. terreus
Cardamom
Cardamom
Cumin
Alternaria alternate
Emerciella nidulans
(Aspergillus nidulans)
A. niger
Fusarium spp.
Rhizopus
nigricans
Syncephalastrum
racemosum
A. fumigatus
A. niger (dominant)
A. aureolus
Alternaria alternate
Curvularia lunata
Cunninghamella sp.
Circinella sp.
Mycotoxins
produced by
moulds according
to the literaturea
Aflatoxin B1, B2
Cyclopiazonic
acid
3-nitropropionic
acid
Gliotoxin
Verrucologen
Fumitoxins
Fumigaclavines
Ochratoxin A
56
33
13
12.5
12.5
Aflatoxin B1, B2
Cyclopiazonic
acid
3-nitropropionic
acid
Ochratoxin A
Citrinin
Cireoviridin
Patulin
Sterigmatocystin
Nidulotoxin
Ochratoxin A
References
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Garcia, et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Elshafie et al., 2002
Gliotoxin
Verrucologen
Fumitoxins
Fumigaclavines
Ochratoxin A
Geeta and Reddy, 1990
Garcia, et al., 2001
Garcia, et al., 2001
Geeta and Reddy, 1990
Geeta and Reddy, 1990
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
24
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 1.8
Spices
and
herbs
Cumin
Mustard
Oregano
Peppermint
Continued
Mycobiota
Emerciella nidulans
(A. nidulans)
Fusarium spp.
Helminthosporium
sativum
Mucor sp.
Rhizopus sp.
Scopuloriopsis sp.
Trichoderma spp.
Penicillium spp.
A. flavus
Mucor spp.
Nigrospora sp.
Chaetomium sp.
Phoma sp.
Rhizopus sp.
Penicillium spp.
Alternaria sp
A. condius
A. flavus
A. terreus
Mycotoxins
produced by
moulds according
to the literaturea
References
Sterigmatocystin
Nidulotoxin
Geeta and Reddy, 1990
Geeta and Reddy, 1990
Aflatoxin B1, B2
Cyclopiazonic
acid
3-nitropropionic
acid
Ochratoxin A
Sterigmatocystin
Nidulotoxin
15.8
15.8
Aflatoxin B1, B2
Cyclopiazonic
acid
3-nitropropionic
acid
Ochratoxin A
Penicillic acid
Ochratoxin A
Xanthomegnin
Viomellein
Vioxanthin
Citrinin
Citreoviridin
Patulin
Fusarium spp.
Penicillium sp.
Trichoderma sp.
Alternaria
A. flavus
Geeta and Reddy, 1990
Garcia, et al., 2001
Garcia, et al., 2001
Garcia, et al., 2001
Garcia, et al., 2001
Garcia, et al., 2001
Bilgrami et al., 1991
Bilgrami et al., 1991
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Alternaria spp.
Eurotium spp.
(A.glaucus gr)
Fusarium spp.
Cunninghamella sp.
Trichoderma sp.
A. niger
A. versicolor
A. niger
A. ochraceus
Rosemary
Incidence
(%)
Aflatoxin B1, B2
Cyclopiazonic
acid
3-nitropropionic
acid
Bilgrami et al., 1991
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Garcia et al., 2001
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abdel-Hafez and Said,
1997
Abdel-Hafez and Said,
1997
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices 25
Table 1.8
Spices
and
herbs
Continued
Mycobiota
Incidence
(%)
A. niger
Mycotoxins
produced by
moulds according
to the literaturea
References
Ochratoxin A
Abdel-Hafez and El Said,
1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said,
1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said,
1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said,
1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said,
1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said,
1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said,
1997
Abdel-Hafez and El Said,
1997
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
A. sydowii
Cladosporium sp.
Mycospharella sp.
E. amstelodami
E. chevalieri
E. rubrum
Roquefortine C
P. chrysogenum
Tilio
Turmeric
Alternaria sp.
A. crothecium
A. flavus
Aflatoxin B1, B2
Cyclopiazonic
acid
3-nitropropionic
acid
Ochratoxin A
A. niger
Penicillium spp.
Rhizoctonia sp.
A. flavus
Aflatoxin B1, B2
Cyclopiazonic
acid
3-nitropropionic
acid
Aflatoxin B1, B2,
G1, G2
Ochratoxin A
A. parasiticus
A. niger
Eurotium spp.
(A. glaucus gr)
Mucor sp.
15
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Abou-Arab et al., 1999
Geeta and Kulkarni, 1987
Geeta and Kulkarni, 1987
Geeta and Kulkarni, 1987
Flannigan and Hui, 1976
Geeta and Kulkarni, 1987
a: adapted from Frisvad and Thrane, (2002).
homogenised, from which a sub-sample is taken (approximately 100 g). In checking
all the factors associated with the variability of mycotoxin results, it was found that
the contribution of sampling is the greatest single source of error (Ahmed, 2000).
Specially, for products like peanuts where the aflatoxin distribution is not homogeneous,
the variability associated to the test procedures (sampling, sample preparation and
analysis) can cause misclassification (Adams and Whitaker, 2004). On the other
hand, in a study on sampling wheat for deoxynivalenol, even with the use of a small
sample size (0.454 kg), the sampling variation was not the largest source of error as
found in other mycotoxin test procedures (Whitaker et al., 2002). Therefore, whether
the particle size or the mycotoxin distribution in the particle is homogeneous or not
does not affect the variability in the sampling stage in wheat (Whitaker et al., 2002).
The levels of mycotoxin are regulated in several countries by set maximum
26
Handbook of herbs and spices
permissible levels therefore the method selected to be used must have appropriate
sensitivity. In addition, having short analysis time, ease-of-use, being a reliable, less
interfering, and inexpensive substance are other important factors (Ahmed, 2000;
Lombaert, 2002).
The technical infrastructure of the laboratory is also very important for the selection
of the method. For example, thin layer chromatography (TLC) can be considered as
an appropriate method due to its low initial investment. However, the application and
evaluation of the method is very difficult. Evaluation should be made with a densitometer.
Thus the visual errors in the determination of the equivalent mycotoxin to the standard
should be eliminated. During an interlab study with 28 participating laboratories, on
DON analysis of agricultural products, it was reported that the results from TLC were
considerably lower than the average value (p = 0.01) (Josephs et al., 2001). In fact,
thin layer chromatography is suitable for confirmation of positive samples (De Nijs
and Notermans, 2000).
Almost all analytical procedures consist of the similar basic steps which include:
•
•
•
•
extraction
purification and clean-up
separation, detection and determination
confirmation.
Not all methods for mycotoxins in foodstuffs incorporate a cleanup step. In particular,
ELISA methods may not require any cleanup (Scott, 2002). However, Yu et al.,
(1998) developed and used immunoaffinity columns (IAC) for the cleanup of CPA
extracts prior to ELISA analysis of corn, peanuts, and mixed feed (Dorner, 2002).
ELISA is a useful tool for screening purposes before LC or GC.
The analytical methods for mycotoxins include thin layer chromatography (TLC),
high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or reversed phased liquid
chromatography (LC), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and, more
recently, by tandem mass spectrometry (MS) (Scott, 2002; Trucksess, 2000; Ventura
et al., 2004). Aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone can be
determined by fluorescence detection after chromatographic separation (De Nijs and
Notermans, 2000). Gas chromatography (GC) has also been used for many mycotoxin
analysis especially for the identification and quantification of multiple trichothecenes
in foods (Lombaert, 2002).
Capillary electrophoresis (CE) may be used as an alternative technique to analyse
mycotoxins (Cancalon, 1995; Martin et al., 2005). A particular type of CE, micellar
electrokinetic capillary electrophoresis or micellar electrokinetic capillary
chromatography (MECC) has been used for aflatoxin, cyclopiazonic acid, citrinin,
griseofulvin, mycophenolic acid, ochratoxin A, patulin, penicillic acid, and
sterigmatocystin analyses (Cancalon, 1995; Martin et al., 2005). The method has
several advantages such as more rapid analysis, reduced amount of organic solvents,
smaller sample volume, and increased efficiency and resolution (Martin et al., 2005).
According to a survey of the literature, HPLC was the leading approach, followed by
TLC and ELISA in mycotoxin analyses in herbs and spices (Table 1.1). In addition,
a single study was found on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in
medicinal herbs in the literature (Ventura et al., 2004).
Ventura et al., (2004), extracted aflatoxins in Rhammus purshiana which is a
medicinal herb, with methanol:water and tested by liquid chromatography and detected
by mass spectrometry single quadruple using an electrospray ionisation source (LC-
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices 27
MS) in order to avoid derivatisation. The detection limit was 10 ng and the quantification
limit 25 ng. The advantages of the method can be stated as follows (Ventura et al.,
2004). Using a short column (C18) for chromatographic separation allows rapid
determination obtaining sharp chromatographic peaks and minimising consumption
of the mobile phase. Using low quantities of methanol for the extraction steps avoids
the use of chlorate solvents that are harmful. The polymeric sorbent is as easy to
apply as immunoaffinity columns but is cheaper. Mass spectrofotometric detection is
employed in order to avoid derivatisation which presents several disadvantages.
Mycotoxins are extracted from the food matrix using a suitable solvent mixture.
Mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and penicillic acid dissolve in chloroform
better than in a hydrophilic solvent. However, since chloroform is carcinogenic, it
should be replaced by solvents such as methanol:water, acetonitrile:phosphoric acid
or acetic acid, toluene:acetic acid (Ahmed, 2000; Scott, 2002).
For the purification and cleanup steps, commercially available and disposable
SPE columns or cartridges, of which those incorporating silica and immobilised
antibodies for immunoaffinity chromatography are the most widely used (Scott,
2002). A recently introduced technique is the use of molecularly imprinted polymers,
polymers with cavities or imprints complementary in shape to an analyte of interest
(Scott, 2002).
1.4.2 Points to be borne in mind in mycotoxin research
Moulds can cause allergic reactions and some of them are pathogenic. As mould
spores are easily spread in the air, care must be taken while working with them, using
a separate laboratory with restricted entry. As mycotoxins are toxic chemical substances,
care must be taken to avoid exposure to mycotoxins by direct contact and inhalation.
Work must be carried out in a separate laboratory, equipped with a fume hold.
Protective goggles, gloves and lab-coats must be worn. Disposable laboratory wastes
must only be disposed of after they have been soaked in a 10% solution of household
bleach for 30 minutes. In order to remove aflatoxin remnants on glass surfaces, the
articles must be rinsed with methanol, soaked in a 1% solution of household bleach
for two hours, and acetone added to 5% of total volume. They should be left for
30 minutes to react and then washed thoroughly (Trucksess, 2000). As mycotoxin
standards are sensitive to external influences such as light, oxygen and temperature,
a suitable laboratory environment must be ensured.
1.5
Preventing and controlling mycotoxin contamination
Mycotoxins can lead to various diseases in human beings. They also lead to loss of
products and product quality, diseases in animals, low yield generally and reduction
in the number and size of eggs produced. Mycotoxins also seriously threaten the
health of future generations. Aflatoxin B1 is a human carcinogen (IARC, 1993). As
an etiological agent, it is associated with several human diseases encountered particularly
in Africa, Asia and South America, e.g., primary hepatic carcinoma, hepatic cirrhosis
in children, chronic gastritis, Kwashiorkor and Reye’s syndrome (Ostry et al., 1999).
The products on which most work is being done to bring the mycotoxin hazard
under control are ground nuts, cotton seed and maize. The factors influential in
formation of mycotoxins have been determined with the work carried out so far and
28
Handbook of herbs and spices
attempts have been made to create control strategies in this respect. However, research
indicates that mycotoxin has still not been brought entirely under control. The most
important factor in arriving at this conclusion is the fact that mycotoxin formation
does not take place in agricultural products such as ground nuts, cotton seed and
maize, in spices such as red pepper and mustard and in dried fruits such as figs only
after they are harvested, it also occurs before they are harvested. The critical stages
after harvesting are drying and storage, but actual contamination takes place before
harvesting, while the product is still ripening. As has been stressed by many researchers,
one of the major factors in aflatoxin formation is the stress period caused by drought
at the end of the season (Dorner et al., 1992; Park, 2002b). Taking this finding as a
starting point, a ‘biocontrol method based on biological competition’ has been developed
(Dorner et al., 1992).
1.5.1 Preharvest controlling
Many types of mould produce mycotoxins which are toxic for human beings, warmblooded animals and birds under suitable conditions (Moss, 1998). Although the
presence of mould does not always indicate the presence of mycotoxins, it signals a
mycotoxin hazard. From time to time the presence of mycotoxins in the form of
aflatoxin and ochratoxin is encountered in spices and herbs as well. Incidence of
infection with mycotoxygenic mould is high in physically damaged products which
have been in contact with the soil. Formation of mycotoxin, with certain exceptions,
usually commences at the drying stage following harvesting in red pepper and mustard
(mycotoxin formation has also been observed in these products before harvesting) –
and continues throughout the storage and transportation periods as well. For this
reason it is vital to prevent contact of the product with the soil during harvesting and
drying to avoid mycotoxin formation. Prevention of damage by vermin, insects and
other similar harmful agents, adherence to the rules of hygiene, rapid and effective
drying must also be ensured. Although, following an effective drying process, stability
related to the reduction in water activity is achieved in microbiological terms in
spices and herbs, transportation and storage are other stages which need to be borne
in mind.
Storage conditions, particularly if the product is stored in heaps, encourage the
development of mould. The product can become completely contaminated with mould
and thus be rendered totally unsuitable for consumption. In certain situations, although
development of mould is not observed, mycotoxins may be present in large quantities.
It is for this reason that the practice of storing herbs and spices in heaps should be
abandoned. In addition, it should not be forgotten that mycotoxin control can only be
achieved by means of systematic work among different disciplines. Good agricultural
practices, (GAP), good manufacturing practices (GMP), good hygiene practices (GHP)
and hazard analyses critical control points (HACCP) systems must be implemented.
1.5.2 Technological methods
Work done to bring mycotoxins under control and the latest information on the
methods developed are explained below.
Controlling mycotoxins by microorganisms
Two different strategies can be applied to control mycotoxins in the substrate by
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices 29
microorganisms. First of all specific microorganisms which possess the ability to
eliminate mycotoxins from contaminated substrates can be added. Second, atoxigenic
mould species inoculated to the soil prevent mycotoxin production by toxigenic
species before harvest. Removing mycotoxins by microorganisms from contaminated
foods or feeds is one promising approach to be considered. Several bacteria (Ciegler
et al., 1966; Line et al., 1994; El-Nezami et al., 1998; Oatley et al., 2000; Haskard
et al., 2001), yeast (Yiannikourıs et al., 2004a,b), mould (Varga et al., 2000) and even
protozoa (Kiessling et al., 1984) have been used to remove various type of mycotoxins
from different substrates. However, the mechanisms by which mycotoxins are
eliminated, which vary according to the type and the number of the organisms (ElNezami et al., 2002a) involved, and the pH of the substrate (Haskard et al., 2001) are
still being investigated.
The first bacteria reported to remove aflatoxin from solution was Flavobacterium
aurantiacum (Ciegler et al., 1966). F. aurantiacum NRRL B-184 degrades aflatoxin
B1 in liquid medium as well as in several types of food (corn, peanuts, corn oil, milk,
soybeans, peanut milk, and peanut butter) (Hao and Brackett, 1988; Line and Brackett,
1995). The bacterium actually metabolises the toxin to water-soluble and chloroformsoluble degradation products and CO2 (Line and Brackett, 1995). Line et al., (1994)
reported that dead F. aurantiacum cells bind some aflatoxin but are unable to further
degrade their water-soluble compounds or carbon dioxide. They also reported that a
high population of cells (ca. 1 × 1010 CFU/ml) was necessary to effect degradation
(Line et al., 1994). Smiley and Draughon, (2000) studied the mechanism of degradation
of AFB1 by F. aurantiogriseum and reported the crude protein extract of the bacterium
to bind AFB1, suggesting the mechanism to be enzymatic.
Specific lactic acid bacterial strains remove toxins from liquid media by physical
binding (Haskard et al., 2001). Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain GG (LGG) removed
AFB1 (Haskard et al., 2001) and ZEN (El-Nezami et al., 2004) from solution most
effectively. Surface components of these bacteria are involved in binding (Haskard et
al., 2001). Haskard et al. (2001) suggested that binding of aflatoxin B1 appears to be
predominantly extracellular for viable and heat-treated bacteria. Acid treatment may
permit intracellular binding. Lahtinen et al., (2004) also investigated the AFB1 binding
properties of viable L. rhamnosus and suggested that cell wall peptidoglycan, or
components bound covalently to peptidoglycan, are important for AFB1 binding. It
was found that other carbohydrates such as teichoic acid (Knox and Wicken, 1973)
and exopolysaccarides existing in the cell wall have no positive role for binding
aflatoxin as well as cell wall proteins, Ca+2 or Mg+2 (Lahtinen et al., 2004). The
researchers suggested that the use of lactic acid bacteria had been recommended as
a method for removing aflatoxins from food and feed (El-Nezami et al., 2002a,b;
Pierides et al., 2000, Haskard et al., 2001).
Aflatoxin was not the only mycotoxin removed from substrates by lactic acid
bacteria, but also common Fusarium toxins such as trichothecenes were also removed
by Lactobacillus and Propionibacterium (El-Nezami et al., 2002a). The researchers
indicated that significant differences exist in the ability of the bacteria to bind
tricothecenes in vitro (El-Nezami et al., 2002a). Several reports describe the OTA
degrading activities of the microbial flora of the mammalian gastrointestinal tract,
including rumen microorganisms of the cow and sheep, and microbes living mainly
in the caecum and large intestine of rats. The human intestinal flora can also partially
degrade OTA (Varga et al., 2000).
The cell wall fraction of Saccharomyces cerevisiae represented 13.3–25.0% of the
30
Handbook of herbs and spices
dry weight of the total cell and was composed of various glucan, mannan and chitin
contents (Yiannikouris et al., 2004a). Among the cell wall components β-D-glucans
were the main molecules responsible for ZEN adsorption. Weak noncovalent bonds
(hydrogen bonding reactions) are involved in the complex-forming mechanisms
associated with ZEN. The chemical reactions between β-D-glucans and zearalenone
are therefore more of an adsorption type than a binding type (Yiannikouris et al.,
2004a).
An atoxigenic A. niger strain was found to decompose OTA in both liquid and
solid media, and the degradation product, ochratoxin α was also decomposed. (Xiao
et al., 1996; Varga et al., 2000). A. niger secreted carboxypeptidase which could
decompose OTA to ochratoxin α and phenylalanine (Varga et al., 2000). This method
might allow the elimination of OTA from solid substrates such as green coffee beans
and cereals (Varga et al., 2000).
Control of mycotoxins by means of biocontrol based on biological competition is
implemented before harvesting for products such as ground nuts, cotton seed and
maize in particular. Implementation was described as follows (Dorner et al., 1992);
an A. parasiticus strain, which does not produce toxin but has extremely competitive
features, is added to the soil. The mould becomes dominant in the soil microflora and
replaces the A. flavus/parasiticus strain, which is a natural producer of aflatoxin, thus
preventing its development. Thus, groundnuts exposed to the stress of end-of-season
drought are also exposed to the attack of the dominant competitive mould. However,
due to the fact that the mould does not form a toxin, no aflatoxin is formed in the
product, or is formed in smaller quantities. In research carried out in the three-year
period between 1987 and 1989, it was observed that while in groundnuts grown in
soil in which no implementation had taken place, aflatoxin quantities were 531,
96 and 241 ppb; in products raised in soil injected with non-toxin-producing mould
the quantities were low, being 11, 1 and 40 ppb respectively (Dorner et al., 1992).
The research indicated that the biological control method was applicable in preharvesting control of aflatoxin contamination and that it possessed a potential which
could be of assistance in obtaining a product free of aflatoxin or containing a smaller
quantity of it.
Various binding agents were added to the feed, thus binding the aflatoxin, and
reducing the amount of aflatoxin absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract, decreasing
aflatoxin intake and bioavailability. Phillips et al., (2002) stated that processed calcium
montmorillonite clay (HSCAS) was a powerful agent binding the AFB1 and that
addition of 0.5% w/w or lower-quantity HSCAS to poultry-feed would cause no
adverse effects.
The effect of thermal processing on mycotoxins
The effects of thermal degradation at high temperatures vary according to the type of
mycotoxin. While the heat applied during cooking processes commonly applied at
home (roasting, frying, boiling) results in thermal degradation of some mycotoxins,
it has no effect on aflotoxins, neither does it degrade AFB1 and AFG1 (Park, 2002b).
The temperature required for partial degradation and thus thermal inactivation of the
aflatoxin must be over 150 °C (237–306 °C). Other factors contributing to the degree
of thermal inactivation of mycotoxins by means of roasting are the initial contamination
level, moisture content of the product, temperature and duration of roasting. The type
of food and the type of aflatoxin also affect the level of degradation and inactivation
(Rustom, 1997). While the presence of water in the environment aids the inactivation
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices 31
of aflatoxin, the presence of salt delays inactivation. While water leads to the opening
up of the lacton ring of AFB1, it also leads to the formation of carbolic acid; however,
the ionic salts lengthen the duration of the inactivation process (Rustom 1997).
Roasting is a good method for reducing aflatoxin levels in certain commodities, i.e.,
oil and dry-roasted peanuts, microwave-roasted peanuts (Park, 2002b). In the study
made of samples of red pepper flake obtained from different regions as well, no
mould or aflatoxin was encountered in the samples of red pepper flake which are
roasted in oil and known as ‘isot’ (Heperkan and Ermiş, 2004).
When the effect of thermal processing on other mycotoxins apart from aflatoxin
is studied, it is observed that DON, FUM and ZEN are resistant to thermal
processing. DON is known to be stable up to 170 °C at neutral to acidic pHs (WolfHall and Bullerman, 1998). Baking has been shown to cause little or no effect on
DON levels in flour and dough (Trigo-Stockli, 2002). Seitz et al., (1986) stated that,
with cooking, the DON concentration in dough was reduced by 20–40%. (DON
concentration in dough 0.2–0.9 mg/kg flour). On the other hand, Scott et al., (1984)
stated that little or no reduction in DON concentration took place in the DON
concentration of bread made from flour with a DON concentration of 1–7 mg/kg.
Roasting of wheat contaminated with 30 mg/kg DON using a commercial gas-fired
roaster was shown (Stahr et al., 1987) to reduce DON levels by 50% (Trigo-Stockli,
2002).
Bullerman et al., (2002) reported that although generally heat stable, fumonisin
concentrations appear to decline as processing temperatures increase. At processing
temperatures of 125 °C or lower, losses of fumonisin are low (25–30%), whereas at
temperatures of 175 °C and higher, losses are greater (90% or more). Processes such
as frying and extrusion cooking, where temperatures can exceed 175 °C, result in
greater loss (Bullerman et al., 2002).
ZEN is known for its marked heat stability. In general, thermal processing was not
effective in reducing ZEN. However, use of heat in combination with pressure during
processing (extrusion cooking) resulting in substantial losses of ZEN in corn (Ryu et
al., 2002). Ryu et al. (1999) reported that the amount of reduction in ZEN in spiked
corn grits ranged from 66–83% at temperatures of 120–160 °C. The moisture content
of the grits (18–26%) had no significant effect on reduction of ZEN during extrusion.
Flame roasting of naturally contaminated corn (0.02–0.06 µ/g) at temperatures of
110–140 °C reduced the concentration of ZEN by 50% (Hamilton and Thompson,
1992).
Citrinin is more sensitive to heat in comparison with other mycotoxins. At the
same time, it has been observed that exposure to UV light resulted in a certain
reduction of citrinin activity (Frank, 1992). Therefore thermal processing can be an
effective method in citrinin detoxification (Kitabatake et al., 1991). Decomposition
and detoxification of citrinin can be realised under dry conditions with heat processing
at 175 °C. Under moist conditions temperature of detoxification can be reduced to
35 °C, but when citrinin is thermally treated under these conditions additional toxic
compounds are formed. One of these is citrinin H1, which is more toxic then citrinin
(Fouler et al., 1994).
In recent years studies have been made of the effects of cooking in microwave
ovens; it has been established that the power of the microwave, duration of thermal
processing and the presence of water in the environment results in a decline in
mycotoxin quantities. It is considered that thermal effects play the most important
role in the inhibition of microorganisms, that in the absence of thermal effect microwave
32
Handbook of herbs and spices
energy does not render microorganisms inactive, but at the same time enhances and
complements the thermal effects (Mertens and Knorr, 1992).
The effects of irradiation on mycotoxins
As the irradiation process depends on the dose applied, the type of the product, of the
moulds and their number, it has a preventative action on the development of moulds.
Doses of 1–3.5 Gy irradiation delayed the growth of moulds such as Penicillium
expansum on some fresh fruits (Tiryaki et al., 1994). Wolf-Hall and Schwartz (2002)
reported that Fusarium survival decreased on malting barley by approximately 78%
at 10 kGy using electron beam irradiation. However, researchers drew attention to
the following subject; in the course of prevention of mould development, sub-lethal
or inhibitory concentrations of chemicals may prevent fungal growth, but actually
stimulate mycotoxin production (Wolf-Hall and Schwartz, 2002). In the same way, it
was established in research where the effects of irradiation on Aspergillus flavus and
A. parasiticus were studied, that the aflatoxin-producing characteristics of surviving
isolates in irradiated cereals were enhanced (Moss and Frank, 1987). Gamma irradiation
(2.5 Mrad) did not significantly degrade aflatoxin in contaminated peanut meal (Feuell,
1996). Ochratoxin A is also stable to gamma ray irradiation at a dose of 7.5 mrad
(75 kGy) (Paster et al., 1985). The high cost of equipment, limited positive results
and lack of consumer acceptance of the irradiation process, are disadvantages of this
method as a commercial application (Park, 2002b).
How chemicals affect mycotoxins
A great deal of work has been done on the effects of such chemicals as ammonia
(Park et al., 1992), hydrogen peroxide (Clavero et al., 1993), calcium hydroxide
(Charmly and Prelusky, 1994), sodium bisulphite (Accerbi et al., 1999) and ozone
(McKenzie et al., 1997) on mycotoxins, but although positive results have been
obtained, it has been observed that these substances would lead to loss of certain
characteristics in agricultural products and thus render them unfit for consumption;
at the same time, it has been established that certain chemicals form more toxic
reaction products than the existing mycotoxin and thus their use was limited. It has
been reported that certain food compounds and additives are effective against mycotoxins
and that they do not lead to any changes in the structure and nutritive qualities of the
foodstuff. The effect of ammonium peroxidedisulphatine on aflatoxins has been cited
as an example (Tabata et al., 1994).
Mycotoxins such as Aflatoxin B1, Fumonisin B1, T2 toxin and Ochratoxin A
enhance lipid peroxidation and result in membrane damage in living organisms.
Selenium, vitamins A, C and E, act as superoxide anion scavengers due to their
antioxidising effects and protect the organism from the harmful effects of mycotoxins
(Rustom, 1997).
Biotechnological approaches
Increased interest has been observed in the use of biotechnological methods in the
development of plant defence against mycotoxin-forming (and at the same time)
pathogenic moulds, together with plant-improvement work. Many new techniques in
transgenic approaches in particular, and in marking of molecules have been developed
and are in use; thus, the numbers, locations and effects of resistant or target genes can
be assumed. The effects of mycotoxins can also be neutralised by means of antifungal proteins, binding and carrying of molecules are also prevented. For example,
Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbs and spices 33
in the fight against head blight in wheat, caused by Fusarium species, selection of
resistant genes can be realised with the aid of marked molecules at very early stages
such as the seed-sowing stage (Miedaner, 2004). Similar research has been concentrated
on fungal pathogenity and host defence mechanisms, and antifungal protein originating
in plants and microorganisms has been transferred to wheat. Work was done on plants
such as rice and barley and on microorganisms for the chitinase enzyme and glucanase
genes which degrade the cell walls of the fungus in particular (Miedaner, 2004).
Work is continuing on genes that code antifungal proteins such as osmotin, which
prevents the pathogenic fungus from affecting the plant (Miedaner, 2004). In a similar
manner, marked DNAs are used in order to establish plant resistance emerging at a
later stage under the influence of environmental factors. Use is made of different
sources instead of one single donor to obtain resistant genes (Paul et al., 2002;
Buerstmayr et al., 2003; Miedaner, 2004). Other methods which can be used in
mycotoxin control are neutralisation of effect, acceleration of flow of carrier proteins,
destruction of the mycotoxin molecule and making changes in the target (Miedaner,
2004).
1.5.3 Regulatory aspects for herbs and spices
As it is not always possible to prevent formation of mycotoxins, which have been
proved to be a health hazard, the aim is to ensure that products with the lowest
possible mycotoxin contents reach consumers. These considerations have resulted in
a further lowering of maximum permissible mycotoxin values for agricultural products
in the European Union (Adams and Whitaker, 2004). Approximately 90 countries
have regulations that establish maximum aflatoxin limits in food and feed products.
Regulations and limits vary from country to country (Adams and Whitaker, 2004).
Mycotoxin limit values in the United States are approximately five times in excess of
EU limits, but it has been reported that work is in progress to reduce these values.
Maximum permitted mycotoxin values in spices in the EU are 5 ppb for aflatoxin B1
and 10 ppb for total aflatoxin (OJEC, 2002).
1.6
Future trends
A great deal of intensive research has been done during the 46 years that have passed
since the presence of mycotoxins was first established in poultry in Britain in 1960.
Specific reliable new methods and techniques have been developed which enable
results to be obtained at low detection levels and short periods of time in detection of
mycotoxin in plant and animal products, body fluids such as milk and blood. Much
progress has been achieved in the field of biotechnology as well, the location and
characteristics of mycotoxin-producing genes having been established and transgenic
products partially resistant to mycotoxin formation generated. Another extremely
important development is the positive results obtained from work on the addition of
various biological and non-biological (clay-based) binding agents to food or feed,
thus binding the mycotoxins and reducing their absorption and bio-utilisation by the
body. Thus, it will be possible to reduce the amount of mycotoxin to which the body
is exposed. However, in spite of all these favourable developments mycotoxin continues
to be a serious hazard in certain products.
34
Handbook of herbs and spices
There is a need for more research into biomarkers, which enable constant monitoring
of mycotoxin. Thus, effective techniques enabling toxin-contaminated products to be
separated at source could also be developed. Another important matter, particularly
in developing countries, is to do something about the present lack of effective
organisations bringing information to farmers and to ensure inter-disciplinary
collaboration in this respect. The setting up of international working groups would be
extremely useful in terms of achieving a regular exchange of information concerning
mycotoxins.
1.7
Sources of further information and advice
CAST (Council for Agricultural Science and Technology) (2003), Task Force Report
No. 139. Mycotoxins: Risks in Plant, Animal and Human Systems CAST, Ames,
Iowa, USA.
DeVries J W, Trucksess M W, and Jackson L S (2002), Mycotoxins and Food Safety,
New York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 173–179.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (2001), Manual on
the application of the HACCP system in mycotoxin prevention and control, FAO/
IAEA training and reference centre for food and pesticide control, Rome.
Barug D, Van Egmond H P, Lopez-Garcia R, Van Osenbruggen W A, and Visconti A
(2004), Meeting the Mycotoxin Menace, Netherlands, Wageningen Academic
Publishers, 69–80.
Samson R A, Hoekstra E S, and Frisvad J C (2004), Introduction to food and airborne
fungi, Baarn, The Netherlands, Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, 7th edition.
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2
Controlling pesticide and other residues in
herbs and spices
K. J. Venugopal, AVT McCormick Ingredients (P) Ltd, India
2.1
Introduction
Spices have occupied the centre stage of world trade since time immemorial. Many
Europeans travelled to such distant countries as India and China in search of spice
commodities. During the period from the 15th to the 17th centuries, the Spanish, the
English, the Portuguese, and the Dutch traders competed for prominence in the spice
trade in the Far East, and by the 19th century, America had also entered the spice
trade. It was a tradition for many families in the colonies of those times to have their
own herb and spice gardens. Herbs were consumed for medicinal and culinary purposes,
apart from their use as preservatives.
Quality standards in spice trade had taken a definite shape by the 1800s and many
improved processing techniques were put in place. During the early 1900s, spice
brands such as Golden Rule, Watkins, Raleigh, and McNess were well known among
the trade community and consumers in the west. Over a period of time, the international
market witnessed sweeping changes with regard to the quality of spices and herbs.
New food safety systems and good manufacturing practices (GMP) based on hazard
analysis and critical control points (HACCP) influenced the traceability and safety of
ingredients used. Before the era of globalisation and liberalisation, exporters had to
comply with the pre-shipment inspection and quality specifications prescribed by
various governmental agencies. Post liberalisation, as trade barriers started to ease,
pre-shipment inspection and quality control were withdrawn and the exporters became
free to export products according to the specifications prescribed by the importing
countries.
The most popular standard for whole spices and herbs is the ASTA-USDA cleanliness
specifications for spices, seeds and herbs. Since the beginning of 1990, this has been
an international standard for cleanliness, and major producing countries have aligned
their supplies to meet the requirements of this standard. The European Spice Association
(ESA), comprising the members of the European Union, has brought out a Quality
Minima for Herbs and Spices, which serves as a standard for individual member
countries of the European Union. Apart from this, individual member countries like
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Handbook of herbs and spices
the UK, Germany and the Netherlands have laid down their own cleanliness
specifications for spices. In addition to the cleanliness specification, importing countries
insist on meeting specified limits for chemical parameters like pesticide residues,
aflatoxin, heavy metals as well as microbial contamination. While the USA, Japan
and the individual member countries of the EU have prescribed MRLs (maximum
residue limits) in spices, the European Union has not prescribed specific limits for
pesticide residues in spices and spice products.
For any exporting country in this international business, there has to be an overall
strategy to cope with such demanding quality standards. The strategy has to be
comprehensive, with sufficient attention given to such factors as insulation from
commodity price fluctuations, improvements in productivity, reduction in costs of
production, investment in state-of-the-art processing facilities, control of chemical
residues by means of corporate/contract farming, and diversifying and expanding
products into value-added areas. Despite the rising quality standards of importing
countries, developing countries like China and Vietnam have exhibited exponential
growth in their spice exports. Traditional spice exporters like Indonesia and Mexico
have also shown positive growth rates in the past few years. The challenge ahead is
in exploring the potential of value-added spice products like retail packs, seasoning
blends, marinades, dressings, relishes, dips, dehydrates, etc., in addition to exploring
new developments in natural colours and flavours, nutraceutical and other new
applications.
Before finding their way to the product shelf in the market, new applications need
to go through the hurdle of regulatory approval. This is tough indeed, more so
because the laws and regulations of importing countries are varied. The United
States, the largest consumer of nutraceutical food and beverages, has been evolving
regulatory strategies to counter false claims, at the same time minimising the
infrastructural delays. The FDA regulates food products depending on how they are
classified. There are two categories under the FDA directive: conventional foods that
are consumed for aroma, taste and nutrition, and the dietary supplements which are
consumed for health benefits. The FDA does not have a regulatory category for
functional foods, so these foods have to be marketed as either of the above. Further,
the FDA has categorised new products into two groups: having qualified or unqualified
health claims. The qualified new products should have more studies supporting the
health claim, which are not likely to be reversed by future studies. Examples being
folate, folic acid, omega 3 fatty acids, phosphatidylserine, antioxidant vitamins, etc.
The unqualified products are those that have potential health benefits based on significant
scientific agreement (e.g. calcium for osteoporosis, dietary fat and cancer, fibrecontaining vegetable and cancer, plant sterols – plant stanol and heart disease). The
labelling should ensure that the classified claims are depicted correctly.
2.2
The regulation of pesticide residues
Pesticides are a group of chemicals designed to control weeds, diseases, insects or
other pests on crops, landscape plants or animals. The most commonly used pesticides
are insecticides (for controlling insects), fungicides (for controlling fungi) and herbicides
(to control weeds). Prudent use of pesticides has played a vital role in feeding the
world’s growing population by dramatically increasing crop yields. However, their
safety and effects on the environment have been a serious concern. National regulations
Controlling pesticide and other residues in herbs and spices
43
have tried to standardise permitted residue levels by product category. As the range
of herbal products continues to grow, this has become an increasingly difficult task.
At the same time, new cultivation techniques are evolving to increase productivity of
high-quality raw materials with a higher content of active ingredients, resulting in
increasing use of chemicals to boost yields and control pests. The high-yielding
hybrid varieties are often more susceptible to pest attack, and hence require greater
use of pesticides.
Regulations covering the use of pesticides are based on data generated by
environmental impact assessment (EIA) systems, which compare the characteristics
and effects of different pest control systems and generate an index or ranking of pest
control options. These types of assessment tools are also called pesticide risk indicators.
There are three categories of assessment system:
1. Those that aid farmers/growers and other land managers.
2. Research and policy tools for use by governments, industry or academia.
3. Eco-labelling systems designed to influence consumer opinion and market
behaviour.
The methodologies employed by the EIA include simulation of environmental effects
(e.g. by computer modelling), sampling, monitoring and tracking changes in biophysical
indicators (such as species diversity, soil respiration rate, and chemical levels in the
environment), surveys and qualitative research methods, and indexing or ranking the
extent and severity of pesticide (both chemical and non-chemical pest controls)
impacts on one or more environmental indicators.
One of the primary objectives of assessing the environmental impacts of agriculture
is to choose those pest control practices that have the least negative impacts on the
environment, and on human health and safety. Policy makers then need to make
broad-brush appraisals of the impacts of such choices. Today, the challenge before
them is more complex as the number of chemical classes of pesticide has quintupled
from approximately 25 in the 1970s to about 130 in 1990s, and the modes of pesticide
activity affecting the environment have also diversified. In the USA, approval for the
use of pesticides is given by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The
EPA is authorised by law to regulate the development, distribution, use and disposal
of pesticides. Before approving or registering a pesticide for use in agriculture, the
EPA normally requires close to 120 different tests – depending on the uses of the
pesticide – to determine its safety. The agency registers only those pesticides that
meet their standards for human health, the environment and wildlife. If new research
shows that any registered pesticide does not meet their standards, the EPA can cancel
or modify its use. While approving a pesticide, the EPA specifies instructions for its
use on the label, which must be followed by law. The agency also establishes a
tolerance (maximum residue level of a pesticide legally permitted in or on a food) for
each pesticide it approves. The tolerance ensures that, when pesticides are used
according to label directions, the residues will not pose an unacceptable health risk
to anyone, including infants, who consumes the food. Tolerances are considered an
enforcement tool and are used by the FDA in its monitoring program to ensure a safe
food supply. If any pesticide residue is found to exceed its tolerance on a food, then
the food is not permitted to be sold.
The Food Quality Protection Act, signed into law in 1996, sets an even tougher
standard for pesticide use in food. The EPA will consider the public’s overall exposure
to pesticides (through food, water and in home environments) when making decisions
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Handbook of herbs and spices
to set standards for pesticide use in food. Such new standards are intended to protect
infants and children who may be more vulnerable to pesticide exposure. To determine
pesticide safety for humans, the EPA establishes a reference dose (RfD) for each
pesticide that is approved for use. The RfD is the amount of a chemical that, if
ingested over a lifetime, is not expected to cause any adverse health effects in any
population subgroups. Using food consumption and other data, the EPA estimates
how much pesticide residue is likely to be consumed, and if the RfD is exceeded, the
agency takes steps to limit the use of the pesticide. To monitor the food supply for
pesticide residues, the FDA enforces pesticide tolerances for all foods (except for
meat, poultry and some egg products, which are monitored by the USDA). Laboratory
equipment used by these agencies usually can detect residues at one part per billion
or lower. Over the years, the FDA and other monitoring agencies have concluded that
pesticide residues in the food supply are well below established safety standards.
Many independent health experts who have examined studies on the effects of pesticides
in the diet have also concluded that the benefits of a diet rich in fruits and vegetables
far outweigh any pesticide-related risks. A 1996 report by the US National Academy
of Sciences concluded that both synthetic and naturally occurring pesticides are
consumed at such low levels that they pose little threat to human health.
Herbs and spices, in general, do not pose a high risk with regard to the presence
of pesticide residues basically because the total daily intake is very small. Further,
usage of spice and herbs at home and by food manufacturers involves such processes
as washing, peeling, cooking, canning, freezing and drying which decrease the residue
levels. Above all, usage of pesticide chemicals in agriculture and storage of most
spices are very limited. Today, most food manufacturers monitor farmers’ use of
pesticides to ensure the raw ingredients they buy meet strict quality assurance standards.
2.3
Analytical methods for detecting pesticide residues
Monitoring and measuring residue levels is a critical stage in the control of chemical
residues. Pesticides and other chemicals occur in spices and herbs only in trace levels
(generally at concentrations of parts per million). Measuring such small amounts in
the presence of enormous amounts of other chemicals that occur naturally in them is
a challenge, because these plant chemicals may interfere with measurement. A variety
of analytical methods are currently used to monitor pesticide residues, all of which
contain the following basic steps:
•
•
•
•
•
sample preparation: by chopping, grinding, or separating herbal plant parts
extraction: removal of a pesticide residue from other herbal components
clean-up (isolation): removal of constituents that interfere with the analysis of
the pesticide residue of interest; this step includes partitioning and purification
determination-separation: separation of components, i.e., individual pesticides,
and sample co-extractives, based on differential partitioning between a solid and
non-volatile solvent or between a liquid and gas carrier that moves through a
column (liquid and gas chromatography) or along a coated plate (thin layer
chromatography)
determination-detection: production of a response that measures the amount of
components moving through the column, allowing detection and quantification
of each pesticide.
Controlling pesticide and other residues in herbs and spices
45
The first step in analysing a spice/herb sample is to chop and grind the sample.
The samples must be handled in such a way as to avoid loss of volatile pesticide
residues and to prevent contamination of the sample with other pesticides or interfering
chemicals. Chopping or grinding followed by blending and mixing are manipulations
designed to produce a homogeneous composite sample from which sub-samples can
be taken, and to disrupt the gross structural components of the sample to facilitate
extracting pesticides from the sample. Once the sample is prepared, extraction is
performed with a solvent to remove the pesticide residue of interest from other
components of the sample. In most analytical laboratories, a solvent such as acetone
or acetonitrile is used to extract pesticides from 250 grams or less of the spice/herb
to be analysed. The solvent is blended with the sample, and smaller amounts are
further homogenised using an ultrasound generator. Salts, such as sodium chloride or
sodium sulphate, can be added to absorb water. Or, additional water is added, so that
the resulting aqueous solution can be partitioned with a water-immiscible solvent in
a subsequent cleanup step.
Extraction times vary from a few minutes to several hours, depending on the
pesticide to be analysed and the sample type. After putting the sample through an
alumina packed column, solvent is added to elute the pesticides off of the packing in
the column. The cleanup step is often a limitation in pesticide residue methods
because it generally consumes a large amount of the total analysis time and restricts
the number of pesticides that are recovered in some cases, as a result of losses in
chromatography, partitioning, and other cleanup steps. Problems that occur during
the extraction process include incomplete recovery and emulsion formation. Incomplete
recovery generally can be remedied by selecting a more efficient solvent. Emulsions
are the production of a third phase or solvent layer that confuses the partitioning
process. They can usually be broken down by adding salt to the sample/solvent
combination.
Super-critical fluids (SCFs) provide a new technique for extracting pesticides.
They are fluids that are more dense than gases but less dense than liquids. They are
not yet used in regulatory methods to analyse pesticide residues in food, but are
gaining favour for their ability to extract a wide variety of chemicals from many
sample types. Solid phase extraction (SPE – also known as accumulator or concentrator
columns) is another technique that can speed up cleanup as well as extraction. The
SPE packing materials or cartridges retain the pesticide. These cartridges also have
the advantages of batch sample processing capabilities, small size, adaptability to
robotic technology, low cost, and ready availability from many sources. SPEs have
the disadvantages of being unproven for many pesticides, inability to handle large
sample sizes, and generally ineffective for extracting water soluble pesticides and
metabolites. SPE is being used by industry and private laboratories, but is not yet
routinely used by regulatory agencies to a significant extent. Some FDA laboratories
use SPE to clean up extracts before the detection step to protect the column used in
high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). After a pesticide has been extracted
and isolated from the sample by a combination of the above-mentioned techniques,
it is further separated from other co-extractives, usually by either gas chromatography
or liquid chromatography or, less frequently, by thin layer chromatography.
Gas chromatography (GC) has been a dominant technique for separation, with at
least 40 years of development and refinement. Most multi-residue methods (MRMs)
used by the FDA and USDA and many single-residue methods (SRMs) are based on
GC. In a gas chromatography setup, separation of pesticides and sample co-extractives
46
Handbook of herbs and spices
occur in analytical columns. Historically, five detectors have been used. They are the
electron capture detector (ECD), Hall micro-electrolytic conductivity detector (HECD),
thermionic detectors (NPD and AFID), and the flame photometric detector (FPD).
ECD measures the loss of detector electrical current produced by a sample component
containing electron-absorbing molecule(s). This detector is very sensitive for measuring
halogenated pesticides, in the analysis of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides
(organochlorines) such as aldrin, dieldrin and DDT. ECD is efficient for the analysis
of poly chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) as well. The HECD can measure chlorine (and
other halogens), nitrogen, or sulphur. This detector is more selective than the ECD,
though the ECD is more sensitive. The Hall electrolytic conductivity detector also
has improved over the last few years, and has replaced the ECD in those laboratories
where extreme sensitivity is not required. Both the NPD and AFID measure the
presence of nitrogen and phosphorus atoms in the pesticide, with little response
resulting from other types of atoms in the molecules.
Today, the flame photometric detector (FPD) measures sulphur or phosphorus,
and is a rugged, highly stable, and very selective detector, since it does not detect
compounds other than organophosphates and those containing sulphur. The flame
photometric detector is less sensitive for phosphorus than the NPD and less sensitive
for sulphur than the Hall detector. However, it is useful for the analysis of unclean
crude herbal extracts. Conventional mass spectrometers (MS) have also been used by
some pesticide residue laboratories as gas chromatography detectors, and as highperformance liquid chromatography detectors as well. MS is normally used when
special techniques are necessary to confirm the identity of a particular pesticide,
when conventional detectors cannot detect the pesticide. The use of MS is growing,
especially with the development of the more portable and less costly mass selective
detector (MSD). The MSD and ion trap detector (ITD) may become more routinely
used for pesticide residue analysis, as improvements in their computer software are
made and their scan parameters become more suitable for chromatography.
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for the analysis of pesticide
residues is a fairly recent technology, but it is becoming the second most frequently
used technique after GC. GC depends upon the volatilisation of the pesticide, whereas
HPLC is dependent on the stationary phases that can selectively retain any molecular
structure; polar, non-polar, ionic, or neutral. Separations can even occur as a function
of molecular size (gel permeation) or chemical derivatisations (synthesis of a chemical
derivative of the pesticide). HPLC is not as efficient as capillary gas chromatography
for separator purposes because the chromatographic peaks are broader, though HPLC
columns are more efficient than packed GC columns when columns of equal length
are considered. HPLC columns usually last longer because they are not subjected to
the extremely high temperatures that GC columns are. The HPLC detectors used for
pesticide residue analysis are the UV absorption, fluorometer, conductivity, and
electrochemical.
Many pesticides absorb UV light at the wavelength of mercury discharge (254
nanometres) and can be detected in very small quantities. Unfortunately, many food
co-extractives do so as well, making this detector nearly useless for trace analysis in
foods. An alternative is the variable wavelength detector, which can be tuned to a
wavelength that is absorbed by the pesticide but not by the food co-extractives. The
fluorometer is a highly sensitive HPLC detector for some pesticides, which is typically
used for pesticides with aromatic molecular structures such as alachlor or paraquat.
This detector, however, has limited application to the detection of most pesticides
Controlling pesticide and other residues in herbs and spices
47
(which do not fluoresce appreciably). For compounds having photo-ionisable functional
groups, the photoconductivity detector is especially advantageous over UV detectors.
It has been well studied and used by FDA and other laboratories for residue analysis.
The electrochemical detector is also under study for its potential to improve detection
of electro active functional groups.
The thin layer chromatography (TLC) technique is based on partitioning a pesticide
between a solvent and a thin layer of adsorbent, which is usually silica or alumina
oxide that has been physically bonded to a glass or plastic plate. Samples are applied,
dissolved in a solvent, as spots or bands at one edge of the plate and the plate is then
placed in a tank containing a solvent. The solvent migrates up the plate by capillary
action, taking the pesticide with it, and depositing it at a given distance on the plate.
The time required for TLC plate development ranges from a few minutes to several
hours depending on the pesticide, the solvent, and the adsorbent. Following complete
development, the plate is removed from the tank and the spots or bands left by the
migration of the solvent are detected using any one of several techniques available
such as visualisation under UV light, using reagents to produce colours resulting
from chemical reaction specific for the pesticide/reagent combination. Amounts of
pesticide can be judged semi-quantitatively by comparison with standards that are
developed on the same plate as the unknowns. As a separator technique, TLC is much
less efficient than either GC or HPLC because the resolution separated by TLC is
approximately less than one-tenth of that found using a packed GC column to produce
the same separation. Consequently, TLC as a separator technique has largely been
replaced by GC and HPLC. On the other hand, interest exists in using TLCS to
develop rapid, semi-quantitative methods.
For regulatory agencies like the FDA and the FSIS, the monitoring methods must
provide results in a cost-effective, timely, reliable, and verifiable manner. These
methods should also identify as many pesticides as possible in a range of food
commodities because these agencies are responsible for monitoring all foods for all
pesticides to keep the products containing higher levels from reaching the market.
Analytical methods must also be able to detect pesticides at or below tolerance
levels, and endure interfering compounds such as other pesticides, drugs, and naturally
occurring chemicals. They should be insensitive to such environmental variations as
humidity, temperature and solvent purity as well. There are different classes of methods
that are used by the regulatory bodies, each method selected based on the need of the
monitoring, type of sample, and sensitivity required. They are multi residue, single
residue and semi-quantitative methods.
Multi-residue methods (MRMs) are designed to identify a broad spectrum of
pesticides and their toxicologically significant metabolites simultaneously in a range
of foods, and mostly meet the method needs of regulatory agencies. They are sensitive,
precise, and accurate enough, and are economical or affordable. In addition, an MRM
may detect, but not measure, a particular pesticide or metabolite, and also record the
presence of unidentified chemicals, known as an unidentified analytical response
(UAR). MRMs involve steps of preparation, extraction, cleanup, chromatographic
separation, and detection. All MRMs used today in the USA are based upon either
gas chromatography (GC) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) as
the determinative step, while thin layer chromatography (TLC) is also used by several
agencies in Europe. The basic weakness of MRMs is that they cannot detect every
pesticide. For example, of the 316 pesticides with tolerances, only 163 could be
analysed with FDA’s five routinely used MRMs. Another weakness is that some
48
Handbook of herbs and spices
MRMs require a great deal of time to perform, thereby reducing the number of
samples analysed and the speed of analysis. For example, certain foods, such as those
with high concentrations of fats and oils, are difficult to analyse in a timely manner.
Single residue methods (SRMs) are another category that depend on a number of
different techniques and vary widely in terms of reliability, efficiency, throughput
(samples per day), degree of validation, and practicality for regulatory use. Because
SRMs have been developed by the private sector for submission to EPA as part of the
tolerance setting process, a method exists for every pesticide with a tolerance. Most
SRMs, like MRMs, are based on GC using the full array of element specific detectors.
Although less efficient than MRMs, SRMs are necessary to monitor those pesticides
that cannot be detected by MRMs. SRMs are generally not considered adequate for
routine monitoring by the regulatory agencies, though FDA uses them. To monitor
one pesticide with an SRM is considered inefficient when an MRM can measure
many pesticides using the same resources. In addition, SRMs vary widely even for
chemicals of the same class, so a laboratory needs a wide array of glassware, evaporative
devices, chromatography, and detectors to use the SRMs available.
There is a third class of methods, namely the semi-quantitative and qualitative
methods, that range widely in their ability to quantify the chemical present in a sample.
Semi-quantitative methods indicate the range of pesticide residue concentration in a
sample, while qualitative methods show whether or not a particular pesticide exists
above detectable limits. These methods use technologies like thin layer chromatography
(TLC), enzyme inhibition, and immunoassay, all of which can be moved from the
laboratory into the field without losing their ability to detect pesticides. The enzyme
inhibition-based colour reactions make spots and bands of pesticide residues on thin
layer chromatographic plates visible, in order to measure the pesticide residue either
visually or with instruments. Such techniques are being used for cholinesteraseinhibiting insecticides and photosynthesis-inhibiting herbicides. Because sophisticated
instrumentation is not required they are relatively inexpensive compared to quantitative
methods. The benefits of these methods are their low cost, speed, or ease of use and
more number of samples that could be analysed. Nevertheless, neither FDA nor FSIS
is currently using these methods for pesticides. A drawback of semi-quantitative
methods is that they do not provide the degree of accuracy necessary for enforcement
action, as in a court of law. Violations found by a semi-quantitative method would have
to be verified by a quantitative analytical method – or maybe two.
As techniques are improved by changes in instrument and hardware design, bringing
about more sensitive, selective, and reproducible devices, their costs usually increase,
particularly when automated sample handling and data manipulation are included.
These additional costs translate into higher costs to implement contemporary pesticide
methodologies for varied herbal samples. Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC)
is a new technique of chromatographic separation used in the regulatory analysis of
pesticide residues in food. With super fluids as the solvent phase, SFC can chromatograph
chemicals that cannot be handled by gas chromatography because of their nonvolatility or thermal instability. Many detectors designed for GC can also be used in
SFC, such as the flame ionisation, the nitrogen-phosphorus, and the atomic emission
spectrometric as well as the UV absorbance detectors. New analytical methods are
needed to expand the range of pesticide analytes that can be detected in plant derived
food products like herbals in a more efficient process.
Some of these advanced technologies include gas or liquid chromatography/mass
spectrometry (or tandem mass spectrometry), solid phase extraction, laser-induced
Controlling pesticide and other residues in herbs and spices
49
and/or time-resolved fluorescence, field-based instruments, immunochemical assays,
biosensors, and other techniques. Direct sample introduction for gas chromatography/
tandem mass spectrometry (DSI/GC/MS-MS) is a novel approach for the analysis of
multiple pesticides in a variety of herbal food matrices. This approach has the potential
to make a major impact in the analysis of many types of pesticides and other semivolatile chemicals in a variety of matrices in food.
Tandem Quadrupole LC and GC/MS/MS is another new MRM system being used
for multiple pesticide residues. This method involves a less selective extraction and
cleanup, and is particularly applicable to complex food matrices of spices like ginger,
garlic, and herbs, where the selectivity is sufficient to allow generic sample cleanup,
apart from providing a good sensitivity up to 10 pg on column for most pesticide
residues. A UPLC (ultra performance liquid chromatography) method is also available
now where the cycle time can be halved, and improved efficiency coupled with high
sample throughput could be realised through a combination of new technologies that
offer enhanced chromatographic resolution and short analysis time. In addition, it
can group MRM functions into time windows enabling the incorporation of confirmatory
MRM traces, and switch rapidly between MRM channels and between positive and
negative ionisation modes. The newly developed travelling wave (T-wave) technology
can prevent cross-talk even at very short cycle times. The T-wave is produced by
application of a transient d.c. voltage with opposite phase to alternate plates thus
creating a square wave which travels along the length of the collision cell.
2.4
Control of pesticide residues in herbs and spices
Monitoring usage of chemicals and their residue levels in raw materials and finished
products sets up strategies for controlling them at farm level. There are different
ways of usage control at farm level that, grouped together, are termed as farm
management systems. These are basically tools to achieve supply of quality agroproducts through sustainable programs of agriculture and farmer development. These
systems ensure quality at source through superior seed varieties, modern and sustainable
agricultural practices, and provide consistent raw material quality to improve process
efficiencies. There are many options open to herb and spice processors under these
systems, like corporate farming through own land/leased land, and contract farming
with large/institutional bodies and small/medium/large farmers. The rural farmers
and small-scale entrepreneurs lack both reliable and cost-efficient inputs such as
extension advice, mechanisation services, seeds, fertilisers and credit, and guaranteed
and profitable markets for their output. Well-organised contract farming provides
such linkages apart from providing the investors with the opportunity to guarantee a
reliable source of supply, from the perspectives of both quantity and quality.
Contracting of crops has existed from time immemorial. In ancient Greece, the
practice, known as hektemoroi or ‘sixth partner’ was widespread, in which specified
shares of particular crops were contracted for paying tithes, rents and debts. Such
sharecropping was also practised in China during the first century. In the USA, by
end of the nineteenth century, sharecropping agreements had been drawn that allowed
for a specific share to be deducted for rent payment to the landowner. In the first
decades of the twentieth century, formal farmer-corporate agreements were established
in colonies controlled by European powers.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Contract farming is an effective means to develop markets and to bring about
transfer of technical skills in a way that is profitable for both the sponsors and
farmers. To be successful it requires a long-term commitment from both parties.
Exploitative arrangements by managers are likely to have only a limited duration and
can jeopardise agribusiness investments. Similarly, farmers need to consider that
honouring contractual arrangements is likely to be to their long-term benefit. Contract
farming is becoming an increasingly important aspect of agribusiness, whether the
products are purchased by multinationals, smaller companies, government agencies,
farmer cooperatives or individual entrepreneurs. The approach is widely used, not
only for tree and other cash crops but, increasingly, for fruits and vegetables, poultry,
pigs, dairy produce and even prawns and fish. Contract farming of spices like chillies,
ginger, nutmeg and vanilla as well as herbs like parsley, thyme, patchouli and stevia
are wide spread, which makes the farm level quality improvement suitable to the
international standards as set by country regulations.
This kind of backward linkage is market driven and hence is very competitive and
effective. For sponsoring companies, contract farming may in many cases be more
efficient than plantation production, and will certainly be more politically acceptable.
It can give them access to land that would not otherwise be available and the opportunity
to organise a reliable supply of products of the desired quality that probably could not
be obtained from the open market. On the other hand, from the companies’ perspective,
contract farming is not without difficulties. Farmers may sell their outputs to outsiders,
even though they were produced using company-supplied inputs. Conflicts can also
arise because the rigid farming calendar required under the contract often interferes
with social and cultural obligations. The essential precondition for a contract farming
project is that there must be a market for the product that will ensure profitability of
the venture.
There is a range of other factors that affect the success of contract farming ventures.
These include the physical, social and cultural environments; the suitability of utilities
and communications; the availability of land; and the availability of needed inputs.
An essential precondition is that management must have the necessary competence
and structure to handle a project involving many small-scale farmers. Another important
requirement is government support. Contracts need to be backed up by law and by an
efficient legal system. Existing laws may have to be reviewed to ensure that they do
not constrain agribusiness and contract farming development and minimise red tape.
Some major spice/herb producing countries like India have, unfortunately, not done
much to the existing laws to bridge the gap.
In general, there are five basic models of contract farming; these are the centralised
model, the nucleus estate model, the multipartite model, the informal or individual
developer model and the intermediary model. Any crop product can theoretically be
contracted out using any of the models, though certain products are more suited to
certain approaches. Good management is a vital component of all contract farming
models. It is essential to plan, organise, coordinate and manage production, including
the identification of suitable land and farmers, the organisation of farmers into working
groups, the supply of inputs, the transfer of technology and the provision of extension
services. Above all, the quality requirement has to be clearly agreed upon and a
detailed package of agro-practices needs to be designed and monitored. There has to
be a harmonious management-farmer relationship throughout the implementation
of the project, and promoters and sponsors of contract farming need to place
particular importance on the monitoring of production. Companies should also monitor
Controlling pesticide and other residues in herbs and spices
51
the performance of their employees, particularly those in close contact with the
farmers.
For spices, contract farming can be through small farmer groups. For example, a
company that exports vanilla from Uganda works through groups of farmers organised
into local associations. These associations play a leading role in selecting suitable
farmers, recovering loans and bulking up the vanilla for purchase. Such farmer
groups or associations control production, with the sponsor having direct contact
with farmers only when conducting training programmes. In spices like chilli where
processing (drying to control aflatoxin) is required immediately following harvest,
there can be quality problems. In such cases well laid out quality checks and standards
are to be agreed upon by the company and the farmer.
Successful chilli and marigold backward integration projects have been in operation
continuously for the past ten years in the southern districts of India, run by the AV
Thomas group’s Integrated Spice Project. These projects are good examples of backward
linkages, where the corporate sector works very closely with growers to meet global
quality standards of produce. It is generally seen that the farmers accept new techniques
only if the adaptations result in higher yields and/or improved quality and if the cost
of such techniques is more than offset by higher returns. The introduction of technologies
can cause cultural adaptation problems for smallholder farmers, even though these
technologies are often the most important benefit of the contract. (Refer to Figs 2.1–
8 as well as the flowchart (Fig. 2.9) of residue control for details of chemical controls
at farms).
Field extension, monitoring of chemical applications/package of practices and
recording of field data are very important to maintain traceability of the produce.
Extension staff have the responsibility to schedule the sowing of seed beds, the
transplanting of seedlings, and the cultivation and harvesting of the contracted crop
within a defined climatic season and in harmony with the farmers’ own cropping
regimes. At the beginning of each season, management, extension staff and farmers
should discuss and confirm all planned activity schedules. Managers should present
Fig. 2.1
Improving post-harvest processing/drying by use of clean sand beds for quick and
complete drying to arrest mould growth and to avoid use of fungicides.
52
Handbook of herbs and spices
Fig. 2.2
Improvement of post-harvest handling/picking by using clean containers to arrest
mould growth and to avoid use of fungicides.
Fig. 2.3 Use of chemicals is strictly prohibited at least a month before harvest in the backward
integration projects of AVT McCormick to reduce chemical loads on dry pods to the barest
minimum.
the sequence and timing of each crop activity to farmers before the first sowings. Pest
control packages and usage schedules are often discussed before sowing, and are
monitored by the field extension staff at specified intervals. A routine analysis is
carried out to ensure that current and future production remains within the quality
and quantity parameters required.
Deterioration of quality can have serious and far-reaching consequences for any
business venture. Quality controls are especially critical for spices that are more
prone to usage of chemicals like pesticides. Here, an approved list of chemicals to be
used is released by the company. IPM strategies to be followed are also described in
Controlling pesticide and other residues in herbs and spices
53
Fig. 2.4 Use of IPM strategies such as pheromone traps and border cropping to control insects
in a marigold field under the backward integration operations of AVT Natural products.
Fig. 2.5
Marigold flowers for quality checking at the laboratory.
detail. Each venture must develop quality control and monitoring systems suitable
for its operation. Management must prioritise monitoring procedures and decide how
often they should be carried out, in what locations and what should be inspected and
assessed. Checking product quality can take place before, during and immediately
after harvesting as well as at the time farmers grade their own production and when
the products reach the company’s processing or packaging facilities. Quality controls
may start as specifications in a written contract or as verbal explanations of quality
standards given in both pre-season and pre-harvest farmer-management meetings.
Some of the major causes of poor quality are failure to apply fertiliser, ineffective
weed and insect controls, disease, immature harvesting and indiscriminate grading
and packaging.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Fig. 2.6 Scientific farming practices based on GAP and IPM in a marigold field by AVT
Natural products.
Fig. 2.7
2.5
Post-harvest drying by natural methods under hygienic and controlled environment to
reduce mould infestation and usage of fungicides by AVT McCormick.
Integrated pest management and organic production
Integrated pest management (IPM) is a more or less total solution to controlling
chemical residues in agriculture of spices and herbs. Any contract farming model for
quality improvement of spices and herbs should essentially contain an IPM
module suited to that crop. Though used to control insect and mite pests, herbs are
prone to attack themselves from a wide range of pests. Aphids, two-spotted spider
mites, caterpillars such as armyworms and cabbage loopers, leaf miners and whiteflies
are some of the examples. Each spice/herb variety harbours its own spectrum of
pests, and managing these depends on specific host-parasite relation. IPM options
Controlling pesticide and other residues in herbs and spices
55
Fig. 2.8 Strict quality checking for chemical residues and other customer requirements.
available to control them are limited, as much research has not been conducted in this
area.
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) regulates the
pesticides being used to control insect and mite pests of herbs and spices in the USA.
According to this law any chemical used for controlling pests must be registered by
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Section 2ee of the FIPRA not only
allows use of pesticides as per specific instructions on the pesticide label, but also
requires that the target must also be specified on the product label. This law dramatically
limits the number of insecticides that are allowed to be used on herbs since few
products contain mention of this ‘minor crop’ thus technically controlling, by default,
use of many pesticides on herbs.
An ideal IPM strategy for spices and herbs should include use of Bacillus thuringiensis
for control of armyworms (1st and 2nd instars), loopers and salt marsh caterpillars;
insecticidal soaps (e.g. M-Pede®) for control of whiteflies, aphids, leafhoppers, plant
bugs, spider mites and thrips; azadirachtin to control a variety of insects including
leaf miners, fungus gnats, gypsy moths, western flower thrips, mealy bugs, armyworms,
aphids, loopers, cutworms, leaf rollers, leaf hoppers, webworms, spruce budworms
and sawflies. Products containing azadirachtin (extracted from neem tree) are considered
to be ‘insect growth regulators’, which work by interfering with the insects’ key
moulting hormone, ecdysone, to prevent them from moulting from one life stage to
the next. Egg and adult stages of insects are not affected by azadirachtin application
and have anti-feedant properties. Garlic water is also used to prevent pests like ants,
aphids, grasshoppers, ‘leaf loopers’, leaf rollers, spiders, spider mites, thrips and
whiteflies, though claims are made that this product kills insects and mites.
Whenever using a herbal product or product mixture for the first time on a plant
or plant’s growth stage, a few plants should be tested and observed for several days
to determine if that spray will harm the plant in any way. Leaf yellowing, burning,
deformation or drop are some of the symptoms to be looked for. Plants in flower or
in stress are more likely to display such phototoxic reactions. There may be other
products that are specifically used on one or more herbs. For example, numerous
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Reducing chemical residues in spices and herbs
Contamination
through application
of chemicals in
agronomic
operations
Chemical
residues in
spices and
herbs
• Fertiliser
• Pesticide
• Heavy metal
Contamination
through
agronomic
operations from
adjacent fields
Control of
residues by lot
selection, testing
and clearance
Contamination
through existing
residues load in the
farm due to
previous crops
Control of
residues at
source
through GAP
Control of
residues by
supplier quality
assurance
• Contract farming
• Corporate farming
• Organic farming
• Integrated pest
management
GAP based on
IPM
• Neem oil
• Bacillus
thuriengensis
• Nuclear poly
hedro virus
Use of biocides
Judicious use of
pesticides: need-based
spray of new/safe
molecules once or twice
by rotation
Avoid use of
any sprays at
least a month
before harvest
• Pheromone traps
• Trap crops-to draw
pests away from
the main crop
• Border crops to
prevent wind
fallout
• Light traps
• Bird arch
Selection of nontraditional or semitraditional area for
easy adaptation to
resude control
Selection of farms: used
less for commercial crops,
less pesticide usage history,
less fallout/washout of
nearby land with high
usage of pesticides
Selection of progressive
farmers: innovative and
adaptive to quality
requirements
Pre-harvest practices
Use of
biofungicides
as alternative
Fig. 2.9
Reducing chemical residues in herbs and spices.
products are reportedly registered for peppermint, spearmint and parsley. There may
also be products, particularly ‘organic’ products, generally registered for insect and
mite control with no particular site listed on the product label. Diatomaceous earth
products are not registered insecticides for use on herbs. Use of this material and
other ‘home made’ sprays, dusts or similar treatments must be practised with care.
Other IPM approaches that can be used in herbs include the following:
Controlling pesticide and other residues in herbs and spices
•
•
•
•
•
57
Start with clean plants and use pest resistant/tolerant species/varieties if available.
Practise good sanitation in the production area based on good agricultural practices
(GAP), remove heavily infested material and clippings, eliminate weeds and pet
plants in and around the production area.
Use exclusion techniques such as screens and other physical barriers (‘no-thrips’
screen, bug bed environmental screening, econet – anti-insect net and others).
Hand pick pests and/or use high-pressure water sprays (water-wand, jet-all or
others).
Practise biological control methods including conservation of natural enemies
and augmentive releases (applications) of predators (predaceous mites, green
lacewing larvae and others), parasites (Encarsia and Trichogramma wasps and
others) and insect-predaceous nematodes (Bio-Safet™, Entonem®, Ecomaskn™,
Scanmaskn™, Larvanem® and others).
Pest suppression approaches for herb production are often labour intensive and
expensive. The price of the final product must include the added cost of pest control.
Sharing information regarding registered products and their sources would be an
effective way.
Organic production is a system that uses a combination of management techniques
to maintain soil quality and fertility, and control weeds, pests and diseases. Crop
rotation plays a big role in achieving these goals. Conventional chemical fertilisers,
herbicides and pesticides are eliminated, although organic products are generally
allowed, subject to compliance with the organic standard. This system of agri-production
is a total way of controlling use of chemicals in agriculture. Of late, many organically
grown spices and herbs are readily available in the market. Organic agriculture is the
strictest of the environmentally sound agricultural practices. Its main focus is on
minimising environmental damage and on sustaining or building up soil fertility.
Organic agriculture is commonly perceived as refraining from the use of chemical
inputs, such as synthetic fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides or defoliants. More
environmentally sound alternatives are employed to replace chemicals, such as crop
rotation, particularly incorporating legumes, careful management and use of manure
and crop wastes, use of appropriate cultivation techniques, natural and biological
pest and disease control measures and mechanical and other non-chemical weed
control techniques. In many regions of the world, agricultural systems equivalent to
what is now defined as ‘organic’ farming have existed for centuries, especially in
third-world countries, where agriculture is often ‘organic by default’ as no money is
available to buy chemical fertilisers and pesticides.
The EU market for organic spices and herbs grew rapidly in the 1990s. There is
growing demand for organic spices and herbs in Europe. In order to make agricultural
products from organic sources easily recognisable to consumers, EU ‘organic’ labels
have been introduced. Organic production and labelling is covered by Council Regulation
(EEC) No 2092/91 as a means of providing consumers with a guarantee of origin,
preparation, processing, and packaging of products.
Each country should try to evolve a process to develop a regulated national standard,
that growers must follow. There are several organic certification organisations. The
standards of these organizations may vary, in part, due mainly to different interpretations
of products of restricted use. Consumers often interpret certified organic produce as
merely pesticide free but this is not the case. Organic pesticides may have been used
in some instances. Organic crops must always be produced according to accepted
guidelines of the organic standard being followed, including soil management practices.
58
Handbook of herbs and spices
The transition time to convert from conventional to organic production generally
requires a minimum of three years and is set by the certification agency. Weed
management is often a challenge, especially during transition, but may be less so in
horticultural or herb crops that are grown in rows. Most importantly, record keeping
is vital for organic certification of crops.
The main principles for organic production at farm level and the rules that must be
followed for the processing, sale and import of organic products were established by
the passing of Council Regulation EEC 2092/91 and its supplement EC 1804/99.
This regulation is very complicated and difficult, which makes it necessary for an
exporter to the EU to consult experts on this matter. Use of the term ‘organic’ is now
limited in the European Union to products derived according to the principles of
production and the rules of processing defined in the regulation. IFOAM (International
Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements) was a major contributor to the organic
standards of the EU adopted in Regulation 2092/91. Agricultural units, the processors
as well as their products, must be certified by the EU recognised control bodies to
confirm that they meet the required EU or specific national standards, before their
products can be offered for sale in EU markets. Important inspection agencies are
SKAL, Ecocert, Soil Association, etc.
It should be noted that a number of these organisations have their own inspectors
in some developing countries. Under EU regulation, the marketing of organic produce
from third-world countries is permitted only where the Commission is satisfied that
the imported goods have been produced according to rules equivalent to those of the
European Union and where the producer has obtained a certificate of inspection from
a competent EU recognised authority. Exporters from non-EU member states can
indicate their interest in obtaining certification for organic production by contacting
either an international inspection organisation, or a national organisation from an EU
member state, designated as a competent authority under Regulation No 2092/91.
The EKO quality label is the label in The Netherlands that guarantees the organic
origin and quality of agricultural products and food products. The organisation SKAL
is the holder of the officially registered EKO quality symbol. Internationally, SKAL
is a member of IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements).
It provides services in the field of inspection and certification, both nationally and
internationally, acting as an independent third party. Other important EU inspection
organisations operating internationally include BCS and Naturland (Germany), Ecocert
(Germany, France, Belgium, and Italy) the Soil Association (United Kingdom) and
KRAV (Sweden).
2.6
Acknowledgements
The author sincerely thanks Mr. M.S.A. Kumar, Managing Director- AVT McCormick
Ingredients & AVT Natural Products, as well as Ms. Sushama Srikandath, Director
and Chief Operating Officer- AVT McCormick Ingredients, for their support,
encouragement and valuable inputs.
2.7
References
GIESE, J.
Spices and seasoning blends, A taste for all seasons. Food technology. 48(4): 87–98. 1994.
An overview of pesticide impact assessment systems based on Indexing or Ranking
LOIS LEVITAN.
Controlling pesticide and other residues in herbs and spices
59
Pesticides by Environmental Impact, Proceedings of Workshop on Pesticide Risk Indicators,
21–23 April, 1997 Copenhagen, Denmark.
AMBRUS, A. and THIER, H. P. Application of Multi residue Procedures in Pesticide Residues Analysis,
Pure and Applied Chemistry 58(7): 1035–1062. July 1986.
FREEMAN, R. R. and HAYES, M. A. Column considerations when doing trace analysis on open tubular
Columns, Journal of chromatographic science 26(4): 138–141. April 1988.
JENNINGS, W. Analytical Gas Chromatography, Academic Press, Inc., 1987.
MCNALLY, M. A. P. and WHEELER, J. R. Supercritical fluid extraction coupled with super-critical fluid
chromatography for the Separation of sulfonylurea herbicides and their metabolites from complex
matrices, Journal of Chromatography 435: 63–71, 1988.
SCHENCK , F. J., CALLERY, P., GANNETT, P. M., DAFT, J. R. and LEHOTAY, S. J. Comparison of magnesium
sulphate with sodium sulphate for the removal of water from pesticide residue extracts of food.
Journal of AOAC International. 85(5): 177–1180, 2002.
LEHOTAY, S. J. and HAJšLOVÁ, J. Application of gas chromatography in food Analysis. Trends in
Analytical Chemistry. 21(9/10): 686–697, 2002.
SCHENCK , F. J., LEHOTAY, S. J. and VEGA, V. What is the optimal solid-phase extraction (SPE) cleanup
for the GC analysis of pesticides in fresh fruits and vegetables? FDA Laboratory Information
Bulletin. 17(10): 4262, 2001.
SHELVER, W. L. and SMITH, D. J. Application of a monoclonal antibody based enzyme linked
immunosorbent assay for determination of ractopamine in incurred samples from food animals.
Journal of Agricultual Food Chemistry. 50: 2742–2747, 2002.
LAMPKIN, N. 1990. Organic farming. Farming Press Books, Ipswich, UK.
3
Irradiation to decontaminate herbs and
spices
A. Sharma, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India
3.1
Introduction
Spices are natural plant or vegetable products, or mixtures thereof, in whole or
ground form, and are used for seasoning and imparting flavor, aroma and pungency
to food (Pruthi, 1980). Spices and condiments play an important role in the economies
of several exporting and importing countries of the world. The terms spices and
condiments are often used synonymously, but the latter refers to a mixture of one or
more spice(s) along with flavor potentiators, added to food after it has been served on
the table. Herbs are actually weak-stemmed plants or plant parts, used raw in powdered
form or for the extraction of biologically active principles, used extensively in the
alternative system of medicine including ayurveda and unani. Herbal medicine is
becoming increasingly popular around the world. China and India are the largest
producers of medicinal herbs. Globally, the herbal medicine market is valued at
around $60 billion.
The majority of spices and herbs are grown in tropical countries of the world.
Since these are high-value commodities they are an important source of valuable
foreign exchange for many countries. Though data on medicinal herbs is lacking,
figures for spice production and export are well documented. India alone produces
more than three million tonnes of spices annually. There are more than 112 plant
species that are used as spices and vegetable seasonings. In India about 53 spices are
included in the official list of the Indian Spices Board, of which 12 are spices of
major economic importance to the country. Most of these spices are consumed within
the country. Only about 10% of the produce is exported. India accounts for about
50% of the world export of spices. During their journey from farm to table spices
exchange several hands. Improper conditions like drying in open and inadequate
packaging and storage result in contamination of spices with soil, excreta of birds,
rodents, and insects.
Irradiation to decontaminate herbs and spices 61
3.2 Quality considerations
Spices and herbs are normally used for their volatile aromatic oils and biologically
active principles. They do not contribute much to the nutritional value of food. The
volatile oil in spices could vary from negligible to 13%. Most of the spices and herbs
have a high level of moisture, varying from 16–88% at the time of harvest. After
harvest spices and herbs are dried locally by the farmers and collectors. Spices are
generally produced by small farmers, where traditional systems of cultivation and
drying are used. The moisture content of spices and herbs may vary from 6–12%
depending on the extent of drying and climatic conditions. Often the produce is not
adequately dried, cleaned, graded or packed. It is often the middlemen who collect,
pool, clean, grade and bag the spices, before selling them to traders and exporters.
Ideally, for storage stability, moisture in spices should be below 12%. But often
farmers do not dry the produce to the required extent often unintentionally, but some
times intentionally, to get the advantage of weight.
Open air drying leads to contamination of spices and herbs with soil and dust. The
biotic factors responsible for the deterioration of spices and herbs and the consequences
to consumers are shown in Table 3.1. Contamination of spices and herbs with biotic
agents not only risks the spoilage of the valuable commodity but also poses risks to
human health due to the presence and outgrowth of pathogens and toxin-producing
molds.
Due to low moisture in dry spices and herbs the water activity is often less than
0.60. Thus these commodities are inherently stable during storage. Spices contain a
number of microorganisms as shown in Table 3.2, however, the actual number of
bacteria present may vary from spice to spice (Table 3.3). Spices contain a high load
of spores of bacteria and fungi (Table 3.3). These spores are mainly mesophilic
aerobes, mesophilic anaerobes, and flat sour thermophilic aerobes (Pruthi, 1980).
Spices may also contain human pathogens. This is indicated by the presence of
coliforms and E. coli (Table 3.4), the organisms known as indicators of fecal
contamination and thus the hygiene of the commodity (Farkas, 1988). The presence
of human pathogens such as Salmonella, E. coli, and Bacillus cereus has been well
documented in spices (Pruthi, 1980). Due to low water activity spices and herbs are
inherently resistant to bacterial spoilage.
Fungal contamination and spoilage of spices and herbs could occur either during
drying when the process is slow or if the drying is inadequate, or during post-harvest
storage, especially when relative humidity during storage is high and the temperature
Table 3.1
Biotic factors in quality deterioration of spices and herbs
• Storage insects
– Infestation and deterioration
– Loss of marketability
– Risk unethical use of harmful insecticides
• Contaminating microbes
– Potential spoilage of spices
– Potential spoilage of food
– Potential human pathogen
– Potential toxin producer
– Loss of marketability
– Risk unethical use of chemicals
62
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 3.2
Common microorganisms in spices and herbs
Molds
Bacteria
Pathogenic bacteria
Aspergillus flavus
A. niger
A. fumigatus
A. glaucus
A. tamarii
A. terreus
A. versicolor
Absidia sp.
Mucor sp.
Penicillium
Rhizopus sp.
B. subtilus
B. lichniformis
B. megaterium
B. pumilus
B. brevis
B. polymyxa
B. stearothermophilus
B. firmis
S. faecalis
B. cereus
Clostridum perfringens
E. coli
Salmonella sp.
102–106
103–108
Table 3.3
Total bacterial and spore counts in pre-packed ground spices
Spices
Total bacteria
CFU/g
Pepper
Chili
Turmeric
Coriander
3
4
1
2
Table 3.4
Range
10–102
102–103
103–104
× 106
× 106
× 106
× 105
Total bacterial spore
2
2
8
2
Total fungal spores
× 106
× 106
× 105
× 105
5
6
1
2
× 102
× 105
× 103
× 103
Frequency of occurrence of coliforms and E.coli in spices
Coliforms
E. coli
Samples
%
Samples
%
31
21
20
14
9
9
22
10
4
10
4
2
is conducive to fungal growth. Fungal infection, particularly with toxin-producing
fungi like Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, may result in accumulation
of mycotoxins that pose a significant health risk to consumers (Table 3.2).
The microbial load on common Indian whole and ground spices varies from sample
to sample as shown in Table 3.3 (Sharma et al., 1984, Munasiri et al., 1987). Some
spices may contain potent antibacterial and antifungal principles that are abundant in
certain spices like clove, cinnamon and ajowan (Sharma et al., 1984, 2000). Spices
are frequently infested with insect pests (Padwal-Desai et al., 1987). The insect pests
normally encountered in spices are given in Table 3.5. These include common storage
insects such as cigarette beetle, confused flour beetle, saw-toothed beetle and Indian
meal moth. Insect infestation of spices is a major storage problem. Spices may also
contain a large amount of antioxidants and radioprotective agents (Gautam et al.,
1998). These agents, along with the antibacterial and antifungal compounds, are
primarily responsible for the medicinal and nutraceutical value of spices.
The addition of heavily contaminated spices even at 0.1% level in a prepared or
Irradiation to decontaminate herbs and spices 63
cooked food can significantly increase its microbial load and lead to spoilage, particularly
of canned food. The pathogens may grow and increase in number when the spice is
added to food and if the food is allowed to incubate. Thus the presence of microorganisms
in spices could severely affect not only the keeping quality of food but also increase
the risk of human foodborne illnesses. The loss of quality and marketability of stored
spices can result in huge economic losses.
3.2.1 Quality standards
Quality has been given the utmost importance by both exporting and importing
countries. In India, The Export (Quality Control & Inspection) Act 1963 was amended
in 1984 to streamline inspection and testing procedures before export. The Bureau of
Indian Standards in collaboration with the International Standards Organization has
laid down standards for spices. However, it is not always that the export consignments
conform to the standards of quality and quarantine. Leading importing countries have
stringent quality control inspection. Exceeding permitted defect levels could invite
stringent punishment in the form of rejection of the consignment or even black listing
of the export house. The microbial standards for spices proposed by the ICMF are
shown in Table 3.6.
Culinary practices in India, usually adding spices before or at the time of cooking,
may serve as safeguards against poor microbiological quality of spices for home
consumers. However, infested and molded spices are pushed in as ingredients of
powders and condiments. Besides being contaminated with the excreta and body
parts of insect pests, these spices may carry heat resistant mycotoxins such as aflatoxin.
Storage insects cause major losses to farmers as well as traders. Very often traders
resort to unethical practices by using banned chemicals to store their spices for
Table 3.5 Predominant storage insects found in Indian spices
Insect
Whole spices
Lasioderma
serricorne
Oryzaephilus
surinamensis
Sitophilus
cerealella
Tribolium
castaneum
Table 3.6
Test
SPC
Molds
E. coli
Ground spices
Chili
Turmeric
Ginger
Cardamom Coriander
Chili
Turmeric
Coriander
+
+
+
–
–
+
+
–
+
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
+
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Recommended microbiological specifications for spices
Limits/g
N
C
m
M
5
5
5
2
2
2
10,000
100
10
1000,000
10,000
1,000
From N samples analyzed; C samples may exceed; m but none may exceed; M (ICMF, 1974).
64
Handbook of herbs and spices
longer periods. The presence of invisible microorganisms, many of which could
cause, disease poses risks to human health, especially when spices are added to food
after cooking.
At present fumigants like methyl bromide, ethylene dibromide and ethylene oxide
are used to treat spices and herbs for insect disinfestation and microbial decontamination.
Besides being less effective, these fumigants leave chemical residues on spices that
are harmful to human health. These fumigants are also harmful to the environment as
halogenated hydrocarbons deplete ozone in the atmosphere. Many countries have
banned the use of fumigants. Other countries, including India, are planning to ban
them.
3.2.2 Quality improvement by irradiation
Radiation processing offers a very effective and safe alternative for disinfestation
and microbial decontamination of spices and herbs. It is a cold process, sometimes
also referred to as cold pasteurization, therefore it does not affect the delicate aroma
and flavor compounds in spices. Radiation processing can be carried out in prepacked spices without running the risk of post-treatment contamination. The process
is very effective compared to fumigants and does not leave any harmful residues on
spices.
Table 3.7 shows the effect of irradiation on bacterial and fungal microflora of
spices. It is clear that a radiation dose of 5 kGy can eliminate fungal microflora,
whereas, a dose of 10 kGy destroys all bacterial contaminants, making spices
commercially sterile. Table 3.8 shows the microbial profile of irradiated and nonirradiated spices during storage. It is evident that irradiated spices retain their
Table 3.7
Spice
Effect of gamma radiation on total bacterial and fungal population in spices
Total bacteria (CFU/g)
Dose (kGy)
0
Pepper
Nutmeg
Cinnamon
Cardamom
Clove
1
4
2
1
9
5
×
×
×
×
×
107
104
103
104
102
Total fungi (CFU/g)
Dose (kGy)
7.5
1×
6×
1×
3×
4×
103
102
102
102
102
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
8
3
1
9
4 × 102
0
0
2 × 101
0
1
×
×
×
×
×
102
103
102
103
102
1
8
0
5
4
× 101
× 101
× 101
× 101
5
7.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
Table 3.8 Total bacterial count of non-irradiated and irradiated spices during storage at ambient
temperature
Spice
Dose (kGy)
Storage period (mo)
0
0
Pepper
Chili
Turmeric
Coriander
3
4
1
1
3
×
×
×
×
106
106
106
105
3×
2×
9×
1×
5
6
106
106
105
105
3
1
8
1
10
0
×
×
×
×
106
103
102
105
2×
2×
2×
2×
3
103
104
102
102
2×
2×
2×
1×
6
103
103
102
102
5 × 102
2 × 102
0
1 × 102
0
3
6
0
35
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Irradiation to decontaminate herbs and spices 65
microbiological quality during storage. A comparative study was undertaken to evaluate
the effectiveness of radiation processing by six research laboratories in India. As
shown in Table 3.9 all six laboratories reported the effectiveness of radiation processing
in eliminating microbial load on three major spices. Table 3.10 shows the comparative
effectiveness of irradiation with fumigation on some spices and dry vegetable seasonings
(Farkas, 1988). It is evident that irradiation at 10 kGy was much more effective than
ethylene oxide at 800 g/6h.
It has been shown in several studies that the quality parameters of spices do not
change appreciably after radiation processing. Table 3.11 shows the color power of
turmeric (curcumin content) during storage at ambient temperature. It is also evident
that the color power of irradiated (10 kGy) stored turmeric was better in comparison
with the control. Table 3.12 shows that the active ingredients of spices are not
affected by irradiation. In the case of chili the extractable color, capsanthin, was not
found to be significantly affected by irradiation and storage (Table 3.13). Table 3.14
Table 3.9
Microbiological analysis of spices
Spice
CFU/ g*
LAB**
Pepper
1
W***
G
IW
IG
W
G
IW
IG
W
G
IW
IG
Chili
Turmeric
2
5
2×
7×
30
30
5×
5×
30
30
5×
1×
30
30
7 × 10
1 × 105
NIL
NIL
6 × 104
5 × 104
NIL
NIL
6 × 104
6 × 105
NIL
NIL
3
6
10
104
104
104
105
106
4
4
2 × 10
3 × 104
NIL
NIL
1 × 104
2 × 104
NIL
NIL
3 × 104
2 × 104
NIL
NIL
5
5
6
8
3 × 10
9 × 105
9
20
2 × 105
3 × 105
90
NIL
3 × 105
1 × 106
36
NIL
2 × 10
3 × 108
NIL
NIL
1 × 105
7 × 105
NIL
NIL
1 × 108
4 × 105
NIL
NIL
3 × 106
3 × 106
NIL
60
2 × 104
3 × 105
10
20
2 × 106
3 × 106
10
20
* CFU: Colony forming units, each value represents readings average of four replicates from samples.
** Laboratories:
1 Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai.
2 Analytical Quality Control Laboratory, CFTRI, Mysore.
3 Central Food Laboratory, Kolkata.
4 Central Food Laboratory, Pune.
5 University Department of Chemical Technology, Mumbai.
6 Food Research & Standardization Laboratory, Gaziabad.
*** W – Whole, G – Ground, IW – Irradiated whole, IG – Irradiated ground.
Table 3.10
Comparison of efficacy of irradiation and fumigation
Spice
Pepper
Paprika
Onion powder
Garlic powder
Log CFN/g Dose (kGy)
0
4
8
10
ETO
800 g/6h
5.5
3.2
2.8
4.1
2.9
1.0
<1.0
3.3
1.2
<1.0
0
2.0
0
0
0
0
3.8
1.9
<1.0
3.8
66
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 3.11 Color power of turmeric (curcumin content) during storage at
ambient temperature
Storage period (mo)
Curcumin content %
Treatment
Control
Irradiated 10 kGy
1
6
8
2.82
2.82
2.82
2.73
2.96
3.04
Table 3.12 Extractable color (capsanthin content) in chili during storage at
ambient temperature
Component
Content % W/W
Control
Irradiated (10 kGy)
Piperine
Gingerol
Curcumin
Capsaicin
Color value chili
4.9 ± 0.4
1.0 ± 0.1
1.5 ± 0.1
0.06 ± 0.01
12159 ± 286
5.0 ± 0.4
1.0 ± 0.1
1.5 ± 0.1
0.07 ± 0.01
12120 ± 264
Table 3.13
Chemical quality of irradiated spices
Storage period (mo)
Absorbance at 460 nm
Treatment
Control
Irradiated 10 kGy
2
8
0.455
0.320
0.430
0.305
Table 3.14 Microbial stability of pasteurized tinned pork with irradiated
spice mix (Farkus, 1998)
Storage temp °C
0
15
20
Dose to spice mix in kGy
0
Shelf-life (days)
7.5
10
>180
96
15
>180
>180
~30
>180
>180
>90
shows the consequences of adding non-irradiated and irradiated spices to canned
food. As is evident the shelf-life of canned pork was significantly enhanced by using
irradiated spices (Farkus, 1998).
It is therefore clear that, as far as microbial decontamination is concerned, all
spices, whole or ground, need to be given a dose of 5 kGy and above. Most countries
have approved a dose of 10 kGy. Some countries like the USA allow even higher
doses (30 kGy). For insect disinfestation however, a dose of 1 kGy would suffice for
all spices. All dry spices, whole, ground as well as blends require similar doses.
Irradiation to decontaminate herbs and spices 67
3.3
Application of ionizing radiation
Radiation processing involves controlled application of the energy of ionizing radiations
such as gamma rays, X-rays, and accelerated electrons to food commodities including
spices for achieving one of the following objectives:
•
•
•
•
disinfestation
shelf-life extension
hygienization
sterilization.
The technology holds considerable promise because in many cases it has an edge
over conventional methods. It could be applied judiciously where conventional methods
are inadequate, uneconomical, or pose potential health risks. It can also be used as a
complementary process with many new and emerging technologies. The process
helps in keeping the chemical burden on the commodities low and also increases the
packaging possibilities. These benefits accrue mainly from the cold nature of the
process and the high penetrating power of ionizing radiation. Being a cold process
the technology is particularly appropriate for spices that are valued for their delicate
aroma and flavor constituents.
Radiation technology offers several advantages for processing spices. These
advantages are listed below:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
It is a physical, non-additive process, causing minimal change in spices and
herbs.
It is highly effective compared to chemicals and fumigants.
It does not leave harmful residues.
It can be applied to bulk as well as prepackaged commodities.
It is a cold process and preserves spices in natural form.
It does not destroy the heat-labile aroma and bioactive constituents of spices and
herbs.
The process is safe to workers and friendly to the environment.
3.3.1 Ionizing radiations
Ionizing radiations are a part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They have relatively
short wavelengths and high energy. These radiations can eject electrons from an atom
of a molecule in food to form electrically charged species known as ions. The ejected
electrons cause further ionizations. Due to the short wavelength and high energy
associated with ionizing radiations, they are highly penetrating and effective. Therefore,
unlike other methods, foods for radiation processing can be pre-packed and treated to
get the desired effect.
In accordance with international regulations such as Codex General Standards for
Food Irradiation, the ionizing radiations that are permitted for irradiating foods are
limited to:
•
•
•
Gamma rays from radioisotope cobalt-60 or cesium-137
X-rays generated from machine sources operated at or below an energy level of
7.5 MeV
Electrons generated from machine sources operated at or below energy level of
10 MeV.
68
Handbook of herbs and spices
3.3.2 Sources of ionizing radiations
The sources of ionizing radiations can be classified into two broad categories, namely,
radioisotopes, and machines.
Radioisotope sources
It is a general practice to use cobalt-60, however, cesium-137 can also be used. The
broad characteristics of the two sources are given in Table 3.15. While cobalt-60 is
produced in nuclear power reactors by bombardment of cobalt-59 with neutrons,
cesium-137 is a fission product and has to be extracted from the spent fuel of a
nuclear reactor through reprocessing. Though cobalt-60 is the preferred choice, cesium137 offers advantage in building portable or modular types of irradiators.
In the case of radioisotopes, emission of radiation results in conversion of the
isotope into a stable atom. This results in reduction in the number of radioactive
atoms over a period of time. The time required by a set of radioactive atoms to
display half of its original activity is called half-life. The energy of radiation emitted
by a radioisotope is fixed, however, in the case of machine sources variable energies
can be obtained. Radioisotopes also provide much lower dose rates compared to
machine sources.
With a half-life of 5.27 years, an annual replenishment of 12.3% is needed to
maintain the source strength. A basic design of a gamma irradiation facility is shown
in Fig. 3.1. For use as a radiation source, cobalt-60 pellets are encapsulated in stainless
steel and these pellets or slugs are loaded in stainless tubes to form a pencil. Several
such pencils are then mounted on a rack to make the final source of radiation in a
radiation processing facility. Goods to be irradiated are conveyed to the irradiation
chamber through a labyrinth, which prevents radiation from reaching the work area
and operator room. When the facility is not in operation, cobalt-60 is stored in the
source rack under water at a depth of about six metres. The water column thus
absorbs the radiation and acts as a shield to prevent radiation being present in the cell
area when the source is idle. During the processing of a commodity, the source rack
is brought up to the irradiation position after activation of all safety devices. The
Table 3.15
Characteristics of different types of ionizing radiation
Radioisotope sources
Characteristics
Typical source form
Half-life
Specific activity
Gamma energy
Dose rate* (10 kCi)
Radionuclide
Co-60
Cs-137
Metal
5.3 years
1–400 Ci/g
1.17–1.33 MeV
0.953 kGy/h
Cesium chloride pellets
30 years
1–25 Ci/g
0.66 MeV
0.221 kGy/h
Machine sources
Characteristics
Power
Energy**
Penetration
Mode
EB
X-rays
Variable
10 MeV (max.)
3–4 cm (water equivalent)
Variable
7.5 MeV (max.)
30–40 cm
*At a distance of 30 cm in a material of 20 cm thickness.
**Machine to be operated at the energy level permitted.
Irradiation to decontaminate herbs and spices 69
Concrete shield
Conveyor track
Unloading conveyor
Product carrier
Water pool
Loading conveyor
Source
Control room
Fig. 3.1
A typical gamma irradiation plant.
irradiation chamber is shielded with concrete walls usually about 1.5–1.8 metres
thick. The goods in aluminum carriers or tote boxes are mechanically positioned
around the source rack and are turned around their own axis so that the contents are
irradiated from both the sides.
The absorbed dose is determined by the dwell time of the carrier or tote box in the
irradiation position. The dwell time can be preset after taking into consideration the
dose rate, which in turn would depend upon the source strength. The absorbed dose
is measured by placing dose meters at various positions in a tote box or a carrier. In
Fricke’s dose meter radiation-induced oxidation of ferrous ions in a 0.4 M sulfuric
acid solution to Ferric ions is measured at 304 nm.
Machine sources
Machine sources used in food irradiation include various types of electron accelerator.
The electron beam emerging from the accelerator can be either used directly or
converted into X-rays. Both DC (direct current) accelerators and microwave or radiofrequency linear accelerators (LINAC) are used. In both types electrons are accelerated
close to the speed of light in an evacuated tube. Electrons emitted from an electron
source are pushed from the negative end of the tube and are attracted by the positive
end. The higher the potential difference, the higher the speed attained by the electrons.
A scanning magnet at the end of the accelerator tube deflects the mono-energetic
electron beam onto the material being irradiated. In LINACS, pulses of electrons
produced at the thermionic cathode are accelerated in an evacuated tube by driving
radio-frequency electromagnetic fields along the tube. The LINAC electrons are
mono-energetic but the beam is pulsed. As the electron beam can be directed at the
product, the efficiency of electron accelerators is about 20% higher then that of gamma
sources. Energy and current determine the output capacity of an electron accelerator.
Because of the lower depth of penetration (5 mm/MeV in water), electron beams
cannot be used for irradiation of thick chunks of food commodities or bulk packages.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
This difficulty can be overcome by converting electrons into X-rays by fitting a
water-cooled converter plate to the scanner. The electrons, upon striking the metal
plate, are converted into X-rays. The conversion efficiency depends on the material
of the converter plate and the energy of the striking electrons. The X-rays are as
penetrating as gamma rays.
3.3.3 The choice of an irradiator
A number of aspects are considered during the choice of an irradiator. These include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
the type of commodity
whether loose bulk or packages
throughput required
thickness and shape of the product
the size and shape of the container
the packaging density of the product
techno-economic feasibility
socio-political implications.
3.3.4 Process control
During irradiation processing the aim is to expose the material to at least the minimum
required dose that governs the effectiveness of the process. Correct measurement of
dose and dose distribution in the product ensures that the radiation treatment is both
technically and legally correct. Application of an experimentally established dose for
the purpose of radiation processing of a specific food is important both technologically
and economically. Dose and dose distribution are determined by product and source
parameters. Product parameters are primarily the density of the commodity and packages.
The source parameters vary with the facility or the type of radiation being used.
3.3.5 Mechanism of action of ionizing radiations
Ionizing radiations bring about the desired effects by different mechanisms in different
foods, depending upon the dose of radiation. The ionizing radiations cause these
effects by causing changes in bio-molecules, primarily DNA, either by direct deposition
of energy or indirectly through production of radiolytic product of water, that interact
with the bio-molecules. The extent of radiation effect depends on the radiation energy
absorbed. It increases linearly with the dose in the dose range normally employed in
food irradiation. Water is an abundant component of food. Therefore, interaction of
water with radiation has a major role to play during irradiation. The radiolytic products
of water such as hydroxyl radical, hydrated electrons, hydrogen atoms, and peroxides
are highly reactive and play a major role in bringing out the effects of irradiation. The
effects brought about by the interaction of radiolytic products of water with biomolecules are also called indirect effects.
3.4 Nutritional and safety aspects
No other method of food processing has been subjected to such a thorough assessment
of safety as radiation processing. The various aspects of wholesomeness and safety
Irradiation to decontaminate herbs and spices 71
of radiation-processed foods have been studied in great detail (WHO, 1994; Diehl,
1997). These include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
possibility of induced radioactivity
microbiological safety
safety of chemical changes
nutritional adequacy
animal feeding
human trials.
At the energies of the gamma rays from Cobalt-60 (1.3 MeV) and those recommended
for X-rays (5 MeV) and accelerated electrons (10 MeV), no induced radioactivity has
been detected. The microbiological aspects of radiation-processed foods have been
studied in detail. None of these studies have indicated that foods preserved by radiation
pose any special problems in relation to microflora. It has been found that there is no
unique radiolytic product formed and free radicals in the system disappear depending
on the nature of the commodity and its post-irradiation storage and treatment. In fact,
the chemical differences between radiation-processed foods and non-irradiated foods
are too small to be detected easily. Though the rough composition of the food remains
largely unchanged, some losses in vitamins may be encountered. However, these
losses are often minor and could be made up from other sources.
Animal feeding studies have been the most time-consuming and expensive feature
of wholesomeness testing of irradiated foods. None of the short- or long-term feeding
studies, as well as the mutagen testing studies conducted with several irradiated
foods in several species of laboratory animals, has shown any adverse effect on these
animals. Similarly, no adverse effects have been found in human volunteers fed
irradiated food (WHO, 1994).
3.5
International approval
In 1980 a joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee on Food Irradiation (JECFI)
reviewed the extensive data on wholesomeness collected up to that time and concluded
that irradiation of any commodity up to an overall dose of 10 kGy presents no
toxicological hazards and introduces no special nutritional or microbiological problems.
An expert group constituted by WHO in 1994 once again reviewed the wholesomeness
data available till then and validated the earlier conclusion of JECFI (WHO, 1994).
In 1997 a joint FAO/IAEA/FAO Study Group constituted by WHO affirmed the
safety of food irradiated to doses above 10 kGy (WHO, 1999). In view of this
recommendation the Codex Committee on Food Standards of The Codex Alimentarius
Commission has also revised the Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods that
now allows use of doses higher than 10 kGy in case of a technological need. In this
context it may be noted that the USFDA has approved a dose of 30 kGy for sterilization
of spices, herbs and vegetable seasonings.
3.6
SPS application to boost international trade
One of the major problems of international trade in spices and herbs is the presence
of exotic insect pests and microbes. This invites quarantine restrictions and hinders
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Handbook of herbs and spices
free movement of plant products from one country to another and sometimes from
one state to another within a country. Therefore, in order to be competitive in international
market effective quarantine treatment of food and agricultural produce is necessary.
Fumigation of food and food ingredients with such chemicals as ethylene dibromide
(EDB), Methyl Bromide (MB), and ethylene oxide (ETO) either has been banned or
is being increasingly restricted globally. According to the Montreal Protocol, by the
end of this decade all the above fumigants will be phased out in the advanced
countries. The developing countries have been given some grace period to phase
them out by the middle of the next decade. The obvious alternative to business and
trade is therefore radiation processing. The effectiveness of irradiation as a broadspectrum quarantine treatment first recognized by the North American Plant Protection
Organization (NAPPO) in 1989 is irradiation. In the USA USDA/APHIS first approved
in July 1997 the use of irradiation for quarantine treatment of fresh papaya, lychee,
and carambola fruits from Hawaii.
The agreements on sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) practices and technical barriers
to trade (TBT) under the World Trade Organization (WTO) have provided a distinct
incentive for the adoption of irradiation as an SPS measure in international trade
under the principle of equivalence. Thus, irradiation can be applied to overcome
quarantine barriers, and to hygienize products for international trade. These agreements
are administered under the standards, guidelines, and recommendations of the
international organizations such as the Codex Alimentarius Commission, International
Plant Protection Convention, and The International Office of Epizootics. The
governments that impose regulations more strictly than those recommended by the
above organizations would be required to justify their positions to the WTO. This
should encourage application of radiation for improving international trade in agrohorticultural foods among the WTO member states. The Plant and Animal Health
Inspection Service (APHIS) of the USDA issued a Final Rule on ‘Irradiation
Phytosanitary Treatment for Imported Fruits and Vegetables’ in 2002. Similarly, the
International Plant Protection Convention has also included irradiation as a quarantine
treatment. These regulations have opened up the market for irradiated commodities.
Today, more than 40 countries have approved the use of radiation processing
technology for different food commodities including spices and herbs. A bulk of
nearly half a million tons of food commodities that are processed around the world
is comprised of spices and herbs. International regulations require that the irradiated
commodities be labeled with the internationally recognized ‘radura’ symbol and a
statement describing the treatment. The countries that have approved irradiation of
spices include EU, Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China,
Croatia, Czech Republic, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, South Korea, Malaysia, Mexico,
New Zealand, Poland, Pakistan, Peru, South Africa, Thailand, UK, USA, Vietnam,
and Yugoslavia.
3.7
Detection of irradiated spices and herbs
Because of the small amount of energy involved in radiation processing, no significant
differences can be observed in terms of appearance, smell or taste of irradiated
commodities. It is difficult to detect small changes by simple chemical tests. Detection
of irradiation treatment may, however, be necessary for obtaining legal remedy in
case of disputed samples. A number of sophisticated techniques can detect spices or
Irradiation to decontaminate herbs and spices 73
herbs hygienized by ionizing radiation. These include detection systems based on
electron spin resonance spectroscopy, luminescence, and GC/MS. The only way for
consumers to know that the commodity has been irradiated is by the label that the
product carries clearly declaring the treatment in words, with a symbol or both.
3.8
References and further reading
DIEHL, J .F.
(1997). Safety of Irradiated Foods, Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York.
(1988). Irradiation of Dry Ingredients, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
GAUTAM, S., SHARMA, A. and PAUL THOMAS (1998). Improved bacterial turbidimetric method for detection
of irradiated spices. J. Agric. Food Chem. 46, 5110–5112.
HAJARE, S.S., HAJARE, S.N. and SHARMA S. (2005). Aflatoxin inactivation using aqueous extract of
ajowan (Trachyspermum ammi) seeds. J Food Sci 70(1), C 29-34.
HEIDE, L. and BOGL, K.W. (1987). Identification of irradiated spices with thermo and chemiluminescence
measurements. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol., 22, 93.
INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON MICROBIOLOGICAL SPECIFICATION FOR FOODS (ICMF) (1974). Cited in Microbial
Ecology of Foods Vol. 1 & 2 1980, New York. Academic Press.
JOSEPHSON, E.S. and PETERSON, M.S. (Eds.). (1983). Preservation of food by ionizing radiations Vol.1,
2 & 3, CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, Fl., USA.
MUNASIRI, M.A., PARTE, M.N., GHANEKAR, A.S., SHARMA, A., PADWAL-DESAI, S.R. and NADKARNI, G.B. (1987).
Sterilization of ground pre-packed Indian spices by gamma irradiation. J. Food Sci. 52, 823–
825.
NAIR, P.M. and SHARMA, A. (1994). Food Irradiation. Encyclopedia of Agricultural Sciences, Academic
Press, New York.
NIAZ, Z., VARIYAR, P.S., GHOLAP, A.S. and SHARMA, A. (2003). Effect of gamma irradiation on the lipid
profile of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 51(22), 6502–6504.
PADWAL-DESAI, S.R., SHARMA, A. and AMONKAR, S.V. (1987). Disinfestation of whole and ground spices
by gamma irradiation. J. Food Sci. & Technol. 24, 321–322.
PRUTHI, J.S. (1980). Spices and condiments, Chemistry, Microbiology and Technology. Adv. Food
Res. Supp. No. 4. Academic Press, New York.
SHARMA, A., PADWAL-DESAI, S.R. and NAIR, P.M. (1989). Assessment of microbiological quality of some
irradiated spices. J. Food Sci. 54, 489–490.
SHARMA, A., GHANEKAR, A.S., PADWAL-DESAI, S.R. and NADKARNI, G.B (1984). Microbiological status and
antifungal properties of irradiated spices. J. Agric. Food Chem. 32, 1061–1064.
SHARMA A., GAUTAM, S. and JADHAV, S.S. (2000). Spices as dose modifying factors in radiation inactivation
of bacteria. J. Agric. Food Chem. 48, 1340–1344.
SUBBULAKSHAMI, G., UDIPI, S., RAHEJA, R., SHARMA, A., PADWAL-DESAI, S.R. and NAIR, P.M. (1991). Evaluation
of sensory attributes and some quality indices of iradiated spices. J. Food Sci. & Technol. 28,
396–397.
WHO. (1994). Safety and Nutritional Adequacy of Irradiated Food. World Health Organization,
Geneva.
WHO (1999). High Dose Irradiation: Wholesomeness of food irradiated with doses above 10 kGy,
WHO Technical Report Series 890, World Health Organization, Geneva.
FARKAS, J.
4
Other decontamination techniques for
herbs and spices
C. K. George, Peermade Development Society, India
4.1 Introduction
Quality is one of the most important and critical factors in the world food market, and
herbs and spices are no exception. Importers and buyers place increasing importance
on ‘clean’ herbs and spices rather than ‘cleaned’ herbs and spices, and will not import
herbs and spices that are still contaminated after cleaning. In order to supply clean
herbs and spices, there are a number of dos and don’ts which should be strictly
followed during production and processing.
National food laws and regulations aim to protect citizens from health hazards.
These laws and regulations include the quality of herbs and spices people consume,
and many governments have specified maximum permissible limits of possible
contaminants. The contaminants include extraneous matter, microbial infection, insect
infestation, insect, bird and animal excreta, mycotoxins, pesticide residues and heavy
metals. Some of the specifications prescribed by importing countries are so stringent
that it is safest to aim at zero levels to avoid the risk of rejection. Contaminants
generally make herbs and spices deteriorate in physical and intrinsic quality, and may
also cause diseases, some of which are very dangerous. Table 4.1 lists the harmful
effects of contaminants.
Consumers are becoming increasingly quality conscious, and farmers, traders,
processors and exporters must maintain the quality of their products at every stage
during production, processing and handling. The steps required for quality assurance
have become an integral part of the production and supply strategies for herbs and
spices, particularly in developed countries.
The decontamination techniques for herbs and spices described in this chapter are
divided into two main areas, prevention of contamination and decontamination. The
section on preventive measures explains how to avoid contamination, and how to
clean herbs and spices to bring the contaminants down to within permitted limits is
discussed under decontamination. Irradiation of herbs and spices is dealt with in
Chapter 3.
Other decontamination techniques for herbs and spices
Table 4.1
75
Contaminants found in herbs and spices and their harmful effects
Contaminant
Harmful effects
Extraneous matter (other parts of the same
plant or other plants, sand, stones, etc.)
Reduces physical quality.
Moulds and bacteria
Moulds change flavour. Some produce toxins.
Bacteria cause ill health and disease.
Insects (in the field and during storage)
Carry disease-causing organisms,
damage the product, affecting physical quality,
and leave excreta. Some insect parts are harmful.
Spiders, mites and psocids
Harmful to health. Excreta of some spiders is
toxic.
Rodent, animal and bird excreta and detritus
Carry disease-causing organisms and reduce
quality of product.
Pesticides and chemicals
Extremely harmful to health, may cause cancer.
Heavy metals, e.g., arsenic, zinc,
copper, lead, mercury, etc.
Toxic to humans, may cause cancer.
4.2 Preventive measures against contamination
A code of hygienic practices for herbs and spices (whether whole, broken or ground,
mixes and blends or processed products) must be followed precisely to ensure quality.
It covers the minimum hygiene requirements during production, harvest and postharvest activities. Post-harvest technologies include curing, bleaching, drying,
winnowing, grading, processing (extraction of essential oil and oleoresin, freezing,
freeze-drying, dehydration, etc.) packing, transportation, storage and microbial and
insect disinfestations. The necessary measures are described below.
4.2.1 Production
• Seed material should be from a reliable source and devoid of pests and diseases.
• Contaminated crop residues and materials from animal, domestic and human
sources should not be used in crop production.
• Irrigation water should not be polluted or contaminated.
• Control measures for pests and diseases involving chemicals or biological agents
should only be undertaken with expert advice and with thorough knowledge of
the potential dangers to health.
4.2.2 Harvesting and on-farm processing
• Curing (drying) may be done in sunlight or mechanically. If carried out
mechanically, all surfaces and machinery used should be clean to prevent
contamination.
• The area used for drying crops in the sun should be a raised platform or concrete
floor inaccessible to domestic animals, and where dust contamination (by wind)
is minimized.
• Precautions should be taken to prevent contamination by rodents, birds, insects
and other animals during drying and handling in the open.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
For most herbs and spices, the moisture levels should be reduced to below 11%
to prevent fungal infection.
4.2.3 On-farm storage
• Properly dried and cleaned spices should be packed in hygienic and moistureproof containers. Previously used containers, such as jute bags, polyethylene
bags, bins and tins, can be reused only after thorough cleaning. Empty fertilizer,
pesticide and fungicide bags should never be reused, even after washing.
• Jute bags and bamboo bins should be lined with plastic film if necessary to
prevent dried products from re-absorbing moisture, which could lead to growth
of mould.
4.2.4 Processing factory
• Factories or other buildings used for processing herbs and spices should be on
elevated land with adequate drainage facilities to drain rain and effluent water
efficiently.
• The building should preferably be located in an area free from objectionable
odours, smoke, dust or other contaminants.
• The building should be designed and constructed to enable easy and thorough
cleaning inside. Entry of pests and rodents should be prevented as much as
possible. Mice can enter through holes as small as 5 mm, and, if necessary,
ultrasonic rodent devices may be installed. Electrical control devices for flying
insects, consisting of an electrified grid and a tray for collecting the dead insects,
should be installed at strategic points, especially near the entrances to the processing
and storage areas.
• Floors, walls and ceilings should be waterproof, non-absorbent and without cracks
and crevices. They should have smooth surfaces for quick cleaning and
disinfestation. The angle between the walls and the floor inside factory and
storage facilities should not be 90° but should form a concave surface, to discourage
movement of rodents and facilitate easy cleaning.
• Doors, windows and other openings should be designed so as to avoid accumulation
of dust and dirt. Doors should have self-closing devices and close perfectly, and
may also be insect-proofed. Internal windowsills, if unavoidable, should be sloped
to prevent dust accumulation. External windowsills should also be sloped to
minimize dust accumulation and also to prevent birds from alighting on them.
• Living quarters, toilets and areas where animals are housed should be completely
separate and distant from the processing facility and storage area.
• The water supply should meet World Health Organization (WHO) standards for
sufficiency, pressure and temperature.
• There should be an efficient effluent and waste disposal system, and it should be
kept well-maintained.
• Conveniently located changing facilities and toilets should be provided for workers.
The facilities should be designed to ensure smooth removal of waste materials
and kept clean and well-maintained.
• Washing facilities with hot and cold water, toilet soap and clean towels should be
provided adjacent to the toilets. Where paper towels are used, there should be
dispensers and waste receptacles provided near the washing facility notice directing
Other decontamination techniques for herbs and spices
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
77
personnel to wash hands with soap after using the toilet should be displayed if
this practice is not prevalent. Separate conveniences should be provided for
males and females.
Hand washing and drying facilities should be provided in the processing area if
the process makes this necessary. Cloth or paper towels should be provided for
hand drying and receptacles for their disposal.
Adequate lighting should be provided in the processing area. The intensity of
light should not be less than 540 lux (50 foot candles) at the inspection points,
220 lux (20 foot candles) in work areas and 110 lux (10 foot candles) in other
areas. Bulbs, tube lights and fixtures should have casings that protect processed
products from contamination if the bulb breaks, and also prevent dust accumulation.
Proper ventilation should be provided to prevent excessive heat and to ventilate
out contaminated air.
All equipment and utensils should be designed and constructed so that thorough
cleaning and disinfection are easily possible.
Cleaning and disinfection of equipment and utensils should be carried out regularly,
at the end of each day or at such intervals as may be appropriate.
Buildings, equipment, implements, utensils and all other physical equipment and
facilities, including drains, should be regularly checked and maintained.
Each facility should have a permanent cleaning schedule drawn up to ensure
that all areas are cleaned and maintained in a timely and appropriate manner.
It is desirable to make one member of staff responsible for cleaning and
hygiene, either for a particular area or the entire establishment, and make sure
that he has sufficient knowledge about the possible contaminations and health
hazards.
There should be an effective and continuous programme for disinfestation and
pest control in the processing facility and storage areas.
Waste material should be collected in a systematic manner and removed from
handling and working areas as often as necessary, and at least once at the end of
the day.
4.2.5 Packaging
• All packaging materials should be stored in a clean and sanitary manner.
• The material should be appropriate for the product to be packed and for the
expected storage conditions.
• Packaging material should not transmit any proscribed substance to the
product beyond acceptable limits (which may vary according to the importing
country).
• Packaging material should be sound and capable of preventing contamination.
• Containers should not have been used before, which could affect the quality of
the product to be packed.
• Containers kept at the facility should be inspected periodically, and definitely
immediately before use, to ensure that they are in a satisfactory condition.
• Packaging material that is required for immediate use should only be kept in the
filling or packaging area.
• Packaging should be carried out under hygienic conditions that prevent
contamination of the product.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
4.2.6 Storage
• The product/s should be stored at moisture levels low enough to prevent the
development of mould and deterioration by oxidation or enzymatic changes. An
environment with a relative humidity of 55–60% will protect quality and prevent
mould growth. Where this is not possible, the product should be packed in
waterproof and air-tight containers and stored in a cool place.
• If allowed by the regulatory authority, fumigation may be carried out using safe
chemicals prior to storage. Stored products should be inspected periodically and
fumigated again if infestations are found. When necessary, infected herbs and
spices may be removed for separate fumigation or destroyed, depending upon the
seriousness of infestation.
• Bags containing herbs and spices should be neatly stored in accessible lots away
from walls, in rows and with sufficient space for movement between stacks. This
will allow refuse and spilled products to be cleaned easily, and also facilitate
checking for infestation.
• Infested products should be isolated from the rest of the stock to prevent
contamination.
• Bags should be kept on wooden pallets to prevent moisture re-absorption and
mould growth.
4.2.7 Hygiene and health requirements for personnel
• The health, cleanliness of dress and behaviour of the personnel working in the
processing facility and storage area should be monitored. Every effort should be
made to motivate personnel to adopt healthy and hygienic practices. There should
be periodic training sessions in hygienic handling of the products.
• Staff who come into contact with the products should have a thorough medical
examination prior to employment. Workers should undergo periodic medical
examinations to detect and deal with any communicable diseases.
• All staff working in the handling and processing area should maintain a high
degree of personal cleanliness and wear aprons, head covers and appropriate
footwear. If necessary, workers should wear gloves and other protective devices,
such as masks. These articles should be cleaned after every use.
• Any practice considered unhygienic in the workplace, such as eating, chewing,
smoking or spitting, should be strictly prohibited in the handling and processing areas.
• The entry of visitors into the processing and storage facilities should be regulated
to avoid contamination. If visitors are allowed, they should be provided with
protective clothing, masks and caps before entry.
4.2.8 Transportation
• The products should maintain their integrity during transportation. Carriers should
be weather-proof, clean, dry and free from infestation, and sealed to prevent
entry of moisture, rodents or insects.
• Loading, transportation and unloading should be done in a way that protects the
products from damage.
• Insulated carriers or refrigerated trucks may be used, depending upon the nature
of the product/s and packaging.
• In warm, humid weather, products should be allowed to reach ambient temperature
before being exposed to external conditions.
Other decontamination techniques for herbs and spices
79
4.2.9 Sampling and laboratory analysis
• There should be a quality evaluation laboratory with at least the minimum equipment
for analyzing the common contaminants.
• Approved sampling and analytical procedures should be used.
• The laboratory technicians should be qualified and trained adequately to carry
out analysis accurately.
• The common tests carried out are determination of moisture, mould growth,
plate count, insect infestation, etc. (George 2001a).
4.3
Organic production
Applying organic farming methods for the production of herbs and spices is catching
up in some countries, including India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Guatemala. Herbs
and spices produced by organic methods are gaining popularity in Europe, the USA
and Japan because they are produced by environmentally friendly farming systems
and are regarded as particularly safe by consumers. Organic cultivation does not
permit the use of fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides and hormones of chemical origin,
which means that herbs and spices produced in this way, are free from chemical
residues. Over 100 countries are members of the International Federation of Organic
Agricultural Movements (IFOAM), which promotes organic farming and is supported
by UN agencies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the
International Trade Centre (ITC) (George 2001b).
4.4
GAP, GMP, ISO 9000, HACCP and ISO 22000
Measures such as good agricultural practices (GAP), good manufacturing practices
(GMP), quality management systems under International Standards Organization
(ISO 9000) and hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) help reduce or
eliminate contaminants in herbs and spices (Steinhart et al., 1996). Many processing
units in exporting and importing countries have already been certified under one or
more of these quality systems.
Certification under HACCP is very important as herbs and spices are food products
and there must be no risk of contamination beyond permissible limits at any of the
critical control points. The HACCP system is based on seven steps which outline
how to establish, implement, maintain and assure quality. They are the following:
1. Conduct a hazard analysis. Prepare a list of processing steps where significant hazards
can occur, including purchase of raw materials, and detail preventive measures.
2. Identify critical control points (CCPs) in the process by studying the entire
process in depth.
3. Establish critical limits for preventive measures for each identified CCP.
4. Monitor CCPs and use the results to define procedures and subsequently adjust
or improve processes to maintain controls effectively.
5. Introduce proper corrective action/s to be taken when monitoring indicates a
deviation from an established critical limit.
6. Set up effective record-keeping to document the HACCP system.
7. Institute procedures to verify that the HACCP system is working correctly.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
An HACCP system should be implemented by a multidisciplinary team, including
the top management. It is specially designed for food safety and very effective if
implemented properly (Varman and Evans 1991).
On 1 September 2005 the International Standards Organization published a single
standard to encompass all the needs of the market place and designated it as ISO
22000. This standard ensures a safe food supply chain worldwide (Anon. 2005).
4.5
Decontamination techniques
Decontamination or cleaning is very important in the production of herbs and spices
because of the large number of small farmers involved, and also because on-farm
processing is often carried out in the open air. Cleaning in a factory fitted with
modern equipment is very important to ensure that the end-product is of sufficient
quality. The foreign materials found in herbs and spices supplied by farmers are
surprisingly varied, and include sand, stones, dust, nails, bailing wire, pieces of jute,
cotton threads, nuts, bolts, cigarette stubs and packs, pieces of charcoal, toys, rodent
droppings, and dead and live insects.
Cleaning equipment must take into consideration the size, shape and density of the
herbs or spices to be cleaned. Most often, the cleaning process is based on shape and
density. If the shape and density of the foreign materials are similar to those of the
product, it is very difficult to remove them. It is impossible to separate out all foreign
materials completely with the technology and equipment available; hence there are
permitted levels of foreign materials and/or contaminants which will not adversely
affect the desired quality or create a health hazard. The equipment commonly used
for removing foreign materials includes magnets, sifters, air tables, de-stoners, air
separators, indent separators and spiral gravity separators. Cleaning operations are
expensive considering the cost of equipment and labour, and the likely loss of the
product during the operation.
4.5.1 Magnets
Magnets remove iron particles and pieces of metal. The cleaning machinery should
have magnets at as many points as possible. In addition to removing metals, magnets
help protect grinding equipment from damage. There are different kinds of magnets,
typically in bar and plate forms, but none are 100% efficient. Since the iron particles
are removed only if they come into contact with the magnet, the flow of the product
past the magnet should not be too dense. The magnets must also be cleaned periodically,
according to a schedule designed around the quality requirement. It should be noted
that even well-designed magnets can attract and hold only a limited quantity of
metal. A system that allows the product to flow over two or three magnets is much
more effective than using a single magnet.
4.5.2 Sifters
Sifters remove particles of the wrong size from the product via a set of vibrating
screens. The sifting operation is not totally efficient as the products are not uniformly
round or spherical, some may be oval in shape and occasionally pieces of leaves are
admixed with them. In such situations, the sifting operation becomes very difficult
and does not clean the product effectively.
Other decontamination techniques for herbs and spices
81
4.5.3 Air tables
Air tables separate light and heavy materials, and are commonly used for cleaning
spices. The spice is put on a wire mesh screen fixed to the table and a stream of air
is passed through the screen. Light materials are suspended higher in the air than
heavy materials, and very light particles are thrown out by the force of the air.
Rotational vibration of the screen is adjusted so that the heavy particles are tapped
and pushed up the screen by repeated tapping. This separates the heavy particles from
the lighter particles. The tilt and rotational vibration of the screen, and the air flow,
are adjusted to standardized levels according to the specified requirements for the
particular spice being cleaned.
4.5.4 De-stoners
De-stoners work according to the same principles as air tables. De-stoners are generally
smaller than air tables. They are used to remove heavy stones and pieces of rock,
while air tables separate the product into as many groups as necessary. The air flow,
the inclination and vibration of the screen, and the type of screen used, are adjusted
according to the materials being separated.
4.5.5 Air separators
Air separators also work on the same principle as that of air tables. The difference
here is that a thin stream of the herb or spice is made to fall through a horizontal air
flow. Heavier particles fall straight to the bottom, while lighter particles are blown to
the side. Some air separators operate with a vertical flow of air, but the principle of
operation is the same.
4.5.6 Indent separators
Indent separators work on the difference in shape between the herb or spice and the
foreign materials. The herb or spice is fed into one end of a revolving drum. The
outer edge of the drum has rows of uniformly shaped indentations designed to fit
only the herb or spice being separated. As the drum revolves, the centrifugal forces
hold the desired material in these cavities, while foreign materials remain in the
centre of the drum. The rotational forces move the herb or spice out of the machine
and into a collection trough. Foreign materials are collected separately and disposed
of. Different herbs and spices require different drum designs, depending on their size
and shape.
4.5.7 Spiral gravity separators
Spiral separators are used to separate spherical spice seeds from non-spherical extraneous
material. They can also be used to separate spherical extraneous matter, including
other seeds and rodent excreta. The spiral separator consists of a U-shaped trough
that curves downward into a spiral. Spherical spice seeds (e.g. black or white pepper)
are fed into the top of the separator. They gain speed as they roll down the chute, and
as they pick up speed, the centrifugal forces drive them up the side of the chute.
Particles that are not spherical or have lower density do not roll and cannot attain the
same speed, so they slide down to the centre of the chute. A divider at the bottom of
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Handbook of herbs and spices
the chute separates the spice seeds at the side of the chute from the foreign materials
in the centre of the chute. Spiral separators do not require a motor or blower, as
gravitational forces are sufficient to achieve the separating effect (Tainter and Grenis
2001).
4.6
Sterilization of herbs and spices
Herbs and spices often have a high microbial population when they are harvested. A
number of factors lead to an increase in the microbial population, including delays in
drying, incomplete drying, contact with infested surfaces, re-absorption of moisture
during storage, faulty packing, etc. Hence it is not unusual to find total plate counts
in the range of about ten million or more colonies per gram in certain spices, such as
black pepper. A high microbial load can reduce shelf-life, as well as lead to the risk
of phytotoxins being produced by harmful species. Thus herbs and spices should be
subjected to sterilization or microbial treatment.
Food sterilization treatments that can be used effectively to combat moulds and
other microorganisms in herbs and spices are essentially sterilization by heat, steam
or chemicals, use of low temperature, dehydration, desiccation, lyophilization,
modification of acidity, application of chemical preservatives or irradiation (Bourgeois
and Leveau 1995). Steam sterilization or chemical fumigation appears to be better for
processed or ground herbs and spices, as these processes are easy and cheap to carry
out, especially compared to irradiation, which requires highly sophisticated and
expensive equipment. The chemicals permitted for sterilization in herbs and spices
are ethylene oxide (ETO) and propylene oxide (POP). The subject of irradiation is
dealt with in Chapter 3.
4.6.1 Ethylene oxide (ETO)
This chemical has been used to reduce microbial population in herbs and spices for
many years. It is very effective for reducing the microbial population significantly.
However, the process itself is not easy to carry out because of potential health
hazards to workers and pollution risks. ETO is reported to be carcinogenic by inhalation,
but not when herbs and spices treated with it are consumed. Regulations in the USA
permit an ETO residue of not more than 50 ppm after treatment. However, European
countries do not permit the use of ETO because of the possible health hazards.
Treatment with ETO is also effective for killing insects at various instars, particularly
in seed spices, such as coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek and celery, which carry
insect eggs laid inside or on them while reaching full maturity in the field. Treating
these spices with ETO destroys the eggs and prevents them from hatching. The
material to be treated is placed in a sealed chamber, the air inside is evacuated and
pure ETO or a mixture of ETO with other gases is passed through the chamber. After
a specified time, the remaining ETO in the chamber is carefully removed by evacuation
until the residual level of ETO is brought down to desired levels. Blends of herbs and
spices can also be treated with ETO, but they must contain no traces of common salt,
which will react with ETO and form toxic chlorohydrins.
By carefully selecting time, temperature and concentration of ETO, it is possible
to achieve a significant reduction in microbial population. The material may then
have a plate count as low as 50,000 colonies, yeasts and moulds 500 colonies and
Other decontamination techniques for herbs and spices
83
coliforms 10 colonies per gram. The nature of the material will determine what level
of microbial load will be present after treatment. For instance, ETO-treated coarse
ground black pepper will have lower counts than fine-ground black pepper. This is
because the ETO gas penetrates more effectively among the coarse ground black
pepper particles than among the fine particles. Raw materials with lower initial
counts can achieve much lower levels after treatment than those with higher initial
counts.
The type of container used for the raw material during ETO treatment also influences
the reduction in microbial load. For example, if the raw material is contained in
burlap bags, ETO gas penetration is excellent and the reduction of the microbial
population is very good. If the same raw materials are packed in heavy polythene
bags and placed in corrugated boxes, which can withstand the evacuation of air, ETO
will not have free access to the materials and microbial destruction will be limited.
4.6.2 Propylene oxide (PPO)
This chemical occurs in the form of a liquid with a low boiling point of 34.5 oC. It
has been used as a food sterilizing agent since 1958, but it is not as effective as ETO.
However, it has been approved for the microbiological treatment of herbs and spices.
Many spice processors in California had switched over to PPO for paprika and chili
peppers because of the problems associated with ETO. PPO also has insecticidal
properties.
The basic equipment for fumigation is a vacuum chamber and a volatilizer, similar
to that used for ETO treatment. The raw materials are loaded into the chamber at a
vacuum of 26 inches of Mercury and vaporized PPO is released. After four hours, the
gas is removed by air washing. Use of PPO for food fumigation is governed by CFR
40 Part 185.15 of the US FDA and US EPA regulations. The residue tolerance for
PPO in herbs and spices is 300 ppm. Though this chemical does not yet face the same
threat from the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regarding treatment of
herbs and spices as ETO, it is likely that it will also eventually be phased out once the
use of ETO is banned.
4.6.3 Steam sterilization
Steam sterilization is ideal for herbs and spices because no chemical residue is left on
account of this treatment. Steam sterilization can be applied to both whole and
ground herbs and spices. However, special equipment is required because steam must
be applied under pressure if the treatment is to be effective, and the treatment requires
high precision. The pressure must be kept at the required level as otherwise the
temperature of the product will rise and essential oil will be lost. The moisture
brought in by the steam should be removed fully as soon as treatment is over, to
prevent clogging and mould growth (Anon. 1991 and 1999). Steam sterilization
equipment is expensive and only a few processing factories use it.
4.7
Detoxification
Herbs and spices can be infected by different fungi, some of which produce toxins
that are harmful to health. The most common and dangerous mycotoxin found in
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Handbook of herbs and spices
herbs and spices is aflatoxin, produced by the fungi, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus
parasitics. Ochratoxin, produced by Aspergillus ochraceus, is sometimes found. These
fungi infect herbs and spices when moisture levels remain high after harvesting, for
instance if drying is delayed.
Aflatoxin is more commonly found in chili, ginger and nutmeg, among others.
There are four types of aflatoxin – B1, B2, G1 and G2. B1 is the most dangerous
among the four. Aflatoxin is carcinogenic and is not destroyed by cooking. The upper
limits in herbs and spices prescribed by the European Union are 5 ppb for B1 and 10
ppb for B1+B2+G1+G2. The USA permits a higher level of 20 ppb for all the
fractions together. The European Union is considering introducing the maximum
permissible limit of ochratoxin.
Some work has been done on hydrogen peroxide and ammoniation treatments to
remove aflatoxin from peanut protein, milk, cotton seed and other materials, but has
not been found to be effective. These techniques have not been tried on herbs and
spices. The best way to produce aflatoxin-free herbs and spices is through timely
harvest, immediate drying and good storage practices (Palle 1987).
It is also impossible to remove completely any pesticide residues or heavy metals
in herbs and spices, or even to reduce them to permissible limits, with presently
available techniques. Pesticide residues found in these products are mainly of three
kinds, organo-chlorine compounds, organo-phosphorus compounds and carbamates.
Some pesticides are systemic and their residues will be in the products until they
are denatured. Heavy metals are stable and their poisonous effect may continue
indefinitely. The best way to avoid health hazards in herbs and spices is to ensure that
any chemical pesticides used in crop production are applied in accordance with
the manufacturer’s instructions and government regulations for their use. Herbs and
spices should be grown on soils where heavy metal levels are low, and any possible
contamination with heavy metals during pre-harvest and post-harvest operations should
be avoided.
4.8
Sources of further information and advice
ASTA’s Cleanliness Specifications: The American Spice Trade Association, 2025 M
Street, NW Suite 800, Washington, D.C. 20036. Website: http://www.astaspice.org.
HACCP Guide to Spices and Seasonings: The American Spice Trade Association,
2025 M Street, NW Suite 800, Washington D.C. 20036
Hsieh, R.C. et al. (1989), Process for Sterilization of Spices and Leaf Herbs, US
Patent 4, 844, 933.
Hsieh, R.C. et al. (1990), Apparatus for Sterilization of Spices and Leaf Herbs, US
Patent 4, 967, 651.
Importing Foods into the United States, HHS Publication No. FDA 84-2141, Department
of Health and Human Sciences, Public Health Service, Food and Drug Administration,
Washington D.C.
Morgon, M.R.A., Smith, C.J. and William, P.A. (1992), Food Safety and Quality
Assurance – Application of Immunoassay System. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
Pesek, C.A., Wilson, L.C. and Hammod, E.G. (1985), Spice Quality: Effect of Cryogenic
and Ambient Grinding on Volatile Oils, J. Food Sc. 50(3): 599-601.
Spice Quality Control, The American Spice Trade Association, 2025 M Street, NW
Suite 800, Washington, D.C. 20036.
Other decontamination techniques for herbs and spices
4.9
ANON,
85
References
(1991). Cleanliness Specifications for Unprocessed Spices, Seeds and Herbs Revised edn,
American Spice Trade Association, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA.
ANON, (1999). Clean Spices, in A Handbook for ASTA Members, American Spice Trade Association.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA.
ANON, (2005). ISO 22000 Food Safety Management Systems – Requirements in any Organization in
the Food Chain, International Standards Organization, Geneva.
BOURGEOIS, C.M. and LEVEAU, J.Y. (1995). Microbiological Control for Foods and Agricultural Products.
VCH Publishers, Inc. 220 East 23rd Street, New York 10010, USA.
GEORGE, C.K. (2001a). ‘Quality Assurance of Spices and Herbs’. Note prepared for the International
Trade Centre, Geneva, Switzerland.
GEORGE, C.K. (2001b). Organic Spices, in Handbook of Herbs and Spices, Woodhead Publishing
Limited, Cambridge, England. pp 34–38.
PALLE, K. (1987). Mycotoxins in Food, Academic Press, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers,
London.
SREINHART, C.E., DOYLE, M.E. and COCHRANE, B.A. (1996). Food Safety. Food Research Institute, University
of Wisconsin, Madison, USA. pp 510–513.
TAINTER, D.R. and GRENIS, A.T. (2001). Spices and Seasonings – A Food Technology Handbook, 2nd
edn, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, USA.
VARMAN, A.H. and EVANS, M.G. (1991). Food Borne Pathogens, Wolfe Publishing Ltd. BPCC Hazel
Books, Aleysburg, England. pp 387–399.
5
Packaging and storage of herbs and
spices
K. King, Gourmet Garden, Australia
5.1 Introduction
Food products undergo numerous physical, chemical and microbiological changes
during storage. The stability of food is a function of changes occurring in the food
components, such as food proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and water due to environmental
and processing factors (exposure to light, moisture, temperature, etc.). The protective
coating or barrier provided during processing, storage and handling not only retards
deterioration of food, but may also enhance its quality. Suitable packaging can slow
the deterioration rate and also may extend product shelf life. In recent years a wide
variety of packages and approaches have been employed to interact with the food and
provide desirable effects. Examples of these include incorporating oxygen, moisture
and ethylene scavengers for oxygen, moisture or ethylene sensitive foods, use of
carbon dioxide or ethylene emitters in other foods, flavour imparting or scavenging
chemicals and antimicrobial agents for microbiological safety of food. Physical
incorporation of these chemicals or other agents may be made into the package
material, on or between the package and the food. Such approaches, designed to
perform some desirable function other than providing an inert barrier, are called
active packaging, interactive packaging and intelligent packaging.
The use of plastics in the packaging of foods has been increasing at an accelerated rate.
The reason for this is the reduction in the cost of packaging materials due to technological
innovations and the inherent properties of plastic films, which makes them very well
suited to food packaging. Active packaging technology is a relatively novel concept
designed to provide interaction between food and packaging material, while sustaining
the microenvironment within. It is aimed at extending the product shelf life, maintaining
its nutritional and sensory quality, as well as providing microbial safety.
5.2
Consumer trends driving innovation
Consumers are adding spice to their lives with meals infused with flavours of Asia,
Latin America, Africa, Indian, Carribean and the Mediterranean. Ethnic foods, with
Packaging and storage of herbs and spices
87
their multidimensional flavour and texture profiles, are becoming the trend, especially
cuisines that feature a variety of spices, seasonings and condiments. Ethnic foods
are no longer thought of as being ethnic, they have formed part of the mainstream
consumption pattern.
The key factor driving this trend includes immigration, global travel, media coverage,
environmental interest and perception of freshness. Spices and seasonings build flavours
and set apart one cuisine from another. Consumers’ knowledge of spices and their
technology including how to store them effectively in order to reduce product
deterioration becomes of paramount importance. Spices are typically available in a
variety of forms including fresh, dried, frozen, whole, ground, crushed or pureed; or
as pastes, extracts or infusions.
Fresh spices such as ginger, cilantro, galangal, lemongrass, sweet basil, chilli
peppers or curry leaves are frequently used by chefs and consumers. Their fresh taste
is a result of their overall flavour, aroma and texture. Using fresh spices in commercial
applications presents significant problems since if they are not seasonal and processed
immediately they have short shelf life and stability. Fresh herbs and spices are available
in another product format that uses a patented formulation to provide the fresh
product, with a 90-day refrigerated shelf life.
Dried spices are available throughout the year, are cheaper in costs but lack the
aromatic properties of their fresh counterparts. Volatile oils are lost or oxidized
during drying, curing, crushing, grinding or other processing methods. Dried spices
become more concentrated in their nonvolatiles, which can result in bitterness, increased
pungency and unbalanced flavours.
Spice extracts are produced by grinding or crushing the spices and extracting them
with steam distillation, solvent extraction or other methods. Most of the volatile and
nonvolatile components that give each spice its flavour are concentrated forms of
spices used for uniformity and consistency of flavour, colour and aroma. The volatile
portions include essential oils and typify the spice aroma. The nonvolatiles include
the oleoresins and aquaresins and include fixed oils, gums, resins, antioxidants and
hydrophilic compounds that contribute to taste or bite. Since oleoresins frequently
lack volatile compounds, both oleoresins and essential oils are needed to drive a
more complete spice profile. To ensure spices and herbs maintain the flavour properties
for as long as possible appropriate storage and packaging techniques need to be
utilized. The types of techniques will be unique to the type of herb and spice and will
be discussed in more detail later in the chapter.
5.3
Herb and spice product formats and packaging techniques
5.3.1 Examples of fresh and dried packaging formats
To pinpoint the most appropriate packaging to be used for fresh or dried herbs and
spices it is critical to understand the following factors:
•
•
Light sensitivity. Spices containing carotenoids or chlorophyll are highly susceptible
to deterioration by light. The light will cause changes in the colour of all spices
and cause the colour to fade.
Flavour sensitivity. As soon as spices are harvested their inherent essential oils
begin to deteriorate. Some varieties of spices will deteriorate in flavour more
rapidly than others due to the highly volatile compounds.
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•
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Moisture and oxidation sensitivity. The smaller the particle size in ground spices,
the larger the surface area exposed to atmospheric conditions and the more
susceptible the product is to moisture penetration and oxidation. Increasing the
moisture content of the spices can also lead to problems with insect damage and
possibly potential microbial risk factors if the water activity of the product
medium reaches high levels. In order to reduce the oxidation reactions it is
important to avoid high-temperature storage, utilize packaging with low oxygen
permeability and gas flush with controlled atmosphere or modified atmosphere
conditions.
Grinding. As soon as dried or fresh spices are size reduced this increases the
surface area exposed to atmospheric conditions. In doing this it can cause increased
susceptibility to oxidation reactions, moisture increases and flavour loss. To
limit these reactions it is important to control the temperature, contact with
oxygen, the humidity surrounding the product and reduce the contact with light.
Grinding of spices is an important processing step during which loss of volatile
aromatics occurs. The technology used at present for grinding spices has inherent
disadvantages of high heat generation, loss of volatile oil and low efficiency. This
method of grinding is not desirable for materials of plant origin including spices with
high heat sensitivity, high fat and fibre contents. Loss of volatile oil could be overcome
partly by lowering or maintaining the mill temperature as low as possible (less than
the boiling temperature of the volatile constituents of the spices volatile oil). The
shelf life of ground spices is about three to four months at refrigeration temperature
and whole spices will have about one and a half years of shelf life.
5.3.2 Herbs and spices (refrigerated formats)
Herbs are found in a variety of forms including fresh herbs, fresh herbs and other
ingredients packaged in a tube format, herbs in a paste format that have been heat
treated and dried herbs.
Fresh herbs
Fresh herbs are mainly sold in bunches with an elastic band holding the product
together. In this format the level of deterioration that occurs during storage will vary
depending on the type of herb being analysed and the environmental conditions.
Most herbs are unlikely to be satisfactory after one week of storage in refrigerated
conditions, some will last up to two weeks providing the environmental conditions
are acceptable. Fresh herbs can also be stored in plastic bags but this procedure
requires more attention to the type of plastic used and the atmosphere present within
the bag in order to ensure product quality and safety is maintained.
Fresh herbs and spices in a tube packaging format
Herbs are also sold in a patented formulation that uses fresh herbs in combination
with other ingredients to maintain a high-quality product that ensures the essential
oils and the microbial safety remain acceptable during storage. This unique product
format is now located world-wide in Australia, New Zealand, USA, Canada, Europe
and Asia. This product format uses innovation in the packaging to provide consumers
with a tube format that allows individual choice as to the amount of herb or spice
added to a food as well as a single-serve packaging format to provide consumers with
convenience. The tube format incorporates a higher level of technology in the packaging
Packaging and storage of herbs and spices
89
so as to provide consumers with a format that is easy to use as well as protecting the
product from environmental influences.
5.3.3
Herbs and spices (dried)
Whole or ground herbs and spices
The natural whole spices are much more robust and deteriorate much slower than
spices that have been sized reduced. Ensuring the surface of the spices remains
unaltered assists in minimizing both a chemical and microbiological change in the
spice. Many spices are still packed under conventional types of packaging materials
and there is great scope for improving the type of packaging materials. Twill or
gunny bags are used depending on the value of the spices. The weave clearance of the
different types of twill and gunny bags is 1–2%, 3–5% and 4–6% respectively, which
prevents spillage but also restricts insect movement in the bags. Sometimes double
bags are used to get a better physical barrier. Polyethylene lined gunny bags and
HDPE woven sacks are used to restrict moisture ingress during storage. Besides the
conventional jute bags, multi-wall paper bags, plastic sacks and paperboard boxes
can offer better protection and appeal.
Coriander
Ground coriander can be stored for up to six months in aluminium foil bags and is the
preferable storage mechanism. Jute bags lined with polythene are ideal for storage
for large quantities of powder. Paper, polyethene and cotton bags are not suitable for
storage. It is critical that ground spices are protected adequately from oxygen as the
large surface area exposed will increase the rate that flavour deterioration occurs.
Coriander seed can be stored in polythene bags or cotton bags for six months with
minimum loss of flavour. After a period of 12 months there was a loss of 20–25%
volatile oils. Flexible plastic films and foil laminates with better physico-chemical
properties need to be used for necessary protection to the product against loss of
volatile oil, seepage of fats and ingress of moisture during storage. The seeds should
be stored under cool, dark and dry conditions so as to prevent browning, loss of
flavour and ingress of moisture. Under good storage conditions it is reported that
coriander seed will retain flavour and colour for 6–9 months.
Garlic
Among the most important garlic products are garlic flakes, dehydrated garlic powder,
garlic paste and garlic salt. Garlic harvested for dehydration is brought to a dehydration
plant in large bulk bins or open mesh bags. The bulk is broken into individual cloves
by passing between rubber-covered rollers, which exert enough pressure to crack the
bulb without crushing the cloves. The loose paper shell is removed by screening and
aspiration. The cloves are washed in a flood washer, at a time the root stabs are
floated off. Garlic is sliced and dehydrated in a manner similar to that used for
onions. Garlic is commercially dried to about 6.5% moisture. Dehydrated garlic is
sold commercially as garlic powder, granules, sliced, chopped or in a minced form.
Garlic powder is obtained by drying the garlic at temperatures of 50–70 °C for five
to eight hours and results in losses of volatile flavour up to 30–35%. The nonenzymatic browning reactions result in a yellowish brown powder which is undesirable.
Clumping is also an issue as the powder is highly hygroscopic and must be maintained
in packaging that maintains low water vapour transmission.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Cinnamon
Cinnamon is prepared from removing the inner and outer bark. The inner bark curls
naturally into quills, which are joined to increase their length, and filled with smaller
quills and pieces to make a near solid cylinder. First-quality quills are smooth, uniform
yellowish brown. Smaller quills, bark pieces are sold separately and a proportion
chopped or ground for local sale or distillation. Cinnamon quills should be stored in
sacks, and highest quality bark is wrapped in new sacking or corrugated cartons.
Quills are pressed into cylindrical bales of 100–107 cm, weighing 45–50 kg for
shipment. Bark is packaged into individual containers that are based on individual
recognized standards.
Turmeric
Turmeric is a plant of the Zingiberaceae family. The rhizome of this plant when dried
and ground provides a yellow and flavourful powder, used for centuries as a natural
colouring agent in food, cosmetics and textiles, and as a flavouring agent. Turmeric
is usually dried by sun drying or artificial drying and is then ground into a powder to
be predominantly used as a colouring.
Cumin
The current method of grinding spices including cumin involves the use of a grinder
that subjects the spices to elevated heat levels. Grinding cumin at chilled temperatures
increases volatile oils and improves the fineness of the particles and sensory qualities.
Aluminium and polyethelene pouches and a storage condition of 37 °C and 70%
relative humidity are an ideal storage condition.
Nutmeg
Following collection the seed (nut) with surrounding aril is separated from the fruit
and the aril (mace) is detached. After drying, nuts are shelled and become the spice
nutmeg. Nutmeg trees produce three main products including nutmeg and mace used
directly as spice, nutmeg and mace oils and oleoresins used as spice and flavourings
and leaf oil and other derivatives. Nutmeg and mace are the most important domestic
products but oils and oleoresins have becomes more common within industrial
applications.
Nutmeg and mace should not be ground until required as the organoleptic qualities
rapidly deteriorate, mainly through loss of volatile oils. Incorrectly stored nutmeg oil
may also undergo significant composition changes if exposed to a high ambient
temperature. Unprotected powders and oil can absorb unpleasant odours. Powders,
oils and oleoresins should be stored in full, sealed, preferably opaque glass containers
until required. Nutmeg is sold as whole nutmeg in importing countries and is further
ground to a distinct mesh size for spice powders. The whole nutmeg is packaged in
bags while the nutmeg spice can be sold in a range of packaging but most commonly
glass or high-barrier plastic packaging film to protect the quality of the product.
Mustard
Mustard produces seed, the most important product, and has an oil content of 30%.
It is critical during drying and storage that the seed is not overheated as this can cause
rancidity and loss of quality. The seed received at storage has a moisture content of
10% and 25% from standing crops and between 10% and 15% from windrowed.
Clean and dry seeds store well due to the hard outer surface, but appropriate packaging
Packaging and storage of herbs and spices
91
is required to prevent the round seeds running freely. The bulk mustard seed is stored
in sacks or in bulk. The mustard meal is manufactured by grinding dry, whole seeds
and should be kept fresh or sealed, using opaque containers in a cool environment.
This product is seldom used as a food-based product and is utilized more in the
medicinal industry.
Pepper
Pepper is one of the most prominent spices found in the world. There are various
forms of pepper that are manufactured. After harvesting, the pepper berries are separated
from the spike by rubbing between the palms or trampling under the feet. The green
pepper is then dipped in hot water for one minute and dried in sunlight for uniform
colour and speedy drying for 5–7 days to obtain a moisture content of 10–11%. The
dried pepper is cleaned to remove stems, husks and pinheads. The white pepper is the
product obtained from berries that are fully ripe. They are picked and piled in heaps
to ferment or are soaked in water for 5–7 days, the pulp and the outer costing of the
seed are then removed. White pepper is yellowish grey in colour and has a smooth
surface. It is also prepared from black pepper by grinding off the outer parts by
machinery.
Ginger
Ginger powder stored in glass jars at 4 °C showed a significant decrease in gingerol
content after eight weeks storage (23%) and after 16 weeks storage the level had
further decreased (37%). This compares to ambient storage at 23 °C where the
gingerol decrease was 30% after eight weeks storage and 37% after 16 weeks storage.
Heat treated herbs and spices in glass or plastic jars
There are a variety of herb pastes that incorporate the raw herb or spices with other
ingredients and the product is heat treated. This treatment will reduce the level of
quality deterioration but also reduces the level of natural essential oils that provide
the key flavour attributes of the product. These products are typically packaged in
glass or plastic jars. This type of packaging medium is quite common in the herb and
spice industry.
5.4
Essential oils
Essential oils are a complex mixture of volatile compounds responsible for the aromatic
characteristics of the spice. They are comprised of two basic groups which are
hydrocarbons including terpenes, sesquiterpenes and diterpenes and oxygenated
hydrocarbons such as alcohols, esters, aldehydes, ethers and ketones.
Basil
During the drying process the essential oil composition of herbs and spices changes.
The results on basil indicated a 19% overall loss of essential oil after drying and three
months of storage in aluminium polyethylene polyamide bags. After six months
storage in the bags there was a 62% loss in essential oils. During storage there was
a decrease in the total quantity of essential oils as well as volatile essential oils.
Methylchavicol and eugenol decreased linearly and some other components disappeared
altogether.
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Ginger
Ginger oil is produced by steam distillation of the freshly ground ginger. The ginger
oleoresin contains the volatile oil and the pungent extracts. The oleoresin can be
encapsulated to present it in a dried form. This can be achieved by spray drying and
can then be easily incorporated in food products.
Cinnamon
Cinnamon bark produces two oils, a superior type derived from the inner bark and a
lower quality from broken quills, chips and bark. Cinnnamon oil is frequently sold as
unrefined crude oil in 200-litre drums, or refined in 50-litre and 200-litre drums. The
oils should be kept cool and should be stored in containers that have the minimum
allowable oxygen headspace to minimize oxidation and loss of product quality.
Turmeric
Turmeric is an important spice which is used in curries and as a natural colouring.
Among the cuciminoid pigments responsible for the colour of turmeric, curcumin is
a major pigment. The curcumin content continued to decrease during storage up to a
period of ten months and after this period the level of decrease was minor.
Nutmeg
Nutmeg oil is mainly used as flavouring in a range of edible food products and must
be stored in opaque containers and in a cool environment to protect the product from
oxidation.
Mustard
Mustard oil is obtained by extracting whole seeds to obtain an oil content of 25–35%
and is mainly used as cooking oil. To maintain the product quality it should be
packaged in opaque glass or high-protection barrier plastic to prevent oxidation and
maintain quality.
5.5
Oleoresins
Spice oleoresins are a liquid, semi-solid or solid residue obtained by solvent extraction
and possessing the full character of natural spices. The main components of an
oleoresin include essential oils, fixed oils, pigments, pungent constituents and natural
antioxidants. The process for obtaining oleoresins is designed around extracting both
essential oil and non-volatile components that are desirable and contribute largely to
the flavour profile. The solvent is removed by using a vacuum and the concentrated
extract is the oleoresin. The physical characteristics of oleoresins range from viscous
oils to thick, tacky pastes. This makes it difficult to add these components directly to
the food. The most suitable method for utilizing the oleoresins is to use a carrier and
options that are utilized are as follows:
•
•
•
emulsions prepared by blending essential oils with gum arabic or other
emulsification agents
essences developed with ground spices and ethanol and the addition of essential
oils or oleoresins
solubilized spices are blended with essential oils and/or oleoresins mixed with a
polysorbate ester or other agent
Packaging and storage of herbs and spices
•
•
93
Dry soluble spices are prepared by dispersing an essential oil and oleoresins onto
a carrier such as salt, dextrose or other types of ingredients.
Encapsulated spices are prepared by spray drying pre-made emulsions using
gum arabic or starches. Once dried these flavours are encapsulated, the flavour
is released when added to water.
Oleoresins have a high stability in storage and have a minimum shelf life of one
year, without any loss in quality. There are also other advantages including reduced
space storage requirements as they require only 1–10% of the space required by
ground spices. Controlled-atmosphere storage (temperature and humidity) is generally
not required.
5.6
Storage requirements for fresh and dried herbs and spices
Most herbs are marketed in the dried form, since a high concentration of water will
cause product deterioration over time. The changes in the volatiles depend on factors
such as the drying method, the biological characteristics of the plants and their
volatile composition. Oven drying and freeze drying applied to dill and parsley leads
to a significant loss in volatiles. This compares to the effect on drying bay leaf which
is much less.
5.6.1 Main factors that cause deterioration of foods during storage
• climatic influences that cause physical and chemical changes (UV light, moisture
vapour, oxygen and temperature changes)
• contamination (by micro-organisms, insects or soils)
• mechanical forces (damage caused by impact, vibration, compression or abrasion)
• pilferage, tampering or adulteration.
5.6.2 Selection of packaging materials
Packaging of food is usually utilitarian and protective. The primary purpose of packaging
is to preserve the flavour and keep the product in good condition until it reaches the
consumer. A large number of factors must be considered in detail when choosing a
suitable packaging material for food that provides flavour. The factors can be grouped
into basic factors and consumer acceptance factors. Basic factors include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
price of packaging
protection of product from contamination
resistance to impact injury
effectiveness of interior surface
absence of handling problems
space and other storage requirements
special features relating to the performance of the package.
Consumer acceptance factors include:
•
•
•
size
ease of opening
reseal features
94
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
5.7
Handbook of herbs and spices
pouring qualities
space saving of consumer’s premises
protection from light
transparency
tamper-proof construction
physical characteristics of outside surface including appearance
ease of disposal
special features relating to performance for consumer.
Types of packaging material
The various materials suitable for packaging of foods include paper products,
polyethylene flexible films, aluminium foils, glass, tin, hessian and timber. The selection
of packaging material intrinsically will depend on the nature of the product and other
considerations.
5.7.1 Paper and cardboard cartons
These are the least expensive unit packages for whole spices. They have good advertising
potential and can be folded into any shape. Wax coating on the outside improves
attractiveness as well as resistance to water. Polyethylene coating inside gives extra
protection as well as sealability. Paper and cardboard are unsuitable for ground
spices, owing to their high permeability to flavour components and gases. This
disadvantage can be overcome by an inner pouch of polyethylene.
5.7.2 Aluminium foil
This offers excellent potential for packaging ground spices. It is not transparent and
is ideal for spices that need protection from light. Its resistance to gas transmission
is essential to protect the delicate flavour of many spices. It is subject to puncture, but
this can be overcome by laminating the outside with paper. Heat sealability can be
accomplished by coating the inside with a heat sealable film such as polyethylene.
Aluminium is also used as the barrier material in laminated films to metallize flexible
films and to make collapsible tubes for viscous products.
5.7.3 Glass
Although glass can be made into a variety of shapes, particularly for marketing highvalue products such as liquors and spirits, simple cylindrical shapes are stronger and
more durable. Glass surfaces may be treated with titanium, aluminium or zirconium
compounds to increase their strength and enable lighter containers to be used. Glass
can be made in a variety of colours including green, amber and blue.
5.7.4 Flexible films
Since a single film does not fulfil all the functional requirements, a combination of
films can be used to obtain the desired effect. This can be achieved by lamination,
coating or co-extrusion.
Packaging and storage of herbs and spices
95
5.7.5 Single films
The most important types of film for food packaging are described below.
Cellulose films
Plain cellulose is a glossy transparent film which is odourless, tasteless and biodegradable
within approximately 100 days. It is tough and puncture resistant, although it tears
easily. It has low-slip and dead folding properties and is unaffected by static build up,
which makes it suitable for twist wrapping. It is not heat sealable and the dimensions
and permeability of the film vary with changes in humidity. It is used for foods that
require a complete moisture or gas barrier, including fresh bread and some types of
confectionery.
Oriented polypropylene is a clear glossy film with good optical properties and a
high tensile strength and puncture resistance. It has a moderate permeability to moisture,
gases and odours, which is not affected by changes in humidity. Biaxially orientated
polypropylene has similar properties to orientated polypropylene but is stronger.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a very strong transparent glossy film which
has good moisture and gas properties. It is flexible at temperatures from –70 °C to
135 °C and undergoes very little shrinkage with variations in temperature and humidity.
Low density polyethylene (LDPE) is used as a copolymer in some tubs and trays.
It is heat sealable, chemically inert, odour free and shrinks when heated. It is a good
moisture barrier but has relatively high gas permeability, sensitivity to oils and poor
odour resistance. Low slip properties can be introduced for safe stacking or, conversely,
high slip properties permit easy filling of packs into an outer container. It is the least
expensive of most films and is therefore widely used.
High density polyethylene (HDPE) is stronger, thicker, less flexible and more
brittle than low density polyethylene and has lower permeability to gases and moisture.
Sacks made from 0.03–0.15 mm HDPE have a high tear strength, tensile strength,
penetration resistance and seal strength. They are waterproof and chemically resistant
and are used instead of multi-wall paper sacks for sipping containers. Other types of
film structures include uncoated polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC), polystyrene and
ethylene vinyl acetate (EA).
Coated films
Films are coated with other polymers or aluminium to improve their barrier properties
or to impart heat sealability. A thin coating of aluminium produces a very good
barrier to oils, gases, moisture, odours and light. Metallized film is less expensive
and more flexible than foil laminates which have similar barrier properties. Metallized
polyester has higher barrier properties than metallized polypropylene, but polypropylene
is used more widely as it is less expensive.
Laminated films
Lamination of two or more films improves the appearance, barrier properties and/ or
mechanical strength of a package. Laminates typically include nylon-LDPE, nylonPVdC-LDPE and nylon-EVOH-LDPE for non-respiring products. The nylon provides
strength to the pack, EVOH or PVdC provides the correct gas and moisture barrier
properties and LDPE gives heat sealability. PVC and LDPE are also used for commonly
respiring MAP products.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Coextruded films
Coextrusion is the simultaneous extrusion of two or more layers of different polymers
to form a single film. Coextruded films have the following advantages over other
types of film:
•
•
•
They have very high barrier properties, similar to multi-layer laminates but are
produced at a lower cost.
They are thinner than laminates and closer to mono-layer films and are therefore
easier to use on forming and filling equipment.
The layers cannot separate.
The main types of compounds used in this application are:
•
•
•
olefins (low-density and high-density polyethylene and polypropylene)
styrenes (polystyrene and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene)
polyvinyl chloride polymers
Edible and biodegradable films
There has been a paradigm shift imposed by growing environmental awareness to
look for packaging films and processes that are biodegradable and therefore compatible
with the environment. The concept of biodegradability enjoys both user-friendly and
ecofriendly attributes, and the raw materials are essentially derived from either
replenished agricultural feedstocks or marine food processing, and therefore capitalize
on natural resource conservation with an underpinning on environmentally friendly
and safe atmosphere.
Biopolymers from agricultural feed stocks and other resources have the ability
upon blending and/or processing to result in appropriate packaging materials. Their
functionality can be better expressed by using in combination with other ingredients
such as plasticizers and additives. The potential uses for such biopolymeric packaging
materials are:
•
•
•
•
•
use and throw, disposable packaging materials
routine consumer goods for day to day use
disposable personal care
lamination coating
bags for agricultural uses.
Two types of biomolecules (hydrocolloids and lipids) are used in combination for
the preparation of biodegradable packaging films or composites. Individually they
lack structural integrity and characteristic functionality. Hydrocolloids, being hydrophilic
are poor moisture barriers, a property compensated by adding lipids, which are very
good moisture barriers. Composite films are a mixture of these and other ingredients
in varying proportions, which determine their barrier (to water, oxygen, carbon dioxide
and aroma compounds) and other mechanical properties.
Synthetic polymers are gradually being replaced by biodegradable materials
especially those derived from replenishable, natural resources. More than the origin,
the chemical structure of the biopolymer determines its biodegradability. Use of
biopackagings will open up potential economic benefits to farmers and agricultural
processors. Bilayer and multicomponent films resembling synthetic packaging materials
with excellent barrier and mechanical properties need to be developed. Cross-linking,
either chemically or enzymatically, of the various biomolecules is yet another approach
of value in composite biodegradable films. Innovative techniques for preserving food
Packaging and storage of herbs and spices
97
safety and structural-nutritional integrity as well as complete biodegradability must
be adopted as these provide the means for sustained environmental management.
5.7.6 Active packaging technologies
The choice of type of active packaging is based on three broad considerations. Most
important is the requirement of the food, followed by the packaging format and the
requirement of the active agent. The main types of active packaging are oxygen
scavenging, carbon dioxide scavenging or release, packaging to remove odours and
antimicrobial packaging.
5.7.7 Modified atmosphere packaging
Controlled atmosphere and modified atmosphere are terms implying the addition or
removal of gases from storage rooms, transportation containers or packages in order
to manipulate the levels of gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and
ethylene, etc. Modified atmosphere is more commonly used and is used to extend the
shelf life of food products and to prevent any undesirable changes in the wholesomeness,
safety, sensory characteristics and nutritive value of foods. MAP achieves the above
objectives based on three principles:
•
•
•
5.8
reduction of undesirable physiological, chemical/biochemical and physical changes
in foods
control of microbial growth
prevention of product contamination.
Printing
5.8.1 Bar codes and other markings
The Uniform Code Council (UCC) or EAN International provide companies with a
bar code number to enable consumer products to be scanned by lasers in checkouts.
The Uniform Code Council (UCC) and EAN International have changed their names.
GS1 is the new name for EAN International and the UCC has also changed its name
to GS1 US. The UPC or EAN code consists of a manufacturer number which is
combined with a product number and a digit assigned by bar code software systems.
The UCC Company prefix is provided by the Uniform Code Council (now GS1 US
or GS1) and the manufacturer creates the individual product number. When the
prefix number and product number are entered in the software it automatically generates
the check digit.
There are currently five versions of UPC and two versions of EAN. The Japanese
Article Numbering (JAN) code has a single version identical to one of the EAN
versions with the flag characters set to 49. UPC and EAN symbols are fixed in
length, can only encode numbers and are continuous using four element widths. The
most frequently used UPC version has ten digits plus two overhead digits while EAN
symbols have 12 digits and one overhead digit. The first overhead digit of a UPC
symbol is a number related to the type of product while the EAN symbol uses the first
two characters to designate the country of the EAN International organization issuing
the number. UPC is a subset of the more general EAN code. Scanners equipped to
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Handbook of herbs and spices
read EAN symbols can read UPC symbols. However, UPC scanners will not necessarily
read EAN symbols. The bar code has restrictions on sizing in order to ensure the
highest level of accuracy when being scanned. It is recommended to be 1.469 inches
wide and 1.02 inches high. It is recommended to use black bars on a white background
to provide the highest level of contrast in colours.
5.9
Microbiological safety of herbs and spices
The microbiological risks associated with herbs and spices vary dramatically according
to the plant type and the process to which it is subjected. The main factors are:
•
•
•
Growth habit. Herbs with curly or hairy leaves and stems are more likely to
collect and retain bird droppings, dust and moisture than flat-leafed varieties, as
are those with low growing habits. Root and bulb crops are obviously closely
associated with the soil and are prone to contamination by poor irrigation techniques.
All these factors are potential contributors to contamination with Enterobacteriaceae
(including Salmonella and E. coli), yeasts and moulds.
Harvesting and storage. Many herbs and spices are gathered from the wild and
then stored in uncontrolled conditions. Ingress of insect and rodent pests can
present major problems.
Processing. High moisture content products are often air dried, open to the sun
or under minimal cover.
Spices are used all over the world as flavouring agents in staple food items. The
harvest of these crops predominately occurs in the warm, humid areas of the world
where large numbers of micro-organisms are readily viable. The microbiological
quality, load of total heterotrophs or Enterobacteriaceae in particular, often acts as an
indicator of the hygienic conditions. Spices are exposed to a wide range of environmental
contamination during collection and processing by dust, waste water and animal and
even human excreta. Contaminated spices may cause a microbiological problem,
depending on the end use. Cuisines that incorporate spices may pose a risk to public
health because they are often added to foods that undergo no further processing or are
eaten raw. Spices are the principal source of spore-forming bacteria in large volumes
of foods such as soups, casseroles, stews and gravies. Under favourable conditions
they germinate and multiply to infective and toxic levels. The key micro-organisms
responsible for these are Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli,
Salmonella and toxigenic moulds.
The number of microbes on spices varies considerably according to the particular
spice. Black pepper, capsicum spices, turmeric and allspice contained the highest
microbial levels whilst cloves, nutmeg and cinnamon tend to be less contaminated. In
many spices the microflora consists mainly of mesophilic spore formers that originate
from the soil. Levels vary considerably but average counts in untreated products are
in the region of 100,000 colony-forming units per gram. Spores may comprise more
than 50% of the bacterial count. Spore formers capable of causing food poisoning
when ingested in large numbers, such as B. cereus, B. subtilis and C. perfringens, are
found in spices in low levels. Non-spore formers also form part of the microflora of
spices. Studies show they are present in approximately 50% of untreated spices at
levels between 10 to 100,000 CFU per gram.
Packaging and storage of herbs and spices
99
Escherichia coli is found less frequently and usually in low numbers (<10 CFU
per gram). Salmonella is found occasionally in a wide variety of spices and has been
responsible for a number of outbreaks of salmonellosis. Enterococci are present in
approximately 50% of spices, usually in low numbers and rarely exceeding 10,000
colony-forming units per gram. Moulds are frequently present on spices, usually at
levels of less than 100,000 colony-forming units per gram, but yeasts are rarely
found. The types of mould found include Aspergillus spp, Penicullum spp, Rhizopus
spp. and Spicara spp. Some moulds capable of producing mycotoxins have been
found in a range of spices including black pepper, ginger, turmeric, nutmeg, red
pepper, cumin and mustard seeds. Nutmeg and red pepper is usually prone to aflatoxin
production but levels are usually low, usually less than 25 µg/kg.
5.9.1 Strategies for reducing microbial load in herbs and spices
The food industry has long been aware of the risks associated with unprocessed herbs
and spices and a variety of measures to eliminate or counteract microbial contamination
have been used and are used today. However, many of these measures have, with
time, been declared as dangerous (e.g., ethylene dioxide treatment) or unacceptable
to most consumers (e.g., irradiation). Chemical preservatives in food items, such as
sulphur dioxide, work by inhibiting the microbial uptake of oxygen thereby restricting
their growth. Consumer reaction to E numbers has led manufacturers to remove
preservatives where practical, thus placing further pressure on the herb and spice
industry to supply ever-tightening microbiological specifications. Indeed, there is
evidence that certain food preservatives such as nitrates and nitrites react in the
presence of spices producing potentially carcinogenic nitrosamines.
Current strategies to process herbs and spices to reduce their microbial loads to
acceptable levels include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Improved agriculture. The world’s largest spice houses are working increasingly
closely with growers and farmers and, by modifying irrigation and fertilizers, it
is possible to produce a cleaner raw material for processing. This is effective in
reducing microbial loads but cannot eliminate risks as the product is still largely
processed in the open air.
Product selection. Assessment of numerous batches of herb and spice products
and the selection of the microbiologically cleanest can be effective.
Irradiation. Ionizing radiation, which disrupts bacterial chromosomes to effect
reduction of microbiological load, is highly effective but has a very poor public
image.
Heat treatment. Whole or ground herbs and spices are pasteurized by flash
processing with steam or heated dry air.
Flavour extraction or oleoresins. Steam distillation will extract the volatile flavour
principles (essential oils), which due to the process are microbiologically sterile.
Solvent extraction will additionally remove the non-volatile compounds. These
extracts are known as oleoresins and contain the whole flavour character of the
raw material.
Encapsulation of herb and spice extracts. An encapsulation process converts
liquid essential oils or oleoresin extracts into free flowing powders.
100
5.10
Handbook of herbs and spices
New packaging materials used in herbs and spices
The type of packaging materials predominately used in the herb and spice
industry has not changed dramatically in the last 20 years. In recent years there has
been an increased focus on utilizing the latest technology. New packaging materials
such as coated BOPP films, nylon and polyester-based films, special laminates in
combination with cellophane, polyethylene, polyester, multilayer coextruded nylon
based films, coextruded films based on ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVAL) and PVDCcoated BOPP have a bright future for packaging spices. PET bottles with a unique
shape and clarity may be considered a good possible alternative. Stand-up pouches
are suitable for green and red pepper in brine solution and for ground spice powders.
Fresh herbs and spices in a tube format bring innovation and convenience to the
industry.
The product characteristics, storage and distribution conditions, dictate the required
barrier properties of the packaging materials used for a specific application. Barrier
properties include permeability of gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, ethylene,
etc.), water vapour, aromas and light. There are vital factors for maintaining the
quality of foods. However, packaging materials cannot be chosen solely on the basis
of their barrier properties. Factors such as processability, mechanical properties (tensile
strength, elongation, tear strength, puncture resistance, friction, burst strength, etc.)
migration/absorption and chemical resistance must also be considered. Environmental
factors such as temperature, relative humidity and light intensity to which the product
is exposed during storage and distribution must also be taken into consideration
when selecting packaging materials.
5.11
Future trends
A continuing trend in food packaging technology is the study and development of
new materials that possess very high barrier properties. High barrier materials can
reduce the total amount of packaging materials required, since they are made of thin
or lightweight materials with high barrier properties. The use of high barrier packaging
materials reduces the costs in material handling, distribution and transportation and
waste reduction.
Convenience is also a focus of manufacturing, distribution, transportation, sales,
marketing, product development. Consumption and waste-disposal levels are also
very important. Convenience parameters may be related to productivity, processibility,
warehousing, traceability, display qualities, tamper-resistance, easy opening and cooking
preparation. Safety is the third most critical element due to the risk of food bioterrorism.
Food-borne illness and malicious alteration of foods must be eliminated from the
food chain.
Consumers also want their food packaging to encompass all of the points discussed
as well as being natural and environmentally friendly. The substitution of artificial
chemical ingredients in foods and in packaging materials with natural ingredients is
always attractive to consumers. The trend will be to move towards environmentally
friendly packaging material that are more natural and contain more recyclable or
reusable materials.
Packaging and storage of herbs and spices
5.12
101
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WEISS, E.A. (2002), Spice Crops, CABI Publishing, New York.
WHITE, R. (2002), The Perils of Processed Herbs and Spices, British Food Journal, Vol. 104 (9), pp.
724–729.
ZHANG, X. et al. (1994), Gingerol Decreases after Processing and Storage of Ginger, Journal of Food
Science, Vol. 59 (6), pp. 1338–1343.
6
QA and HACCP systems in herb and spice
production
C. Kehler, Canadian Herb, Spice and Natural Health Coalition, Canada
and J. Schooley, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Canada
6.1
Introduction
The herb and spice industry is a truly global industry. Raw materials from various
countries around the world can become combined in products that are sold to consumers
everywhere. A bottle of ‘Herbs de Provence’ sold in a small town in Canada could
contain lavender from Canada, basil from Israel and rosemary from Italy. Caraway
produced in the Canadian prairies could end up on the shelf of a cook in France,
Coriander in a curry in India. Chamomile tea sold in Canadian supermarkets could
contain Chamomile grown in the wild in Romania. Echinacea grown in Canada could
end up in an extract in Italy. Many ethnic communities in Canada import herbal
products to support the medicinal and culinary trends of those cultures.
The global availability of herbal material has provided consumers with an ever
expanding choice of products. The question must be asked. Does this also expose
consumers to an ever greater risk of food-borne illness? The answer is yes, and this
risk must be controlled. In recognition of this need the Canadian herb and spice
industry has evolved from small regionalized groups to a national forum. It was an
effective process that brought together ten provinces and one territory. To understand
the significance of this it is first necessary to understand the immensity and diversity
of this country. Canada spans the northern half of the North American continent and
touches three of the world’s seven oceans. Her people range from the Atlantic fisheriesbased east coast provinces, through an industrial and agricultural heartland through
prairies, vast mountain ranges and on to the western coast on the Pacific Ocean.
Canada extends north to the Arctic ocean and embraces communities that have become
adapted to the harsh climate of the extreme north. In all of these regions people grow,
collect and consume herbs.
In 2002 the Saskatchewan Herb and Spice Association, which represented herb
and spice producers in western Canada from the prairie provinces to the west coast,
explored the possibility of a national organization that tied the entire country together.
Prior to 2002 the herb and spice industry was split between an organized but struggling
western industry and many small distinct groups to the east and north. Key producers
and manufacturers were contacted across the country and an inaugural meeting was
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Handbook of herbs and spices
held. Everything came together at the right time. Federal and provincial governments
were developing a focus on food safety and new regulations for natural health products,
consumers were developing an awareness of the importance of safe products and
farmers were working toward safe production practices and environmental sustainability.
In 2004 the first national meeting of the Canadian Herb, Spice and Natural Health
Product Coalition was held in Guelph, Ontario.
A mandate and strategic plan were developed. By 2005 the Canadian industry had
moved from disjointed regional sectors to a unified coalition. They had developed a
HACCP-based on-farm food safety model, an international plant identification practice,
been an inaugural player in the development of the natural health product regulations
and worked with the agriculture industry to develop a sector council for Agriculture.
They also have been part of the development of national standards for traceability
through the Cantrace initiative, are represented on the Special Crop Value Chain
Round Tables and the medicinal crops working group for international harmonization
of minor use products. They are part of the Natural Health Product Research Society
and lead an initiative to guide the development of appropriate regulations for natural
health products for animals.
They have successfully raised the profile of this industry and linked industry
sectors together both at home and abroad. These connections have built business
relationships and value chains across the industry. The scope of the coalition
encompasses field and greenhouse production, wild harvesting, primary processing,
manufacturing and finished products. The coalition also encompasses research,
regulations, education, and includes the perspective of the consumer and practitioners
in the industry. Visit the website at www.nationalherbspice.com for more information.
6.2
HACCP planning for herb and spice production
Food safety is one of the key issues facing the entire value chain of food production
around the world. The safety and quality of any food product or raw ingredient
begins at the source either with wild-harvesters or with the producers. By implementing
good agriculture practices (GAP) on the farm, the safety at the beginning of the value
chain can be optimized. For many products, buyers and manufacturers are coming
to expect that their suppliers, including on-farm producers, have these practices in
place. Two of the primary drivers of this initiative have been the issue of correct
identification and the reduction of adulterants, both vital in the medicinal and
culinary world.
The Canadian Herb, Spice and Natural Health Products Coalition (CHSNC) is one
of over 20 national industry groups involved in the Canadian On Farm Food Safety
Program (COFFS). These industries are developing voluntary HACCP-based OnFarm Food Safety Programs and Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs).The goal of the
COFFS program is to use HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point)
principles to enable a facility to provide protection from contamination of the food
supply from the source to the consumer. Although it is technically impossible to
remove all risk all the time, an accurate detailed on-farm food safety program using
good agriculture practices will reduce risks and show due diligence. The herb and
spice program covers natural health products, medicinal and culinary herbs (cultivated
and wildcrafted) and spice crops. The end result is a government-recognized COFFS
program for each industry group.
QA and HACCP systems in herb and spice production
105
GAPs are really about ‘saying what you do’, ‘doing what you say’ and ‘verifying
that you did what you said you were going to do’ on your farm or enterprise. Although
GAPs require the development of consistent practices on your farm and formal
record keeping, the real benefits for growers are traceability and safety assurances.
Should manufactured product be recalled, GAPs provide growers with a recognized
method of verifying whether or not their raw materials were part of the problem.
Product can travel across the globe with traceable accountability that tracks back to
the source. It also provides a mechanism for isolating problems on the farm from the
rest of the production. The GAPs were developed to:
•
•
•
assist with the process of risk identification
aid in the development of appropriate solutions
apply practices that eliminate or reduce these risks.
The HACCP based GAPs, once in place, will:
•
•
•
protect human health by reducing food-borne hazards
increase consumer confidence in the safety and quality of the products they
consume
enhance sector capacity to meet or exceed market requirements.
Establishing core principles
HACCP is a systematic approach to ensure food safety. It targets prevention rather
than detection of problems. HACCP principles can be applied directly to the processing
stage to ensure safety. HACCP is an internationally recognized system that uses
sound principles in choosing corrective and preventive actions for food safety-related
problems. The first step in developing a HACCP-based model is to work through a
seven-point program and customize it to your operation. It would be unwieldy and
virtually impossible for each producer or collector to develop individual HACCP
programs. For this reason the CHSNC identified core principles that applied to the
herb, spice and natural health product industry as a whole. These core principles are:
Principle
Principle
Principle
Principle
Principle
Principle
Principle
1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
6:
7:
conduct a hazard analysis.
identify critical control points.
establish critical limits for each critical control point.
establish critical control point monitoring requirements.
establish corrective actions.
establish record-keeping procedures.
establish procedures for verifying the HACCP system is working as
intended.
Three types of hazard
Under each of these core principles there are three types of hazard to be identified
and addressed: biological, chemical and physical (BCP). Biological hazards are
microorganisms that can directly cause illness or death, or create toxins in the food
that could cause illness or death. These include pathogenic bacteria, yeast, mold,
viruses and parasites. Chemical hazards are contaminants that may include residues
from cleaners, agricultural chemicals, nitrates, heavy metals, lubricants and naturally
occurring toxins known as allergens. Physical hazards are hazards that may cause
physical injury to a consumer. Examples include glass, wood, stones, metals, wrong
products in a tank or bin.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Traceability
Traceability is driven by many factors; some of the key ones are consumer confidence
in the product, product credibility and market access, protection from brand fraud
and adulterants, supply chain management, quality factors and the insurance system.
Full traceability requires that producers are responsible for their product one level
down from their operation and one level up, or one-step preceeding and one-step
after. They need to know what they are buying or collecting, what goes into the
production of it or the history of the land where the product is grown and where the
product goes. Good record keeping is imperative to ensure this. Canadian Herb,
Spice and Natural Health Product Coalition HACCP based GAPs were developed
incorporating the CanTrace Standards for Traceability.
Auditing
The HACCP system developed for on-farm use is an auditable system. An audited
system ensures traceability to the buyers. Producers must provide validation, either
by third party or self-attestation ensuring that they can trace backwards at any stage
and ensuring that all questions are able to be answered and documentation is in place
to back this up. In a recall situation producers need to be able to isolate the problem
if they are to prove it was not their product. If it is the producer’s problem this system
should be able to address the issue and enable them to fix the problem in a fast,
effective and safe manner. A paper trail must be developed for an auditor, with farm
maps, field history, input records, harvest and post-harvest records, storage data and
sales information to confirm all processes and due diligence. Auditing is also a tool
to ensure that producers are up to date and aware of regulations or changes to
regulations that affect their operation. Auditing confirms that all processes are under
control and that the producer/collector is providing a food or medicinal product that
is safe and free from biological, chemical or physical contaminants.
Levels of GAPs
A GAP level relates to the significance of its impact in any given operation. The
GAPs developed for this program fall into one of two levels; either ‘must-do’ GAPs
or ‘recommended practices’. A ‘must-do’ practice is relevant to all operations and has
to be addressed. Any deviation from a ‘must-do’ practice must be recorded, explained
and witnessed. ‘Recommended practices’ may be relevant to one operation and not to
another. A risk assessment of the operation is vital to determine which practices
should be implemented on a must-do basis and which are recommended to enhance
the operation in ensuring quality, safety and traceability.
Critical limits and acceptable levels
A HACCP model identifies two things.
1. Points in the operation that have a critical impact on food safety (a critical
control point) that can only be addressed through avoidance.
2. Points in the operation that recognize levels of food safety and that can be
addressed through compliance with a designated procedure. These levels can be
‘critical’ or ‘acceptable’.
In the CHSNC model they have not identified a critical control point but they have
identified critical limits and acceptable levels.
Critical limits are defined as criteria that separate acceptable from unacceptable
risks in relation to food safety. Critical limits are benchmarks for performance of the
QA and HACCP systems in herb and spice production
107
preventive measures at control points. For management practices, the critical limit
would be whether the preventive measure was complied with or not. A critical limit
requires 100% compliance or an acceptable explanation of deviation from the program.
For example, in our program one critical limit is the successful completion of the
Plant Identification Practice prior to the sale of the product. Less than 100% compliance
would be an unacceptable risk to anyone using the product.
Acceptable levels are defined as criteria that delineate a level of safety – whereas
outside this range would be critical in relation to food safety. Acceptable levels must
meet the criteria outlined in the monitoring procedure in an effort to minimize or
reduce a non-critical hazard. They may require less than 100% compliance, although
any deviation should be recorded. They must meet regulatory requirements. For
example, acceptable limits for pesticide application follow label requirements that
are set by law.
Monitoring the program
Monitoring procedures must be put into place to monitor the critical limits of a CCP
or the acceptable limit of the ‘must do’ GAP to ensure control. The frequency of
monitoring reflects regulatory requirements. For example, the monitoring procedure
for pesticide application involves keeping a record of what is applied the rate and
timing of application and the crop and pest that were targeted. The date of harvest of
that same crop must also be recorded. Label instructions must be followed.
Deviating from standard procedures
Deviation occurs when a procedure addressing either a critical or acceptable limit
does not follow the original program. Procedures that deviate from the original
program may have a potential impact on food safety. A deviation procedure must
clearly define the action taken to address the specific limit. It must reflect regulatory
requirements. For example, the original procedure for pesticide handling may be to
apply product immediately upon receipt and not to store it. A deviation procedure
may be to store the product and talk to a local crop specialist or product buyer for
recommendation. The deviation procedure does not alter the risk level. It does allow
the latitude of addressing limits in more than one way.
Verifying what is done
The verification procedure is a process with two aspects:
1. Reviewing records for completeness. For example, in this document the verification
procedure is to review sign-off documents relating to plant identification practice
and confirm that the appropriate sample has been retained.
2. Maintaining records to verify that the HACCP plan has been adhered to. This
procedure would identify the records to be in place for acceptable limits, monitoring
and deviation procedures.
Good agricultural practices (GAPs)
There are eight good agricultural practices (including good wildcrafting practices) in
this program:
1.
2.
3.
4.
plant/product identification
pest control products – purchase, storage, handling and application
purchasing
production – on farm and wild harvesting
108
5.
6.
7.
8.
Handbook of herbs and spices
post-harvest processing
personnel training
preventative maintenance
record keeping.
The two practices that are ‘must-do’ are plant/product identification and pest control
products – purchase, storage, handling and application and records. The rest of the
practices are ‘recommended’ and need to be applied appropriately depending on the
risk and scope of the operation.
Each practice includes a written recommendation and a follow-up checklist to
ensure that the practice has been completed. Standard operating procedures and a
listing of other appropriate documents may also be required. It is important to note
that the practices are outcome based. This allows producers to use existing practices,
provided they meet the outcome, and avoids duplication. It is essential that the
records of the existing practice be accessible and current.
6.3
Plant identification practice
Identified Plant/Product Identification is a ‘must-do’ practice. This practice was
developed prior to the rest and is also a stand-alone practice. It was developed with
input from experts throughout North America and with guidance from the WHO
(World Health Organization). Proper plant identification is one of the keys to the
development of an industry based on the safe use of high quality natural health
products. Examples of misidentification, adulteration, and contamination of natural
health products have been widely recorded both within Canada and around the world.
Botanical identity is a key feature. Accurate plant identification is the foundation of
the safe use of plant-based natural health products. Without proper botanical
identification as a starting point, the safe use of quality products cannot be guaranteed.
The goals were to:
•
•
•
develop effective, practical tools for people growing and collecting to accurately
identify medicinal herbs
have this voluntary practice available to all to incorporate into good collection
practices
establish a tool both for cottage industries and large manufacturers to assure
correct identification.
Since 1974, the WHO has asserted that the single greatest improvement in botanical
quality would be the implementation of a program for the certification of botanical
identity. The fact that after more than 25 years such a system had not yet been
developed, even though the technical requirements are minimal, is indicative of the
challenges involved. Two questions had to be answered:
1. How can a high degree of certainty be created that plant materials will be properly
identified at the production end of the value chain?
2. What practices can be recommended that will be workable for producers and
collectors?
The practices were developed by creating a plant identification working group
with representatives from industry, government, and educational institutions including
QA and HACCP systems in herb and spice production
109
producers, wildcrafters, first nations community, American Herbal Products Association,
Herb Research Foundation and World Health Organization. The practices address
one of the biggest issues facing the industry – accurate identity of plant material.
They were developed within a government-recognized HACCP model and were
based on an internationally recognized good agricultural practices model. The program
respects traditional knowledge and skills. The practices help provide information for
certificates of origin and disclosure of origin. They also help with identifying risks of
pollution or contamination at collection sites and help isolate problems. They are a
good basis for ethical methods and practices.
Steps in developing the plant identification practice
Step one – literature search: the first step in the development of the practices was to
do a literature search to look for partially developed practices. No practices, complete
or partial, were found.
Step two – outlining the practice: the practice was developed using a decision tree
process where risk management was based both for the product and the people
involved. This step encompassed the identification of the correct species, the correct
variety or chemotype and the correct plant part.
Step three – including all aspects: it is essential that this practice include observation
and documentation of the establishment, growth and harvest stages both for cultivated
and wild-harvested plants.
Plant identification practice helps producers and collectors decide if they have the
skills to identify their product (and what to do if they do not have the skills or
information), how to identify their product, how to properly keep and take retention
samples and voucher specimens. It also describes testing methods available
(macroscopic/organoleptic, microscopic and chemical analysis).
Documenting the plant identification practice
As with every other GAP, verification through documentation is vital. The plant
identification practice requires voucher labels with the retention samples, Certificate
of Authenticity or Declaration of Identification. A Certificate of Authenticity must be
signed by a recognized authority in botanical identification while a Declaration of
Identification can be signed by a harvester or producer using their knowledge base
and past experience to identify the products. This practice is used in situations where
their qualifications meet the risks. For example a Certificate of Authenticity should
be used and signed by a recognized authority when a plant that is difficult to identify
is being harvested by someone without relevant experience, training and/or education.
If an easy-to-identify product is being harvested by a person with adequate experience,
training and/or education a Declaration of Identity is sufficient.
The plant identification practice is an internationally recognized practice that can
either stand alone or be incorporated into any program that provides a concrete
solution to an overarching problem throughout the industry! It can be found at
www.saskherbspice.org. The practice was developed by a project team comprised of
the following:
Connie Kehler, Executive Director, Saskatchewan Herb and Spice Association/Canadian
Herb, Spice and Natural Health Product Coalition.
Dave Buck, Manager, Non-Timber Forest Products, Northern Forest Diversification
Centre (Manitoba).
Rob McCaleb, President, Herb Research Foundation (Colorado).
110
Handbook of herbs and spices
Wanda Wolf, Lonewolf Native Plant and Herb Farm (Saskatchewan).
Dr Allison McCutcheon, President, Natural Health Product Research Society of Canada,
ethonobotanist.
Edward Fletcher, American Herbal Products Association (North Carolina).
Jan Schooley, Ginseng and Medicinal Herb Specialist, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture,
Food and Rural Affairs.
Al Oliver, Industry Specialist – Horticulture, BC Ministry of Agriculture, Food and
Fisheries.
Dr Ernest Small, National Environmental Program, Biodiversity section, Agriculture
and Agri-Food, Canada.
Dr Robin Marles, Director of Research and Science, Natural Health Products Directorate,
Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada.
Donna Fleury, Business Development Specialist, Business Development Branch,
Alberta Agriculture Centre.
Bev Gray, Herbalist, Aroma Borealis (Yukon).
Ross Wadell, Native Plant Society of British Columbia.
Michelle Hull, Wildcrafter (Ontario).
Tim Brigham, Centre for Non-Timber Resources, Royal Roads University.
Michelle Schröder, Centre for Non-Timber Resources, Royal Roads University.
Wendy Cocksedge, Centre for Non-Timber Resources, Royal Roads University.
6.4
Future trends
A successful industry that consumers can trust is an industry that practises systems
that include safety, quality and traceability. In a global market where health and
safety scares are occurring at an accelerated pace it is vital to minimize risk and to
isolate problems as they occur. It is, however, daunting for producers who are facing
more and more paper work and more need for several overlapping systems to be
developed on farms. It is also difficult for producers who are having demands made
of them by groups that do not understand how production or wildcrafting works,
often resulting in demands that are not physically possible to meet. On top of this,
producers will rarely get a premium for their efforts.
It is vital then that systems be developed as this one was, with industry developing
the standards and requirements, with pilots to test the feasibility on farms, with
outcome-based standards that recognize other systems and with collaboration of other
systems further up the chain to ensure seamless integration throughout the chain.
6.5
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to the AAFC CARDS program under the Canadian On Farm Food
Safety Program for funding.
6.6 Bibliography
OLIVER, A.
et al. A Good Agricultural Workbook for On-Farm Food Safety in the Herb,
Spice and Natural Health Products Industry 1.0, 2005, Canadian Herb, Spice and
Natural Health Products Coalition (www.saskherbspice.(org).
Part II
Herbs and spices as functional ingredients
and flavourings
7
The range of medicinal herbs and spices
T. S. C. Li, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food
Research Centre, Canada
7.1
Introduction
Medicinal herbs and spices have been important to human life for thousands of years.
There is evidence for herbs, especially spices, being used by humans in the Middle
East since 5000 BC. It is estimated that approximately 400 spices are used around the
world, although only about 70 spices are officially recognized8. In the past decade,
demand has increased for medicinal herbs and spices and their derived products for
a variety of functions, such as herbal medicine, food flavorings, and cosmetics in the
forms of tea, tablet, capsule, tincture, cream, syrup, and liquid. The worldwide herbal
industry is now estimated to be more than US$10 billion dollars and increasing at a
rate of three to four percent annually for reasons of increased consumption in processed
foods and demand for ethnic foods, natural fragrances, and innovation in beverage
products53,54.
The largest markets, in terms of manufacturing and consumption, are in Europe,
followed by Asia. World production and processing of medicinal herbs and spices
remains concentrated in France and India. The North American market continues to
be supplied by imports where quality and consistency of supply are in question54.
Recently, Canada has become more active in the international herb and spice
marketplace. Special crops production, including mustard, caraway, coriander seeds,
and other herbs, has more than quadrupled since 1991–1992 as producers diversified
into alternative crops to improve their income52.
The properties of medicinal herbs and spices sometimes overlap. Medicinal herbs
can be defined as plants which have health-promoting and curative properties. Spices
are plants that are fragrant or aromatic and pungent to the taste from seeds, leaves,
root, bark and flowers, and are used as food, food additives, flavorings, or to preserve
food42,63 via their antimicrobial properties88. Spices are important medicines and it
has been speculated that more humans use spices as medicines than use prescription
pharmaceuticals89.
Many spices contain chemical components that have therapeutic value (Table 7.1)
such as antioxidant and antiseptic activities, singlet oxygen quenching, cytochrome
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 7.1
Major constituents and therapeutic values
Common name
Scientific name
Major constituents
Therapeutic values
Allspice
Pimenta officinalis
Eugenol, methyl
eugenol, myrecene,
chavicol,
methyleugenol,
eugenolmethylether,
caryophyllene, (–)-∀phellandrene.9,84,88,90
Anise
Pimpinella anisum
Bay leaf
Laurus nobilis
Caraway
Carum carvi
Anethole, indole, fatty
oil, coumarin, creosol,
acetylinic,
flavonoids.1,82,84,85
Cineole, linalool, resin,
∀-pinene, ∀-terpineol,
acetate, mucilage, tannin,
eucalyptol.1,2,38
Carvone, limonene,
flavonoids,
polysaccharides.3,4,5,85
Cardamom
Elettaria
cardamomum
Essential oils, cineole,
eucalyptol, linoleic
and stearic acid.22,86
Cassia
Cinnamomum
aromaticum
Celery seed
Apium graveolens
Cassia oil, transcinnamaldehyde,
trans-cinnamyl,
trans-2-methoxy
cinnamaldehyde.21,23,24
Limonene, coumarins,
bergapten, fatty
acids.3,6,7
Analgesic, antibacterial,
antioxidant, fungicidal.
Treat hypertension,
rheumatism. Relieve
stomach aches, soothe
sore muscles, toothache,
menstrual cramps,
antiseptic for teeth and gums.
Antispasmodic, antifungal,
diuretic, carminative
relieve gas pains,
dyspepsia.
Indigestion, appetite,
astringent, carminative,
stimulant, stomachic,
diuretic.
Inhibit carcinogenesis,
relieve gas pains,
antispasmodic, irritable
bowel syndrome, cold,
cough, bronchitis,
antihistaminic activity,
detoxicant, carminative.
Antiseptic, dyspepsia,
antimicrobial, digestive,
aphrodisiac, astringent,
antispasmodic, diuretic.
Anti-mutagenic, astringent,
carminative, antiseptic,
excessive salivation,
rheumatism.
Chives
Allium
schoenoprasum
Cinnamon
Cinnamomum
zeylanicum
Cloves
Eugenia
caryophyllata
Coriander
seed
Coriandrum
sativum
Alliin, sulphoxide,
sulphoeverman,
linoleic acid, vitamin
A, C, minerals, thiamin,
niacin.25,38
Volatile oil, tannins,
coumarin, cinnzelanin,
cinnzelanol, eugenol,
cinnamaldehyde.26,27
Phytosterols, eugenol,
campesterol, ascorbic
acid, crataegolic acid,
vitamin A, sitosterols,
stigmasterol.9,20,28
Coriandrol, geraniol,
borneol, carvone,
linalool, vitamin A, C,
∀-pinene, terpinene,
niacin, fiber, protein,
rhiamin.3,5,38
Carminative, gout, antirheumatic, hysteria,
nervousness, weight loss,
a detoxicant.
Lower high blood
pressure, antibacterial,
inhibit immunodeficiency
virus infection.
Antiseptic, astringent,
balsamic, carminative,
diaphoretic, febrifuge.
Abdominal problems,
callus, cancer, cough,
diarrhea, gastritis, hernia,
nausea, sores.
A digestive tonic,
carminative, sedative,
anti-bacterial, lavicidal,
anti-inflammatory,
hypoglycemia effects.
The range of medicinal herbs and spices
Table 7.1
115
Continued
Common name
Scientific name
Major constituents
Therapeutic values
Cumin
Cuminum
cyminum
Pinene, ∀-terpineol,
ciminaldehyde.3,5
Dill
Anethum
graveolens
Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus
citriodora
Fennel
Foeniculum
vulgare
Fenugreek
Trigonella
foenum-graceccum
Garlic
Allium sativum
Ginger
Zingiber officinale
Horseradish
Armoracia
rusticana
Licorice
Glycyrrhiza
glabra
Marjoram
Marjoram
hortensis
Carvone, limonene,
flavonoids, cumarins,
xanthones,
triterpenes.1,3,5
Cineole, eucalyptol,
caffeic, coumaric,
gentisic, syringic,
hydroxybenzoic, gallic,
vanillic acids.1,3,41
Anethole, fenchone,
fixed oil, perroselinic
oil, oleic acid,
linoleic acid, essential
oils, vitamin
A & C.1,5,38
Trigonelline, protein,
linoleic, oleic, linolenic,
and palmitic acids,
choline, coumarin,
nicotinic acid.1,5,29,34
Phytosterol, alliin,
choline, iodine,
diallyl trisulfide,
uranium,
inulin-containing,
allcin, polyoses,
scordinins, selenium,
saponin.5,9,30,31,58,59
Essential oils, linalool,
zingiberol, zingiberene,
phellandrene, gingerol,
camphene, citral,
methylheptenone,
nonylaldehyde, dborneol.32,33,34,35,74
Asparagine, resin,
calcium, iron, vitamin
B and C, potassium,
phosphorus, mustard oil,
asparagine, sinigrin.3,38
Glycorrhizin, mucilage,
flavonoids, saponin,
glycyrrhetinic acid,
glabridin, tannic acid,
glucuronic acid.5,36
Volatile oil, oleoresin,
arbutin, calcium, iron,
protein, Vitamin A & C,
hydroxyquinone,
minerals37,38
Relieves flatulence and
bloating, stimulates
digestive process.
Used as infant colic, cough,
cold and flu remedies.
Relieve digestive disorders.
Treat fevers and asthma.
Externally for athlete’s
foot, dandruff, herpes.
Antispasmodic, stimulate
mild flow and digestive
disorders, a carminative,
relieve infant colic,
diuretic.
Reduce cholesterol and
triglycerides, blood sugar
level, platelet aggregation
in patients with coronary
artery disease.
Antibiotic, antifungal,
anti-tumor activities.
Treat anemia, arthritis,
asthma, antioxidant,
cough, diabetes, cold,
hypotension, hypertension.
Anti-inflammatory, antitumor, stimulates gastric
secretion. Effect on platelet
aggregation in patients
with coronary artery
diseases.
Arthritis, gout, and
respiratory and urinary
infections.
Stomach, duodenal ulcers,
cough remedy, antiinflammatory, laxative,
anti-allergic, anti-hepatitis.
Rhinitis and colds for
infants, rhinitis in toddlers,
and gastritis. Oil for
coughs, gall bladder
complaints and
gastrointestinal cramps.
116
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 7.1
Continued
Common name
Scientific name
Major constituents
Therapeutic values
Mustard
(black)
Brassica nigra
Treat lung congestion and
bronchial problems
Nutmeg, Mace
Myristica fragrans
Onion
Allium cepa
Oregano
Origanum vulgare
Parsley
Petroselinum
crispum
Pepper (white,
black)
Piper nigrum
Pepper
(red, sweet)
Capsicum annum
Peppermint
Mentha piperita
Rosemary
Rosmarinus
officinalis
Saffron
Crocus sativus
Sage
Salvia officinalis
Allyl isothiocyanate,
sinapine, mucilage,
glucosinolates.43,51
Safrole, myristicin,
lauric, oleic, stearic,
hexadecenoic, linoleic
acid, d-camphene.2,11
Quercetin, methylallin,
dihydroallin, sulfides,
spiraeoside, cycloallin,
protocatechuic acid,
phloroglucin.9,21
Carvacrol, galanigin,
resin, magnesium,
quercetin, sterols,
∃-carotene, thymol,
flavonoids.3,38,65,70,71,80
Apiole, myristicin,
pinene, apiin, havonoids,
phthalides,
coumarins.1,3,5
Caryophyllene, canene,
∃-sitesterol, thiamine,
riboflavin, volatile oil,
piperine, pellitorine,
piperidine, piperettine,
humulene, fatty
acids.11,20,47,48
Capsanthin, capsaicin,
capsorubin, zeaxanthin,
lutein, cryptoxanthin,
∀- and ∃carotene.19,20,26,27,76
Menthone, piperitone,
isomenthone, tannin,
neomenthol, menthol,
fatty acids.45,86
Rosemanols, diosmin,
eucalyptol, oleoresin,
cineole, camphor
acid, ursolic acid,
apigernin, picrosalvin,
romarinic acid, tannins,
borneol.1,3,5,62,66,67,79
Crocine glycosides,
∃-carotene, phytoene,
phytofluene.1,5
Thymol, borneol, cineole,
camphor, malic and
oxalic acids, salvin,
eugenol, tannin, fumaric
acid, vitamins A, B1, B2,
C.1,5,38,43,66,68,69
Internally for diarrhea,
dysentery, vomiting,
abdominal distention,
indigestion, and colic.
Aphrodisiac, diuretic,
expectorant, emmenogogue,
hypoglycemia, stimulant.
Useful in flatulence and
dysentery.
Antioxidant, cancer
chemopreventive,
antispasmodic, antiseptic,
stomachic, carminative
effects.
Diuretic, stomachic,
carminative, irritant,
emmenagogue property.
Carminative, febrifuge,
rubefacient, stimulant.
Treat cholera, weakness
after fevers, vertigo, coma.
Counterirritant in lumbago,
neuralgia, and rheumatic
disorders, antioxidant.
A decongestant, antiseptic,
carminative, stomachic,
sudorific, relief neuroses,
rhinosis.
Carminative, antispasmodic,
anti-rheumatic, liniments
and ointments. An
antioxidant.
Emmenagogue properties,
stomachic, antispasmodic.
Anti-oxidant, carminative,
antiseptic, antifungal,
astringent, diuretic, antidiarrheal, anti-spasmodic,
relieve fever, digestive.
The range of medicinal herbs and spices
Table 7.1
117
Continued
Common name
Scientific name
Major constituents
Therapeutic values
Star anise
Illicium verum
Anodyne, diuretic, antirheumatic, antiseptic,
stimulant, carminative,
stomachic, vermifuge.
Sumach
Rhus glabra
R. coriaria
Trans-anethole, safrole,
estragole, 1,4-cineole,
∃-farnesene, fatty acids,
∀-copaene, ∀-terpineol,
hydroquinone.1,10
Tannins, astragalin,
avicularin, myricetin,
myricitrin, quercetin18,89
Tarragon
Artemisia
dracunculus
Thyme
Thymus vulgaris
Turmeric
Curcuma longa
Vanilla
Vanilla planifolia
Estragole, phelandrine,
iodine, tannins, methyl
coumarins, chavicol,
rutin, flavonoids12
Thymol, tannins,
carvacrol, saponins,
apigenin,
luteolin.1,3,5,62,73,81
Curcumin, ∃-carotene,
thiamine, riboflavin,
niacin, ascorbic acid,
essential oils,
∃-sesquiphellandrene,
curcumoids.13,14,15,75
Vinillin, fatty acids,
p-hydroxybenzaldehyde,
piperonal, vanillic acid,
balsam, glucovanillin,
glucovanillic
alcohol1,16,17
Antibacterial, anti-ulcer,
antiseptic, anti-viral,
dyspepsia, antiinflammatory. For
rheumatism, internal
bleeding, diarrhea,
enteritis colitis.
Diuretic, used as an
appetite stimulant.
Antioxidant, antispasmodic, antitussive,
relieve coughing.
Antioxidant, antigynecomastia, anti-cancer,
anti-hepatotoxic activity,
carminative, stomachic,
improve liver function,
treat ulcer.
Aphrodisiac, treat fevers
and spasms, carminative,
stimulant, vulnerary
function.
and other enzyme inducers, reducing induction and advancement of cancer cell
development46,60,61,64. For example, the pigments, carvone, curcumin, limonene, and
lycopene are associated with reduced risk of cancer49. Oleoresin from rosemary can
inhibit oxidative rancidity and retard the development of off-flavor in some
products85,88,89. Capsaicin, the pungent principle in chilies, has been shown to reduce
reactive oxygen species and thereby inflammation50. In Ayurvedic medicine, it is
claimed that garlic lightens the blood, reduces tumors, and is an aphrodisiac tonic.
This claim is confirmed by scientists with modern technology that garlic thins the
blood, prevents cancer, and increases libidinous activities89.
Medicinal herbs and spices also contain antimicrobial compounds, such as allicin
(garlic), allyl isothiocyanate (mustard), cinnamaldehyde, eugenol (cinnamon), eugenol
(cloves), thymol, eugenol (sage), and thymol, carvacrol (oregano)43,72. Thus, spices
not only provide flavor and aroma to food and retard microbial growth, but are also
beneficial in the prevention of off-flavor development. These attributes are useful in
the development of snack foods and meat products44.
118
Handbook of herbs and spices
7.2
The role of medicinal herbs and spices
In the past, essential oils, which contain volatile compounds (Table 7.2), derived
from plants were used in cosmetics, perfumes and pharmaceuticals56,77. Today,
aromatherapy is gaining overwhelming attention as an alternative healing modality
entirely related to herbal medicine39,40. It was reported that cardamon, rosemary, and
eucalyptus contain eucalyptol22,41,62. When it is administered topically as part of a
massage, the direct touch stimulates sensory fibers in the skin, which triggers the
parasympathetic nervous system, thus inducing relaxation and decreasing the perception
of pain41. It is established that the functional effects of medicinal herbs and spice
constituents include inhibition of cancerous growth, oxidative damage, stimulation
of cytochrome enzymes, modulation of body temperature, counter-irritants, and
prevention of oxidative damage to foods and the anti-nutritional effects of that
damage46.
Scientific literature supports the use of essential oils for insomnia; in addition,
several randomized controlled clinical trials have demonstrated a reduction of
pain medication for people with rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, and headaches41.
Current research on the essential oils from herbs is concentrated or their chemical
constituents and therapeutic value77. Pharmacological activities of pepper can be
basically attributed to essential oils and amide alkaloids, especially content of
piperine47. Essential oil from lavender has sedative and pain-relieving properties. It
is believed to affect the amygdala by increasing inhibitory neurons containing gamino butyric acid. Other claimed therapeutic values include anti-infectious,
antispasmodic, mucolitic, and litholitic actions; expectorant and anti-parasitic qualities,
stimulation of the immune system and antihistamine41,46, anti-convulsive, and analgesic
activities48.
Essential oils extracted from either medicinal herbs or spices may cause such side
effects as headache or contact dermatitis. Patients with hypertension should avoid
using stimulating essential oils such as rosemary and spike lavender. Essential oil
may be toxic if it is administered improperly and it should be stored away from
children. It was reported that essential oil from pepper root is toxic based on studies
of oral administration into mice, which died by convulsion48. Essential oils containing
pharmacologically active ingredients may interact with medications86. This area of
study is being investigated and more information has been published recently.
7.3 Major constituents and therapeutic uses of medicinal herbs
and spices
The thirty-eight most popular spices were selected and are arranged alphabetically
based on their common names with their major constituents, therapeutic values (Table
7.1), and essential oils (Table 7.2). The information in this chapter is primarily for
reference and education. It is not intended to be a substitute for the advice of a
physician. The uses of medicinal herbs and spices described in this chapter are not
recommendations, and the author is not responsible for liability arising directly or
indirectly from the use of information in this chapter.
The range of medicinal herbs and spices
Table 7.2
119
Major essential oils in herbs and spices
Common name
Scientific name
Essential oils
Allspice
Pimenta officinalis
Anise
Pimpinella anisum
Bay leaf
Laurus nobilis
Caraway
Carum carvi
Cardamom
Elettaria cardamomum
Cassia
Cinnamonum
aromaticum
Apium graveolens
Phenol-eugenol, cinool, laevo-phellandrene,
caryophyllene, eugenol-methyl ether, palmitic acid58.
Trans-anethole, methyl chavicol, cis-anethole,
p-anisic acid, carvone, estragole, limonene,
anisaldehyde, alpha- and beta-pinene, eugenol,
camphene, sabinene, saffrol, myrcene, linool,
cis-anethol55,85.
Monoterpenoid, acetates, cineole, benzenoides,
linalool, alpha-pinene, alpha-terpineol55,56.
Carvone, limonene, carveol, phyllandrene,
dihydrocarveol, dihydrocarvone, pinene, terpene55,56,85.
Terpinyl acetate, terpineol, terpene terpinene,
sabinene, cineole, crystalline substance58,85.
Cinnamic aldehyde with methyl eugenol,
salicylaldehyde, methylsalicylaldehyde55,56.
Limonene, phthalides, beta-selinene, selinene, apiol,
santalol, sedanolide, lsedanic acid, citric, isocitric,
fumaric, malic, and tartaric acids From seed oil: oleic,
palmitic, paliloleic, petroselinic, petroselaidic, stearic,
myristic, myristoleic acid55,56.
Cycloalliin, allicin55,56.
Leaf-eugenol, eugenol acetate, benzyl bezoate,
linalool, safrol, cinnamaldehyde. Barkcinnamaldehyde, eugenol, benzaldehyde,
cuminaldehyde, pinene, cineol, phyellandrene55,78.
Eugenol, caryophyllene, alpha-humulene, alphaterpinyl acetate, eugenyl, methyl eugenol, acetyl
eugenol, naphthalene, chavicol, heptanone,
sesquiterpenes, acetyl eugenol, methyl salicylate,
pinene, vanillian55,56.
Linalool (coriandrol), alpha-pinene, terpinene,
cymene, decylaldehyde, borneol, geraniol, carvone,
anethole55,56.
Aldehydes, cumin ester, limonene, pinene, alphaterpineol, cymene, phyllandrene, myrecene,
camphene, borneol55,56.
Carvone, limonene, phyllandrene, eugenol, pinene,
3, 9-epoxy-p-menth-1-ene, 4,5-dimethoxy-6(2-propenyl)-1,3-benzodioxole55,56.
Citronellal, isopulegol, neoisopulegol, eucalyptol,
pinene, limonene, alpha-terpineol, linalool,
geraniol, pinocarvone, myrtenal, carvone, cineole,
cuminaldehyde, citral, aromadendrene, globulol,
eudesmol, eudesmyl acetate55,56.
Anethole, fenchone, methyl chavicol, limonene,
phyllandrene, pinene, anisic acid, camphene,
palmitic, oleic, linoleic, petroselinic acids55,56.
Linolenic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid55,56.
Celery seed
Chives
Cinnamon
Allium schoenoprasum
Cinnamonum
zeylanicum
Cloves
Eugenia caryophyllata
Coriander seed
Coriandrum sativum
Cumin
Cuminum cyminum
Dill
Anethum graveolens
Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus citriodora
Fennel
Foeniculum vulgare
Fenugreek
Garlic
Trigonella foenumgraceccum
Allium sativum
Ginger
Zingiber officinale
Alliin, allicin, allypropyl, disulphide, sesquiterpene,
allyl-propyl disulphide55,58.
Sesquiterpenoid hydrocarbons, zingiberene,
ar-curcumene, farnesene, alpha- and beta-selinene,
camphene, neral, nerol, beta-sesquiphyllandrene,
oxygenated monoterpenoids, 1, 8-cineole, betabisabolene, geranial, geraniol, geranyl acetate,
alpha-copaene55,56.
120
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 7.2
Continued
Common name
Scientific name
Essential oils
Horseradish
Armoracia rusticana
Licorice
Glycyrrhiza glabra
Marjoram
Mustard (black)
Marjoram hortensis
Brassica nigra
Nutmeg, Mace
Myristica fragrans
Onion
Allium cepa
Oregano
Origanum vulgare
Parsley
Petroselinum crispum
Pepper
(white, black)
Pepper
(red, sweet)
Peppermint
Piper nigrum
Allyl phenylethyl isothiocyanate, 2-phenylethyl
isothiocynate55,56.
Monterpenoid, ketones (fenchone, thujone),
coumarins (herniarin, umbeliferone)57.
Terpenes, terpinene, terpineol, terpinenol-4, esters58.
Allyl iso-thiocyanate, allyl thiocyanate, allyl
cyanide, caarbon disulphide55,58.
Oleoresin, alpha-, beta-pinene, alpha-, beta-terpinene,
sabinene, myristicin, elincin, safrole, camphene,
cymene, eugenol, linalool, pinene, safrole,
terpineol55,56.
Dipropyl disulphide, methylalliin, cycloalliin,
dihydroalliin, dipropyl trisulphide55,56.
Thymol, carvacrol, beta-borneol, pinene, dipentene,
cymene, caryophyllene, bisabolene55.
Apiole, myristicin, pinene, tetramethozyally benzene,
apiol, phyllandrene, terpinolene55,87.
Capsaicin, phellandrene, dipentene, sesquiterpene55,58.
Capsicum annum
Capsaicin19,55,56.
Mentha piperita
Rosemary
Rosmarinus officinalis
Saffron
Sage
Crocus sativus
Salvia officinalis
Star anise
Illicium verum
Sumach
Tarragon
Rhus glabra
R. carnaria
Artemisia dracunculus
Thyme
Thymus vulgaris
Turmeric
Curcuma longa
Vanilla
Vanilla planifolia
Menthol, menthone, menthofuran, acetaldehyde,
dimethyl sulfide, isovaleric aldehyde, pinene,
limonene, terpinene, beta-caryophyllene, neomenthol,
2,5-trans-p-methanediol, methyl acetate, methyl ethers,
isomenthone, piperitone, pulegone55,83,86.
1,8-cineole, camphor, camphene, borneol, alphapinene, olefinic terpenes, sesquiterpene, santene,
tricyclene, thujene, fenchene, sabinene, myrecene,
cerene, phyllandrene, limonene, terpinene, cymene,
bornyl acetate55,58,87
Pinene, safranal, cincole55,56.
Alpha- and beta-thujone, ocimene, borneol, cineole,
camphor, linalool, linolenic acid55,56.
a-pinene, phellandrene, cymene, cineol, dipentene,
l-limonene, a-terpineol, methyl-chavicol, anise
ketone, anethol58.
z-2-decenal, nonanal, ∀-pinene, ∀-terpineol,
limonene57.
Estragole, ocimene, methyl chavicol, alpha- and
beta-pinene, camphene, limonene, nerol, sabinene,
myrcene, menthol, trans-anethole, anisole, anisic
acid55,56.
Thymol, carvacrol, methylchavicol, cineole,
borneol, cymene, terpinene, camphene, pinene,
myrcene55,56.
Sesquiterpene, zingiberen, turmeron, p-cymene,
1,8-cineole, alpha-phyllandrene, sabinene,
borneol, ar-turmerone, alpha-atalantone, gammaatalantone55,56.
Vanillin, p-hydroxybenzaldehyd, p-hydroxybenzyl
methyl ether57.
The range of medicinal herbs and spices
121
7.4 Future trends
Medicinal herbs and spices have been important to human life for thousands of years.
In the past decade, there has been a considerable surge of interest in medicinal herbs
and spices and their derived products for a variety of functions for human health. The
herbal industry is now estimated at more than US$10 billion dollars and is increasing
at a rate of three to four percent annually.
The largest markets are in Europe and Asia. The North American market continues
to be supplied by imports, although the United States and Canada have become more
active in the international marketplace recently. Herb and spice production has more
than quadrupled since 1991. To meet the surging demand, more scientific evaluation
and research, proper regulation, quality control and education for the general public,
herbal practitioners, and retailers are important to make this fragile industry both
credible and sustainable.
7.5
Sources of further information
Baranska, M. Schulz, H. Rosch, P. Strehle, M. S. and Popp, J. 2004. Idientification
of secondary metabolites in medicinal and spice plants by NIR-FT-Raman
microspectroscopic mapping. Analyst. 129, 926–930.
Duke, J. 2002. CRC Handbook of Medicinal Spices. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.
360 p.
Hill, T. 2004. The contemporary encyclopedia of herbs & spices. John Wiley & Sons
Inc. New York, NY. 432 p.
Jellin, J. M. 2003. Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 5th edn, Therapeutic
Research Faculty. Stockton, CA. 2071 p.
Simon, J. E. 1990. Essential Oils and Culinary Herbs. In: Janick, J. and J. E. Simon
(eds) Advances in New Crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR. p. 472–83.
Sovljanski, R. Lazic, S. Kisgeci, J. Obradovic, S. and Macko, V. 1989. Heavy metal
contents in medicinal and spice plants treated with pesticide during the vegetation.
ISHS Acta Horticulturae 249: International symposium on heavy metals and pesticide
residues in medicinal, aromatic and spice plants. p. 51–6.
Vladimirescu, A. 1993. The spice book. John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York, NY.
432 p.
Worwood, V. A. 1991. The complete book of essential oils and aromatherapy. Macmillan
London Ltd. UK. 435 p.
http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/financial/agribus/ccg02so1.html
http:/www.agr.gov.sk.ca/docs/processing/herbs_and_spices/Herbs_and_Spices.asp.html
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CO.
8
Herbs, spices and cardiovascular disease
H. Collin, University of Liverpool, UK
8.1 Introduction
Herbs and spices have both been used as sources of flavour enhancers and
pharmaceuticals since antiquity and their use continues undiminished today. The
distinction between the two sources is blurred but it has been suggested that herbs
tend to be of leaf origin and spices of stem, bark and seed origin. Full details of their
origin, plant source, and culinary and medical properties can be found in the many
past and also more recent herbals (Grieve, 1998; Bellamy, 2003). Currently, researchers
in the pharmaceutical industry are aware of the fact that many of the remedies quoted
in these books do have value in combating disease and are now analysing and testing
the individual compounds present in a wide range of herbs and spices. Their aim is
to be able to isolate single compounds that have specific roles in disease prevention.
The attraction of such compounds is that they could be marketed under the heading
of ‘natural’, which is seen as being more attractive than ‘synthetic’ by the potential
customer.
However, plants are complex mixtures and where a pharmaceutical role has been
identified, it is most likely to be achieved through a mixture rather than a single
compound. This mixture of compounds may be a factor in giving individual herbs
and spices a cure-all reputation. As an example, traditionally the herb thyme has been
considered as an anthelmintic, antispasmodic, carminative, emmenagogue, expectorant,
rubifacient, sedative, stimulant and tonic. The plant has been used in folk medicine
against asthma, artheriosclerosis, colic, bronchitis, coughs, diarrhoea and rheumatism
(Grieve, 1998). However, not all herbs are effective against cardiovascular disease,
which would include atherosclerosis, hypertension and myocardial infarcation or
heart attack. A literature search of those herbs and spices that do have a role in
combating this disease revealed that rosemary, oregano, ginger, basil, cumin, tumeric,
parsley, thyme and garlic are important.
In a health-conscious society, these plants are being advertised now for their
medical as well as their flavour-enhancing properties (Rice-Evans, 2001) and in
support epidemiological studies have suggested a positive association between the
consumption of phenolic-rich foods and beverages and the prevention of disease
Herbs, spices and cardiovascular disease
127
(Scalbert and Williamson, 2000). This approach makes the connection that in most
chronic diseases there is a component of oxidative stress, which can lead to the
production of damaging reactive oxygen and free radicals. In response to such damage
a complex antioxidant defence has developed in which dietary oxidants provide an
important role (Halliwell, 1996, 2000). Already it is possible to buy concentrated
extracts of individual herbs and spices that claim to have specific medical benefits.
Research is being undertaken to examine these claims (Vivekananthan et al., 2003)
and also how the crude herbs and spices may achieve their effect specifically in
cardiovascular disease (Blomhoff, 2005). The following is a discussion of the role
selected herbs and spices play in delaying the onset of this important disease.
8.2
Chemical composition of herbs and spices
The chemical composition of selected herbs and spices that are thought to have a role
in the delay or prevention of the onset of cardiovascular disease is described. For
further details of these plants see herbals by Grieve (1998) and by Bellamy (2003).
8.2.1 Rosemary
Rosemary herb (Rosmarinus officinalus L.) is grown in many parts of the world as a
six-feet-high evergreen shrub. Leaves and twigs are used as a flavouring as well as
a treatment for a variety of medical conditions. It has pronounced anti-oxidant properties
that may extend to the reduction of total cholesterol levels in serum and also in
tissues such as the liver, heart and fatty tissue. The likely active compounds include
six compounds with three different polyphenol skeletons, phenolic diterpenes (carnosic
acid, carnosal, and 12-O-methylcarnosic acid), caffeoyl derivatives (rosmarinic acid)
and flavones (isoscutellarein 7-0-glucoside and genkwanin). Only in the leaves are
all six compounds present at the same time. Of the polyphenol compounds, rosmarinic
acid showed the highest concentration and had the highest antioxidant activity (del
Baňo et al., 2003).
8.2.2 Oregano
Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) is native to northern Europe where it is cultivated
commercially. Both fresh and dried leaves are used as a source of flavouring. At the
same time it has been shown to have the highest anti-oxidant activity compared to the
same amounts of fresh dill, thyme, sage and parsley. In general, fresh oregano on a
weight for weight basis had three to 20 times higher antioxidant activity than the
other herbs studied and in comparison to vegetables, oregano has 42 times more
antioxidant activity than apples, 30 times more than potatoes, 12 times more than
oranges and four times more than blueberries (Zheng and Wang, 2001). The most
active component appears to be rosmarinic acid and thymol. As a measure of its
antioxidant power oregano has demonstrated stronger antioxidant capacity than either
of the two synthetic antioxidants commonly added to processed foods – BHT (butylated
hydroxytoluene) and BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) (Zheng and Wang, 2001). Kulisic
et al., (2004) in an assessment of the components of the oregano essential oil, confirmed
that the oil had remarkable antioxidant properties. It was suggested that the oil could
be used as a potential source of antioxidants for the food industry.
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8.2.3 Ginger
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is a perennial plant grown in hot moist climates.
The tuberous roots are used fresh or as dried slices, preserved in syrup, as candy
(crystallised ginger) or as a tea. It is thought to have a cholesterol-lowering and an
anti-thrombosis effect through its antioxidant properties. The ginger contains volatile
oils consisting of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, predominantly zingeberene (35%)
curcumene (18%) and farnesene (10%) with lesser amounts of bisabolene and bsesquiphellandrene. A smaller percentage of at least 40 different monoterpene
hydrocarbons are present with 1,8-cineole, linalool, borneol, neral, and geraniol being
the most abundant. A sesquiterpene alcohol known as zingiberol has also been isolated
(Govindarajan, 1982). The antioxidant properties are mainly due to its pungent
constituents.
8.2.4 Basil
Basils (Ocimum spp) are a source of flavouring and of antioxidants. The species
contain essential oils, mainly 1,8-cineole, estrageole and eugenol, flavonoids and
anthocyanins. Assessment of the antioxidant capacity of the separate groups showed
that most of the anti-oxidant activity was contributed by the flavonoids in the green
basils and anthocyanins in purple basils, which had the highest antioxidant activity.
In sweet basil, although the anti oxidant activity was low, the activity of the oil was
the highest as this contained the highest amount of eugenol relative to the other
samples. In comparison green tea, which is extremely rich in polyphenol compounds,
contained 300 mg polyphenols/g of material whereas the Dark Opal variety of basil
contained half the amounts of the tea sample at 126 mg/g material. The phenolic
activity of the basil was similar to red and black raspberry and higher than rose hips
(Juliani and Simon, 2002).
8.2.5 Cumin
Cumin (Cumin cyminum L.) is a small herbaceous annual plant cultivated extensively
in Asia and the Mediterranean regions. The intact or powdered seeds have been used
as a spice and medicine since antiquity. The main components in the volatile oil are
cuminal and safranal (accounting for 32% and 24% respectively) and small amounts
of monoterpenes aromatic aldehydes and aromatic oxides. The components in relatively
small amounts are chiefly terpenes, terpenals, terpenones, terpene esters and aromatic
compounds. When the anti-oxidant properties of cumin at 5% was compared with the
common food additives (butylated hydroxyanisole, BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene,
BHT and propyl gallate at 100 micrograms/g, BHA had greater and BHT less activity
than cumin (Martinez-Tome et al., 2001).
8.2.6 Cinnamon
Cinnamon is the brown bark of the cinnamon tree which when dried rolls into a
tubular form known as a quill. Cinnamonum zeylanicum (Ceylon cinnamon) and
Cinnamonum aromaticum (Chinese cinnamon), often referred to as Cassia, are the
leading varieties consumed. Cinnamon is available in either its whole quill tubular
form (cinnamon sticks) or as a ground powder. The chief constituent is the volatile
oil, which amounts to 1% of the bark. The principal constituent of the oil is cinnamic
Herbs, spices and cardiovascular disease
129
aldehyde together with cinnamyl-acetic ester and a little cinnamic acid and eugenol.
It has a variety of medical uses but its relation to cardiovascular disease is its anticlotting effect. It is also a rich source of calcium and fibre, which are both able to
bind to bile salts and remove them from the body. When bile is removed, the body
must break down cholesterol to make new bile, which can help to lower the cholesterol
levels. It does also have powerful antioxidant properties that far exceed those shown
by anise, ginger, liquorice, mint, nutmeg and vanilla and is also more powerful than
the chemical food additive BHA and BHT (Murcia et al., 2004).
8.2.7 Turmeric
Turmeric is a 5–6 ft plant (Curcuma longa L.), which sends out rhizomes that can be
collected and either used fresh like ginger or dried and powdered. Aromatic tumerone
is the major compound present in tumeric oil alongside curcumin. The spice is a
powerful antioxidant where the antioxidant properties of the oil are thought to be due
to the synergistic activities of the major components (Guddadarangavvanahally et
al., 2002) of which the active components are a group of phenolic compounds including
curcumin (Miquel et al., 2002).
8.2.8 Thyme
Thyme is a general name for the many herbs of the Thymus species all of which are
small perennial plants found in Europe and Asia and which are now grown in the US.
The leaves are used fresh and dried or extracted for the flavouring oil. The herb is
also valued for its antiseptic and anti-oxidant properties. The major constituent is
thymol but there appears to be a synergistic role for the other constituents of the oil,
which are terpinen-4-ol, carvacrol, p-cymene, pinene, camphene, myrcene, 1,8-cineole,
terpinene, d-linalool and flavonoids such apigenin, naringenin, luteolin and thymonin
(Hudaib et al., 2002).
8.2.9 Garlic
Garlic (Allium sativum) has a very long folk history of use in a wide range of
ailments. Daily use of garlic as in the Mediterranean diet is thought to contribute to
the lower incidence of heart disease in these areas. The active components are the
sulphur-containing compounds, alliin, iso-alliin and methin which, on tissue damage,
release volatiles following breakdown by the enzyme alliinase. The volatiles are
short lived and rapidly transform chemically to pungent sulphides and bisulphides
(Block, 1996).
8.3
Herbs spices and cardiovascular disease
Analysis of the above herbs and spices has confirmed that they all contain a high
concentration of antioxidants (Halvorsen et al., 2002). When included in the diet
these antioxidants are thought to protect cell-based molecules from damage by oxidation
which will occur during the normal process of metabolism. Further oxidative stress
is created by over-strenuous exercise, chronic disease or exposure to environmental
pollution. Free radicals produced as a result of oxidative processes are unstable and
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if not eliminated these highly reactive free radicals will react with, and potentially
alter, the structure and function of cell membranes, lipoproteins, cellular proteins,
carbohydrates RNA and DNA. The function of the antioxidant compounds is to
donate electrons to the free radicals thereby reducing their damaging effect. This is
particularly important in such chronic ailments as cardiovascular disease (Blomhoff,
2005).
Cardiovascular disease is a major source of mortality in industrial societies including
many below the age of 50. Atherosclerosis, which is the initial stage of the disease
and can lead to hypertension and heart attacks, is a disease of the arteries where the
inner layer becomes thickened by fatty deposits and fibrous tissue leading to a condition
known as hardening of the arteries. Fatty streaks, which are the earliest indication of
atherosclerosis, are areas of yellow discolouration on the inner surface of the artery
but do not protrude into the lumen or disturb the blood flow. The streaks are characterised
by the sub-endothelial accumulation of large foam cells filled with intracellular lipid.
The foam cells, which are derived from macrophages and smooth muscle cells are the
likely precursors of fibrous plaques, structures that form pale grey elevated lesions,
which may project into the arterial wall and reduce the blood flow through the vessel.
Calcification of the fibrous plaque leads to rigidity of the artery and hypertension
while rupture of the plaque releases material into the bloodstream causing a thrombus
to form. Occlusion of the vessel locally or following transport to distant sites can lead
to myocardial infarctions or strokes (Bhattacharyya and Libby 1998).
8.3.1 Herbs, spices and cholesterol
The level of cholesterol in the blood is an important factor in the development of
atherosclerosis. When fats are ingested as part of the diet, cholesterol and triglycerides
are absorbed in the intestine and finally transferred to the venous circulation. These
large molecules are hydrolysed by the enzyme lipoprotein lipase, which releases fatty
acids into peripheral tissues while the metabolic remnants composed largely of
cholesterol remain in the circulation. The liver in an endogenous cycle of cholesterol
production and metabolism releases very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) into the
circulation. Lipoprotein lipase acts on VLDL at muscle cells and adipose tissue to
release free fatty acids into the cells as before and the residue, intermediate density
lipoprotein (IDL), which contains esterified cholesterol remains in circulation. Further
processing results in cholesterol-rich low-density lipoprotein (LDL) which is largely
taken up by the liver. Cholesterol released back into circulation is transported by
high-density lipoprotein (HDL) which returns the cholesterol to the liver via IDL and
LDL for recycling into lipoproteins or excretion in the bile. The HDL appears to act
in a protective role while elevated levels of LDL correlates with a high incidence of
atherosclerosis. The level of cholesterol particularly LDL is critical (Bhattacharyya
and Libby, 1998). One route to lowering the level of cholesterol in the body is
through the increased intake of fibre (Brown et al., 1999). Herbs that are able to bind
to bile salts through their fibre component and remove them from the body will
stimulate cholesterol breakdown (Murcia et al., 2004; Zeng and Wang 2001).
The risk factor in atherosclerosis, such as high LDL or low HDL concentrations
can lead to excess cholesterol available being taken up by the intimal layer which is
the inner layer lining the lumen of the arteries. High LDL predisposes the arteries to
endothelial dysfunction by making them more permeable to the transport of LDL.
Once within the intima, LDL accumulates in the subendothelial space by binding to
Herbs, spices and cardiovascular disease
131
components of the extracellular matrix. This trapping increases the residence time of
LDL within the vessel wall where the lipoprotein may undergo chemical modifications.
The LDL becomes oxidised by local free radicals and as oxidised LDL it attracts
circulating monocytes to the vessel wall. The modified or oxidised LDL can be
ingested by macrophages contributing to the development of foam cells.
Following oxidation of the LDL, the next stage is the attraction of leucocytes,
primary monocytes and T lymphocytes. After the monocytes have adhered to the
luminal surface they may penetrate into the subendothelial space by slipping between
the junctions. Once localised beneath the endothelium, monocytes differentiate into
macrophages, the phagocytic cells that are able to ingest oxidised LDL. The macrophages
then become lipid-laden foam cells, the primary constituent of the fatty streak. More
recently oxidised LDL has been recognised as playing a more important role in
vascular dysfunction leading to atherosclerosis rather than native LDL (Battacharyya
and Libby, 1998). Oxidation of the LDL is a key stage in the process of atherosclerosis.
The antioxidant activity of herbs may have an important role at this stage of the
disease.
8.3.2 Metabolic effect of antioxidants
Herbs and spices contain high levels of antioxidants which contribute to their
pharmaceutical value (Dragland et al., 2003). In the plants these compounds are
necessary because they provide a protection against excessive input of solar energy
during photosynthesis. Hazardous excess energy is eliminated and oxidative damage
to the plant cell prevented. During the oxidative process of cellular metabolism
reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species are released. The most reactive
are the free radicals of which the most oxidising and therefore the most reactive is the
hydroxyl radical (OH–) which can oxidise, i.e., remove an electron from almost any
molecule and thus damage cell structures and cell metabolites. The function of the
antioxidant system is to facilitate the donation of electrons to the free radicals thereby
reducing the chemical energy of the hydroxyl radical or other reactive oxygen or
reactive nitrogen species. The antioxidant itself then needs to be progressively reduced
in a step-wise manner until the organic molecule is finally released as oxygen or
carbon dioxide. Plants contain large amounts of many antioxidants compounds such
as polyphenols, carotenoids, tocopherols, glutathione and ascorbic acid that can unite
chemically and non-enzymically with an oxygen donor such as a free radical (Blomhoff,
2005). It is these compounds in herbs and spices that provide the essential antioxidant
component in the diet of animals and humans (McCord, 2000).
In addition to the chemical non-enzymic protection of the antioxidant compounds,
there is an anti-oxidant system that consists of a number of enzymes which are
referred to collectively as phase 2 enzymes (Benzie, 2003). These enzymes remove
the reactive oxygen species and catalyse the conversion of toxic metabolites to easily
excreted compounds. The enzyme, superoxide dismutase, provides for the elimination
of superoxide radicals and catalases and glutathione peroxidases for the elimination
of hydrogen peroxide and organic peroxides. Members of the glutathione transferase
family, γ-glutamyl cysteine synthetase and NAD(P)H:quinine reductase are also essential
in antioxidant defence. Breakdown products of the sulphur-containing compounds
from the Allium species may also induce phase 2 enzymes. It has been suggested that
the anti-oxidant compounds and the phase 2 enzymes work together in sequence
(Blomhoff, 2005). Antioxidant compounds such as quercetin may donate an electron
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to a reactive oxygen or reactive nitrogen species then the oxidant radical which is
formed in the reaction may then activate the gene expression of the phase 2 enzymes
(Moskaug et al., 2004).
8.4
Measurement of antioxidants
A number of methods have been developed to measure the antioxidant concentration
or capacity in dietary plants including herbs (Halvorsen et al., 2002). These are the
6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-teramethylchroman-2-carboylic acid (Trolox) equivalent antioxidant
capacity (TEAC) assay of Miller and Rice Evans (1996), the oxygen radical absorbance
capacity (ORAC) assay of Delange and Glazer (1989) and the ferric reducing ability
of plasma (FRAP) assay of Benzie and Strain (1996). The TEAC and the ORAC
assays are based on the antioxidants’ ability to react with free radicals while the
FRAP assay measures the reduction of Fe+++ (ferric iron) to Fe++ (ferrous iron). The
FRAP assay is the least selective and is therefore a good method for estimating the
total antioxidant capacity of herbs in both water and fat soluble extracts. Using this
method particularly it has been possible to draw up a table of anti-oxidant values for
many types of foods including herbs and spices. Values of total anti-oxidant values
in foods as determined by the ferric-reducing ability of plasma assay (mmol/100g)
for cinnamon was 98.4, rosemary 66.9 and oregano 45.0 compared to the highest
berries, dog rose 39.5 and blueberry 5.1, the highest nut, walnut 21.0, the highest
fruit, pomegranate 11.3, the highest vegetable, kale 2.3 and fruit juice, blue grape 1.6
show that the herbs and spices are by far the richest source of anti-oxidants (Blomhoff,
2005).
Supplementing the bodies’ defence mechanism by taking antioxidant supplements
or eating a diet rich in anti-oxidants is regarded as a means of reducing the risk of
cardiovascular disease. Support is sought for this approach by experimental modelling
using organic molecules, cells and animals, epidemiological studies and finally by
randomised intervention trials on human volunteers.
8.4.1 Model systems
Model systems are a direct method of establishing the anti-oxidant potential of herbs
and spices. However, the experiments may only indicate an anti-oxidant effect, rather
than one specifically related to cardiovascular disease. The anti-oxidant properties of
seven dessert spices (anise, cinnamon, ginger, liquorice, mint, nutmeg, and vanilla)
were compared with those of the common food anti-oxidants butylated hydroxyanisole
(BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and propyl gallate. Mint and cinnamon
exhibited a higher percentage of inhibition of oxidation than the other spices and
the food anti-oxidants analysed, as tested by the lipid peroxidation assay (Murcia
et al., 2004).
Many cellular lipids and especially polyunsaturated fatty acids are vulnerable to
attack by reactive oxygen species resulting in the formation of lipid peroxidases. The
peroxidised lipids can cause cellular damage such as cross-linking of proteins and
DNA. Also oxidised low-density lipoproteins can contribute to the formation of
atheroslerotic plaques. Water and alcohol extracts of ginger have been shown to
possess anti-oxidant activity on fats and oils and prevent lipid oxidation (Hirahara,
1974). In addition zingerone functioned as an effective scavenger of superoxide
Herbs, spices and cardiovascular disease
133
anions as measured by nitro blue tetrazolium reduction in a xanthine-xanthine oxidase
system (Krishnakantha, 1993).
In another model system involving garlic, the approach has been to use an in vitro
system to show whether garlic supplement can prevent or reduce the oxidation of
LDL. In the in vitro cell free system CuSO4 was used to oxidise LDL and the product,
thiobarbituric acid (TBARS), measured after 24 hours incubation in the presence and
absence of the garlic supplement, AGE (Lau, 2001). The supplement exerted a
concentration-dependent inhibition of Cu++ induced oxidation of LDL. All four watersoluble compounds derived from garlic, N-acetyl-S allyl cysteine, S allyl cysteine,
alliin and allyl mercaptocysteine showed significant inhibition of LDL oxidation.
8.4.2 Animal studies
Animals have been used to establish the anti-oxidant potential of selected herbs and
spices. These studies indicated the presence of compounds in ginger, which directly
affected cholesterol metabolism. Activity of hepatic cholesterol–7-alpha-hydroxylase,
the rate-limiting enzyme in bile acid biosynthesis was significantly elevated in gingerfed rats. The conversion of cholesterol to bile acids is an important method of eliminating
cholesterol from the body (Sambaiah and Srinivasin, 1991). In addition Tanabe et al.
(1993) have recently isolated a new compound from ginger rhizomes, (E)-8b, 17epoxylabd-12-ene-15,1 16-dial (ZT) that lowered plasma cholesterol levels in
experimentally induced hypercholesterolemia in mice.
Oxidative modification of LDL is thought to play a key role in the pathogenesis of
atherosclerosis. The lipid peroxidation lowering associated with ginger consumption
was demonstrated in apoliprotein E deficient mice, i.e., mice that were prone to
develop atherosclerosis (Fuhram et al., 2000). Mice that consumed ginger (250 mcg
of extract/day in their drinking water showed significant reduction in their basal
concentration of LDL associated lipid peroxidases. The experimental data suggests a
strong positive effect of ginger on plasma lipid composition that may be important
for the prevention of atherosclerotic events. In a further study the oxidative stress
induced by malathion (a pesticide) into rats was overcome by introducing ginger into
the rats’ diet. Ginger was able to lower lipid peroxidation in rats by influencing the
enzymic blood level of the phase 2 enzymes, superoxide dismutase, catalase and
glutathione peroxidase, known to be involved in antioxidant activity (Ahmed et al.,
2000).
The effect of dietary supplements of oregano essential oil was investigated on the
performance of rabbits and the susceptibility of the produced raw and thermally
treated muscle tissue to lipid oxidation during refrigerated storage (Spais et al.,
2004). A total of 96 weaned rabbits were separated into four equal groups with three
sub groups. One group was given the basal diet and served as control, two groups
were administered diets supplemented with oregano essential oil at levels of 100 and
200 mg/kg diet whereas the remaining group was given a diet supplemented with αtocopherol acetate at 200 mg/kg. During the 42-day experimental period body weight
and feed intake were recorded weekly and the food conversion ratio was calculated.
Dietary oregano exerted no growth-promoting effects on rabbits. With increased
supplementation of oregano essential oil, malondialddehyde values decreased in both
raw and thermally treated muscles during refrigerated storage. This finding suggests
that dietary oregano essential oil exerted a significant antioxidant effect. Dietary
supplementation of oregano essential oil at the level of 200 mg/kg was more effective
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Handbook of herbs and spices
in delaying lipid oxidation compared with the level of 100 mg/kg but inferior to
dietary supplementation by 200 mg/kg α-tocopheryl acetate per kg. This study provided
indirect evidence that anti-oxidant compounds occurring in oregano essential oil
were absorbed by the rabbits and increased the antioxidant capacity of tissues.
8.4.3 Human studies
It is important that properly conducted trials be undertaken with human volunteers
for the herbs and spices to be shown to have an effective role in diet. In a study of
20 males who had enhanced platelet aggregation following dietary supplements of
100 g of butter, 5 g of dried ginger twice daily significantly inhibited platelet aggregation
induced by ADP and epinephrine (Verma et al., 1993). Not all studies were as conclusive.
A randomised double blind study in eight healthy males tested the effects of daily
doses of 2 g of dried ginger on platelet function. There were no differences in
bleeding time or platelet aggregation between the ginger and placebo groups (Lumb,
1994). In a similar study of 60 patients with coronary disease a daily dose of 4 g of
powdered ginger for three months did not affect ADP and epinephrine induced platelet
aggregation (Bordia et al., 1997). These studies indicate that relatively large doses of
ginger may be necessary to inhibit platelet function in humans.
In a small-scale study of the effects of garlic on LDL oxidation, a double blind
placebo controlled crossover study involving eight subjects, four men and four women,
mean age 68, four subjects took 1.2 g AGE three times a day for two weeks then two
weeks of no garlic (washout period) followed by two weeks of placebo. The remaining
four subjects took a placebo for the first two weeks followed by a two weeks washout
and two weeks of 1.2 g AGE three times a day (Lau, 2001). Blood was drawn at the
beginning of the experiment and at two, four, and six weeks and when the experiment
was completed. Plasma LDL was isolated and the CuSO4 test repeated. The use of
garlic supplements was found to significantly increase the resistance of LDL to
oxidation.
8.5
Complex mixtures versus single compounds
Epidemiological studies established that the Mediterranean diet which is rich in
vegetables and herbs confirmed that the diet had health benefits for cardiovascular
sufferers and could therefore delay the onset of the disease (Knoops et al., 2004). In
order to identify the active components, the use of models and experimental animals
have both shown a positive response to the use of specific supplements in stages of
the disease such as oxidation of LDL. However randomised intervention trials that
have been conducted to prove the anti-oxidant hypothesis for supplements in humans
have not been convincing (Stanner et al., 2004). There is now evidence that there is
no support for the use of anti-oxidant supplements such as alpha-tocopherol, carotene
or ascorbic acid (Vivekanathan et al., 2003). One explanation for this is that in the
complex mixtures that exist in plants there are large numbers of anti-oxidant molecules
such as the polyphenols, whose role in the plant is to reduce oxidative stress by
donating hydrogen to other compounds, are more effective than compounds such as
ascorbic acid, β-carotene and α-tocopherol used in the supplements. The plant may
employ many of these compounds in the multistage process of removing oxygen
from the reactive oxygen species. Equally these compounds are available to animals
Herbs, spices and cardiovascular disease
135
in their food to achieve the same objective. Consumption of the complex composition
of the crude herb or spice would seem to have a distinct advantage over the use of
single compound supplements.
8.6
Conclusions
Herbs and spices have been used as sources of flavourings and medicines for thousands
of years and their use as flavourings continues today. Now the pharmaceutical industry
is interested in these plants as a source of pharmaceuticals, particularly for their
antioxidant value in the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases such as
cardiovascular disease. One aim has been to isolate and identify single compounds
from individual herbs or spice plants so that the compound can then be marketed as
being of ‘natural’origin. However, examination of the effect of single plant based
compounds have not been as encouraging as the use of crude extracts. The difference
rests on the fact that the plant contains a very large number of potential anti-oxidants
that probably act synergistically. This is not surprising. In order to control the possibility
of excess solar energy damaging cell metabolism, evolution has ensured that plants
contain not one compound but a whole variety of compounds to achieve an antioxidant effect. It is not surprising therefore that animals including ourselves who
depend on plants for food have co-evolved and have therefore the same requirement
for multiple anti-oxidants rather than a single one. The conclusion that can be drawn
from such an evolutionary view is that however commercially attractive and convenient
it might be to take a single compound supplement, it is more sensible and beneficial
to take a complex extract. It is far better to use the herbs and spices for their original
purpose, which is to enhance the flavour of our food and at the same time ensure that
we remain healthy on a balance of antioxidants.
8.7
References
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SAMBAIAH K
9
Herbs, spices and cancer
S. Maiti and K. A. Geetha, National Research Centre for Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants, India
9.1
Introduction
Cancer is a complex set of diseases and is one of the most devastating diseases
worldwide. According to WHO statistics, the burden of new cases in 2000 was
estimated to be 10.1 million in the world representing about 20% increase over the
previous decade. Similarly about 56% of the estimated deaths from cancer occur in
the developing world. The reason for the increased number of cancer deaths is due to
the increased life expectancy achieved by combating life threatening diseases. In
addition, tobacco consumption, newer infections, environmental degradation, change
in lifestyle and diet and malnutrition are all contributing major factors for the increase
in the burden. In males lung cancer is the leading cancer site both in terms of new
cases as well as deaths, with almost equal contribution. The second most common
cancer globally, is stomach cancer with almost two-thirds of the load contributed by
the developing world, in particular China. This is followed closely by prostate and
colo-rectal cancers. More than three-quarters of cases of prostate cancer and twothirds of colorectal cancer occur predominantly in the developed world. In men, in
the developing world the five leading cancer sites are lung, stomach, liver, oesophagus
and head and neck. These sites accounted for more than 55% of the cases diagnosed
and almost two-thirds of deaths due to cancer for the year 2000. Cancers of the breast
and cervix are the two most important cancer sites and account for one-third of all
cases diagnosed in the women of the developing world.
In order to combat diseases including cancer, human beings depended upon Mother
Nature from time immemorial and a number of traditional health systems existed in
the world. Herbs and spices have been used for generations by humans as food
supplements and to treat some ailments. Each system has developed a number of
effective herbal disease cure prescriptions, which spread throughout the world. The
evolution of different systems of medicine was originally associated with cultural
and religious history. An enormous number of medicinal plants were also recognized
in each health care system and distributed in different parts of the world. About
250,000 plant species are recorded from different parts of the world from which
about 80,000 plant species are medicinal. WHO also reported that over 30% of the
Herbs, spices and cancer
139
world’s plant population has been used for medicinal purposes at one time or another.
Most of the traditional health care systems of the world, like Egypt, the Middle East,
India and China developed from 3000 BC onwards. India’s use of herbal health care
dates back close to 5000 years.
Scientific evidence has shown that many of these herbs and spices do have medicinal
properties. A growing body of research has demonstrated that the commonly used
herbs and spices such as garlic, black cumin, cloves, cinnamon, thyme, allspice, bay
leaves, mustard, and rosemary, possess antimicrobial properties that, in some cases,
can be used therapeutically. Other spices, such as saffron, a food colorant; turmeric,
a yellow colored spice; tea, either green or black, and flaxseed do contain potent
phytochemicals, including carotenoids, curcumins, catechins and lignan respectively,
which provide significant protection against cancer.
9.2
What is cancer?
Cancer is a complex disease which may be caused by a toxic environment, devitalized
food, lifestyle and lack of spiritual purpose in life, which in turn causes accumulation
of toxic material that disturbs the balance of the basic elements. Each cancer is
unique, the way it grows and develops, its chances of spreading, the way it affects the
body and the symptoms produced. Several factors, including the organs it affects and
how the cancerous cells grow determine the types of cancer.
All cancers, however, fall into four broad categories such as carcinoma, sarcoma,
leukaemia and lymphoma. Carcinoma is a malignant neoplasm of epithelial origin
and arises in the tissues of the body’s organs like nose, colon, penis, breasts, prostate
gland, urinary bladder and ureter. About 80% of all cancer cases are carcinomas.
Sarcomas are tumors that originate in bone, muscle, cartilage, fibrous tissue or fat.
Leukaemia is cancer of the blood or blood-forming organs. Lymphomas affect the
lymphatic system, a network of vessels and nodes that acts as the body’s filter.
9.3
Cancer therapy in modern medicine
In modern medicine cancers are treated by chemotherapy, radiation, surgical excision,
biological therapy or by bone marrow transplantation (BMT). Chemotherapy is the
use of certain drugs that treat the disease. At present chemotherapeutic drugs affect
other normal fast dividing cells also such as those responsible for hair growth
and replacement of epithelium cells in the intestine thereby causing adverse sideeffects.
In radiation treatment, high doses of radiation are used that can kill cells or keep
them from growing and dividing. Radiation therapy is a useful tool for treating
cancer because cancer cells grow and divide more rapidly than many of the normal
cells around them.
Surgery is the oldest form of treatment for cancer to remove the solid mass of a
tumor along with a healthy margin of tissue. In addition to the tumor, other structures
such as lymph nodes or blood vessels in close proximity to the tumor will be removed
to aid in identifying the extent of the cancer and to remove optimally all cancerous
tissues.
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The general concept of biological therapy or gene therapy is defined as the transfer
of genetic material (transgene) to a target cell for therapeutic reasons. Introduction of
the transgene into a somatic or a germ cell can restore a lost function (gene substitution),
initiate a new function (gene addition), or interfere with a gene’s function (gene
inhibition).
Autologous bone marrow transplantation (ABMT) has been increasingly used
in the treatment of malignant diseases. When these preliminary results are analyzed,
it is apparent that the outcome of this treatment modality is affected by several
factors such as disease status or tumor burden at the time of ABMT, the anti-tumor
effect of the pretransplant intensive therapy and the extent of bone marrow invasion
by tumor cells.
9.4
Complementary and alternative medicines (CAM)
9.4.1 Cancer in Ayurveda
In Ayurveda, cancer is a disease that is caused by the involvement of the three body
elements, i.e., vata, pitta and kapha. The cancer represents a negative life energy
usually formed from an excess apana (the downward movement of air). Distension,
constipation and diarrhea may be the basis of the symptom according to Ayurveda.
Cancer cells, lacking oxygen (prana), represent a growth in the body outside the rule
of the life force. In the Vedic system, cancer is caused by disruption of the aura
allowing the entrance of negative astral force which will be cured by emotional
cleansing, mantra and meditation.
According to Ayurveda, medicinal substances and living bodies are similar in
composition. Hence herbs and drugs influence the body according to their nature and
attributes. According to Charaka, medicines are those substances which, after entering
the body, are eliminated through the gastro-intestinal tract within a specified period
after their corrective role is over. Sometimes there will be overlap between foods and
medicines, and foods also have medicinal properties and medicines have also tissue
building action. Also, the human body is constituted of five basic elements, i.e.,
ether, air, water and earth which manifest as three basic principles or elements,
‘tridosha’, i.e., Vata, pitta and kapha. These three basic elements control all the
biological, psychological and physiopathological functions of the body, mind and
consciousness and when the balance of three elements disturbs, they contribute to
disease processes. The basic constitution of the body (prakruti = nature) of an individual
remains unaltered during the lifetime as it is genetically controlled and it is made up
of a combination of all the three elements with a predominant tendency towards one
or more. All Ayurvedic treatments attempt to establish a balance among the bodily
elements, i.e., Vata, pitta and kapha.
Herbal therapies for the treatment of cancer are of different types. It may be an
alterative or blood purifier, which destroy toxins. These herbs are used fresh along
with a detoxifying diet. This category of herbs is claimed to cure lymphatic or skin
cancer and are better for Pitta and Kapha varieties. The second category of herbs are
circulatory stimulants that promote blood circulation and aid in the healing of tissues.
Breast and uterine cancer are treated with these herbs which will affect all the three
elements. The third category of herbs are immune strengthening tonics which are
better in debility conditions and usually work on Vata. The fourth category of herbs
include special expectorants. They are used for thyroid, neck or lymphatic cancer.
Herbs, spices and cancer
141
They work well on Vata and Kapha cancers. Besides these categories, there are herbs
that are pungent or bitter and have fat reducing and toxin destroying properties.
Thus in Ayurveda, the herbs used in cancer treatment are categorized based on
their action in different basic elements, i.e., herbs for vata are Acorus calamus,
Terminalia chebula, Commiphora wightii, triphala formulation (Terminalia bellirica,
Terminalia chebula and Emblica officinalis), etc.; in Pitta: Crocus sativus, Rubia
cordifolia and Curcuma longa; vegetables, juice diets, etc.; in Kapha: Piper nigrum,
Piper longum, Zingiber officinale, Commiphora wightii, turmeric and trikatu formulation
(Piper nigrum, Zingiber officinale, Piper longum).
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) has gained popularity among
cancer patients also worldwide. Among cancer patients, use of CAM ranges between
30 and 75% worldwide and includes dietary approaches, herbals and other biologically
based treatments. Yamini et al. (2005) reviewed the use of complementary and alternative
medicine (CAM) in developed countries, already in use as traditional medicines in
various Asian countries. The Indian system of medicine, named as Ayurveda has an
edge in this field. In 1998, the US Congress mandated the creation of the National
Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) to conduct and support
such research of CAM therapies in the USA (Richardson, 2001).
A study conducted in Israel (Pud et al., 2005) indicated that the key benefits from
CAM reported by patients included improvement in emotional and physical wellbeing and increased ability to fight the disease. The most frequently used CAM
method appeared to be herbal therapy, and the most commonly used herb was the
stinging nettle in Turkey. Patients’ responses indicated that ‘the desire to do everything
possible to fight the disease’ and ‘the idea that it may be helpful, at least it’s not
harmful’ were the two most common reasons for using CAM (Algier et al., 2005). A
study conducted at Michigan (Wyatt et al., 1999) showed that approximately 33% of
older cancer patients reported using complementary therapies. Traditional Indian
systems of medicine, such as Siddha, have been reported to benefit patients in India
through herbal interventions for cancer (Srinivasan et al., 2004). A survey conducted
in the US (David et al., 1998) showed that alternative medicine use and expenditure
on it increased substantially between 1990 and 1997, attributable primarily to an
increase in the proportion of the population seeking alternative therapies.
Cancer chemo-prevention by phyto-chemicals may be one of the most feasible
approaches for cancer management. For example, phyto-chemicals obtained from
vegetables, fruits, spices, teas, herbs and medicinal plants, such as carotenoids, phenolic
compounds and terpenoids, have been proven to suppress experimental carcinogenesis
in various organs. Phyto-chemicals may also be useful to develop ‘designer foods’ or
‘functional foods’ for cancer prevention (Nishino, 2000).
Gupta et al. (2002) studied the prevalence of use of CAM cancer therapies in
leukaemia patients visiting haematology clinics of a north Indian tertiary CARE
hospital. Prevalence of CAM use in leukaemia patients was found to be 56.6% and
Ayurveda was the most commonly used CAM (33%). Most of the patients sought
conventional medicine first, followed by CAM therapies.
Singh (2002) reviewed the Ayurvedic concept of cancer diathesis. A retrospective
meta-analysis of observations on 85 plant drugs reported to have an anticancer effect
indicates that herbs with Katu means bitter, Tikta means pungent Kasaya Rasa astringent
taste, Usna Virya means hot biopotency and Katu Vipaka means catabolic active
metabolites, and herbs with dry, coarse, light, and sharp biophysical properties have
significantly greater possibilities of producing anticancer effects. Studies suggested
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that Withania somnifera root has chemopreventive efficacy against forestomach and
skin carcinogenesis and warrants the identification and isolation of active compounds
responsible for its anticancer effects, which may provide the lead for the development
of antitumor agents (Padmavathi et al., 2005).
9.5
Mechanism of action of herbs and spices
The use of herbs for medical benefit has played an important role in nearly every
culture on earth. Herbal medicine was practised by ancient cultures in Asia, Africa,
Europe and the Americas. The recent popularity in use of herbals can be tied to the
belief that herbs can provide some benefit over and above allopathic medicine and
allow users to feel that they have some control in their choice of medications (Wargovich,
2001).
Ayurveda pharmacology considers drug action to be mediated totally or partially
through rasa (taste), vipaka (assimilation/fate of the drug), veerya (dosage) and prabhava
(activity) of the drug. It is worth remembering that selection of a plant reported in
classical texts for a particular disease alone is not going to help as Ayurveda is indeed
a way of life. A holistic approach is required which would re-normalize the altered
environment. Hence, in Ayurveda extracting the active principles from the crude drug
as in the case of modern medicines is not recommended since it is believed that
curative action of a crude drug is not due to one or two major constituents but
because of synergistic action of a number of major and minor constituents present in
the crude drugs. The process is different and much more complex than the simplistic
model of the modern medicines (Ayyar, 1946). One of the most promising strategies
for cancer prevention today is chemoprevention using readily available natural
substances from vegetables, fruits, herbs and spices (Das et al., 2004).
There is considerable scientific evidence, both epidemiological and experimental,
regarding vegetables and fruits as key features of diets associated with reduced risks
of diseases such as cancers and infections. This has led to the use of a number of
phytometabolites as anticarcinogenic and cardioprotective agents, promoting a dramatic
increase in their consumption as dietary supplements. It is well observed that alteration
of cell cycle regulatory gene expression is frequently found in tumor tissues or
cancer cell lines, and studies have suggested that the herbal-based or plant-originated
cell cycle regulators might represent a new set of potential targets for anticancer
drugs (Singh et al., 2003).
An impressive body of data exists in support of the concept that Indian food
ingredients can be used in preventive strategies aimed at reducing the incidence and
mortality of different types of cancers because of their antioxidative, antimutagenic
and anticarcinogenic properties. Vital ingredients used in Indian cooking include
turmeric, cloves, ginger, aniseed, mustard, saffron, cardamom and garlic (Sengupta
et al., 2004).
9.6 Evidence supporting the functional benefits of herbs and
spices
Scientific evidence is accumulating that many of these herbs and spices do have
Herbs, spices and cancer
143
medicinal properties that alleviate symptoms or prevent disease. Saffron, a food
colorant; turmeric, a yellow colored spice; tea, either green or black, and flaxseed
contain potent phytochemicals, including carotenoids, curcumins, catechins, lignan
respectively that provide significant protection against cancer (Hastak et al., 1997;
Abdullaev, 2002; Lai and Roy, 2004).
Herbal products may act in a manner similar to pharmaceuticals yet without side
effects. Natural anti-inflammatory compounds abound in the herbal world and are
found in green tea, the spices turmeric and rosemary, feverfew and others. Because
the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) is associated with a reduced
risk for several cancers, it is at least plausible that natural NSAID should be explored
for possible use as cancer preventives (Wargovich et al., 2001).
Adlercreutz (1995) studied the cancer-protective roles of some hormone-like
diphenolic phytoestrogens of dietary origin, the lignans and the isoflavonoids. The
plant lignan and isoflavonoid glycosides are converted by intestinal bacteria to hormonelike compounds with weak estrogenic but also antioxidative activity; they have now
been shown to influence not only sex hormone metabolism and biological activity
but also intracellular enzymes, protein synthesis, growth factor action, malignant cell
proliferation, differentiation, and angiogenesis in a way that makes them strong
candidates for a role as natural cancer-protective compounds.
Pharmacological studies (Das et al., 2004) have demonstrated many health promoting
properties including radical scavenging, anti-mutagenic and immuno-modulating effects
of Saffron (Crocus sativus, L.) apart from its use as a flavouring agent. Significant
reduction in papilloma formation was found with saffron application in the preinitiation and post-initiation periods, and particularly when the agent was given both
pre- and post-initiation. The inhibition appeared to be at least partly due to the
modulatory effects of saffron on some phase II detoxifying enzymes like glutathioneS-transferase (GST) and glutathinoe peroxidase (GPx), as well as catalase (CAT) and
superoxide dismutase (SOD).
Several epidemiologic studies suggest that consumption of cruciferous vegetables
may be particularly effective (compared with total fruit and vegetable consumption)
in reducing cancer risk at several organ sites. Crucifers that are widely consumed are
especially rich in glucosinolates, which are converted by plant myrosinase and
gastrointestinal microflora to isothiocyanates which will be helpful in the production
of proteins that exercise versatile, long-lasting and catalytic antioxidant protection
(Paul and Jed, 2001).
Mantle et al., (2000) assessed various active compounds (or their semi-synthetic
derivatives) derived from medicinal plants for their efficacy and tolerability in the
treatment of breast cancer. Some of these plant species, including Taxus baccata
(paclitaxel, docetaxel), Podophyllum peltatum (etoposide), Camptotheca acuminata
(camptothecin) and Vinca rosea (vinblastine, vinorelbine) have well recognized
antitumor activity in breast cancer. Antitumor activity derived from medicinal plants
may produce results via a number of mechanisms, including effects on cytoskeletal
proteins which play a key role in mitosis (paclitaxel), inhibition of activity of
topoisomerase enzymes I (camptothecin) or II (etoposide), stimulation of the immune
system (Viscum album), or antiprotease-antioxidant activity. Medicinal plant-derived
antineoplastic agents may be used in single-agent or in combinational therapies, and
have been used in first-line or second-line (including anthracycline-refractory patients)
treatment of localized or metastatic breast cancer.
Srinivasan et al., (2004) studied the scientific basis for the antitumor property of
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Semecarpus ‘Lehyam’ (SL) – a Siddha medicine – with respect to breast cancer and
found SL to be a potent antitumor agent against the ER-negative breast cancer cell
line. An extensive review by Premalatha (2000) described the phytochemical and
pharmacological basis of anticancer properties of the species.
Anti-proliferative and antitumor effects of a herbal preparation termed PC-SPES
(patent pending, US serial number 08/697, 920) which is a refined powder of eight
different medicinal plants were studied (Tiwari et al., 1999; Marks et al., 2003). PCSPES administered as a food supplement caused a dramatic decrease in prostate
specific antigen levels in some prostate cancer patients with advanced disease. The
study revealed the therapeutic benefit of this herbal food supplement and may be a
useful adjuvant to conventional therapeutic modalities. Two marker compounds in
PC-SPES are baicalin and oridonin, both of which exhibit antiproliferative effects.
Bonham et al., (2005) studied the anticancer activity of Scutellaria baicalensis, a
botanical constituent of the herbal mixture PC-SPES and purified four constituents
that function in part through inhibition of the androgen receptor signaling pathway.
L-Canaline, the L-2-amino-4-(aminooxy)butyric acid structural analog of L-ornithine
is a powerful antimetabolite stored in many leguminous Plants and this natural product
was found to possess significant antineoplastic in vitro activity against human pancreatic
cancer cells (Rosenthal, 1997).
Ovesna et al. 2004, investigated the antitumor and chemopreventive activities of
plant-based diet (beta-sitosterol and taraxasterol) which were found to inhibit colon
and breast cancer development. These compounds act at various stages of tumor
development, including inhibition of tumorigenesis, inhibition of tumor promotion,
and induction of cell differentiation and effectively inhibit invasion of tumor cells
and metastasis.
A study by Zava et al. (1998) of about 150 herbs used traditionally by herbalists
for treating a variety of health problems showed their relative capacity to compete
with estradiol and progesterone binding to intracellular receptors for progesterone
(PR) and estradiol (ER) in intact human breast cancer cells. It was demonstrated that
many of the commonly consumed foods, herbs, and spices contain phytoestrogens
and phytoprogestins that act as agonists and antagonists in vivo.
The rosemary extract (Herbor 025) and the extract of Provencal herbs (Spice
Cocktail) showed good antioxidant activity in the Rancimat test, especially in lard
(Aruoma et al., 1996). Both preparations promoted some DNA damage in the copperphenanthroline and the bleomycin-iron systems. The two herbal preparations possess
antioxidant properties that may make them useful in the food matrix.
Studies conducted using total extract, polar and non-polar extracts, and their
formulations, prepared from medicinal plants mentioned in Ayurveda, namely, Withania
somnifera (Dunal), Tinospora cordifolia (Miers), and Asparagus racemosus (Willd.),
exhibited various immunopharmacological activities in cyclophosphamide (CP)-treated
mouse ascitic sarcoma (Diwanay et al., 2004).
Mishima et al., (2003) reported that vaticanol C, a resveratrol tetramer, exhibits
strong cytotoxicity against various tumor cell lines. They also reported the antitumor
activity of the ethanol extract from the stem bark of Vateria indica, which has been
traditionally used for health and healing diseases in Ayurveda in India.
Dietary administration of Withania root on hepatic phase I, phase II and antioxidant
enzymes by estimation of its level/activity, as well as in attenuating carcinogeninduced forestomach and skin tumorigenesis in the Swiss albino mouse model showed
that roots of W. somnifera inhibited phase I, and activated phase II and antioxidant
Herbs, spices and cancer
145
enzymes in the liver (Padmavathi, et al., 2005). Further, in a long-term tumorigenesis
study, Withania inhibited benzo(a)pyrene-induced forestomach papillomagenesis,
showing up to 60 and 92% inhibition in tumor incidence and multiplicity, respectively.
Similarly, Withania inhibited 7,12-dimethylbenzanthracene-induced skin
papillomagenesis, showing up to 45 and 71% inhibition in tumor incidence and
multiplicity.
Another important traditional herbal medicine used for cancer therapy is Cordyceps
militaris which has been used for patients suffering from cancer in Oriental medicine.
The investigation of biochemical mechanisms of anti-proliferative effects by aqueous
extract of C. militaris in human leukemia U937 cells were associated with the induction
of apoptotic cell death through regulation of several major growth regulatory gene
products such as Bcl-2 family expression and caspase protease activity, and C. militaris
may have therapeutic potential in human leukemia treatment (Park et al., 2005).
Betel leaf (Piper betle) has many medicinal properties and is used in the Indian
system of medicine (Chopra et al., 1954). Investigations have confirmed that the
leaves contain a chemical called hydroxy-chavicol, a phenolic compound that exhibited
suppression of induced mutagenesis (Amonkar et al., 1986).
Botany of some important herbs commonly used in cancer therapy are listed in
section 9.7. A list of other medicinal plants reported to have anticancerous properties is
presented in Table 9.1. Some of them may find importance in cancer therapy in future.
9.7
Botany of some important herbs in cancer therapy
9.7.1 Aloe barbadensis (Aloe)
Aloe belongs to the family Liliaceae. The plant is a perennial herb with condensed
stem and succulent leaves arranged in a rosette shape. The exudates of the succulent
fleshy leaves contain a number of therapeutically important compounds such as
aloin, aloe emodin, etc. The species is native to Africa from where it has been
introduced to India.
9.7.2 Andrographis paniculata (Kalmegh)
The plant belongs to the family Acanthaceae. It is an erect branched annual herb with
simple leaves arranged in opposite manner. The whole herbage is bitter
andtherapeutically important. The species is distributed throughout India, Sri Lanka
and Malaysia.
9.7.3 Asparagus racemosus (Satavari)
It is a member of the family Liliaceae and the plant is a spiny, woody climber and
much branched. Cladodes are 2–6 in number per node and arranged in a tuft. Leaves
are modified into erect or sub-recurved spines. The fibrous root system is modified into
fascicular roots for storage and used for medicinal purposes. The species is distributed
throughout tropical and sub-tropical India, Sri Lanka, Australia and tropical Africa.
9.7.4 Catharanthus roseus (Periwinkle)
Periwinkle is a member of the family Apocynaceae. The plant is an erect annual or
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Table 9.1
Other plant species having anticancer property
Plant name
Parts used
Abelmoschus esculentus L.
A. moschatus Medic
Achillea millefolium L.
Actaea spicata L.
Aerva pseudotomentosa Blatt. & Hall.
Agave americana L.
Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.
Seeds – against cancerous cell growth
Seed is antitumorous
Essential oil is anticancerous
Against Ehrlich’s ascitis tumors
Plant is anticancerous
Leaf is anticancerous
Root bark – antitumourous and against
lymphocytic leukaemia
Leaf and root are anticancerous
Pod and root – anticancerous
Plant is anticancerous
Leaf extract – against leukaemia and carcinoma
Stem bark – anticancerous
Bulb juice is antitumorous
Aerial part is anticancerous
Corydine from plant parts is anticancerous
and used against malignant tumors
Nobilin is anticancerous
Plant is anticancerous
Aerial part is anticancerous
Lapachol is antitumorous
Plant is anticancerous
Ajuga bracteosa Wall.ex Benth.
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd.
Alhagi pseudalhagi (Bieb) Desv.
Allamanda cathartica L.
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.
Allium sativum L.
Anamirta cocculus (L) Wt. & Arn.
Annona squamosa L.
Anthemis nobilis L.
Aristolochia indica L.
Asparagus racemosus Willd.
Avicennia officinalis L.
Baliospermum montanum
(Willd.) Muell.-Arg.
Berberis aristata DC.
B. asiatica Roxb. Ex DC
B. lycium Royle
Bergenia vulgaris L.
Bridelia retusa Spreng.
Buchnania lanzan Spreng.
Casearia zeylanica (Gaertn.)Thw.
Caesalpinia sappan L.
Calamus rotang L.
Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br.
C. procera R.Br.
Capparis grandis L.f.
Cassia fistula L.
Castanopsis indica (Roxb.) DC.
Caucus carota L.
Citrus medica L.
Cleome gynandra (L.)
Cocculus pendulus (Forst.) Diels
Coix lachryma-jobi L.
Colchicum luteum Baker
Corchorus aestuans L.
Crotalaria retusa L.
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.
Datura metel L.
Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees
Dolichos uniflorus Lamk.
Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop
Elephantopus scaber L.
Entada pursaetha DC
Euphorbia hirta L.
Euphorbia tirucalli L.
Roots are anticancerous
Roots are anticancerous
Roots are anticancerous
Rhizome is anticancerous
Stem bark – anticancerous
Aerial part – anticancerous
Aerial part – anticancerous
Stem is anticancerous
Aerial part is anticancerous
Leaf and root are anticancerous
Leaf and root are anticancerous
Aerial part is anticancerous
Pod and stem bark – anticancerous
Stem bark – anticancerous
Against tumor
Aerial part is anticancerous
Plant is anticancerous
Aerial part is anticancerous
Coixenolide showed anticancer activity
Rhizome and seed are anticancerous
Plant is anticancerous
Plant has antitumorous activity
Plant is anticancerous
Plant is anticancerous
Plant is anticancerous against epidermoid
carcinoma of nasopharynx
Plant is antitumorous
Plant is anticancerous
Plant is anticancerous
Plant is used in cancer
Anticancerous
Anticancerous
Herbs, spices and cancer
Table 9.1
147
Continued
Plant name
Parts used
Gardenia turgida Roxb.
Gaultheria fragratissima Wall.
Jatropha glandulifera Roxb.
Jatropha gossypifolia L.
Kaempferia rotunda L.
Kalanchoe spathulata DC.
Lannea coromandelina (Houtt.) Merr.
Leonotis nepataefolia (L) R.Br.
Luffa cylindrica (L) Roem.
Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg.
Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard.
Melia azedarach L.
Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn.
Nigella sativa L.
Passiflora foetida L.
Podophyllum hexandrum Royle
Root – anticancerous
Essential oil is anticancerous
Aerial parts anticancerous
Plant – antileukaemic
Roots – antitumorous
Plant – anticancerous
Stem bark and leaves – anticancerous
Plant – anticancerous
Seeds – anticancerous
Fruit – anticancerous
Aerial part – anticancerous
Bark is anticancerous
Aerial part – anticancerous
Seed – anticancerous
Aerial parts – anticancerous
Podophyllotoxin from rhizome derivatives –
anticancerous
Pogopyrone B from leaves is anticancerous
Aerial parts – precalyon shows antitumor
activity
Leaves – anticancerous
Stem bark is anticancerous
Labiatic acid from plant is anticancerous
Plant is anticancerous
Seed oil is anticancerous
Plant – Lymphocytic leukaemia
Stem bark – anticancerous
Plant is anticancerous
Pogostemon heyneanus Benth.
Roylea cinerea (D. Don) Baillon
Rhus succedanea L.
Saraca asoca Roxb. (de Wilde)
Satureja hotensis L.
Solanum indicum L.
Teramnus labialis (L.f) Spreng.
Tithonia tagetiflora Des. ex. Juss.
Toona ciliata Roem.
Vernonia cinera (L.) Less
perennial herb with simple glossy leaves. A number of flower color variants are
present in the species. The plant contains alkaloids which are medicinally useful. It
is native to Madagascar and under commercial cultivation in India.
9.7.5 Crocusus sativ (Saffron)
Saffron belongs to the family Iridaceae. The plant has an underground sheathed corm
with sheaths closely reticulate and spathes embracing the scape are bivalved. Flowers
are violet. Stigma is medicinally important. The species is a native of Europe and
cultivated in Kashmir.
9.7.6 Curcuma longa (Turmeric)
It is a member of the family Zingiberaceae. The plant is herbaceous in nature. The
rootstock is large and bears cylindrical tubers that are yellow or orange inside and are
medicinally important. The species is cultivated extensively in the tropics.
9.7.7 Piper betle (Betelvine)
Betelvine belongs to the family Piperaceae. It is a dioecious, perennial aromatic
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climber with simple, alternate leaves and a jointed stem. The leaves are aromatic and
are medicinally important. It is extensively grown in India and used as stimulant. The
species is a native of Malaysia.
9.7.8 Piper longum (Long pepper)
Long pepper is a member of the family Piperaceae. It is a dioecious, perennial
aromatic climber with simple, alternate leaves and jointed stem. The mature fruit and
root and basal portions of the stem are medicinally important. The species is native
to tropical and subtropical India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.
9.7.9 Semecarpus anacardium (Bhela/marking nut tree)
The plant belongs to the family Anacardiaceae. It is a small to medium sized deciduous
tree with rough dark-brown bark. The leaves are simple and large sized and the fruit
is used for therapeutical purposes. The species is distributed throughout sub-Himalayan
and tropical India, Malaysia and Australia.
9.7.10 Tinospora cordifolia (Amrut)
The plant belongs to the family Menispermaceae. It is a dioecious climber bearing
aerial roots and with papery bark. The leaves are pedicellate, alternate and polymorphic.
The stem contains starch and alkaloids and is mainly used for medicinal purposes.
9.7.11 Taxus baccata (Taxus/Yew)
Taxus is a member of the family Coniferae. It is a small or medium sized evergreen
tree, stem fluted and branches horizontal. Leaves are long, linear, flattened and
narrowed and commonly known as needles. Male flowers are arranged in catkins and
female flowers are solitary. The stem bark is used for medicinal purposes. It is
distributed in temperate Himalayas, Khasi hills, Tamil Nadu, Europe, Africa and
America.
9.7.12 Vateria indica (Kundura, Indian Copal tree)
It is a member of the family Dipterocarpaceae. The plant is a resinous tree with
whitish bark, leaves entire, penninerved and coriaceous. Young branches and leaves
are clothed with hoary, stellate pubescence and flowers are in panicles. The resin and
bark are medicinally useful. The species is distributed throughout western India.
9.7.13 Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha)
The plant belongs to the family Solanaceae. It is an erect evergreen plant with simple
alternate leaves. The plant is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical areas of
the world. The roots are considered to be medicinally important.
Herbs, spices and cancer
149
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YAMINI B T, PRATIBHA T and BEHRAM H A (2005), ‘Nutraceuticals in cancer management’, Frontiers in
Bioscience, 10, 1607–1618.
ZAVA D T, DOLLBAUM C M and BLEN M (1998), ‘Estrogen and progestin bioactivity of foods, herbs, and
spices’, Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 217(3), 369–378.
10
Herbs, spices and gut health
C. C. Tassou, National Agricultural Research Foundation, Greece
10.1
Introduction
Gut health is the most important factor for a healthy life. A large number of people
are suffering from gut associated diseases, such as irritable bowel syndrome and
inflammatory bowel disease and this leads to loss in man-hours and to consequent
economic loss. Conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease are associated with a
breakdown in immune tolerance, while exposure to microbial antigens has an important
influence on the development of the gut immune system, with likely links to allergies.
In the Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha systems of Indian medicine, health of gut is given
prime importance. The World Health Organization has published statistics on economic
losses due to unhealthy gut especially in developing countries.
Several research projects have been funded by the EU under the 4th and 5th
framework programmes on functional and probiotic foods in relation to gut health
(Flair-Flow report, 2001). Optimizing microbial balance by modifying the diet (by
incorporation of certain foods or food additives) provides an important approach for
helping to prevent colitis, colorectal cancer, as well as infectious diseases and to
enhance the human immune system. On the other hand, the important role of herbs
and spices in our life and their multiple uses as ingredients in food, alcoholic beverages,
perfumery, cosmetics, medicine and colouring agents are well established. They are
also well evidenced in the nutritional, antioxidant, antimicrobial and pharmaceutical
properties of several herbs and spices. Empirical knowledge has led people to
use several herbs and spices as medicines and healing agents since ancient times.
Nowadays many plant-derived drugs are based on this knowledge from traditional
medicine.
In this chapter the effect of various herbs and spices or their constituents on gut
health will be reviewed. Their use as digestive stimulants and growth promoters,
their antimicrobial activity on certain enteric pathogens, their inflammatory activity
on the peptic system as well as their impact on gut immunity will be discussed. There
will also be reference to the kind of experiments that examined each activity and
information on the possible active constituents and their mechanisms of action.
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10.2 Herbs and spices as digestive stimulants
A digestive stimulant action has been attributed to many herbs and spices listed in
Table 10.1. Many of these are employed in medicinal preparations for use against
digestive disorders and in traditional medicine as tonic, stomachic, carminative,
antispasmodic and diuretic (Shylaja and Peter, 2004). Plant substances such as chirata,
gentian, calama, quassia, orange peel and many spices such as mint, garlic, ginger,
ajowan, cumin, fennel and coriander are contained in preparations available to correct
digestive disorders (Platel and Srinivasan, 2004). Extracts from bitter candy taft,
chamomile flower, peppermint leaves, caraway fruit, liquorice root, lemon balm
leaves, angelica root, greater celandine herbs and milk thistle fruit are also basic
constituents of a commercially available drug with multiple pharmacological properties
relevant for gastrointestinal pathophysiology (Saller et al., 2002). Pharmacological
in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that they possess antibacterial, antisecretory,
cytoprotective and anti-ulcerogenic as well as spasmolytic effects (Saller et al., 2002;
Khayyal et al., 2001). Several herbal medicinal products (included in Table 10.1)
have been identified also for use in the relief of symptoms of non-ulcer dyspepsia
(Thompson Coon and Ernst, 2002). Human studies have shown that red pepper
powder is significantly more effective in decreasing the symptom intensity of patients
with functional dyspepsia (Bortolotti et al., 2002).
Table 10.1 Herbs, plant substances and spices with digestive stimulatory action and recommended
for the treatment of dyspepsia
Ajowan6
Allspice9
Angelica root4,5,7,10
Anise10
Artichoke10
Banana10
Basil, sweet9
Bay leaves9
Bitter candy taft4,5,7
Black pepper3,8
Blessed thistle10
Bogbean10
Boldo10
Calama6
Caraway fruit4,5,7,9,10
Cardamon10
Capsicum3
Celandine herbs4,5,7,10
Celery9
Centuary10
Chamomile flower4,5,7
Chicory10
Chirata6
Chive9
Cinchona10
Cinnamon8,10
Coriander6,10
Cloves10
Coriander10
Cumin6
Dandelion10
Devil’s claw10
Dill9,10
Elecampane10
Fennel6,9
Fenugreek1,2,10
Galangal10
Garlic6
Gentian6,10
Ginger1,2,6,10
Horsetail10
Haronga10
Horehound10
Juniper10
Leek9
Lemon balm leaves4,5,7
Liquorice root4,5,7
Liu-Jun-Zi-Tang10
Marjoram9
Meadowsweet10
Milk thistle fruit4,5,7,10
Mint6
Mistletoe10
Mustard3
Onion8
Orange peel6,10
Oregano9
Oregon grape10
Paprika8
Parsley9
Peach10
Peppermint leaves4,5,7,9,10
Quassia6
Radish10
Red pepper (capsaicin)1,2,3
Rosemary9,10
Sage9,10
Sandy everlasting10
Spearmint9
St John’s wort10
Star anise10
Tarragon9
Thyme9,10
Turmeric (curcumin)1,2,0
Wormwood10
Yarrow10
1: Bhat et al. (1984); 2: Bhat et al. (1985); 3: Glatzel (1968); 4: Hohenester et al. (2004); 5: Khayyal et al.
(2001); 6: Platel and Srinivasan (2004); 7: Saller et al. (2002); 8: Sanchez-Palomera (1951); 9: Shylaja and
Peter (2004); 10: Thompson Coon and Ernst (2002).
Herbs, spices and gut health
153
10.2.1 Experimental assays
The digestive stimulant action of spices has been examined in animal and human
studies. In animal studies, the effect of spices on bile secretion has been examined in
the laboratory using experimental rats. In these animal models, bile was systematically
collected following the spice treatment and the influence of spices was examined as
a result of both continued intake through the diet for a period of time and as a onetime exposure orally (Platel and Srinivasan, 2004). In human studies, patients with
functional dyspepsia or other gastric disorders assessed their symptom intensity during
and after a treatment period of receiving a certain spice (Thompson Coon and Ernst,
2002; Bortolotti et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2004).
10.2.2 Mechanisms of action – active compounds
Many of the herbs and spices such as red pepper, ginger, gentian, capsicum, black
pepper and mustard, act as digestive stimulants and help in digestion by enhancing
the secretion of saliva and the activity of salivary amylase in humans, thus stimulating
gastric secretions (Glatzel, 1968; Blumenthal, 1988). Others have reported that paprika,
black pepper and cinnamon increased the acid secretion while mustard, celery, nutmeg
and sage did not have any such effect (Sanchez-Palomera, 1951). Among all the
spices, onion has been reported to have a favourable influence on most digestive
enzymes of both the pancreas and small intestine. It has been noted also that the
stimulatory influence of the component spices of the spice mixes on digestive enzymes
of the pancreas and small intestine is not additive (Platel et al., 2002). Curcumin,
capsaicin (the active principles of turmeric, red pepper) ginger and fenugreek, onion,
mint, cumin, fennel and ajowan, also stimulate bile acid production by the liver and
its secretion into bile (Bhat et al., 1984, 1985; Platel and Srinivasan 2001a; Sambaiah
and Srinivasan, 1991; Srinivasan, 2005).
The analgesic properties of capsaicin have been known for more than a century.
Capsaicin (the red pepper is used in functional dyspepsia) can impair selectively the
activity of nociceptive C-type fibres carrying pain sensations to the central nervous
system (Lynn, 1990; Holzer, 1991).
Many herbal extracts used in medicine alter gastric motility in a dose-dependent
and region-specific manner not only in the stomach but in all segments of the
gastrointestinal tract (Hohenester et al., 2004). The improvement in gastric motility
is crucial for the pathogenesis of dyspeptic symptoms and may be specifically useful
in patients suffering from dysmotility-like functional dyspepsia. Other herbs referred
to that improve the symptoms of non-ulcer dyspepsia, such as turmeric, greater
celandine, peppermint, caraway, have a direct antispasmolytic action on smooth
muscle or inhibit smooth muscle contraction (Forster et al., 1980; Hills and Aaronson,
1991).
Extensive animal studies have revealed that generally the mechanism of digestive
stimulant action of most spices is mediated through stimulation of bile secretion with
an enhanced bile acid concentration (ingredients essential for fat digestion and
adsorption). This activity is usually followed by an appropriate stimulation of the
activities of digestive enzymes of pancreas and small intestinal mucosa – lipase,
amylase and proteases, disaccharidases, alkaline phosphatase, which play a crucial
role in digestion (Sharathchandra et al., 1995; Platel and Srinivasan, 1996, 2001a,b;
Srinivasan, 2005). Concomitant with such a stimulation of either bile secretion or
activity of digestive enzymes by spices, leading to an accelerating digestion, a reduction
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Handbook of herbs and spices
in food transit time in the gastrointestinal tract has also been observed (Platel and
Srinivasan, 2001b). Indeed, Platel and Srinivasan, (2004) record that all spices except
fenugreek and mustard shortened the food transit time. This reduction was more
prominent for ginger, ajowan, cumin, piperine, coriander and asafetida. They found
that this reduction in food transit time could probably be attributed to acceleration in
the overall digestive process as a result of increased availability of digestive enzymes
and of bile acids that facilitate fat digestion. The reduction in the whole gut transit
time caused by dietary spices probably reflects a short, post-absorptive colonic phase,
which is the longest phase of food transit, rather than that of mouth to caecum transit
phase. A reduction in colonic transit time reduces the risk and incidence of colon
cancer. Thus by reducing food transit time, spices may play a role in the prevention
of colon cancer besides combating constipation.
10.3
The effects of herbs and spices on enteric bacterial pathogens
Many herbs and spices are well established as antimicrobials (Wilkins and Board,
1989; Nychas and Tassou, 2000; Tassou et al., 2004). They possess a wide spectrum
of activity against bacteria, fungi and mycobacteria with Gram (+) being more sensitive
than Gram (–). This chapter will focus on the antimicrobial activity of herbs and
spices against pathogenic bacteria related to the gastrointestinal system such as
Helicobacter pylori, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella
enterica, Yersinia enterocolitica, Vibrio parahaemolyticus (Table 10.2). Consumption
of living organisms from virulent strains usually causes food-borne gastrointestinal
infections. The symptoms of gastroenteritis vary depending on the virulence of the
strain and the number of infective bacteria or the production of toxin. Bacteria adhere
to and commonly penetrate through the epithelium of intestines. Essential oils from
plants have been used traditionally for the prevention and therapy of enteric tract
infections, especially common diarrhoea.
Helicobacter pylori infection has been associated with upper gastrointestinal diseases,
such as chronic gastritis, peptic ulcer and gastric cancer (Warren, 1983; Marshall and
Warren, 1984; Parsonnet et al., 1991). The antimicrobial activity of certain herbs and
spices against H. pylori has been well investigated (Table 10.2). Indeed, the antibacterial
effect of crude garlic extracts against H. pylori has been demonstrated (Sivam et al.,
1997; Ohta et al., 1999). Other essential oils bactericidal to H. pylori in in vitro and
in vivo studies were the oils of cypress, juniper, tea tree, lemongrass, lemon verbena,
basil, peppermint, marjoram sweet, eucalyptus, ravensara, lavender, lemon, rosemary
(Ohno et al., 2003). The essential oil of the Japanese herb wasabi (Wasabia japonica,
used as a spice in traditional Japanese foods such as sashimi and sushi) has strong
antimicrobial effects against H. pylori (Shin et al., 2004). Thyme and cinnamon
extract also inhibited Helicobacter pylori at the concentration range of common
antibiotics (Tabak et al., 1996, 1999). Hydrolyzable tannins from various medicinal
plants showed promising antibacterial activity against it (Funatogawa et al., 2004) as
well as polymeric phenolics of soybean extracts (McCue et al., 2004). Katsuhiro et
al. (1999) reported that the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of epigallocatechin
gallate of green tea against H. pylori was 32 µg/ml and MBC was 128 µg/ml. This
catechin showed the strongest activity of the six tea catechins tested in vitro and in
animal studies that was pH dependent (Mabe et al., 1999).
Herbs, spices and gut health
Table 10.2
155
Herbs, plant substances and spices with antimicrobial activity on intestinal pathogens
Organism
Reference
H. pylori
Sivam et al., (1997); Ohta et
al., (1999); Ohno et al.,
(2003); Funatogawa et al.,
(2004); McCue et al., (2004);
Katsuhiro et al. (1999); Mabe
et al. (1999); Tabak et al.,
(1996, 1999)
H. pylori E. coli, Pseud.
aeruginosa, Enteroc.
faecalis, Staph. aureus,
Staph. epidermis, Kl.
pneumoniae, Salmonella
sp., V. parahaemolyticus,
B. subtilis, Ent. cloacae,
Salm. typhi, Proteus
vulgaris
Osato et al., (1993)
Chang et al. (2001)
Olive, mint, carob, mastic
gum
Bacillus cereus, Staph.
aureus, Salm. Enteritidis,
L. monocytogenes
Wasabi
H. pylori, E. coli, Salm.
typhimurium, Pseud.
aeruginosa Staph. aureus,
B. cereus
Ent. faecalis, E. coli, Salm.
pullorum, Staph. aureus,
Y. enterocolitica, Salm.
enterica var typhimurium,
Cl. perfringens, Cl.
sporogenes, E. coli O157:
H7, Shigella flexneri,
Shigella sonnei
Nychas et al., (1990); Tassou,
(1993); Tassou et al., (1991,
2000); Tassou and Nychas,
(1994, 1995a)
Tabak et al. (1999); Inoue et
al. (1983), Shin et al. (2004),
Masuda et al. (2004)
Garlic, lemon grass, lemon
verbena, cypress, juniper,
tea tree, lemongrass, lemon
verbena, basil, peppermint,
marjoram sweet, eucalyptus,
ravensara, lavender, lemon,
rosemary, soyabean, green
tea, thyme, cinnamon
cinnamon extract, papaya
Black pepper, clove,
geranium, nutmeg, oregano,
thyme, allspice, basil,
rosemary, marjoram
Curcuma longa, Artemisia
princeps var. orientalis
Acacia catechu, Holarrhena
antidysenterica, Peltophorum
pterocarpum, Psidium guajana,
Punica granatum, Querqus
infectoria, Uncaria gambir,
Walsura robusta
Satureja montana
Panax ginseng, Thea sinensis
Cl. septicum, Cl. novyi, Cl.
sporogenes, Cl. perfringens,
Staph. aureus, Bacteroides
fragilis
E. coli O157:H7
E. coli, Plesiomonas
shigelloides, Shigella
flexneri, Salm. enterica
ser. typhimurium,
Y. enterocolitica,
V. parahaemolyticus
Cl. perfringens, Cl.
difficile Clostridium spp.
Dorman and Deans, (2000);
Briozzo et al. (1988); Helander
et al. (1998); Kim et al.
(1995b); Paster et al. (1990),
Dorman and Deans (2000);
Juven et al. (1994), Cosentino
et al. (1999); Skandamis et al.,
(2001, 2002); Bagamboula
et al., (2003)
Lutomski et al., (1974); Cho
et al., (2003)
Voravuthikunchai et al. (2004);
Prashanth et al. (2001);
Nimri et al. (1999)
Skocibusic and Bezic (2003)
Ahn et al. (1990a), (1991)
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Cinnamon oil and its constituents (cinnamaledehyde and eugenol) have shown
antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus
faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermis, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Salmonella sp., and Vibrio parahaemolyticus (Chang et al., 2001). The volatile oils
of black pepper, clove, geranium, nutmeg, oregano and thyme – all of them containing
carvacrol – were effective against Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Salm.
pullorum, Staph. aureus, Yersinia enterocolitica with the essential oil of thyme being
the strongest inhibitor (Dorman and Deans, 2000). Mint oil was bactericidal on
Staph. auerus, Salm. enteritidis and L. monocytogenes (Tassou et al., 1995, 2000).
Helander et al. (1998) have shown that carvacrol and thymol inhibited E. coli O157:H7
and Salm. enterica serovar typhimurium at MIC 3mM and 1mM respectively while
Kim et al. (1995a, b) found that 1.5% carvacrol was necessary to kill the pathogen.
Clove oil with its active principle eugenol inactivates Cl. perfingens and other
bacteria (Briozzo et al., 1988). Antibacterial effects have been reported for oregano,
black pepper, clove, thyme and the essential oil components thymol, carvacrol and
eugenol against Cl. sporogenes (Paster et al., 1990; Dorman and Deans, 2000) and
other bacteria such as E. coli, Staph. aureus and Salm. enterica ser. typhimurium
(Juven et al., 1994; Cosentino et al., 1999). The alcohol extract and the essential oil
from Curcuma longa inhibit the growth of Cl. septicum, Cl. novyi and Cl. sporogenes
(Lutomski et al., 1974). However, all these tests were performed in vitro with only a
limited number of tests performed in animals (Losa and Kohler, 2001).
Olive extract and its active compound oleuropein has also been proved to be
antimicrobial against pathogens such as Bacillus cereus, Staph. aureus, Salm. enteritidis,
L. monocytogenes (Nychas et al., 1990; Tassou et al., 1991, 2000; Tranter et al.,
1993; Tassou and Nychas, 1994, 1995a).
Plant extracts of Acacia catechu, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Peltophorum
pterocarpum, Psidium guajava, Punica granatum, Querqus infectoria, Uncaria gambir
and Walsura robusta demonstrated antibacterial activity against six strains of E. coli
O157:H7 with Querqus infectoria being the most active (Voravuthikunchai et al.,
2004). The antibacterial effect of Satureja montana L. (Lamiaceae) aromatic plant
and spice exhibited on important enteric bacterial pathogens, diarrhoeagenic E. coli,
Plesiomonas shigelloides, Shigella flexneri, Salm. Enterica serovar typhimurium,
Yersinia enterocolitica and Vibrio parahaemolyticus (Skocibusic and Bezic, 2003).
Maximum activity was observed against Shigella flexneri and E. coli. Shigella flexneri
is an important enteropathogen which causes a distinctive and complex disease,
bacillary dysentery, caused by invasion of the epithelial cells. The antimicrobial
properties of Shigella flexneri and Shigella sonnei are also possessed by cloves,
thyme, oregano, allspice, basil, rosemary and marjoram (Bagamboula et al., 2003).
Extracts of ginseng (Panax ginseng) roots and green tea (Thea sinensis) leaves
have been shown not only to enhance the growth of bifidobacteria but also to selectively
inhibit various clostridia (Ahn et al., 1990a, 1991). Recent in vivo investigations
using human volunteers have shown that intake of ginseng extract or green-tea derived
polyphenols favourably affected faecal microbiota (Ahn et al. 1990b; Okubo et al.,
1992).
10.3.1 Experimental assays
The experimental assays for testing the antimicrobial activity described in the literature
include:
Herbs, spices and gut health
•
•
•
•
157
The paper disc agar diffusion method with measurement of the radius or diameter
of the zone of inhibition of bacterial growth around paper discs impregnated with
(or wells containing) an antimicrobial compound on agar media.
Broth or Agar dilution assays with measurement of the inhibition of bacterial
growth in broth or agar medium.
Agar or broth microdilution method and agar dilution method for MIC and
MBC.
Measurement of changes in optical density or impedance in a liquid growth
medium containing the antimicrobial compound.
In vivo studies using animal models were conducted for the assessment of the inhibitory
activity of plant essential oils against H. pylori.
10.3.2 Mechanisms of action – active compounds
The antimicrobial activity of herbs and spices is attributed mainly to their phenolic
constituents and/or essential oil fraction (Table 10.3). Phenolics and polyphenols
could be simple phenolic acids, quinones, flavones, tannins and coumarins (Cowan,
1999). The phenolic compounds carvacrol and thymol present in the essential oil
from oregano and thyme exhibit considerable antimicrobial and antifungicidal activity
(Basilico and Basilico, 1999). Carvacrol, occuring in the volatile oils of black pepper,
clove, geranium, nutmeg, oregano and thyme has been found to be the component
with the widest spectrum of activity (Dorman and Deans, 2000). Phenols such as
thymol and carvacrol and their methyl ethers are also the main components of the
essential oil of Satureja montana (Skocibusic and Bezic, 2003).
Mainly responsible for the bactericidal action of the Japanese herb wasabi is the
component allyl isothiocyanate. This has been shown to inhibit Vibrio parahaemolyticus
(Hasegawa et al., 1999; Shin et al., 2004). Katsuhiro et al. (1999), reported catechins
as active compounds in teas with the epigallocatechin gallate of green tea being the
catechin with the strongest activity against H. pylori. Epigallocatechin gallate and
Table 10.3
Herbs, plants and spices and their active constituents
Herb/spice
Active compound
Herb/spice
Active compound
Allspice
Berries
eugenol, methyl eugenol
ellagitannins, anthocyanins,
hydroxycinnamic acids,
flavonols, lignans
carvone
cinnamaldehyde, eugenol
Olive
Oregano
oleuropein
thymol, carvacrol
Pepper
Thyme
monoterpenes
thymol, carvacrol, menthol,
menthone
allyl isothiocyanate
seco-tanapartholides A and B
Caraway
Cinnamon
Clove
Garlic
Green tea
Mint
eugenol, eugenol acetate
diallyl disulphate, diallyl
trisulphide, allyl propyl
disulphide
epigallocatechin gallate,
gallocatechin gallate
α,β-pinene, limonene,
1,8-cineole
Wasabi
Artemisia
princeps var.
orientalis
Punica granatum
Satureja montana
tannins
thymol, carvacrol
Data from: Cho et al., (2003); Hasegawa et al., (1999); Nychas et al., (2003); Puupponen-Pimia et al., (2001,
2005); Shin et al., (2004); Skocibusic and Bezic, (2003); Sugita-Konishi et al., (1999).
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Handbook of herbs and spices
gallocatechin gallate in green tea catechins inhibited extracellular release of
verocytotoxin from E. coli O157:H7 (Sugita-Konishi et al., 1999). Moreover Ahn et
al. (1991), testing the polyphenols of Thea sinensis against Cl. perfringens and Cl.
difficile, found that the gallate moiety of polyphenols seems to be required for growth
inhibiting activity.
Phenolic extracts of berries containing ellagitannins, anthocyanins, hydroxycinnamic
acids and flavonols, lignans were inhibitory to intestinal Gram (–) pathogens Salmonella,
E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus (Puupponen-Pimia et al., 2001, 2005). Ellagitannins
(esters of hexahydroxydiphenic acid, which is a dimeric derivative of gallic acid and
a polyol, glucose or quinic acid) were shown to be strong inhibitory compounds on
St. aureus. Phenolic compounds were only partially responsible for the growth inhibition
of Salmonella and most of the antimicrobial effects probably originate from other
compounds such as organic acids, citric, malic, benzoic acid (Puupponen-Pimia et
al., 2005). Wen et al., (2003) reported that phenolic acids such as hydroxycinnamic
acids, exhibited antibacterial activity against several strains of L. monocytogenes.
Tannins have been reported in general to be bacteriostatic and/or bactericidal for
many disease-associated bacteria (Toda et al., 1989; Scalbert, 1991; Hussein et al.,
1997; Chung et al., 1993; Cowan, 1999; Djipa et al., 2000). Chung et al., (1993)
demonstrated also that inhibitory effects against a variety of foodborne bacteria, such
as St. aureus, S. enteritidis, S. paratyphi and E. coli were associated with the ester
linkage between gallic acid and polyols. Punica granatum also possesses high amount
of tannins.
The seco-tanapartholides A and B, active constituents of the Artemisia princeps
var. orientalis, produced a clear inhibitory effect on human intestinal bacteria C.
perfringens, Bacteroides fragilis and Staph. aureus without any adverse effects on
lactic-acid producing bacteria (Cho et al., 2003).
The antibacterial activities of catechins were predominantly related to the gallic
acid moiety and the number of hydroxyl groups. It has also been reported that catechins
damage the membrane lipid layer (Ikigai et al., 1993). Catechins probably damage
the membrane of H. pylori and epigallocatechin gallate inhibits the urease activity
and motility of H. pylori which may contribute to its antibacterial activity in vivo
(Mabe et al., 1999). Catechins act bactericidally at high pH while essential oils may
show antibacterial activity in the stomach because they are more effective at lower
pH (Ohno et al., 2003).
Different mechanisms of action proposed to explain tannin antimicrobial activity
including inhibition of extracellular microbial enzymes, deprivation of the substrates
required for microbial growth or direct action on microbial metabolism through
inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation. Complexation of metal ions by tannins could
also be a possible mechanism (Scalbert, 1991).
The antibacterial properties of cranberry may be associated with inhibition of E.
coli adherence to mucosal surfaces by cranberry juice (Schmidt and Sobota, 1988).
It has been suggested that proanthocyanidins (condensed tannins) are responsible for
this anti-adhesion property (Howell, 2002; Howell et al., 1998). Studies with mice
fed with cranberry proanthocyanidins showed that properties of the urine may be
altered by the proanthocyanidins in such a way that adhesion is inhibited (Howell et
al., 2001). Another hypothesis is that metabolites of proanthocyanidins could act on
the colonic bacterial receptors making them incapable of binding to the uroepithelium
and proliferate (Harmand and Blanquet, 1978). Burger et al. (2002) reported that a
high molecular weight constituent of cranberry juice inhibited adhesion of Helicobacter
Herbs, spices and gut health
159
pylori to immobilized human mucus, erythrocytes and cultured gastric epithelial
cells. They suggested that cranberry juice may also inhibit adhesion of bacteria to the
stomach in vivo, and may be useful for the prevention of stomach ulcers caused by
H. pylori.
Gram positive bacteria are more susceptible to essential oils than gram negatives
(Dabbah et al., 1970; Farag et al., 1989; Shelef, 1983; Tassou and Nychas, 1995b,c;
Smith-Palmer et al., 1998). The tolerance of Gram negative bacteria to oils from
spices has been ascribed to the presence of a hydrophilic outer membrane that blocked
the penetration of hydrophobic essential oils to the target cell membrane (Mann et
al., 2000).
Generally, essential oils of herbs and spices damage the structural and functional
properties of membranes and this is reflected in the dissipation of the two components
of the proton motive force: the pH gradient (∆pH) and the electrical potential (∆ψ)
(Sikkema et al., 1995; Davidson, 1997; Ultee et al., 1999, 2000, 2002). Thymol and
carvacrol, active components of many essential oils, disrupt the membrane integrity,
which further affects pH homeostasis and equilibrium of inorganic ions (Helander et
al., 1998; Lambert et al., 2001). Disruption of membrane causes leakage of ions,
ATP, nucleic acids, and amino acids (Tranter et al., 1993; Cox et al., 1998; Ultee et
al., 1999; Tassou et al., 2000). Nutrient uptake, nucleic acid synthesis and ATPase
activity may also be affected, leading to further damage of the cell (Denyer and
Hugo, 1991).
10.4
Herbs and spices as growth promoters in animal studies
The combination of the properties described above of herbs and spices (effects on
digestibility and antimicrobial activity) has found application also in the feeding of
animals such as pigs, chickens, sows as growth promoters and antibiotic replacements.
Indeed, herbs, spices and various plant extracts have received increased attention as
possible antibiotic growth promoter replacements (Table 10.4). Plant extract
supplementation (essential oil extract from oregano, cinnamon, pepper and extract
from sage, thyme, rosemary) has been shown to improve apparent whole-tract and
ileal digestibility of the feeds for broilers (Hernandez et al., 2004). The above plant
extracts fed to broilers showed little growth promoter effect and live performance
levels similar to an antibiotic growth promoter (Hernandez et al., 2004). Jamroz
and Kamel (2002) observed improvements of 8.1% in daily gain and 7.7% in feed
Table 10.4 Herbs, spices and their constituents used as growth promoters and antibiotic replacements
in the feeding of animals
Oregano (carvacrol)3,5,6,7,9
Cinnamon (cinnamaldehyde)5,6,7,9
Pepper (capsaicin, capsicum oleoresin)5,6,7
Sage5
Thyme5,9
Rosemary (rosmarinic acid, flavones, monoterpenes)4,5
blends of essential oils1,2,8
1: Alcicek et al. (2003), 2: Alcicek et al. (2004); 3: Botsoglou et al. (2002); 4: Debersac et al. (2001);
5: Hernandez et al. (2004); 6: Jamroz and Kamel (2002); 7: Manzanilla et al. (2004); 8: Mitsch et al. (2004);
9: Namkung et al. (2004).
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conversion ratios in 17-day-old poults fed a diet supplemented with a plant extract
containing capsaicin, cinnamaldehyde and carvacrol at 300 ppm. Water-soluble
extract from rosemary, containing rosmarinic acid, flavones and monoterpenes,
enhanced hepatic metabolism and increased relative liver weight in rats (Debersac et
al., 2001).
An essential oil combination derived from herbs growing wild in Turkey, was
found to have a beneficial effect on body weight, feed intake, feed conversion ratio
and carcass yield when used as a feed additive of broiler chickens (Alcicek et al.,
2003, 2004). The incorporation of carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde and capsicum oleoresin
promotes changes in the digestive function and microbial ecology (Manzanilla et al.,
2004) while herbal extract containing cinnamon, thyme and oregano extract reduced
the proliferation of coliform bacteria of weaned pigs (Namkung et al., 2004). It has
been reported also that blends of essential oil components can control Clostridium
perfringens (causative agent of necrotic enteritis) colonization and proliferation in
the gut of broilers (Mitsch et al., 2004).
On the other hand there are some contradictory results about the effectiveness of
certain herbs and extracts as growth promoters. It has been reported by Botsoglou et
al., (2002) that oregano oil exerted no growth-promoting effect when administered at
50 or 100 mg/kg of feed. Others have found that an essential oil mixture and thymol
and cinnamaldehyde did not stimulate growth performance in broiler chickens. They
attributed this to the composition of the basal diet (highly digestible) and/or the
environmental conditions (Lee et al., 2003a). Dietary thymol and its isomer carvacrol
did not affect growth performance and did not show hypocholesterolemic activity
when used as alternatives to antibiotic feed additives in broiler chickens (Lee et al.,
2003b).
10.4.1 Experimental assays
The experimental assay usually includes modification of the feeding programme of
broilers for some days by supplementation of their basal diet with essential oil extract
or their constituents. For feed intake, the feed:gain ratio per pen is measured throughout
the experiment (Hernandez et al., 2004). At the end of the experiment, the weights of
the proventriculus, gizzard, small and large intestines without content, pancreas and
liver without gall bladder are measured individually. Diet, excreta and ileal digesta
are analyzed for nitrogen, dry matter and acid insoluble ash. Diet and excreta are
analyzed for lipid and diets and ileal digesta are analyzed for starch. The effects of
additives on performance, digestibility and organ size are analyzed statistically
(Hernandez et al., 2004).
10.4.2 Mechanisms of action – active compounds
Plant extracts contain different molecules that have intrinsic bioactivities on animal
physiology and metabolism. The mechanisms by which these products influence the
gut microflora and growth performance of animals are not elucidated. As antibiotics,
plant extracts could control and limit the growth and colonization of numerous
pathogenic and nonpathogenic species of bacteria in the gut as described in the
previous part of this chapter. Their possible mechanisms of action are also discussed
above. There is evidence to suggest that herbs, spices and various plant extracts have
appetite- and digestion-stimulating properties, as is also discussed in this chapter
Herbs, spices and gut health
161
(Kamel, 2001). Their effects as growth promoters in animals may be due to the
greater efficiency in the utilization of feed, resulting in enhanced growth. Essential
oils have been shown to increase digestive enzyme activities of the pancreas and
intestinal mucosa (pancreatic trypsin and alpha-amylase), thus leading to an increase
in the growth performance of broiler chickens (Jang et al., 2004).
10.5
Anti-inflammatory activity
Various plant extracts have been known to possess anti-inflammatory properties
since ancient times (Table 10.5). Aloe vera, for example, has been applied topically
by ancient and modern cultures throughout the world for its anti-inflammatory properties
for the treatment of a range of inflammatory digestive and skin diseases including
inflammatory bowel disease (Langmead et al., 2002). Aloe vera gel is the mucilaginous
aqueous extract of the leaf pulp of Aloe barbadensis. It contains over 70 biologically
active compounds and has been claimed to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant,
immune boosting, anti-cancer, healing, anti-ageing and anti-diabetic properties (Grindlay
and Reynolds, 1986).
Slippery elm bark from the slippery elm, or red elm tree native to North America,
is also claimed to have ‘soothing’ properties in inflammation of the gastrointestinal
tract. It is popular among inflammatory bowel disease patients in the UK (Langmead
et al., 2000). Fenugreek is an aromatic herb that has a beneficial effect on inflamed
intestines. Mexican yam is a tropical perennial whose starch-rich tuberized root is a
food staple and used for the treatment of menstrual irregularities as well as joint and
gut inflammation. Devil’s claw (Harpagophytum procumbens) is a flowering plant
Table 10.5
properties
Herbs, plant substances and spices with anti-inflammatory, anticancer or protective
Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis)
Angelica root
Baccharis rubricaulis
B. genistelloides
Basil
Bitter candytuft
Black pepper (piperine)
Caraway fruit
Celandine herbs
Chamomile flower
Clove (eugenol)
Coriander (linalool)
Cumin (cuminaldehyde)
Curcumin
Devil’s claw
Fenugreek
Ganoderma (G) lucidum
Ginger (zingerone)
Gingo biloba
Franseria artemisioides
Lemon balm leaves
Licorice root
Mammea americana
Mexican yam
Milk thistle fruit
Papaya (Carica papaya L.)
Peppermint leaves
Phoradendron crassifolium,
Red pepper (capsaicin)
Saffron (Crocus sativus)
Satureja hortensis L.
Slippery elm bark
Tormentil
Turmeric
Wei tong ning
Based on Abdullaev, 2002; Abdel-Salam et al., (1995); Abdel-Salam et al., (2004); Aruna and Sivaramakrishnan,
(1992); Bin-Hafeez et al., (2003); Cheng et al., (1982, 1985); Gonzales et al., (2000); Ha, (2003); Hajhashemi
et al., (2000); Langmead and Rampton, (2001); Langmead et al., (2002); Madisch et al., (2004); Mozsick et al.,
(1997, 1999); Osato et al., (1993); Sharma et al., (2005); Srinivasan, (2005); Szolcsanyi and Bartho, (1981);
Toma et al., (2005); Yeoh et al., (1995).
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native to southern Africa with anti-inflammatory properties while tormentil (Potentilla
tormentilla) is a member of the rose family and is said to be effective in the treatment
of diarrhoea and bowel inflammation. Wei tong ning is a Chinese herb used for
treatment of patients with peptic ulceration and other intestinal inflammatory disorders
(Langmead et al., 2002). Gingo biloba extract has a remarkable anti-inflammatory
effect in rats (Abdel-Salam et al., 2004). Commercial preparations also containing
bitter candytuft, chamomile flower, peppermint leaves, caraway fruit, licorice root,
lemon balm leaves, celandine herbs, angelica root and milk thistle fruit are effective
in alleviating irritable bowel syndrome symptoms (Madisch et al., 2004).
The anti-inflammatory activity of herbs and spices in most cases is attributed to
the antioxidant properties of their components. Measuring the lipid peroxidation,
curcumin, capsaicin and eugenol were found to be more effective antioxidants, while
piperine (black pepper), zingerone (ginger), linalool (coriander) and cuminaldehyde
(cumin) were only marginally inhibitory to lipid peroxidation (Reddy and Lokesh,
1992). Indeed curcumin, the polyphenol of dietary spice turmeric, posseses diverse
anti-inflammatory properties due to its antioxidant capacity at neutral and acidic pH
(Sharma et al., 2005).
Other herbal treatments investigated for efficacy in peptic ulcer disease are capsaicin/
chilli and mastic. The pungent ingredient of chilli, capsaicin is thought to have
effects on substance P release and has been tested for its efficacy in peptic ulcer
patients. Another ingredient of curry, Curcuma domestica val, was tested for its
efficacy in dyspepsia while mastic, the resin of the mastic or lentisc tree, was effective
for ulcer healing. The most researched herbal treatment for liver diseases is milk
thistle. Its active constituents are collectively known as silymarin (Langmead and
Rampton, 2001).
10.5.1 Experimental assays
The experimental assay for assessing anti-oxidant activity is conducted in vitro in
two cell-free, radical-generating systems and by the chemiluminescence of incubated
colorectal mucosal biopsies (or mucosal biopsy assay systems). Eicosanoid production
by biopsies and interleukin-8 release by CaCo2 epithelial cells in the presence of the
extract is measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Langmead et al., 2004).
Studies include also in vivo clinical trials (Madisch et al., 2004) in irritable bowel
syndrome patients. The antioxidant properties of several spice principles were
investigated in rats by measuring the lipid peroxidation induced both in vivo and in
vitro (Joe and Lokesh, 1994; Reddy and Lokesh, 1992, 1994a,b,c,d).
10.5.2 Mechanisms of action – active compounds
Although the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease has not been clearly
elucidated, the over-production by the involved colorectal mucosa of reactive oxygen
metabolites (Grisham, 1994; Simmonds and Rampton, 1993), eicosanoids (Rampton
and Hawkey, 1984) and the chemo-attractant chemokine, interleukin-8 (Gibson and
Rosella, 1995; Daig et al., 1996; Keshavarzian et al., 1999), is likely to play a
contributory role. The anti-inflammatory activity of herbs and spices in most cases is
attributed to the antioxidant properties of their phenolic constituents. Prevention of
the activity of radicals after their generation and release can occur as a result of
scavenging by antioxidants. In vitro studies (Langmead et al., 2004) have attributed
Herbs, spices and gut health
163
the anti-inflammatory activity of aloe vera to its antioxidant properties and inhibitory
effects on colorectal prostaglandin E2 and interleukin-8 production. The activity of
devil’s claw and tormentil is also attributed to flavonoids and tannins respectively
which are proven free-radical scavengers while fenugreek and Mexican yam
contain steroidal saponins which might be able to influence the local inflammatory
response (Vennat et al., 1994; Bos et al., 1996; Langmead et al., 2002). The effect of
commercial preparations of bitter candytuft, chamomile flower, peppermint leaves,
caraway fruit, liquorice root, lemon balm leaves, celandine herbs, angelica root and
milk thistle fruit may be potentially mediated via their influence on gastrointestinal
motility (Okpanyi et al., 1993) possibly via 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) pathways
(Simmen et al., 2003; Madisch et al., 2004). Protection of target tissues from radical
attack from the lumen of the intestine could also be a result of enhancement of
physico-chemical barriers, for example, by increased mucus production (Langmead
et al., 2002).
The antioxidant effect on lipid peroxidation of several compounds such as curcumin,
capsaicin, eugenol, piperine, zingerone, linalool and cuminaldehyde is exerted by
quenching oxygen free radicals and by enhancing the activity of endogenous antioxidant
enzymes – superoxide dismutase, catalase glutathione peroxidase and glutathione
transferase (Srinivasan, 2005).
10.6
Effect on gut immunity
Additionally protective effects have been attributed to many herbs and spices and
strengthening of the gut immune system (Table 10.5). Red pepper seems to display
a protective effect on the gastric mucosa (Yeoh et al., 1995). Small doses of their
active compound capsaicin have beneficial (protective) effects against different noxious
agents in the stomach in animal models (Szolcsanyi and Bartho, 1981; Langmead
and Rampton, 2001). Abdel-Salam et al., (1995) indicated that small doses of capsaicin
inhibit gastric acid secretion and prevent the gastric mucosal damage produced by
different acid- and non-acid-dependent gastric mucosal damaging agents (Mozsik et
al., 1997). Results on humans showed that small doses of capsaicin inhibit gastric
basal acid output via stimulation of the inhibition of capsaicin sensitive afferent
nerves (Mozsik et al., 1999).
Ganoderma (G) lucidum, a traditional Chinese herbal medicine that is popular as
a food supplement in Asia is believed to enhance the immune system (Ha, 2003) and
to promote longevity (Shiao et al., 1994). Antitumour activities are the most notably
stimulatory effect on animals subjected to either oral administration (Cheng et al.,
1985), subcutaneous (Cheng et al., 1982), or intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection (Song et
al., 1985) of the hot water extracts of G. lucidum. G. lucidum may have potential
immuno-modulating effects in patients with advanced colorectal cancer (Chen et al.,
2005). Immunomodulatory activity has possessed also been recorded for fenugreek
(Trigonella foenum graecum L.) on mice. Plant extract elicited a significant increase
in phagocytic index and phagocytic capacity of macrophages (Bin-Hafeez et al.,
2003).
The anticarcinogenic properties of basil and cumin were tested on the induction of
squamous cell carcinomas in the stomach of Swiss mice and on induction of hepatomas
in Wistar rats and it was found that they significantly decreased the incidence of both
neoplasia and hepatomas (Aruna and Sivaramakrishnan, 1992).
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Cytoprotective effects on gastric mucosa were shown by extracts of Bolivian
plants. The highest cytoprotective activity was exerted by the aqueous extract of
Phoradendron crassifolium, Franseria artemisioides, the hexane extract of Baccharis
rubricaulis and the dichloromethane extract of F. artemisioides. Other interesting
results were obtained with the extracts of B. genistelloides (Gonzales et al., 2000).
Mammea americana L. (Guttiferae) fruit, which is very common in the diet of the
northern South American population and used as a tonic and against stomach ache,
has been shown to possess excellent antisecretory and/or gastroprotective effect in all
gastric ulcer models in mice (Toma et al., 2005).
Other herbs and spices with protective and antimutagenic effects are cumin and
black pepper (Nalini et al., 1998), curcumin (Nagabhushan et al., 1987; Langmead
and Rampton, 2001; Sharma et al., 2005), diallylsulphide of garlic, (Ip et al., 1992),
ginger, which is used as a remedy for nausea and vomiting and liquorice and mastic,
which has long being recognized as an ulcer-healing agent. Turmeric (Curcuma
longa) has been found to protect DNA against lipid peroxide induced damage (Shalini
and Srinivas, 1987) and against fuel smoke condensate induced damage (Shalini and
Srinivas, 1990). Curcumin from turmeric was found to exhibit anti-inflammatory,
anti-oxidant and chemopreventive properties (Gao et al., 2004). Saffron (the dark red
stigmata of Crocus sativus L. flowers), which is used as a spice and food colorant,
and its main constituents, the carotenoids, possess tumoricidal and chemopreventive
properties against cancer in vitro and in vivo (Salomi et al., 1991a,b; Nair et al.,
1994; Tarantilis et al., 1994; Abdoullaev et al., 2000; Abdoullaev, 2002).
10.6.1 Experimental assays
Cytoprotective activity was determined by the method described by Robert et al.,
(1979) with rats through the ethanol-induced ulcer model. The number of erosions
per stomach was assessed according to the score method described by Marhuenda et
al., (1993) and Gonzales et al. (2000). Various different methods have been used to
demonstrate the tumoricidal and anticancer properties of saffron (Salomi et al., 1990;
Nair et al., 1991; Abdoullaev and Frenkel, 1992; el Daly, 1998).
10.6.2 Mechanisms of action – active compounds
Different mechanisms of action have been recorded for the effect of certain herbs and
substances on the gut immune system. It has been reported that cumin and black
pepper may protect the colon by decreasing the activity of β-glucuronidase and
mucinase that may liberate drugs and toxins that can be harmful to the coloncytes
(Nalini et al., 1998). Diallylsulphide (DAS), a major garlic component, has also been
shown to have anti-cancer effects (Ip et al., 1992). The anti-cancer properties of
curcumin are attributed to the inhibition of several cell signalling pathways at multiple
levels, to the effects on cellular enzymes such as cyclooxygenase and glutathione Stransferases, to immuno-modulation and effects on angiogenesis and the cell’s ability
to affect gene transcription and to induce apoptosis in preclinical models (Sharma et
al., 2005). Others have shown that mitogen, interleucin-2 or alloantigen induced
proliferation of splenic lymphocytes and development of cytotoxic T lymphocytes is
significantly suppressed by curcumin (Gao et al., 2004).
Saffron contains three main pharmacologically active compounds: (i) saffroncoloured compounds are crocins, which are unusual water-soluble carotenoids (mono
Herbs, spices and gut health
165
and diglycosyl esters of a polyene dicarboxylic acid, named crocetin). The digentiobiosyl
ester of crocetins α-crocin is the major component of saffron. (b) Picrocrocin is the
main substance responsible of the bitter taste in saffron. (c) Safranal is the volatile oil
responsible of the characteristic saffron odour and aroma (Abdoullaev, 1993; Rios et
al., 1996). Many mechanisms of action have been proposed for the antitumour and
anticarcinogenic activity of saffron and its components (Abdoullaev, 2002). Some of
the mechanisms involve inhibitory effects on cellular DNA and RNA synthesis,
inhibitory effects on free radical chain reactions acting as free-radical scavengers or
it has been proposed that the antitumour activity is mediated via lectins or via apoptosis.
All the extracts of Bolivian plants that possessed cytoprotective effects contained
saponins, flavonoids and tannins; coumarins appeared in some of them (B. genistelloides
and S. boliviana). Several references report that polyphenolic compounds (mainly
flavonoids and tannins) have gastroprotective activity (Martin et al., 1988; Rainova
and Nakov, 1988; Alarcon de la Lastra et al., 1992, 1994; Montilva et al., 1992,
1993), and some of them present anti-inflammatory activity (Galvez et al., 1997; Rao
et al., 1997).
A crude aqueous extract of G. lucidum was effective in enhancing the recovery of
leucocyte counts, splenic blastogenic responses and splenic CD4 and CD8 T cells
subsets in mice subjected to γ-irradiation (Cheng et al., 1995). The percentage of
natural killer cells in blood mononuclear cells increased in human subjects orally
administered hot-water extracts from the fruiting body of G. lucidum (Cheng et al.,
1985). The cytotoxic activity of splenic natural killer cells increased in normal and
tumour-bearing mice subjected to i.p. injection with an alcohol-insoluble fraction of
G. lucidum extracts (Won et al., 1989). An inhibitory effect of G. lucidum on immunity
has also been reported. Mice injected intraperitoneally with a protein isolated from
G. lucidum mycelium exhibited low systemic antibody production against the hepatitis
B surface antigen (Kino et al., 1991). In addition, methanolic extracts of G. lucidum
reduced the phytohemaglutinin and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate induced
cell proliferation in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells exposed to the extracts
in vitro (Kim et al., 1997). Thus, both stimulatory and inhibitory activities of G.
lucidum on immunity are reported in diverse systems. On the other hand G. lucidum
mycelium appears to depress mucosal IgA responses in mice when taken by the oral
route (Ha, 2003).
10.7
Adverse effects
Many herb and spice extracts are used widely in the food, health and personal care
industries and are classified as GRAS substances or are permitted food additives
(Kabara, 1991). Herbal remedies are the single most used type of complementary and
alternative medicine (Moody et al., 1998; Hilsden et al., 1998; Langmead et al.,
2000). Usage is particularly common in patients with irritable bowel syndrome and
inflammatory bowel disease (Rawsthorne et al., 1999; Smart et al., 1986; Moser et
al., 1996). This may be related to the chronic and refractory nature of these disorders
as well as physiological factors (Hilsden et al., 1998; Langmead et al., 2000; Moser
et al., 1996). However, the use of a herbal remedy for several thousand years does not
guarantee either its efficacy or safety. Contrary to the widespread popular view that
because it is natural it is safe, herbal therapy probably carries more risks and produces
more serious side-effects than any other form of alternative therapy (Vickers and
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Zollman, 1999; Langmead and Rampton, 2001). Interactions between herbs and
drugs may have toxic or important pharmacological effects (Penn, 1983; D’Arcy,
1991, 1993; Ernst, 1998; Miller, 1998). Some herbal treatments may interact with
drugs used in the treatment of digestive disease, causing toxicity (Table 10.6). For
example, liquorice can enhance aldosterone-like effects of prednisolone leading to
hypokalaemia and fluid retention (Langmead and Rampton, 2001). St John’s wort
enhances the activity of cytochrome P450 enzymes thereby increasing the degradation
of drugs including cyclosporin (Ernst, 1999; Mai et al., 2000; Obach, 2000). Devil’s
claw and garlic increase prothrombin time in patients on warfarin, while tamarind
increases the bioavailability of aspirin; both effects may lead to gastrointestinal
bleeding. It has also been reported that the active principle of Capsicum annum,
capsaicin, may be mutagenic, carcinogenic and a tumour promoting agent (Nagabhushan
and Bhide 1985).
10.8
Future trends
The use of herbal preparations by the general population is still largely unsupported
by either efficacy or safety data from clinical trials. The future of using plant and
spice extracts as medicines for various diseases associated with the gut or generally,
lies on the careful selection and evaluation of their efficacy at low concentrations and
in combinations of different components, avoiding any adverse effects on human
health. More work needs to be done in this area including human clinical studies in
order to establish safe limits for use. Moreover, herbal preparations used for medicinal
purposes should require licensing by an independent national body in order to improve
their quality and safety and to ensure that claims of efficacy are validated by randomized
controlled trials.
On the other hand, there is a major concern nowadays for the emergence and
spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This concern has widened to include all
microorganisms exposed to antimicrobial agents, including the so-called ‘natural’
compounds. However, there is relatively little information on the resistance mechanisms
Table 10.6 Herbs and spices used in gastrointestinal diseases that may cause side-effects or
interactions with drugs
Herbs/spices
Side effects or interactions
Aloes
Anise
Chilli/capsaicin
Devil’s claw
Fennel
Garlic
Ginseng
Gingko
Ginger
Gentian
Liquorice
Parsley
Diarrhoea, abdominal cramps
Nausea, vomiting
Cough
Reduced absorption of iron
Nausea, vomiting
Potentiation leading to GI bleeding when used with warfarin
Potentiation leading to GI bleeding when used with warfarin
Reduced absorption of iron
Reduced absorption of iron
Nausea, vomiting
Antagonist to spironolactone, hypokalaemia with prednisolone
Nausea, vomiting
Data modified from Langmead and Rampton, (2001).
Herbs, spices and gut health
167
of microorganisms against plant-derived antimicrobial compounds. It has been stated
in this chapter that Gram positive bacteria are more sensitive than Gram negatives to
the antimicrobial compounds in spices. However, variation in the rate or extent of
inhibition is also evident among the Gram-negative bacteria. For example E. coli was
less resistant than Pseudomonas fluorescens or Serratia marcescens to essential oils
from sage, rosemary, cumin, caraway, clove and thyme (Farag et al., 1989). Mutants
of E. coli and sub-populations of Staph. aureus resistant to pine and tea-tree oil,
respectively, have also been reported (Moken et al., 1997; Nelson, 2000).
10.9
Sources of further information
http://nccam.-nih.gov
http://www.medicinalfoodnews.com/vol07/issue1/guthealth.htm
http://www.rowett.ac.uk/divisions/ghp/
Chung K T, Wong T Y, Wei C I, Huang Y W and Lin Y (1998), ‘Tannins and human
health: a review’, Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 38, 421–464.
Platel K and Srinivasan K (2004), ‘Digestive stimulant action of spices: A myth or
reality?’, Indian J Med Res, 119, 167–179.
Srinivasan K (2005), ‘Spices as influencers of body metabolism: an overview of
three decades of research,’ Food Res Intern, 38, 77–86.
Thompson Coon J and Ernst E (2002), ‘Systematic review: herbal medicinal products
for non-ulcer dyspepsia’, Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 16, 1689–1699.
10.10
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BHAT G B, SRINIVASAN M R and CHANDRASEKHARA N (1984), ‘Influence of curcumin and capsaicin on the
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176
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11
Volatiles from herbs and spices
T. J. Zachariah and N. K. Leela, Indian Institute of Spices Research,
India
11.1
Introduction
Plants contain an enormous range of isoprenoid compounds with a wide variety of
structures and functions. The majority of isoprenoids are synthesized as secondary
metabolites that are uniquely plant products (Bramley 1997). Isoprenoids form an
integral part of the volatiles from spices and herbs. Volatile oils are chemically
complex mixtures, often containing in excess of 100 individual components. Most
oils have one to several major components, which impart the characteristic odour/
taste, but the many minor constituents also play their part in producing the final
product.
Volatile oils, which are used for culinary, pharmaceutical, and perfumery purposes,
are composed of two classes of compound, terpenes and phenyl propenes. Of these,
the terpenes are by far the more abundant but phenyl propenes are usually the major
flavour/odour factors. The high levels of some of these compounds in turpentine oil
gave rise to the alternative generic name ‘terpenoid’. Terpenoids are the ingredients
of perfumes, soaps, flavourings and food colourants. Terpenes constitute a major
group, which contain more than 1000 monoterpenes and 3000 sesquiterpene structures
(Waterman 1993).
The development of chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques has led to
general understanding of structure, biosynthesis and properties of terpenoids. Terpenoids
are built up of isoprene (C5) units and the nomenclature of the main classes reflects
the number of isoprenoid units present (Bramley 1997).
11.2
Classification of volatiles
11.2.1 Terpenes
Terpenes found in volatile oils can be subdivided into monoterpenes, which have a
10-carbon skeleton and sesquiterpenes, which have a 15-carbon skeleton. Diterpenes
(20-carbon units) do occur in some oils (e.g. ginger). The feature that binds all these
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Handbook of herbs and spices
compounds together is the presence of a 5-carbon building block, which is referred
to as the isoprene unit. Table 11.1 illustrates the classes of isoprenoids found in
plants. Compositional changes occur in essential oils due to the (i) effect of extrinsic
conditions (ii) effect of interspecific and infrastructure differences (iii) effect of
ontogeny (iv) effect of processing parameters and (v) effect of adulteration (Chikuenshu and Lawrence 1997).
Monoterpenes
In monoterpenes, it is usually possible to detect the presence of two of these isoprene
units and in sesquiterpenes, three. Figure 11.1 depicts the structure of an isoprene
unit. Monoterepenes can be divided into three sub groups (i) acyclic, no ring systems
(ii) monocyclic, one ring and (iii) bicyclic, two rings (Fig. 11.2). Further proliferation
occurs through addition (oxidation) or removal (reduction) of double bonds, and by
addition of oxygen to form alcohols (-OH), ketones (-CO), aldehydes (-CHO) and
esters (-OCO-).
Sesquiterpenes
Sesquiterpenes, because they possess five more carbons than the monoterpenes, have
far greater potential for structural and stereo chemical diversity. Sesquiterpenes form
the largest class of terpenoids and are found in plants, liverworts, mosses, fungi and
algae. They commonly occur with the monoterpenoids in essential oils. They are less
volatile and have less direct organoleptic properties, than monoterpenes. They are an
essential part of most volatile oils, subtly influencing odour (Waterman 1993, Bramley
1997).
11.2.2 Phenylpropenes
The skeleton of phenylpropenes invariably consists of a 6-carbon aromatic ring with
3-carbon side chain attached. The side chain always contains a double bond but only
Table 11.1
Main classes of isoprenoids found in plants
Carbon
atoms
Name
Parent isoprenoid
Sub-class
10
15
20
25
30
40
740
Monoterpenoids
Sesquiterpenoids
Diterpenoids
Sesterpenoids
Triterpenoids
Tetraterpenoids
Polyprenols, rubbers
GPP
FPP
GGPP
GFPP
Squalene
Phytoene
GGPP+ (C5) n
Iridoids
Abscissic acid, sesquiterpene lactones
Gibberellins
None
Phytosterols, saponins, cardenolides
None
None
GPP – Geranyl pyrophosphate, FPP – Farnesyl pyrophosphate, GGPP – Geranyl geranyl pyrophosphate,
GFPP – Geranyl farnesyl pyrophosphate.
Fig. 11.1
An isoprene unit.
Volatiles from herbs and spices
179
Acyclic monoterpenes
OH
OH
OH
Geraniol
Nerol
Citronellol
Monocyclic monoterpenes
O
O
O
(–) Limonene
(–) Carvone
Pulegone
Menthone
Bicyclic monoterpenes
Camphene
a-pinene
Fig. 11.2
Carane
Structures of selected monoterpenes.
occasionally an oxygen functional group (e.g. cinnamaldehyde in cinnamon oil). The
aromatic ring may be substituted with up to four oxygens, which are then further
modified themselves by the addition of a methylenedioxy ring, as in safrole.
11.3
Biosynthesis of the components of volatile oils
Chemicals produced by plants that are characterized by a limited distribution, and an
absence of obvious value in the physiology of the producer plant, are known as
secondary metabolites. The array of secondary metabolites, which of course includes
volatile oils, is enormous. The terpenes constitute a major group, with more than
1000 monoterpene and perhaps 3000 sesquiterpene structures known. By contrast,
the number of phenylpropenes is small, with probably less than 50 being known
(Waterman 1993).
Despite the vast numbers and structural diversity of secondary metabolites, almost
all arise from one of the three biosynthetic pathways, or from a combination of two
or more of these pathways. These are known as the acetate, mevalonate (based on
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Handbook of herbs and spices
mevalonic acid) and shikimate (based on shikimic acid) pathways. The terpenes are
wholly mevalonate derived whereas the phenylpropenes originate from shikimic acid.
Figure 11.3 illustrates the sequence of formation of methyl chavicol from phenylalanine
by the shikimic acid pathway. Figure 11.4(a)–(d) illustrates the general biosynthetic
pathway from mevalonic acid to sesquiterpenes.
11.3.1 Biosynthesis of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes
Mevalonic acid is a chemical intermediate containing six carbons that is formed in
the plant by the combination of three molecules of acetate, which have, in turn, been
derived from acetyl coenzyme A. This is a universal process in all higher plants and
produces compounds vital to the life processes. The biosynthesis of mono- and
sesquiterpenes from mevalonic acid involves three steps: (i) conversion of mevalonic
acid to isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and 3,3-dimethyl allyl pyrophosphate
(DMAPP), (ii) combination of IPP and DMAPP to give geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP)
and (iii) combination of GPP with IPP to give farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP). IPP is
the initial product formed from mevalonic acid and it is then converted into DMAPP
by the enzyme isopentenyl pyrophosphate isomerase (Gershenzon and Croteau 1990,
Waterman 1993).
One molecule of IPP and one molecule of DMAPP combine under the influence
of geranyl pyrophosphate synthase to give geranyl phyrophosphate (GPP), the first
recognizable monoterpene. This process is then continued by the addition of another
COOH
COOH
CHO
COOH
NH2
OH
Phenylalanine
cinnamic acid
OH
OH
p-coumaryl aldehyde
OH
OH
p-coumaryl alcohol
Fig. 11.3
p-coumaric acid
OH
p-dihydrocoumaryl alcohol
OH
chavicol
OMe
methyl chavicol
Formation of methyl chavicol from phenyl alanine by shikimic acid pathway.
Volatiles from herbs and spices
181
IPP to GPP through the mediation of a further synthase enzyme, resulting in the
production of the first 15-carbon unit, farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP).
11.3.2 Biosynthesis of phenylpropenes
Shikimic acid is formed from glucose in plants, and is the biogenic precursor of the
amino acids L-phenylalanine, L-tyrosine and L-tryptophan. Pathways from shikimic
acid generate anthranilates (e.g. in mandarin oil Citrus reticulata), cinnamates (e.g.
in Peru balsam oil Myroxylon pereirae) and other phenylpropanoids, and from this
point on to other metabolites such as lignans and flavononoids. In particular, phenyl
propanoids (basically compounds with a 3-carbon chain attached to a benzene ring)
are formed from trans or (E)-cinnamic acid via the elimination of ammonia from Lphenylalanine. Common phenylpropanoids in essential oils include methyl chavicol,
methyl eugenol, eugenol, methyl cinnamate, vanillin and anethole. The shikimic acid
pathway produces the amino acid phenylalanine which by the action of phenyl alanine
ammonia lyase is converted to trans-cinnamic acid (Bramley 1997, Waterman 1993).
CH3
OOC
CH2
C
CH2
CH2
OH
OH
Mevalonate
+ 3ATP
–3ADP
CH3
OOC
CH2
O
C
CH2
O
O
P
CH2
O
P
O
O
O
O
P
O
O
O
–CO2
3-phospho-5-pyrophospho mevalonate
–PO42–
CH3
C
CH2
O
CH2
CH2
O
3
P
O
O
P
O
O
O
O
O
–IPP
CH3
CH3
C
CH
CH2
O
P
O
O
P
O
O
DMAPP = Dimethyl allyl pyrophosphate
IPP = Isopentenyl pyrophosphate
(a)
Fig. 11.4 (a) Conversion of mevalonate into activated isoprene units (Source: Nelson and Cox
(2001)); (b) formation of GPP and FPP from DMAPP (Source: Nelson and Cox (2001)); (c)
formation of monoterpenes from GPP (Source: Waterman (1993)); (d) formation of
sesquiterpenes from EPP (Source: Waterman (1993)).
182
Handbook of herbs and spices
O
O
P
O
O
P
O
O
O
O
O
P
O
O
P
O
3
DMAPP
O
O
–IPP
Prenyl transferase
head to tail
condensation
O
O
O
P
O
P
O
O
Monoterpenes
O
GPP
O
Prenyl transferase
(head to tail)
3
O
P
–IPP
O
P
O
O
O
O
P
O
O
O
O
O
P
O
O
IPP = Isopentenyl pyrophosphate,
GPP = Geranyl pyrophosphate,
FPP = Farnesyl pyrophosphate
FPP
Sesquiterpenes
(b)
OH
OPP
Linalool
GPP
OP
Neryl pyrophosphate
(c)
Fig. 11.4
continued
Limonene
α-Pinene
Volatiles from herbs and spices
183
O-PP
β-Farnesene
OH
Bisabolol
Bisabolene
(d)
Fig. 11.4
continued
11.4 Volatiles and plant sources
The spices and herbs discussed here consist of black pepper, cardamom, ginger,
turmeric, cinnamon, cassia, clove, nutmeg, cumin, coriander, fennel, fenugreek, ajowan,
asafoetida, basil, mint, spearmint and rosemary. The chief chemical constituents of
these spices and herbs are listed in Table 11.2.
11.4.1 Major volatiles in herbs and spices
The common volatiles found in spices and herbs are as follows:
Monoterpene hydrocarbons
Camphene, δ-3-carene, p-cymene, limonene, myrcene, cis-ocimene, α-phellandrene,
β-phellandrene, α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene, α-terpinene, γ-terpinene, terpinolene,
α-thujene.
Oxygenated monoterpenes
Borneol, camphor, carvacrol, cis-carveol, trans-carveol, carvone, carventanacetone,
1,8-cineole, cryptone, p-cymen-8-ol, p-cymen-8-methylether, dihydrocarveol,
dyhidrocarvone, linalool, cis-menthadien-2-ol, 3,8,(9)-p-menthadien-1-ol, 1(7)-pmenthadien-6-ol, 1(7)-p-menthadien-4-ol, 1,8(9)-p-menthadien-5-ol, 1,8(9)-pmenthadien-4-ol, cis-p-2-menthen-1-ol, myrtenal, myrtenol, methyl carvacrol, transpinocarveol, pinocamphene, cis-sabinene hydrate, trans-sabinene hydrate, 1-terpinen4-ol, 1-terpinen-5-ol, α-terpineol, 1,1,1,4-trimethyl cyclo-hepta-2, 4-dien-6-ol,
phellandral, piperitone, citronellal, nerol, geraniol, isopinocamphone, methyl citronillate,
methyl geranate, α-terpinyl acetate, terpinolene epoxide and trans-limonene
epoxide.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 11.2
Principal constituents of certain spices and herbs
Spice
Average
volatile
oil (%)
Total volatile
oil ml/100 g
(range)
Average
NVEE (%)
Basil (Sweet)
Cardamom
0.4
–
3.6
4.0
2.0–8.0
–
Cassia
2.5
0.5–5.0
4.0
Cinnamon
0.75
0.5–2.0
5.0
Clove
Coriander
12.0–20.0
0.0–0.1
7.0
16.0
2.5
2.5–4.5
20.0
Dill
Fennel
Fenugreek
Ginger
3.0
3.0
Trace
2.0
2.0–4.0
3.0–4.0
0.02
1.0–3.0
17.0
15.0
7.0
5.0
Mace
12.0
7.0–14.0
23.0
28.0
Cumin
16.0
0.3
Nutmeg
6.5
7.15
Pepper
(black)
Peppermint
2.5
1.0–3.0
5.5
–
0.4–1.0
–
Spearmint
Turmeric
–
–
–
1.3–5.5
–
7.0
Principal volatile constituents
Methyl chavicol, linalool, methyl
cinnamate, cineole, eugenol
α-Terpinyl acetate, 2-terpineol, limonene,
cineole, borneol, linalyl acetate, linalool,
α-terpineol
Cinnamic acid, benzaldehyde, methyl
salicylaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde,
cinnamyl acetate
Cinnamic aldehyde, eugenol,
caryophyllene.
Eugenol, eugenol acetate, caryophyllene
d-linalool, d-2-pinene, dl-α-pinene,
geraniol
Cuminaldehyde, p-cymene, dihydro
cuminaldehyde
Carvone, d-limonene, phellandrene
Anethole, fenchone, d-α-pinene
δ-cadinene, α-cadinol, γ-eudesmol
D-camphene, zingiberene α- and
β-phellandrene
d-α-pinene, d-camphene, myristicin,
elemicin
Myristicin, geraniol, d-camphene,
dipentene, pinenes, safrole, p-cymene
α-pinene, β-pinene 1-α-phellandrene
β-caryophyllene, limonene
1-menthol, l-limonene, l-menthone, αpinene, phellandrene, d-menthone.
l-carvone, l-limonene 1-phellandrene
Zingiberene, borneol, d-sabinene,
tumerone, ar-turmerone, d-α-phellandrene,
cineole
Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons
β-Caryophyllene, α-cis-bergamotene, α-trans-bergamotene, β-bisabolene, δ-cadinene,
γ-cadinene, calamenene, α-copaene, α-cubebene, β-cubebene, ar-curcumene, β-elemene,
δ-elemene, β-farnesene, α-guaiene, α-humulene, γ-humulene, isocaryophyllene, γmuurolene, α-santalene, α-selinene, β-selinene, ledene, sesquisabenene and zingiberene
(Purseglove et al. 1981a).
Oxygenated sesquiterpenes
Oxygenated sesquiterpenes identified are 5, 10 (15) cadinen-4-ol, caryophylla-3(12),7(15)-dien-4-β-ol, caryophylla-2,7(15)-dien-4-β-ol, caryophylla-2-7(15)-dien-4β-ol, caryophyllene alcohol, caryophyllene ketone, caryophyllene oxide,
epoxydihydrocaryophyllene, cis-nerolidol, 4,10,10-trimethyl-7-methylene bicyclo(2.0)decane-4-caboxaldehyde, γ-eudesmol, elemol, cubebol, α-bisabolol, β-bisabolol,
virideflorol, cubebol, epi-cubenol, turmerone, ar-turmerone and turmerol.
Volatiles from herbs and spices
185
Miscellaneous compounds
Eugenol, methyleugenol, benzaldehyde, trans-anethole, myristicin, safrole, piperonal,
m-methyl acetophenone, p-methyl acetophenone, n-butyrophenone, methyl heptanone,
pinol, methyl heptanate, methyl octanoate, 2-undecanone, n-nonane, n-tridecane and
aromatic acids such as benzoic acid, phenyl acetic acid, cinnamic acid, piperonic
acid, butyric acid, 3-methyl butyric acid, hexanoic acid and 2-methyl pentanoic acid.
The structures of the selected compounds are depicted in Fig. 11.5(a) and 5(b)
(Purseglove et al. 1981a).
11.4.2 Volatile oil constituents
The details of volatiles from individual spices and herbs are discussed below.
OH
OOCCH3
O
Menthol
Menthone
Menthyl acetate
p-cymene
γ-terpinene
OH
Thymol
OH
Carvacrol
α-terpinene
O
MeO
OOCCH3
α-terpinyl acetate
Carvone
Limonene
Anethole
OH
OOCCH3
OCH3
OCH3
O
Ocimene
1,8-cineole
CH2 CH CH2
Eugenol
CH2 CH CH2
Eugenyl acetate
OH
CHO
CH3O
Estragole
Linalool
Fig. 11.5
Caryophyllene
Major volatiles from spices and herbs
Cinnamaldehyde
186
Handbook of herbs and spices
O
O
O
OMe
O
OMe
Safrole
Dillapiole
O
MeO
O
MeO
OMe
OMe
Myristicin
Elemicin
Zingiberene
ar-curcumene
O
Turmerone
O
ar-turmerone
Fig. 11.5
continued
Ajowan
Ajowan or bishop’s weed is cultivated for its fruits, which are commonly used as a
spice and medicine. It is used for its characteristic smell and pungent taste in pickles,
certain biscuits, confectionery and beverages. Nagalakshmi et al. (2000) determined
the physicochemical characteristics of ajowan volatile oil. GC-MS profile of ajowan
seed volatile oil indicated the composition as follows: α-pinene (1.48%), β-pinene
(5.45%), β-myrcene (1.40%), α-terpinene (0.09%), p-cymene (19.47%), limonene
(0.48), γ-terpinene (30.97%), p-cymene (0.06%), menth-2-en-1-ol (0.13%), linalool
(0.07%), terpinene-4-ol (0.12%), α-terpineol (0.12%) and thymol (39.36%).
They have also reported the variability in the constituents from seeds of different
locations.
Asafoetida
The spice asafoetida is the dried latex (gum oleoresin) exuded from the living
Volatiles from herbs and spices
187
underground rhizome or tap root of several species of Ferula (three of which grow in
India), which is a perennial herb (1 to 1.5 m high). It is greyish-white when fresh,
darkening with age to yellow, red and eventually brown. It is sold in blocks or pieces
as a gum and more frequently as a fine yellow powder, sometimes crystalline or
granulated. Studies conducted in Pakistan on fresh mature seed oils of Ferula foetida
Regel indicated presence of α-pinene (1.69–2.36%), camphene (0.9–1.04%), myrcene
(2.0–2.5%), limonene (0.60–0.72%), longifolene (1.60–5.9%), caryophyllene (3.8–
5.0%), β-selinene (15.2–17.2%), eugenol (4.68–5.00%), bornyl acetate (2.25–4.5%),
fenchone (1.5–2.4%), linalool (0.05–0.06%), geraniol (0.05–0.08%), isoborneol
(0–0.4%), borneol (0–0.15%) and guaicol (0.57–0.9%). The oil was also found to
contain a mixture of sesquiterpene alcohols (0–39.32%) and a mixture of coumarins
(7.5–7.8%) (Ashraf and Bhatty 1979).
The major constituents of asafoetida are the resin (40–64%), gum (25%) and
essential oil (10–17%) (Abraham et al. 1979). The aroma of asafoetida is attributed
mainly to secondary butyl propenyl disulphide. Using MS, NMR, IR and UV spectra
these were further characterized as 1-methyl propyl-(1-propenyl) disulphide (secondary
butyl-(1-propenyl)-disulphide), 1-methyl thiopropyl-(1-propenyl) disulphide and 1methyl propyl-(3) methyl-thio-(2-propenyl) disulphide (sec.butyl-(3)-methylthioallyldisulphide): the composition of these in asafoetida oil is 36–84%, 9–31% and 0–
52%, respectively (Abraham et al. 1979, Lawrence 1981) (Fig. 11.6).
Pakistan sample of asafoetida contained 1-(methylthio)-propyl–(E)-1-propenyl
disulphide (37.93%), 1-(methylthio)-propyl-Z-1-propenyl disulphide (18.46%), 2butyl–(E)-1-propenyl disulphide (11.17%), dibutyl trisulphide (1.82%), isobutanol
(7.65%), methyl–(E)-1-propenyl disulphide (1.69%) as major compounds (Noleau et
al. 1991). Essential oils extracted from asafoetida gums contained more than 150
compounds of which 25 compounds, including 13 sulphur-containing compounds,
were common to both leek and asafoetida (Noleau et al. 1991).
The oil from Iran was constituted by α-pinene (2.1%), sabinene(1.0%), βpinene(5.0%), myrcene (1.0%), α-phellandrene (2.4%), β-phellandrene (2.5%), Z-βocimene (11.5%), E-β-ocimene (9.0%), 2-butyl-1-propyldisulphide (0.6%), 2-butylZ-1-propenyldisulphide (3.9%), 2-butyl-E-1-propenyldisulphide (58.9%), di-1methylpropyl disulphide (0.3%) and di-1-methyl-propenyl disulphide (1.2%) (Sefidkon
et al. 1998).
Basil
The chemical composition of volatile oils obtained from two forms of sweet basil
S
S
S
1-methyl propyl (3-methylthio-2-propenyl) disulphide
S
S
S
S
S
1-methyl propyl-(1-propenyl) disulphide
Fig. 11.6
1-methylthiopropyl-(1-propenyl) disulphide
Volatiles from asafoetida.
188
Handbook of herbs and spices
(purple basil and green basil) by GC-MS indicated about 35 compounds. Major
compounds are eucalyptol and linalool. Estragole was not found in purple form while
a low percentage was found in the green basil (Wjerdak 2001). The main constituents
identified in basil condensate are linalool and methyl chavicol (Machale et al. 1997).
Linalool and 1,8 – cineole comprised more than 50% of total yield of sweet basil oil.
Volatiles in fresh leaves was about 50-fold higher than those found in air dried leaves
(Loughrin 2003). Sanda et al. (1998) described the chemical composition of Ocimum
species growing in Togo. Linalool, estragole and α-bergamotene are the major
compounds (Table 11.3).
Black pepper
Gopalakrishnan et al. (1993) studied four genotypes of pepper using GC-MS. The oil
of these cultivars possessed α-pinene in the range of 5.07–6.18%, β-pinene 9.16–
11.68%, sabinene 8.5–17.16%, limonene 21.06–22.71% and β-caryophyllene 21.52–
27.70%. Zachariah (1995) studied 42 black pepper accessions and reported 3.8–
16.6% pinene, 2.2–33% sabinene, 1.6–31.8% myrcene, 3.6–21.2% limonene, 0.2–
1.8% linalool and 11.8–41.8% β-caryophyllene.
Orav et al. (2004) determined the essential oil composition of black, green and
white pepper using GC/mass spectrometry. Most abundant compounds in pepper oils
were (E)-β-caryophyllene (1.4–70.4%), limonene (2.9–38.4%), β-pinene (0.7–25.6%),
∆-3-carene (1.7–19.0%), sabinene (0–12.2%), α-pinene (0.3–10.4%), eugenol (0.1–
41.0%) terpinene-4-ol (0–13.2%) hedycaryol (0–9.1%), β-eudesmol (0–9.7%) and
caryophyllene oxide (0.1–7.2%). Green pepper oil (dried by sublimation method)
had a higher content of monoterpenes (84.2%) than air-dried green pepper corns
(26.8%). The oil from ground black pepper contained more monoterpenes and less
Table 11.3
Percentage composition of Ocimum basilicum volatiles
Compound
% Composition
α-Thujene
Myrcene
Limonene + 1,8-cineole
(E)-β-Ocimeme
γ-Terpinene
Terpinolene
β-Elemene
β-Caryophyllene
(E)-α-Bergamotene
α-Caryophyllene
Germacrene D
β-Selinene
Bicyclogermacrene
γ-Muurolene
Cadinene
Cadinol
p-Cymene
Estragole
(Z)-Sabinene hydrate
Linalool
Camphor
Terpin-4-ol
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.7
0.2
1.4
1.2
0.2
7.6
0.4
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.8
1.4
0.4
0.5
22.2
0.9
41.2
0.3
2.3
Source: Sanda et al. 1998.
Volatiles from herbs and spices
189
sesquiterpenes and oxygenated terpenoids as compared to green and white pepper
oils. Sumathykutty et al. (1999) identified elemol as the most abundant component of
black pepper leaf oil. Murthy et al. (1999) reported that pepper powder with an
average particle size of 0.7 mm is essential to release the maximum concentration of
monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes.
Jagella and Grosch (1999a), by adopting dilution and concentration experiments
as well as enantioselective analysis of optically active monoterpenes, indicated (±)
linalool, (+)-α-phellandrene, (–)- limonene, myrcene, (–)-α pinene, 3-methyl butanal
and methyl propanal as the most potent odorants of black pepper. Storage studies
conducted by Jagella and Grosch (1999b) using ground black pepper revealed that
losses of α-pinene, limonene and 3-methyl butanal were mainly responsible for
deficits in the pepper-like, citrus-like, terpene-like and malty notes after 30 days at
room temperature. The musty/mouldy off flavour of a sample of black pepper was
caused by a mixture consisting of 2,3-diethyl-5-methyl pyrazine and 2-isopropyl-3methoxy pyrazine. The key odorants of white pepper as identified by Jagella and
Grosch (1999c) are limonene, linalool, α-pinene, 1,8-cineole, piperonal, butyric acid,
3-methyl butyric acid, methyl propanal and 2- and 3-methyl butanal. Narayanan
(2000) described the percentage composition of the volatile constituents in four black
pepper varieties Panniyur-1, 2, 3 and 4 (Table 11.4).
Cardamom
The active constituent of cardamom is the aromatic volatile oil. The freshly dried
unsplit capsules filled with seeds are the best material for distillation of volatile oil.
Oils from freshly separated seeds or from whole capsules are almost identical as the
husk practically does not yield any oil (Govindarajan et al. 1982). Zachariah (2002)
described the chemical composition of cardamom oil from different samples (Table
11.5). Govindarajan et al. (1982) described the trace components in cardamom oil
(Table 11.6). Gopalakrishnan (1994) conducted studies on the storage quality of
CO2-extracted cardamom oil. The class of components that underwent quantitative
reduction was the terpene hydrocarbons in the oil, whereas the other components
showed varying responses at low and ambient temperatures of storage
Cassia
Cinnamomum cassia yields bark and leaf oils that are economically important. The
bark of cassia is coarser and thicker with a more intense aroma than the true cinnamon,
C. verum (Bercht. and Presl.). The bark is used for flavouring food and beverages and
also in pharmaceutical preparations and perfumery. The volatile oils from leaf and
bark and the oleoresin from bark are used in soaps, perfumes, spice essences and
beverages. The major component of the oil from cassia bark and leaf is cinnamaldehyde.
The Cinnamomum cassia Blume bark oil from Nigeria contained mainly
cinnamaldehyde, with some eugenol while the leaf oil contained high levels of benzyl
benzoate (Lockwood 1979). Cinnamon plants with purple leaf flushes had 29% more
bark oil (1.84%) as compared to those with green flushes (1.43%), whereas bark
oleoresin (8.41% and 7.90% in purple and green respectively) and leaf oil (1.68%
and 1.73% in purple and green respectively) contents were on a par in both the types
(Krishnamoorthy et al. 1988).
Headspace composition of cinnamon and cassia quills of different origin showed
that the cinnamaldehyde and benzaldehyde contents were in the ranges 2.3–86.2%
and 0.5–40.5%, respectively (Vernin et al. 1994). Jayatilaka et al. (1995) examined
190
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 11.4
Chemical constituents of four black pepper varieties
Percentage composition
No.
Compound
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
α-Thujene
α-Pinene
Camphene
Sabinene
β-Pinene
Myrcene
α-Phellandrene
δ-3-Careme
α-Terpinene
p-Cymene
(Z)-β-Ocimene + β-phellandrene
Limonene
(E)-β-Ocimene
γ-Terpinene
Trans-sabinene hydrate
Terpinolene
Trans-linalool oxide
Linalool
Cis-p-menth-2-en-1-ol- + cis-pmenth-2,8-diene-1-ol
Trans-p-menth-2-en-1-ol
Citronellal
p-Menth-8-en-1-ol
Borneol
Terpinen-4-ol
α-Terpineol
Dihydrocarveol
p-Menth-8-en-2-ol
Trans-carveol
Cis-carveol + carvone
Piperitone
Carvone oxide
Myrtenol
α-Terpinyl acetate
Neryl acetate
Geranyl acetate
α-Cubebene/δ-elemene
α-Copaene
β-Elemene
β-Caryophyllene
Trans-α-berga motene
α-Humulene
(E)-β-Farnesene
α-Amorphene
α-Guaiene
Clovene
Germacrene-D
ar-curcumene
β-Selinene
α-Selinene
δ-Muurolene
(E,E)-2-Farnesene
0.73
5.28
0.14
8.50
11.08
2.23
0.68
2.82
–
–
–
21.06
0.18
0.01
0.14
0.10
0.03
0.22
0.04
1.26
6.18
0.18
13.54
10.88
2.30
0.20
0.18
–
0.18
0.15
21.26
2.84
0.49
–
0.20
0.18
0.22
0.04
1.59
5.07
0.14
17.16
9.16
2.20
–
–
0.39
0.07
0.23
22.71
0.30
–
0.30
0.22
–
0.46
0.05
0.91
5.32
0.13
1.94
6.40
8.40
2.32
1.03
1.13
9.70
0.37
16.74
0.17
0.03
0.19
0.08
0.08
0.28
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.03
t
0.19
0.10
0.01
–
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.20
0.86
0.20
0.12
3.25
0.82
0.09
21.59
0.31
0.21
0.08
1.51
0.11
0.14
0.04
0.26
0.64
0.07
0.73
0.72
0.01
0.03
t
t
0.32
0.17
–
0.01
0.01
0.03
t
0.01
0.04
1.22
0.07
0.01
0.26
0.49
0.09
27.70
–
0.20
0.22
1.53
0.07
0.07
0.03
0.12
0.87
0.12
0.93
–
0.01
0.03
–
t
0.52
0.12
0.02
0.02
–
0.03
0.03
–
0.11
1.33
0.05
0.07
0.16
0.44
0.06
23.2
–
–
0.11
0.03
1.54
0.07
0.04
0.04
1.37
0.48
0.16
0.47
0.01
0.01
t
t
0.18
0.07
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
t
0.01
0.04
1.05
0.13
0.11
2.56
0.71
0.05
21.19
0.28
0.29
0.13
1.28
0.10
0.13
0.26
0.29
0.63
0.14
0.58
0.72
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
Volatiles from herbs and spices
Table 11.4
191
Continued
Percentage composition
No.
Compound
1
2
3
4
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
β-Biabolene +2-bisabolene
δ-Guaiene
Cuparene
δ-Cadinene
(2)-Nerolidol
Elemol
(E)-Nerolidol
Caryophyllene alcohol
Caryophyllene oxide
Cedrol
α-Cadinol
α-Cadinol
β-Bisabolol
4.25
0.82
1.38
0.12
0.20
0.11
0.12
0.07
0.90
0.07
1.51
0.26
0.20
2.15
0.17
0.09
–
0.05
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.35
–
0.29
0.12
0.09
3.10
0.09
0.14
0.07
0.11
0.07
0.07
0.04
0.38
0.05
0.12
0.15
0.17
0.49
1.85
0.04
0.13
0.05
0.08
0.03
0.02
0.25
0.05
1.27
0.25
0.14
Source: Narayanan 2000.
t = trace (<0.01%)
1 = Panniyur-1
2 = Panniyur-2
Table 11.5
3 = Panniyur-3
4 = Panniyur-4.
Percentage composition of cardamom volatile from different sources
Component
Var. Malabar
(Ceylon)
Var. Malabar
(Gautemala)
Var. Mysore
Sri Lanka
(Wild)
α-Pinene
Camphene
Sabinene
β-Pinene
Myrcene + terpinene
α-Phellandrene
D-Limonene
1,8-Cineole
γ-Terpinene
Linalool
Citronellal
4-Terpineol
α-Terpineol
Citronellol
Nerol
Linalyl acetate
Geraniol
α-Terpinyl acetate
Geranyl acetate
Trans-nerolidol
Cis-nerolidol
1.10
0.02
2.50
0.20
1.80
<0.01
0.02
31.0
0.12
2.10
<0.01
0.14
1.40
<0.01
0.02
3.30
0.27
52.5
0.08
0.09
0.23
0.71
0.03
3.40
0.34
1.50
<0.01
0.12
23.4
0.34
4.50
0.04
0.28
1.90
0.04
0.04
6.30
0.38
50.7
0.13
0.83
1.60
1.40
0.04
3.10
0.26
1.10
<0.01
0.14
44.0
0.10
3.00
0.06
0.87
1.50
<0.01
0.06
3.10
0.25
37.0
0.15
0.07
0.28
13.00
0.13
4.90
4.90
2.50
0.42
2.10
3.30
22.2
3.70
0.13
15.3
0.86
0.01
0.78
0.31
0.34
0.14
1.50
0.44
0.37
Source: Zachariah 2002.
the composition of bark oil from 25 samples of Cinnamomum cassia and the major
components identified were (E)-cinnamaldehyde (92.0–98.0%), (Z)-cinnamaldehyde
(0.8–2.7%), β-caryophyllene (0.4–3.6%), coumarin (0.1–1.6%) and α-ylangene (0.1–
2.7%). Analysis of the chinese cassia oil by HPLC method and supercritical CO2
extraction indicated cinnamaldehyde content as 68.2–71.9% and 73.9–74.4%,
192
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 11.6
Trace components in cardamom volatile oil
Hydrocarbons
Alcohols and phenols
α-Thujene
Camphene
α-Terpinene
cis-Ocimene
trans-Ocimene
3-Methyl butanol
p-Menth-3-en-l-ol
Perillyl alcohol
Cuminyl alcohol
p-Cresol
Source: Govindarajan et al. 1982.
respectively (Ehlers et al. 1995, Lawrence 2001). Evaluation for chemical constituents
in open pollinated seedling progenies of C. cassia accessions from Calicut (India)
showed that these contained 1.2–4.95% bark oil, 6.0–10.5% bark oleoresin and 0.4–
1.65% leaf oil. The major component of both the oils, namely, cinnamaldehyde,
varied from 40.7–86.0% and 61.9–91.5% respectively in leaf and bark oils
(Krishnamoorthy et al. 1999). The leaf oil of cassia from China contained 74.1%
cinnamaldehyde, 10.5% 2-methoxy cinnamaldehyde and 6.6% cinnamyl acetate as
major components whereas the Australian cassia recorded 77.2% cinnamaldehyde,
15.3% coumarin and 3.6% cinnamyl acetate as chief constituents (Dao 1999).
Composition of leaf and bark oil of Cinnamomum cassia from Yunnan Province is
indicated in Table 11.7 (Li et al. 1998).
Cinnamon
Cinnamomum verum (Syn. C. zeylanicum) yields mainly leaf and bark oils, that are
used in perfumery and flavouring. The major component of the leaf oil is eugenol
while that of bark oil is cinnamaldehyde. Senanayake et al. (1978) identified 32
components in cinnamon oil, of which eugenol (70.1%) and cinnamaldehdyde (75.0%)
were the major compounds in leaf and bark respectively. The oil from its root bark
contained camphor (56.2%) and 1,8-cineole (11.7%) as chief components. The cinnamon
varieties Navashree and Nithyasree, recorded 2.7–2.8% bark oil, 10% bark oleoresin
and 3% leaf oil contents (Krishnamoorthy et al. 1996). Two types of Cinnamomum
zeylanicum leaf oils exist, the main constituent of one being eugenol and that of the
other benzyl benzoate. Nath et al. (1996) reported a variety of C. verum growing in
Brahmaputra valley (India) with benzyl benzoate as a major constituent in both leaf
and bark oils. The essential oil of the leaves of C. zeylanicum from Cameroon contained
eugenol (85.2%), (E)-cinnamaldehyde (4.9%), linalool (2.8%) and β-caryophyllene
(1.8%) (Jirovetz et al. 1998).
A chemotype of Cinnamomum zeylanicum with 85.7% linalool in leaf oil was
reported from Calicut (South India) by Jirovetz et al. (2001) (Table 11.8). Cinnamon
leaf oils of Indian origin contained 81.43–84.5% eugenol (Mallavarappu et al. 1995)
(Table 11.9). Syamasundar et al. (2000) reported variation in the composition of
unripe and ripe fruits of cinnamon. The oil from unripe fruits was dominated by δcadinene (19.15%), α-pinene (11.47%), β-pinene (10.51%), E-cinnamyl acetate (7.11%)
and γ-cadinene (8.05%) whereas the ripe fruits contained γ-cadinene (23.48%), αpinene (11.52%), E-cinnamyl acetate (8.62%) and α-muurolene (8.22%) as chief
components. The fruit oil from South India was dominated by α-pinene (11.2%), βpinene (9.2%), β-caryophyllene (11.0%), α-muurolene (6.1%), δ-cadinene (20.2%)
and α-muurolol (9.8%) (Mallavarapu and Ramesh 2000) (Table 11.10). Volatile oil
from cinnamon flowers was dominated by (E)-cinnamyl acetate (41.98%), trans-α-
Volatiles from herbs and spices
Table 11.7
cassia
193
Comparative percentages, composition of the leaf and bark oils of Cinnamomum
Compound
Leaf oil (%)
Bark oil (%)
α-Pinene
Camphene
β-Pinene
Myrcene
α-Phellandrene
Limonene
1,8-Cineole
δ-3-Carene
p-Cymene
Camphor
Benzaldehyde
Linalool
Terpinolene
β-Caryophyllene
α-Humulene
β-Elemene
Isoborneol
Borneol
α-Terpineol
Geraniol
Carvone
2-Methoxybenzaldehyde
Safrole
γ-Elemene
δ-Cadinene
β-Cadinene
Hydrocinnamaldehyde
Phenylacetaldehyde
Methyl eugenol
(E)-Cinnamaldehyde
α-Copaene
Vanillin
Salicylaldehyde
2-Phenethyl alcohol
Benzyl alcohol
Acetophenone
Eugenol
(Z)-Isoeugenol
(E)-Cinnamyl acetate
γ-Muurolene
Anisaldehyde
2-Phenethyl acetate
β-Bisabolene
β-Bisabolol
α-Muurolol
Coumarin
(E)-Cinnamic acid
(E)-2-Methoxycinnamaldehyde
Hydrocinnamic acid
4-Hydroxy-2-phenethyl alcohol
Caryophyllene oxide
Patchoulene
Octanoic acid
0.05–0.36
0.04–0.05
0.04–0.15
0.02–0.03
0.01–0.03
0.13–0.24
0.05–0.08
0.03–0.05
0.11–0.19
0.07–0.15
1.42–1.48
0.11–0.23
t
0.16–0.20
t–0.03
–
0–0.20
0.15–0.41
t–0.10
t
0.57–0.64
0.08
–
0–t
t
–
0.88–0.89
0.07–0.16
0.14–0.15
64.10–68.30
0.41–0.49
t
0.05–0.42
0.11–0.27
t–0.05
t–0.1
0.04–0.06
0.14–0.28
4.50–12.50
t
0.58–1.02
t–1.55
t–0.06
t
0–0.08
0.03–0.08
0.80–2.48
8.40–10.50
0.18–0.51
0–0.12
0.15–0.17
0.06–0.07
t
0.10–0.25
0.05–0.10
0.14–0.22
t–0.10
t–0.13
0.14–0.29
0.06–1.07
t–0.07
0.04–0.18
0–0.08
0.50–1.10
0.08–0.16
0–0.04
t–0.27
0-0.15
t–0.06
0–0.27
0.06–1.27
0.07–2.05
0.08–0.31
0–0.34
0–0.12
t–0.20
0–0.41
t–0.13
t–0.10
0–0.24
t–0.27
t–0.05
80.40–88.50
0.23–0.68
t–0.10
0.04–0.85
t–0.16
–
0–0.6
0.03–1.08
0.12–0.66
0.60–5.10
t–0.50
t
–
t–0.18
t–0.35
0–0.24
t–0.45
0.12–3.10
t–2.50
0.024
0–0.10
0–0.10
0–0.04
0–t
194
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 11.7
Continued
Compound
Leaf oil (%)
Bark oil (%)
3-Phenylpropyl acetate
Nonanoic acid
Guaicol
(E)-Cinnamyl alcohol
(E)-Ethyl cinnamate
Benzyl benzoate
Methyl alaninate
Guaicyl cinnamate
Decanoic acid
Undecanoic acid
Dodecanoic acid
Benzoic acid
Salicylic acid
0.21–0.43
t–0.10
t
0.15
0.11–0.27
0.07–0.15
t–0.05
t
t
0–0.05
t–0.04
0.07–0.11
t–0.10
0.05–0.22
0–t
0–0.08
0.05–0.13
t–0.14
t–0.38
–
t
0–t
0–0.11
0–t
0.07–0.10
0.10–0.20
Source: Li et al. 1998.
Note: T = trace.
Table 11.8 Composition of oil from Cinnamomum zeylanicum leaves from
Calicut, India
(E)-2-Hexenol (0.1%)
(Z)-3-Hexenol (0.1%)
1-Hexen-3-ol (0.1%)
Hexanol (0.1%)
α-Pinene (t)
(Z)-3-Hexenyl acetate (0.1%)
(E)-2-Hexenyl acetate (0.1%)
p-Cymene (t)
β-Phellandrene (t)
(Ε)-β-Ocimene (t)
1,8-Cineole (0.1%)
Limonene (0.2%)
Cis-Linalool oxide* (0.1%)
Terpinolene (0.1%)
Trans-Linalool oxide* (0.1%)
Linalool (85.7%)
Nonanol (0.3%)
Borneol (0.1%)
Terpinen-4-ol (0.3%)
α-Terpineol (1.1%)
Dihydrocarveol (t)
Linalyl aetate (0.1%)
(E)-Cinnamaldehyde (1.7%)
Safrole (t)
(E)-Cinnamyl alcohol (0.1%)
Eugenol (3.1%)
(E)-Cinnamyl acetate (0.9%)
β-Caryophyllene (2.4%)
α-Humulene (0.2%)
Eugenyl acetate (0.1%)
Caryophyllene oxide (0.1%)
Spathulenol (0.2%)
Source: Jirovetz et al. 2001.
Note: * furanoid form; t = trace (<0.01%).
bergamotene (7.97%), caryophyllene oxide (7.29%) and α-cadinol (6.35%)
(Jayaprakasha et al. 2000).
Clove
Clove essential oils are extracted from Eugenia caryophyllata (Syzygium aromaticum,
Eugenia aromatica, E. caryophyllus) from the Myrtaceae family. Clove oil is extracted
from the leaves, stem and buds. However, only the clove bud oil is used in aromatherapy,
since it contains less eugenol. Phenolic reactivity was seen almost throughout the
bud, with a greater concentration in the outer glandular region of the hypanthium
than in the inner aerenchymatous spongy tissue (Mangalakumari and Mathew 1985).
Dried leaves of clove grown in Little Andaman (India), on hydrodistillation, gave
Volatiles from herbs and spices
Table 11.9
Volatiles from Cinnamomum verum leaves
Compound
% Composition
Leaf
α-Thujene
α-Pinene
Camphene
Sabinene
α-Pinene
Myrcene
n-Octanal
α-Phellandrene
∆-3-Carene
α-Terpinene
p-Cymene
1,8-Cineole
β-Phellandrene
(z)-β-Ocimene
(E)-β-Ocimene
γ-Terpinene
cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid)
trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid)
Terpinolene
Linalool
2-Phenylethanol
Camphor
Citronellal
Borneol
Terpinen-4-ol
α-Terpineol
Methylchavicol
(Z)-Cinnamaldehyde
Nerol
Cuminaldehyde
Piperitone
(E)-Cinnamaldehyde
Linalyl acetate
Safrole
(E)-Cinnamyl alcohol
2-Phenylethyl propionate
Eugenol
(E)-Methyl cinnamate
(Z)-Cinnamyl acetate
β-Elemene
(Z,E)-α-Farnesene
(E)-Cinnamyl acetate
β-Caryophyllene
(Z)-Methyl isoeugenol
α-Humulene
(E)-Methylisoeugenol
β-Selinene
Eugenyl acetate
γ-Cadinene
Source: Mallavarapu et al. (1995).
Note: t = trace (<0.01%).
0.04–0.06
0.38–0.49
0.17–0.18
t
0.16–0.18
0.09–0.13
t
0.50–1.03
0.05
0.03
0.16–0.28
0.23–0.38
t
t
0.05
0.05
t
t
0.05–0.11
1.57–3.70
t
0.10
0.39
0.12
0.04–0.05
0.10–0.14
0.19
t
0.26
t
0.03
0.63–1.51
0.52
0.19
t
t
81.43–84.50
t
t
0.25–0.28
t
0.73
2.49
0.47–2.25
t
0.12–0.46
t
t
0.14–2.85
195
196
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 11.10
Composition of Cinnamomum zeylanicum fruit oil
(E)-2-Hexenol (t)
Tricyclene
α-Pinene (11.2%)
Camphene (0.6%)
β-Pinene (9.2%)
Myrcene (1.6%)
α-Phellandrene (0.7%)
α-Terpinene (0.2%)
p-Cymene (0.1)
Limonene (2.8%)
1,8-Cineole (0.1%)
(Z)-β-Ocimene (0.1%)
(E)-β-Ocimene (0.2%)
γ-Terpinene (0.1%)
Tepinolene (0.5%)
Linalool (0.2%)
α-Fenehyl alcohol (0.5%)
Isoborneol (t)
Borneol (0.5%)
Terpinen-4-ol (0.1%)
α-Terpineol (0.5%)
Nerol (t)
Geraniol (t)
Isobornyl acetate (0.1%)
(Z)-Cinnamyl acetate (0.1%)
α-Copaene (2.1%)
β-Elemene (0.4%)
(E)-Cinnamyl acetate (0.4%)
β-Caryophyllene (11.0%)
(Ε)-β-Farnesene (0.8%)
α-Humulene (2.2%)
γ-Muurolene (0.2%)
Germacrene D (0.2%)
α-Muurolene (6.1%)
δ-Cadinene (7.1%)
δ-Cadinene (13.1%)
Cis-Calaminnene (2.2)
α-Cadinene (1.2%)
Elemol (1.9%)
(E)-Nerolidol (0.1%)
Isocaryophyllene oxide (0.2%)
Spathulenol (0.8%)
Caryophyllene oxide (0.4%)
Globulol (0.4%)
Humulene epoxide 1 (0.5%)
Humulene epoxide 11 (0.6%)
1-Epi-cubenol(0.1%)
T-Cadinol (0.2%)
Cubenol (0.9%)
α-Muurolol (9.8%)
Selin-11-en-4a-ol (0.1%)
α-Cadinol (3.1%)
4-Hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocalacorene* (0.2%)
4-Hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocalacorene* (0.1%)
Source: Mallavarapu and Ramesh, 2000.
Notes: * correct isomer not identified; t = trace (<0.1%).
4.8% oil. The major compound was eugenol (94.4%), followed by β-caryophyllene
(2.9%) (Raina et al. 2001) (Table 11.11).
The chemical composition of bud and leaf oils of S. aromaticum from Cuba
indicated 36 and 31 volatile compounds, respectively. The major components of the
bud oil were eugenol (69.8%), β-caryophyllene (13.0%) and eugenyl acetate (16.1%),
whereas the leaf oil contained eugenol (78.1%) and β-caryophyllene (20.5%) as the
main constituents (Pino et al. 2001). During leaf growth (between days 2 (initial leaf
stage) to 41 (yellow leaves) days), the content of caryophyllene in the essential oil of
leaves decreased from 6.3% to 0.2% and the content of eugenol acetate decreased
from 51.2% to 1.5% but the eugenol content increased from 38.3% to 95.2%
(Gopalakrishnan and Narayanan 1988).
In the clove bud and stem essential oils from Madagascar four components
predominated: eugenol (73.5–79.7% in bud and 76.4–84.8% in stem oils); βcaryophyllene (7.3–12.4% in both oils); α-humulene (1.0–1.4% in both oils); and
eugenyl acetate (4.5–10.7% and 1.5–8.0%, respectively) (Gaydou and Randriamiharisoa
1987). The neutral fraction of the bud oil from Madagascar contained β-caryophyllene
(75.64%), α-humulene (14.12%) and δ-cadinene (2.34%) as the major components
(Muchala and Crouzet 1985). Gopalakrishnan and Narayanan (1988) reported that
the eugenol content in leaves increased from 38.3% to 95.2%, with maturity, while
the contents of eugenyl acetate (51.2% to 1.5%) and caryophyllene (6.3% to 0.2%)
decreased. The clove bud and stem oils from Madagascar were dominated by eugenol,
eugenyl acetate and β-caryophyllene (Gaydou and Randriamiharisoa 1987).
Volatiles from herbs and spices
Table 11.11
197
Percentage composition of clove oil
Components
Percentage
(E)-β-Ocimene
Linalool
Terpinen-4-ol
Nerol
Eugenol
α-Copaene
β-Caryophyllene
α-Humulene
(Ε.Ε)-α-Farnesene
γ-Cadinene
(E)-Nerolidol
β-Caryophyllene oxide
Humulene oxode II
l-Cadinol
Cadalene
Hexadecyl acetate
0.03
0.08
0.03
0.79
94.4
0.04
2.91
0.36
0.06
0.18
0.03
0.67
0.07
0.07
0.18
0.09
Source: Raina et al. (2001).
Gopalakrishnan et al. (1984) characterized six sesquiterpenes namely, α-cubebene
(1.3%), α-copaene (0.4%), α-humulene (9.1%), β-caryophyllene (64.5%), γ-cadinene
(2.6%) and δ-cadinene (2.6%) in the hydrocarbon fraction of the freshly distilled
Indian clove bud oil. Clove oil from the Malagasy republic was dominated by eugenol
(72–73%), eugenyl acetate (6.3–7.8%) and caryophellene (15.7%) (Lawrence and
Reynolds 1985). The essential oil content ranged from 12.9–18.5% in clove buds and
3.0–7.7% in pedicel. Eugenol content varied from 44–55% in bud oil and 60.0–
72.4% in the oil from pedicel (Zachariah et al. 2005).
Coriander
Coriander oil is clear, colourless to light yellow liquid. Norwegian seeds contain
higher levels of volatile oil (1.4–1.7%) (Purseglove et al. 1981b). Indian coriander
seeds are poor in oil content (0.1–0.4%) (Agrawal and Sharma 1990). The major
component of the essential oil was linalool (67–70%). Kumar et al. (1977) observed
that small-fruited coriander was characterized by high oil content and preferred for
distillation. Large fruited coriander seeds are lower in oil content and are more suited
for use as spice.
Leaf oil of coriander is dominated by decanal (10%) and dodecanals (35%). Indian
coriander oil is lower in linalool content and higher in linalyl acetate (Rao et al.
1925). Coriander seed oil contained 21% linalyl acetate and 42% linalool (Gupta et
al. 1977). Steam distilled oil contained less linalool (71.9%) compared to CO2 extract
(83.2%) (Hirvi et al. 1986). Boelens et al. (1989) reported that linalool content
(70.4%) was higher by hydrodistillation as against by hydrodiffusion (66.2%) and
organoleptic preference was slightly more for the oil obtained by hydrodiffusion over
hydrodistillation.
Nitz et al. (1992) compared the composition of the distilled oil of coriander with
that of the SFE extract and found that the major compounds were linalool (63%),
limonene (4%), γ-terpinene (9%), camphor (4%), α-pinene (8%) and geranyl acetate
(2%). Diederischen (1996) analyzed 237 accessions of fruit oil and the main constituents
198
Handbook of herbs and spices
in these varied as follows: α-pinene (6.5–28.9%), γ-terpinene (0.7–35.4%), camphor
(0.4–6.3%), linalool (19.8–82.0%), geranyl acetate (1.3–12.4%) and geraniol (0.3–
3.3%).
Bandoni et al. (1998) compared the composition of coriander seed oil produced by
water and steam distillation and found that the oils were quite similar. The chemical
composition of the seed essential oil grown in Brazil contained linalool (77.48%), γterpinene (4.64%), α-pinene (3.97%), limonene (1.28%), geraniol (0.64%) and 2decenal (0.16%) as the main components (Figueiredo et al. 2004).
Cumin
Cumin seeds yield 2.3–4.8% volatile oil. The oil is yellow amber liquid that tends to
darken on ageing. The characteristic odour of cumin is mainly due to the aldehydes
present in the seeds namely, cuminaldehyde, p-menth-3-en-7-al and p-menth-1,3dien-7-al. (Agrawal 2001). Indian cumin oil is reported to be lower in cuminaldehyde
content. Turkish cumin seed oil was reported to have cuminaldehyde (19.2%), pmentha-1,3-dien-7-al (4.2–12.2%), p-mentha-1,4-dien-7-al (24–48%), γ-terpinene (7.0–
14.1%), p-cymene (9.1–12.0%) and β-pinene (2.9–8.9%) as major constituents (Baser
et al. 1992). Shaath and Azzo (1993) reported 25.01% cuminaldehyde in the cumin
seed oil of Egyptian origin (Table 11.12). Pande and Goswami (2000) identified 12
constituents contributing to 86.4% of the oil of which the chief components were
cuminaldehyde (32.6%), p-cymene (14.7%), p-mentha-1,4-dien-7-al (13.5%) and βpinene (12.7%).
Dill
Essential oil is extracted from the seeds and leaves of dill. Fresh herb yields 0.19%
light yellow oil and seeds yield 1% oil (light yellow). The major component of seed
oil is d-carvone while that of leaf oil is α-phellandrene (Guenther 1961a, Pino et al.
1995, Kruger and Hammer 1996, Faber et al. 1997, Ranade 1998, Vera and ChaneMing 1998 and Minija and Thoppil 2004).
Ravid et al. (1987) isolated optically active S (+)-carvone, the major component
of the fruits of dill oil. The importance of S-(+) carvone is that it is used as the starting
material for the synthesis of (R, Z)-3-methyl-6-isopropenyl-3,9-decadien-1-yl acetate,
a pheromone component of the female California red scale, while R-(–)- carvone is
used as a starting material in the preparation of picrotoxinin (Ravid et al. 1987).
Table 11.12
Chemical composition of cumin seed oil of Egyptian origin
Compound
Percentage content
α-Thujene (0.28%)
α-Pinene (0.78%)
Camphene (trace)
Sabinene (0.40%)
β-Pinene (14.64%)
Myrcene (0.92%)
α-Phellandrene (0.63%)
p-Cymene (4.91%)
β-Phellandrene (0.30%)
limonene (0.37%)
γ-Terpinene (19.12%)
Terpinolene (0.11%)
Terpinen-4-ol (0.16%)
p-menth-3-en-7-al (3.83%)
α-terpineol (0.05%)
Cuminaldehyde (25.01%)
p-mentha-1,4,dien-7-al (17.36%)
p-mentha-1,3,dien-7-al (5.84%)
β-caryophyllene (0.20%)
Trans-α-bergamotene (0.31%)
Source: Shaath and Azzo (1993).
Volatiles from herbs and spices
199
Huopalahti et al. (1988) compared the composition of dill herb oil obtained by
hydrodistillation, solvent extraction and CO2 extraction by GC-MS and HS-GC (headspace GC). Each method gave different composition for the volatiles of dill herb
(Table 11.13). However, the maximum concentration of the most important aroma
compound in the dill herb, namely, 3,6-dimethyl-2,3,3a,4,5,7a-hexahydro benzofuran
was obtained with head-space GC (38.5% ± 1.2%) analysis. The oil obtained by the
hydrodistillation method contained 3,6-dimethyl-2,3,3a,4,5,7a-hexahydrobenzofuran
(36.7% ± 1.6%) and α-phellandrene (32.1% ± 1.6%) as major components. CO2
extracted oil contained 3,6-dimethyl-2,3,3a,4,5,7a-hexahydrobenzofuran (33.2% ±
3.7%) and neophytadiene (19.9% ± 4.3%). The solvent extracted oil was dominated
by 3,6-dimethyl-2,3,3a,4,5,7a-hexahydro benzofuran (27.1% ± 2.2%), α-phellandrene
(22.3% ± 3.7%) and neophytadiene (14.0% ± 1.8%).
Pure oil of dill weed should contain a minimum of 5% 3-9-epoxy-p-menthene. In
pure dill oil the percentage ratios of α-phellandrene to limonene to β-phellendrene
are 20:25:3. The chemical composition of dill oil of Hungarian origin is as follows:
α-thujene (0.3%), α-pinene (0.8%), myrcene (0.7%), α-phellandrene (29%), limonene
(25%), β-phellandrene (4.2%), p-cymene (1.3%), 1-methyl-4-isopropyl-benzene,
α-p-dimethylstyrene (trace), dihydrocarvone (0.3%), isodihydrocarvone (0.2%), and
D-carvone (35.2%). Lab distilled oil of Anethum graveolens seed from Pakistan
indicated the presence of limonene (9.34%), dillapiole (28.28), carvone (52.25%)
and dihydrocarvone. (Lawrence 1981). Zawirska-Wojtasiak et al. (1998) studied the
aroma profile of dill varieties grown in Poland. They found that carvone and limonene
amount to 90–96% of total volatiles content. Other compounds of the oil are αpinene, α-phellendrene, p-cymene, terpinene-4-ol, dihydrocarvone, eugenol and vanillin.
They could establish variability in the organoleptic properties between varieties.
Fennel
Fennel seeds yield about 2–2.5% oil on dry weight basis. Fennel seeds have fragrant
odour and pleasant aromatic taste. There are two types of fennel – common fennel
and sweet fennel. Common fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill) contains 2.5–6.5%
volatile oil. The oil is a colourless to pale yellow liquid with an aromatic, spicy
Table 11.13
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Composition of dill volatiles extracted by different methods
Compound
α-Pinene
α-Phellandrene
Limonene
β-Phellandrene
ρ-Cymene
3,6-Dimethyl-2,3,3a,4,5,7ahexahydrobenzofuran
Carvone
Neophytadiene
Myristicin
Apiol
Source: Huopalahti et al. (1988).
Amounts (%)
Solvent
extraction
Hydrodistillation
CO2extraction
Head-space
0.5
22.3
1.5
3.7
2.1
27.1
1.1
32.1
2.5
5.6
5.7
36.7
0.2
6.8
0.7
1.7
1.8
33.2
1.4
16.1
3.2
5.5
13.5
38.5
0.7
14.0
3.3
3.1
0.8
tr
2.9
0.6
1.0
19.9
5.8
4.2
t
4.7
200
Handbook of herbs and spices
odour. The major component in the seed oil is anethole. The herb oil of fennel
contains α-phellandrene, pinenes, anethole and methyl chavicol. Bitter fennel oil is
obtained from F. vulgare var. vulgare which is cultivated in Europe. Sweet fennel (F.
vulgare Mill var. dulce) is mainly cultivated in France and Italy. It is also known as
Roman or French oil. The essential oil is yellowish green liquid with characteristic
Anise odour.
Naves and Tucakov (1959) reported that Yugoslavian fennel oil contained transanethole (50–80%), cis-anethole (>0.3%), methyl chavicol (3–20%) and fenchone
(0.7–2.2%). Indian fennel oil was found to contain 1,8-cineole (1.95%), linalool
(7.98%), safrole (3.67%), anisaldehyde (8.72%), anethole (64.88%) and methyl chavicol
(1.94%) (Srinivas 1986, Raina et al. 2004). The main constituents are anethole (50–
60%) and fenchone (10–25%) (Agrawal 2001). Yamini et al. (2002) compared the
compositions of hydrodistilled and supercritical CO2 extracted oils from the fennel
seeds from Iran with those of France and Spain. Both contained anethole as the major
component, but at higher temperatures and pressures higher solubility of anethole
was noticed (Table 11.14). The major compounds in the oils from Iran and Spain
contained anethole and limonene, but the oil from Iran was richer in E-anethole
whereas the Spanish oil contained relatively higher amount of limonene. The oil
from France was markedly different from both these oils. The French oil was dominated
by limonene with traces of E-anethole.
Fenugreek
Fenugreek has been used in Indian folk medicine as an antipyretic, diuretic and
suppurative and for treatment of dropsy, heart disease, chronic cough and spleen and
liver enlargement (Bhatti et al. 1996). Studies on the effect of roasting on the quality
of fenugreek seeds indicated that light roasted seeds (150 °C) were superior to those
roasted at 175 °C and 200 °C with respect to their flavour (Sankaracharya et al.
1973).
Girardon et al. (1989) identified 39 components including n-alkanes, sesquiterpenes
and some oxygenated compounds in the volatiles of fenugreek. But 3-hydroxy-4,5dimethyl-2(5H)-furanone, which was earlier proposed as a flavouring component of
fenugreek seeds was not identified in the volatiles by Girardon et al. (1989). However,
the contribution of n-alkanes to the aroma of fenugreek seeds was considered minimal.
According to Girardon et al. (1989) elemenes, muurolens and γ- and δ-lactones that
are present in small quantities could be of great importance in the aroma of seeds
because of their olfactory properties. Compared to volatile oil, solvent extracts of
fenugreek gave typical flavour of fenugreek and the characteristic compound was
identified as 3-hydroxy-4,5-dimethyl-2(5H)-furanone (Girardon et al. 1989).
Fresh aerial parts of fenugreek plant yielded 0.3% light yellow oil. The main
constituents of the oil were δ-cadinene (27.6%), α-cadinol (12.1%), γ-eudesmol
(11.2%) and α-bisabolol (10.5%). Other constituents were α-muurolene (3.9%)
liguloxide (7.9%), cubenol (5.7%), α-muurolol (4.2%) and epi-α-bisabolol (5.7%)
(Ahmadiani et al. 2004).
Ginger
Ginger is valued primarily for its aroma and in some products for its mild pungency.
These characters together contribute to the typical ginger flavour. Ginger oil is prepared
by steam distillation and the aroma quality and composition will depend on the raw
material and the area of cultivation. Agroclimatic conditions play a great role in the
Volatiles from herbs and spices
Table 11.14
201
Volatiles from fennel
Compound
% Composition
α-Pinene
Camphene
Sabinene
β-Pinene
Myrcene
α-Phellandrene
ρ-Cymene
Limonene
(z)-β-Ocimene
γ-Terpinene
Fenchone
Terpinolene
Camphor
Linalyl propanoate
Estragole
ρ-Anisaldehyde
(Z)-Anethole
(E)-Anethole
Copaene
Germacrene D
δ-3-Carene
α-Terpinene
l-Limonene
l-Fenchone
Methyl chavicol
t-Carveol
carvone
α-Fenchyl acetate
Safrole
Trans-anethole
α-Copaene
n-Tetradecane
Anisketone
n-Hexadecane
Dillapiole
Apiole
0.76–2.00
0.09
0.15–0.89
0.36
0.58–2.24
0.8–7.67
0.24
2.82–52.4
0.79–1.39
0.09–12.1
0.3–11.00
0.13
0.24–0.62
0.32
0.78–4.45
0.57–2.8
0.27
0.4–90.14
0.1
0.25–5.26
0.1–0.3
0.1
2.1–3.7
7.0–11.6
3.1–10.8
0.1
tr
0.1
tr
73.2–80.4
tr
0.2–0.9
0.2–0.9
0.2
0.1
tr
Source: Yamini et al. (2002).
concentration of these constituents. Dry ginger oil is characterized by the high proportion
of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, predominantly zingiberene, a small percentage of
monoterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds (Govindarajan 1982).
Nishimura (2001) separated odorants from fresh rhizomes of Japanese ginger
using the multidimensional GC system and found that monoterpinoids such as linalool,
4-terpineol, isoborneol, borneol, geranial and neral contribute towards the characteristic
odour. Bartley and Jacons (2000) described the ginger volatiles from fresh and dry
rhizomes. The oil is extracted using supercritical carbon dioxide (Table 11.15). Vernin
and Parkanyi (2005) compared chemical composition of commercial oils from India
and China. Zingiberene and ar-curcumene levels are on a par in both types.
Mint
Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis) popularly known as menthol mint is a source of
natural menthol which is widely used in pharmaceutical and flavour industries. Xue-
202
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 11.15
Volatile compounds in supercritical fluid extracts of fresh and dried ginger
Compound
Amount fresh (%)
Amount dry (%)
Octane
Hexanal
α-Pinene
Camphene
β-Pinene
6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one
β-Myrcene
Octanal
Octan-2-ol
Limonene
β-Phellandrene
Heptyl acetate
Terpinolene
Linalool
Citronellal
Isoborneol
Borneol
Decane
Decanal
Citronellol
Neral
Geraniol
Geranial
Bornyl acetate
2-Undecanone
Cirtonellyl acetate
α-Camphane
Geranyl acetate
δ-Elemene
β-Elemene
γ-Elemene
(Z)-β-Farnesene
(E)-β-Farnesene
α-Guaicene
ar-Curcumene
Germacrene D
Zingiberene
(E,E)-γ-Farnesene
β-Bisabolene
γ-Cadinene
β-Sesquiphellandrene
Elemol
Nerolidol
α-Bisabolol
Sesquisabinene hydrate
Zingiberenol
Guaicol
Zingerone
β-Eudesmol
Sesquiterpene alcohol
Phenyl curcumene
6-Paradol
6-Shogaol
6-Ginger dione
0.39
1.58
0.35
1.08
0.00
0.00
0.30
0.42
0.13
0.27
1.30
0.00
0.00
0.41
0.02
0.00
0.73
0.00
0.96
0.76
1.46
3.11
18.47
0.00
0.11
0.47
0.00
3.00
0.43
0.00
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.02
1.54
0.74
13.44
7.13
2.49
0.22
5.85
0.80
0.38
0.21
0.30
0.15
0.22
7.49
0.21
0.64
0.05
0.50
6.30
1.92
0.07
0.87
1.24
2.89
0.11
0.04
0.94
0.24
0.31
0.31
4.68
0.11
0.12
0.39
0.14
0.11
0.39
0.00
0.91
0.47
2.30
1.14
3.90
0.04
0.24
0.77
0.17
5.87
0.60
0.14
0.30
0.31
0.17
0.21
2.29
1.26
24.58
14.19
3.32
0.19
7.64
0.44
0.38
0.15
0.29
0.13
0.14
3.42
0.11
0.30
0.14
0.17
2.35
1.00
Source: Bartley and Jacons (2000).
Volatiles from herbs and spices
203
Qi Han et al. (1998) found variation in oil content and menthol content in
micropropagated mint plants compared to control. Some somaclones exceeded controls
in oil and menthol contents by 27.77% and 8.16–10.86%, respectively. Kumar and
Bhatt (1999) found mint oil effective as a bioinsecticide against Amritodus atkinsoni
and Scirtothrips mangiferae. Saxena and Singh (1998) studied the effects of irrigation,
mulch and nitrogen on yield and composition of Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis
subsp. haplocalyx var. piperascens) oil. They found essential oil from the first harvest
was richer in menthol (78.8%) than the oil obtained from second harvest (75.2%
menthol).
Croteau (1991) reviewed metabolism of monoterpenes in mint (Mentha) species.
The biosynthesis and catabolism of C3- and C6-oxygenated p-menthane monoterpenes,
cyclization of geranyl pyrophosphate to their precursor (–)-limonene, the metabolism
of limonene, the developmental regulation of monoterpene metabolism and its potential
role in the defence mechanisms of Mentha species are discussed. Monoterpene
biosynthesis tends to occur mainly in young leaves; whereas catabolic activities
increase at maturity, in parallel with oil gland senescence. It is concluded that for
commercial mint oil production a dynamic balance between biosynthetic and catabolic
processes is essential.
Spencer et al. (1990) evaluated the production of terpenes by differentiated shoot
cultures of Mentha citrata transformed with Agrobacterium tumefaciens T37. The
shoot cultures synthesized a mint oil fraction which contained the major terpenes
characteristic of the parent plant in quantities similar to those in intact tissue. Oil
glands were observed to be present on the leaves of the transformed culture. In the
mint condensate they were 1-menthol, menthone and neomenthol (Machale et al.
1997).
Essential oil glandular trichomes are the specialized anatomical and structural
characteristic of plants accumulating significant quantities of commercially and
pharmaceutically valuable essential oil terpenoids. The developmental dynamics of
these structures together with the oil secretory process and mechanisms have a direct
bearing on the secondary metabolite production, sequestration, and holding potential
of the producer systems. The essential oil gland trichomes of menthol mint leaf have
been stereologically analyzed to discern their anatomical archetype vis-à-vis volatile
oil secretion and sequestration as integrated in the overall leaf ontogeny. Cuticular
‘dehiscence’ or decapping, leading to collapsing of the peltate trichomes was a notable
characteristic of the menthol mint oil glands. Ecophysiological, evolutionary,
phytopharming and biotechnological connotations of the novel phenomenon have
been hypothesized (Sharma et al. 2003).
Ozel and Ozguven (2002) conducted field experiments to determine the effect of
different planting dates on the essential oil components of different mint varieties
(Mentha arvensis var. piperascens, M. piperita cultivars Mitcham, Eskisehir, and
Prilubskaja). The mint oil components, i.e., α-pinene (0.49–1.00%), β-pinene (1.38–
2.12%), 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) (2.64–10.85%), menthone, menthofuran (28.09–
49.52%), menthol (22.55–38.89%), pulegone (0.00–1.32%), menthyl acetate (0.46–
6.78%), and β-caryophyllene (0.54–2.84%), were determined. The results indicated
that the essential oil components were affected by planting date, mint cultivar, and
cutting numbers. The highest menthol ratio was obtained from M. arvensis var.
piperascens (33.50–38.89%) from second cutting and autumn transplanting. Frerot et
al. (2002) reported a new p-menthane lactone from Mentha piperita L 3,6-dimethyl4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-benzo(b)-furan-2(3H)-one (Menthofurolactone)
204
Handbook of herbs and spices
Nutmeg
Dried nutmeg and mace are used as spices and also for extracting oil and oleoresins.
Mallavarapu and Ramesh (1998) indicated the nutmeg oil composition as follows: αthujene (2.2%), α-pinene (13.6%), camphene (0.3%), sabinene (32.1%), β-pinene
(12.9%), myrcene (2.2%), δ-3-carene (0.8%), α-phellandrene (0.7%), α-terpinene
(2.2%), p-cymene (0.7%), limonene (4.0%), 1,8-cineole + β-phellandrene (2.3%), γterpinene (3.9%), trans-sabinene hydrate (0.5%), terpinolene (1.2%), linalool (0.8%),
cis-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (0.4%), trans-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (0.3%), terpinen-4-ol (7.2%),
α-terpineol (0.8%), safrole (2.8%), eugenol (0.4%), methyl eugenol (1.6%), β-cubebene
(0.1%), β-caryophyllene (0.2%), trans-α-bergamotene (0.1%), (E)- methyl isoeugenol
(0.2%), germacrene D (0.1%), myristicin (2.6%) and elemicin (2.4%).
Lawrence (2000) compared the oil composition from various sources such as the
West Indian nutmeg oils, fresh and dried nutmeg pericarp oil and mace oil using
different GC stationary phases. Gopalakrishnan (1992) studied the chemical composition
of nutmeg and mace oil. β-pinene and sabinene dominated in both the oils (Table
11.16). Maya et al. (2004) reported myristicin as high as 45% in Indian nutmeg oil
and 36.6% in Indian mace oil. Mallavarapu and Ramesh (1998) reported nutmeg oil
having 76.8% monoterpenes, 12.1% oxygenated monoterpenes and 9.8% phenyl
propanoid ether. They also reported mace oil with 51.2% monoterpenes, 30.3%
oxygenated monoterpenes and 18.8% phenyl propanoid ether. Their study indicated
that in quality, Indian nutmeg oils are intermediate between East Indian and West
Indian oils.
Ehlers et al. (1998) using HPLC analyzed nutmeg and mace oils produced by
supercritical CO2 extraction and compared it with steam distilled oils and also with
oils of East Indian, West Indian and Papuan origin. Myristicin in nutmeg oil of East
Indies ranged from 17.5–25.9% and West Indies 2.8–3.7%. Mace oil of whole blades
from East Indies contain myristicin 19.1–24.6%, West Indies 4.4–9.1% and that of
Papua 1.1–1.4%. Oil yield from raw material was high in the supercritical extraction.
Myristicin, the hallucinogenic principle of nutmeg oil, was high in the steam distilled
oil. Safrole content in the nutmeg and mace oil of the East Indies ranged from 2.5–
3.7% while safrole was very high in the mace oil from Papua (20.5–30.7%). Elemicin
was high in the West Indies (3.9–10.1%) and Papua oils (2.1–3.0) compared to East
Indian oil (nutmeg: 0.5–1.5%, mace 0.4–0.7%).
Rosemary
Rosemarius officinalis is an aromatic plant, widely used in the pharmaceutical, perfumery
and food industries. Steam distillation of the fresh leaves and flowering tops yield 1–
2% oil (Boutekedjiret et al. 1997). The main constituents of rosemary oil are αpinene, camphor, cineole, borneol and bornyl acetate. Wide variability occurs in the
chemical composition of rosemary oil of different countries (Arnold et al. 1997,
Dellacassa et al. 1999, Fournier et al. 1989, Lawrence 1995). Mainly there are two
types of rosemary oil in trade, Tunisian and Moroccan, having 1,8 cineole (38–55%)
and Spanish with camphor (12.5–22.0%) and cineole (17–25%) (Arnold et al. 1997,
Mallavarapu 2000). The leaves of rosemary grown in the Kumaon hills of Uttaranchal
contained 0.25–0.52% volatile oil on fresh weight basis (Kumar et al. 2004). The
chief components of oil were α-pinene (14.90%), 1,8-cineole (17.50%), camphor
(12.7%), borneol (5.50%) and verbenone (11.00%) (Table 11.17).
Studies conducted to determine the effect of different temperatures during the
drying process on the amount and quality of essential oils of rosemary (Rosmarinus
Volatiles from herbs and spices
Table 11.16
205
Composition of nutmeg and mace oil
Compound
α-Pinene
β-Pinene + Sabinene
α-Phellandrene
∆3-Carene
α-Terpinene + P-Cymene
1,8-Cineole + Limonene
β-Phellandrene
γ-Terpinene
Linalool + Terpinolene
β-Terpineol
Borneol (tentative)
Terpinen-4-ol
α-Terpineol + Piperitol
Geraniol
Safrole + p-Cymene-8-ol
Bornyl acetate
Methyl eugenol
Eugenol + terpenyl acetate
Geranyl acetate + α-Copaene
Isoeugenol (cis)
β-Caryophyllene + isoeugenol (trans)
α-Humulene
δ-Cadinene
Myristicin
Elemicin
Myristic acid
Trimyristin
Composition
Nutmeg oil
Mace oil
14.72
62.66
3.06
0.60
1.08
6.18
1.08
0.54
0.48
0.25
0.05
1.85
0.36
0.02
0.53
0.07
0.14
0.22
0.29
0.31
0.07
0.02
0.08
3.28
1.38
0.01
0.06
15.24
45.52
3.17
0.67
3.53
6.97
2.80
1.83
0.42
0.32
0.16
4.59
0.94
0.22
0.67
0.09
0.22
0.15
0.16
0.45
0.07
0.03
0.15
5.92
3.14
0.01
0.05
Source: Gopalakrishnan (1992).
officinalis) indicated that higher drying temperature decreased the essential oil content
(% v/w) from 2.13 (40 °C) to 1.62 (60 °C) and 1.09% (80 °C). Essential oil composition
was similar, except for camphor at 40 °C and 60 °C. However, concentrations of
alpha-pinene, beta-myrcene and camphor were decreased at 40 °C and 80 °C (Blanco
et al. 2002).
Tucker and Maciarello (1986) reported α-pinene, camphene, 1,8-cineole, camphor,
bornyl acetate and borneol as the major compounds in five varieties of rosemary oil.
Rosemary oil from Argentina contained 20 components of which the major ones
were α-pinene, myrcene, 1,8-cineole, camphor and β-caryophyllene (Mizaahi et al.
1991). Lawrence (1995) reported that rosemary oil from Spain and Portugal contained
30–50% oxygenated monoterpenes where as the oils of Moroccan, Tunisian and
Yugoslavian origin contained 70–80% oxygenated monoterpenes.
Rao et al. (1998) compared the oil loss in rosemary leaves by convection and
microwave drying methods. The loss of volatile oil was less (7.25%) during convection
drying while microwave drying led to a loss of 61.45%. The volatile oil of fresh
rosemary contained mostly monoterpenes and their derivatives (95–98%). The major
components of rosemary leaf oil were camphor (23.9–34.0%) and 1,8-cineole (15.5–
29.8%).
Boutekedjiret et al. (2003) reported that oil yield from the hydrodistilled herbage
206
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 11.17
Volatiles from rosemary
Compound
% Composition
α-Pinene
Camphene
β-Pinene
Myrcene
∆-3-Carene
Limonene
p-Cymene
1,8-Cineole
γ-Terpinene
Terpinolene
Linalool
Camphor
Isoborneol
Borneol
Dihydrocarveol
Verbenone
Linalyl acetate
Bornyl acetate
β-Caryophyllene
α-Humulene
Methyl isoeugenol
Trans-β-farnesene
γ-Muurolene
δ-Candinene
β-Sesquiphyllandrene
Carophyllene oxide
Humulene epoxide
α-Bisabolol
Unidentified
5.5–26.0
1.5–13.0
2.60
1.50
2.30
2.80
1.80
9.4–55.0
1.30
0.50
0.5–4.9
5.0-26.4
0.30
1.1–5.5
0.13
0.0–14.1
1.40
1.90
1.40
1.20
0.50
0.40
0.30
1.20
1.30
0.60
0.06
0.78
1.93
Source: Kumar et al. (2004).
was lower (0.44%) than that of steam distilled herbage (1.2%). The steam distilled oil
contained 52.4% 1,8-cineole where as the hydrodistilled oil contained much less
(31.9%) cineole. The contents of camphor (19.7%), borneol (12.1%) and α-terpineol
(12.8%) were higher in hydrodistilled oil compared to the steam distilled oil.
Spearmint
Tsuneya et al. (1998) studied acidic components in Scotch spearmint oil (Mentha
gracilis Sole) and 46 acidic components (including 35 carboxylic acids and 11 phenols)
were identified. Three carboxylic acids peculiar to M. gracilis were identified from
spectral data: cis-2-pentylcyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid, 3-isopropenylpentane-1,5dioic acid and 3-isopropenyl-6-oxoheptanoic acid.
Platin et al. (1994) studied equilibrium distributions of key components of spearmint
oil in sub/supercritical carbon dioxide. Effects of temperature (at 35 °C, 45 °C or
55 °C) and pressure (10–110 atm) on the relative distribution coefficients of 12 key
components (6 monoterpenes, 3 monoterpenoids and 3 sesquiterpenes) of spearmint
oil (essential oil of Mentha cardiaca (M. gracilis); Scotch spearmint) at equilibrium
in dense CO2 were investigated under conditions ranging from subcritical to supercritical
regions. At 35 °C all key components of spearmint oil were equally soluble in dense
CO2 within the 12–102 atm pressure region. Vapour-pressure effects, coupled with
Volatiles from herbs and spices
207
the decrease in solvating power, dominated the effects of polarity and molecular
mass of the key components. The quality of essential oils decreased with increasing
fraction of monoterpenes, and it is concluded that deterpenation of spearmint oil with
dense CO2 is possible either at 45 °C/27 atm or 55 °C/35 atm, where the monoterpene
hydrocarbons tend to concentrate, and can be preferentially recovered.
Ishihara et al. (1992) reported new pyridine derivatives and basic components in
spearmint oil (Mentha gentilis f. cardiaca) and peppermint oil (Mentha piperita).
A total of 38 nitrogen-containing components including 11 new pyridine derivatives,
2-isopropyl-4-methylpyridine, 4-isopropenyl-2-methylpyridine, 2-ethyl-4isopropenylpyridine, 2-acetyl-4-isopropylpyridine, 2,4-diisopropenylpyridine, 2-acetyl4-isopropenylpyridine, 4-acetyl-2-isopropenylpyridine, 5-[(Z)-1-buten-1-yl]-2propylpyridine, 5-[(E)-1-buten-1-yl]-2-propylpyridine, 3-[(Z)-1-buten-1-yl]-4propylpyridine and 3-[(E)-1-buten-1-yl]-4-propylpyridine, were identified by comparing
their spectroscopic data with those of synthetic samples. Among them, 2-acetyl-4isopropenylpyridine was a major component with a powerful grassy-sweet and minty
odour.
Ringer et al. (2005) made a detailed review on monoterpene metabolism, cloning,
expression and characterization of (–)-isopiperitenol/(–)-carveol dehydrogenase of
peppermint and spearmint. They stated that the isolation of the genes specifying
redox enzymes of monoterpene biosynthesis in mint indicates that these genes arose
from different ancestors and not by simple duplication and differentiation of a common
progenitor, as might have been anticipated based on the common reaction chemistry
and structural similarity of the substrate monoterpenes. The full-length spearmint
dehydrogenase shares >99% amino acid identity with its peppermint homolog and
both dehydrogenases are capable of utilizing (–)-trans-isopiperitenol and (–)-transcarveol. These isopiperitenol/carveol dehydrogenases are members of the short-chain
dehydrogenase/reductase superfamily and are related to other plant short-chain
dehydrogenases/reductases involved in secondary metabolism (lignan biosynthesis),
stress responses, and phytosteroid biosynthesis, but they are quite dissimilar
(approximately 13% identity) to the monoterpene reductases of mint involved in
(–)-menthol biosynthesis.
The undesirable top notes or off-notes found in mint, clary sage, and cedarwood
oils could be quantitatively determined using a non-equilibrated solid phase
microextraction/gas chromatography/selected ion monitoring/mass spectrometry
(SPME/GC/SIM-MS) technique. Using the low threshold components, dimethyl sulfide,
2-methylpropanal, 2-methylbutanal, and 3-methylbutanal, which are associated with
the off-notes of these oils, their levels could be quantitatively determined. The highest
level of off-notes was found in a sample of Scotch spearmint oil where the levels of
the four constituents were, dimethyl sulfide (238 µg g–1), 2-methylpropanal (286 µg
g–1), 2-methylbutanal (1048 µg g–1) and 3-methylbutanal (1489 µg g–1). These
quantitative results in combination with sensory evaluations could provide for a
powerful overall assessment of essential oil quality (Coleman et al. 2004).
A study was conducted to identify the fragrance compounds of Mentha spicata oil
from Cameroon and its solid-phase microextraction (SPME)-headspace by means of
gas chromatograph spectroscopy (GC and GC-MS) and olfactoric methods (GCsniffing technique and olfactory correlations) to determine the importance of each
single constituent with their specific odour attributes. The odour impression was very
pleasant in spearmint, with green, floral, fruity, and spicy side notes. The composition
of the spearmint essential oil and its corresponding SPME-headspace sample was
208
Handbook of herbs and spices
very similar and differed only in the concentrations of the main compounds, namely,
(–)-limonene (essential oil: 6.55%, SPME: 8.31%), 1,8-cineole (4.19%, 7.12%) and
trans-1-hexen-3-ol (0.66%, 1.72%). In addition to the composition of both samples,
the olfactory evaluations certify a high quality of the essential oil and its possible use
in food, perfumery, and cosmetic products requiring a fresh-spearmint odour (Jirovetz
et al. 2002).
The major chemical constituents of the hydrodistilled essential oil and their major
isolates from cultivated M. spicata was identified by IR, 1H- and 13C-NMR and GC.
(S)-(–)-limonene (27.3%) and (S)-(–)-carvone (56.6%) (representing 83.9% of the
spearmint oil) and (R)-(+)-limonene (21.4%), dihydrocarvone (5.0%), (R)-(+)-carvone
(50.4%) and dillapiole (17.7%), respectively. In vitro biological activity evaluation
of the isolated oil components revealed that both the optical isomers of carvone were
active against a wide spectrum of human pathogenic fungi and bacteria tested. (R)(+)-Limonene showed comparable bioactivity profile over the (S)-(–)-isomer. The
activity of these monoterpene enantiomers was found to be comparable to the bioactivity
of the oils in which they occurred (Aggarwal et al. 2002).
Thyme
The volatile oil of Egyptian T. vulgaris was richer in linalool and terpene hydrocarbons.
The oil contained thymol and carvacrol in only moderate concentrations. The highest
thymol and carvacrol concentrations were observed during the beginning of flowering
(Karawya and Hifnawy 1974). Commercial samples of Ethiopian thyme (T. schimperi)
contained carvacrol and thymol (Lemordant 1986).
Oszagyan et al. (1996) compared the composition of steam distilled and SFE oils.
SFE product contained 10–15% thymol and 30–35% carvacrol while steam distilled
oil contained 48–50% thymol and 8–10% carvacrol. Cuban thyme oil contained
thymol (34.6%), γ-terpinene (17.61%) and p-cymene (17.65%) as major components
(Pino et al. 1997). Fresh plant material from Bulgarian thyme (T. vulgaris) yielded
0.46% essential oil (Stoeva et al. 2001).
Studies on the effect of harvest time on yield and oil composition of thyme
(T. mongolicus) indicated that the best time of harvest for the highest oil yield and
high thymol and carvacrol content was during or immediately after the full bloom
(Fan-ming and Chen-Jin 2002). Asllani and Toska (2003) evaluated Albanian thyme
oils, which were dominated by p-cymene (7.76–43.75%), γ-terpinene (4.20–27.62%),
thymol (21.38–60.15%) carvacrol (1.15–3.04%) and β-caryophyllene (1.30–3.07).
Thyme (T. pulegioides) growing wild in Lithuania contained five chemotypes (i)
linalool type, (ii) geranial/geraniol/neral type, (iii) thymol type, (iv) carvacrol/γterpinene/p-cymene type and (v) thymol/carvacrol/p-cyme/γ-terpinene type (Loziene
et al. 2003).
The constituents of essential oils isolated by hydrodistillation of aerial parts of
Satureja hortensis, used as thyme in Turkey recorded α-terpinene (2.34 and 2.66%),
p-cymene (21.82 and 14.64%), γ-terpinene (18.92 and 23.09%) and β-caryopyllene
(3.75 and 4.56%), as the main components (Ozcan and Chalchat 2004). Commercial
essential oils of thyme from different geographical areas of Italy and France were
rich in thymol (22–38%) and its biogenetic precursors, namely, γ-terpinene and pcymene (Zambonelli et al. 2004). The main constituents of the hydro-distilled essential
oil from the herb of lemon thyme (Thymus citriodorus L.) cultivated in Iran were
geraniol (54.4%), geranial (13.9%), neral (10.1%), nerol (5.2%), 3-octanone (3.3%)
and borneol (3.2%) (Omidbaigi et al. 2005).
Volatiles from herbs and spices
209
Turmeric
Volatile oils are extracted from rhizomes and leaves of turmeric. The chemical
composition of volatiles from various parts of turmeric has been investigated extensively.
The oil yield and composition show wide variation depending on geographic conditions,
variety, agronomic practices, maturity at harvest and post-harvest processing. GCMS analysis of the oil indicated the presence of as many as 84 components in the oil
in varying levels. Volatile oil content in turmeric rhizomes ranged from 1.3–5.5%
(Guenther 1961b). The chief constituents of rhizome oil were turmerone, ar-turmerone
and turmerol (Govindarajan 1980). The rhizome oil contained limonene, cineole,
curcumene, zingiberene, bisabolene, β-phellandrene, ar-turmerone and turmerone
(Gopalam and Ratnambal, 1987). The rhizome oil of Indonesian origin was constituted
by the following compounds: ar-turmerone (41.4%), turmerone (29.5%), turmerol
(10%) and α-atlantone (2.4%) (Zwaving and Bos, 1992).
Nigam and Ahmad (1991) reported 59.7% ar-turmerone in the rhizome oil. The oil
from Malaysian rhizomes was dominated by α-turmerone (45.3%), linalool (14.9%)
and β-turmerone (13.5%) (Ibrahim et al. 1999). Among six turmeric cultivars grown
in Maharashtra namely, Rajapuri, Krishna, Mydukur, Salem, Tekurpetta and Armoor,
the highest essential oil contents were recorded in mother rhizomes of Mydukur and
fingers of Salem (Rakhunde et al. 1998). Garg et al. (1999) reported that oil content
in the rhizomes of 27 accessions from North Indian Plains varied between 0.16% and
1.94% on fresh weight basis. Based on the contents of β-pinene, p-cymene, αcurcumene, β-curcumene, ar-turmerone, α-turmerone and β-turmerone the accessions
were classified into two groups: (i) those in which the sum of the seven major
terpenes was in the range 58–79%, (ii) those in which the sum was 10–22%. The
rhizome oil from Bhutan was constituted by 30–32% α-turmerone, 17–26% ar-turmerone
and 15–18% β-turmerone (Sharma et al. 1997).
Gopalan et al. (2000) noticed that during supercritical carbon dioxide extraction,
the solubility of turmeric oil was maximum at 313–333 K and 20–40 MPa and about
60% of the oil was composed of turmerone and ar-turmerone. Fresh rhizome oil from
Pakistan was abundant in ar-turmerone (31.1–41.2%) and turmerone (9–11.1%) (Riaz
et al. 2000). Iron deficiency significantly increased the essential oil and curcumin
contents in turmeric rhizomes (Dixit et al. 1999).
Chatterjee et al. (2000) reported that no detectable differences were observed in
the aroma impact compounds of γ-irradiated and commercial volatile oils. The rhizome
oil of C. longa cv. Roma from North Indian Plains was rich in 1,8-cineole (11.2%),
α-turmerone (11.1%), β-caryophyllene (9.8%), ar-turmerone (7.3%) and βsesquiphellandrene (7.1%) (Raina et al. 2002). The rhizome essential oils of C. longa
cv Roma grown in Indo-Gangetic plains were rich in α- and β-turmerones (40.8%),
mycrene (12.6%), 1,8-cineole (7.7%) and p-cymene (3.8%) (Bansal et al. 2002). The
turmeric oils from Calicut (South India) was dominated by ar-turmerone (31.1%),
turmerone (10.0%), curlone (10.6%), ar-curcumene (6.3%), p-cymene (3.0%), βsesquiphellandrene (2.6%), β-phellandrene (2.4%) and dehydrocurcumene (2.2%).
The root oil also contained ar-turmerone (46.8%) as the chief component followed by
ar-curcumene (7.0%), dehydrocurcumene (4.3%) and p-cymene (3.3%) (Leela et al.
2002). The rhizomes from Reunion Island yielded 1.1% oil, which contained arturmerone (21.4%), terpinolene (15.8%), zingiberene (11.8%), ar-turmerol (7.7%),
β-turmerone (7.1%), sesquiphellandrene (8.8%) and β-caryophyllene (5.7%) as major
compounds (Chane-Ming et al. 2002) (Table 11.18).
The essential oil from Cuban rhizomes was reported to contain 47.7% ar-turmerone
210
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 11.18 Chemical composition (%) of essential oils of rhizome, leaves and flowers of Curcuma
longa L. from Reunion Island (HP-5 column)
Compounds
Rhizomes
Leaves
Flowers
Tricyclene
α-Pinene
α-Fenchene
Sabinine
β-Pinene
Myrcene
δ-2-Carene
α-Phellandrene
δ-3-Carene
α-Terpinene
p-Cymene
Limonene
1,8-Cineole
(Z)-β-Ocimene
(E)-β-Ocimene
γ-Terpinene
p-Cymenene
Terpinolene
Linalool
p-Mentha-1,3,8-triene
p-Cymen-7-ol
Terpinen-4-ol
p-Cymen-8-ol
α-Terpineol
2-Undecanone
Geranyl acetate
Cis-α-bergamotene
β-Caryophyllene
α-Humulene
(E)-β-Farnesene
ar-Curcumene
Zingiberene
β-Bisabolene
β-Sesquiphellandrene
(E)-γ-Bisabolene
(E)-Nerolidol
ar-Turmerol
ar-Dehydro-turmerone
ar-Turmerone
α-Turmerone
β-Turmerone
(Z)-γ-Atlantone
Germacrone
Curcuphenol
–
0.2
–
–
–
0.3
–
1.0
0.3
1.4
0.6
–
2.0
–
–
–
0.4
15.8
–
–
–
0.2
–
–
–
–
0.3
5.7
1.4
0.6
4.5
11.8
1.9
8.8
0.7
0.2
0.3
0.6
7.7
21.4
7.1
–
–
0.2
0.1
0.7
0.1
0.1
0.7
1.4
0.1
2.8
1.2
3.7
0.3
–
4.6
0.4
0.7
0.4
–
76.8
0.7
0.2
–
–
0.2
0.3
–
–
–
0.1
–
0.1
0.1
1.0
0.1
0.4
–
0.1
–
–
–
–
–
0.1
0.1
–
0.1
–
0.8
0.1
0.6
2.1
0.2
3.6
1.7
4.4
0.4
0.4
4.6
0.8
1.8
0.8
–
67.4
0.5
0.3
0.2
–
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
–
0.2
–
0.1
0.1
1.3
0.2
0.5
–
0.2
–
–
–
–
–
0.9
0.1
–
Source: Chane-Ming et al. (2002).
and 16.1% turmerone as major compounds (Pino et al. 2003). Turmeric rhizomes
from Gorakhpur region (North India) was reported to contain 1.6% oil and ar-turmerone,
ar-turmerol, β-bisabolene and zingiberene as chief components (Singh et al. 2003).
Rhizome oil extracted by the solid phase microextraction method contained arcurcumene, ar-turmerone, zingiberene, β-sesquiphellandrene, sabinene, 1,8-cineole
and 1,4-terpineol as major components (Mata et al. 2004). The rhizome oil of Curcuma
Volatiles from herbs and spices
211
longa from the lower Himalayan region was rich in α-turmerone (44.1%), β-turmerone
(18.5%) and ar-turmerone (5.4%) (Raina et al. 2005).
The leaves of turmeric yield 0.37–2.5% volatile oil. The leaf oil from Nigeria
contained mainly monoterpenes with 47.7% α-phellandrene and 28.9% terpinolene
(Oguntimein et al. 1990). The leaf oil from Kerala (South India) was dominated by
56.7% α-phellandrene and 11.8% tepinolene (McCarron et al. 1995). The leaf oil of
Vietnam origin contained 2.5% oil (dry weight basis) and was dominated by the
monoterpenes, α-phellandrene (24.5%), 1,8-cineole (15.9%), p-cymene (13.2%) and
β-pinene (8.9%) (Dung et al. 1995). The leaf oil from Bhutan was dominated by αphellandrene (18.2%), 1,8-cineole (14.6%) and p-cymene (13.3%) (Sharma et al.
1997). The turmeric leaves from South India yielded 1.3% volatile oil. The oil was
dominated by α-phellandrene (32.6%), terpinolene (26.0%), 1,8-cineole (6.5%) and
p-cymeme (5.9%) (Leela et al. 2002). The leaf petiole and lamina oils of C. longa cv.
Roma were rich in myrcene (35.9%), 1,8-cineole (12.1%) and p-cymene (12.7%)
(Bansal et al. 2002). C. longa leaf oil from North Indian Plains was mainly constituted
by p-cymene (25.4%) 1,8 cineole (18%), cis-sabinol (7.4%) and β-pinene (6.3%)
(Garg et al. 2002).
The leaf oil of C. longa cv. Roma contained terpinolene (26.4%) 1,8-cineole
(9.5%), α-phellandrene (8%) and terpinene-4-ol (7.4%) as chief constituents (Raina
et al. 2002). The leaf oil of C. longa var Rasmi from Orissa was reported to contain
α-phellandrene (38.24%), C-8 aldehyde (20.58%), 1,8-cineole (8.64%), α-pinene
(2.88%) and β-pinene (2.36%) as chief constituents (Behura et al. 2002). The fresh
leaves of Bhutan origin contained 0.37% to 0.42% oil and the main constituents were
α-phellandrene (18.2%), 1,8-cineole (14.6%) and p-cymene (13.3%) and terpinolene
(11.6%) (Sharma et al. 1997). The leaves of turmeric from Reunion Island yielded
0.5% volatile oil. The major constituent in the leaf oil was terpinolene and it differs
from the oils of other origins in its high level of terpinolene (76.8%) and its small
amount of phellandrene (2.8%) (Chane-Ming et al. 2002) (Table 11.18). The leaf oil
of turmeric from the lower Himalayan region contained α-phellandrene (53.4%),
terpinolene (11.5%) and 1,8-cineole (10.5%) as major constituents (Raina et al. 2005).
Freshly harvested flowers of turmeric from South India yielded 0.3% volatile oil.
Twenty-five components contributing to 52% of the oil were identified among which
p-cymen-8-ol (26%), terpinolene (7.4%) and 1,8-cineole (4.1%) were the major
components (Leela et al. 2002). The flowers of C. longa from Reunion island contained
0.1% volatile oil and the oil was dominated by terpinolene (67.4%), 1,8-cineole
(4.6%), α-terpinene (4.4%), α-phellandrene (3.6%) and myrcene (2.1%) (ChaneMing et al. 2002) (Table 11.18).
11.5
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Part III
Particular herbs and spices
12
Asafetida
C. K. George, Peermade Development Society, India
12.1
Introduction
Asafoetida or Asafetida is the dried latex, oleogum or oleoresin exuded from the
taproots of perennial herbs belonging to many species of the genus Ferula, of the
family Umbeliferacaea (Pruthi 1976). There are about 60 species of the genus Ferula,
found mainly in three geographical areas, Central Asia, Europe and North Africa.
Central Asia is the main source of asafetida and Afghanistan and Iran are the major
producers in this region. The trade name, asafetida, is based on the scientific name of
one of the most important species, Ferula asafetida (Duke 2003). The commercially
important species of Ferula have been reviewed by Raghavan et al. (1974) and are
summarized in Table 12.1.
12.1.1 Botany
Commercial asafetida is obtained mainly from F. asafetida and also from F. narthex,
as well as a few other species. While F. asafetida is grown extensively in Iran and
Afghanistan, F. narthex is found in the dry valleys of the Ladakh region in Kashmir,
at an altitude of 4000 m. The oleogum of F. narthex, though not true asafetida, is used
as a substitute for asafetida in India. F. asafetida is indigenous to Iran (Andi et al.
1997).
The asafetida plant has a perennial fusiform root that is several centimetres in
diameter, with a coarse, hairy summit, either simple like a parsnip or with one or
more forks. The bark is wrinkled and blackish, and the internal structure is fleshy and
white, containing a large amount of thick, milky, fetid, alliaceous juice. The leaves
are few in number, radical, and appear in the autumn. They grow to about 45 cm in
length during winter and wither by the end of spring. The leaves are shiny, coriaceous
like those of lovage, glaucous green, and pinnated with pinnatifid segments whose
lobes are oblong and obtuse. The petioles are terete and channelled only at the base.
The stem is herbaceous, 2.5 m to 3.25 m long and about 15 cm in circumference at
the base, solid, smooth and clothed with membranous sheaths.
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Table 12.1
Commercial species of Ferula
Species
Where found
Remarks
F. alliacea Boiss.
Iran
F. asafoetida Linn.
Iran, Afghanistan,
Kashmir, Punjab and
Africa
N. Africa
Gum is used as an intestinal antiseptic and
carminative and also for hysteria and epilepsy
Resin is amorphous and reddish brown.
It is used for flavouring sauces and curries and
also as an expectorant, laxative and antispasmodic
Source of a gum known as ‘Ammoniac of
Morocco’ used for medicinal purposes in Europe
Same as F. asafetida
F. communis Linn.
F. foetida (Bunge)
Reget
F. ferulago Linn.
F. galbaniflua
Boiss. and Bulise.
F. hermonis Boiss.
F. jaeschkeana
Vatke.
F. marmarica
Asch..and Taub
F. narthex Boiss.
F.
F.
F.
F.
orientalis Linn.
persica Wild
rubricaulis Boiss.
schair Brosz
F. sumbul f.
F. szowilziana D.C.
F. tingitana Linn.
(Syn. F. sancta
Boiss)
S. Turkey, Iran and
Afghanistan
S. European countries
N.W. Africa, Iran and
Turkey
–
Kashmir and Turkey
Used for medicinal purposes in Europe
Source of galbanum
Used for medicinal purposes in Syria
Source of a gum resin
N. Africa
Source of gum ‘amariac of Cyrenaica’
West Tibet and Ladakh
region of Kashmir
–
Iran
–
Turkey
Used as a spice because of the flavour
Mountains south
east of Samarkand
Central Asia
Syria and N. Africa
Used for medicinal purposes in the Middle East
Gum (sagapenum) is sold as ‘tears’ or ‘masses’
Used for medicinal purposes in Iran
Probably a source of galbanum.
Used for medicinal purposes in Europe
Root has musk-like aroma. It is used as a
stimulant and as a tonic for nervous disorders
Source of sagapen resin and has the scent of
galbanum
Sources of North African or Moroccan ammoniac
There are two kinds of plant, male and female. The female plant produces
inflorescences whereas the male plant does not. Only the female plant produces the
oleogum or asafetida (Pruthi 2001). The stalk of the inflorescence is big and leafless.
The umbels have 10 to 20 rays and partial ones have 5 or 6 flowers. The flowers are
pale yellow, succeeded by a flat, thin, reddish-brown fruit, like that of parsnip but
larger and darker, slightly hairy and rough.
The carrot-like taproots attain a diameter of 12 to 15 cm at the crown after four to
five years of growth. At this stage, the plant is ready for the commercial extraction
of asafetida. The fruits are 0.8 cm long and 0.6 cm broad, with tender hairs. The
flowers and fruits generally appear in March–April. The white exudate of the fruit is
fragrant, pure and crystalline. The brownish to reddish exudate smells foul. Today
there are many varieties of exudates in the market sourced from different species and
using different collection procedures. It is reported that some unscrupulous nurserymen
in Kerala, India, sell seedlings of Gardenia gummifera as asafetida plants as they
have an exudation with a similar odour, but this plant does not yield commercial
asafetida (George 1995).
Ushak is similar to asafetida and obtained from another genus of the family
umbelliferarae, Doremia ammoniacum Don. or D. aureum. Ammon is a God of
ancient Rome, Egypt and Greece. This particular plant was found in all the places
Asafetida
223
where there was a temple of Ammon. Dioscoides, the Greek herbalist, first described
this plant scientifically and named it ammoniacoon. The present botanical name,
Doremia ammoniacum is derived accordingly. It is available in the bazaars of Mumbai,
India, and sold elsewhere as Bombay Sambal. Dormia ammoniacum is a shrub and
the gum is found on its flowering and fruiting branches.
12.1.2 Forms of asafetida
Asafetida is available commercially in three forms, tears, mass and paste. Tears
constitute the purest form of resin and are round and flattened, 5–30 mm in diameter
and greyish or dull yellow in colour. There are two types of tears, those that retain
their original pale colour for years and those that gradually become dark or yellowish
brown. Mass asafetida is the common commercial form. It comprises tears agglutinated
into a more or less uniform mass, often mixed with fragments of root, soil, etc. Paste
also contains extraneous matter (Anon. 1991).
12.1.3 Varieties of asafetida
There are many varieties of asafetida, and they come under different classifications
and are priced differently. The two major varieties are Hing and Hingra. Hingra is
inferior to Hing, which is richer in odour and more desirable. Hingra is heterogeneous
in colour and consistency. Hing is classified into Irani Hing and Pathani Hing,
according to the country of origin, the former being produced in Iran and the latter in
Afghanistan. Irani Hing contains woody residues but Pathani Hing is comparatively
free from wood. Hadda is the most expensive variety of Pathani Hing and has the
strongest odour. Irani Hing has two varieties based on the taste, sweet and bitter.
Sweet Irani Hing is collected from the horizontal cutting of the stem and is brown in
colour. The Irani Hing obtained from the root is transparent and it is gathered by
making injuries on the root. Bitter Irani Hing is conventionally produced in Iran
(Anon. 1991).
The two most commonly sold and broadly recognized groups of asafetida are the
white or pale variety and the dark or black variety. The former is soluble in water
while the latter is soluble in oil. The chemical composition of both these types of
asafetida is almost the same, because asafetida is basically only an oleogum. But,
where the gum portion preponderates, as in Hing, it is water-soluble and where the
resin portion preponderates, as in Hingra, it is oil-soluble. The constituents to which
asafetida owes its characteristic ordour reside in the oil. There are two groups of
compounds in the oil, one group belongs to the ferulic esters and the other, which is
more important, is a volatile oil fraction consisting of different sulphur compounds,
some of which are similar to those found in garlic and onion. The major difference
in their origin is that Hingra is obtained from F. foetida while Hing is obtained from
F. asafetida (Anon. 1991).
12.1.4 Area and production
There is no reliable information on the area under asafetida or the amount produced.
This is because production and trade are not organized in any of the producing
countries. While the area under asafetida may not decrease suddenly, it being a
perennial plant, production can go up and down steeply as demand and price determine
the amount of oleogum extracted.
224
12.2
Handbook of herbs and spices
World trade
Data relating to world trade of asafetida are scarce as it has not been reported separately
in the International Trade Classification (Harmonious System). Accordingly there is
no reliable information available on the export and import of asafetida for different
countries. In India, asafetida is popularly used in some vegetarian dishes and for the
preparation of indigenous medicines; hence it is regularly imported from Afghanistan
and Iran. Imports of asafetida into India during the five years, 2000–5 are given in
Table 12.2.
The importation of asafetida into India is erratic, but growth in imports during
2003–4 and 2004–5 was notable compared to the three previous years, the average of
which stood at 643.5 MT. There was 40.19% increase in the amount of asafetida
imported during 2003–4 over the average for the previous three years. The value of
imported asafetida per kg increased considerably over the five-year period from USD
4.47 during 2000–1 to USD 10.97 in 2004–5.
Some of the imported asafetida is processed in India and re-exported. Unprocessed
material may also be exported, depending on the profit margin, but separate export
figures are not available for unprocessed and processed asafetida. Processed asafetida
is mainly compounded asafetida. The quantity and value of asafetida, including
compounded asafetida, exported from India during the five-year period, 2000–5 are
shown in Table 12.3.
Exports did not follow a steady pattern. The quantities exported during 2003–4
and 2004–5 were almost the same, but the value went up by 64.29% during 2004–5
over the previous year. Compared to the price of USD 10.97 per kg for the imported
asafetida in 2004–5, the export price was only USD 4.40 per kg, as compounding
made the product much cheaper.
Table 12.2
Importation of asafetida into India
Year
Quantity in MT
Value in million USD
2000–1
2001–2
2002–3
2003–4
2004–5
658.0
758.3
514.2
902.1
831.9(E)
2.94
3.83
3.18
8.36
9.13
(E): estimate
Source: Spices Board, Government of India, Cochin, India.
Table 12.3
Export of asafetida from India
Year
Quantity in MT
Value in million USD
2000–1
2001–2
2002–3
2003–4
2004–5
371.6
270.8
473.9
735.3
731.6
1.03
0.79
1.00
1.96
3.22
Source: Spices Board, Government of India, Cochin, India.
Asafetida
12.3
225
Chemical constituents
The different oleogum resins are asafetida, galbanum, sambal, sagapenum and ushak.
Of these, asafetida is the most important.
Asafetida consists of organic sulphur compounds, volatile oil, gum resin and impurities.
Both tears and masses have the same amount of volatile oil. A sample analysis shows
volatile oil at 3.5%, resin 46.6%, asaresinol ferulate 16.67%, free ferulic acid 1.33%,
ether insoluble resin 1.0% and gum and impurities 31.0%.
A sequeterpinoid coumarin and two other coumarins (asfoetidin and ferocolicin)
can be isolated from the root and gum resin respectively. Three new compounds
(asadisulphide, asacoumarin and asacoumarin B) have also been obtained from the
root. Six new sulphide derivatives (foetisulphide A, foetisulphide B, foetisulphide C
and foetisulphide D, foetithiphene A and foetithiphene B) along with known compounds
have also been isolated and named from the ethyl acetate soluble fraction of methanol
extract prepared from asafetida (Peter 2004).
Galbanum contains 6–9% essential oil similar to turpene, 60–75% sulphurous resin
and 19–22% other exudates, including the principal compound, umbelliferon. Galbanum
melts at 100 °C and becomes a thick fluid.
Sagapenum contains 50–54% resin, 31–32% gum and 3–11% essential oil. It can be
softened in the palm of the hand by body heat. While the fragrance is fine and not as
strong as that of asafetida, the taste is not acceptable.
Sambal is available as bits, which are light in weight and dark in colour outside and
yellowish white inside. It has a highly pungent taste and a fibrous appearance. The
odour resembles musk or Kasturi. It is often adulterated in India, the main market,
with roots of jatamamsi (Nardostactys sp.) or tagar (Valleriana celtica).
Ushak is dark coloured on the outside as long as it remains on the plant, Doremia
ammoniacum, but the inside is milky white to yellow. When cold, it hardens and
breaks easily, but on slight warmth it becomes soft and flexible. If mixed with water,
it becomes a milky emulsion. It has a pungent taste and the fragrance of frankincense.
Ushak contains 20% different exudates, 70% resin and 4% essential oil, moisture
and ash.
12.4
Extraction
Before flowering in spring, the female plant puts forth sprouts and foliage from the
taproot. After about a month, the green foliage turns yellow. It is at this stage that the
taproot of the female plant is tapped for asafetida. The process is described below.
1. Soil and stones surrounding the yellow foliage are removed and the base of the
foliage, including the top of the taproot, is exposed.
2. Foliage is pulled out, leaving the base on the upper part of the taproot as a brushlike mass.
3. The brush-like mass is covered with loose earth and gravel. The taproot is left
undisturbed for about five days.
4. When this period is over, the earth and gravel around the taproot are cleared and
the brush-like mass is pulled out completely, exposing the top of the taproot. This
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Handbook of herbs and spices
is then scraped, making an area up to 6.5 cm2. When scraping is complete, the
taproot is shaded using a construction of twigs and stones.
5. Two to three days after scraping, the first flow of sap is collected from the top of
the taproot. After this, a slightly deeper cut is made, about 0.5 cm from the top
and sap is collected again. A third cut may be made to induce further flow of sap.
The process of cutting and collecting sap is continued for 10 to 15 cycles until
the flow of sap stops.
6. After each cutting, the taproot is covered with twigs and stones to prevent soil or
gravel falling onto the cut surface, and to maintain cool conditions under which
the taproot can mature.
7. The sap is stored in pits dug in the soil. The pit size may vary but it is typically
1.8 m long, 1.8m wide and 2.4 m deep. The sides of the pit are plastered with
mud and the top covered with stalks of male asafetida plants, leaving an opening
of about 0.3 m diameter, through which the daily collection of sap can be poured
into the pit.
The asafetida collected in the pit is generally very thick and sticky, and can be
moulded into any shape by hand. It continues to mature during storage in the
pit (Pruthi 2001), and it is this resin made into tears or mass that is marketed as
asafetida. It varies in colour from white to greyish or reddish. White asafetida is
packed first in cloth bags and then in jute bags. Dark red asafetida is generally packed
in goat- or sheep-skin, where it matures further. It has a powerful foul odour, and
bitter and acrid taste due to sulphur compounds, and is called ‘Devil’s Dung’.
Interestingly it is also known as ‘Food of the Gods’. All parts of F. foetida have the
strong asafetida smell.
Some Pathans in Afghanistan collect the resin from wild plants by cutting the
above-ground stems. They also chop and boil roots and stems in water and collect the
resin by evaporating the water, but the quality of such resin is inferior. The average
yield of oleogum is roughly 40 g per plant, but certain plants may yield as much as
900 g (Krishnamurthy 1994).
Galbanum is a gum resin exuded from the lower stems of another species, F.
galbaniflua Boiss and Buinse, a stout perennial herb of North Western Asia. The gum
occurs in the form of distinct irregular tears or masses, is yellow to brown in colour
and has a powerful and tenacious aroma.
Sagapenum is similar to asafetida, but occurs as the hardened exudation of another
species, F. persica Wild or F. snowilziana D.C. It is exported to India from Saudi
Arabia and Iran and marketed largely in Mumbai as broken fragments.
Sambal is the oleoresin gum of F. sumbal. It is produced in Iran and the main
market is again India.
12.5
Processing
The main processed products from asafetida are oil of asafetida and compounded
asafetida. The oil does not have much commercial value. The flavouring and
pharmaceutical industries use mainly alcoholic tinctures of the gum resin (Anon.
1991). Oil of asafetida is extracted by steam distillation of the gum resin and yield
varies from 3.3 to 3.7%. The chief component of the oil is secondary butylpropenyl
Asafetida
227
disulphide, along with pinene, terpenine, trisulphide and other compounds. The
disagreeable odour of the oil is due to disulphide (Tiwari and Ankur 2004).
Compounded asafetida is a ready-to-use preparation designed in particular for
making Indian curries because natural asafetida is very strong and is not used directly
in cooking. It is composed of asafetida from one or more origins (Irani or Pathani or
both) and gum arabic, with edible starch or edible cereal flour. The blending formula
varies from manufacturer to manufacturer and is a trade secret.
12.6
Quality issues
Asafetida is one of the most adulterated agricultural products in the world. It is not
strange to find clay, sand, stone or sometimes gypsum added to increase the weight.
Other adulterants used include rosin, gum arabic and other cheaper kinds of gum
resins, barley or wheat flour, slices of potato, etc. Exudates of other species, not
necessarily the same genus, are supplied to buyers who are not thoroughly familiar
with the product and may not recognize the substitution. As a result, the pure material
seldom reaches the buyer.
According to the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954 of the Government of
India, Hing, which is the superior-quality asafetida, should not have more than 15%
total ash by weight, ash insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid not more than 2.5% by
weight, alcohol extract (with 90% alcohol) not exceeding 12% as estimated by the
U.S.P. 1936 method and starch not more than 1% by weight. The inferior quality
Hingra should not have more than 20% total ash by weight, ash insoluble in dilute
hydrochloric acid not more than 8% by weight, alcohol extract (with 90% alcohol)
not exceeding 50% as estimated by the U.S.P. 1936 method and starch not more than
1% by weight (Anon. 2003).
Compounded asafetida is adulterated during processing with materials such as
chalk and other oleogums like galbanum, ammoniacum and colophony (Raghavan et
al., 1974). Officially, compounded asafetida should not contain colophony resin,
galbanum resin, ammoniaccum resin or any other foreign resin, coal tar dyes or
mineral pigment. The total ash content of compounded asafetida should not be more
than 10% by weight, acid insoluble ash in dilute hydrochloric acid not more than
1.5% by weight and alcohol extract (with 90% of alcohol) as estimated by the U.S.P.
1936 Method not more than 5% by weight (Anon., 2003).
12.7
Main uses
The most important uses of asafetida are as a flavouring and in traditional medicines.
Both uses are common in India, but in China asafetida is used only for certain
medicinal preparations. In Iran and Afghanistan, where most of the production comes
from, it is used in some foods and medicines. In other Asian countries asafetida is
used in local medicines on a small scale.
As a flavouring, asafetida can be used either directly in curries or added after it has
been fried in oil or steeped in water. It is used extensively in India to flavour curries,
soups, sauces and pickles, most often in conjunction with onion and garlic. Some
Brahmin communities and Jains in India who do not eat garlic or onion, use asafetida
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Handbook of herbs and spices
as a substitute (Andi et al. 1997). Vegetarian foods of South India that use asafetida
include sambar, rasam and some lentil preparations. It is also used to season some
fish dishes and in making certain types of pappadam. In Iran, asafetida is rubbed onto
warmed plates prior to serving meat dishes, and the large cabbage-like tops of asafetida
plants are eaten raw (Anon., 1991).
While asafetida itself has many medicinal uses, other parts of the plant also have
some therapeutic properties. The leaves have anthelmintic, carminative and diaphoretic
properties, the stem is good as a brain and liver tonic and the root is antipyretic. The
gum resin is antispasmodic, anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, diuretic, expectorant, mildly
laxative and a nerve tonic. It is a useful remedy for asthma, bronchitis, croup, flatulence,
colic pain and for spasmodic movement of the bowels and infantile convulsions
(Duke, 2003). It is also an important ingredient in medicinal preparations prescribed
for controlling diarrhoea, flatulence, habitual abortion, indigestion and liver problems.
Applied externally, it is good against ringworm (Chatterjee and Pakrashi, 1995),
goitre and swelling of joints.
Asafetida is reported as an effective carminative against intestinal flatulence and
gas formation. It is an antispasmodic drug widely administered by Hakims in India
for hysteria and also for nervous disorders among women and children, especially
neurological diseases such as facial paralysis and other types of paralysis, including
epilepsy, convulsions and tremors. It also has anti-malarial properties.
Asafetida helps to dissolve abscesses and acts as a purgative, promotes menstruation,
destroys worms and heals wounds. It is one of the ingredients used in ointments for
wounds, lesions and ulcers. After dissolving in vinegar, it is applied on skin afflictions
such as black spots, freckles and disfigurements. It can also be used for curing hard
growth of piles. Asafetida acts an expectorant in chronic bronchitis and is administered
with honey as an electuary in chronic cough and asthma. Asafetida kills germs in
phlegm and is therefore taken to eliminate the foul smell associated with phlegm. It
also lowers the viscosity of phlegm, promoting its expulsion. Modern medicine has
observed that asafetida is expelled from the body through the kidneys and the skin.
It stimulates these organs to encourage urination and sweating. It also has applications
in a few veterinary preparations (Krishnamurthy 1994).
Asafetida, galbanum and ushak have many common medicinal properties. Galbanum
is a stimulative and reduces provocations of kapha and vata. It heals abscesses and
convulsions. Like asafetida, it promotes healing of wounds and ulcers. Galbanum is
also used to strengthen the uterus after delivery. It is employed in neurological
afflictions, such as facial paralysis, nervous tremors, epilepsy, fits in children and
coma. It is beneficial for the common cold, stops a running nose and is effective
against indigestion and stomach pain. It is reported that galbanum has some deleterious
effects on testicular functions.
Ushak is good against abscesses and swellings. It is a purgative, promotes
menstruation and cleans up worm-infected wounds. It is used for eliminating hard
growth of piles and also in skin afflictions, such as black spots, freckles and
disfigurements (Krishnamurthy 1994). According to traditional Chinese medicine,
asafetida enters the liver, spleen and stomach. It stimulates the intestinal, respiratory
and nervous systems. It is used in weak digestion, intestinal parasites, flatulence,
asthma, whooping cough and chronic bronchitis. It is also administered for neurological
problems associated with hysterical and epileptic affections, and in the case of cholera.
A traditional practice in some European countries was to tie a small piece of
asafetida around the necks of children to ward off diseases. During the days of the
Asafetida
229
American wild west, asafetida was mixed with other strong spices to treat alcoholism.
Saleem et al. (2001) found that asafetida inhibits early events of carcinogenesis.
They reported that asafetida demonstrated antioxidant and anticarcinogenic properties
in mice. Studies on several spices by Unnikrishnan and Kuttan (1990) have shown
that oral extract of asafetida can increase the lifespan of mice by 52.9%. However,
the effectiveness of asafetida in medicinal preparations is disputed in modern medicine.
The precise mode of action of asafetida in the human body is yet to be clearly
understood and little research has been done in this area.
Asafetida is still very much a wild crop. The asafetida-producing countries have
not studied the economics of production or the income it generates for the owners of
the plants. Since trade is not organized or controlled, traders enjoy the major share of
the profit. People are not generally aware of the price at which traders supply it to
other countries. There is scope to increase the productivity of asafetida by selecting
and growing high-yielding varieties and improving agronomic practices. Yield depends
greatly on the size the taproot attains after three to four years of growth. No serious
pests or diseases have been reported in the asafetida crop. Harvest and post-harvest
technology need to be improved to increase the amount of sap collected and to ensure
that better quality asafetida is produced.
12.8
References
ANDI, C., KATHERINE, R., SALLIE, M.
and LESLEY, M. (1997). The Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices,
Anness Publishing Ltd. London SE1.
ANON. (1991). Hand Book on Spices. National Institute of Industrial Research, Asia Pacific Business
Press Inc. Delhi-110007.
ANON. (2003). Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954, 24th edition. Eastern Book Company,
Lucknow, India.
CHATTERJEE, A. and PAKRASHI, S.C. (1995). Treatise on Medicinal Plants, Vol. 4. ICMR, Niscom, New
Delhi.
DUKE, J.A. (2003). CRC Handbook of Medicinal Plants, CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA. pp 167–170.
GEORGE, C.K. (1995). ‘A Glimpse of Asafetida’, Spice India 8 (8): 2–5.
Krishanmurthy, K.H. (1994). Traditional Family Medicine – Seasoning Herbs. Books for All,
Delhi-110052.
PETER, K.V. (2004). Handbook of Herbs and Spices, Vol. 2. CRC Press, New York/Woodhead Publishing
Limited, Cambridge, England: 77–81.
PRUTHI, J.S. (1976). Spices and Condiments, National Book Trust of India, New Delhi.
PRUTHI, J.S. (2001). Minor Spices and Condiments – Crop Management and Post Harvest Technology,
ICAR, New Delhi.
RAGHAVAN, B., ABRAHAM, K.O., SHANKARANARAYANA, M.L., SASTRY, L.V.L. and NATARAJAN, C.P. (1974).
‘Asafoetida 11. Chemical Composition and Physicochemical Properties’, Flav. Ind. 5, 179–181.
SALEEM, M., ALAM, A. and SULTANA, S. (2001). ‘Asafeotida Inhibits Early Events of Carcinogenesis:
a Chemopreventive Study’, Life Sci., 68 (16): 1913–921.
TIWARI, R.S. and ANKUR, A. (2004). Production Technology of Spices. International Book Distributing
Co. Lucknow, India-226 004.
UNNIKRISHNAN, M.C. and KUTTAN, R. (1990). ‘Tumor Reducing and Anti-carcinogenic Activity of
Selected Spices’, Cancer Lett., 51 (1): 65–89.
13
Capers and caperberries
G. O. Sozzi, Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICET, Argentina and
A. R. Vicente, CONICET–UNLP, Argentina
13.1
Introduction: brief description
The caper bush (Capparis spinosa L., Capparidaceae) is a winter-deciduous species
widespread in Mediterranean Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia. Its young flower
buds, known as capers, are greatly favoured for food seasoning and different parts of
the plant are used in the manufacture of medicines and cosmetics (Sozzi, 2001;
Rivera et al., 2003). This drought-tolerant perennial plant has a favourable influence
on the environment and it is utilized for landscaping and reducing erosion along
highways, steep rocky slopes, sand dunes or fragile semiarid ecosystems (Lozano
Puche, 1977). The caper plant has low flammability and may play a role in cutting
down forest fires (Neyişçi, 1987). It favours rural economies in marginal lands in
many circum-Mediterranean countries and neighbouring regions: Turkey, Morocco,
southeastern Spain, Italy (especially the Mediterranean island of Pantelleria, the
Aeolian island of Salina, and Sicily), Tunisia, France (Provence), Greece, Algeria,
Egypt, Asia Minor, Cyprus and the Levant. Whether indigenous to this region or not
is still unknown (Zohary, 1960). Considerable genetic variation for the caper bush
and its relatives exists, mainly in dry regions in west or central Asia. The genus
Capparis could be of a subtropical or tropical origin and only naturalized in the
Mediterranean basin (Pugnaire, 1989).
The caper bush is a perennial shrub 30 to 50 cm tall. Its roots can be six to ten
metres long (Reche Mármol, 1967; González Soler, 1973; Luna Lorente and Pérez
Vicente, 1985; Bounous and Barone, 1989). The root system may account for 65% of
the total biomass (Singh et al., 1992). Caper canopy is made up of four to six radial
decumbent branches from which many secondary stems grow. In wild bushes, Singh
et al. (1992) observed up to 47 branches per plant. Branches are usually from two to
three metres long. Stipular pale yellowish spines are often hooked and divaricate but
sometimes weakly developed or absent. Leaves are alternate, two to five centimetres
long, simple, ovate to elliptic, thick and glistening, with a rounded base and a mucronate,
obtuse or emarginate apex. Flower bud appearance is continuous so that all transitional
stages of development, from buds to fruit, can be observed simultaneously. The first
ten nodes from the base are usually sterile and the following ten only partially fertile;
Capers and caperberries
231
the subsequent nodes have a caper each, almost to the tip of the stem. Flowers are
hermaphroditic, five to seven centimetres across, axillary and solitary, with purplish
sepals and white petals. Stamens are numerous, with purplish filaments. The gynophore
is approximately as long as the stamens. The ovary is superior, one-locular, with five
to ten placentas. The fruit (caperberry) is ellipsoid, ovoid or obovoid, with a thin
pericarp. The fruit bursts when ripe, exposing many seeds embedded in a pale crimson
flesh. Seeds are three to four millimetres across, grey-brown and reniform. The
embryo is spirally in-curved. Germination is epigaeal. A thousand seeds weigh 6–8
g (Gorini, 1981; Akgül and Özcan, 1999; Li Vigni and Melati, 1999).
Caper bush is the most important member of the Capparidaceae economy-wise.
Capparis and relatives have been proposed to form a basal paraphyletic complex
within Brassicaceae (Zomlefer, 1994; Judd et al., 1999) on the basis of molecular
(Rodman et al., 1993) and morphological (Judd et al., 1994) cladistic analyses.
Taxonomists have long agreed that the caper family is very closely related to
Brassicaceae based on some major shared characters, particularly the original bicarpellate
ovary with parietal placentae, the vacuolar and utricular cysternae of the endoplasmic
reticulum, the presence of myrosin cells and glucosinolate production.
Species identification in the highly variable Capparis genus is difficult; the continuous
flux of genes (Jiménez, 1987) throughout its evolution has made it hard to reach
conclusions in the field of systematics. Besides, there have been divergent opinions
concerning the rank assigned to the different taxa and to their subordination (Zohary,
1960; Jacobs, 1965; St. John, 1965; Bokhari and Hedge, 1975; Rao and Das, 1978;
Higton and Akeroyd, 1991; Fici and Gianguzzi, 1997; Rivera et al., 1999; Fici,
2001). C. spinosa is morphologically closely related to C. orientalis Duhamel and C.
sicula Duhamel (Inocencio et al., 2005), and some authors have included those taxa
as belonging to C. spinosa (Higton and Akeroyd, 1991; Fici, 2001).
Identification and characterization of cultivars and species have traditionally been
based on morphological and physiological traits. However, such traits are not always
available for analysis and are affected by varying environmental conditions. Molecular
marker technology offers several advantages over just the use of phenotypic traits.
Molecular markers developed for Capparis are also a powerful tool for phylogenetic
studies. Genetic variation in capers from Italy and Tunisia was estimated by means
of random amplified polymorphic DNA techniques (Khouildi et al., 2000). On the
basis of amplified restriction fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting, Inocencio
et al. (2005) suggested that C. spinosa could be a cultigen derived form of C. orientalis
with some introgression from C. sicula.
13.2
Chemical composition
A considerable amount of literature exists on the phytochemical constituents of caper
bush, capers and caperberries (reviewed by Sozzi, 2001). The chemical composition
of capers and caperberries is affected by the genotype, harvest date, size, environmental
conditions and preservation procedures (Nosti Vega and Castro Ramos, 1987; Rodrigo
et al., 1992; Özcan and Akgül, 1998; Özcan, 1999a, 1999b; Inocencio et al., 2000).
Capers and caperberries are a good source of K, Ca, S, Mg, and P (Özcan, 2005)
(Table 13.1). High salt brine treatments greatly affect their chemical composition.
Protein and fibre, as well as mineral (Mg, K, Mn) and vitamin (thiamine, riboflavin,
232
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 13.1
Proximate composition of raw Capparis spinosa fruit and flower bud
Constituent
Water (%)
Protein (%)
Lipid (fat) (%)
Carbohydrate (%)
Fibre (%)
Ash (%)
Rutin (%)
Minerals
Calcium (mg/100 g)
Iron (mg/100 g)
Magnesium (mg/100 g)
Manganese (mg/100 g)
Phosphorus (mg/100 g)
Potassium (mg/100 g)
Sodium (mg/100 g)
Vitamins
Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g)
Thiamine (mg/100 g)
Riboflavin (mg/100 g)
Fruits (caperberries)
Flower buds (capers)
79.6A ; 82.7B
4.6A ; 3.34B
3.6A
3.2A
7.2A
1.8A
–
78.4C ; 76.8 to 80.3D
6.31C ; 4.59 to 6.79D
0.47C ; 1.51 to 1.77D
–
2.0C ; 4.5 to 5.9D
1.7C ; 1.33 to 1.84D
0.28C
28A
0.9A ; 0.54B
39A
0.72B
116.8B
383A ; 326.9B
18A ; 12.1B
183C ; 49 to 134D
1.37C ; 0.9 to 2.1D
57C ; 46.9 to 81.1D
0.29C
103.6C ; 16.6 to 26.4D
504.9C ; 502.4 to 598.3D
5.9C ; 19 to 28.5D
23A
0.69A
–
26E
0.7C
0.22C
(ABrand and Cherikoff, 1985; BÖzcan, 1999b; CNosti Vega and Castro Ramos, 1987; DRodrigo et al., 1992;
E
Lemmi Cena and Rovesti, 1979).
ascorbic acid) contents drop during preservation procedures, while ash increases due
to the addition of NaCl.
Both capers and caperberries are rich in unsaturated fatty acids. Oleic, linoleic and
linolenic acid represent 58 to 63.5% of total fatty acids in flower buds (Nosti Vega
and Castro Ramos, 1987; Rodrigo et al., 1992) and 73% in fruit (Özcan, 1999b). The
oil content of the seeds ranges from 27.3 to 37.6% in C. spinosa and from 14.6 to
38.0% in C. ovata, linoleic being the main fatty acid in both species (25–50%;
Matthäus and Özcan, 2005). These authors found that seed oils show high contents
of ∆5-avenasterol (138.8–599.4 mg/kg); this compound has been suggested as an
antioxidant and antipolymerization agent in cooking oils.
Capers are a good source of natural antioxidants. Antioxidant effectiveness of
caper methanolic extracts is conserved even after removal of glucosinolates thus
suggesting that the radical scavenging properties of capers are mainly due to other
metabolites such as phenolic compounds and flavonoids (Germanò et al., 2002)
(Table 13.1): rutin (quercetin 3-rutinoside), quercetin 7-rutinoside, quercetin 3-glucoside7-rhamnoside, kaempferol-3-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-glucoside, and kaempferol-3rhamnorutinoside (Rochleder and Hlasiwetz, 1852; Zwenger and Dronke, 1862; Ahmed
et al., 1972a; Tomás and Ferreres, 1976a, 1976b; Ferreres and Tomás, 1978; Artemeva
et al., 1981; Rodrigo et al., 1992; Sharaf et al., 1997; Inocencio et al., 2000). Rutin
and kaempferol-3-rutinoside are probably the most abundant flavonoids, followed by
kaempferol-3-rhamnorutinoside in significantly lower concentrations (Rodrigo et al.,
1992; Sharaf et al., 1997). Sharaf et al. (2000) identified a quercetin triglycoside
(quercetin 3-O-[6″′-α-L-rhamnosyl-6″-β-D-glucosyl]-β-D-glucoside) in methanolic
extract of the aerial part of caper bush. Two different 1H-indole-3-acetonitrile glycosides,
as well as (6S)-hydroxy3-oxo-α-ionol glucosides, have been isolated in methanolic
extracts of caperberries (Çaliş et al., 1999, 2002). Total flavonoids are greatly variable
Capers and caperberries
233
(1.82 to 7.85 mg/g) (Inocencio et al., 2000). A serving of capers (ten grams) will
provide 65 mg flavonoid glycosides or its equivalent, 40 mg quercetin as aglycone
(Inocencio et al., 2000).
Capers are rich in glucosinolates whose hydrolysis to glucose, sulphuric acid, and
isothiocyanates is catalyzed by the enzyme myrosinase. Guignard (1893b) first reported
the presence of this enzyme in C. spinosa. Isothiocyanates are well-known for the
important role they play in plant defence mechanisms, and also in human health as
cancer-preventing agents (Verhoeven et al., 1997). The high levels of glucosinolates
found in caper buds are only comparable with those of Brussels sprouts; other widely
consumed glucosinolate-containing vegetables such as cabbage or broccoli show
lower amounts (Matthäus and Özcan, 2002). Brassicaceae are usually considered a
major source of glucosinolates (Kjœr, 1963; Kjœr and Thomsen, 1963; Rosa et al.,
1997). The presence of glucosinolates is synapomorphic for members of this family
and lends additional support to the new phylogenetic classification (Judd et al.,
1999). In fact, the conclusion that Capparidaceae and Brassicaceae should remain
together, based on the presence of glucosinolates, was drawn 45 years ago (Hegnauer,
1961; Kjœr, 1963).
Methyl glucosinolate (glucocapparin) is the most common glucosinolate in the
Capparis genus (Ahmed et al., 1972b). Moreover, it accounts for 90% of the total
glucosinolates in C. spinosa buds (Matthäus and Özcan, 2002). Nevertheless, other
glucosinolates have also been detected in and isolated from caper plants. Those
include 2-propenyl glucosinolate (sinigrin), 3-methylsulfinylpropyl glucosinolate
(glucoiberin), indol-3-ylmethyl glucosinolate (glucobrassicin), and 1-methoxyindol3-ylmethyl glucosinolate (neoglucobrassicin) (Ahmed et al., 1972a; Matthäus and
Özcan, 2002). There are qualitative and quantitative differences in glucosinolate
composition in different caper tissues (Schraudolf, 1989; Matthäus and Özcan, 2002),
as happens with most glucosinolate-containing species (Rosa et al., 1997). Methyl
glucosinolate was reported to be present at levels in the range of 38–268 mg/kg in
capers treated with dry salt, brine or oil (Sannino et al., 1991). Interference in the
determination of dithiocarbamate residues in capers has been reported and seems to
be due to the presence of methyl glucosinolate (Sannino et al., 1991). However,
thiocyanates and isothiocyanates (odoriferous breakdown products of glucosinolates),
as well as other volatile compounds, do not interfere in those pesticide tests (Brevard
et al., 1992).
The flavour volatile profile of capers is complex. Analysis of the volatiles present
in the pickled flower buds indicated at least 160 different components (Brevard et al.,
1992). The nature of the volatiles involved is also very diverse and includes esters,
aldehydes, alcohols and other chemical groups. Elemental sulphur (S8) was identified
in the volatile fraction of capers, in addition to sulphur-containing compounds (e.g.,
thiocyanates and isothiocyanates) and raspberry-like components (α-ionone, β-ionone,
frambinone, zingerone). Also, the main constituents of the caperberry volatile oil are
isopropyl isothiocyanate (~52%) and methyl isothiocyanate (~42%) (Afsharypuor et
al., 1998).
13.3
Cultivation and production
13.3.1 Environmental requirements
The caper bush requires a semiarid climate. Mean annual temperatures in areas under
cultivation are over 14 °C and rainfall varies from 200 mm/year in Spain to 460 in
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Pantelleria Island and 680 in Salina Island. A rainy spring and a hot dry summer with
intense daylight are considered advantageous (Barbera, 1991). Harvest should last at
least three months for profitability. The caper bush can withstand strong winds and
temperatures over 40 °C in summer but it is sensitive to frost during its vegetative
period. It survives low temperatures in the form of stump, as it happens in the
foothills of the Alps. Caper plants have been found even 1000 m above sea-level
though they are usually grown at lower altitudes (Barbera et al., 1991).
The caper bush is a rupiculous species adapted to xeric areas. It is widespread on
rocky areas and is grown on different soil associations, including alfisols, regosols
and lithosols (Barbera, 1991; Fici and Gianguzzi, 1997). In different Himalayan and
Trans-Himalayan locations, C. spinosa tolerates both silty clay and sandy, rocky or
gravelly surface soils, with less than one per cent organic matter (Ahmed, 1986; Kala
and Mathur, 2002). It grows on bare rocks, crevices, cracks and sand dunes in Pakistan
(Ahmed and Qadir, 1976), in dry calcareous escarpments of the Adriatic region
(Lovric, 1993), in dry coastal ecosystems of Egypt, Libya and Tunisia (Ayyad and
Ghabbour, 1993), in transitional zones between the littoral salt marsh and the coastal
deserts of the Asian Red Sea coast (Zahran, 1993), in the rocky arid bottoms of the
Jordan valley (Turrill, 1953), in calcareous sandstone cliffs at Ramat Aviv, Israel
(Randall, 1993), and in coastal dunes of Australia (Specht, 1993) and Israel (Levin
and Ben-Dor, 2004). It also grows spontaneously in wall joints of buildings, antique
constructions and monuments (Sozzi, 2001, and references cited therein).
Deep and well-drained soils with sandy to sandy-loam textures are favoured (Barbera
and Di Lorenzo 1982, 1984; Ahmed, 1986; Özdemir and Öztürk, 1996), though caper
bush adapts to calcareous accumulations or moderate percentages of clay (González
Soler, 1973). It shows a good response to volcanic (Barbera and Di Lorenzo, 1982)
or gypseous soils (Font Quer, 1962) but is sensitive to poorly drained soils. Soil pH
between 7.5 and 8 are optimum (Gorini, 1981) though pH values from 6.1 to 8.5 are
tolerated (Duke and Terrel, 1974; Duke and Hurst, 1975; Ahmed, 1986). Caper bush
is usually not considered to be a halophyte but it was detected in the loamy solonchacks
of Bahrain coastal lowlands, where the conductivity may reach 54 dS/m (Abbas and
El-Oqlah, 1992).
Aerosols from sea-water-fed cooling towers proved to produce leaf chlorosis or
necrosis, probably due to chloride toxicity (Polizzi et al., 1995). In contrast, caper
bush withstands chronic levels of some other toxic gaseous pollutants. Krishnamurthy
et al. (1994) reported an unusual 93% retention of leaves when caper bush was
exposed to a mixture of sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, ammonia and suspended
particulate matter, although the photosynthetic area per leaf was reduced by 61% and
the fresh weight by 67%.
The caper bush has developed a series of features and mechanisms that reduce the
impact of high radiation levels, high daily temperature and insufficient soil water
during its growing period (Rhizopoulou, 1990; Levizou et al., 2004). C. spinosa has
devolved a very effective system to offset limited water resources (deep roots and
highly conductive wood). It is a stenohydric plant (Rhizopoulou et al., 1997) with a
highly specialized conducting tissue (Psaras and Sofroniou, 1999) and also thick
amphistomatous and homobaric leaves bearing a multilayered mesophyll, thick
outermost epidermal cell walls and small leaf intercellular cell space percentage
(Rhizopoulou and Psaras, 2003). Levizou et al. (2004) found that C. spinosa assimilates
up to 3.4 times more CO2 per m2 during its growth period than other species in
Mediterranean ecosystems. This correlates with greater stomata opening which leads
Capers and caperberries
235
to a higher transpiration rate and leaf temperature below air temperature. Additionally
net photosynthetic rate is conserved at important levels under high irradiance and
temperature without showing symptoms of photooxidative damage. Caper bush also
displays characteristics of a plant adapted to poor soils (Pugnaire and Esteban, 1991).
Its high root/shoot ratio and the presence of mycorrhizae serve to maximize the
uptake of minerals in poor soils. Different N2-fixing bacterial strains have been
isolated from the caper bush rhizosphere playing a role in maintaining high reserves
of that growth-limiting element (Andrade et al., 1997). Fertilization of cultivated
bushes probably leads to a luxury consumption of some nutrients, a typical response
of wild plants from infertile environments.
13.3.2 Reproductive biology
Caper bush is a perennial plant with a relatively short juvenile period. The biotype
Mallorquina can yield one kg/plant in the second year of cultivated growth. Temperature
is the main environmental factor affecting caper bush flowering. A positive correlation
between temperature and productivity has been observed (Luna Lorente and Pérez
Vicente, 1985). Fertility of the nodes is maximum (close to 100%) during the hottest
periods and lower at the beginning and end of the season (Barbera et al., 1991).
C. spinosa is night flowering (Petanidou et al., 1996). It blossoms for approximately
16 h, from ca. 18:00 h to ca. 10:00 h the next morning (Ivri, 1985; Petanidou et al.,
1996) and most nectar secretion is nocturnal. Caper flowers attract different insects,
among them hawk-moths and bees (Kislev et al., 1972; Eisikowitch et al., 1986;
Dafni et al., 1987; Dafni and Shmida, 1996). In Greece, flowers are mainly pollinated
by bees (Petanidou, 1991). Capparis spinosa has not evolved specific mechanisms to
prevent self-pollination. Nevertheless, the flower architecture, anthesis, colour and
odour indicate that self-pollination is not regularly found in caper bush.
C. spinosa is an important nectar source for pollinators in semiarid ecosystems
(Eisikowitch et al., 1986). Flower rewards in genus Capparis is affected by the
location and year (Petanidou et al., 1996) and differ significantly among taxa. C.
aegyptia has a higher pollen grain weight and its nectar is richer in total amino acids
(Eisikowitch et al., 1986). On the other hand, higher nectar concentration and volume
are found in C. ovata (Eisikowitch et al., 1986; Dafni et al., 1987). Amino acid
content and concentration, as well as hexose concentration, increase with flower age
while sucrose concentration decreases (Petanidou et al., 1996).
The juicy fruit is consumed by birds (Seidemann, 1970; Danin, 1983) like Sylvia
conspicillata, Oenanthe leucura (Hódar, 1994) and Chlamydotis (undulata) macqueenii
(van Heezik and Seddon, 1999) that disperse the seeds. Harvester ants (Luna Lorente
and Pérez Vicente, 1985; Li Vigni and Melati, 1999) and lizards like Lacerta lepida
(Hódar et al., 1996) feed on the fruit and carry off fragments together with the hardcoated seeds. Wasps are attracted by mature caperberry scent and also act as dispersal
agents (Li Vigni and Melati, 1999).
13.3.3 Propagation
Caper bush yields a large amount of seeds per generative shoot, although those seeds
have a low germination rate either under semidesert or optimal cultivation conditions.
Poor caper seed germination performance has been observed in Argentina (Sozzi and
Chiesa, 1995), Armenia (Ziroyan, 1980), Cyprus (Orphanos, 1983), India (Singh et
236
Handbook of herbs and spices
al., 1992), Italy (Cappelletti, 1946; Barbera and Di Lorenzo, 1984; Macchia and
Casano, 1993), Spain (Reche Mármol, 1967; Luna Lorente and Pérez Vicente, 1985;
Pascual et al., 2003, 2004), Turkey (Yildirim, 1998; Söyler and Arslan, 1999; Tansi,
1999) and the USA (Stromme, l988; Bond, l990). However, caper bush propagation
is usually carried out by seed owing to the serious rooting problems associated with
cuttings. Low germination percentages (5–15%) are obtained within two to three
months of seeding.
Different treatments have been used to improve the germination percentage, including
mechanical scarification (sand paper, ultrasound, etc.), stratification, soaking in
concentrated H2SO4 or H2O2, or in 0.2% KMnO4, 0.2% KNO3, gibberellin (GA4+7)
or gibberellic acid (GA3) aqueous solutions, and manipulation of the environmental
conditions (light/dark, temperature) (Reche Mármol, l967; Ministerio de Agricultura,
1980; Orphanos, 1983; Singh et al., 1992; Macchia and Casano, 1993; Sozzi and
Chiesa, 1995; Yildirim, 1998; Söyler and Arslan, 1999; Tansi, 1999). Caper seed
germination depends on the covering structures (Sozzi and Chiesa, 1995). The seed
of the genus Capparis is bitegmic (Corner, 1976). The testa is 0.2–0.3 mm thick, with
all its cell walls somewhat lignified, some of them with distinct thickening; its
tegmen consists of an outer fibrous, lignified layer four to ten-cell thick, with a
lignified endotegmen composed of contiguous cuboid cells, with strongly thickened
radial walls. Only the mesophyll between exo- and endotegmen is unlignified (Guignard,
1893a; Corner, 1976). As the integrity of the covering structures is very important for
dormancy persistence in caper seeds, the seed coats are very likely to be the main
cause for the seed low germination rate (Sozzi and Chiesa, 1995). A physiological
dormancy could also explain the response to GA3 (Pascual et al., 2004). Nevertheless,
the viable embryos germinate within three to four days after partial removal of the
lignified seed coats (Sozzi and Chiesa, 1995), while GA3-treated seeds germinate
within 20 to 70 days (Pascual et al., 2004). The seed coats and the mucilage surrounding
the seeds may be ecological adaptations to avoid water loss and conserve seed viability
during the dry season (Scialabba et al., 1995).
Seeds lie without order in the pericarp, each of them surrounded by an adherent
layer of pulp. They can be obtained by rubbing and washing followed by drying in
the shade. Large or medium-size fruits set in the central or apical region of the stems
are adequate sources of dull brown mature seeds (Pascual et al., 2003). Those seeds
are over 90% viable (Orphanos, 1983; Sozzi and Chiesa, 1995; Tansi, 1999) for two
years if held at 4 °C and low relative humidity. Seeds obtained from small not-yetopened fruits are generally light brown and immature. The final germination percentage
is also affected by fruit position on the plant and fruit weight (Pascual et al., 2003).
Commercial lots of seed are usually pre-germinated in February or March in
boxes or bins (Luna Lorente and Pérez Vicente, 1985). Seeds are packed in moist
river sand, or compost made of two parts turfy loam and one part leaf-mould and
sand, or in mixtures with vermiculite or perlite (Foster and Louden, 1980; Kontaxis,
1989). Small lots can be pre-germinated in boxes; moderate to large lots are usually
pre-germinated in bins located in a protected place. Two to four layers of seed are
packed in each bin and covered with a sand layer. Seeds are sprinkled with water and
treated with captan or captafol. Careful moisture control and the use of well-drained
containers are essential to ensure proper wetting as well as aeration. Sprouted seeds
are obtained and planted after 25 to 50 days. In Spain, nursery preparation begins in
February using calcareous soils with loam to clay-loam textures and irrigation. After
proper cultivating, seeds (1.5–2 g/m) are planted about 1.5 cm deep, in 30 or 40 cm-
Capers and caperberries
237
apart rows. Most caper nurseries use furrow irrigation on a two-week basis. Yields of
45 to 50 seedlings per metre may be obtained after 30 days. Transplants may also be
produced under protected conditions using floating row covers. Some nurseries use
pots or polyethylene bags where plants remain until outdoor transplanting.
Use of stem cuttings avoids high variability in terms of production and quality.
Nevertheless, plants grown from cuttings are more susceptible to drought during the
first years after planting. Caper bush is a difficult-to-root woody species and successful
propagation requires careful consideration of biotypes and seasonal and environmental
parameters. Rooting percentages up to 55 are possible when using one-year-old
wood, depending on cutting harvest time and substrate utilized (Pilone, 1990a).
Propagation from stem cuttings is the standard method for growing ‘Mallorquina’
and ‘Italiana’ in Spain, and ‘Nocella’ in Salina. Hardwood cuttings vary in length
from 15 to 50 cm and diameter of the cuttings may range from 1 to 2.5 cm. Another
possibility is to collect stems during February through the beginning of March, treat
them with captan or captafol and stratify them outdoors or in a chamber at 3–4 °C,
covered with sand or plastic. Moisture content and drainage should be carefully
monitored and maintained until planting (Luna Lorente and Pérez Vicente, 1985).
Using semi-hardwood cuttings, collected and planted during August and September,
low survival rates (under 30%) have been achieved. Softwood cuttings are prepared
in April from 25- to 30-day shoots. Each cutting should contain at least two nodes
and be six to ten centimetres long. Basal or subterminal cuttings are more successful
than terminal ones. Then, cuttings are planted in a greenhouse under a mist system
with bottom heat; 150 to 200 cuttings m–2 may be planted.
Dipping the cutting basal end into 1500–3000 mg/l auxin solution may enhance
rooting (Pilone, 1990b) but results depend on the type of cutting. Hardwood cuttings
do not seem to respond to indole-3-butyric acid or α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA)
pre-treatments. On the other hand, dipping the herbaceous cutting base in a 2000 ppm
NAA yielded rooting percentages of 83% (Luna Lorente and Pérez Vicente, 1985).
Successful in vitro culture was achieved from nodal shoot segments. 6benzylaminopurine stimulated proliferation and shoot development; when combined
with indoleacetic acid (IAA) and GA3, formation of proliferating clusters was enhanced
(Rodríguez et al., 1990). High rooting response was obtained by using 30 µM IAA
(Rodríguez et al., 1990). The presence of abnormal vitrified shoots was observed in
some cases and could be prevented by means of alternate culture in cytokinin-enriched
and hormone-free media, or normalized by using sucrose-enriched medium
(Safrazbekyan et al., 1990). Because of the difficulties of caper bush conventional
propagation, micropropagation may be a promising alternative technique.
Grafting is a less common method of propagation for caper bush. In Spain, acceptable
results (60% scion take) were obtained using bark grafting in plantings. Nurseries
generally whip-graft with survival rates of 70–75% (Luna Lorente and Pérez Vicente,
1985).
13.3.4 Orchard establishment
Caper plantings over 25 to 30 years old are still productive. Thus, physical properties
of the soil (texture and depth) are particularly important. Caper bush can develop an
extensive root system and grows best on deep, non-stratified, medium-textured, loamy
soils. Mouldboard plowing and harrowing are usual practices prior to caper plant
establishment (Luna Lorente and Pérez Vicente, 1985). Soil-profile modification
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Handbook of herbs and spices
practices, such as slip ploughing operating 0.6 to 1 m deep, can ameliorate some
restrictions (Massa Moreno, 1987). In Pantelleria, digging backhoe pits for each
shrub was found to be the most effective means of cultivating caper in rocky soils
(Barbera, 1991). Two planting designs are used: square/rectangle and hedgerow system.
Spacing is determined by the vigour of the biotype, fertility of the soil, equipment to
be used and the irrigation method, if any. Bush spacing of 2.5 × 2.5 m (Barbera and
Di Lorenzo, 1982) or 2.5 × 2 m (Bounous and Barone, 1989) is common in Pantelleria.
In Salina, 3 × 3 m is satisfactory for ‘Nocella’. In Spain, 4 × 4 or 5 × 5 m is
satisfactory for ‘Mallorquina’. Spacing of 2 to 2.5 m is appropriate if C. spinosa is
used to control soil erosion on slopes.
Nursery plants, propagated as seedlings or rooted cuttings, are dug in the nursery
row during the dormant season. In the Aeolian Archipelago, transplanting is carried
out in January or February, but in zones of the Iberian Peninsula with prolonged
winter, it takes place during February through early March, after the last frosts. In
Argentina, transplanting is generally made in July through August. Transplanting is
carried out by hand. Caper bush may be transplanted either bare-root or containerized.
Most plants are handled bare-root and replanted immediately in their permanent
location or heeled-in in a convenient place with the roots well covered. Field beds
should be well prepared and watered. Containerized plants are used only where lack
of irrigation is the chief factor limiting transplanting success.
13.3.5 Pruning
Caper bush is usually dormant pruned. After removal of dead tissue, it must be
pruned of weak, non-productive wood and water sprouts. The caper bush benefits
from a short and heavy spur pruning which reduces branches to a length of 1–3 cm
or 5–10 cm when the plant is young and vigorous (Barbera and Di Lorenzo, 1982,
1984; Luna Lorente and Pérez Vicente, 1985). It is important to leave several buds on
the spur as only the one-year-old stems will bear flower buds for the current season.
Early summer pruning involves thinning out weak stems when the caper bush is in
active shoot growth, 30 to 40 days after budding. A strong plant may have as many
as six stems, strategically distributed to obtain an open canopy with uniform light
penetration throughout. Summer pruning also involves heading back a few of the
new shoots to induce flower bud formation.
13.3.6 Plant nutrition
Fertilization should begin 20–30 days before planting. At that time, 100 kg/ha ammonium
sulphate, 400 kg/ha single superphosphate and 150 kg/ha potassium chloride have
been suggested in Spain (Massa Moreno, 1987). Fertilizers may be broadcast on the
surface and incorporated by tilling or cultivating, or surface band applied. In Pantelleria,
plots are enriched with organic or inorganic fertilizers applied to the backhoe pits
(Barbera, 1991).
The types of fertilizer used and application rates should be related to plant age and
soil nutrient content (Sozzi, 2001). Measurement of the total concentration of a
nutrient in the plant and extraction of different elements from soil is useful to diagnose
mineral deficiencies (Sozzi, 2001). Phosphate and potassium fertilizers are generally
applied every two to three years. Instead, ammonium fertilizers are incorporated
annually into the soil, late in winter before sprouting.
Capers and caperberries
239
In Pantelleria and Salina, N-P-K fertilizers are applied during winter (December
and January) at a rate of 200–300 g/plant (Barbera and Di Lorenzo, 1982; Barbera,
1991). Bounous and Barone (1989) suggested that fertilizations with 150–200 kg/ha
of ammonium sulphate and additional P-K applications would be appropriate for
mature plantings.
13.3.7 Irrigation
Caper bush is cultivated mostly in poor non-irrigated lands. Though it tolerates water
stress well, water is the most limiting production factor. Irrigation is specially important
during the first year when the caper bush is highly sensitive to water stress. In
Pantelleria and Salina, irrigation is impossible due to the lack of hydric resources
(Barbera and Di Lorenzo, 1984). Nevertheless, a type of mulching – which may
include placing stones around the young plants – is utilized to protect them from
wind action and thus reduce evaporation. In Spain and Argentina, additional water is
usually provided during the first year.
The caper bush shows its productive potential under irrigation (longer vegetative
cycle, larger bud production that begins earlier and shorter intervals between harvests),
though the plant tends to be more prone to diseases (Jiménez Viudez, 1987). In Spain,
irrigation begins in January when caper bush is grown with almond trees or in
February or March when grown alone and it ends in August in either case (Jiménez
Viudez, 1987). Yields were doubled and even tripled when irrigation was used in
Almería (it rains 96 mm from February through August), Jaén (284 mm), and Murcia
(156 mm). In 1984, the average yield in Spain was 1365 kg/ha in irrigated plantings
and 650 kg/ha in non-irrigated plantings (Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y
Alimentación, 1989). In 1988, 837 ha were irrigated in Almería, Murcia, and Jaén
(Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, 1988). In 1995, only 41 ha (mainly
in Murcia, Córdoba, and Valencia) were still under irrigation due to the increasing
competition from caper grown in Turkey and Morocco (Ministerio de Agricultura,
Pesca y Alimentación, 1997). A point source sprinkler system may be utilized. Total
volumes of 12–140 l/plant-week, depending on the climatic conditions, are supplied
under irrigation (Jiménez Viudez, 1987).
13.3.8 Pests and diseases
C. spinosa is not very sensitive to pest damage when growing wild. Nevertheless,
some phytophagous species attack caper in its main production areas. Insecticide
treatments are restricted by the short interval between harvests (7–10 days): only
low-persistence active principles can be used. In Pantelleria, the caper moth
(Capparimyia savastanoi Mart.) and the caper bug (Bagrada hilaris Bm.) are considered
the most important pests. The control of caper moth relies on the removal of infested
leaves, combined with the use of poisoned hydrolyzed protein baits in summer when
populations are high (Longo and Siscaro, 1989; Longo, 1996). The caper bug was
first found on wild plants (Carapezza, 1981) and, later on, attacking cultivated caper
plantings (Genduso, 1990). The pale creamy oval eggs, which turn to orange as the
insect develops (Mineo and Lo Verde, 1991), are laid singly on the ground, in the
cracks of the bordering field walls and, more rarely, on the leaves. At the beginning
of spring it attacks different wild plants, among them caper bush which grows weak
and rapidly yellows. Pyrethroid formulations are used to control this insect. The
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Handbook of herbs and spices
chemicals are applied either to the walls or to the plants after harvest is finished
(Barbera, 1991). The painted bug (Bagrada picta Fabr.; Pentatomidae) is a pest of
cruciferous oilseed crops and has been reported to thrive on caper bush at Tandojam
during summer (Mahar, 1973).
The larval form of the weevil Acalles barbarus Lucas causes damage to the root
system (Liotta, 1977). In general, its targets are weak adult plants previously affected
by other insects. The only effective control is the removal of the attacked plants.
Other insect pests in Italy are Phyllotreta latevittata Kutsch (Chrysomelidae) which
causes oval to round erosions in leaves, leaf yellowing and stem decay, and Asphondylia
spp. (Cecidomyiidae) and Cydia capparidana Zeller (Tortricidae) which alter the
morphology of buds (Harris, 1975; Orphanides, 1975, 1976). The braconid Chelonus
elaeaphilus Silv., a promising parasite of Prays oleae (an olive pest), was also recovered
from C. capparidana infesting caper bush (Fimiani, 1978). Rapisarda (1984–85)
reported the occurrence of Aleurolobus niloticus Priesner & Hosny (Aleyrodidae), a
polyphagous species that feeds only on caper bush leaves in Sicily.
Caper bush is the only larval host plant available in Southern Spain during the dry
season for different Pieridae: cabbage small white (Pieris rapae L.) and large white
(Pieris brassicae L.) butterflies, and desert orange tip (Colotis evagore Klug.) (Fernández
García, 1988; Jordano et al., 1991). P. rapae also attacks in California (Kontaxis,
1990) and in the Badkhyzskii Reserve, Turkmen (Murzin, 1986). The larvae of P.
rapae and P. brassicae usually use cruciferous plants in the rainy season and caper
bush in summer when Brassicaceae are dry (Fernández García, 1988). Oviposition
takes place preferentially on the ground or on dried material around the host plant. C.
evagore larvae are unable to survive on alternative cruciferous hosts (Jordano and
Retamosa, 1988; Jordano et al., 1991) but they complete their life cycle successfully
in certain coastal enclaves where caper bush provides sufficient resources throughout
the year. The adult lays red eggs singly, on young leaves, stems and inert supports
next to the food plant (Fernández et al., 1986; Fernández Haeger and Jordano Barbudo,
1986). Caper bush and other related species are also the commonest food plants of
other Pieridae in Saudi Arabia, such as Anaphaeis aurota F., Colotis fausta fausta
Olivier and Colotis liagore Klug. (Pittaway, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1985). These species
deposit the eggs on isolated bushes in rocky scarps and cliffs. Eventually, caper
plants may be completely stripped of foliage, the resulting bare branches carrying
pupae and larvae. Pyrethroids can be used to control all of these Pieridae pests
(Massa Moreno and Luna Lorente, 1985). Larvae of Lampides boeticus L. (Lycaenidae),
which have anthophagous and carpophagous habits, have also been found to feed on
caper buds (Jordano Barbudo et al., 1988).
The pentatomid bug Eurydema ornata L. attacks caper bush leaves and may cause
serious damage (Fernández et al., 1986). The green stink bug Nezara viridula L. has
caused some damage in Spain and Argentina. All these Hemiptera can be controlled
by using trichlorfon, endosulphan, dimethoate or chlorpyriphos. Other insect pests
detected in caper include Ceuthorhynchus sp. (Curculionidae) and Heliothis-Helicoverpa
(Noctuidae). Many ant species (Camponotus spp., Plagiolepis pygmaea, Crematogaster
auberti, Crematogaster sordidula, Formica subrufa, Tetramonium hispanica, and
Cataglyphis viaticoides) have been found feeding on caper plants (Fernández et al.,
1986). In California, caper bush can be damaged by cabbageworm, black vine weevil
and flea beetle, as well as gophers, snails and slugs (Kontaxis, 1998).
Damping-off diseases, caused by several fungi (Pythium spp., Fusarium spp.
Verticillium spp., etc.), may be severe. Frequently, caper seedlings are completely
Capers and caperberries
241
destroyed either when they are placed in seedbeds or after being transplanted. Seedlings
are usually attacked at the roots or in the stems at or below the soil line, and the
invaded areas soon collapse. These diseases can be controlled through the use of
sterilized soil and chemically treated seeds. The most important fungus attacking
caper leaves and flowers is probably the white rust disease (Albugo capparidis De
By.). A list of fungi affecting caper bush was given by Ciferri (1949).
Neoramularia capparidis spec. nov. produces small greyish-white leaf spots with
narrow brown margin in India (Bagyanarayana et al., 1994). Caper bush is also a host
of Leveillula taurica (Lev.) G. Arnaud, causal agent of the powdery mildew (Gupta
and Bhardwaj, 1998; Kavac, 2004). Caper plants were reported to have been infected
with Botrytis spp. and Pythium spp. in California (Kontaxis, 1990).
A Caper vein banding virus (CapVbV) was reported in Sicily and was tentatively
assigned to the carlavirus group (Majorana, 1970). Gallitelli and Di Franco (1987)
showed that this virus infects caper plant symptomlessly and suggested the name
Caper latent virus (CapLV, genus Carlaviruses, family Flexiviridae). The real causal
agent of vein banding may be a rhabdovirus, the Caper vein yellowing virus (CapVYV)
that may infect caper bush simultaneously to the CapLV (Di Franco and Gallitelli,
1985). New serological tests have shown that CapVYV is indistinguishable from the
Pittosporum vein yellowing virus (PVYV, genus Nucleorhabdovirus, family
Rhabdoviridae) (Nuzzaci et al. 1993). C. spinosa is also a natural host of the Cucumber
mosaic virus (CMV, genus Cucumovirus, family Bromoviridae) (Tomassoli et al.,
2005).
13.3.9 Main cultivars
The commercial product known as ‘capers’ is actually being obtained from different
species (C. spinosa, C. orientalis, C. sicula, etc.) with intermediate biotypes and
similar genetic background (Inocencio et al., 2005). This fact complicates quality
control and challenges researchers to develop new simple methods to discriminate
different cultivars or species (Inocencio et al., 2002).
The main caper germplasm collections are located in Italy and Spain. Many biotypes
have been chosen by growers owing to some advantageous characteristics. Features
of interest that should represent the current scope in caper bush improvement programs
are: (i) high productivity (long stems, short internodes and high node fertility); (ii)
deep green spherical flower buds, with close non-pubescent bracts and late opening;
(iii) absence of stipular spines and easy stalk separation to simplify harvest and
postharvest operations; (iv) processed product with an agreeable appearance; (v)
capacity for agamic reproduction; (vi) resistance to water stress, cold and pests; (vii)
oval fruit with light green pericarp and few seeds; (viii) thick and tender stem tip
(food use).
Caper biotypes are commonly referred to as C. spinosa but many of them belong
to other taxa (Inocencio et al., 2005). The most attractive Italian commercial biotypes
are ‘Nocellara’ (a cultivar within C. orientalis), and ‘Nocella’ (Barbera et al., 1991;
Fici and Gianguzzi, 1997). Both are highly productive and yield high quality capers
(almost spherical shape, conserved integrity after brining). ‘Nocellara’ does not bear
spines, and ‘Nocella’ has very small harmless ones. On the other hand, ‘Nocella’ does
not resist drought. Other Italian biotypes are ‘Ciavulara’ (Barbera et al., 1991; Fici
and Gianguzzi, 1997), ‘Testa di lucertola’ (Barbera et al., 1991), ‘Spinoso of Pantelleria’
(Barbera et al., 1991; Fici and Gianguzzi, 1997) and ‘Spinoso of Salina’ (a cultivar
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within C. sicula subsp. sicula; Barbera et al., 1991; Fici and Gianguzzi, 1997).
‘Ciavulara’ is less productive and its buds tend to open precociously; capers are
flatter and flake easily during postharvest treatments, giving a poor aspect to the final
product. ‘Testa di lucertola’ (‘Lizard’s head’) produces capers with a lengthened
pyramid shape. ‘Spinoso of Pantelleria’ and ‘Spinoso of Salina’ have conspicuous
axillary spines. In ‘Spinoso of Pantelleria’, the leaf tips also bear a small thorn.
‘Spinoso of Salina’ is less productive; its capers are flattened pyramidal and tend to
flake during postharvest curing. Another Italian biotype is ‘Tondino’ (Caccetta, 1985),
grown in Pantelleria and Salina.
The most important Spanish biotypes are ‘Común’ or ‘del País’ and ‘Mallorquina’
(Luna Lorente and Pérez Vicente, 1985; Rivera et al., 1999). ‘Común’ is a heterogeneous
population with spiny stems which dry out completely in winter. ‘Mallorquina’ has
long spiny stems, bright green leaves and small seedy fruit. ‘Mallorquina’ is highly
productive, presents a vigorous growth and has extraordinary yields under irrigation.
Other biotypes within C. spinosa are cultivated to a lesser extent in the Balearic
Islands: ‘Redona’, ‘Roses’, ‘De las Muradas’, ‘Figues Seques’ and ‘Peluda’ (Rivera
et al., 1999). ‘Redona’ is a spiny but highly productive biotype, yielding high quality
capers. On the other hand, ‘Fulla Redona’ is a biotype within C. orientalis, with no
spines. It can be considered a promising biotype due to the quality and quantity of its
produce.
13.3.10 World production and yield
The economic importance of the caper bush led to a significant increase in both the
area being cultivated and production levels during the late 1980s. Caper production
and trade have become highly competitive. The average annual production is estimated
to be around 10 000 t: 3500–4500 t are produced in Turkey, 3000 t in Morocco, 500–
1000 t in Spain, and 1000–2000 t in other countries. Caper commercial exchange
involves over 60 countries. Turkey is the leading caper-exporting country. The United
States was one of the most important caper consumers during the 1990s.
Harvest is the costliest operation of caper production. It may represent 2/3 of the
total labour in the crop management process as it is done manually. Harvest is
difficult and time-consuming due to: (i) the decumbent character of the branches; (ii)
the presence of stipular spines in some biotypes; (iii) high temperatures and solar
radiation during summer in caper-producing areas; (iv) the small diameter of flower
buds. Since flower buds are arranged along twigs which have an indeterminate growth
habit, twigs should not be cut.
Caper bush yields are highly variable depending on the growing environment,
cultural practices and biotype but a maximum yield is expected in the fourth year. A
mature caper plant may produce 4–5 kg/year. According to Lozano Puche (1977) a
wild growing plant yields 2–3 kg/year in Spain, but the same caper bush has the
potential to produce 6–9 kg/year when cultivated in irrigated fertile soils (Jiménez
Viudez 1987). Great differences in yield are attributed to genetic variations. A threeyear old ‘del País’ planting yields 1–1.5 t/ha-year, but this production may be doubled
and even tripled by using ‘Mallorquina’. Bounous and Barone (1989) indicated average
annual yields of 1–1.5 kg/plant and yields as high as 4 kg/plant in the third and fourth
years of cultivated growth. Barbera and Di Lorenzo (1982) reported average annual
yields of 1–1.5 kg/plant in Pantelleria (maximum yields of 4–5 kg/plant) and 2–3 kg/
plant in Salina in three-year plantings (average annual yields of 3–4 t/ha). On the
Capers and caperberries
243
other hand, Caccetta (1985) estimated annual yields of 1.2–2.5 t/ha in Pantelleria and
1.8–2.6 in Salina.
13.4
Uses in food processing
13.4.1 Postharvest technology
Different physico-mechanic characteristics of capers and caperberries have been
assessed and this information will help to develop more efficient handling and processing
systems (Özcan and Aydin, 2004; Özcan et al., 2004). After harvest, capers are
placed in shallow vats. In Spain, postharvest conditioning is generally performed by
local traders, cooperatives or producer associations. After removing rests of leaves
and pedicels, a first selection of capers takes place and blemished and open buds are
discarded. Then, capers are subjected to a first sieving, which generally size-grades
them into two size groups, with diameters lower or higher than 8–9 mm. Capers are
valued in proportion to the smallness of their size. This first classification provides
an incentive for recollection of smaller capers and makes the subsequent industrial
steps easier.
Fresh capers have an intensely bitter taste and one of the purposes of the pickling
process, besides preservation, is to remove this unpleasant flavour. This is due to the
presence of the glucoside glucocapparin, which is readily hydrolyzed to by-products
completely lacking the bitter taste. After aeration in a well-ventilated place, capers
are packed in wooden or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) barrels, fibreglass tanks or large
casks and treated with high salt brine (ca 16% NaCl w/v at the equilibrium, increasing
to 20% after changing the first brine). After filling, the casks are hermetically closed
and placed in the sun. In order to reach the equilibrium in salt concentration, barrels
are rolled during the early stage of brining. Periodical salt checks should be performed,
also ensuring that the brine completely covers the material. This ‘wet’ curing process
lasts 20–30 days (Luna Lorente and Pérez Vicente, 1985) but capers may be stored
under such conditions for several months, until final industrial conditioning takes
place. Thus, capers may be classified as fully brined vegetables (Ranken, 1988)
which may be regarded as a stable product during storage.
High salt-containing brines are increasingly being objected to (Alvarruiz et al.,
1990; Rodrigo et al., 1992). Organoleptic characteristics and preservation of the final
product proved to be the same over at least 27 months when capers had been pretreated with 10, 15, or 20% NaCl at equilibrium (Alvarruiz et al., 1990). High salt
concentrations inhibit both the growth of undesirable microorganisms and the activity
of lactic acid bacteria. Lower NaCl brines (i.e. 5%) are more likely to permit growth
of coliform bacteria, yeasts and moulds (Özcan and Akgül, 1999a). Fermentation
takes place at a higher rate when pickling small (≤ 8 mm) buds (Özcan and Akgül,
1999a). In Italy, growers arrange capers in cement tanks, PVC or wooden barrels, or
open drums, between layers of solid salt (10–15% w/w). This promotes the extraction
of water from the raw product by osmosis and generates a saturated brine. This
treatment lasts 7–8 days. Then, the brine is removed and the capers are submitted to
the same process once or twice more (Barbera, 1991). Capers are also pickled in
vinegar (at least 4% acidity as acetic acid) in a 1:1 (w/v) ratio (Reche Mármol, 1967).
Regular topping-up with vinegar ensures that all the capers remain covered. This
pickling process lasts 30 days. Only 10% of vinegar is absorbed by the product, the
remainder being discarded at the end of the period.
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Following the completion of the curing period, the industrial processing is completed
in three steps. First, capers are drained and rinsed with several changes of water to
dislodge and remove all sediment. Second, damaged buds are disposed of and capers
are carefully size-graded according to a grading system (Table 13.2). Finally, capers
are prepared in a variety of ways and packed as a finished product.
Pasteurization (80 °C, 15 min) of the final product attains favourable consumer
acceptance. It is used to prevent the development of human pathogens. These heat
treatments can further prevent the development of certain spoilage-causing
microorganisms (Ranken, 1988; Alvarruiz et al., 1990). Without pasteurization, 6–
10% NaCl and 1% acidity as acetic acid (w/v) are required in the final product to
avoid the risk of spoilage (Alvarruiz et al., 1990; Özcan and Akgül, 1999b). In some
cases, NaCl is avoided and covering capers with diluted acetic acid or distilled malt
vinegar (4.3 to 5.9% acetic acid) serves as an alternative. In Italy, the final product
is treated with dry salt. Such preparation decreases the cost of transportation and
grants a more intensive flavour. In Spain, a similar treatment is carried out with
capers of large diameter. Capers are drained and mixed with dry salt (20% maximum).
The caper industry discontinued the use of olive oil in caper preparations due to its
high cost. Other special preparations, including wine vinegar, with or without the
addition of tarragon, Artemisia dracunculus L. (Vivancos Guerao, 1948), are also
expensive and exclusively utilized with capers of small diameter. Sweetening ingredients
like sugar are added to those capers exported to Denmark or some northern European
countries (González Soler, 1973).
Capers are generally packed in PVC or wooden barrels of 180–200 kg for the
pickle industry but 40-kg barrels are used for packing ‘non pareil’ and ‘surfine’
capers, depending on the country importing them. For retail sale, capers are packed
in various kinds of glass or plastic flasks containing 20 g to 5 kg, or translucent
sachets of 0.1 to 1 kg. Five-kilogram flasks and sachets are usually sold to restaurants
and coffee-shops.
Traditionally, caperberries are fermented by dipping in water for four to seven
days. This immersion produces a strong fermentation accompanied by a colour change
(from green to yellowish) and loss of texture due to flesh breakdown and gas
accumulation. This step affects the value of the product and has proven to be unnecessary
(Sánchez et al., 1992). Lactic acid bacteria show faster growth rates at low NaCl
concentrations (Sánchez et al., 1992) but, as for capers, undesirable microorganisms
can grow in 5% NaCl brines (Özcan, 1999a). In order to protect caperberries from
Table 13.2
Caper grading system
Number of flower buds/kg
Diameter
(mm)
Commercial
denomination
According to
Barbera (1991)
According to Luna Lorente
and Pérez Vicente (1985)
<7
7–8
8–9
9–10
10–11
11–12
12–13
13–14
Non Pareil
Surfine
Capucine
Capote
Capote
Fine
Fine
Grosse
5,500
4,000
3,250
2,600
2,200
1,900
1,600
–
7,000
4,000
4,000
2,000
2,000
1,300
1,300
800
Capers and caperberries
245
spoilage during fermentation, 4–5% NaCl brines may be adequate (Sánchez et al.,
1992) but fermentation must be continuously controlled (Özcan, 1999a). Fermentation
should last 20–25 days. Brines with 10% (Sánchez et al., 1992) to 15% (Özcan,
1999a) NaCl at equilibrium create a favourable environment for pickled caperberry
storage. Sorbic and benzoic acids, as well as their corresponding sodium and potassium
salts, are used as preservatives during final packing. A method combining steam
distillation (extraction) and HPLC determination could be used to control the levels
of those preservatives in caperberries (Montaño et al., 1995).
13.4.2 Food use
Consumption of capers and caperberries has a long history. Direct evidence of the
consumption of Capparis spp. from 18,000 to 17,000 years ago was obtained by
archaeological excavations from an Old World Palaeolithic site (Wadi Kubbaniya,
west of Nile Valley, Upper Egypt) (Hillman, 1989). Prehistoric remains of wild
caperberries were also recovered from sites in south-west Iran and in Iraq (Tigris)
and dated to 6000 BC (Renfrew, 1973). Also, remains of caper seeds were recovered
in quantity from different archaeological sites and dated to 9000–8000 BC (van Zeist
and Bakker-Heeres, 1982, 1986; Willcox, 1996). A Bronze Age jar bearing carbonized
flower buds and unripe fruit was found at Tell es Sweyhat (Syria) and suggests the
consumption of pickled capers during the Bronze Age (van Zeist and Bakker-Heeres,
1988). The caper bush was utilized by ancient Greeks, Hebrews and Romans (reviewed
by Sozzi, 2001; Rivera et al., 2002) and both capers and caperberries are recognized
as safe products when used as spices for natural seasoning.
There are almost 400 recipes that include capers (CondéNet, 2005), most of them
compiled from specialized journals (Gourmet, Bon Appetit). Capers have a sharp
piquant flavour and are mainly used as a seasoning to add pungency to: (i) sauces
(e.g., tartare, remoulade, ravigote, vinaigrette, sauce gribiche, tarragon sauce, and
caper sauce); (ii) dressings and salads (e.g., caponata, a cold eggplant salad with
olives and capers); (iii) cold dishes (vithel tohnné), or sauces served with salmon,
herring, whiting, or turbot; (iv) pasta, pizzas and canapés; (v) cheeses (e.g., liptauer
cheese); and (vi) lamb, mutton, pork or chicken preparations (Hayes, 1961; Knëz,
1970; Machanik, 1973; Nilson, 1974; Baccaro, 1978; Stobart, 1980). A complex
organoleptic profile is responsible for caper flavour (Brevard et al., 1992). Caperberries
and tender young shoots of the caper bush are also pickled for use as condiments, as
previously described.
The unripe seeds or pickled buds of other species (Tropaeolum majus L., Caltha
palustris L., Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link., Zygophyllum fabago L., Euphorbia lathyrus
L.) are sometimes suggested as substitutes of capers (Redgrove, 1933; Vivancos
Guerao, 1948; Seidemann, 1970; Mitchell and Rook, 1979; Stobart, 1980; Bond,
1990).
13.5
Functional and health benefits
Different organs of the caper plant have been used as folk remedies for various
diseases (Pernet 1972; Kirtikar and Basu, 1975; Boulos, 1983; Duke, 1983; Jain and
Puri, 1984; Abbas et al., 1992; Husain et al., 1992; Al-Said, 1993; Ghazanfar and AlSabahi, 1993; Ghazanfar, 1994; Bhattacharjee, 1998). It is traditionally utilized in
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diabetes control and treatment in Morocco (Jouad et al., 2001; Eddouks et al., 2002).
Liv.52, an Indian traditional polyherbal formulation that contains different plant
extracts, among them 24% of C. spinosa, is a ‘liver stimulant’ with some protective
action against hepatotoxic substances (ethanol, acetaldehyde, and carbon tetrachloride),
radiation sickness, and dermatitis. The health benefits of Liv.52 related to C. spinosa
have been extensively reviewed (Sozzi, 2001) and recent studies confirm its efficacy
on liver cirrhotic patients (Fallah Huseini et al., 2005). Caper has been used in folk
medicine as carminative, antiescorbutic, antispasmodic, diuretic and vermifuge.
The decoction of caper bush has hypoglycaemic properties and may be useful in
antidiabetic therapy (Ageel et al., 1985; Yaniv et al., 1987). Aqueous extracts of C.
spinosa have a potent anti-hyperglycaemic activity in streptozotocin diabetic rats
(Eddouks et al., 2004). No changes were observed in basal plasma insulin concentrations
following treatment of normal or diabetic rats with Capparis spinosa aqueous extracts
thus indicating that the underlying mechanism of its pharmacological activity seems
to be independent of insulin secretion (Eddouks et al., 2004). Another beneficial
effect observed in diabetic rats being administrated C. spinosa extract was the reduction
in plasma cholesterol which is usually high in patients with diabetes mellitus (Eddouks
et al., 2005). High levels of plasma lipids represent a risk factor for coronary heart
disease.
The oral administration of a caper root decoction or tincture to guinea pigs revealed
strong desensitizing effects against various plant and animal allergens (Khakberdyev
et al. 1968). Cappaprenol-12, -13 and -14 in ethanol extracts of caper leaves are antiinflammatory compounds (Al-Said et al., 1988; Jain et al., 1993). It has recently been
shown that methanolic extracts of C. spinosa flowering buds possess a marked
antiallergic and antihistaminic effect (Trombetta et al., 2005).
C. spinosa is also used in phytomedicine as antifungal (Ali-Shtayeh and Abu
Ghdeib, 1999), antihepatotoxic (Gadgoli and Mishra, 1995, 1999), anti-inflammatory
(Ageel et al., 1986) chondroprotective/antidegenerative (Panico et al., 2005) and
antileishmania (Jacobson and Schlein, 1999). A role for the plant in the epidemiology
of leishmaniasis has been suggested (Schlein and Jacobson, 1994a, 1994b). In fact,
extracts of C. spinosa caused extensive parasite agglutination, apparently due to
caper plant lectins (Jacobson and Schlein, 1999).
Methanolic extracts of C. spinosa showed some antimalarial activity when assayed
in vitro against a multi-drug resistant strain of Plasmodium falciparum (K1) (Marshall
et al., 1995). Extracts of the whole plant or its aerial part also exhibited variable
degrees of antimicrobial activity, as well as antifungal activity (Ali-Shtayeh et al.,
1998). A number of caper extracts have anticarcinogenic activity. The hydrolysis
products of some glucosinolates have anticarcinogenic effects (Mithen et al., 2000)
and different antioxidant compounds (e.g. quercetin, rutin) may also contribute to
cancer prevention.
A methanolic caper extract showed strong antioxidant/free radical scavenging
effectiveness in different in vitro tests and, when topically applied, afforded significant
in vivo protection against UV-B light-induced skin erythema in healthy human volunteers
(Bonina et al., 2002). Antidermatophytic activity in caper extracts is comparable
with that of griseofulvin preparations (often used as a standard in evaluating antibiotic
potential), suggesting a possible use against dermatophytic infections in humans
(Ali-Shtayeh and Abu Ghdeib, 1999). In contrast, the green parts of caper plant have
been considered to be potentially irritating to the skin because of its glucosinolates
(Mitchell, 1974; Mitchell and Rook, 1979; Cronin, 1980; Foussereau et al., 1982).
Capers and caperberries
247
Caper leaf and fruit extracts, applied as wet compresses to inflamed skin, may produce
acute contact dermatitis (Angelini et al., 1991). Nevertheless, Lemmi Cena and Rovesti
(1979) pointed out that caper extracts may be used for treating enlarged capillaries
and dry skin. Barbera (1991) suggested that they could be utilized for cosmetic
preparations (creams, shampoo, lotions, and gels), due to the presence of some active
principles: rutin and quercetin (flavonoids that produce effects similar to those of
vitamin P), glucocapparin (rubefacient action), pectins (moisturizing and protecting
effects), phytohormones, and vitamins.
13.6
Quality issues and future trends
Consumer satisfaction and repeat purchases of food are dependent upon flavour and
nutritional quality. Many studies exalt the nutritional value of caper flowering buds,
which are widely used as a source of flavour. Capers are rich in antioxidant compounds.
Besides, caper isothiocyanates are well-known as cancer preventive agents and different
caper extracts have hypoglycaemic properties and protective effects against hepatotoxic
substances. Moreover, capers and caperberries could be part of new therapeutic
strategies based on natural products.
Increasing amounts of capers are being consumed in different countries, and this
trend appears likely to be sustained for coming years, the interest in new tastes
presumably accounting for most of the increase in caper consumption. Success in
caper bush cultivation depends mainly on five fundamental points: (i) biotypes of
high quality and production; (ii) adequate propagation; (iii) good control of cultivation
practices, particularly harvest; (iv) adequate postharvest processing and storage; and
(v) efficient marketing systems and strategies. Caper yields are much higher in irrigated
plantings, with NPK fertilization, although much more research is required to determine
the optimal cultivation conditions for this species. Diseases and pests do not seem to
be a great problem in general but need to be researched. Two major expenses are
expected, implantation and harvesting. The latter may be the stumbling block in
high-input systems, and the possibility of a semi-mechanical operation should be
considered in order to remove this limiting factor. Moreover, further improvement in
caper quality may be obtained by regulating harvesting dates.
There is an assortment of opportunities for plant breeders to contribute to
domestication of caper bush for agricultural purposes. Determination of the genetic
bases for productivity, ease of propagation, absence of stipular spines, and flower
bud quality and conservation are high-priority research needs. Finally, marketing
research remains an area of great importance. Marketing of capers without prearranged contract with processing or exporting companies could be very risky. Market
promotion and the ability of handlers to provide a high-quality product at times that
will yield a competitive price have become essential factors. Producers and handlers
will be challenged to develop new and expanded markets for capers.
13.7
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VIVANCOS GUERAO I
14
Carambola
K. N. Babu and D. Minoo Indian Institute of Spices Research, India and
K. V. Tushar and P. N. Ravindran, Center for Medicinal Plants
Research, India
14.1
Introduction
A curious and attractive fruit, the carambola, Averrhoa carambola L, belongs to the
family Oxalidaceae. The fruit with five corners, commonly called the Star Fruit, is
very crisp and juicy with a refreshing taste. Fruits are yellow to green, depending on
the variety. Yellow fruit tend to be more acid in flavour, and the green ones sweeter
(Fig. 14.1).
Carambola is known by a number of regional names in addition to the popular
Spanish appelation which belies its Far Eastern origin. In the Orient, it is usually
called balimbing, belimbing, or belimbing manis (‘sweet belimbing’), to distinguish
it from the related species, A. bilimbi commonly known as bilimbi or belimbing
asam, L. In Ceylon and India carambola is called kamaranga, kamruk, or kamrakh.
In Vietnam, it is called khe, khe ta; in Cambodia, spu; in Laos, nak fuang, carambolier;
Fig. 14.1
Fruits of carambola – ‘the star fruit’.
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in Thailand, ma fueang. Malayans may refer to it as belimbing batu, belimbing besi,
belimbing pessegi, belimbing sayur, belimbing saji, kambola, caramba, or as ‘star
fruit’. Australians use the descriptive term, five corner; in Guam, it is bilimbines; to
the Chinese, it is yang-táo. Early English travelers called it Chinese or Coromandel
gooseberry or cucumber tree. In Guyana, it is five fingers; in the Dominican Republic,
it is vinagrillo; in Haiti, zibline; in some of the French Antilles, cornichon; in El
Salvador, pepino de la India; in Surinam, blimbing legi or fransman-birambi; Costa
Rica, tiriguro; in Brazil, camerunga or caramboleiro, or limas de Cayena; in Mexico,
carambolera or caramboler or árbol de pepino; in Trinidad coolie tamarind and in
Venezuela it is called tamarindo chino or tamarindo dulce.
14.2
Description
Carambola is a small tree with attractive foliage, produces large quantities of fruit
and is ideal for the home orchard. It is slow-growing, short-trunked with a muchbranched, bushy, broad, rounded crown and reaches to 6–10 m in height. Its deciduous
leaves are irritable to touch, spirally arranged, are alternate, imparipinnate, 15–20 cm
long, with 5–11 nearly opposite leaflets. Leaflets ovate or ovate-oblong acuminate,
entire, base oblique, short and stout petioled, 3–9 cm long; soft, medium-green, and
smooth on the upper surface, finely hairy and whitish on the underside. The leaflets
are sensitive to light and more or less inclined to fold together at night or when the
tree is shaken or abruptly shocked.
Small clusters of red-stalked, lilac, purple-streaked, downy fragrant flowers, about
6 mm wide, are borne in clusters in axils of leaves (short axillary racemes) on young
branches, or on older branches without leaves on the twigs. There are several flushes
of bloom throughout the year. The showy ovoid, oblong or ellipsoid, longitudinally
(five) (rarely four or six) angled fruits, 6–15 cm long and up to 9 cm wide, have thin,
waxy cuticle, orange-yellow skin and juicy, crisp, yellow translucent juicy flesh
when fully ripe (Fig. 14.2). Slices cut in cross-section have the form of a star (Fig.
14.1). The fruit is a berry and has a more or less pronounced oxalic acid odor and the
flavor ranges from very sour to mildly sweetish. The so-called ‘sweet’ types rarely
contain more than 4% sugar. There may be up to 12 flat, thin, brown seeds 6–12 mm
long or none at all. Seeds lose viability in a few days after removal from fruit. Seeds
number 8–10, are arillate, and compressed yellow to light brown in colour. Ovule and
seed development have been studied (Govil and Kaur, 1989). Chattopadhyay and
Ghosh (1994) have elaborated the changes in mineral composition of inflorescence
and developing carambola fruit. Salakpetch et al. (1990) have suggested that the
flowering of carambola is influenced by cultivar and water stress than by diurnal
temperature variation and photoperiod after conducting day/night temperature,
photoperiod and soil water stress experiments with cultivars Fwang Tung and Thai
Knight.
14.3
Origin and distribution
Averrhoa carambola L. belongs to the family Averrhoaceae. Averrhoa is a genus
of tropical trees. Carambola is believed to have originated in the Moluccas islands
Carambola
259
(a)
(b)
Fig. 14.2
(a) and (b) Fruiting branches of carambola.
of Indonesia and Sri Lanka but it has been cultivated in southeast Asia and Malaysia
for many centuries. It is commonly grown in the provinces of Fukien, Kuangtung
and Kuangsi in southern China, in Taiwan and India. It is popular in the Philippines,
Queensland, Australia, and in some of the South Pacific islands, particularly Tahiti,
New Guinea, Guam, Hawaii and Netherlands. A sweet-fruited variety is grown in
China, Taiwan, Thailand, etc., and most of the trees in India are sour-fruited types.
The carambola is also grown in South Florida primarily as an ornamental tree that
produces fruit of unique flavor and relatively high ascorbic acid content. Smaller
amounts of carambola are grown for the fresh fruit market and for export to Europe.
Commercial acceptance has been limited because the fruit is susceptible to shipping
damage and requires storage below 70 °F to maintain optimum quality during shipment.
Carambola has relatively high levels of oxalic acid content that is comparable to that
of spinach and rhubarb.
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14.4
Cultivars and varieties
There are two distinct classes of carambola. One is a smaller, very sour type, richly
flavored, with more oxalic acid. The other is a larger, ‘sweet’ type, mild-flavored,
rather bland, with less oxalic acid. Several cultivars were known – like ‘Mih Tao’,
‘Dah Pon’ and ‘Tean Ma’ from Taiwan, Fwang ‘Tung’ from Thailand and ‘Newcomb’,
‘Thayer’ and ‘Arkin’ from Florida. Some cultivars and seedlings bear flowers with
short styles, others only flowers with long styles, a factor which affects self- and
cross-pollination. Several carambola varieties are sold in California. There are a
number of excellent carambola varieties available in Florida, including the following:
Arkin: Arkin is a leading commercial cultivar with uniform 4–5 inches-long fruit.
Bright yellow to yellow-orange skin and flesh. Very sweet, juicy, firm flesh with
few seeds. Keeps and ships well. Tree partially self-fertile.
Fwang Tung: fruit 5–8 inches long. Pale yellow skin and flesh. Very sweet and juicy,
firm flesh with few seeds. Beautiful star shape when cut in slices.
Golden Star: large, deeply winged fruit. Skin bright golden yellow, very waxy. Flesh
juicy, crisp, mildly subacid to sweet in flavor, containing no fibers. High in
carbohydrates and vitamins A and C. Tree bears well and regularly without cross
pollination.
Hoku: selected by the University of Hawaii. Fruit 5–6 inches long. Bright yellow
skin and flesh. Juicy, firm flesh with a sweet rich flavor, few seeds. Attractive star
shape when cut in slices.
Kaiang: fruit 4–5 inches long. Bright yellow skin and flesh. Sweet, juicy, firm flesh
with few seeds. Beautiful star shape when cut in slices.
Maha: Originated in Hawaii. Roundish fruit with light yellowish-white skin. Sweet,
crunchy, white flesh with low acid content.
Sri Kembanqan (Kembangan): originated in Thailand. Elongated pointed fruit, 5–6
inches long. Bright yellow-orange skin and flesh. Juicy, firm flesh with few seeds.
Flavor rich and sweet; excellent dessert quality.
Wheeler: medium to large, elongated fruit. Orange skin and flesh. Mildly sweet
flavor. Tree a heavy bearer.
14.5
Climate
Carambola prefers a warm moist climate and can be grown on the hills up to
1,200 m. A well-distributed rainfall encourages normal growth and cropping. It can
grow on any type of soil with good drainage, but deep rich soil supports better plant
growth. Although it grows both in acid and alkaline soils, it prefers acidic soils.
Carambola should be considered as tropical to sub-tropical because mature trees can
tolerate temperatures as low as 27 °F for short periods of time with little damage.
Like many other subtropicals, however, young plants are more susceptible to frost
and can be killed at 32 °F. The carambola needs moisture for best performance and
ideally rainfall should be fairly evenly distributed all year. Carambolas can be severely
damaged by flooding or prevailing hot, dry winds. In Australia, it is claimed that fruit
quality and flavor are best where annual rainfall is 70 in (180 cm) or somewhat more.
The small trees make good container plants. Carambola is grown more as an ornamental
than for its fruits.
Carambola
14.6
261
Propagation
The carambola is widely grown from seed though viability lasts only a few days.
Only plump, fully developed seed should be planted. In damp peat moss, they will
germinate in one week in summer, requiring 14 to 18 days in winter. The seedlings
are transplanted to containers of light sandy loam and held until time to set out. They
are very tender and need good care. Seedlings are highly variable and hence much
variability exists due to seed propagation. The seed derived tree takes 4–5 years for
flowering.
Carambola can also be propagated vegetatively. Veneer grafting during the time of
most active growth gives the best results. Healthy, year-old seedlings of 3/8–3/4 inch
diameter are best for rootstocks. Graft-wood should be taken from mature twigs on
which leaves are still present and, if possible, the buds are just beginning to grow.
Cleft-grafting of green budwood is also successful. Top-working of older trees has
been done by bark grafting. Air-layering has been practised and advocated though it
is less successful than grafting. The roots develop slowly, and percentage of success
often is low. Trees are small and rather weak when propagated by this method.
Usually vegetative propagation is resorted to only for the propagation of the sweetfruited varieties (Anon., 2001).
However, root formation is slow and later performance is not wholly satisfactory.
Inarching is successful in India, shield-budding in the Philippines and the Forkert
method in Java. Trees top-worked by bark-grafting is popular in Java. For mass
production, side-veneer grafting of mature, purplish wood, onto carambola seedlings
gives best results. The rootstocks should be at least one year old and 1–1.5 cm thick.
Grafted trees will fruit in ten months from the time of planting out. Mature trees can
be top-worked by bark-grafting.
Amin and Razzaque (1993) have successfully regenerated Averrhoa carambola
plants in vitro from callus cultures of seedling explants. Kantharajah et al. (1992)
have indicated roots as a source of explants for the successful micropropagation of
carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.). Multiple shoots were induced in Woody Plants
Medium or Murashige and Skoogs (MS) with 2 mg/l Benzyl adenine (BA) and 0.2
mg/l α-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) with a multiplication rate of 2.1 shoots per
month. Adventitious shoot formation from fully grown cotyledon prior to maturity
was investigated. Explants produced callus and subsequently adventitious shoots on
MS medium supplemented with 4.4–13.2 µM BA and 0.54–2.7 µM NAA
(Khalekuzzaman et al., 1995). These shoots were rooted in half strength MS medium
with 2.46 µM Indole-3-butyric acid and established in soil. Plantlet regeneration
from hypocotyl explants of in vitro grown seedlings have been reported by Islam
et al. 1996).
14.7
Planting
Carambolas do best in a frost-free location and the tree needs full sun. It prefers
warm humid areas, it can grow in most parts of the tropics and subtropics. Young
trees need protection from cold wind. Generally they are tolerant of wind except for
those that are hot and dry. A spacing of 6–9 m has been advocated depending on the
soil, giving more space in fertile soils.
At the Research Center in Homestead, Florida trees 8–10 ft high respond well to
262
Handbook of herbs and spices
0.5 kg of N, P, K, Mg in the ratio of 6-6-6-3 given three to four times per year. If
chlorosis occurs, it can be corrected by added iron, zinc and manganese. Some
advisers recommend minor-element spraying four times during the year if the trees
are on limestone soils. Moderate irrigation is highly desirable during dry seasons.
Heavy rains during blooming season interfere with pollination and fruit production.
Interplanting of different strains is usually necessary to provide cross-pollination and
obtain the highest yields. Only light pruning is required.
14.8
Soils, water and nutrients
Carambola is not too particular as to soil, but does well on sand, heavy clay or
limestone and will grow faster and bear more heavily in rich loam. It prefers a
moderately acid soil (pH 5.5–6.5) and is sensitive to water logging. The plant often
becomes chlorotic in alkaline soils. It needs good drainage and cannot stand flooding.
Carambola need moisture for best performance. This means regular watering during
the summer months and during dry spells.
In soils of low fertility young trees should receive light fertilizer applications
every 60 to 90 days until well established. Thereafter, they should receive one or two
applications a year in deep soils or three or more applications in shallow soils where
nutrients are lost by leaching. Application at the rate of 0.5 kg per year for every inch
of trunk diameter is suggested. Fertilizer mixtures containing 6–8% nitrogen, 2–4%
available phosphoric acid, 6–8% potash and 3–4% magnesium are satisfactory. In the
more fertile soils of California, this program can be reduced.
The tree is prone to chlorosis in deficient soils but responds to soil and foliar
application of chelated iron and other micronutrients. Growth and physiological
processes of carambola plants under soil flooding and root growth restriction (Ismail
and Noor, 1996a; 1996b) and physiological changes as influenced by water availability
(Ismail and Awang, 1992) have been studied.
14.9
Pests and diseases
The carambola is relatively pest free except for fruit flies. No diseases of sufficient
importance are known. The fruit is damaged by fruit fly, fruit moths and fruit spotting
bugs in those areas having these infestations. In fruit fly susceptible areas fruit can be
bagged for protection. In Malaya, fruit flies (especially Dacus dorsalis) are so
troublesome on carambolas that growers have to wrap the fruits on the tree with
paper. Experimental trapping, with methyl eugenol as an attractant, has reduced fruit
damage by 20%. In Florida, a small stinkbug causes superficial blemishes and a
black beetle attacks overripe fruits. Reniform nematodes may cause tree decline (De
et al., 2000). Cold storage quarantine treatment for Hawaiian carambola fruit infested
with Mediterranean fruit fly, melon fly, or oriental fruit fly (Armstrong
et al.,1995) Caribbean fruit fly (Gould and Sharp 1990) (Diptera: Tephritidae) eggs
and larvae have been suggested. Studies on gamma irradiation as a quarantine treatment
for carambolas infested with Caribbean fruit flies have been made by Gould and Von
(1991).
Ibrahim (1994) has studied the biology and natural control of the scale Drepanococcus
Carambola
263
chiton (Green) (Homoptera: Coccidae), a minor pest of carambola in Malaysia. The
larvae of Diacrotuchia fascicola and nymphs of Schistocera gregaria damage tender
leaves of carambola (Anon., 1985). De et al. (2000) have reported the incidence of
Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart) and Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera:
Tephritidae) in star fruit in eight localities of the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil and an
infestation rate of 31.7 puparia per star fruit.
Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides may be a problem in Florida,
and leaf spot may arise from attack by Phomopsis sp., Phyllosticta sp. or Cercospora
averrhoae. Cercospora leaf spot is reported also from Malaya, Ceylon, China and
may occur in the Philippines as well. A substance resembling sooty mold makes
many fruits unmarketable in summer. Black rot of fruit is caused by Trichotheceum
roseum. Brown spot disease affecting the fruit is due to Alternaria tenuri, while
Cladosporium herbarum causes black circular lesions. All the above diseases can be
successfully controlled by fungicidal sprays (Anon., 1985). Fruit rotting caused by
Botrydeploidea theobromae and Phomepais are serious problems during moist weather
conditions.
Effects on fruit ripeness by infestation of carambolas by laboratory-reared Caribbean
fruit flies (Howard and Kenney, 1987) have been studied and quarantine treatments
like Methyl bromide fumigation (Hallman and King, 1231), hot water immersion
Hallman and Sharp (1471) and vapor-heat treatment (Hallman, 1990) have been
suggested for carambolas infested with Caribbean fruit fly. Hallman (1991) has further
evaluated the quality of carambolas subjected to post-harvest hot water immersion
and vapor heat treatments.
14.10
Harvesting and yield
Carambola trees flower several times a year, with a heavy crop during summer. Fruits
change color slightly when they are ready for picking, but the best check for ripeness
is to eat one and see how sweet the fruit is. Trees that receive adequate care and
attention have yielded up to 45–135 kg of fruit.
In Malaya, they are produced all the year. In Florida, scattered fruits are found
throughout the year but the main crop usually matures from late summer to early
winter. Some trees have fruited heavily in November and December, and again in
March and April. There may even be three crops. Weather conditions account for
much of the seasonal variability. In India, carambolas are available in September and
October and again in December and January.
The fruits naturally fall to the ground when fully ripe. Green or ripe fruits are
easily damaged and must be handled with great care. Often the taste suffers if fruits
are picked too green. Fruit are best when ripened on the tree, but will ripen if stored
under refrigeration and will keep for 1–3 weeks if picked before fully ripe. Ripe
carambolas are eaten out-of-hand, sliced and served in salads or used as a garnish.
They are also cooked in puddings, tarts, stews and curries.
14.11
Keeping quality
For marketing and shipping they should be hand-picked while pale-green with just a
touch of yellow. Fruit is very fragile and needs to be packed carefully. Carambolas
264
Handbook of herbs and spices
have been shipped successfully without refrigeration from Florida to northern cities
in avocado lugs lined and topped with excelsior. The fruits are packed solidly, stemend down, at a 45º angle, the flanges of one fruit fitting into the ‘V’ grooves of
another (Campbell,1994).
In storage trials at Winter Haven, Florida, carambolas picked when showing the
first signs of yellowing kept in good condition for four weeks at 50 ºF (10º C), three
weeks at 60 ºF (15.56 ºC) and two weeks at 70 ºF (21.1 ºC). Waxing extends storage
life and preserves the vitamin value. Campbell and Koch (1989) have studied the
sugar/acid composition and development of sweet and tart carambola fruit. The postharvest changes in sugars, acids, and color of carambola fruit at various temperatures
viz., 5, 10, 15 °C have shown that fruits stored at 5 °C maintained better appearance,
lost less weight, had fewer changes in soluble sugars or organic acid. Rewarming
experiments proved an absence of any chilling injury (Campbell et al., 1989).
Volatile constituents of carambola were identified in ripe fruit extracts, the most
abundant being methyl athranilate with grape-like flavor and the strong fruity aroma
was considered to be due to major ester and ketones in extract (Wilson et al., 1985).
Biochemical changes, chilling injury of carambola stored at various temperatures
(Wan and Lam, 1984) have also been studied. The browning susceptibility and changes
in composition during storage of carambola slices (Weller et al., 1997) were due to
decrease in ascorbic acid content and increase in polyphenoloxidase activity. These
changes were greater in slices than in whole fruit. Treating with 1–2.5% citric acid
and 0.25% ascorbic acid prior to packing was effective in limiting browning. Ghazali
and Leong (1987) have worked upon the polygalacturonase activity in starfruit and
the changes in polygalacturonase activity and texture during its ripening (Ghazali
and Peng,1993). Additional volatile constituents (Froehlich and Schreier, 1989) and
non-odorous characteristics pertaining to fruit-piercing moth susceptibility (Fay and
Halfpapp, 1993) have been reported.
14.12
Food uses
Carambolas can be sliced up into attractive star shapes, which can then be added as
a garnish to fruit salad and fish. It is also a good fruit for juicing. One need not peel
the fruit, but each rib should be trimmed and the darker green edge which is very
bitter is removed. Ripe carambolas are eaten out-of-hand, sliced and served in salads,
or used as a garnish on seafood. They are also cooked in puddings, tarts, stews and
curries. In Malaya, they are often stewed with sugar and cloves, alone or combined
with apples. The Chinese cook carambolas with fish. Thais boil the sliced green fruit
with shrimp. Slightly under-ripe fruits are salted, pickled or made into jam or other
preserves in India.
In mainland China and in Taiwan, carambolas are sliced lengthwise and canned in
syrup for export. In Queensland, the sweeter type is cooked green as a vegetable.
Cross-sections may be covered with honey, allowed to stand overnight, and then
cooked briefly and, put into sterilized jars. Some cooks add raisins to give the product
more character. A relish may be made of chopped unripe fruits combined with
horseradish, celery, vinegar, seasonings and spices. Indian experimenters boiled
horizontal slices with 3/4 of their weight in sugar until very thick, with a Brix of 68º.
They found that the skin became very tough, the flavor was not distinctive, and the
jam was rated as only fair. Sour fruits, pricked to permit absorption of sugar and
Carambola
265
cooked in syrup, at first 33º Brix, later 72º, made an acceptable candied product
though the skin was still tough. The ripe fruits are sometimes dried in Jamaica.
Carambola juice is served as a cooling beverage. In Hawaii, the juice of sour fruits
is mixed with gelatin, sugar, lemon juice and boiling water to make sherbet. Filipinos
often use the juice as a seasoning. The juice is bottled in India, either with added
citric acid (1% by weight) and 0.05% potassium metabisulphite, or merely sterilizing
the filled bottles for 1/2 hr in boiling water. To make jelly, it is necessary to use
unripe ‘sweet’ types or ripe sour types and to add commercial pectin or some other
fruit rich in pectin such as green papaya, together with lemon or lime juice. The
flowers are acid and are added to salads in Java; also, they are made into preserves
in India. The leaves have been eaten as a substitute for sorrel.
14.13
Food value
Carambola fruits are very sour due to the presence of a high oxalic acid content.
Sweet varieties have a negligible oxalic acid content. The juice of some varieties has
a pH of about 1.9–2.0 and about 15–16 mg of ascorbic acid per 100 gm of juice,
hence it is a rich source of vitamin C. A wide variation in vitamin C is reported from
various locations in India. Juice also contains iron and phosphorous. Herderich et al.
(1992) had, for the first time, identified Carbon-13 norisoprenoid flavor precursors in
starfruit. Several constituents are easily degraded upon heat treatment at natural pH
conditions of the fruit pulp, thus rationalizing the formation of a number of C13
aroma compounds reported as starfruit volatiles. Glycosidically bound precursors of
C13 odorants including a rare natural precursor of the potent aroma compound –
damascenone has been identified and a pathway for its formation from non-allenic
compounds has been proposed.
Ripening and storage studies were conducted at the Florida Citrus Experiment
Station at Lake Alfred in 1966. They found significant differences in the acid makeup of mature green and mature yellow carambolas. Fresh mature green fruits of
‘Golden Star’ were found to have a total acid content of 12.51 mg/g consisting of
5 mg oxalic, 4.37 tartaric, 1.32 citric, 1.21 malic, 0.39 α-ketoglutaric, 0.22 succinic,
and a trace of fumaric. Mature yellow fruits had a total acid content of 13 mg/g, made
up of 9.58 mg oxalic, 0.91 tartaric, 2.20 α-ketoglutaric, 0.31 fumaric.
In 1975, 16 carambola selections and two named cultivars were assayed at the
United States Citrus and Subtropical Products Laboratory, Winter Haven, Florida.
The variety ‘Dah Pon’ was described as ‘sweet, good and apple-like’. It also has a
relatively high ascorbic acid content. Oxalic acid content of the 18 selections and
cultivars ranged from 0.039 mg to 0.679 mg and four of the preferred carambolas
were in the lower range. Puerto Rican technologists found the oxalic acid content of
ripe carambolas to average 0.5 g per 100 ml of juice, the acid being mostly in the free
state. Carambolas are suitable for individuals who may be adversely affected by
small amounts of oxalic acid or oxalates (Table 14.1).
Other amino acids reported by the Florida Citrus Experiment Station at Lake
Alfred and expressed in micromoles per g (µm g–1) in mature green fruits (higher) and
mature yellow fruits (lower), respectively, are shown in Table 14.2.
Analyses in India showed 10.40 mg ascorbic acid in the juice of a ‘sweet’ variety;
15.4 mg in juice of a sour variety. Ascorbic acid content of both waxed and unwaxed
fruits stored at 50 ºF (10 ºC) has been reported as 20 mg/100 ml of juice. Waxed fruits
266
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 14.1
Food value of edible portion of carambola fruits
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid*
35.7
89.0–91.0 g
0.38 g
0.08 g
9.38 g
0.80–0.90 g
0.26–0.40 g
4.4–6.0 mg
15.5–21.0 mg
0.32–1.65 mg
0.003–0.552 mg
0.03–0.038 mg
0.019–0.03 mg
0.294–0.38 mg
26.0–53.1 mg
* According to analyses made in Cuba and Honduras.
Table 14.2
Amino acid composition of mature fruits
Tryptophan*
Methionine*
Lysine#
Asparagine
Threonine
Serine
Glutamic acid
Proline
Glycine
Alanine
Valine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Phenylalanine
Gamma amino bytyric acid
Ornithine
Histidine
3.0 mg
2 mg
26 mg
0.82–0.64 µm g–1
0.92–0.79 µm g–1
3.88–2.00 µm g–1
2.41–1.80 µm g–1
0.23–0.09 µm g–1
0.20–0.10 µm g–1
5.40–1.26 µm g–1
0.17–0.11 µm g–1
0.03–trace µm g–1
trace
trace
0.77–0.55
0.11–0.13
trace
*Amino Acids: (shown in Cuban analyses).
stored for 17 days at 60 ºF (15.56 ºC) had 11 mg/100 ml of juice. Unwaxed fruits had
lost ascorbic acid.
The fruit extracts of the slow-ripening cv. B 10 carambola (Averrhoa carambola
L.) contained a number of cell wall hydrolases (Chin et al., 1999). The predominant
ones appeared to be β-(1,4)-glucanase (as carboxymethylcellulase), pectinesterase,
β-galactosidase, and polygalacturonase (PG). Other significant hydrolases, the activity
of which also increased with ripening were the glycosidases, α-arabinosidase, αgalactosidase, and α-mannosidase, and also the glycanases, β-(1,4)-galactanase and
xylanase. Throughout ripening, as pectins and hemicelluloses were being differentially
modified, the levels of buffered-phenol cell wall materials, total polyuronides as well
as arabinose, galactose, xylose, and glucose decreased. At early ripening phase (days
0–12) there was no apparent pectin solubilization, and the loosely bound water- and
chelator-soluble pectins were the first pectic polysaccharides to be affected. That of
the former exhibited an upshift in their molecular size profiles.
Carambola
267
At late ripening phase (days 12–24) when tissue firmness had declined substantially,
dramatic changes involving pectins and hemicelluloses were evident. Pectins were
solubilized, and this increased solubility was accompanied by depolymerization of
all pectin classes and a decrease in the level of the Na2CO3-soluble polyuronides.
Coincident with these marked modifications of the tightly bound, predominant
polyuronide fractions and hemicellulose was the increase in activities of
polygalacturonase and β-(1,4)-glucanase, suggesting that these enzymes may contribute
to wall modifications late during ripening. Some of the other wall hydrolases, namely,
α-arabinosidase, α-galactosidase and certain isoforms of β-galactosidase/galactanase,
have been indicated to be relevant to the early ripening changes when pectin
solubilization was limited (Chin et al., 1999).
14.14
Medicinal uses
All parts of the Carambola tree are credited with medicinal properties (Anon. 1985).
The root is administered as an antidote in snake poisoning. The crushed leaves or
shoots are applied externally in chicken pox, ring worm, scabies and headache. They
are reputed to be antiscourbutic. A decoction of leaves is used for aphtha and angina
and to arrest vomiting. Flowers are said to possess wormicidal properties. The fruits
are reputed to be laxative, antiscourbutic, febrifuge, antidysentric and antiphlogistic.
The fruit juice is a good remedy for piles and is useful in relieving thirst and febrile
excitement. The seeds are said to increase the flow of milk and in large doses act as
an emmenagogue and cause abortion. They are generally administered as infusion,
decoction or tincture. They have slight intoxicating and emetic properties. They are
useful in treating asthma, colic and jaundice.
In India, the ripe fruit is administered to halt hemorrhages and to relieve bleeding
hemorrhoids and the dried fruit or the juice may be taken to counteract fevers. A
conserve of the fruit is said to allay biliousness and diarrhea and to relieve a ‘hangover’
from excessive indulgence in alcohol. A salve made of the fruit is employed to
relieve eye afflictions. In Brazil, the carambola is recommended as a diuretic in
kidney and bladder complaints, and is believed to have a beneficial effect in the
treatment of eczema. In Chinese Materia Medica it is stated, ‘Its action is to quench
thirst, to increase the salivary secretion’.
14.15
Other uses
The acid types of carambola have been used to clean and polish metal, especially
brass, as they dissolve tarnish and rust. The juice will also bleach rust stains from
white cloth. Unripe fruits are used in place of a conventional mordant in dyeing.
Carambola wood is white, becoming reddish with age; close-grained, medium-hard.
It has been utilized for construction and furniture.
14.16
AMIN M. N.
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vitro cultured hypocotyl explants of Averrhoa carambola L. Crop Research Hisar 11(1): 111–116.
ISMAIL M. R. and AWANG M. (1992). Growth and physiological changes of Averrhoa carambola as
influenced by water availability. Pertanika 15(1): 1–7.
ISMAIL M. R. and NOOR K. M. (1996a). Growth and physiological processes of young starfruit (Averrhoa
carambola L.) plants under soil flooding. Sci. Hort. Amsterdam 65(4): 229–238.
Carambola
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and NOOR K. M. (1996b). Growth, water relations and physiological processes of starfruit
(Averrhoa carambola L) plants under root growth restriction. Sci. Hort. Amsterdam 66(1–2):
51–58.
KANTHARAJAH A. S., RICHARDS G. D and DODD W. A. (1992). Roots as a source of explants for the
successful micropropagation of carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.). Sci. Hort. 51(1–2): 169–
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KHALEKUZZAMAN M., ISLAM R., REZA M. A and JOARDER O. I. (1995). Regeneration of plantlets from in
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107–111.
SALAKPETCH S., TURNER D. W and DELL B. (1990). The flowering of carambola (Averrhoa carambola
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and photoperiod. Sci. Hort. 42(1–2): 83–94.
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of carambola (Averrhoa carambola) stored at various temperatures. Pertanika 7(3): 39–46.
WELLER A., SIMS C. A., MATTHEWS A. F., BATES R. P. and BRECHT J. K. (1997). Browning susceptibility and
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carambola (Averrhoa carambola). J. Agricultural and Food Chemistry 33(2): 199–201.
15
Caraway
S. K. Malhotra, National Research Centre on Seed Spices, India
15.1
Introduction
Caraway (Carum carvi L.) of the Apiaceae family, appears to have its origin in Asia
Minor. The evidence of caraway was found in Middle Eastern Asia about 5000 years
ago. The plant was well known to the ancient Egyptians and was introduced about
1000 years ago from northern Africa into Europe (Rubatzky et al., 1999). Caraway
seeds have been mainly used as a condiment for flavouring food preparations into
Europe and the Middle East from ancient times. It is known to be cultivated in the
Netherlands, Holland, Russia, Hungary, Poland, Denmark, Germany and Norway.
The other producing countries are Romania, Bulgaria, Morocco, the USA, Syria,
Turkey and India. The major commercial sources of caraway in the world are the
Netherlands and Germany, where it is extensively cultivated.
There are about 25 species of Carum known to occur and only Carum carvi L. has
an economic importance, being used and cultivated in several regions. It is commonly
called caraway and is popular by different names in different countries. It is called
carvi in French and Italian, kummel in German, alcaravea in Spanish, karvy in
Dutch, kminek in Polish, komeny in Hungarian, siah zeera in India. All European
countries have their own, however, to some extent similar names for this species and
these names might be traced back to the Arabian ‘karauya’ from the XII century
(Rosengarten, 1969). It is also called sushva, krishna jiraka or black cumin in India.
The caraway (Carum carvi L.) is usually confused with black caraway (Carum
bulbocastanum Koch, Bunicum persicum Boiss) and Nigella (Nigella sativa L.)
because of the common vernacular names, but they are botanically different from
each other.
15.1.1 Classification
In a classification of plant organs used as spice, the caraway has been categorized as
a seed spice because seeds (botanically fruits) are used raw, powdered or in the form
of essential oil or oleoresins. As per the taxonomic classification, the caraway belongs
to the order Apiales, family Apiaceae, genus Carum and species carvi. The other
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synonyms of Carum carvi L. mentioned in various literatures are Carum decussatum
Gillib, Carum aromaticum Salisb. Carum officinale S.F. Gray, Apium carvi Crantz,
Seseli carvi Lam, Seseli carum Scop. Ligusticum carvi Roth, Sium carvi Bernh,
Bunicum carvi Bieb, Foeniculum carvi Limk, Pimpinella carvi Jessen and Selinum
carvi E.H.L. As per the conventional classification of spices, out of five types, viz.,
hot spices, mild spices, aromatic spices, herbs and aromatic vegetables, caraway is
classified as a mild spice and on the basis of plant organs used, it is known as seed
because the dried fruits are mostly used as spices.
15.1.2 Description
The caraway plant is an erect, herbaceous, biennial herb with a thick tuberous rootstock.
The plant height varies from 0.5 to 1.0 m. The stem is cylindrical, robust, divertically
branched, aromatic, straight and leafy. The leaves are pinnately compound and ultimately
segments of lower leaves are lanceolate. Flowers are minute, borne in terminally or
axillary compound umbels producing clusters of white flowers. The flowers have
bracts 1-3, small, linear or none; calyx teeth 5, small or none; petals 5, notched, often
enlarged and erect. Carpels are rounded and narrowed upwards. Fruits are brown,
cremocarp, 3–6 mm long, ovoid or oblong, glabrous and laterally flattened. Seeds are
dorsally flattened smooth or slightly grooved on the inner surface. The fruit when
ripe splits into narrow, elongated carpels 4 to 6.5 mm long, curved, pointed at the
ends with five longitudinal ridges on the surface. The seeds have a warm, sweet,
slightly sharp taste and flavour (Malhotra, 2004). The sematic chromosome numbers
are 2n-20.
15.1.3 Production and international trade
Caraway is grown significantly on a large scale in the Netherlands, Germany, Poland,
Ukraine, Hungary, and Romania. The Netherlands has an outstanding position in the
world for caraway production. Some further countries Sweden, Norway, Spain and
Austria, were mentioned as caraway producers, (Heeger, 1956), however, production
seems not to be a determining factor today in the world market from these countries.
From the last few decades, the production of caraway has shifted to new regions, such
as Canada, USA, Finland, Syria and Morocco. The Carum carvi plant as natural flora
is prevalent in North and Central Europe, England, East and Central France, South
Spain, North Italy, Balkan Peninsula, Central Asia (Nemeth, 1998). It has spread as a
result of human activity also in Holland, North Africa, North America and New Zealand.
The principal commercial source of caraway seed is the Netherlands. The seed is
also cultivated in Bulgaria, Canada, Germany, Britain, India, Morocco, Newfoundland,
Poland, Romania, Russia, Syria and the USA (Weiss, 2002). About 3500 metric
tonnes of caraway seed and value added products are imported annually into the USA
and about 80% of this tonnage arrives from the Netherlands, the remainder coming
from Poland and Denmark. Switzerland and Austria get about 500 tonnes of caraway,
70% from the Netherlands and the remainder from Poland. The Netherlands, Poland
and Germany are the major exporters in the world market and export caraway seed
to the USA, Switzerland, Austria and Hungary. In India, caraway grows wild in the
North Himalayan region and is cultivated as a winter crop in the plains and a summer
crop in Kashmir, Kumaon, Garhwal and Chamba at attitudes of 2740 to 3660 m
above mean sea level.
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Average annual world production of caraway oil ranges from 30–40 t, with a total
value of more than $1 million. Holland is one of the major producers and exporters
of caraway essential oil. For many years Holland has been the world’s principal
supplier of caraway seed and oil, but now the Netherlands has attained supreme
position in the global market. The international price of oil varies from 2000 Rupees
(Rs) to Rs. 2500 per kg so it is a minor item in the export and import of oil in India.
Approximately 200 kg of caraway oil, worth Rs. 0.01–0.02 million and caraway seed
200 tonnes, worth Rs.3.5 million are imported annually from India (Shiva et al.,
2002). Around 30 t of essential oil of caraway is traded yearly in the world, the fifth
largest amount amongst Apiaceace species. The world production of seeds may be
assumed reach to around 15 thousand tonnes. Production, however, is rather variable
and fluctuates from year to year both in quantities and in prices.
Production of caraway seed is significant in northern Europe, especially the
Netherlands, and in Canada, the USA, Scandinavia, Russia and Germany. The tuberous
roots of caraway are edible and somewhat popular especially among the inhabitants
of higher hills in India and China, and further extending to the Caucasus, Persia,
Tibet and Siberia. The major producers of winter-type caraway are the Netherlands,
Poland, Hungary and Russia; the spring type is produced mainly by Syria, Morocco,
Egypt and Western India.
15.2
Cultivation
15.2.1 Climate
Caraway crop requires a dry temperate climate and thrives well in tilled soils, rich in
humus at an elevation of 3000–4000 m. Caraway is basically a biennial but usually
treated as an annual from crop production techniques. It grows as an annual at lower
altitudes and as a biennial in higher altitudes up to 4000 m above sea level. It prefers
a lot of sunshine and low temperatures (16/20 °C) for flowering and seed setting of
biennial types (winter types), whereas annual types of caraway require more heat for
seed production (Svab, 1992). High fruit yield of caraway requires plenty of sunshine
especially in the first year of growth and also during the flowering stage. Low light
levels will delay and decrease the fruit production (Bouwmeester et al., 1995). The
biennial types require a period of about eight weeks of temperature below 10 °C to
induce flowering, whereas annual types attain flowering during long days (10 hours
or more), the higher the temperature, the quicker flowering develops. Annual caraway
thrives in the cool short days of the Eastern Mediterranean winter and in the Indian
plains (Arganosa et al., 1998). A cold temperature (8/5 °C, day/night) for seven
weeks was best for achieving 100% flowering in biennial type caraway plants in
Hungary (Nemeth et al., 1998). Commercial crops of caraway are usually located in
moderate to high rainfall areas of the temperate region up to 1500 mm annually.
Caraway can withstand frost after sowing in autumn. In general, light intensity is
more important than day length and long periods of cloudy weather or shading from
other crops at flowering substantially reduces seed yield (Putievsky, 1983). In warmer
regions, caraway is grown at higher elevations i.e. near 3000 m in Kashmir, India.
15.2.2 Soil
Caraway grows in a variety of soils but yields best on deep and warm soils rich in
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humus and nutrients. Commercial caraway crops are usually grown on free-draining
clays or heavy loams soils provided moisture is adequate. The growers in northern
Netherlands, the known high-productivity zone, harvest a high yield and quality of
caraway under such soil conditions. Prolonged water-logged conditions may cause
damage to the crop. Caraway grows well only on neutral or slightly alkaline soils, a
soil reaction of pH 6.5–7.5 is preferred, and above or below this, yield is progressively
reduced, although there may be no major difference in vegetative growth (Chotin and
Szulgina, 1963). Below pH 6.0, caraway plants generally make poor growth and
many die.
Liming can adjust soil acidity, but heavy application may induce manganese and
born deficiencies thus acid or high alkaline soils should be avoided for the cultivation
of caraway. Dry sandy and arid soils are not suitable for the cultivation of caraway.
In the Netherlands, the highest yield of carvone (>70 kg/ha) was obtained on sandy
loam, whereas on sandy soils the yield was about 40 kg/ha (Toxopeus and Lubberts,
1994). In India, the sandy loam and well drained soils are best for caraway cultivation
and can be grown in fruit orchards in between the rows of the plants.
15.2.3 Sowing
Caraway is propagated through seeds and is usually sown at a row distance of 30–40
cm, during March–April in temperate areas and October–November in subtropical
areas in India and the Mediterranean region. Biennial caraway can either be sown in
late spring-early summer in areas with a relatively mild winter or in autumn where
winters are more rigorous. In areas where there are very cold winters, caraway should
be sown in late July to ensure vernalization occurs. In the Netherlands it is frequently
sown in March–April, mostly the biennial type, but the annual cultivars should be
sown as early as possible in spring when the ground has warmed after winter. A soil
temperature between 10 and 15 °C gave the highest germination percentage in Israel
and germination time was halved when seeds were leached with water and dried
before sowing. Annual caraway can be sown under cover early in the year and grown
mostly by direct seeding in the field. This produces an early herb crop or a high seed
yield, but is profitable only near a high-value urban market or for domestic use.
About 6–8 kg good-quality seed is required for sowing in one hectare and significantly
advanced and more uniform emergence can be obtained as a result of seed stratification
at 0 °C for 20–25 days and also by warming up the seeds just before sowing (Chotin
and Szulgina, 1963). A sufficient water supply for maintaining optimum soil moisture
during germination is required for getting maximum germination level and uniform
emergence of seedlings. In the moderate climate of Central Europe, two cultivation
methods are used, mixed or pure crop. Mixed cultivation with a cover crop is usually
preferred by the small farm holdings located under favourable soil and climatic
conditions. The pure sowing can be delayed to the end of May and even to August
(Ruminska,1981), whereas in mixed cultivation, possibly the earliest sowing (March,
April) is just obligatory (Weglarz, 1998).
Seed sowing rate depends both on cultivation method and soil type, ranging from
6–8 kg to 8–10 kg per ha for mixed and pure crops, respectively. Sowing is performed
in rows at a 35–50 cm spacing and sowing depth increase from 1.5 cm on heavy soils
to 2–4 cm on relatively higher soils, exposed to fast drying of the top layer. The
optimum stand density for caraway as worked out by Wander (1997) is 75–100
plants/m2 for getting higher seed yield and quality. In Saskatoon, western Canada,
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among the three cultivars tested, Karzo produced the highest seed yield (1648 kg/ha)
and had the highest essential oil content (3.4%) and for best yields, Karzo required
high sowing rates (about three times the current sowing rate used with other cultivars),
a sowing depth of 2.5–4 cm, and sowing no later than 19 May, to ensure full seed
maturity (Arganosa, et al., 1998). The different sowing dates (between 6 April and 21
June) and seed rates (5, 10 or 15 kg/ha) using C. carvi (cv. Sylvia) were standardized
by Dragland and Aslaksen (1996) for its successful cultivation in various agroclimatic localities in Norway.
15.2.4 Fertilization
Nutrient intake by caraway plants is intensive and the pure crops require about 10–
15 t/ha farmyard manure and the best fore crops for caraway are considered root and
vegetable plants previously supplied with a full rate of farmyard manure (20–40 t/
ha). Plants ploughed in for green manure could also be recommended. According to
Schroder (1964), 85 kg N, 39 kg P2O5 and 94 kg K2O per ha, yields 1.2 and 4.2
tonnes of fruits and straw, respectively. In Poland, caraway crop is usually provided
with 60–80 kg N, 70–80 kg P2O5, 100–120 kg K2O and 20–30 kg MgO, applied both
in the first and second growing season (Ruminska, 1990). Full rates of P, K compounds
together with half amount of N-fertilizers are applied prior to sowing in late autumn
or early spring. The other half of nitrogen is provided after caraway emergence.
However, the main sources of nutrients as mentioned above are mineral fertilizers,
supplied in both years of cultivation in the biennial type.
Annual caraway responds very positively to N and P for increasing plant height,
number of branches, seed weight and seed yield (Munshi et al., 1990) and in Europe
it was found that N is needed mainly during leaf development and K during flower
stalk growth while the P and Ca uptake (as found in plant parts) was high during seed
ripening (Lihan and Jezikova, 1991). The highest seed production has been obtained
when a high level of N is applied before sowing or 50% before sowing and 50% of
the total amount at mid-winter. In Israel, maximum seed yield has been obtained at
50 kg of N/1000 m2 supplied as ammonium sulphate (Putievsky and Sanderovich,
1985). The highest seed yield and carvone yield were achieved with 30–60 kg N/ha
under the Netherlands growing conditions (Wander, 1997).
15.2.5 Maintenance and care
The important agricultural practices for caraway production after sowing are loosening
of soil, weed control, irrigation and plant protection. It is necessary to decrease the
weed population to the minimum, not only to reduce competition with the crop, but
also to maintain quality at harvest, because many weeds are umbelliferous and their
seeds are difficult to separate from caraway fruits and ultimately reduces its value.
Since the crop growth during the initial period of emergence is slow, crop should be
kept free of weeds during the first two months by practising 2–3 weeding and hoeing
for annual types (Malhotra, 2005). For biennial crops, one weeding and hoeing
would be required in the first year when the crop has started sprouting and another
during spring of the next year after over wintering in April. This practice helps in
removal of weeds and loosening of soil for aeration.
In Russia, herbicides like prometryne and gasgard are used against dicot weeds. In
pure crops of caraway, the use of linuron, prometryne and metobromuron have proved
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effective for chemical weed control (Pruszynski, 1995). Weed control is a very important
factor mainly during the early developing stages before the plants cover the field at
early spring (March). The growing season of biennial caraway is much longer, therefore
a wide range of weed control is needed for a longer time. The two most common
herbicides used for weed control are afalon (linuron) and prometryne, mainly used
after sowing before emergence (Putievsky, 1978), but can also be used before sowing
(Pank et al., 1984).
It is important to maintain adequate soil moisture to get high seed yield. Depending
upon the soil type and climate, the crop requires three to four irrigations. In biennial
types, a first irrigation should be given when bolting starts and is followed by irrigation
at flowering and seed formation, the most important stages for realizing a higher seed
yield. In semi-arid regions where the annual caraway grows, two critical stages when
irrigation is necessary are during the early period of growth from germination to
establishment and seed formation. In Egypt, when rainfall is not sufficient, the farmers
make use of the flooding system to irrigate the crop, while in Israel a sprinkler
irrigation system is used for this purpose.
The caraway crop is affected by several diseases and insect pests but insects pose
comparatively less of a problem than do the diseases. The aphid (Hyadaphis corianderi)
is frequently recorded in caraway from the Middle East to India and is damaging in
growing seasons. The most commonly recorded diseases are caused by Fusarium
spp., Verticillium spp., Sclerotinia spp., especially S. sclerotiorum, which has a very
wide host and geographical range and Phomopsis spp., especially Phomopsis diachenii
and Ramularia spp. in Europe. A major disease of spring caraway in the Netherlands
is the soil-borne Sclerotinia stem rot, which can be effectively controlled by following
crop rotation. The Anthracnose due to Mycocentrospora acerina occurs widely in
Europe. Suitable disease management as recommended for each disease and pests in
various countries can be followed accordingly.
15.2.6 Harvesting and yield
The fruits of caraway, being highly susceptible to shattering, necessitate harvesting
of crop at the appropriate time. In Europe, caraway is harvested in the period from
late June to mid-July for biennial types. Depending on region and cultivar, biennial
types are harvested from July to September. The annual crop is ready for harvest in
March–April after 4–5 months. However, in temperate areas the plant flowers only
after over-wintering and thus crop is harvested in July after a crop duration of about
15 months. The crop is harvested when the oldest seeds start turning brown. Harvesting
is done by sickle on small farms or by mowing machine, as is done on large farms in
Holland. Caraway yield widely fluctuates from 1–3 t/ha for biennial types and 0.7–
1 t/ha from annual type. In mixed cultivation with cover crops, the yields obtained
may be 15–30% lower (Muller, 1990). In field tests carried out over several years in
Vienna, Austria, by Bailer et al., (2001) on four annual and seven biennial caraway
varieties, yielded 900 kg/ha in biennial caraway, and 1250 kg/ha in annual caraway.
The yield of caraway fruits grown in experimental fields ranged from 984–2673 kg
ha-1, depending on fertilizer content, cultivation area and cultivar under Lithuanian
agro-climatic conditions (Venskutonis et al., 1999).
15.2.7 Post-harvest handling
The seed crop of caraway is collected after harvest and should be left in swaths or
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sheaves for a period of 7–10 days before they are threshed. This short period from
cutting to threshing is very essential, since then the fruits become finally formed and
coloured. Warm weather favours this process, however, too intensive insolation is
unwanted, when threshers are also used. However, transport of dry plants from the
field usually increases yield losses (Hecht et al., 1992). In a study by Wander (1997)
thresher drum speed had exhibited no adverse effect on seed or carvone yield while
threshing caraway. After threshing and mechanical cleaning, the fruits should be redried down to 10–12% moisture content. Then for some time, the fruits should be
kept loose in a thin layer, being frequently mixed, within a dry and aerated storeroom
to finally establish their moisture content. Such prepared raw material is packed into
sacks and if inadequately stored, can go musty and mouldy, thus becoming useless as
raw material (Weglarz, 1998). Spices should be stored on a dry, cool and dark place
in order to keep the aroma as long as possible. The shade-dried seed contains more
oil content than the sun-dried seed. The seed can be cleaned easily with a screening
mill followed by a gravity separator. The fresh seed should be taken to the oil
extraction unit for more recovery of essential oil content (Malhotra, 2006a,b).
15.2.8 Cultivars
There are annual and biennial forms of Carum carvi, existing with slight uncertain
differences in morphological and anatomical characteristics between these two
morphotypes of caraway (Hornok, 1986). Concerning essential oil content, there is a
clear distinction between these two with about 3% for annual and 4% for biennial
caraway (Bouwmeester et al., 1995)
Different cultivars have been recommended for cultivation in different provinces.
The popular biennial type landraces and varieties of caraway are Noord-Hollandsche,
Mansholts and Volhouden. In 1972, a non-shattering variety ‘Bleija’ was developed
through Volhouden and Mansholts. Two spring type annual caraway varieties ‘Karzo’
and ‘Springcar’, were both registered in the years 1993 and 1995, respectively. In the
Mediterranean region, varieties mostly originated from local wild populations and
they are known as ‘Balady’ in Arabic. In order to get the highest seed, essential oil
and carvone yields, the identified varieties/landraces popular in a province should be
used for cultivation. There is one report of transgenic caraway from the Netherland
(Krens, et al., 1997). A population of annual caraway was evaluated over nine years
for quality parameters in comparison to biennial caraway in the Central German area.
Annual caraway has the potential to reach yield and quality levels of biennial varieties.
Plant height, 1000-seed weight, carvone content and taste were satisfactory, but
earliness, homogeneity, yields, contents of essential oils and colour need improvement.
Also, the causes of low seed germination (40%) have to be investigated (Pank and
Quilitzsch, 1996).
Clear agro-botanical differences were observed between wild and cultivated
populations. Cultivated populations were characterized by a longer growing period,
differences in rosette growth habit, larger and heavier seeds, and a higher and more
constant seed germination capacity. The essential oil content of all seeds was
variable (2.3–7.6%); the average oil contents of wild and cultivated forms were 5.0
and 5.1%, respectively. The highest oil contents were found in a cultivated Swiss and
a wild Finnish population (7.6 and 7.5%, respectively). The average oil content of
wild Finnish populations was significantly higher (5.3%) than that of cultivated
Finnish forms (4.8%). The main constituents of most of essential oil
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samples were carvone (40–60%) and limonene (38–54%). High carvone contents
were observed in a Norwegian and an Icelandic population. The carvone and limonene
ratio of wild populations from northern parts of Finland was higher than that from
southern parts.
Populations from higher elevations in the Alps also had high carvone:limonene
ratios (Galambosi and Peura, 1996). The caraway selections A.Car-01-91 and A.Car01-94 both annual types are being acclimatized to semi-arid conditions in India for
high yield and essential oil content (Malhotra, 2005). The caraway, Bi-An, a new
biennial cultivar which flowers in the first year of growth, was selected from commercial
biennial varieties of caraway, and was grown in the field at Newe Ya’ar, Israel. The
composition of the essential oil, hydro-distilled from fruits of the new cultivar, was
analyzed. The main constituents of the essential oil were limonene (50.16%) and dcarvone (46.74%) (Putievsky et al., 1994).
15.2.9 Organic farming
In recent years, organic agriculture has gained importance and many farmers are
showing interest in organic farming. The demand for organic caraway is steadily
increasing, because many consumers have a preference for the organic product of this
group of spices. The importance of organic farming can be inferred from the fact that
some European countries are supporting organic agriculture by giving subsidies for
conversion. Demand for organic spices varies considerably from country to country
and the kind of spices in a particular country. The European countries, the USA,
Canada and Japan are by far the largest markets and looking far organic spices from
the high-productivity areas in the world. The newly emerging markets for organic
spices are Australia, New Zealand and some other European countries.
No reliable published data is available for caraway organic seed production and
export but as a whole it is not more than 20 tonnes as assessed from important buyers.
The major organic caraway-producing countries are the Netherlands, Germany and
Norway. Keeping in mind the growing demand for organic spices in the global
market, it is necessary to give a boost to the organic farming of spices by tackling a
few issues related to the costly and cumbersome land certification system and availability
of the technical knowhow especially on production, processing, storage and market
information. The future demand for organic spices appears to be bright. The general
and specific guidelines for organic production of seed spices including caraway have
been detailed by Malhotra and Vashishtha, (2004).
15.3
Chemical structure
Chemical composition varies with variety region, stage of harvest and method of
distillate. The ground seed of caraway yields up to 5–7.5% volatile oil, consisting
primarily of 60% δ-carvone and 15% fixed oil, of which oleic, linoleic, petroselinic,
and palmitic are the major fatty acids. Caraway grown in the northern latitudes yields
higher quantities of volatile oil than that cultivated in the warmer climates. The
essential oil content varies with stage of harvest, variety of caraway and geographical
region and has been reported by various workers ranging from 0.99% to 8.1% (El
Wakeil et al., 1986; Atal and Sood, 1967). The chief constituents of essential oil of
caraway range from 47–81.17%, carvone and 9.4–48.7%, limonene to which chiefly
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the odour and flavour are attributed. The essential oil concentration of seeds was in
the range 2.9–5.1% (v/w). The carvone and limonene contents of the essential oils
were in the range 59–77% and 26–41%, respectively from C. carvi (cv. Sylvia) in
Norway (Dragland and Aslaksen,1996).
The chemical constituents of caraway can be classified as primary and secondary
metabolites. The first group comprises substances playing a vital role and necessary
in normal cell life processes, the second is usually of broader interest due to the
presence of bioactive substances contributing to flavour, fragrance and medicinal
value. Our major concern is with secondary metabolites as they yield bioactive
substances specific to a crop species. Thus, the growing interest nowadays is for
secondary metabolites, viz., terpenes, flavonoids, coumarins and phenolic constituents
of Carum carvi due to their antioxidative properties. The main primary metabolites
identified and characterized for caraway samples by various workers are saccharides
(monosaccharides – glucose, fructose, disaccharides-sucrose; trisaccharides –
umbelliferore (Hopf and Kandler 1976), lipids (triglycerides, 66%; free fatty acids,
5.1%, steroids, 0.4%, hydrocarbons, 0.2%; chlorophyll, 0.2%; waxes,0.1%; free alcohol
0.1% (Stepanenko, et al.,1980), amino acids such as alanine, phexylalanine, methionine,
glutamic acid, serine and valine (Perseca et al., 1981), endogenous abscisic acid
(ABA) 120 µg/kg of d.wt (Mendez, 1978) and other minor miscellaneous constituents,
caraway choline, 0.03–0.15% (Matsuzawa and Kawa, 1996). A linear relationship
between ABA content and dormancy degree in caraway seed has been noticed (Hradlik
and Fiserova, 1980). The constituents carvacrol, cumin alcohol and cumin aldehyde
found in volatile parts of caraway essential oil are phenolic substances.
Research on the constituents responsible for the antioxidant properties of Carum
has led, among others, to carvacrol (Lagouri and Boskau, 1995) and dihydro-derivatives
of main terpenes-dihydrocarbon and dihydrocarvecol are the important mixtures of
stereoisomer. The contents of other minor and trace substances in the oil may vary
within broad limits as shown in Table 15.1., which presents an analysis of seed
samples from Egyptian origin and mid-European countries. Upon hydro-distillation,
the seeds gave 3.5% oil on dry weight basis and upon GC-MS examination, the oil
was found to contain carvone as a major constituent (81.5%) Chowdhury (2002). The
other constituents identified were citronellyl acetate, dihydrocarvone, eugenol,
isolimonene and limonene oxide, δ 3-carene, camphene, caryophyllene, carveol, ρcymene, dihydrocarveol, linalool, ρ-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol, myrecene, α-pinene, βpinene, phellandrene, sabinene, α-terpinene and terpinelene and were isolated in
trace amounts.
In field tests carried out over several years in Vienna, Austria, essential oil content
was 2.8–3.3% in annual and 3.9–5% in biennial caraway cultivars. In caraway, cisand trans-dihydrocarvone and some isomers of carveol and dihydrocarveol were
present in the range 0.5–1% each. Solvent extraction of the crushed seeds with
hexane, a method using triple extraction and ultrasonic treatment, led to nearly identical
results as hydro-distillation with dill, but to carvone values 16% lower with caraway
(Bailer et al., 2001). The four varieties (Gintaras, Rekord, Chmelnickij and Prochana)
were studied by Venskutonis et al., (1999) under different nitrogen fertilizer regimes
(0–120 kg ha–1) and found that total content of essential oils in fruits varied from 1.9
to 4.3 ml 100 g–1. Percentage concentrations of the main caraway compounds limonene
and carvone were in the range 38.2–52.3% and 45.7–59.7%, respectively. These
compounds accounted for more than 96% of the total essential oil of all analyzed
samples.
Caraway
Table 15.1
279
The constituents of caraway essential oil
Constituents
Essential oil
Carvone
Limonene
α pinene
β pinene
Terpinolene
Myrecene
Paracymene
Caryophyllene
Trans-dihydrocarvone
Cis-dihydrocarvone
Cuminaldehyde
Cis-perrilyl alcohol
Trans-carvone
Cis-carvone
Dihydrocarveol
Cuminyl alcohol
Carrylaceate
Unidentified compounds
Contents (% of dry weight)
El Wakeil et al., 1986)
Pushman et al. 1992
0.99
80.17
9.75
0.10
0.40
0.20
0.06
0.06
0.11
0.59
0.11
0.08
0.14
0.01
0.14
0.04
0.02
–
8.17
5.36
50.46
47.66
–
–
0.35
–
–
0.18
–
–
–
–
–
0.56
–
0.16
Less than 1.00
Flavonoids (flavonoid glycosides) are the other important secondary metabolites
of Carum and seed flavonoids occur in the form of 3-0-glycosides in Carum carvi.
Few crystalline compounds were obtained from caraway seed methanolic extract and
are terpenoid constituents, predominating the oil constituent is S(+) carvone (formerly
carvol and δ-carvone), results mostly from allylic oxidation of R(+) limonene with
carveol. The monoterpene R(+) limonene ratios vary from 3:2 up to 3:1, depending
on variety of plant and storage conditions. The following compounds were obtained
crystalline from caraway seed methanolic extract (Glidewell, 1991; Kunzemann and
Herrmann, 1977; Ruszkowska, 1998). From the water-soluble portion of the methanolic
extract of caraway fruits, an aromatic compound glucoside and a glucide were isolated
together with 16 known compounds. Their structures were clarified as 2-methoxy-2(4′-hydroxyphenyl) ethanol, junipediol A 2-O-β-δ-glucopyranoside and L-fucitol,
respectively (Matsumura, et al., 2002). The important flavonoids isolated are listed
below.
quercetin 3-glucuronide
isoquercitrine = quercetin-3-O-B-glucopyranoside
quercetin-3-0-Caffeylglucoside
kalmpferol-3-glucoside
Isoquercitrine is the predominating constituent (80 mg/kg dry weight) present in
caraway seed while others are found between two and ten times lower than this
quantity. The above-mentioned flavonoids are known to possess antioxidative
properties and activate enzymes detoxifying carcinogenic substances and metabolites
in the cells.
The enantiomeric composition of limonene and carvone caraway seed oils was
determined by chiral gas chromatography. Two different gas chromatography chiral
280
Handbook of herbs and spices
columns were used to obtain enantiomeric separation of both aroma compounds and
two varieties of caraway were used for investigation. In Plewicki, the concentrations
of limonene and carvone were 31.41 and 36.24 mg/g, respectively, and in Konczewicki
they were 17.60 and 22.46 mg/g, respectively. The enantiomeric ratio was stable for
both compounds in the analyzed samples. The purity, expressed as a percentage of +
optical form to total, was high for R(+)-limonene (99.1–99.5%) and S(+)-carvone
(99.4–99.8%) in caraway seed oils (Zawirska, 2000). Microsomal preparations from
fruits of annual (cv. Karzo) and biennial (cv. Bleija) forms of C. carvi catalyse the C6 hydroxylation of (+)-limonene to (+)-trans-carveol, the key intermediate in the
biosynthesis of carvone ((+)-limonene-6-hydroxylase activity) as reported by
Bouwmeester et al., (1998, 1999).
The biosynthesis of the monoterpenes limonene and carvone in the fruits of caraway
(Carum carvi) proceeds from geranyl diphosphate via a three-step pathway. First,
geranyl diphosphate is cyclized to (+)-limonene by a monoterpene synthase. Second,
this intermediate is stored in the essential oil ducts without further metabolism or is
converted by limonene-6-hydroxylase to (+)-trans-carveol. Third, (+)-trans-carveol
is oxidized by a dehydrogenase to (+)-carvone. The presence of antiproliferative
polyacetylenes was suggested in Carum carvi (fruit and root) and were successfully
isolated by Nakano et al., (1998).
The coumarins in caraway seed were identified as umfelliferone, coumarin and
scopoletin, (Nielsen,1970) whereas the furocoumarins reported are 8-methoxypsoralen
(8-MOP). Five methoxypsoralen (5-MOP) were detected of bioassay of caraway
seeds of low quality of 0.005 µg/g of dry weight (Ceska et al.,1987). The coumarins
and furocoumarins are known to have antibacterial, potent photosensitizers when
activated by near UV light and thus they are phototoxic, mutagenic and photocarcinogenic and also exhibit strong seed germination inhibiting action. Due to such
properties as described by Ruszkowska (1998) coumarins have been identified for
utilization in psoriasis treatment and in sunscreen lotions preparation.
The presence of a high content of phenolic substances is attributed significantly as
a stabilizing effect of some spices on food especially on meat products. The phenolic
functional group is known to have antimicrobial or antioxidant properties of active
substances. The phenolic compounds identified in Carum seed are flavonoids,
glycosides, derivatives of quinic acid, proteids and tannins. The isolation of a flavone
from the methanolic extract of the seeds of Carum carvi was characterized by Rahman
and Hossain (2003) as 4′,5,7-trihdyroxy-2′-methoxyflavone.
The major constituents of essential oil of caraway are carvone and limonene,
which are known to possess insecticidal or insect-repellent effects (Zuelsdorff and
Burkholder, 1978, Su, 1987), antibacterial and antifungal effects (Janssen, et al.,
1988), inhibition of seed germination (Asplund, 1968) and sprouting in potatoes
(Beveridge, et al., 1981). The chemical structures of carvone and limonene, the
major compounds of caraway essential oil, are illustrated, in Fig. 15.1.
15.4
Main uses in food processing
Caraway is widely used as a spice for culinary purpose and for flavouring various
food products. The main caraway products are fruit (generally known as seed), herb
and seed oils. It was popular from ancient times for its use in folk medicines and the
entire plant of caraway has its herbal value but commercially it is valued for fruit.
Caraway
281
O
(+) Carvone
Fig. 15.1
(+) Limonene
The major compounds of caraway essential oil.
Caraway is grown widely in the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Ukraine, Hungary
and Romania for seed purposes and is reported to have been used as a condiment for
flavouring and food preparation in Europe and Middle East in ancient times. The
main processed products of caraway are whole seed, essential oil, oleoresin, powder,
and a few others. They are used in the food industry, cosmetics, beverage and
pharmaceutical industries primarily for flavouring and medicinal purposes (Malhotra,
2006a). The main processed products from caraway seeds and their uses in the food
processing industry are described below.
15.4.1 Whole seed
The caraway seed has a characteristic distinct warm, slightly sweet, very sharp somewhat
acrid but pleasant aroma. Caraway seed is processed for drying, cleaning, grading and
is mostly traded in this form in the international market. Due to its inherent preserving
qualities it is known to possess good storage life similar to pepper. Caraway seed is
widely used as a spice for seasoning, at both the household and commercial levels.
Use at household level
In middle Europe caraway is used as a common spice, the Germans use caraway seed
in many of their baked breads, piecrusts, sauces and their famous sauerbraten, whereas
the Austrians like it in stews. Italians boil hot chestnuts with caraway seed before
roasting them. Caraway masks the smell of heavy foods like spare ribs, roast goose,
pork, mutton, oxtail stew or other hearty meat dishes, and adds an interesting sweetness
to apples, pound cake and cheeses. Caraway seed is used in canapés, onion bread,
cheese spreads, omelettes, coleslaw, cooked pastas, rye bread, soups, salad dressings,
sauces, rice, boiled seafoods, cabbage and potato, soups, sauerkraut, cucumber salad,
poultry dressings, stews, homemade sausage and vegetables such as beets, carrots,
cabbage, cucumbers, onions, turnips, green beans, potatoes, cauliflower, and zucchini
(Farrell, 1999).
Use at commercial level
Caraway seed is mostly used in bakery products and alcoholic beverages for adding
taste and aroma. In the bakery industry, caraway seed is not only mixed into white
and rye bread but is also sprinkled on the dough before baking for better dispersed
aroma and for enhancing the taste impression (Daffershofer, 1980).
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Handbook of herbs and spices
The flavouring of different kinds of alcoholic beverages has a long tradition
particularly from Denmark and other Scandinavian countries. The popular products
described as akvavit or aquavit are flavoured using neutral alcohol distillates of
caraway. Caraway is added only before distillation (Ney, 1987) and in this way the
flavour of the drink is attributable to the distillates of caraway. Some well-known
alcoholic beverages world wide are listed in Table 15.2. In American Gin the flavour
additives mostly used include juniper berries and cardamom as well as caraway seeds
(Cole and Nobel, 1995).
15.4.2 Ground caraway
Ground caraway is produced by grinding dried, cleaned and sterilized fruits. The fine
powder product is mostly used for seasoning of foods whereas the coarse product is
used for the purpose of extraction of essential oil, oleoresin and other extractives.
The pre-chilling and reduced grinding can be used to overcome the loss of volatiles.
Cryo-grinding, can better help in reducing the oil loss during the process of grinding
and maintaining the particle size to optimum so as to ensure the free flow for the
duration of its shelf-life (Russo, 1976). Moreover, cryoground caraway dispenses
more uniformly in spice formulations and is therefore used as a spice for seasoning,
at both the household and commercial levels. Ground caraway is mostly used for
adding taste and aroma to various food preparations at home level, in bakery products
and alcoholic beverages.
15.4.3 Essential oil
Caraway essential oil is obtained by steam distillation or hydro-distillation of fruits
or chaff or herb and root according to the market requirement and particular use. But
the essential oil extracted from seed is superior in quality and commercially valued
more. In general, the essential oil content in caraway seed ranges from 2.9 to 5.1%
with major components of d-carvone up to 65% and d-limonene up to 40% but these
proportions are variable. The high-quality seed may contain up to 7% volatile oil and
up to 15% fixed oil. Sedlakova et al., 2003b reported that seed samples collected
before maturation had lower essential oil content than samples harvested in full
ripeness. Samples collected before harvest had elongated, narrow seeds, while those
gathered after ripeness had rounder seeds. The recovery of essential oil content was
also more from supercritical fluid extraction than steam distillation on caraway and
the essential oil content extracted was comparatively more from ground caraway
rather than whole seeds in both of the methods of essential oil extraction.
In whole caraway extracts, the carvone content was 81.53%; in ground caraway
Table 15.2
Popular alcoholic beverages using caraway (Clutton, 1995)
Beverage name
Origin
Remarks
Akvavit or aquavit
Allash
Cloc
Kummel
Scandinavia
Russia
Denmark
Netherlands
Caraway with aniseed and fennel 40% alcohol
Sweet kummel with bitter almonds and aniseed
Kummel 31% alcohol, colorless
Caraway with some anise and cumin minimum
5% alcohol, one of the oldest liqueurs with digestive
properties.
Caraway
283
extracts, the carvone content declined to 66.37%. Among the three types of seed
mills evaluated by Sedlakova et al., (2003a) (ETA 0067 with millstones, splintery
VIPO mill and cryogenic mill Vibrom), the highest amount of extracted essential oil
was obtained with the splintery mill VIPO (2.55%). The essential oil is a mobile
liquid, almost colourless to pale yellow with a warm, spicy hot taste. The oil has
virtually replaced the seed in processed foods, and is extensively used as a flavour
component in processed meats, pickles, sauces, seasonings and similar preparations
in alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks.
The fresh seed can be crushed and immediately processed for distillation to avoid
evaporation losses and recovery of more essential oil content. The average essential
oil yield, as assessed on laboratory scale, was around 70 kg/ha with a top yield of 160
kg/ha (Dachler et al., 1995). The oil has a strong characteristic odour due to the
carvone content and the rectified oil received from the process of double distillation
is colourless to pale yellow and has a strong odour and more biting taste. Caraway
essential oil has a ready market in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry. It
is used in all major categories of foods including alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages,
frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins and puddings, meat and meat
products, condiment and relishes and others. The highest average maximum use level
is reported to be about 0.02% in baked goods. It is also used as a fragrance component
in cosmetic preparations including toothpastes, mouthwashes, soaps, creams, lotions
and perfumes, with a maximum use level of 0.4% reported in perfumes (Leung and
Foster, 1996).
Caraway essential oil may be used as animal food (pasture) for milking cows and
sheep according to old publications by Heeger, (1956) but nowadays it is uncommon.
Dried seeds after crushing are processed for distillation in order to obtain a better
yield and higher quality of oil; crushed seeds are spread evenly on perforated grids
provided in the still so that complete penetration of the steam is allowed. It takes
about 6–8 hours for optimum distillation of one batch. According to Bentley and
Trimen (1999) the caraway derived from a northern or elevated locality, yield the
most oil. Moreover, the oil distilled from grown caraway is preferred, and is alone
recognized in the British pharmacopoeia. The Dutch oil is also regarded as better
than that distilled in the southern parts of Germany.
15.4.4 Fatty oil
The fatty oils produced from the distillation process of caraway seed has been reported
to 15% and particularly rich in petroselinic acid. The fatty acid profiles of the oils
were analysed by automated GC and petroselinic and cis-vaccenic acids were obtained
as the major components (Reiter et al., 1998). The petroselinic acid is an important
raw material for oleochemical processes and can be easily cracked into lauric and
adipinic-acid (Lechner, 1997) in the related industry. The fatty oils produced from
caraway seed have their use in various pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. Caraway
fatty oils are primarily used in the soap industry, for flavouring and as a deodorant in
the manufacture of perfumed disinfectant soaps.
15.4.5 Caraway chaff oil
Caraway chaff oil is distilled from the husks and stalks that remain after threshing
and is considered inferior in quality compared with oil extracted from seeds. The
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Handbook of herbs and spices
dried exhausted and pulverized caraway chaff contains 20–23.5% crude protein of
which 75–85% is digestible and 14–16% is fat and can be used as an ideal cattle feed.
The chaff oil is obtained by steam distillation of material left after threshing of fruits
and contains less carvone and more terpenes. It has less of the characteristic odour of
the seed oil and is harsher with a somewhat bitter taste. This is produced on a very
small scale and is also used as an adulterant of the fruit oil.
15.4.6 Herb and root oil
Caraway herb oil is obtained by steam distillation from fresh whole plant, stalks,
leaves and seeds. The top stem is usually prepared for the distillation process and
stems are removed. Some growers feel that it should be harvested before flowering
and others say it is better afterwards. Caraway herb oil has similarity in flavour with
oil extracted from seed and could quickly expand to commercial production as an
alternative to seed. The root oil can also be obtained by distillation of minced roots
and consists mainly it oxygenated compounds with aldehydes up to 70% including
octanal, nonanal, cis-dec-4-enal and trans-dec-2-enal. The complete analysis of herb
oil and root oil in comparison to essential oil extracted from seed is not available but
it is considered that it is inferior in quality to seed oil and is also used as an adulterant
of fruit oil.
15.4.7 Caraway carvone
The essential oil constituent d-carvone is a nearly colourless to pale yellow liquid,
which darkens with age. The odour of caraway carvone is warm, herbaceous, breadlike, spicy and slightly floral. The taste is sweet, spicy and bread-like. The carvone
reportedly has certain cancer-preventive properties and anthelmintic properties. Pure
carvone is prepared by decomposing crystalline compounds of carvone with hydrogensulphide. Carvone also has uses in the soap industry for addition of natural aroma.
Demand for carvone fluctuates and is confined to a particular segment of the market
but regular extraction of carvone can become an alternative to caraway seed in the
food-processing and pharmaceutical industries.
15.4.8 Decarvonized oil
Decarvonized oil consists of limonene with traces of carvone and is sold on the
market as light oil of caraway. It finds use in scenting soaps. At the beginning of
distillation the essential oil has higher carvone, whereas at the end limonene
predominates. The reason is that carvone is an oxygen-containing compound and is
several times more soluble in water than limonene.
15.4.9 Caraway oleoresin
The oleoresin of caraway fruit is prepared by extraction of crushed dried seed with
suitable volatile oil solvents like food-grade hexane ethanol, ethyl acetate or ethylene
dichloride; filtration and desolventization under vacuum. The organic solvent should
be recovered completely from oleoresin as per the ISO, as well as the fixed maximum
permissible limits for the approved solvents of the importing countries. Caraway
oleoresin is one of the most valuable flavouring agents as it imparts warm, aromatic
Caraway
285
and pleasing flavours to food products. It contains essential oil, organically soluble
resins and other related materials present in the original spices, is usually a greenish
shade of yellow, and normally contains 20–25% volatile and 60–75% fixed oil as
reported by Weiss (2002). The effects of polar solvent or modifier (methanol, ethanol,
acetone, acetonitrile, hexane, dichloromethane (methylene chloride), chloroform or
toluene)) application during extraction on essential oil yield were studied in cv.
Kepron and all modifiers significantly increased the essential oil yield. The use of
chloroform was most effective, increasing the amount of extracted essential oil by
approximately 91% compared to steam distillation (Sedlakova et al., 2003b).
Commercial samples in the USA require a minimum of 60% volatile oil with a
dispersion rate of 5%. The high fixed oil content usually requires the addition of an
antioxidant to the legal limit.
15.5
Functional properties
Caraway fruits are aromatic and are quite spicy in taste. An analysis of caraway seed
samples shows it contains small amounts of protein, fat, carbohydrates, minerals and
vitamins. The nutritive constituents present in caraway seed are given in Table 15.3.
The nutritive value of caraway seed if consumed as such is small but it is valued more
for the peculiar flavour and specific medicinal properties.
Caraway seeds and extractives are known to possess a number of functional properties
and are therefore valued as folk medicines for curing various ailments and as
contemporary medicine in the cosmetic industry. They are
•
•
carminative, stimulant and expectorant
antiflatulent and antispasmodic
Table 15.3
Proximate composition of caraway seed (100 g edible portion)
Composition
Water (g)
Food Energy (KCal)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Total carbohydrate (g)
Fibre (g)
Ash (g)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
Magnesium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Potassium (mg)
Sodium (mg)
Zinc (mg)
Niacin (mg)
Vitamin A (IU)
Thiamine (mg)
Riboflavin (mg)
Vitamin C (mg)
Content
Farrell, 1999
Bakhru, 2001
9.9
333
19.8
14.6
49.9
12.7
5.9
689
16
258
568
1351
17
6
4
363
–
–
–
4.5
465
7.6
8.8
60.2
–
3.7
1000
90
–
110
1900
20
–
801
580
3.38
0.38
12
286
•
•
•
Handbook of herbs and spices
mildly antibacterial and antifungal
antidyspepsic
emmenogogues and lactogogues
The seeds of Carum carvi are like those of many other umbelliferous plants, aromatic
and stimulant and are perhaps the most commonly used of any and are excellent
carminatives and stomachics. Caraway fruit is mentioned by pharmacopoeias of
numerous European countries, the USA and others, and most of all is used as a
component of herbal mixtures recommended as digestives, carminatives and
galactagogues. According to Chevalier, (2001), the seeds are expectorant and tonic
and are frequently used in bronchitis and cough remedies, especially those for children.
Different caraway preparations solely (Lutomski and Alkiewicz, 1993; Ozarowski
and Jaroniewski, 1987) and or in composition with other herbs and spices (Sadowska
and Obidoska, 1998) are given in Table 15.4.
The other important functional properties reported for the caraway seed and essential
oil are as antiflatulents and antispasmodics. In colic and gastrodynia, a few drops of
this oil or half a teaspoonful of the seeds are sovereign remedies. A liniment formed
by adding a few drops of this oil to a small quantity of olive oil is rubbed over the pit
of stomach or the abdomen in cases of colic (George, 1996). Being antispasmodic,
the seeds soothe the digestive tract, acting directly on the intestinal muscles to relieve
colic and gripping as well as bloating and flatulence. The presence of d-limonene and
d-carvone probably contribute towards caraway’s antispasmodic action. Duke et al.,
(2002) have mentioned ED 5O caraway oil as a confirmed antispasmodic when used
at a dose of 20 mg/l. In a study tablets containing a combination of 100 mg of each
of peppermint leaves, caraway and fennel fruits, and 30 mg gentian root were
administered to patients with idiopathic dyspepsia. In the first study, administration
of three, six or nine tablets (or a placebo) to patients with acute symptoms immediately
after a meal showed that three tablets were sufficient to reduce these after an hour. In
the second, patients with chronic symptoms were each given two tablets three times
a day for 14 days, or a placebo. Relief was obtained in the experimental patients after
a week, with a further improvement in the second week (Uehleke et al., 2002). The
enteric-coated combination preparation consisting of (2x1 capsules containing
90 mg peppermint oil + 50 mg caraway oil) per day as compared with cisapride,
provide an effective means for treatment of functional dyspepsia (Madisch et al.,
1999; Freise and Kohler, 1999).
Caraway is recommended as a remedy for digestive tract disorders like flatulence,
eructation, stomach aches, constipation, lack of appetite and nausea. In small children
caraway is used to treat flatulence and stomach aches, in the elderly for bile flow
disorders, intestinal atony and vegetative neurosis (Ozarowski and Jaroniewski, 1987).
Fruits of caraway ingested orally produce an effect on the digestive tract, bile ducts,
liver and kidneys. They have spasmolytic properties, bile ducts and the sphincter
regulating the flow of bile and pancreatic juices to the duodenum. They act as a
cholagogue and increase the secretion of gastric juices, which results in appetite and
digestion stimulation.
The use of caraway fruits by breast-feeding women and bovines favours milk
secretion and enhances lactation and has an indirect, beneficial effect on the baby’s
digestive system, because of the antigripping quality present in it. The component
acting as a galactagogue in caraway seed has not been identified but limonene and
carvone, the main components of caraway seed having antigripping qualities, were
found in the essential oils of goat milk when goats had consumed 3.5 g caraway seeds
Caraway
Table 15.4
287
Key preparations from caraway and their application in medicine
Preparation
1. Caraway seed
preparations:
(Ozarowski and
Jaroniewski, 1987)
a. Caraway honey
b. Caraway tea
c. Caraway syrup
2. Caraway Herbal
composition
(Lutomski and
Alkiewicz, 1993)
a. Mixture of fruits
of caraway, anise,
peppermint
chamomile and
thyme in equal
proportion
b. Mixture of fruits
of caraway
anise fennel in
equal proportion
c. Mix fruits of
caraway, anise,
fennel and
coriander in
equal
proportions
d. Mix double
proportions of
caraway fruit
fennel fruit,
yarrow herb,
thistle herb and
root of
liquorice in
equal
proportions.
3. Caraway herbal
composition
(Sadowska and
Obidoska,1998)
a. Mix fruits of
caraway anise,
peppermint,
chamomile and
thyme in equal
proportions.
Dose formulation
Properties as
medicine
Dose
1 g caraway fruit powder and
one TSF honey
Pour 1.5 glass (capacity 0.35 l)
of boiling water over 1 TSF of
pulverized fruits.
Pour 1 glass (capacity 0.25 1)
of boiling water over 1 TSF of
pulverized fruits keep covered
for 30 min, strain and add honey.
Carminative
2–4 times a day
Carminative
Drink 0.5 glass
2–3 times a day
after meals
Serve 1 TSF after
each meal
Pour a glass (capacity 250 ml)
of boiling water over 1 TSF of
herbs keep covered for 30 min.
Carminative
Drink 0.5 glass 2
times a days after
meals’
Pour a glass (250 ml) of boiling
water over 1 TSF of herbs keep
covered for 30 min.
Carminative and
galactagogue
Drink 0.5 glass 2
times a day
Carminative for
children
Pour a glass (250 ml) of boiling Carminative
water over 1 TSF of herbs, keep
covered for 30 min.
Pour a glasse (500 ml) of boiling
water over 1.5 TSF of herbs in
thermos keep covered for 1 hr.
Drink 0.5 glass 2
times a day
Drink 0.5 l glass
Digestive
(improves appetite) 30 min before
meals
Pour 0.75 l of white, dry wine Digestive
Drink about 50
over 3 TSF of herbs leaves for 2 (improves appetite) ml two times a
weeks (Shaking from time to
day after meals
time)
288
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 15.4
Continued
Preparation
b. Mix fruits of
caraway yarrow,
root of valerian
herb of St.
John’s wort,
leaves of
Buckbean and
leaves of Bahu
in equal
proportions.
Dose formulation
Properties as
medicine
Dose
Pour 0.5 l of boiling water over Digestive
Drink about a
2 TSF of herbs in a thermos and (improves appetite) 0.5 l glass 3
keep closed for 30 min.
times a day
between meals.
4. Liniment of
external use
(George, 1996)
Dissolve 10 g of caraway Scabies and
essential oil and 5 g of thyme mycosis
essential oil in 15 ml of 95%
ethanol. Mix with 150 g castor
oil or some other plant oil
Apply liniment
over affected area
as skin
5. Liniment of
caraway oil
Few drops caraway oil and olive Anticolic
oil
Rub the liniment
over intestinal
muscle
6. Liniment for
external use
(Pruthi, 2001)
7. Caraway
formulations:
(Duke et al.,
2002)
5 parts each of caraway oil and Scabies
alcohol in 75 parts of castor oil
Apply over
affected area on
skin
a. Caraway seed
1.5–6 g fruit
Antiseptic
2–4 times a day
between meals
b. Caraway seed
powder
1–2 TSF crushed seed/cup water
or
Chew 1 tsp seed
Antianemic
Antibacterial
Anticancer
Antihistamine
Antispasmodic
Carminative
Digestive
3–4 times a day
c. Caraway seed
0.5–2 g powdered seed
Stimulant
3 times a day
d. Caraway
concentrated
seed water
0.05–0.2 ml concentrated seed Stimulant
water or
0.5–1 tsp tincture or
3–4 ml liquid extract
3–6 drops oil or 0.05–0.2 ml
Stimulant
e. Caraway
essential oil
3–4 times a day
–
daily supplemented with the diet (Molnar et al., 1997). The addition of 50 g caraway
seeds to the basic diet daily to lactating buffalo continued for 12 weeks of lactation,
increased the milk yield, daily fat, SNF, lactose and protein yield significantly (ElAlamy et al., 2001). Caraway 50–100 g diet supplemented daily with ground caraway
seeds to Black Pied cows had a favourable effect on the milk yield and milk quality
(Portnoi, 1996). Caraway possesses antioxidant properties and in a report by Farag
Caraway
289
and El-Khawas, (1998) the essential oils extracted from the gamma-irradiated
(10 KGy) caraway fruits were more effective as antioxidants than those produced
from microwaved fruits (low oven power setting for one minute).
Caraway essential oil or carvone, owing to antifungal and antibacterial properties,
is recommended for external use for the control of dermal mycosis and scabies.
The inhibitory properties of caraway extractives have been reported against
Staphylococcus aureus, Esherichia coli, Salmonella typhi and Vibrio cholerae (Syed
et al., 1987) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mishenkova et al., 1985). These properties
give caraway industrial importance in scenting soaps to be used as deodorants. For
the treatment of scabies, a solution containing five parts each of alcohol and oil of
caraway in 75 parts of castor oil is recommended for taking orally (Pruthi, 2001,
Bakhru, 2001), who further reported caraway seed, seed oil and carvone to possess
anthelmintic properties, especially in removing hookworms from the intestines. In
Indonesia the leaves mixed with garlic and spat on the skin are recommended to treat
inflamed eczema (Perry, 1980).
The taste of caraway being warm, pungent and aromatic makes it suitable for
overcoming bad breath or insipid taste and thus is used in oral preparations for
control of unpleasant odour or taste. Caraway has been proved as an adjuvant or
corrective for medicines and is recommended as a remedy curing digestive tract
disorders such as relieving gas from the stomach. It is also known to counter any
possible adverse effects of medicines and masks the foul smell of foods. Caraway has
also been reported to play a therapeutic role by showing advantageous effects on
intestinal iron absorption (El Shobaki et al., 1990). The essential oil from caraway
has been reported to be potentially anti-carcinogenic (Zheng et al., 1992). This cancer
chemopreventive property of caraway oil is probably due to the induction of the
detoxifying enzyme glutathione 5-transferase (GST). They further reported that carvone
and limonene are the compounds responsible for the above mentioned property while
carvone exhibited even higher activity as a GST inducer. Higashimoto et al., (1993)
also reported potent antimutagenic activity of caraway extracts against N-methyl-Nnitro-N-nitrosoguanidine induced cancers in experimental animals. Thus abundance
of cancer chemopreventive substances (carvone) in diet may even inhibit the early
stages of carcinogenesis. Caraway has been reported to be used in the form of poultices
for the control of swellings in the breast and the testicles.
15.5.1 Use as veterinary medicine
Due to the presence of several functional properties in caraway such as being
carminative, antiflatulent, antispasmodic, antibacterial, antifungal and galactagogue,
the use of Carum carvi seed and extractives is very popular in the treatment of
animals for various ailments. As a veterinary medicine for animals, the caraway herb
is more a popular remedy than the fruit. The use of caraway, as decoction of fruit and
herbs for animals, improves digestion by promoting gastric secretion and stimulates
appetite. It is also used to cure gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, stomach
aches and gripes. Caraway fruit coarse powder or dry herb mixed together, when fed
to cows, mares and other animals, enhanced lactation (Voloshchuk, et al., 1985,
Sadowska and Obidoska, 1998). The decoction of fruits is a good remedy for rabbits,
piglets and other animals against verminous disease. The effectiveness of caraway
extract has been reported by Gadzhiev and Eminov (1986) against trichostrongyle
larvae in rams. An ointment made from powdered fruits mixed with vaseline is
290
Handbook of herbs and spices
recommended against scabs, manges, mycosis and other dermal diseases. Due to its
antibacterial and antifungal functional properties, caraway is also used to heal infected
injuries and burns. Caraway diet supplementation 12 g/kg diet in New Zealand white
rabbits, improved reproductive efficiency, doe milk yield and pup pre-weaning mortality
(Rashwan, 1998). Lipid oxidation was effectively inhibited in chicken meat treated
with marjoram (Origanum). Wild marjoram and caraway (Carum carvi) were the
most effective dry spices (El-Alim et al., 1999).
15.5.2 Natural potato sprout inhibitor
Besides the use of caraway seeds, caraway seed powder and essential oils in the food
and pharmaceutical industries, it has proved to be an important natural sprout inhibitor
in potato by extending the dormancy period and quality after storage. Caraway as a
natural sprout inhibitor had a positive effect on the reduction in respiration intensity
dry matter, reducing sugars and starch contents after seven months during storage
(Zabaliuniene, et al., 2003). A few monoterpenes from caraway, including S-carvone
(the safe food ingredient), were found to suppress sprout growth under warehouse
conditions for more than a year, depending upon the amount applied (Hartmans et al.,
1995). S-carvone as a commercial suppressant for ware potatoes under the tradename
‘Talent’ is available in the Netherlands.
15.6
Toxicity
Caraway seed and essential oil do not appear to have any significant toxicity to
human beings. Most authors agree that caraway shows no toxic affect towards people
and is well tolerated in medicinal doses and as a spice. However Lewis (1977), while
discussing the problem of allergy, mentioned carvone as a sensitizing substance and
classified caraway among plants causing contact dermatitis. Furocoumarins such as
5-methoxypsoralen and 8-methoxypsoralen, the known potent photosensitizing
substances, were detected in traces (Ceska et al.,1987) and thus are not harmful. The
residues of nitrate, nitrite and pesticides in herbs can be transformed by bacteria to
toxic nitrites which can cause blood circulation disorders and methemoglobinemia,
but analysis of caraway samples has exhibited no contents of nitrites but nitrates
content was noticed in relatively small quantities (Gajewska et al., 1995). Similarly,
analysis of pesticide residues through gas liquid and thin layer chromatography tests
showed that HCH was the main compound found and residue did not exceed the
maximum limit of 0.2 mg/kg.
Duke et al., (2002) have mentioned that caraway hazards and/or side effects are
not known for proper therapeutic dosages. The drug is contraindicated in inflammation
of the kidneys, since apiaceous essential oils may increase the inflammation as a
result of epithelial irritation. Overdoses for long periods can lead to kidney and/or
liver damage. Caraway essential oil has proved toxic to mites and insects. It has been
reported to inhibit allergy-causing mites Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, D. farinael,
Euroglyphus maynei, Acarus siro, Tyrophagus putrescentiae, Glycyphagus domesticus,
Lepidogoly phus destructor and Ghiera fusca (Ottoboni et al., 1992). The petroleum
ether extract of caraway seed has shown acaricidal properties for inhibiting Tyrogphagus
putrescentiae mite (Afifi and Hafez,1988) and toxicity to some insects causing larval
inhibition in Musca domestica, Culex pipiens, fatigans and mosquito (Deshmukh and
Caraway
291
Renapurkar,1987) and fifth instar larvae of Spodoptera littoralis (Antonious and
Hegazy, 1987).
Volatile toxicity of caraway was recorded by setting up a bioassay, with experimental
units of 0.5 l, which took into account the storage pests, the mode of oil application
(vapours only, avoiding direct contact) and the stored product, causing 100 and 60%
mortality in Callosobruchus maculatus at 10 µl and 1 µl, respectively, while 25 µl
was needed to kill 68% of Sitophilus granarius adults (Pascual et al., 2002). The
vapours of the essential oils (80–160 ppm) of caraway (Carum carvi), exhibited
antifungal properties against Mycocentrospora acerina, Fibularhizoctonia carotae
(Rhizoctonia carotae) and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, three important post-harvest
pathogens of carrots. Horberg (1998) also reported that high dosage levels were more
important than exposure time for the fungicidal activity of the plant extracts.
Numerous species of fungi are known to produce toxic and carcinogenic mycotoxins
during storage, they can be consumed with contaminated fruits, cumulated in liver
and can result to cancer. The fungi like Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger and
Fusarium moniliforma can cause biochemical changes in caraway fruits and can lead
to reduction in protein, carbohydrates, and total oil and increase in fatty acids (Regina
and Tulasi-Raman 1992). The extent of inhibition of fungal growth and mycotoxin
production was dependent on the concentration of essential oils used. Caraway oil
was inhibitory at 2000 ppm against A. flavus and A. parasiticus, and at 3000 ppm
against A. ochraceus and F. moniliforma, the mycotoxigenic fungi (Soliman and
Badeaa, 2002) and use of caraway oil (4%) also showed high antimicrobial activity
against A. tumefaciens, R. solanacearum and Erwinia carotovora (Hassanein and
Eldoksch, 1997).
The application of caraway essential oil has shown inhibitory effect on three
strains of Gram-negative and four Gram-positive bacteria. Thus according to Farag
et al., (1989b), the use of natural essential oils can be of great importance practically
as anti-microbial agents to prevent deterioration of stored foods by bacteria and will
not cause health problems to the consumer and handler. Likewise, Carum carvi
essential oil causes inhibition of mycelial growth and aflatoxin production of Aspergillus
parasticus and can prove to be an alternative to chemical preservatives such as
potassium fluoride, acetic acid and potassium sulphite addition in foods (Farag et al.,
1989a). Such toxic properties of caraway to bacteria, fungi and insects and non-toxic
behaviour to human beings offers great scope as a botanical inhibitor for crop raising
and safe storage under the organic production system.
15.7
Quality specifications
15.7.1 Specification for whole seeds
The physical description of the quality of caraway seeds depends mainly on
•
•
•
Quantity of mature, undamaged seeds with external appearance that provides
visual perception of quality such as colour, uniformity of size, shape and texture.
The colour of the crescent-shaped, hard seeds is greyish tan to dark brown
marked with five light coloured ridges and length. Whole fruits are 3–7 mm long
1–2 cm thick and slightly curved.
The scent from seeds is very aromatic, sweet, spicy, fresh, characteristic, agreeable,
slightly minty, with a penetrating medicinal effect resembling anise.
292
•
Handbook of herbs and spices
The seed weight of 1000 grains of biennial type caraway is 3–4.5 g and annual
type is around 5.2 g (Franz,1996)
The minimum specific quality indices for caraway seed are given below (Farrell, 1999)
total ash
acid soluble ash
seed moisture
volatile oil
8.0%
1.0%
10%
3%
The general characteristics of quality standards as laid down under the Prevention of
Food Adulteration (PFA) Act and Rules by BSI of India for caraway are defined
below (Pruthi, 2001).
Whole seed
Caraway whole seed means the dried seed of the plant (Carum carvi Linn). Extraneous
matter including foreign edible seeds, chaff, stem straw, dust, dirt, stones and lumps
of earth shall not exceed 5% by weight. The amount of insect damaged matter shall
not exceed 5% by weight. It shall be free from added colouring matter.
15.7.2 Caraway powder
Caraway powder means the powder obtained from the dried seed of Carum carvi (L).
It may be in the form of small pieces of the seeds or in finely ground form. It shall
be free from added colouring matter. The ground product should be uniform, allowing
a minimum of 95% by weight to pass through a US Standard No. 30 sieve, in addition
it shall conform to the following standards:
moisture: not more than 13% by weight
total ash: not more than 8% by weight
ash insoluble in dilute HCI: not more than 1.5%
15.7.3 Essential oil and fixed oil
The essential oil content of caraway seed generally ranges between 2–5% and it
primarily contains carvone (47–81%), limonene (9–48%) and fixed oil (15%). Caraway
oil is a mobile liquid, almost colourless to pale yellow, although it may become
brownish to dark brown depending upon time. The physico-chemical properties of
caraway seed oil are as follows (Singhal et al.,1997)
S. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Characters
Appearance
Odour
Specific gravity at 15 °C
Refractive index 20 °C
Optical rotation
Carvone contents
Limonene
Solubility
Requirement
Pale yellow
Strong spicy
0.907–0.919
1.484–1.488
+70° 0′ to +80°0′
50–60%
20–30%
Seldom soluble in 70% alcohol, soluble
in 2–10 volumes of 80% alcohol, clearly
soluble in equal volumes of 90% alcohol.
Caraway
293
Table 15.5
Cleanliness specifications for caraway seed as per ASTA
Crop
Whole
insects dead
by count
Excreta,
Excreta,
mammalian other by
by mg/lb
mg/lb.
Mould %
by weight
Insect defiled/ Extraneous/
infested %
foreign matter %
by weight
by weight
Caraway
seed
4
3.00
1.00
1.00
10.00
0.50
Source: Muggeridge et al., (2001).
Table 15.6
Quality standards for caraway seed as per ISO
Commodity
Ash% w/w
max.
A/A% w/s
max.
H2O% W/W
max.
V/o % W/W
min.
Dutch caraway
seed
8
1.5
13
2.5
Source: Muggeridge et al., (2001).
The quality standards as prescribed by the American Spices Trade Association (ASTA)
and ISO are given in Table 15.5 and 15.6.
15.7.4 Adulteration
Caraway seed is available both whole or in ground form and is subjected to adulteration
by the addition of exhausted or spent seed (from which oil or oleoresins have been
extracted), excess stems, chaff and earth or dust. Caraway essential oil is also adulterated
with caraway chaff, caraway wild types and root oil. The range of caraway essential
oil is 2.5–5% and it should preferably contain limonene and carvone at an enantiomeric
ratio ranging between 0.75–1.00. If chaff oil is added than the enantiomeric ratio will
be more than 1.00, indicating the presence of more limonene and less carvone. The
ratio of limonene and carvone varies with variety and geographical location and
requires further study to standardize such quality parameters for judging the quality.
The oleoresin may be adulterated by added synthetic saturated acid. The detection of
these adulterants for oil and oleoresins can be done by using gas chromatography or
high performance liquid chromatography techniques. Adulterations at any level can
be detected by using the specifications as explained separately for whole seed, powdered
seed, essential oil and oleoresins.
15.8
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16
Cayenne/American pepper
S. Kumar, R. Kumar and J. Singh, Indian Institute of Vegetable
Research, India
16.1 Introduction
American pepper (synonyms: chilli, chile, azi, cayenne, hot pepper, sweet pepper) is
a popular commercial crop valued for its fruit colour, flavour, spice, vegetable and
nutrition it provides to several food items. Plants are a dicotyledonous and shortlived perennial herb of the Solanaceae (nightshade) family and are commercially
cultivated as an annual and perennial in kitchen gardens. Among the five cultivated
species of Capsicum, C. annuum is the most commonly cultivated for pungent (hot
pepper) and non-pungent (sweet pepper) fruits and has worldwide commercial
distribution. The sweet pepper is often called bell pepper because the majority of
sweet pepper cultivars grown worldwide have bell-shaped fruits. India, China, Korea,
Hungary, Spain, Nigeria, Thailand, Turkey, Kenya, Sudan, Uganda, Japan, Ethiopia,
Indonesia, Pakistan, Mexico are the major pepper-growing countries.
The tap root consists of a main root with lateral roots with uniform distribution on
the main axis and the occurrence of adventitious roots is very rare in pepper. Stems
are branched, erect or semi-prostrate, fleshy often woody at the base, round or slightly
angular growth normally indeterminate. Flowers are small, terminal but due to form
of branching, appear to be axillary, small calyx, rotate companulate corolla and 5–6
stamens, which are inserted near the base of corolla. Unlike other members of the
nightshade family, viz., tomato, eggplant and potato, pepper leaves uniquely lack
phenols. Hence it has been postulated that nature has provided a pepper capsaicinoids
(pungency) pathway to protect plants from enemies. This could be viewed as an
analogue of the phenol pathway present in other members of the nightshade family.
Nutritional compositions of pepper fruits depend on the genotype and fruit maturity
stage. In general, 100 g of green fruits contain 85.7 g moisture, 2.9 g protein, 0.6 g
fat, 1.0 g minerals, 6.8 g fibres, 3.0 g carbohydrates, 30 mg calcium, 24 mg magnesium,
0.39 mg riboflavin, 67 mg oxalic acid, 0.9 mg nicotinic acid, 80 mg phosphorus, 1.2
mg iron, 6.5 mg sodium, 217 mg potassium, 1.55 copper mg, 34 mg sulphur, 15 mg
chlorine, 0.19 mg thiamine, 292 IU vitamin A and 111 mg vitamin C. Green fruits of
hot and sweet peppers are one of the richest sources of antioxidative vitamins such
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as Vitamin A, C and E. In fact, vitamin C was first purified from Capsicum fruits in
1928 by Hungarian biochemist Albert Szent Gyorgyi, which helped him to receive
the Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine during 1937.
In this chapter, attempts have been made to describe in brief the taxonomic status
of pepper and elaborate innovative uses of carotenoids and capsaicinoids present in
the pepper fruits and their biosynthetic pathways. General cultural practices of growing
pepper under open field conditions have also been briefly described.
16.2
The genus Capsicum
The genus Capsicum perhaps comes from the Latin word ‘capsa’, meaning chest or
box because of the shape of fruits, which enclose seeds very neatly, as in a box
(Berke and Shieh, 2000). The Capsicum (2n = 24) encompasses a diverse group of
plants producing pungent or non-pungent fruits. At present, it is widely accepted that
the genus consists of approximately 25 wild and five cultivated species. Based on the
gene flow through natural and conventional hybridization, the Capsicum species are
grouped in three species complexes (Table 16.1). Among the cultivated species, viz.,
C. annuum, C. frutescens, C. chinense, C. baccatum (var. baccatum), C. pubescens,
cultivation of C. annuum is the most widely spread all over the world. C. annuum
was domesticated in the highlands of Mexico and includes most of the Mexican chile
(syn. chilli), most of the chilli of Asia and Africa and sweet peppers of temperate
countries. However, due to the non-adaptability of C. annuum in lowland tropics of
Latin America, its cultivation was replaced by C. frutescens and C. chinense (Pickersgill,
1997). The cultivation of C. baccatum and C. pubescens is mostly restricted to Latin
American countries like Peru, Bolivia, Columbia and Brazil. In India also, although
C. annuum is most widely cultivated, C. frutescens, C. chinense and C. baccatum are
also grown in specific regions. Except for C. pubescens, wild forms of the remaining
four cultivated species are known.
All the five cultivated species of Capsicum are represented by genotypes with
pungent (hot pepper) or non-pungent (sweet pepper) fruits. Furthermore, these
species have huge variability for fruit size/shape and pungency and often genotypes
with similar fruit morphology exist across the species. Hence assigning a given
genotype to a specific cultivated species based on fruit size, shape and pungency is
difficult. Nonetheless, certain flower and fruit descriptors may be used to assign a
genotype to a cultivated species without much doubt (Table 16.2). Recently, molecular
markers associated with specific species within C. annuum the complex have been
developed.
Table 16.1
Three recognized species complexes of the genus Capsicum
Complex
Species
C. annuum complex
C. annuum* L., C. frutescens* L., C. chinense* Jacq., C. chacoense
Hunz., C. galapagoense Hunz.
C. baccatum* L., C. praetermissum Heiser & Smith, C. tovarii
C. pubescens* Ruiz & Pav., C. cardenasii Heiser & Smith, C. eximium
Hunz.
C. baccatum complex
C. pubescens complex
* Cultivated species.
Cayenne/American pepper
Table 16.2
301
Distinguishable morphology of five cultivated species of Capsicum
Cultivated species
Distinguishable morphology
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
White corolla and white filaments
Yellow/greenish corolla and purple filaments
Annular constriction on pedicel attachment and yellow/greenish corolla
Yellow or greenish yellow spots on corolla
Hairy stems/leaves and black/brown seeds
annuum
frutescens
chinense
baccatum
pubescens
16.3
Pod types and quality breeding goals
Tremendous morphological variability exists for flower morphology, especially corolla
and anther colour and fruit colour, size, shape and pungency. Based on fruit size,
shape and degree of pungency, a large number of horticultural types are recognized
worldwide and at least 20 types are predominantly cultivated on a large scale in other
parts of the world. Some of these fruit types such as ancho, bell, jalapeño, pasilla,
New Mexican and yellow wax have a specific trait for processing, fresh use, flavour
and pungency (Bosland and Votava, 2000). The breeding objectives for quality traits
of hot pepper and sweet pepper could be described on the basis of five market types,
viz., (i) fresh market (green, red, multi colour whole fruits), (ii) fresh processing
(sauce, paste, canning, pickling), (iii) dried spice (whole fruits and powder), (iv)
oleoresin extraction and (v) ornamental (plants and/or fruits) (Poulos, 1994). The
current pepper breeding programmes have relied on a relatively narrow genetic base
within cultivars of various market types, although huge morphological diversity
exists within (intraspecific) and between (interspecific) species. This is because of (i)
traditional market demand for specific fruits size and shape and (ii) the use of pure
line or back cross breeding within open pollinated commercial varieties and development
of inbreds from the commercial hybrid and their utilization as recycled parental lines
(Poulos, 1994).
16.4
Uses in food processing
Pepper is a most popular and widely used condiment all over the world. Fruits are
consumed in fresh, dried or processed forms, as table vegetable or spice. Fruits are
extensively pickled in salt and vinegar. Fruit carotenoids (colour), capsaicinoids and
flavour extracts are used in food, feed, medicine and the cosmetic industries. Sweet
peppers are widely used at green-immature or mature stage as a vegetable. The fruits
of the genus Capsicum have many versatile and innovative uses and diversity (Bosland,
1996; Dewitt, 1998; Bosland, 1999; Table 16.3).
16.4.1 Pungency (capsaicinoids)
The pungent-oily substances from the fruits of hot pepper were first discovered and
isolated by Bucholz in 1816 and the most active ingredient (named capsaicin) was
isolated by Thresh in 1846 (Govindarajan, 1986). The burning sensation (pungency)
one gets from eating pepper fruits is caused by alkoloids called capsaicinoids, which
are uniquely produced in Capsicum. Capsaicinoids are acid amides of C9-C11 branched
chain fatty acids and vanillylamine. The pungency is expressed in Scoville Heat
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Table 16.3
Versatile and innovative uses of pepper
I. Fresh uses: immature green fruits, mature red fruits and leaves
• Green or red ripe fruits with variable degrees of pungency are invariably added in most South
Asian curries.
• Immature or mature non-pungent fruits are exclusively prepared as vegetables.
• Immature non-pungent fruits are added in many Chinese cuisines.
• Immature mild pungent fruits are deep fried with gram flour and consumed in India.
• Fresh green non-pungent or mildly pungent fruits are consumed as salads.
• In the Philippines, leaves are added to soup and stew and consumed. The upper shoots of the
plants are sold in bunches, just like other leafy vegetables (Bosland, 1999).
II. Fresh processing: sauces, pastes, pickles, beer
• Green or red ripe fruits with variable degrees of pungency are used to prepare sauce.
• Red ripe and mildly pungent fruits are stuffed with certain spices in North Indian states and
prepared as pickles. Similarly, green fruits are pickled in edible oil and red ripe fruits are
preserved in vinegar/citric acid for several years.
• In the US, mildly pungent fruits are prepared as salsa and consumed with snacks.
• Red ripe fruits are used in the preparation of tomato ketchup to improve its colour.
• The Black Mountain Brewing Co. in Arizona developed a pepper beer with the idea of producing
a spicy beer for a local Mexican restaurant. The idea worked (Bosland, 1992).
III. Dried spice: mature whole fruits and powder
• Dry intact fruits or ground powder are invariably added in almost all South Asian chicken, egg
and vegetable curies.
IV. Colouring and flavouring agents: oleoresins (carotenoids) extracts or powder
• Paprika oleoresin (colour extract from non-pungent fruits), a natural colouring agent, is considered
to be the best substitute for synthetic colours used in the food and cosmetic industries.
• Cosmetic industry uses non-pungent oleoresin to prepare its products.
• In food-processing industries, especially in the meat industry, oleoresins are added in processed
meat to impart attractive colour.
• In the beverage industries, oleoresins are used to improve colour and flavour of products.
• In countries like Japan, South Korea, etc., oleoresins are mixed with chicken feed to impart an
attractive red colour to the skin and egg yolk.
• Oleoresins are mixed with the feed of flamingoes in zoos for improving feather colour and koi
in aquariums (Bosland, 1996).
V. Ethno-botanical/traditional medicine: fruit extracts and powder (pungent fruits)
• Fruits are consumed to stimulate digestion (flow of saliva and gastric juice), raise body temperature
and used for the treatment of the common cold.
• Mayas mix fruits with corn flour to produce ‘chillatolli’, a treatment for the common cold.
Mayas also use them to treat asthma, coughs, and sore throats. The Aztecs used fruit pungency
to relieve toothache (Bosland, 1999). In many African countries, fruits are consumed in the
belief that it improves the complexion and increases passion (Bosland and Votava, 2000).
• Fruits are added to rose-gargles to cure pharyengitis. Fruits are also consumed for their carminative
effects. West Indians soak fruits in water, add sugar and sour orange juice and drink it during
fever (http.//www.dominion.com).
• The Tukano natives of Columbia, pour a mixture of crushed fruits and water into their noses to
relieve a hangover and the effects of a night of dancing and drinking alcoholic beverages
(Bosland, 1999).
• In Columbia and India, victims of snake bite are given pungent fruits to taste in order to sense
the functioning of the nervous system affeted by snake venom. In similar fashion, freshly
crushed fruits or powder are used to reduce swelling and draw out the poison of bee strings,
spider bites and scorpion stings (Dewitt et al., 1998).
VI. Modern medicine/pharmaceuticals: capsaicinoids and carotenoids extracts
• The pharmaceutical industry uses capsaicin as a counter-irritant balm for external applications
(Carmichael, 1991).
Cayenne/American pepper
Table 16.3
303
Continued
• Capsaicinoids (mainly capsaicin) are an active ingredient in ‘Heet’ and ‘Sloan’s Liniment’,
massage liniments used for sore muscles. Capsaicinoids are used in the preparation of powder,
tinctures, plaster ointments and medicated wools (Bosland, 1996).
• The pharmaceutical industry uses capsaicinoid extracts to prepare certain drugs (sprays), which
are applied externally to stop the pain of arthritis (rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis), artery
diseases (peripheral neuropathies) and to relieve cramps (Cordell and Araujo, 1993; Bosland,
1996).
• Application of creams containing capsaicin reduces post-operative pain of mastectomy patients
and its prolonged use helps in reducing the itching of dialysis patients, pains from shingles
(Herpes zoster) and cluster headaches (Bosland, 1996).
• Pepper fruit carotenoids, viz., β-carotene, acyl derivatives of capsanthin, acyl derivatives of
capsorubin) have been shown to inhibit LDL oxidation in vitro with probable lowering of the
‘atherogenic’ LDL subfraction production (Medvedeva et al., 2003).
• Capsanthin and capsorubin can improve the cytotoxic action of anticancer chemotherapy and is
considered to have the potential of carotenoids as possible resistance modifiers in cancer
chemotherapy (Maoka et al., 2001; Molnar et al. 2004).
• Lutein, zeaxanthin, capsanthin, crocetin and phytoene have shown more potent anticarcinogenic
activity than β-carotene and is useful for cancer prevention and may be applicable as the
concept of ‘bio-chemoprevention’, which involves transformation-assisted methods for cancer
chemoprevention (Nishino et al., 2002).
• The water extract of ‘paradicsompaprika’ (mainly containing capsanthin) has been considered
as a new anticancer agent and a fat-soluble component of this drug has been regarded as an antipromoter of cancer (Mori et al., 2002).
• Capsaicin has recently been tried as an intravesical drug for overactive bladder (bladder cancer)
and it has also been shown to induce apoptotic cell death in many cancerous cells (Lee et al.,
2004).
VII. Insecticide/repellent: capsaicinoids
• Capsaicin extracts are used as an effective repellent against mice damaging underground cables
and protecting germinating seeds from squirrels (Bosland, 1996).
VIII. Spiritual: whole fruits
• In India, fruits are stringed on a thread along with a lime fruit and hung at the entrance of
houses/shops with the belief that it will keep evil away (Kumar and Rai, 2005).
• Red dry fruits are used to remove the bad consequences of evil eyes on younger babies in North
Indian states.
• Traditionally, in New Mexico, mature fruits are stringed (called ‘ristras’) and hung at the
entrance of houses as a symbol of hospitality (Bosland, 1992).
IX. Ornamental: whole plants or fruits
• Certain genotypes of pepper are grown for their attractive plant shape, dense and colourful
foliage and fruits. Several colours of fruit (at various maturing stages) can be found on a single
plant making it an attractive ornament (Bosland and Votava, 2000).
X. Defence/punishment: capsaicin extracts/or fruit powder
• In India, traditionally villagers keep powder in the house as a defence weapon against dacoits.
• Capsaicin sprays are being used by people, especially women to protect themselves from several
types of criminal offence.
• Capsaicin spray has replaced mace and tear gas in the police departments of many countries to
control unruly mobs and criminals.
• In Mexico, India and several Latin American countries, pepper powder is rubbed on children’s
thumbs to prevent sucking (Dewitt et al., 1998). Similary in India, fruit paste is applied on the
mother’s nipple to discourage prolonged breast feeding.
• Maya threw powder into the eyes of young girls who stared at boy or men and squirt fruit juice
on the private parts of unchaste women (Dewitt et al., 1998).
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Units (SHU) and the organoleptic test was the first method to measure it. But nowadays
the most common and reliable method to estimate pungency (capsaicin) is by highperformance liquid chromatography (HPLC). HPLC analysis has become the standard
method for routine analysis of samples because it is rapid and a large number of
samples can be handled. The capsaicinoid contents (ppm) are multiplied by 15 to
convert it to SHU.
Biosynthetic pathways
More than 15 different capsaicinoids are known to be found in pepper fruits, which
are synthesized and accumulated in the epidermal cells of placenta of the fruits.
Among these, capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin accounts for more than 80% of the
capsiacinoids that determine pungency (Bosland and Votava, 2000). These two most
common capsaicinoids differ in the degree of unsaturation of a 9-carbon fatty acid
chain and other naturally occurring capsaicinoids differ in chain length as well as
degree of unsaturation (Curry et al., 1999).
Two pathways are involved in the biosynthesis of capsaicinoids (i) fatty acid
metabolism and (ii) phenylpropanoid pathway (Ochoa-Alejo and Gomez-Peralta,
1993). The phenolic structure comes from the phenylpropanoid pathway, in which
phenylalanine is the precursor. The formation of ferulic acid from phenylalanine is
well understood in other higher plants. Four enzymes, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase
(PAL), cinnamic acid-4-hydroxylase (C4H), r-coumaric acid-3-hydroxylase (C3H),
and caffeic acid-o-methytranferase (CAOMT) are involved in the process. Capsaicinoids
are formed from vanillylamine and isocapryl-CoA via capsaicinoid synthetases (CS)
(Fujiwake et al., 1982; Sukrasno and Yewman, 1993; Curry et al., 1999).
During fruit ripening, capsaicin concentration reaches a maximum and later degrades
to other secondary products (Bernal and Barceló, 1996). Most peroxidase activity
occurs in the placenta and the outer layer of pericarp epidermal cells. As determined
by gel permeation chromatography, the major oxidative products were 5, 5′-dicapsaicin
and 4′-O-5-dicapsaicinether (Bernal et al., 1995). Peroxidase activity increased at the
time when the concentration of capsaicinoids started to decrease (Contreras-Padilla
and Yahia, 1998). It is assumed that peroxidases catalyze capsaicinoid oxidation and
play a central role in their metabolism. Water deficit affects phenylpropanoid metabolism
and the pungency of fruits (Quagliotti, 1971; Estrada et al., 1999). PAL, C4H, and CS
are involved in capsaicinoid biosynthesis and peroxidase isoenzyme B6 directly
affects capsaicin degradation. Higher concentrations of PAL are followed by an
increase in the pungency of fruits about ten days later.
At the arrest of fruit growth, increased PAL activity in the fruit accelerates the
degradation of phenylalanine and the concentration of cinnamic acid and capsaicinoids
increases. Large amounts of cinnamic acid are synthesized seven days after flowering
in the presence of PAL, demonstrating that PAL is a key enzyme in the phenylpropanoid
pathway (Ochoa-Alejo and Gómez-Peralta, 1993). Cinnamic acid-4-hydroxylase (C4H)
hydroxylates cinnamic acid to r-coumaric acid. Capsaicinoid synthetase (CS), the
last enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of capsaicin, combines vanillylamine and
isocapryl-CoA to make capsaicin (Fujiwake et al., 1982). Capsaicin concentration
begins to decline 50 days after flowering. Cumulative evidence supports that
capsaicinoids are oxidized in the fruits by peroxidases. Peroxidases are efficient in
catalyzing in vitro oxidation of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin. These enzymes are
mainly located in placental and the outermost epidermal cell layers of the fruits, i.e.,
at the site of capsaicinoids. The products of capsaicin oxidation by peroxidases have
Cayenne/American pepper
305
been characterized in vitro and some of them have been found to appear in vivo in the
fruits (Di et al., 2000).
Genetics and markers
It has long been known that a single dominant gene, C, controls the presence or
absence of pungency in the fruits (Blum et al., 2002). However, in the pungent types,
the degree of pungency is quantitatively inherited and highly affected by the
environments (Zewdie and Bosland, 2000). The molecular linkage maps of C locus
have been prepared and a pungency-related gene has been found to be located on
chromosome 2 (Lee et al., 2005). The genes of capsacinoids biosynthetic pathway
have been isolated and characterized. Curry et al. (1999) isolated genes encoding a
putative aminotransferase (pAmt) and a 3-keto-acyl-ACP synthase (Kas). Kim et al.
(2001) identified three genes coding for enzymes, viz., SB2-66, a putative capsaicinoid
synthase (CS), SB2-149, an aminotransferase and SB2-58, a keto-acyl-ACP synthase.
SB-2-66 (CS) has been found to be linked with pungent (C) locus and the nonpungent locus has a deletion. Based on sequence of CS, sequence characterized
amplified region (SCAR) markers have been developed and their usefulness in early
detection of pungent or non-pungent genotypes has been demonstrated (Lee at al.,
2005).
16.4.2 Colour (carotenoids)
The green, orange and red fruit colour originates from the carotenoid pigments. More
than 30 different pigments have been identified in the fruits (Bosland and Votava,
2000). These pigments include the green chlorophyll (a, b), the yellow orange lutine,
xeaxanthin, violaaxanthin, anthrakanthin, β-ryptoxanthin and β-carotene and the red
pigments capsanthin, capsorubin and cryptocapsin, which are exclusively produced
in pepper fruits. In general, the capsanthin and capsorubin constitute more than 60%
of the total carotenoids present in the fruits. The contents of capsanthin and capsorubin
increase proportionally with advanced stages of ripening with capsanthin being the
more stable (Bosland, 1996). The most highly valued characteristic of pepper genotype
for oleoresin (colour) extraction is the very high carotenoids content. This is because,
ultimately the commercial value of paprika (non-pungent oleoresin) depends on its
colouring capacity, which depends directly on relative pigment richness. Other
characteristics of interest are very low content of capsaicinoids, low moisture content
and a relatively thin pericarp of the fruits. A thin pericarp shortens the drying time of
the fruits before processing, thereby reducing the cost.
Chemistry
The basic carotene structure can undergo several structural modifications, namely,
cyclization, hydroxylation and epoxidation, yielding the great variety of carotenoids
(more than 600) in nature. During ripening of the fruits, there is a spectacular synthesis
of carotenoids. All the carotenoids present in the fruits are C40 isoprenoids containing
nine conjugated double bonds in the central polyenic chain, although with different
end groups (3-hydroxy-5, 6-epoxide). This changes the chromophore properties of
each pigment and allows them to be classified in two isochromic families: red (R)
and yellow (Y). The red fraction contains the pigments exclusive to the Capsicum
genus (capsanthin, capsanthin-5, 6-epoxide, and capsorubin), and the yellow fraction
comprises the remaining pigments, viz., zeaxanthin, violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, βcryptoxanthin, β-carotene, and cucurbitaxanthin.
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Genetics and markers
Early studies demonstrated that mature red fruit colour is dominant over yellow and
is controlled by a single gene (Y) and later it was found that mature fruit colour is
under the control of three independent pairs of genes, viz. cl, c2 and y. The presence
of dominant alleles at these three loci results in red mature fruits, while the presence
of recessive alleles at three loci results in white mature fruits (Popovsky and Paran,
2000). The predominant pigments of the fruits, i.e., capsanthin and capsorubin, are
synthesized by the enzyme capsanthin-capsorubin synthase (CCS).
The intronless cDNA clone of CCS enzyme has been isolated and studies indicate
that the expression of CCS is induced during chloroplast differentiation at the time of
fruit ripening and is not expressed in the leaves or green immature fruits (Bouvier et
al., 1994; Houlne et al., 1994; Hugueney et al., 1996). The absence of capsanthin and
capsorubin in yellow fruits correlates with the lack of expression of CCS enzyme in
yellow fruits (Bouvier et al., 1994; Houlne et al., 1994). Co-dominant DNA markers
for the identification of red and yellow-fruited genotypes at seedling stage have been
developed (Popovsky and Paran, 2000).
16.4.3 Flavours
Although pepper fruits are commonly known for pungency, they are often used in
meals for their flavour. The pyrazine 2-methoxy 3-isobutyl-pyrazine, the green bell
pepper smell, is one of the most potent volatiles known so far. The human can detect
this smell at two parts per trillion (Bosland and Votava, 2000). In C. annuum and C.
frutescens, 102 volatiles have been found (Keller et al., 1981). The aroma compounds
vary greatly between the cultivated species and also between genotypes within the
same species. For example, tabasco (C. frutescens) contains no pyrazine compounds,
while its presence is the characteristic feature of sweet pepper (C. annuum). The
delicate flavours of the fruits can be differentiated after a few years of experience.
For example, ancho is sweetish, mulatto is chocolaty, mirasol is fruity and chilpotle
is smokey. Grinding the fruits produces one flavour, roasting produces another and
soaking the fruits in water produces yet another flavour (Bosland, 1996).
16.4.4 Spice production and quality
Pepper spices are the powders that are derived from the pungent, mild pungent or
non-pungent fruits. Therefore, the main fruit quality parameters are colour and pungency.
Apart from these, colour retention during storage, fruit wall thickness, fruit size,
shape and weight are also important quality parameters. Yet another important quality
concern is the development of aflatoxin in both raw and processed pepper spice. The
aflatoxin level should be checked at less than 5 µg/kg. Fruit peduncle should be
removed to get a good powder quality. Colour contents and quality are influenced by
stage of fruit ripeness at harvest, processing and storage of the powder. Similarly,
besides being genotype dependent (Table 16.4), pungency is highly influenced by
the environment. For spice purpose, fruits need to be maintained on the plant until
they become dark red and slightly shrivelled to obtain the maximum possible colour
for the spice product. But it is not possible to leave a crop in the field until all fruits
become shrivelled. Therefore, a more realistic aim is to harvest fruits when 80% or
more fruits reach a dark red and slightly shrivelled stage. In order to achieve best
overall colour, only those fruits should be processed into spice powder that are
Cayenne/American pepper
Table 16.4
307
The names of some popular genotypes with their pungency levels
Name
Pod type
Species
Scoville units
Naga Jolokia
Orange Habanero
Red Habanero
Tabasco
Tepin
Chiltepin
Thai Hot
Jalapeno M
Long-Slim Cayenne
Mitla
Santa Fe Grande
Aji Escabeche
Long-Thick Cayenne
Cayenne
Pasilla
NuMex Primavera
Sandia
NuMex Joe E. Parker
Serrano
Mulato
Bell
–
Habanero
Habanero
Tabasco
Tepin
Tepin
Asain
Jalapeno
Cayenne
Jalapeno
Hungarian
Aji
Cayenne
Cayenne
Pasilla
Jalapeno
New Mexican
New Mexican
Serrano
Ancho
Bell
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
455,000
210,000
150,000
120,000
75,000
70,000
60,000
25,000
23,000
22,000
21,000
17,000
8,500
8,000
5,500
5,000
5,000
4,500
4,000
1,000
0
chinense
chinense
chinense
frutescens
annuum
annuum
annuum
annuum
annuum
annuum
annuum
baccatum
annuum
annuum
annuum
annuum
annuum
annuum
annuum
annuum
annuum
physiologically matured and properly dried. The energy efficient heat pump dryers
are well suited for drying of fruits because they operate at low temperatures.
Fruit drying at low temperature should be preferred because at higher temperatures
spice powder will become brown instead of bright red. The drying temperature
should be below 60 °C (optimum drying regimes should be 40 °C at 20% relative
humidity) for heat pump dryers. To accelerate drying, fruit should be cut into small
and regular pieces. A final moisture content of about 8% is considered to be ideal, as
moisture content above 11% allows mould growth and below 4% causes excessive
colour loss. Seeds of different cultivars have varying effects on the rate of colour
loss, which is most likely due to the presence of varying antioxidant contents in the
seeds. For instance, vitamin E, a fat-soluble antioxidant, has an effect on reducing
colour loss. Selecting cultivars with seeds having high antioxidant contents, therefore,
is necessary to produce a colour-stable spice powder. During storage, carotenoid
pigments (red colour) are readily oxidized and the spice powder becomes less intensely
coloured. The selection of appropriate cultivars, standardization and adoption of
drying and storage methods are the management strategies to reduce the instability of
the spice powder colour.
16.5
Cultivation
Pepper cultivars display a wide range of plant and fruit traits and production practices
vary greatly from region to region. Therefore, cultural practices for growing pepper
standardized for one region may need modifications considering the type of soil and
its fertility status, weather conditions and prevalence of pests and diseases (Berke et
al., 2005).
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Handbook of herbs and spices
16.5.1 Climate and soil requirements
Hot peppers are better adapted to the warm weather than the sweet pepper, but
normal fruit setting is hampered when night temperatures are more than 24 °C and
lower than 16 °C. The optimum day temperatures for hot pepper growth range from
20 to 30 °C. When the temperature falls below 15 °C or exceeds 32 °C for extended
periods, growth and yield are reduced. Peppers are photoperiod-insensitive and grow
best in loam or silt loam soil with good water-holding capacity, but can grow on
many well-drained soil types. Soil pH should be between 5.5 and 6.8 (Berke et al.,
2005).
16.5.2 Selection of cultivar
As described previously, a number of market types are grown worldwide, therefore,
selection of the cultivars should be based on the regional preferences, especially with
respect to trader and consumer preferences for the shape, colour and degree of pungency
of the fruits. The occurrence of local pests and diseases should also be taken into
account during the cultivar selection (Berke et al., 2005).
16.5.3 Seed bed preparation and sowing
Approximately 150–200 g seeds are required for raising seedlings to transplant 1 ha
at the density of 30,000 plants/ha. For seedling raising, about ten seed beds of 7 × 1
m2 size would be sufficient. Seed beds should be prepared on well drained and raised
(20–25 cm) lands. One kg compost or farm yard manure (FYM) and 1 g Furadan
(carbofuran) per m2 should be applied. Seeds should be treated with carbendazim
50% (Bavistin) (@2 g/kg seeds) before sowing. Beds should be drenched from
Captan 50% WP (@ 2 g/lit.) and sowing should be done after one or two days in the
available moisture created by drenching. For raising healthy seedlings, dense sowing
should be avoided. The compost or FYM are used to cover the seed followed by
mulching of beds by grasses or stalks. Irrigation is applied by watering can. Needbased pesticides and fungicides should be applied and regular irrigation and weed
control practised.
16.5.4 Fertilizer application
Peppers are fertilizer responsive and for an average fertile soil, well rotten 20 t/ha
FYM should be added preferably about 2–3 weeks before field preparation. NPK
dose should be determined based on soil test. A full dose of phosphorus, potash and
1/3 dose of nitrogen are applied as basal. The remaining dose of nitrogen should be
applied as top dressing at 30 and 50 days after transplanting.
16.5.5 Transplanting and mulching
Plant spacing varies depending on the cropping system, soil type and cultivar. Thirtydays-old seedlings (4–5 true leaves stage) should be transplanted on raised beds. The
bed should be 30 cm high with width of 1–1.5 m (furrow to furrow) and two rows per
bed transplanted usually at a distance of 55 × 45 cm. Just prior to transplanting, three
to four granules of carbofuran (Furadan 5G) should be applied in each hole. Mulching
is recommended to reduce weed competition, soil compaction, soil erosion and conserve
Cayenne/American pepper
309
soil moisture. Rice straw or other organic material, polyethylene plastic or their
combinations are used for mulching (Berke et al., 2005).
16.5.6 Irrigation and weed control
Pepper plants are fairly shallow-rooted and have low tolerance to drought or flooding.
The first light irrigation is given soon after transplanting followed by a second
irrigation after 3–5 days. Subsequent irrigations are given at weekly or fortnightly
intervals, depending upon the soil type and weather. Plants generally wilt and die if
water stagnates in the field for more than 48 hours. Phytophtora blight and bacterial
wilt may cause total crop loss following prolonged flooding (Berke et al., 2005). If
weed control is not adequate through mulch or mulch is not available, any one of the
following herbicides can be sprayed: Lasso (alachlor 43EC), Amex (butralin 47EC),
Devrinol (napropamide 2E or 10G) or Dual (metolachlor 8E or 25G). Usually herbicide
is applied 2–3 days after transplanting (Berke et al., 2005).
16.5.7 Crop protection measures
A number of diseases and insects attack pepper crops and many of them are common
throughout the world, while a few are specific to certain regions. A brief description
on the symptoms and control measures of economically important diseases and insect
pests have been summarized (Table 16.5). More detailed information may be obtained
from other sources (Bosland and Votava, 2000; Berke et al., 2005).
16.5.8 Harvesting and storage
Pepper fruits can be harvested either at the green immature or red mature stage.
Under favourable growing conditions, fruit production can continue for several months.
Fruits are stored in a cool, shaded, dry place until they are sold. At typical tropical
ambient temperature and humidity (28 °C and 60% RH), fruits may last unspoiled for
1–2 weeks. Anthracnose is the major cause of spoilage of dry fruits. Drying of fruits
in the sun is a common practice, but this tends to bleach the fruits, and rainfall and
dew promote fruit rot (Berke et al., 2005).
16.6
Conclusions
The impact of the discovery by Columbus of a pungent spice was beyond imagination
as it was confused with black pepper of the East Indies. Nevertheless, today hot
peppers dominate the world spice trade and are commercially grown everywhere in
the tropical and subtropical regions (Eshbaugh, 1993). Similarly, sweet peppers have
become indispensable vegetables in the temperate regions and are gaining vast popularity
in the tropical regions as well. Furthermore, pepper is also emerging as an industrial
crop as fruits are used as raw materials in the food, feed, cosmetic and medicine
industries. The recent discovery of new medicinal properties of carotenoids and
capsaicinoids present in pepper fruits could be seen in the light of the huge potential
of this crop of New World origin to become an even more versatile crop in world
agriculture.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 16.5 Symptoms and control measures of major diseases and pests of pepper (partially adapted
from Berke et al., 2005)
Stress/symptom
Control measures
Damping off (Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium spp., Fusarium spp.)
Occurs mostly in the nursery. Seedlings become Soil treatment with Captan @ 0.3%. Seed treatment
infected near the soil surface after emergence. The before sowing and foliar spray with Bavistin
tissues become soft, water-soaked and weak causing @ 0.25%.
the seedlings to fall down and die later.
Die-back or Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, C. capsici, C. acutatum, C. coccodes)
Necrosis and withering of twigs from apical top to Seed borne. Seed treatment with Bavistin @ 0.25
the bottom of the plant. The twigs are water soaked, %. Seedlings spray with Captan @ 0.2% or Bavistin
brown and die back. Small, irregular, sunken, dark 0.3%. Use of pathogen-free seed, crop rotation and
yellow to light brown lesions on the mature fruit. frequent picking of mature fruits are management
practices.
Powdery mildew (Leveillula tauricai)
White powdery growth on lower surface of leaves
resulting in wilting of plants.
Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita)
Infected plants with fewer and yellowish leaves
and stunted shoots. Root knot galls at the point of
invasion on the roots. Reduction in fruit size and
quality.
Spray of Karathane 1.0 to 1.5 g/l or Calixin 0.5 g/l
or Topaz 0.25 g/l of water.
Application of Carbofuran 3 G (Furadon), Phorate,
Nemacur. Steam sterilization and soil fumigation
in greenhouses. Crop rotation with non-host crops.
Bacterial spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria)
Small water-soaked spots on leaves, turn necrotic Seed borne. Sprays of copper or copper + maneb.
with yellow borders. Heavily infected leaves may Use of clean seed and crop rotation are important
drop, resulting in severe defoliation. Corky or wart- in disease management.
like fruits.
Bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)
Wilting of lower leaves followed by a sudden wilt
of plant without foliar yellowing. Vascular browning
and sometimes cortical decay is evident near the
soil line.
Soil borne. Fumigate seedbeds and pasteurize the
planting medium for container-grown plants. Crop
rotation with flooded rice. Transplanting on raised
beds.
Phytophthora blight syn. Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora capsici)
Root rot. Watersoaked regions on lower stems and Soil-borne. Transplanting on raised beds and do
branches, black/brown and irregular spots on not allow water stagnation longer than six hours.
infected leaves. Sudden wilting of plant without Fungicide spray may be beneficial at foliar blight
stage.
foliar yellowing.
Chili veinal mottle virus (ChiVMV), cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), potato virus Y (PVY)
Generally these diseases show mosaic, mottled and/ Aphid-transmitted. Use resistant cultivars. Reduce
or deformed leaves. Plants are stunted and the loss aphid vectors by controlling weeds, spraying
of marketable yield can be dramatic.
insecticides, and using mesh netting to exclude
aphids from the seedlings.
Pepper leaf curl virus (Pep-LCV)
Leaves curl towards midrib, plants remain stunted,
flower buds abscise and pollen development is
hampered, no fruit set or development of tiny fruits
with no value.
White fly transmitted. Use resistant cultivars. Check
white fly by managing weeds, spraying insecticides
and using mesh netting to exclude white fly from
the seedlings.
Thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis and Thrips palmi)
Young leaves curl upward. Brown areas develop
between veins of young and old leaves. Corky tissue
on infested fruits.
Spray of dichlorovos (Nuvan) @ 1.0 ml/l of water.
Damage can be reduced by weed control, rotating
crops and using predators.
Mites (Polyphagotarsonamus latus)
Leaves curl downwards and become narrow. Corky
tissue develops on fruits. Mites are yellow or white,
tiny and found near the mid-vein on the lower side
of the leaves.
Spray Dicofol (18.5 EC) @ 2.75 ml/lit of water.
Wettable sulphur @2.5 to 3.0 g/l of water. Use of
tolerant cultivars, weed control and crop rotation
are management practices.
Cayenne/American pepper
16.7
311
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LEE JS, CHANG JS, LEE JY and KIM JA. 2004. Capsaicin-induced apoptosis and reduced release of reactive
oxygen species in MBT-2 murine bladder tumor cells. Arch. Pharm. Res. 27: 1147–1153.
BERKE T
and
SHIEH SC.
BERKE T, BLACK LL, TALEKAR NS, WANG JF, GNIFFKE P, GREEN SK, WANG TC
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LEE CJ, YOO EY, SHIN JH, LEE J , HWANG HS
and KIM BD. 2005. Non-pungent Capsicum contains a deletion
in the capsaicinoid synthetase gene, which allows early detection of pungency with SCAR
markers. Mol. Cells 19: 262–267.
MAOKA T, MOCHIDA K, KOZUKA M, ITO Y, FUJIWARA Y, HASHIMOTO K, ENJO F, OGATA M, NOBUKUNI Y, TOKUDA
H and NISHINO H. 2001. Cancer chemopreventive activity of carotenoids in the fruits of red
paprika Capsicum annuum L. Cancer Letter 172: 103–109.
MEDVEDEVA NV, ANDREENKOV VA, MOROZKIN AD, SERGEEVA EA, PROKOF’EV I and MISHARIN A. 2003. Inhibition
of oxidation of human blood low-density lipoproteins by carotenoids from paprika. Biomed.
Khim. 49(2): 191–200.
MOLNAR J, GYEMANT N, MUCSI I, MOLNAR A, SZABO M, KORTVELYESI T, VARGA A, MOLNAR P and TOTH G.
2004. Modulation of multidrug resistance and apoptosis of cancer cells by selected carotenoids.
In Vivo 18: 237–244.
MORI T, OHNISHI M, KOMIYAMA M, TSUTSUI A, YABUSHITA H and OKADA H. 2002. Growth inhibitory effect
of paradicsompaprika in cancer cell lines. Oncol Rep. 9: 807–810.
NISHINO H, MURAKOSH M, II T, TAKEMURA M, KUCHIDE M, KANAZAWA M, MOU XY, WADA S, MASUDA M, OHSAKA
Y, YOGOSAWA S, SATOMI Y and JINNO K. 2002. Carotenoids in cancer chemoprevention. Cancer
Metastasis Rev. 21: 257–264.
OCHOA-ALEJO N and GÓMEZ-PERALTA JE. 1993. Activity of enzymes involved in capsaicin biosynthesis
in callus tissue and fruits of chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). J. Plant Physiology 141: 147–
152.
PICKERSGILL B. 1997. Genetic resources and breeding of Capsicum spp. Euphytica 96: 129–133.
POPOVSKY S and PARAN I. 2000. Molecular genetics of the y locus in pepper: its relation to capsanthincapsorubin synthase and to fruit color. Theor. Appl. Genet. 101: 86–89.
POULOS JM. 1994. Pepper breeding (Capsicum spp.): achievements, challenges and possibilities.
Plant Breed. Abst. 64: 143–155.
QUAGLIOTTI L. 1971. Effects of soil moisture and nitrogen level on the pungency of berries of
Capsicum annuum L. Hort. Res. 11: 93–97.
SUKRASNO N and YEOMAN MM. 1993. Phenylpropanoid metabolism during growth and development
of Capsicum frutescens fruit. Phytochemistry 32: 839–844.
ZEWDIE Y and BOSLAND PW. 2000. Evaluation of genotype, environment and genotype-by-environment
interaction for capsaicinoids in Capsicum annuum L. Euphytica 111: 185–190.
17
Celeriac
A. A. Farooqi, C. Kathiresan and K. N. Srinivasappa, University of
Agricultural Sciences, India
17.1
Introduction and description
Celeriac (Apium graveolens var rapaceum) is a strain of celery, which is native to
Europe and parts of Asia. It is found growing wild in all temperate zones. It is also
known as knob celery, celery root and turnip rooted celery. The plant is similar to
celery but the principal difference between them is that in celeriac the root is developed
into a mass resembling a turnip, is easier to grow and has the characteristic flavour
of celery. It is much better for flavouring in general cookery and for eating as a
cooked vegetable. The plant produces the large beet-like root, which is used as a
vegetable and spice; the stem and leaves are discarded. It does not produce roots until
the season is set in. It starts to swell and becomes large in October and during the
earlier months it produces only leafy growth. Originally it had a disagreeable taste
and odour but in the cultivated varieties these traits have entirely vanished. The
essential oil has the odour and flavour of celery. In ancient times, the plant was
grown as a medicinal crop and only recently has it been used as a food plant. It is
eaten as a raw salad, as a cooked vegetable and for flavouring the food.
It is a biennial plant belonging to the family Umbelliferae and resembles beet in
appearance. The economic part is its enlarged root, which develops at ground level.
This root has a brown skin with white interior. It is smaller than celery and has very
dark green foliage. The flavour of the root tastes like a blend of celery and parsley.
Celeriac is mainly used as a cooked vegetable or raw in salads but is usually boiled
before use. It is used in innumerable recipes usually after blanching in boiled salt
water for five minutes and cooled rapidly. It is also used as a garnish or stuffed as a
major part of a meal. The leaf stalks after they are pulled off can be boiled and served
like seakale. Many use celeriac in soups and stews. The seeds have medicinal properties
and are used as a tonic and an aphrodisiac.
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17.2 Production
17.2.1 Soil
Celeriac grows on soil that is deep, rich and moisture holding, but well drained.
Although celeriac is a moisture-loving plant, in fact a semi-aquatic, it will not thrive
in waterlogged soil conditions. A good well-drained sandy loam or silt loam soil is
ideal for this crop. Clayey soils that are prone to water logging should be avoided. It
thrives well on a soil having a pH range of 5.5–6.7.
17.2.2 Climate
It is an autumn or early winter vegetable which thrives best when the weather is
relatively cool and with moderately well distributed rainfall during the growing
season. It is less sensitive to heat and drought than celery, but more sensitive than
most garden vegetables. It has good frost tolerance.
17.2.3 Varieties
Monarch is an excellent, high quality variety, which has very smooth, easily washable,
creamy coloured roots. It is easier to grow than celery and can be grated raw over
salads, cut into slices and boiled, or into strips which are fried.
17.2.4 Propagation
It is propagated through seeds. It requires a 120-day growing season. It can be
cultivated in two ways either by transplantation or direct sowing.
Transplantation
Seeds are sown in early March in boxes in greenhouses or hot beds at a temperature
of 20–25 °C. The required seed rate is about 200–250 gm per hectare (100,734
seeds). The seed is sown thinly to facilitate pricking out on transplanting and to
encourage stocky plants. Seeds germinate in 21–25 days. When the plant has grown
six to nine centimetres high, it is transplanted into the garden, usually at the beginning
of June. Plants must be carefully trimmed before planting. Trimming allows sunlight
to reach the soil, keep the surface dry and reduce damping off losses. Transplanting
outdoors is usually done in late spring. Cool weather is desirable at planting time.
Plants are spaced 20–30 cm apart in rows placed at 60 cm apart.
Direct sowing
In mild climates, it may be direct seeded. Seeds are sown about half a centimetre
deep and the seed bed is kept moist until the seedlings emerge. They are planted at
a spacing similar to the transplanted crop.
17.2.5 Manures and fertilizers
The crop responds well to the application of manures and fertilizers. On medium
soils, it should be applied with 10–12 t of compost or farmyard manure, 200 kg of
nitrogen, 60 kg of phosphorus and 50 kg of potassium per hectare. The organic
manure along with 50% nitrogen and entire dose of phosphorus and potassium is
Celeriac
315
given as a basal dose and the remaining nitrogen is applied at 30 and 60 days after
transplanting.
17.2.6 Intercultural practices
Regular intercultural operations like thinning, hoeing and earthing-up should be
attended to. Any side shoots or suckers appearing should be removed promptly. The
surface of the soil should be loosened. It is done at frequent intervals to draw soil
away from the plants rather than upwards because the further they stand out of the
ground, the better. From mid-November onwards the scheme is altered and the soil
is drawn up towards the plant to give some protection.
17.2.7 Irrigation
Celeriac requires much water while growing. The first irrigation is given immediately
after planting or the roots may not attain best size and quality. Water should be given
before the first indication of wilting or any check to growth. It requires 2.5–4 cm of
water each week during dry periods. During dry weather, mulching will be helpful.
Black polythene sheeting has been found to retain moisture.
17.2.8 Pests and diseases
Celeriac is not seriously attacked by many insects and it is seldom that any of them
cause serious losses. However, under some conditions, the tarnished plant bug and
carrot rust fly cause considerable injury. The celery looper and the larva of the black
swallow-tail butterfly attack celeriac, but are seldom very injurious. They can easily
be controlled by available insecticides. Celeriac is susceptible to injury by several
diseases including late blight, early blight, phoma root rot, black heart and root knot.
Late blight is caused by Septoria apii and this organism attacks only celeriac and
celery. Small brown spots appear on the leaves, which later coalesce, and the entire
leaf may become dry. The early blight caused by Cercospora apii leads to small
circular yellowish brown spots, which enlarge rapidly to dark brown, surrounded by
a band of yellow. Both the diseases could be controlled by soaking the seeds in hot
water for 25 minutes or in formaldehyde solution for 30 minutes or in mercuric
chloride solution for 20 minutes following a half-hour soak in lukewarm water to
soften the fungus.
Phoma root rot caused by Phoma apiicola and leads to wilting and dropping of
leaves. Crop rotation, burning refuse, guarding against seedbed infection and destruction
of infected seedlings are recommended. Black heart is a physiological disorder that
is first seen as tip burn in younger leaves and quickly spreads to all of the young
foliage. Hot weather and excessive moisture leads to this disorder. Root knot is
caused by a nematode, Heterodea radicicola, which leads to deformed roots, unfit for
consumption. Steam sterilization of the seed bed before sowing will effectively control
nematode infestation.
17.2.9 Harvesting
Celeriac attains its full flavour after it has received a frost. Harvestable maturity is
reached when the roots have attained a diameter of five centimetres. When fully
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mature, they will be around 5–12 cm in diameter depending on the growing region.
The branching roots at the base are cut away and tops trimmed off. In areas with mild
winters, roots can be mulched with leaves or straw left in the ground and harvested
as needed. Roots may also be removed and stored in moist sand in a cool place.
17.2.10 Yield
The crop is ready for the harvest during October–November. In late November, if
there are any remaining roots, they should be collected and stored in damp sand in a
cool and dry place. Under normal cultivation practices a tuber yield of 15–20 t per
hectare may be obtained.
17.3
Further reading
SHERF A F (1960), Vegetable diseases and their control, New York, The Ronold.
and MCCOLLUM J P (1968), Producing vegetable crops, Illinois, The Interstate Printers
and Publishers Inc.
HERKLOTS G A C (1986), Vegetables in South East Asia, London, George Allen and Unwin.
HORE A (1979), ‘Improvement of Minor Umbelliferous spices in India’. Econ. Bot. 33(3): 290–7.
MACGILLIVRAY J H (1961), Vegetable production – with special reference to western crops, New York,
McGraw-Hill.
MCKINLAY R G (1992), Vegetable crop pests, London, Macmillan.
SHEWELL-COOPER W E (1973), The complete vegetable grower, London, Faber and Faber.
SPLITTOESSER W E (1984), Vegetable growing handbook, Connecticut, AVI Publishing.
THOMPSON H C and KELLY W C (1957), Vegetable crops, New York, McGraw-Hill.
TINDALL H D (1983), Vegetables in the tropics, Hong Kong, Macmillan.
WORK P and CAREW J (1955), Vegetable production and marketing, New York, John Wiley and Sons.
YAMAGUCHI M (1983), World vegetables, Connecticut, AVI Publishing.
CLUMP C
and
GEORGE W W
18
Celery
S. K. Malhotra, National Research Centre on Seed Spices, India
18.1
Introduction
Celery (Apium graveolens L.) is an important aromatic plant grown mostly for its
fresh herbs as salad crop in different parts of the world. The dried fruits are also used
as spice. Celery is known as Celeri in French, Sellerie in German, Apio in Spanish,
Salleri in Swedish, Karafs in Arabic, Selderiji in Dutch, Sedano in Italian, Aipo in
Portugese, Syelderey in Russian, Serorjini in Japanese; Chin in Chinese; Karnauli
or Ajmod in India. The origin of celery and its allied varieties is not clear. Wild
forms can be found in marshy areas throughout temperate Europe and Western Asia.
Although the eastern Mediterranean region appears to be the most logical centre of
domestication, the distribution of wild types raises some doubt (Rubatzky and
Yamaguchi, 1997).
Celery was probably not under widespread cultivation till the middle ages, though
ancient literature documents that celery was cultivated before 850 BC. Celery production
developed in the lowlands of Italy and further spread to France and England. The first
mention of its cultivation in France was reported in 1623. The present cultivated
celery plants are a quite sweet, appetising and wholesome food but its wild ancestors
were considered poisonous. The ancients associated celery with funerals and believed
it to be a bad luck omen. In India, celery was introduced from France around AD 1930
by a trading company in Amritsar in Punjab and now is commercially grown on a
large scale for seeds and spice in that area.
The wild plants were used for medicinal purposes hundreds of years before its use
as a food plant. The early forms of celery having an adaptation to its marshy origins,
had a tendency to produce hollow stems and petioles. During domestication, selection
altered this heritable characteristic and reduced the associated bitter and strong flavour.
Celery leaves and stalks have been used as salad vegetables for thousand of years in
Europe and the Middle East. The seeds have also been used in traditional systems of
medicine in the Middle East since ancient times. However, the use of celery seed oil
has come about with the development of the processed food industry, as the oil is
widely used as food flavourer in the USA and Europe.
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18.1.1 Classification
In the treatise Handbook of Herbs and Spices Peter (2001) has given a conventional
classification of spices based on degree of taste and classified celery as an aromatic
vegetable because it is mainly grown for fresh herb, the leaves and petioles. In
another classification of plant organs used as spice, celery has been categorised as a
seed spice because seeds are used as whole seed, powdered or in the form of seed oil
or oleoresins. The taxonomic classification of celery is:
Division:
Sub-division:
Class:
Sub-class:
Order:
Family:
Genus:
Species:
Spermatophyta
Angiospermae
Magnoliospida (Dicotyledoneae)
Rosidae
Apiales
Apiaceae
Apium
graveolens
On the basis of characteristic features, celery can be classified as shown below:
Foliage colour:
Blanching habit:
Bolting behaviour:
Climate:
Life cycle:
Height:
Season:
green or yellow/golden
early or late
slow or quick
temperate or sub-tropical
annual or biennial
tall, intermediate or dwarf
autumn or winter
The classification of Apium graveolens L. on the basis of horticultural types as given
by Orton, 1984 is:
1. Apium graveolens var. dulce – blanched celery
2. Apium graveolens var. rapaceum – edible rooted celery
3. Apium graveolens var. secalinum – leafy type (smallage type)
Rubatzky and Yamaguchi (1997) have reported A. graveolens var. secalinum to be
the most popular celery in Asian and Mediterranean regions. Of the above three
morphotypes of celery, Apium graveolens var. secalinum (smallage type) has been
reported to be commonly cultivated in India for seeds as spices and behaves annual
in growth habit (Malhotra, 2006a).
18.1.2 Description
Celery is a herbaceous annual or biennial erect herb growing to a height of 60–90 cm
with conspicuous branches bearing well-developed leaves on long expanded petioles.
Stems are branched, angular or fistular and conspicuously jointed. Leaves are radical,
pinnate, deeply divided into three segments, once or twice divided and toothed at
apex. The leaflets are ovate to suborbicular, 3-lobed, 2–4.5 cm long. The flowers are
small, white in colour and inflorescence is a compound umbel. Calyx teeth are
obsolete; five petioles ovate, acute with tip inflexed; carpels semiterete, subpentagonal,
primary ridges distinct and filiform. The fruit is a schizocarp with two mericarps,
suborbicular to ellipsoid, 1–2 mm in diameter, aromatic and slightly bitter. The seed
(mericarp) results from the splitting of schizocarp (fruits) and is also ribbed and
much smaller than carrot seed.
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319
In cytogenetical studies, Choudhary and Kaul (1986) observed celery as a diploid
with chromosome number as 2n = 22. The flowers, although potentially self-fertile,
are normally cross-pollinated by insects.
18.1.3 Production and international trade
Celery is widely distributed in Europe, America and Asia. In the Western countries,
it is grown for the herb, which is consumed as salad or cooked as vegetable and ranks
second only to lettuce. In the USA, the major growing states are California, Florida,
Michigan and New York, whereas in Europe major producing countries are France,
Germany, the UK, Hungary, Italy, Belgium and Holland. Celery is cultivated for seed
as spice predominantly in India, southern France, China and Egypt. India is the major
producer and exporter of celery seed in the world market, which is partly used for
extraction of seed oil and oleoresins. In India, it is cultivated in Amritsar, Gurdaspur,
Jalandhar and Ludhiana in Punjab, Panipat in Haryana and Saharanpur in Uttar
Pradesh for production of celery seed (Vijay and Malhotra, 2002).
Celery, as seed spice, is grown on around 6000 ha with production of 5500 tonnes
annually in India. Indian celery seed and extractives are exported to the USA, Canada,
the UK, Kuwait, the Netherlands, Singapore, South Africa, Japan and Germany.
During 2005–2006, India exported 3400 tonnes celery seed of worth $2.5 million.
India is meeting 62% of world demand for celery seed. About 284 metric tonnes of
celery spice powder worth Rs. 14.5 million, celery essential oil quantity of 17 metric
tonnes worth Rs. 33 million and oleoresins 183 metric tonnes worth Rs. 46.4 million
was also exported from India during 2005–2006. The total world production of seed
oil is about 45 tonnes, of which 17 tonnes is produced from India and the remainder
from Egypt, China, France, the UK and the USA.
18.2
Cultivation
Celery thrives best in climates with a long, cool growing season, especially at night
and where rainfall is well distributed or irrigation is assured. Optimum production
occurs when mean temperatures range between 16 °C and 21 °C with the introduction
of cultivars for tolerating upper temperature ranges. Celery can be grown in some
subtropical regions. Celery is sensitive to freezing temperatures but on acclimatization
can tolerate light frost for a short time. Leaf celery type has been reported to be more
heat tolerant than root celery or stalk celery type. Celery has a shallow root system
and thus requires a highly fertile soil with good moisture-holding capacity. Though
it is reported to be cultivated in a wide range of soils, peat and clay loam soils are
usually well suited for production. Celery is moderately sensitive to salinity and
grows best within a pH range of 6.0–6.6 in mineral soils and 5.5–6.0 in organic soils.
In Ohio and Michigan celery is grown on muck soils for fresh market (Swaider, et al.,
1992; Rubatzky and Yamaguchi, 1997). The celery seed crop under Indian conditions
in Punjab is grown on soils with an average pH of around 7.5.
Celery needs high soil fertility, usually maintained by the application of balanced
commercial fertilizers. Supplemental nutrient applications averaging about 300 kg
N, 75 kg P2O5 and 250 kg K2O ha–1 are used on mineral soils. Depending upon
nutrient availability and the fertility status of the soil, doses up to 220–450 kg of N,
120 kg P2O5 and 180 kg K2O ha–1 may be used. About half the nitrogen and all
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phosphorus and potassium are applied at the time of planting and the remainder used
as side dressing (Kadam and Salunkhe, 2001). Areas with minor nutrient deficiencies
require the application of boron, calcium and magnesium for controlling deficiency,
otherwise physiological disorders such as cracked stem, black heart and leaf chlorosis
may occur (Rubatzky and Yamaguchi, 1997). The application of phosphorus induced
a non-significant increase in seed yield but maximum returns were obtained with the
application of 200 kg N and 33 kg P2O5 ha–1 in Punjab, India (Bains et al., 1977).
Seed germination and the emergence of celery plants are slow even when conditions
are favourable. The celery seeds are reported to possess thermo dormancy resulting
in no or slow germination at temperatures greater than 25 °C. A seed soaking treatment
at 10 °C using growth regulators GA 4/7 or ethephon at 1000 ppm can overcome this
dormancy (Thomas, 1990). Far red light or sunlight exposure also improves germination
percentages when the seeds are very dormant. Therefore it is advisable to sow seeds
shallow to enhance light exposure. The thermo dormancy and photo dormancy existing
in celery have been reviewed in detail by Desai et al., (1997).
Celery crop may be raised from transplants or by direct seeding in the field. The
time of sowing is determined on the basis of crop to be raised for fresh herb or seeds.
In California, seed beds are sown in July or sometimes December–January. The 8–
12-weeks-old seedlings are transplanted in a well-prepared field. In other parts of the
USA with more severe winters, crops are started in the early spring by sowing in a
greenhouse or hot beds and seedlings are dug in the autumn, rouged for off type and
cold stored until planting time in spring. The tops are stored at 0 °C and 90–95% RH,
maintaining moisture and good ventilation around the roots. The roots are placed in
moist soil. The withered and decayed leaves should be removed when plants are
transplanted at distance of about 90 cm between rows. The closer spacing results in
higher seed yields. In some coastal areas of California, celery is seeded directly in the
production beds. In India the celery is grown as seed spice covering a large area in
the Punjab which is situated in the northern plains. It is grown during September–
October and transplanted from mid-December to the first week of January (Randhawa
and Kaur, 1995). The row spacing of 40 cm gave maximum seed yield. Celery crops
yield about 60–70 t/ha as the fresh herb whereas seed yield of 2–4 q/ha can be
obtained from crops grown exclusively for the purpose, respectively. The seed crop
requires fertilizer dose of 90 kg N, 40 kg P2O5 and 20 kg K2O ha–1 for annual
cultivars under semi-arid agro-climatic conditions in India (Malhotra, 2005).
The celery crop is affected by several diseases and insect pests. But insects pose
comparatively less of a problem than do diseases. The main insect pests causing
occasional damage are leaf minor (Liriomyza trifolii) and celery fly (Euleia brercolai)
but carrot rust fly (Psila rosae) may cause occasional damage. The important diseases
of celery include early blight (Cercospora apii), late blight (Septoria apii), Fusarium
yellows (Fusarium apii and F. apii f.sp. pallidum), stem rot (Rhizoctonia solani),
bacterial blight (Bacterium apii), aster yellows (virus) and celery mosaic (virus). The
diseases and insect pests of celery crops have been reviewed in the texts of Thakur
(2000) and Malhotra (2006a,b). Successful chemical control measures for various
diseases and insects pests are available.
The fresh herb crop of celery is harvested when plants are fully grown. The plants
are either pulled off or cut below the soil surface along with petioles attached to the
base. Normally, the salad crop is cut, trimmed and packed in the field. Mechanical
harvesters are also used for harvesting of celery petioles (Swaider et al., 1992). It is
usually ready for harvest 90–120 days after transplanting, whereas direct seeded crop
Celery
321
takes about 30–40 days longer than a transplanted one. In the past, blanching was
popular, but due to increasing demand for green celery and the expense involved with
blanching, it is no longer a common practice.
The seed crop of celery behaves biennially in a temperate climate and annually in
a tropical to sub-tropical climate. It takes five months to reach seed maturity in
plains. Celery seed is usually ready to harvest from August to early September under
United State conditions whereas, it is harvested in April–May in Indian plains. The
harvested crop is cured in the sun before threshing. The shattering of seed is a
common problem and can be avoided by timely harvesting of seed in the morning
hours or by spraying poly vinyl acetate (PVA) glue on seed umbels (Desai et al.,
2001; George, 1999).
18.3
Post-harvest handling
Preparations for market include a series of post-harvest operations such as removal
of small lateral branches and damaged leaves, packaging and pre-cooling. All operations
except the last may be done in the field or the packaging plant. The fresh herbs are
stored mainly for short periods to increase availability and to avoid a glut in the
market. Optimum storage conditions for celery fresh herb are 0 °C and a high RH
(95%). Controlled atmospheric storage can be used to maintain marketable quality
for relatively long periods. Such storage conditions require a temperature of 0 °C and
high RH in an atmosphere of 1–2% O2, 4% CO2 and with facility of ethylene removal
(Kadam and Salunkhe, 1998).
The seed crop of celery is collected after harvest and allowed to cure under the sun
for a period of about 7–10 days. The cured crop is transported to the threshing floor,
where it is dried in a thin layer for one or two days before carrying out light threshing
to separate the seeds. The shade-dried seed contains more oil content than the sun
dried seed. The seed can be cleaned easily with a screening mill followed by a gravity
separator. The seeds are cleaned, graded through sieving and stored in gunny bags in
a cool dry place. Under Indian conditions 1.4 tonnes/ha of seed can be harvested. The
fresh seed should be taken to an oil extraction unit for more recovery of volatile oil
content (Malhotra, 2005).
18.4
Cultivars
The cultivars of celery are generally classified as yellow/golden varieties called ‘self
blanching’ varieties or green varieties with dark green foliage. The green varieties
can be further divided into two groups, early and easy to blanch; late and slower to
blanch. The most important varieties are mentioned in Table 18.1.
The different cultivars of celery with salient characteristics as per Tigchelaar cited
by Desai et al., (1997) are:
Clean Cut: open pollinated, duration 125 days from transplanting, excellent shipping
quality, large heavy petioles of good length, relatively few side shoots, similar to
Utah 52–70.
Florigreen: attractive, uniform, vigorous widely adopted green stalk cultivar developed
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Table 18.1
Types and cultivars of celery
Golden cultivars
Green cultivars
Golden Plume
Golden Self Blanching
Michigan Improved Golden
Cornell 619
Golden Detroit
Utah type
Utah 52–70 R
Utah 52–70 HK
Florida 683
Utah 52–70
Tall Green Light
Tender crisp
Summer Pascal type
Summer Pascal
Giant Pascal
Slow Bolting type
Slow Bolting Green No. 96
Slow Bolting Green No. 12
Source: Swaider et al., (1992).
to provide a distinct petiole type for fancy grade pack, tolerant to brown spot, wide
adaptability, similar to Florida 683.
Transgreen: wide thick petioles and excellent yield potential, similar to Florida 683.
In a review Kadam and Salunkhe (1998) mentioned that all green varieties are
resistant to Fusarium wilt. Emerson Pascal is resistant to early and late blights and to
Fusarium wilt but has a tendency to bolt. Early blanching Sanford Superb or Newark
Market is thought to have originated from Golden Self Blanching, the most extensively
grown yellow variety. The important yellow or self blanching varieties are Michigan
Improved Golden, Cornell 19, Supreme Golden, Golden Plume, Wonderful, Golden
No. 15 and Cornell 619. The varieties from the Cornell group have thick petioles
whereas Pascal varieties are resistant to Fusarium yellowing but have a bolting
tendency. White Cornell 19 is susceptible to brown spot, while others such as Michigan
Golden, Michigan Improved Golden and Supreme Golden are resistant to Fusarium
yellowing.
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, recommended Standard
Bearer and Wright Gieve Giant vegetable type introductions of celery in India. Farooqui
and Sreeramu (2001) in their compilation mentioned EC 99249-1 and RRL 85-1 a
good varieties for cultivation under Indian conditions for high essential oil content.
The National Research Centre on Seed Spices in India has developed a variety
NRCSS-A Cel –1 of celery suitable for cultivation under semi-arid conditions for
high yield and essential oil content (Malhotra, 2004) and has been identified for
release very recently.
18.5
Chemical structure
The chemical composition of leaves, stalks, seeds and volatile oil varies in constituents.
The composition of the constituents differs considerably depending upon the age
of the seed, geographical region, stage of harvesting and method of distillates.
According to Chevallier (2001), the key constituents of celery seed are volatile oil
(1.5–3.0%) containing 60–70% limonene, phthalides and β-salinene, coumarins,
Celery
323
furanocoumarins (bergapten) and flavonoids (apiin). Celery seed volatile oil as reported
by Farrell (1999) primarily consists of 60% δ-limonene, 10–20% selinene, 2.5–3.0%
sedanolid and 0.5% sedanonic anhydride. The aroma-chemicals present in celery
seed as analysed through GC/MS analysis (Cu Jian-Qin et al., 1990) are given in
Table 18.2.
The chemical composition varies with the stage of the plant at harvesting. The
composition of the oil from the fresh aerial parts of celery (at flowering stage) are α
and β-pinene, myrcene, transfarnesene, humulene, limonene, cis-β-ocimene, Gterpenene, trans-β-ocimene, apiol, β-selinene, senkyuonlide and neocnidilide (Sahel
et al., 1985). Choline ascorbate and enzyme inositol trisphosphate were isolated from
celery leaves (Kavalali and Akcasu, 1985); McMurry and Irvine, 1988), respectively.
The chemical constituents extracted from the roots of Apium graveolens var. dulce
were 4-phthalides butylphthalide, neocnidilide, cnidilide, z-lingustilide and senkyonolide
and Apium graveolens var. rapaceum contained butylphthalide and z-butylide
nephthalide, cnidilide, E and Z-ligustilide, neocnidilide and senkyonolide (Gijbels et
al., 1985). Chowdhury and Gupta (2000) found that celery oil contained 28 compounds
belonging to different categories such as terpenes, sesquiterpenes and their derivatives
(Table 18.3). The compound β-selinene was the major constituent (29.23%), whereas
most of the other workers have reported limonene and selinene as the major constituents.
The chemical structures of both compounds are given in Fig. 18.1.
Table 18.2
Details of aroma-chemicals reported in celery seed oil
Compound
Percentage
α-Pinene
Camphene
β-Pinene
Sabenene
Myrcene
-3-carene
α-Phellandrene
Limonene
β-Phellandrene
Cis β-Ocimene
Trans-β-Ocimene
ρ-Cymene
Pentyl benzene
Linalool
Isopulegone
Caryophyllene
Carvone
Geranyl acetate
α-lonone
Cinnamic aldehyde
Thymol
β-Selinene
α-Selinene
Epoxycaryophyllene
η-butyl phthalide
Eudesmol
Lingustilide
1.05
Traces
Traces
0.76
0.95
Traces
Traces
72.16
0.02
Traces
Traces
0.74
0.02
1.48
0.16
0.17
0.09
0.04
0.05
0.15
0.17
12.17
2.05
0.55
2.56
0.29
2.41
Source: Cu Jian-Qin et al., (1990).
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 18.3
Constituents (%) in fruits of Apium graveolens
Constituent
Percentage
Terpenes
Limonene
β-phellandrene
Alpha-pinene
β-pinene
0.22
0.38
0.98
1.02
Sesqui Terpenes
β-Elemene
α-Humulene
Patchoulene
β-Selinene
1.30
1.90
0.78
29.23
Aromatics
Pentyl benzene
6.81
Alcohols
Benzyl alcohol
Carveol
Eudesmol
Geraniol
Limonene glycol
Linalool
Menthol
Terpineol
Thujol
1.02
1.74
3.00
0.46
6.19
0.81
1.90
1.62
0.28
Oxide
Caryophyllene oxide
3.77
Aldehydes
Citral
Methyl heptanal
2.88
1.05
Ketones
Carvone
Dihydrocarvone
Menthone
Phenyl ethyl ketone
5.93
3.49
0.60
1.89
Esters
Butyl phthalide
Geranyl acetate
Exobornyl acetate
10.56
0.85
0.28
Source : Chowdhury and Gupta (2000).
Limonene
Fig. 18.1
β-selinene
Chemical structures of limonene and β-selinene.
18.6 Main uses in food processing
Celery is cultivated mainly for fresh herbs and seeds. Several processed products
from celery fresh herb and seeds are popular in the markets of the USA, Europe and
Celery
325
Asian countries. The main uses of celery in the food processing industry are described
here.
18.6.1 Processed products from celery leaves and petioles
The long fleshy petioles and leaves are valued for their flavour and texture and are
used as salad and in the preparation of some value added products and have been
documented by Pruthi (2001).
Dehydrated celery
Celery stalk and leaves are dehydrated and are commercially available in the USA
and the UK markets as:
•
•
•
•
10 mm celery stalk dice
leaf and stalk flakes
stalk and leaf granules
celery powder.
These various styles of dehydrated products are used for flavouring soups, broth
base, canned tuna fish, stuffings and stewed tomatoes and as a garnish on potato
salad and meat sauces.
Celery stalk products
Stalk products have been reported to retain the deepest green colour. This is frequently
protected by the addition of minute amount of sodium bisulphite or sodium sulphite.
Celery flakes are used in dry soup mixes, canned soups, sauces, stuffings, casserole
products and vegetable specialities. Granulated or powdered celery is a good choice for
canned and frozen sauces and dry mixes for bread and soups. Cross cut and diced celery
is used in canned and frozen soups, relishes, vegetable specialities and salad mixes.
Processed celery juice blends
Processed celery juice blends in combination with vegetables have been prepared
successfully and marketed. Organic celery and tomato; organic celery and carrot
juice blends are becoming popular as nutritious drinks and have been reported to
function as a cleansing drink that is good for recovery from many chronic illnesses.
Freeze-dried celery
Cross-cut slices of celery stalks are also available in freeze-dried form. The freezedried process is also effective in retaining original shape and crispness of celery. This
product makes a crisp garnish for potato salad, casseroles, chinese dishes, gelatin
salad, pickles and relishes. Overall quality for retention of nutrients is better in
freeze-dried celery petioles.
Blanched celery
Blanching removes the green colour in the petioles and is accomplished by excluding
light from leaf stalks while plants are still growing in the field. This process makes
the leaf stalks more tender but reduces the strong flavour and nutrients particularly
vitamin A. A small segment of customers still demand blanched celery. In the past,
blanched celery was more popular but these days there is more demand for green
celery owing to the presence of more natural nutrients.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Pickling celery
Celery petioles are also processed for the preparation of pickling. Such processed
celery for pickling has a ready market in the USA and some European countries. The
stalk celery and root celery can both be used in the processing industry for preparation
of picklings. In the pickling process the tender petioles of celery are cured in dry
brine and subsequently preserved by using spices and condiments or vinegar. Celery
petiole pickling can also be prepared in mixing with other vegetables and mixed
pickling can be prepared. Pickled celery is known as a good appetizer and adds to the
palatability of different kinds of meals.
Canned celery
Tender celery petioles both blanched or green are ideal for canning. The unit operations
include sorting and grading, washing, peeling (if required), coring and pitting, blanching,
(if required), cane filling and brining. Usually canned celery is processed at high
temperatures 115–121 °C (high pressure of 10–15 lb/inch2) in the autoclave. The
temperature and time of processing vary with size of can. Celery petioles are usually
canned for later use in the off season or in combinations in canned soups, meats and
culinary sausages.
18.6.2 Processed products from celery seeds
Celery is grown widely in Asia and the Mediterranean regions for seed purpose. The
seed and its extractives are used as a condiment for flavouring purposes in the food
industry and some pharmaceutical industries.
Whole seed
Celery seeds are very small, dark brown and emit a characteristic odour. The seeds
are used as a spice in India and a condiment in the USA. The seeds give a burning
sensation and are bitter. Celery seed may be used as a spice for seasoning practically
any dish that calls for the flavour of celery and is particularly useful where fresh
celery stalks would be impractical. Celery seed may be used in tomato and other
vegetable juices, bouillons, pea soup, chicken and turkey soups, coleslaw, pickles,
scrambled eggs and omelettes, chicken and tuna casseroles, salads and salad dressing,
seafood chowders, sandwich spread and on cucumber, cabbage and beets. Celery
seed has its importance in the food processing industry worldwide and is used in
many Balkan, French, English, American and Asiatic recipes. The whole seed is the
basic material for the preparation of various value added items, viz., oils, oleoresins
for flavouring purposes in foods, beverages and perfumery and for medicinal purposes
in the pharmaceutical industry. A few seeds of celery can be sprinkled over lightly
boiled carrots, grilled tomatoes or salads and they are especially complementary to
egg and fish dishes (Clevely et al., 1997).
Celery essential oil
The volatile oil of celery is the most functionally important constituent of seed. The
volatile oil content of seed varies from 2.5–3.0% and fixed oil content is 15%. The
oil can also be extracted from seeds, herbs and chaff, but quality of seed oil is
superior to others and is commercially more important. Celery seed oil finds its
major use in the flavouring of all kinds of prepared foods such as soups, meats,
pickles and vegetable juices. The oil also finds use in perfumery and the pharmaceutical
industry. The aroma of celery seed oil is warm, spicy, fruity and persistent.
Celery
327
Celery seed oil is produced by steam distillation. The seed should be crushed and
immediately sent for distillation to avoid evaporation losses. Care should be taken in
steam distillation to avoid channelling of steam. It takes 10–12 hours for distillation
of one batch. Average oil yield under Indian condition has been reported as being 2–
2.5% depending upon the quality and quantity of seed and approximately 20–30 kg
of celery oil is extracted from one hectare (Farooqui and Sreeramu, 2001). The
distillation wastes are usually redistilled. Indian seeds give a better yield of oil
compared to French seed.
Celery oleoresin
Celery oleoresin is one of the most valuable flavouring agents as it imparts a warm,
aromatic and pleasing flavour to food products. Essentially, the celery oleoresin consists
of essential oil, organically soluble resins and other related materials present in the
original spice. Celery oleoresins are extensively used in processed foods, snacks, sauces,
sausages, seafood, vegetable preparations and alcoholic/non-alcoholic beverages.
The oleoresin of celery seed is prepared by extraction of crushed dried celery
seeds with suitable volatile solvents like food grade hexane ethanol, ethyl acetate or
ethylene dichloride, filtration and desolventization under vacuum. The organic solvent
should be recovered completely from the oleoresin as per the ISO, as well as the
standards of importing countries with their fixed maximum permissible limits for the
approved solvents. Oleoresins could rightly be considered as ‘liquid celery seed’
which is easier to handle in the preparation of tinctures and extracts. Celery seed
oleoresin is a green liquid having a volatile oil content of about 9 ml/100 g and is free
flowing with a herbal, slightly lemony and bitter flavour. The Indian types of celery
oleoresin have been reported to be more herbal with a pleasant lemon-like aroma and
tenacious herbal undertones (Pruthi, 2001)
Celery powder
Celery seed powder is mainly used in food items for flavouring purpose such as salad
dressings, soups, sausages, vegetable juices and pickles. The celery powder of seed
has its importance in the food processing industry worldwide and is used in many
Balkan, French, English, American and Asiatic recipes. Celery seed powder can be
sprinkled over salads, soups, sausages, juices, eggs and fish dishes.
Celery powder is produced by milling or grinding the dried seeds. The loss of the
characteristic aroma of celery powder occurs in the process of grinding. Therefore, to
overcome the loss of volatiles, pre-chilling and reduced temperature grinding are
used (Anon. 1975). An innovation for idealized grinding of spices is freeze-grinding
(–70 °C) which has many advantages; increased retention of volatiles, and dispersability
of the fine ground material in food preparations (Russo, 1976). The quality of ground
spice deteriorates in its aroma by rapid loss of volatiles and this loss could be controlled
by careful selection of packaging material. The coarsely ground material is accepted
for extraction and distillation of oil and oleoresins whereas for direct use in food
seasoning, a finer product is required.
18.6.3
Other products from celery
Celery salt
Commercial celery salt is prepared by mixing finely ground table salt with ground
celery seed or celery seed oleoresin or ground dried celery stems. According to
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Canadian standards, celery salt should be a combination or 25% of celery seed
powder or ground celery and 75% table salt (Pruthi, 2001).
Celery seed vinegar
Select a bean-preserving jar not a narrow-topped bottle. Place two tablespoons celery
seeds in the jar for every 600 ml/1 pint/21/2 cups white wine vinegar. Cover and leave
in a cool dark place for 2–3 weeks, shaking the jar from time to time, until the flavour
is developed. Strain the vinegar into clean bottles, label and store in a cool place
away from direct sunlight. Use the vinegar in salad dressings and to sharpen herb
sauces (Clevely et al., 1997).
18.7
Functional properties
Celery leaf petioles and seeds are valued for their appetizing succulence, bulk vitamins
and minerals. The fresh leaves and stalks contain mainly protein, fat, fibre, carbohydrate,
minerals and vitamins. The nutritional composition of leaves, petioles and seeds are
shown in Table 18.4. The composition varies with variety, region, part of plant and
age of product. Celery seeds and extractives are known to have significance in
traditional medical systems. Celery has been reported to demonstrate a number of
functional properties. The key properties are as below:
•
•
•
•
•
antirheumatic
antispasmodic
diuretic
hypotensive
anti-inflammatory
Table 18.4
Nutritional constituents of celery (per 100 grams)
Constituents
Self blanching
(Petiole)
Green
(Petiole)
Leaves
Seeds
Energy (K cal)
Water (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
Vitamin A (IU)
Thiamine (mg)
Riboflavin (mg)
Niacin (mg)
Vitamin C (mg)
Ca (mg)
Fe (mg)
Mg (mg)
P (mg)
K (mg)
Sodium (mg)
Zn (mg)
29
96
0.7
0.1
1.2
90
0.03
0.02
0.3
7
25
0.3
10
27
–
–
–
34
95
0.9
0.1
1.2
120
0.03
0.04
0.3
10
70
0.5
14
34
–
–
–
64
81.3
6.0
0.6
8.6
80
Trace
Trace
Trace
6.2
23
6
–
14
–
392
6.0
18.1
25.3
41.4
52
–
–
–
17
1767
45
440
547
1400
160
7
Sources: Gupta et al. (1993), Bahl et al. (1982), Farrell (1999).
Celery
329
Due to its sedative and nerve-stimulant properties, celery has been successfully
employed in curing rheumatoid arthritis (Guenther, 1950). It helps in detoxifying the
body and improving the circulation of blood to the muscles and joints. The phthalides
present in celery seed and oil are said to have antirheumatic properties. Prajapati et
al., (2003) has advocated the use of celery for curing rheumatic pain in muscles of
neck and sacrum and curing dysmenorrhoea with short pains in both ovarian regions.
The coumarins, (furanocoumarian, bergapten) stimulate skin tanning and are a smooth
muscle relaxant. The presence of minerals such as calcium, iron, magnesium,
phosphorus, potash, sodium and zinc also supports the repair of connective tissue and
is thus useful for treating arthritis.
The seed oil and other fatty oils from celery seed have been reported to possess
antispasmodic qualities. Celery seed oil acts as an intestinal antiseptic. The emulsion
of seed oil is useful in relieving flatulence, colic pain, vomiting and is a house-hold
remedy to correct gastric disorders. The presence of δ-limonene and β-selinene probably
contribute towards celery antispasmodic action.
As reviewed by Chevallier (2001), a study in India found the seeds to have marked
liver protective activity and extracts of the seeds may also lower blood fat levels.
Chinese research indicates that oil lowers blood pressure. One phthalide, 3-n-butylphthalide, in celery is said to relax the smooth muscle linings of the blood vessels,
thereby lowering blood pressure. Phthalide works directly by dilating vessels. The
phthalides are a natural sedative also. Perhaps this sedative activity could translate
into reduced stress further translating into reduced cardiopathy. Celery is therefore
one of the dozens of reputed aphrodisiacs. In addition to phthalides, celery is fairly
well endowed with a few other hypotensive compounds including ascorbic acid,
bergapten (sometimes phototoxic), fibre, magnesium and rutin, so celery contains,
hypotensive, hypercholesterolemic and calcium blocker phyto chemicals (Kaufman
et al., 1999; Duke, 1983). As well as hypotensive properties, Kaufman et al., (1999)
reported that celery contains more than two dozen anti-inflammatory compounds (αpinene, apigenin, ascorbic acid, bergapten, butylidene-phthalide, caffeic acid,
chlorogenic acid, cnidilide, copper, coumarin, eugenol, ferulic acid, gentisic acid,
isopimpinellin, linoleic acid, luteolin, magnesium, mannitol, myristicin, protocatechuic
acid, quercetin-3-galactoside, rutin, scopoletin, thymol, umbelliferone and xanthotoxin).
Thus celery seed might prove synergetically useful in gout and other types of arthritis
problems.
Celery stems and seeds have long been taken for the treatment of urinary problems.
Their use helps the kidneys to dispose of urates and other waste products and works
to reduce the acidity in the body as a whole. Due to its diuretic properties, celery herb
and seed is helpful in curing obstinate retention of urine (Prajapati et al., 2003). Thus
the consumption of organic celery juice with carrot juice is preferred for its cleansing
action on the body; it is an effective treatment for cystitis, helping to disinfect the
bladder and urinary tubules.
The major functional properties have been already discussed and a few authors
have mentioned celery as being a stimulant and carminative, emmenagogue. It also
has properties to cure headache and itching blotches with burning. The traditional
and modern uses of celery as a medicine are given below (Sayre, 2001).
Traditional use as medicine
Europe, America, Asia
European use
Ancient Egyptian use
Leaves, stalks, root stalks as a nutritional source
Roots as a folk aphrodisiac
Seeds as medicine
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Chinese use
Indian use
Seeds as a remedy for arthritis, dizziness, gout
Seeds as diuretic and appetizer
Modern use as medicine
European use
Western use
American use
Chinese use
Indian use
Fresh herbs and seeds as folk remedy for weight
loss, lowering blood pressure, relief of anxiety,
insomnia, and reducing blood sugar.
Seeds and extractives as remedy for arthritis, gout,
rheumatism and urinary tract problems.
Stalks as remedy for high blood pressure and
prevention of heart disease.
Seeds as remedy for arthritis, dizziness, gout, high
blood pressure, insomnia, nervousness and
rheumatism.
Seeds and extractives as remedy for arthritis, urine
problems and for liver protection.
The popular key preparations from celery are also given in Table 18.5.
Table 18.5
Key preparations from celery and uses in medicine
Preparation
Dose formulation
Properties as
medicine
Dose
Reference
1. Celery juice
Juice prepared
from celery leaf
and petioles
Hypotensive and
lowering blood
pressure
40 ml orally 3
times a day with
honey or soup
Duke, 1983;
Kaufman et al.,
1999
2. Celery and
carrot juice
Juice of organic
celery fresh herb
and carrot
Cleansing drink
One cup of juice
daily
Chevallier, 2001
3. Infusion of
seed
Infusion of seed
Gout and arthritis One cup daily
4. Fineture of
seeds
Fineture from
seed
Rheumatism
30 drops 3 times
a day
Chevallier, 2001
5. Celery seeds
Whole seed
Chest problems,
asthma and
bronchitis and
urinary problems
mix 1 tsp 3
times a day with
food
Chevallier, 2001
6. Powder of
seeds
Powdered seed
Arthritis
mix 1 tsp 3
times a day with
food
Chevallier, 2001
7. Celery salt
25% celery seed
powder + 75%
salt
Appetizer and
improves
digestion
1/2 tsp daily
Pruthi 2001
8. Celery pepper
Celery seed
powder 30% +
pepper powder
(70%)
Appetizer and
improves
digestion
1/2 tsp daily
Pruthi 2001
9. Fresh herb
Fresh herbs
Anti-gout
4 celery stalks a
day for more
than 8 months
Kaufman et al.,
1999
Chevallier, 2001
Celery
331
18.7.1 Toxicity
Celery has been identified as one of the plants known for causing dermatitis due to
phototoxic reactions. Rubatzky and Yamaguchi (1997) have discussed phototoxic
activity in detail in their treatise and have reported that celery foliage and seed
contain phthalides, terpens, psoralen, xanthotoxin, bergapten and isopimpinellin. Out
of these compounds psoralen, xanthotoxin and bergapten are phototoxic causing
dermatitis in humans and animals after contacting the skin in sunlight. Some individuals
exhibit much greater sensitivity to psoralens than others. Normally the concentrations
of these compounds in celery, parsley and other umbellifers does not pose a health
threat for consumption or to field workers handling these plants. The concentration
of these compounds has been found to increase in response to pollutants, cold
temperature, fungal infections, mechanical damage and the ultraviolet spectrum of
sunlight.
Apium graveolens has been listed as the potential photosensitising action crop
(McGuffin et al., 1997) and phototoxic reactions exhibited by the skin are generally
associated with the presence of phenolic compounds such as furocoumarins or psoralens.
Trumble et al., (1990) reported the presence of a much higher concentration of
furocoumarins than petioles. It has been further advised that celery and celery products
should not be used during pregnancy unless otherwise directed by an expert qualified
in the appropriate use of the substance. Therefore, celery preparations carry a warning
against taking celery medicinally in pregnancy or if suffering from kidney disorder
(Chevallier, 2001). The use of celery leaves, stalks and seeds has been condemned
for attempted use as an illegal abortifacient. In one compilation, Sayre (2001) mentioned
that celery seeds lower the potassium levels in the body. If a great deal of celery seed
is consumed, the consumption of bananas and other fresh vegetables containing high
amounts of potassium is needed to counterbalance this effect. Celery seeds have,
therefore been suggested to be toxic if taken in excess. According to Kaufman et al.,
(1999), drowsiness might also be a side effect of celery due to the presence of
phthalides, which have the properties of natural sedatives. Calcium antagonistic
properties of celery due to the presence of coumarins has also been reported. Celery
has been reported to possess calcium antagonistic properties due to the presence of
calcium blocker of phyto-chemical coumarins such as bergapten, at 1–520 ppm,
isopimpinellin, at 4–122 ppm and xanthotoxin, at 6–183 ppm (Kaufman et al., 1999).
In one of the studies Wuthrich et al., (1990) reported that celery is a partly
thermostable allergenic. In addition a relatively high number of cases of severe
anaphylactic reactions due to ingestion of celery have been reported in Switzerland.
It was further added that the thermostable allergenic components of celery allergy
seems to be associated with a co-sensitization of mugwort pollen. In this context
Breiteneder et al., (1995) succeeded in the molecular characterization of celery and
the identification of the Api g 1 gene responsible for allergen of celery.
18.8
Quality specifications
18.8.1 Specifications for whole seeds
The quality of celery seed depends mainly on:
•
external appearance, which provides visual perception of quality such as colour,
uniformity of size, shape and texture. Celery seeds are minute, globular, light
brown seeds having paler ridges and seeds seldom exceed 1 mm in diameter.
332
•
Handbook of herbs and spices
flavour, which is influenced by the composition of aromatic compounds: the
intense flavouring qualities are due to the presence of phthalides and terpene
(Rubatzky and Yamaguchi, 1997).
Agmark of India provides three grades of celery seeds, viz., special, good, fair.
The BSI has laid down Indian standards for various spices but under the PFA (Protection
of Food) Act, no specification has yet been provided for celery seed. The grade
designations and definitions of quality of celery seed are given in Table 18.6
(Pruthi, 2001).
The minimum specific quality indices as per Farrell (1999) are seed moisture
10%, total ash 14%, acid insoluble ash 2%, volatile oil 2%, non-volatile ether extract
12%, foreign organic matter 2%. The latest contaminant tolerance limits of celery
seed as prescribed by the American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) are whole
insects, dead by count four, excreta, mammalian by 3 mg/ef; excreta other by
3 mg/ef; infested by weight 1%; extraneous foreign matter by weight 0.5%. The other
common specifications of quality minimums for herbs and spices as per the European
Spice Association have also been cited by Muggeridge et al., (2001). The International
Standard Organization, has also laid down standards and production specifications of
celery seed as per the European Spice Association and are given here in Tables 18.7
and 18.8.
Table 18.6
Grade designations and definitions of quality of celery seeds
Grade designation
Special quality characteristics
General characteristics
*Extraneous matter,
percentage by weight
(maximum)
Moisture, percentage
by weight (maximum)
Special
1.0
10.0
Good
2.0
10.0
Fair
5.0
10.0
(a) Celery seed shall be
the dried mature. Fruits
of the botanically
known Apium graveolens
Linn.
(b) Free from visible
moulds, live insects, any
harmful foreign matter
and musty odour
(c) Generally conform to
the characteristic size,
colour, taste and aroma
of the variety type.
*Definition: extraneous matter means dust, dirt, stones, earth, chaff, stalks, stems, straw or any other foreign
matter.
Table 18.7
ESA – individual product specifications for celery seed
Celery seed
Ash %
A/A %
H2O
V/O %
(ISO)
w/w(maximum)
12
w/w (maximum)
3
%w/w(maximum)
11
v/w(minimum)
1.5
Source: European Spice Association.
Celery
333
Table 18.8 Cleanliness specifications for celery in Germany, the Netherlands, the UK and ESA
(maximum limits)
Specifications
for celery
Extraneous
matter %/weight
Moisture
%/weight
Total ash
%/weight
Acid insoluble
ash%/weight
Germany
Netherlands
UK
ESA
–
–
1.0
1.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
11.0
12.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
2.5
2.5
2.0
3.0
Source: European Spice Association.
18.8.2 Powdered celery seed specifications
Celery powder is produced by grinding dried, cleaned and sterilized celery seed.
Celery powder is made by pulverizing dry seeds and at least 95% of the ground spice
shall pass through a US Standard No. 55 sieve (Farrell, 1999) After sieving through
the required mesh size the powder should be packed in airtight containers. Celery
seed is ground to release the flavour, the finer the powder, the more readily available
the flavour and readily dispensable in the matrix. Some flavour may be lost by heat
development during grinding. The loss can be minimized by adopting cryo-milling
and freeze grinding. Celery powder is yellowish brown with an aromatic slightly
camphoraceous odour and taste. The following precautions should be taken for
production of celery powder.
•
•
•
•
•
minimum moisture level to increase storage life
cryo-milling or freeze grinding to minimize the volatile oil and flavour loss
particle size as per specified mesh size to ensure free flow
airtight and safe packaging
ensure microbiological cleanliness
In addition to the specific celery seed powder specifications mentioned above, the
whole celery seed specifications should be strictly followed.
18.8.3 Volatile oil specifications
• The volatile oil content of celery seeds averages 2.5 to 3.0% and it contains
primarily 60% d-limonene, 10% d-selinene, 2.5–3.0% sedanolide, 0.5% sedanomic
anhydride and a fixed oil content of 15% (Farrell, 1999).
• The aroma of celery seed oil is warm, spicy, slightly fatty, fruity, penetrating and
very persistent. Its flavour gives a burning sensation and is very bitter.
The physiochemical properties of celery volatile oil are given in Table 18.9.
18.8.4 Celery oleoresin specifications
• Celery seed oleoresin should be a green liquid having a volatile content of at
least 9 ml/100 gm.
• The oleoresin should have a lemon-like aroma, be tenacious and have a sweet
herbal tone.
• The oleoresin should be prepared with the recommended organic solvents followed
by the subsequent removal of the solvent as per importing country specifications.
334
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 18.9
Physiochemical properties of volatile oil of celery
Properties
Specification values
Singhal et al., (1997)
Bahl et al., (1982)
ISI Specification
Colour and
appearance
Pale yellow
Pale yellow
Specific gravity
0.872–0.891
(15 °C)
1.480–1.484
0.850–0.895
(20 °C)
1.478–1.486
Pale yellow to light
brown liquid, sometimes pale green
0.8710–0.9100
(27 °C)
1.4765–1.4865
+65°53′ to 76°5′
+65°82′
+50°80′
Saponification
number 25.1–47.6
–
–
–
–
15 to 40
Spicy
3.5 (maximum)
Persistent, spicy and
typical of celery seed
Refractive index
(at 20 °C)
Optical rotation
(at 20°C)
Solubility
characteristic
Acid value
Odour
18.8.5 Adulteration
Celery seed is available both in whole or in ground form. It is subject to adulteration
by the addition of exhausted or spent seed (from which oil or oleoresin has been
extracted), excess stems, chaff and earth or dust, etc. Ground celery is sometimes
adulterated with farinaceous products, linseed meal, worthless vegetable seeds or at
times even with weed seeds. Samples of celery seed are sometimes adulterated with
ajowan seeds and because of a similarity in seed shape it becomes difficult to detect.
Celery seed oil is also frequently adulterated with celery chaff oil or with d-limonene,
the addition of which is difficult to detect. Filth, such as insect fragments, rodent
droppings and fungal spores are an indication of poor handling and storage. Heavy
metals and chemical residues from pesticides represent another adulteration problem
but are generally found in very low levels in celery and its extractives. The oleoresin
may be adulterated by added synthetic saturated acid. Detection of these adulterants
can be achieved by sophisticated gas chromatography of the saponified extract or by
thin layer chromatography coupled with HPLC. Celery seed oil contains β-selinene
as one of the important components and a good quality oil should contain a minimum
of 7–7.5 % β-selinene (Straus and Wolstromer, 1979). Oil containing less than 7.0%
β-selinene should be suspected as being adulterated. Adulteration levels can be detected
by using the specifications as explained separately for whole seed, powdered seed,
volatile oil and oleoresins.
18.9
References
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and ATAL CK (1977) Cultivation of celery seed in India, In: Cultivation and
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Laboratory, Jammu, p 324.
BAINS DS, MAHAJAN VP and RANDHAWA GS (1977) Agronomic investigation on the seed crop of celery.
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Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu, p 330.
BAHL BK, VASHISTHA VN
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Molecular characterization of Api g1, the major allergen of celery. Europ. J. Biochemical. 233:
484.
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Herms House, London, UK, pp 273, 362.
CHEVALLIER A (2001)’Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants. Dorling Kindersley, London, UK, pp 65.
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CHOWDHARY AR and GUPTA RC (2000) Essential oil from fruits of Apium graveolens L. Indian perfumer.
44, 261–263.
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DUKE JA (1983) Medicinal Plants of the Bible, Trado-Medic Books, London, UK.
FAROOQUI AA and SREERAMU BS (2001) Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, University
Press, Hyderabad, India, pp 308–312.
FARRELL KT (1999) Spices, Condiments and Seasonings, Westport, The AVI Publishing Company,
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GEORGE RAT (1999) Vegetable Seed Production, CABI Publisher, London, UK pp 258–263.
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var. rapaceum. Bifora testiculate and Petroselinum crispum, Fitoterapia, 56, 17–23.
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645.
GUPTA K, MANGAL JL, SINGH GR and WAGLE DS (1993) Salad crops. In Encyclopaedia of Food Science
and Food Technology and Nutrition, (eds McRae T, Robinson RK and Sandler SJ) Academic
Press, New York, p 3974.
KADAM SS and SALUNKHE DK (1998) Celery and other Salad Vegetables, In: Handbook of Vegetable
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USA, 523–528.
KAUFMAN PB, CSEKE LJ, WARBER S, DUKE JA and BRIELMANN HL (1999) Natural Products from plants,
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8, p 1–4.
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785–801.
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of Herbs and spices, (ed. Peter KV) Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge England, pp 1–12.
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India, Jodhpur, India, pp 362–63.
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RANDHAWA GS and KAUR S (1995) Celery, in: Advances in Horticulture Vol. II – Medicinal and
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pollinosis. Allergy. 45: 566
19
Chives
H. Chen, Beijing Vegetable Research Centre, China
19.1
Introduction
The plant known as chives is a perennial of the Liliaceae family, Allium species.
Chromosome number 2n = 16, 24, 32. Wild chives are widely distributed from the
Arctic regions to Asia, Europe and North America (Xu and Kamelin, 2001; McCollum,
1976). There were no written records of domesticated chives from the Mediterranean
region until the 16th century in Europe, whereas in East Asia chives have been
domesticated since ancient times (McCollum, 1976). At present chives are cultivated
as vegetables or seasoning herbs all around the world, especially in the Northern
Hemisphere.
Because chives are very adaptable, tolerant of cold and hot temperatures, and
grow rapidly, they can be cultivated and harvested many times throughout the year.
They are also easy to propagate, either from seeds or from division of clumps all year
round. Chives are grown mainly for their long, cylindrical leaves, used for culinary
purposes. Their flowers can also be used for salad dressings and sometimes for
decorative purposes.
Since ancient times, herbs of the Allium species have been considered a healthy
food for their special spicy flavour. Unlike the pungent flavour of garlic and onions,
the flavour of chives is milder and more delicate, and more easily acceptable to the
palate. Chives also contain many vitamins and mineral nutrients (Rubatzky and
Yamaguchi, 1997) as well as flavonoid compounds, which are antioxidants (Justesen,
2000). Among all Allium species, chives have the highest content of vitamin C and
beta-carotene. Chives have green leaves that are soft in texture and are easily kept
fresh and transported using drying and freezing techniques. Techniques are presently,
being developed to apply chives in the processing of dairy, meat, and snack products.
19.2
Chemical composition and nutritional value
Chemically, chives are composed mainly of carbohydrates, proteins and amino acids,
338
Handbook of herbs and spices
as well as many other vitamins and minerals. The unique spicy flavour comes mostly
from volatile sulphur and glucosides, etc. Studies into the chemistry of Allium flavour
began in the 18th century. So far, much has been learned about Allium chemistry,
although many questions still remain (Block, 1992). We have learned that the flavour
is the result of a multifaceted interaction among many different compounds, and we
have also begun to understand the factors that affect the quality and intensity of the
flavour of Allium. The flavour substances of various Allium species depend on the
quantitative differences in the S-alk(en)yl cysteine sulphoxides (ACSOs). The Salk(en)yl cysteine sulphoxides (ACSOs), when hydrolyzed by the enzyme allinase,
give rise to the flavour and pungency characteristic of the Allium plants (Randle and
Lancaster, 2002). When the tissues of Allium are disrupted, the enzyme allinase
hydrolyzes the flavour precursors. Sulphur compounds are found in the cytoplasm of
Allium cells, physically separated from allinase (Lancaster and Collin, 1981).
In Allium species, four different ACSOs have been identified (Bernhard, 1970;
Freeman and Whenham, 1975; Yoo and Pike, 1998; Randle and Lancaster, 2002). 2methyl-2-butenal, 2-methyl-2-pentenal, methyl-propyldisulphide, and dipropyldisuphide
have been found in the green leaves of chives. There is also evidence for the presence
of propencyl-propyldisulphide in chives, while allyl disulphide is definitely absent
(Wahlroos and Virtanen, 1965). The major thiosulfinate from chive are n-propyl
groups, methyl and 1-propenl groups. The data of Table 19.2 are both qualitative and
semi-quantitative (Block et al., 1992).
Of the thiosulfates found in chives, 77 (75)% contain the n-propyl group, 10 (12)%
contain the methyl and 12% contain the 1-Propyl group. Total thiosufates is 0.19 umol/
g wet (fresh), about the middle level of the edible species of Allium. The n-propyl group
in chives is more abundant than methyl, with the methyl/propyl 1:5.8. Chives have an
onion-like flavour. The pungent and stimulating flavour of chives and onions is mainly
due to the propyl group, but it is the quantitative and qualitative differences in the
thiosulfates that give each species its own characteristic flavour. The flavour and
lachrymatory properties of chives are due to the high n-propyl content, while the
flavour of onions is due to the high proportion the 1-propyl it contains.
It has been recognized that factors affecting flavour intensity and quality include
genetic, ecological and cultivation techniques. Chives grown in different years, areas
and different cultivars, with different cultivation techniques, may have distinct flavour
intensities.
Chives also contain flavonoid glycosides, as shown in Table 19.3. The biological
activities of flavonoids are mainly due to their antioxidant function. They are also
known to inhibit several enzymes, including lipoxgenases and cyclo-oxygenase, etc.
The green leaves of chive mainly contain kaempferol glucosides (di- and tri-glycosides),
dominant as glucose and galactose. The 3-beta-D-glucosides of kaempferol, quercetin
and isorthamnetin were isolated (Starke and Herrmann, 1976).
%
Water
CND Pro Fat Fib Ash A
92.0
26
3.9
2.8 0.6 0.9 0.8
C
B1
B2
Niacin
Approximate chemical composition of chives (6) (7)*
Calories
Table 19.1
Ca P
K
Na Mg Fe S* Volatile
o: 1*
6400 70 0.10 0.12 0.60 82 46 250 6
Source: Adapted from Rubatzky and Yamaguchi, 1997.
*Epmakov, 1961.
55
1.2 93 25–26
Chives
339
Table 19.2 Thiosulfinates and sulfines from extracts of chive as determined by Si-HPLC
(concentrations in mole percent of total)
Compound no.
Compound* (response factor)**
Onions
Chives
5
6,8
7
9
10
11
12,15
13
14
16
17
18
n-PrSS(O)Propenyl-(E)
nPrS(O)SPropenyl-(Z<E)
EtCH=S=O
n-PrS(O)SPr-n
MeSS(O)Propenyl-(E)
AllS(O)SMe
MeS(O)SPropenyl-(Z,E)
MeSS(O)Pr
MeS(O)SPr
A llSS(O)Me
OSCH(CHMe)2CHSO
MeS(O)Sme
Total % MeS
Total % AllS
Total % 1-propenylS
Total % nPr
Total thiosulfinates
9–12
10–12
++
4–13
22–23
2.5
16
58
*
25 (24)–31
1–4
1(I)–4
1(5.5)
5.9
15(10)
2–11
0–14
28–38
1.8
13
37–47
19–27
0.14—0.35
10 (2)
77 (75)
0.19
Source: adapted from Block et al., 1992.
* Chemical Abstracts names of compounds:
AllSS(O)Propenyl-(E,AllS(O), SPropenyl-(Z,E), AllS(O)SAll, n-PrSS9O)SPropenyl-(E), n-PrS(O)SPropenyl(Z,E), EtCH=S=O, n-PrS(O)Propenyl-(E), AllS(O)SMe, MeS(O)SPropenyl(Z,E), MeSS(O)Pr, MeS(O)SPr,
AllSS(O)Me, OSCH(CHME)2CHSO, MeS(O)SMe.
** Molar absorption with HPLC 254-nm UV detector relative to benzyl alcohol calibrated by NMR peak
integration. Amounts given in umol/gwet9fresh) weight.
Table 19.3 m/z value of ions produced by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry of flavonoid
glycosides present in chives (adapted from Justesen, 2000)
(M-H)-
Product ions of (M-H)
Product ions of aglycone
Suggested name
463
477
447
301
315
285
ND
300,271,151,107
ND
Quercetin glucoside
Isorhamnetin glucoside
Kaempferol glucoside
Source: adapted from Justesen, U. (2000).
A comparison of flavonoids from chives grown under different light conditions
indicates different flavonoid response to PAR and UV-B light. Total flavonoids from
the chives were 16.7 mg/10 g-1 f.w. The ratio of the kaempferol glucoside, quercetin
glucoside and isorhamnetin glucoside was 4:1:2. Exposure of PAR flavonoids increase
30% of total flavonoids, and additional UV-B even by more than 80%. (Nitz et al.,
2000).
Green leaves of chive mainly contain kaempferol glycosides with di- and triglycosides, the 3-beta-D-glocosides of kaemferol, quercetin and isorhamnetin as byglycosides from chive. The structures of eight anthocyanins have been determined in
acidified methanolic extract of the pale-purple flowers of chives. Four of them have
been identified as the anthocyanin-flavonol complexes, with the other four, anthocyanins
were found. The covalent anthocyanin-flavonol complexes show intermolecular
association between the anthocyanidin (cyandin) and flavonol (kaempferol) units,
which influences the colour (Fossen et al., 2000).
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Fig. 19.1
19.3
Chive field.
Cultivation and production
19.3.1 Botany and morphology
Chives are a perennial plant cultivated as a biennial. However, the productive growth
cycle is commonly completed within a year. Based on molecular data, chives belong
to the subgenus Rhizideum (Hanelt et al., 1992). Bulbs are oval shaped and often
clumped together. The skin of the bulbs has a grayish brown colour, with yellow or
purplish tints, and the texture of carton paper. The development of elongated rhizomes
and of false bulbs are advanced character states (synapomorphies), usually clustered,
ovoid-cylindric, 0.5–1 cm in diameter; tunic brown or tinged with yellow, papery,
laciniate, sometimes fibrous at apex. The leaves grow in clumps of 2–5, slightly
shorter then scape, 2–6 mm wide, terete, fistulose, smooth or scabrous denticulate.
Chives branching results from where lateral initiation occurs after the development
of every two or three leaves (Poulson, 1990), and thus plants develop clusters of
shoots. Scape 10–50 (60) cm, terete, covered with leaf sheaths for 1/3–1/2 its length,
smooth or scabrous-denticulate (Xu and Kamelin, 2000).
After seeding, chives flower in the second year and each year afterwards. The long
and thin flower scape is cylindrical in shape, hollow and smooth. Umbel subglobose,
are densely flowered. The perianth is purple-red to white (or pale pink), tepal twice
the length of filaments; polymorphous spices. Six needle shaped petals are of the
same height. The pistil does not protrude out of the petals. (Xu and Kamelin, 2001).
The flowers do not produce much pollen and seldom produce viable seeds. Chives
are generally an out-crosser, and flowers are insect pollinated, but selfing frequently
occurs as well (Rubatzky and Yamaguchi, 1997). Chives can be cultivated from seeds
or from division.
Wild chives are confined mainly to mexerophytic habitats; meadows, forests and
high mountain zones (Hanelt et al., 1992). Wild chives grow continuously all year
round with no apparent dormant stage, and low winter temperatures only slow this
down (Cheremushkina, 1985, 1992; Pistrick, 1992). Chives exhibit a monopodial
growth habit, and only become sympodial after the formation of the first generative
meristem. Thereafter, Allium plants produce renewal bulbs and flowers every year
(Kamenetsky, and Rabinowitch, 2002). Temperatures play the most important role in
normal scape elongation and flowering of Allium plants, although light conditions
can markedly affect this process. Flowering usually does not occur if temperatures
Chives
341
are above 18°C (Rubatzky and Yamaguchi, 1997). Like other major cultivated Allium
crops, cold exposure is required for floral induction in chives. (Poulsen, 1990).
In chives male sterility is conditioned by genetic male sterility (GMS), which is
controlled by a single nuclear gene with recessive inheritance (Engelke and Tatioglu,
2000a,b,c). An alternative cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) depends on the interaction
between the cytoplasm (S) and a single nuclear fertility restoration locus (X) (Tatlioglu,
1982). Fertility of some male-sterile plants, however, can be regained under favourable
environmental conditions. Hence, exposure to a constant temperature of 24 °C resulted
in production of viable pollen (Tatlioglu, 1985). This temperature sensitivity is controlled
by a single dominant allele (t) (Tatlioglu, 1987).
A. Schoenoprasum contains several closely related species, in part of polyploid
nature, with partly unclear species status. In such situations, molecular markers could
bring some clarification that is difficult to obtain by other means. A cladistic tree of
the Schoenoprasum RAPD data has been constructed (Friesen and Blattner, 2000).
19.3.2 Culture and production
Chives are very adaptive to different environments. Tolerant of cold temperature,
chives can germinate slowly when daily temperature averages 3–5 °C, while its most
suitable temperature ranges from 15–20 °C. Because of its shallow root system, care
must be taken to maintain soil moisture, especially to prevent flooding. Chives grow
best in well-drained, fertile soil with medium acidity. Optimum growing temperatures
are between 17–25 °C, cold hardy, and tolerant of high temperatures (Rubatzky and
Yamaguchi, 1997), and so can be grown widely distributed throughout the world.
The plants will start to flower after staying dormant for a period in cold temperatures.
Chives grow all year around and can be cultivated and harvested in batches throughout
the four seasons. Propagation is usually with seed or division. For mass production,
seeding in spring or autumn is suitable. Seedlings can be planted once 15 cm high.
Each 20 × 10 cm pocket can accommodate 4–6 seedlings. They can be harvested in
about two months when the plant reaches 30 to 50 cm in height. The first harvest will
produce a relatively low yield. Chives can be harvested about once each month, and
more frequently after the second harvest, to about 5–7 times per year in warm areas,
and 2–4 times per year in colder climates. In cold areas, each harvest will yield more,
to about 15 ton/ha. When processing, do not cut to the sheath (4 cm above ground).
On average, reseeding or dividing the clumps every four years will keep the productivity
high. In some areas, harvesting is done by plucking the plants by the roots rather than
cutting.
It is important to strictly follow the guidelines of organic farming practice to grow
chives. Select well drained, fertile sandy or clay soil; maintain the cleanliness of the
field and weed promptly; use high quality organic compost with appropriate N.P.K.
ratios. The crop is susceptible to many root diseases. Rotations are a key aspect for
a sustainable agricultural production system, a rotation of at least five years is
recommended. Although chives can be grown in all kinds of soils, the most suitable
soils are sandy loams to loams with a fair content of organic matter and good soil
structure. Soil pH of 6–6.5 is considered sufficient. Chives demand a high nutrient
level. In the years following planting, the annual uptakes in yield are 185–200 kg/ha
for nitrogen, 17–20 kg/ha for phosphorus, and 120–140 kg/ha for potassium in the
most intensively fertilized treatment producing the highest yield. Black plastic mulch
is effective in increasing yield, controlling weeds and maintaining soil moisture.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Selected productive cultivars or populations produced 10–20% higher yields than the
less productive cultivars. The results show that chive is feasible for commercial
production with improving cultivation techniques (Suojala, 2003).
Chives and related Allium crops are subject to a variety of diseases and attack by
arthropod pests that can reduce crop yield and quality. Integrated pest management
(IPM) is a sustainable approach to managing diseases and arthropod pests. IPM
promotes the use of a variety of strategies and tactics, including pest-resistant varieties
and biological, cultural and chemical controls, in a way that reduces costs, conserves
natural resources and minimizes health and environmental risks. Decision-making is
a key component of IPM programs (Binns and Nyrop, 1992). So far, monitoring
programs forecasting systems for diseases (Botrytis leaf-blight, downy-mildew and
purple-blotch) and pests (onion maggot, onion thrips, leek moth, cutworms, beet
armyworm, aster leafhopper, aphids and mites) have been set up. IPM will continue
to be the preferred strategy as it takes a whole-system approach as environmental
problems take on greater importance. Since chives compete poorly with weeds, the
use of herbicides is widespread and the economic advantages of their use have been
demonstrated (Menges, 1987; Rubin, 1990). Scientific studies are starting to appear
on the effects of organic production methods of weed control (Bond et al., 1998).
19.3.3 Post harvest and uses in food processing
Because chives are used as a vegetable or for seasoning, it is important to preserve
the fresh green appearance as well as the unique aroma. After harvest, remove withered
and damaged leaves. Immediately store in temperatures as low as 0 °C (32 °F), but
not lower in order to prevent freezing. At 0 °C, with humidity of 95–100%, chives can
be kept fresh for one to two weeks (Snowdon, 1991). The respiration rate of chives
increases with temperature. At 0 °C, mg CO2 kg–1h–1 is 22, which increases to 110 at
10 °C, and 540 at 20 °C (Peiris et al., 1997). In fact, when the temperature rises above
10 °C, chives will wilt quickly (Cantwell and Reid, 1993). When transporting, chives
are usually packed into 1–3 kg packets, also in bunches of 10–50 g and kept moist in
wax cartons at around 2–6 °C. Pre-cooling is recommended (Aharoni et al., 1989). In
an experiment, green tops were bunched, 25–30 g per bunch, packed in perforated or
non-polythene bags (20 × 25 cm) and stored at 2, 5, 10, 15 or 20 °C by Umiecka
(1973). The control was kept unpacked. The tops stored better in non-perforated than
in perforated bags and the longest satisfactory storage of 14–21 days was in nonperforated bags at 2 °C, but deteriorated rapidly at the higher temperatures (Thompson,
2003). Studies have been conducted on freshly harvested chives under simulated
conditions of air transport from Israel to Europe, and also with an actual shipment,
during which temperatures fluctuated between 4 and 15 °C (Aharoni et al., 1989).
Packaging in sealed polyethylene-lined cartons resulted in a marked retardation of
both yellowing and decay. However, sealed film packaging was applicable only if the
temperature during transit and storage was well controlled, otherwise perforated
polyethylene was better.
Drying is a common technique to process chives. The usual methods are heat
drying at 50 °C, or freeze drying. Freeze drying is more costly, but preserves the
flavour well. After drying/freeze drying, there are losses of 24–34% vitamin C, 19–
21% chlorophyll, 11–18% beta-carotene, and 47–82% volatile sulphur (Lisiewka et
al., 1998). Chive leaves for freezing contained 13.9 g dry matter, 133 mg vitamin C
4.7, beta-carotene, 121 mg, chlorophylls (a + b), 40.4 mg nitrates, and 0.19 mg
Chives
343
nitrites in 100 g of edible part. Blanching of the raw material before freezing reduced
the level of dry by 22%, vitamin C 29%, beta carotene 20%, chlorophylls 21%, and
nitrates 26%, while the nitrites increased three times. A further enhancement of
losses was observed with a storage temperature at –20 °C, After 12 months storage
of frozen chive, the preserved content of vitamin C ranged from 11 to 66%, beta
carotene 37 to 65%, chlorophylls 65 to 75% and the nitrates 58 to 81% (Kmiecik and
Lisiewska, 1999). The development of the catering business and industrial preparation
of ready-to-cook food, most frequently pizza and au gratin dishes, has increased the
demand for chives throughout the year. This demand can be met by preserving the
vegetable as a dried or frozen product.
Chives can be used as seasoning for many dishes, or as garnish. Chives especially
enhance the flavour of fish. There is a very delicious Chinese dish known simply as
fish with chives. Chives can be included in many food items such as pancakes, buns,
dumplings, and cookies. It can also be used in many dairy and meat products.
19.4
Varieties
There are many differences between the Allium species. The volatile sulphur content
of different species ranges from 15 to 155 mg/10g–1 fresh weight (Ermakov and
Arasimovich, 1961). It is easy to test the pyruvate of Allium’s sulphur precursors,
to determine the difference between the species. The difference ranges from
1–22 µmolg–1 fresh weight, while difficult to select through genetic breeding, are
perhaps the key to improving flavours (Randle and Lancaster, 2002). The volatile
sulphur content in Alliums is closely related to the soil and usable sulphur in the soil.
Experiments have shown that in peat soil, where sulphur content is as high as
470 mg/10g–1, the volatile sulphur content in the chives reaches 157 mg/10g–1, while
in clay soils with a sulphur content of 58 mg/10g–1 , the volatile sulphur content in the
chives is only 42.8 mg/10g–1. At the temperature range of 10–30 °C, volatile sulphur
content increases from 42.8 mg/10g–1 to 130.9 mg/10g–1 (Ermakov and Arasinovich
1961). Also, improving cultivar, fertilization and cultivation techniques, shows that
chive is feasible for commercial production. In summary, the flavour of chives is
closely tied to its genetic traits, growing environment and as cultivation techniques.
Chives are mildly flavoured. Chives have the highest beta-carotene and vitamin C
content among all Allium species, and contain many antioxidants. These characteristics
make Chives a superior and well appreciated vegetable and seasoning. However,
there has not been much research done on chives. The understanding and improvement
of chives has a lot of potential.
The formal name of Chives is A. schoenoprasum L. Syn. A. sibiricum (Kamenetsky
and Fritsch, 2002), there are some other related species, including:
1. A. schoenoprasum L. var. schoenoprasum, also known as A. raddeanum Regel;
A. sibiricum L. Leaves, leaf sheaths, and scape smooth. Fl. and fr. Jul–Sep.
leaves 1 or 2, shorter than scape. Widely distributed in meadows, valleys, damp
slopes; 2000–3000 m, in Xinjiang in China, India, Japan, Kazakhstan, Korea,
Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, SW Asia, Europe, and North America (Xu and Kamelin,
2000). Fl. May–June, second bloom in late summer possible (Kamenetsky and
Fritsch, 2002).
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Handbook of herbs and spices
2. A. schoenoprasum L. var. scaberrimum Regel, (Trudy Imp. S. –Peterburgsk. Bot.
Sada 3(2): 80. 1875) Leaves, leaf sheaths, and scap scabrous-denticulate along
angles, Fl. Aug. distributed in meadows, along streams; 2000–2500 m Xinjang in
China, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia.
3. A. schoenoprasum L. var. foliosum Mutel. Originated in the Mediterranean region,
with two to five smooth leaves (Mutel, 1834).
4. A. schoenoprasum L. var. orientale Regel. Bulb usually solitary or paired, rarely
clustered (Xu and Kamelin, 2000).
A. schoenoprasum section contains several closely related speices, in part of polyploid
nature, with partly unclear species status. It is not certain whether geographical
varietals exist, probably need more work in near future to clear.
Nowadays there are a few plants commonly called ‘chives’ or ‘green onions’, but
some of them are not A. schoenoprasum. For example, A. cepiform, a ‘chive’ (Rubatzky
and Yamaguchi, 1997) from China with tender leaves named xi-xiang-cong, is possibly
a cross of A. cepa x A. festival. Many people also call A. fistulosum L. var. aespitosum
Makino ‘chive’. These varietals are different in flavour from chives, and usually have
only white flowers, or no flowers.
19.5
References and further reading
AHARONI, N., REUVENI, A. and DRIR, O. (1989), Modified atmospheres in film packages delay senescence
and decay of fresh herbs, Acta Hort., 258, 255–262.
(1970), Chemotaxonomy, distribution studies of sulphur compounds in Allium.
phytochemistry, 9, 2019–2027.
BINNS, M.R. and NYROP, J.P. (1992), Sampling insect populations for the purpose of IPM decision
making. Annual Review of Entomlogy, 37, 427–453.
BLOCK, E. (1992), The organosulfur chemistry of the genus Allium – implications for the organic
chemistry of sulfur, Angewandte Chem. International edition in England, 31, pp. 1135–1178.
BLOCK, et al. (1992), Allium Chemistry: HPLC Analysis of Thiosulfinates from Onion, Garlic, Wild
Garlic (Ramsoms), Leek, Scallion, Elephant (Great-Headed) Garlic, Chive, and Chinese chive.
Uniquely High Allyl to Methyl Ratios in Some Garlic Samples. J. Agri food Chem, 40. pp.
2418–2430.
BOND, W., BARSTON, S., BEVAN , J.R. and LENNARTSSON, M.E.K. (1998), Optimum weed removal timing in
drilled salad onions and transplanted bulb onions grew in organic and conventional systems.
Biological Agriculture and Horticuture, 16, 191–201.
BOSCH SERRA, A.D. and CURRCH, L. (2002), Agronomy of Onions, in: Rabbinowitch, H.D. and Currah,
L. (eds) Allium Crop science: Recent Advances CAB International, 187–232.
CANTWELL, D. and REID, M. (1993), Postharvest Physiology and Handling of Fresh culinary herbs, J.
Herbs, Spices, Med. Plant. 1: 83–127.
CHEREMUSHKINA, V.A. (1985), Osobennosty ritma sezonnogo ravitija I varianty malogo jiznennogo
zikla konevishnikhlokov (seasonal development rhythm and variants of the minor life cycle in
rhizomatous onions). Bjulleten Moskovoskogo Obshestva Ispitatelei Privody 90(4), 96–106.
CHEREMUSHKINA, V.A. (1992), Evolution of life forms of species in subgenus Rhizirideum (Koch)
Wendelbo, genus Allium L. In: Hammer, K. and Knupffer, H. (eds). The Genus Allium – Taxonomic
problems and Genetic Resources. Proceedings of an International Symposium, 11–13 June
1991. IPK, Gartersteben, Germany, pp.27–34.
ENGELKE, T. and TATIOGLU, T. (2000a), The wi gene causes genic male sterility in A. schoenoprasum
L. Plant Breeding, pp.119, 325–328.
ENGELKE, T. and TATIOGLU, T. (2000b), Mitochondrial genome diversity in connection with male
sterility in A. schoenoprasum L. Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 100, 942–948.
ENGELKE, T. and TATIOGLU, T. (2000c), Genetic analysis supported by molecular methods provides
evidence of a new genic (st1) and new cytoplasmic (st2) male sterility in A. schoenoprasum L.
Theoretical and Applied Genetics, pp.101, 478–486.
BERNHARD, R.A.
Chives
ERMAKOV, A.I.
345
and ARASIMORICH, B.B. (1961), Allium. Vegetable Biochemistry, pp. 326–378.
and ANDERSEN, O.M. (2000), Covalent anthocyanin-flavonol
complexes from flowers of chive, Allium schoenoprasum L. Phytochemistry, 54 (3), pp. 317–323.
FREEMAN, G.G. and WHENHAM, W.J. (1975), A survey of volatile components of some Allium species
in terms of S-alk(en)yl-L-cysteine sulphoxides present as flavour precursors. J. of the Science
of food and Agriculture 26, pp. 1869–1886
FRIESEN , N . and BLATTNER, F . R. (2000), Geographical isolation predominates over ecological
differenriation in the phylogeny of A. schoenoprasum L. Plant Breeding. 119, 297–305.
FRITSCH, R.M and FRIESEN, N. (2002), Evolution, Domestication and Taxonomy. In: Rabinowitch,
H.D. and Currah, L. (eds) Allium crop Science: Recent Advances CAB International, pp. 5–30.
HANELT, P., SCHULTZE-MOTEL, J., FRITSCH, R., KRUSE, J., MAASS, H.I., OHLE, H. and PISTRICK, K. (1992),
Infrageneric grouping of Allium – the Gatersleben approach. In: Hanelt, P., Hammer, K. and
Knupffer, H. (eds). The Genus Allium – Taxonomic Problems and Genetic Resources. Proceedings
of an International Symposium, Gatersleben, 11–13 June 1991. IPK, Gatersleben, Germany,
pp.107–123.
HELM, J . (1956), Die zu Wurz- und Speisezwecken kultivierten Arten der Gattung Allium L .
Kulturpflanze, 4, pp. 130–180.
JUSTESEN, U. (2000), Negative atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation low-energy collision activation
mass spectrometry for the characterisation of flavonoids in extracts of fresh herbs. Journal of
Chromatography, A.902. pp. 369–397.
KAMENETAKY, R. and FRITSH, R.M. (2002), Florogenesi In: Rabinowith, H.D and Currah, L. (eds)
Allium Crop Science: Recent Advances CAB International pp. 460–471.
KAMENETSKY, R. and RABINNOWITCH, H.D. (2002), Florogenesis. In: Rabinnowitch, H.D. and Currah,
L. (eds) Allium Crop Science: Recent Advances CAB International, pp. 31–68°.
KLAAS, M. and FRIESEN N. (2002), Molecular Markers. In: Rabinowitch, H.D. and Currah, L. (eds)
Allium crop Science: Recent Advances CAB International, 173–175.
KMIECIK, W. and LISIEWSKA, Z. (1999), Effect of pretreatment and conditions and period of storage on
some quality indices of frozen chive (Allium schoenoprasum L.). Food chemistry, 67 (1), 61–65.
LANCASTER, J.E. and BOLAND, M.J. (1990), Flavor biochemistry. In: Brewster, J.L. and Rabinowitch,
H.D. (eds), Onions and Allied Crops, Vol. III, Biochemistry, Food Science, and Minor Crops.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 33–72.
LANCASTER, J.E. and COLLIN, H.A. (1981), Presence of allinase in isolated vacuoles and alkyl cysteine
sulphoxides in the cytoplasm of bulbs in onion (A. cepa). Plant Science Letters 22, 169–176.
LISIEWSKA, Z. and KMIECIK, W. (1998), Dependence of Dry Chive (A. schoenoprasum L.) Quality upon
the Dry Methods and Storage Period. Food Science and Technology, vol. I, issue 1, Electronic
J. of Polish Agricultural Universities.
LORBEER, J.W., KUHAR, T.P. and HOFFMANN, M.P. (2002), Monitoring and Forecasting for Disease and
Insect Attack in Onions and Allium Crops within IPM Strategies. In Rabinowitch, H.D. and
Currah, L. (eds) Allium Crop Science: Recent Advances CAB International, pp. 293–309.
MCCOLLUM, G.D. (1976), Allium Liliaceae. In: Simmouds, N.W. (ed.) Evolution of Crop Plants. N.Y.
Longman Inc., pp. 186–196.
MENGES, R.M. (1987), Weed seed population dynamics during six years of weed management systems
in crop rotations on irrigated soil. Weed Science, 35, 328–332.
MUTEL, A. (1834), Flora Francaise F.T. Levrault, Paris, Table 74.
NITZ, G.M., GRUBMULLER, E. and SCHNITZLE, W.H. (2001), Differential Flavonoid Response to Par and
UV-B Light in Chive. ISHS Acta Horticulture 659: VII I. S.
PEIRIS, K., MALLON, J.L. and KAYS, S.J. (1997), Respiration rate and vital heat of some specialty
vegetables and various storage temperatures. Hort. Technology, 7: 46–49.
PISTRICH, N. (1992), Phenological variability in the genus Allium L. In: Hamlet, P., Hammer, K and
Knupffer, H. (eds) The Genus Allium – Taxonomic Problems and Genetic Resources. Proceedings
of an International Symposium held at Gatersleben, 11–13 June, IPK, Gatersleben, Germany,
pp. 243–249.
POULSON, N. (1990), Chives Allium schoenoprasum L. In: Brewster, J.L. and Rabinowitch, H.D.
(eds) Onions and Allied Crops III. Biochemistry, Food Science, and Minor Crops. CRCP Press,
Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 231–250.
RANDLE, W.M. and LANCASTER, J.E. (2002), Sulphur Compounds in Alliums in Relation to Flavour
Quality. In Rabinowitch, H.D. and Currah, L. (eds) Allium Crop Science: Recent Advances CAB
International, pp. 329–356.
RUBATZKY, V.E. and YAMAGUCHI, M. (1997), World Vegetables, second edition, N.Y. Chapman & Hall,
pp. 325–326.
FOSSEN, T., SLIMESTAD, R., OVSTEDAL, D.O.
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RUBIN, B.
(1990), Weed competition and weed control in Allium crops. In: Rabin, B. and Brewster,
J.L. (eds) Onion and allied Crops, Vol. II Agronomy, Biotic, Interaction, Pathology, and Crop
Protection CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 63–64.
SNOWDON, A.L. (1992), A Colour Atlas of Postharvest Diseases and Disorders of Fruits and Vegetables,
Vol. 2, Vegetables, Wolfe Scientific, 416.
STARKE, H. and HERRMANN, K. (1976), Flavonois and favones of vegetables, VII, Flavonois of leek,
chive and garlic (author’s trans.) (Flavonole und Flavone der Gem rten. VII. Flavonole des
Porrees, Schnittlauchs und Knoblauchs) Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-untersuchung und -forschung,
161 (1), pp. 25–30.
SUOJALA, T. (2003), Yield potential of chive: Effects of cultivar, plastic mulch, and fertilization.
Agricultural and Food Science in Finland, 12 (2), pp. 95–10.
TATLIOGLU, T. (1982), Cytoplasmic male sterility in chives (A. schoenprasum L.). Zeitschrift für
Pflanzenzuchtung, 89, 251–262.
TATLIOGLO, T. (1985), Influence of temperature on the expression of cytoplasmic male sterility in
chives (Allium schoenoprosum L.) Zeitschrift für Pflanzenuchtung 94, 156–161.
TATLIOGLU, T. (1987), Genetic control of tetracycline sensitivity of cytoplasmic male sterility (cms)
in the chive (A. schoenoprasum L.). Plant Breeding, 100, 34–40.
THOMPSON, A.K. (2003), Fruit and vegetables: Harvesting, handling and storage – chives. Horticulture.
Black Well Publishing, pp. 202–203.
WAHLROOS , O. and VIRTANEN, A.I. (1965), Volatiles from Chives (Allium schoenoprasum). Acta Chem.
Scand., no. 6.
XU, J. and KAMELIN, R.V. (2000), Alluim Linnaeus, Sp. PI: 294, 1753. In: Wu Z.D. and Raven, P.H.
(eds) Flora of China, Vol. 24. Chin Science Press and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing
and St Louis, Missouri, pp. 165–202.
UMIECKA, L. (1973), Studies on the natural losses and marketable value of dill, parsley and chive top
in relation to storage conditions and type of packing. (Badania nad ubytkemi naturalngmi I
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I rodzaju opkowania I roezaju opakowania.) Biuletyn warzywniczy, 14, 231–257.
YOO, K.S. and PIKE, L.M. (1998), Deter of flavor precursor compound S-ak(en) yl-L-cysteine sulfoxides
by a HPLC method and their distribution in Allium species. Scientia Horticulture, 75, pp. 1–10.
20
Galanga
P. N. Ravindran and G. S. Pillai, Centre for Medicinal Plants Research,
India
20.1 Introduction
Galanga (not to be confused with the galangal, which is Alpinia galanga) is a perennial
aromatic rhizomatous herbaceous plant belonging to the genus Kaempferia of the
family Zingiberaceae. This genus is comprised of about 70 species. In The Flora of
British India, Baker (1890) described 22 species, among which K. galanga and K.
rotunda are of economic value and are used for flavouring food and in medicine.
Rhizome and roots are aromatic and are used as spice. It is widely used in Indonesia
(called ‘Kenkur’), Philippines and Thailand (called ‘Krachai’ or ‘Kachai’) in flavouring
a variety of dishes. In Thailand a related species, K. parviflora is under cultivation
(Pojanagaroon et al., 2004). The essential oil from the rhizomes is used in perfumery
and folk medicines. In Java, the rhizomes are used in seasoning rice dishes, and also
pickled. The Javan beverage ‘beras kentjoor’ is made from the rhizomes. In many Asian
countries galanga is used interchangeably with galangal (Duke, 2003). Leaves are
eaten raw or after steaming, or cooked with chili (Duke, 2003). Both rhizomes and
leaves are used in Asian countries for perfuming oil, vinegar, hair washes, powders, etc.
The genus is presumably native to tropical Asia and is distributed in the tropics
and subtropics of Asia and Africa. It is cultivated in home gardens in India, Sri
Lanka, Malaysia Moluccas (Indonesia), Philippine Islands and South East Asia.
20.1.1 Botanical notes
The plant attains a height of maximum 30 cm but often is much shorter and has
fleshy, cylindrical aromatic root tubers. There are two (sometimes more) broad,
round leaves that are spread horizontally over the soil. Leaves are sessile, ovate,
deltoid-acuminate, thin and deep green. Petioles are short channeled; flowers irregular,
bisexual, white, 6–12 from the center of the plant between the leaves, fragrant and
opening successively; bracts lanceolate, green, short, calyx long as the outer bracts,
short cylindrical, petals three, corolla tube 2.5 cm long, lanceolate, pure white, stamen
one, perfect, filament short, arcuate, anther two celled, cells discreet. Flowering
starts in June and ends in September, with peak flowering during July to August.
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The underground part consists mainly of one or more prominent fairly big, vertically
oriented tuberous rootstocks together with several smaller secondary tubers and a
cluster of roots. The main tuber has several transverse or horizontal annular scars of
scale leaves. Directly attached to these nodes are a few smaller tubers, which are also
vertically oriented. Several roots arise from the rhizomes, they are either fibrous and
long or short and thick. The latter roots bear at their tips tubers of various forms
(oval, conical or rarely spherical). These tubers are succulent and watery and differ
from the rhizomes.
A mature tuber in transverse section appears more or less circular in outline and
shows a narrow light brownish border and a central well marked stele and a narrow
cortex in between. A number of small vascular bundles are found scattered throughout
the parenchymatous ground tissue. Leaf epidermal morphology of 12 species of
Zingibearceae was compared and K. galanga showed the highest stomatal index
(Gogoi et al., 2002). Variation in leaf anatomical features could be effectively used
to distinguish species difference (Hussin et al., 2001). The somatic chromosome
number of K. galanga is 2n = 54 (Ramachandran, 1969). Beltram and Kam (1984)
reported that the Asiatic Kaempferia species have x = 11 and that of African species
have x = 14. Pollen morphology studies revealed the absence of exine in Kaempferia
and palynologically Alpinia, Amomum, Zingiber and Kaempferia constitute one group
(Mangaly and Nayar, 1990).
Kurian and Nybe (2003) assembled a collection of 30 genotypes and evaluated
them for yield and quality associated characters. They reported that all the characters
except numbers of leaves showed a significant difference among the collections.
They have identified two high-yielding and high-quality lines and these were released
for cultivation under the name ‘Kasthuri’ and ‘Rajani’.
Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) profiles generated from six species
of Kaempferia species was used to analyze the degree of relationship of other genera
(Vanijajiva et al., 2005) and also characterization of cultivars (Pojanagaroon et al., 2004).
20.2
Cultivation and production
Galanga requires fertile sandy soil and a warm humid climate. It thrives well up to an
elevation of about 1500 m above MSL. A well-distributed annual rainfall of 1500–
3000 mm is required during the growing period and dry spells during land preparation
and harvesting. The species is propagated by rhizome fragments. Mother rhizomes
are superior compared to fingers. The rhizome bits are planted on beds of 1–2 m
width and 25 cm height at a spacing of 40–60 cm2 (Anonymous, 1981; Bhattacharjee,
2000). About 750 kg of seed rhizomes per hectare is required. Planting during the
third week of May gave significantly higher rhizome and oil yields.
The performance of three ecotypes of K. galanga under 70 and 50% shading, and
10 and 20 cm tillage depths was investigated in an experiment conducted in Kerala,
India during 2001–2. High rhizome yield was correlated with high P, K and Ca
contents while high essential oil content was correlated with high Mg, S, Mn and Zn
contents in the rhizome. Rhizome yield was higher at shallower tillage depth and
higher light intensity, while essential oil yield was higher at deeper tillage depth and
lower light intensity. Low light intensity increased the biosynthesis of oleoresin and
essential oils in the rhizomes, as well as the contents of Ca, Mg, Mn and Zn. Cv.
Thodupuzha showed the highest rhizome yield, while cv. Echippara showed the
Galanga
349
highest essential oil and oleoresin production (Gangadharan and Menon, 2003). Ghosh
and Pal (2002) studied the effect of N and K on growth, yield and oil content of K.
galanga grown as an intercrop in Terminalia arjuna plantation. Sankar and Thomas
(2000) reported that the effect of fertilizers has no significant effect on rhizome and
oil yields.
K. galanga is a potent aromatic, medicinal plant suitable for cultivation in coconut
gardens. Maheswarappa et al. (1998, 1999a, 2000a,b,c, 2001) studied various cultivation
aspects such as influence of planting material, plant population and organic manures,
dry matter accumulation in different parts as influenced by agronomic practices and
nutrient content and uptake by K. galanga.
Planting time and type of seed material affect the growth, yield and quality of K.
galanga. Mother rhizomes planted in May and harvested after six months gave the
highest essential oil and oleoresin yields, compared to those planted in June and the
mean nutrient uptake by the plants was 22.8 kg N, 28 kg P2O5 and 36.9 kg K2O/ha
(Rajagopalan and Gopalakrishnan, 1985a,b; Rajagopalan et al., 1989). Application
of 50–75 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 50–75 kg K2O is found to be beneficial for increased
rhizome and oil yields. Application of farmyard manure at 30 tonnes/ha is superior to
the application of nutrients through inorganic form of fertilizers and it increased the
yield by 60%. A well-managed plantation yields about 4–6 tonnes of fresh rhizomes
per hectare. Dry recovery varies from 23 to 28%. Leaf rot disease is found to occur
during the rainy season and it can be controlled by trenching with 1% Bordeaux
mixture. In Kerala, cultivation of K. galanga is restricted to some localized tracts and
the productivity of the crop is low ranging from 2–5 tonnes of fresh rhizomes per
hectare. There is an acute shortage of planting material and the absence of seed set
limits the scope for breeding (Kurian et al., 1993).
Root Knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) is a serious problem in Kaempferia.
A study of phyto-nematodes associated with K. galanga in Kerala revealed that an
initial population of 200 and 1000 J2 (M. incognita) larvae per plant reduced the
production of leaves, length and weight of rhizome (Sheela and Rajani, 1998). Effects
of leaf mulches from Azaridacta indica, Glirizidia maculata, Acacia mangium,
Clerodendron infortunatum, Calotropis gigantea, and Chromolaena odorata on root
knot nematode and K. galanga was studied by Nisha and Sheela (2002). Application
of A. indica, C. odorata, and G. maculata mulches at 5 kg/m2 at 15 days before
planting reduced nematode population by more than 60%, with mulches from A.
indica being the most effective. Mulches from A. indica and C. odorata resulted in
the lowest gall index. All treatments improved K. galanga yield and yield components.
The highest rhizome yield (5.6 kg per plot) was obtained with A. indica mulches.
Occurrence of leaf rot disease during the rainy season was noticed (Anonymous,
2003b). Pseudomonas solanacearum causing bacterial wilt of K. galanga from Kerala,
India, was reported (Dake and Manoj, 1995).
The crop matures in about 6–7 months after planting. The aerial portion dries off
on maturity. The rhizomes are dug out, cleaned and washed to remove soil and are
dried in the sun. The essential oil is extracted by steam distillation of sliced and dried
rhizomes. The oil yield varies with season and maturity stage of the rhizome.
20.3
Tissue culture studies
Various reports are available on tissue culture studies in K. galanga and related
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species. Vincent et al. (1992c) reported micropropagation of K. galanga. High frequency
single step in vitro protocols for rapid propagation from the rhizome buds were also
established (Geetha et al., 1997; Geetha, 2002; Jose et al., 2002; Swapna et al. 2004).
A rapid clonal propagation system for K. galanga, has been developed for large-scale
propagation and ex situ conservation (Shirin et al., 2000). LaiKeng and WengHing
(2004) reported in vitro propagation of Zingiberaceae species with medicinal properties.
Plant regeneration from callus derived from rhizome bud explants and somatic
embryogenesis had also been reported (Vincent et al., 1991, 1992a,b; Lakshmi and
Mythili, 2003). Mostly MS medium supplemented with cytokinin like benzyladenine
(BA) and auxins such as indole butyric acid (IBA) or α-naphthalene acetic acid was
used for in vitro responses. After executing proper acclimatization protocol, in vitro
plantlets could be successfully planted in the field with a high percentage of survival.
The micropropagated plants could not be used on a commercial level as they produce
sufficient quantity of rhizome only after three seasons of growth in the nursery. In
order to reduce this time gap, efforts were made at the Tissue Culture Facility of
Centre for Medicinal Plants Research to develop in vitro microrhizome technology in
K. galanga in culture media supplemented with higher levels of sucrose (Geetha et
al., 2005). The microrhizome derived plants exhibited superiority over normal
micropropagated plants in rhizome formation after planting out. Chirangivi et. al.
(2005) also reported microrhizome induction in this species. In vitro conservation by
slow growth methods were developed for medium-term conservation of this important
medicinal plant (Geetha, 2002).
20.4
Functional properties
Galanga is pharmaceutically a very active plant and many biological properties have
been reported (Table 20.1). As in the case of other zingiberaceous plants like ginger,
greater galangal, etc., galanga also shows potent antitumour activities and antimutagenic
activities. Vimala et al. (1999) reported seven zingiberaceous genera having such
activities, and Kaempferia is a potent one that inhibited Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)
activation induced by TPA (12-o-tetradecanoylphorbol-3-acetate). The above authors
concluded that the naturally occurring non-toxic compounds inhibited the EBV
activation. K. galanga extract exhibited amoebicidal activity against Acanthamoeba
(DanMy et al., 1998).
Essential oil from the root induced gutathione-s-transferase activities in the stomach,
liver and small intestine of mice. Ethanol extract of dried rhizome showed antispasmodic
activity vs. histamine-induced contraction and barium-induced contraction in guinea
pigs. An ethanol-water extract indicated smooth muscle stimulant activity. Water
extract of dried rhizomes exhibited antitumour activity. Rhizome and root oils showed
antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and antifungal
activity against Alternaria, Colletotrichum, Fusarium, etc. (Thomas et al. 1996;
Arembawela et al., 1999a,b).
K. galanga extracts showed strong lipoxygenase inhibitory activities of more than
80% at 0.1 mg/ml (Ling et al., 1998). The hypolepidemic action of the ethanoic
extract of K. galanga was observed in vitro. The oral administration of the extract
was effective in lowering the total cholesterol, triglycerides and phospholipid levels
in serum and tissues (Achuthan and Padikkala, 1997). Extract of K. galanga exhibited
marked larvicidal effect against Culex quinquefasciatus (Pitasawat et al., 1998) and
Galanga
Table 20.1
351
Biological actions of important components
Component
Biological property
Borneol
Analgesic, antiacetylcholine, antibacterial, antibronchitic, antifeedent, antiinflammatory, antiotitic, antipyretic, antispasmodic, antimicrobial, CNSstimulant, hepatoprotectant, irritant, myorelaxant, sedative, tranquilizer.
Antioxidant, expectorant, hypocholesterolemic, spasmogenic, insecticidal
Antiseptic, irritant.
Antiallergic, antiaggregant, anticancer, antifertility, antiimplantation,
antilymphocytic, antihistamine, antioxidant, antispasmodic, serotonin
suppressor, aromatase inhibitor, antitumour, glucosyl transferase inhibitor,
antihepatotoxic, anti-inflammatory, lipoperoxidase inhibitor, antimetastatic,
antimutagenic, antimyocardiatic, ATP-ase inhibitor, CAMP-phosphodiesterase
inhibitor, carcinogenic, (at/V 40000 ppm), catechol-o-methyltrasferase
inhibitor, COX-2 inhibitor, De-iodinase inhibitor, lipoxygenase inhibitor,
metalloproteinase inhibitor, NADH-oxidase inhibitor, NO-inhibitor, ornithine
decarboxylase inhibitor, P450 inhibitor, phospholipase inhibitor, protein kinasec-inhibitor, tyrosinase inhibitor, protein tyrosinase kinase inhibitor, quinone
reductase inducer, lopoisomerase I and II inhibitor, xanthine oxidase inhibitor,
vasodialator.
Camphene
Carene
Kaempferol
Sources Duke, 2003; Duke and Du Cellier, 1993.
the hexane fraction exhibited high mosquito larvicidal effect and also repellent activity
for adult mosquito (Taesotikul et al., 1999). Xue and Chen (2002) have shown that
cis- and trans-ethyl p-methoxy-cinnamate inhibit EBV in vitro and also has an inhibitory
effect in TPA assays or croton oil-induced ear edema, ODC activity in mouse epidermis
and papilloma indicating a relatively strong anti-carcinogenic potential of ethyl-pmethoxy cinnamate.
Ethyl cinnamate (EC) inhibited the contractions induced by high K+ and
Phenylephrine (PE) in a concentration-dependent manner. The relaxant effect against
PE-induced contractions was greater in the presence of endothelium. This inhibition
effect of EC is believed to involve the inhibition of Ca++ influx into vascular cells and
release of NO and prostacyclin from the endothelial cells (Othaman et al., 2002).
This explains the traditional use of galanga for treating hypertension. Chloroform
extract inhibited vascular smooth muscle contraction by the inhibition of Ca2+ influx
and Ca2+ sensitivity of contractile elements (Mustafa et al., 1996).
The hexane fraction of K. galanga rhizome is categorized as a non-irritant both in
animal and human volunteer studies (Choochote et al., 1999; Kanjanpothi et al.,
2004). Acute toxicity studies using alcoholic extracts of the rhizome on mice and
rabbits, indicated that oral administration of 5 g/kg and 10 g/kg of crude extract was
non-toxic (Kanjanapothi et al., 2004). K. galanga demonstrates less toxicity, but it is
considered as an effective botanical insecticide with high larvicidal activity and a
protective effect against mosquitoes (Choochote et al., 1999).
20.5
Chemistry
K. galanga rhizome contains about 2.5 to 4% essential oil. The main components of
the oil are ethyl cinnamate (25%), ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate (30%) and pmethoxycinnamic acid and a monoterpene ketone compound, 3-carene-5-one (Kiuchi
352
Handbook of herbs and spices
et al., 1987). The first three compounds are reported to have larvicidal activity
(Kiuchi et al., 1988). The other constituents are camphene, δ-3-carene, p-methoxy
styrene, γ-pinene, β-myrcene, p-cymene, 1,8-cineole, isomyrcene, camphor, α-terpineol,
p-cymene-8-ol, eucarvone, δ-cadinene, hexadecane, heptadecane, limonene, octanol,
tetradecane, 2-3-dehydro benzofuran, vanillin-p-methoxy phenol, caravacrol, carveol,
myrtenol, β-cymene, p-methoxybenzaldehyde, β-cadinene, carcine, m-anisaldehyde,
quinasoline-4-phenyl-3-oxide, sandaracopimaradiene-9-ol-1-one, sandaracopimaradiene-1, 9-diol, 6-acetoxy sandaracopimaradiene-9-ol-1-one (and its isomers)
etc. (Arembewela and Silva, 1999; Arembewela et al., 2000). The leaves contain
kaempferol, quercetin, cyanidin and delphinidin. The camphor present has been
characterized as ethyl-p-methoxy-trans-cinnamate (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998).
The composition of essential oil of rhizome of K. galanga growing in Malaysia
has been investigated by capillary GC, GC-MS and IH-NMR (Wong et al., 1992).
The major components of a Malaysian sample of the oil are ethyl-trans-p-methoxycinnamate (51.6%), ethyl cinnamate, (16.5%), pentadecane (9.0%), delta-car-zone
(3.3%), borneol (2.7%) and 1,8-cineole (5.7%). It also contains monoterpene ketone,
3 caren-5 ene. The oil has been reported to possess insecticidal activity which is
attributed to ethyl-trans-p-methoxy-cinnamate and ethyl-cinnamate. The rhizome is
also reported to display cytotoxic properties.
20.6
Uses
K. galanga is cultivated for its aromatic rhizomes and also as an ornamental and has
a long history of medicinal use. The rhizome is chewed and ingested. It is used as a
flavouring for rice. The rhizomes are considered stimulatory, expectorant, carminative
and diuretic. They are used in the preparation of gargles and administered with honey
in cough and chest afflictions. In the Philippines, a decoction of the rhizomes is used
for dyspepsia, headache and malaria. The juice of the plant is an ingredient in the
preparation of some tonic preparations. The rhizomes and roots are used for flavouring
food and in medicine in South East Asia (CSIR, 1959). The rhizome is mixed with oil
as a cicatrizant applying it to boils and furuncles (Duke, 2003). Bown (2001) cited a
mix of four ginger relatives (Alpinia, Curcuma, Kaempferia and Zingiber)
called ‘awas empas’, a Jamu remedy for headaches, stiff joints and urinary tract
infection.
Kaempferia is indicated for amebiasis, bruise, cancer, childbirth, cholera, cough,
dandruff, dyspepsia, enterosis, fever, furuncle, headache, inflammation, lameness,
lice, lumbago, malaria, myosin, ophthalmia, pain, parasite, rheumatism, rhinosis,
scabies, sore-throat, swellings, toothache and tumor (Duke, 2003). The rhizome mixed
with oil is used externally for healing wounds and applied to warm rheumatic regions.
A lotion prepared from the rhizome is used to remove dandruff or scales from the
head. The powdered rhizome mixed with honey is given as an expectorant. The
leaves are used in locations and poultices for sore eyes, rheumatism and fever. In
Thailand, the dried rhizome of this plant is used as a cardiotonic (CSIR, 1959). In
India, the dried rhizomes along with some other plants are used for heart diseases. It
is also used for the treatment of abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhoea and toothache
with the functions of promoting vital energy circulation and alleviating pain. In
Ayurveda, the Indian traditional system of medicine, Kaempferia rhizomes are made
use of in at least 61 formulations that are used in treating a variety of illness.
Galanga
353
In Java, the rhizomes are used widely in seasoning many dishes, especially rice
dishes. Rhizomes are also pickled or used to make ‘beras’, a sweet, spicy beverage.
Another beverage, ‘berao kentjoor’ is made from the roots. Dried rhizomes are also
added to curry powder. In many Asian countries galanga and galangal are used
interchangeably, leaves and rhizomes may be used in curries, eaten raw or steamed,
or cooked with chilli. Leaves of the narrow-leaved variety are eaten and both types
are used in lalabs. Asians employ the rhizomes and leaves as a perfume in cosmetics,
hair washes and powders. Rarely it is used as a hallucinogen (Duke, 2003).
In Malaysia, the rhizome is used for chills in elephants. In Sri Lanka, rhizome
mixed with oil is used externally for healing of wounds and applied to warm rheumatic
regions. The powdered rhizome is mixed with honey and given for coughs and
pectoral ailments. Dried rhizome is used as a cardiotonic in Thailand. In Papua New
Guinea the rhizome is used orally as an abortifacient. (Arambewela and Silva, 1999).
The essential oil is used in flavoring curries, in perfumery and also for medicinal
purposes (Bhattacharjee, 2000).
20.7
K. rotunda
K. rotunda L. (Indian crocus) is found scattered thoughout India in most localities. It
is cultivated occasionally as a garden plant. The tuber is used in about 21 medicinal
preparations in Ayurveda. It is a perennial herb having a tuberous rhizome. Leaves
are simple, ligulate, few, erect, lanceolate, acute, variegated, green above and tinged
with purple below, up to 45 cm long and 10 cm wide, petiole short, channeled, leaf
base sheathing, flowers on a short crowned spike, flowers are bractolate, bisexual
and trivenous and having the typical Zingiberaceous floral structure. Propagation is
though rhizomes.
Tubers are acrid, thermogenic, aromatic, stomachic, anti-inflammatory, sialagogue,
and emetic. They are useful in vitiated conditions of Vata and Kapha, gastropathy,
dropsy, inflammations, wound, ulcer, blood clot, tumors and cancerous swellings
(Warrier et al., 1995). The fresh bruised tubers are in popular use in many parts of
India and applied to bruises to reduce swelling. The decoction is also applied to
wounds with coagulated blood and with any purulent matter.
20.8
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354
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galanga L. J. Weisheng Yan Ju, 31, 257–248 (Chinese, English summary).
RASTOGI, R. P.
21
Galangal
P. N. Ravindran and I. Balachandran, Centre for Medicinal Plants
Research, India
21.1
Introduction
Alpinia galanga (L.) Sw. (Zingiberaceae) is commonly known by various names as
galangal, greater galangal, Java galangal and Siamese ginger (English). The related
species are A. officinarum Hance and A. calcarata Rosc., which are known as lesser
galangal. All the three species have more or less similar properties and uses and
hence in trade practically no distinction is made among them. Data on production,
consumption and trade individually are not reliable because traders make no distinction
between A. galanga, A. calcarata and A. officinarum; all the three are used as the
source plants for the Ayurvedic raw drug ‘raasna’. India is a major supplier along
with Thailand and Indonesia (Scheffer and Jansen, 1999), however, its volatile oil
attracts more international interest because of its high medicinal value (http://
www.indianspices.com).
Galangal is a native of Indonesia though the exact origin is not known, but has
become naturalized in many parts of South and South-East Asian countries. Oldest
reports about its use and existence are from Southern China and Java. It is of frequent
occurrence in the sub-Himalayan region of Bihar, West Bengal and Assam. At present,
A. galanga is cultivated in all South-East Asian countries, India, Bangladesh, China
and Surinam (Scheffer and Jansen, 1999). It shows exuberant growth along the
eastern Himalayas and in southwest India, and is cultivated throughout the Western
Ghats (Warrier et al., 1994). India exports galangal in different forms (http://
www.indianspices.com). Production in South East Asia must be considerable as it is
a common spice used daily by millions of people, however, no reliable data are
available. It is mostly cultivated in home gardens and organized plantations do not
exist. The Netherlands imports yearly over 100 tons of fresh rhizomes and about 30
tons of dried rhizomes. The main suppliers are Thailand, Indonesia and India. (Scheffer
and Jansen, 1999). Recent reviews on Alpinia can be found in Tewari et al. (1999)
and Gupta and Tandon (2004).
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21.1.1 Botanical notes
A. galanga (L.) Sw is a perennial, robust, tillering, rhizomatous herb; grows up to
3.5 m tall, with a subterranean, creeping, copiously branched aromatic rhizome. The
rhizomes are 2.5–10.0 cm thick, reddish brown externally, and light orange brown
internally. The aerial leafy stem (pseudostem) is erect, formed by the rolled leaf
sheaths. Leaves are 23–45 by 3.8–11.5 cm, alternate, distichous, oblong-lanceolate,
acute, and glabrous. Inflorescence terminal, erect, many flowered, racemose, 10–30
× 5–7 cm, pubescent; bracts ovate, up to 2 cm long, each subtending a cincinnus of
2–6 greenish white flowers; bracteoles similar to the bracts but smaller; flowers
fragrant, 3–4 cm long, yellow-white. Fruit a globose to ellipsoidal capsule, 1–1.5 cm
in diameter, orange-red to wine red.
Rhizome anatomy shows a central stele surrounded by an outer cortical zone.
Fibrovascular bundles are distributed throughout the cortex and stele. Numerous
resin canals are also present. Its chromosome number is 2n = 48. Much variability
may exist as the species occur naturally in many countries under varying agroecological
situations, however, information is lacking. Cultivars with pink to red rhizomes and
with yellow-white rhizomes are known. The pseudostems of white cultivars reach
about 3 m in height, and the rhizomes 8–10 cm in diameter. The red cultivars that are
more common and widely used, reach 1–1.5 m in height and the rhizomes 1–2 cm in
diameter. Plants with broad leaves that are tomentose beneath are distinguished as
var. pyramidata (Blume) Schuman. This occurs wild and under cultivation in Java,
Borneo and the Philippines (Scheffer and Janson, 1999).
21.1.2 Chemical notes
Tewari et al. (1999) reviewed the chemical composition of Alpinia spp. Galangal
rhizome on analysis yielded (per 100 g): moisture – 14 g, total ash – 9 g, matter
soluble in 80% ethanol – 49 g, matter soluble in water – 19 g, total sugar – 9 g, total
nitrogen – 3 g, total protein – 16 g, essential oil content – 0.2–1.5% (dry wt.). Fresh
rhizomes on steam distillation yield about 0.1% of oil, having a peculiar strong and
spicy odour. Earlier investigations indicated camphor, 1, 8-cineole (20–30%), methyl
cinnamate (48%) and probably d-pinene, as the oil components. Scheffer et al. (1981)
analysed a sample from Indonesia and reported 1,8-cineole (47.3%), β-pinene (11.5%),
α-pinene (7.1%), α-thujene (6.2%), terpinen-4-ol (6.0%), α-terpineol, limonene (4.3%
each) and many compounds in lesser concentrations. De Pooter et al. (1985) analysed
a sample from Malaysia and reported (E)-β-farnasene (18.2%), β-bisabolene (16.2%),
α-bergamontene (10.7%), and α-pinene (10.2%) as the important components. Charles
et al. (1992) reported that a sample from the USA yielded 52.3% myrcene, 17.15 (Z)β-ocimene, 9.0% α-pinene as the major components. The root contains a volatile oil
(0.5 to 1.0%), resin, glalangol, kaemferid, galangin, alpinin, etc. The active principles
are the volatile oil and acrid resin. Galangin has been obtained synthetically. The
essential oil obtained by hydrodistillation of fresh flowers contains sabinene, limonene,
1,8-cineole, p-cymen-8-ol, patchoulene, (E)-methyl cinnamate, (z)-allylcinnamate,
α-gurjunene and β-caryophyllene (Syamasundetr et al. 1999). Chaudhury (1961),
Nair et al. (1962), Barik et al. (1987) and Kumar et al. (1990) also reported chemical
studies on Alpinia.
The volatile constituents of the rhizomes and leaves of A. galanga from the lower
Himalayan region of India were analysed by GC and GC/MS. The main constituents
identified in the rhizome were 1,8-ciniole, fenchyl acetate and β-pinene. The leaf oil
Galangal
359
contained 1,8-ciniole, β-pinene and camphor as major constituents (Raina et al.,
2002).
Jirovetz et al. (2003) investigated the essential oils of the leaves, stems, rhizomes
and roots of A. galanga from southern India by GC-FID, GC-MS and olfactometry.
Mono- and sesquiterpenes and (E)-methyl cinnamate could be identified in all the
four samples and these are responsible for the characteristic odour and the reported
use in (folk) medicine as well as in food products. The essential oil of A. galanga leaf
is rich in 1,8-cineole (28.3%), camphor (15.6%), beta-pinene (5.0%), (E)-methyl
cinnamate (4.6%), bornyl acetate (4.3%) and guaiol (3.5%). The stem essential oil
contains 1,8-cineole (31.1%), camphor (11.0%), (E)-methyl cinnamate (7.4%), guaiol
(4.9%), bornyl acetate (3.6%), β-pinene (3.3%) and α-terpineol (3.3%). 1,8-cineole
(28.4%), α-fenchyl acetate (18.4%), camphor (7.7%), (E)-methyl cinnamate (4.2%)
and guaiol (3.3%) are the main constituents of the rhizome essential oil. The root
essential oil contains α-fenchyl acetate (40.9%), 1,8-cineole (9.4%), borneol (6.3%),
bornyl acetate (5.4%) and elemol (3.1%).
21.2
Production
A. galanga is found in wild/semi-wild and cultivated states. The plant requires sunny
or moderately shady locations. Soil should be fertile, moist but not swampy. Sandy
or clayey soils rich in organic matter and with good drainage are preferred. Wild or
semi-wild types occur in old clearings, thickets and forests. In the tropics, galangal
occurs up to an altitude of 1200 m. Rhizomes (a rhizome piece with an aerial
shoot, known as slips) are used for propagation. Soil should be well tilled before
planting. Alternatively, holes, 35 cm × 35 cm and 15–20 cm deep, are dug, filled with
manure mixed with soil, inorganic fertilizers and lime (for acid soils). One slip is
planted per hole, and covered with mulch. New shoots from pieces of galanga rhizome
emerge about one week after planting. About four weeks after planting 3–4
leaves develop. Rhizomes develop quickly and reach their best harvest quality in
three months after planting. If left too long they become too fibrous and large clumps
will hamper harvesting. Seeds rarely reach maturity. Often trenches are dug to drain
the field after rainfall, as rhizomes do not develop under waterlogged conditions.
Usually planted along the borders of gardens, in rows at distances of 0.5–1 m square.
Weeding and subsequent earthing up are carried out respectively 1–2 months
after planting.
Harvesting for use as spice is done usually three months after planting (during late
summer or early autumn) for market purposes. Whole plants are pulled out, shoots
cut off and rhizomes washed and cleaned. Rhizomes more than four months old turn
woody, fibrous and spongy and lose their value as spice. For essential oil extraction,
rhizomes are harvested when plants are about seven months old. However, for use in
ayurvedic and other traditional medicinal preparations rhizomes are harvested after
15 months, when the rhizomes become fibrous. No reliable data is available on the
yield (Scheffer and Jansen, 1999). Harvested rhizomes are washed, trimmed, dried
and marketed fresh or dried after packing (Scheffer and Jansen, 1999). Dried product
is ground before use. Ground rhizomes are not traded in bulk as they may be adulterated.
Essential oil is also a product.
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21.3 Molecular pharmacology
Dried rhizomes of A. galanga are an important drug in traditional medicine systems
of India and China. Many chemical components of galangal have potent biological
properties. Such molecular pharmacological properties contribute to the therapeutic
effectiveness of the galangal (Table 21.1)
21.4
Functional properties
Rhizome is bitter, acrid, thermogenic, aromatic, nervine tonic, stimulant, carminative,
stomachic, disinfectant, aphrodisiac, expectorant, bronchodilator, febrifuge, antiinflammatory and tonic (Warrier et al., 1994). Galangal has a wide range of applications
in traditional medicine. Rhizomes show antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal and
expectorant activities (Scheffer and Jansen, 1999). Galangal’s anti-bacterial effect
acts against germs, such as Streptococci, Staphylococcus and coliform bacteria. This
Table 21.1
Attributed biological properties of the chemical components of galangal
Compound
Attributed properties
Borneol
Analgesic, antibronchitic, acetylcholine anatagonist, antiinflammatory,
antipyretic, antispasmodic, CNS-stimulant, CNS-toxic (at high doses),
hepatoprotectant, myorelaxant, sedative.
Anesthetic, antiacetylcholinesterase, antiallergic, antibacterial, antibrochitic,
anticarcenogenic, antiinflammatory, antirheumatic, antirhinitic, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, antitussive, candidicide, ascaicide, carcinogenic (high and
constant use), CNS-stimulant, convulsant, decongestant, expectorant,
myorelaxant, P-450 inducer, neurotoxic, rubifacient, sedative, testosteronehydroxylase inducer.
Analgesic, anticancer, anticonvulsant, antiedemic, antiarchidonate, antiinflammatory, antimutagenic, prostaglandin inhibitor, antipyretic, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, antitumour necrosis factor, CNS-depressant, COX- 1 and
COX-2 inhibitor, cytochrome P450 inhibitor, hepatoprotective, larvicide,
irritant, insecticide, motor depressant, neurotoxic, sedative, trypsin enhancer,
ulcerogenic, vasodialator, vermifuge.
Antiaflatoxic, antiinflammatory, antimutagenic, anticancer, antioxidant,
antiviral, aromatase inhibitor, cycloxygenase inhibitor, COX-2 inhibitor,
hepatoprotective, NO inhibitor, quinone reductase inducer, topo-isomerase
–1-inhibitor, tyrosinase inhibitor.
Analgesic, anesthetic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, fungicide, anticancer,
decongestant, expectorant, antiemetic, carminative.
Abortifacient, antirhinoviral, antiulcer, stomachic.
Analgesic, anesthetic, antibacterial, anticonvulsant, antimutagenic, antinitrosaminic, antioxidant, antipyretic, antispasmodic, irritant, aldose-reductase
inhibitor.
Analgesic, antiaggregant, antiinflammatory, antileukemic, antileukotriene,
antilipoperoxidant, antimelanomic, antimutagenic, antinitrosaminic,
antioxidant, antiperoxidant, antitumour, apoptotic, COX-2 inhibitor,
cyclooxygenase inhibitor, hepatoprotective, lipoxygenase inhibitor, mastcell stabilizer, ornithine decarboxylase inhibitor, P-450 inhibitor, protein
kinse-C-inhibitor, topoisomerase I and II inhibitor, tyrosine kinase inhibitor,
NADH-Oxidase inhibitor, hypoglycemic, quinone reductase inhibitor.
1,8-cineole
Eugenol
Galangin
Camphor
β-bisabolene
Myrcene
Quercetin
Source: Collected from various sources, mainly from Duke (2003), Martindale, the Extra Pharmacopoeia
(2002).
Galangal
361
plant is used to treat loss of appetite, upper abdominal pain, and sluggish digestion.
It relieves spasms, combats inflammation and has stress reducing properties. In Asia,
this herb is also used for arthritis, diabetes, stomach problems and difficulty in
swallowing. It is especially useful in flatulence, dyspepsia, nausea, vomiting and
sickness of the stomach, being recommended as a remedy for seasickness. It tones up
the tissues and is sometimes prescribed in fever. Galangal is used in cattle medicine,
and the Arabs use it to make their horses fiery. It is included in several compound
preparations. The reddish-brown powder is used as a snuff in catarrh. Young rhizome
is a spice and is used to flavour various dishes in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and
China. In the Indian traditional medicine, Ayurveda, A. galanga (known as ‘Raasna’)
is used in over 62 formulations that are used for curing a variety of ailments. Two of
the related species, A. calcarata and A. officinarum are also used as sources of the
raw drug Raasna.
Antifungal activity of A. galanga was reported by Haraguchi et al. (1996). They
have isolated an antimicrobial diterpene (diterpene 1) and found that his compound
synergistically enhanced the antifungal activity of quercetin and chalcone against
Candida albicans. Its antifugal activity was reversed by unsaturated fatty acids.
Protoplasts of C. albicans were lysed by diterpene 1. These results suggest that the
antifungal activity of this compound is due to a change of membrane permeability
arising from membrane lipid alteration. The ethanolic extract of A. galanga rhizome
exhibited hypolipidemic activity in vitro. The oral administration of the extracts
(20 mg/day) effectively lowered the serum and tissue levels of total cholesterol,
triglycerides, and phospholipids and significantly increased the serum levels of highdensity lipoproteins (HDL) in high cholesterol fed white wistar rats over a period of
four weeks. The study suggests that galangal is useful in various lipid disorders
especially atherosclerosis (Achuthan and Padikkala, 1997). The USDA database lists
387 distinct activities for A. galanga.
Galangin and kaempferol, the flavanols present in the rhizome, are known to
possess tyrosinase-inhibitory activity as well as COX-inhibitory activity. These activities
are probably due to their ability to chelate copper (and also other divalent cations) in
the enzyme. Galangin inhibits monophenolase activity, and both galangin and kaempferol
inhibit diphenolase. Galangin also possesses (so also quercitin, another flavonol
present in the rhizome) antioxidant and radical scavenging activities, and hence can
modulate enzyme activities and suppress the genotoxicity of chemicals (Duke, 2003).
Sharma and Sharma (1977, 1978) found that water soluble fraction of the alcoholic
extract of the plant was active in chronic arthritis in albino rats. Its anti-inflammatory
activity was similar to that of betamethazone. Antihypertensive activity of galangal
was shown by its ability to inhibit angiotension converting enzyme (ACE) by water,
ethanolic and acetone extracts to the level of 29, 42, and 31% respectively (Somanadhan
et al. 1999).
Among the many compounds reported, 1-acetoxychavicol acetate, a component of
newly dried rhizomes, is active against dermatophytes, and together with another
compound, 1-acetoxyeugenol acetate, exhibits anti-tumor activity in mice. The same
compounds isolated from roots showed anti-ulcer activity in rats. Oil shows potential
insecticide property. Galangal root, root oil and root oleoresin are given the regulatory
status ‘generally regarded as safe’ (GRAS) in the USA (Scheffer and Jansen, 1999).
Itokawa et al. (1987) isolated the phenylpropanoids, 1-acetoxychavicol acetate
and 1-acetoxyeugenol acetate, both showing antitumour activity against sarcoma 180
ascites in mice. Sadique et al. (1989) reported that A. galanga extract showed sheep
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RBC membrane stabilizing activity. Al-Yahaya et al. (1990) demonstrated that ethanolic
extract of galangal has potent gastric antisecretary, antiulcer and cryoprotective
properties. Duke (2003) has listed the application of A. galanga and A. officinarum
as herbal medicines in the treatment of various ailments.
A novel composition of aromatic and terpinoid compounds present in A. galanga
showed synergistic effects with respect to immunomodulation, and effectively
suppressed hypersensitivity reactions. These compounds are used for preparing
medicaments for the treatment or prevention of allergic reactions and such conditions
as asthma, allergic rhinitis, anaphylaxis and autoimmune disorders like ulcerative
colitis, rheumatoid arthritis, as well as for the alleviation of pain (Weidner et al.,
2002). The constituents isolated from the seeds of A. galanga are reported to exhibit
anti-ulcer activities (Mitsui et al., 1976a,b). Dried powdered rhizome is sometimes
adulterated with other species such as A. calcarata, A. conchigera, A. mutica, A.
nigra, A. rafflesiana and A. scabra.
The fruits of A. galanga are used in traditional Chinese medicine but the dry fruits
are easy to adulterate with other species that are used as medicine in local areas. The
dry fruits of the adulterants are very similar in odour, morphology, chemical constituents
and anatomical characters and they are difficult to distinguish. Zhao et al. (2001)
characterized A. galanga and the species used as adulterant using the nuclear ribosomal
DNA internal transcribed spacer (nrDNA ITS) region sequences and the molecular
markers are used to distinguish the drug at DNA level.
21.5
Alpinia officinarum Hance (lesser galangal, Chinese ginger)
A. officinarum looks similar to A. galanga, but it is smaller in stature. The immature
rhizome of this plant is a favourite spice in East and Central Asian countries, and is
known to have been in use for over a thousand years in these regions. The Arabs
formerly were known to feed their horses on this plant to make them fiery (Grieve,
1931). The young rhizome has a unique taste that is said to be in between pepper and
ginger (Duke, 2003). The rhizomes have been in use in cooking, for adding flavour
to vinegar and local liquors (‘nastoika’). Rhizomes are popularly used in the preparation
of tea (similar to ginger tea) (Watt, 1972). The emerging shoots are used as a vegetable
in northeast India. Alcoholic extract of the rhizome contains tannins, phlobaphenes;
chloroform extract showed the presence of flavones such as kaempferide, galangin
and alpinin (Sastry 1961). Ray and Majumdar (1975) reported the isolation of a
flavonoid possessing antifungal activity. The decoction of the rhizome revealed
antinflammatory activity against carragenin-induced rat paw edema (Sharma and
Singh 1980). Kaleysa Raj (1975) reported anthelmintic activity against human Ascaris
lum bricoides.
A. officinarum is a very valued medicinal plant and has been in use traditionally.
Its rhizome has an essential oil that is warm and spicy. It has been in use in chronic
enteritis, gastralgia and the decoction is a folk remedy for cancer in Louisiana and
Oklahoma (Duke, 2003). The rhizomes are considered aphrodisiac, aromatic,
carminative, stimulant and stomachic. It is useful in dyspepsia and in preventing
fermentation and flatulence. It is considered a nervine tonic (Duke, 2003). The properties
are more or less similar to that of A. galanga. The therapeutic effects when used in
traditional medicines might be mainly due to the contents of quercetin, galangin and
kaempferol.
Galangal
21.6
363
Alpinia calcarata (lesser galangal)
A. calcarata is also known as lesser galangal and its properties and uses are similar
to those of A. galanga. In the Ayurvedic medicines A. calcarata has virtually taken
the place of A. galanga mainly due to the non-availability of the latter. The traders do
not make any distinction among the three species; all of them are traded as the raw
drug ‘raasna’. Essential oil content of the plant is reported to be 0.07–0.10% in the
leaves; 0.17–0.25% in the rhizomes, and 0.25–0.28% in the root. The essential oil of
rhizome and leaves revealed about 31 and 28 compounds respectively. Major constituent
is 1,8-cineole (Tewari et al. 1999).
21.7
References and further reading
ACHUTHAN, C.R.
and PADIKKALA, J. (1997) Hypolipidemic effect of Alpinia galanga (Raasna) and
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AKHTAR, M.S., KHAN, M.A. and MALIK, M.T. (2002) Hypoglycaemic activity of Alpinia galanga rhizome
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AL-YAHAYA, M.A., RAFATULLAH, S., MOOSA, J.S.,AGEEL, A.M and AL SAID, M.S. ( 1990) Gastric antisecretory,
antiulcer and cytoprotective properties of ethanolic extract of Alpinia galanga Willd. in rats.
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BARIK, B.R., KUNDU, A.B. and DEY, A.K. (1987) Two phenolic constituents from Alpinia galanga
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CAPASSO, R. and TAVARES, I.A. (2002) Effect of the flavonoid galangin on rat urinary bladder contractility
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MITSUI, S., KOBAYASHI, S., NAGAHORI, H.
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22
Leek and shallot
K. R. M. Swamy and R. Veere Gowda, Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research, India
22.1
Introduction
Leek (Allium ampeloprosum L.) (Synon. A. porrum L.; A. ampeloprasum var porrum
(L.) Gay) is an important crop of the family Alliaceae which exhibits morphological
differences with onions. It is larger than the onion. The leaf blades are flattened
rather than radial. The leaf base of leek stores some reserves but does not thicken into
a bulb. Leek has a milder and more delicate flavour than onion, though a coarser
texture. When tender, it is eaten raw. It is also cooked with other vegetables or used
as a flavouring in soups and stews. Leeks are mainly grown in northern Europe and
less frequently in India, the United States, and Canada. Leeks are especially important
in northern European countries such as Belgium, Denmark, and the Netherlands
(Warade and Shinde, 1998). A non-bulb forming biennial is grown for its blanched
stem and leaves. In India and Sri Lanka, it thrives well at higher altitudes but moist
localities are adverse to its cultivation. Commercial cultivation is not followed in
India and wherever it grows, it is on a home scale, mainly in the kitchen garden as
a favourite vegetable.
Shallots (Allium ascalonicum L. Syn.; A. cepa L. var ascalonicum Backer) are a
perennial crop that is grown as an annual for its cluster of small bulbs or cloves. They
have a delicate onion-like flavour and may be grown for their dry bulbs or used in the
same manner as green onions. Leeks and shallots are indeed valuable, not only as
spices for flavouring dishes, but also as medicinal plants of importance. This chapter
deals briefly with leeks and shallots. The chapter contains the following sections on
leek and shallot; description, botany, origin and distribution; chemical composition;
cultivation and production; uses in food industry/processing; functional properties
and quality issues.
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22.2
22.2.1
Leek
Description, botany, origin and distribution
Description
Leeks known botanically as Allium ampeloprosum L. (Synon. A. porrum L.; A.
ampeloprasum var porrum (L.) Gay) are related to garlic and bear a resemblance to
onions, shallots and scallions. Common names in different languages are as follows:
Leek (English); jiu cong (Chinese); poireau, porreau (French); Porree (German);
porro, porretta (Italian); liiki (Japanese); luk porej (Russian); ajo porro, apuerro
(Spanish). Leeks look like large scallions, having a very small bulb and a long white
cylindrical stalk of superimposed layers that flows into green, tightly wrapped, flat
leaves. Cultivated leeks are usually about 30 cm in length and 5.0–8.5 cm in diameter,
and feature a fragrant flavour that is reminiscent of shallots but sweeter and more
subtle. Wild Leeks, known as ‘ramps’ are much smaller in size, but have a stronger,
more intense flavour (Anon. 2005a). With a more delicate and sweeter flavour than
onions, leeks add a subtle touch to recipes without overpowering the other flavours
that are present.
Botany
Leeks (Allium ampeloprasum) are members of the Alliaceae family. Other members
of the family include onion and garlic. The leek plant is a robust herbaceous biennial
that has been cultivated for centuries but has not been found wild. Leek plants
resemble large onion plants with flat leaves. Unlike onion and garlic, leeks do not
form bulbs or produce cloves. Leeks are made up of sheaths of basal leaves that can
be 15–25 cm long and 5 cm in diameter. The taste of leeks is milder than those of
onion and garlic. The leek is a tall, hardy, biennial with white, narrowly ovoid bulbs
and broad leaves. It resembles the green onion but is larger. Leek, is a tetraploid (2n
= 32). It differs mainly in its lesser tendency to form bulbs. Many cultivars selected
for long, white, edible bases and green tops, winter hardiness, and resistance to
bolting are available for cultivation. These cultivars differ from one another mainly
in length and diameter of the sheath part, leaf spacing, breadth and colour of leaf
blades, vigour and bolting, and resistance to cold.
Resistance to cold is of special importance where leeks are to be harvested throughout
the winter, while slowness to bolt permits a prolonged harvest period in the spring
(McCollum, 1976). Rather than forming a tight bulb such as the onion, the leek
produces a long cylinder of bundled leaf sheaths which are generally blanched by
pushing soil around them (trenching). They are often sold as small seedlings in flats
which are started early in greenhouses, to be set out as weather permits. Once established
in the garden leeks are hardy; many varieties can be left in the ground during the
winter to be harvested as needed (Anon., 2005a).
Origin and distribution
Randy Baker (1991) reported that the leek originated in Middle Asia, with secondary
centres of development and distribution in Western Asia and the Mediterranean countries.
The leek has been cultivated in Western Europe since the middle ages and found its
way to North America with early settlers from Europe. Leeks have been cultivated
from very early times (Silvertand, 1996). The garden leek was a popular vegetable in
the ancient Near East when the Egyptians built their pyramids, for example, that of
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367
Cheops in 2500 BC. Leek was an important vegetable for the Greeks and Romans, and
its use later spread throughout medieval Europe. Leeks have enjoyed a long and rich
history, one that can trace its heritage back through antiquity.
Leeks were valued most by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans and were
especially revered for their beneficial effect upon the throat. The Greek philosopher
Aristotle credited the clear voice of the partridge to a diet of leeks, while the Roman
emperor Nero supposedly ate leeks every day to make his voice stronger. The Romans
are thought to have introduced leeks to the United Kingdom, where they were able to
flourish because they could withstand cold weather. Leeks have attained an esteemed
status in Wales, where they serve as the country’s national emblem and the Welsh
wear it on St David’s Day. According to legend, Saint David ordered his Welsh
soldiers to identify themselves by wearing the vegetable on their helmets in an
ancient battle against the Saxons that took place in a leek field. Today, leeks are an
important vegetable in many northern European cuisines and are grown in many
European countries (Anon. 2005a).
22.2.2 Chemical composition
The nutritional composition of leek is given in Table 22.1. Compared to onion, leek
contains more proteins and minerals on a fresh weight as well as dry weight basis.
The energy value of 100 g of the edible portion of leek is also higher than that of
onion (van der Meer and Hanelt, 1990). The composition of alliums was reviewed by
Fenwick and Hanley (1990). The major storage tissues of leek are the leaf sheaths,
which are normally 1–2% lower in dry matter (DM) than those of bulb onion; about
11% DM. DM constituents are 70–85% storage carbohydrates (mostly fructans), 10–
20% proteins and about 1% lipids and ash. The flavour compounds in alliums are
sulphur-containing non-protein amino acids, with a common general structure of
cysteine sulphoxide, but with differences in their chemical R groups between the
major allium crops. Besides methyl, leek contains mainly propyl as the R group.
Table 22.1
Chemical composition of leek (per 100 g fresh weight)
Constituent
Content
Water (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Carbohydrates (g)
Minerals (g)
Sodium (mg)
Potassium (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
Phosphorous (mg)
Vitamins
β-carotene (µg)
Thiamine (B1)
Nicotinic acid
Pyridoxine (B6)
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
90
2
0.3
5.0
1.5
5
250
60
1
30
Source: van der Meer and Hanelt, 1990.
600
120
500
250
25
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Effect of nutrition on chemical composition
Compost is widely used to increase soil fertility, usually practised by incorporating the
compost into the upper soil layer. This study questions the rationale behind this practice.
Compost was applied as a mulch and compared with compost worked into the soil in
a growth experiment with leek (‘Siegfried Frost’). Each of the eight combinations of
variables (application method, compost type, and soil type) was repeated three times
with 20 leeks in each replicate. Significantly higher yields were obtained with compost
applied as a mulch. Here, the yield averaged 78 g fresh weight per leek, compared to
59 g per leek from plots with compost incorporated. Compost mulching also resulted
in significantly higher-quality leeks, including more first-class leeks, longer and
thicker shafts, and a generally better appearance. The advantage of placing the compost
on the soil surface rather than thoroughly mixing it with the soil can be attributed to
a higher availability of plant nutrients (Reeh and Jensen 2002).
Staugaitis and Viskelis (2001) investigated the effects of N rates (0, 60, 120, 180,
240 and 340 kg/ha) on the yield, quality and storability of leek cultivars Rival and
Pandora in 1996–99 at the Lithuanian Institute of Horticulture. N fertilizers increased
the above ground mass of leek and marketable yield. N at 300 kg/ha increased the
biomass by 2.2 times and marketable yield by 1.8 times, and yield was over 40 t/ha
in all years. Leek yield increased with increasing N rate, and the yield in the control
increased only by 1–2 t/ha. N increased the contents of N, K and nitrates, and reduced
the contents of sugars, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), dry soluble compounds and dry
matter. The best storability was obtained with N at 180 kg/ha. N content at 180 kg
N/ha was 158 kg/ha, while that at 300 kg N/ha was 193 kg/ha. Analysis of N balance
showed that it is optimum to use 180 kg N/ha. About 30% of accumulated N stays in
the crop residue. At 180 and 240 kg N/ha, approximately 50 kg N/ha was left with the
plant residues. The effects of N were similar in both cultivars.
Brunsgaard et al. (1997) compared the effect of a range of N levels on leek quality
in dietary experiments with rats. Protein content increased with N applications, while
during the autumn the protein content tended to fall; the total biological food value
rose over time from September to November. In a three-year study where leeks
received N at 100, 200 or 300 kg/ha, P2O5 at 70, 140 or 210 kg/ha and K2O at 140,
240 or 360 kg/ha applied in various proportions before and after planting, it was
found that in years with high rainfall the optimum results were obtained with high N,
medium P2O5 and low K2O rates, whereas in years with low rainfall the best results
were obtained with the lowest rate of all three nutrients. N and P reduced leek
vitamin C content whereas K increased it. The leek sugar content rose with rising
NPK rates. Increasing the number of top dressings augmented the vitamin C content
but reduced that of sugar (Kolota 1973).
Bloem et al. (2004) reported that onion (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum)
were among the earliest cultivated crops and have been popular in folk medicine for
centuries. Alliins (cysteine sulfoxides) are the characteristic sulfur (S) containing
secondary metabolites of Allium species like onions, shallot, garlic, leek and chives
and they have taste and sharpness that are criteria for pharmaceutical quality. The
influence of the S nutritional status on the content of secondary S containing metabolites
was shown for different Allium species. It was the aim of this study to investigate the
influence of the S and nitrogen (N) supply on the alliin content of onion cv. Stuttgarter
Riese and garlic cv. Thermidrome and to evaluate the significance for crop quality. In
a greenhouse experiment, three levels of N and S were applied in factorial combinations
of 0, 50 and 250 mg S pot–1 and 250, 500 and 1000 mg N pot–1. Eight plants were
Leek and shallot
369
grown in a Mitscherlich pot containing 8 kg sand. Leaves and bulbs were sampled
twice during the growth period to follow up translocation processes. The first sampling
was carried out when leaves were developed, but bulb growth had not yet started and
the second one during main bulb growth. An increasing S supply was related to an
increasing alliin content in leaves and bulbs of both crops, whereas nitrogen fertilization
had only a minor influence. The alliin content in bulbs could be doubled by S
fertilization. A translocation of alliin from leaves to bulbs was found so that time of
harvest has a strong influence on the alliin content. At the beginning of plant development
high alliin contents were found in leaves, while with bulb development they were
translocated into this plant organ. The results show that the potential health benefits
of Allium species could be distinctly improved by S fertilization.
Brunsgaard et al. (1997) stated that leeks were cultivated under conditions differing
in level of N supply (100, 160, 220 or 280 kg/ha), level of water supply (normal or
low) and time of harvest (September, October or November). The protein content of
the leeks increased progressively from 90 to 163 g/kg DM with N supply. This
increase in protein was associated with a reduction of all essential amino acids (g/16g
N: lysine 5.60, methionine 1.42 and threonine 3.40) and subsequently, a significant
reduction of the biological value. Protein and energy digestibilities increased with
level of N supply. Leeks harvested in September (protein 160 g/kg DM, biological
value 82.8%) had a higher (P < 0.05) protein content, but had at the same time the
lowest (P < 0.05) biological value as compared to leeks harvested in October (protein
128 g/kg DM, biological value 89.7%) or November (protein 125 g/kg DM, biological
value 90.5%). This was due to a lower content of essential amino acids (g/16g N) in
leeks harvested in September as compared to leeks of later harvest. Only small
differences between the two levels of water supply were observed in the composition
of the leeks. The content of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) was high in all samples
of leek (approximately 240–280 g/kg DM) and appeared to be unaffected by the
growth conditions applied in the investigation. Soluble NSP constituted approximately
half of the total NSP.
Effect of method of growing and age of seedling on chemical composition
Kunicki (1993) reported that in a three-year trial, leek cultivar Argenta transplants
11, 13 or 15 weeks old were planted in a mid-July after an early potato crop at a depth
of 6, 12, or 18 cm and spacing of 40 × 15 cm. The length and time for which the field
was used for these two crops amounted to an average of 212 days. The marketable
yield of leeks grown as an aftercrop was 17.1–33.6 t/ha. Transplant age had no effect
on the crop height or quality. With increasing depth of planting, the pseudostem and
its blanched part increased in length, but the DM and vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
contents decreased.
Kaniszewski et al. (1989) reported that in field experiments conducted from 1985
to 1987, the effects of four growing methods, viz. (i) traditional planting at a depth
of 5 cm, (ii) planting as above followed by earthing-up, (iii) planting into 15 cm deep
furrows, levelled during the growing season, and (iv) planting into 20 cm deep holes,
were investigated using the cultivars Alaska, Darkal, Jolant and Nebraska. Planting
into 20 cm deep holes reduced the yield, compared with the other three treatments
which gave similar yields. Earthing-up, planting into furrows or into 20 cm deep
holes increased the length and weight of the blanched part of the shaft, compared
with traditional planting. Laboratory trials showed that blanched shafts contained
more DM and total sugars, and less vitamin C, reducing sugars and nitrates than
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green shafts. Length and weight of the whole shaft and of its blanched part, as well
as the chemical composition, were also affected by the cultivar.
22.3
Cultivation and production
22.3.1 Cultivars
Basically, there are four groups of leeks based on season of maturity: (i) summer
leek; (ii) autumn leek; (iii) autumn and winter leek; and (iv) winter leek. Leek
cultivars differ significantly in growth habit which affects the final product. They
vary from long, green narrow-leaf types with long slender white stems to long wide
leaf types with thicker shorter white stems and blue green leaves (Randy Baker,
1991). Leek is a slow-growing monocotyledonous species. Leek cultivars differ from
one another mainly in such characteristics as length and diameter of the sheath part,
leaf spacing, breadth and colour of the leaf-blades, vigour, ease of bolting, and
resistance to cold. Vigorous types are best for summer production; resistance to cold
is of special importance where leeks are to be harvested throughout the winter, while
slowness to bolt permits a prolonged harvest period in the spring.
Turkish and Bulgarian types have long, thin pseudostems, whereas those from
Western Europe have shorter, thicker ones. Leek is mainly grown for the fresh market
and varieties of different earliness are demanded. Varieties with good storability are
available but cheap imports from Holland during winter dominate the market. Breeding
material includes types of different stalk lengths. Medium-stalked types with a large
leaf mass give high total yield and are thus desired by the food industry. The fresh
market prefers long-stalked types with a small leaf mass. The thickness of the stalk
is also important for the economic outcome and thick stalks are often more crispy.
Plants with blue-green leaves which are much keeled have better winter hardiness
than plants with light-green, flat leaves. Plants should have an upright growth habit
and no bulb formation. A higher dry matter content favours the cooking characteristics
but can reduce crispness.
Resistance against rust (Puccinia allii) is an important breeding objective (Leijon
and Olsson, 1999). Leek breeders look for varietal homogeneity, high yield, long
shaft, correct leaf colour, no bulb formation, resistance to cold (in winter types) and
diseases and suitability for mechanical harvesting. Leek cultivars with dark bluegreen foliage have a higher content of chlorophyll and covering of wax than those
with pale green foliage; they survive a minimum temperature of –5 °C and the leaves
contain more sugars (glucose, fructose and disaccharides) for conversion during
the winter. The wax layer protects leaves from attack by various insect vectors of
viruses; the cultivar Castelstar (dark green) showed only 21% incidence of leek
yellow stripe virus in comparison with 45% in the pale green cultivar Otina (Benoit
and Ceustermans, 1990).
In Germany new leek cultivars for harvesting from September to April must be
suitable for mechanical harvesting and trimming, and industrial handling. They should
produce higher yields of improved quality (length, vigour, form) than existing cultivars,
be cold resistant (down to –20 °C) and resistant or tolerant to yellow stripe virus. Of
the new cultivars, Kamusch is good for harvesting in early autumn and Kilima
slightly later. The most commonly grown late autumn cultivar Elefant is short and
compact but is easily damaged during mechanical trimming. The late-winter (harvested
March/April) cultivar Poros gives a 30% higher yield than Elefant, but both cultivars
suffer badly from yellow stripe virus (Kampe, 1978).
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371
In the Netherlands, Albana, Alba, Alma-902, Jolant, SG 446 and SG 448 were
considered better. Albana has the highest yields and crops early. Alba and Jolant have
dark-coloured leaves and an upright habit. Alma-902 and SG 446 are not so high
yielding but leaf colour and habit are favourable (Aalbersberg, 1985).
Twenty leek cultivars were assessed for possible production in coastal British
Columbia. Among the early leeks (harvested in October), Colonna, Longa, Odin and
Kilima all yielded over 40 t/ha of trimmed, marketable leeks. Their marketability
when harvested in January ranged from 0–16 t/ha. Among the winter-hardy cultivars,
marketable yields in October and January were not significantly different but there
was a marked increase for the April harvest. Cultivar Goliath, for example, yielded
23 t/ha in October and January and 33 t/ha in April. Other good winter-hardy cultivars
include Siberia, Artico and Derrick (Maurer, 1982).
22.3.2 Climatic requirement
Leek is a relatively long-season crop requiring about 120 days from seeding to
harvest. It is generally more cold-tolerant than the onion in its early development, but
it can be damaged at harvest by frost (Swiader et al., 1994). Most leek cultivars will
grow at least reasonably well wherever the crop is produced. The main reason for this
great adaptability of the leek is that it neither forms bulbs nor enters a rest period, as
does the common onion, but continues growth and can be harvested over a long
period of time. The leek is also more adaptable because it has greater cold-resistance
than the onion. Like onion, however, the leek is induced to bolt by low winter
temperatures; as bolting plants are not desirable for market, prolonged periods of low
temperature markedly affect planting dates and production periods. According to
Decoteau (2000) leeks will grow in any region that can produce onions and tend to
be more frost and freeze tolerant than onions. The tendency of leeks to bulb is an
undesirable characteristic that appears to be temperature controlled (with bulbing
occurring between 18–20 °C).
22.3.3 Soils
Leek is grown on practically all soil types, the most important requirement being a
loose texture. On peat soil, yields are usually high but quality is poor. Sandy clay
soils are most suitable for leek cultivation. Harvesting is difficult in heavy soils in
autumn and winter. Deep ploughing is a prerequisite for the development of long
white shafts. In the Netherlands it is found that phreatic water levels of 40 cm or less
below the soil surface result in poor yields; optimal levels are 80 to 90 cm. Randy
Baker (1991) reported that leeks may be grown successfully on a wide range of soil
types but deep top soil is preferred for vigorous plant growth and above average
yields. Soil pH 6.5–7.0 is most desirable. Coarse sands should be avoided because
sand particles under the leaf sheaths are not palatable to the consumer. The soil
should be prepared with green manure ploughdown or farmyard manure to enhance
organic content and provide nutrients and extra moisture-holding ability for the crop.
22.3.4 Season of sowing/planting
The objective in leek culture is the production of shoots of marketable size before the
leek plants bolt. In temperate Europe, premature bolting may be a problem of very
early plantings and normal bolting occurs in late-spring-harvested crops. In most
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countries, leek plants are transplanted after a nursery period of about 12 weeks. This
method permits the rejection of weak-growing plants. However, in the UK direct
drilling is more frequent.
Leeks are always started from seed and need a fairly long growing season to reach
a marketable size. In cool climates, leeks are usually planted as early in the spring as
possible, and are frequently transplanted from hotbeds or cold frames into the open
as soon as the soil becomes warm. Such early plantings are often ready by late
summer; successively later plantings may be harvested into the autumn, winter and
early spring. These later plantings are direct-seeded or grown from transplants. When
the false stems are to be blanched, the leeks are transplanted into trenches, where the
soil can be gradually banked against them. Leeks are sufficiently cold-resistant that
even in cool climates harvesting can continue throughout the winter, when many
other greens are off the market. Unlike onions or garlic, leeks have no definite
maturity dates and, as markets usually accept a wide range of sheath sizes, single
plantings may be harvested over a considerable period (Wurr et al., 1999; Jones and
Mann, 1963).
22.3.5 Seedling raising
Seed germination depends upon temperature, with 18–22 °C being the optimum. In
India, seeds are sown during August to October in the nursery beds, and seedlings are
ready to plant when they attain a height of 15 cm. About 5–7 kg of seeds are sufficient
to raise seedlings for planting one hectare of land. A method of magnetic separation
of leek seeds of low germination from commercial seed lots was described by Krishnan
and Barlage (1986).
22.3.6 Seed quality and priming
Adequate seed cleaning and grading and following this, the selection of large and
uniform seedlings at transplanting for improved crop uniformity in leek is very
important. A further improvement in germination performance and field uniformity
can be achieved by seed priming, in which controlled hydration of seeds permits
pregermination metabolic events to take place without radicle emergence. The process
engineering of leek seeds was developed, comprising osmotic priming, washing,
fluidized-bed drying (heated air is blown up from underneath through a layer of seeds
to promote rapid drying while they are floating in the air) and film coating; this has
been proven feasible (Bujalski et al., 1991). The superiority of the processed seeds is
usually reflected in improved germination, rapid and uniform emergence in the field
and improved early plant growth compared with untreated seed.
22.3.7 Plant density
The optimum plant density for leeks depends on the size grade required at harvest,
the date of planting or sowing, which influences the potential yield and the intended
harvest date. Mean width and length increase as the crop grows, and increase as plant
density decreases. For leeks of 20 mm minimum diameter and 150 mm minimum
length, a planting density of about 30 plants m–2 is optimal for early production.
However, to produce large leeks, densities of 20–25 plants m–2 are used. Leeks grown
at a high plant density appear more elongated than those grown at low density, i.e.,
Leek and shallot
373
the pseudostems have a higher length to breadth ratio. Also the degree of
blanching increases with density, especially for plants from the centre of beds (Brewster,
1994).
22.3.8 Planting
Leek seeds are generally sown directly into fields at rates of 10–15 seeds per 30 cm
row. Emerging seedlings are thinned to 10 cm apart. Transplanting of leeks is also
done and is often necessary for obtaining mid-summer through to autumn harvests.
Leeks are also sown directly or transplanted into trenches 15 cm wide and 15 cm
deep. As the leek plant grows, the trench is filled in. This results in the formation of
long white stems, a desirable characteristic for marketing leeks. The deeper the leeks
are trenched or hilled, the longer the tender white portion of the leaf stem becomes
(Decoteau, 2000).
The crop can be established more cheaply than transplanting by direct sowing into
beds in the spring. The viability and vigour of leek seed is highly variable and highquality seed is important for direct sowing. Besides being cheaper, direct sowing
tends to result in crops with less dirt in the leaf axils and with fewer bent pseudostems,
but the length of blanched sheath tends to be shorter than transplanted crops, and
direct-sown crops are more prone to bulbiness. In Bulgaria, leeks are grown from
transplants, sown mid-March and mid-April, and also by direct seeding at 8 kg seed/
ha without thinning. Direct seeding results in a higher total yield and is considerably
cheaper. For both methods the earlier sowing date produced considerably higher
yields and larger plants (Milanov, 1972).
22.3.9 Manuring and fertilization
Because the leek is larger than the onion, its requirements for manure and fertilizer
are higher. A crop of 30 t/ha removes 100 kg of nitrogen, 60 kg of P2O5, and 130 kg
of potash from the soil. The diameter and length of bulbs are increased by nitrogen
fertilization (McCollum, 1976). Kaniszewski (1986) reported the highest yield of
leeks with a preplanting application of 200 kg of N/ha under irrigated and nonirrigated conditions in dry years. In wet years, split application of 600 kg of N
recorded maximum yields. Randy Baker (1991) stated that leeks require about 200–
250 kg N (nitrogen) per hectare, preferably in three instalments – one-third pre-plant
incorporated, one-third as a side dressing, and one-third as a top dressing when the
leaves are dry. Phosphate requirements of leeks are not very substantial and applications
of 50–100 kg P2O5 per hectare are adequate. Potash requirements are also low and
150–200 kg K2O per hectare as sulfate of potash are adequate.
22.3.10 Irrigation and mulching
Uninterrupted growth is required for quality leeks and irrigation is often necessary in
areas where moisture stress occurs. Randy Baker (1991) reported that, depending on
weather conditions, a post-planting irrigation is desirable to ensure rapid establishment.
Further irrigation will be necessary if rainfall is deficient during the hot summer days
when rapid growth should take place. In Belgium two-year trials with leek cultivars
Proka and Catalina, sown in December and harvested in July, grown either in the
open or under polyethylene or PVC tunnels 4 m wide and 1.7 m high or 8 m wide and
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Handbook of herbs and spices
3.5 m high, the best results were obtained with 4 × 1.7 m polyethylene tunnels
(Benoit and Ceustermans 1978).
Trials with leeks (cv. Santina) showed that a white polyethylene soil mulch resulted
in higher yields than a black one, but did not result in any improvement compared
with bare ground. Bolting in spring curtails the period of marketability of overwintered leek crops. There is then a gap of about three months before spring planted
crops reach marketable size. Early harvests can be advanced by using transparent
crop covers. Trials have shown that mulches of polyethylene film with 500 × 1 cm
diameter perforations/m2 or with non-woven polypropylene fabrics, can advance
harvests. The films are laid over the crop at transplanting, which is usually in late
March or early April, following a January sowing in glasshouses. As the crop grows,
these light films are raised by the foliage and ‘float’ on top of the canopy of leaves.
Rainfall penetrates the perforations. Mean temperatures are raised by 1–2 °C under
these mulches resulting in faster growth. The mulches are removed about seven
weeks after transplanting. In European conditions marketable yields of 14 t/ha were
achieved by late June, and 31–40 t/ha by late July, with an advancement of 7–9 days
over the unprotected crops.
22.3.11 Blanching
Blanching is done by covering the plants to a certain height with soil to improve the
quality of the crop. For this purpose, plants are sunk up to their centre leaves in
trenches or pits that are heavily manured to earth up soil as they grow. Care should
be taken not to earth up soil early when the plants are young.
22.3.12 Weed control
There are no registered chemicals for weed control. Alternatives that can be useful
are stale-seedbed technique pre-planting, selecting fields with a low weed population
(crop rotation), and using row spacing that can be easily cultivated. If the size of the
crop warrants, special row crop tillage equipment is a good acquisition (Randy Baker,
1991). In two-year experiments carried out in Bulgaria, the best results in leek seedling
production were obtained with Ramrod at 7 kg/ha, applied pre-emergence, and Afalon
at 1 kg/ha sprayed post-emergence at the 2–3 leaf stage. Afalon alone was sufficient
to control annual dicotyledonous weeds. Prometryne at 3 kg/ha applied posttransplanting, destroyed both dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous weeds. Satisfactory
results were obtained with Afalon at 2 kg/ha plus Butisan at 10 l/ha, the former being
effective mainly against the dicotyledons and monocotyledons. All these herbicides
were well tolerated by the leeks (Velev and Ivanov, 1973).
22.3.13 Intercropping
Baumann et al. (2000) reported that intercropping of leek and celery in a row-by-row
replacement design considerably shortened the critical period for weed control in the
intercrop, compared with the leek pure stand. The relative soil cover of weeds that
emerged at the end of the critical period was reduced by 41% in the intercrop. In
another experiment, the biomass of Senecio vulgaris, which was planted 20 days
after crop establishment, was reduced by 58% in the intercrop and the number of
seedlings which emerged as offspring was reduced by 98%, all reductions compared
with the pure stand of leek. The relative yield total of the intercrop exceeded that of
Leek and shallot
375
the pure stand by 10%, probably as a result of an optimized exploitation of the
resources. The quality of the leek, however, was reduced.
Leek rust (Puccinia allii) is now also difficult to control. Experiments in which no
insecticides or fungicides were applied were carried out to assess the effects on thrips
populations and infection by leek rust when leek crops were undersown with
subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum). To evaluate the economic aspects of
this approach, both the quality and quantity of the leeks produced in the two systems
were compared. Undersowing leeks with clover drastically reduced thrips infestations,
which was reflected in improved quality of leeks at harvest. Leek rust incidence was
also reduced slightly by undersowing with clover and the quality of the leeks at
harvest was also better. Although the quality of the leeks was improved when the
crop was undersown with clover, the quantity of crop produced was reduced considerably
as a result of plant competition.
Legutowska and Tomczyk (1999) studied differences in the development of thrips
on leek monocropped and leek intercropped with white clover. Intercropping reduced
the number of thrips. Chemical analysis of leek sampled from both crops were
conducted to estimate the contents of some nutritional substances (carbohydrates,
vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and nitrogen), and content of dry matter was also estimated.
The chemical analyses were performed separately for the white part of the leek and
for the green part (leaves). Leek intercropped with clover was richer in vitamin C
than monocropped leek. Analysis of monocropped leek indicated rather higher reducing
sugars and more soluble sugars. Analysis of initial colonization by Thrips tabaci
adults in leek interplanted with clover indicated that colonization rates in the intercropped
leek plants were lower in comparison with the leek monocrop. Seventy per cent of
the newly established thrips adults were found on the monocrop leek plants. After
cutting the clover around leek plants, the thrips suppression persisted. This supports
the conclusion that attractiveness or nutritional quality of the leek plant for Thrips
tabaci is reduced as a direct result of the interaction of leek with clover (Belder Eden
and Elderson, 1998).
22.3.14 Protected cultivation
The large number of leek cultivars now available make it possible to sow the crop in
Western Europe from December to June. Harvesting takes place from June to May in
the next year. The cultivation of leek in Europe is divided, according to the time of
harvest, into three main periods, i.e., summer, autumn and winter. The ‘winter’ leek
can be harvested until early April and kept in cold stores for a few weeks. Profitable
yields of early leeks grown under protected cultivation (June/July) were increased by
double feeding with Nitrophoska Permanent (15:5:20:2) combined with irrigation
and temperatures of 18–20 °C compared with 12–14 °C or 14–16 °C. Earlier crops,
by 2–3 weeks, could be obtained by forcing under perforated plastic (500–700 holes/
m2) removed at the end of May before earthing up (Will, 1979).
22.3.15
Diseases
White-tip
White-tip disease, the most important leek disease in Europe during the winter, is
caused by Phytophthora porri Foister. Infected leaves show papery-white local lesions,
sometimes surrounded by dark-green watersoaked zones. Sporangia can develop in
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wet lesions and may release 10–30 zoospores, while zoospores are formed when the
leaves dry up and may survive for a long period. Harvest losses may be severe; in
some cases, total crop loss is reported. De clereq and Bockstaele (2002) reported that
a two-step chemical control method can be used. During September and October
maneb is used preventively; when the first symptoms are visible, more systemic
products such as benalaxyl or metalaxyl are used curatively.
White rot (Sclerotium caplvorum)
Randy Baker (1991) reported that this soil-borne fungal disease can be devastating if
present in farm soils. The fungus survives as sclerotia in the soil for long periods.
Leeks should be grown on land that has not grown an onion family crop recently.
Sanitation through cleaning of field equipment and disposing of cull leeks away from
production areas is important in preventing the spread of this disease. The first signs
are yellowing and dying back of the leaves beginning at the tips and progressing
downwards. Young plants wilt and collapse and are easily dislodged from the soil,
revealing a dense white mass of mycelium in which minute black sclerotia are embedded.
Cool, wet growing seasons favour the development of white rot.
Leek rust
Leek rust (Puccinia porri G. Wint., syn. P. allii F. Rudolphi) causes severe damage
on European leeks. As the crop is now cultivated all year round, the uredo stage of
leek rust is present throughout the year. During winter, low temperatures inhibit the
formation of uredosori (the bodies that produce urdeospores, one of a possible five
types of rust spores). As soon as the temperature increases in spring, the epidemic of
leek rust starts again. The disease develops most frequently under conditions of high
humidity and low rainfall, while immersion of the spores in water reduces their
viability. The highest infection efficiency occurs at 100% relative humidity (RH) at
10–15 °C and temperatures above 24 °C and below 10 °C inhibit infection. The
economic threshold for leek rust is low, as all leaves are prone to damage and leaf
removal is not practical. A regular spray schedule with protectant fungicides (e.g.
maneb or zineb) should give adequate protection (Schwartz and Mohan, 1995). Spraying
fenpropimorph, either alone or in mixtures with maneb, provides a good control.
Compounds of the triazole group – tebuconazole and epoxiconazole – are also effective;
treatments with propiconazole resulted in outstanding control.
22.3.16
Insect Pests
Leek moth
Kristen Callow (2003) reported that the leek moth (or onion leaf miner), Acrolepiopsis
assectella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Acrolepidae), a pest of Allium native to Europe, was
first positively identified in Eastern Ontario in 1993. The distribution of the pest
includes Asia, Africa, Europe and Canada. The leek moth is considered a serious pest
in some parts of Europe, with levels of infestation up to 40% in areas where the insect
has several generations per year. Where generations are limited to 1–2 per year, the
pest is sporadic and causes little economic damage. Surveys conducted in 2001 by
the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) indicated that the insect is present and
established in a localized area in Eastern Ontario and Western Quebec. Leek is the
preferred host of the pest, though other Allium crops can be attacked. The larvae will
Leek and shallot
377
tunnel mines in the leaf tissue, sometimes causing distortion, and are reported to
occasionally attack the bulb and stems. Damage to the leaves of leek can make them
unmarketable. Symptoms include mining and perforations.
On leek, larvae prefer to feed on the youngest leaves, but can consume leaves
more than two months old. They bore through the folded leaves towards the centre of
the plant, causing a series of pinholes on the inner leaves. Larval mines in the central
leaves become longitudinal grooves in the mature plant. It is reported that pyrethroids
and Bt products are effective tools for the management of infestations. Insecticides
are rarely required in the United Kingdom. Cultural controls including crop rotation,
delayed planting, removal of old and infested leaves, destroying any obvious pupae
or larvae, early harvesting (to avoid damage by last generation larvae and population
build-up), positioning susceptible crops away from infested areas and destruction of
plant debris following harvest may be effective in reducing populations below damaging
levels. German literature suggests covering leeks with netting prior to female activity
and cutting off all outer leaves before the winter leaves appear in late season may
reduce damage to leek. In Europe, a number of predators, parasites and pathogens are
known to attack the larvae and pupae of the leek moth.
Thrips
The major pest of leeks is the thrips (Thrips tabaci Lindeman). These 2 mm long
insects hide between the inner leaf blades, where they feed on cell fluids. The green
leaves lose their colour as the empty surface cells form thousands of highly visible
grey spots. The economic damage due to quality loss is serious. Thrips damage is
most severe when plants are water-stressed in hot, dry weather. In these conditions
leaf expansion is slow and the increase in thrips number is fast. At 30 °C, it takes only
11 days for the insect to develop from egg to adult (Edelson and Magaro, 1988).
Given the low damage threshold for thrips, much research has been done to control
this pest efficiently. The better chemical products are carbamates, including methiocarb
and furathiocarb. Some phosphorous compounds, such as acephate and malathion,
and also pyrethrins, may have protective effects. Novel pesticides for use against
thrips are being tested.
In the Netherlands, seed-coatings with fipronil were effective in protecting seedlings,
with no apparent phytotoxicity (Ester et al., 1997). Another approach suitable for
‘organic’ production is intercropping with legumes or other plants to discourage
thrips from feeding in large numbers on leeks. Belder and Elderson (1998) studied
the feasibility of intercropping in pot and field experiments in the Netherlands.
Intercropping with clover led to reduced thrips populations on leeks, even when the
legume was trimmed. Theunissen and Schelling (1998) reported that intercropping
leeks with clover (Trifolium fragiferum), either throughout the field or in between
rows, suppressed both larval and adult thrips populations.
22.3.17 Harvesting and yield potential
When harvested by hand the plants are usually lifted mechanically, then the roots are
cut, the outer damaged and senescent leaves are removed, the remaining leaves
shortened, and the plants are packed into boxes. When mechanical harvesting is used,
hand cleaning and machine washing are necessary. The crop is ready to harvest once
the blanched basal portion of the leaves is at least 1.25 cm in diameter. However,
because the plant does not form a bulb, there is no rush to harvest, and growers often
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wait until the plants reach 5 cm in diameter to pick the crop. Similar to onions and
garlic, growers may undercut the plants to facilitate harvest. After the plants are
removed from the soil, the roots are cut off, along with all but 5 cm of the green leaf
blade, leaving mostly the white sheath of overlapped leaves. The plants can also be
left in the ground over the winter but should be harvested in the spring before growth
resumes.
Leek yield potential is dependent on plant population. Row spacings of 60 cm and
plant spacings of 10 cm will give a stand in excess of 160,000 plants per hectare. If
we consider a harvestable crop at 80% of original stand, approximately 3600 cartons
containing 12 bunches of leeks will be marketed. Similarly, a row spacing of 91 cm
and plant spacing of 15 cm will give a stand in excess of 70,000 plants with harvestable
crop yield of approximately 1600 cartons containing 12 bunches (Randy Baker, 1991).
22.4
Uses in food industry/processing
The leaves and long white blanched stems are cooked. The sharp flavour of leeks
often disappears upon boiling, leaving behind a very mild, pleasant-tasting product.
They can also be cut into thin slices and be added to salads, which gives a mild onion
flavour with a delightful sweetness (Anon., 2005c). The thick leaf bases and slightly
developed bulb are eaten as a cooked vegetable or raw with or without attached
leaves. The green leaves are edible and have a pungent odour and acrid taste. They
are used more for flavouring in salads and cooked dishes. A favourite dish for many
gardeners is leek soup (Stephens, 1994). They are used primarily for flavouring
soups and stews in place of onions. Because of their symbolism in Wales they have
come to be used extensively in that country’s cuisines (Anon., 2005b).
22.5
Functional properties
22.5.1 Nutritional value
The leek does not offer a great deal of nutrient value besides bulk and a pleasant
taste. The overall vitamin and mineral content corresponds roughly to that of onion.
Nutrition facts for leeks are furnished in Table 22.2 (Anon., 2005b). Table 22.3
shows the nutrients for which leek is either an excellent, very good or good source.
Next to the nutrient name the following information is furnished: the amount of the
nutrient that is included in the noted serving of this food; the % daily value (DV) that
amount represents (this DV is calculated for a 25–50-year-old healthy woman); the
nutrient density rating; and the food’s World’s Healthiest Foods Rating. Underneath
the chart is a table that summarizes how the ratings are devised (Anon., 2005a).
22.5.2 Health benefits
Leeks, like garlic and onions, belong to a vegetable family called the Allium vegetables.
Since leek is related to garlic and onions, it contains many of the same beneficial
compounds found in these well-researched, health-promoting vegetables (Anon.,
2005a).
Leek and shallot
Table 22.2
379
Nutritional facts for leek (serving size 1 leek, i.e., 124 g)
Amount for serving
Calories 38
Calories from Fat 2
% Daily value *
Total fat 0 g
Saturated fat 0 g
Cholesterol 0 mg
Sodium 12 mg
Total carbohydrates 9 g
Dietary fibre 1 g
Sugars
Protein 1 g
Vitamin A
1% Vitamin C
Calcium
4% Iron
0%
0%
0%
1%
3%
5%
9%
8%
* Per cent daily values are based on a 2000 calorie diet. Our daily values may be higher
or lower depending on our calorie needs.
Source: Anon., 2005b.
Table 22.3
Nutrients in leeks, boiled (0.5 cup serving; 16.12 calories)
Nutrient
Amount
Daily value
(DV) (%)
Nutrient
density
World’s healthiest
foods rating
Manganese
Vitamin C
Iron
Folate
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
0.13 mg
2.18 mg
0.57 mg
12.64 meg
0.06 mg
6.5
3.6
3.2
3.2
3.0
7.3
4.1
3.5
3.5
3.3
Very good
Good
Good
Good
Good
World’s healthiest food rating rule
Excellent
Very good
Good
DV> = 75% OR Density> = 7.6 AND DV> = 10%
DV> = 50% OR Density> = 3.4 AND DV> = 5%
DV> = 25% OR Density> = 1.5 AND DV> =2.5 %
Source: Anon., 2005a.
Lower LDL cholesterol while raising HDL cholesterol
A high intake of Allium vegetables has been shown to reduce total cholesterol and
low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or ‘bad’ cholesterol levels, while at the same time
raising high-density lipoprotein (HDL) or ‘good’ cholesterol levels. This can be very
important for preventing the development or progression of the blood vessel plaques
that occur in atherosclerosis and diabetic heart disease. If these plaques grow too
large or rupture, the result can be a heart attack or stroke. Allium vegetables have also
been shown to lower high blood pressure, another risk factor for heart attack and
stroke (Anon., 2005a).
Protection from cancer
Regular consumption of Allium vegetables, as little as two or more times a week, is
associated with a reduced risk of prostate and colon cancer. The research focused on
colon cancer suggests that several of the compounds found in these foods are able to
protect colon cells from cancer-causing toxins, while also stopping the growth and
spread of any cancer cells that do happen to develop. Although leeks contain many of
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the same compounds as those active in fresh garlic and onions, they contain them in
smaller amounts. For this reason, larger amounts of leeks may need to be eaten to
obtain the benefits provided by its Allium family cousins. Fortunately, the mild, sweet
taste of leeks makes this easy (Anon., 2005a).
Stabilize blood sugar levels
In addition to their unique properties as Allium family vegetables, leeks also emerged
from a food ranking system as a very good source of manganese and a good source
of vitamin B6, vitamin C, folate, and iron. This particular combination of nutrients
would make leeks particularly helpful in stabilizing blood sugar, since they not only
slow the absorption of sugars from the intestinal tract, but help ensure that they are
properly metabolized in the body (Anon., 2005a).
22.6
Quality issues
Leeks of good quality have fresh green tops and well-blanched stems or shanks. In
order to attain 15–20 cm or more of white shank, a common practice is to plant the
young transplants in a shallow trench 10–15 cm deep and as the plants grow the rows
are cultivated and gradually hilled to promote more white stalk development. The
greater the length of white shank, usually the more premium is the product. Wilting
and yellowing of the top will downgrade the quality. Bruised tops are unimportant if
they can be trimmed without spoiling the appearance. Crooked stems and bulbous
bases are not desirable characteristics and should be avoided in order to maintain a
premium pack (Randy Baker, 1991).
Leeks must be grown to a certain size before they are marketable. The criteria of
marketability vary from outlet to outlet, and various specifications for marketable
size have been used in scientific studies on the crop. Currently, leek of pseudostem
diameter greater than 20 mm and length greater than 150 mm, including a 50 mm
‘flag’ of green leaf at the top, meet UK supermarket specifications. Such leeks should
have an average fresh weight of about 160 g. In some past studies, all leeks of
diameter greater than 12.5 mm have been classed as marketable, and in some more
traditional markets large leeks, greater than 40 mm diameter, are required. In fact, the
leek is a variable crop and some grading into different sizes is essential to satisfy the
requirements for uniformity demanded by most outlets.
22.6.1 Post-harvest handling
Following lifting, the outer leaves are removed, the remaining leaves are shortened and
the plants are washed or brushed, graded for length and diameter and packed into boxes.
Leeks are sometimes sold loose and sometimes pre-packed in trays with plastic covers
or in plastic bags. The requirements for pre-packing leeks include uniform lengths of
the white portion of the pseudostem. New products, such as ‘baby leeks’, are also
appearing in European markets. In Europe about 90% of the leek crop is sold on the
fresh market and 10% is processed by the industry. Some processed leeks are used for
freezing, some are freeze-dried and some are used to prepare ready-cooked dishes.
Decoteau (2000) reported that harvested leeks are cooled by hydrocooling, icing,
or vacuum cooling to preserve freshness. If vacuum cooling is used, the leeks are
often wrapped in ventilated polyethylene to prevent desiccation. Leeks held at near
6 °C and about 90% relative humidity can be stored for two to three months.
Leek and shallot
381
22.6.2 Marketing
Markets usually accept a wide range of stalk sizes. The standard method of packaging
leeks is three uniform sized stalks per bunch and twelve bunches per box. The grower
usually selects bunches to give a uniform grade standard in a box. Physical size of
leek is not important but bigger stalks command better prices than smaller stalks.
Wholesalers prefer bunches that are uniform within the bunch and uniform throughout
the box (Randy Baker, 1991).
22.6.3 Selection and storage
Leeks are available throughout the year although they are in greater supply from the
autumn through to the early part of spring. Fresh leeks should be stored unwashed
and untrimmed in the refrigerator, where they will keep fresh for between one and
two weeks. Wrapping them loosely in a plastic bag will help them to retain moisture.
Cooked leeks are highly perishable, and even when kept in the refrigerator, will stay
fresh for only about two days. Leeks may be frozen after being blanched for two to
three minutes, although they will lose some of their desirable taste and texture qualities.
Leeks will keep in the freezer for about three months (Anon., 2005a). Goffings and
Herregods (1989) reported that freshly harvested, unwashed leeks stored at 0 °C and
94–95% relative humidity in atmosphere containing 2% oxygen, 2% carbon dioxide,
and 96% N2 had improved quality.
Grazegorzewska and Bakowski (1996) reported that storage of a total of 22 leek
cultivars in different types of crate was studied in several experiments between 1978
and 1993 in Poland. The leeks were stored in universal (U-type), half-size universal
or specially designed leek crates at 0 or –1.5 °C. The specially designed crates were
600 × 400 × 435 mm in size and held 5 kg of leeks stored vertically. The quality of
leeks was similar following storage in the universal and specially designed crates.
Storage was better at –1.5 °C than at 0 °C. Goffings and Herregods (1989) reported
that freshly harvested unwashed leeks (cv. Castlestar) were stored at 0 °C and 94–
96% RH in atmosphere containing 2% O2, 2% CO2 and 0 or 5% CO (the remainder
being N2) or in normal air, or at –1 °C in an atmosphere containing 2% O2, and 2%
CO2 and stem and leaf colour, stem firmness and mould development were monitored
after eight weeks of storage when leeks were restored to a temperature of 7 °C for
two weeks. Storage in a modified atmosphere (2% O2 + 2% CO2) improved leek
quality compared with storage in unmodified air. Addition of 5% CO further reduced
the incidence of storage moulds. Leeks maintained in modified atmosphere storage
for up to eight weeks had a shelf-life of up to two weeks. Storage at –1 °C further
improved leek preservation but slow defrosting before handling was also necessary.
22.7
22.7.1
Shallot
Description, botany, origin and distribution
Description
Shallots (Allium ascalonicum L.; Synon. A. cepa L. var ascalonicum Backer) are a
perennial crop that is grown as an annual for its cluster of small bulbs or cloves. They
have a delicate onion-like flavor and may be grown for their dry bulbs or used in the
same manner as green onions (Swiader et al., 1994). Botanically speaking, they are
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Handbook of herbs and spices
a form of bulbing multiplying onion, differentiated by their smaller size. Originally,
they were named for a plant found by the Crusaders, but they bear no botanical
relationship to that plant. Most shallots in the market today are not even the same
shallot so beloved by the French. Instead, they are varieties developed by crossing
common onions with Welsh onions or other multipliers – a primary aim of the plant
breeders was to create varieties that could be readily reproduced.
Some authorities differentiate shallots from other multipliers by the colour of their
skins. The Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food, for example, identifies shallots
as those with red skins (or scales) and true multipliers as those with yellow or brown
skins. Most shallots do not flower or produce seed, although breeders have developed
some new varieties that can be grown from seed. In practical terms, shallots are
small, layered multipliers with a special taste that falls somewhere between onion
and garlic. They are propagated in the ground the same way as other bulbing multipliers,
and each bulb produces from four to twelve baby bulbs in a bunch, joined at the base
by a membrane. In most varieties, each bulb is split into two large cloves that may or
may not share a common wrapper. Shallots are favoured by chefs for their distinctive
flavour, described as a blend of onion and garlic (Brook Eliot, 2003).
Botany
The term shallot refers to the vegetatively propagated forms of Allium cepa var.
ascalonicum, which were included in aggregatum group of the species. Shallots of
this type appear to have been derived by selection from a naturally occurring variant
within Allium cepa. Several cultivars are actually derived from A. cepa × Allium
fistolosum crosses (e.g. Delta Giant). These should not be confused with the shallots
of the Allium cepa aggregatum group. Allium cepa shallots are distinguished from
natural bulb onion by their habit of multiplying vegetatively by laterals and growth
– a single shallot bulb usually contains several initial shoots. The bulb can be planted
(Currah and Proctor, 1990), and several leafy shoots will grow out from it. Each
shoot then rapidly produces a small bulb, forming a cluster that remains attached to
the original base plate (Vadivelu and Muthukrishnan, 1982). The bulbs can be separated
and the process repeated in the next growing season.
Morphologically, a shallot bulb (synonyms: set, bulblet, bulbil) is very similar to
the bulb of the common onion. A mature bulb consist of a compressed stem axis or
basal plate, storage leaf-bases of the outer leaves, which have lost their blades, and
bladeless ‘true scales’. In the centre of each bulb there are a few leaf buds that under
favourable conditions sprout when dormancy ends. Unlike the modern bulb onion, a
typical shallot bulb contains a number of laterals in the axils of the inner leaves. All
sets formed from a single propagule usually remain attached to the original basal plate,
thus forming a cluster of sets (Currah and Proctor, 1990). The foliage and the inflorescence
of shallots are usually smaller than those of the bulb onion. However, root morphology,
the unifacial, hollow, slightly flattened tubular leaves, the hollow scape, the terminal
inflorescence and the flowers are similar to those of the common onion.
Origin and distribution
In the tropics, shallots are often grown in areas where onion culture is difficult
because the climate is humid and bulb onion is susceptible to leaf diseases that
shallot can withstand. Shallot has a very short growing season of only two to three
months, which allows it to be grown between other crops or during a short-day
season. In the lowland tropics, lack of a distinct cool period can prevent onion from
Leek and shallot
383
flowering; under such conditions, growing of shallot is advantageous. Thompson and
Kelly (1957) reported that shallot is believed to have come from Western Asia. It is
a perennial and seldom produces seeds, but the bulb when planted divides into a
number of cloves, which remain attached at the bottom. It has been in cultivation for
a long time. It is mentioned and figured in nearly all old works on botany. It is
sometimes grown for the dry bulb but usually for the young plant which is used in the
same way as green onions. On a global scale, shallot is a minor Alliaceous crop.
However, in South East Asia – for example, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand – as
well as in some African countries, such as Uganda, Ethiopia and Ivory Coast, where
onion seed is hard to produce, where onion culture is difficult and also where the
growing season is too short for the production of bulb onion, the vegetatively propagated
shallot is cultivated as an important substitute for bulb onion (Currah and Proctor,
1990; Grubben, 1994).
Some tropical clones of shallot flower more readily than those from temperate
climates (Currah and Proctor, 1990). In many South-East Asian countries and elsewhere,
the green shallot inflorescences are harvested just after the scape reaches its final
length (with the green spathe still closed), and the edible floral buds are used as salad
onions. Additional advantages of tropical and sub-tropical shallots are tolerance to
the hot and humid tropical climate, better tolerance to pests and diseases, and longer
storage life than standard short-day onions. Many of these genotypes are also preferred
to bulb onions by consumers for their good culinary qualities, such as high pungency
(Grubben, 1994).
22.7.2 Chemical composition
Shallots may contain more fat and soluble solids, including sugars, than bulb onions
(Currah and Proctor, 1990). Standards for quality grades of shallot bulbs were issued
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) (Anon., 1946). Shallot bulbs are
usually smaller and more highly flavoured than those of the single-hearted bulb
onion. Shallots contain higher levels of fats and soluble solids, including sugars, than
bulb onion (16–33% vs. 7–15% dry weight, respectively) (Currah and Proctor, 1990)
which, together with sulphur-containing compounds, make shallot an essential
component in gourmet cooking.
The dry matter of shallot consists of 70–85% carbohydrates, mainly fructans,
glucose, fructose and sucrose. As in the bulb onion, cell-wall components, such as
cellulose and pectins, contribute 10–15% of the carbohydrate fraction. The red shallot
contains anthocyanins (glucosides of cyanidin) (Joslym and Peterson, 1958) and the
yellow colour is largely of the flavonol Quercetin (Kuroda and Umeda, 1951). Shallots
contain water: 79.8, calories: 72, protein: 2.5, fat: 0.1, carbohydrate: 16.8, fibre: 0.7,
ash: 0.9 g/100 g fresh weight of root and calcium: 37, phosphorous: 60, Iron: 1.2,
sodium: 12, potassium: 334, vitamin A: 0, thiamine: 0.06, riboflavin: 0.02, niacin:
0.2, vitamin C: 8 mg/100 g fresh weight of root (Anon., 2005c).
22.8
Cultivation and production
22.8.1 Cultivars
Improved lines of multiplier onion have been bred in India at Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore, by crossing with bulb onion CO-1 to CO-4 series of cultivars
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developed there (Currah and Proctor, 1990). In cultivars where flowering can be
induced, a cool period of 40 days at 14 °C is required. Although seeds can be
produced from some lines, vegetative multiplication is usually practised. The CO
cultivars are pink or red in colour. The multiplier onion splits into several daughter
bulbs, ranging in number from 4–8 to 8–10. Both multiplier onion and tropical
shallots take only 60–75 days to multiply and die down again, and the bulbs can be
stored for considerable periods (over five months). Individual clusters of multiplier
onion in the CO series have an average weight range of 25–85 g. Other cultivars
reported from Indonesia are Ampenan, Cloja, Bima, Kuning, Bauji, Balijo, Suminep,
Bawang Lambung, Betawi Cipanos, and Hajakuning.
22.8.2 Climatic requirement
An average temperature of 25–32 °C is optimum during the growing period of
shallots. Jenkins (1954) reported that high temperature favoured bulbing. Plants
grown at temperatures of 21 °C and higher all formed bulbs, but larger bulbs were
produced with a 15-hour photoperiod than with a 10-hour photoperiod. When the
temperature was lower than 21 °C, no bulbs were formed regardless of day length.
22.8.3 Soils
Shallots can be grown in all types of soil with a pH of more than 5.6, however, welldrained alluvial soils are preferred for better growth and development. Kusumo and
Muhadjir (1987) grew shallots traditionally after the harvest of the rice crop on raised
beds of subsoil obtained from the deep furrows. However, seed origin and soil type
had no significant effect on yields.
22.8.4 Propagation
With a few exceptions, shallot is currently propagated vegetatively in most parts of
the world. Vegetative propagation has until now been dominant in shallot culture
throughout the world (Currah and Proctor, 1990). When grown from sets, the shallotgrowing season is relatively short, thus enabling production where onions from seed
cannot produce economic yields of commercially acceptable sized bulbs. However,
when grown from seed, hybrid shallots with strong heterosis have a fast growth rate
and bear high yields after 3–4 months of growth. In more temperate lands, similar
practices are used in Europe, the USA and Argentina, where sets are transplanted on
raised beds at 25–40 plants m–2. Yields of vegetatively propagated shallots range
between 5 and 30 t ha–1 in Indonesia (Subijanto, 1988).
In Israel, 100% of the shallot grown commercially is propagated from seed. Krontal
et al. (1998) were the first to provide a scientific description of seedling development,
based on material derived from a nameless Thai landrace, Israeli Genebank accession
no. 66–1004. Seeds of tropical shallot are smaller than those of bulb onion, the 1000seed weights being on average roughly 2–3 g and 3–4 g, respectively. Seeds have no
dormancy and readily germinate when moisture is available. The black seed-coat is
crinkled and the seed is irregular in shape, like that of onion.
22.8.5 Planting
Three shallot crops are grown a year, the major seasons being April to August,
Leek and shallot
385
January to March, and September to December (Currah and Proctor, 1990). A few
plantings are made in August, although the bulk of the crop is planted during October
with little planting until January (Jenkins, 1954). Sinnadurai (1973) described the
growing system for shallots in the coastal area of Ghana. The shallots are planted on
raised beds in sandy soils 7 cm apart. About four tons of bulbils are required for
planting one hectare. In Indonesia, 900–1000 kg of planting material is needed for
one hectare. Plants are spaced 15 × 15 cm to 20 × 20 cm according to the cultivar. At
planting, the tops are cut if the bulbs are dormant (Currah and Proctor, 1990).
A plant will produce from two to fifteen bulblets per cluster. The crop is propagated
by dividing the bulb clusters and planting individual bulblets, or cloves, 5 cm deep,
10 cm apart, in rows 30–60 cm apart. Warm temperatures and long photoperiods
favour bulbing.
22.8.6 Manuring and fertilization
The shallot crop is given a basal dressing of fertilizers or mixed fertilizers 10–15
days after planting and is then fertilized at two-week intervals until two weeks before
harvest with 200 kg of urea per hectare on each occasion. Muhadjir and Kusumo
(1986) planted cultivars Ampenan and Medan with a basal dressing consisting of 100
kg each of N and P2O5 and 0, 50, and 100 kg of K2O per hectare. The highest yields
were obtained with 100 kg each of N and P2O5, and 50 kg K2O. The quantity of
nitrogen used had no influence on growth, leaf colour, susceptibility to bolting, or
number of bulbs, however, increasing nitrogen had an adverse effect on the uniformity
of leaf canopy at maturity, and 60 kg of nitrogen is recommended.
22.8.7 Culture
Shallots should be grown in the same way as onions. Plants that are not heavily cut
will proceed to form many bulbs attached together forming a clump. Shallot bulbs
often develop on top of the ground. Do not cover them with soil (Lane Greer and
George Kuepper, 1999).
22.8.8 Diseases and insect pests
The main diseases and pests are: anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporoides), basal
rot (Fusarium oxysporum), downy mildew (Peronospora destructor), moulds
(Aspergillus niger, Penicillium corymbiferum, Penicillium cyclopium), neck rot (Botrytis
allii), onion blast (Botrytis squamosa), pink root (Pyrenochaeta terrestris), purple
blotch (Alternaria porri), smudge (Colletotrichum circinans), white rot (Sclerotium
cepivorum, Sclerotium rolfsii), nematodes (Ditylenchus dipsaci), thrips (Thrips tabaci),
beet armyworm (Spodoptera exigua) and other Spodoptera sp. caterpillars, as well as
a number of virus diseases (Currah and Proctor, 1990; Grubben, 1994; Kuruppu,
1999).
Loss of shallot yield from pests and diseases is common all over the world, and
chemical treatment is the major means currently used to reduce damage (Anon.,
1986; Suhardi, 1996). However, good agricultural practices can be used to partially
control losses. Practices that are essential for high-quality long-keeping yields include
crop rotation, drip irrigation (which is preferred over sprinkler irrigation to maintain
low air humidity), proper spacing to allow free passage of air so as to reduce the
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relative humidity of the air, proper harvesting and curing practices, well-ventilated or
cold storage and proper sanitation. No information is published on resistance/tolerance
to pests in shallots, but some landraces show better field tolerance to some foliage
diseases than the bulb onion, and differences in resistance between cultivars are
noticeable (Currah and Proctor, 1990).
Shallots are susceptible to a number of air-borne and soil-borne fungi, as well as
to insects, nematodes, bacteria and viruses. Tolerance/resistance to purple blotch was
reported for red shallot and the bulb onion ‘Red Creole’ from Ethiopia (Currah and
Proctor, 1990). A variety of diseases caused by organisms like Alternaria porri and
Colletotrichum species can be controlled with sprays of maneb. To control Spodoptera
species as well as thrips, twice-weekly sprays of monocrotophos or other insecticides
are used (Warade and Shinde, 1998).
22.8.9 Harvest and market preparation
Lane Greer and George Kuepper (1999) reported that autumn-planted shallots mature
in nine months, but the clusters will be smaller. Expect to harvest 5–7 kg of shallots
for each kg planted. This is roughly equivalent to 8–12 shallots for every shallot set
planted. Shallots are ready for harvest when the leaves begin to fall over and bulb
size is over 2.5 cm in diameter. Bulb maturity can be accelerated by withholding
irrigation water or by undercutting the root system. Bulbs for storage may be harvested
when 50% or more of the tops have fallen over, but the bulbs must cure and dry
thoroughly before being stored. Bulbs intended for immediate use can be harvested
when 15–25% of the tops are down. Thick-necked bulbs should be used immediately,
as they do not store well. Shallots will keep for about eight months if stored in a cool,
dry place. A single shallot bulb contains several shoot initials that resemble those of
doubled onions and each bulblet is covered with one to three protective skins. Dormancy
lasts between two and a half and four months (Sinnadurai and Amuti, 1971; Currah
and Proctor, 1990).
Harvest takes place when 70–80% of the leaves have turned yellow, i.e., 65–70
days after planting in the lowlands and 80–100 days after planting in highland areas.
The shallots are pulled by hand after they have obtained a diameter of at least 0.5–
0.6 cm. The outer skin is peeled off and the roots are trimmed, after which they are
washed and tied into 1-kg bunches. For dry bulb production, shallots are dried for 5–
14 days in the field and covered by plastic if it rains (Warade and Shinde, 1998).
According to Thompson and Kelly (1957) and Swiader et al. (1994) when shallots
are grown for their dry bulbs, the harvest and handling is similar to that used for
onions. Shallots grown for green onions are pulled when their tops are 15–20 cm long
and after they have obtained a minimum diameter of 0.62 cm.
Barrels containing 20 dozen (240) bunches were the standard containers for many
years. Shallots are also packed in 1-bushed and 11/3 bushed crates which hold five or
eight dozen bunches (60 or 96). The bunches must be packed with crushed ice since
they heat and spoil rapidly unless iced.
22.9
Uses in food industry/processing
The Indonesian shallot variety Sumenap is said to have a high fat content. In Ethiopia,
small local red shallots grown in the highlands are highly valued in the traditional
Leek and shallot
387
wat sauce to accompany Injera bread made from wheat flour (Currah and Proctor,
1990). Shallots are also used in certain sauces. Shallots are often considered the
gourmet member of the onion family. They have a mild, delicate but distinctive
flavour and can either be grown for use as green onions, or for the clusters of small
bulbs that are used like garlic or onions (Lane Greer and George Kuepper, 1999).
22.10
Quality issues
22.10.1 Storage
Dry shallot bulbs are sold either fresh or from storage. Shallot clones vary considerably
in storage life, with a range of 2–9 months, and storage temperature and genetic traits
are the main factors that influence storage life (Currah and Proctor, 1990; Grubben,
1994). In Thailand, high N level in the stored bulbs was found to be associated with
short keeping, with premature harvest when carried out before leaf wilting and with
poor post-harvest handling (Ruaysoongnern, 1994). Storage diseases, early sprouting
and shrivelling seem to be the main limiting factors for long keeping of shallots in
tropical and sub-tropical countries. Bulb onions and most shallots store well at low
(–0 °C) and high (roughly 25–30 °C) temperatures (Krontal et al., 2000). However,
shallots can be stored for long periods, over five months, under ambient conditions in
the tropics (Currah and Proctor, 1990). Storage in shade heaps in the field or in open
sheds under ambient conditions is common in the tropics, in Israel and in other
places.
22.11
References
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MILANOV B
MUHADJIR F
23
Lemon balm
H. Turhan, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
23.1
Introduction
Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) belongs to the family Labiatae (Mint family) is
an aromatic and fairly hardy perennial sub-shrub. Some vernacular names are balm,
common balm, blue balm, dropsy plant, honey plant, Herzkraut, citronelle, cytria,
cedronella, badarendjabouya, alahana, mallisa, ogulotu, kovanotu, seiyo-yama-hakka,
sweet balm, limouna, limounneta, franjmeshk, toronjil, tronjan, turungan, melisso,
melliss, sidrunmeliss, Melissenblatter, Melissenkraut and Melissa (WHO, 2002).
Melissa officinalis L. consists of three subspecies, subsp. officinalis, subsp. inodora
and subsp. altissima (Mill, 1982; Craker and Simon, 1992). Among them, Melissa
officinalis subsp. officinalis is commonly used and has the characteristic lemony
taste and smell. Melissa is a Latin derivation of the Greek word for honeybee and
officinalis is the indication of its medicinal nature. It has been used in Mediterranean
region and Europe since the Middle Ages for several purposes such as regulating
sleep, appetite and digestion, reducing anxiety and a pain relief. Lemon balm has a
documented medicinal history extending back to 50–80 BC (Kennedy et al., 2003).
The London Dispensary (1696) stated, ‘An essence of Balm, given in Canary wine,
every morning will renew youth, strengthen the brain, relieve languishing nature and
prevent baldness’.
In Victorian times lemon balm was used as a symbolic plant for transmitting
messages between lovers. It was a symbol of sympathy and used to make soothing
medicines. In ancient times, it was also believed to drive away evil from a house
when it was grown in front of the door. Today, lemon balm naturally grows in various
parts of the world, including the eastern Mediterranean region, western Asia and
northern Africa (Simon et al., 1984). It was brought to America from Europe by
colonists and started to grow in their gardens. Today, it is one of the more widely
cultivated medicinal and aromatic plants in much of Europe and northern America.
Morphological features of lemon balm such as plant height, stem and leaf size
show a variation depending mainly upon genotype, environment or cultural applications
(Sari and Ceylan, 2002). In general, lemon balm can grow up to 1.5 m height and
Lemon balm
391
spread 0.5–1.0 m across. It is characterised by square stems, lemon-scented and
scalloped edge leaves, and flowers that mature from white or yellow to pale blue. The
green leaves, which give off a fragrant lemon smell when bruised, are about egg or
heart shaped and 2–8 cm in length and arranged in opposing pairs on the stems.
Upper leaves are usually bigger than lower leaves. Veins in the leaves can be easily
seen. The small flowers (0.5–1.5 cm size) are produced all summer long. They grow
in loose, small branches from the axils of the leaves on the stems (Fig. 23.1).
Lemon balm is a cross-pollinating species, and has complete perfect flowers with
very short-stalked epidermal glands. The flowers consist of five fused sepals, five
petals, two or four stamens and four lobed ovaries forming 1–4 nutlets. The seeds are
very small about 1–1.5 mm long, ovate, dark brown or black in colour. The weight
of 1000 seeds is 0.5–0.7 g. A long storage period causes a reduction in germination
vigour. Seeds stored for five years may no longer germinate. Lemon balm has a hairy
root system with many lateral roots, which makes the plant more adaptable to different
environmental conditions. The upper parts of the plant die off at the start of winter,
but new shoots re-emerge from the roots at the beginning of spring.
23.2
Chemical composition
Much work on chemical composition in both essential oil and different parts of
lemon balm has been reported. Essential oil rate in drug herb changes between 0.02–
0.30%, which is quite low compared to other member of the family Labiatae (Sari
and Ceylan, 2002; Saglam et al., 2004). That is why the production cost and price of
essential oil is very high in the market. The main constituents of the essential oil are
citral (geranial and neral), citronellal, linalool, geraniol, β-pinene, α-pinene, βcaryophyllene and β-caryophyllene oxide, comprising about 96% of the oil ingredients.
Carnat et al. (1998) explored the chemical composition of essential oil of lemon
balm, and found that major components are citral (neral + geranial) representing
Fig. 23.1
Parts of the lemon balm plant (Melissa officinalis L.).
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48% of the essential oil, followed by citronellal with 39.47% and Hc β-caryophyllene
with 2.37%.
In another investigation, the percentages of the main constitutes found by Sari and
Ceylan (2002) are as follows: α-pinene (2.86), β-pinene (11.73%), linalool (2.74%),
citronella (5.86%), borneol (0.62%), neral (12.22%) and geraniol (38.13%). In addition,
fresh herb of lemon balm contains total phenolics (2253 mg/100 mg), L-Ascorbic
acid (53.2 mg/100 mg) and carotenoids (46.3 mg/100 mg) (Capecka et al., 2005).
Ivanova et al. (2005) found that lemon balm extract contains on average 1370.09 µM
total phenols and has an antioxidant capacity of 4.06 TEAC (Trolox equivalent
antioxidant capacity).
As the essential oils show complex structures, essential oil rate or its chemical
composition of lemon balm is strongly affected by several factors such as light
intensity, nutrient, temperature, cultural practices, genotype, plant part, age, harvesting
time, etc. For example, essential oil rate and tannin contents increase with increasing
light intensity from 1000 to 1500 lux (Manukyan, 2004). Similarly, the nutrient
applied to lemon balm also has a significant effect on average essential oil rate.
Another investigation showed that lemon balm under saline conditions tends to decrease
its essential oil ratio whereas it increases under drought conditions (Ozturk et al.,
2004). On the other hand, essential rate does not change significantly with plant
density and plant source used for propagation (Saglam et al., 2004). However, both
essential oil content and its components very much depend upon the harvest cut
height of lemon balm (Mrlianova et al., 2002). Average essential oil content in the
top third part is 0.39% whereas it is 0.14% in the whole aerial part. Thus, there is an
ontogenetic variation for essential oil in balm leaves (Hose et al., 1997). Caryophyllene
oxide content as a main constituent also changes depending on age and environment
(Meyer and Spiteller, 1996). Poor soils without fertilisation increase Caryophyllene
oxide content. It is also important to mention that the collection period of the plant
material changes product quality criteria such as essential oil content and components.
23.3
Cultivation and production
There has been a growing demand for plant based medicines, health products,
pharmaceuticals, food ingredients, cosmetics, etc. Lemon balm is one of those plants
and is used in several areas. In some countries such as Turkey, Syria and the Kingdom
of Jordan, many medicinal and aromatic plants including lemon balm are collected
from the flora. Cultivation of these species should alleviate the pressure on the
wild populations and avoid their extinction. Therefore, apart from protection of
biodiversity, its cultivation is commercially attractive to companies, as providing
standard raw material in terms of quality and supply. Today lemon balm is widely
cultivated in Europe and the United States, but also grows wild along paths and
roadsides.
The plant prefers sandy and loamy fertile soils, well drained and at pH range 5 to
7. It grows well in full sun, but it also grows well in partial shade. When the plants
grow in semi-shade, they produced larger leaves and habitat than those grown in
sunny condition. Lemon balm can rapidly grow at temperature range 15 to 35 °C and
requires 500–600 mm precipitation well distributed throughout the growing season,
otherwise it should be irrigated. It is sensitive especially to drought in the establishment
year. Once it develops a deep root system, its water requirement lessens. However, it
Lemon balm
393
should be well irrigated in arid and semi-arid regions for obtaining high green herb
yield. The average life of a plant is ten years, but economic life length is about five
years.
Lemon balm can be propagated from seeds, stem cuttings and root division. The
seeds (8–10 kg/ha) are very small, thus should be covered with a fine layer of soil in
the spring or early autumn. Seed germination is slow, taking between two or four
weeks. Therefore, probably, obtaining seedlings from seeds is preferable to direct
seeding in the field for successful propagation. In addition, the use of seedlings as a
propagation method produces a better herb yield compared to root division with a
single shoot (Saglam et al., 2004). For seedling production, 50–80 g seeds are sown
in 12–15 m2 of a pre-prepared seedbed (Ilisulu, 1992). These produced seedlings will
be enough to transplant 0.1 ha area. Transplanting time of seedlings to the field is
autumn or spring. However, instead of propagation from seeds or seedling, vegetative
propagation such as stem cutting or root division could be an easier and faster
method to establish a lemon balm plantation (Davis, 1997). In another method for
expanding a lemon balm plantation, a long stem, which is still attached to the parent
plant, is buried in moist soil by allowing a few inches of the tip to remain above the
surface. In a few weeks, the buried stem develops new roots and the new plant can
be separated from its parent.
Although plant density changes depending growing conditions, both 30 × 30 cm
and 40 × 20 cm plant densities give satisfactory results (Ceylan et al., 1994; Saglam
et al., 2004). In the establishment year, application of a sufficient amount of phosphorus,
potassium and nitrogen is recommended according to soil analysis. For example,
Saglam et al., (2004) obtained a good result with side dressing application of 80 kg/
ha P2O2 and 60 kg/ha N in the first year. In consecutive years, additional mineral
nitrogen may be applied after cuts. Recently, however, as organic production gains
more attention, organic manure or fertilisers may be preferred.
Weed control is one of the important cultural practices in lemon balm, as presence
of weeds in the fresh or dried herb will reduce quality. Herbicides for weed control
could be applied, but avoiding chemical residues on the plants because vegetative
parts of lemon balm can be directly used for medicinal and aromatic purposes (Zuin
and Vilegas, 2000). Therefore, organic control methods for weeds, diseases and
insects should be preferred if they are available.
Lemon balm as a perennial plant can be harvested twice or three times a season
just before blooming. Harvesting after complete flowering causes a reduction in
herba quality. Plants are cut at 8–10 cm above ground in the morning after the dew
has evaporated. The fresh herba is immediately dried in shade at 20–35 °C after
harvest; otherwise the drug herba colour turns to dark brownish. Moreover, bruising
the leaves during harvest should be avoided, because it causes the dry herb colour to
become also dark brownish and, consequently reduces quality. Harvested and dried
herba should be stored in dry places with good ventilation.
The fresh or dry herba yield varies depending upon genotype, growing conditions
and cultivation practices. After transplanting seedling to the field, the first year can
be considered as an establishment year; therefore high herba yield should not be
expected and the yield increases after first year. The second and third years are
production years, and between 5000 and 10,000 kg/ha dry herb yield can be obtained
in a season (Saglam et al., 2004).
Although it is difficult to determine the size of the world market for lemon balm,
as specific trade statistics are not available, most commercial production takes place
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Handbook of herbs and spices
in Europe and east Mediterranean countries such as Germany, Italy, France, Ireland,
England, Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Poland, Egypt and Syria. According to the Essential
Oils Market Information Booklet published by IENICA (2004), the world production
of lemon balm oil is estimated at a value <£100,000. Reported prices range from $7.00
to $10.00 per pound for certified organic lemon balm (Sturdivant and Blakley, 1999).
23.4
Main uses
Lemon balm in food processing has a wide range of uses such as tea, herb, flavurant
or culinary. It has been used in hot tea blends, as a fresh and dry herb in Europe and
Mediterranean countries (Bozan, 1995; Zeybek, 1995). Today, its leaves are also
used in iced tea or other cold drinks. Fresh or dried lemon balm leaves can be often
used as a food ingredient to green salads, sandwiches, pasta, marinades, sauces,
staffings, soups, egg dishes, meat dishes, roast chicken, jams, vinegar, etc. It is
reported to be used in many other dishes, even in desserts (cheesecake), biscuits and
some alcoholic beverages such as liqueurs and wine (Rogers, 1998). For instance,
fish or chicken can be cooked over a bed of lemon balm leaves. Its chopped fresh
leaves also go well with plain yoghurt and sprinkle with any kind of fresh berries. If
one prefers using fresh herba the leaves can be frozen for later use, but avoid freezing
leaves while they are wet. Chopping with a knife causes bruises and discolours the
leaves, so tearing leaves into small pieces may be preferred. Moreover, adding essential
oil or extract of lemon balm into vegetable oils such as sunflower, rapeseed oil, etc.,
may contribute to oil quality components. For example, it was found that the ethanol
extract of lemon balm improves the oxidation stability of sunflower oil (Marinova
and Yanishlieva, 1997) and addition of 1.5% w/w to a salad portion increases the
antioxidant capacity 150% (Ninfali et al., 2005).
From the earliest of times in the Mediterranean region people have used lemon
balm to encourage a new swarm of bees to stay in a new hive by rubbing the inside
of the hive with the leaves (Lesley, 1994; Square, 1998). Although the flowers and its
smell attract honeybees, it is said that lemon balm has a repellent effect on some
insects as it contains citronella oil. Some investigations revealed that lemon balm
could also be used in animal feed for several purposes. For example, the herb mixture
containing lemon balm is also suggested for use in animal feed instead of fodder
antibiotics (Urbanczyk et al., 2002). Moreover, it was found that feeding calves with
a mixture of nettle, tutsan, lemon balm, camomile, marigold and small plantain
enhanced glucose and total protein content and lowered cholesterol content in the
blood serum of calves (Bombik et al., 2002). Some varieties are also suitable for
ornamental use, especially as border plants in gardens. Leaves and stems with flowers
can be dried and used in potpourri or as room fresheners. Its essential oil smells
pleasant and is used by the perfume or cosmetic industry. Fresh lemon balm shoots
and leaves can even be used in natural cosmetics. As result of its therapeutic effect,
lemon balm is used in hydrosols, which is considered the homeopathy of aromatherapy
(Rose, 2002).
23.5 Functional/health benefits
Lemon balm has a wide range of uses for medicinal, antimicrobial, antioxidant
Lemon balm
395
purposes and as a functional food. A moderate amount of investigation on lemon
balm has been carried out to determine its medicinal effects such as antiviral,
antibacterial, antifungal, antitumour and sedative effects. For example, Sousa et al.
(2004) indicates that the essential oil of lemon balm as an antitumoural agent has a
potential for cancer treatments or prevention. The volatile oil of Lemon balm may
also be used as an anti-virus agent and contains an anti-Herpes simplex virus type 2
(HSV-2) substance (Allahverdiyev et al., 2004).
The antimicrobial properties of plants have been investigated by a number of
researchers world wide and the antimicrobial activity tests of lemon balm show that
the most powerful scavenging compounds are monoterpene aldehydes and ketones
(neral/geranial, citronellal, isomenthone, and menthone) and mono- and sesquiterpene
hydrocarbons (E-caryophyllene) (Mimica-Dukic et al., 2004). Lemon balm, among
other members of the family Labiatae, was found to be the most effective plant
against five food spoilage yeasts (Araujo et al., 2003). The essential oil of lemon
balm at 500 µg/ml completely inhibits all these yeast species and the fungitoxic
effect is attributed to citral (58.3%), which is the main component of the oil. It also
inhibits growth of some antibiotic resistant bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus,
Salmonella choleraesuis and Klebsiella pneumoniae (Nascimento et al., 2000).
One of the potential remedies for stress-related disorders is accepted to be
consumption of the functional food, which contains a number of herbal extracts
(Hamer et al., 2005). Lemon balm has been known as a mild sedative since the
Middle Ages. Lemon balm extract is of value in the management of mild to moderate
Alzheimer’s disease (Perry et al., 1999; Akhondzadeh et al., 2003). It also affects
mood changes during acute psychological stress (Little et al., 2003). These behavioural
consequences may be attributed to some active components of the dry herba or its
essential oil (Kennedy et al., 2002) although further work is required to substantiate
efficacy in human subjects. There is no reported side effect of topical lemon balm,
but allergic reactions should be always taken into account. Consumption as tea, fresh
herba or capsule may reduce alertness and impair mental function (Kennedy et al.,
2002). Therefore anyone engaged in a job requiring alertness or driving should avoid
using lemon balm beforehand. As a result, potential side effects of lemon balm
should be considered and the patients should consult their physician before taking
this herb.
Lemon balm has traditionally been used as a folk medicine for centuries and dates
back at least 2000 years. It is used in tea for insomnia, fevers, migraine, headache,
stomach disorders, gastric complaints, hysteria, chronic bronchial catarrh, nervous
debility, toothache, earache, high blood pressure and indigestion (Herodez et al.,
2003; Uzun et al., 2004). The essential oil is used in aromatherapy for relaxation,
depression, melancholy, and nervous tension (Horrigan, 2005). Externally in salve, it
is believed to relieve symptoms of rheumatism, nerve pains, sores, acne and painful
swellings such as insect bites and stings. Dzik et al. (2004) conducted an investigation
on the effect of lemon balm on experimental burn wound healing in pigs. The experiment
showed that lemon balm is an ideal dressing in the treatment of burn in terms of relief
of pain, a lower incidence of hypertrophic scar and post-burn contracture, with low
cost and easy availability.
Synthetic antioxidants have been widely used in food products by adding them to
fats in order to retard the oxidation process, which extends shelf life of those food
products. However, the use of some synthetic antioxidants is prohibited in several
countries, as there are concerns on their possible adverse effects on human health
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Handbook of herbs and spices
(Herodez et al., 2003). Therefore, recently, the food industry has sought natural
antioxidants because there have been some concerns about the safety and toxicity of
synthetic antioxidants. Many herbs are excellent sources of natural antioxidants, and
their consumption in the diet may thus contribute to the daily antioxidant intake.
Lemon balm possesses a remarkable antioxidative activity of its phenolic antioxidants
such as rosmarinic and caffeic acids (Labuda et al., 2002). This very high concentration
of antioxidants may contribute to the total intake of plant antioxidants in a normal
diet, and is suggested to be a better source of dietary antioxidants than many other
foods such as fruit, cereals and vegetables (Dragland et al., 2003). A study also
showed that lemon balm extract decreases serum cholesterol and lipid levels in the
hyperlipidemic animals (Bolkent et al., 2005). This suggests that extract of lemon
balm as a preventive agent could be used for hyperlipidemia disease.
Lemon balm also has a potential use in agriculture with its allelopathic effect and
content of allelochemicals. It was stated that powder of lemon balm inhibits the
germination and growth of some weed seeds such as Amaranthus caudatus, Digitaria
sanguinalis and Lactuca sativa (Kato-Noguchi, 2003). This allelopathic nature of
Table 23.1
Some standards and specifications of raw material and essential oil of lemon balm
Harvest and raw material specifications
Harvesting period
At the end of buttoning period and appearance of the first
flower (June–October), in sunny, warm and non-windy days
Harvesting method
By cutting the plants and defoliating them as soon as possible
(it is very difficult to defoliate the withered plants)
Processing
Naturally or artificially drying at maximum 35 °C.
Steam-distillation of essential oil
Storage
Dry, clean rooms
Component specifications
Essential oil content
Main components
Other components
Quality of the essential oil
Source
Appearance
Colour
Aroma
Relative density at 20 °C
Optical rotation
Refraction number at 20 °C
Ester number
Ester number after acetylation
Acid number
Chemical composition
(gas chromatography)
Source
Appearance
Aroma
Colour
Optical rotation
Refractive index at 20 °C
Specific gravity at 20 °C
Source: IENICA, 2004.
0.02–0.2%
Citronellal (30–40%), citrale (20–30%)
Methyl-citronellate, (+)-ocimene, citronellol, nerol, geraniol,
β-caryophyllene, germacrene D
Bulgaria
Transparent liquid
Light yellow to yellow-brown, red brown
Citric-rose, fresh with lemon smell
0.870–0.906
–3° to –11°
1.460–1.480
20 to 46
150 to 220
Not more than 2.5
Linallol, citronellal, citral, β-caryophyllene
United Kingdom
Clear mobile oil
Characteristics green, lemon scented aroma
Pale yellow
–20 ± 2°
1.4854 ± 0.005
0.888 ± 0.005
Lemon balm
397
lemon balm may therefore have a potential as a weed control in organic agriculture
systems where only organic substances are allowed. However, for commercial use,
much work should be carried out. Moreover, lemon balm extract also has an insecticidal
activity and causes a significant reduction in the growth of the cotton worm (Spodoptera
littoralis) larvae population (Pavela, 2004).
23.6
Quality issues
Medicinal and aromatic plants such as lemon balm are traditionally harvested from
flora or cultivated field, dried and then stored until required for use. The quality of
lemon balm has traditionally been based on appearance. However, efficacy of the raw
material in many herbs varies, dependent on species and even different parts of the
same species, not to mention cultural applications and harvesting time. In addition,
value-added products, where plant appearance has been destroyed, make impossible
visual assessments for species identification. These processed products can range
from ground-dried raw material to liquid or solid extracts or capsules including a
formulation, sometimes containing more than one herb. As such products cannot be
detected with organoleptic techniques, chromatographic techniques such gas
chromatography or HPLC can be employed for identification. Setting chemical quality
standards has progressed slowly because of a lack of conclusive clinical evidence for
the activity of specific compounds, multiple active constituents, synergistic effects,
and the reluctance of some health authorities to agree on recognition of medicinal
herbs as valid therapeutic agents (Wills et al., 2000). Some standards and specifications
for raw material and essential oil of lemon balm are presented in Table 23.1.
23.7
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24
Lemongrass
B. P. Skaria, P. P. Joy, S. Mathew and G. Mathew, Aromatic and
Medicinal Plants Research Centre, India
24.1
Introduction
Lemongrass is a tropical perennial plant which yields aromatic oil. The name lemongrass
is derived from the typical lemon-like odour of the essential oil present in the shoot.
The lemongrass oil of commerce is popularly known as Cochin oil in world trade,
since 90% of it is shipped from Cochin port. The state of Kerala in India had the
monopoly in the production and export of lemongrass oil. The annual world production
of lemongrass oil is around 1000 t from an area of 16,000 ha. In India it is cultivated
in about 4000 ha and the annual production is around 250 t. The crop is extensively
cultivated in the poor, marginal and waste lands and also along the bunds as live
mulch. The well ramified root system of the plant helps in soil and water conservation.
24.2
Species and varieties
Lemongrass belongs to the family Graminae (Poaceae) and the genus Cymbopogon.
Generally, three species are identified (Gupta, 1969; Chandra and Narayanan, 1971).
24.2.1 Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud) Wats. (2n = 20, 40)
It is known as East Indian, Cochin or Malabar grass. C. flexuosus is a tufted robust
perennial grass of about 2 m height. The leaves are linear and lanceolate. It flowers
freely. The inflorescence is very large and highly branched terminal drooping panicle
bearing paired spikes on tertiary branches. The spikes bear spikelets in pairs of which
one is sessile and the other pedicellate. The sessile spikelet is an awned bisexual
floret whereas the pedicellate is an awnless staminate floret. Under this species two
varieties or types are identified based on the colour of the stem.
C. flexuosus var. flexuosus (red grass)
The stem and leaf sheath are reddish or purple in colour. It is recognized as the true
Lemongrass
401
lemongrass and is commercially cultivated. The essential oil contains more than 75–
80% citral, exhibits good solubility in alcohol and hence is superior in quality (Guenther,
1950).
C. flexuosus var. albescens
This white grass is characterized by the white colour of the stem. The plant is
normally seen wild. The essential oil contains less than 65–70% citral, exhibits poor
alcohol solubility and is hence considered inferior in quality.
24.2.2 Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf. (2n = 40, 60)
Known as West Indian or American lemongrass, it is a stemless perennial grass with
numerous stiff tillers arising from short rhizomatous rootstock, making large tussocks.
It seldom flowers under cultivation. Leaf blade is narrow, linear, glaucous, drooping
with scabrous margin, ligule truncate, inflorescence rarely produced, a large loose
panicle; spathe bracts long and narrow, sessile spikelets, awnless, linear, lanceolate.
The essential oil contains 74–76% citral and exhibits poor alcohol solubility.
24.2.3 Cymbopogon pendulus (Nees ex Steud) Wats
Jammu lemongrass is white stemmed and dwarf in nature. The plant is frost resistant
and suited to sub-Himalayan areas of North India. The essential oil contains around
75–80% citral and exhibits medium solubility in alcohol (Joy et al., 2001).
24.3
Origin and distribution
Lemongrass is distributed in Africa, the Indian subcontinent, South America, Australia,
Europe and North America. In India, it grows wild in all regions extending from sea
level to an altitude of 4200 m. Several species are endemic to India. East Indian
lemongrass grows wild in India and is cultivated well in Kerala, Assam, Maharashtra
and Uttarpradesh. It is also distributed in Guatemala and China. West Indian lemongrass
is believed to have originated either in Malaysia or in Sri Lanka. It is widely distributed
throughout the tropics and is grown in the West Indies, Guatemala, Brazil, Congo,
Tanzania, India, Thailand, Bangladesh, Madagaskar and China. Jammu lemongrass
is mostly confined to North Indian states such as Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim,
Assam, Bengal and Madhya Pradesh (Handa and Kaul, 2001). Lemongrass is cultivated
on a large scale at Chinnar wildlife sanctuary in the Western Ghats of India (Nair and
Jayakumar, 1999).
24.4
Cultivation and processing
24.4.1 Climate
C. flexuosus and C. citratus flourish in the sunny, warm, humid conditions of the
tropics. In Kerala, lemongrass grows well between 900 and 1250 m above mean sea
level. Both species produce the highest oil yield per tonne of herbage where the
rainfall averages 2500–3000 mm annually. C. citratus is more drought tolerant (Weiss,
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Handbook of herbs and spices
1997). In areas where rainfall is poor, it can be grown with supplemental irrigation.
Day temperatures of 25–30 °C are considered optimum for maximum oil production,
with no extremely low night temperature. Short periods above 30 °C have little
general effect on plants, but severely reduce oil content.
24.4.2 Soil
Lemongrass flourishes in a wide variety of soil ranging from rich loam to poor
laterite. In sandy loam and red soils, it requires good manuring. Calcareous and
water-logged soils are unsuitable for its cultivation (Farooqi and Sreeramu, 2001).
Both species can be grown on a range of soils and it appears that good drainage is the
most important factor. Plants growing in sandy soils have higher leaf oil yield and
citral content. Although C. flexuosus flourishes in well drained sandy loams in India,
it is grown in almost all types of land available from very light sandy soil to upland
laterites. Soils of pH 5.5 to 7.5 are utilized. C. citratus is more commonly grown on
soils with higher acidity than C. flexuosus. In India, the highest herb and oil yields
per hectare of C. flexuosus are obtained in soils of pH 7.5. Lemongrass will grow and
produce average herbage and oil yields on highly saline soils. In pot trials C. flexuosus
grown in soils with electrical conductivity of 11.5,10 and 5.5 mmhos/cm showed no
significant reduction in herb and oil yield and the citral content was unaffected by
increasing salinity levels up to 15 mmhos/cm (Weiss, 1997).
24.4.3 Cultivated varieties
Lemongrass varieties released for cultivation are Sugandhi, Pragati, Praman, RRL16, CKP-25, RRL-39, Kavery, Krishna, SD-68, GRL-1 (Farooqi and Sreeramu, 2001)
and SB-9 (Patra et al., 1999).
•
•
•
•
•
Sugandhi (OD-19): released from the Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research
Station (AMPRS), Odakkali, Kerala, India. A red stemmed variety adapted to a
wide range of soil and climatic conditions and most popular in India. The plant
grows to a height of 1–1.75 m with profuse tillering, yielding 35–40 t/ha/year
herb containing 0.3% oil (125 kg/ha) with 80–85% citral under rain-fed condition
(Joy et al., 2001).
Pragati (LS-48): evolved through clonal selection from OD-19 at Central Institute
of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow, India. It is tall growing
with dark purple leaf sheath, adapted to North Indian Plains and Tarai belt of
subtropical and tropical climate. Average oil content is 0.63% with 86% citral
(Sharma et al., 1987).
Praman (Clone 29): evolved through clonal selection at CIMAP, Lucknow and
belongs to species C. pendulus. It is a tetraploid type with profuse tillering.
Leaves are erect and medium in size. Oil yield is 227 kg/ha/annum with 82%
citral content (Anon., 1988).
RRL-16: evolved from C. pendulus and released for cultivation from Regional
Research Laboratory (RRL), Jammu, India. Average yield of herb is 15 to
20 t/ha/annum giving 100 to 110 kg oil. Oil content varies from 0.6 to 0.8% and
citral content is 80% (Anon., 1983).
SD-68: developed by SC Datta using ionizing radiation, yielded up to 375 kg of
oil/ha/year with a citral content of 90–92% (Nair, 1977).
Lemongrass
•
•
•
403
RRL-39: released from RRL, Jammu.
Kavery and Krishna: released from CIMAP Regional Station, Bangalore, India.
Chirharit: a high yielding variety, developed by systematic breeding for genetic
improvement at Pantnagar, Chirharit, India. It is frost resistant and the essential
oil contains 81% citral (Patra et al., 2001).
Lemongrass germplasm, consisting of about 406 accessions, is maintained at AMPRS,
Odakkali. There are 17 other types in the germplasm in which the major constituent
of the oil is not citral.
24.4.4 Propagation
Lemongrass is generally propagated through seeds. Seed is mixed with dry river sand
in the ratio of 1:3 and sown in the field at the rate of 20 to 25 kg/ha. Alternatively,
seedlings can be raised in a nursery in one-tenth of the area of the main field and
transplanted after 45 days. This method, which requires 3–4 kg seeds/ha, is ideal for
uniform stand and better growth of the plants. Small plantations of lemongrass can be
established by planting of slips.
C. flexuosus is propagated through seeds while C. citratus is propagated through
division of clumps (Anon., 1981). Hussain and co-workers (1988) reported that
propagation through vegetative means from selected clones was considered better as
seed propagation tended to cause considerable genetic heterogeneity resulting in
deterioration of yield and oil quality and clonal proliferation played a very important
role in the propagation of lemongrass.
24.4.5 Nursery
Lemongrass seeds have a dormancy of a few weeks and they lose viability in a few
months. The seeds collected during the months of January and February are usually
sown in the nursery during April and May. Germination is very poor if sown after
October. For one hectare of land, 1000 m2 nursery has to be raised. The area is made
to fine tilth by repeated ploughing. Beds of 1–1.5 m width and convenient length are
prepared. The seeds are uniformly broadcasted on the beds at 3–4 kg/ha and covered
with a thin layer of soil. The seed bed is irrigated frequently. Seeds germinate in 5–
7 days.
24.4.6 Transplanting
The seedlings raised in the nursery beds are transplanted in the field at 6–7 leaf stage;
50–70-day old seedlings are planted during the monsoon season. A spacing of 30 cm
× 30 cm with a plant density of 111,000/ha is recommended. A wider spacing of 60
cm × 45 cm for seedlings and 90 cm × 60 cm for slips has been recommended for
fertile, irrigated land under North Indian conditions (Farooqi et al., 1999).
24.4.7 Manuring
Spent lemongrass compost at 10 t /ha and wood ash at 2 t/ha, which are obtained as
by-products of grass distillation, are applied at the time of bed formation (Hussain
et al., 1988). Lemongrass requires 275 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 175 kg K2O/ha/annum.
Under rainfed conditions at Kerala, application of 100 kg N in three to four split
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Handbook of herbs and spices
doses was found to be optimum though a response up to 200 kg was recorded. The
application of 50 kg/ha each of P2O5 and K2O as a basal dose gave encouraging
results in West Bengal. It is recommended to apply 60:45:35 kg/ha N, P2O5 and K2O
basally and 60 kg N in three to four splits/annum as a top dressing during the growing
season as an optimum dose. It also responds well to the application of copper, iron,
calcium and sulphur. It was reported from CIMAP, Lucknow that a lower dose of
boron (2.5 ppm) in combination with chloride salts (chloride salinity) can be beneficial
for the crop (Farooqi and Sreeramu, 2001).
In chromate overburdened soil, application of lime at 6 t/ha and fertilizer at 100 kg
N, 50 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O/ha produced higher plant height, tiller number and herb
yield of C. pendulus (Behura et al., 1998). Soluble nitrogen fraction and total
carbohydrate content increased essential oil content. Pattern of formation of citral in
C. flexuosus oil revealed that the constituents increased up to reproductive phase and
then declined; it again increased after post-reproductive phase of the plant. Optimum
application of fertilizers increased the citral content of the oil (Ghosh and Chatterjee,
1991). Excess fertilizer application is undesirable as it promotes more vegetative
growth and oil with less citral content (Joy et al., 2001).
24.4.8 Irrigation
In case of drought, the crop should be irrigated every alternate day for about a month
after planting. It is recommended that four to six irrigations are given during the
period from February to June under North Indian conditions, for optimum yield. Soil
moisture regimes maintained at 0.80 IW: CPE ratio significantly increased crop
growth, herbage and essential oil yields. Quality of the essential oil is not affected by
soil moisture regimes (Singh et al., 1997).
24.4.9 Weed control
The first 25–30 days after planting (or harvest) is the crop-weed competition period.
For a good establishment of the crop, the field should be kept weed free for the initial
period of 3–4 months after planting. Once the crop is well established, it can compete
with weeds. Generally, 2–3 weedings are necessary in a year. Among herbicides,
diuron at 1.5 kg ai/ha and oxyfluorfen at 1.5 kg ai/ha are effective for weed control
(Hussain et al., 1988). Duhan and Gulati (1973) and Khosla (1979) observed a
significant control of dicot weeds with the application of 2-4-D (sodium salt). They
also suggested spraying paraquat at 2–2.5 l/ha in 500 l of water immediately after
cutting the grass as an excellent method of weed control. Under rain-fed conditions,
the field gives a dried appearance during the summer months of Dec.–May. The dry
grass and stubble of the crop is set on fire in May, prior to the onset of monsoon. This
practice kills the termites attacking crop stubbles and also helps to rejuvenate the
old clumps.
24.4.10 Intercropping
The plant does not tolerate shade, and oil yield is drastically reduced when the crop
is grown under diffused light (Pareek and Gupta, 1985). Studies at AMPRS, Odakkali
indicated poor tillering, lean and lanky growth and reduced oil yield when the crop
is grown as an intercrop in coconut gardens; the oil content was also found to be
reduced by 20%. In contrast, intercropping in a cinnamon plantation which is regularly
Lemongrass
405
pruned for extraction of bark and leaf oil was found to be profitable. In new plantations
of cashew, mango and coconut, lemongrass is cultivated during the initial four to five
years of plantation establishment. C. citratus is seldom intercropped or under-planted.
An interesting method of integrating C. flexuosus into plantations of other crops was
proposed for Bangladesh, but not widely implemented (Khan, 1979). C. citratus has
been under-planted in young rubber plantations in Malaysia and elsewhere to help
defray the cost of plantation establishment. Pratibha and Korwar (2003) suggested
lemongrass for crop diversification in semi-arid regions.
24.4.11
Plant protection
Pests and their management
Few pests are reported in this crop. Infestation by the spindle bug (Clovia bipunctata)
has been observed at Odakkali and severe damage by a stem boring caterpillar of
Chilotrea sp. under North Indian conditions has been reported. Spraying malathion
(0.2%) can control the insects. Nematodes like Tylenchorhynchus vulgaris,
Rotylenchulus reniformis, Helicotylenchus spp. and Pratylenchus spp. have also been
found to infect the grass.
Diseases and their management
The common diseases and their causal agents are given in Table 24.1. These leaf
diseases can be managed by prophylactic sprays of dithane Z-78 at 3g/l thrice, at
intervals of 15 days. Helminthosporium cymbopogi caused very serious disease in the
lowlands of Guatemala. Brown top disease causes browning and curling of affected
leaves. This is a physiological disease resulting from the low water content of the grass
at the end of the dry season. Symptoms of rust disease of lemongrass causing elongated,
stripe-like, dark brown lesions on both sides of leaf surfaces have been described. The
causal organism is Puccinia nakanishikii (Koike and Molinar, 1999). Root segments
of lemongrass were heavily infested with multiple vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza
(VAM). Moreover, brown septate hyphae of non-mycorrhizal fungus also co-existed
with VAM in 50% of root segments (Hussain and Ali, 1995). Burning of stubble in
summer is practised in some areas to ward off pests, diseases and weeds.
Table 24.1
Common diseases of lemongrass and their causal agents
Disease
Causal organism
Little leaf (malformation of
inflorescence)
Leaf spot (eye spot)
Balensia sclerotica (Pat) Hohnel
Leaf spot
Leaf spot
Leaf spot and clump rot
Leaf blight
Leaf blight
Grey blight
Smut
Root rot
Helminthosporium saccharii,
H. leucostylum, Drechslera victoria and D. helm
Curvularia andropogonia (CLS)
C. veruciformis, C. trifolii and
Collitotrichum graminicola
Fusarium equiseti and F. verticillium
Curvularia andropogonia (CLB)
Rhyzoctonia solani
Pestalotiopsis magniferae
Tolyposporium christensenni and
Ustilago andropogonia
Botrydiplodia theobromae
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Handbook of herbs and spices
24.4.12 Harvesting of the herb
Harvesting is done by cutting the grass 10 cm above ground level, with the help of
sickles. The number of harvests in a year depends on the climatological factors such
as temperature, rainfall and humidity and level of soil fertility. Generally the crop
thrives best in humid condition (Handa and Kaul, 1997). Cutting can begin as soon
as the night dew has evaporated from the plants, as wet grass left for later distillation
quickly ferments. Sunny days are preferable, since cloudy and misty conditions tend
to depress leaf oil content.
Chandra et al. (1970) have suggested first harvest at 75 days after planting, second
at 120–130 days after first harvest and the third at 150–160 days after second harvest.
However, Nair et al. (1979) and Shiva (1998) have suggested that first harvest can be
taken at 90 days after planting and subsequent harvest at 50–55 days interval up to
5–6 years from the same crop. During the first year of planting, three cuttings are
obtained and subsequently 5–6 cuttings per year (Subramanyam and Gajanana, 2001).
The harvesting season begins in May and continues till the end of January. A herbage
yield of 10–15 t/ha/harvest may be obtained.
24.4.13 Seed collection
Lemongrass kept for seed purpose is not cut as the yield of seeds from plants subjected
to regular harvesting is very low. Generally, the plant flowers during November–
December in plains and mature seeds are collected during January–February. A healthy
plant produces 10–20 g of seeds. The whole inflorescence is cut and dried in the
sun and seeds are collected by threshing against the floor or beating with sticks.
Fresh seeds are recommended for use in raising a plantation since the seeds lose
viability beyond six months of storage. Seed germination is very poor till May,
increases up to July and thereafter decreases. Germination is meagre beyond October
(Thomas, 1995).
24.4.14
Processing
Distillation
Lemongrass oil is collected by steam distillation of the herbage. There are three types
of distillation.
1. Hydro-distillation: in this method, the herb is packed in a vessel and partly filled
with water. The vessel is heated by direct fire, steam jacket or immersed steam
coil.
2. Hydro and steam distillation: the plant material is packed on a grid fitted at a
height above the base of the still. The lower part of the still is filled with water
to a level below the grid and fired from below. In this method, the steam is
always fully saturated, wet and never superheated. The plant material is in contact
with only steam and not with boiling water.
3. Steam distillation: in this method, no water is added to the still. Instead, saturated
or superheated steam is introduced through open or perforated steam coils below
the charge.
The distillate on cooling separates out into a layer of oil, floating over the bulk of
water. For obtaining good quality oil, steam distillation in stainless steel units is
preferred at a steam pressure of 18–32 kg/cm2 in the boiler. The grass is distilled
Lemongrass
407
either fresh or after wilting. Wilting herbage prior to distilling reduces moisture
content and increases oil recovery. Drying in the sun reduces oil recovery but
has little effect on oil composition. Generally, Clevenger apparatus is used for
distilling small quantities (up to 1.0 kg) of the herb in the laboratory. Large-fieldscale distillation units are fabricated to distil 500 kg or more of the herb at a time. On
an average, the herbage of C. flexuosus contains 0.2–0.4% oil and the oil yield is
100–125 kg/ha/year.
Oil of lemongrass is a viscous liquid, yellow to dark yellow or dark amber in
colour turning red on prolonged storage. The presence of water imparts a turbid
appearance. Whole oil is mainly used as a source of citral. Differentiation of lemongrass
oils into West Indian and East Indian in trade has no geographical significance as oils
from both species are produced in both areas. However, the West Indian oil has less
citral and more myrcene than the East Indian oil. Although both oils have a pronounced
fresh lemony fragrance, the odour of East Indian is stronger (Kamath et al, 2001).
East Indian is considered fresher, lighter and sweeter.
Morphological characters like plant height, number of tillers/plant and number of
leaves/plant is significantly correlated with essential oil yield/plant. Maximum elimicin
content as a major chemical constituent of oil had also been observed at flowering
stage. Among the physiological characteristics, a significant correlation was observed
between essential oil content and crop growth rate (r = 0.6018) as well as net assimilation
rate (r = 0.9474). The oil of lemongrass is chemically reactive. The terpene mixture
undergoes a series of complex reactions when exposed to air and sunlight. It is slowly
converted into a dark coloured viscous resinous substance on keeping. However, if
stored in aluminium or stainless steel vessels insulated from air, water and light, the
quality of the oil is stable for long periods of time.
Solvent extraction
Distillation being a high temperature process, yields an oil with a burnt note. Also it
is devoid of volatile fractions. An oil of softer note is yielded by solvent extraction.
However, the process is more expensive than steam distillation. Lemongrass oil can
be extracted by the following methods using different solvents.
1
2
Maceration: this involves macerating the dried plant material in the presence of
a non-polar solvent like hexane, filtering and concentrating the extract to recover
the solvent.
Percolation: in this method, the solvent is made to percolate through a column of
the dried plant material. The percolate is later subjected to distillation to obtain
the oil and recover the solvent. Soxhlet extraction is a method of continuous
percolation using special equipment. The plant material is packed in a porous
container placed inside an extraction vessel. The solvent is introduced slowly
and continuously into the container. The extract is siphoned into a recovery
vessel where the solvent is distilled off. The solvent thus recovered is added back
into the porous container. The process is repeated in a cyclic manner such that
extraction of the material and recovery of the solvent proceeds simultaneously
using a limited quantity of solvent.
Spent grass
The residue obtained after extraction of the oil is called spent grass. It can be used as
cattle feed fresh or after ensilaging. It can be used for mulching or manuring crops as
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Handbook of herbs and spices
such or after composting. In some plantations in India, the spent lemongrass after
drying is used as a fuel for distillation. It is also a cheap packing material.
24.5
Physiology and Biochemistry
A quick and non-destructive method of leaf area estimation has been worked out by
Joy and Thomas (1990). A direct relationship between chlorophyll (influencing primary
metabolism) and odour bearing constituents (secondary metabolites) was noted (Sharma
et al., 1988). Maffei et al. (1988) suggested that lemongrass may possess a C4
photosynthetic mechanism. The differential oil and citral synthesis in specific genotypes
over diverse seasons may be due to physiological homeostasis as production of
essential oil is the criterion of the homeostatic features of bioenergetic balance as
well as developmental feed back mechanism (Sharma et al., 1988). Application of
Well Bloom, a tricontanol containing growth regulator, had no significant effect on
oil yield and citral content though a favourable effect on herbage yield was recorded
(Sankar and Thomas, 1990). Repeated application of 10–100 ppm of IAA, IBA, NAA
or GA3 increased oil content significantly though herbage yield and citral content
were not affected. It was suggested that these growth substances influenced the
enzymes of carbohydrate metabolism which in turn ensured high demand of hexoses
required for essential oil synthesis (Anon., 1983).
Synthesis of terpenoids in plants takes place in secretory cells in leaves. It has
been claimed that the precursors of essential oils are obtained by the degradation of
carbohydrate and proteins. Ghosh and Chatterjee (1976) highlighted the phenomenon
of decrease in total and protein nitrogen in the plant concomitant with the increase in
essential oil content as evidence of the above hypothesis. Steps involved in the
biosynthesis of monoterpenes were reviewed by Akhila and Nigam (1983). Activities
of mevalonate kinase and phosphomevalonate kinase in lemongrass leaves were
reported by Lalitha and Sharma (1986) who suggested the possibility of mevalonoid
route to citral synthesis. Verma et al. (1987) suggested the presence of a geraniol
citral enzyme complex controlled by independent genes which have no competitive
influence on each other in lemongrass. Singh et al. (1989) have shown that young
expanding leaves are biogenetically more active and that the leaf age and the leaf
position are important factors for the amount and composition of the essential oil.
Singh and Luthra (1987) reported that the ability to synthesise oil and citral from 14Csucrose by lemongrass leaves decreased greatly long before full expansion. Soluble
acid invertase was the major enzyme in sucrose breakdown.
In order specifically to locate the sites of citral accumulation, the Schiff’s reagent
that stains aldehydes has been used. Using this technique, single oil accumulating
cells were detected in the abaxial side of leaf mesophyll, commonly adjacent to the
non-photosynthetic tissue and between vascular bundles. The cell walls of these cells
are lignified (Lewinson et al., 1997).
24.6
Chemical composition
24.6.1 Herb
The spent grass on an average contains N 0.74%, P 0.07%, K 2.12%, Ca 0.36%, Mg
Lemongrass
409
0.15%, S 0.19%, Fe 126.73 ppm, Mn 155.82 ppm, Zn 35.51 ppm and Cu 56.64 ppm
(Joy, 2003).
24.6.2 Essential oil
East Indian lemongrass oil contains 75–85% of aldehydes consisting largely of citral.
Other constituents in the oil are linalool (1.34%), geraniol (5.00%), citronellol, nerol
(2.20%), 1,8 cineole, citronellal (0.37%), linalyl acetate, geranyl acetate (1.95%), αpinene (0.24%), limonene (2.42%), caryophyllene, β-pinene, β-thujene, myrcene
(0.46%), β-ocimene (0.06%), terpenolene (0.05%), methyl heptanone (1.50%) and
α-terpineol (0.24%) (Weiss, 1997; Ranade, 2004).
The essential oil of C. citratus contains approximately α-pinene (0.13%), β-pinene,
delta-3-catrene (0.16%), myrcene (12.75%), dipentene (0.23%), β-phellandrene (0.07%),
β-cymene (0.2%), methyl heptanene (2.62%), citronellal (0.73%), β-elemene (1.33%),
β-caryophyllene (0.18%), citronellyl acetate (0.96%), geranyl acetate (3.00%), citral
b (0.18%), citral a (41.82%), geraniol (1.85%), elemol (1.2%) and β-caryophyllene
oxide (0.61%) (Saleem et al., 2003a,b).
The average composition of C. pendulus oil is reported to be pinene (0.19%),
camphene (0.01%), β-pinene (0.16%), car-3-ene (0.04%), myrcene (0.04%), dipentene
(0.35%), phellandrene (0.3%), p-cymene (0.36%), methyl heptanone (1.05%), citronellal
(0.49%), linalool (3.07%), β-elemene (0.7%), β-caryophyllene (2.15%), citronellyl
acetate (0.72%), geraniol acetate (3.58%), citral b (32.27%), citral a (43.29%), geraniol
(2.6%), elemol (2.29%) and β-caryophyllene oxide (1.56%) (Shahi et al., 1997;
Sharma et al, 2002). The chemical structures of important constituents of lemongrass
essential oil are given in Fig. 24.1 and a gas chromatogram of the oil in Fig. 24.2.
The two isomers of citral constitute the bulk of lemongrass oil. Citral is separated
from the oil by fractional distillation and used as a starting material for the synthesis
of a number of industrially important products. Citral has a citrus flavour. Geraniol,
linalool and citronellol are the most important acyclic terpene alcohols that can be
separated from lemongrass oil and used as flavour and fragrance substances. In
flavour compositions, geraniol is used in small quantities to accentuate citrus notes.
Nerol is used for bouquetting citrus flavours. Citronellol too is added for bouquetting
purposes to citrus compositions. Pinene is an important starting material in the fragrance
and flavour industry.
24.6.3 Oleoresin
A total extract of lemongrass comprising the volatile and non-volatile components
imparting flavour and aroma to the product can be prepared by subjecting the herb to
extraction with a suitable solvent or a mixture of solvents. The oleoresin that results
will be a concentrated wholesome product with better storage characteristics.
24.7
24.7.1
Uses in food processing
Herb
Herbal teas
Dried lemongrass leaves are widely used as a lemon flavour ingredient in herbal teas,
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Handbook of herbs and spices
OH
CH2OH
H
Linalool
CH2OH
Geraniol
CHO
H
Nerol
H
H
CHO
Geranial
Neral
CH2OH
CHO
Citronellal
CH2OH
Citronellol
Farnesol
Limonene
Myrcene
α-Pinene
β-Pinene
OH
Camphene
Fig. 24.1
β-Phellandrene
Elemol
Chemical structures of important constituents of lemongrass essential oil.
prepared either by decoction or infusion of 2–3 leaves in 250 or 500 ml of water
(Wannmacher et al., 1990) and other formulations. Lemongrass tea is a diuretic and
imparts no biochemical changes to the body in comparison with ordinary tea.
Lemongrass iced tea is prepared by steeping several stalks in a few quarts of boiling
water. This can also be combined with green or black teas.
Food flavouring
Lemongrass is commonly used in Asian cooking. When Thai food was embraced in
the US, lemongrass became a household name. A little experimentation with this
delightfully fragrant herb is all it takes to realize that it can be used in many more
ways than just in Asian dishes. A simple syrup made by steeping lemongrass in a mix
of equal parts hot water and sugar can be used to enhance fruit salads or to make
10.722
mV
30
Citral b
411
12.059
Lemongrass
Citral a
0
20
Fig. 24.2
45.626
47.209
40.559
42.497
37.154
38.437
31.600
32.25 33.518
34.953
16.315
17.500
18.344
18.520
20.326
21.782
23.578
24.625
26.173
27.866
0
14.125
15.572
6.140
3.748
4.734
2.718
10
8.259
20
40
min
Gas chromatogram of lemongrass oil (Cymbopogon flexosus).
home made soda by mixing it with seltzer. A blend of lemongrass, garlic, ginger and
oil will be stable in the freezer during winter. This paste can be fried until fragrant
and then cooked down with a can of coconut milk (strain to remove tough lemongrass
fibres) for a delicious sauce for noodles, vegetables or seafood dishes. Some Thai
recipes using lemongrass are given below.
Spiced carrot soup with ginger and lemongrass
Ingredients
1. Carrots, scrubbed and chopped
2. Leek, coarsely chopped
3. Onion, diced
4. Celery, diced
5. Ginger, minced
6. Lemongrass
7. Honey
8. Curry
9. Cloves, garlic, minced
10. Oil
11. Water
12. Lemon juice
13. Salt and pepper
Approximate measure
2 small sized
2–3 small sized
2–3 small sized
1 or 2
half inch piece
2–3 stalks
1 tbsp
1 tbsp
2 of each
2 tbsp
1 cup
half lemon
to taste
Method
Sauté leeks, carrots and celery in oil till translucent. Add garlic, curry and ginger.
Sauté for several minutes. Add water and bring to the boil. Add honey, lemongrass,
outer leaves removed and inner core minced, salt and pepper. Simmer until vegetables
are tender. Puree until smooth. Add lemon juice and adjust seasoning. It can be
served hot or cold as a garnish with thinned yogurt or crème fraiche and parsley or
cilantro.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Lemongrass coconut rice
Ingredients
1. Long grain rice
2. Lemongrass
3. Coconut milk
4. Bay leaves
5. Turmeric
6. Salt
Approximate measure
1 cup
2–3 stalk
3/4 cup
2
half tsp
to taste
Method
Wash rice under cold water. Bruise lemongrass by banging it with a heavy knife
handle or skillet. Put all ingredients into a saucepan. Slowly bring to a boil, stirring
occasionally. Lower the heat and cover. Simmer for 25 minutes or until all liquid is
absorbed. Let sit for 5 minutes with the cover on and then fluff with a fork. Remove
bay leaves and serve.
Vegetarian Pad Thai
Ingredients
1. Rice noodles
2. Fresh bean sprouts
3. Peanuts (chopped)
4. Lemongrass
5. Cilantro
6. Cloves garlic
7. Jalapeno
8. Carrot (diced small)
9. Egg
10. Peanut oil
11. Green onions (thinly sliced)
12. Sugar
13. Lemon juice
14. Catsup
15. Thai fish sauce (nam pla)
16. Lime
Approximate measure
8 oz.
half cup
half dry roasted
two stalks
seven sprigs
four
one stemmed and seeded
one medium size
two
1/4 cup
four
two tbsp.
three tbsp
two tbsp.
two tbsp
one
Method
The creamy coconut and lemongrass base is loaded with chunks of white meat chicken.
Other Thai lemongrass preparations are listed below.
Tom Yum Koong – Thai traditional jumbo shrimp soups with lemongrass, lime leaf,
mushrooms, chilies paste and lime juice. Garnished with cilantro.
Tom Ka Kai – sliced chicken breast cooked in coconut milk with mushrooms, galangal,
lemongrass, lime leaf and chilies paste. Garnished with cilantro.
Tom Yum Poh Tak – seafood combination in spicy soup with lemongrass, lime leaf,
mushrooms, chilies paste and lime juice. Garnished with cilantro.
Tom Yum Kai – sliced chicken breast in spicy soup with lemongrass, lime leaf,
mushrooms, chilies paste and lime juice. Garnished with cilantro.
Yum – grilled barbecue beef, pork or chicken steak, sliced and tossed with lime
dressing, chilies, red onions, tomatoes, cucumbers and lemongrass. Garnished with
lettuce, scallions and mint leaf or sweet basil.
Lemongrass
413
Yum seafood – combination of seafood and tossed with lime dressing, chilies, red
onions, tomatoes, cucumbers and lemongrass. Garnished with lettuce, scallions and
mint leaf or sweet basil.
24.7.2 Essential oil
Lemongrass oil is used in culinary flavouring. It is used in most of the major categories
of food including alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy
baked foods, gelatins and puddings, meat and meat products and fat and oils. It is
used to improve the flavour of some fish and can be used to flavour wines, sauces,
etc. Lemongrass oil has no adverse effects on the blood, liver function, kidney function,
protein, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism of rats. Studies have failed to detect
mutagenic or toxicological reactions in humans (Leung and Foster, 1996).
24.7.3 Oleoresin
Lemongrass oleoresin is mainly used in flavouring foods, drinks and bakery preparations.
24.8
Functional properties
24.8.1 Herb
Leaves of lemongrass can be used as a source of cellulose in the manufacture of
paper and cardboard. Reduction in root-knot nematode disease was observed in soil
amended with leaves of C. flexuosus. In the Carribbean, lemongrass is primarily
regarded as a fever reducing herb (especially where there is significant catarrh). It is
applied externally as a poultice to ease pain and arthritis. In India, a paste of leaves
is smeared on patches of ringworm (Chevallier, 2001).
24.8.2 Essential oil
Lemongrass oil is one of the most important essential oils being widely used for the
isolation of citral. Citral is the starting material for the preparation of ionones. αionone is used in flavours, cosmetics and perfumes. β-ionone is used for the synthesis
of vitamin A. Citral b, the most common constituent of oil, could be a good inhibitor
of β-glucuronidase. The oil has other uses as bactericide, as insect repellent and in
medicine (Alam et al., 1994; Atal and Kapur, 1997; Rodriguez et al., 1997; Sasidharan
et al., 1998; El-Kamali et al., 1998; Balz, 1999; Saikia et al., 1999). Wisprec
antimicrobial cream, made from Ocimum sanctum and C. citratus, remains intact in
its activity up to three years from the date of manufacturing (Tiwari et al., 1997;
Prashanth et al., 2002). Its mosquito repellent activity lasts for 2–3 hours (Oyedele
et al., 2002). It exhibits significant antifeedant and larvicidal activity against H.
armigera (Rao et al., 2000). It is effective against storage pests (Rajapakse and
Emden, 1997). The whole oil has fungicidal properties to plant and human pathogens
(Yadav and Dubey, 1994; Mehmood et al., 1997; Handique and Singh, 1990; Dubey
et al., 2000; Cimanga et al., 2002) and is potentially anticarcinogenic (Zheng et al.,
1993; Vinitketkumnuen et al., 2003).
The essential oils from C. citratus have been tested for their cytotoxic activity
against P388 leukemia cells (Dubey et al., 1997). It also exhibited antioxidant activities
414
Handbook of herbs and spices
comparable with α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxyl toluene (Baratta et al., 1998;
Lean and Mohammad, 1999). It retards mould growth in butter cakes thereby increasing
storage life. Oil of C. citratus caused egg hatch inhibition (Yadav and Bhargava,
2002). Oil of C. pendulus is used for the preparation of antibacterial drug trimethoxyprim.
Z-asarone, a component of oil, is used as an antiallergic compound. It is used for the
development of designer beverages and blends of oils with the desired odour
characteristics. It strengthens the stomach, stimulates appetite, promotes digestion,
and regulates the nervous system and vascular expansion. It is a stimulant, antiseptic,
febrifuge, carminative, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic and useful against
rickets.
24.9
Quality issues
The results of routine physico-chemical analysis and chromatographic examination
of the recovered oil are of greater value as criteria of authenticity and source (Humphrey,
1973; Rhyu, 1979). A method of fingerprinting essential oil has been described
(AMC, 1980) and is widely accepted not only as a reliable method for determining
the quality, source and authenticity of the raw material. From a sensory point of view,
essential oils collected under laboratory conditions are of little value in indicating the
quality of the bulk distilled under commercial conditions from the material under
examination. The odour pattern and taste of small-scale distilled oils are not reliable
and should not be used as a basis for quality judgement.
Various types of apparatus for the determination of essential oil proposed by
Clevenger (1935) are available. The one recommended by the Council of Europe
Pharmacopoeial Commission is in current laboratory use as it is convenient and
facilitates the standardization of distillation conditions for obtaining consistent results.
A method for the analysis of small amounts of essential oils by distillation in a
microversion of a modified Marcusson apparatus, followed by capillary GC is described
by Bicchi and Frattini (1980).
The degree of quality control applied to essential oils depends to a large extent on
their source, whether they are unprocessed, have been concentrated or de-terpenated
and on their intended use. Their sampling analysis and quality assessment demands
considerable expertise, a close attention to test procedures and a good understanding
of the relationship between physico-chemical characteristics and sensory attributes.
Quality judgements should be based on the combined data obtained by physical,
chemical and sensory analyses, particularly at the aromatic profile observed under
defined conditions (Varghese, 1986).
The sensory qualities of essential oils should be paramount in any evaluation of
quality and suitability for use. The evaporation pattern of oil exposed on a smelling
strip over a period of time gives very valuable information about its source, age and
often its authenticity. For most samples, the odour assessment should be carried out
and a judgement made at the following intervals: immediately after dipping, after
1 hr, 2 hr and 6 hr and after standing overnight or for a period of not less than 18 hr.
The flavour of the oil should be assessed at an appropriate dilution in diluted sugar
syrup or some other appropriate medium (Heath, 1978). In each case, the material
under examination should be compared directly with a reserve sample, regularly
replaced from acceptable material and maintained under optimum storage conditions,
usually refrigerated. Obviously, there will be natural variation between different lots
Lemongrass
415
of oils, but these should be within acceptable limits judged by the experience of the
assessor. Many of the commercially available essential oils originate in countries
remote from those in which they are used so that control is of prime importance in
both the selection and acceptance of these materials, particularly for use in food
products.
Routine physical tests include
•
•
•
•
•
•
moisture content (ISO 939-1980)
specific gravity/relative density
optical rotation
refractive index
freezing or congealing point
solubility in diluted alcohol of a stated strength (a table for the preparation of
diluted alcohol is given in British Standard BC 2073: 1976).
Chemical tests include
• acid value
• ester value before acetylation (for calculation of esters and combined alcohols)
• ester value after acetylation (for calculation of free alcohols)
• ester value after formulation (for calculation of free tertiary alcohols)
• carbonyl value
• phenol content.
There are specific tests which should only be used in commercial transactions after
full agreement by both parties. In any event, the method employed must be clearly
indicated in the test report. Test methods are defined in food chemicals codex III for
determination of:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
acetals
acid value
total alcohols
aldehydes
aldehydes and ketones
– hydroxylamine method
– hydroxylamine-tert butyl alcohol method
– neutral sulfite method
chlorinated compounds
esters
linalool content
phenols, free phenols,
residue on evaporation
solubility in alcohol
volatile oil content.
Industrial methods use chromatographic techniques (TLC, paper chromatography,
GLC (Humphrey, 1973), column chromatography, HPLC (Lego, 1984));
spectrophotometric techniques (visible range, UV range, IR range) and spectroscopic
methods (NMR, mass spectroscopy (MS), usually coupled with GLC (Thomas, 1984)).
Kumar and Madan (1979) have described a rapid method for the detection of adulteration
in essential oils using an iodide monobromide/mercuric acetate to establish iodine
values which can be directly compared with those for genuine oils.
416
Handbook of herbs and spices
The conventional method used for the determination of citral, the major constituent
of lemongrass oil is the sodium bisulphite method (Guenther, 1948). This method
involves treatment of a measured volume of lemongrass oil with excess of saturated
metabisulphite solution. Aldehydes in the oil, the bulk of which is constituted by
citral, reacts with the sulphite to form an adduct which is soluble in water. At the end
of the reaction, the non-aldehydic components of the oil will form a layer floating on
the aqueous portion. The volume of the non-aldehydic portion can be directly measured,
from which the volume of aldehyde (citral) can be calculated by difference. The
method suffers from a positive error depending on the volume of non-citral aldehydes
present in the oil. Since this component is negligible in most lemongrass oils the
method yields satisfactory results for quality evaluation of oil in trade.
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on a red sandy loam soil under semiarid tropical conditions’, Journal of essential oil Research,
9(5), 569–574.
SUBRAMANYAM K V and GAJANANA T M (2001), ‘Economics of lemongrass cultivation and production
of oil in Kerala, Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Science’, 23 (2), 5–9.
THOMAS A F (1984), ‘Some aspects of GC-MS in the analysis of volatile flavours’, Anal. Chem.
Symp. Ser 21 (Chromatogra. Mass Spec. Nutr. Sci. Food Saf.), 47–65.
THOMAS J (1995), ‘Lemongrass’, in Chadha K L and Rajendra Guptha, Advances in Horticulture Vol.
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VARGHESE J (1986), On Essential Oils, Cochin (India), Synthite Industrial chemicals.
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156.
25
Long pepper
K. N. Babu and M. Divakaran, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India;
P. N. Ravindran, Centre for Medicinal Plants Research, India; and
K. V. Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India
25.1
Introduction
Long pepper commonly called ‘Pippal’ in Sanskrit, is an important medicinal spice.
The long pepper of commerce is derived from more than one species. The Indian
long pepper is derived from Piper longum L and Piper peepuloides Wall. while the
much longer Indonesian or Java long pepper is derived from P. retrofractum Vahl.
The products of these species are used for the same purposes, though they vary in
their effectiveness. The products of Piper longum and P. retrofractum are often not
clearly distinguished in the spice trade. The spikes of Piper peepuloides and sometimes
another related species with globose spikes P. mullesua Ham. occur mixed with
commercial P. longum (CSIR, 1969; Pruthi, 1976).
25.1.1 Vernacular/regional names
English: Long pepper; Bengal pepper, Java pepper, Balinese pepper; Unani: Pipal;
Amharic: Timiz; Arabian: Dardildil; Persian: Filfilidaraz, filfildray, Maghzpipal, Pilpil,
Pipal; Nepalese: Pipal, Piplamol, Popal; Malaya: Pit poot; Burmese: Peik-khyen,
Peikchin; Malay: Lada, Mula-gu, Cuttaterpali, Chabai; Hungarian: Bali bors, Bengali
bors; Sinhalese: Tippali; Greek: Pepper makron; Italian: Pepe lungo; Indonesian
(Java): Cabe bali, Cabe jawa; Lada panjang; Mexican: Tlathancuaye; Potuguese:
Pimenta longa; Dutch: Langwerpige peper; Duk.: Pipaliana; Swedish: Lang peppar;
German: Langer Pfeffer, Stangenpfeffer, Balinesischer Pfeffer, Jaborandi Pfeffer,
Bengalischer Pfeffer; French: Poivre long, Racindes de; Spanish: Pimentera larga;
Khmer: Morech ansai; Laotian: Sa li pi, I lo; Japanese: Hihatsu; Chinese: Pipo, Bi ba;
Estonian: Pikk pipar; Thai: Dee plee, Phrik hang, Dipli chuak; Tibetan: Dro-sman;
Hindi: Pipli, Pipal, Pimpli, Piplamul, Pipulmul; Sanskrit: Chanchala, Chapala, Granthika,
Kana, Kati, Kola, Korangi, Krishna, Krishnapippali, Magadhi, Pippali, Tiktatandula,
Vaidehi; Urdu: Pipul; Bengali: Piplamor, Piplamul, Pipli, Pipul; Assami: Pipoli;
Gujarathi: Piper, Pipli, Pipara; Marathi: Pimpli, Mothi, Piple; Punjabi: Darfilfil,
Filfildaraz, Maghzpipal, Pipal; Sindhi: Filfildray, Tippili, Fil; Uriya: Baihehi, Krykola,
Long pepper
421
Mogodha, Pippoli; Santal: Ralli; Canarese (Kannada): Thippali, Hippali; Tamil: Argadi,
Atti, Kalidi, Kaman, Kanna, Kindigam, Kolagam, Savundi, Sauyini; Telugu: Modi,
Pippali; Malayalam: Chapal, Tippali (Singh et al. 2000). The roots have been described
separately in Ayurvedic texts as granthika, Pippalimul, Ushna, Chatakashir, kolmul,
Katugranthi, Chavikashir.
25.1.2 Origin and geographical distribution
Long pepper belongs to the family Piperaceae and is native to South and South East
Asia. The three major species which constitute long pepper of commerce occur in
three different geographical regions. Piper longum L. (Syn. Chavica roxburghii Miq.),
commonly called Indian long pepper, occurs throughout India, Sri Lanka, Burma,
Malaysia, Nepal, Singapore and other South Asian countries, but is most widely
distributed in India and is a native of penisular India. It occurs from central Himalayas
to Assam, Khasi and Mikir hills, lower hills of Bengal and evergreen forests of
Western Ghats from Konkan to Kanyakumari as well as Nicobar Islands. Indian long
pepper is mostly derived from the wild type mainly from Kerala, Assam, West Bengal,
Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, North East region and Andhra Pradesh. It is also cultivated to
a limited extent in parts of Bengal, Assam, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Manipur (Atal and Ojha, 1965). The
chromosome number of P. longum varies from 2n = 24 to 2n = 96. The reported
chromosome numbers of P. chaba are 2 n =24 and 104, Piper peepuloides 2n = 156
and P. mullesua 2n = 132. Many related species have been reported in India (Ravindran
and Nirmal Babu 1994, Ravindran 2000).
Piper peepuloides Wall occurs mainly in North-Eastern India whereas Piper
retrofractum Vahl (Syn. P. chaba Hunt), comes from South East Asia and is mostly
cultivated in Indonesia and Thailand (Hooker, 1886).
25.1.3 Botanical notes and description
Family: Piperaceae.
Piper longum Linn.; syn.; P. sarmentosum Wall.; P. latifolium Hunter; P. turbinarium
Noronha.; Chavica roxburghii Miq.; C. sarmentosa Miq.
Piper peepuloides Wall; Syn. Chavica peepuloides Miq.
Piper retrofractum Vahl: Syn. P. chaba Hunt,
Piper longum is a slender, aromatic, trailing, dioecious plant with perennial woody
roots occurring in the hotter parts of India. It is a perennial creeping undershrub
spreading on the ground. Stems creeping, jointed with erect fruiting branches, young
shoots downy. Leaves are simple alternate, petiolate or sessile, distinctly dimorphic,
5–9 cm long, 3–5 cm wide, ovate, cordate with broad rounded lobes at base, subacute, entire, glabrous on creeping shoots; leaves on the fruiting branches oblong,
lanceolate, base unequally cordate. Spikes cylindrical with peduncle, male longer
and slender, female 1.3–2.5 cm long and 4–5 mm diameter, fruits ovoid, sunk in
fleshy spike turns black from green when ripe. Flowering is throughout the year;
flowers are dioecious. Inflorescence is a spike with unisexual, small or minute closely
packed flowers and form small clusters of grey berries. The female spikes are with
short thick stalk varying from 1.5 to 2.5 cm length and 0.5 to 0.7 cm thickness. The
male spikes are slender and longer stalks (2.5 to 7.5 cm), slightly elongate. The fruits
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are ovoid drupes, small and completely sunk in the fleshy spikes, fused laterally,
pungent, aromatic, spicy, shining dark green when immature and blackish green
when fully mature. Female spikes arising singly from leaf axil, is cylindrical, short
and stout with multiple fruit. Male spikes also arise from the base of the leaf, is
single, long cylindrical and of no economic value. The mature female spikes are
collected and dried and this is the commercial form of pippali (Narayan Aiyer and
Kolammal, 1966, Ravindran 2000).
The long peppers from Indonesia come from slender climbers rooting at nodes.
The branches are swollen at the nodes and the leaves are alternate. Plants of Piper
retrofractum and P. peepuloides are climbers with yellowish orange to red fruits. In
addition P. retrofractum has reticulate leaves on its fruiting branches with much
larger spikes. They have sparser-looking foliage than P. longum, the most noticeable
difference between the two being that the fruits of Indian long pepper (P. longum) are
smaller and more pungent than those of Javanese long pepper (P. retrofractum).
The spikes of P. retrofractum are conical while those of P. longum (Viswanathan,
1995) are cylindrical.
25.1.4 Economic parts and importance
Long pepper is so called because the fruits are long, cylindrical spikes 5 mm in
diameter and 2.5 to 4 cm long. The economic parts are roots and dry spikes of female
plants, which are generally used for its several medicinal and spicy properties. Long
pepper has a sweet and fragrant aroma but the flavour is bitingly hot, lingering and
numbing, belying its innocent smell. Long pepper probably came to Europe much
before the now dominant black pepper. During the Roman Empire it was priced about
three times that of black pepper. With its taste pungent and sweet at the same time,
it was perfect for Roman cookery especially as they were fond of these two taste
sensations. Since terpene components are missing in its aroma, long pepper cannot
be substituted by ordinary black pepper. Its hot-and-sweet taste goes well with spicy
cheese specialities.
The ‘Pippalmul’ are the roots of Piper longum which are sometimes adulterated
with those obtained from other wild species of Piper. These are mostly dried bits of
roots 4–6 cm in length of a dark grey or grayish brown colour with the surface
slightly shrunken, and having distinct internodes and swollen nodes with a number of
small rootlets and root scars. There is a general resemblance in the anatomical structure
between these bits and those of Piper longum. The number of primary xylem groups
may vary from five to seven, so also the number of radiating bands of vascular tissue.
Small thickened cells occur in the cortex of the roots of Piper longum but are not
evident in the dried specimens. The phloem appears narrower and the cork much
darker in colour. The powder is reddish brown to creamish grey and under the
microscope shows scalariform vessels, aspetate fibres, simple and compound starch
grains measuring 3–14 µm in diameter (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopia of India. Parts
I and II. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Dept of ISM&H. 133–134.)
25.1.5 Histology of Piper longum root
The histology of Piper longum root was studied by Narayan Aiyer and Kolammal
(1966). A transverse section of the root about 4 mm diameter is almost circular and
the outline regular. The outermost cork is made up of three-five rows of thin-walled,
Long pepper
423
elongated cells and appears as a very narrow strip slightly brown in colour and is not
evident in many specimens. The cortex has round to oblong, large thin walled
parenchymatous cells with large intercellular spaces. The cell walls of the peripheral
rows are slightly thickened but not lignified. Most of these cells contain starch grains.
A few cortical cells contain minute prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Many
thick-walled cells and secretary cells are found scattered in the cortex. A wavy
endodermis composed of one row of rectangular cells with their side walls slightly
thickened. The pith is surrounded by four-six wedge shaped radiating strips of vascular
tissue having their wider ends towards the periphery. The cells of the pith are similar
to those of cortex. Six groups of evenly spaced primary stem bundles are present
outside the pith. In each vascular strip the xylem is composed of xylem vessels,
xylem parenchyma and wood fibres and its wider end is crowned with a hemispherical
strip of phloem.
One or two rows of thin-walled rectangular cambial cells are present between the
xylem and phloem. The phloem is composed of many sieve tubes and companion
cells and phloem parenchyma. One or two groups of two to three stone cells are
present at the peripheral region of the phloem. There are four to six broad wedgeshaped medullary rays extending from the pith up to the endodermis, with their wider
ends at the periphery and alternating with the radiating bands of vascular tissues. The
ray cells are all thin walled and heavily loaded with starch grains. Narayan Aiyer and
Kolammal (1966) also studied the histology of market samples of long pepper root
and found that many samples showed histological similarity to long pepper root with
minor differences.
25.2
Chemical composition of long pepper
The constituents responsible for the spicy properties of plants are always secondary
metabolism products, that is, they are not involved in primary metabolism hence not
vital for the plant. In some cases, it is supposed that the aroma molecules are essentially
byproducts of metabolism, in most cases, though, they play an important rôle in
attracting pollinators or drive away herbivorous animals. It is somehow a paradox
that plants are grown and spread word-wide as food enhancers, although their tasty
constituents’ intention is to discourage the consumption of the plant.
Fruits contain volatile oil, resin, alkaloids and terpenoids. The dried spikes of long
pepper on steam distillation yield an essential oil (0.7%–0.8%). The flavour is characteristic
of pepper in pungency and taste, the important flavour compounds being piperine,
piperlongumine (present in the major alkaloid in addition to piperine) and pipelartine.
These components are responsible for the important medicinal functions, viz., laxative,
carminative, thermogenic, anthelmintic, digestive, stomachic, emmenagogue.
Long pepper is similar to black pepper in composition but it is less expensive and
used as an adulterant of ground black pepper. The approximate composition of the
plant is:
Moisture
Protein
Starch
Fibre
Total ash
9.5%
12.2%
39.5%
5.8%
5.9%
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Insoluble acid
4.2%
Volatile oil
1.5%
Fixed oil
6.6%
Piperine
4.5%
(All values except moisture are measured on dry basis.)
The active constituents of P. longum are the alkaloids. They exhibit characteristic
mouthfeel, a pepper-like pungency and pronounced salivation and numbness. The
highest content of piperine was found in the underground part of the stem and roots.
Piperine content of fruits increases with maturity from 14–16 days (0.53%) to 40–45
days (0.9%).
Piperine is the active principle and principal alkaloid of long pepper (Piper longum
L.) and constitutes 3–5% (on dry weight basis). The content of piperine (about 6%)
is slightly higher than in black pepper and yields upon distillation with water, 1% of
a bland, thickish, yellow-green oil of specific gravity 0.861, and resembling ginger
in odour. The drug has a peculiar odour and a pungent bitter taste producing numbness
on the tongue. It contains piperine (0.15–0.18%), piplartine (0.13–0.20%) and traces
of yellow crystalline pungent alkaloid. Other constituents include triacontane,
dihydrostigmasterol, a sterol, reducing sugars and glycosides (Pillai et al., 2000).
Piperine increases micelle formation, stimulation of active transport of amino
acids (gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase), and epithelial cell wall modification due to
the affinity of piperine towards fats and fatty substances. In view of these findings it
is proposed that piperine ingested in relatively small amounts would act as a
thermonutrient. Localized thermogenic action on the epithelial cells would in turn
increase the rate of absorption of supplemented nutrient(s).
25.2.1 Chemical composition of P. longum oil
Long pepper on distillation yields 0.7–1.5% of light green, viscous oil with a spicy
odour resembling that of pepper and ginger and has the following characteristics:
D20
N20
[α]D
m.p.
Acid value
Saponification value
Saponification value after acetylation
n-hexadecane
n-heptadecane
n-octadecane
n-eisocane
n-heneicosane
α-thujene
terpinolene
zingiberene
ρ-methoxy acetophenone
dihdrocarveol
phenethyl alcohol
0.8484
1.4769
40.1
–6 °C
7.2
8.9
12.8
0.7%
6.0%
5.8%
4.7%
2.5%
1.7%
1.3%
7.0%
trace
4.3%
2.1%
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425
25.2.2 Chemical constituents of fruits
The long pepper fruits contain Sylvatin, Sesamin, Diaeuolemin, Piperine, Piplartine,
Asarinin, Pluviatilol, Fragenin (E) and (Z), Pipercide, Guineenside, Longamide,
piplasterol, Dihudropiperonaline (Shoji et al., 1986).
Fruits contain volatile oil, resin, alkaloids (4–5% piperine), a terpenoid substance,
piplartine (m.p. 124–125°) and two liquid alkaloids. Sesamin (C20H18O6, m.p. 122°),
dihydrostigmasterol and piplasterol are also present. On the other hand, long pepper
contains less essential oil than its relatives (about 1%), which consists of sesquiterpene
hydrocarbons and ethers (bisabolene, beta-caryophyllene, beta-caryophyllene oxide,
each 10–20%; alpha-zingiberene, 5%), and, surprizingly, saturated aliphatic
hydrocarbons: 18% pentadecane, 7% tridecane, 6% heptadecane. Medicinal properties
are attributed to the alkaloid piperine and piplartine (Atal and Ojha, 1965).
A sample of dried fruit of P. longum on steam distillation gave 0.7% of essential
oil with spicy odour resembling that of pepper and ginger oils, and has the following
characteristics: acid val. 7.2; sap. val. 8.9; sap. val. after acetylation 12.8; soluble in
20 vol. of 95% alcohol; specific gravity – 0.8484; refractive index: 1.4769; Optical
rotation – 40.1°. The oil contained: n-hexadecane – 0.7; n-heptadecane – 6.0; noctadecane – 5.3; n-nonadecane – 5.8; n-eicosane – 4.7; n-heneicosane – 2.5; αthujene – 1.7; terpinolene – 1.3; zingiberene – 7.0; p-cymene – 1.3; p-methoxy
acetophenone – trace; and a monocyclic sesquiterpene (Handa et al., 1963).
25.2.3 Chemical constituents of leaves
Hentriacontane, β-sitosterol, hentriacontane-16-one, triacontanol (Purnima et al., 1999).
25.2.4
Chemistry of Piplamool
Chemical constituents of roots
Piperine, Piperlongumine, Piperlonguminine, Piplasterol, Triacontane, Cepharanone
B, Aristolactam AII, Piperolactam A, Piperlactam B, Cepharadione A, Cepharadione
B, Norcepharadione B, Sesamin, 22,23 – dihrdostigmasterol, methyl-3,4,5-trimethoxy
cinnamate, piperadione.
In P. retrofractum, piperine, piperlonguminine, sylvatine, guineensine,
piperlongumine, filfiline, sitosterol, methyl piperate and a series of piperine-analog
retrofractamides are reported. (Banerji et al., 1985).
Two alkaloids piperlongumine (probably identical with piplartine; C17H19O5N,
m.p. 124°; 0.2–0.25%) and piperlonguminine (C16H19O3N, m.p. 166–168°; 0.2%)
have also been identified in the roots (Parthasarathy and Narasimha Rao, 1954; Atal
and Ojha, 1965) Long pepper is rarely used medicinally in the United States. King’s
American Dispensatory. 1898.
25.2.5 Structure of piperine
Chemical names: 1-piperoyl piperidine; (E,E) 1-[5-(1,3-Benzodioxol-5-yl)-1-oxo-2,
4-pentadienyl]piperidine; Molecular weight: 285.33; Percentage composition: C =
71.55%, H = 6.71% N = 4.91% O = 16.82%.
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25.2.6 Method of extraction
Piperine can be isolated from the oleoresin of P. longum. The powdered fruits of the
plant are extracted with dichloromethane at room temperature with stirring for
12 hours. The extract is filtered, concentrated in vacuum, and then the residue is
purified on an alumina column. Pure piperine can also be obtained by crystallization
from ethanol, which may be required for food and/or medicinal usage. Piperine is
obtained directly from the crude residue in lesser amounts by extraction in alcohol,
filtration and successive crystallization. Alkaline hydrolysis of piperine gives two
compounds, one an acid, viz., piperic acid and the other an alkaloid, viz., piperidine.
This confirms that piperine is the amide formed between piperidine and piperic acid.
NaOH
C 17 H 19 O 3 N + H 2 O → C 5 H 11 N + C 12 H 10 O 4
Piperic acid
Piperidine
Piperine
25.2.7 Structure of piperidine
Piperidine is well-known as the hexahydro derivative of pyridine. It is a simple
organic heterocyclic nitrogen compound. The structure is shown in Fig. 25.2.
25.2.8 Structure of piperic acid
Qualitative tests confirmed that piperic acid contains one carboxyl, two olefinic double
bonds and no free hydroxyl groups. Piperic acid on permanganate oxidation gives
first the aldehyde piperonal and then the acid piperonylic acid. Piperonylic acid does
not contain any free phenolic hydroxyl groups. On heating with HCl under pressure,
it gives the diphenolic acid protocatechuic acid and formaldehyde. This shows that
only one carbon is eliminated to give a diphenolic compound. It has previously been
established that protocatechuic acid is 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (Fig. 25.3.)
The structure of some of the other important constituents of long pepper are shown
in Fig. 25.4.
O
N
O
O
Fig. 25.1
Structure of piperine.
N
H
Structure of piperidine.
Fig. 25.2
HO
Piperidine
COOH
Protocatechuic acid
HO
Fig. 25.3
Protocatechuic acid.
Long pepper
N
OMe
O
OMe
OMe
Piplartine (Piperlongumine)
O
H
O
O
H
H
O
O
H
Sesamin
O
O
O
MeO
HO
O
HO
N
H
N
Me
MeO
Piperolactam A
Piperadione
O
O
MeO
HO
N
H
MeO
Cepharanone B
Fig. 25.4
NH
MeO
Aristolactam AH
Structure of some of the other important constituents of long pepper.
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25.3 Uses
The fruits are used as a spice and also in pickles, preservatives, foods, beverages,
liquors and medicines. Rather remarkably, long pepper is also known and popular in
parts of Africa, namely in the Islamic regions of North and East Africa, where it has
been introduced by Arab traders therefore long pepper is sometimes found in the
complex spice mixtures of Morocco. It is also of some importance for the cuisine of
Ethiopia, where long pepper is usually found in the traditional meat stews (wat),
mostly together with black pepper, nutmeg, clove and turmeric; the usage of turmeric
exemplifies the Indian influence in Ethiopian cuisine.
The most important use of long pepper is as a medicinal ingredient in the Indian
systems of medicine – Ayurveda, Sidha and Unani. Both fruit and dried roots are
used. Besides the spikes thicker stem and roots are used in preparation of ‘piplamool’
in Ayurvedic Sidha and Unani medicines. The pungent root is considered as healing,
stomachic, laxative, anthelmintic, carminative, improves the appetite, useful in
bronchitis, abdominal pains, diseases of the spleen, tumour, ascites and relieves
biliousness. The fruits as well as roots are attributed with numerous medicinal uses
and may be used for diseases of respiratory tract, viz., cough, bronchitis, asthma, etc;
as a counter irritant and analgesic when applied locally for muscular pains and
inflammation; as snuff in coma and drowsiness and internally as carminative; as
sedative in insomnia and epilepsy; as general tonic and haematinic; as cholagogue in
obstruction of bile duct and gall bladder; as an emmenagogue and abortifacient; and
for miscellaneous purposes as antihelmenthic and in dysentery and leprosy (Atal and
Ojha, 1965; Atal et al., 1981).
Used in many Ayurvedic traditional remedies, Piper longum has been intensively
studied. A large number of traditional medicinal preparations have long pepper as
one of their constituents. Piper longum differs little in its medicinal values from P.
nigrum as it is less aromatic and more acrid. It is widely used in Ayurvedic and Unani
systems of medicine in the prevention and treatment of respiratory congestion and
bronchial asthma. Whole spike and piplamool (dried roots and thick stem) are used.
Unripe fruit is used as an alternative analgesic for muscular pains and inflammations,
vermifuge, carminative, sedative, anti-diarrhoeic, anti-dysenteric against fevers, leprosy,
jaundice and as an immunostimulant and tonic; used after childbirth to check postpartum haemorrhage, treat respiratory tract diseases. The dry spikes of female types
are used in the Ayurvedic preparations like Pipalarishta, Pipplayasava, Panchakola,
Pippalayadiluha and Lavanabhaskar churnam. It is the major constituent of an Ayurvedic
preparation, ‘Trikatu’ which is prescribed routinely for a variety of diseases. The root
is used for bronchitis, stomachache, diseases of spleen and tumours. It improves
appetite also.
An infusion of the root is prescribed after parturition to induce the expulsion of
placenta. The fruits are also used as carminative, sedative in insomnia and epilepsy,
as general tonic and haematinic, as cholagogue in obstruction of bile duct and gall
bladder; as an enumenagogue and abortifacient; as anthelmintic and in dysentery and
leprosy. Ripe fruit is sweetish, pungent, heating, stomachic, aphrodisiac, alternative,
laxative and anti-dysenteric.
Pungent root is considered as warming, stomachic, laxative, anthelmintic, carminative,
improves the appetite, useful in bronchitis, abdominal pains, diseases of the spleen,
tumour, ascites and causes of biliousness. The roots and stems are used for diseases
of the respiratory tract like cough, bronchitis, asthma, etc., as counter-irritant and
Long pepper
429
analgesic when applied locally for muscular pains and inflammation; as snuff in
coma and drowsiness.
The fruits contain volatile oil, resin, alkaloids (4–5% piperine) – a terpenoid
substance, piplartine (m.p. 124–125°) and two liquid alkaloids. The first alkaloid is
closely related to pellitorine producing marked salivation, numbness and a tingling
sensation of mucous membranes of the mouth. It showed in vitro anti-tubercular
activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H-37 Rv strain; inhibited the growth of
the bacillus in 20 µg/ml concentrations (Pruthi, 1976). Piperine has diverse
pharmacological activities including nerve depressant and antagonistic effect on electroshock and chemo-shock seizures as well as muscular uncoordination. The alkaloids
(Piperine, pipelartive and piper longument) present in long pepper proved to possess
anti-tubercular activity. The fruits are also used as carminative, sedative in insomnia
and epilepsy, as general tonic and haematinic, as cholagogue in obstruction of bile
duct and gall bladder; as an enumenagogue and abortifacient; as anthelmintic in
dysentery and leprosy. Alcoholic extracts of the dry fruits and aqueous extracts of the
leaves showed activity against Micrococcus phygenes var. aureus and Escherichia
coli. Ether extract of the fruits showed larvicidal properties (Pruthi, 1976). Alcoholic
extracts of the dry fruits and aqueous extracts of leaves showed activity against
Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus and Escherichia coli. Ether extract of the fruits
showed larvicidal activity (George et al., 1947).
A decoction of immature fruits and roots is given for chronic bronchitis, coughs
and colds. Fruits and roots are used in palsy, gout, rheumatism, lumbago, an antidote
for snake-bite and scorpion sting, as counter-irritant and analgesic when applied
locally for muscular pains and inflammation; internally as carminative; as sedative in
insomnia and epilepsy; as general tonic and haematinic; and for miscellaneous purposes
as anthelmintic, in dysentery and leprosy (Atal and Ojha, 1965). It forms one of the
ingredients in various compound preparations used for anorexia, piles, dyspepsia and
also in snuffs used in coma and drowsiness (CSIR, 1969). A compound preparation
of P. longum is also said to be a good remedy for leucoderma. The plant is considered
by tribals (Santals) to be useful in splenetic disorders, cholera, dysentery, consumption,
puerperal fever and diarrhoea (Jain and Tarafder, 1970).
Experiments were conducted to evaluate the scientific basis of the use of the
trikatu group of acrids (long pepper, black pepper and ginger) in the large number of
prescriptions in Ayurveda. [3H] vasicine and [3H] sparteine were taken as test drugs.
Piper longum (long pepper) increased the blood levels of vasicine by nearly 233%.
Under the influence of piperine, the active principle of Piper species, sparteine blood
levels increased more than 100%. The results suggest that these acrids have the
capacity to increase the bioavailability of certain drugs. It appears that the trikatu
group of drugs increase bioavailability either by promoting rapid absorption from the
gastrointestinal tract or by protecting the drug from being metabolized/oxidized in its
first passage through the liver after being absorbed, or by a combination of these two
mechanisms (Atal et al., 1981).
Components of the long pepper fruits have been shown to exert a significant level
of protection against liver toxicity induced by tert-butyl-hydroperoxide and carbon
tetrachloride by reducing in vitro and in vivo lipid peroxidation by decreasing the
reduction of GSH (Koul and Kapil, 1993; Treadway, 1998).
Rasa (taste) is katu (pungent), Virya (energy) is ushna (hot) and Vipak (post
digestive action) is madhura (sweet). The berries are a cardiac stimulant, carminative,
tonic, laxative, digestive, stomachic and antiseptic. It is a mild diuretic, alterative,
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hepatic and expectorant. The fruit contains volatile oil, starch, protein, alkaloidspiperine and piperlongumine, saponins and lignans. Pippali, like its relative Black
pepper, is a powerful stimulant for the digestive and respiratory systems. It is strongly
healing, removes colds, congestion and toxins and revives weak organ functions.
In an Indian study published in 1999, Piper longum was tested for its efficacy
against experimental infection of Giardia lamblia in mice. Piper longum possessed
a demonstrable immunostimulatory activity, both specific and non-specific. In another
study, piperine, an active alkaloidal constituent of Piper longum was evaluated for its
anti-hepatotoxic potential in order to validate its use in traditional therapeutic
formulations. The alkaloid exerted a significant protection against tert-butyl
hydroperoxide and carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxicity by reducing both in vitro and
in vivo lipid peroxidation and by reducing the depletion of glutathione and total
thiols. (Tripathi et al., 1999). In an analogous way to the digestive tract delivering
nutrients, air passages deliver the most important nutrient of all – oxygen. In fact, the
main Ayurvedic formula for better delivery of nutrients at the gastrointestinal level is
used in bronchopulmonary conditions as well.
Piper longum, traditionally known in Sanskrit as Pippali, has been used in Ayurveda
and related Unani medicine in the prevention and treatment of bronchial asthma. In
a study involving 20 children, five to twelve years old, suffering from bronchial
asthma with confirmed sensitivity to house dust mite (HDM), long pepper fruits were
administered in form of 150 mg (children five years old or younger) or 250 mg
(children five to twelve years old) capsules for five weeks (week 1, one capsule a
day, week 2, two, week 3, three, week 4, two, week five, one). At the end of five
weeks all patients showed significant clinical improvement as assessed by the pulmonary
functions tests and decrease in frequency and severity of asthma attacks and decreased
sensitivity to HDM skin test. The FVC, FEV1 and MMEFR values were significantly
(p < 0.05) increased: 1.2253 (before treatment)/1.5123(after); 852.17/1061; 48.88/
73.38 respectively. The follow-up of the patients’ status after one year found 11
patients with no recurrence of asthma attacks. Piper longum contains a minimum of
1% of alkaloid piperine, however, other yet to be identified components may be
responsible for the therapeutic action in patients with asthma. (Muhammed and Vladimir
1997).
The dried spikes are thermogenic, carminative (cures flatulence), expectorant,
drives off fever, laxative, digestive, antiseptic and tonic. Pippali finds usage in anorexia,
indigestion, flatulence, cold, cough, bronchitis, and hiccups, fevers and stomach
disorders. The root of long pepper is also attributed with several medicinal properties.
The extract is used in cough syrups and as a counter-irritant in analgesics and for all
other ailments where fruits are used.
Antiallergic activity of the fruit has been studied. It effectively reduced passive
cutaneous anaphylaxis in rats and protected guinea pigs against antigen-induced
bronchospasm; a 30% protection of mast cells was observed in an in-vitro study
(Dahanukar et al., 1984). Both alcoholic extract and piplartine extracted from the
stems showed significant inhibition of ciliary movements of oesophagus of frog
(Banga et al., 1964). Piperine decreased the rate and amplitude of respiration and
showed nonspecific blockade of acetylcholine, histamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine
induced spasm on isolated guinea pig and rabbit intestine (Neogi et al., 1971). The
oil of fruit has been found to possess significant paralytic action on the nerve-muscle
pre-paration of A. lumbricoides (D’Cruz et al., 1980). The hepatoprotective effect
has been shown in carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage in rats (Rege et al.,
Long pepper
431
1984). A common use of the fruit is in the prevention of recurrent attacks of bronchial
asthma (Pandeya, 1983).
Another important indication is in chronic malaria (Gogate, 1983). In a study of
240 children treated long-term with fruit 58.3% had decreased severity of attacks
(Athavale, 1980). In another study 20 children were studied for one year with the
same treatment. Eleven had no recurrence. All patients had a strongly positive skin
test which became negative in six and decreased significantly in 12 after five weeks
of treatment. Along with Piper nigrum and C. officinale it has been useful in viral
hepatitis (Dahanukar and Karandikar, 1984).
25.3.1 Contraindication
Piper longum has been in widespread use for many centuries. The standard doses are
well tolerated. No mortality was observed with the powder of the fruit boiled in milk
and water administered orally to albino rats in a dose of 1 gm/kg. Acute toxicity
studies with piperine, piperlongumine and piperlonguminine were carried out in
mice, rats and dogs using oral and intraperitoneal routes. In mice, oral LD (50) was
56.2 + 8.0, 110.1 + 7.8 and 115.3 + 9.5 mg/kg with piperine, piper-lonigumine and
piperlonguminine respectively (Singh et al., 1973).
25.4
Cultivation
Long pepper is successfully cultivated in well-drained forest soils rich in organic
matter. Laterite soils with high organic matter content and moisture holding capacity
are also suitable for cultivation. Areas with high rainfall and high humidity with an
elevation of 100–1000 m are ideal. It grows well under semi-shady conditions (25–
50% shade) in irrigated coconut gardens.
In some hilly parts of Vishakapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh, long pepper is
grown for its roots. It is grown as a perennial in small plots of 25–50% and the roots
are collected for 10–30 years, the first harvest commencing from 18 months after
planting. The stems close to the ground are cut and the roots dug up, cleaned and
heaped in shade for a day, after which they are cut into pieces of 2.5–5 cm long. On
an average 500 kg of roots are obtained per hectare (Parthasarathy and Narasimha
Rao, 1954)
25.4.1 Varieties and cultivars
Viswam is the only released variety in the country so far. The variety was developed
by Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, India, through clonal selection. It was
recommended to grow as an intercrop in irrigated coconut and arecanut gardens. It
has a prolonged flowering phase and bears stout, short and thick fruits. Unripened
mature fruits are blackish green. The variety gives economic yield for about 240–270
days in a year. Fruits contain about 20% dry matter and 2.83% alkaloid.
25.4.2 Soil and climate
It is grown in the natural habitat and indigenous to wet and warmer parts of India and
requires partial shade for ideal growth. It is cultivated as a rainfed crop in Assam and
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Meghalaya and as an irrigated crop in other parts. The crop thrives in a variety of
soils – fertile forest soil rich in organic matter, laterite soils with high organic matter
content and water-holding capacity, limestone soil and well drained fertile black
cotton soil. However, light, porous and well drained soil rich in organic content is
most suitable for its cultivation. It requires high humidity, high rainfall or frequent
irrigation and partial shade for good growth and can be cultivated up to 1000 m
elevation.
25.4.3 Planting material
Propagation is through vine cuttings mainly by layering of mature branches or by
suckers. Three to five noded cuttings, 15–20 cm long with three 5 cm nodes, taken
from any part of the stem, serve as planting material. However, terminal shoots are
usually used for planting. The cuttings can be easily rooted in pot mixture and
planted in polythene bags or in nursery beds and irrigated on alternate days. Rooting
takes about 15–20 days after planting. The rooted cuttings will be ready for transplanting
in two months; 100% establishment of cuttings can be observed. March–April is the
best time for raising the nursery. Cuttings can be directly planted in the field at the
beginning of the rainy season or rooting can be initiated in the nursery before they are
transplanted in the field. Mealy bugs attack the roots in the nursery. Spraying or
drenching Aldrin 10% reduces Mealy bug attack (Philip et al., 1991; Satyabrata
Maiti and Presanna Kumari).
25.4.4 Land preparation and planting
With the onset of the monsoon in June, the field is ploughed well, levelled considering
the slope of land to facilitate drainage of excess of water, and raised beds of convenient
length and breadth are taken. On these beds, pits are dug at 60 × 60 cm spacing and
well-decomposed organic manure at the rate of 100 g/pit is applied and mixed with
soil. Rooted vine cuttings or suckers (two/pit) are then transplanted to these pits. The
plant will trail on the ground or it can be staked for better yields. The crop cannot
survive in waterlogged conditions. Hard wood cuttings of Sesbania grandiflora or
Erythrina varigata or both are planted near the sprouted cuttings of long pepper for
providing support and shade. In south India, it is also successfully cultivated as an
intercrop in irrigated coconut and arecanut gardens.
25.4.5 Manuring and intercultural operations
Piper longum requires heavy organic manuring (20–25 tonnes of farmyard manure/
ha/year) as split application will give a good yield during the economic period of
three years. During the first year, organic manure can be applied in pits at the time of
planting. In subsequent years, manuring is done by spreading in beds and covering
with soil. Crop growth and spike production increases by the application of wood
ash. There is no report so far about the use of inorganic fertilizers. No chemical
fertilizer has been recommended so far for this crop. A study conducted at Kerala
Agricultural University to find out the optimum spacing and manorial recommendation
revealed that plant height, number of branches, number of leaves and total dry matter
increased with a high dose of organic manure and 30:30:60 kg NPK/ha with an
optimum spacing of 50 × 50 cm. In soils with low fertility the growth of the plant is
very poor.
Long pepper
433
Regular interculture operations can be done as and when weeds grow in beds
during the first year. Generally two or three weedings are sufficient. When the crop
covers the broad interspaces at the time of manuring the weeds can be removed and
manure can be spread in beds and earthed up. The crop should be irrigated during
summer months once a week.
25.4.6 Irrigation
It is reported that an unirrigated crop after the onset of monsoon grows vigorously
and shows more hardiness than the irrigated crop. But irrigation is most essential
during summer months. One or two irrigations a week, depending upon the waterholding capacity of the soil, is needed. Even in the monsoon period, if there is a
failure of rain for quite some time, irrigation needs to be given. In irrigated crops,
fruit production continues even in summer months.
25.4.7 Diseases and pests
Bordeaux mixture can be applied in pits at time of field planting. Diseases reported
are rotting of vine and leaves due to Colletotrichum during monsoon season and
Necrotic spot and blight of leaves by Colletotrichum and Cercospora in summer
months which sometime cause total or partial crop loss. This can be controlled by
Bordeaux mixture (1%) spray during May and subsequently during rainy season. The
crop is also affected by mealy bugs especially during summer. The mealy bug infected
root of the crop shows stunted growth and yellowing. The insect attacks the healthy
roots and sucks its sap. Application of systemic insecticides like Rogar, Nuvacron or
Dimecron is recommended. Severe attack of Helopeltis theivora is also reported by
feeding on tender foliage. Application of neem kernel suspension at 0.25% is
recommended for controlling it. Phytophthora leaf and stem rot and anthracnose are
important diseases of long pepper. Spraying of 0.5% Bordeaux mixture at 15 day
intervals and soil drenching of 1.0% Bordeaux mixture at monthly intervals reduce
the loss caused by these diseases effectively.
25.4.8 Harvesting
The vines start flowering six months after planting and flowers are produced almost
throughout the year. The spikes are harvested, two months after flowering, when they
are full-grown but yet unripe, as it is the most pungent stage, and are sun dried. If left
without picking they ripen and their pungency is lost to a great extent. Harvesting
over-matured or ripened fruits also reduces the quality of the produce and it does not
break easily after full drying. Indian long pepper is usually cultivated as a four- to
five-year crop as yield starts declining and gradually becomes uneconomic after the
fifth year and should be replaced. In such cases fruits, roots and thicker basal stem
portions are also collected before crop is abandoned. Stems and roots are cleaned, cut
into cylindrical pieces of 2.5–5 cm length and 0.5–2.5 mm thickness, dried in shade
and marketed as piplamool. This is not the case with other species (Piper retrofractum
and P. peepuloides) of climbing long peppers which continue to give increased yields
even after 15 years. The yield of pipalmul is much higher in these species depending
on the year of harvesting.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
25.4.9 Post harvesting operation
Harvested spikes are repeatedly exposed in the sun for four to five days until they are
perfectly dry. The green spike to dry spike ratio is around 10:1.5. The dried spikes
have to be stored in moisture-proof containers. Produce should not be stored for more
than a year. Thicker parts of stems and roots are cut and dried for making piplamool
and graded depending on the size of roots and stems (Parthasarathy and Narasimha
Rao, 1954).
25.4.10 Yield
In Kerala, three to four pickings are made depending upon the maturity of the fruits.
The yield of dry spike is 400 kg/ha during the first year when irrigated, increases to
1.0 to 1.25 t/ha in subsequent years and decreases thereafter. Rain-fed crop has a
shorter flush of fruiting, resulting in reduced yield. Average yield is 500 kg dry roots/
ha. Stems and roots are cleaned, cut into cylindrical pieces of 2.5–5 cm length and
0.5–2.5 mm thickness, dried in shade and marketed as piplamool. The market for
medicinal plants is volatile and the economics may vary from year to year.
25.5
Quality specifications
There are three grades of Piplamul, Grade I with thick roots and underground stems
fetching a higher price than Grade II or III, which comprise either thin roots, stems
or broken fragments. Commercial drugs consist almost entirely of transversely cut
pieces (length 5–25 mm, diam. 2–7 mm), which are cylindrical, straight or slightly
curved, and some with distinct, swollen internodes showing a number of leaf and
rootlet scars. Surface of the pieces is dirty light brown in colour.
25.6
Biotechnology
According to the World Health Organization 80% of the world population is dependent
upon medicinal plants for primary health care, particularly in the developing economies
where local communities are offered immediate access to safe and effective products
so as to treat ill health through self medication (Akerele 1992). The popularity of
traditional health care in most parts of the world has created a tremendous demand
for medicinal plants, which are still collected from their natural habitats leading to
their depletion and finally extinction. Medicinal and aromatic plants need to be
multiplied faster to meet the demand, with minimum loss to their natural habitats.
Micro-propagation technology for fast multiplication of required planting material
could be very useful. The advent of molecular biology, gene technology and cell
biology has helped understand diseases on the molecular/gene level. Novel targetdirected screening assay, automation and miniaturization have resulted in high
throughput screening (HTS) approaches thereby improving the industrial drug discovery
process drastically (Grabley and Thiericke 1999). Moreoever, in vitro gene banks can
play a very crucial role in providing the feedstock for this revolution.
Protocols were standardized for rapid clonal multiplication of Piper longum and P.
chaba from shoot tip explants (Sarasan et al., 1993; Nirmal Babu et al., 1994).
Long pepper
435
Conversion of root meristem into shoot meristem and its subsequent development to
plantlets was reported in P. longum (Nirmal Babu et al., 1993b). Plants were regenerated
from leaf and stem explants of Piper longum, P. chaba, through direct and indirect
organogenesis (Bhat et al., 1992, 1995; Sarasan et al., 1993). In P. longum, root
explants were directly regenerated into plantlets (Nirmal Babu et al., 1993a).
Piper longum and P. chaba could be successfully micropropagated on McCown’s
Woody Plant Medium (WPM) supplemented with BAP and kinetin. WPM with 3
mgl–1 BAP and 1 mgl–1 kinetin was found to be ideal for shoot regeneration and their
subsequent growth from both leaf and stem explants either with or without intervening
callus phase in both the species. Within another 20–30 days, organogenesis in the
form of numerous (10–100) shoot primordials could be obtained and over 40% of
these primordials showed good elongation and continued normal development. These
shoots developed good root systems when growth regulators were removed from the
culture medium. When these rooted plantlets were grown in culture medium with
3 mgl–1 BAP and 1 mgl–1 kinetin there was conversion of root meristem to shoot
meristem, which subsequently developed into shoots and then plantlets. Over 90% of
the regenerated plantlets could be easily established in soil (Nirmal Babu et al.,
1993a,b; 1994; 1997; 1999; 2000).
Shoot tips could be conserved under minimal growth conditions with yearly
subculture in WPM without any growth regulators. The plantlets could be multiplied
normally after one year of storage and the rooted plantlets were successfully planted
out. This helps in conservation of long pepper genetic resources in in vitro gene
banks (Nirmal Babu et al., 1999; Peter et al., 2002).
Ajith (1997) used RAPD profiling to study the micropropagated plants of Piper
longum and reported that they are genetically stable. Nirmal Babu et al., 2000 and
Parani et al., (1997) have standardized RAPD fingerprinting for selecting
micropropagated plants of Piper longum for conservation. Philip et al., (2000) have
studied RAPD polymorphism in three different collections of P. longum. Banerjee et
al., (1999) have developed RAPD markers to identify male and female lines of
P. longum.
25.7 Future
Long pepper is an important medicinal plant used in many drugs and medicinal
formulations. There is tremendous demand for commercial long pepper and pipalmul.
In India, most of the long pepper is still collected from the wild leading to destruction
of these populations in their natural habitats. It is important to encourage commercial
cultivation on a larger scale to ensure a continous supply of genuine raw material.
Adequate availability of planting material is also a limiting factor for commercial
cultivation. Micropropagation supplemented with vegetative propagation can meet
these lacunae. The pricing of medicinal plants is highly volatile due to unorganized
marketing, discouraging farmers to take up cultivation of medicinal plants on a larger
scale. A properly regulated market with guaranteed pricing would help in popularization
and cultivation of these important plants.
Identifying genotypes which contain high amounts of the required drug/alkaloid is
another area which needs intensified research. It is known that the environment
adversely affects the quality parameters of many medicinal plants. Information on
suitable soil nutrient and water requirements need to be generated for producing
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Handbook of herbs and spices
high-quality products suitable for the pharmaceutical industry. Though some information
is available, clinical validation of drugs from long pepper and identification of the
new drugs are important areas, which need intensified research.
25.8
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SINGH N et al. (1973). Studies on the analeptic activity of some Piper longum alkaloids. J. Res. Ind.
Med. 8(l): 1–9.
SINGH S, PANDEY P and KUMAR S (2000). Traditional knowledge on the Medicinal Plants of Ayurveda.
pp. 66–93, CIMAP, Lucknow.
TREADWAY SCOTT (1998). An ayurvedic approach to a healthy liver. Clinical Nutrition Insights.
6(16): 1–3.
TRIPATHI DM, GUPTA N, LAKSHMI V, SAXENA KC and AGRAWAL AK (1999). Antigiardial and immunostimulatory
effect of Piper longum on giardiasis due to Giardia lamblia, Phytother Res, 13(7): 561–5.
VISHWANATHAN TV (1995). Long pepper. In: Advances in Hort. Vol. II. Medicinal and Aromatic
plants. (eds) KL Chadha and Rajendra Gupta. pp. 373–383.
26
Lovage
M. H. Mirjalili, Shahid Beheshti University, Iran and
J. Javanmardi, Shiraz University, Iran
26.1
Introduction
Lovage (Levisticum officinale W.D.J. Koch) has been grown for its aromatic
fragrances, ornamental aspects and medicinal properties for a long time and its use
can be traced back to ancient Rome. The plant was called by Diosecorides, ‘libysticon’
or ‘lygisticon’. Many authors considered its name to be derived from the Latin word
‘levare’ (lighten) (Hornok, 1992). According to Stuart (1989), the plant name is
derived from lovage,s reputation in many European countries as a love charm or
aphrodisiac.
Lovage is known as Celeri perpetuel in French; Badekraut in German; Levistico
in Italian; Ligustico in Spanish; Levistiko in Greek; Goritsvet in Russian; Selam otu
in Turkish; Robejji in Japan, and Anjedan e roomi in Iran.
In a 12th-century manuscript attributed to Roger of Salerno, there is an early
description of the use of a soporific mixture used to induce relief of pain in a patient
about to undergo surgery. This medication was composed of the bark of mandragora,
hyoscyamus and lovage seed, which were mixed together, ground and then applied
wet to the forehead of the patient (Corner, 1937). This herb was plentiful in monastery
gardens during the Middle Ages. Hildegard used it for soothing coughs and against
lung and chest complaints. It was also thought that lovage increased the urine flow
and expelled gas and so was used for kidney and intestinal complaints (Holtom and
Hylton, 1979).
26.1.1 Origin and habitat
Lovage is originally native to Southwest Asia (Hazaran Mountain; Kerman province;
Iran at an altitude of 2500–3400 m) and southern Europe but it is naturalized in many
temperate regions and has for a long time been cultivated elsewhere (Tutin, 1968;
Rechinger, 1987; Mozaffarian, 1996). It thrives on sunny mountain slopes (Chevallier,
1996).
Lovage
439
26.1.2 Botanical characteristics
Lovage (Levisticum officinale W.D.J. Koch) is a dicotyledon belonging to the family
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) and the order Apiales. The plant has been alternatively
classified as Ligusticum levisticum L., Levisticum persicum Freyn & Bornm.,
Hipposelinum levisticum Britt. and Angelica levisticum Baillon (Rechinger, 1987;
Simon et al., 1984). The name of the genus Ligusticum is said to be derived from
Liguria in Italy, where it once grew in abundance. The plant is diploid, 2n = 22,
robust, glabrous, perennial with a clump-forming reaching 1 m spread. The stems are
stout, furrowed, striate and tubular, which branches and develops over 2–2.5 m tall
every year. The leaves are alternate, 0.5–0.6 m long, dark green, shining, toothed,
petiolate with stipules, radical, hairless, 2–3 pinnate, roughly triangular in outline
and rhombic.
The petiole is hollow and inflated near the base. The grey brown rhizome is
vertical, penetrates the soil up to 0.4–0.5 m in depth, and terminates in a tap root,
which is ringed crosswise. The roots have a thick yellowish-white bark separated
from a brownish-yellow radiate wood by a dark line. Essential oil bearing structures
are visible in the outer regions of the transverse section. The inflorescence is flat,
compound umble with 5–15 axes and 5.0–7.5 cm wide. The bracts are numerous,
linear lanceolate, long acute and deflexed with a scarious margin. The greenish
yellow flowers are small, hermaphrodite and produced in large numbers. The fruit is
flat, 5–7 mm, broadly elliptical and yellowish-brown winged twin achene. The seeds
are fertile with an average germination capacity of 68%. The weight of 1000 seeds is
3.7 g (Tutin, 1968; Rechinger, 1987; Jia, 1989; Hornok, 1992; Evans, 2002).
26.1.3 Trade and commerce
Lovage is known as a small spice crop and it is difficult to obtain accurate or reliable
figures for it. Information about the commercial production of essential oil from
lovage was not available in the surveyed literature but the leaf of lovage as a condiment
is sometimes produced in large commercial quantities. According to Lawrence (1985),
the world production of lovage root and seed oil in 1984 was 500 kg and 300 kg,
respectively. In 1993 the estimated annual world value of lovage essential oil was
approximately £800,000 (Hogg, 2001). Lawrence (1993) noted lovage herb as being
one of the main essential oils to be in short supply in the world market. In 2005,
15 ml, 100 ml and 1 kg of lovage oil are priced at 30, 140 and $900, respectively
(www.rangeproducts.com.au). The most important producers of lovage are Germany,
Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland, Belgium, Finland and the USA.
26.2
Chemical composition
All parts of the plant contain essential oil. The herb oil (Levistici herba) is a colorless
or very pale yellow and extremely diffusive. Lovage root oil (Levistici radix) is an
amber to olive-brown colored liquid with root-like odor, suggestive of celery, angelica,
liquorice extract, oleoresin and oak moss. The yield and its chemical composition
differ significantly depending on the individual genetic, geographical variability,
plant age, different plant parts and developmental stages, as well as any post-harvest
treatments. The presence and concentration of certain chemical constituents also
fluctuates according to the season, climatic condition and the origin of the plant.
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Extraction methods (i.e. hydro- and steam distillation, supercritical CO2, solvent
extraction, etc.), solvent composition and sample preparation affect the chemical
profile of extracts. (Cu et al., 1990; Dauksas et al., 1999; Bylait et al., 2000; Dauksas
et al., 2002; Menaker et al., 2004).
The essential oil content (w/w%) in different plant parts is 0.05–1.0% in the
rhizome and roots, 0.1–0.4% in the leafy stem bearing green seed, 0.08–0.2% in the
leaves, and 0.8–2.7% in the ripe seeds. Essential oil composition of lovage has been
studied extensively and more than 190 compounds were reported in its root, seed and
leaf oil (Naves, 1943; De Pooter et al., 1985; Toulemonde and Noleau, 1988; Cu et
al., 1990; Szebeni-Galambosi et al., 1992; Venskutonis, 1995; Bylaite et al., 1998;
Dauksas et al., 1998). The chemical composition of essential oils distilled from
separate botanical parts of this plant is rather different (Bylaite et al., 1998; Novak
and Nemeth, 2002; Dyduch et al., 2003). Volatile oil is composed of phthalides
(butylidene-, dihydrobutyliden-, butyl-, and propylidenephthalide; sedanonic anhydride;
cis- and trans-ligustilide; senkyunolide; isosenkyunolide, validene-4,5-dihydrophthalide)
with lesser amounts of terpenoids (α- and β-pinenes, α- and β-phellandrenes, γterpinene, carvacrol, eugenol, and l-α-terpineol) and volatile acids (butyric acid, isovaleric acid, maleic acid, angelic acid) (Gijbels et al., 1981, 1982; Toulemonde et al.,
1987; Cu et al., 1990; Hogg, 2001; Hogg et al., 2001; Ibrahim, 1999).
The most important compounds of essential oils from lovage are phthalides, which
constitute more than 70% of the total volatile oil from roots, 25% from the leaves,
14.5% from the stems, and about 6% from the seeds (Dauksas et al., 1998). The
chemical structures of major phthalides are shown in Fig. 26.1. It was found that the
flowers and seeds β-phellandrene (40.8% and 61.5%, respectively) were main
constituents, while α-terpinyl acetate (≈ 70%) was reported as the principal constituent
of the leaves and stems oils (Bylaite et al., 1998). The oil of lovage fruits was
O
O
Propylidenephthalide
O
O
O
O
O
(Z)-3-Butylidenephthalide
O
O
Dihydrobutylidenephthalide
(E)-3-Butylidenephthalide
O
O
(E)-Ligustilide
O
(Z )-Ligustilide
Fig. 26.1 Chemical structures of major phthalides in the essential oil of lovage.
Lovage
441
reported to contain β-phellandrene (69.3%), terpinenyl acetate (4.2%) and α-terpineol
(2.1%) as the major components (Dyduch et al., 2003). The major volatile oil components
of lovage parts are shown in Table 26.1.
In the study by Stahl-Biskup and Wichtmann (1991), the essential oil composition
of lovage root between seedlings and adult plants was compared. In adult plants the
essential oil, Z-ligustilide and the biosynthetically related pentylcyclohexa-1,3-diene
form more than 50% of the oil, while germacrene-B and β-phellandrene are the
minor components. These findings revealed that the production of pentylcyclohexadiene
and phthalides are begun at about 11 and 18 weeks after germination respectively,
and after 20 weeks of germination, the amount of Z-ligustilide reaches about 30% of
essential oil.
Seasoning-like flavor substances of the commercial lovage extract were studied
by Blank and Schieberle (1993). Aroma extract dilution analysis resulted in six
odorants having high sensory relevance. They were identified as 3-hydroxy-4,5dimethyl-3(2H)-furanon (sotolon) with seasoning-like odor, (E)-β-damascenone with
honey-like odor, 2-ethyl-4-hydroxy-5-methyl-3-(2H)-furanone (homofuraneol) and
4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanon with caramel-like odor, 3-methylbutanoic acid
with rancid odor and acetic acid with pungent odor (Fig. 26.2). Sotolon was reported
as the key aroma compound of the acidic fraction of lovage extract due to its
characteristic seasoning-like flavor and high flavor dilution factor.
Lovage, as the other plants of the Apiaceae family, contains furocoumarins
(Fig. 26.3) (Nielsen, 1970; Murray et al., 1982). Some furocoumarins such as psoralen,
5-methoxypsoralen (5-MOP) and 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) are potent
photosensitizers when activated by near-UV light (300–380 nm). They intercalate
readily into DNA and form light-induced mono- or di-adducts with pyrimidine bases.
Thus, they are phototoxic, mutagenic and photocarcinogenic. Severe dermatitis can
result after contact with furocoumarin-containing plants in the presence of sunlight
(Pathak, 1974). The fruits of lovage contain imperatorin as a major compound and
small amounts of 5-MOP, 8-MOP and psoralen (Naves, 1943; Dauksha and Denisova,
1969; Ceska et al., 1987). Psoralen was identified with 5-MOP by Karlsen (1968) as
being present in the lovage root. Other cumarines such as umbelliferone and apterin
were also isolated and characterized from the lovage (Karlsen, 1968; Fischer and
Svendsen, 1976) (Fig. 26.3).
Najda et al. (2003) determined the phenolic acids and tannins content of different
anatomical parts of the plant (Table 26.2). Total phenolic acid content of different
parts of the plant has been reported as: roots (0.12–0.16%), herb (0.88–1.03%), stems
Table 26.1
The major volatile oil constituents of lovage parts
Constituent
Retention
indices
Leaves
α-Pinene
β-Pinene
Myrcene
α-Phellandrene
β-Phellandrene
Pentylcyclohexadiene
α-Terpinyl acetate
(Z)-Ligustilide
928
967
981
994
1019
1125
1338
1697
0.4 –
1.0 –
1.6 –
0.4 –
13.4 –
0.3 –
49.7 –
4.4 –
Source: Hogg (2001).
0.8
1.7
4.4
1.2
26.5
0.9
70.0
11.7
Stems
Flowers/
seeds
Roots
1.0 – 1.2
0.2 – 0.8
1.2 – 3.4
0.1 – 1.2
10.8 – 28.5
0.2 – 0.5
48.2 – 68.9
4.8 – 13.8
2.9
2.9
2.2
1.0
11.7
0.2
4.5
5.6
2.0 –
2.5 –
0.3 –
0.2 –
1.7 –
7.4 –
0.1 –
37.0 –
– 5.3
– 17.7
– 7.1
– 2.9
– 63.1
– 0.4
– 16.2
– 16.0
12.7
6.6
0.8
0.5
15.5
29.3
0.2
67.5
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Handbook of herbs and spices
O
O
O
OH
O
HO
3-Hydroxy-4,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone (sotolon)
2-Ethyl-4-hydroxy-5-methyl-3-(2H)-furanone
O
O
HO
HO
O
4-Hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone
3-Methylbutanoic acid
O
HO
O
Acetic acid
(E)-beta-Damascenone
Chemical structures of seasoning-like substances of lovage.
Fig. 26.2
OMe
H
O
O
O
OH
O
O
O
H
H
Umbelliferone
O
O
H
5-Methoxypsoralen
Psoralen
H
O
O
O
O
O
OH
O
O-beta-D-glucosyl
OMe
Apterin
8-Methoxypsoralen
Fig. 26.3 Chemical structures of some coumarins isolated from lovage.
Table 26.2
Water content, tannins and total phenolic acids in different anatomical parts of lovage
Total free phenolic acids (mg/100g dry mass)
Anatomical part
Water
content %
Tannins
%
Chlorogenic Caffeic
p-Coumaric
m-Coumaric
Roots
Herbs
Stalks
Blades
Fruits
7.0
8.6
9.3
6.0
9.4
6.6
5.3
7.4
2.7
1.8
0.123
1.362
0.645
2.012
2.123
0.044
0.063
0.032
0.110
0.758
0.052
0.098
0.048
0.123
0.214
Source: Najda et al. (2003).
0.264
2.121
0.148
2.657
3.067
Lovage
443
(0.30–0.39%), leaf (1.11–1.23%), and fruits (1.32–1.41%) and for tannins as: roots
(6.6%), herb (5.3%), stems (7.4%), leaves (2.7%), and fruits (1.8%). Lovage also
contains β-sitosterol (Nielsen and Kofod, 1963).
26.3
Cultivation and production
26.3.1 Ecological requirements
Lovage can be cultivated in any temperate climate and is able to survive harsh
winters. It has been reported that the plant could survive a temperature of –35 °C
during the winter with no damage (Szebeni-Galambosi et al., 1992). The preferred
temperature range is between 6–18 °C, with annual precipitation of 500–1500 mm.
Although lovage is not sensitive to low temperatures, high quality in roots yield and
oil can be obtained in warm regions. In very hot locations some shade is necessary.
The root system is in a relatively thin soil layer (0.4–0.5 m) and water-absorbing
roots do not penetrate the soil deeply. Water demand in lovage is high because of the
large surface area of foliage which leads to high evaporation and transpiration, therefore
supplemental irrigation is necessary in arid regions (Omidbaigi, 2000). Recently,
lovage has been adapted to semi-arid conditions for commercial production (Evin,
Tehran, Iran, 35° 48′ N, 51° 23′ E and 1785 m altitude with an averages temperature
of 15 °C and 244.6 mm annual precipitation).
26.3.2 Soil and fertilization
Lovage grows well in many types of soils except heavy clay. Deep and well drained
soils with full sun are ideal conditions for this plant, however, it can grow in partial
shade. Lovage prefers a well drained deep sandy loam soil, rich in nutrients and
humus with a pH range of 5.0 to 7.8. Soils originating from swamp are especially
suitable for cultivation and harvesting, rooting is easy in these types of soils. For
cultivation, the field is prepared for fall sowing with 30–50 cm deep plowing in
August. For sowing it is necessary to prepare the soil so as obtain a fine structure and
a well-compacted seed-bed. Organic manure application is not recommended directly
and is preferable for previous plants. In the autumn, prior to planting, 60–70 kg/ha of
N, 100–120 kg/ha of P2O5 and 140–150 kg/ha of K2O active material should be
introduced into the soil (Hornok, 1992). Lovage is the same as other Apiaceae family
plants such as angelica and fennel, and extracts a large amount of nutrients from the
soil, therefore a sufficient supply of nutrients is also necessary during later years.
The response of lovage to N-fertilization is quite strong. According to Galambosi
and Szebeni-Galambosi (1992), increasing the N-level significantly affects the vegetative
growth and root yield of lovage plants. Fresh and dry yield of both aerials and roots
were doubled by the application of 120 kg/ha of N fertilization. Heavy mulching with
hay or straw is recommended to conserve moisture. It also encourages earthworms to
digest the mulch and increases calcium availability.
26.3.3 Propagation
Lovage can be propagated by direct seeding, dividing roots or transplanting the
transplants. Seeds retain their viability for two years. The best sowing date in the case
of direct seeding is late autumn (November). It is mentioned that seed germination
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Handbook of herbs and spices
capacity increases during winter (Omidbaigi, 2000). As a frequent result of late
sowing, the rosettes would not develop during the winter and consequently the plants
would not develop their generative organs even in the second year. The initial
development of germinated plants is slow and only rosettes are formed in the first
year. Lovage is generally sown in a row spacing of 0.5–0.7 m by application of 10–
12 kg/ha of seeds (70–80 seeds/m). The sowing depth should not be over 20 mm,
because of uneven sprouting which usually happens in deeper sowings.
For transplant production, 1.0–1.5 kg/ha of seeds is required to produce 42–55
thousand transplants at a distance of 20–25 cm between rows (Hornok, 1992). The
best seed sowing time for this purpose is in mid-March and transplants will be ready
in early autumn. Transplants are so susceptible to freeze injury that they should be
transplanted to the field before early autumn freezing. Root division is another method
of propagation which is rarely used. Each divided root should have at least one
healthy vegetative bud to be planted. Root division is preferably made in September,
as is usually the case with other spreading rooted plants.
26.3.4 Pests and diseases
The leaf miner (Liriomyza sp.) is the first threat to the well-being of a lovage plant.
These pests are tiny black flies, 0.1 inch long, with yellow stripes. Their larvae
develop from eggs laid on the underside of the leaves. In the spring the larvae tunnel
inside the leaves and stems, damaging tissues and spreading rot diseases. The meandering
white or translucent trails they blaze through foliage are symptoms of their presence
in the leaves. The larvae eventually drop to the ground and pupate in their cocoons,
emerging later as adults (Ganter, 1997; Stuart and Trumble, 2002). Cleanliness is the
best defense against this pest. Remove and destroy infested leaves. Shallow cultivation
of the earth in fall helps by exposing the pupae to cold. Agricultural fleece (row
covers) may protect small plants from egg-laying flies, but this is not a permanent
solution. Handpicking of the chalky white, dry eggs is effective if it is done
systematically, once a week for a month, followed up by a spray of light horticultural
oil, which will suffocate any menacing remnant. Sometimes lovage seed heads attract
aphids but this problem is succinctly solved by gently bending the heads into a basin
of soapy water and swishing them around to dislodge the insects. Naturally, this
should be done before the seeds are fully ripe (Ganter, 1997).
Against the plant louse, some pesticides such as Pirimor (pirimicarb), Wofatox
(methyl parathion) and Phosdrin (mevinphos) may be used. Lovage is frequently
damaged by a fungus disease such as peronospora (Plasmopora nivea), powdery
mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) and septoria (Septoria apiicola). According to Hornok
(1992), the best protection is provided with a 0.1–0.2% benomil solution by spraying
every 10–12 days until mid-September. Powdery mildew can also be effectively
controlled by spraying the plant with wettable sulphur at the initial stage of infection.
26.3.5 Weed control
Weed control is important in successful lovage production. Early weed control is
especially critical. Cultivation is an effective control method for weeds in lovage,
especially young plants. Weed control is usually performed by cultivating between
the rows. Mechanical cultivation can be replaced by the application of herbicides.
Chemical weed control in the autumnal sowing can be accomplished sufficiently by
Lovage
445
the application of Maloran (chlorbromurion) before sowing (2.5–3.0 kg/ha). In the
spring, Merkazin (prometrin) can be used before sowing in amounts of 4-5 kg/ha.
Maloran is also used at 8–10 kg/ha on lovage plantations in their second or later
years, before sprouting in the early spring (Hornok, 1992).
26.3.6 Harvesting and handling
Lovage can survive for 6–8 years, however, in practice is only maintained in production
for 3–4 years because later than that the stem and leaf development diminishes and
roots become hollowed and rotten (Hornok, 1992). The plant has a rosette form in the
first year. The stem emerges in the second and later years. Cutting leaves from the base
of one-year-old plants in the autumn, and just before the frosts, strengthens the roots.
According to Szebeni-Galambosi et al. (1992), the fresh leaf yield depends on the
dryness of the summer and pest damage which could be 0.5 and 3.9 kg/m2 for the first
and second year, respectively. The aerial parts of lovage (leaves and stems) can be
harvested a few times per season, especially in the second and later years. It is also
reported that the highest yield of total fresh leaf is obtained during flower stalk
emergence. The plant height and fresh leaf yield can be varied with an increased
number of harvests. According to Galambosi and Szebeni-Galambosi (1992), the
plants that were harvested once or twice during the vegetative growth period produced
a higher fresh leaf yield than plants harvested only at the end of growing season, but
this was due to the higher moisture content (about 90%) of aerial parts harvested
during the growth cycle. The average yield of aerial parts of lovage is 4–6 t/ha, from
which 2–4 kg of essential oil can be isolated (Hornok, 1992).
Harvesting time can also affect essential oil yield and composition of aerial parts
of lovage. In the study by Bylaite et al. (1998), the highest amount of essential oil
(2.7%) based on dry weight was in the middle of July, when seeds were formed. The
essential oil yield of 1.53% was determined in the flowers, which were harvested at
the end of flowering in July, whereas the highest concentration of essential oil in
leaves and stems were 1.35 and 1.16%, which were harvested on June 9 (growing
phase) and June 16 (formation of buds), respectively.
One of the major components of essential oils in lovage is α-Terpinyl acetate with
fresh bergamot-lavender odor (Bauer et al., 1990). The highest content of α-terpinyl
acetate (70%) has been detected from the essential oil of leaves collected during a
first harvesting on May 15. The percentage of this compound in the leaves and stems
was decreased during the flowering period of the plants. In the flowers, it constituted
only 16.27% (end of flowering), but the lowest amount of α-terpinyl acetate (4.56%)
was determined in the seeds (July 19) (Bylaite et al., 1998).
Harvesting of lovage seeds depends on the market demand and kind of usage. The
average lovage seed yield is 0.4–0.6 t/ha, which gives 3–6 kg of seed essential oil
(Hornok, 1992). The essential oil content and composition of seeds can also change
during maturation. Immature seeds contain the highest essential oil content (1.5%)
however it decreases in subsequent harvestings, i.e., green mature seed (1.0%) and
ripened seed (0.6%), respectively. β-phellandrene, as one of the principal compounds
of lovage oil, increased significantly after seed formation and constituted 62.4%,
60.5% and 56.4% of green mature, immature and ripened seed oils, respectively.
The roots of lovage can be harvested in the autumn. The roots are ploughed out
after cutting the foliage. On a large scale, the roots can be harvested with rotating
forked potato-harvesting machines (Omidbaigi, 2000). Related reports revealed that
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Handbook of herbs and spices
the root yield was significantly affected by plant age. In a study by Szebeni-Galambosi
et al. (1992), the highest fresh root yield was obtained from 3–4 year-old plants.
According to Hornok (1992), the fresh root yield of 3–4 year-old plants is 6–8 t/ha,
from which 5–6 kg essential oil can be extracted. The average yield of lovage roots
in Lithuania was reported as 9–10.5 t/ha (Dauksas et al., 1999).
The essential oil content and composition of lovage root also can be influenced by
harvesting time and plant age. In the study by Penka and Kocabova (1962), the oil
content of lovage root increased as the plant grew older. In another report from
Finland, the root oil content varied from 0.12 to 1.36% depending on the transplantation
and harvesting times. Also, in the one-year-old roots the relative amount of phthalides
as major compounds of roots oil was significantly higher than in older roots (SzebeniGalambosi et al., 1992). After harvesting of roots, handling manners (e.g. cleaning
and drying) are very necessary. The soil is shaken off the roots and then before
processing the roots are washed, and then they are split into pieces 0.1–0.15 m in
length and dried under shade conditions or by artificial driers at 40–50 °C.
26.4
Use in food
All parts of the plant are edible and used for culinary purposes. The leaves and stems
are used as a celery substitute in soaps, salads, pizzas, stews, sauces, and with meat
and poultry. The stems can also be blanched and served as a culinary herb. Seed
could be used for seasoning meat, bread, potatoes, cheese spreads, pickles, rice and
chicken dishes, confectionery and liqueurs. (Launert, 1981). The essential oils from
leaves (Levistici folium), fruits (Levistici fructus), and roots (Levistici radix) are used
in the food, beverage, perfume, and tobacco industries (Chiej, 1984; Bown, 1995).
Lovage is widely used as a flavoring ingredient, too, in various liqueurs, herb bitters,
and sauces (Grieve, 1984; Chevallier, 1996). The powdered root was once applied as
a substitute for pepper. The essential oils and extracts are used as flavor components
in major food products, such as beverages, frozen dairy dessert, candy, gelatins and
pudding, meat and its products. Average dosage levels used are generally below
0.005%, with the exception of 0.017% and about 0.013% reported for lovage extract
in sweet sauces and in frozen dairy dessert, respectively. Lovage (crude) is also
mentioned in alcoholic beverages, baked foods, savory and sweet sauces. In this
case, largest level used is 0.015% in beverages (Leung and Foster, 1996). According
to Opdyke (1978), the acute oral toxicity of root oil has an LD50 of 3.4 g/kg and an
acute dermal toxicity of LD50 of > 5 g/kg. In the industry, lovage usage is restricted
almost wholly to confectionery and tobacco products (Cu et al., 1990). Following the
literature, some European recipes for dishes where lovage appears as an important
ingredient are given below:
Lobster and potato salad with lovage
Ingredients
Cooked lobster meat
Red bliss potatoes (cooked and cut into 1/2 inch dice)
Mayonnaise
Sour cream
Freshly squeezed lemon juice
Amount
21/2 pounds
1 pound
1
/2 cup
1
/2 cup
1 tablespoon
Lovage
Chopped shallots
Chopped fresh flat leaf parsley
Chopped lovage leaves
Salt and freshly ground black pepper
Red leaf lettuce and fresh chives
447
3 tablespoons
1
/2 cup
1
/2 cup
to taste
for garnish
Method of preparation
1. combine the mayonnaise, sour cream, lemon juice, shallots, parsley and lovage
leaves in the small bowl.
2. Add the mayonnaise mixture to the lobster and potatoes.
3. Toss gently until the mixture combined.
4. Taste with salt and ground black pepper.
5. Garnish with lettuce and chives.
Corn chowder with lovage
Ingredients
Diced bacon
Butter
Chopped onion
Chicken broth
Red potatoes (scrubbed and cut into 1/2 -inch dice)
Fresh corn kernels
Milk or light cream
Chopped lovage leaves
Salt and freshly ground black pepper
Amount
1
/2 cup
2 tablespoons
1 cup
6 cup
11/2 pounds
3 cups
2 cups
1
/2 cup
to taste
Method of preparation
1. Cook the bacon in a large soup pot over medium heat until crisp.
2. Add butter and melt.
3. Add onions to the pot and sauté until wilted, about seven minutes.
4. Add broth and potatoes.
5. Bring the broth to a boil, and then lower the heat and simmer for about
20 minutes or until the potatoes are tender.
6. Add the corn, the lovage, and the milk or cream and continue to cook for an
additional ten minutes, but do not allow boiling after adding the milk or cream.
7. Taste to salt and pepper.
Marinated cherry tomatoes with lovage
Ingredients
Red cherry tomatoes
Yellow pear cherry tomatoes
Finely chopped lovage leaves
Extra-virgin olive oil
Balsamic vinegar
Salt and freshly ground black pepper
Amount
1 pint
1 pint
1
/4 cup
1
/4 cup
3 tablespoons
to taste
Method of preparation
1. Combine the tomatoes, lovage leaves, olive oil vinegar, salt and pepper in the
small bowl.
2. Cover and let marinate at room temperature for at least an hour.
448
Handbook of herbs and spices
Bloody marys
Ingredients
Tomato juice
Lime juice
Prepared horseradish
Tabasco sauce
Vodka
Freshly ground black pepper
Lovage stalks
Amount
1 quart
1
/2 cup
2 tablespoons
1 tablespoon
1 1/2 cup
1 teaspoon
6–10 inches
Method of preparation
1. Combine all ingredients except lovage in a pitcher and stir well.
2. Pour over ice in six tall glasses.
3. Garnish with the lovage stalks, which should be used as straws.
Cream of lovage soup
Ingredients
Butter
Onion (chopped)
Potato (peeled and diced)
Carrot (peeled and diced)
Fresh lovage leaves (chopped)
Chicken or vegetable stock
Milk or light cream
Grated nutmeg
Salt and pepper
Amount
2 tablespoons
2 medium
3–4 medium
2–3 medium
1
/2 cup
3 cups
1 cup
to taste
to taste
Method of preparation
1. Melt the butter and gently sauté the onions, potatoes, and carrots in a soup for
five minutes.
2. Add the lovage and cook for one minute longer.
3. Add the stock, bring to a boil, cover, and simmer gently until the potatoes and
carrots are soft, about 15 minutes.
4. Puree in a blender or push through a sieve and return to the pot.
5. Add a grating of nutmeg and salt and pepper to taste and reheat.
6. Stir in milk or cream but do not allow boiling. It can be served hot or cold with
chopped lovage as garnish.
26.5
Functional/health benefits
Lovage has long been used in traditional medicine, particularly as carminative, digestive,
diuretic, expectorant, antispasmodic and diaphoretic (Holtom and Hylton, 1979). In
Iranian folk medicine, lovage is used for the treatment of several gastrointestinal,
nervous and rheumatic disorders (Zargari, 1990). Its properties are similar to those
angelica but lovage is less known as a herb. The leaves and seeds are often used in
seasoning, and the rhizome and roots are used medicinally. Today lovage is still the
principal ingredient in many diuretic tea mixtures and is used to treat kidney stones,
jaundice, malaria, sore throat, pleurisy, rheumatism, gout, and boils (Bown, 1995).
Lovage
449
Lovage promotes menstruation and relieves menstrual pains. It also improves circulation.
An infusion of lovage leaves used to be accounted a good emmenagogue (Grieve,
1984).
The roots, leaves and seeds are used internally in the treatment of disordered
stomach, especially cases of colic and flatulence in children, feverish attacks, kidney
stones, tonsillitis, and cystitis (Bown, 1995). The roots are externally used in the
treatment of sore throats, hemorrhoids and skin ulcers. Lovage is helpful in treating
jaundice, chronic constipation and skin diseases. It can also relieve inflammation of
the eyes (Chevallier, 1996).
In aromatherapy it is used to alleviate conditions of the muscles, joints and circulation,
and also the digestive and genito-urinary systems. Today, lovage root is occasionally
used in digestive formulations in capsules, tablets, and tea ingredients, however, the
use of lovage as a herb has cavests (Leung and Foster, 1996). It is not recommended
for pregnant women, as it is known to promote the onset of menstruation. People
suffering from kidney disease should not use this herb either, due to its irritant effect,
which in excessive doses can cause kidney damage. Herbalists usually prescribe it in
admixture with other drugs (Evans, 2002).
In recent years, the medicinal properties of some chemical constituents of lovage
were investigated. Two constituents of lovage, butylphthalide and ligustilide, have
been shown to have antispasmodic and antiasthmatic actions (Bisset, 1994). The
phthalides have been reported to be sedative in mice, and some coumarins have been
associated with a phototoxic reaction in humans as well as being useful in treating
psoriasis (Bruneton, 1999). Phototoxic reactions are fairly common, ranging from a
simple erythema to blisters. Lovage extracts and essential oil have been shown to
have strong diuretic effects on mice and rabbits (List and Horhammer, 1976; Leung
and Foster, 1996). Lovage has been indicated for pedal edema in humans and to
dissolve phlegm in the respiratory tract (Bisset, 1994).
Bioactivity of lovage oil has been investigated by Hogg (2001) and dosages of oil
of 40 ppm has a value for potential use in antitumor research; 1 ppm as a pesticide
has been reported. In the study by Zheng and Wang (2001), the antioxidant capacity
(oxygen radical absorbance capacity, ORAC) and total phenolic contents in extract of
lovage was determined. The ORAC value and total phenolic content were 21.54 µmol
of Trolox equivalent (TE)/g of fresh weight and 2.63 mg of gallic acid equivalents
(GAE)/g of fresh weight, respectively.
The essential oil of lovage seeds has been shown to have antibacterial effects
against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, i.e., Bacillus subtilis ATCC 9372,
Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 15753, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923,
Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa ATCC 27852, and Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 3583 (Table 26.3). The
oils indicated high activity against tested Gram-positive bacteria especially, Bacillus
subtilis that was more sensitive than others and a Gram-negative bacterium, Escherichia
coli. The antibacterial activitiy of the oils has also been determined by measuring the
minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) against tested bacteria (Table 26.3). The
essential oils of mature and ripened seeds exhibited the highest activity against Bacillus
subtilis with MIC value of 0.93 mg/ml. Also high sensitivity of Staphylococcus
epidermidis to the mature seed oil was observed with a MIC value of 0.93 mg/ml.
The oils showed lowest activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, with MIC values more than 15 mg/ml.
450
Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 26.3
Antibacterial activity of the essential oil of lovage seeds
Microorganisms
Bacillus subtilis
Enterococcus faecalis
Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus epidermidis
Escherichia coli
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
ISa
MSb
RSc
Ampicillind
DDe
MICf
DD
MIC
DD
MIC
DD
25
19
17
23
19
10
11
3.75
15
3.75
1.87
15
>15
>15
36
17
21
26
18
10
8
0.93
7.5
3.75
0.93
7.5
>15
>15
35
13
16
25
15
9
9
0.93
7.5
3.75
1.87
7.5
>15
>15
14
11
13
19
12
–
9.7
a
Immature seed; bmature seed; cripened seed; dtested at a concentration of 10 µg/disk; ediameter of inhibition
zone (mm) including disk diameter of 6 mm; fminimum inhibitory concentration, values as mg/ml oil, inactive
(–), moderately active (7–14), highly active (>14).
26.6
References
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BRUNETON J (1999), Toxic Plants Dangerous to Humans and Animals, Andover, Intercept Ltd.
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www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/l/lovage42.html
www.michaelweishan.com
www.rangeproducts.com.au
27
Pandan wangi
S. Wongpornchai, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
27.1
Description
Pandan wangi is a common name of a shrub, Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb., in the
family Pandanaceae. This plant family comprises about 250 species of evergreen
trees, shrubs, and scramblers (Bown, 2002). Many of these plants are grown for their
architectural appearance, either as landscape plants or as ornamentals under cover,
whereas most species can be found in the forest and some are coastal plants. The
plants in this family are often known as ‘screw pine’ because they resemble Ananas
plants (pineapple) with the spiral arrangement of long, narrow, and strap-shaped
leaves. Leaves of some species have a toothed edge along their margin. Among these
various species, there are two types of fragrant screw pine, Pandanus leaves (Pandanus
amaryllifolius) and Pandanus flowers (Pandanus odoratissimus), which are divided
according to the part of plant that bears scent. P. amaryllifolius or pandan wangi is
the only Pandanus species with fragrant leaves. It is a short shrub of 1.2–1.5 m
(4–5 ft) in height and 60–90 cm (24–36 inch) in width with a stout stem and usually
branched low down. Their aromatic, linear, pointed leaves, with no toothed edge, are
about 80 cm (32 inch) long and 5 cm (2 inch) wide (Bown, 2002). The plant never
flowers, thus the fruits are unknown. Natural distribution is found over Southern
India, the Southeast Asia peninsular, Indonesia and Western New Guinea. Nowadays,
it is well-known as a characteristic herb of Southeast Asia cuisines, in which its
leaves are mainly used as food flavorings.
The genus name, Pandanus, is derived from the Indonesian name of the tree,
pandan. Common names of P. amaryllifolius in many European countries are similar
to its origin which include pandanus (French), pandanusz levél (Hungarian) and
pandano (Italian, Portuguese and Spanish). It is noted that in European languages,
there is no distinction between the single species yielding pandanus leaves and the
group of species yielding pandanus flowers. Unlike in Asian countries, the different
vernacular names of Pandanus plants clearly indicate their identities. For P.
amaryllifolius, names given include pandan wangi (Malaysian), daun pandan
(Indonesian), bai toey or toey hom (Thai), taey (Khmer), tey ban, tey hom (Laotian),
454
Handbook of herbs and spices
dua thom (Vietnamese), and ban yan le (Chinese). In India and Sri Lanka, the plant
is named ‘rampe’ (Singhalese and Hindi) (Katzer, 2001).
27.2
Cultivation, production and processing
Pandan wangi is mainly grown by farmers of Southeast Asia. Its large distribution as
well as the lack of a wild population, especially in Southeast Asia, implies a long
tradition of cultivation. As the male flowers are extremely rare, and there is no
scientific description of a female flower for this species, its main propagation is by
cutting. The easiest and most effective way to propagate P. amaryllifolius for landscape
and household uses is to place the cuttings of stem or stem tip having at least three
or more nodes with root into damp soil located in a hot and dry area with good and
indirect sunlight. The young plantlets will grow up to about 2 ft high within 12–18
months depending on the conditions of soil and sunlight. If a mature plant is left to
grow longer, a number of young plantlets will develop along the main stem of the
mother plant. At the same time, the new prop roots will reach down to the ground like
stilts supporting the whole plant. Its population then expands to the surrounding area
regardless of soil type and condition. This systematic natural propagation of pandan
wangi also reflects the high adaptability of the plant.
Nevertheless, attempts have been made by groups of scientists for the expeditious
propagation of this interesting aromatic herb by applying biotechnology. A complete
method for the micropropagation of P. amaryllifolius through tissue culture has been
established (Neelwarne et al., 2004). By this method, shoot buds of the mature plant,
terminal and lateral, can be cultured in a suitable tissue culture medium until the
plantlets are obtained and ready to transfer to soil. Detailed information on the most
suitable nutrient and growth regulator compositions of the culture medium as well as
the best combination of light and temperature conditions for maximizing the
multiplication of the shoot cultures is also provided. Another study emphasizing a
protocol for clonal propagation of P. amaryllifolius has been reported at the same
time (Gangopadhyay et al., 2004). In this study, the genetic fidelity of the tissueculture-raised plantlets was ascertained through identical isozymic and RAPD profiles.
Additionally, concentrations of the impact aroma compound, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline,
were comparatively determined in both the mother population and tissue-cultured
clones. Micropropagation has been revealed by this study as one of the most viable
biotechnological tools for conservation of P. amaryllifolius germ plasms.
A sweet and delightful flavor of pandan wangi, which is well-known throughout
the world as an important component in Asian cookery, has made the industrial
production of both natural extracts and artificial flavorings containing green food
colors for use as food additives in Southeast Asian countries enlarge during the past
two decades. Because of their strong flavor, cheap prices and ready availability,
many types of artificial pandanus essence with deep green color are widely sold in
the markets of Southeast Asian countries and replacing the fresh pandanus leaves. In
Western countries, Pandanus leaves are purchasable in many forms: powder, paste,
fresh frozen or whole dried leaves sealed in plastic bags, most of which are imported
from Southeast Asia. During industrial processing, there is not only a decomposition
of the impact aroma compounds but also a formation of some off-flavors, which can
diversify aroma quality of the Pandanus products. Thus, processing conditions such
Pandan wangi
455
as temperature, pH, and heating time have considerable effects on the overall aroma
of the processed Pandanus leaves.
27.3
Chemical structure
Chemical constituents of P. maryllifolius Roxb. have been studied in both volatile
and higher molecular weight fractions. Early studies reported a number of volatile
compounds in groups of alcohols, aromatics, carboxylic acids, ketones, aldehydes,
esters, hydrocarbons, furans, furanones and terpenoids. Some of these volatiles were
suggested to play a role in aroma of P. amaryllifolius leaves, obtained in both fresh
and dried forms. Their chemical structures were identified utilizing mainly a combined
gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric technique (Teng et al., 1979, Jiang,
1999, Wijaya and Hanny, 2003). It was not until the report of Buttery in 1982 that the
compound mostly contributed to the flavor of pandanus leaves has been well known,
namely, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (1) (Fig. 27.1). This five-membered N-heterocyclic ring
compound was identified for the first time as the important aroma component of
cooked rice (Buttery et al., 1982) and freeze-dried leaves of P. amaryllifolius Roxb.
(Buttery et al., 1983).
The very low odor threshold value, 0.1 nL/L of water (Buttery et al., 1988), has
made this volatile the key impact aroma compound frequently found in processed
and cooked foods. Its formation in foods has been suggested by many researchers to
occur during food processing at elevated temperature through a reaction called ‘Maillard’
(Weenen, 1998). So far, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline has been found to occur naturally only
in P. amaryllifolius Roxb., Vallaris glabra Ktze. (bread flower) (Wongpornchai et al.,
2003), and some aromatic rice varieties such as Basmati rice of India, Khao Dawk
Mali 105 of Thailand and Kaorimai of Japan (Buttery et al., 1986, Laksanalamai and
Ilangantileke, 1993, Tava and Bocchi, 1999). In P. amaryllifolius, the compound was
found not only in plant leaves but also in stem and root (Gangopadhyay et al., 2004).
However, its concentrations in fresh plant parts are varied depending on age and
growth stage of the plant as well as climate and location of planting. Fresh pandanus
leaves are found to contain higher amounts of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline than those at dried
stage, though they hardly smell. The reason lies in the partial distribution of the
aroma compound inside and outside the leaves.
A polar moiety of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline has made the compound more readily
dissolve in the fresh leaf tissue where the percentage of water is relatively high.
When the leaves are withering and the water content is reduced, the compound is
then forced to partition into the gas phase, resulting in the pleasant smell continually
released from the withering leaves. Therefore, the extraction of the aroma fraction
from P. amaryllifolius is more efficient when fresh leaves are used. Solvent extraction
at room or lower temperature employing a non-toxic solvent or carbon dioxide, so
called supercritical fluid extraction, has been the method of choice and gained higher
popularity among food research institutions and industries (Laohakunjit and Noomhorm,
2004; Bhattacharjee et al., 2005). Apart from 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, some other odorants
reported include ethyl formate, 3-hexanol, 4-methylpentanol, 3-hexanone and 2hexanone, trans-2-heptenal, β-damascenone, 4-ethylguaiacol and 3-methyl-2-(5H)furanone. This furanone has often been found as a major component.
In the polar fractions of P. amaryllifolius leaf extracts, a number of alkaloids
were identified starting with a piperidine-type alkaloid, (±)-pandamarine (2). This
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Handbook of herbs and spices
CH3
O
N
H
N
N
N
H
O
2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline (1)
O
Pandamarilactone-1 (3)
CH3
O
O
N
CH3
4
2
N
6
CH2
O
Pandamarilactone-31 (4)
O
Pandamarilactone-32 (5)
Pandamarilactam-x, –y (6, 7)
O
O
O
O
O
CH3
O
N
O
O
N
CH3
OCH3
O
CH3
O
(±) Pandamarine (2)
O
O
N
O
CH3
O
O
CH3
CH3
C
CH3
CH3
N H
H H
O
O
H
Norpandamarilactonine-A, B
(10, 11)
CH3
N H
H
CH3
Pandamarilactonine-A (8)
O
O
CH3
Pandamarilactonine-B (9)
CH3
4
2
6
O
O
CH3
HN
O
O
O
CH3
6E-Pandanamine (14)
6Z-Pandanamine (15)
Fig. 27.1
N
O
H
H
CH3
O
O
CH3
Pandamarilactonine-C (12)
O
N
O
H
H
O
O
CH3
Pandamarilactonine-D (13)
Structures of alkaloids found in leaves of P. amaryllifolius.
compound was isolated as a crystal and its structure was determined by X-ray diffraction
(Byrne et al., 1992). Three more piperidine alkaloids, pandamarilactone-1(3),
pandamarilactone-31(4) and pandamarilactone-32 (5), were isolated later on (Nonato
Pandan wangi
457
et al., 1993). Their structures were elucidated using two-dimensional nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopy (2D NMR) techniques. These alkaloids have a C9-N-C9
skeleton and were suggested to be derived biologically from 4-hydroxy-4methylglutamic acid.
Two pyrrolidinone alkaloid isomers, namely pandamarilactam-3x (6) and
pandamarilactam-3y (7) were isolated from the leaves colleted in Jambi, Indonesia
(Sjaifullah and Garson, 1996). Six pyrrolidine alkaloids, pandamarilactonine-A (8),
pandamarilactonine-B (9), (Takayama et al., 2000), norpandamarilactonine-A (10),
norpandamarilactonine-B (11), (Takayama et al., 2001a), pandamarilactonine-C (12),
and pandamarilactonine-D (13) (Takayama et al., 2002), were isolated from fresh
young leaves planted in Thailand. The alkaloids (8), (9), (12) and (13) are stereoisomers
and all of them comprise γ-butylidene-α-methyl α,β-unsaturated γ-lactone and
pyrrolidinyl α,β-unsaturated γ-lactone moieties in the molecules as shown in Fig.
27.1. Only the later moiety is found in a pair of diastereomeric alkaloids (10) and
(11). These two alkaloids were isolated as amorphous powder and present as minor
constituents. Two pandanamine isomers, 6E-(14) and 6Z-(15), were isolated in unequal
amounts from dried leaves of P. amaryllifolius. These pandanamine isomers have a
symmetrical structure with two α-methyl α,β-unsaturated γ-lactone moieties and
therefore, have been postulated to be a biogenetic precursor of pandamarilactonines
and pandamarilactone-1 (Takayama et al., 2001b, Salim et al., 2004).
The leaves of P. amaryllifolius have also been reported as a rich source of a
number of lipophilic antioxidants (Lee et al., 2004). These antioxidants include
compounds in the group of carotenoids: neoxanthin, violaxanthin, α-carotene, βcarotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, and vitamin E analogues: δ-tocotrienol, γ-tocopherol, αtocopherol, as well as all-trans-retinol. Among all carotenoids of P. amaryllifolius,
lutein accounts for the majority having the highest concentration of slightly more
than half the amount of total carotenoids. The concentration of α-tocopherol is more
than 90% of the amount of total vitamin E analogues while all-trans-retinol is present
in a small amount. The total carotenoid content of P. amaryllifolius is as much as
those of curry leaves (Murraya koenigii), anise basil leaves (Ocimum basilicum) and
laksa leaves (Polygonum odoratum) but eightfold more than those of alfalfa and bell
capsicum. The only biomolecule isolated from fresh leaves of P. amaryllifolius is an
unglycosylate protein, lectin, called pandanin. This single polypeptide chain has the
molecular weight of 8.0 kDa and exhibits hemagglutinating activity toward rabbit
erythrocytes. Pandanin also possesses antiviral activities against two types of human
viruses, herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) and influenza virus (H1N1) with 3
day’s EC50 of 2.94 and 15.63 µM, respectively (Ooi et al., 2004).
27.4
Uses in food
The leaf is the main used part of most Pandanus plants that can be utilized in various
ways. Fragrant leaves of P. amaryllifolius have their center of usage in Southeast
Asia: Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. Their main function is food flavoring, especially
in desserts and sweets. The leaves are usually applied into food as fresh whole leaf
or juice. In this way, Pandanus leaves impart not only flavor, but also green color to
the food. Since the flavor of P. amaryllifolius is similar to that possessed by some
famous aromatic rice varieties, for example, Basmati rice of India and Thai jasmine
rice known as khao hom mali, the leaves often find their way into the rice pot to
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enhance the aroma of lesser rice varieties. They are also used to wrap food for
cooking, such as chicken wrapped in pandanus leaves, a Thai recipe (gai haw bai
toey), and are neatly folded into small baskets for filling with puddings and cakes.
Also in Thailand, country folk use the leaves to boil with water for drinking purposes,
adding refreshment. Dried leaves are available only in the form of herbal tea.
27.5
Functional properties
Besides its culinary value, P. amaryllifolius is known in folk medicine for its healing
properties. The water extract of fresh leaves has a cooling effect and is excellent for
the treatment of internal inflammations, colds, coughs, and measles. A drink made by
boiling finely chopped fresh stem or root in water is also used to cure urinary infections.
The juice extracted from fresh leaves in combination with that of Aloe vera is used
to cure some skin diseases. The aromatic herbal tea of well-processed leaves has a
cardiotonic function. Additionally, similar to some tropical aromatic herbs, fresh
leaves of P. amaryllifolius possess repellent activity toward some household insects.
27.6
References
BHATTACHARJEE P, KSHIRSAGAR A
and SINGHAL R S (2005) Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of 2acetyl-1-pyrroline from Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. Food Chem., 91(2), 255–259.
BOWN D (2002) The Royal Horticultural Society New Encyclopedia of Herbs & Their Uses, Great
Britain, Dorling Kindersley Ltd.
BUTTERY R G, LING L C and JULIANO B O (1982) 2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline: an important aroma component
of cooked rice. Chem. Ind., 958–959.
BUTTERY R G, JULIANO B O and LING L C (1983) Identification of rice aroma compound 2-acetyl-1pyrroline in pandan leaves. Chem. Ind. (London), (12), 478.
BUTTERY R G, LING L C and MON T R (1986) Quantitative analysis of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline in rice. J.
Agric. Food Chem., 34(1), 112–114.
BUTTERY R G, TURNBAUGH J G and LING L C (1988) Contribution of volatiles to rice aroma. J. Agric.
Food Chem. 36(5), 1006–1009.
BYRNE L T, GUEVARA B Q, PATALINGHUG W C, RECIO B V, UALAT C R and WHITE A H (1992) The x-ray crystal
structure of (±)-pandamarine, the major alkaloid of Pandanus amaryllifolius. Aust. J. Chem.,
45(11), 1903–1908.
GANGOPADHYAY G , BANDYOPADHYAY T , MODAK B K, WONGPORNCHAI S and MUKHERJEE K K (2004)
Micropropagation of Indian pandan (Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb.), a rich source of 2-acetyl1-pyrroline. Cur. Sci., 87(11), 1589–1592.
JIANG J (1999) Volatile composition of pandan leaves (Pandanus amaryllifolius) in Shahidi F and
Ho C-T, Flavor and Chemistry of Ethnic Foods, Proceedings of a Meeting held during the 5th
Chemical Congress of North America, Cancun, Nov. 11–15, 1997, 105–109. New York, Kluwer
Academic/Plenum Publishers.
KATZER G (2001) Pandanus (Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb.) in Gernot Katzers Spice Pages, available
on the Internet (http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/generic_frame.html?Pand _ama.html).
LAKSANALAMAI V and ILANGANTILEKE S (1993) Comparison of aroma compound (2-acetyl-1-pyrroline)
in leaves from pandan (Pandanus amaryllifolius) and Thai fragrant rice (Khao Dawk Mali-105).
Cereal Chem., 70(4), 381–384.
LAOHAKUNJIT N and NOOMHORM A (2004) Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline
and volatile components from pandan leaves. Flavour Frag. J., 19(3), 251–259.
LEE B L, SU J and ONG C N (2004) Monomeric C18 chromatographic method for the liquid chromatographic
determination of lipophilic antioxidants in plants. J. Chromatogr. A, 1048(2), 263–267.
NEELWARNE B, RUDRAPPA T, NARAYAN M S and RAVISHANKAR G A (2004) Method and composition for
clonal propagation of Pandanus amaryllifolius. U.S. Pat. Appl. Publ., 8 pp.
Pandan wangi
NONATO M G, GARSON M J, TRUSCOTT R J W
459
and CARVER J A (1993) Structural characterization of
piperidine alkaloids from Pandanus amaryllifolius by inverse-detected 2D NMR techniques.
Phytochemistry, 34(4), 1159–1163.
OOI L S M, SUN S S M and OOI V E C (2004) Purification and characterization of a new antiviral protein
from the leaves of Pandanus amaryllifolius (Pandanaceae). Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol., 36(8),
1440–1446.
SALIM A A, GARSON M J and CRAIK D J (2004) New Alkaloids from Pandanus amaryllifolius. J. Nat.
Prod., 67(1), 54–57.
SJAIFULLAH A and GARSON M J (1996) Structural characterization of two novel pyrrolidinones from
Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. ACGC Chem. Res. Commun., 5, 24–27.
TAKAYAMA H, ICHIKAWA T, KUWAJIMA T, KITAJIMA M, SEKI H, AIMI N and NONATO M G (2000) Structure
characterization, biomimetic total synthesis, and optical purity of two new pyrrolidine alkaloids,
pandamarilactonine-A and -B, isolated from Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
122(36), 8635–8639.
TAKAYAMA H, ICHIKAWA T, KITAJIMA M, NONATO M G and AIMI N (2001a) Isolation and characterization of
two new alkaloids, norpandamarilactonine-A and -B, from Pandanus amaryllifolius by
spectroscopic and synthetic methods. J. Nat. Prod., 64(9), 1224–1225.
TAKAYAMA H, ICHIKAWA T, KITAJIMA M, AIMI N, LOPEZ D and NONATO M G (2001b) A new alkaloid,
pandanamine; finding of an anticipated biogenetic intermediate in Pandanus amaryllifolius
Roxb. Tetrahedron Lett., 42(16), 2995–2996.
TAKAYAMA H, ICHIKAWA T, KITAJIMA M, NONATO M G and AIMI N (2002) Isolation and structure elucidation
of two new alkaloids, pandamarilactonine-C and -D, from Pandanus amaryllifolius and revision
of relative stereochemistry of pandamarilactonine-A and -B by total synthesis. Chem. Pharm.
Bull., 50(9), 1303–1304.
TAVA A and BOCCHI S (1999) Aroma of Cooked Rice (Oryza sativa): Comparison between commercial
casmati and Italian line B5-3. Cereal Chem., 76, 526–529.
TENG L C, SHEN T C and GOH S H (1979) The flavoring compound of the leaves of Pandanus amaryllifolius.
Econ. Bot., 33(1), 72–74.
WEENEN H (1998) Reactive intermediates and carbohydrate fragmentation in Maillard chemistry.
Food Chem., 62(4), 393–401.
WIJAYA C and HANNY A A (2003) Aroma volatiles of several unique tropical fruits and spices, in Le
Quere, J-L and Etievant P X, Flavour Research at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century,
Proceedings of the Weurman Flavor Research Symposium, 10th, Beaune, France, June 25–28,
749–752.
WONGPORNCHAI S, SRISEADKA T and CHOONVISASE S (2003) Identification and Quantitation of the Rice
Aroma Compound, 2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline, in Bread Flowers (Vallaris glabra Ktze). J. Agri. Food
Chem., 51(2), 457–462.
28
Peppermint
P. Pushpangadan and S. K. Tewari, National Botanical Research
Institute, India
28.1
Introduction
Mentha is a genus of perennial aromatic herbs belonging to family Lamiaceae, distributed
mostly in temperate and sub-temperate regions. The herb (foliage) on distillation,
yields essential oil containing a large variety of aroma chemicals in varying composition.
These oils and their aroma chemicals command a huge and world-wide demand in
international trade. The genus contains about 25 species, of which Japanese mint (M.
arvensis), Pepper mint (M. piperita) Spear mint (M. spicata) and Bergamot mint (M.
citrata) are the better known species of commerce for their oil and aroma isolates like
menthol, carvone, linalyl acetate and linalool, etc., for use in pharmaceutical, food,
flavour, cosmetics, beverages and allied industries. Peppermint, also known as black
mint, candy mint or Mitcham commercially, is a source of fragrant volatile essential
oil, known for its sweet flavour. The constituents of peppermint oil are very similar
to Japanese mint oil. However, the menthol content is lower in peppermint (35–50%)
with other constituents like menthyl acetate, menthone, menthofuran and terpenes
like pinene and limonene. Peppermint oil is one of the most popular and widely used
essential oils in flavouring of pharmaceuticals and preparations for oral care, cough
syrups, chewing gums, confectionery and beverages. The leaves and also its oil have
medicinal properties as carminative and gastric stimulant. The oil has been reported
to have antibacterial, antiviral, antiparasitic and antifungal activities.
28.2
Description
28.2.1 Botanical description
Peppermint, botanically known as Mentha piperita L. is an aromatic perennial herb,
producing creeping stolons and belongs to family Lamiaceae. It is the natural hybrid
(2n = 6x = 72) from M. aquatica L. (water mint, 2n = 96) and M. spicata L. (spearmint,
2n = 48). The genus name Mentha is derived from the Greek Mintha, the name of a
mythical nymph who metamorphosed into this plant; and its species name piperita is
Peppermint
461
from the Latin piper, meaning pepper, alluding to its aromatic and pungent taste
(Tyler et al., 1988). There are three varieties of M. piperita L.: variety vulgaris Sole
or Mitcham mint, the most widespread throughout the world; variety sylvestris Sole
or Hungarian mint, and variety officinalis Sole. Two varieties of the species, black
mint (which has violet-coloured leaves and stems) and white mint (which has pure
green leaves) are under cultivation (Briggs, 1993; Bruneton, 1995; Leung and Foster,
1996; Wichtl and Bisset, 1994). The most extensively cultivated is the so-called
English or black mint, M. piperita officinalis rubescens Camus. This variety yields
more volatile oil than white mint (Masada, 1976).
The plant grows from 45 to 80 cm tall, resembling M. spicata closely and differing
in relatively long petiolated opposite lanceolate leaves and broader inflorescence.
The stem is quadrangular, channelled, purplish, somewhat hairy and branching towards
the top. The leaves are opposite, petiolate, ovate, sharply seriate, pointed, smoother
on the upper than on the under surface, and of a dark green colour, which is paler
beneath. The leaf lamina (4–14 cm) possesses hair and glandular trichomes on both
the surfaces. Usually the lower surface of leaves contain more glandular trichomes
than the upper surface. The inflorescence is verticillate. The flowers are small, purple,
and in terminal obtuse spikes, interrupted below, and cymosely arranged. Late in the
season, the growth of the lateral lower branches often gives to the inflorescence the
appearance of a corymb. The calyx is tubular, often purplish, furrowed, glabrous
below, and five-toothed, the teeth being hirsute. The corolla is purplish, tubular, with
its border divided into four segments, of which the uppermost is broadest, and notched
at its summit. The four short stamens are concealed within the tube of the corolla; the
style projects beyond it, and terminates in a bifid stigma. The presences of volatile
essential oils in the leaves and other parts of the plant gives the plant a very appealing
scent and fills the surrounding air with a pleasant aroma of mint.
28.2.2 Distribution and history of cultivation
Peppermint is found growing wild throughout Europe, North America and Australia
along stream banks and in moist wastelands, and is also cultivated under a number of
varieties, strains, or chemotypes (Trease and Evans, 1989). It has a long history of
cultivation in northern and southern temperate regions along stream banks and in
other moist areas. It was believed to be cultivated in ancient Egypt, although the
record of cultivation was known to be near London in 1750. In the late 1600s and
early 1700s it was first recognized as a distinct species by John Ray, a botanist. The
peppermint of commerce today is obtained mostly from cultivation in Bulgaria,
Greece, Spain, northern Europe, and the United States (BHP, 1996). The United
States is the leading producer of peppermint oil, especially in Washington, Oregon,
Idaho, Wisconsin, and Indiana (Tyler et. al., 1988).
Mint leaves have been used in medicine for several thousand years, according to
records from the Greek, Roman, and ancient Egyptian eras (Briggs, 1993; Evans,
1991). The origin of peppermint cultivation is disputed, though there is some evidence
that it was cultivated in ancient Egypt. Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (ca. 23–79
C.E.) wrote of its uses by the Greeks and Romans. Peppermint was first recognized
as a distinct species by botanist John Ray in his Synopsis Stirpium Britannicorum
(second edition, 1696), and his Historia Plantarum (1704). It became official in the
London Pharmacopoeia in 1721 (Briggs, 1993; Tyler et al., 1988). Today, peppermint
leaf and/or its oil are official in the national pharmacopoeias of Austria, France,
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Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Russia, and Switzerland, and the European
Pharmacopoeia.
28.2.3 Economic aspects
The peppermint plant and its many parts are used throughout the world in many
different ways and for diverse purposes. The production of peppermint oil by distillation
of the cultivated herb is an extensive industry in the United States and around the
world. Cultivation of the plant is required because the plants found in the wild are not
suitable for the distillation process and the cultivated plants contain much more and
better quality oil. The United States is the leading producer of peppermint oil in the
world, with Michigan, California, Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Indiana, and Wisconsin
leading the way. Peppermint oil is used as a flavouring agent in many different
products including decongestants, mouthwashes, chewing gum, toothpastes, and other
mint flavoured candies and breath-freshening products. Peppermint oil can cause
burning and gastrointestinal upset in some people. Peppermint tea, made from the
dry leaves of the peppermint plant, is considered safer than peppermint oil for regular
consumption. Peppermint tea has antiseptic properties and is considered a stimulant.
It is effective in treating digestive pains caused by gas, colic, gallstones, gingivitis,
irritable bowel syndrome, morning sickness, headaches, sore throats, common colds,
fevers, insomnia, nervous tension, and it may also increase flow of bile from the gallbladder.
In Germany, peppermint leaf is one of the most economically important individual
herbs. It is licensed as a standard medicinal tea, is official in the German pharmacopoeia,
and approved in the Commission E monographs (leaf and oil). It is used as a monopreparation and also as a component of many cholagogue, bile-duct, gastrointestinal,
and liver remedies, and some hypnotic/sedative drugs (Wichtl and Bisset, 1994). In
the United States, peppermint leaf is used singly and as a main component of a wide
range of digestive, common cold, and decongestant dietary supplement and OTC
drug products, in fluid and solid dosage forms. Peppermint leaf and peppermint oil
are official in the U.S. National Formulary (Briggs, 1993; Tyler et al., 1988).
28.3
Cultivation and production
Peppermint essential oil is of great economic value; however, the cultivation and the
production of essential oil are limited by agricultural and environmental factors, the
presence of specific pathogens, and by differences in comparative costs (Maffei,
1999). Based on a literature survey, some of the factors affecting essential oil production
of M. piperita in India have been discussed by Baslas (1970). These factors include
type of soil, climate, altitude, fertilizers and drying conditions.
28.3.1 Soil and climate
Peppermint adopts itself well to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions but it
thrives best in a fairly cool, preferably moist climate, and in deep soils rich in humus
and retentive of moisture but fairly open in texture and well drained, either naturally
or artificially. It can be profitably cultivated in plains as well as foothill areas having
a sub-tropical climate. For peppermint cultivation, a rich and friable soil, retentive of
Peppermint
463
moisture should be selected, and the ground should be well tilled 20–25 cm deep.
The crop cannot tolerate highly acidic or alkaline soils and requires near neutral soil
pH. The crop initially requires lower temperatures and later on, a mean temperature
of 20–40 °C is suitable for its vegetative growth. The crop grows well in humid areas
which receive 100–110 cm well distributed rainfall. The plants cannot tolerate frost,
particularly during the sprouting period. They require ample sunshine during most part
of the growing period, and shade is undesirable as it induces higher ester and menthone
content in the oil. Day length is a determining factor contributing towards higher oil
yield and its quality and 15 h day length is essential. Ellis (1960) has established that
for economic production of the oil, the day length must approach 16 h.
Its cultivation has been tried in heavy metal polluted soils in Bulgaria by Zheljazkov
and Nielsen (1996). It was established that heavy metal pollution of soil and air at a
distance of 400 m from the source of pollution decreased the yields of fresh herbage
by 9–16% and the yield of essential oil by up to 14% compared to the control, but did
not negatively affect the essential oil content and its quality. Oils obtained from a
distance of 400 m from the source of pollution have not been contaminated with
heavy metals. Cultivar response to heavy metal pollution was also established. A
positive correlation between Pb concentration in leaves and in essential oil was
found. Heavy metal concentration in the plant parts was found to be, in order, Cd:
roots > leaves > rhizomes > stems; Pb: roots = leaves > rhizomes = stems; Cu: roots
> rhizomes = stems = leaves; Mn: roots > leaves > stems = rhizomes; and Zn: leaves
> roots > stems = rhizomes. Despite the yield reduction (up to 14%), due to heavy
metal contamination, mint still remained a very profitable crop and it could be used
as a substitute for the other highly contaminated crops.
28.3.2 Planting and varieties
The field for peppermint planting should be prepared by repeated ploughing and
harrowing. The FYM or compost at 10–15 t/ha should be mixed properly at the time
of field preparation. All stubble and weeds should be removed before the land is
levelled and laid out into beds with appropriate irrigation and drainage arrangements.
The new crop is raised through planting stolons although suckers, runners and
transplanting of sprouted plants can also be successful. The stolon is an underground
stem, formed at the end of the creeping rootstock during winter to overcome the
dormancy period. These are white to light cream coloured, smooth, fragile and juicy,
which are dug out fresh for planting. The plants are propagated in the spring, when
the young shoots from the crop of the previous year attain a height of about 10 cm.
January end to early February is the best season for planting stolons. The suckers are
transplanted into new soil, in shallow furrows about 50–60 cm apart, lightly covered
with about 5 cm of soil. The planted field is irrigated immediately. The new sprouts
are produced within 1–2 weeks. They grow vigorously during the first year and throw
out numerous stolons and runners on the surface of the ground. After the crop has
been removed, these are allowed to harden or become woody, and then farmyard
manure is scattered over the field and ploughed in. In this way the stolons are divided
into numerous pieces and covered with soil before the frost sets in, otherwise if the
autumn is wet, they are liable to become sodden and rot, and the next crop fails.
The Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, has developed
improved peppermint cultivars. These are Kukrail, Tushar, Pranjal, CIM Madhuras
and CIM Indus, having herb yield potential between 200–225 q/ha and oil content
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Handbook of herbs and spices
between 0.40–0.45%. Out of these, CIM Indus provides menthofuran rich oil, while
other varieties yield sweet smelling oil usually rich in menthol with a balanced
quantity of menthone, menthyl acetate and menthofuran.
The chromosomes in Mentha are of relatively small size, responsible for its wide
adaptability and world-wide distribution. Shehudka and Korneva (1980) used the seed
produced through free pollination of M. piperita, characterized by different degrees
of seed productivity and made selection of seedlings and clones with high essential
oil content (up to 4%) and menthol (up to 65%). Induction of variability through
physical and chemical mutagens has also been attempted by several workers. Only a
few mutants have reached the stage of advanced field testing. A broad-leafed natural
mutant in peppermint crop was identified in a population of Mitcham mint by Singh
et al. (1982), who found it to grow better under sub-tropical conditions in India.
Interspecific somatic hybridization by protoplast fusion was carried out between
M. piperita L. cv. Black mint and ginger mint (M. gentilis L. cv. Variegata). These
protoplasts divided to form calli under the conditions developed for peppermint
protoplast culture. Callus-derived shoots were grown to whole plants, and some with
intermediate character between the parental plants were tested for their volatile
constituents by gas chromatography. Among the four plants investigated, one had
three major volatile constituents, menthone, menthol and linalool (the major component
of ginger mint oil). Chromosome counts and random amplified polymorphic DNA
analysis indicated that it was an inter-specific somatic hybrid between two species
(Satoa et al., 1996).
Jullien et al. (1998) developed an efficient protocol for plant regeneration from
protoplasts of peppermint by stepwise optimization of first cell division, microcalli
formation and shoot differentiation. Transgenic peppermint plants were obtained by
using Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated gene transfer. Transgenic plants were
successfully acclimatized in the greenhouse (Diemera et al., 1998). Genetic
transformation of Mentha arvensis and M. piperita with the neomycine
phosphotransferase marker gene and a 4S-limonene synthase cDNA from M. spicata
led to the regeneration of 47 transformed plants. Quantitative and qualitative
modifications in monoterpene levels were observed in transgenic plants. Four M.
piperita transgenic plants contained higher levels of total monoterpenes, whereas
monoterpene levels were lower in two M. arvensis transgenic lines. In both M.
piperita and M. arvensis, transgenic lines, altered levels of compounds formed directly
from geranyl diphosphate such as cineole or ocimene and monoterpene end-products
such as pulegone or piperitone were observed (Diemera et al., 2001). These data
demonstrate the feasibility of modifying essential oil content by the introduction of
a cDNA encoding an enzyme involved in monoterpene metabolism.
In temperate conditions, a plantation lasts about four years, the best output being
the second year. The fourth-year crop is rarely good. A crop that yields a high
percentage of essential oil exhausts the ground as a rule, and after cropping with
peppermint for four years, the land must be put to some other purpose for at least
seven years. The monocultures of peppermint pose the potential hazards of continuous
cropping including eventual suppression of soil fertility, productivity, soil structure,
and microbial activity. Intercropping peppermint with soybean in Italy resulted in
yield and quality increases in the essential oil, compared to sole peppermint cultivation.
The yield was higher by about 50% on an equal land area basis and higher percentages
of menthol and lower percentages of menthofuran and menthyl acetate improved the
quality of the oil (Maffei and Mucciarelli, 2003). Peppermint is grown as an annual
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crop in India. Depending upon nature of land and sub-soil water, a combination of
crop rotations and inter-cropping models are practised. The Maize-Lahi-Peppermint,
Maize-Potato-Peppermint, Late paddy-Peppermint, and Early paddy-Lahi-Peppermint
crop rotations have been found feasible and profitable for sub-tropical conditions.
28.3.3 Nutrient and water management
Peppermint, being a leafy crop, responds favourably to both organic and inorganic
fertilizers. Liberal manuring is essential, and the quantity and nature of the manure
has a great effect on the characteristics of the oil. Mineral salts are found to be of
much value. In the U.S.A., peppermint is given 150 kg N per ha at 60 days age
together with 50–80 kg of P2O5 and potash (Guenther, 1961). Depending upon the
status of the soil fertility, a basal dose of 50–90 kg P2O5 and 60–90 kg K2O should
be applied per ha at planting. Of the 120 kg N fertilizer, two-thirds is recommended
to be applied in early spring and one-third after the first harvest. Singh et al. (1978)
in Jammu and Bharadwaj et al. (1980) in H.P. found that peppermint crop responds
to high N levels such as 120–160 kg/ha. It was applied in three equal splits – at
planting, at 60 days age and after the first harvest.
Gupta and Gulati (1971) found that 80, 40 and 20 kg/ha of N, P and K produced
maximum herb yield in Tarai tract. Potash is particularly useful against a form of
chlorosis or ‘rust’ (Puccinia menthoe) due, apparently, to too much water in the soil,
as it often appears after moist, heavy weather in August, which causes the foliage to
drop off and leave the stems almost bare, in which circumstances the rust is liable to
attack the plants. In the south of France, sewage is extensively used, together with
Sesame seeds from which the oil has been expressed. The residues from the distillation
of the crop are invariably used as manure. Chemical fertilizers alone are equally
unsatisfactory in soils poor in organic matter, but they give excellent results in
conjunction with organic manures. Growth and terpene production of in vitro generated
M. piperita plants in response to inoculation with a leaf fungal endophyte were
characterized by Mucciarelli et al., 2003. The endophyte induced profound effects on
the growth of peppermint, which responded with taller plants bearing more expanded
leaves. The observed increase of leaf dry matter over leaf area suggested a real
improvement of peppermint metabolic and photosynthetic apparatus. A sustained
lowering of (+)-menthofuran and an increase of (+)-menthol percentage concentrations
were found in plants from both in vitro and pot cultures.
Peppermint requires frequent irrigation. It is important to keep the soil constantly
moist, although well drained. Absorption of water makes the shoots more tender, thus
facilitating cutting, and causes a large quantity of green matter to be produced.
Adequate and timely irrigation is necessary for obtaining high herb yield in drier subtropical climates. The frequency of irrigation depends upon the soil texture and
weather conditions. Gupta and Gulati (1971) estimated through trials in Tarai region
that peppermint requires 8–10 irrigations of 2 acre inch of water per irrigation during
dry summer months till rain sets in. Randhawa et al. (1984) reported 5 cm depth of
irrigation at 60 mm of cumulative evaporation in Punjab as optimum for maximum
yield. Water logging should be avoided by ensuring adequate drainage of rain and
irrigation water.
In a study by Clark and Menary (1980), peppermint was harvested twice during
the growing season. The first harvest was conducted on 16 February 1979, and the
subsequent regrowth was harvested on 25 April 1979. High peppermint oil yields
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were associated with high rates of nitrogen fertilizer (100, 200 and 300 kg nitrogen/
ha), and high levels of irrigation (50 mm per week) throughout the last half of the
growing season. The composition of oil extracted from herb at the commercial harvest
date was not significantly affected by either nitrogen or irrigation treatments. The oil
yield from regrowth within the same growing season was significantly affected by
irrigation and nitrogen treatments applied prior to the first harvest. When 300 kg
nitrogen/ha and 50 mm of irrigation weekly (during the last half of the growing
season) were applied, the oil yields from regrowth approached the commercial yield
obtained from one harvest. Oil from regrowth contained high levels of menthol,
menthyl acetate, menthofuran and limonene, and low levels of menthone and cineole.
28.3.4 Pest management
The crop requires frequent tillage as successful mint-growing implies clean culture at
all stages of progress. The presence of weeds among the peppermint, especially other
species of Mentha, is an important cause of deterioration on quality of the oil. Use of
herbicides significantly reduces the cost of weed management. Due to slow sprouting
and growth rate of the crop in the initial stages, weeds may dominate the crop if
proper weed management is not followed. The critical periods for weed interference
in peppermint has been found to be between 30–50 days after planting and 15–30
days after the first harvest. Usually 2–3 manual hand weedings are required to keep
the weed growth under check. Pre-emergence spray of herbicides like Oxyflourofen,
Pendimethalin and Diuron has been found quite effective. However, considering the
use of herb and oil for edible purposes, the use of herbicides should be avoided.
Experiments at different locations in Poland were carried out in 1971–1973 on the
usefulness of a herbicide Sinbar, which can be successfully applied for the control of
dicotyledonous weeds. Successful results were obtained when the preparation was
applied at 1–1.5 kg/ha dose before or after the shooting growth of mint (Golcz et al.,
1975). Sinbar does not control monocotyledonous weeds but it inhibits their
development. Sprayings with Sinbar in an appropriate dose and at fixed dates do not
have any negative effect on the development of mint and the concentration of essential
oil in the crude drug. The residual terbacil (an active ingredient of Sinbar) in Herba
Menthae piperitae is 0.008 ppm during harvesting, when Sinbar is applied before and
after drying of mint. Later sprayings increased the concentration of terbacil in the
crude drug (0.21–0.27 ppm).
Briggs (1973) applied three polybutene preparations to healthy peppermint plants
and assessed the effects of these products on the yield and quality of oil derived from
the plants. The treatments caused premature ageing of the leaves and the quantitative
composition of the oils had altered relative to controls, resulting in low quality.
Preparations containing polybutenes are unsuitable for application to peppermint and
should not be applied to crops that are to be extracted by steam distillation. The effect
of ten different herbicides on the yield of herb, oil yield and oil composition of
peppermint was studied by Skrubis (1971). The herbicides increased the yield of
fresh herb, but the yield of peppermint oil was not affected. A gas chromatographic
examination of the oil showed that the composition of the oils varied with different
herbicides.
In another study, 40 different chemical substances with weed killing properties
were studied by Pank et al. (1986) in cultures of peppermint over thirteen years
duration. It was summarized that Chlorbromuron, Simazin and Terbacil can be
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467
recommended for application just before shooting begins, while a mixture of Prometryn
and Simazin can be used in established cultures. Alloxydim-Na has proved effective
against undesired grasses and Bentazon against dicotyledonous weed. Using Simazin
after the first harvest of peppermint plants prevents the growth of weed in the autumn
and winter to come. A combination of Diuron and Propyzamid killed Agropyron
repens in established peppermint cultures in late autumn. In cultures laid out to
obtain new planting material Chlorbromuron proved successful, while in the period
of beginning growth Desmetryn was applied. The use of chemicals to fight the
weed did not result in any yield reduction or morphological variation and did not
influence the proportion of essential oil. Similarly, Vaverkova et al. (1987) did not
find any significant effect of Simazine application on essential oil constituents of
peppermint.
The essential oil content and constituent concentrations in various parts of M.
piperita during growth were studied before and after administration of Sinbar (terbacil).
The highest oil content was found in the leaves of the youngest upper part of the
stem. Menthol increased during growth with maximum concentrations observed in
the flowering stage. Sinbar application caused no changes in essential oil content or
in proportional amount of components (Vaverkova and Felklova, 1988). The results
of another study have shown that the beginning of bloom may be regarded as a
vegetation period giving the highest content of the essential oil in herb and leaves of
peppermint, and its greatest amount was found in the youngest leaves (Vaverkova et
al., 1997). Content of menthol gradually increased to its top in the blooming phase
while that of menthone was decreasing. The treatment of peppermint with Terbacil
did not influence the essential oil content and its changes during vegetation when
compared with that of untreated plants. Similarly, the application of a herbicide
formulation did not cause detectable changes in relative representation of main and
secondary components of the essential oil. To study Lindane residue dynamics,
peppermint was sprayed with a 0.05% formulation in May, and samples taken two
months later were found to contain 0.4 ppm lindane; which was reduced to below 0.1
ppm, similar to those in the untreated controls after four months (Beitz et al., 1971).
Diseases are generally not the major constraint in the cultivation of peppermint in
temperate conditions. Under Indian conditions, rust, powdery mildew, wilt, leaf blight
and stolon rot are the five major fungal diseases in regions with high humidity. Of
these, the recurrence of leaf blight and rust is more frequent. Leaf blight is caused by
Alternaria tenuis and Rhizoctonia species. These can be checked by application of
Mancozeb. The hilly regions are more prone to occurrence of rust, which can also be
prevented by Mancozeb. The broad-spectrum, systemic fungicides, Propiconazole
and Tebuconazole are used to control rust in peppermint. Garland et al. (1999)
determined their rate of dissipation in peppermint. At harvest, 64 days after the final
application, Propiconazole was detected at levels of 0.06 mg/kg and 0.09 mg/kg of
dry weight, and Tebuconazole was detected at 0.26 and 0.80 mg/kg dry weight, in
identical trials. Rates of dissipation of Propiconazole and Tebuconazole were lower
at a second trial site, where three applications of 125 g/ha a.i. for each fungicide
resulted in residue levels of 0.21.
A large number of insect pests attack the aerial and underground part of the crop.
Among these, the important ones are leaf roller, white fly and hairy caterpillar, which
damage the aerial part. The underground parts are damaged by white grub and termites.
Crickets, grasshoppers and caterpillars may also do some damage. Two spotted mite
(TSM) is one of the most difficult horticultural pests to control and constitutes a very
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significant and real risk to stable commercial peppermint oil production. The incidence
of TSM has increased annually in commercial peppermint crops. Under dry conditions
high levels of TSM infestation result in excessive leaf loss, particularly lower leaf
and can affect the oil quality.
Bienvenu conducted a field survey of commercial peppermint crops to establish
which pests are present in peppermint fields and the range of controls currently used
or available. Evaluation of the potential to develop an effective integrated pest
management program for peppermint production in south eastern Australia based on
effective control of TSM was successfully completed. It was noted that the predator
mite Phytoseiulus persimilis can survive and reduce TSM populations during the
critical months of peppermint production (http://www.rirdc.gov.au/comp02/
eoi1.html#DAV-178A, Project Title: Potential for IPM in Peppermint growing in
South East Australia, RIRDC Project No.: DAV-178A).
Shukla and Haseeb (1996) evaluated some nematicides (aldicarb, carbofuran,
ethoprop) and oil cakes (linseed, mustard, neem) against Pratylenchus thornei infesting
Mentha citrata, M. piperita and M. spicata in glasshouse experiments. All the treatments
were effective in increasing herb weight and oil yield, and minimizing nematode
reproduction of all the test species of mint as compared to untreated-inoculated
plants. Neem cake was most effective in reducing the reproduction rate of P. thornei.
The humid-adapted species Neoseiulus fallacis (Garman) was the most common
phytoseiid mite collected in either humid (>100 cm annual rainfall) or arid (20–45
cm annual rainfall) mint growing regions of Washington, Oregon, Montana, Idaho,
and California during 1991–1995. In experimental field plots, this predator gave
excellent biological control of Tetranychus urticae Koch on peppermint grown under
arid conditions in central Oregon when evaluated by an insecticide check method or
by the caging of mites (Morris et al., 1999).
28.3.5 Harvest and post-harvest management
The herb is cut just before flowering according to local conditions. Sometimes when
well irrigated and matured, a second crop can be obtained in next 60–75 days.
Harvesting should be carried out on a dry, sunny day, in the late morning, when all
traces of dew have disappeared. The first crop is always cut with the sickle to prevent
injury to the stolons. In India, the crop planted in January–February, becomes ready
for the first harvest in April–June, depending upon crop management. The second
harvest is taken after 60–70 days of the first harvest. After harvesting, the herb is
spread in shade to reduce the bulk and increase the recovery of oil. The average yield
varies around 15–20 t/ha of herb and 60–70 kg oil/ha. The oil yield depends upon the
period of wilting, period of stalking (between wilted hay and distillation) and efficiency
of distillation.
Changes in essential oil content, CO 2 exchange rate and distribution of
photosynthetically fixed 14CO2 into essential oil, amino acids, organic acids and
sugars were determined in developing peppermint leaves by Srivastava and Luthra
(1991). The incorporation of 14CO2 into sugars was maximal followed by organic
acids, amino acids and essential oil at all stages of leaf development. The incorporation
into sugars and amino acids declined as the leaf matured whereas that in essential oil
and organic acids increased with leaf expansion and then decreased. The seasonal
variations in fatty acid composition were studied by Maffei and Scannerini (1992) in
developing peppermint leaves. Chalchat et al. (1997) studied the effects of harvest
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469
time on the composition of the essential oil of peppermint. Harvesting at the end of
flowering afforded an inversion of the menthone/menthol ratio, yielding an oil that
was richer in menthol and therefore more valuable commercially. It was possible to
harvest twice a year, thereby increasing the annual yield per hectare. Batches of
differing qualities were obtained with a range of menthol/menthone ratios, according
to harvest time. Pre-drying of M. piperita herbage before distillation did not affect
chemical composition, but allowed steam distillation of greater amounts of plant
material. Composite oil samples from a field trial having six harvest dates were
analyzed to determine the effect of age on their physicochemical properties (Duhan
et al., 1976). Oil and free menthol content increased with time to a maximum in those
plants harvested between 163–178 days. Thereafter, oil content and stem to leaf ratio
decreased.
The results of another field trial on the effect of crop age on the yield of herb oil
and quality of essential oil of M. piperita are reported by Gulati et al. (1978). It is
indicated that in India, proper harvesting occurs between 145 to 160 days for first
harvest and 97 to 111 days for second harvest of the crop. The content of oil and its
chemical constituents vary with the growth and developmental stage of the plant.
Vaverkova et al. (1997) found that the beginning of bloom may be regarded as a
vegetation period giving the highest content of the essential oil in herb and leaves of
peppermint, and its greatest amount was found in the youngest leaves. Content of
menthol gradually increased to its maximum in the blooming phase while that of
menthone was decreasing.
On suitable soil and with proper cultivation, yields of 15 to 17 tons of peppermint
herb per hectare may be expected. In many places, the custom is to let the herb lie on
the ground for a time in small bundles or cocks. In other countries the herb is distilled
as soon as it is cut. Again, certain distillers prefer the plants to be previously dried or
steamed. The subject is much debated, but the general opinion is that it is best to distil
as soon as cut, and the British Pharmacopoeia directs that the oil be distilled from the
fresh flowering plant. Even under the best conditions of drying, there is a certain loss
of essential oil. If the herbs lie in heaps for any time, fermentation is bound to occur,
reducing the quality and quantity of the oil, as laboratory experiments have proved.
Exposure to frost must be avoided, as frozen mint yields scarcely half the quantity of
oil, which could otherwise be secured. A part of the exhausted herb is dried and used
for cattle food, for which it possesses considerable value. The rest is cut and composted
and eventually ploughed into the ground as fertilizer. There is also a market, chiefly
for herbalists, for the dried herb, which is gathered at the same time of year. It should
be cut shortly above the base, leaving some leafbuds, not including the lowest shrivelled
or discoloured leaves, and dried.
Professor Robert Menary of the University of Tasmania examined the current
cultivation practices for peppermint in Australia where growers were struggling to
obtain yields comparable to the north-eastern states of the U.S.A., where most of the
world’s mint oil is produced. He summarized that planting material was often of poor
quality, no practical benchmarks were being used to regulate irrigation and nitrogen
fertilizer, the two most important inputs during the growing season, in many fields
and for many growers, a lack of uniformity of inputs, and resulting variation in yield
of herb and oil were the main contributors to the poor overall yields and that many
plantings lapsed after relatively few years of production, usually due to poor weed
control, general loss of vigour or change of enterprise (http://www.rirdc.gov.au/99comp/
eoi1.htm#_Ref460804616, Project Title: Best Practice in Peppermint, RIRDC Project
No.: UT-16A).
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28.4
Chemical composition
Peppermint oil is a colourless, yellowish or greenish liquid, with a peculiar, highly
penetrating odour and a burning, camphorescent taste. It thickens and becomes reddish
with age, but improves in mellowness, even if kept as long as ten or fourteen years.
The essential oil contains alpha- and beta-pinene, Cineole, Jasmone, Isomenthol,
Isomenthone, Ledol, Limonene, Menthofuran, Menthol, Menthone, Menthyl acetate,
Neomenthol, Piperitone, Pulegone and Viridiflorol. The chief constituent of peppermint
oil is Menthol, but it also contains menthyl acetate and isovalerate, together with
menthone, cineol, inactive pinene, limonene and other less important bodies. On
cooling to a low temperature, separation of menthol occurs, especially if a few
crystals of that substance be added to start crystallization. The value of the oil
depends much upon the composition. The principal ester constituent, menthyl acetate,
possesses a very fragrant minty odour, to which the agreeable aroma of the oil is
largely due. The alcoholic constituent, menthol, possesses the well known penetrating
minty odour and characteristic cooling taste.
Peppermint leaf contains luteolin, hesperidin, and rutin; caffeic, chlorogenic, and
rosmarinic acids, and related tannins; choline; α- and β-carotenes; gum; minerals;
resin; α and γ tocopherols; α-amyrin and squalene triterpenes; volatile oil (1.2–3%)
composed mostly of monoterpenes – 29–55% menthol, 10–40% menthone, 2–13%
cineole, 1–11% pulegone, 1–10% menthyl acetate, 0–10% menthofuran, and 0.2–6%
limonene (Bradley, 1992; Bruneton, 1995; Leung and Foster, 1996; Wichtl and Bisset,
1994). Gherman et al. (2000) analyzed seven different peppermint samples by gas
chromatography and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC:MS). The main
volatile compounds identified by the gas chromatography–mass spectrometric analysis
of M. piperita were menthol, menthone, isomenthone, 1,8-cineole, menthyl acetate,
limonene, β-myrcene and carvone. The active principles of the oil are menthol,
menthone, isomenthone, menthyl acetate, α-pinene, β-pinene, champhor, limonene,
linalool and piperitone. The qualitative fatty acid composition is dominated by palmitate
(16:0), linoleate (18:2) and linolenate (18:3) (Maffei and Scannerini, 1992).
From M. piperita leaves, 16 free lipophilic flavonoid aglycones were isolated and
identified by Voirin and Bayet (1992). The variation of this flavonoid composition
studied by the means of HPLC techniques from the youngest to the oldest leaves
showed that the A- and B-ring O-methylation patterns of leaf pairs differ according
to leaf age and would indicate the sequential activity of 4′-O- and 6-O-methyltransferases. Different steps of monoterpene metabolism – disappearance of limonene,
accumulation of 1,8-cineole, reduction of menthone to menthol and acetylation of
menthol – have been studied in different parts of M. piperita leaves of different ages.
The analyses of different samples (leaf strips, disks and individual peltate trichomes,
translucent or containing crystals from either epidermis) show that all these dynamic
changes start at the distal extremity of the leaf and shift progressively towards the
base. Except for the peltate trichomes localized within the leaf area, in which a
metabolic step is being realized, the trichomes of other parts present a homogeneous
monoterpene composition. The measurements of amounts of chlorophyll in two parts,
distal and basal, of youngest leaves of terminal buds show that chlorophyll biosynthesis
starts also at the distal extremity of the leaf (Voirin and Bayet, 1996).
In M. piperita leaves, the peltate glands may be divided into two types according
to the presence or the absence of crystals in the head of the trichomes. In both types,
the free lipophilic flavonoid aglycones, characterized by UV and chromatographic
data, are located in the head of the peltate glands, together with monoterpenes (Voirin
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471
et al., 1993). A qualitative study of free aglycones from one clone of M. piperita was
carried out weekly for two months by Voirin et al. (1994). They found that the
flavonoid pattern of the whole plant remained invariable. Principal component analysis
recognized three flavonoid groups, corresponding to three terpenoid groups. The
study of the effects of photoperiodic treatments showed that the flavonoid pattern is
affected by day length.
The variability of the enantiomeric distribution of biologically active chiral terpenes
in M. piperita plants from different geographical origins was evaluated by solid
phase microextraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Ruiz del Castillo et
al., 2004) For all chiral terpenes, the enantiomeric composition varied within a very
narrow range all over the samples. The enantiomeric composition of chiral terpenes
appeared to be independent of the geographical origin of the plant and, thus, any
alteration in the characteristic value may be related to an adulteration or inadequate
sample handling.
The stereoselective synthesis and organoleptic properties of π-menthane lactones
7α-η are described by Jean-Marc Gaudin (2000). Apart from correcting the published
data concerning these compounds, this work has also allowed an unambiguous
identification of 7α, 7β and 7γ in Italo Mitcham black peppermint oil. In addition,
these lactones are of considerable interest to the perfume industry, due to their exceptional
odour intensity and typical coumarin-like note. Areias et al. (2001) proposed a reversedphase high-performance liquid chromatography procedure for the determination of
ten phenolic compounds (eriodictyol 7-O-rutinoside, eriodictyol 7-O-glucoside, luteolin
7-O-rutinoside, luteolin 7-O-glucoside, hesperetin 7-O-rutinoside, apigenin 7-Orutinoside, rosmarinic acid, 5,6-dihydroxy-7,8,3′,4′-tetramethoxyflavone, pebrellin
and gardenin B) in peppermint.
28.5
Commercial uses
Peppermint oil, peppermint extract and peppermint leaves are obtained from M.
piperita plant. In 1998, the peppermint oil was used in 102 cosmetic formulations as
a fragrance component. Peppermint extract was used in 35 formulations as a flavouring
agent and fragrance component. Peppermint leaves were used in two formulations
(Anonymous, 2001).
28.5.1 Uses in food industry
Chemical constituents with antioxidant activity found in high concentrations in plants
determine their considerable role in the prevention of various degenerative diseases
(Hu and Willett, 2002). Besides the fruits and vegetables that are recommended at
present as optimal sources of such components, the supplementation of human diet
with herbs, containing especially high amounts of compounds capable of deactivating
free radicals (Madsen and Bertelsen, 1995), may have beneficial effects. The
incorporation of seasoning based on herbs into everyday meals may be of crucial
importance. The benefits resulting from the use of natural products rich in bioactive
substances has promoted the growing interest of pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic
industries as well as of individual consumers in the quality of herbal produce. Among
the important constituents participating in the cell defence system against free radicals
are phenolic compounds and also ascorbic acid and carotenoids (Diplock et al., 1998,
Szeto et al., 2002).
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Herbs, regardless of the purpose they serve, are used fresh or dried. Enzymatic
processes during drying fresh plant tissues may lead to significant changes in the
composition of phytochemicals. The evaluation of antioxidant properties of the raw
material allows the determination of its suitability as high-quality food beneficial for
human health and therefore is of considerable importance. Capecka et al. (2004) has
presented the results of two assays of antioxidant capability and the content of total
phenolics, ascorbic acid, and carotenoids in the fresh and air-dried herbs of peppermint.
The highest antioxidant ability, expressed as inhibition of LA peroxidation (TAA),
was found for extracts from both fresh and dried oregano. The TAA value for peppermint
and lemon balm was significantly lower. In the case of these two species, the process
of drying decreased their total antioxidant activity. The ability of scavenging DPPH
– free radical measured after five minutes was very high in the extracts from all the
tested herbs, exceeding 90%. Comparison of RSA measurements after one and five
minutes allowed estimation of the rate of DPPH neutralization. In the case of peppermint
and lemon balm extracts, obtained both from fresh and dried plant material, this
parameter reached its maximum level after one minute. The content of total soluble
phenolics was very high (2600 mg GA 100 g–1 f.m.) in dried peppermint. Drying
resulted in a considerable increase of total phenolics in the case of oregano and
peppermint. A very important compound in herbs of Lamiaceae family is rosmarinic
acid, showing a high scavenging DPPH potential. The rosmarinic acid content in
peppermint was about 30,000 ppm.
To find the most suitable antioxidant for the stabilization of sunflower oil, the
kinetics of peroxide accumulation during oxidation of sunflower oil at 100 °C in the
presence of different concentrations of hexane, ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts of
six herbs including M. piperita was studied by Marinova and Yanishlieva (1997). The
strongest action in retarding the autoxidation process was exhibited by the ethanol
extracts from Saturejae hortensis, followed by the ethanol extracts from M. piperita
and Melissa officinalis. The stabilization factor F for the ethanol extracts (0.1–0.5%)
from Saturejae hortensis was 1.8–2.3, which is higher than F for 0.02% butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT, F = 1.2).
The effect of different concentrations (0–1.2% v/v) of peppermint oil on the growth
and survival of Salmonella enteritidis and Staphylococcus aureus was studied in
nutrient broth by Tassou et al. (2000). The addition of mint essential oil reduced the
total viable counts of S. aureus about 6–7 logs while that of S. enteritidis only about
3 logs. The percentage of glucose utilization in the growth medium of both pathogens,
was reduced drastically with the addition of essential oil and as a consequence, the
assimilation or formation of different compounds, such as lactate, formate and acetate
in the growth medium was also affected.
Despite the beneficial effects of M. piperita in digestion, we should also be aware
of the toxic effects when the herb is not used in the recommended fashion or at the
recommended dose. To justify the effects of M. piperita herbal teas on plasma total
testosterone, luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone levels and testicular
histologic features, Akdogan et al. (2004) performed a study an its adverse effects on
the male reproductive function and found that the follicle-stimulating hormone and
luteinizing hormone levels increased and total testosterone levels decreased in the
experimental groups compared with the control group; and the differences were
statistically significant.
Whole plants of peppermint after etheric oil distillation were tested for in situ
degradability and in vitro gas production (Djouvinov et al., 1997). Digestibility of
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473
these by-products was also determined in in vivo trials. Peppermint, after etheric oil
distillation, contained more crude protein (130 g kg–1 DM), and less neutral detergent
fibre (583 g kg–1 DM) and acid detergent fibre (425 g kg–1 DM).
28.5.2 Uses in the pharmaceutical industry
Peppermint oil is the most extensively used of all the volatile oils, both medicinally
and commercially. The characteristic anti-spasmodic action of the volatile oil is more
marked in this than in any other oil, and greatly adds to its power of relieving pains
arising in the alimentary canal. From its stimulating, stomachic and carminative
properties, it is valuable in certain forms of dyspepsia, being mostly used for flatulence
and colic. It may also be employed for other sudden pains and for cramp in the
abdomen. It is also widely used in cholera and diarrhoea.
It is generally combined with other medicines when its stomachic effects are
required, being also employed with purgatives to prevent griping. Oil of peppermint
allays sickness and nausea, and is much used to disguise the taste of unpalatable
drugs, as it imparts its aromatic characteristics to whatever prescription it enters into.
It is used as an infants’ cordial. The oil itself is often given on sugar and added to
pills, also a spirit made from the oil, but the preparation in most general use is
Peppermint Water, which is the oil and water distilled together. Peppermint Water
and Spirit of Peppermint are official preparations of the British Pharmacopoeia. In
flatulent colic, Spirit of Peppermint in hot water is a good household remedy, also the
oil given in doses of one or two drops on sugar.
Peppermint is good for assisting the raising of internal heat and inducing perspiration,
although its strength is soon exhausted. In slight colds or early indications of disease,
a free use of peppermint tea will, in most cases, effect a cure, an infusion of one
ounce of the dried herb to a pint of boiling water being employed, taken in wineglassful
doses; sugar and milk may be added if desired. An infusion of equal quantities of
peppermint herb and elder flowers (to which either Yarrow or Boneset may be added)
will banish a cold or mild attack of influenza within thirty-six hours, and there is no
danger of an overdose or any harmful action on the heart. Peppermint tea is used also
for palpitations of the heart. In cases of hysteria and nervous disorders, the usefulness
of an infusion of peppermint has been found to be well augmented by the addition of
equal quantities of Wood Betony, its operation being hastened by the addition to the
infusion of a few drops of tincture of caraway.
The British Herbal Compendium indicates peppermint leaf for dyspepsia, flatulence,
intestinal colic, and biliary disorders (Bradley, 1992). The European Scientific
Cooperative on Phytotherapy indicates its use for symptomatic treatment of digestive
disorders such as dyspepsia, flatulence, gastritis, and enteritis (ESCOP, 1997). The
German Standard Licence for peppermint leaf tea indicates its use for gastrointestinal
and gall bladder ailments. In German pediatric medicine, peppermint leaf (67%) is
combined with chamomile flower (33%) as a herbal tea to treat gastric upset in
children. It is also used as a component of various ‘kidney and bladder’ teas for
children. Peppermint oil is used as a component of Inhalatio composita (45% eucalyptus
oil, 45% pumilio pine oil, 10% peppermint oil) specifically indicated for coryza and
nasal catarrh in children (Schilcher, 1997). Peppermint oil is used in the United
States as a carminative in antacids, a counter-irritant in topical analgesics, an antipruritic
in sunburn creams, a decongestant in inhalants and lozenges, and as an antiseptic or
flavouring agent in mouthwashes, gums, and toothpastes (Briggs, 1993; Tyler et al.,
1988).
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Handbook of herbs and spices
Most modern human studies have investigated peppermint oil rather than peppermint
leaf as a treatment for stomach ache (May et al., 1996), spastic colon syndrome
(Somerville et al., 1984), postoperative nausea (Tate, 1997), relief of colonic muscle
spasm during barium enema (Sparks et al., 1995), irritable bowel syndrome (Carling
et al., 1989; Dew et al., 1984; Koch, 1998; Lawson et al., 1988; Pittler and Ernst,
1998; Rees et al., 1979), and headaches (Gobel et al., 1994). The use of peppermint
oil for irritable bowel syndrome is based on preparations in enteric-coated capsules,
causing a spasmolytic activity on smooth muscles of the gut. In animal tests, the
probable mechanism of action has been shown to be the inhibition of smooth muscle
contractions by blocking calcium influx into muscle cells (Forster et al., 1980; Giachetti
et al., 1988).
Peppermint oil is the major constituent of several over-the-counter remedies for
symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Pittler and Ernst (1998) conducted a
study to review the clinical trials of extracts of peppermint as a symptomatic treatment
for IBS by computerized literature searches to identify all randomized controlled
trials. The study indicates that peppermint oil could be efficacious for symptom relief
in IBS. In view of the methodological flaws associated with most studies, no definitive
judgement about efficacy could be given.
In one double-blind, placebo-controlled multi-centre trial, Enteroplant®, consisting
of peppermint oil (90 mg) and caraway oil (50 mg) in an enteric-coated capsule, was
studied in 45 patients with non-ulcerous dyspepsia. After four weeks of treatment
both the intensity of pain and the global clinical impression were significantly improved
for the group treated with the peppermint/caraway combination compared with the
placebo group (p = 0.015 and 0.008, respectively) (May et al., 1996).
The British Herbal Compendium reported carminative, spasmolytic, and choleretic
activity (Bradley, 1992). The approved modern therapeutic applications for peppermint
are supportable based on its history of use in well established systems of traditional
and conventional medicines, extensive phytochemical investigations, in vitro studies,
in vivo pharmacological studies in animals, and human clinical studies.
To examine the antibacterial effects of a wide variety of essential oils (including
peppermint oil) on major respiratory tract pathogens, the antibacterial activity of 14
essential oils and their major components was evaluated by agar-plate dilution assay
under sealed conditions. Of the selected strains of four major bacteria causing respiratory
tract infection, Haemophilus influenzae was most susceptible to the essential oils,
followed by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyogenes (Inoye et al.,
2001).
28.5.3 Other economic uses
Peppermint oil was evaluated for larvicidal activity against different mosquito species:
Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi and Culex quinquefasciatus. Application of oil at
3 ml/m2 of water surface area resulted in 100% mortality within 24 hours for C.
quinquefasciatus, 90% for A. aegypti and 85% for A. stephensi (Ansari et al., 2000).
The oil showed strong repellent action against adult mosquitoes when applied on
human skin. The virucidal effect of peppermint oil against herpes simplex virus was
examined by Schuhmachera et al. (2003). The inhibitory activity against herpes
simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) was tested in
vitro on RC-37 cells using a plaque reduction assay. The 50% inhibitory concentration
(IC50) of peppermint oil for herpes simplex virus plaque formation was determined
Peppermint
475
at 0.002% and 0.0008% for HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively. Peppermint oil exhibited
high levels of virucidal activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2 in viral suspension tests.
At noncytotoxic concentrations of the oil, plaque formation was significantly reduced
by 82% and 92% for HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively.
The deterrent and toxicity effects of mint, M. virdis. and M. piperita on mite
(Tetranychus urticae Koch) were studied under laboratory conditions. Leaf discs
treated with increasing concentrations of both materials showed a reduction in the
total numbers of eggs laid (Momen et al., 2001). The fumigant toxicity of 28 essential
oils extracted from various spice and herb plants and some of their major constituents
were assessed for adult coleopterans, major stored products insects. The compound
1,8-cineole and the essential oils anise and peppermint were active against T. castaneum
(Shaaya et al., 1991).
28.6
Quality issues
The flavouring properties of the oil are due largely to both the ester and alcoholic
constituents, while the medicinal value is attributed to the latter only. The most
important determination to be made in the examination of peppermint oil, is that of
the total amount of menthol, but the menthone value is also frequently required.
European pharmacopeial grade peppermint oil is the volatile oil distilled with
steam from the fresh aerial parts of the flowering plant. Its relative density must be
between 0.900 and 0.916, refractive index between 1.457 and 1.467, optical rotation
between –10° and –30°, among other quantitative standards. Identity must be confirmed
by thin-layer chromatography (TLC), organoleptic evaluation, and quantitative analysis
of internal composition by gas chromatography. It must contain 1.0–5.0% limonene,
3.5–14.0% cineole, 14.0–32.0% menthone, 1.0–9.0% menthofuran, 1.5–10.0%
isomenthone, 2.8–10.0% menthylacetate, 30.0–55.0% menthol, maximum 4.0%
pulegone, and maximum 1.0% carvone (Ph.Eur.3, 1997). French pharmacopeial grade
peppermint oil must contain not less than 44% menthol, from 4.5–10% esters calculated
as menthyl acetate, and from 15–32% carbonyl compounds calculated as menthone.
TLC is used for identification, quantification of compounds, and verification of the
absence of visible bands corresponding to carvone, pulegone, and isomenthone
(Bruneton, 1995).
The English oil contains 60–70% of menthol, the Japanese oil containing 85%,
and the American only about 50%. The odour and taste afford a good indication of
the quality of the oil, and by this means it is quite possible to distinguish between
English, American and Japanese oils. Menthol is obtained from various species of
Mentha and is imported into England, chiefly from Japan. The oils from which it is
chiefly obtained are those from M. arvensis var. piperascens in Japan, M. arvensis
var. glabrata in China, and M. piperita in America. Japan and China produce large
quantities of Mentha oil, which is greatly inferior to those distilled from M. piperita,
but have the advantage of containing a large proportion of menthol, of which they are
the commercial source. The cheapest variety of peppermint oil available in commerce
is partially dementholized oil imported from Japan, containing only 50% of menthol.
Adulteration of American peppermint oil with dementholized Japanese oil, known as
Menthene, which is usually cheaper than American oil, is frequently practised. The
Japanese oil, termed by the Americans corn-mint oil and not recognized by the
United States Pharmacopoeia, is at best only a substitute in confectionery and other
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Handbook of herbs and spices
products, such as tooth-pastes, etc. There are other varieties of so-called peppermint
oil on the market that are residues from Menthol manufacture and are inferior even
to the oil imported from Japan. These are not suitable for use in pharmacy.
Felklova et al. (1982) examined the qualitative and quantitative aspects of different
cultural varieties of M. piperita volatile oils and found that the Ukrainian variety had
the highest content of oil. Ruiz del Castillo et al. (2004) found that the enantiomeric
composition of chiral terpenes in M. piperita is independent of the geographical
origin of the plant and thus any alteration in the characteristic value may be related
to an adulteration or inadequate sample handling. The enantiomeric composition of
bioactive chiral terpenes in M. piperita can be used in authenticity studies.
The effects of mint type, planting density, and planting time on the composition
and yield of mint oils in Mentha piperita and other Mentha species in northern
Finland were studied by Galambosi et al. (1998). The content of menthol in peppermint
grown in Finland was low in comparison to international standards. The highest
menthol percentage was obtained with the highest plant density (spacing of 10 cm)
while the highest yield was achieved by planting in the early spring.
28.6.1 Pesticide residues
Pharmacopoeial grade peppermint leaf must be composed of the dried whole or cut
leaf with not more than 5% stem fragments greater than 1 mm in diameter and not
more than 10% leaves with brown spots caused by Puccinia menthae. The whole leaf
must contain not less than 1.2% (ml/g) and the cut leaf must contain not less than
0.9% volatile oil. Botanical identity must be confirmed by macroscopic and microscopic
examinations and organoleptic evaluation (Wichtl and Bisset, 1994). The ESCOP
peppermint leaf monograph requires that the material comply with the European
pharmacopoeia (ESCOP, 1997).
The residue levels of broad-spectrum, systemic fungicides propiconazole and
tebuconazole, used to control rust in peppermint were studied by Garland et al.
(1999). An analytical method, using gas chromatography combined with detection by
high-resolution mass spectrometry was developed to allow for the simultaneous
monitoring of both pesticides in peppermint leaves and oil. At harvest, 64 days after
the final application, propiconazole was detected at levels of 0.06 mg/kg and 0.09
mg/kg of dry weight, and tebuconazole was detected at 0.26 and 0.80 mg/kg dry
weight, in identical trials. The Lindane residue dynamics in peppermint was studied
by Beitz et al. (1971). In the crop sprayed with a 0.05% formulation in May, the
residue was reduced to below 0.1 ppm, similar to those in the untreated controls after
four months.
Golcz et al., (1975) observed that sprayings with Sinbar herbicide in an appropriate
dose and at fixed dates do not have any negative effect on the development of mint
and the concentration of essential oil in the crude drug. The residual terbacil (an
active ingredient of Sinbar) in Herba Menthae piperitae was 0.008 ppm during
harvesting, when Sinbar was applied before and after drying of mint. Later sprayings
increased the concentration of Terbacil in the crude drug (0.21–0.27 ppm). The
treatment of peppermint with Terbacil did not influence the essential oil content.
Similarly, the application of a herbicide formulation did not cause detectable changes
in relative representation of main and secondary components of the essential oil
(Vaverkova et al., 1997).
Peppermint
477
28.6.2 Adulterants and safety assessment
Camphor oil, and also cedar wood oil and oil of African Copaiba are occasionally
used as an adulterant of peppermint oil, The oil is also often adulterated with onethird part of rectified spirit, which may be detected by the milkiness produced when
the oil is agitated by water. Oil of rosemary and oil of turpentine are sometimes used
for the same purpose. If the oil contains turpentine it will explode with iodine. If
quite pure, it dissolves in its own weight of rectified spirits of wine.
In a report on safety assessment of M. piperita, the following has been summarized:
the 24-hour oral LD50 for peppermint oil in fasted mice and rats was 2410 and 4441
mg/kg, respectively. Several (but not all) short-term and subchronic oral studies
noted cyst-like lesions in the cerebellum in rats that were given doses of peppermint
oil containing pulegone, pulegone alone, or large amounts (>200 mg/kg/day) of
menthone. Results of a host-resistance assay suggested immunosuppression and/or
increased susceptibility to bacterial-induced mortality. Studies on human basophil
suspensions suggested that peppermint oil induced histamine release by nonimmunological mechanisms. It was negative in a plaque-forming assay. Repeated
intradermal dosing with peppermint oil produced moderate and severe reactions in
rabbits. Peppermint oil did not appear to be phototoxic. Peppermint oil was negative
in the Ames test and a mouse lymphoma mutagenesis assay but gave equivocal
results in a Chinese hamster fibroblast cell chromosome aberration assay.
In a carcinogenicity study of toothpaste, mice treated with peppermint oil developed
neoplasms at the same rate as those treated with the toothpaste base. In some instances,
the rates were comparable to those in mice of the untreated control group. Isolated
clinical cases of irritation and/or sensitization to peppermint oil and/or its constituents
have been reported, but peppermint oil (8%) was not a sensitizer when tested using
the Kligman maximization protocol. In assessing the safety of peppermint oil, extract
and leaves, we must be concerned about oral-dosing studies that reported cyst-like
spaces in the cerebellum of rats. The results of these studies were difficult to interpret.
The findings were not consistent among studies (lesions were noted in some studies
but not others), and though the lesions appeared to depend on the pulegone content,
no definitive conclusion could be made (a greater NOAEL was reported in a 90-day
study using a peppermint oil containing 1.1% pulegone versus a 28-day study that
tested a Peppermint Oil containing 1.7% pulegone). The Panel also noted that the
large differences between doses within each study made it impossible to pinpoint
exactly the dose at which changes first appeared. Noting the lack of dermal exposure
studies on peppermint oil, the Panel expected its absorption would be rapid, following
that of menthol, a major component. Dermal absorption, however, was not expected
to be greater than absorption through the gastrointestinal tract. Metabolism from
either route of exposure would be similar-phase 1 metabolism followed by transport
to the liver. The Panel was of the opinion that the oral-dose data contained in this
report were sufficient to address concerns resulting from the expected rapid absorption.
However, the Panel noted the evidence that menthol can enhance penetration.
Formulators are cautioned that this enhanced penetration can affect the use of other
ingredients whose safety assessment was based on their lack of absorption.
Clinical dermal testing demonstrated that 8% peppermint oil was not a sensitizer,
and that 2% peppermint oil produced a small number of positive reactions in dermatitic
patients. Because pulegone is toxic, the panel limited it to < = 1% in cosmetic grade
peppermint oil, extract, leaves, and water. The panel was confident that this concentration
was achievable both by controlling the time of harvest, and through the patented
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Handbook of herbs and spices
techniques. Recent data reported that peppermint oil is used at a concentration of
< = 3% in rinse-off formulations and < = 0.2% in leave-on formulations. This
concentration of use data coupled with the < = 1% restriction on pulegone suggested
to the panel that pulegone toxicity would not be seen with cosmetic use. On the basis
of the available data, the CIR Expert Panel concluded that peppermint oil, extract,
leaves, and water are safe as used in cosmetic formulations. The concentration of
pulegone in these ingredients should not exceed 1%.
28.7
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29
Perilla
P. N. Ravindran, Centre for Medicinal Plants Research, India and
M. Shylaja, Providence Women’s College, India
29.1
Introduction
Perilla (also known as wild coleus, Chinese basil, Perilla mint or purple mint) is a
widely used flavouring herb that belongs to the family Lamiaceae. The natural habitat
extends from Northeast India to China, occurring up to an altitude of 1200 m. The
major producing countries are China, Japan, Korea and India. (Axtell and Fairman,
1992). In South Asia, Perilla extends from Kashmir to Bhutan, and from Champaran
in India to Myanmar (Misra and Hussain, 1987). Perilla was introduced to Japan in
the 8–9th century where it is grown extensively now. Perilla is widely grown in
Korea, where there is also a strong research base for the improvement of the crop.
Currently Perilla occupies the largest area in Korea, about 50,000 ha. The Asian
immigrants introduced Perilla into the USA in the 1800s. The Japanese brought
Perilla seeds with them to cultivate, and the cultivation began mainly on the West
Coast. The plants spread to the Ozarks and the Appalachian mountains, where the
species become naturalized and spread widely. It is now widely grown in the USA as
an ornamental bedding plant.
Perilla is an annual short day plant. Two types occur: green leaved and purple
leaved varieties, and each of them has several cultivated forms. The green variety has
been described (Yu, 1997) as: P. frutescens (L.) Britt., P. frutescens var. acuta (Kudo)
forma viridis (Makino); P. frutescens var. crispa (Decne) forma viridis (Makino); P.
frutescens var. arguta (Benth.) Hand-Mazz; P. frutescens var. acuta f. albiflora; P.
frutescens var. stricta f. viridifolia.
The purple leaved variety has the following forms:
P.
P.
P.
P.
P.
P.
frutescens var. acuta (Kudo)
frutescens var. typica (Makino)
frutescens var. stricta
frutescens var. crispa
frutescens var. atropurpurea
frutescens var. crispa f. purpurea (Makino)
Perilla
483
In Japan the following varieties have been recognized (Yu, 1997) for cultivation:
P. frutescens var. japonica (Hara)
P. frutescens var. citriodora (Ohwi)
P. frutescens var. crispa f. discolor
P. frutescens var. crispa f. hirtella
P. frutescens var. crispa f. atropurpurea
P. frutescens var. acuta f. crispidiscolor
P. frutescens var. oleifera.
Possibly much natural crossing and introgression might have taken place that led to
many varieties and forms. The taxonomy of Perilla becomes confusing due to the
presence of intergrading populations of interspecific and intraspecific hybrids. Recently
genetic diversity analysis has been attempted using molecular taxonomic tools (Lee
et al., 2002). Yu et al. (1997) have compiled the various aspects of Perilla and its
uses in medicine.
29.1.1 Botanical notes
Perilla is an annual, short-day plant growing about 1.5 m, resembling Coleus and
basil in its general appearance. The stem is purple, square, leaves opposite, oval, 4–
12 cm long and 2.5–10 cm wide; margin serrated, petiole about 2–7 cm long. Leaves
are pubescent, gland-dotted and aromatic. Inflorescence is a terminal raceme, 6–20
cm long; flower purple or white; flowering in June–August. Fruit is a greyish brown
nutlet containing 1–4 seeds, seeds small, ovoid, and greyish brown to blackish brown,
having a mild pungent taste. Seeds contain 38–45% fixed oil.
Cultivated varieties and types
Perilla plants are broadly classified as green and purple varieties, the latter is grown
more commonly. From the usage point of view there are bud Perilla (Mejiso), leaf
Perilla (Hajiso), head Perilla (Hojiso) and seed Perilla (Shiso-no-mi). Bud Perilla is
used as spice together with raw fish. Head Perilla, with seeds partially set, is used to
spice dried fish and shrimp. Mature seed is used as spice in processed foods, while
leaf is used with a variety of dishes (Tanaka et al., 1997). The commonly cultivated
types are the following:
P. frutescens var. acuta (‘Aka Shiso’ in Japanese).
Leaves purple, flowers pale purple.
Var. acuta f. crispidiscolor (‘Katamen Shiso’ in Japanese).
Leaves are green above, purple striped beneath, strongly fragrant, mainly used as
Mejiso and Hajiso.
Var. crispa f. atropurpurea (‘Aka Chirimen Shiso’ in Japanese).
Stem reddish purple, leaves light purple below and dark purple above, flower pale
purple. Used mainly as Mejiso and Hajiso.
‘Wase Chirimen Shiso’: Dwarf type of the above variety, fast growing, used as Mejiso.
Var. crispa (‘Ao Chirimen Shiso’ in Japanese).
Leaves green on both sides, flower white. Used for all purpose (as Mejiso, Hajiso,
Hojiso and Shisonomi)
Chemovars and their genetics
Several chemically distinct varieties (chemovars) exist in Perilla. Ito (1970), Koezuko
et al. (1984) and Nishizawa et al. (1990) classified Perilla based on the predominant
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chemical components into:
PA type – perillaldehyde (ca. 71%) and L-limonine (ca. 9%) are the major compounds.
EK type – elsholziaketone is the major component.
PK type – perillaketone (or iso egomaketone) is the major constituent.
C type – major constituent in trans-citral.
PP type – contains phenyl propanoids such as myristicin, dill-apiol, elemicin or
caryophyllene.
PL type – perillone is the major constituent.
The above chemotypes are genetically stable showing no segregation in self-pollinated
progenies. Genetic experiments had elucidated the mechanism behind the inheritance
(Tabata, 1997). Many improved cultivars have also been released (Oh et al., 1998;
Park et al., 1998).
The chemical composition of the various chemotypes is controlled by single genes
and follows a simple Mendelian inheritance pattern. A series of multiple alleles
(G1, G2 and g) and an independent pair of allele (H, h) have been reported; G1 and
G2 are essential for the initiation of the monoterpenoid biosynthesis in Perilla. G1 is
responsible for the development of EK type, and is dominant over G2 that produces
the PK type. Homozygous (gg) plant is the PP type. G1 or G2 in presence of the
homozygous H(G-HH) produces the PA type, while the heterozygous ones (G-Hh)
produce large quantities of L-limonene, an intermediate in the synthesis of
perillaldehyde. The PL type is produced in the presence of the polymeric genes Fr1
and Fr2, which are involved in the conversion of citral into perillene. The C-type,
which controls the production of large quantities of citral, is homozygous recessive
for the two genes (Fr1 Fr1 Fr2 Fr2). (Koezuko et al., 1986; Yu et al., 1997; De
Guzman and Siemonsma, 1999). The biosynthetic pathways and the genes controlling
them are given in Fig. 29.1.
29.2
Crop production and management
29.2.1 Cultivation in Japan
Perilla is propagated through seeds. Seeds are often refrigerated (at 0–3 °C). Such
l-limonene
R
Perillaldehyde
(PA Type)
Perillalcohol
H
Mevalonic acid
G
cis-citral
N
Naginata
ketone
P, Q
Elsholziaketone
(EK Type)
h
trans-citral
Fr
Perillene
(PL Type)
Shikimic acid
Fig. 29.1
g
J
Egomaketone
Perillaketone
(PK Type)
elemicin, myristicin, dillapiole (PP Type)
Biosynthetic pathways and genes controlling them (adapted from Tabata, 1997).
Perilla
485
seeds are kept at room temperature for about a week before sowing. Seeds are often
soaked in gibberellic acid solution (50 ppm) for breaking dormancy. Seeds germinate
in 6–10 days, and the optimum temperature is 22 °C (Tanaka et al., 1997). Seedbeds
1.2–1.5 m wide and of convenient length are used for seed sowing. Pre-soaking is
essential for good germination. Seeds are then suspended in water and spread evenly
on the bed at the rate of 9–10 ml per m2. Bed is then covered with sand and pressed down
using a board. The beds are covered with polythene sheeting to retain high humidity.
When Perilla is grown for green bud, harvesting is done when the cotyledons are
expanded fully and the first pair of true leaves has grown out; which takes about ten
days in summer and 15–20 days in other seasons. The purple variety (purple bud) is
harvested when two pairs of leaves have grown out. When Perilla is grown for heads
(head perilla) seedlings are transplanted in field and a basal dressing of 1.5 kg
nitrogen, 2 kg phosphorous and 2 kg potash are given per 100 m2 area. The inflorescences
(heads) are harvested when five or six flowers open. The protocol for Perilla cultivation
is given in Table 29.1.
29.2.2 Cultivation in Korea
In Korea, Perilla is also an important oil seed crop, and the annual production is
around 36,800 tons. Perilla leaves are a by-product and consumed in a salted form or
wrapped form with meat and fish (Tanaka et al., 1997). The important cultivars for
seed production are Sciwon No. 8, Sciwon No. 10 and Guppo; many local genotypes
are also in use. Seeds are sown in open fields in April–June. Leaves are harvested
from mid-June to September. Winter cultivation is from October (sowing) to March
(harvesting). In winter, additional illumination is required for proper growth. Seed
rate is 3 kg/ha, and the plant density is around 250,000/ha. Fertilizer dose recommended
is: compost 1000 kg, N 4, P2O5 3, K2O 2 kg/10 ares (1 are = 100 m2). The hydroponic
system of cultivation is also prevalent in Korea and Japan. Both nutrient film and
deep flow techniques are used (Park and Kim, 1991).
Table 29.1
Procedure for Perilla cultivation in Hokkaido
Sowing time
Planting field
Planting density
Sowing
Fertilizer
Weeding
Thinning
Supplementary
sowing
Pest control
Harvesting
Drying
End of April–early May
Any kind of soil except for the field of natural growth and also the field in
which Perilla was cultivated the previous year.
800 plants/are, row width 60 cm, spacing 20–25 cm.
30 ml of seed per are. 68,000 seeds weigh 55 g (100 ml). Sow when the soil
contains enough moisture, lightly cover the seed with the soil and press it
down carefully.
Fertilizer standard (per are): N 1 kg, P 0.65 kg and K 0.66 kg.
Middle of June–middle of July. Remove the weeds before they grow too
thick when the weather is favourable. Tall weeds must be removed.
Thinning should be started after the 4th or 5th leaf has appeared and should
be completed before the plants reach a height of 15 cm.
If the germination is poor, supplementary sowing is carried out on vacant
hills.
Chemicals used to control insects such as striated chafer, aphid, spider mite
and cabbage army worm, must not be applied one month before harvesting.
Hand or machine cutting applied so as to obtain as much as possible.
Dry the leaves in the sun to a moisture content of about 13%.
(1 are = 100 m2).
Source: (Tanaka et al., 1997).
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29.2.3 Cultivation in China
Both direct seed sowing and transplanting are practised in China. The sowing season
is March–April. Seeds are sown in rows. Machine sowing is also practised. Frequent
application of fertilizer is practised for boosting growth. Chemical fertilizer at the
rate of 4–6 kg/ha is applied every week, i.e., about 15–20 kg during the whole growth
period (appr. 1.5 kg N, 1.5 kg P and 1 kg K). Barnyard manure is applied in June–
August at the rate of about 15–20 tons. Plants require regular watering. For herb oil
production, harvesting is done when the flower heads have just grown out, during
August–September. Usually 225 kg sun dried leaf yield 0.2–0.25 kg oil. When the
whole plant is harvested for oil extraction it is usually in October.
29.3
Chemical composition
Perilla leaves and stems contain an essential oil, commercially known as Perilla oil
(ao-jiso in Japanese). The oil is produced through steam distillation. The oil is a mixture
of mono and sesquiterpenes. The important monoterpenes are: (–) perillaldehyde and
(–)-limonene. The important sesquiterpenes are β-caryophyllene and α-farnesene
(Masada, 1976). About 50–60% of the essential oil consists of perillaldehyde, which
has a powerful fatty-spicy, oily-herbaceons odour and sweet herbaceous taste (Arctander,
1969). Its anti-oxime is about 2000 time sweeter than sucrose (Fujita and Nakayama,
1997). Kang et al., (1992) reported the following composition: perillaldehyde (74%),
limonene (12.8%), β-caryophellene (3.8%), β-begamontene (3.5%), linalool (2.6%)
and benzaldehyde (1.6%). Other characteristic minor compounds having ‘perilla-like’
odour are (–)-perillyl alcohol, trans-shisool, cis-shisool, linalool. α-pinene, β-pinene,
camphene, 3-octanol, 1-octen-3-ol, allofarnasene, β-farnasene, etc. Perilla having this
type of oil is classified as perillaldehyde type (Fujita and Nakayama, 1997). Table 29.2
summarizes the important chemical constituents reported from Perilla.
29.3.1 Non-Volatile compounds
A number of non-volatile compounds having various biological activities have been
reported. They include the following more important ones. Triterpenoids and sterols:
perillic acid, steroids such as β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, ursolic acid,
oleanolic acid, tormentic acid, higher terpenoids and carotenoids, (β-carotene, lutein,
neoxanthin, antheraxnathin, violaxanthin), etc. Flavonoids and anthocyanins: apigenin,
luteolin, scutellarin and their glycosides, cyanidin glycoside, malonyl shisonin and
shisonin. Koezuko et al. (1985) have reported genetic studies on anthocyanin production
in perilla. Glycosides: perilloside A to D [(4S)-(–)-perillyl β-D-glucopyranoside and
its isomers]; eugenyl β-D-glucopyranoside, benzyl β-D-glucopyranoside,
phynylpropanoid glucoside perilloside E (6-methoxy-2,3-methylenedioxy-5-allylphenyl
β-D-glucopyranoside); two cyanogenic glycosides prunasin and amygdaline; two
jasmonoid glucosides (a phenyl valeric acid glucoside, and decenoic acid glucoside),
etc. have been reported.
29.3.2 Perilla seed lipids
Perilla seed contains about 38–45% fixed oil; the Indian type has 51.7% oil. Perilla
oil is a highly unsaturated oil having the characteristics (Shin, 1997): refractive
Perilla
Table 29.2
Important components of essential oil occurring in the various types of Perilla*
Source/Variety/Type*
Compounds
Shiso, ao-jiso
Egoma (1)
Lemon-egoma
Ao-jiso (1)
(Commercial oil)
Egoma (2)
(–)-perillaldehyde, (–)-limonene, α-pinene
Elsholtziaketone, Naginaketone Perillaketone
Citral, Perillone
Perillaldehyde (Ca 50%)
Perillyl alcohol, Pinene, Camphene, etc.
Elsholtziaketone, Naginaketone
Linalool, 1-octen-3-ol, etc.
β-caryophyllene, Elemicin
Myristicin, Dillapiole, Isoegomaketone, etc.
α-farnesene, allo-farnesene
(–) Perillaldehyde, (–) Limonene
Perillylalcohol, Linalool
Trans-shisool, Cis-shisool
Perillaketone, Isoegomaketone, etc.
Perillaldehyde, Perillyl alcohol
β-caryophyllene, Elemicin
Carvone, Phenethyl alcohol, etc.
Perillaketone
Rosefuran, β-caryophyllene, Perillaketone, etc.
Several species of Perilla
Ao-jiso (2)
Ao-jiso (3)
Shiso
Shiso, Katamen-jiso
Tennessee
Bangladesh
487
*Japanese names for the varieties Source: Fugita and Nakayama, 1997.
index, 1.4760–1.4784 (25 °C); iodine value, 192.0–196.3; saponification value, 192.7–
197.7; unsaponifiable matter, 1.3–1.8%.
The major classes of seed lipids include neutral lipids (91.2–93.9%), glycolipids
(3.9–5.8%) and phospholipids (2.0–3.2%). Tsuyuki et al. (1978) reported that the
total lipids of seed were composed of triglycerides (79.79–82.46%), sterol esters
(1.74–1.81%), free fatty acids (2.46–2.65%), diglycerides (1.58%), sterol (0.72–
0.89%), pigments (3.06–4.18%), monoglycerides (0.59–2.19%), complex lipids (2.37–
2.91%) and others (3.19–5.83%). The important fatty acids present in Perilla seed oil
are linolenic (54–64%), linoleic, and oleic acids; palmitic and stearic acids are present
as minor components.
29.4
Biotechnological approaches
Perilla plants have been subjected to many biotechnological studies, ever since the
first report of tissue culture was published by Sugisawa and Ohmishi (1976). In the
years that followed many reports came out on callus culture, cell suspension culture,
etc. The topic has been recently reviewed by Zhong and Yoshida (1997). Zhong et al.
(1991) as well as Zhong and Yoshida (1997) summarized the efforts made in anthocyanin
production through cell suspension culture, and the process has been scaled up (Table
29.3). Yamazaki et al. (1997) summarized the efforts made for the isolation of specifically
expressed genes in chemotypes using the technique of differential display of mRNA.
cDNAs coding for Shisonin synthesis have been isolated and cloned. The cDNA
coding for limonene cyclase was cloned from the PA type of Perilla (Yamasaki et al.,
1996, Yuba et al., 1995). Hwang et al. (2000) have isolated and cloned the cDNAs
coding for 3-ketoacyl-ACP synthase in the immature seeds.
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Table 29.3
Cell and tissue culture studies of Perilla
Metabolites:
Perilla pigments
Phenylpropanoids
Caffeic acid
Monoterpenes
Sesquiterpene
Ursolic acid
Cuparene
Essential oil
Glucosylation
Resolution
Morphogenesis
Culture conditions
Authors (year)
MS medium, 100 ppm NAA, 2 ppm KT,
25 °C, with light
LS medium, 10 mM NAA, 1 mM BA,
25 °C, light 3000 lux for 12 h
LS medium, 1 mM 2,4-D and 1 mM BA,
25 °C, light at 17–20.4 W/m2
B5 medium, 5 ppm NAA, 1 ppm KT,
25 °C, light at 2000 lux
MS medium, 1 ppm 2,4-D, 0.1 ppm KT
MS medium, 1 ppm 2,4-D, 5 ppm KT,
25 °C, slightly dark
MS medium, 1 ppm NAA, 1 ppm, KT,
25 °C, light 3000 lux
Modified MS, 1 ppm 2,4-D, 5 ppm KT
LS medium, 1 mM NAA, 10 mM KT
MS medium, 1 ppm NAA, 1 ppm KT,
25 °C, light at 3000 lux
Modified MS, 1 ppm NAA, 5 ppm
KT, 27 ± 2 °C
LS medium, 1 mM 2,4-D, 25 °C, dark
MS medium, 1 mM 2,4-D, 26 °C, dark
LS medium, 2,4-D, 26 °C, dark
MS medium, NAA, or 2,4-D, BA, NOA
Ota (1986)
Koda et al. (1992)
Zhong et al. (1991,
1993, 1994)
Tamura et al. (1989)
Ishikura et al. (1983)
Sugisawa and Ohnishi (1976)
Nabeta et al. (1985)
Shin (1986)
Tomita & Ikeshiro (1994)
Nabeta et al. (1984)
Shin (1985)
Tabata et al. (1988)
Furukubo et al (1989)
Terada et al. (1989)
Tanimoto and Harada (1980)
Abbreviations: BA, benzylamino-purine; 2-4,D,2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; KT, kinetin; NAA,
1-naphthaleneacetic acid; NOA, naphthoxyacetic acid; MS, Murashige and Skoog’s; LS, Linsmaier and Skoog’s.
Source: Zhong and Yoshida, 1997.
29.5
Functional properties and pharmacological studies
29.5.1 Anti-microbial activity
Perilla leaves are extensively used for food preservation and also for detoxifying fish
and crab poisons. Perilla leaf extract is reported to be toxic to Staphylococcus aureus.
However Honda et al. (1984) reported that the aqueous extract is inactive against
Gram-negative bacteria, and weakly inhibits Gram-positive microbes. Either extract
is reported to inhibit dermatophytic fungi such as Trichophyton, Microsporum,
Sabourandites and Epidermophyton. Perillaldehyde is the active ingredient. The steam
distillate of leaves inhibited Salmonella choleraesuis (Kang et al., 1992). Perillaldehyde
has shown a wide spectrum of microbicidal activity.
Effects on CNS
Dried leaf of Perilla is prescribed for neurosis in Kampo medicine. Sugaya et al.
(1981) studied the effect of aqueous extract on CNS and obtained the following
positive results: (i) a decrease in motility in rats following oral administration of
aqueous extract; (ii) inhibition of nervous reflex following intravenous injection in
cats; (iii) significant prolongation of hexabarbitol induced sleep by oral administration
of aqueous extract. The sleeping time was prolonged by 80–90% for the PA, PK and
TK genotypes; 170% for the PP-M (phenyl propanoid-myristicin) type and 380% for
the PP-DM (phenylpropanoid-dillapiole-myristicin) and 52% for the L-PA (limonene-
Perilla
489
perilladehyde) type. The sleep prolongation principle in the PP genotype was later
identified as dillapiole and myristicin, the former was four times more active than the
latter. In the PA type the potentiality factor was identified as perillaldelyde-stigmasterol
in combination (Tabata, 1997).
Promotion of intestinal propulsion
Koezuko et al. (1985) investigated the effects of Perilla leaves on excretory activity.
Only the leaves of the PK (perillaketone) type were found to promote intestinal
propulsion. The active principle was identified as perillaketone. This compound
stimulates the motility of the circular muscles of the intestine.
Toxicity
Perillaketone causes serious lung edema in cattle grazing wild perilla plants. This
toxicity was reported to be due to perillaketone. This validates the non-use of the PK
type in traditional medicines. Further studies have confirmed that perillaketone is a
pulmonary-edema inducing agent (Wilson et al., 1977). In traditional medicine only
the PA type is used.
Allergic contact dermatitis
Contact dermatitis due to prolonged contact with Perilla is well known in the growing
countries. The symptoms include vesicular eruption, diffuse erythrema, mild edema
and marked hyperkeratosis with eruptions on fingers. The chemical constituent
responsible for the malady is perillaldehyde. However the symptoms can be treated
easily with corticosteroid creams.
Antitumour activity
Samaru et al. (1993) reported that administration of Perilla leaf significantly prolonged
the lifespan of mice inoculated with the MM2 ascites tumour. Perilla seed oil, which
is rich in n-3-polyenoic fatty acids, inhibits carcinogenecity in the large intestine of
rats (Narisawa et al., 1990). Hori et al. (1987) reported the effect of Perilla seed oil
on the pulmonary metastasis of ascites tumour cells in rats.
Yonekura and Sato (1989) showed that Perilla seed oil protects rats from induced
breast cancer. Narisawa et al. (1990) reported the inhibition of MNU (methyl nitrosourea)
induced cancer in the large intestine, and inhibition of induced colon cancer was
reported by Park et al. (1993).
Inhibition of TNF-α over production
Tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), a protein secreted by macrophages shows a
strong necrotic activity on tumour cells. However, the over production of TNF-α
causes damage to tissues, aggravating inflammation. Ueda and Yamakasi (1993)
found that Perilla leaf extract from var. acuta, reduces the TNF in mice treated with
TNF-triggering agents. The reduction is about 86%. This reduction in TNF and
subsequent reduction of inflammation could be behind the use of Perilla in asthma,
allergy, bronchitis, etc. The extract is now used in various products such as foods,
cosmetics and other items. Perillaldehyde face cream applied to the skin has been
shown to be beneficial in the treatment of contact dermatitis.
Influence of Perilla seed oil in lipid metabolism
The seed oil of Perilla has attracted considerable attention in recent years as an ideal
health food, because it is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, in particular linolenic acid,
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which is essential in maintaining health. Feeding trials have shown that Perilla oil
reduced levels of cholesterol, phopsholipids and triglycerols in the blood (Nanjo
et al., 1993). Perilla oil diet also reduces the level of arachidonic acid, a precursor of
prostaglandin biosynthesis by 67%. The production of prostaglandin E2 in kidney is
reduced by 75% in the case of Perilla oil-fed rats.
Perilla in the treatment of allergy
Allergy is the most widespread immunological disorder in humans, and is regarded
by health experts as the most rapidly increasing chronic health problem. Investigations
have shown that cytokines such as the tumour necrosis factor (TNF) are constantly
associated with allergic reactions. Plasma TNF level becomes elevated in the serum
of patients with atopic dermatitis and the level is tightly correlated with plasma
histamine (Cooper 1994; Sumimoto et al., 1992). The treatment of allergy depends,
in addition to allergy avoidance, on antihistamines, corticosteroids, sodium
chromoglycate, etc., and is only symptomatic in approach. In Chinese traditional
medicine, Perilla and its products are used very successfully for allergy treatment.
Many reports (Oyanagi, 1997; Yamagata, 1992; Mitsuki, 1992; Kabaya, 1994) indicated
that administration of Perilla extract – orally, nasally and topically – can relieve the
allergy symptoms. The treatment period ranges from one week to three months, and
the effect remains for substantially long periods. Chemical studies carried out by
Japanese workers (Okabe, 1990; Okuhira, 1993; Oyanagi, 1997) were quite
promising, and 73.5% and 80.6% of the patients in two test groups showed significant
improvement. The use of Perilla in the treatment of allergy has been reviewed by Yu
et al. (1997).
29.5.2 Perilla as a spice
Perilla leaves are strongly aromatic with a strong mint flavour, and having a pleasant,
sweet taste. Perilla leaves are used as a spice, cooked as potherbs or fried and
combined with fish, rice, vegetables and soups. It is also chopped and mixed with
ginger rhizome and then added to stir-fries, tempuras and salads in many Asian
countries. It is most widely used in Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai and Chinese
cuisines. In India it is used in the north-eastern regions. The purple variety is used to
impart colour along with flavour to many pickled dishes, the most famous of such
dishes being the Japanese pickled plum. Perilla leaf extract was once the most
important ingredient in sarsaparilla. It is also used to flavour dental products. The
entire plant is very nutritious and is a rich source of vitamins. In Vietnam and Korea
Perilla leaves are used as a fragrant garnish to noodle soup and spring rolls. In these
countries it is the essential flavouring ingredient in dog meat soup (known as Bosintang),
in which the Perilla leaves not only suppresses the meat smell, but also add flavour
and colour (Anon. 2005).
In Japan, Perilla is one of the most widely used flavouring herbs. Perilla is believed
to detoxify the toxic principles of shellfish and other crustaceans and hence is an
essential ingredient in all such dishes. Perilla leaves are used to garnish ‘Sashimi’,
the famous Japanese raw fish dish. It is also used in tempuras, a dish of seafood deep
fried in sesame oil. Perilla leaves are very widely used in pickling Japanese plum, the
product is known as ‘Umeboshi’. For this, unripe fruits are harvested, packed with
red Perilla leaves and pickled. The anthocyanin in the leaves imparts an attractive red
colour and flavour to the plum. Umeboshi is traditionally served with Tofu, the sea
Perilla
491
fish dish that is invariably garnished with Perilla leaves, and some tempuras. Perilla
leaves are also used for pickling and canning a variety of Japanese vegetables. In the
USA Perilla plants are used widely by Asian immigrants, who introduced the herb to
that country.
In spite of the fact that it is a wonderful culinary herb – contributing flavour and
colour to a variety of dishes, and its seeds have perhaps the highest concentration of
unsaturated fatty acids of class omega 3, and it has varied uses as a herbal medicine
for the treatment of cancer, it has not received due attention in other parts of the
world and its use is still mainly restricted to South East Asian countries. In view of
its great medicinal value at least, it needs to be promoted and its use popularized.
29.6
References and further reading
ANON.
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pp. 937.
AXTELL, B.L. and FAIRMAN, R.M. (1992) FAO Agricultural Series Bull., No. 94, 107pp. FAO, Rome.
BERGERON, K. (2004) Alternate nature on live Herbal. http://altnature.com/gallery/perilla.htm accessed
on 1/6/2005.
BRENNER, D.M. (1993s) Perilla-botany, uses and genetic resources. In: Jamck, J. and Simon, J.E.
(eds) New Crops, pp. 322–328, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
CHEN, Y.P. (1997) Applications and prescriptions of perilla in traditional Chinese medicine. In: Yu,
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Amsterdam, pp. 37–45.
CHEN, J.H., XIA, Z.H. and TAN, R.X. (2003) High performance liquid chromatographic analysis of
bioactive terpenes in Perilla frutescens. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal., 32(6), 1175–1179.
COOPER, K.D. (1994) Atopic dermatitis : recent trends in pathogenesis and therapy. J. Investigative
Dermatology, 102, 128–137.
DE GUZMAN, C.C. and SIEMONSMA, J.S. (eds) (1999) Plant Resources of South East Asia. No.13, Spices.
Backhuys Pub., Leiden.
FUGITA, T. and NAKAYAMA, M. (1997) Chemical studies on the constituents of Perilla frutescens. In:
Yu, H-C., Kosuna, K. and Haga, M. (eds) Perilla – the genus Perilla. Harwood Academic Pub.,
Amsterdam, pp. 109–128.
FUJITA, T. and NAKAYAMA, M. (1993) Monoterpene glucosides and other constituents from Perilla
frutescens. Phytochemistry, 37, 543–546.
FURUKUBO, M., TABATA, M., TERADA, T. and SAKURAI, M. (1989) Manufacture of chlorphenesin carbamate
glycoside by plant tissue culture. Japan Kokai Tokkyo Kobo, JP01–38095.
HONDA, G., KOGA, K., KOEZUKA, Y. and TABATA, M. (1984) Antidermatophytic compounds of Perilla
frutescens var. Crispa Decnc. Shoyakugaku Zoashi, 38, 127–130.
HORI, T., MORIACHI, A., OKUYAMA, H., SOHAJIMA, T., KOIZUMI, K. and KOJIMA, K. (1987) Effects of dietary
essential fatty acids on pulmonary metastasis on ascites tumour cells in rat. Chem. Pharm. Bull.,
35, 3925–3927.
HWANG, L.S. (1997) Anthocyanins from Perilla. In: Yu, H-C., Kosuna, K. and Haga, M. (eds) Perilla
– the genus Perilla. Harwood Academic Pub., Amsterdam, pp. 171–187.
HWANG, S.K., KIM, K.H. and HWANG, Y.S. (2000) Molecular cloning and expression analysis of 3ketoacyl-ACP synthases in the immature seeds of Perilla frutescens. Molecules and Cells,
10(5), 533–539. (En Ab.)
ISHIKURA, N., IWATA, M. and MITSUI, S. (1983) The inflorescence of some inhibitors on the formation
of caffeic acid in cultures of Perilla cell suspension. The Botanical Magazine, Tokyo, 96, 111–
120.
ITO, H. (1970) Studies on folium Perillae, VI. Constituent of essential oils and evaluation of genus
Perilla. Tokugaku Zasshi, 90, 883–892. (cited from Tabata, 1997).
KABAYA, S. (1994) Perilla extract used for atopic dermatitis. Sawayaka Genki, 196–202. (Cited from
Yu et al., 1997).
ARCTANDER, S.
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KANG, R., HELMS, R., STOUT, M.J., JABER, H., CHEN, Z.
and NAKATSU, T. (1992) Antimicrobial activity of
the volatile constituents of Perilla frutescens and its synergistic effect with polygodial. J. Agri.
Food Chem., 40, 2328–2330.
KODA, T., ICHI, T., YOSHIMITU, M., NIHONGI, Y. and SEKIYA, J. (1992) Production of Perilla pigment in cell
cultures of Perilla frutescens. Nippon Shokubin Kogyo Gakkaishi, 39, 839–844 (in Japanese).
KOEZUKO,Y., HONDA, G. and TABATA, M. (1984) Essential oil types of the local varieties and their F1
hybrids of Perilla frutescens. Shoyakugaku Zasshi, 28, 238–242. ( Cited from Tabata, 1997).
KOEZUKO, Y., HONDA, G. and TABATA, M. (1985) An intestinal propulsion promoting substance from
Perilla frutescens and its mechanism of action. Planta Medica, 1985, 480–482.
KOEZUKO, Y., HONDA, G. and TABATA, M. (1986) Genetic control of phenylpropanoids in Perilla frutescens.
Phytochemistry, 25, 2085–2087.
KOSUNA, K. and HAGA, M. (1997) The development and application of perilla extract as an antiallergic
substance. In: Yu, H-C., Kosuna, K. and Haga, M. (1997) Perilla – the genus Perilla. Harwood
Academic Pub., Amsterdam, pp. 83–92.
LEE, J.I., BANG, J.K., LEE, B.H. and KIM, K.H. (1991) Quality improvement of perilla (1) varietal
differences of oil content and fatty acid composition. Korean J. Crop Sci., 36, 48–61. (Eng.
abstract).
LEE, J.K., NITTA, M., KIM. N.S., PARK, C.H., YOON, K.M., SHIN, Y-B. and OHNISHI, O. (2002) Genetic diversity
of Perilla and related weedy types in Korea determined by AFLP analysis. Crop Science, 42,
2161–2166.
MASADA, Y. (1976) Analysis of essential oils by Gas chromatography and Mass spectrometry. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
MISRA, L.N. and HUSSAIN, A. (1987) The essential oil of Perilla frutescens, a rich source for rose furan.
Planta Med., 1987, 379–380.
MITSUKI, S. (1992) Experience in the application of Perilla products for allergy. Anshin, No. 7, 175.
(Cited by Yu et al., 1997).
NABETA, K., ODA, T., FUJIMURA, T. and SUGISAWA, H. (1984) Monoterpene biosynthesis by callus tissues
and suspension cells from Perilla species. Phytochemistry, 22, 423–425.
NABETA, K., ODA, T., FUJIMURA, T. and SUGISAWA, H. (1985) Metabolism of RS-mevalonic acid 6,6,6,2
H3 by in vitro callus culture of Perilla. Agri. Biol. Chem., 49, 3039–3040.
NABETA, K., KAWAKITA, K., YADA, Y. and OKUYAMA, H. (1993) Biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes from
deuterated mevalonates in Perilla callus. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry, 57, 792–
798.
NANJO, F., HONDA, M., OKUSHICO, K., MATSUMOTO, N., ISHIGAMI, T. and HARA , Y. (1993) Effects of dietary
tea catechins on α-tocopherol levels, lipids peroxidation and erythrocyte deformity in rats fed
on high palm oil and Perilla oil diets. Biol. Pharmacen. Bull., 16, 1156–1159.
NARISAWA, T., TAKAHASHI, M., KUSAKA, H., YAMAZAKI, Y., KOYAMA, H., KOTANA, M., NISHISAWA, Y., KOBAN,
M., ISODA, Y. and HIRANO, J. (1990) Inhibition of carvogenesis in the large intestine of rats by
Perilla oil, a cooking oil rich with w-3-polyunsaturated fatty acid, α-linolenic acid. Igakuno
Ayumi, 153, 103–104.
NISHIZAWA, A., HANDA, G. and TABATA, M. (1990) Genetic control of perilline accumulation in Prilla
frutescens, Phytochemistry, 29, 2873–2875.
OH, K.W., PAE, S.B., PARK, H.S., KIM, J.T., KWACK, Y.H. and GWAG, J.G. (1998) A new Perilla variety
‘Younghodlkkae’ characterised by good quality and high yielding for grain and leaf vegetable.
RDA J. Industrial Crop Sci., 40(2), 103–106.
OKABE, S. (1990) Therapy of traditional Chinese medicine for atopic dermatitis. Gludai Schuppan
Planning, 14–23.
OKUHIRA, H. (1993) Medicinal treatment of atopic dermatitis in place of steroids. Nikkei Science,
Nikkei Shimbunnsha, 6–10, (Eng. abstract).
OTA, S. and KINJIRUSHI WASABI K.K. (1986) Perilla pigment production by callus cultivation. Japan
Kokai Tokkyo Kobo, JP61–195688.
OYANAGI, K. (1997) A chemical investigation of Perilla extract cream for atopic dermatitis. In: Yu,
H-C., Kosuna, K. and Haga, M. (eds) Perilla – the genus Perilla. Harwood Academic Pub.,
Amsterdam, pp. 71–82.
PARK, K. and KIM, Y.S. (1991) Principles and practices in Hydroponics. Korea Univ. Press. (Cited
from Tanaka et al. 1997).
PARK, C.B., LEE, J.I., LEE, B.H. and SON, S.Y. (1993) Quality improvement in Perilla – (2) variation of
fatty acid composition in M2 population. Korean J. Breeding (Quoted from Yu, 1997).
PARK, C.B., KANG, C.W., AHN, B.O., LEE, B.K., LEE, S.T., LEE, J.I. and KIM, Y.S. (1998) A new seed/leaf use
Perilla
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Perilla variety ‘Backkwangalkkao’ with good quality and high yielding. RDA J. Industrial Crop
Sci., 40(2), 98–102. (Eng. ab.).
SAMARU, Y., HANADA, S. and SUDO, K. (1993) Allelopathy between the cancer and the host. 11-A.
Influence of spices on the ascites tumour in mice. Minophagen Medical Resv., March ’93, 48–
55.
SHIN, S.H. (1985) Studies on tissue culture of Perilla frutescens var. acuta. Saengyak Hakkoeshi, 10,
210–213. (Cited from Zhong and Yoshida, 1997).
SHIN, S.H. (1986) Studies on tissue culture of Perilla frutescens species. Saengyak Hakkoechi, 17, 7–
11 (in Korean).
SHIN, H.-S. (1997) Lipid composition and nutritional and physiological roles of Perilla seed and its
oil. In: Yu, H.C., Kosuna, K. and Haga, M. (eds) Perilla-the genus Perilla. Harwood Academic
Pub., Amsterdam.
SUGAYA , A ., TSUDA , T . and OBUCHI , T . (1981) Pharmacological studies on Perilla Herba. 1.
Neuropharmacological action of water extract and perillaldehyde. Yakugaku Zasshi, 101, 642–
648. (Cited from Fujita and Nakayama, 1997).
SUMIMOTO, S., KAWAI, M., KASAJINA, Y. and HAMAMOTO, T. (1992) Increased plasma TNF-alpha concentration
in atopic dermatitis. Arch. Dis. Child, 67, 277–279. (Cited from Yu et al, 1997).
SUGISAWA, H. and OHNISHI, Y. (1976) Isolation and identification of monoterpenes from cultured cells
of Perilla plant. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry, 40, 231–232.
TABATA, M. (1997) Chemotypes and pharmacological activities of Perilla. In: Yu, H-C., Kosuna, K.
and Haga, M. (eds) Perilla – the genus Perilla. Harwood Academic Pub., Amsterdam, pp. 129–
147.
TABATA, M., UMETANI, Y., OYA, M. and TANAKA, S. (1988) Glucosylation of phenolic compounds by
plant cell cultures. Phytochemistry, 27, 809–813.
TAMURA, H., FUJIWARA, M. and SUGISAWA, H. (1989) Production of phenyl propanoids from cultured
callus tissue of the leaves of Akachirimen-shiso (Perilla sp.). Agricultural and Biological Chemistry,
53, 1971–1973.
TANAKA, K., KIM, Y.S. and YU, H-C. (1997). Cultivation of Perilla. In: Yu, H-C., Kosuna, K. and Haga,
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321–327.
TERADA, T., YOKOYAMA, T. and SAKURAI, M. (1989) Optical resolution of propranolol hydrochloride or
pindolol by cell culture of Perilla frutescens var. crispa or Gardenia jasminoides. Japan Kokai
Tokyo Kobo, JP01 225498.
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Phytochemistry, 35, 121–123.
TSUYUKI, H., ITOH, S. and NAKATSUKASU, Y. (1978) Studies on the lipids in Perilla seed. Research
division of Agriculture, Nihon University, 35, 224–230. (Cited from Shin, 1997).
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Inflammation, 13, 337– 340.
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toxin from the mint plant, Perilla frutescens Britton. Science, 197, 573–574.
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benz(a)anthracene induced mammary tumorigenesis in Sprague-Dawley rats. Iishiyaku, 150,
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of Fermentation and Bioengineering, 75, 299–303.
30
Potato onion (Multiplier onion)
U. B. Pandey, National Horticultural Research and Development
Foundation, India
30.1
Introduction
Onion is an important crop worldwide and is cultivated commercially in more than
100 countries. Onions and garlic are the most important bulb vegetable crops grown
in India, and onion is the only vegetable where India figures prominently in world
production and export (Singh and Joshi, 1978), with India being second only to
China in terms of area under onion and production.
Alliums are among the oldest cultivated plant species. References to edible alliums
can be found in the Bible, the Koran, and in the inscriptions of the ancient civilizations
of Egypt, Rome, Greece and China. They are mentioned as a source of food for the
builders of the great pyramid of King Cheops, and the Israelites wandering in the
desert after the exodus from Egypt bemoaned the lack of appetizing onions. The
botanical classification of alliums has recently been reviewed and summarized by
Hanelt (1990) and the comments here are largely based on this account, together with
the well-known earlier summary by Jones and Mann (1963). The Alliaceae have been
included in both the Liliaceae and the Amaryllidaceae by different authorities, but
they are now regarded as a separate family. There are more than 500 species within
the genus alliums. The best-known feature of the alliums is their characteristic smell
and taste.
Cultivated types of Allium cepa fall into two broad horticultural groups, the common
onion group and the aggregatum group (Hanelt, 1990). Members of the common
onion group are grown mostly from seed. They form large single bulbs, and constitute
the vast bulk of the economically important varieties. The bulbs of the Aggregatum
group are smaller than the common onion because they rapidly divide and form
laterals, hence forming clusters of bulbs. Jones and Mann (1963) distinguished two
bulb-forming sub-groups: multiplier or potato onions, and shallots. The multiplier or
potato onions divide into between three and 20 bulbs which are wider than they are
long. These are usually propagated vegetatively. The commercial importance of the
Aggregatum group varies between countries. Multiplier onions are cultivated in domestic
gardens in Europe, North America, The Caucasus, Kazakhstan and the south-east of
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European Russia (Kazakova, 1978). They are grown commercially in Brazil, Southern
India and Thailand, where the taste is preferred to that of the common onion group.
The bulblets of multiplier or potato onions are widely used in cooking.
30.2
Chemical composition and uses
Potato onions are rich in minerals, inlcuding potassium, phosphorus, nitrogen and
calcium. They also contain protein and ascorbic acid. The chemical composition of
the onion bulb is presented in Table 30.1. The pungency of onion makes it an important
food item, particularly in India. The bulbs and leaves are used raw or cooked
(Organ, 1960). The pungency in onion odour is formed by an enzymatic reaction
when tissues are damaged, and is due to a volatile oil known as allyle propyl
disulphide. The chemical composition of onion varies from variety to variety. The
soil, climate, cultural factors, agricultural practices and nutrient application are reported
to affect the chemical composition. The onion ranks medium in caloric value, low in
protein and very low in vitamins. Small onions contain more nutrients than larger
onions.
Table 30.1
Chemical composition of multiplier onion bulbs
Content
Quantity
Moisture (%)
T.S.S. (%)
Dry matter (%)
Drying ratio
Reducing sugar (%)
Non-reducing sugar (%)
Total sugar (%)
Pyruvic acid umd/g
Reconstitution ratio
NEB on fresh bulbs
NEB on dehydrated bulbs
Protein (%)
Sulphur (mg)
Potassium
Nitrogen (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Magnesium (mg)
Ascorbic acid (mg)
Total ash (%)
Crude fat (%)
Sodium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Copper (mg)
Iron (mg)
Chlorine (mg)
78.32
19.50
21.68
5.75:1
1.13
11.00
12.13
10.13 micro-mol/g
1.5.76
0.130
0.320
2.220
154.65 per 100 g
229.93 mg/100 g
356.47 per 100 g
71.69 per 100 g
12.65 per 100 g
56.73 per 100 g
0.69
0.17
7.26 per 100 g
115.66 per 100 g
1.82 per 100 g
1.80 per 100 g
29.35 per 100 g
Source: Singh et al., 2004.
Potato onion (Multiplier onion)
497
30.3 Production
The potato or multiplier onion is also known as underground onion. It forms closely
packed clusters of bulbs underground, rather than on the surface like the shallot. It is
difficult to obtain reliable data regarding total area and production of potato onion
because in many countries it is grown only domestically. However, in Thailand,
Indonesia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and India, potato onions are grown on a commercial
scale for export and for internal consumption. The Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) Production Yearbook contains production figures for all onions combined.
According to the FAO website (www.fao.org), the total area under onion during 2004
was about 3.07 million hectares (ha), production was about 53.59 million tonnes and
productivity was 17.46 tonnes/ha. Compared to 1994 figures, there has been an
increase of 43.34% in area, 56% in production and 9% in productivity. In India, it is
estimated that out of a total onion production of approximately 6 million tonnes,
about 1.2 million tonnes is potato onion.
Several varieties of potato onion have been developed in India. The varieties CO1,
CO2, CO3, CO4 (Fig. 30.1) and CO On5 were developed at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University. The variety Agrifound Red (Fig. 30.2) was developed at the National
Horticultural Research and Development Foundation. Bulblets of traditional potato
onion varieties are much smaller than those of Agrifound Red (Fig. 30.3). The growing
period is normally 60–65 days, and almost all varieties of potato onions are propagated
vegetatively. The variety CO On5 has a longer growing period of 90 days, and also
has the ability to flower and set seeds, so it can be propagated vegetatively or by
seed. CO On5 is planted in March and harvested in July.
For other varieties, grown in the South, the bulblets are planted in April–May and
October–November. The bulblets are planted on both sides of ridges and spacing is
45 cm × 10 cm. Fertilizers and manures are applied as required. Thrips, insect and
leaf spot are the most common insects and diseases for potato onion crops. Thrips is
controlled by administering Methyl demeton 25EC (1 ml / litre of water), and leaf
Fig. 30.1 Variety CO4 developed by T.N.A.U., Coimbatore, India.
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Fig. 30.2
Fig. 30.3
Agrifound Red variety developed by NHRDF.
Comparison of Agrifound Red variety with traditional variety of potato onion with
leaves and bulbs at maturity stage.
spot diseases are sprayed with Mancozeb (2g/litre of water). Yields for CO1, CO2,
CO3, CO4 and Agrifound Red are 12–16 t/ha for a growing period of 65–90 days,
and 18 t / ha for a growing period of 90 days for CO On5. Bulbs are harvested
and cured in the field for four days (Fig. 30.4) and then under shade (Anonymous,
2005).
Potato onion (Multiplier onion)
Fig. 30.4
30.4
499
Harvesting and curing in the field.
Uses in food processing
Potato onions are mostly used fresh, but the bulblets can also be used as a pickle in
vinegar and brine. Dehydrated products potato onion are not common (Shinde and
Sontakke, 1986).
30.5
Medicinal properties
Onion is a good cleanser and healer. It is believed that onions help prevent colds,
catarrh, anaemia, fever, gastric ills and insomnia. Onion has been considered an
excellent diuretic since antiquity. Onion juice is applied to burns, chilblains, bites
and stings. It is believed to be very effective in the cure of sores and ulcers, and
certain kinds of dropsy. It is also claimed that onion has benefits as a digestive
stimulant, an anti-fermentative and as an anti-diabetic. In case of nose bleeds, an
onion is cut in halves and placed on the nose. Roasted onions are applied as a poultice
to boils, bruises and wounds to relieve heat and, in the case of boils, bring them to
maturity. Fresh onion juice promotes perspiration, relieves constipation and bronchitis,
induces sleep, and is good for cases of scurvy and lead colic. It is given as an antidote
in tobacco poisoning. Cooked with vinegar, onions are given in cases of jaundice,
splenic enlargement and dyspepsia. Onion promotes bile production and reduces
blood sugar. It has germicidal properties and is recommended for tuberculosis. When
used regularly in the diet, it affects tendencies towards angina, arteriosclerosis and
heart attack. After warming, onion juice can be dropped into the ear to treat earache.
It is also useful in preventing oral infections and toothache (Chevallier, 1996).
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Handbook of herbs and spices
30.6
Toxicity
There have been cases of poisoning among some mammals caused by excessive
consumption. Dogs seem to be particularly susceptible (Cooper and Johnson, 1984).
30.7
Quality
The quality of the raw material affects demand, both locally and for export. In order
to improve quality, it is essential to understand the nature of the product and its
possible defects. The bulbs of potato onions should be harvested at proper maturity
and kept in windrows to cure. After about a week, when the bulbs and leaves have
dried thoroughly, the bulbs are topped by cutting off the leaves, leaving about 2 cm
of the top, and the roots. Diseased and damaged bulbs should be sorted out in the
field. The bulbs should be thoroughly sorted and graded.
There are various quality guidelines (Anonymous, 2003). These include colour
(should be red to bright pink), and size of bulblets (20–30 mm). The dried outer skin
should be fully intact. This is achieved through proper curing as described above, and
careful handling to avoid removing the skin. Storage diseases are prevented through
appropriate storage conditions and, where necessary, the use of Carbendazim (0.1%)
against basal rot and Steptocycline (0.02%) against bacterial soft rot.
The pungency of the onion is due to the presence of very small quantities (about
0.065%) of sulphur compounds in the volatile oil of the plant juice. Pungency can be
tested in the laboratory, or more simply by cutting the bulbs and noting the effect on
the eyes – if the eyes fill with tears, it is clear that the onions are pungent. Potato
onions have strong pungency. TSS should be about 18 to 19%, and dry matter should
be about 21 to 22%. The TSS and dry matter differs according to variety, growing
season and agricultural practices. Immature bulbs have low TSS/dry matter. Raindamaged bulbs also have low TSS/dry matter. It is important to avoid pesticide
residues in the crop. Sprays used against diseases and insects should be diluted and
administered according to the manufacturer’s instructions and at the safest dosage
level. Harmful insecticides, fungicides and other chemicals should not be sprayed on
the onions during the last month before harvesting.
Additional important hygienic practices include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
The onions should not be irrigated with water containing harmful industrial
chemicals.
After harvesting, onions should not be left out in fields where they may be
contaminated by industrial waste.
Chemicals used on the crop should always be administered at levels that are safe
to human health.
Jute bags, bullock carts, trucks, tractor trolleys or any other material used for
handling the crop should not be contaminated with chemicals which are hazardous
to health or which may create pesticide residue problems.
Materials and waste products that are unfit for human consumption should be
disposed off in such a manner as to avoid contaminating the good produce.
The onions should be stored and packed in well-ventilated areas free of rotten or
other onion wastes.
Potato onion (Multiplier onion)
30.8
501
References
(2003). Post Harvest Manual for Exports of Onion. Agricultural and Processed Food
Products Export Development Authority, New Delhi, pp. 23–26.
ANONYMOUS (2005). Bulb Vegetables, Small Onion (Aggregatum, Allium cepa var aggregatum,
production technology (personal communication) from Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore, India.
CHEVALLIER, A., (1996). The Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants. Dorling Kindersley, London. ISBN
# 9-780751–303148.
COOPER, M. and JOHNSON, A., (1984). Poisonous Plants in Britain and their effects on Animals and
Men, HMSO, ISBN # 0112425291.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) www.fao.org.
HANELT, P., (1990). ‘Taxonomy, evolution and history’. In Rabinowitch, H.D. and Brewister, J.L.
(eds) Onions and Allied Crops Vol.1. CRC Press Boca Raton, Florida.
JONES, H.A. and MANN, L.K., (1963). Onions and their Allies, Leonard Hill, London.
Kazakova, A.A., (1978). Luk Kulturnaja Flora USSR, X, Kolos, Leningrad, USSR. p. 264.
ORGAN, J., (1960). Rare Vegetables for Garden and Table, Faber.
PANDEY, U.B. and BHONDE, S.R., (2004). ‘Onion Production in India’. Technical Bulletin No.7 (revised
edition) NHRDF, Nasik, p. 2.
SHINDE, N.N. and SONTAKKE, M.B., (1986). ‘Bulb Crops (Onion)’. In Bose, T.K. and Som, M.G. (eds)
Vegetable Crops in India. Naya Prokash, Calcutta. p. 550.
SINGH, D.K., SINGH, L. and PANDEY, U.B., (2004). ‘Nutritional and Medicinal Values of Onion and
Garlic.’ NHRDF Newsletter Vol-XXIV, pp. 5–8.
SINGH, D.P. and JOSHI, M.C., (1978). Veg. Sci. 5 pp. 1–3.
ANONYMOUS
31
Spearmint
N. K. Patra and B. Kumar, Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, India
31.1
Introduction
Mentha spicata L., one of the total of about 25 species of the genus Mentha (Lamiaceae)
is indigenous to northern England and is known by several names such as nature
spearmint, brown mint, garden mint, lady’s mint, sage of Bethlehem, etc. The plant
is now grown practically all over the world as an important spice plant and a natural
source of carvone rich essential oil which is widely traded in the world. The major
spearmint growing countries are the USA, Russia, Germany, Australlia and China.
The world market for spearmint oil is approximately 1500 t/year (Peterson and
Bienvenu, 1998).
Following Husain et al. (1988) and Patra et al. (2001) spearmint can be botanically
described as follows. Like other mints, M. spicata is perennial, propagating mostly
by underground stolons from which a 50–56 cm aerial stem arises. Erect ascending
branches, each measuring 30–60 cm develop from each stem. Leaves are sessile or
nearly so, smooth, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, sharply serrate, smooth above and
glandular below, acute apex and up to 7.0 cm × 2.0 cm in size. The leaves possess a
characteristic smell and pungent taste, lacking a cooling after-effect in contrast to
that of peppermint and Japanese mint. Flowers are sharply pointed, long and narrow
and rightly called spearmint. Calyx teeth are hirsute or glabrous and corolla is about
3 mm long and whitish purple in colour. M. spicata is a natural tetraploid (2n = 48)
that originated by chromosome doubling of hybrids between the two closely related
interspecific diploids M. longifolia (2n = 24) and M. suaveolens (2n = 22) (Harley
and Brighton, 1977; Tyagi et al., 1992).
Spearmint
503
31.2 Chemical composition, biosynthesis and genetics of
essential oil
31.2.1 Chemical composition
Natural population of M. spicata
As the plant is liable to give hybrids through spontaneous out-crossing, the essential
oil constituents (terpenes) in the natural populations frequently fluctuate with the
result that a total of nine types of M. spicata oil have been reported to date (Hocking,
1949; Bhattacharya and Chakravorty, 1955; Dhingra et al., 1957; Shimadzu and
Nagamori, 1961; Baslas and Baslas, 1968; Misra et al., 1989; Garg et al., 2000).
These nine types are: (i) carvone and limonene type, (ii) piperitone-oxide type, (iii)
piperitenone-oxide type, (iv) menthone and piperitone type, (v) glyoxal and 1, 8cineole type, (vi) linalool, 1,8-cineole and carvone type, (vii) piperitenone oxide
and 1,8-cineole type, (viii) piperitenone and carvone type and (ix) piperitenone and
limonene type.
Cultivated varieties
The cultivated varieties and genetic stocks, the essential oils of which are traded in
the world, always fall in the carvone and limonene rich category of M. spicata
(Tucker, 1992). The main constituent on the basis of their relative concentrations in
the essential oil of the normal varieties/genetic stocks, are: carvone, limonene, linalool,
a terpenic glyoxal C10H14O21, peperitenone oxide, peperitone oxide, menthone, 1,8cineole and carvacrol (Garg et al., 2000) (discussed in detail in ‘Quality issues’).
31.2.2 Biosynthesis and molecular genetics
The constituents of the essential oil belong to terpenoids. In general, monoterpenes
(C10) belong to the large class of isoprenoids and are synthesized from five carbon
units of isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) which is produced in plastids by the
methylerythritol phosphate pathway (Flesh and Rohmer, 1988; Brun et al., 1991;
Litchtenthaler et al., 1997). In contrast to the long-standing misconception (prevalent
for about 40 years) that the isoprenoids in living organisms are synthesized only
through the single pathway, i.e., acetate/mevalonate pathway of cytoplasm, Litchtenthaler
et al. (1997) on the basis of extensive inhibitor and precursor studies have discovered
that apart from the cytosolic acetate/mevalonate pathway, there exists an alternative
novel plastidic pathway (GAP/pyruvate pathway) for the synthesis of terpenoids in
higher plants including the medicinal ones, Taxus chinensis and Ginkgo biloba (see
also Schwender et al., 1996).
In mints, including spearmint, monoterpenes are synthesized and accumulated in
the secretory cells of glandular trichomes located mainly in leaves (Gershenzon et al.,
2000). The biosynthetic pathways leading to different monoterpenes have been well
characterized in mints (Fig. 31.1). They are localized in two sub-cellular compartments:
limonene is synthesized in the leucoplasts and subsequent biosynthetic transformations
occur in the cytoplasm. Diemer et. al. (2001) reported that the enzymatic steps are
divided into three stages (Gershenzon and Croteau, 1993). The first stage is the
condensation of IPP with dimenthylallyl diphosphate yielding geranyl diphosphate
(GDP), the universal monoterpene precursor with the interaction of a prenyltransferase
(GPP synthase). In the second stage, this acyclic intermediate is transformed by various
monoterpenes synthases, such as sabinene synthase, cineole-1, 8 synthase, linalool
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Handbook of herbs and spices
O
O—C—CH3
linalyl acetate
M. citrata
OH
M. spicata
M. cardiaca
M. viridis
OPP
linalool
geranyl
pyrophosphate
(–) limonene
HO
O
(–) trans carveol
(–) carvone
Fig. 31.1 Hypothesized biosynthetic pathway for important monoterpenoids of three Mentha
species; (spicata, cardiaca and virids).
synthase, ocimene synthase and 4-S limonene synthase (4S-LS). The last stage of
monoterpenes biosynthesis includes several secondary transformations which start
with limonene and lead to a great diversity of final products. Perusal of reviews (Chand
et al., 2004) show that very little work has been reported on catabolism of monoterpenes
and regeneration of their synthesis. Gershenzon et al. (2000) are of the opinion that
loss of monoterpenes by catabolism and volatilization occurs at a very low rate.
It has been demonstrated that accumulation of monoterpenes varies during the
maturation of leaves. Brun et al. (1991) observed that the enzymes are developmentally
regulated at the level of gene expression (McConkey et al., 2000). Earlier elegant
reviews on the biosynthesis of different monoterpene families are available in Wise
and Croteau (1999) and Davies and Croteau (2000).
Recently a family of 40 terpenoid synthase genes was discovered in Arabidopsis
thaliana by genome sequence analysis (Aubourg et al. 2002) and over 30 cDNA
encoding plant terpenoid synthases involved in plant primary and secondary metabolism
in different plants have been cloned and characterized (Trapp and Croteau, 2001).
These terpene synthases were classified into six sub-families based on their sequence
homology and into three groups based on the numerical variation in introns. Particularly
in Mentha, about eight genes concerned with the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites
(terpenes) have been cloned (Diemer et al., 2001) and about 1400 nucleotide sequences
in the EMBL database, most of which are the EST (expressed sequence tags) sequence
from the trichomes. Chand et al. (2004) in their review emphasized that ESTs
would be of immense help in rapidly constructing the physical mapping of genes for
terpenoid biosynthesis and in determining the phylogenetic relationship between
species of Mentha.
31.3
Cultivation and production
The essential oil, a product obtained from the plant is located in the leaves of the
spearmint plant. The vegetative growth for the higher production of leaves can be
stimulated by the application of the following improved cultivation practices, enumerated
by several workers especially Husain et al. (1988), Ram (1999), and Khanuja et al.
(2004).
31.3.1 Soil and climate
Although spearmint thrives well in the cool climates of hills, it can be profitably
cultivated in tropical, sub-tropical plains and foothill areas having sub-tropical agro-
Spearmint
505
climate. It grows well in soil ranging from sandy loam to clay loam rich in organic
matter with a good drainage system. Areas that lie wet in winter will not perform
vigorously and the plant may die. Spearmint crop cannot tolerate highly acidic or
alkaline soils and performs well under near neutral pH (7.5). Spearmint crop initially
needs lower temperatures and later a mean temperature of 20 °C–40 °C is suitable for
its main growth period. It is highly successful in humid areas of foothills and in
places which receive 100–110 cm of well distributed rainfall.
31.3.2 Land preparation and planting
Spearmint requires a fine seed bed. Soil should be ploughed and harrowed thoroughly
in order to achieve this. As spearmint is a perennial crop in most countries, preplanting weed control is imperative to the long-term viability of the crop. A well
planned fallow and weed eradication programme before planting is therefore, strongly
recommended. Spearmint is planted by means of underground parts called stolons,
aerial runners and plantlets. These planting materials are prepared by fresh nursery
planting of rooted whole plants or plantlets drawn from the old (mother) fields. The
planting materials in nursery are grown with a plant spacing of 30 cm × 15 cm in
August. The nursery grown plants reproduce profuse stolons by the months of December
and January.
The ideal time for field planting of spearmint is the second fortnight of December
to January end. Regarding ideal time of planting a reference could be made here
about the work done by Singh et al. (1995) on M. spicata. A field experiment was
conducted by these authors for two years to study the effect of planting time on plant
growth, biomass yield, oil yield and quality of spearmint oil (M. spicata L.) in
Central Uttar Pradesh, India. Maximum biomass yield (275 Q/ha) and oil yield
(175.4 kg/ha) were obtained from the crop planted on December 30, which was due
to better crop growth in terms of plant height, leaf area index, dry matter accumulation
and oil content. The quality of oil essentially assessed by carvone content was higher
in November–December plantings, compared to the late plantings. Planting of spearmint
in the second half of December is recommended under the agro-climate conditions of
Central Uttar Pradesh, India.
Before planting, the stolons/runners may be treated with 0.2% solution of any
contact fungicide like Captan for two minutes. Stolons are planted in shallow furrows
(7–10 cm deep) spaced at 45 cm–60 cm apart. After planting the furrows are covered
with soil and followed by light irrigation. An approximate quantity of 3–5 quintals
of planting material (stolons/runners) is usually needed for raising one hectare of
plantation.
31.3.3 Nutrient management
The essential oil yield of spearmint largely depends upon its growth, especially of the
vegetative parts or foliage. To ensure better vegetative growth, application of sufficient
amounts of essential plant nutrients to the soil or directly to the plant is highly
desirable. Sufficient amounts of organic manures (FYM, vermi-compost, etc.) have
to be integrated with inorganic fertilizers to improve the crop productivity as well as
the health of soil. In this respect FYM (10–15 t/ha) or vermi-compost (5 t/ha) may be
applied to the soil before planting. The requirement for the inorganic fertilizer essentially
depends on the fertility status of the soil. For soils with high organic matter and
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Handbook of herbs and spices
medium available NPK usually 100 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O/ha are applied
for standard oil yields. The entire quantity of the phosphorus and potash along with
50 kg N/ha is applied as a basal dose at the time of planting. Remaining quantity of
N is applied in three equal parts. The first dose is applied after first weeding (5–6
weeks after planting) and second dose after 9–10 weeks of planting and third dose
after first harvest.
Working on the different species of Mentha Singh et al. (1989) reported that
herbage and oil yields of Mentha arvensis (Japanese mint), M. piperita (Peppermint)
and M. spicata (Spearmint) increased significantly with N fertilization up to 100 kg
N/ha and those of M. citrata (Bergamot mint) with up to 150 kg N/ha. Plant height,
leaf:stem ratio and leaf area index increased with N application and oil content
decreased in all the species. Economic optimum doses of N for M. arvensis, M.
piperita and M. spicata were 167, 157 and 145 kg/ha, respectively and their oil yields
expected from the response equation were 190, 103 and 50 kg/ha, respectively.
Field investigations were carried out by Randhawa et. al. (1984) to ascertain the
optimum row spacing and nitrogen requirements of M. spicata, at Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana, India. The treatments consisted of all combinations of three
row to row (30, 45 and 60 cm) spacing and four nitrogen (0, 50, 100 and 150 kg/ha)
levels. The results of three years study showed that in order to get higher herb and
oil yields this crop should be spaced at 30 cm between rows and supplied with
100 kg N/ha.
31.3.4 Irrigation and drainage
The water requirement of this crop is very high (above 1000 mm/annum). During the
winter months (December–March) irrigations are generally required at 10–15 day
intervals whereas during summer months (April–June) irrigations may be applied at
an interval of 7–10 days. Waterlogging nevertheless, has to be avoided by providing
adequate drainage both for irrigation and rain water.
Ram et al. (1992) investigated the effect of irrigation on the yield and oil quality
of mints including spearmint. The result of a field experiment conducted by these
authors on spearmint var. MSS-5, and M. arvensis var. Hybrid-77 and CIMAP/MAM11 under five levels of irrigation (0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2 IW:CPE ratio), revealed
that both the Mentha species, regardless of their varieties, produced maximum herb
and essential oil yields at 1.2 IW:CPE ratio. While the carvone content of spearmint
var. MSS-5 remained almost constant, the menthol content of the essential oil of the
two M. arvensis varieties considerably increased with irrigation levels up to 1.2
IW:CPE ratio during the first harvest. At the second harvest the menthol content of
both the varieties of the M. arvensis decreased with the irrigation levels. The carvone
content of MSS-5 variety of spearmint was maximum at 0.8 IW:CPE ratio.
31.3.5 Interculture and weed control
Like all other mints, the fields of spearmint are also affected by weed infestation and
competition. The weeds, if not controlled in time can even cause a 60–80% reduction
in yields. The critical period of weed interference in spearmint is found to be between
30–50 days after planting and 15–30 days after first harvest. Usually 2–3 manual
weedings are needed to keep the weed growth under check. The weed menace can be
minimized by resorting to suitable rotation involving crops like paddy. When paddy
Spearmint
507
is taken as a preceding crop the weed infestation in spearmint is found to be reduced
by at least 30%.
The chemical control of weeds has not become popular in spearmint, even though
some chemical herbicides, if applied 2–3 days after planting, (pre-emergence spray)
have been found effective. These herbicides include oxyflourefen (at 0.5 kg a.i./ha),
pendimethalin (at 0.75 kg a.i./ha) and diuran (at 0.5 kg a.i./ha). However, one should
bear in mind that no single weedicide can control all types of weeds and the optimal
rate of weedicides may vary with soil type and organic matter content of the soil.
Considering the fact that its oil is used in edible confectionery and general health
care, it is preferable to avoid the use of chemical herbicides in spearmint from a
safety viewpoint as well as the higher commercial value of organic products.
31.3.6 Crop rotations
Continuous cropping of spearmint in a field is not advisable as it leads to considerable
increase in weed population, soil-borne diseases and insects. One of the potent methods
of weed control is by growing the crops in sequences. Transplanting of paddy in a
crop rotation system not only minimizes weed interference but helps in reducing the
soil-borne diseases. The following rotations have been found quite economical and
are suggested for adopting.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Maize – potato – spearmint.
Early paddy – potato – spearmint.
Late paddy – pea – spearmint.
Maize – ‘Lahi’ (Brassica) – spearmint.
Arhar (Cajanus) – spearmint.
Paddy – spearmint.
31.3.7 Harvesting
Spearmint should be harvested in bright and sunny weather. The crop planted in
December becomes ready for first harvest during the last week of April in about 100–
110 days, the second harvest is taken in some varieties like Neer kalka (the most
popular Indian spearmint variety) between 60–70 days following the first harvest.
After harvesting, the green herbage may be spread under shade for a day for obtaining
good oil recovery (Singh et al., 1990; Singh and Naqvi, 1996). The yield of fresh
herb essentially depends upon the crop growth. A good crop of spearmint can give
20–30 t of fresh herb/ha. The yield of essential oil of spearmint ranges from 100–175
kg/ha depending on the crop growth and the cultivars used.
31.3.8 Organic cultivation
Organically grown spearmint oil is high value oil which finds wide uses in food,
flavour and aroma therapy. The right quantity of organic manure is an important
nutrient supplement component of organic farming system. The requirement of
organic manure depends upon the inherent properties of the soil, especially the organic
matter content of the soil. For instance, the forest soil being rich in organic matter
(more than 1.5%), it requires lower quantities of organic manures from external
source. The areas which are poor in organic matter should be provided adequate
amount of organic manures. Among the organic manures so far used in organic
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Handbook of herbs and spices
farming, vermicompost has emerged as a best source of organic nutrients. To ensure
optimum growth and yield of oil of high quality, vermicompost (@10 t/ha) is
recommended for peppermint (M. piperita) (Khanuja et al., 2004). Because essentially
there is no difference between M. piperita and M. spicata for their cultivation and
organic farming, the same recommendation (10 t/ha vermicompost) is suggested for
also M. spicata.
31.3.9 Important Indian varieties
The use of its high-yielding varieties is an essential prelude to achieving success in
commercial cultivation of spearmint. Indian spearmint now has a couple of highyielding varieties which are described in brief in Table 31.1. Among the varieties
discussed above, the interspecific hybrid Neer kalka (Fig. 31.2) has emerged as the
most popular variety for large-scale commercial cultivation in view of its high yield
potential and profuse stolon reproductivity that is usually not observed in other
varieties.
Table 31.1
Characteristics and origin of spearmint cultivars
S.
no.
Cultivars
Characteristics
Origin
1.
MSS-5
Medium tall; growth erect; stem medium hard, largely green,
lower portion magenta coloured, 4.6 mm thick; leaf:stem
ratio 0.58; leaves elliptic ovate, green 6.4 cm2 size;
inflorescence raceme of verticillasters, upper cymes
condensed and lower cymes lax, sessile; flowers white,
medium in fertility; essential oil content in fresh shoot
herb 0.62%; oil carvone rich (65%); medium in yield.
Clonal selection
in the accession
MSS-1
2.
Arka
Medium tall; growth erect, vigorous; stem hard, largely
green, lower portion magenta coloured, 4.2 mm thick;
leaf:stem ratio 0.60; leaves elliptic-ovate, green, 6.8 cm2
size; inflorescence similar to that of cv. MSS-5, early
flowering; essential oil content in fresh shoot herb 0.65%;
oil carvone rich (68%); medium in yield.
Clonal selection
of cv. MSS-5
3.
Neera
Medium tall; growth semi-erect; stem medium hard, largely
green, lower portion light magenta coloured, 4.1 mm thick;
leaf:stem ratio 0.54; leaves elliptic, green, 4.5 cm2 size;
inflorescence raceme of verticillasters, cymes condensed,
sessile; flowers purplish white, low fertile; essential oil
content in fresh shoot herb 0.45%; oil carvone rich (58%);
oil yield low; unique odour and flavour.
Unknown
geneology
4.
Neer
kalka
Tall; growth erect; stem soft, largely green, purple pigmented
at base, 5.5 mm thick; leaf:stem ratio 0.61; leaves ovateelliptic, green, 6.9 cm2 size; inflorescence racemose of
axillary verticillasters; flowers whitish purple, fertile;
essential oil content in fresh shoot herb 1.0%; oil rich in
carvone (72%) and limonene (9.7%); high oil yield (growth
properties mostly like that of its female parent M. arvensis
cv. Kalka and oil quality mostly like that of its male parent
M. spicata cv. Neera.
F1 hybrid from
the cross: ➁M.
arvensis cv.
Kalka X ❹M.
spicata cv. Neera
Source: (Bahl et al., 2000 and Patra et al. 2001).
Spearmint
509
(a)
(b)
Fig. 31.2
(a) Spearmint variety ‘Neer kalka’ (before flowering); (b) Spearmint variety ‘Neer
kalka’ (after flowering).
510
31.4
Handbook of herbs and spices
Diseases, pests and their control
31.4.1 Fungal and viral diseases
Spearmint, like other mints, is susceptible to a variety of diseases. These diseases are
major bottlenecks in production that affect both yield and overall quality of the
essential oil. Some of these diseases reduce the yield of spearmint crop, especially
when virulent forms of one or more diseases attack the monoclonal spearmint crops
spread over wide areas. The most economically threatening diseases of spearmint are
caused by the fungi Puccinia menthae (rust), Sphaceloma menthae (anthracnose),
Rhyzoctonia solani (aerial blight) and R. bataticola (stolon rot), (reviewed by Kalra
et al., 2004).
Rust (P. menthae)
This disease has been reported from all mint growing countries. P. menthae, a
macrocyclic autocious organism produces uredosori on leaves, stems and stolons.
The uredospores (17–28 µm × 14–19 µm) of the disease are borne singly. The aerial
stage, though observed in other countries, has not been observed in India (Gangulee
and Pandotra, 1962). Teliospores (37 µm × 20 µm) are brown, 2-celled, pedicellate,
obtuse to slightly pointed.
A high degree of physiologic specialization has been observed in P. menthae
(Walker and Corroy, 1969; Bruckner, 1972). Rust isolates from M. spicata have been
observed to infect M. cardiaca, but not P. × piperita. The biotypes that infected M. ×
piperita were avirulent on M. spicata (Roberts and Horner, 1981). In France, eight
races of P. menthae were identified during the early part of the last century (Cruchet,
1907). A total of six races were detected in the north-eastern United State (Neiderhauser,
1945), nine races were detected in England (Fletcher, 1963), and three races were
detected in New Zealand (Breesford, 1982). In the United States, 15 physiologic
races have been observed on mints (Baxter and Cummins, 1953). In another study, a
high degree of physiological specialization was observed on mint hosts with 17
collections of P. menthae (Johnson, 1965).
Rust has been noted to persist as uredospores on the stolons of the host (Wheeler,
1969). Maximum germination of uredospores occurs at 20 °C (El-Zayat et al., 1994)
and the bottom and middle leaves of the plant are most prone to rust disease (Bhardwaj
et al., 1995). The disease increases in severity when cultivation is continued in the
same area for several years (Kral, 1977). Rust can be avoided by using the diseasefree planting material (stolons). Sometimes stolons are treated with hot water at
112 °F for ten minutes (Staniland, 1947) or at 45.4 °C for ten minutes to obtain rustfree planting material (Ogilivie and Brian, 1935; Neiderhauser, 1945). However,
planting clones resistant to rust is the most economical and environmentally friendly
approach to control the disease (Kalra et al., 1997).
Application of nickel chloride (Molnaz et al., 1960), tebuconazole, belixasol (Margina
and Zheljazkov, 1994), mancozeb (Melian, 1967; Bhardwaj et al., 1995), plantovax
(Mancini et al., 1976), propiconazole, and diclobutazol (Nagy and Szalay, 1985)
offer reliable protection against rust. Good control of rust has also been obtained
from spraying the soil surface with denitroamine (Campbell, 1956) at pre-emergence
and Krezonit-E (DIVOC) at shoot emergence (Suab and Nagy, 1972).
Anthracnose (S. menthae)
Anthracnose disease is a common disease of spearmint grown on a large scale in
areas of the United States and Yugoslavia. It causes stunting, defoliation and economic
Spearmint
511
loss in spearmint as well as the other species M. piperita (Baines, 1938; Dermelj,
1960). The anthracnose fungus grows well at temperature ranging from 4–28 °C,
while the most favourable temperature for development of the disease is about 21 °C.
Saturation of the atmosphere for 48 h at a temperature of >15 °C, enhanced infection
that did not occur at a relative humidity of 80% (Dermelj, 1960). Overwintering of
the fungus is on infected mint debris (Baines, 1938). The use of planting materials
from healthy crops helps prevent anthracnose. Application of ferbam and copper
oxychloride controls the disease to some extent (Dermelj, 1960).
Aerial blight (R. solani)
Although aerial blight has been reported in several species of Mentha, maximum loss
of herb due to this disease has been reported in M. spicata as well as other species,
for example, M. arvensis. The disease is particularly damaging after the first plant
harvest (Bhardwaj et al., 1980) and when the crop is closely planted (Bhardwaj and
Garg, 1986). The disease first appears on leaf margins as faded patches that gradually
extend inwards under moist and humid conditions. Later, the blight broadens towards
twigs (stems) causing necrosis of above-ground parts (Bhardwaj et al., 1996). In
India, early planting of the crop before the rainy months reduces the losses during
crop maturation. One or two applications of mancozeb can also restrict aerial blight.
Stolon rot (multiple agents)
Stolon rot (also known as stolon decay) caused by R. bataticola was first recorded on
M. cardiaca (Green, 1961) and subsequently recorded on M. arvensis and M. spicata
(Husain and Janardhanan, 1965). That the stolon rot is, indeed, a complex of R.
solani and R. bataticola, was later reported by Singh (1991). The initial symptom of
the disease is a yellowing of the foliage with eventual death of the whole plant.
Underground stolons show pinkish brown lesions in the early stages of the disease,
which gradually turn to dark brown or black patches. The patches increase in size to
finally result in decay of a portion or entire stolon. The use of healthy planting
material and practices such as deep summer ploughing and crop rotation can control
the disease (Jain, 1995). Treatment of the stolons with Zineb, Mancozeb or Captan
before planting can also effectively control the disease (Sastry, 1969). To check the
spread of the disease, healthy stolons need to be grown in a disease-free plot.
Viral disease: tobacco ring spot virus
Severely stunted and deformed leaves are characteristic of spearmint plants infected
with a strain of tobacco ring spot virus (Stone et al., 1962). In China, two cucumo
virus, cucumber mosaic and tomato aspermy, have been isolated from spearmint
plants displaying mosaic symptoms and distorted leaves (Zhou et al. 1990).
31.4.2 Pests
Both aerial and underground parts of spearmint are attacked by insects. The aerial
part is affected by leaf folder (Syngamia abrutails), hairy caterpillar (Spilosoma
obliqua), bug (Nisia atrovenosa) and whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) whereas the underground
part is damaged by white grub (Holotrichia consaguinea) and termites (Microtermes
obesi) (Husain et al., 1988). Insecticides like dimenthoate (0.05%), quinalphos (0.05%)
and chloropyriphos (0.05%) successfully manage the pests of this crop (Khanuja et
al., 2004).
512
31.5
Handbook of herbs and spices
Food uses
Spearmint is widely valued world wide as a culinary herb. The leaves have a strong
spearmint flavour and they are used in flavouring salads or cooked foods (Hedrick,
1972; Grieve, 1984; Mabey, 1974; Facciola, 1990). In European counties, the leaves
find frequent use in preparing sauces for desserts, fruit, soup, split pea soup, lamb stew
and roast, fish, poultry, sweet dishes, vegetables, mint jelly, symps, fruit, compotes,
devils food cake, ice cream, herbal teas and mint tea. The carvone-rich essential oil
hydro-distilled from the above-ground part of M. spicata plants, is used for flavouring
sweets, chewing gums. toothpastes, etc. (Facciola, 1990). According to Duke and
Ayensu (1985), the nutritive composition of fresh leaves of spearmint is as given
below:
Leaves (fresh weight) in grammes per 100 g of leaves
1. Water
83.0
2. Protein
4.8
3. Fat
0.6
4. Carbohydrate
8.0
5. Fibre
2.0
6. Ash
1.6
In
1.
2.
3.
4.
milligrammes per 100 g weight
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Niacin
31.6
200.0
80.0
15.0
0.4
Medicinal uses
Spearmint is commonly used as a domestic herbal remedy. A tea made from the
leaves has traditionally been used in the treatment of fevers, headaches, digestive
disorders and various minor ailments (Foster and Duke, 1990). The herb is antiemetic,
antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, restorative, stimulant and stomachic (Lust, 1983;
Grieve, 1984; Duke and Ayensu, 1985). The leaves should be harvested at the time of
flower initiation of the plant and can be dried for later use (Grieve 1984). The
essential oil of the plant is antiseptic, though it is toxic in large doses (Foster and
Duke, 1990). The essential oil and the aerial stems are often used in folk remedies for
cancer and a poultice prepared from the leaves (macerated leaves) is said to remedy
tumours (Duke and Ayensu, 1985).
31.7
Functional benefits
31.7.1 Antimicrobial activity
The essential oils obtained from M. spicata and M. pulegium exhibit antimicrobial
properties against eight strains of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
(Sivropoulou et al., 1995). These authors ascertained that the main p-menthane
components of the essential oils exhibit a variable degree of antimicrobial activity
not only between different bacterial strains but also between different strains of the
Spearmint
513
same bacteria. Likewise, Torres et al. (1996) reported the antimicrobial activity of
spearmint oil against Staphylococus aureus and E. coli.
31.7.2 Insecticidal and genotoxic activities
The essential oils (EOs) extracted from mint species, M. spicata and M. pulegium,
together with their main constituents, carvone, pulegone and menthone, were tested
for insecticidal and genotoxic activities on Drosophila melanogaster (Franzios et al.,
1977). The EOs of both aromatic plants showed strong insecticidal activity, while
only the oil of M. spicata exhibited a mutagenic one. Among the constituents studied
by these authors, the most effective insecticide was found to be pulegone while the
most effective for genotoxic activity was menthone. Data revealed that both toxic
and genotoxic activities of the EOs of the two studied mint plants are not in accordance
with those of their main constituents, pulegone, menthone and carvone. Whereas
pulagone is significantly more effective (× 9) as an insecticide, menthone and carvone
are less effective (× 6 and × 2, respectively) insecticides when used in their authentic
forms.
31.7.3 Nematicidal activities
Walker and Melin (1996) investigated the nematicidal activities of six spearmint and
six peppermint accessions. They inoculated the accessions with Meloidogyne incognita
race 3 and M. arenaria race-2 under greenhouse conditions. No nematode galls
formed on roots of any of the plants inoculated with 1,800 eggs/pot. Fewer than two
galls per root system formed on three accessions of peppermint inoculated with M.
incognita at 5,400 eggs/pot. Only one peppermint accession developed galls when
inoculated with M. arenaria, whereas none of the spearmint accessions was susceptible
to this species. Plant dry weight was in general unaffected by infection with rootnematodes at these densities. Growing spearmint and peppermint accessions for
eight or 12 weeks in M. arenaria-infested soil before tomato cultivation resulted in
a 90% reduction in root galls compared with tomato following tomato.
31.7.4 Fungicidal activities
Working with several essential oil bearing plants including M. spicata, Yegen et al.
(1992) reported the remarkable fungicidal activities of their essential oils and oil
constituents. These authors investigated the fungitoxicity of these essential oils against
four phytopathogenic fungi. The essential oils were more toxic against Phytopathogenic
capsici than the fungicide carbendazen and pentachlor nitro benzene. The investigations
with thin-layer chromatography implicated carvacrol of M. spicata as one active
compound having significant fungicidal property.
Adam et al. (1998) reported the significant antifungal properties of the essential
oils of various aromatic plants including M. spicata against human pathogens,
Malassezia furfur, Trichophyton rubrum and Trichosporon beigelii. Their results
demonstrated that among the main components of the essential oils, carvacrol of M.
spicata and Thymol of the other plants exhibited the highest levels of antifungal
activity. Furthermore, the studied essential oils when tested with the Ames test did
not exihibit any mutagenic (carcinogenic) activity.
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Handbook of herbs and spices
31.7.5 Antioxidative properties
The kinetics of peroxide accumulation during oxidation of sunflower oil at 100 °C in
the presence of different concentrations of hexane, ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts
of Melissa officinalis, Mentha piperita, M. spicata, Ocimum besilicum, Origanum
vulgare, and Saturejae hertensis were studied by Marinova and Yanishlieva (1997).
It has been established that the extracts from O. basilicum and Origanum vulgare do
not improve the oxidation stability of sunflower oil. The ethanol extracts from the
other four species including M. spicata have proved to be the most active in retarding
the auto-oxidation process for stabilization of sunflower oil.
31.7.6 Role in augmenting N-uptake of plants
Kiran and Patra (2002) conducted a field study to compare efficiency of Dicyandiamide
(DCD)-coated urea with some natural essential oils and their derivatives, viz., M.
spicata oil, dementholized oil (DMO) and terpenes-coated urea on wheat (Triticum
aestivum L.) yield, nitrogen (N) uptake and apparent N recovery on a sandy loam soil
of Central Uttar Pradesh, India, where excessive loss of N due to NO3 leaching is a
serious problem due to its light texture. A significant increase in grain and straw
yield, N-uptake and apparent N-recovery was observed on application of these
nitrification inhibitors. However, their performance varied with the percentage used;
it was higher with the higher level of application. All three natural coating materials
retarded nitrification significantly, throughout the growth period of wheat as compared
to materials at a 0.50% (V/W) level of coating on urea were 29.6%, 27.2% and 22.7%
with DMO, M. spicata oil and terpenes, respectively. Corresponding values at a
1.00% (V/W) level of coating were 4.0%, 38.6%, 23.2%, respectively. With DCD
coated urea (at a 1.00% level of coating, W/W basis) it was 33.1%, while the
corresponding value with uncoated urea was 22.7%.
Economic analyses were done for the use of these natural coating materials for
cultivation. Benefits obtained from the use of DMO, M. spicata oil and terpenes at a
0.50% level of coating were Rs. 5,210/ha, Rs. 1,400.00/ha and Rs. 450.00/ha,
respectively while at a 1.00% level of coating, corresponding profits were Rs. 9,040.00/
ha, Rs. 4,570.00/ha and 575.00/ha, respectively. The benefit obtained from the use of
DCD at a 1.00% level of coating was Rs. 1,005.00/ha.
31.7.7 Role as intercrop in pest management
The efficacy of intercropping cabbage with other vegetables and herbs including M.
Table 31.2 Comparative chemical composition (%) of Indian spearmint oil
produced from plants of the variety Arka, harvested after 100 days of planting
Sr. no.
Compounds
Relative concentration (%)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Carvone
Limonene
1,8 Cineole
3-octanol
β-bourbonene
β-Caryophyllene
Sabinene hydrate
62.1
16.2
2.0
0.4
0.9
0.9
1.5
Data source: Bahl et al. 2000.
Table 31.3
Effect of development stage on oil content (%) and percent content of major important terpenoids in M. spicata cultivars
Name Mode of Period
of
planting between
cultivar
planting &
harvesting
Percent contents of major oil components
Oil
content Carvone Limonene 1,83Menthone Isomenthone Neomenthol Menthol β-Bour β-Caryo- Sabinene
%
Cineole Octonol
bonene phyllene hydrate
Arka
By
stolons
(i) 70 DAP 0.40
(ii) 100 DAP 0.55
72.3
62.1
8.7
16.2
3.1
2.0
0.8
0.4
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1.2
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.70
1.50
Neera
-do-
(i) 70 DAP 0.25
(ii) 100 DAP 0.34
67.5
44.2
4.9
25.4
4.7
6.5
0.3
0.4
–
–
0.8
0.5
–
–
0.7
0.1
4.1
3.4
–
–
–
–
MSS-5
-do-
(i) 70 DAP 0.38
(ii) 100 DAP 0.58
80.2
58.3
1.2
18.9
0.6
2.2
0.6
0.6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0.1
1.2
0.5
2.4
0.2
0.8
0.1
Neerkalka
-do-
(i) 70 DAP 0.35
(ii) 100 DAP 0.58
71.6
47.4
9.6
35.4
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.4
0.2
0.5
0.8
0.9
0.5
0.2
0.6
–
–
–
–
–
–
Source: (Bahl et al. 2000).
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Handbook of herbs and spices
spicata as a management tool in mitigating insect pest problems of cabbage was
investigated by Timbilla and Nyako (2001) in the field at Kwadaso, Kumasi during
a three-season period in the forest region of Ghana. The results showed that Plutella
xylostella could be effectively controlled when cabbage is intercropped with spearmint,
onion and tomato.
31.8 Quality issues
Like other mint oil, spearmint oil is a complex mixture of terpenic hydrocarbons and
aromatic compounds with carvone and limonene as major oil constituents. Because
the latter two major components have many industrial applications in a variety of
food and cosmetic products, their separation in pure forms through fractional distillation
under a specific temperature and pressure from the raw oil is imperative prior to
their industrial uses. In accordance with the traded international oil quality standard
an ideal spearmint variety should contain the oil of the composition shown in
Table 31.2.
The quality of essential oil nevertheless depends on the genetic makeup, geographical
and ecological conditions and stages of plant growth. In this particular regard, working
on four popular Indian cultivars of M. spicata, Bahl et al. (2000) have reported that
to obtain carvone and limonene rich herbage, the spearmint crop should be harvested
after 100 days of planting (DAP), and according to them early harvesting (i.e., 70
DAP) causes enhancement in carvone content in exchange for a decrease in limonene
content (Table 31.3).
31.9
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Index
acceptable levels 106–7
acetate biosynthetic pathway 179
acetic acid 441, 442
acetylpyrroline 455, 456
active packaging 86, 97
acyclic monoterpenes 178, 179
adulteration
asafoetida 227
caraway 293
celery 334
peppermint 477–8
aerial blight 511
AFID 46
aflatoxins 3, 4, 13, 27, 83–4
control 29, 30–1
see also mycotoxins
age of seedlings 369
agriculture see cultivation
air separators 81
air tables 81
ajowan (bishop’s weed) 186
alcoholic beverages 282
alkaloids 455–7
see also capsaicinoids
allergic contact dermatitis 489
allergy 490
alliins 368–9
Allium 337, 338, 495
see also chives; garlic; leeks; onion; potato
onion; shallots
allspice 114, 119
allyl isothiocyanate 157
Aloe barbadensis 145
Aloe vera 161, 458
α-pinene 179, 410
α-terpinene 185
α-terpinyl acetate 185, 445
α-tocopherol 457
Alpinia calcarata 357, 363
Alpinia galanga see galangal
Alpinia officinarum Hance 357, 362
aluminium foil 94
American pepper see Capsicum
American Spices Trade Association (ASTA)
332
ASTA-USDA cleanliness specifications 41
specifications for caraway seed 293
amino acids 265, 266
ammonia 32, 84
analytical methods 415–16
mycotoxins 26–7
pesticide residues 44–9
Andrographis paniculata Nees (Kalmegh) 145
anethole 185, 200
animal feed 394
animal studies 71
antioxidant measurement 133–4
growth promoters 159–61
anise 114, 119
mycotoxins 17, 23
anthocyanins 339
anthracnose 310, 510–11
antibiotic-resistant bacteria 166–7
anti-inflammatory activity 143, 161–3
experimental assays 162
mechanisms of action 162–3
Index
antimicrobial properties see microorganisms
antioxidant supplements 134–5
antioxidants
and anti-inflammatory activity 162–3
capers 232–3
cardiovascular disease 129–30, 131–5
animal studies 133–4
complex mixtures vs single compounds
134–5
human studies 134
metabolic effect 131–2
model systems 132–3
lemon balm 395–6
measurement of 132–4
pandan wangi 457
peppermint 471–2
spearmint 514
antispasmodic properties 286, 329
Apium graveolens 317, 318
see also celery
apterin 441, 442
aquavit (akvavit) 282
ar-curcumene 186
ar-turmerone 186
aristolactam AH 427
aromatherapy 118
asafoetida 221–9
area and production 223
botany 221–3
chemical constituents 225
extraction 225–6
forms of 223
main uses 227–9
processing 226–7
quality issues 227
varieties 223
volatiles 186–7
world trade 224
asarone 414
ascorbic acid 265–6, 471–2
Asparagus racemosus (Satavari) 145
Aspergillus
niger 30
parasiticus 30
atherosclerosis 130
see also cardiovascular disease
auditing 106
autologous bone marrow transplantation
(ABMT) 140
Ayurveda 428
cancer 140–2
azadirachtin 55
Bacillus thuringiensis 55
backward integration projects 49–54, 55
bacteria 61, 62, 64
enteric bacterial pathogens 154–9
see also microorganisms
bacterial spot 310
Balkan Endemic Nefropati (BEN) 4
bar codes 97–8
barrier properties 100
basil 91, 163
cardiovascular disease 128
volatiles 184, 187–8
bay leaf 114, 119
mycotoxins 7, 17, 23
bees 394
Bergamot mint 460
β-bisabolene 360
β-damascenone 441, 442
β-phellandrene 410
β-pinene 410
β-selinene 323, 324
beta-sitosterol 144
betel leaf (Piper betle) 145, 148
bicyclic monoterpenes 178, 179
binding agents 30, 33
biodegradable films 96–7
biological competition 30
biological control methods
diseases xix, xx
pests 57
biological hazards 105
biological therapy 140
biomarkers 34, 305, 306
biosynthesis 179–83, 484
capsaicinoids 304–5
Mentha species 503–4
phenylpropenes 180, 181, 304–5
terpenes 180–3, 503–4
biotechnology
control of mycotoxins 32–3
long pepper 434–5
pandan wangi 454
peppermint 464
Perilla 487–8
bishop’s weed (ajowan) 186
black pepper xx, xxiii, 13, 116, 120
mycotoxins 8, 11, 15–17
volatiles 184, 188–9, 190–1
blanching
celery 321, 325
leeks 374, 380
blood pressure 329
blood sugar stabilisation 380
bloody marys 448
Bolivian plants 164, 165
521
522
Index
Bombay Sambal (ushak) 222–3, 225, 228
bone marrow transplantation (BMT) 140
borneol 351, 360
breast cancer 138, 143
breeding objectives 301
brining 243–4
bronchial asthma 430
Bureau of Indian Standards 63
butylidenephthalide 440
butylphthalide 449
C locus 305
cabbage 514–16
caesium-137 68
calcium hydroxide 32
camphene 179, 351, 410
camphor 360
Canada 103–10
HACCP-based on-farm food safety model
104–8
international plant identification practice
108–10
Canadian Herb, Spice and Natural Health
Product Coalition 104
HACCP planning 104–8
Canadian On Farm Food Safety Program
(COFFS) 104–8
canaline 144
cancer 138–50
botany of important herbs 145–8
caraway 289
complementary and alternative medicines
(CAM) 140–2
evidence of functional benefits of herbs
and spices 142–5
leek 379–80
mechanism of action of herbs and spices
142
modern medicine 139–40
nature of 139
peppermint 477
Perilla 489
canned celery 326
canned food 66
Cantrace initiative 104
caper bug 239–40
caper moth 239
caper vein banding virus (CapVbV) 241
capers and caperberries 230–56
chemical composition 231–3
cultivation and production 233–43
description 230–1
functional and health benefits 245–7
future trends 247
main cultivars 241–2
postharvest technology 243–5
quality issues 247
uses in food processing 245
capillary electrophoresis 26
Capparis 230–1
see also capers and caperberries
capsaicin 117, 153, 162, 163, 304
capsaicinoid synthetase (CS) 304
capsaicinoids 301–5
capsanthin xxiv, 305
capsanthin-capsorubin synthase (CCS) 306
Capsicum 116, 120, 299–312
cultivation 307–9, 310
genus Capsicum 300–1
mycotoxins 5, 6, 7, 13–15
pod types and quality breeding goals 301
production and quality 306–7
selection of cultivar 308
uses in food processing 301–6
see also cayenne; chili
capsorubin xxiv, 305
carambola 257–69
climate 260
cultivars and varieties 260
description 258
food uses 264–5
food value 265–7
harvesting and yield 263
medicinal uses 267
origin and distribution 258–9
other uses 267
pests and diseases 262–3
planting 261–2
propagation 261
quality control 263–4
soils, water and nutrients 262
carane 179
caraway 270–98
chemical structure 277–80
classification 270–1
cultivars 276–7
cultivation 272–7
description 271
functional properties 114, 119, 285–90
mycotoxins 17, 23
production and international trade 271–2
quality specifications 291–3
toxicity 290–1
uses in food processing 280–5
caraway chaff oil 283–4
carcinoma 139
cardamom xx, xxiii, 114, 119
mycotoxins 17, 23
Index
volatiles 184, 189, 191, 192
cardboard cartons 94
cardiovascular disease 126–37
chemical composition of herbs and spices
with role in 127–9
complex mixtures vs single compounds
134–5
herbs, spices and 129–32
cholesterol 130–1
metabolic effects of antioxidants 131–2
measurement of antioxidants 132–4
carene 351
carotenoids xxiv, xxv, 305–6, 457, 471–2
Carum carvi see caraway
carvacrol 157, 185, 208
carvone 179, 185
caraway 278, 279–80, 281, 282–3, 284
dill 198
spearmint 502, 514, 515, 516
caryophyllene 185
cassia 114, 119
volatiles 184, 189–92, 193–4
catechins 157–8
Catharanthus rosea (periwinkle) 145–7
cayenne 6, 7
see also Capsicum
celeriac 313–16
description 313
production 314–16
varieties 314
celery 317–36, 374–5
chemical structure 322–4
classification 318
cultivars 321–2
cultivation 319–21
description 318–19
functional properties 114, 119, 328–31
main uses in food processing 324–8
post-harvest handling 321
production and international trade 319
quality specifications 331–4
toxicity 331
celery salt 327–8
celery seed oil 317, 326–7, 333, 334, 335
celery seed vinegar 328
celery stalk products 325
cell wall hydrolases 266–7
cellulose films 95
cepharanone B 427
Certificate of Authenticity 109
certification of organic production 57–8
cervical cancer 138
chaff oil, caraway 283–4
chemical hazards 105
523
chemical sterilisation 82–3
chemical tests 415
chemicals: effects on mycotoxins 32
chemoprevention 142
chemotherapy 139
cherry tomatoes, marinated with lovage 447
chili xx, xxiii, 65, 66, 162
mycotoxins 6, 7
see also Capsicum
chili veinal mottle virus (ChiVMV) 310
China 482, 486
Chinese ginger (Alpinia officinarum Hance)
357, 362
chives 114, 119, 337–46
botany and morphology 340–1
chemical composition and nutritional value
337–9
culture and production 341–2
post-harvest handling and uses in food
processing 342–3
varieties 343–4
cholesterol 130–1
leek 379
cineole 185, 360
cinnamaldehyde 185, 189–92
cinnamic acid-4-hydroxylase (C4H) 304
cinnamon 90, 92, 114, 119
cardiovascular disease 128–9
mycotoxins 8, 11, 17, 20
volatiles 184, 192–4, 195, 196
citral 409, 413
sodium bisulphite method 416
citrinin 31
citronellal 410
citronellol 179, 410
cleanup 26, 27, 44, 45
climate
caper bush 233–4
Capsicum 308
carambola 260
caraway 272
celeriac 314
celery 319
chives 341
leeks 371
lemongrass 401–2
long pepper 431–2
lovage 443
peppermint 462–3
shallots 384
spearmint 504–5
clonal multiplication 434–5
clover 375
cloves 114, 119
524
Index
volatiles 184, 194–7
CNS 488–9
coated films 95
cobalt-60 68
Cochin oil 400
see also lemongrass
Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods
71
coextruded films 96
coliforms 61, 62
colo-rectal cancer 138
colour
Capsicum 302, 305–6
natural colours xxiv–xxv
turmeric xxv, 65, 66
complementary and alternative medicines
(CAM) 140–2
complex mixtures 134–5
compounded asafoetida 227
consumers
acceptance of packaging 93–4
trends driving innovation 86–7
contact dermatitis 489
contamination 74–85
decontamination techniques 80–2
detoxification 83–4
GAP, GMP, ISO 9000 and HACCP 79–80
harmful effects 74, 75
organic production 79
preventive measures 75–9
sterilisation 82–3
contract farming 49–54, 55
convenience 100
Cordyceps militaris 145
coriander xx
ground and packaging 89
medicinal properties of seed 114, 119
mycotoxins 8, 11, 17, 21
volatiles 184, 197–8
corn chowder with lovage 447
coumarins 280, 441, 442, 449
cranberry 158–9
cream of lovage soup 448
critical limits 106–7
crocins 164–5
Crocus sativa see saffron
crop rotations 507
cruciferous vegetables 143
cryo-grinding 282
cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) 310
cultivation 99
capers and caperberries 233–43
Capsicum 307–9, 310
carambola 260–3
caraway 272–7
celeriac 314–16
celery 319–21
chives 340–2
control of pesticide residues 49–54, 55, 56
galanga 348–9
galangal 359
leeks 370–8
lemon balm 392–4
lemongrass 401–6
long pepper 431–4
organic see organic production
pandan wangi 454–5
peppermint 461, 462–9
Perilla 484–6
potato onion 497–9
prevention of contamination 75–6
shallots 383–6
spearmint 504–9
cumin 90, 115, 119, 163
cardiovascular disease 128
mycotoxins 8, 11, 17, 23–4
volatiles 184, 198
Curcuma longa see turmeric
curcumene 186
curcumin xxv, 162
curry powder 8, 11–12
cuttings 237, 432, 454
Cymbopogon
citratus 401
flexuosus 400–1
pendulus 401
see also lemongrass
cymene 185
damping off 310
decarvonised oil 284
Declaration of Identity 109
decontamination techniques 64, 74–85
air separators 81
air tables 81
de-stoners 81
detoxification 83–4
indent separators 81
irradiation see irradiation
magnets 80
sifters 80
spiral gravity separators 81–2
sterilisation 82–3
dehydrated celery 325
deoxynivalenol (DON) 3, 5
control 31
see also mycotoxins
dermatitis 489
Index
de-stoners 81
determination and detection 26, 44
detoxification 83–4
deviation from standard procedures 107
devil’s claw 161–2
devil’s dung 226
see also asafoetida
diabetes 245–6
diatomaceous earth products 56
dietary supplements 42
digestive stimulants 152–4
dihydrobutylidenephthalide 440
dihydrocapsaicin 304
dill 115, 119
volatiles 184, 198–9
dillapiole 186
dimethyl allyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) 180,
181, 182
direct sample introduction for gas
chromatography/tandem mass
spectrometry (DSI/GC/MS-MS) 49
diseases, plant
bio control agents xix, xx
caper bush 240–1
Capsicum 309, 310
carambola 263
caraway 275
celeriac 315
celery 320
chives 342
galanga 349
leeks 375–6
lemongrass 405
long pepper 433
lovage 444
peppermint 467
shallots 385–6
spearmint 510–11
distillation 406–7, 469
diterpene 1 361
Doremia ammoniacum 222–3
see also ushak
dried herbs and spices 87–8, 89–91
drugs, interactions with 166
dry soluble spices 93
drying 51, 54, 75
chives 342
pepper fruit 307
peppermint 469
prevention of mycotoxins 28
dyspepsia 286
EAN code 97–8
edible films 96–7
525
Egyptian food spices 12
EKO quality label 58
electrochemical detector 47
electron accelerators 69–70
electron beams 67, 68, 69
electron capture detector (ECD) 46
elemicin 186
elemol 410
ellagitannins 158
emulsions 92
encapsulation 93, 99
enteropathogens 154–9
Enteroplant 474
environmental impact assessment (EIA)
systems 43
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (US)
43–4, 55
enzyme inhibition 48
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
26
Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) 350
Escherichia coli (E. coli) 61, 62
essences 92
essential oils xxv, xxvii, 118, 119–20
caraway 119, 278–9, 280, 282–3, 292
celery 119, 326–7, 333, 334
enteropathogens 159
galanga 351–2
lemon balm 396
lemongrass 400, 406–7, 409, 410, 413
functional properties 413–14
quality control 414–16
long pepper 424
lovage 439–41, 445
packaging and storage 87, 91–2
peppermint 120, 470, 473–4, 475–6
Perilla 486, 487
spearmint 513, 514, 515, 516
estradiol 144
estragole 185
ethyl cinnamate (EC) 351
ethylene dibromide (EDB) 64, 72
ethylene oxide (ETO) 64, 72, 82–3
ethylhydroxymethylfuranone (homofuraneol)
441, 442
eucalyptol 118, 188
eucalyptus 115, 119
eugenol 185, 192, 360
eugenyl acetate 185
European Spice Association (ESA)
Quality Minima for Herbs and Spices 41
specifications for celery seed 332
European Union (EU) 41–2
organic labels 57
526
Index
regulation of mycotoxins 33
regulation of organic production 58
experimental assays
anti-inflammatory activity 162
antimicrobial activity 156–7
digestive stimulants 153
growth promoters 160
gut immunity 164
see also animal studies; human studies
extraction 26–7, 44, 45
asafoetida 225–6
factories 76–7
farm management systems 49–54, 55, 56
farmer groups 51
farnesol 410
farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) 180, 181, 182
fatty acids 232
fatty oils 283
fatty streaks 130, 131
fennel 115, 119
volatiles 184, 199–200, 201
fenugreek 115, 119, 161
volatiles 184, 200
fermentation 244–5
ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP)
assay 132
fertilisers
caper bush 238–9
Capsicum 308
carambola 262
caraway 274
celeriac 314–15
celery 319–20
galanga 349
leek 373
lemon balm 393
lemongrass 403–4
long pepper 432
lovage 443
peppermint 465–6
shallots 385
spearmint 505–6
see also manures/manuring; plant nutrition
Ferula 221, 222
see also asafoetida
fibrous plaques 130
films, packaging 94–7
flame photometric detector (FPD) 46
Flavobacterium aurantiacum 29
flavonoids
capers 232–3
caraway 279
chives 338–9
flavour sensitivity 87
flavouring
asafoetida 227–8
Capsicum 302, 306
flavour compounds xxv, xxvi
lemongrass 410–13
Perilla 490–1
spearmint 512
spices as sources of natural flavours
xxv–xxvi, xxvii
see also food processing uses
flexible films 94–7
fluorometer 46–7
foam cells 130, 131
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (US)
42, 44
food processing uses
asafoetida 227–8
capers and caperberries 245
Capsicum 301–6
carambola 264–5
caraway 280–5
celery 324–8
chives 343
galanga 353
leeks 378
lemon balm 394
lemongrass 409–13
long pepper 428
lovage 446–8
pandan wangi 457–8
peppermint 462, 471–3
Perilla 490–1
potato onion 499
shallots 386–7
spearmint 512
food transit time 153–4
free radicals 129–30, 131
freeze-dried celery 325
freeze-grinding 327
freezing 342–3
fresh herbs and spices 87–9
fruit flies 262, 263
fumigants 64, 65, 72
fumonisin 3, 4
control 31
see also mycotoxins
functional uses/properties
capers and caperberries 245–7
caraway 285–90
celery 328–31
galanga 350–1
galangal 360–2
leeks 378–80
Index
lemon balm 394–7
lemongrass 413–14
lovage 448–50
pandan wangi 458
peppermint 462
Perilla 488–90
spearmint 512–16
fungi see moulds
galanga 347–56
botany 347–8
chemistry 351–2
cultivation and production 348–9
functional properties 350–1
Kaempferia rotunda 353
tissue culture studies 349–50
uses 352–3
galangal 357–64
Alpinia calcarata 357, 363
Alpinia officinarum Hance 357, 362
botany 358
chemistry 358–9
functional properties 360–2
medicinal properties 360–1, 362
production 359
galangin 360, 361
galbanum 225, 226, 228
gamma rays 67
gamma irradiation plant 68–9
γ-terpinene 185
Ganoderma lucidum 163, 165
garlic 89, 115, 117, 119
cardiovascular disease 129, 133, 134
garlic water 55
gas chromatography (GC) 26, 45–6
gastroenteritis 154–9
see also gut health
gene banks 434
gene therapy 140
genetics
Capsicum 305, 306
Perilla 483–4
spearmint 504
genotoxic activity 513
geranial 410
geraniol 179, 410
geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) 180–1, 182,
503–4
ginger xx, xxiii, 91, 92, 115, 119
cardiovascular disease 128, 132–3, 134
mycotoxins 8–9, 12, 17, 22
volatiles 184, 200–1, 202
gingo biloba 162
glass packaging 91, 94
527
glucocapparin 243
glucosinolates 143, 233
glutathione 5-transferase (GST) 289
good agricultural practices (GAP) 28, 79,
104–5, 107–8
levels of GAPs 106
good hygiene practices (GHP) 28
good manufacturing practices (GMP) 28, 41,
79
grading systems
capers 244
celery seeds 332
grafting 237, 261
grinding 88, 282
ground herbs and spices 89–91
caraway 282, 292
celery 327, 333
growing methods 369–70
growth promoters 159–61
experimental assays 160
mechanisms of action 160–1
guidelines for organic production xxi
gunny bags 89
gut health 151–76
adverse effects 165–6
anti-inflammatory activity 161–3
caraway 286
digestive stimulants 152–4
enteric bacterial pathogens 154–9
future trends 166–7
growth promoters in animal studies 159–61
gut immunity 163–5
half-life 68
Hall micro-electrolytic conductivity detector
(HECD) 46
harvesting
Capsicum 309
carambola 263
caraway 275
celeriac 315–16
celery 320–1
chives 341
control of mycotoxins 28
galangal 359
leeks 377–8
lemon balm 393
lemongrass 406
long pepper 433
lovage 445–6
peppermint 468–9
Perilla 485
potato onion 498–9
prevention of contamination 75–6
528
Index
shallots 386
spearmint 507
hazard analysis and critical control points
(HACCP) 28, 41, 79–80
on-farm food safety model 104–8
hazards, types of 105
health requirements for personnel 78
heat treatment 91, 99
effect on mycotoxins 30–2
heavy metals 84, 463
Helicobacter pylori 154, 155
herb oil, caraway 284
herbal medicine see medicinal properties/uses
herbal teas see teas, herbal
herbicides 466–7
herpes simplex virus (HSV) 474–5
high-density lipoprotein (HDL) 379
high-density polyethylene (HDPE) 95
high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) 26, 46–7, 304
high throughput screening (HTS) 434
Hing asafoetida 223, 227
Hingra asafoetida 223, 227
homofuraneol (ethylhydroxymethylfuranone)
441, 442
horseradish xx, 115, 120
hot pepper see Capsicum
human studies 134
hydrocolloids 96
hydro-distillation 406
hydrogen peroxide 32, 84
hydrolases 266–7
hydroxydimethylfuranone 441, 442
hydroxyl radical 131
hygiene 78
immunity, gut 163–5
indent separators 81
India 60
Export (Quality, Control and Inspection)
Act 63
Prevention of Food Adulteration Act xxii
trade in asafoetida 224
Indian Copal tree 148
Indian food ingredients 142
indirect effects 70
inflammatory bowel disease 151, 161–3, 165
insect growth regulators 55
insect pests see pests, insect
insecticidal activity 513
insecticidal soaps 55
integrated pest management (IPM) 53, 54–7,
342
Integrated Spice Project 51
interactions with drugs 166
intercropping
leeks 374–5, 377
lemongrass 404–5
peppermint 464–5
spearmint 514–16
intercultural operations 315, 432–3
intermediate density lipoprotein (IPL) 130
International Federation of Organic
Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
58, 79
International Plant Protection Convention 72
International Standards Organization (ISO) 63
ISO 9000 79
quality standards for caraway 293
international trade see trade, international
international working groups 34
intestinal propulsion 489
ion trap detector (ITD) 46
ionizing radiations 67–70
mechanism of action 70
sources of 68–70
see also irradiation
Irani Hing asafoetida 223
irradiation xxi-xxii, 60–73, 99
application of ionizing radiation 67–70
detection 72–3
effects on mycotoxins 32
international approval 71
mechanism of action 70
nutritional and safety aspects 70–1
process control 70
quality considerations 61–6
quality improvement 64–6
quality standards 63–4
SPS application to boost international trade
71–2
irrigation
caper bush 239
Capsicum 309
carambola 262
caraway 274
celeriac 315
leeks 373–4
lemongrass 404
long pepper 433
peppermint 465–6
spearmint 506
irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) 151, 165, 474
isoflavonoids 143
isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) 180–1, 503
isoprene unit 178
isoprenoids 177, 178
see also volatiles
Index
isothiocyanates 143
Japan 482, 484–5, 490
Joint Expert Committee on Food Irradiation
(JECFI) 71
Kaempferia galanga see galanga
Kaempferia rotunda 347, 353
kaempferol 351, 361
kapha 140–1
Korea 482, 485
labelling 72, 73
laboratory analysis 79
see also analytical methods
lactation 286–8
Lactobacillus rhamnosus 29
laminated films 95
lavender 118
leaf blight 467
leaf miner 444
leek moth 376–7
leek rust 375, 376
leeks 365, 366–81
botany 366
chemical composition 367–70
effect of method of growing and age of
seedling 369–70
effect of nutrition 368–9
cultivars 370–1
cultivation and production 370–8
description 366
functional properties 378–80
origin and distribution 366–7
quality issues 380–1
uses in food industry/processing 378
lemon balm 390–9
chemical composition 391–2
cultivation and production 392–4
functional/health benefits 394–7
main uses 394
quality issues 396, 397
lemongrass 400–19
chemical composition 408–9
cultivation 401–6
functional properties 413–14
origin and distribution 401
physiology and biochemistry 408
processing 406–8
quality issues 414–16
species and varieties 400–1
uses in food processing 409–13
varieties for cultivation 402–3
lemongrass coconut rice 412
529
lesser galangal 357, 362–3
leukaemia 139
licorice 115, 120
light sensitivity 87
lignans 143
ligustilide 440, 441, 449
limonene 179, 185, 323, 324, 410
caraway 278, 279–80, 281
spearmint 514, 515, 516
linalool 185, 188, 410
linear accelerators (LINACs) 69
lipid metabolism 489–90
lipids 96
Perilla seed lipids 486–7
lipoprotein lipase 130
liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry
(LC-MS) 26–7
Liv.52 246
lobster and potato salad with lovage 446–7
long pepper 148, 420–37
biotechnology 434–5
botany and description 421–2
chemical composition 423–7
fruits 425
leaves 425
oil 424
roots 425
cultivation 431–4
economic parts and importance 422
future 435–6
histology of Piper longum root 422–3
origin and geographical distribution 421
quality specifications 434
uses 428–31
contraindication 431
varieties and cultivars 431
vernacular/regional names 420–1
loosening of soil 274
lovage 438–52
botanical characteristics 439
chemical composition 439–43
cultivation and production 443–6
functional/health benefits 448–50
origin and habitat 438
trade and commerce 439
use in food 446–8
low-density lipoprotein (LDL) 130–1, 379
low-density polyethylene (LDPE) 95
lung cancer 138
lutein 457
lymphoma 139
mace 90
volatiles 184, 204, 205
530
Index
maceration 407
macrophages 131
magnets 80
malaria 431
manures/manuring 314–15
celeriac 314–15
leeks 373
lemongrass 403–4
long pepper 432
shallots 385
see also fertilisers
marinated cherry tomatoes with lovage 447
marjoram xx, 115, 120
markers 34, 305, 306
marketing 381
marking nut tree 148
mass selective detector (MSD) 46
mass spectrometry (MS) 26, 46
mastic 162
maximum residue limits (MRLs) 42
medicinal properties/uses xxvi, xxvii, 113–25
asafoetida 228–9
capers and caperberries 245–7
Capsicum 302–3
carambola 267
caraway 114, 119, 285–9
celery 114, 119, 328–31
future trends 121
galanga 352, 353
galangal 360–1, 362
herbal medicine market 60
leeks 378–80
lemon balm 394–7
lemongrass 414
long pepper 428–31
lovage 438, 448–50
major constituents and therapeutic uses of
medicinal herbs and spices 114–17,
118–20
mycotoxins in medicinal plants 12, 19
pandan wangi 458
peppermint 462, 473–4
Perilla 488–90
potato onion 499
role of medicinal herbs and spices 118
spearmint 512
medicine, modern, and cancer therapy 139–40
Mediterranean diet 134
Melissa officinalis see lemon balm
Mentha
piperita 460–1
see also peppermint
spicata 502, 503
see also spearmint
menthol 185, 201–3, 470, 475–6
menthone 179, 185
menthyl acetate 185, 470
methoxyisobutylpyrazine 306
methoxypsoralen 441, 442
methyl bromide (MB) 64, 72
methyl chavicol 180
methyl glucosinolate 233
methylbutanoic acid 441, 442
mevalonate biosynthetic pathway 179–83, 484
Mexican yam 161
micellar electrokinetic capillary
electrophoresis (MECC) 26
microorganisms
antibiotic-resistant 166–7
antimicrobial activity 117
caraway 291
lemon balm 395
lovage 449–50
peppermint 472
Perilla 488–90
spearmint 512–13
control of mycotoxins 28–30
effect of irradiation 64–6
enteric bacterial pathogens 154–9
packaging and microbiological safety 98–9
recommended microbiological
specifications 63
in spices and herbs 61–3
see also bacteria; moulds
micropropagation 237
carambola 261
long pepper 434–5
pandan wangi 454
milk thistle 162
mint xx
peppermint see peppermint
spearmint see spearmint
volatiles 201–3
mites 310, 475
mixed spices, powdered 10
model systems 132–3
modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 97
moisture content 61, 88
molecularly imprinted polymers 27
monitoring 107
monocyclic monoterpenes 178, 179
monoterpene hydrocarbons 183
monoterpenes 177, 178, 179
biosynthesis 180–3, 503–4
caraway 278, 279–80
oxygenated 183–4
Montreal Protocol 72
mosquitoes 474
Index
moulds 4–5, 27, 61–2, 99
fungicidal activity of spearmint 513
see also microorganisms; mycotoxins
mulching 239, 308–9
leeks 374
multiplier onion see potato onion
multi-residue methods (MRMs) 47–8, 49
mustard 90–1, 92, 116, 120
mycotoxins 9, 12, 17, 24
mycotoxins 3–40, 62, 83–4
in caraway 291
detecting 19–27
future trends 33–4
mycobiota of herbs and spices and possible
mycotoxin production 13–19, 20–5
naturally occurring in herbs and spices
4–12
prevention and control of contamination
27–33
preharvest control 28
regulation 33
technological methods 28–33
safety in researching 27
myrcene 360, 410
myristicin 186
nematicidal activity 513
neral 410
nerol 179, 410
nitrogen uptake of plants 514
norpandamarilactonine 456, 457
NPD 46
nutmeg 90, 92, 116, 120
mycotoxins 9, 12
volatiles 184, 204, 205
nutritional value
carambola 265–7
chives 337–9
irradiated foods and nutrition 70–1
leeks 378, 379
ochratoxin 83–4
ochratoxin A (OTA) 3, 4–5
control 30
see also mycotoxins
ocimene 185
oestradiol 144
oleoresins xxv, xxvii, 99
caraway 284–5
celery 327, 333
lemongrass 409, 413
packaging and storage 87, 92–3
on-farm storage 76
onion 116, 120, 495
531
potato onion see potato onion
shallots see shallots
orchards 237–8
oregano xx, 116, 120
cardiovascular disease 127, 133–4
mycotoxins 17, 24
organic cakes xxi
organic manure xxi
organic production 57–8, 79
caraway 277
guidelines xxi
spearmint 507–8
oxalic acid 265
oxidation 88
oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC)
assay 132
oxygenated monoterpenes 183–4
oxygenated sesquiterpenes 184
ozone 32
packaging xxii–xxiii, 77, 86–102
essential oils 87, 91–2
future trends 100
microbiological safety 98–9
new packaging materials 100
oleoresins 87, 92–3
printing 97–8
product formats and packaging techniques
87–91
selection of packaging materials 93–4
types of packaging materials 94–7
pandamarilactam 456, 457
pandamarilactone 456–7
pandamarilactonine 456, 457
pandamarine 455–6
pandan wangi 453–9
chemical structure 455–7
cultivation, production and processing
454–5
description 453–4
functional properties 458
uses in food 457–8
pandanamine 456, 457
pandanin 457
Pandanus amaryllifolius 453–4
see also pandan wangi
paper packaging 94
paprika xx, xxiv–xxv, 6, 7
parsley 116, 120
pasteurisation 244
Pathani Hing asafoetida 223
pathogenic bacteria 61, 62
enteric bacterial pathogens 154–9
experimental assays 156–7
532
Index
mechanisms of action 157–9
see also microorganisms
PC-SPES 144
pepper 91
black pepper see black pepper
Capsicum see Capsicum
long pepper see long pepper
white pepper see white pepper
pepper leaf curl virus (Pep-LCV) 310
peppermint 116, 120, 184, 460–81
botanical description 460–1
chemical composition 470–1
cultivation and production 462–9
distribution and history of cultivation
461–2
economic aspects 462
medicinal uses 462, 473–4
mycotoxins 12, 17, 19, 24
other economic uses 474–5
quality issues 475–8
adulterants and safety assessment 477–8
pesticide residues 476
uses in food industry 462, 471–3
varieties 463–5
peppermint tea 462, 473
Peppermint Water 473
percolation 407
Perilla 482–93
anti-microbial activity 488–90
biotechnology 487–8
botany 483–4
chemical composition 486–7
chemovars and their genetics 483–4
cultivation 484–6
as a spice 490–1
varieties 483
perillaketone 489
perillaldehyde 486
periwinkle 145–7
peroxidases 304–5
personnel health and hygiene requirements 78
pesticide residues xix, 41–59, 84
analytical methods 44–9
control in herbs and spices 49–54, 55, 56
integrated pest management 53, 54–7
organic production 57–8
peppermint 476
potato onion 500
regulation 42–4
pesticide risk indicators 43
pests, insect 62, 63
caper bush 239–40
carambola 262–3
caraway 275
celeriac 315
celery 320
chives 342
galanga 349
IPM 53, 54–7, 342
leeks 375, 376–7
lemongrass 405
long pepper 433
lovage 444
pepper fruits 309, 310
peppermint 467–8
potato onion 497–8
shallots 385–6
spearmint 511
phase 2 enzymes 131–2
phenolics 157, 158, 441–3, 471–2
caraway 280
phenylalanine 180, 181
phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) 304
phenylpropenes 177, 178–9
biosynthesis 180, 181, 304–5
see also volatiles
photoconductivity detector 47
phototoxic reactions 55, 331
phthalides 440–1, 449
physical hazards 105
physical tests 415
phyto-chemicals 141
phytophthora blight 310
pickling
capers 243–4
celery 326
picrocrocin 165
Pieridae 240
Piper
betle (Betelvine) 145, 148
longum (long pepper) 148, 420, 421–2
histology of root 422–3
see also long pepper
peepuloides 420, 421, 422
see also long pepper
retrofractum 420, 421, 422
see also long pepper
piperadione 427
piperic acid 426
piperidine 426
piperine 424, 425–6, 429
extraction 426
structure 425, 426
piperolactam A 427
piplartine 427
‘Pippalmul’ 422
pitta 140–1
plant density 372–3
Index
plant diseases see diseases, plant
plant identification practice 107, 108–10
documenting 109
steps in developing 109
plant nutrition
caper bush 238–9
carambola 262
effect on chemical composition of leek
368–9
spearmint and nitrogen uptake 514
see also fertilisers; manures/manuring
planting
carambola 261–2
long pepper 432
peppermint 463–5
shallots 384–5
spearmint 505
plastic jars 91
pod types 301
pungency levels 307
pollination 235
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 95
polypropylene 95
post-harvest handling 52
capers and caperberries 243–5
Capsicum 306–7
caraway 275–6
celery 321
chives 342–3
leeks 380
long pepper 434
lovage 445–6
peppermint 468–9
potato onion 498–9, 500
prevention of contamination 75–6
shallots 386
potato onion 495–501
chemical composition and uses 496
medicinal properties 499
production 497–9
quality 500
toxicity 500
uses in food processing 499
potato sprout inhibitor 290
potato virus Y (PVY) 310
powdery mildew 310
prevention of contamination 75–9
harvesting and on-farm processing 75–6
hygiene and health requirements for
personnel 78
on-farm storage 76
packaging 77
processing factory 76–7
production 75
sampling and laboratory analysis 79
storage 78
transportation 78
primary metabolites 278
proanthocyanidins 158
process control 70
processed celery juice blends 325
processing facilities 76–7
production
asafoetida 223
capers and caperberries 242
Capsicum 306–7
caraway 271–2
celery 319
chives 341–3
galanga 348–9
galangal 359
guidelines xxi
leeks 370–8
lemon balm 392–4
lovage 439
pandan wangi 454–5
peppermint 462–9
potato onion 497–9
prevention of contamination 75
quality spices xix–xxiii
shallots 383–6
spearmint 504–9
see also cultivation
progesterone 144
propagation
capers and caperberries 235–7
carambola 261
celeriac 314
celery 320
chives 341
lemon balm 393
lemongrass 403
long pepper 432
lovage 443–4
pandan wangi 454
Perilla 484–5
shallots 384
propylene oxide (PPO) 83
propylidenephthalide 440
prostate cancer 138
protected cultivation 375
protocatechuic acid 426
protoplast culture 464
Provencal herbs 144
pruning 238
psoralen 441, 442
pulegone 179, 477–8
pungency
533
534
Index
Capsicum 301–5, 306, 307
potato onion 500
punishment 303
purification 26, 27
qualified health claims 42
qualitative methods 48
quality 61–6, 74
asafoetida 227
capers and caperberries 247
Capsicum 306–7
carambola 263–4
caraway 291–3
celery 331–4
controls and pesticide residues 52–3
improvement by irradiation 64–6
leeks 380–1
lemon balm 396, 397
lemongrass 414–16
long pepper 434
peppermint 475–8
potato onion 500
production of quality spices xix–xxiii
shallots 387
spearmint 514, 515, 516
quality assurance (QA) 103–10
quality standards 41–2
India 63–4
quercetin 360
radiation processing see irradiation
radiation therapy 139
radicals, free 129–30, 131
radioisotopes 68–9
radura symbol 72
ramps (wild leeks) 366
RAPD profiling 435
red pepper 116, 120
mycotoxins 5, 6, 7, 13–15
see also Capsicum
reference dose (RfD) 44
refrigerated formats 88–9
regulation
irradiation 71, 72
mycotoxin control 33
pesticide residues 42–4
regulatory agencies, analytical methods of
47–9
reversed phase liquid chromatography 26
rheumatoid arthritis 329
root division 444
root knot nematode 310
root oil, caraway 284
rosemary xx, 116, 117, 120, 144
cardiovascular disease 127
mycotoxins 17, 24–5
volatiles 204–6
rosmarinic acid 472
rust 375, 376, 467, 510
S-alk(en)yl cysteine sulphoxides (ACSOs) 338
safety
assessment and peppermint 477–8
irradiation and 70–1
microbiological safety and packaging 98–9
see also toxicity
saffron 116, 120
cancer 143, 147
colour xxv
gut immunity 164–5
mycotoxins 9, 12
safranal 165
safrole 186
sagapenum 225, 226
sage xx, 116, 120
sambal 225, 226
sample preparation 20–5, 44, 45
sampling 20–5, 79
sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) agreement
72
sarcoma 139
Scoville Heat Units 301–4, 307
screw pine 453
see also pandan wangi
season of sowing/planting 371–2
seasoning-like substances 441, 442
secondary metabolites 179, 278–9
see also volatiles
seco-tanapartholides 158
seed bed preparation 308
seed collection 406
seed lipids 486–7
seed propagation
caper bush 235–7
carambola 261
leeks 372
lemongrass 403
see also sowing
Semecarpus anacardium (Bhela/marking nut
tree) 148
Semecarpus ‘Lehyam’ SL 143–4
semi-quantitative methods 48
sensory evaluation 414–15
separation 26, 44, 45–6
sequence characterised amplified region
(SCAR) markers 305
sesamin 427
sesquiterpene hydrocarbons 184
Index
sesquiterpenes 177, 178
biosynthesis 180–3
oxygenated 184
shallots 365, 381–7
botany 382
chemical composition 383
cultivars 383–4
cultivation and production 383–6
description 381–2
origin and distribution 382–3
quality issues 387
uses in food industry/processing 386–7
sharecropping 49
shikimate biosynthetic pathway 180, 181, 484
side-effects 165–6
Sidha medicine 428
sifters 80
Sinbar (terbacil) 466, 467, 476
single residue methods (SRMs) 48
SKAL 58
skin 246–7, 289
contact dermatitis 489
slippery elm bark 161
sodium bisulphite 32
sodium bisulphite method 416
soils
caper bush 234
carambola 262
caraway 272–3
celeriac 314
celery 319
chives 341
leeks 371
lemongrass 402
long pepper 431–2
lovage 443
pepper fruits 308
peppermint 462–3
shallots 384
spearmint 504–5
solid phase extraction (SPE) 45
solubilised spices 92
solvent extraction 407
sotolon 441, 442
sowing
Capsicum 308
caraway 273–4
celeriac 314
celery 320
see also seed propagation
spearmint 460, 502–19
biosynthesis and molecular genetics 503–4
chemical composition 503
cultivation and production 504–9
535
food uses 512
functional benefits 512–16
important Indian varieties 508–9
medicinal uses 512
pests and diseases 510–11
quality issues 514, 515, 516
volatiles 184, 206–8
Special Crop Value Chain Round Tables 104
spent grass 407–8
spice extracts 87
spiced carrot soup with ginger and lemongrass
411
Spices Board of India xxi
spiral gravity separators 81–2
Spirit of Peppermint 473
spores 61, 62, 98–9
star anise 116, 120
star fruit see carambola
steam distillation 327, 406
steam sterilisation 83
sterilisation 82–3
stolon rot 511
stolons 463
stomach cancer 138
storage 86–102
Capsicum 309
carambola 264
factors causing deterioration during 93
leeks 381
mycotoxin prevention 28
prevention of contamination 78
on-farm storage 76
requirements 93–4
shallots 387
sumach 116, 120
supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) 48
supercritical fluids (SCFs) 45
surgery 139
sweet pepper see Capsicum
T-2 toxin 3
tandem quadrupole LC and GC/MS/MS 49
tannins 158, 441–3
tapping asafoetida 225–6
taraxasterol 144
tarragon 116, 120
Taxus baccata (yew) 148
tears, asafoetida 223
teas, herbal
lemongrass 409–10
peppermint 462, 473
technical barriers to trade (TBT) agreement 72
terbacil (Sinbar) 466, 467, 476
terpenes 177–8, 179
536
Index
biosynthesis 180–3, 503–4
found in herbs and spices 183–4
see also volatiles
Thai cooking 410–13
thermal processing see heat treatment
thermionic detectors 46
thin layer chromatography (TLC) 26, 47
thiosulphinates 338, 339
thrips 310, 375, 377
thyme xx, 116, 120, 126
cardiovascular disease 129
volatiles 208
thymol 157, 185, 208
tilio 17, 25
Tinospora cordifolia (Amrut) 148
tissue culture 454
galanga 349–50
tobacco ring spot virus 511
Tom Ka Kai 412
Tom Yum Kai 412
Tom Yum Koong 412
Tom Yum Poh Tak 412
tormentil 162
toxicity
caraway 290–1
celery 331
long pepper 431
peppermint 477–8
Perilla 489
potato onion 500
traceability 106
trade, international 41
asafoetida 224
caraway 271–2
celery 319
irradiation and 71–2
lovage 439
transgenic plants 464
transplanting
caper bush 238
Capsicum 308
celeriac 314
celery 320
leeks 373
lemongrass 403
transportation 78
travelling wave (T-wave) technology 49
trichothecenes 4
control 29
see also mycotoxins
Trikatu 428
Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity
(TEAC) assay 132
tube packaging format 88–9
tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) 489
turmeric xx, xxiii, 116, 120, 164
cancer 147
cardiovascular disease 129
colour xxv, 65, 66
mycotoxins 9, 12, 17, 25
packaging and storage 90, 92
volatiles 184, 209–11
turmerone 186, 209
twill bags 89
two spotted mite (TSM) 467–8
ultra performance liquid chromatography
(UPLC) 49
umbelliferone 441, 442
Umeboshi 490
Unani medicine 428
underground onion see potato onion
United States (US)
Department of Agriculture 71, 72
EPA 43–4, 55
FDA 42, 44
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) 55
Food Quality Protection Act 1996 43–4
irradiation 72
National Center for Complementary and
Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) 141
regulation of pesticides 42, 43–4, 55
unqualified health claims 42
UPC code 97–8
urinary problems 329
ushak 222–3, 225, 228
UV absorption 46
vanilla xx, 116, 120
vasicine 429
vata 140–1
Vateria indica (Kundura, Indian Copal tree)
148
vaticanol C 144
vegetarian pad Thai 412
verification 107
vermicompost 508
very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) 130
veterinary medicine 289–90
vinegar, pickling in 243–4
vitamin C 300
volatiles 177–218
biosynthesis of the components of volatile
oils 179–83
capers 233
celery 322–4
classification 177–9
Index
and plant sources 183–211
major volatiles in herbs and spices
183–5, 186
volatile oil constituents 185–211
water
irradiation and 70
irrigation see irrigation
weed control
Capsicum 309
caraway 274–5
leeks 374
lemon balm 393
lemongrass 404
lovage 444–5
peppermint 466–7
spearmint 506–7
wei tong ming 162
white pepper 13, 91, 116, 120
mycotoxins 9–10, 11, 15–17, 18
white rot 376
white-tip disease 375–6
whole herbs/spices 89–91
Capsicum fruits 303
whole seeds
caraway 281–2, 291–2, 293
celery 114, 119, 317, 326, 331–3
wild leeks (ramps) 366
wilt 310
Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) 142,
144–5, 148
World Health Organization (WHO) 108
World Trade Organization (WTO) 72
X-rays 67, 68, 69, 70
yew 148
yield
capers and caperberries 242–3
carambola 263
caraway 275
celeriac 316
galanga 348–9
leeks 378
lemon balm 393
long pepper 434
Yum 412
Yum seafood 413
Z-asarone 414
Z-ligustilide 440, 441
zearalenone (ZEN) 3, 4, 5
control 30, 31
see also mycotoxins
zingiberene 186
537