Vol. 2 of 3 - Draft
Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) Report
for the Kuiseb Delta and
Dune Belt Areas,
ERONGO REGION, NAMIBIA
Ap
ri2lof23 0
12Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
Vol.
– EIA
i
Sam Nujoma Avenue
Standard Bank Building
First Floor, Room 8,
P.O. Box 7018,
SWAKOPMUND, NAMIBIA
Tel: (00264) 064-403-905
FaProject
x: (00–2April
64)2012
064-403-906
NACOMA Supported
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) REPORT Vol. 2 of 3 FOR
KUISEB DELTA AND DUNE BELT AREAS
Date of 1st Issue
APRIL 2012
Author
Risk-Based Solutions (RBS) CC /
Foresight Group Namibia (PTY) LTD
Checked By
Ms. Vita Stankevica and Ms. Christine K. Links
Authorised By
Dr.
Reviewed By
NACOMA Project Coordination Team
Sindila
Mwiya
–
Environmental Assessment
Practitioner (EAP)
Accepted and Approved By
REVISIONS
2nd Updated Draft Report
May 2012
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSULTANTS
RB S
Risk-Based Solutions cc
the Consulting Arm of Foresight Group Namibia (PTY) LTD
th
8 Floor Capital Centre Building,
Levinson Arcade, Independence Avenue
P.O. Box 1839
WINDHOEK NAMIBIA
Cell: +264 - (0)81277-2546; Tel: +264-61- 306058
Fax: +264-61-306059 / 61-256830
Email: smwiya@rbs.com.na; URLs: www.rbs.com.na or www.foresight.com.na
Foresight Group Namibia (FGN) (PTY) LTD – Perfecting the Future
Risk-Based Solutions (RBS) – Delivering the Solutions
CITATION: Risk-Based Solutions (RBS), 2012. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Vol. 2 of 3 Report for
the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Areas for the NACOMA Project covering Walvis Bay in the Erongo Region
Namibia.
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
ii
NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Statement of Qualification of the Environmental
Assessment Practitioner (EAP) Dr. Sindila Mwiya
Dr. Sindila Mwiya has been the Environmental Assessment Practitioner (EAP) for this project
in accordance with the provisions of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations
No. 30 of 2012 under the Environmental Management Act (EMA), 2007, Act No. 7 of 2007.
Dr. Sindila Mwiya is highly qualified, with more than ten years of professional experience in
mining, petroleum, property development, applied environmental management, cleaner
production, environmental management, geoenvironmental engineering and geotechnical
engineering fields.
He gained his experience from public and private employments and contracts in Namibia,
and the SADC region. He has worked as a Project Manager, Lecturer (University of
Namibia), External Examiner/ Moderator (Polytechnic of Namibia), Technical Consultant,
National Technical Advisor and reviewer on international, national and regional (SADC)
plans, programmes and projects with the objective to ensure substantial and sustainable
natural resources development, management, and for development policies, plans,
programmes and projects financed by governments, private investors and donor
organisations. Among his academic achievements, he is a holder of a Ph.D., MPhil, PG Cert
and BEng (Hons) qualifications from the University of Portsmouth in the United Kingdom.
During the 2004 Namibia National Science Awards, organised by the Ministry of Education,
and held in Windhoek, Namibia, Dr. Sindila Mwiya was awarded the Geologist of the Year for
2004, in the professional category.
Furthermore, as part of his professional career recognition, Dr. Sindila Mwiya is a life
member of the Geological Society of Namibia, Consulting member of the Hydrogeological
Society of Namibia and a Professional Engineer registered with the Engineering Council of
Namibia. He possesses excellent computing, analytical, communicative, interpersonal and
organisational skills. Dr Sindila Mwiya has experience, skills and technical knowledge in
petroleum industry, mining industry, environment, local, regional and national land use
planning, production and management of various planning thematic information, maps and
related documentations, gained in local, national and regional developmental policies, plan,
programmes and projects he undertook.
Specialist Input
Ms Margaret Angula
Team Leader (UNAM)
Dr Martin Hipondoka
GIS/RS & Geomorphology expertise (UNAM)
Ms Ngula Niipele
Assistant Team leader/ GIS expertise (UNAM)
Dr John Kinahan
Archaeology Expertise (QRS Namibia)
Mr Peter Cunningham
Vertebrate Fauna and Flora Expertise (Environment &
(Wildlife Consulting Namibia)
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
iii
NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table of Contents
LIST OF ACRONYMS ........................................................................................................................................... XI
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................................... XII
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1.
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................ XII
PROJECT DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES ............................................................................................................ XII
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................................................... XIII
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT PROCESS ................................................................................................... XIII
REGULATORY COMPLIANCE ........................................................................................................................ XIV
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................................................. XV
IMPACT ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................................................... XVIII
DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES ................................................................................................................. XXI
EIA CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................. XXI
BACKGROUND ......................................................................................................................................... - 1 -
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
2.
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................................- 1 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT REQUIREMENTS .........................................................................................- 2 SPECIALIST TEAM .....................................................................................................................................- 2 OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT PROCESS ..........................................................................- 3 STUDY AREA / PROJECTS LOCATION ..........................................................................................................- 5 -
NATIONAL AND LOCAL SERVICES AND INFRASTRUCTURE .......................................................... - 15 2.1 NATIONAL OVERVIEW ..............................................................................................................................- 15 2.2 NATIONAL POST AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS ...........................................................................................- 15 2.3 NATIONAL FINANCIAL SERVICES...............................................................................................................- 15 2.4 NATIONAL TRANSPORT NETWORK ............................................................................................................- 16 2.4.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................................... - 16 2.4.2 National Rail Services ................................................................................................................. - 16 2.4.3 National Port Facilities ................................................................................................................ - 16 2.4.4 National Air Services ................................................................................................................... - 17 2.5 LOCAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICES..................................................................................................- 17 2.6 SERVICES FOR THE PROPOSED PROJECT .................................................................................................- 22 2.6.1 Electricity Supply Requirements ................................................................................................. - 22 2.6.2 Fuel Supply Requirements .......................................................................................................... - 22 2.6.3 Water Supply Requirements ....................................................................................................... - 24 -
3.
EIA ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................... - 25 3.1 NAMIBIA ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE ..............................................................................- 25 3.2 ASSESSMENT PROCESS AND DATA SYNTHESIS.........................................................................................- 27 3.2.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................................... - 27 3.2.2 Climatic Components .................................................................................................................. - 29 3.2.3 Environmental Components........................................................................................................ - 30 3.2.3.1
Ecological Settings............................................................................................................................ - 30 3.2.3.2
Assessment of the Local Flora .......................................................................................................... - 31 3.2.3.3
Assessment of the Local Fauna ........................................................................................................ - 32 3.2.3.4
Socioeconomic ................................................................................................................................. - 32 3.2.3.5
Archaeological Methodology and Approach ...................................................................................... - 32 3.2.3.5.1 Significance and Vulnerability Ranking of Archaeological Finds .................................................. - 32 3.2.3.5.2 Significance Ranking.................................................................................................................... - 33 3.2.3.5.3 Vulnerability Ranking ................................................................................................................... - 33 -
3.2.4
Ground Components ................................................................................................................... - 34 -
3.2.4.1
3.2.4.2
3.2.5
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management ............................................................... - 38 -
3.2.5.1
4.
Evaluation of Surface and Groundwater ........................................................................................... - 35 Evaluation of Water Vulnerability ...................................................................................................... - 36 Impact Assessment Criteria .............................................................................................................. - 38 -
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................................... - 39 4.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................- 39 4.2 INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND PROTOCOLS .............................................................................................- 39 4.3 NATIONAL LEGISLATIONS .........................................................................................................................- 39 4.3.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................................... - 39 4.3.2
Regulatory Agencies and Permitting ..................................................................................................... - 41 -
4.4 OTHER KEY NATIONAL POLICIES..............................................................................................................- 43 4.4.1 Environmental Assessment Policy .............................................................................................. - 43 Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
iv
NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
4.4.2
4.4.3
5.
Dorob National Park Draft Regulations ....................................................................................... - 43 Other Policies .............................................................................................................................. - 44 -
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED PROJECTS ................................................................................ - 45 5.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW...............................................................................................................................- 45 5.2 KUISEB DELTA DEVELOPMENT PROJECT/ TRUST (KDDP/T) ......................................................................- 45 5.2.1 The Kuiseb Delta ........................................................................................................................ - 45 5.2.2 Kuiseb Delta Development Project (KDDP) ................................................................................ - 45 5.2.3 KDDP Proposed Project Activities .............................................................................................. - 47 5.3 W ALVIS BAY BIRD PARADISE ...................................................................................................................- 47 5.3.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................................... - 47 5.4 EXISTING ACTIVITIES IN THE KUISEB DELTA AND DUNE BELT AREAS ..........................................................- 48 -
6.
THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND SPECIALIST STUDIES ............................................................ - 53 6.1 CLIMATIC SETTINGS ................................................................................................................................- 53 6.1.1 Local and Regional Wind Patterns ............................................................................................. - 57 6.1.2 Assessment of Climatic Settings................................................................................................. - 59 6.2 BIODIVERSITY .........................................................................................................................................- 61 6.2.1 Vertebrate Fauna Diversity ......................................................................................................... - 61 6.2.1.1
Vertebrate Fauna Field Survey Methods .......................................................................................... - 61 6.2.1.1.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................................... - 61 6.2.1.1.2 Mammals ..................................................................................................................................... - 62 6.2.1.1.3 Reptiles ........................................................................................................................................ - 63 6.2.1.1.4 Amphibians .................................................................................................................................. - 63 6.2.1.1.5 Birds ............................................................................................................................................. - 63 6.2.1.2
Vertebrate Fauna Field Survey Results ............................................................................................ - 63 6.2.1.2.1 Reptile Diversity ........................................................................................................................... - 63 6.2.1.2.2 Amphibian Diversity ..................................................................................................................... - 69 6.2.1.2.3 Mammal Diversity......................................................................................................................... - 69 6.2.1.2.4 Avian Diversity ............................................................................................................................. - 75 -
6.2.2
Flora Diversity ............................................................................................................................. - 81 -
6.2.2.1
Flora Field Survey Methods .............................................................................................................. - 81 6.2.2.2.1 Trees and shrubs ......................................................................................................................... - 81 6.2.2.2.2 Grasses ........................................................................................................................................ - 81 6.2.2.2.3 Other species ............................................................................................................................... - 81 6.2.2.2
Flora Field Survey Results ................................................................................................................ - 81 6.2.2.2.1 Tree and Shrub Diversity ............................................................................................................. - 81 6.2.2.2.2 Grass Diversity ............................................................................................................................. - 86 6.2.2.2.3 Habitats ........................................................................................................................................ - 88 6.2.2.2.4 Alien Species ............................................................................................................................... - 95 -
6.2.3
Vertebrate Fauna and Flora Conclusions ................................................................................... - 97 -
6.2.3.1
Vertebrate Fauna Conclusions ......................................................................................................... - 97 6.2.3.1.1 Reptiles ........................................................................................................................................ - 97 6.2.3.1.2 Amphibians .................................................................................................................................. - 97 6.2.3.1.3 Mammals ..................................................................................................................................... - 97 6.2.3.1.4 Birds ........................................................................................................................................... - 100 6.2.3.2.1 Flora Overview ........................................................................................................................... - 103 -
6.2.4
Sensitive Areas ......................................................................................................................... - 103 -
6.2.4.1
Overview Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Area ................................................................................... - 103 6.2.4.2
Sandwich Harbour .......................................................................................................................... - 106 6.2.4.3
Lichen Fields ................................................................................................................................... - 106 6.2.4.4
Riparian Vegetation ........................................................................................................................ - 107 6.2.4.4.1 Kuiseb River ............................................................................................................................... - 107 6.2.4.4.2 Tumas River ............................................................................................................................... - 107 6.2.4.5
Rocky Outcrops .............................................................................................................................. - 107 6.2.4.6
Other Areas .................................................................................................................................... - 107 -
6.2.5
6.2.6
Recommendations .................................................................................................................... - 108 Envisaged Impacts .................................................................................................................... - 109 -
6.2.6.1
6.2.6.2
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... - 109 Faunal Loss / Disturbance .............................................................................................................. - 109 -
4.3
Floral loss/disturbance .............................................................................................................. - 112 6.3 SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT OF THE ERONGO REGION .....................................................................- 115 6.3.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................... - 115 6.3.2 Economic Setting ...................................................................................................................... - 117 6.3.2.1
6.3.2.2
6.3.2.3
6.3.2.4
6.3.2.5
Mining ............................................................................................................................................. - 117 Fisheries ......................................................................................................................................... - 118 Infrastructure ................................................................................................................................... - 118 Conservation and Tourism .............................................................................................................. - 119 Agriculture....................................................................................................................................... - 119 -
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
6.3.3
Social Setting ............................................................................................................................ - 119 -
6.3.3.1
6.3.3.2
6.3.3.3
6.3.3.4
6.3.3.5
6.3.4
Potential Socioeconomic Impacts ............................................................................................. - 120 -
6.3.4.1
6.3.4.2
6.3.4.3
6.3.4.4
6.3.4
Population and Migration ................................................................................................................ - 119 Population and Migration ................................................................................................................ - 119 HIV/AIDS ........................................................................................................................................ - 120 Access to Services, Livelihoods and Income .................................................................................. - 120 Marginalised Communities .............................................................................................................. - 120 Likely Positive Social Impacts ......................................................................................................... - 120 Likely Positive Economic Impacts ................................................................................................... - 121 Likely Negative Social Impact ......................................................................................................... - 121 Likely Negative Economic Impact ................................................................................................... - 122 -
Socioeconomic Recommendations .......................................................................................... - 122 -
6.3.4.1
Community Engagement ................................................................................................................ - 122 -
6.4 !KHUISEB DELTA ARCHAEOLOGICAL BASELINE .......................................................................................- 122 6.4.1 Research History ...................................................................................................................... - 122 6.4.2
Archaeological Sequence ........................................................................................................ - 125 6.4.3 Site Formation Processes ......................................................................................................... - 127 6.4.4 Situation Analysis ...................................................................................................................... - 129 6.4.5 Archaeological Knowledge Asset Value of the !Khuiseb Delta ................................................. - 129 6.4.5.1
6.4.5.2
6.4.5.3
6.4.5.4
6.4.6
Implications of Minimum Collection Strategy .................................................................................. - 129 Global Comparisons ....................................................................................................................... - 131 Research Prospects........................................................................................................................ - 131 Legal Status .................................................................................................................................... - 132 -
Current Use of the Area and its Heritage Resources ............................................................... - 133 -
6.4.6.1
6.4.6.2
Lack of Protection Measures .......................................................................................................... - 133 Traditional Ownership Rights .......................................................................................................... - 134 -
6.4.7 Impact of Tourism Activities ...................................................................................................... - 135 6.4.8 Management and Conservation Proposals ............................................................................... - 140 6.5 GROUND COMPONENTS ........................................................................................................................- 143 6.5.1 Geomorphological Setting ......................................................................................................... - 143 6.5.1.1
6.5.1.2
6.5.1.3
6.5.1.4
6.5.1.5
6.5.1.6
6.5.1.7
6.5.2
Geological Setting ..................................................................................................................... - 158 -
6.5.2.1
6.5.2.2
6.5.3
7.
Regional Geology ........................................................................................................................... - 158 Local Geology ............................................................................................................................... - 159 -
Water......................................................................................................................................... - 161 -
IMPACTS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................. - 164 7.1
7.2
7.3
8.
Terrain Units ................................................................................................................................... - 143 Aeolian Landforms .......................................................................................................................... - 147 Fluvial Landforms............................................................................................................................ - 150 Fluvial-Aeolian Landforms .............................................................................................................. - 152 Fluvio-Deltaic and Marine Landforms ............................................................................................. - 154 Denudational Landforms ................................................................................................................. - 156 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... - 158 -
SUMMARY OF LIKELY IMPACTS ...............................................................................................................- 164 EIA CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................................- 167 EIA RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................................................................- 167 -
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................... - 169 -
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
List of Figures
Figure 1.1:
Figure 1.2:
Figure 2.1:
Figure 2.2:
Figure 3.1:
Figure 3.2:
Figure 3.3:
Figure 3.4:
Figure 5.1:
Figure 5.2:
Figure 5.3:
Figure 6.1:
Figure 6.2:
Figure 6.3:
Figure 6.4:
Figure 6.5:
Figure 6.6:
Figure 6.7:
Figure 6.8:
Figure 6.9:
Figure 6.10:
Figure 6.11:
Figure 6.12:
Figure 6.13:
Figure 6.14:
Figure 6.15:
Regional location of the study area covering the Kuiseb Delta and
Dune Belt Areas..............................................................................................- 6 Detailed location of the study area covering the Kuiseb Delta and
Dune Belt Areas..............................................................................................- 7 Walvis Bay Corridors. ...................................................................................- 18 Proposed power transmission network in the Erongo Region. .....................- 23 Schematic presentation of Namibia’s Environmental Assessment
Procedure. ....................................................................................................- 26 A knowledge based approach methodology, an enhanced approach
that is in line with Environmental Assessment Process in Namibia. .............- 29 The QRS archaeological assessment process. ............................................- 34 Surface water and groundwater knowledge-based vulnerability approach. ..- 37 Kuiseb Delta Development Trust Concession Area. .....................................- 46 Current land uses of the study area. .............................................................- 50 Walvis Bay Subregional concept. .................................................................- 52 Regional climatic setting of Namibia showing the location study area
covering the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Areas. ..........................................- 54 Walvis Bay 2009/2010 Seasonal Rainfall Progression Relative to
Normal and Previous Seasons. ....................................................................- 55 Rainfall variation 1958 -2010 based on Walvis Bay Station. .........................- 56 Central coast fog events based on Walvis Bay Station .................................- 56 Long-term temperature variations 1975 -2010 based on Walvis Bay
Station. .........................................................................................................- 57 Regional wind patterns of Namibia showing Walvis Bay the study area. ......- 58 Central coast wind speed variations based on Walvis Bay Station. ..............- 59 Small mammal trapping results – species captured and habitats utilised. ....- 74 DST of important reptiles sensitive area based on the results of the
flora specialist work undertaken for this project. ...........................................- 98 DST of important mammals sensitive area based on the results of the
flora specialist work undertaken for this project. ...........................................- 99 DST of important avian sensitive area based on the results of the flora
specialist work undertaken for this project. .................................................- 102 DST of important flora sensitive area based on the results of the flora
specialist work undertaken for this project. .................................................- 105 The regional setting the !Khuiseb Delta, showing the distribution
of archaeological sites in Namibia and the relatively low density of sites
along the coast. ..........................................................................................- 124 Sequential shifts in the focus of human settlement during the last 2, 000
years in the !Khuiseb Delta: 1. & 2. Frederiksdam and southern
Sandwich Harbour, large shell middens occupied prior to the introduction
of domestic livestock; 3. Walvis Bay dunefields as main focus of
settlement during the 18th and 19th century trading contact with European
ships; 4. & 5. Gorogos and Khaeros, cattleposts used to supply the Walvis
Bay trade; 6. Sandwich Harbour fishing enterprises as focus of
indigenous settlement after the late 19th century collapse of the
pastoral economy (this period also saw an increased density of
settlement in the Walvis Bay dunefields). ...................................................- 126 Diagram to illustrate the effect of the prevailing southwesterly wind
(see windrose, top left) on a large shell midden dating to the
early first millennium AD. The midden comprises a cluster of eleven
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Figure 6.16:
Figure 6.17:
Figure 6.18:
Figure 6.19:
Figure 6.20:
Figure 6.21:
Figure 6.22:
Figure 6.23:
Figure 6.24:
Figure 6.25:
Figure 6.26:
Figure 6.27:
Figure 6.28:
discrete heaps of Donax serra shell, discarded on the surface of the sand
dune. The bold line enclosing the shell heaps shows the distribution
of shell displaced by the collapse of the middens, while the broken line
indicates displacement that corresponds to wind direction, here
dominated by the prevailing southwesterly wind. The linear streak of
shell fragments aligned to the northeast is evidently the result of this
process of wind-driven attrition. ..................................................................- 128 Major archaeological and historical site concentrations in the !Khuiseb
Delta. ..........................................................................................................- 130 Archaeological sensitivity mapping of the !Khuiseb Delta: RED
indicates highly sensitive areas; PINK medium sensitivity area, and
GREEN low sensitivity area. High sensitivity areas contain up
to 50 archaeological sites per km2 and contain evidence that is essential
to the understanding of the regional sequence; medium sensitivity areas
contain up to five archaeological sites per km2 and contain valuable
contextual evidence that is necessary to the understanding of local
settlement hierarchies; low sensitivity areas contain less than one
archaeological site per km2 and these are usually of limited research
potential. .....................................................................................................- 138 DST for the Kuiseb Delta Development Project: tourism concession
area in relation to sensitive archaeological zone. The two green circles
within the sensitive archaeological zone are the sites of the proposed
lodge and campsite for the Tourism Concession Area. ..............................- 139 Proposed extent of the !Khuiseb Delta archaeological conservation
area. ...........................................................................................................- 142 Geomorphic Terrain Units in the Study Area. .............................................- 145 Resilience of Terrain Units to Recreational Activities. .................................- 146 Terrain Units of Aeolian Origin. ...................................................................- 149 Fluvial landforms........................................................................................- 151 Fluvial - Aeolian Landforms. .......................................................................- 153 Fluvio-Deltaic and Marine landform. ...........................................................- 155 Denudational Landforms. ............................................................................- 157 Simplified Tectonostratigraphic map of Namibia. ........................................- 160 Regional geological setting of Namibia .......................................................- 161 -
List of Tables
Table 1.1:
Table 2.1:
Table 3.1:
Table 3.2:
Table 4.1:
Table 4.2:
Table 6.1:
Table 6.2:
Table 6.3:
Table 6.4:
Table 6.5:
Detailed roles and responsibilities of the specialist teams ..............................- 3 Predicted future power demands from uranium mines, related industry
and urban growth. ........................................................................................- 22 Developed assessment guide for potential project impacts on fauna and
flora...............................................................................................................- 31 Criteria used to evaluate impacts..................................................................- 38 Legislation relevant to the proposed Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Projects. .- 40 Permit requirements. ....................................................................................- 42 Overall assessment of the climatic influences and air quality impacts. .........- 60 Small mammal trapping site locations. .........................................................- 62 Reptile diversity expected and confirmed to occur in the general Kuiseb
delta and dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas. ...........- 65 Amphibian diversity expected to occur in the general Kuiseb delta and
dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas. ...........................- 69 Mammal diversity expected and confirmed to occur in the general Kuiseb
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 6.6:
Table 6.7:
Table 6.8:
Table 6.9:
Table 6.10:
Table 6.11:
Table 6.12:
Table 6.13:
Table 6.14:
Table 6.15:
Table 6.16:
Table 6.17:
Table 7.1:
Table 7.2:
delta and dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas. ...........- 70 Bird diversity expected and confirmed to occur in the general Kuiseb
delta and dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas. ...........- 76 Tree/shrub diversity expected and confirmed to occur in the general
Kuiseb delta and dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund
areas.............................................................................................................- 83 Flora (including lichens, but excluding grass) observed in various habitats
in the general Kuiseb delta and dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay
and Swakopmund areas. ..............................................................................- 85 Indicates grasses observed in various habitats throughout the area. ...........- 87 Grass diversity expected and confirmed to occur in the general Kuiseb
delta and dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas. ...........- 88 Alien species observed in various habitats in the general Kuiseb delta and
dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas. ...........................- 95 Summary of potential/envisaged impacts expected to occur
(faunal loss/disturbance is closely linked to habitat loss. ............................- 110 Summary of the potential / envisaged impacts expected to occur. .............- 113 - 128 Proportion of the study area with respect to resilience to recreational
activities. .....................................................................................................- 143 Area sizes and proportions of Terrain Units in the study area. ...................- 144 Damara stratigraphy of the Central Zone in the Usakos – Karibib –
Omaruru Area. ............................................................................................- 159 Overall assessment of the impacts associated with the ground
components. ...............................................................................................- 163 Criteria used to evaluate impacts................................................................- 164 Synthesis table of all potential impacts. ......................................................- 165 -
List of Plates
Plate 1.1:
Plate 1.2:
Plate 1.3:
Plate 1.4:
Plate 1.5:
Plate 1.6:
Plate 1.7:
Plate 2.1:
Plate 2.2:
Plate 2.3:
Plate 6.1:
Plate 6.2:
Plate 6.3:
Plate 6.4:
Plate 6.5:
Plate 6.6:
Plate 6.8:
The Kuiseb Delta ............................................................................................- 8 The Swakop River, the northern boundary of the study area. .........................- 9 Dune Belt Area. ............................................................................................- 10 Exclude salt works. .......................................................................................- 11 Excluded pelican point. .................................................................................- 12 Excluded Walvis Bay Town. .........................................................................- 13 Excluded coastal strip west of the B2 western. .............................................- 14 The B2 road linking the proposed site to the rest of World. ..........................- 19 The Walvis Bay International Airport.............................................................- 20 The Port of Walvis Bay. ................................................................................- 21 Sherman collapsible live capture small mammal trap set in
Arthraerua leubnitziae hummocks in the Tumas drainage line .....................- 62 Meroles anchietae (Shovel-snouted Lizard) common in the dune belt
area. .............................................................................................................- 67 Meroles reticulatus (Reticulated Desert Lizard) observed on sandy
gravel substrate. ...........................................................................................- 67 Tracks of Typhlacontias brevipes (FitzSimmons’ Burrowing Skink ...............- 68 Chamaeleo namaquensis (Namaqua Chameleon). ......................................- 68 Hyaena brunnea (Brown Hyena) faeces observed in the Sandwich
Harbour area.................................................................................................- 73 Gerbillurus tytonis (Dune Hairy-footed Gerbil) was the only small
mammal trapped during the fieldwork throughout various habitats in
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Plate 6.9:
Plate 6.10:
Plate 6.11:
Plate 6.12:
Plate 6.13:
Plate 6.14:
Plate 6.15:
Plate 6.16:
Plate 6.17:
Plate 6.18:
Plate 6.19:
Plate 6.20:
Plate 6.21:
Plate 6.22:
Plate 6.23:
Plate 6.24:
Plate 6.25:
Plate 6.26:
the area ........................................................................................................- 74 Great White Pelicans and Kelp Gulls observed at the Walvis Bay
sewerage works. ...........................................................................................- 80 A variety of bird species – e.g. Great White Pelicans, various cormorants,
gulls and terns – were observed at the Sandwich Harbour lagoons. ............- 80 The Kuiseb River riparian vegetation is dominated by Acacia erioloba
and Faidherbia albida trees, Zygophyllum stapffii shrubs and a
variety of invasive alien species....................................................................- 89 The Tumas River is dominated by Salsola nollothensis shrubs on
hummocks and prostrate Zygophyllum simplex. ...........................................- 89 The Sandwich Harbour area is dominated by Odyssea paucinervis grass
and Phragmites australis reeds, Sarcocornia perennis adjacent the
lagoons with the hummocks covered by Acanthosicyos horridus and
Caparis herereonisis. ....................................................................................- 90 Gravel plains dominated by the annual Stipagrostis hermanii with
Salsola nollothensis hummocks in the background typical of the habitat
along the western edge of the dune belt. ......................................................- 90 Sandy gravel plains with patches of Arthraerua leubnitziae hummocks
are typical along the eastern edge of the dune belt. .....................................- 91 Sparsely vegetated rocky outcrops in the area). ...........................................- 91 Sparsely vegetated gravel plains between the Kuiseb River and the dune
belt area. .......................................................................................................- 92 The northern gravel plains on the eastern edge of the dune belt towards
the Swakop River are covered by lichens (e.g. mostly Caloplaca
elegantissima) and the prostrate Zygophyllum simplex with
Arthraerua leubnitziae mainly associated along the drainage lines. .............- 92 Sparsely vegetated dune belt area between the Kuiseb and Swakop
Rivers. ..........................................................................................................- 93 Patches of Acanthosicyos horridus and Caparis herereonisis in dune
hollows in the dune belt area between Sandwich Harbour and the Kuiseb
River. ............................................................................................................- 93 Coastal dune hummocks in the Paaltjies area are mainly dominated by
Salsola nollothensis, but also Capparis hereoensis and Lycium
tetrandrum shrubs and generally have a high abundance of invertebrates
– e.g. Black Widow spiders feeding on other satellite fauna (J. Henschel
Pers. com.) and vertebrates – e.g. Meroles species lizards and gerbils. ......- 94 Phragmites australis and Tamarix usneoides are dominant at the
Walvis Bay Sewerage Works. .......................................................................- 94 Dense stands of invasive aliens – Argemone ochroleuca, Datura sp.,
Nicotiana glauca and Ricinus communis – occur in the Kuiseb River...........- 95 Eucalyptus sp. observed in the Kuiseb River delta area. ..............................- 96 Sisal sp. individual encountered in a rocky outcrop in the Rooibank area. ...- 96 Fresh water as excavated by predators serves as a lifeline to a variety
of other wildlife in the Sandwich Harbour dune belt area. ...........................- 106 -
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
LIST OF ACRONYMS
CBNRM
Community-Based Natural Resource Management
EA
EAP
EIA
EMP
DST
Environmental Assessment
Environmental Assessment Practitioner
Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Management Plan
Decision Support Tool
DNP
Dorob National Park
FGN
GIS
GPS
ICZM
Foresight Group Namibia
Geographical Information System
Geographical Positioning System
Integrated Coastal Zone Management
KDDP
Kuiseb Delta Development Project
LA
LM
Local Authorities
Line Ministries
MDP
MET
Management and Development Plan
Ministry of Environment and Tourism
NACOMA PCO
Namibia Coast Conservation and Management Project Coordinating Office
NSCNP
QRS
Namib-Skeleton Coast National Park
Quaternary Research Services
REB
RBS
RC
RS
SEA
TCB&SAP
TOR
T/A
UCCB
UNAM
Responsible Environment Behaviour
Risk-Based Solutions
Regional Councils
Remote Sensing
Strategic Environmental Assessment
Training & Capacity Building and Strategy Action Plan
Terms of Reference
Trading As
University Central Consultancy Bureau
University of Namibia
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.
Introduction
The Kuiseb Delta Community and investors from Walvis Bay and Swakopmund were
awarded small MGs to invest in projects that support sustainable development. The proposed
projects are located in the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt areas in Erongo Region. It is against
this background that NACOMA commissioned this study on behalf of the applicants
(Proponents) to conduct an Environmental Assessment (EA) covering Scoping (Vol. 1 of 3),
this Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Vol. 2 of 3 report and develop an Environmental
Management Plan (EMP) Vol. 3 of 3 report. The overall aim of the study is to reconfirm the
carrying capacity of the Kuiseb Delta to community based tourism and Dune Belt Area to
various conflicting resource use activities. There are also other activities in the area, such as
quad-biking, cultural, sightseeing and eco-tours operating in the proposed projects and the
surrounding areas. The nature and coverage of the existing and proposed activities and their
likely negative impacts on the sensitive coastal environment resulted in the proposed EA
study area being extended beyond the proposed projects areas to include the Dune Belt,
lower Kuiseb River and Delta Area.
2.
Project Developmental Stages
The proposed Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt projects implementations process could be
divided into the following development stages:
•
Project Identification: Covering the actual project definition, alternative location
assessments, investment levels for the small Matching Grants (MGs) for targeted
investments in specific project intervention sites in ecosystems of biodiversity
importance already undertaken by the NACOMA Project on behalf of the applicants
(proponents);
•
Feasibility study (covering all the technical studies such as assessment products,
infrastructure needs, design and layout already undertaken by the NACOMA Project
on behalf of the applicants (proponents);
•
Environmental Assessments covering Scoping (Vol. 1 of 3), EIA Vol. 2 of 3 and EMP
Vol. 3 of 3 ongoing and implemented by the NACOMA Project on behalf of the
applicants (proponents);
•
Preconstruction and environmental monitoring (covering site preparation, material and
equipment mobilisation for the development of the supporting infrastructure and
facilities for the proposed project activities and environmental performance monitoring
to be implemented on receipt of the Environmental Clearance Certificates to be issued
by the Environmental Commissioner;
•
Construction and environmental monitoring (covering the construction of the
supporting infrastructure such as access roads / tracks, walk ways, bird view decks,
lodge, administration and all other supporting facilities and environmental performance
monitoring to be implemented on receipt of the Environmental Clearance Certificates
to be issued by the Environmental Commissioner;
•
Operation, maintenance and environmental monitoring (covering the actual running of
the proposed Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt activities, maintenance of the supporting
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infrastructure and environmental performance monitoring following the completion of
the construction phase).
3.
Environmental Requirements
The proposed Matching Grants (MGs) for targeted investments projects covering the
community- based eco-tourism and bird watching activities falls within the Dorob National
Park (DNP), an area with ecosystems of biodiversity importance to Namibia. In line with the
Draft regulations of the DNP, the proposed projects will require the implementation of
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and the development of Environmental
Management Plan (EMP). In addition to the biodiversity significance of the proposed project
areas within the framework of the DNP Draft Regulations, recommendations of the previous
studies undertaken and covering the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Areas such the Strategic
Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the coastal zone of the Erongo Region recommended
undertaking EIAs and development of EMPs for new projects that are likely to have
significant negative impacts on the environment.
The project activities proposed for the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt areas falls within the listed
activities that requires environmental assessments to be undertaken in line with the
provisions of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations No. 30 of 2012 and
the Environmental Management Act, (EMA), 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007). In accordance with
the provisions of the Environmental Management Act, 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007), Part I Definitions and Object of Act, the term “environment” means the complex of natural and
anthropogenic factors and elements that are mutually interrelated and affect the ecological
equilibrium and the quality of life.
4.
Environmental Assessment Process
Environmental Assessment (EA) process covering Scoping, Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) and the development of an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) in
Namibia is governed by the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations No. 30 of
2012 gazetted under the Environmental Management Act, (EMA), 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007)
in line with the provisions of the Cabinet approved Environmental Assessment Policy for
Sustainable Development and Environmental Conservation of 1995 published by the Ministry
of Environment and Tourism. Detailed assessments of any likely short and long-term positive
and negative impacts of the proposed projects activities are contained in this Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) Vol. 2 of 3 with the management and mitigation measures
described in the Environmental Management Plan (EMP) Vol. 3 of 3 (EMP) report. The
implementation of the EA process for the proposed projects activities have been undertaken
in accordance with the provisions of the regulations and associated policies.
The methodologies and data synthesis were based on a set of interactive knowledge from a
variety of sources covering the proposed project area. The knowledge that has been created
and used at different stages of the assessment comprised climatic, environmental and
ground components of the natural environment. The climatic components that have been
used are precipitation, temperature, evapotranspiration and wind data. The environmental
components comprised the type of proposed and existing activities, local ecological setting
such as fauna, flora and habitats, archaeological setting, socioeconomic and community
settings. The ground components cover the regional and local geology, geomorphology,
surface water and groundwater as well as local landscape structures. The data synthesis
process utilised the Vulnerability Mapping Techniques (VMTs) in developing the five (5)
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Decision Support Tools (DSTs) in form of Thematic Maps (TMs) covering the proposed
projects areas of the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt.
Consultation and engagement of stakeholders also called Interested and Affected Parties (I &
APs) has been part of the EIA process for this project. Advertisements were placed in the
local Newspaper while telephones, faxes, letters and emails were part of the communication
and outreach programme linked to a number of meetings and workshops programme.
5.
Regulatory Compliance
Constitution of the Republic of Namibia, 1990 has a clear relevance to environmental
management associated with the proposed project activities in Kuiseb and Dune Belt Areas
as outlined in Article 95: Promotion of the Welfare of the People. This affirms that the State
shall actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people by adopting policies aimed at
the maintenance of ecosystems, essential ecological processes and biological diversity of
Namibia and utilization of living natural resources on a sustainable basis for the benefit of all
Namibians, both present and future.
Important legislative instruments that affect the prefeasibility, feasibility, development,
operation of the proposed project activities in the Kuiseb and Dune Belt Areas include the
following:
Environmental Management Act No. 7 of 2007- Implemented in February 2012
through the gazetting of the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations No. 30 of
2012 published by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism;
National Heritage Act 27 of 2004 - Ministry of Youth, National Service, Sport and
Culture;
Nature Conservation Ordinance, No. 4 of 1975 - Ministry of Environment and Tourism
(MET);
Water Act 54 of 1956 - Minister of Agriculture, Water and Forestry;
The Labour Act, 2007 (Act No. 11 of 2007) - Ministry of Labour;
Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Ordinance 11 of 1976 - Ministry of Health and Social
Services;
Forest Act 12 of 2001 - Minister of Agriculture, Water and Forestry;
Hazardous Substances Ordinance 14 of 1974 - Ministry of Health and Social Services;
Public Health Act 36 of 1919 - Ministry of Health and Social Services;
Regional Councils Act, 1992, ( Act 22 of 1992);
Local Authorities Act, 1992, (Act 23 of 1992);
Regional Agreements:
Southern African Development Community: Protocol on Mining; and
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Southern African Development Community: Protocol on Energy
6.
Other legal instruments to be identified during the full EIA study.
Natural Environment
6.1 Overview
The natural Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt areas comprise a diverse landscapes ranging from
Namib Desert Sand Seas, deltaic environment, marshland, ephemeral rives channels, gravel
planes and rock heads outcrops. All these varieties of landscapes support a diverse numbers
of flora and fauna. Overall, the area holds key environmental resources ranging from
archaeological resources to key biodiversity and socioeconomic support systems.
6.2 Vertebrate Fauna Diversity
It is estimated that at least 54 reptile, 7 amphibian, 42 mammal and 182 bird species
(breeding residents) are known to or expected to occur in the general area of which a large
proportion are endemics. Endemics include at least 50% of the reptiles, 43% of the
amphibians, 29% of the mammals and 4% (7 of the 14 Namibian endemics) of all the
breeding and/or resident birds known and/or expected to occur in the general area. During
the fieldwork conducted between 23 and 27 July 2011, 26 reptiles, 0 amphibians, 15
mammals and 82 bird species were identified and confirmed (See Appendix 1).
6.3 Flora Diversity
Between 26 and 39 species of larger trees and shrubs are known and/or expected to occur in
the general area of which 6 species are classified as endemic (i.e. 15.4%) while up to 48
grasses – 6 to 37 species – occur in the general area. During the fieldwork, only 9 species of
larger trees/shrubs (3 species protected by Forestry and 1 species being endemic – i.e.
Arthraerua leubnitziae) and 8 species of grass (1 species being endemic – i.e. Stipagrostis
sabulicolia) were confirmed from the general area.
Important flora species in the general area are the lichen fields and specific species – e.g.
endemics (Arthraerua leubnitziae etc.) and economically important species such as
Acanthosicyos horridus. Acanthosicyos horridus (!Nara) is endemic to the dunes of the
Namib Desert and are important as a source of food to the Topnaar community living in the
Kuiseb River area. It also serves as habitat to a variety of desert vertebrates and
invertebrates (Seely 2010) and even serves as a nesting site for the Southern Pale-chanting
Goshawk in areas devoid of larger trees/shrubs (N. Dreyer Pers. com.). Destruction and/or
unscrupulous harvesting thereof would pose a threat to these plants and associated fauna.
The lichen fields are difficult to protect although some areas have been fenced off for better
protection over the last few years. The overall diversity of lichens is poorly known from
Namibia, especially the coastal areas and statistics on endemicity is even sparser (Craven
1998). More than 100 species are expected to occur in the Namib Desert with the majority
being uniquely related to the coastal fog belt. Lichen diversity is related to air humidity and
generally decreases inland from the Namibian coast (Schults and Rambold 2007). Off road
driving is the biggest threat to these lichens which are often rare and unique to Namibia.
Another importance of the lichens is that the endemic Damara Tern often uses these fields as
a breeding ground (Craven and Marais 1986). To indicate how poorly known lichens are
from Namibia, the recent publication by Schultz et al. (2009) indicating that 37 of the 39
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lichen species collected during BIOTO surveys in the early/mid 2000’s were new to science
(i.e. new species), is a case in point.
Often deserts and plants associated with this marginal area look “dead” although are not, and
thus not viewed as important. All desert vegetation serves as a source of habitat for desert
dwelling fauna – e.g. arthropods and reptiles. All development have potential negative
environmental consequences, but identifying the most important flora species including high
risk habitats beforehand, coupled with environmentally acceptable mitigating factors, lessens
the overall impact of such development
6.4
Habitats, Flora and Fauna Sensitive Areas
The entire area varies in sensitivity from the globally important Sandwich Harbour wetland in
the south to the largely disturbed gravel plains north of the Kuiseb River and the largely
sparsely vegetated sand dune system dominating the central areas to the lichen rich gravel
plains in the north bordering the Swakop River. The actual dune belt area between Walvis
Bay and Swakopmund is viewed as more resilient than many of the other habitats in the
area. The leeward side of the dunes are viewed as more important as windblown detritus
collects here luring a variety of detritus feeding wildlife. All vegetated patches within this dune
belt system would be viewed as important habitat as this serves as habitat to a variety of
vertebrate fauna. The overall area is well protected with the Kuiseb delta and dune belt area,
with the exception of the Walvis Bay and Swakopmund town lands, formally protected within
the recently proclaimed Dorob National Park. The Sandwich Harbour area furthermore falls
within the Namib-Naukluft Park. According to the Uranium Rush Strategic Environmental
Assessment undertaken by the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME) in 2010 covering the
entire central coastal area, the following general sensitive areas were identified:
(i)
Biodiversity red flag areas:
Coastal area immediately north of Walvis Bay (e.g. Important bird areas; high
density of waders along beach; Damara Tern breeding areas);
Walvis Bay Lagoon (e.g. Internationally recognised RAMSAR wetland and
Important Birding Area);
Kuiseb Delta (e.g. very high density of !Nara plants; important for Topnaar
livelihoods)
Sandwich Harbour (e.g. internationally recognised RAMSAR wetland and
Important Birding Area).
(ii)
Biodiversity yellow flag area:
Inland Gravel Plains (e.g. Lichens, invertebrates and biodiversity associated with
Tumas drainage area. Tumas ‘mouth’ – reedbed and ephemeral spring on eastern
edge of dunes, hummocks and ephemeral wetland).
6.5 Archaeology
The !Khuiseb Delta is a complex landscape of mobile dunes and relict silt beds on the
outskirts of Walvis Bay. It was here that regular contacts were first established between the
‡Aonin , or Topnaar, and visiting European ships, more than a century before the imposition
of colonial rule. Now, well preserved archaeological evidence reflecting this early phase
Namibia’s history is under threat from encroaching development and uncontrolled tourism.
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The proposed project activities such as the proposed lodge directly falls in areas of key
archaeological resources. The following is the summary principal recommendations with
respect to proposed project activities and archaeological resources sensitivity and mitigation
management measures:
•
The core archaeological zone of the !Khuiseb Delta should be proclaimed as a
Conservation Area in terms of Section 54 of the National Heritage Act (27 of 2004);
•
Tourism (both commercial and community-based) should be strictly controlled, with
visitor access to sensitive archaeological areas explicitly prohibited;
•
Tourist camps, facilities, walking trails and routes of vehicle access should be
excluded from sensitive archaeological areas;
•
A cultural, historical and environmental information centre should be established as a
visitor gateway for access to the delta under the supervision of trained guides;
•
Continued archaeological survey of the !Khuiseb Delta should be integrated with
approved tourism ventures and training initiatives.
6.6 Socioeconomic
The socioeconomic environment of the study area is highly skewed if one compares the
urban centres of Walvis Bay and Swakopmund to that of the indigenous Topnaars. Locally,
the Topnaars have become a significant part of cultural tourism in Namibia for their donkey
carts and cultural performances within the study area. A number of operators include visits to
the Topnaars in their itineraries. The importance of mining in the region, as well as its
relatively high level of industrialisation, and the recent increases in tourism, has attracted a
large number of migrant labourers to the region. The fact that only 40% of Erongo’s
population was born in Erongo is testament to this (NPC 2007, Census data of 2001).
Similarly Erongo differs from most other regions in Namibia in that its population is highly
urbanised (80% of the people live in urban areas with the remaining 20% in rural areas).
Erongo also typically fares better than other regions in terms of variables such as income,
employment, health and education. However considerable social problems exist in the
region.
The main economic activities in the Erongo Region are concentrated in the two coastal
towns of Walvis Bay and Swakopmund, as well as at the mining sites of Rössing, Langer
Heinrich and adjacent to Karibib. The smaller towns generally offer limited chances of
employment, while opportunities in agriculture, small-scale mining and tourism vary widely
throughout the region. According to the 2001 Census Indicators, about 67% or residents
employments in forms of wages and salaries followed by 10% for pensioners and business
and cash remittances makes up the 16% respectively. There are only 4% of residents who
are farming.
6.7 Ground Components
The proposed project areas covering the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Areas comprise varying
landscape with the topographic higher areas dominated by the dune belt zones while the
topographic low areas are defined by the ephemeral rivers such as the Kuiseb and all its
tributaries and delta. The study area covering the proposed projects sites is dominated by
landforms of aeolian, denudation, fluvial-deltaic and marine. As such, they inter-finger and
form complex terrain units attributed to more than one geomorphological agents. By virtue of
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the geographic and climatic condition of the area, aeolian landform makes up the largest
portion of the study area, constituting approximately 60%. Denudational landforms are distant
second at 21% of the study area. Terrains units are discussed below in details under the
heading of main geomorphological processes, namely, aeolian, denudation, fluvio-deltaic and
marine, that acted in their formation.
7.
Impact Assessment
The impacts of tourism activities on the environment were evaluated in terms of nature of
impact (identification), magnitude, extent, duration and significance as outlined in the Table 1.
The impacts identified could be positive or negative. The overall likely impacts of the
proposed construction, operation and development of tourism activities in the study area are
outlined in Table 2. The assessment table also applies to identified and existing tourism
operations in the study area.
Table 1:
Criteria used to evaluate impacts.
Criteria
Nature of Impact
Magnitude
Extent
Duration
Significance
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Categories
Description of the effect of a proposed/existing activity on
the environment.
- Positive
- Negative
- Direct
- Indirect
- Cumulative
- Synergistic
- Severe
- Moderate
- Low
- International
- National
- Regional
- Local
- Short term
- Long term
- Project Life Span
- Permanent
- High
- Medium
- Low
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 2:
Synthesis table of all potential impacts.
Description and
Nature of Impact
Uncontrolled
tourism
and
Unrestricted
access
NEGATIVE,
DIRECT
Commercial
activities
and
Urban
development
NEGATIVE,
SYNERGISTIC
National Park and
Concession
area’s activities
NEGATIVE,
DIRECT
AND
SYNERGISTIC
Placing
of
settlements,
structures
and
facilities in highly
sensitive
archaeological
areas
NEGATIVE,
DIRECT
Faunal loss and
disturbance
Magnitude
Extent
Duration
Significance
Severe
Region &
Local
The duration of the impact is expected to
be short to medium term if mitigated
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Severe
Local
Permanent if no mitigation
Before mitigation:
Medium
After mitigation:
Low
Severe
Region &
Local
Permanent to Long-term if not mitigated
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Severe
Local
Permanent
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Severe to
Moderate
Local
The duration of the impact is expected to
be permanent over most of the proposed
development sites once established.
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
NEGATIVE,
CUMULATIVE
Floral loss
disturbance
Most species (e.g. various birds and
smaller mammals) are expected to recolonise the area after completion of the
development(s) – i.e. duration viewed as
short to medium term – while other
species are not expected to return (e.g.
various secretive carnivores) – i.e.
duration viewed as long term.
and
Severe to
Moderate
Local
NEGATIVE,
CUMULATIVE
This however, would be a relatively small
area with localised implications.
The duration of the impact is expected to
be permanent over most of the proposed
development sites once established.
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Most species, especially annuals, are
expected to re-colonise the area after
completion of the development(s) – i.e.
duration viewed as short to medium term
– while the destruction of mature trees are
not expected to rebound soon – i.e.
duration viewed as long term.
This however, would be a relatively small
area with localised implications.
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Table 2:
Cont.
Description and
Nature of Impact
Sensitive areas in
the Kuiseb and
Dune Belt area
NEGATIVE,
CUMULATIVE
Socioeconomic
POSITIVE,
DIRECT
AND
INDIRECT
Visual impacts
NEGATIVE
Water use
quality
and
NEGATIVE
(unmitigated),
POSITIVE
(sustainable
utilisation
and
management)
DIRECT
Waste
and
Sewage
management at
project sites
POSITIVE
(mitigation)
Dune morphology
and
Wind
situation
NEGATIVE,
INDIRECT
Cumulative
Impacts
Magnitude
Extent
Duration
Significance
Biodiversity
sensitive areas:
Severe
-Coastal
area
immediately north
of Walvis Bay
-Walvis
Bay
Lagoon
-Kuiseb Delta
-Sandwich Harbour
MODERATE
to
LOW
Inland
Gravel
Plains
Severe
International,
Regional,
National
&
Local
Permanent to long-term if not
mitigated
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Local
Permanent to long-term
Before mitigation:
Medium to Low
After mitigation:
High
Low
Local
Permanent
Moderate
Local
The duration of this impact
could last the entire project life
span
Before mitigation:
Medium
After mitigation:
Low
Before mitigation:
Medium
After mitigation:
Low
Moderate
Local
The duration of this impact
could last the entire project life
span
Before mitigation:
Medium
After mitigation:
Low
Moderate to low
Local
Short term and seasonal
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Severe to Moderate
National,
Regional
Local
The cumulative impacts could
last the entire project life span
Before mitigation:
Medium to high
After mitigation:
Low
&
NEGATIVE,
CUMULATIVE
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8.
Development Opportunities
Based on all the data collected and analysed at different stages of this EIA study process,
including all the findings and recommendations of the specialist studies, all the results and
recommendations have been evaluated and interpreted. Although the proposed projects will
have very high positive socioeconomic impacts, based on the extent, duration and intensity of
both likely negative and positive impacts of the proposed projects development for both the
Kuiseb Delta and the Dune Belt areas will have high negative impacts on the local
environment. Environmental Management Plan (EMP) Report Vol. 3 of 3 incorporating all the
constraints, relevant mitigation measures with respect to likely impacts and recommendations
has been prepared for implementation by the developer / operator. The EMP implementation
and monitoring activities covers all the stages of the proposed projects life cycle and is
inclusive of the preconstruction, development, construction, operational stages.
9.
EIA Conclusions and Recommendations
The Environmental Impact Assessment study discovered that there are severe to moderate
impacts on the natural environment as well as the cultural heritage of the area. The ongoing
tourism activities and proposed community-based tourism activities in the Kuiseb Delta and
Dune Belt Area might have negative direct and indirect impacts on the environment. The
degree of confidence in predictions of these impacts is very high as specialists studies
indicated. The potential threats identified in this study could be mitigated if conservation and
preservation measures are adopted first before the implementation of the proposed
development. The ongoing tourism activities continue to improve the socioeconomic status of
entrepreneurs around Walvis Bay and Swakopmund area. Tourism ventures from other parts
of the countries also benefit from this area. The Kuiseb Delta Concession and Project as well
as the proposed bird watching paradise will significantly alleviate poverty and unemployment
among Topnaars community along the Kuiseb Delta.
On the other hand, the Kuiseb Delta project proposal is uninformed as to the archaeological
value of the area and has used archaeological survey data merely as an aid to identifying the
most commercially advantageous position for the project. The project is a community-based
enterprise, but its formulation is no different from that of commercial tourism projects that fail
to consider the potential impact of their activities. In this way, the Kuiseb Delta Development
Project proposal represents a “worst case” scenario for the management and conservation of
this archaeological landscape. The fact that it is supported by organizations such as
NACOMA and evidently the Ministry of Environment, without the National Heritage Council
demanding better controls, merely illustrates the institutional threats that are posed to the
archaeological record in Namibia. The study therefore recommends that the proposed
projects and concession should not go ahead in its present form and must only be approved
subject to the following suggestions:
Proclaim the archaeologically significant part of the Kuiseb Delta as a Conservation
Area under the National Heritage Act;
Appropriate buffers must be created to separate current and future projects
activities areas from key environmental sources such as the Kuiseb Delta
archaeological sites, key avian breading zones of the Dune Belt Areas as well as
other important habitats and conservation zones / corridors;
Any access to archaeological sites should be strictly monitored and subject to
specific guidelines as to routes, group numbers and other factors;
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No settlements, camping or other overnight facilities should be permitted in any
area designated as archaeologically sensitive;
Avoid all development in the areas viewed as sensitive habitats – i.e. Sandwich
Harbour, lichen fields, Kuiseb and Tumas Rivers, rocky outcrops, Caution Reef,
Horses Graves and Paaltjies Salsola dune hummocks;
Implement and maintain track discipline limited to existing tracks and/or certain
tracks with maximum speed limits (e.g. 30km/h) as this would result in fewer faunal
road mortalities and associated dust pollution problems;
Avoid off road driving in areas prone to scarring and especially the lichen fields.
Nocturnal driving should also be avoided as this result in the destruction of slow
moving fauna – e.g. various reptiles and other nocturnal species;
Avoid the removal and damage of bigger trees (especially protected species – i.e.
Acacia erioloba, Faidherbia albida and Tamarix usneoides [Forestry Ordinance No.
37 of 1952) – during developments – including the development of access routes –
as these serve as habitat for a myriad of fauna. This is relevant to developments in
the Kuiseb River area;
The environmental management and monitoring of the dune belt area, the free offroad vehicle zone and the Kuiseb delta should form part of the Dorob National Park
management.
It is hereby recommended that the proposed projects may only go ahead on condition that
the proposed multiple land use approach (proposed and current activities, conservation and
tourism opportunities) are all fully incorporated and integrated in the high need for
archaeological resources conservation with appropriate buffers enforced in line with the
specialist studies recommendations and in line with the Dorob National Park Regulations. In
terms of the management of any likely short and long-term positive and negative impacts
likely to be associated with the proposed developments for both the Kuiseb and Dune Belt
areas, it’s hereby recommended that an Environmental Management Plan Vol. 3 of 3 (EMP)
Report must be developed for implementation by the proposed project developers for both
the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Areas covered in this EIA study.
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1.
BACKGROUND
1.1
Introduction
The proposed projects development described and assessed in this Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) Vol. 2 of 3 are supported by the Namibian Coast Conservation and
Management Project (NACOMA). The NACOMA Project is a five (5) year project that was
officially launched in March 2006. NACOMA is funded by the Global Environmental Facility
(GEF) and co-funded by the Government of the Republic of Namibia (GRN). It is being
implemented by the GRN (through National Planning Commission) and the World Bank on
behalf of GEF.
The NACOMA project is part of the GRN’s strategy to promote sustainable economic
development in the coastal zone and address its local, regional, national and global
environmental responsibilities. The project is designed to run parallel with Namibia's
decentralisation process, which aims to transfer more responsibility and authority to the
Regional Councils and Local Authorities. Under the NACOMA Project Sub-component 3.2.,
"Implementation of Priority Actions under the Management Plans at site and landscape
level", the NACOMA Project provides support for small Matching Grants (MGs) for targeted
investments in specific project intervention sites (ecosystems of biodiversity importance).
The Kuiseb Delta Community and investors from Walvis Bay and Swakopmund were
awarded small MGs to invest in projects that support sustainable development. It is against
this background that NACOMA commissioned this study on behalf of the applicants
(Proponents) to conduct an Environmental Assessment (EA) covering Scoping (Vol. 1 of 3),
this Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Vol. 2 of 3 report and develop an Environmental
Management Plan (EMP) Vol. 3 of 3 report. The overall aim of the study is to reconfirm the
carrying capacity of the Kuiseb Delta to community based tourism and Dune Belt Area to
various conflicting resource use activities. The following is the summary of the proposed
development activities covered in this EIA report:
(i)
The Kuiseb Delta Development Trust applied for a concession from the Ministry of
Environment and Tourism (MET) and engages in Community Based Tourism
activities. The Kuiseb Delta Development Trust is the proponent for this project in
line with the provisions of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations
No. 30 of 2012 and the Environmental Management Act, (EMA), 2007, (Act No. 7
of 2007);
(ii)
The Walvis Bay Bird Paradise proposes to establish a bird watching tourism
activity. The Walvis Bay Bird Paradise is the proponent for this project in line with
the provisions of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations No. 30
of 2012 and the Environmental Management Act, (EMA), 2007, (Act No. 7 of
2007);
There are also other already existing activities in the area, such as quad-biking, cultural,
sightseeing and eco-tours operating in the proposed projects and the surrounding areas. The
nature and coverage of the existing and proposed activities and their likely negative impacts
on the sensitive coastal environment resulted in the proposed EA study area being extended
beyond the proposed projects areas to include the Dune Belt, lower Kuiseb River and Delta
Area. Within the framework of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations No.
30 of 2012 and the Environmental Management Act, (EMA), 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007), all
existing listed activities currently taking place within the study areas will be required to
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obtained Environmental Clearance Certificate as may be determined by the Environmental
Commissioner.
1.2
Environmental Assessment Requirements
In accordance with the provisions of the Environmental Management Act, 2007, (Act No. 7 of
2007), Part I - Definitions and Object of Act, the term “environment” means the complex of
natural and anthropogenic factors and elements that are mutually interrelated and affect the
ecological equilibrium and the quality of life, including:
(a)
The natural environment that is the land, water and air, all organic and
inorganic material and all living organisms; and
(b)
The human environment that is the landscape and natural, cultural, historical,
aesthetic, economic and social heritage and values.
The usage of the term environment for this proposed project thus encompasses all aspect /
components of the environment as provided for in the Environmental Assessment Policy for
Sustainable Development and Environmental Conservation (1995) and the Environmental
Management Act, 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007).
In accordance with the provisions of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Regulations No. 30 of 2012 and the Environmental Management Act, (EMA), 2007, (Act No.
7 of 2007), the proposed projects activities for both the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt areas are
subject to Environmental Assessment (EA). The EA requirements for the proposed projects
cover Scoping, EIA and EMP. In demonstration of the highest commitment to good
environmental management as well as in meeting national environmental regulatory as well
as operational requirements, the NACOMA Project appointed University Central Consultancy
Bureau (UCCB) the consulting arm of the University of Namibia (UNAM) as the
environmental consultants for the proposed project. A number of specialists were contracted
to undertake and manage the environmental assessment process.
1.3
Specialist Team
The following is the summary of the specialist grouping that has been involved in the EA
process covering Scoping (Vol. 1 of 3), EIA (Vol. 2 of 3) and EMP (Vol. 3 of 3) study stages:
Dr. Sindila Mwiya (Environmental Assessment Practitioner (EAP) (Risk-Based
Solutions (RBS) Consulting Arm Foresight Group Namibia (FGN) (PTY) LTD);
UNAM / UCCB Specialist Team – (Ms. Margaret Angula, Dr. Martin Hipondoka and
Ms. Ngula Niipele;
Peter Cunningham Specialist Consultant Flora and Fauna (Environment & Wildlife
Consulting Namibia), and;
Dr J. Kinahan, Specilsist Consultant Archaeology T/A QRS Namibia.
The detailed roles and responsibilities played by each of the above specialists are described
in Table 1.1.
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Table 1.1:
Detailed roles and responsibilities of the specialist teams.
Team
Member
Position
Dr Sindila
Mwiya
EAP
Dr Martin
Hipondoka
GIS/RS &
Geomorphology
expertise
Archaeology
Expertise
Dr John
Kinahan
Task Assigned
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mr Peter
Cunningham
Vertebrate
Fauna and Flora
Expertise
•
•
•
•
Ms Margaret
Angula
Team Leader
EIA/SIA
•
•
•
•
Ms Ngula
Niipele
1.4
Assistant Team
leader/ GIS
expertise
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Develop the framework for conducting EIA in the Kuiseb
Delta and Dune Belt.
Finalize and Edit EIA & EMP reports
Map the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Area
Digitization of ecologically sensitive areas/zones.
Prepare an authoritative baseline document focusing on
the assessments of key archaeological sites
Evaluate the impact of current tourism activities on the
archaeological sites
Set out site management and conservation proposals
GIS mapping of the archaeological landscape
Demarcate a proposed area for proclamation under the
National Heritage Act (27 of 2004) as a Conservation
Area,
A comprehensive literature review vertebrate fauna & flora
known or expected to occur in the general areas.
Assess the bio-physical (vertebrate fauna & flora) issues
relevant to the above mentioned areas.
Assess the significance of development and environmental
impact that such developments may have on the
vertebrate fauna & flora at the proposed development
site(s) including general comments.
Finalize a Scoping Report & final report containing findings
on the vertebrate fauna & flora known or expected to occur
along the study areas.
Maintain liaison with the client (NACOMA) and other
related agencies;
Submit reports,
Co-ordinate and integrate the activities of the
multidisciplinary team members;
Participate in the public consultation sessions and attend
meeting as and when required by the client
(NACOMA).
Map the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Area
Digitization of ecologically
sensitive areas/zones
Organize site visits/workshops
Coordinate functions of the team
Administer the project
Objectives of Environmental Assessment Process
The main objective of the EIA study described in this report has been to evaluate the
biophysical and socioeconomic settings as well as all aspects of the natural environment
around covering the entire study area with respect to any likely negative and positives that
may occur as a result of the proposed projects activities. Special focus in terms of specialist
studies were undertaken on the local environmental settings such as the likely negative and
positive socioeconomic impacts as well as habitats around Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt
Areas. Likely potential short and long-term impacts with respect to the proposed project were
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carefully evaluated. The aim has been to collect, assess and document the likely temporal
and long-term positive and negative environmental and socioeconomic impacts of the
proposed project activities from preconstruction to operational stages.
The structure of this EIA Report covers both, legislative and the natural environment
technical data sets, grouped into climatic, environmental and ground components with
respect to the proposed projects. The climatic components cover the various regional and
local data sets such as rainfall, temperature, evaporation and wind. Fauna, flora, archaeology
as well as community issues, which include social, economic and political facets at
international, national, regional and local levels, form a part of the environmental components
of the natural environment. The ground components cover the regional and local water
resources, geology, geomorphology, and hydrogeology, as well as geotechnical influences
such as discontinuities characteristics. All these relevant data sets have been reviewed at the
earliest stage of the project development.
The process steps that has been followed in the preparation of this Vol. 2 of 3 EIA Report
took into considerations the provisions of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Regulations No. 30 of 2012 under the Environmental Management Act, (EMA), 2007, (Act
No. 7 of 2007) and in line with the Environmental Assessment Policy for Sustainable
Development and Environmental Conservation (1995) as well as the operational
requirements of the NACOMA Project. These assessment process steps are summarised as
follows:
(i)
Prepared the Inception Report in line with the NACOMA Project operational and
projects implementation requirements;
(ii)
On approval of the Inception Report, prepared the Draft Environmental Scoping
Report (Annex 1) including details of the proposed projects activities;
(iii)
Submitted the Draft Scoping Report to the NACOMA Project. Following the
approval by the NACOMA Project, communicated it to all interested and affected
parties through an advertisement in the local newspapers, telephone, faxes,
emails, meetings and workshops. The views and comments received formed part
of the Term of Reference (ToR) for the full EIA study implemented in form of
specialised studies included in this report;
(iv)
Implemented the full EIA and undertook specialised studies, followed by the
evaluation of the likely positive and negative impacts associated with the proposed
project activities on the environment. The results of the assessment presented in a
Draft EIA (Vol. 2 of 3) and EMP (Vol. 2 of 3);
(v)
Present the Draft EIA Report (Vol. 2 of 3) and the EMP (Vol. 3 of 3) to the client
(NACOMA Project), key interested stakeholders and the authorities for further
comments and input;
(vi)
Incorporated all comments received in the preparation of the Final EIA (Vol. 3 of 3)
and EMP (Vol. 3 of 3) reports for the proposed Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt
Projects and submitted the reports to the client (NACOMA Project) and to the
Ministry of Environment and Tourism for considerations with respect to the issue of
an Environmental Clearance Certificates.
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1.5
Study Area / Projects Location
The 746 km2 of the study area encompasses four generic landforms subdivided in at least 14
terrain units covering the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt areas situated in coastal zone of the
Walvis Bay District in the Erongo Region (Fig. 1.1). The study area lies in the Central Namib
Desert, between the Swoop River in the north and the sand dune belt in the south of the
Kuiseb River (Fig. 1.2). The Kuiseb Delta lies in an area where the Kuiseb River flows down
a steepened gradient onto the coastal flats (Plate 1.1). The boundaries and local setting of
the study area as defined by NACOMA covered the south bank of the Swakop River (Plate
1.2), enclosing the dune belt in a narrow strip (Plate 1.3), widening to include the extinct
northern flood area and the extant central flood area of the! Khuiseb Delta (Plate 1.1).
Excluded from the project area are the saltworks (Plate 1.4), Pelican Point sandspit (Plate
1.5), the town of Walvis Bay (1.6), and the coastal strip west of the B2 Road (Plate 1.7) and
south of the extinct Tumas River mouth.
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Figure 1.1:
Regional location of the study area covering the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt
Areas.
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Figure 1.2:
Detailed location of the study area covering the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt
Areas.
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Plate 1.1:
The Kuiseb Delta (RBS/ FGN Image Series, 2012).
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Plate 1.2:
The Swakop River, the northern boundary of the study area (Source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards Accessed April 2012).
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Plate 1.3:
Dune Belt Area (RBS/ FGN Image Series, 2012).
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Plate 1.4:
Exclude salt works (RBS/ FGN Image Series, 2012).
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Plate 1.5:
Excluded pelican point (RBS/ FGN Image Series, 2012).
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Plate 1.6:
Excluded Walvis Bay Town (RBS/ FGN Image Series, 2012).
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Plate 1.7:
Excluded coastal strip west of the B2 western (RBS/ FGN Image Series, 2012).
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2.
NATIONAL AND LOCAL SERVICES AND INFRASTRUCTURE
2.1
National Overview
Services sector dominate Namibia’s GDP and the main components are services provided by
the public administration, real estate and business services, wholesale and retail trade
(including repairs), transport and storage, financial intermediation. Namibia made minimal
commitments on services under the World Trade Organization (WTO) General Agreement on
Trade in Services (GATS). The country is committed to having no limitations on market
access and national treatment for these services for all four modes of supply. It did not
participate in the extended GATS negotiations on basic telecommunications (Fourth Protocol)
or financial services (Fifth Protocol).
In terms of road and rail infrastructure, Namibia has an immense network of 64,800
kilometres of roads with 7,800 kilometres paved. A 4,600 kilometre tarred highway network
links most of the economically-significant areas and neighbouring countries. The Trans
Caprivi Highway and the Trans Kalahari Highway were 2 long-haul road projects completed
in the late 1990s to run through Botswana to South Africa. These arteries which are part of
the Walvis Bay Corridor Group enable Namibia to provide land-locked central African
countries with an outlet to the sea, as well as reducing journey times to Johannesburg, South
Africa (Plate 2.1). The Walvis Bay Corridor Group is a public-private partnership established
to promote the utilisation of the Walvis Bay Corridors, which is a network of transport
corridors principally comprising the Port of Walvis Bay, the Trans-Kalahari Corridor, the
Trans-Caprivi Corridor, the Trans-Cunene Corridor, and the Trans-Oranje Corridor (Fig. 2.1).
The country has a 2,382-kilometre railway network.
2.2
National Post and Telecommunications
The state-owned Telecom Namibia supplies basic services and the Mobile
Telecommunications Company (MTC) and the privately owned Leo has a GSM network to
provide cellular services. Telecom Namibia’s performance contract with the Government
specifies a 10% annual increase in telephone penetration. The Namibian Communications
Commission is the sector’s regulator, and the Ministry of Information and Communication
Technology is the responsible Ministry. The Internet and other value-added services are
open. There are five internet suppliers. The state-owned NamPost also provide courier
services with over 100 post offices in Namibia. Post and telecommunication services will be
readily available for the proposed project.
2.3
National Financial Services
Financial services are relatively well developed. Service providers include five commercial
banks, the state-owned Agricultural Bank of Namibia, the Post Office Savings Bank, several
merchant banks, and a range of non-bank financial institutions, such as insurance
companies, pension funds, and money market funds. All commercial banks are privately
owned, with substantial South African equity. One, the Standard Bank of Namibia, is 100%
South African owned. South African, French, and German interests primarily own the
Nedbank of Namibia. Namibian equity is mainly held in Bank Windhoek (56.4%). The First
National Bank and the Standard Bank account for almost two thirds of the banking market.
There are over 80 bank branches throughout the country. A capital market also operates
around the Namibian Stock Exchange. Namibia is a member of the East and Southern Africa
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Banking Group and it participates in the Committee of Central Bank Governors of SADC
countries.
The Namibian insurance market is served by a number of private, mainly South African
owned insurance companies, which offer a broad range of services. Two insurance
companies, Sanlam and Old Mutual, de-mutualized in 1999. The state-owned Namibia
National Reinsurance Corporation (NamibRe) was established in 1998 with capitalization of
N$20 million. Insurance companies must re-insure with NamibRe. Pension and insurance
funds must keep a minimum of 35% of their investments within Namibia.
2.4
National Transport Network
2.4.1 Overview
The transport subsector is dominated by the state-owned TransNamib Ltd. Rail transport
services are offered through its subsidiary, TransNamib Rail. Transnamib is also a major
supplier of road transport freight and passenger services through TransNamib Carriers. The
transport subsector is relatively concentrated and dominated by a few operators, including
state operators. The Department of Transport of the Ministry of Works and Transport is
responsible for formulating and implementing transport policies.
The road infrastructure in Namibia is good with major network such as the Trans-Caprivi
highway linking Namibia to the landlocked countries of Botswana, Zambia, and Zimbabwe
and the Trans-Kalahari highway providing an important route between Walvis Bay and
Botswana. Road transport consists of bus, taxi, and road haulage operators. There are
about 200 road haulage operators using some 1,700 trucks and a freight capacity of around
31,000 tonnes. TransNamib Carriers is the largest operator. All other operators are private;
four are relatively large. Operators must be registered with the Namibian Traffic Information
System and have an operator's card. Commercial road carriers no longer require permits to
carry certain goods. Permits are needed for cross-border transport. Freight rates are set
privately. Namibia signed a bilateral Cross-Border Road Transport agreement with Zambia
and Zimbabwe in 1999 to facilitate movement of goods and passengers between the
countries. A joint Route Management Committee meets bi-annually to discuss problems
impeding movement of passengers and freight between these countries.
2.4.2 National Rail Services
The rail network is being expanded by the construction of a new line from Tsumeb to
Oshikango via Ondangwa, and the line from Aus to Lüderitz is being re-opened to handle the
additional freight passing through that port. The Namibian railway network is linked only with
South Africa. The Government removed the reserved goods scheme whereby 14 major
commodities were reserved for rail transport. Rail remains the major mode for transporting
bulk goods. The National Transport Corporation Act No. 21 of 1997 regulates railway
operations. Ownership of the rolling stock is vested in the Ministry of Works and Transport
while the market sets freight rates.
2.4.3 National Port Facilities
Namibia has two major ports, the main one at Walvis Bay (Plate 2.2), and another at
Lüderitz. Both are administered by the parastatal Namibian Ports Authority (NamPort). Both
ports have undergone substantial modernization and upgrading, including dredging to
deepen them. New container facilities at Walvis Bay, serviced mainly by weekly ships via
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Cape Town and Durban, provide among the quickest turnaround times in Africa. Lüderitz is
becoming particularly important for fishing and the offshore diamond industry. Cargo levels
have increased substantially. Lüderitz handles about 200,000 tonnes annually and Walvis
Bay some 2 million tonnes. Two companies, one fully owned and the other 50% owned by
TansNamib, provide liner services. There are about five private freight forwarders. There are
no controls on entry into shipping or cabotage restrictions. Foreign vessels may operate
domestic services between Walvis Bay and Lüderitz without a permit, provided they meet sea
worthiness requirements and customs and immigration regulations.
2.4.4 National Air Services
Air Namibia provides scheduled domestic services and international flights to Germany. A
number of international airlines provide regular services to Windhoek under various bilateral
agreements. Cabotage is prohibited. Most foreign carriers have third and fourth freedom
traffic rights. COMAV is the only carrier to have negotiated fifth freedom rights. The Air
Services Act of 1949 and the Aviation Act of 1962 were both amended in 1998. There are no
restrictions on supply of domestic aviation services provided the prospective carrier meets
the legislative requirements. The Airport Company Act of 1999 commercialized the eight
major airports. There are three international airports: Hosea Kutako and Eros at Windhoek,
and Ondangwa. The aerodrome network remains the responsibility of the Ministry of Works
and Transport, including those under the Namibian Airports Company. It runs them on a
commercial basis. The provision of airport services is normally outsourced to private
contractors.
2.5
Local Infrastructure and Services
The proposed Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt projects are both situated in areas with already
existing major and minor access road linked to key national road network (Plate 2.1). The
nearest major Towns are Walvis Bay and Swakopmund. There is a full mobile service within
the proposed project areas. The following is summary of the available local infrastructure and
services that can support the development and operational stages of the proposed Kuiseb
Delta and Dune Belt Projects:
(i)
Infrastructure:
Good road network (Plate 2.1);
Supporting world class tourism accommodation;
Good Walvis Bay international Airport with direct flights to Windhoek Cape
Town and Johannesburg (Plate 2.2);
(ii)
Services:
Availability of all key supporting services in both Walvis and Swakopmund.
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Figure 2.1:
Walvis Bay Corridors (Source: www.wbcg.com.na – Accessed March 2012).
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Plate 2.1:
The B2 road linking the proposed site to the rest of World (RBS / FGN Image Series, 2012).
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Plate 2.2:
The Walvis Bay International Airport (RBS / FGN Image Series, 2012).
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Plate 2.3:
The Port of Walvis Bay (RBS / FGN Image Series, 2012).
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2.6
Services for the Proposed Project
2.6.1 Electricity Supply Requirements
The likely limited electricity requirements for both the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt areas
projects have not yet been established. Where required, electricity will be supplied by
NamPower through the Erongo Red regional distributer. Renewable energy sources such as
solar and wind will be more preferred for the proposed projects as they will not require a lot of
electricity for daily operations. The already existing activities particularly around the Dune
Belt Area such as the Quad Bike and other adventure tourism operator could also consider
using renewable energy where applicable. During the construction and operational stages
however, a diesel generator may be required as a backup power supply in order to keep
critical construction or operational processes in case of a major power failure. The predicted
average growth electricity demand is 3.5% per year. Table 2.1 presents the power demands
under different scenarios mainly as the results on the ongoing mining rush in the Erongo
Region. The Government of Namibia, through the Ministry of Mines and Energy and the
implementing agent, NamPower, has been vigorously pursuing several power generation and
transmission projects, to enhance and increase the current capacity.
According to the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) conducted on the uranium rush
in the Erongo Region, Namibia currently does not have appropriate infrastructure and
existing sources and to meet the demands (MME, 2010). NamPower is investigating
possibilities and alternatives to insure infrastructure is developed for future power demand.
The power supply transmission network to the coast consists of a 220 kV transmission line,
connecting the Omburo (at Omaruru) Substation via the Khan and Rössing Substations to
Walmund Substation near Swakopmund (MME 2010). A ring system was created after the
construction of the Van Eck –Kuiseb – Walmund 220 kV line in 2003. However, with the
envisaged power demands from the uranium mines, NamPower is considering the necessity
to reinforce this ring to be able to provide a stable and assured power supply to the mines.
NamPower is thus considering a new line from the Khan Substation near Usakos via
Valencia and Rössing South, to the Kuiseb Substation (Fig. 2.2).
Table 2.1:
Predicted future power demands from uranium mines, related industry and
urban growth Source (MME 2010).
Scenario
Power Demand
for Mines (MW)
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Scenario 3
120
231
278
Power Demand:
Related Industry
and Urban growth
(MW)
55
102
102
Total Demand
(MW)
175
333
380
2.6.2 Fuel Supply Requirements
Fuel and other related products required for the development and operation of the proposed
projects for the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Area are available in Walvis Bay and
Swakopmund Towns. Where required, an onsite small fuel supply services may be installed
for the Kuiseb Delta Project in order to support the project activities.
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Figure 2.2:
Proposed power transmission network in the Erongo Region (Source MME, 2010).
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2.6.3 Water Supply Requirements
The Walvis Bay Municipality will supply the limited portable water requirements for the
proposed projects. The limited freshwater requirements will be for human consumption only.
A small tank will be created onsite to store some water for human consumption where
required.
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3.
EIA ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY
3.1
Namibia Environmental Assessment Procedure
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations No. 30 of 2012 under the
Environmental Management Act, (EMA), 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007) and inline Environmental
Assessment Policy for Sustainable Development and Environmental Conservation (1995)
requires the following steps in an Environmental Assessment Procedure (Fig. 3.1) as used in
the Scoping, EIA and EMP stages of the Environmental Assessment processes for the
Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt areas projects:
Submission of Policy, Programme or Project;
Registration of the Project with the Directorate of Environmental Affairs (DEA),
Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET);
Development of Proposal;
Classification of Proposal;
Environmental Assessment;
No Formal Assessment (should it be unlikely that the policy, programme or project
will result in significant impacts);
Review;
Conditions and Approval;
Record of Decision;
Appeal;
Implementation of Proposal;
Monitoring; and
Audits.
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1. SUBMISSION OF PROJECT
2. REGISTRATION
3. DEVELOP PROPOSAL
Notify interested & affected parties
Establish policy, legal and administrative requirements
Consult relevant ministries/interested & affected parties
Identify alternatives and issues
Significant impact
No significant impact
4. CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSAL
Objections
Terms of reference
5. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
Scoping
Investigation
Revise proposal
Report
6. NO FORMAL ASSESSMENT
7. REVIEW
Authority
o
Specialist
o
Public
Information required
Not
approved
Approved
8. CONDITIONS OF APPROVAL
Management
Environmental contract
9. RECORD OF DECISION
10. APPEAL
9. RECORD OF DECISION
11. IMPLEMENT PROPOSAL
12. MONITORING
o
13. AUDITING
Figure 3.1:
KEY
Recommended
steps
Possible steps
Required steps
Schematic presentation of Namibia’s Environmental Assessment Procedure.
The following Twelve (12) principles of environmental management as outlined in Part II,
Section 3 of the Environmental Management Act (EMA), 2007 (Act No. 7 of 2007), were
applied to the environmental assessment process for the proposed Kuiseb Delta and Dune
Belt area projects:
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Involve the community in natural resources management and promote and
facilitate the sharing of benefits from the use of resources;
Promote public participation in decisions affecting the environment and ensure that
their interests, needs and values are taken into account;
Promote equitable access to all environmental resources and consider the
functional integrity of ecological systems so that the sustainability of systems is
ensured and that harmful effects are prevented;
Undertake environmental assessments for all projects that may adversely impact
on the environment, or the use of natural resources;
Promote sustainable development in all aspects relating to the environment;
Protect and respect Namibia’s cultural and natural heritage, including its biological
diversity, for the benefit of present and future generations;
Reduce the generation of waste and polluting substances at source by adopting
the option that provides the most benefit or causes the least environmental
damage, at costs acceptable by society, in the short- and long term;
Promote the reduction, re-use and recycling of waste;
Adopt the “polluter pays principle”;
3.2
Use renewable resources on a sustainable basis for the benefit of present and
future generations;
In cases where there is sufficient evidence to conclude that there are threats of
serious or irreversible damage to the environment, the lack of full scientific
certainty may not be used as an excuse for postponing cost-effective measures to
prevent environmental degradation; and
Prevent damage to the environment; if this is not possible, reduce, limit, or control
activities that may cause damage (to the environment).
Assessment Process and Data Synthesis
3.2.1 Overview
The assessment process that has been used in the collection of various data sets used in the
Scoping, EIA and EMP stages is summarised in Fig. 3.2 and is in accordance with the
provisions of the assessment procedures as outlined in Fig. 3.1. The methodologies and data
synthesis were based on a set of interactive knowledge from a variety of sources covering
the proposed projects areas. The knowledge that has been created and used at different
stages of the assessment process from the desktop study to detailed site-specific
assessments consisted of the climatic, environmental and ground components of the natural
environment. The climatic components that have been used are precipitation, temperature,
evapotranspiration and wind data. The environmental components comprise the
type of proposed activities, the likely type of waste, likely contaminants associated with
different types of waste including spillages, local ecological (fauna and flora) and community
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settings. The ground components cover the regional and local geology, geomorphology,
surface water and groundwater assessments.
The phasing process of investigation (specialist studies) covering desktop, preliminary and
detailed assessments were adopted (Fig. 3.2). The aim was to evaluate the likely influences
and relevance of the proposed project activities on the local climatic, environmental and
ground components of the area. During the various stages of the investigation, relevant
data sets pertaining to climatic, environmental and ground components of the natural
environment were collected and evaluated. The evaluation process for the collected data sets
(climatic, environmental and ground) covered a variety of techniques, which included
mapping, as well as the matrix approaches.
The climatic, environmental and ground components covered a variety of specialist studies
that have been undertaken by highly qualified and independent consultants. The following is
a summary of the key specialist studies that have been undertaken with respect to the
proposed Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt projects:
(i)
Socioeconomic, current and potential land use zonations;
(ii)
Biophysical covering fauna and flora covering the project site and surrounding
areas;
(iii)
Geomorphology, geology and hydrogeology of the project area;
(iv)
Archaeology;
(v)
Others to be identified during consultation process and full Environmental
Assessment process.
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LEVEL 5
DATA INTEGRATION, IMPACT ASSESSMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT PLAN
CONSULTATIONS AND REVIEW OF DATA SETS
LEVEL 4
IMPACT ASSESSMENT / ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES
LEVEL 3
DETAILED ASSESSMENTS
CONSULTATION AND REVIEW OF DATA
LEVEL 2
PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENTS
LEVEL 1
PROJECT IDENTIFICATION:
DESK STUDY
THE KNOWLEDGE – BASE FOR THE EIA AND EMP STUDY
CLIMATIC
MODEL
ENVIRONMENTAL
MODEL
GROUND
MODEL
© Risk-Based Solutions 2012
Figure 3.2:
A knowledge based approach methodology, an enhanced approach that is in
line with Environmental Assessment Process in Namibia.
3.2.2 Climatic Components
Climatic components, which include precipitation and its mode of occurrence, temperature,
wind and evapotranspiration, have the most influences on the proposed project activities.
Their influences range from mobilising contaminants through wind and water transporting
contaminants to various targets in the surrounding areas. In addition climate can affect the
type of activities planned in a specific area such as the likelihood of flooding in topographic
low areas. The regional climatic data sets used in this study have been obtained from the
Meteorological Services Division in Windhoek, Namibia. The analysis and evaluation of
climatic data, such as precipitation, wind and temperature has been undertaken using the
statistical methods currently employed which include the highest or lowest parameter on
record, three or five year rolling averages or ten year period with the highest year average
parameter. Uncertainties associated with the data have been minimised using statistical
techniques. The results from the assessment have been combined to assess the likely
influence of climate on the proposed project activities.
The assessment and interpretation of various data components were focused on the
interrelationships that exist within the climatic components and their overall influence on the
proposed project activities. Overall, the focus has been on assessment and role of climatic
components acting as pathways for contaminant migration including wind and water transport
mechanisms. This influence depends on the variability of precipitation, evaporation,
transpiration, radiation, temperature and wind patterns.
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The likely influence of the proposed project activities on the air quality has been assessed
based on the available climatic data. Air pollution is defined as substances in the atmosphere
introduced by man including dust and gases, which are liable to cause hazards to the
environment, human health, harm to living resources and ecological damage caused through
physical or chemical interference with environment. These substances that pollute the
environment may be synthetic compounds or naturally occurring substances whose
concentration is elevated by anthropogenic activities to levels, which are either toxic or
capable of disrupting the ecology of an area. The approach that has been followed in
evaluating the likely impacts on the air quality by the proposed project activities is as follows:
Assessment of existing local meteorological data in relation to potential air quality
influences.
The influence assessment indicator guides that have been used with respect to the targets
that are likely to be impacted if located within the likely path of a contaminant source that may
be associated with the proposed projects over an extended period (at least more than 3
months in year) of exposure are as follows:
(i)
More than 10 km
=
1 (v. low);
(ii)
10, 000 km – 5 km
=
2 (low);
(iii)
5 km – 1 km
=
3 (high); and
(iv)
Less than 1 km
=
4 (very high).
3.2.3 Environmental Components
Environmental components have a vital role in the planning and implementation of effective
environmental management and mitigation strategies and practices with respect to the
proposed projects activities. The type of the proposed project activities, waste characteristics,
ecological and community influences are all-important and play a vital role on the
development of effective environmental protection strategies. Evaluations of the influence of
the proposed project activities on local fauna and flora have been part of the preliminary and
detailed data assessment activities undertaken in form of a specialist study.
The development of any project, such as the proposed activities, has some great positive
socioeconomic influences as well as negative influences which include temporal, long or
short term impacts on the local fauna and flora, habitants and damage to key archaeological
resources through physical tampering. However, environmental interests are also economic
interests and the conservation of resources, the survival of ecosystems and the health of the
population all have essential roles in the maintenance of the economy. Local communities as
well as local and other NGOs were also consulted as part of the detailed Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) and subsequent development of the Environmental Management
Plan (EMP).
3.2.3.1
Ecological Settings
The main reasons for integrating both fauna and flora as a specialist study for the proposed
project has been to evaluate:
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The ecological significance and conservation status with respect to the
international and local conservation requirements in order to avoid conflicts
between development (Proposed Projects) and conservation activities;
The nature and scale of negative impacts on the ecological setting, which include
likely temporal or permanent damage to specific species because of the proposed
projects activities from development to operational stages.
Table 3.1 outlines the evaluation guideline that was used for site-specific impacts and
influences, possible mitigation measures and site restoration strategies for environmental
protection covering fauna and flora likely impacts. Areas with low rainfall have low vegetation
density and vice versa. The following is the summary of the general methodological approach
that was used in the field assessment process:
Observational walks and drives were undertaken covering proposed project area.
During the observation walks and drive all of the species (both fauna and flora)
found were identified and recorded;
Transect walks were conducted across proposed project area and the surrounding
areas. During the transect walks all of the species (both fauna and flora) found
were identified and recorded;
Due to the fact that not all of the information could be obtain from only observation and
transect walks and drives, consultations were held with the local experts to get some more
information on birds and some of the current and future land uses.
Table 3.1:
flora.
Developed assessment guide for potential project impacts on fauna
CONSERVATION STATUS
[Based on National
Legislative Frameworks]
Very high
High
Low
Very low
3.2.3.2
INFLUENCE
INDICATORS
4
3
2
1
AREA AFFECTED AS A %
OF THE ORIGINAL
HABITAT AREA
>50
25-50
10-25
<10
and
INFLUENCE
INDICATORS
4
3
2
1
Assessment of the Local Flora
Assessment of the local flora has been undertaken as part of the specialised studies. The
following field methods were employed during the field survey to determine vegetation
diversity:
Literature review: An intensive literature survey (i.e. desktop survey) regarding, shrubs
and grasses that could potentially occur in the general/immediate area was conducted
to supplement the actual fieldwork;
Detailed field surveys of the proposed project areas and surrounding areas was
undertaken.
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3.2.3.3
Assessment of the Local Fauna
Assessment of the local flora has been undertaken as part of the specialised studies. The
following field methods were employed during the rapid field survey to determine reptile,
amphibian, mammal and avian diversity:
Literature Review: An intensive literature survey (i.e. desktop survey) regarding
reptiles, amphibians, mammals and birds that could potentially occur in the
general/immediate area was conducted to supplement the actual fieldwork;
Detailed field surveys of the proposed project areas and surrounding areas was
undertaken.
3.2.3.4
Socioeconomic
The influences of the proposed project activities on the surrounding communities and the
Erongo Region as a whole have been divided into two categories namely: perceived and real
influences. Real influences can be determined qualitatively and semi-quantitatively whereas
perceived influences do not exist in real terms but do exist in people’s minds. The likely real
influences due to the proposed project are more on the likely impacts associated with the
current and future land uses.
Field investigations were focused on the evaluation of likely influences posed by the
proposed projects activities with respect to local community aspects, which include the
proximity to the nearest settlement area, the location of known archaeological, historical or
religious sites as well as the likely impacts as a result of likely expansion of the and the
pressures on developable land for residential, commercial and industrial as well as other
public urban open spaces by the Walvis Bay Municipality.
3.2.3.5
Archaeological Methodology and Approach
3.2.3.5.1
Significance and Vulnerability Ranking of Archaeological Finds
Archaeological assessment in Namibia follows a basic three-phase process of evaluation –
usually by desk study; assessment based on field survey with limited sampling and including
proposals for mitigation of impacts (if required); and mitigation – involving detailed field
investigation, laboratory analysis and the preparation of site management plans (if required).
The assessment process, summarized in the diagram below, may combine evaluation and
assessment (as in the present case), and may conclude with assessment if no significant
impacts are identified. The present assessment constitutes a Phase 1 evaluation.
The evaluation and ranking of site significance and vulnerability is an essential component of
archaeological impact assessment. Quaternary Research Services (QRS) has developed an
approach to significance and vulnerability estimation that combines accepted international
practice with the results of more than 80 field surveys carried out in Namibia and elsewhere
(Fig. 3.3). Standard procedure involves an estimate of the archaeological value and the risk
of damage, using ordinal scales of zero to five. These separate values can be combined as a
significance and vulnerability index, e.g. 3/2, 4/0. The same data are used in the preparation
of archaeological sensitivity maps and predictive models which form the empirical basis of
our time and cost estimates for archaeological field surveys.
It is important to realize however, that such estimates have a degree of subjectivity. For this
reason, the estimate significance with specific reference to the value of the site as a
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component of the Namibian archaeological record, while the estimation of vulnerability refers
primarily to the potential consequences of the development project under consideration.
3.2.3.5.2
Significance Ranking
The following is the summary of the significance ranking used:
0 no archaeological significance;
1 disturbed or secondary context, without diagnostic material;
2 isolated minor find in undisturbed primary context, with diagnostic material;
3 archaeological site forming part of an identifiable local distribution or group;
4 multi-component site, or central site with high research potential;
5 major archaeological sites containing unique evidence of high regional significance.
3.2.3.5.3
Vulnerability Ranking
The following is the summary of the vulnerability ranking used:
0 not vulnerable;
1 no threat posed by current or proposed development activities;
2 low or indirect threat from possible consequences of development (e.g. soil erosion);
3 probable threat from inadvertent disturbance due to proximity of development;
4 high likelihood of partial disturbance or destruction due to close proximity of
development;
5 direct and certain threat of major disturbance or total destruction.
QRS has adopted the practice of identifying the specific research value of archaeological
sites documented in the course of field surveys. This means that the evaluation is focused on
the likely research benefits of more detailed investigations on sites of high significance, or
local site clusters of potential research importance. The immediate benefits in terms of
sequence resolution or yield of comparative material and present this in the form of an
expected research dividend are evaluated. Similarly, the consequences of damage or
destruction are also evaluated as an expected loss of research dividend. These estimates
form part of the proposal for mitigation of impacts.
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Figure 3.3:
The QRS archaeological assessment process.
3.2.4 Ground Components
The methodologies that have been used in the collection and evaluation of the ground
components include field mapping, assessment and digitising of the geological,
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geomorphological, hydrological and geotechnical engineering information. The geological
investigation started with the evaluation of published regional and local topographic,
geological and aerial photographic data. The aim has been to establish the regional and local
stratigraphy, lithological and structural variations of the area. Detailed field surveys of the
proposed project area were undertaken and various maps have been produced.
As part of the ground component, the geomorphic mapping of the study area was done in
sequences. Desk study, which included literature review and preliminary image
classifications, was followed by fieldwork. Ground truthing was thus carried out as an
indispensable component of remote sensing image evaluations and classifications.
Two sets of aerial photographs (digital), chromatic and pan-chromatic, were acquired from
the National Planning Commission and the Surveyor’s General Office, respectively. The first
set covers the immediate surroundings areas of Swakopmund and Walvis Bay, while the set
of pan-chromatic data covers the entire study area. The chromatic set was acquired in 2010
with a spatial resolution of 2 m; whereas the other set was acquired in 1997 at a scale of 1:78
000.
In addition, two images of the Landsat TM and Landsat TM+ were obtained from the
University of Maryland website. These images were acquired in May 1992 and April 2005.
Both sets were pre-processed in terms of radiometric and geometric corrections. Employing
ILWIS 3.7, the process of pan-sharpening and image stretching using histogram equalization
were carried out for enhancing visual image interpretations. Terrain mapping units were then
onscreen digitized, variously making use of all images mentioned above at a nominal scale of
1: 50, 000. In addition, attributes of the identified terrain units were entered and stored in the
attendant table.
3.2.4.1
Evaluation of Surface and Groundwater
An assessment of likely impacts of the proposed project activities on the surrounding
ephemeral channel was undertaken as part of the field investigation. Overall, the focus of the
field investigation with respect to water assessment has been to:
Determine the likely influence of the proposed project on the local water resources
in general;
Determine the likely future negative impacts of the proposed projects and in
particular the proposed location of the specific infrastructures on the local water
resources;
Assess the likely impacts of possible groundwater uses for construction and
maintenance purposes;
Determine other likely negative impacts that may influence the water quality in the
general area with respect to the proposed project activities.
The evaluation of groundwater in this area has been based on the interpretations of the
regional and local geological data sets collected in form of a specialist study. The initial data
was obtained from the databases of the Department of Water Affairs and the Geological
Survey of Namibia. These databases contain borehole records, technical reports and maps
on groundwater and surface water occurrences throughout the country. The focus in the data
evaluation was to determine the presences of groundwater that may be contaminated by the
proposed project activities. This was achieved by evaluating the type of aquifer (confined or
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unconfined), porosity, permeability, hydraulic conductivity as well as other hydrological
properties affecting and influencing the groundwater flow both in saturated and unsaturated
zones around the proposed project area.
3.2.4.2
Evaluation of Water Vulnerability
Vulnerability is a term that has been used in the assessment of the potential for any
contaminant source to migrate from the locations of the proposed project activities to existing
groundwater or surface water resources. The knowledge-based approach that was used
integrated the potential pollution influences, site characteristics and consequences of
influence in the development of efficient protection strategies using probability assessments
(Fig. 3.4). The vulnerability approach consists of source-pathway-target factors and has
been divided into two parts, which include surface and groundwater. The surface
water assessments covered runoff, the presence of source factors and major flow routes
such as ephemeral rivers, valleys and gullies as pathways and the presence of surface water
body as a target.
The groundwater assessments covered hydraulic properties and thickness of the
unsaturated and saturated zones derived from geological and hydrogeological data (Fig. 3.4).
The assessment of the unsaturated characteristics was based on the ability for source factors
to influence the system through known pathway factors such as discontinuities (Fig. 3.4). The
combined effects of unsaturated and saturated flow probabilities were used as indicator for
groundwater vulnerability. However, groundwater or surface water will only be vulnerable to
contamination if there are contaminant sources, if there are pathways for contaminant
migration and there are targets (surface water or groundwater) present.
A number of other qualitative and quantitative vulnerability assessment techniques
have been developed (Department of Water Affairs, 2001). The DRASTIC Model is among
the most common vulnerability technique, which is a vulnerability mapping technique based
on qualitative methods utilising hydrological factors. The factors are evaluated according to
the determined relative influences on water vulnerability. The DRASTIC approach has also
been incorporated in the Water Vulnerability Model Approach (WVMA) shown in Fig. 3.4 and
has been used for water vulnerability assessment. The results from the assessment formed
part of the constraint layer that has been created as part of the Decision Support Tools
(DSTs).
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Where:
Ps is the Probability Indicator [0 -1] for Surface Water Contamination
Pu is the Probability Indicator [0 -1] for Water flow in the Unsaturated Zone
Pg is the Probability Indicator [0 -1] for Groundwater Contamination
PROBABILITY INDICATORS
SOURCE - PATHWAY - TARGET
0
0.3
0.6
0.9
VULNERABILITY INDICATOR
SURFACE WATER
GROUNDWATER
Very Low [ID1]
Low
[ID2]
High [ID3]
Very High [ID4]
SURFACE WATER VULNERABILITY = Vs = Ps
[Ps] Probability of surface water contamination = f [Source, Pathway, Target]
Where:
Source denotes contaminant presence
Pathway denote presence of routes for contaminant migration
Target denote presence of surface water body / bodies
GROUNDWATER VULNERABILITY = Vg = [Pu x Pg]
[Pu] Probability of contaminant movement through the unsaturated zone
= f [Source, Pathway]
[Pg] Probability of Groundwater contamination = f[Source, Pathway, Target]
Where:
Source denotes contaminant presence
Pathway denote presence of routes for contaminant migration
Target denote presence of groundwater body / bodies
Figure 3.4:
Surface water and groundwater knowledge-based vulnerability approach.
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3.2.5 Environmental Impact Assessment and Management
3.2.5.1
Impact Assessment Criteria
The quality of the environment, both natural and man-made structures, is essential to the
proposed projects activities. However, the relationship of the proposed project with the
environment is complex. It involves many activities that can have adverse environmental
effects. Many of these impacts are linked to the various project developmental stages such
as the construction of the general supporting infrastructure such as surrounding access and
of local facilities. The negative impacts of the proposed development can gradually destroy
the environmental resources which it was meant to promote. On the other hand, the
proposed development has the potential to create beneficial effects on the environment by
contributing to environmental protection and conservation of the identified key environmental
resources as well as contribute to the socioeconomic upliftment of the Topnaar communities
as well Walvis Bay, the Erongo region and Namibia as a whole. The impacts of tourism
activities on the environment were evaluated in terms of nature of impact (identification),
magnitude, extent, duration and significance as outlined in the Table 3.2.
Table 3.2:
Criteria used to evaluate impacts.
Criteria
Nature of Impact
Magnitude
Extent
Duration
Significance
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Categories
Description of the effect of a proposed/existing activity on the
environment.
- Positive
- Negative
- Direct
- Indirect
- Cumulative
- Synergistic
- Severe
- Moderate
- Low
- International
- National
- Regional
- Local
- Short term
- Long term
- Project Life Span
- Permanent
- High
- Medium
- Low
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
4.
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
4.1
Introduction
The constitution is the Namibian fundamental law of its sovereign and independent republic
and a driving principle for all regulatory frameworks or Act promulgated. Article 95, chapter
11 of the constitution emphasizes on the promotion and maintenance of the welfare of the
people by adopting inter alia policies with much emphasize on maintenance of ecosystems,
essential ecological processes and biological diversity of Namibia and utilization of living
natural resources on a sustainable basis for the benefit of all Namibians, both present and
future. This has resulted in the development and promulgation of a number of binding legal
environmental policies, Act and regulations. The relevance of the Constitution to
environmental management can be taken from Article 95: Promotion of the Welfare of the
People. This affirms that the State shall actively promote and maintain the welfare of the
people by adopting policies aimed at the maintenance of ecosystems, essential ecological
processes and biological diversity of Namibia and utilization of living natural resources on a
sustainable basis for the benefit of all Namibians, both present and future.
4.2
International Treaties and Protocols
Article 144 of the Constitution provides the enabling mechanism to ensure that all ratified
international treaties and protocols listed below are enforceable within Namibia by the
Namibian courts:
Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992;
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985;
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987;
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992;
Kyoto Protocol on the Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1998;
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes
and Their Disposal, 1989;
World Heritage Convention, 1972;
Convention to Combat Desertification, 1994; and
Stockholm Convention of Persistent Organic Pollutants, 2001.
4.3
National Legislations
4.3.1 Overview
Important legislative instruments that affect the feasibility, preconstruction, construction and
operation of the proposed Kuiseb and Dune Belt Projects development as outlined in Table
4.1.
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Table 4.1:
Legislation relevant to the proposed Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Projects.
LAW
Constitution of the
Republic
of
Namibia, 1990
Environmental
Management
Act
(2007) - Ministry of
Environment
Tourism (MET)
and
Water Act 54 of 1956
Minister of
Agriculture, Water
and Forestry
SUMMARY DESCRIPTION
The Constitution is the supreme law in Namibia, providing for the establishment of the
main organs of state (the Executive, the Legislature and the Judiciary) as well as
guaranteeing various fundamental rights and freedoms. Provisions relating to the
environment are contained in Chapter 11, article 95, which is entitled “promotion of the
Welfare of the People”. This article states that the Republic of Namibia shall – “actively
promote and maintain the welfare of the people by adopting, inter alia, policies aimed at
… maintenance of ecosystems, essential ecological processes and biological diversity of
Namibia and utilisation of living natural resources on a sustainable basis for all
Namibians, both present and future; in particular, the Government shall provide
measures against the dumping or recycling of foreign nuclear waste on Namibian
territory.”
The purpose of the Act is to give effect to Article 95(l) and 91(c) of the Namibian
Constitution by establishing general principles for the management of the environment
and natural resources; to promote the co-ordinated and integrated management of the
environment; to give statutory effect to Namibia’s Environmental Assessment Policy; to
enable the Minister of Environment and Tourism to give effect to Namibia’s obligations
under international conventions. In terms of the legislation it will be possible to exercise
control over certain listed development activities and activities within defined sensitive
areas. The listed activities in sensitive areas require an Environmental Assessment to be
completed before a decision to permit development can be taken. Th e legislation
describes the circumstances requiring Environmental Assessments. Activities listed as
per the provisions of the Act will require Environmental Assessment unless the Ministry
of Environment and Tourism, in consultation with the relevant Compet ent Authority,
determines otherwise and approves the exception.
This Act provides for the control, conservation and use of water for domestic,
agricultural, urban and industrial purposes. In terms of Section 6, there is no right of
ownership in public water and its control and use is regulated and provided for in the
Act. In accordance with the Act, the proposed project must ensure that mechanisms are
implemented to prevent water pollution. Certain permits will also be required to abstract
groundwater (already obtained) as well as for “water works”. The broad definition of
3
water works will include the reservoir on Site (as this is greater than 20,000m ), water
treatment facilities and pipelines. Due to the water scarcity of the area, all water will be
recycled (including domestic wastewater) and the project will be operated on a zero
discharge philosophy. It will, therefore, not be necessary to obtain permits for discharge
of effluent.
Section 23 of the Act requires environment rehabilitation after closure of the project,
particularly, in this instance to obviate groundwater pollution and potential pollution
resulting from run-off. This Act is due to be replaced by the Water Resources
Management Act 24 of 2004.
Forest Act 12 of
2001 - Minister of
Agriculture, Water
and Forestry
Under Section 22(1) of the Act it is unlawful for any person to: cut, destroy or remove:
(a) any vegetation which is on a sand dune or drifting sand or in a gully unless the
cutting, destruction or removal is done for the purpose of stabilising the sand or gully or
(b) any living tree, bush or shrub growing within 100m of a river, stream or watercourse.
Should either of the above be unavoidable, it will be necessary to obtain a permit from
the Ministry.
Hazardous
Substance
Ordinance 14 of 1974
Ministry of Health
and Social Services
Provisions for hazardous waste are amended in this act as it provides “for the control of
substances which may cause injury or ill-health to or death of human beings by reason
of their toxic, corrosive, irritant, strongly sensitizing or flammable nature or the
generation of pressure thereby in certain circumstances; to provide for the prohibition
and control of the importation, sale, use, operation, application, modification, disposal or
dumping of such substance; and to provide for matters connected therewith”
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 4.1:
Cont.
LAW
SUMMARY DESCRIPTION
The Labour Act, 2007 (Act No. The labour Act gives effect to the constitutional commitment of Article 95 (11), to
promote and maintain the welfare of the people. This Act is aimed at establishing a
11 of 2007)
comprehensive labour law for all employees; to entrench fundamental labour rights
and protections; to regulate basic terms and conditions of employment; to ensure the
health, safety and welfare of employees under which provisions are made in chapter 4.
Chapter 5 of the act improvises on the protection of employees from unfair labour
practice.
Petroleum Products and
Any consumer installation as envisaged in this Act has to be licensed. Appropriate
Energy Act 13 of 1990
consumer installation certificate will need to be obtained from the Ministry for each fuel
Ministry
Energy
of
Mines
installation. The construction of the installation has to be designed in such a manner
and as to prevent environmental contamination. Certificate holders are obliged to submit
annual reports to the Minister in respect of the status of all storage tanks with a
capacity of 2,200ℓ or more in the case of above ground storage tanks and with a
capacity of more than 4,560ℓ in the case of below ground storage tanks.
Any certificate holder or other person in control of activities related to any petroleum
product is obliged to report any major petroleum product spill (defined as a spill of
more than 200ℓ per spill) to the Minister. Such person is also obliged to take all steps
as may be necessary in accordance with good petroleum industry practices to clean
up the spill. Should this obligation not be met, the Minister is empowered to take steps
to clean up the spill and to recover the costs thereof from the person.
General conditions apply to all certificates issued. These include conditions relating to
petroleum spills and the abandonment of the Site. The regulation further provides that
the Minister may impose special conditions relating to the preparation and assessment
of environmental assessments and the safe disposal of petroleum products.
National Heritage Act 27 of This Act provides provisions for the protection and conservation of places and objects of
heritage significance and the registration of such places and objects. The proposed projects
2004
Ministry
of
Youth,
National Service, Sport
and Culture
will ensure that if any archaeological or paleontological objects, as described in the Act, are
found in the course of its construction, that such find be reported to the Ministry immediately.
If necessary, the relevant permits must be obtained before disturbing or destroying any
heritage
Atmospheric
Pollution This regulation sets out principles for the prevention of the pollution of the atmosphere and
Prevention Ordinance 11 of for matters incidental thereto. Part III of the Act sets out regulations pertaining to atmospheric
pollution by smoke. While preventative measures for dust atmospheric pollution are outlined
1976;
in Part IV and Part V outlines provisions for Atmospheric pollution by gases emitted by
vehicles.
Ministry of Health and
Social Services
The Nature Conservation In the course of the Mine’s activities, care must be taken to ensure that protected plant
Ordinance, Ordinance 4 of species and the eggs of protected and game bird species are not disturbed or destroyed. If
such destruction or disturbance is inevitable, a permit must be obtained in this regard from
1975,
Ministry of Environment and
Tourism (MET)
the Minister of Environment and Tourism. Should the project developer decide to operate a
nursery in order to propagate indigenous plant species for rehabilitation purposes, a permit
will be required. At this stage, however, it is envisaged that this type of activity will be
contracted out to encourage small business development
4.3.2 Regulatory Agencies and Permitting
The environmental regulatory authorities responsible for environmental protection and
management in relation to the proposed projects including their role in regulating
environmental protection are listed in Table 4.2. Table 4.3 shows an extract from the legal
instruments of the regulating authorities with respect to the relevant permits / licenses
required for the proposed projects.
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Table 4.2:
Permit requirements.
Activity
1. Concession
Applicable Legislation
Permitting Authority
Concession and Tourism
Policy
2. EIA Clearance
3. Construction, alteration
of waterworks with
capacity to hold in
excess of 20,000L.
4. Abstraction of water
other than that provided
by Nam Water.
5. Discharge of effluents or
construction of effluent
facility or disposal site.
6. Removal, disturbances
or destruction of bird
eggs.
7. Removal, disturbance of
protected plants.
8. Removal, destruction of
indigenous trees, bushes
or plants within 100
yards of stream or
watercourse.
9. Scheduled processes in
controlled area.
10. Discarding or disposing
of used oil.
11. Operating a petroleum
consumer installation.
12. Construction of small
scale (Formal) water
supply schemes.
13. Construction of waste
disposal sites.
Environmental Management
Act, 2007, (Act No. 7 of
2007),
Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA)
Regulations No. 30 of 2012
Environmental Assessment
Policy for Sustainable
Development and
Environmental
Conservation (1995)
Current Status
Concession Already
Granted for the
Kuiseb Delta Project
Ministry of
Environment and
Tourism (MET)
To be applied on
completion of the
Scoping, EIA and
EMP Report
Water Act 54 of 1956
Water Resources
Management Act, 2004 (No.
284 of 2004).
Nature Conservation
Ordinance 4, 1975.
Forestry Act, 12 of 2001.
Atmospheric Pollution
Prevention Ordinance 11 of
1976
Petroleum Products and
Energy Act 13 of 1990
Water Act 54 of 1956
Water Resources
Management Act, 2004 (No.
284 of 2004).
Environmental Policy and
Environmental Management
Act, (Act No. 7 of 2007)
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Ministry of Agriculture,
Water and Forestry
Ministry of
Environment and
Tourism (MET)
Ministry of Water
Affairs and Forestry
(MWAF)
To when and if
Required
No removals
anticipated
Ministry of Health and
Social Services.
No Permits Require
but to meet
Provisions
Ministry of Mines and
Energy (MME).
To Apply when and
if Required
Ministry of Agriculture,
Water and Forestry
To Apply when and
if required
Ministry
Environment
Tourism (MET)
of
and
NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
4.4
Other Key National Policies
4.4.1 Environmental Assessment Policy
Any development project initiated by the government or private sector is subject to an
Environmental Assessment procedure as required and recognized by the Environmental
Assessment Policy for Sustainable Development and Environmental Conservation of 1995.
This policy promotes sustainable development and economic growth while safeguarding the
environment in the long run. The government recognizes that environmental assessments
are key tools to further the implementation of a sound environmental policy, which strives
to achieve Integrated Environmental Management. The main purpose of the policy takes
lead as an informing decision makers and promoting accountability, ensuring that alternatives
and environmental costs and benefits are considered, promoting the user (polluter) pays
principle, and promoting sustainable development.
The principles set out to;
Better inform decision-makers;
Consider a broad range of options and alternatives when addressing specific
projects;
Strive for a high degree of public participation and involvement;
Take into account the environmental costs and benefits;
Incorporate internationally accepted norms and standards where appropriate;
Take into account secondary and cumulative environmental impacts; and
Promote sustainable development and, especially to ensure that a reasonable
attempt is made to minimise possible negative impacts and maximise benefits.
4.4.2 Dorob National Park Draft Regulations
The Ministry of Environment and Tourism has developed Draft Regulations for the Dorob
National Park. These regulations specify what is permitted or not permitted in the Dorob
National Park (DNP) of the Namib-Skeleton Coast National Park (NSCNP) (hereinafter
referred to as ‘the park’. They are a compliment to the Management and Development Plan
(MDP) of the NSCNP. Thus, an issue not included in the regulations, but covered in the
MDP, is in such cases regulated by the text in the MDP. The following is summary of the key
the areas of the DNP Draft Regulations applicable to the proposed Kuiseb Delta and Dune
Belt proposed projects activities:
(i)
Public Access;
(ii)
Signage, advertising and structures;
(iii)
Tourism and Concessions;
(iv)
Plant and animal harvesting;
(v)
Waste, pollution and litter.
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4.4.3 Other Policies
General:
Namibia’s Green Plan;
Vision 2030;
Regional Development Strategy;
Environmental Management:
Water:
Namibia’s 12 Point Plan for Integrated and Sustainable;
National Water Policy White Paper 2000;
Water and Sanitation Policy;
Integrated Water Resource
Management Policy;
White Paper on Tourism Policy;
Concessions Policy;
Policy on Community-Based Tourism Development;
Energy:
Land:
White Paper on Energy Policy;
National Land Policy;
National Resettlement Policy;
Land Use Planning Policy;
Water
Demand
Agriculture:
and
Tourism:
Management
National Agriculture Policy;
Biodiversity and Forestry:
Development Forestry Policy for Namibia;
Conservation and Biotic Diversity and Habitat Protection Policy;
Policy Framework for Wildlife and Utilisation Production in Support of
Biodiversity Conservation and Economic Development;
National Policy on the Safe Use of Biotechnology;
Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) Policy
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5.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED PROJECTS
5.1
General Overview
Through the NACOMA Project Co-ordinating Office (PCO) and the Steering Committee, a
number of investment proposals were approved for implementation under the World Bank
Matching Grant support. The NACOMA Project Sub-component 3.2 is concerned with
provision of technical support and small matching grants for targeted investments in specific
project intervention sites. Kuiseb Delta Development Trust (KDDT) and Walvis Bay Bird
Paradise were among approved proposals and MG’s recipients. Part of the technical support
is to identify activities to be funded through the NACOMA MG, to facilitate a feasibility study
and carry out an EIA screening to determine if there are significant or no significant impacts
requiring an assessment. However, the scope of this consultancy is to also focus on other
activities currently operating in the area as well as identify potential eco-tourism and
recreational activities in the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt area.
5.2
Kuiseb Delta Development Project/ Trust (KDDP/T)
5.2.1 The Kuiseb Delta
Kuiseb Delta is located in Erongo region which is considered the hub of tourism in Namibia
(Fig. 5.1). KDDP is located in an ideal tourism location - the meeting place of extreme
landscapes. On the one side is the Namib Desert, the oldest desert in the world while on the
other side is a massive lagoon and harbour flowing from the Atlantic Ocean. Both of these
landscapes lend themselves towards some of the most unique site seeing opportunities in
Namibia. The lagoon and harbour is home to a variety of species and a large number of sea
mammals and bird life. The Namib Desert on the other side is called "The Living Desert",
because of the large number of living species found there. Activities include various different
water related actions, like shore angling, boat angling, shark angling, sightseeing and
photographic boat cruises, sea kayaking and wind- and kite surfing. Walvis Bay houses
yearly one of the international legs of speed kite and wind surfing. The proposed project
provides additional activities in the coastal area. Envisaged facilities and attendant activities
will complement existing offerings. The additional activities will boost current efforts to
lengthen the average stay of tourists in the coastal area (Nyakunu and Ndlovu, 2010).
5.2.2 Kuiseb Delta Development Project (KDDP)
The Topnaars community living in the Kuiseb Delta, submitted an application for a Matching
Grant to NACOMA with the main aim of establishing Community-Based Tourism (CBT),
called the Kuiseb Delta Development Project (KDDP). Upon approval of the Matching Grant
the KDDP submitted an application for a concession along the Kuiseb Delta to MET.
Conditions for concession applications required a feasibility report and business plan.
Subsequently, The Kuiseb Delta Development Trust (KDDT) was registered on April 12, 2010
through a Trust Deed, in terms of the Trust Monies Protection Act. The trust is a legal entity
that can venture into formal commercial agreements with business partners. It is an initiative
being spearheaded by seven (7) Trustees from the Topnaar community with the consent of
the Topnaar Traditional Authority. The trust comprises of 600 registered members. Clear
guidelines on benefits distribution, mandates and responsibilities have been drafted and a
Steering Committee comprising the Trustees is functioning. The concession which KDDT has
applied for spans the area east from Walvis Bay Meersig residential area, starting from the
border of Walvis Bay and state lands till Mile 7 reservoir including old Walvis Bay entry route
near the MWARD nursery (Fig. 5.1).
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Figure 5.1:
Kuiseb Delta Development Trust Concession Area (Nyakunu and Ndlovu,
2010).
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5.2.3 KDDP Proposed Project Activities
The Kuiseb Delta Development Project (KDDP) seeks to offer more specialised tourism
services such as cultural tourism, educational/historical tourism and adventure tourism
through the provision of walking trails, scenic drives, dune drives, sand boarding, and other
activities relevant to its locality (Nyakunu and Ndlovu, 2010). KDDP is a significant initiative
since and according to the feasibility study prepared by Nyakunu and Ndlovu, (2010), it
confirms that the project is significant and reasons for justification are as follow:
The Topnaar community will bring forth a rich cultural component to the trails. The
existing traditional customs and cultural harvesting of the !Nara presents another mile
stone in the promotion of cultural tourism. The historical and educational component of
the trail provides the overall experience;
The successful launch of the project will be another feature in the cap of CBNRM in
Namibia. It will be an additional opportunity to showcase Namibia’s international
success in the promotion of CBRNMs;
Focus is on and around ecosystems of biodiversity importance i.e. bio-diversity being
conserved includes !Nara melons, Dune lark, Lichen fields, Dune habitats and gravel
plain habitats, landscape aesthetics, restriction of ORV traffic, etc;
It is aligned with community / local and national priorities such as empowering rural
communities through the provision of consumptive and non-consumptive rights over
natural resources, raising standard of living, creating employment opportunities,
alleviating poverty, etc;
The project will also include cottage industries and conservation issues;
The Kuiseb Delta is unparalleled in Southern Africa for its archaeology which provides
a continuum of 2000 years, including detailed evidence from the last 250 years. By
1990s, 235 sites had been identified with 75% being from pre-contact times and 25%
showing evidence of contact ranging in age from 15th to 20th century. Though well
preserved the sites are vulnerable to natural and human influences. For instance, the
removal of items is reducing the archaeological / historical value of the sites which is
important to the nation and paramount to the Topnaar people.
KDDT can sell the project and generate funding for both capital and running costs. The
KDDP can be easily operated at a marginal cash surplus but would rely heavily on collections
from membership fees, labour subsidies for construction and maintenance, donations and
subsidized supplies for construction and maintenance. According to the KDDT business plan,
it is assumed that revenues will be generated solely from activities such as trails, camping
and guiding fees. These income streams will cover sufficiently the capital, construction and
operating funding needs of the project (Nyakunu and Ndlovu, 2010).
5.3
Walvis Bay Bird Paradise
5.3.1 Overview
The application for a Matching Grant to establish a bird watch paradise in Walvis Bay was
also submitted to NACOMA PCO. Subsequently, the feasibility and business plan was
compiled to guide the construction and operation of the project. Setting up a bird watching
camp was welcomed by everybody spoken to, no matter whether they were birders, people
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involved in tourism & NGO's or officials in government or public institutions. It was actually
often queried why a country with a very high ranking in its bird variety has to date not seen an
operation of this kind set up. The Walvis Bay Bird Paradise is situated 1300m from the circle
of the intersection of the Swakop – Walvis Bay road (B2) and the road to the Walvis Bay
Airport / into the Namib (C14). The Walvis Bay sewerage ponds where the paradise camp is
erected is about 200m form the road. The pond is the most north-east of the reticulation pans
of the reticulation plant. It is visible from the road; it can be accessed by a short gravelled up
ramp from the main road. Separated by 2 dunes to the south-east is the water carrying pan
with a range of birds, both sweet water and sea water birds.
5.4
Existing Activities in the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Areas
Erongo Region is one of the most economically active regions in the country. Its' economy
rely heavily on Fisheries, Mining and Tourism. The study area between Swakopmund and
Walvis Bay is concentrated with Tourism and recreational activities (Fig. 5.2). Coastal tourism
is one of the priority economic areas for local, regional and national development.
Community-based tourism provides avenue to local communities in the area (NACOMA,
2007). This area is also subject to intensive recreational pressure during peak holidays
(NACOMA, 2004). According to the BGR (2008) tourism products in the area include
adventure tourism, business tourism, non-consumptive tourism and ecotourism. As such, the
Dune belt area is the only coastal dune area that is easily accessible to the public (NACOMA,
2004). As such, the area is important for multiple tourism use practices in the tour operator
sector. The area also contains a diversity of biophysical features and attractive landscape.
Land-based and nature-based tourism activities in the study area are included in itinerary for
trips from the coast into Kunene region, notably Twyfelfontein (NACOMA, 2007).
The following activities are identified by (NACOMA, 2007) study:
Desert tours;
Sightseeing trips;
Tours to Dune 7;
Dune-boarding;
Quad biking;
4X4 Off-road recreational driving;
Paragliding;
Scenic flights;
Filming and Photography.
The KDDP and Trust was only established during 2009/10 while a number of unregulated
tourism activities have been taking place in the Delta over the past years. However, there are
some regulated tourism-based activities led by Topnaars community. The following activities
are currently taking place in the Delta (Mufita, 2011pers.com):
Tour guide: 4x4 vehicles and quad bikes off-road driving;
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Bush camps;
Walking trials, hiking and sand boarding;
Camping site;
Scenic Flights;
Tour operators marketing self-touring products in their itinerary.
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Figure 5.2:
Current land uses of the study area.
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5.5
Sub Regional Concepts
The sub-regional concept of Walvis Bay as outlined in Fig. 5.3, provides for demarcation of
defined zones to accommodate existing and future land uses. The following is an extract
summary from the sub-regional concept document for Walvis Bay outlining the various
zones:
Walvis Bay Nature Reserve: The zone is on the southern part of Walvis Bay, roughly
from the southern edges of Farms 29, 37 and 38 to the Kuiseb River. The Lagoon, the
Salt-Works and the Topnaar community settlement are located in this zone… Since
this zone is ecologically fragile, in such a way that it supports unique and fascinating
ecological communities, it is recommended to be left free of any development other
than those relating to cultural and ecotourism and/or aqua-culture/agriculture. All
existing developments located in this area should continue their activities in this area.
However, new applications of such kind will not be allowed;
Conservation: This area includes Farms owned by Council, part of the coastline
between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund, part of the dune belt and the area immediately
adjacent to the Swakop River Bed…Activities relating to environmental conservation
education, and/or eco-tourism. Off road vehicles are prohibited in this area. Quad
bikes and all other off road vehicles are not allowed in this zone;
Recreation: Five areas are demarcated as recreation zones: South of the Swakop
River, East of Long Beach, North – West of the Tumas River, Dune 7, and the
coastline along Long Beach and Dolphin Park. Quad bikes as well as all other off road
vehicles will only be accommodated in the dunefield part of this zone. All off road
vehicles are to be led into the dunes via fixed tracks. Quad bikes are prohibited in the
beach area (i.e. the coastline along Long Beach/Dolphin Park) of the recreation zone;
Industrial: The zone comprises of the areas demarcated for the heavy industrial
development behind the dune belt. Noxious and nuisance creating industries should
be located in this area;
Government: The zone is bounded by the Tumas River on the South and the gravel
road between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund on the West… Zone 5 will permit only
military related activities;
Land for Development: This includes the area just south of the Airport and Dune 7
and South-East of the ‘built-up urban area’ as well as the Long Beach/Dolphin Park
development. The node at Long Beach/Dolphin Park can be strengthened.
Developments at Long Beach/Dolphin Park have to abide to this policy…With the
exception of the Long Beach/Dolphin Park development, any other proposed
development in this area should be: scattered, not agglomerated, to allow the
dominant presence of the desert to be maintained, and are subject to an
Environmental Impact Assessment.
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Figure 5.3:
Walvis Bay Subregional concept (Source: Walvis Bay Municipality).
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6.
THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND SPECIALIST STUDIES
6.1
Climatic Settings
The proposed project areas (Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Areas) are situated in Walvis Bay,
Erongo Region, and in West Central Namibia. Both areas fall within the Namib Desert with
daytime hot temperatures throughout the year, while the nights are cold. The mean annual
rainfall is very low due to the desert conditions and is less 50 mm (Figs. 6.1- 6.3). Most of
the precipitation in the area is in the form of fog. As warm air from the interior of the country
meets the cold Benguela current offshore the Namibian coast, condensation causes fog to
occur. Fog occurs on average for 65 days per year in this region, mostly during winter,
resulting in an equivalent precipitation of 34 mm per annum on average (Fig. 6.4). The fog
bank tends to persist offshore and rolls inland during the evening, rarely penetrating more
than 20 km inland in this region.
The fauna and flora of the Namib Desert have developed special adaptive systems to use the
fog as a source of moisture, in place of rain. Rain is rare and highly variable, with an 80-90%
deviation from the annual mean of 15 mm (Figs. 6.1 - 6.3). Most of the rain falls in summer,
but it can occur at any time of the year. A fall of over 12 mm is sufficient to cause grass to
germinate and lifecycles to be initiated. Generally, the cold Atlantic Ocean Currents modify
the temperatures of the desert. Temperatures along the coast are usually cool due to the
influence of the cold Benguela current, becoming warmer as one move inland. The average
mean temperature in Walvis Bay is around 15º C, with the annual temperature ranging
between 5.5 - 36º C (Fig. 6.5). Paradoxically, some of the warmest days in the desert can
occur in winter when the hot Berg winds are blowing. The presence of fog causes
evaporation at the coast to be much lower than further inland, and humidity to be
considerably higher.
Mean annual evaporation around in general study area inclusive of the Kuiseb Delta and
Dune Belt areas is around 1, 300 mm, and the annual average humidity is 87%, ranging from
lows of 21% during the hot, desiccating Berg winds and 100% when it is foggy. Walvis Bay
has an average of 151.5 days in a year with fog or low cloud (Fig. 6.4).
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Location of
Study Area
Figure 6.1:
Regional climatic setting of Namibia showing the location study area covering
the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Areas.
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Figure 6.2:
Walvis Bay 2009/2010 Seasonal Rainfall Progression Relative to Normal and
Previous Seasons (Source: Metrological Services Divisions, 2010).
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LONG - TERM AVERAGE
HIGHEST RAINFALL IN 24 HRS
HIGHEST RAINFALL MONTHLY
MEAN EVAPORATION
350
300
(mm)
250
200
150
100
50
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
MONTHS
Figure 6.3:
Rainfall variation 1958 -2010 based on Walvis Bay Station (Data Source
Metrological Services of Namibia).
Figure 6.4:
Central coast fog events based on Walvis Bay Station (Data Source
Metrological Services of Namibia).
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AVERAGE MAXIMUM
AVERAGE MINIMUM
AVERAGE MEAN
HIGHEST ON RECORD
LOWEST ON RECORD
45
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CELSIUS
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
JAN
Figure 6.5:
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
MONTHS
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Long-term temperature variations 1975 -2010 based on Walvis Bay Station
(Data Source Metrological Services of Namibia).
6.1.1 Local and Regional Wind Patterns
Regionally, strong southerly to south-westerly winds persist throughout the year, occasionally
giving way to very strong (5-20 m/s) north-easterly ‘Berg’ winds during the winter months,
when sand storms can occur. The prevailing south-westerlies build up through the morning,
reaching a peak by late morning, easing again by nightfall (Figs. 6.6 and 6.7). Calm
conditions are rare with average wind spends of between 6 – 7 m/s (Fig. 6.7). While the
physical manifestations of the wind regime have provided interesting landscapes the
practicalities are more prosaic: vehicles have to have special protective coatings to protect
the paint work, glass is susceptible to sand blasting, dust affects precision instruments and
machinery, and any area stripped of its protective ground cover becomes eroded.
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Figure 6.6:
Regional wind patterns of Namibia showing Walvis Bay the study area (Source:
Metrological Services of Namibia).
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Figure 6.7:
Central coast wind speed variations based on Walvis Bay Station (Data Source
Metrological Services of Namibia).
6.1.2 Assessment of Climatic Settings
The assessment has been focused on evaluating the likely influences of any climatic
components such as the role of wind and dust problems with respect to the proposed project
activities. Due to the strong winds, dust will be a major challenge in the area during
construction and operational stages. The maintenance cost could be high due to dust effect
on the various proposed projects infrastructures and will require regular cleaning. Particulate
matter, dust and carbon dioxide are among the general pollutants associated with the role of
wind on the construction and operational phases as well as their likely Health, Safety and
Environmental (HSE) impacts at local, regional, national and global levels with respect to the
proposed projects activities.
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Table 6.1:
Overall assessment of the climatic influences and air quality impacts.
Description
The influence of the proposed Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Projects on the air quality at
local, regional, national and global levels will be negligible. The overall contribution of the
vehicles to overall emission levels around proposed project areas will be very limited due
to the moisture from fog events that will suppress the dust generation activities.
However, during windy events dust will be a problem that affects much of the coastal
zone of Namibia including the proposed projects areas.
Extent
The extent of any likely impact
More than 10 km
=
10 km – 5 km
=
5 km – 1 km
=
Less than 1 km
=
Duration
The duration of the likely impacts will be temporal during the construction stage.
Intensity
The level of impacts on the surrounding environment including the associated
infrastructure will be minimally. This would include very little contribution to dust, noise
and other associated disturbances in the area mainly during the construction stage.
Mitigation
Application of Cleaner Production (CP) and Pollution Prevention (P2) and the adoption of
Cleaner Technologies right from the beginning including covered containers, and
maintenance of structures and equipment as well as the use of filters on all critical
material transfer points and protective clothing will reduce the impact to low. A buffer of
more than 500 m from other key environmental resources particularly those of high
conservation value.
Frequency of
occurrence
Climatic pattern and in particular wind speed and direction as well as operational and
management practices will influence the frequency of occurrence during the construction
and operational phases.
Probability
Overall probability of influence is as follows:
More than 10 km
=
1 (v. low = 0.3)
10 km – 5 km
=
1 (v. low = 0.3)
5 km – 1 km
=
1 (v. low = 0.3)
Less than 1 km
=
4 (high) (Occupational Health and Safety - OHS and
windy events = 0.6 but temporal).
Significance
Before or without mitigation:
Low
After mitigation:
Very Low to Negligible
Status of the
impact
Negative
Localise and mainly OHS and windy events influences on the air quality that may lead to
health impacts but will be temporal and localised.
Legal
Requirements
Namibia does not have air quality standard but South African standard could be adopted
as part of the best practices. The Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations No. 30
of 2012, the Environmental Management Act, 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007) and
Environmental Assessment Policy for Sustainable Development and Environmental
Conservation (1995) have all been taken into considerations.
Degree of
confidence in
predictions
90% because the planned activities during construction and operational phases are clear
and will be undertaken in an environmentally friendly manners.
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is assessed as follows:
1 (v. low)
1 (v. low)
1 (v. high)
2 (high) (Occupational Health and Safety OHS or windy events but Temporal).
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
6.2
Biodiversity
6.2.1 Vertebrate Fauna Diversity
A field survey was conducted between 23 and 27 July 2011 to determine the vertebrate
fauna (e.g. reptiles, amphibians, mammals and birds) and flora in representative areas
between the Kuiseb and Swakop Rivers, with the main focus on the dune belt area. The
survey was preceded by a comprehensive literature study (i.e. desktop study/scoping report
– See Cunningham 2011) conducted between 20 and 24 May 2011 of vertebrate fauna and
flora expected to occur in the general area. These surveys are part of an EIA conducted in
the general area for NACOMA (Namibian Coast Conservation and Management Project) to
assist with future zoning requirements regarding various developments and tourism
operations throughout the area.
The central coastal region and the Walvis Bay area in particular, is regarded as “relatively
low” in overall (all terrestrial species) diversity (Mendelsohn et al. 2002). Overall terrestrial
endemism in the area on the other hand is “moderate to high” (Mendelsohn et al. 2002). Two
important coastal wetlands – i.e. Walvis Bay Wetlands and Sandwich Harbour – both Ramsar
sites, occur in the area. According to Curtis and Barnard (1998) the entire coast and the
Walvis Bay lagoon as a coastal wetland, are viewed as sites with special ecological
importance in Namibia. The known distinctive values along the coastline are its biotic
richness (arachnids, birds and lichens) with the Walvis Bay lagoon’s importance being its
biotic richness and migrant shorebirds as well as being the most important Ramsar site in
Namibia. It is estimated that at least 54 reptile, 7 amphibian, 42 mammal and 182 bird
species (breeding residents) are known to or expected to occur in the general/immediate
Walvis Bay/Swakopmund – i.e. Kuiseb River and dune belt – area of which a high proportion
are endemics (Cunningham 2011).
The overall plant diversity (all species - “higher” plants) in the general area is estimated at
<50 species (Mendelsohn et al. 2002). These estimates are limited to “higher” plants as
information regarding “lower” plants is sparse. Burke (2003) estimates that over 400 species
– 10% of the flora of Namibia – occur in the central Namib and although it has not been
identified as a centre of endemism, it is dominated by endemics such as Arthraerua
leubnitziae. Plant endemism is viewed as “medium” – with between 1-15 endemics expected
from the general area (Mendelsohn et al. 2002). It is estimated that up to 39 species of
larger trees and shrubs and up to 48 grasses are known to or expected to occur in the
general/immediate Walvis Bay/Swakopmund – i.e. Kuiseb River and dune belt – area
(Cunningham 2011). This field survey was conducted to confirm the vertebrate fauna and
flora species at representative sites throughout the area.
6.2.1.1
Vertebrate Fauna Field Survey Methods
6.2.1.1.1
Overview
According to the original ToR, fieldwork to determine the actual faunal diversity would include
the following:
Small mammal transects to determine small mammal diversity in the area;
Assess larger mammal presence in the area;
Reptile and amphibian transects (diurnal and nocturnal) to determine reptile and
amphibian diversity in the area;
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Bird transects to determine avian diversity in the area.
6.2.1.1.2
Mammals
Small mammal trapping was conducted by active trapping using collapsible aluminium
Sherman traps (Plate 6.1) baited with peanut butter and oats. Small mammals caught were
identified in situ, photographed and released unharmed at the point of capture. A total
maximum of 38 traps were placed in various locations approximately 20 to 50 m apart
(depending on habitat) for 3 nights each in various habitats viewed as potentially suitable for
small mammals in the area as shown in Table 6.2 for trapping site locations. Assessing
larger mammals from the area was conducted by traversing representative sites in the area
on foot and by vehicle (e.g. Sandwich Harbour area) and included actual sightings, tracks,
scats and other signs – e.g. burrows, scrapes, carcasses, etc.
Table 6.2:
Small mammal trapping site locations.
Plate 6.1:
Sherman collapsible live capture small mammal trap set in Arthraerua
leubnitziae hummocks in the Tumas drainage line (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
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6.2.1.1.3
Reptiles
Reptile and amphibian transects were conducted during daylight hours although nocturnal
observations were not conducted due to the cold weather (less than 15°C) experienced
during the survey period. Reptiles, being ectotherms (i.e. “cold blooded”), are inactive with
ambient temperatures below 18°C. Transects crisscrossed representative areas and were
not conducted in rigid straight lines, but focused on the habitat viewed as most suitable for
reptiles and amphibians. Reptiles observed were either caught by hand or by using an active
capture technique called ‘reptile noosing’ where an extendable fishing rod was fitted with a
soft thread noose, positioned over the unsuspecting head of an individual and pulled tight.
This technique does not result in the death or injury of the caught specimen. Species caught
were identified in situ, photographed and released unharmed at the point of capture.
6.2.1.1.4
Amphibians
Amphibians were searched for along the Kuiseb River and Tumas drainage lines and other
suitable habitat throughout the area whilst searching for reptiles – i.e. no separate transects
followed but utilised the same transects to collect as much data on vertebrate fauna
(including amphibians) as possible.
6.2.1.1.5
Birds
Bird transects (variable lengths, directions and times) were conducted on foot and by vehicle
throughout the area following existing tracks (when in vehicle) during daylight hours using
binoculars to identify and confirm species. The annual wetland bird count results were also
used to verify birds from the area. The fieldwork was preceded by an extensive literature
study of species expected to occur throughout the area while various knowledgeable people
were also contacted (i.e. personal communication) regarding certain species expected
although not observed during the fieldwork.
6.2.1.2
Vertebrate Fauna Field Survey Results
6.2.1.2.1
Reptile Diversity
The overall reptile diversity and endemism in the general area is estimated at between 31-50
species and 17-24 species, respectively (Mendelsohn et al. 2002). Griffin (1998a) presents
figures of between 1-20 and 9-10 for endemic lizards and snakes, respectively, from the
general central coastal part of Namibia. According to the literature review at least 54 species
of reptiles are expected to occur in the general area with 27 species being endemic – i.e.
50% endemic, 1 species (Varanus albigularis) as vulnerable, 2 species as rare and
insufficiently known while 4 species have some form of international conservation status
(Cunningham 2011). During the fieldwork conducted between 23 and 27 July 2011 in the
area, 26 species were confirmed of which 14 species were actually observed and 7 species
confirmed using the author’s personal records and 5 species confirmed by personal
communications with various people – e.g. Peter Bridgeford, Naude Dreyer, Mike Griffin,
Stuart Hebbard and Joh Henschel.
The species observed and/or confirmed throughout the area included 6 snakes, 9 lizards, 2
chameleons and 9 geckos with examples shown in Plates 6.2 - 6.5. Of these, 14 species are
endemic – all “secure” – and 1 species an introduced alien species (Cape Dwarf
Chameleon). The two chameleons known to occur in the area (i.e. Cape Dwarf and
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Namaqua) are classified as CITES Appendix II species. The endemic species observed
and/or confirmed throughout the general area and viewed as the most important are Bitis
peringueyi (Péringuey’s Adder), Typhlacontias brevipes (FitzSimmons’ Burrowing Skink) and
various Meroles species. All these species are mainly associated with pockets of vegetation
in the dune belt area and susceptible to local disturbances.
It is expected that more species may be located in the general area than observed and/or
confirmed during the limited fieldwork and that confirmed sightings should be updated
throughout. Table 6.3 indicates the reptile diversity known and/or expected to occur in the
general Kuiseb River and dune belt area (literature study only), including species confirmed
during the fieldwork (√); the authors personal records from the general area but not observed
during the fieldwork (√*) and species confirmed by various people – e.g. Peter Bridgeford1,
Naude Dreyer2, Mike Griffin3, Stuart Hebbard4, Joh Henschel5 – i.e. personal communications
(#).
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Table 6.3:
Reptile diversity expected and confirmed to occur in the general Kuiseb delta
and dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas.
Species: Scientific name
TURTLES AND TERRAPINS
Pelomedusa subrufa
SNAKES
Thread Snakes
Leptotyphlops occidentalis
Leptotyphlops labialis
Burrowing Snakes
Xenocalamus bicolour bicolor
Species: Common name
Marsh/Helmeted Terrapin
Bicoloured Quill-snouted
Snake
Psammophis trigrammus
Western Sand Snake
Psammophis notostictus
Psammophis leightoni
namibensis
Dasypeltis scabra
Karoo Sand Snake
Namib Sand Snake
√
Brains’s Blind Legless Skink
5
#
√
√
2
#
√*
√
√
Meroles micropholidotus
Bushveld Lizard
Shovel-snouted Lizard
Wedge-snouted Desert
Lizard
Small-scaled Desert Lizard
Meroles reticulatus
Reticulated Desert Lizard
√
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Secure
Secure
Secure
Endemic;
Secure
Endemic;
Secure
Secure
Secure
Secure
#
FitzSimmons’ Burrowing
Skink
Western Three-striped Skink
Striped Skink
Western Rock Skink
Variegated Skink
SARDB Peripheral
Secure
1,2,4,5
LIZARDS
Skinks
Typhlosaurus braini
Trachylepis occidentalis
Trachylepis striata wahlbergi
Trachylepis sulcata
Trachylepis variegata
variegata
Old World Lizards
Heliobolus lugubris
Meroles anchietae
Meroles cuneirostris
√*
Shield-nose Snake
Black-necked Spitting Cobra
Puff Adder
Horned Adder
Péringuey’s Adder
International
status
Secure
Common/Rhombic Egg
Eater
Coral Snake
Bitis arietans
Bitis caudalis
Bitis peringueyi
Typhlacontias brevipes
Endemic;
Secure
Endemic;
Secure
Damara Thread Snake
Brown House Snake
Cape Wolf Snake
Mole Snake
Dwarf Beaked Snake
Namibian
conservation
and legal
status
Secure
Western Thread Snake
Typical Snakes
Lamprophis fuliginosus
Lycophidion capense
Pseudaspis cana
Dipsina multimaculata
Aspidelaps lubricus
infuscatus
Aspidelaps scutatus scutatus
Naya nigricincta
Species
observed
and
confirmed
Secure
Endemic;
Secure
Secure
Secure
Endemic;
Secure
Endemic;
Secure
Endemic;
Secure
Secure
Secure
Secure
Secure
Secure
Secure
Endemic;
Secure
Endemic;
Rare?
Endemic;
Secure
NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 6.3:
Cont.
Species: Scientific name
Species: Common name
Meroles suborbitalis
Pedioplanis breviceps
Spotted Desert Lizard
Short-headed Sand Lizard
√*
√*
Pedioplanis namaquensis
Pedioplanis inornata
Namaqua Sand Lizard
Plain Sand Lizard
√*
√*
Plated Lizards
Cordylosaurus subtessellatus
Dwarf Plated Lizard
Monitors
Varanus albigularis
Rock Monitor
Agama
Agama planiceps
Chameleons
Bradypodion pumilum
Species
observed
and
confirmed
Namibian
conservation
and legal
status
Secure
Endemic;
Secure
Secure
Endemic;
Secure
International
status
Endemic;
Secure
Vulnerable;
Peripheral
Protected Game
Namibian Rock Agama
CITES Appendix II
Safe to Vulnerable
Secure
3
Cape Dwarf Chameleon
#
Chamaeleo namaquensis
Geckos
Afroedura africana africana
Namaqua Chameleon
√
Introduced alien
Secure
Secure
Chondrodactylus angulifer
namibensis
Narudasia festiva
Giant Ground Gecko
√
Endemic;
Rare?
Secure
African Flat Gecko
CITES Appendix II
CITES Appendix II
Festive Gecko
Endemic;
Secure
Pachydactylus bicolour
Velvety Thick-toed Gecko
Endemic;
√
Secure
Pachydactylus kockii
Koch’s Thick-toed Gecko
Endemic;
Secure
Pachydactylus turneri
Turner’s Thick-toed Gecko
Secure
√*
Pachydactylus scherzi
Schertz’s Thick-toed Gecko
Endemic;
Secure
Pachydactylus rugosus
Rough Thick-toed Gecko
Endemic;
rugosus
Secure
Pachydactylus weberi werneri Weber’s Thick-toed Gecko
Endemic;
Secure
Palmatogecko rangei
Wed-footed Gecko
Endemic;
√
Secure
4
Ptenopus carpi
Carp’s Barking Gecko
#
Endemic;
Secure
Ptenopus garrulus maculatus Common Barking Gecko
Secure
√
Ptenopus kocki
Kock’s Barking Gecko
Endemic;
√
Secure
Rhoptropus afer
Common Namib Day Gecko
Endemic;
√
Secure
Rhoptropus boultoni
Boulton’s Namib Day Gecko
Endemic;
√
Secure
Rhoptropus bradfieldi
Bradfield’s Namib Day
Endemic;
Gecko
Secure
Namibian conservation and legal status according to the Namibian Conservation Ordinance of 1975 (Griffin
2003)
“Endemic” include endemic to South Africa (Branch 1998)
SARDB (South African Red Data Book – reptiles)
Source for literature review: Alexander and Marais (2007), Branch (1998), Branch (2008), Boycott and
Bourquin 2000, Broadley (1983), Buys and Buys (1983), Cunningham (2006), Griffin (1998a), Griffin (2003),
Hebbard (n.d.), Marais (1992), Tolley and Burger (2007)
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Plate 6.2:
Meroles anchietae (Shovel-snouted Lizard) common in the dune belt area
(Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
Plate 6.3:
Meroles reticulatus (Reticulated Desert Lizard) observed on sandy gravel
substrate (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
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Plate 6.4:
Tracks of Typhlacontias brevipes (FitzSimmons’ Burrowing Skink (Photo:
Cunningham, 2011).
Plate 6.5:
Chamaeleo namaquensis (Namaqua Chameleon) (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
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6.2.1.2.2
Amphibian Diversity
According to Mendelsohn et al. (2002), the overall frog diversity in the general area is
estimated at between 1-3 species. Griffin (1998b) puts the species richness in the general
area between 1-2 species. According to the literature review, up to 7 species of amphibians
can occur in suitable habitat in the general area (Cunningham 2011). The area is under
represented, with 3 toads and 1 species each for rain, rubber and sand frog and platanna
known and/or expected (i.e. potentially could be found in the area) to occur in the area.
Three species (43%) namely Poyntonophrynus dombensis, Poyntonophrynus hoeschi and
Phrynomantis annectens are classified as endemic to Namibia (Griffin 1998b) while all 7
species are classified as “least concern” by the IUCN (IUCN 2010).
The dry sandy coastal desert (Namib) and saline coastal areas are poor habitat for
amphibians. Although the ephemeral Kuiseb and Swakop Rivers reach the sea in the Walvis
Bay and Swakopmund areas respectively, it seldom flows with temporary freshwater pools
being rare close to the coast. Other water bodies in the area are saline of nature and not
suitable habitat for amphibians. Gardens in Walvis Bay, Lang Strand and Swakopmund can
be suitable habitat and amphibians are known to occur here usually after having being
transported from elsewhere (Pers obs.). Overall, the saline coastal habitats are marginal for
amphibians. The Kuiseb and Swakop Rivers flooded for lengthy periods during the unusually
high 2011 rainy season. This could have resulted in amphibians being transported into the
area which otherwise remains generally poor habitat.
Table 6.4 indicates the amphibian diversity known and/or expected to occur in the general
Kuiseb River and dune belt area (literature study only). No amphibians were encountered
during the fieldwork period.
Table 6.4:
Amphibian diversity expected to occur in the general Kuiseb delta and dune belt
area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas.
Species: Scientific name
Toads
Poyntonophrynus dombensis
Poyntonophrynus hoeschi
Amietophrynus poweri
Rain Frogs
Breviceps adspersus
Rubber Frog
Phrynomantis annectens
Bull and Sand Frogs
Tomopterna tandyi
Platannas
Xenopus laevis
Species: Common name
Dombe Toad
Hoesch’s Toad
Power’s Toad or Western Olive Toad
Status
Endemic
Endemic
Common/Bushveld Rain Frog
Marbled Rubber Frog
Endemic
Tandy’s Sand Frog
Common Platanna
Source for literature review: Carruthers (2001), Channing (2001), Channing and Griffin
(1993), Du Preez and Carruthers (2009), Passmore and Carruthers (1995)
6.2.1.2.3
Mammal Diversity
Table 6.5 indicates the mammal diversity known and/or expected to occur in the general
Kuiseb River and dune belt area (literature study only), including species confirmed during
the fieldwork (√); the authors personal records from the general area but not observed during
the fieldwork (√*) and species confirmed by various people – e.g. Peter Bridgeford1, Naude
Dreyer2, Stuart Hebbard3, Joh Henschel4 – i.e. personal communications (#).
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Table 6.5:
Mammal diversity expected and confirmed to occur in the general Kuiseb delta
and dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas.
Species: Scientific name
Species: Common name
Moles
Eremitalpa granti
Grant’s Golden Mole
Elephant Shrews
Macroscelides
proboscideus
flavicaudatus
Bats
Lissonycteris angolensis
Tadarida aegyptiaca
Cistugo seabrai
Round-eared Elephant-shrew
4
Namib Long-eared Bat
Nycteris thebaica
Rhinolophus clivosus
Rhinilophus darlingi
Rhinolophus capensis
Common Slit-faced Bat
Geoffroy’s Horseshoe Bat
Darling’s Horseshoe Bat
*Cape Horseshoe Bat
Taphozous mauritianus
Chaerephon ansorgei
Sauromys petrophilus
Miniopterus natalensis
Eptesicus hottentotus
Neoromicia zuluensis
Pipistrellus rueppellii
*Mauritanian Tomb Bat
*Ansorge’s Free-tailed Bat
Roberts’s Flat-headed Bat
Natal Long-fingered Bat
Long-tailed Serotine
*Zulu Serotine
*Rüppell’s Pipistrelle
Namibian
conservation
and legal
status
#
Endemic;
Secure
√, #3
Endemic;
Secure
*Angolan Soft-furred Fruit Bat
Egyptian Free-tailed Bat
Namibian Wing-gland Bat
Laephotis namibensis
Hares and Rabbits
Lepus capensis
Rodents
Rats and Mice
Parotomys littledalei
namibensis
Rhabdomys pumilio
Mus musculus
Aethomys chrysophilus
Micaelamys (Aethomys)
namaquensis
Rattus rattus
Rattus norvegicus
Desmodillus auricularis
Gerbillurus paeba infernus
Species
observed
and
confirmed
Not listed
Secure
Endemic;
Rare
Endemic;
Insufficiently
known
Secure
Secure
Secure
Secure
Secure
Not listed
Secure
Secure
Secure
Secure
Insufficiently
known;
Peripheral
√, #3
Secure
Striped Mouse
House Mouse
Red Veld Rat
Namaqua Rock Mouse
√
√*
Endemic;
Secure
Secure
Invasive alien
Secure
Secure
House Rat
Brown Rat
Short-tailed Gerbil
Hairy-footed Gerbil
√*
Gerbillurus tytonis
Dune Hairy-footed Gerbil
√
Gerbillurus setzeri
Setzer’s Hairy-footed Gerbil or
Namib Brush-tailed Gerbil
Pygmy Rock Mouse
Petromyscus collinus
Mastomys coucha
Petromys typicus
Cape Hare
Littledale’s Whistling Rat
Southern Multimammate
Mouse
Dassie Rat
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√
International
Status
1
Vulnerable
1
Vulnerable;
Near Threatened
2
1
Near Threatened
Near Threatened
1
Near Threatened;
2
Near Threatened
1
1
Near Threatened
1
Near Threatened
Invasive alien
Invasive alien
Secure
Endemic;
Insufficiently
known
Endemic;
Secure
Endemic
Endemic;
Secure
Secure
Endemic;
Secure
1
Near Threatened
NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 6.5:
Cont.
Species: Scientific name
Species: Common name
Carnivores
Hyaena brunnea
Brown Hyena
Crocuta crocuta
Spotted Hyena
Felis silvestris
Vulpes chama
Canis mesomelas
African Wild Cat
Cape Fox
Black-backed Jackal
Ictonyx striatus
Suricata suricatta
marjoriae
Antelopes
Sylvicapra grimmia
Antidorcas marsupialis
Striped Polecat
Suricate
Oryx gazella
Gemsbok
1
Species
observed
and
confirmed
Namibian
conservation
and legal
status
√, #4
Insufficiently
known;
Vulnerable?
Peripheral
Secure?
Peripheral
Vulnerable
Vulnerable?
Secure;
Problem animal
Secure
Endemic;
Secure
√
√
√, #1
√
Common Duiker
Springbok
√, #
1
√, #1,2
2
International
Status
1
Near Threatened
Near Threatened
2
1
Near Threatened
CITES Appendix II
Secure
Secure;
Huntable game
Secure;
Huntable game
SARDB (2004); IUCN (2010)
* Unconfirmed bat species although potentially could occur in the area according to habitat modelling
(Monadjem et al. 2010)
Source for literature review: De Graaff (1981), Griffin (2005), Estes (1995), Joubert and Mostert (1975),
Monadjem et al. (2010), Skinner and Smithers (1990), Skinner and Chimimba (2005) and Taylor (2000)
The overall mammal diversity in the general area is estimated at between 16-30 species with
3-4 species being endemic (Mendelsohn et al. 2002). The overall diversity (1-2 species) and
abundance of large herbivorous mammals is “low” in the area with Springbok and Oryx
having the highest density of the larger species (Mendelsohn et al. 2002). The overall
abundance and diversity of large carnivorous mammals is relatively “high” (4 species) in the
area with Brown Hyena having the “highest” density of the larger species (Mendelsohn et al.
2002). According to the literature review, up to 42 species of mammals are known and/or
expected to occur in the general area of which 11 species (29.1%) are classified as endemic
(Cunningham 2011).
During the fieldwork conducted between 23 and 27 July 2011 throughout the area, 15
species were confirmed of which 12 species were actually observed and 2 species confirmed
using the author’s personal records from the general area and 1 species viewed as probably
occurring in the Kuiseb River delta dune belt area (J. Henschel Pers. com.). Of these, 4
species are viewed as “endemic” albeit “secure” (Eremitalpa granti, Macroscelides
proboscideus flavicaudatus, Gerbillurus tytonis and Suricata suricatta marjoriae) and 3
species classified as “vulnerable” (Hyaena brunnea, Felis silvestris and Vulpes chama).
Hyaena brunnea is also classified as “insufficiently known” as well as “near threatened”
(Griffin 2005, SARDB 2004, IUCN 2010). Eremitalpa granti is classified as “vulnerable”
(SARDB 2004) and Felis silvestris is listed as a CITES Appendix II species (Griffin 2005).
Plates 6.6 - 6.8 as examples of mammals confirmed from the general area during the
fieldwork period. Two species – House Mouse and House Rat – are viewed as invasive alien
species found in the area.
The small mammal trapping with a potential maximum of 76 rodents (i.e. a maximum of 76
traps set over 3 nights at various locations) resulted in 10 captures (i.e. 13.2% success rate)
of 1 species only – Gerbillurus tytonis (Dune Hairy-footed Gerbil; Plate 6.8). One G. tytonis
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
was trapped in the Kuiseb River riparian vegetation; 4 in the Salsola nolothensis hummocks
along the western dune face and 5 in the Tumas drainage line vegetation along the eastern
dune face (Fig. 6.8) indicating better trapping success of G. tytonis in the dune belt
associated vegetation than the Kuiseb River vegetation. The cold weather encountered
during the fieldwork probably contributed to the low capture success.
Although no bats were observed in the area during the fieldwork at least 3 important species
– i.e. of conservation concern although not confirmed – are known to occur in the general
Kuiseb River area and include Cistugo seabrai (Namibian Wing-gland Bat – “endemic &
rare”; “vulnerable” & “near threatened”), Laephotis namibensis (Namib Long-eared Bat –
“endemic & insufficiently known”) and Pipistrellus rueppellii (Rüppell’s Pipistrelle –
“Insufficiently known & peripheral”).
The most important mammal species known and/or expected to occur in the general area are
viewed as the little known bats – i.e. Cistugo seabrai and Laephotis namibensis – and the
carnivores Hyaena brunnea (Brown Hyena) and Felis silvestris (African Wild Cat). Both
carnivores are shy and elusive and tend to avoid disturbed areas. H. brunnea are nowhere
common throughout their range while F. silvestris furthermore faces genetic pollution issues
with feral cats close to human settlements.
Oryx have not been seen in the Sandwich Harbour area for a number of years (P. Bridgeford
Pers. com.) and according to Hebbard (Pers. com.), Round-eared Elephant-shrew used to be
common on the gravel plains throughout the area, but more recently viewed as uncommon.
Spotted Hyena is not known to occur in the area (J. Henschel Pers. com.). Other species
serendipitously observed in the general area although not indicated in Table 6.5 include
Aardvark (Protected Game) and Warthog (Huntable Game) (N. Dreyer Pers. com.). Kudu
(Huntable Game) have also occasionally been seen in the area (Pers. obs.). However, these
species probably indicate vagrants having followed the various drainage lines into the area
and are not permanently associated with the Kuiseb River and dune belt area. The dune
fields between Sandwich Harbour and the Kuiseb River have an extraordinary high
abundance of psammophilous arthropods, with an estimated order of magnitude more
detritivores than their predators (e.g. wheel spiders, wasps, lizards) (J. Henschel Pers. com.).
Although most of the other species of conservation concern are viewed as “secure”, overall
habitat alteration and overutilization are the two primary processes threatening most
mammals in Namibia (Griffin 1998c). Development undoubtedly would affect most mammals
in the proposed development area, but by following the proposed mitigations these could be
ameliorated.
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Plate 6.6:
Hyaena brunnea (Brown Hyena) faeces observed in the Sandwich Harbour
area (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
Plate 6.7:
Canis mesomelas (Black-backed Jackal) are numerous throughout the area
(Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Plate 6.8:
Gerbillurus tytonis (Dune Hairy-footed Gerbil) was the only small mammal
trapped during the fieldwork throughout various habitats in the area (Photo:
Cunningham, 2011).
57.1
% trapping success and trap numbers
60
50
38
40
31
30
% Trapping success
20
Number of traps set
16.1
10
7
2.6
0
Kuiseb River
Tumas River
Salsola hummocks
Trapping sites
Figure 6.8:
Small mammal trapping results – species captured and habitats utilised.
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
6.2.1.2.4
Avian Diversity
Table 6.6 indicates the bird diversity known and/or expected to occur in the general Kuiseb
River and dune belt area (literature study only), including species confirmed during the
fieldwork (√); the authors personal records from the general area but not observed during the
fieldwork (√*); species confirmed during the 2011 winter wetland bird census during 16 and
17 July 2011 in the Walvis Bay area (#1) (See Bridgeford 2011); birds confirmed from the
Swakop River area (#2) (See Scott and Scott 2008) and personal communication with A.
Scott (Pers. com.) (#3). Table 6.6 excludes migratory birds (e.g. Petrel, Albatross, Skua, etc.)
and species breeding extralimital (e.g. stints, sandpipers, etc.) and rather focuses on birds
that are breeding residents or can be found in the area during any time of the year. This
would imply that many more birds (e.g. Palaearctic migrants) could occur in the area
depending on “favourable” environmental conditions.
Bird diversity is viewed as “medium” in the general area with 141-170 species (this would
include migrant species) estimated with at least 1 - 3 species being endemic (Mendelsohn et
al. 2000). According to the literature review, at least 182 species of terrestrial [“breeding
residents”] birds occur and/or could occur in the general area at any time although excludes
mainly aquatic Palaearctic migrants utilising the general Bay area as an important feeding
ground (Cunningham 2011).
Recently published summer (S) and winter (W) bird count from the general area indicate 38
(S) & 30 (W) species (116, 118 [S] & 22, 725 [W] individuals) at Walvis Bay; 24 (S) & 15 (W)
species (1, 464 [S] & 499 [W] individuals) at the Walvis Bay sewerage ponds (Plate 6.9; 18
(S) species (134 [S] individuals) at the Swakop River mouth and 34 (S) species (84, 011 [S]
individuals) at Sandwich Harbour (Plate 6.10; Bridgeford 2011 [W], Kolberg 2010 [S]). Of
these, waders / shorebirds (~50, 000), gulls/terns/skimmers (~30, 000) and grebes (~10, 000)
were the most numerous at Walvis Bay indicating the importance of the general area for a
variety of birds. According to Bridgeford (2011) the 2011 winter counts were the lowest in the
last 5 years – e.g. the second lowest count was during 2009 with 52, 661 and 2, 240 birds at
the Bay and sewerage ponds, respectively (Plates 6.9 and 6.10). This could probably be
contributed to the above average rains (probably best rains thus far) experienced throughout
Namibia during the 2010 / 11 rain season indicating the importance of environmental factors
affecting bird distribution and movements.
During the fieldwork conducted between 23 and 27 July 2011 throughout the area, 82
species were confirmed of which 50 species were actually observed, 16 species confirmed
using the author’s personal records from the general area, 9 species (excluding the author’s
records) confirmed during the winter 2011 wetland bird count at the Walvis Bay Ramsar site
and sewerage works (Bridgeford 2011), 6 species confirmed during a survey of the Swakop
River environment (Scott and Scott 2008) and 1 species confirmed through personal
communication (Table 6.6, A. Scott Pers. com.). Of these, 4 species are viewed as “endemic”
(Rüppell’s Korhaan, Damara Tern, Dune Lark and Gray’s Lark), 1 species “endangered”
(Damara Tern), 3 species as “vulnerable” (Greater and Lesser Flamingos and African Black
Oystercatcher) and 2 species as “specially protected” (Cape Gannet and Bank Cormorant).
Damara Tern and African Black Oystercatcher are also listed as “near threatened” and Cape
Gannet as “vulnerable” by the IUCN (2010). However, only Damara Tern, Dune Lark and
Gray’s Lark are known to breed in the gravel plains in and around the actual dune belt area
and consequently viewed as the most important bird species potentially affected by
developments in the general dune belt area. Other species also observed in the area but not
included in Table 6.6 include Pygmy Falcon (Scott and Scott 2008) and Caspian Tern (Pers.
obs.).
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 6.6:
Bird diversity expected and confirmed to occur in the general Kuiseb delta and
dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas.
Species: Scientific name
Species: Common name
Struthio camelus
Podiceps cristatus
Tachybaptus ruficollis
Podiceps nigricollis
Pelecanus onocrotalus
Pelecanus rufescens
Phalacrocorax lucidus
√
Morus capensis
Common Ostrich
Great Crested Grebe
Little Grebe
Black-necked Grebe
Great White Pelican
Pink-backed Pelican
White-breasted
Cormorant
Cape Gannet
Phalacrocorax capensis
Cape Cormorant
#
Phalacrocorax neglectus
Bank Cormorant
√*
Phalacrocorax africanus
Phalacrocorax coronatus
Reed Cormorant
Crowned Cormorant
√
Anhinga melanogaster
Ardea cinerea
Ardea melanocephala
Ardea purpurea
Egretta garzetta
Egretta intermedia
Egretta alba
Egretta ardesiaca
Bubulcus ibis
Ardeola ralloides
Ixobrychus minutes
Scopus umbretta
Ciconia nigra
Phoenicopterus ruber
Phoenicopterus minor
Dendrocygna viduata
Alopochen aegyptiacus
Anas capensis
Anas hottentota
Anas erythrorhyncha
Anas smithii
Netta erythrophthalma
Sagittarius serpentarius
Gyps africanus
Aegypius tracheliotus
Circaetus pectoralis
Darter
Grey Heron
Black-headed Heron
Purple Heron
Little Egret
Yellow-billed Egret
Great Egret
Black Egret
Cattle Egret
Squacco Heron
Little Bittern
Hamerkop
Black Stork
Greater Flamingo
Lesser Flamingo
Whitefaced Duck
Egyptian Goose
Cape Teal
Hottentot Teal
Redbiled Teal
Cape Shoveller
Southern Pochard
Secretarybird
White-backed Vulture
Lappet-faced Vulture
Black-chested SnakeEagle
Black-shouldered Kite
Verreaux’s Eagle
Tawny Eagle
Martial Eagle
Augur Buzzard
Southern Pale Chanting
Goshawk
Peregrine Falcon
Lanner Falcon
Elanus caeruleus
Aquila verreauxii
Aquila rapax
Polemaetus bellicosus
Buteo augur
Melierax canorus
Falco peregrinus
Falco biarmicus
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
Species
observed
and
confirmed
Status: Southern
Africa
Specially
protected
Vulnerable;
Breeding endemic
Near-threatened;
Breeding endemic
Endemic;
Endangered
√
√
√
√
√
1
- 76 -
Status:
Namibia
Specially
protected
Endemic;
Near-threatened
√
√
1
#
1
#
1
#
2
#
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
√
√
2
#
1
#
√
Near endemic
√*
NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 6.6:
Cont.
Species: Scientific name
Species: Common name
Falco chicquera
Falco rupicolus
Falco rupicoloides
Francolinus adspersus
Trunix sylvatica
Porphyrio porphyrio
Gallinula chloropus
Fulica cristata
Ardeotis kori
Neotis ludwigii
Red-necked Falcon
Rock Kestrel
Greater Kestrel
Red-billed Francolin
Kurrichane Buttonquail
African Purple Swamphen
Common Moorhen
Red-knobbed Coot
Kori Bustard
Ludwig’s Bustard
Eupodotis rueppellii
Eupodotis afra
Actophilornis africanus
Rostratula benghalensis
Haematopus moquini
Rüppell’s Korhaan
Black Korhaan
African Jacana
Painted Snipe
African Black
Oystercatcher
White-fronted Plover
Chestnut-banded Plover
Kittlitz’s Plover
Three-banded Plover
Blacksmith Lapwing
Pied Avocet
Black-winged Stilt
Spotted Thick-knee
Burchell’s Courser
Double-banded Courser
Kelp Gull
Grey-headed Gull
Hartlaub’s Gull
Swift Tern
Damara Tern
Charadrius marginatus
Charadrius pallidus
Charadrius pecuarius
Charadrius tricollaris
Vanellus armatus
Recurvirostra avosetta
Himantopus himantopus
Burhinus capensis
Cursorius rufus
Rhinoptilus africanus
Larus dominicanus
Larus cirrocephalus
Larus hartlaubii
Sterna bergii
Sterna balaenarum
Chlidonias hybridus
Pterocles namaqua
Pterocles bicinctus
Columba guinea
Columba livea
Streptopelia capicola
Streptopelia senegalensis
Streptopelia capicola
Oena capensis
Agapornis roseicollis
Corythaixoides concolor
Tyto alba
Otus leucotis
Glaucidium perlatum
Bubo africanus
Bubo lacteus
Caprimulgus tristigma
Apus bradfieldi
Whiskered Tern
Namaqua Sandgrouse
Double-banded
Sandgrouse
Speckled Pigeon
Rock Dove
Cape Turtle Dove
Laughing Dove
Cape Turtle-Dove
Namaqua Dove
Rosy-faced Lovebird
Grey Go-away-bird
Barn Owl
Southern White-faced
Scops-Owl
Pearl-spotted Owlet
Spotted Eagle Owl
Giant Eagle Owl
Freckled Nightjar
Bradfield’s Swift
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
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Species
observed
and
confirmed
Status:
Namibia
Status: Southern
Africa
Endemic
Endangered;
Near endemic
Near endemic
√
√*
1
#
√
3
#
√
1
#
Vulnerable
√*
√
Near threatened;
Endemic
Near threatened
1,2
#
√
√
√
√*
√
√
√
√
#1
Endemic
Endemic;
Endangered
√
Near threatened;
Breeding endemic
Near endemic
Near endemic
√
√*
Endemic
Near endemic
2
#
Near endemic
NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 6.6:
Cont.
Species: Scientific name
Species: Common name
Colius colius
Urocolius indicus
Ceryle rudis
Merops hirundineus
Upupa epops
Phoeniculus cyanomelas
White-backed Mousebird
Red-faced Mousebird
Pied Kingfisher
Swallow-tailed Bee-eater
Hoopoe
Scimitar-billed
Woodhoopoe
Monteiro’s Hornbill
African Grey Hornbill
Pied Barbet
Cardinal Woodpecker
Sabota Lark
Long-billed Lark
Dune Lark
Tockus monteiri
Tockus nasutus
Lybius leucomelas
Dendropicos fuscescens
Mirafra sabota
Mirafra curvirostris
Calendulauda
erythrochlamys
Chersomanes albofasciata
Calandrella cinerea
Alauda starki
Ammomanopsis grayi
Certhilauda subcoronata
Eremopterix verticalis
Hirundo fuligula
Riparia paludicola
Dicrurus adsimilis
Corvus capensis
Corvus albus
Parus cinerascens
Anthoscopus minutes
Turdoides bicolour
Pycnonotus nigricans
Monticola brevipes
Namibornis herero
Oenanthe monticola
Cercomela familiaris
Cercomela tractrac
Cercomela schlegelii
Myrmecocichla formicivora
Erythropygia paena
Parisoma subcaeruleum
Parisoma layardi
Zosterops pallidus
Sylvietta rufescens
Eremomela icteropygialis
Eremomela gregalis
Acrocephalus baeticatus
Acrocephalus gracilirostris
Cisticola aridulus
Cisticola subruficapilla
Cisticola juncidis
Prinia flavicans
Spike-heeled Lark
Red-capped Lark
Stark’s Lark
Gray’s Lark
Karoo Long-billed Lark
Grey-backed Sparrowlark
Rock Martin
Brown-throated Martin
Fork-tailed Drongo
Cape Crow
Pied Crow
Ashy Tit
Cape Penduline Tit
Pied Babbler
African Red-eyed Bulbul
Short-toed Rock Thrush
Herero Chat
Mountain Wheatear
Familiar Chat
Tractrac Chat
Karoo Chat
Ant-eating Chat
Kalahari Robin
Chestnut-vented TitBabbler
Layard’s Tit-Babbler
Orange River White-eye
Long-biled Crombec
Yellow-bellied Eremomela
Karoo Eremomela
African Reed-Warbler
Lesser Swamp-Warbler
Desert Cisticola
Grey-backed Cisticola
Zitting Cisticola
Black-chested Prinia
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
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Species
observed
and
confirmed
Status:
Namibia
Status: Southern
Africa
Endemic
2
#
√
√*
√*
Endemic
√*
√
Endemic
√*
√*
√*
√
Near endemic
Endemic
√
√*
√
√
Endemic
Near endemic
Endemic
Near endemic
Near endemic
Near endemic
√
Near endemic
Endemic
√*
√
√
Endemic
Near endemic
Near endemic
Near endemic
Near endemic
Endemic
Near endemic
Endemic
Endemic
√
Near endemic
√
NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 6.6:
Cont.
Species: Scientific name
Species: Common name
Species
observed
and
confirmed
Status:
Namibia
Status: Southern
Africa
Marico Flycatcher
Near endemic
Chat Flycatcher
Near endemic
Spotted Flycatcher
Pririt Batis
Near endemic
Cape Wagtail
√
Richard’s Pipit
Long-billed Pipit
Buffy Pipit
Brown-crowned Tchagra
2
Common Fiscal
#
Crimson-breasted Shrike
Near endemic
Brubru
Bokmakierie
Near endemic
√
Wattled Starling
√
Cape Glossy Starling
√
Pale-winged Starling
Near endemic
√
Scarlet-chested Sunbird
Marico Sunbird
Dusky Sunbird
Near endemic
√
House Sparrow
√
Great Sparrow
Near endemic
√
2
Cape Sparrow
#
Near endemic
Southern Grey-headed
√
Sparrow
Sporopipes squamifrons
Scaly-feathered Finch
Near endemic
√
Plocepasser mahali
White-browed SparrowWeaver
Philetairus socius
Sociable Weaver
Endemic
Ploceus velatus
Southern Masked Weaver
√
Quelea quelea
Red-billed Quelea
Euplectes orix
Southern Red Bishop
Estrilda erythronotos
Black-faced Waxbill
Estrilda astrild
Common Waxbill
√
Amadina erythrocephala
Red-headed Finch
Near endemic
√*
Vidua regia
Shaft-tailed Whydah
Serinus alario
Black-headed Canary
Serinus flaviventris
Yellow Canary
Near endemic
Crithagra atrogulariis
Black-throated Canary
√*
Serinus albogularis
White-throated Canary
Near endemic
√
Emberiza capensis
Cape Bunting
Near endemic
Emberiza tahapisi
Cinnamon-breasted
Bunting
Emberiza impetuani
Lark-like Bunting
Near endemic
√
Endangered, vulnerable, near threatened, etc. (IUCN 2010) – status international
Endemic, near endemic (Hockey et al. 2006) – status southern Africa
Source for literature review: Bridgeford (2011), Brown et al. (1998), Hockey et al. (2006), Komen (n.d.),
Maclean (1985) and Tarboton (2001).
Melaenornis mariquensis
Bradornis infuscatus
Muscicapa striata
Batis pririt
Motacilla capensis
Anthus navaeseelandiae
Anthus similes
Anthus vaalensis
Tchagra australis
Lanius collaris
Laniarius atrococcineus
Nilaus afer
Telophorus zeylonus
Creatophora cinerea
Lamprotornis nitens
Onychognathus nabouroup
Chalcomitra senegalensis
Nectarinia mariquensis
Nectarinia fusca
Passer domesticus
Passer motitensis
Passer melanurus
Passer griseus
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Plate 6.9:
Great White Pelicans and Kelp Gulls observed at the Walvis Bay sewerage
works (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
Plate 6.10:
A variety of bird species – e.g. Great White Pelicans, various cormorants, gulls
and terns – were observed at the Sandwich Harbour lagoons (Photo:
Cunningham, 2011).
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
6.2.2 Flora Diversity
6.2.2.1
Flora Field Survey Methods
According to the original Terms of Reference (ToR), fieldwork to determine the actual floral
diversity was to include the following:
Trees and shrubs – species composition;
Grasses – species composition;
Other species.
6.2.2.2.1
Trees and shrubs
All the trees and shrubs encountered in the general area were identified along various
transects crisscrossing the area whilst conducting the fieldwork. The transect directions
varied and depended on the terrain. All the different habitats were incorporated in the
representative areas surveyed.
6.2.2.2.2
Grasses
All the grasses encountered in the general area were identified along various transects
crisscrossing the area whilst conducting the fieldwork. The transect directions varied and
depended on the terrain. All the different habitats were incorporated in the representative
areas surveyed.
6.2.2.2.3
Other species
Other species – i.e. herbs, lichens, etc. were also identified whenever encountered.
6.2.2.2
Flora Field Survey Results
6.2.2.2.1
Tree and Shrub Diversity
The trees and shrubs known and/or expected to occur in the general central coastal Namibia
area (literature used includes: Burke 2003, Curtis and Mannheimer 2005, Craven and Marais
1986 and Mannheimer and Curtis 2009), including species actually observed (or confirmed)
during the fieldwork conducted between 23 and 27 July 2011 (√), is presented in Table 6.7.
According to Curtis and Mannheimer (2005) and Mannheimer and Curtis (2009) between 26
and 39 species of larger trees and shrubs are known and/or expected to occur in the general
area of which 6 species are classified as endemic (i.e. 15.4%). Scott and Scott (2008)
identified 17 species of plants (including grasses) during a survey along the Swakop River
which forms the northern boundary of the study site as assessed during this study.
During the fieldwork, only 9 species of larger trees/shrubs – 3 species protected by Forestry
and 1 species being endemic (Arthraerua leubnitziae) – were confirmed from the general
area – with most of these mainly associated with the Kuiseb River riparian vegetation (Table
6.7).
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
A total of 33 species of plants (including lichens, but excluding grasses) were identified in
various habitats throughout the area with the majority of the flora diversity associated with the
Kuiseb (16 species) and Tumas (13 species) Rivers, respectively, followed by the northern
lichen dominated gravel plains (10 species) (Table 6.7).
The presence of plants is however dependent on environmental conditions, especially
rainfall, implying that many more species are expected to occur throughout the area than
presented in Table 6.7. Vegetation should be collected over various seasons to obtain the full
potential spectrum occurring in an area. Species indicated in Table 6.7 should be viewed as
a “snapshot” in time as encountered during the fieldwork during late July 2011.
Table 6.8 indicates flora (including lichens, but excluding grass) observed in various habitats
throughout the area.
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 6.7:
Tree/shrub diversity expected and confirmed to occur in the general Kuiseb
delta and dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas.
Species: Scientific name
Expected:
Curtis and
Mannheimer
(2005)
Expected:
Mannheimer
and Curtis
(2009)
Expected:
Burke
(2003)
Acacia erioloba
Acacia reficiens
Acacia tortilis
Acanthosicyos horridus
Adenia pechuelii
Adenolobus garipensis
Adenolobus pechuelii
Aloe asperifolia
Aloe dichotoma
Aptosimum spinescens
Arthraerua leubnitziae
Asclepias buchenaviana
Barleria lancifolia
Boscia foetida
Cadaba aphylla
Calicorema capitata
Combretum imberbe
Commiphora dinteri
Commiphora glaucescens
Commiphora oblanceolata
Commiphora saxicola
Commiphora tenuipetiolata
Commiphora virgata
Commiphora wildii
Cordia sinensis
Cyphostemma currorii
Dyerophytum africcanum
Euclea pseudebenus
Euphorbia damarana
Euphorbia guerichiana
Euphorbia virosa
Faidherbia albida
Ficus cordata
Ficus sycomorus
Grewia tenax
Gymnosporia senegalensis
Hoodia currorii
Hyphaene petersiana
Ipomoea adenioides
Lycium bosciifolium
Lycium cinereum
Lycium hirsutum
Lycium pumilum
Lycium tetrandrum
Maerua juncea
Maerua schinzii
Monechma cleomoides
Moringa ovalifolia
Parkinsonia africana
Pechuel-Loeschea
leubnitziae
Petalidium setosum
Rhus marlothii
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Species
observed
and
confirmed
Status
√
Protected (F)
√
√
Protected (F)
Endemic
√
√
√
√
NC, C2
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Protected (F)
Endemic, C2
C2
C2
Protected (F)
Protected (F)
Protected (F)
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
- 83 -
Endemic
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Endemic
√
√
√
Endemic
Protected (F)
Endemic
√
√
√
√
√
√
Expected:
Craven
and
Marais
(1986)
√
√
Protected (F)
√
√
√
Protected (F)
√
NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 6.7:
Cont.
Species: Scientific name
Expected:
Curtis and
Mannheimer
(2005)
Expected:
Mannheimer
and Curtis
(2009)
Expected:
Burke
(2003)
Expected:
Craven
and
Marais
(1986)
√
Species
observed
and
confirmed
Status
Salsola sp.
√
√
√
√
S. arborea, S. aphylla, S.
nollothensis
Salvadora persica
√
√
√
√
Sarcocaulon marlothii
√
Searsia marlothii
√
Tamarix usneoides
√
√
√
√
√
Protected (F)
Tetragonia reduplicata
√
Welwitschia mirabilis
√
√
√
√
NC, C2
Zygophyllum stapffii
√
√
√
Endemic (Craven 1999)
F – Forestry Ordinance No. 37 of 1952 and/or Forest Act No. 72 of 1968 (Curtis and Mannheimer 2005,
Mannheimer and Curtis 2009)
NC – Nature Conservation Ordinance No. 4 of 1975 (Curtis and Mannheimer 2005, Mannheimer and Curtis
2009)
C2 – CITES Appendix 2 (Curtis and Mannheimer 2005, Mannheimer and Curtis 2009).
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 6.8:
Flora (including lichens, but excluding grass) observed in various habitats in the
general Kuiseb delta and dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas.
Species:
Scientific name
Acacia erioloba
Acanthosicyos
horridus
Arthraerua
leubnitziae
Brownanthus
arenosus
Buellia stellulata
Caloplaca
elegantissima
Caloplaca volkii
Caparis hereoensis
Citrullus lanatus
Cyperus marginatus
Faidherbia albida
Felicia smaragdina
Galenia africana
Geigeria sp.
Gossypium
anomalum
Heliotropium sp.
Lycium tetrandrum
Mesembryanthemum
cryptanthum
Mesembryanthemum
guerichianum
Myxopappus
hereroensis
Ornithogalum sp.
Pechuel-Loeschea
leubnitziae
Salsola sp.
S. arborea, S.
aphylla, S.
nollothensis
Sarcocornia perennis
Saueda sp.
Senecio engleranus
Tamarix usneoides
Trianthema
hereroensis
Xanthodactylon
turbinatum
Xanthoparmelia
namibiensis
Xanthoparmelia
walteri
Zygophyllum simplex
Zygophyllum stapffii
Kuiseb
River*
Tumas
River
√
√
√
Sandwich
Area
Dunes:
West
Dunes:
East
Rocky
Outcrops
Gravel
Plains:
General
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
1
√
Endemic
√
Near
Endemic
√
√
Endemic
2
√
Endemic
2
√
Protected (F)
√
√
√
Status
Protected (F)
Protected (F)
√
√
SW
√
√
√
Gravel
Plains:
North
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Protected (F)
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
SW – Sewerage Works
1
2
Endemic ( Craven 1999, Wirth 2010)
Near Endemic (Mannheimer et al. (2008)
F – Forestry Ordinance No. 37 of 1952 and/or Forest Act No. 72 of 1968 (Curtis and Mannheimer 2005,
Mannheimer and Curtis 2009)
*The Kuiseb River habitat includes the delta area
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
6.2.2.2.2
Grass Diversity
The grasses known and/or expected to occur in the general central coastal Namibia, area
(literature used includes: Burke 2003, Curtis and Marais 1986, Müller 2007, Müller 1984, Van
Oudshoorn 1999), including species actually observed (or confirmed) during the fieldwork
conducted between 23 and 27 July 2011 (√), is presented in Table 6.9.
According to various authors up to 48 grasses – 6 to 37 species – occur in the general
central coastal, Namibia area. More specifically, between 21 and 24 species of grass
potentially could occur in the general area (Müller 1984, Müller 2007).
During the fieldwork, only 9 species of grass were confirmed from the general area as
indicated to occur in the area (Table 6.9). Two more grass species – not included in Table
6.9 above – observed in the area included Cladoraphis cyperoides and Stipagrostis hermanii
(Table 6.10).
Grasses are not well represented throughout the dune belt area with only 8 species observed
and the annual S. hermanii probably the most widespread, especially on the gravel and
sandy/gravel plains, while S. sabulicolia is common on hummocks along the Kuiseb River.
Phragmites australis forms dense stands in the Kuiseb River delta area as well as the Walvis
Bay sewerage works. Odyssea paucinervis is the most common grass adjacent the lagoons
in the Sandwich Harbour area.
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 6.9:
Indicates grasses observed in various habitats throughout the area.
Species: Scientific name
2,5
Species
observed and
confirmed
Anthephora pubescens
Aristida adscensionis
2
Aristida congesta
2,5
Bachiaria deflexa
2,3
Cenchrus ciliaris
1,2,3
Centropodia glauca
1,2
Chloris virgata
2,4
Cladoraphis spinosa
√
1,2,5
√
Cynodon dactylon
1,2
Dactyloctenium aegyptium
1,2
Enneapogon cenchroides
1,2,3
Enneapogon desvauxii
1,2
Enneapogon scaber
2
Enneapogon scoparius
1,5
Entoplocamia aristulata
1,5
Eragrostis annulata
2
Eragrostis cilianensis
1,2,5
Eragrostis echinochloidea
2
Eragrostis lehmanniana
2,3,5
Eragrostis nindensis
1
Eragrostis omahekensis
1,5
Eragrostis porosa
2
Eragrostis rotifer
2,5
Eragrostis superba
2,5
Fingerhuthia africana
2
Melinis repens
1,4,5
√
Odyssea paucinervis
2,5
Panicum repens
2,4
Phragmites australis
√
1,5
Pogonarthria fleckii
2
Polypogon monspeliensis
2
Schmidtia kalahariensis
1,2
Schmidtia pappophoroides
1
Setaria appendiculata
2
Setaria megaphylla
1,2
Setaria verticillata
4
Sporobolus consimilis
2
Sporobolus festivus
4
Sporobolus nebulosus
1,2,3,5
Stipagrostis ciliata
1,2,5
Stipagrostis hirtigluma
√
1,5
Stipagrostis hochstetteriana
1,2,5
Stipagrostis namaquensis
3
√
Stipagrostis sabulicolia
1,2,5
Stipagrostis obtusa
1,2,5
Stipagrostis uniplumis
√
1,2,5
Tricholaena monachne
2,5
Tragus berteronianus
Endemic - Müller (1984); Endemic* - Burke (2003)
? – Undetermined in literature
Status
2
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
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Endemic
Endemic*
Ecological
Status
Grazing Value
Decreaser
Increaser 2
Increaser 2
Increaser 2
Decreaser
Decreaser
Increaser 2
Increaser 1
Increaser 2
Increaser 2
Increaser 2
Intermediate
?
Increaser 2
Intermediate
Increaser 2
Increaser 2
Increaser 2
Increaser 2
Increaser 2
?
Intermediate
Intermediate
Increaser 2
Decreaser
Increaser 2
?
Decreaser
Decreaser
Increaser 2
?
Increaser 2
Decreaser
Decreaser
Decreaser
Increaser 2
?
Increaser 2
Increaser 2
Decreaser
Increaser 2
Decreaser
?
?
Decreaser
Increaser 2
Increaser 2
Increaser 2
High
Low
Low
Average
High
High
Average
Average
High
Average
Low
Average
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Average
Average
Average
Low
Low
Low
Average
Average
Low
Low
High
Low
Low
Average
Low
High
High
High
Average
Low
Low
Low
High
Low
Average
Average
?
High
Average
Average
Low
NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Table 6.10: Grass diversity expected and confirmed to occur in the general Kuiseb delta
and dune belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas.
Species: Scientific
name
Cladoraphis cyperoides
Cladoraphis spinosa
#
Cynodon dactylon
Odyssea paucinervis
Phragmites australis
Stipagrotis hermanii
Stipagrostis hirtigluma
Stipagrostis sabulicolia
Stipagrostis uniplumis
Kuiseb
River*
Tumas
River
√
√
√
Sandwich
Area
Dunes:
West
Dunes:
East
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
SW – Sewerage Works
Endemic - Burke (2003)
*The Kuiseb River habitat includes the delta area
#
Cynodon dactylon observed at artificial water point east of the dunes
6.2.2.2.3
Gravel
Plains:
General
Gravel
Plains:
North
√
√
√
√
√
Rocky
Outcrops
√
√
√
√
SW
Status
√
Endemic
Habitats
Although the general area is typical of the Southern Namib or Southern Desert (Giess 1971,
Mendelsohn et al. 2002, van der Merwe 1983) the various habitats within the Kuiseb River
and dune belt area differ remarkably (Plates 6.11 – 6.22). Plates 6.11 - 6.22 attempt to
indicate the obvious flora differences visually. The actual dune belt area between the Kuiseb
and Swakop Rivers is virtually devoid of vegetation throughout although patches of
Arthraerua leubnitziae occur in inter-dune gravel patches (Plate 6.19). This dune field is
however the northernmost distribution of many species otherwise confined to the great dune
sea south of the Kuiseb River (J. Henschel Pers. com.). However, the dune belt between
Sandwich Harbour and the Kuiseb River is better vegetated with patches of Acanthosicyos
horridus and Caparis herereonisis (Plate 6.20).
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Plate 6.11:
The Kuiseb River riparian vegetation is dominated by Acacia erioloba and
Faidherbia albida trees, Zygophyllum stapffii shrubs and a variety of invasive
alien species (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
Plate 6.12:
The Tumas River is dominated by Salsola nollothensis shrubs on hummocks
and prostrate Zygophyllum simplex (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Plate 6.13:
The Sandwich Harbour area is dominated by Odyssea paucinervis grass and
Phragmites australis reeds, Sarcocornia perennis adjacent the lagoons with the
hummocks covered by Acanthosicyos horridus and Caparis herereonisis
(Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
Plate 6.14:
Gravel plains dominated by the annual Stipagrostis hermanii with Salsola
nollothensis hummocks in the background typical of the habitat along the
western edge of the dune belt (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
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Plate 6.15:
Sandy gravel plains with patches of Arthraerua leubnitziae hummocks are
typical along the eastern edge of the dune belt (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
Plate 6.16:
Sparsely vegetated rocky outcrops in the area (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Plate 6.17:
Sparsely vegetated gravel plains between the Kuiseb River and the dune belt
area (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
Plate 6.18:
The northern gravel plains on the eastern edge of the dune belt towards the
Swakop River are covered by lichens (e.g. mostly Caloplaca elegantissima) and
the prostrate Zygophyllum simplex with Arthraerua leubnitziae mainly
associated along the drainage lines (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Plate 6.19:
Sparsely vegetated dune belt area between the Kuiseb and Swakop Rivers
(Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
Plate 6.20:
Patches of Acanthosicyos horridus and Caparis herereonisis in dune hollows in
the dune belt area between Sandwich Harbour and the Kuiseb River (Photo:
Cunningham, 2011).
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Plate 6.21:
Coastal dune hummocks in the Paaltjies area are mainly dominated by Salsola
nollothensis, but also Capparis hereoensis and Lycium tetrandrum shrubs and
generally have a high abundance of invertebrates – e.g. Black Widow spiders
feeding on other satellite fauna (J. Henschel Pers. com.) and vertebrates – e.g.
Meroles species lizards and gerbils (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
Plate 6.22:
Phragmites australis and Tamarix usneoides are dominant at the Walvis Bay
Sewerage Works (Photo: Cunningham, 2011).
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
6.2.2.2.4
Alien Species
Twelve invasive alien plant species (Plate 6.23 – 6.25) were observed throughout the area
with the Kuiseb River being heavily infested (Table 6.11). Except for a Sisal sp. specimen
observed on one of the rocky outcrops in the Rooibank area as well as Opuntia sp. and
Ricinus communis at seepage at an artificial source – i.e. water pipeline – east of the dunes,
no other invasive aliens were observed in any of the other habitats. Eucalyptus sp. was also
only observed in the Kuiseb River delta area. Scott and Scott (2008) confirmed 2 species of
invasive alien species (Nicotiana glauca and Prosopis sp.) occurring in the Swakop River as
observed during a survey of the river and environments. Although the Swakop River forms
the northern boundary of the proposed survey site (this study) and not included during this
study, I have included these sightings here as technically they could spread into the survey
area.
Table 6.11: Alien species observed in various habitats in the general Kuiseb delta and dune
belt area – i.e. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund areas.
Species: Scientific name
Kuiseb
River*
Tumas
River
Sandwich
Area
Dunes:
West
Dunes:
East
Rocky
Outcrops
Gravel
Plains:
General
Argemone ochroleuca
√
Datura ferox
√
Datura innoxia
√
Eucalyptus sp.
√
Nicotiana glauca
√
#
Opuntia sp.
√
#
√
Pennesetum clandestinum
Prosopis sp.
√
√
Ricinus communis
√
Sesbania bispinosa
√
√
Sisal sp.
Verbesina encelloides
√
*The Kuiseb River habitat includes the delta area
#Opuntia sp. and Pennesetum clandestinum found at artificial water point – leakage – east of the dunes
Plate 6.23:
Gravel
Plains:
North
Dense stands of invasive aliens – Argemone ochroleuca, Datura sp., Nicotiana
glauca and Ricinus communis – occur in the Kuiseb River (Photo: Cunningham,
2011).
Vol. 2 of 3 – EIA Kuiseb Delta & Dune Belt
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Plate 6.24:
Eucalyptus sp. observed in the Kuiseb River delta area (Photo: Cunningham,
2011).
Plate 6.25:
Sisal sp. individual encountered in a rocky outcrop in the Rooibank area (Photo:
Cunningham, 2011).
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
6.2.3 Vertebrate Fauna and Flora Conclusions
6.2.3.1
Vertebrate Fauna Conclusions
It is estimated that at least 54 reptile, 7 amphibian, 42 mammal and 182 bird species
(breeding residents) are known to or expected to occur in the general area of which a large
proportion are endemics. Endemics include at least 50% of the reptiles, 43% of the
amphibians, 29% of the mammals and 4% (7 of the 14 Namibian endemics) of all the
breeding and/or resident birds known and/or expected to occur in the general area. During
the fieldwork conducted between 23 and 27 July 2011, 26 reptiles, 0 amphibians, 15
mammals and 82 bird species were identified and confirmed (See Appendix 1).
6.2.3.1.1
Reptiles
The high percentage of endemic reptile species (50%) known and/or expected to occur in the
general area underscores the importance of this area for reptiles. Reptile species of concern
are the 2 thread snakes (Leptotyphlops occidentalis and L. labialis) as well as the sand
burrowing/dwelling species such as Bitis peringueyi and the various Meroles species,
especially Meroles micropholidotus classified as endemic and rare, as well as the high
proportion (81%) of endemic gecko (e.g. Pachydactylus species) species of which very little
is known about their ecological role and actual status in Namibia. The seemingly barren
sandy dune and gravel plain areas are host to a variety of reptile fauna not often expected
and/or acknowledged. Fig. 6.9 shows DST of important reptiles sensitive area based on the
results of the flora specialist work undertaken for this project. Poorly planned and executed
development and recreation activities could affect these species negatively.
6.2.3.1.2
Amphibians
Amphibians are generally not viewed as extremely important in saline coastal areas which
are marginal habitat for most amphibians. Although 43% of the amphibians expected to
occur in the general area are endemic to Namibia they are expected to occur further inland –
i.e. the Kuiseb and Swakop Rivers and rocky outcrops with temporary pools associated with
these landforms, etc. – and not directly associated with the dune belt between Walvis Bay
and Swakopmund. The endemic Phrynomantis annectens is probably the amphibian of
greatest concern in the area although it occurs widespread throughout large parts of
Namibia.
6.2.3.1.3
Mammals
Endemic mammals expected to occur in the general area make up a relatively large
percentage (29%) of the mammals known and/or expected from the area. Endemic mammal
species of concern include the mole Eremitalpa granti and the two bats Laephotis namibensis
and Cistugo seabrai as well as the Hairy-footed Gerbils (Gerbillurus sp.). Both bats are very
poorly known with only a few records from the general area making them particularly
important. Fig. 6.10 summarises important reptiles sensitive area based on the results of the
flora specialist work undertaken for this project. The predator of concern is Hyaena brunnea
which is classified locally as Insufficiently Known, probably Vulnerable; with an international
status of Vulnerable (SARDB 2004, IUCN 2010).
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Figure 6.9:
DST of important reptiles sensitive area based on the results of the flora
specialist work undertaken for this project.
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
Figure 6.10: DST of important mammals sensitive area based on the results of the flora
specialist work undertaken for this project.
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NACOMA Supported Project – April 2012
6.2.3.1.4
Birds
The high proportion of endemic birds of which 50% (7 of 14 species) are endemic to Namibia
and which are known and/or expected to occur in the general area is important and should be
taken into consideration regarding development and various activities in the area (Fig. 6.11).
Seabirds tend to be more mobile than most other birds with the highest species diversity and
abundance along nutrient-rich waters such as the Benguela upwelling system along the
Namibian coastline (Hockey et al. 2006). Species of greatest concern include all the
endemics (e.g. Dune and Gray’s Larks) as well as Morus capensis (Vulnerable – IUCN
2010), Phalacrocorax capensis (Near threatened – IUCN 2010), Phalacrocorax neglectus
(Endangered – IUCN 2010), Phalacrocorax coronatus (Near threatened – IUCN 2010),
Phoenicopterus minor (Endangered – IUCN 2010), Haematopus moquini (Near threatened –
IUCN 2010), Charadrius pallidus (Near threatened – IUCN 2010) and Sterna balaenarum
(Near threatened – IUCN 2010).
The Namibian coast is extremely important for the Chestnut-banded Plover (Charadrius
pallidus) with Walvis Bay and Sandwich Harbour home to more than 80% of the species in
Africa during certain parts of the year (Simmons et al. 2007).
Cape Cormorant
(Phalacrocorax capensis) and Crowned Cormorant (Phalacrocorax coronatus), which breed
at the guano platforms along the Namibian coast, are other species of concern as fluctuating
numbers are often a result of anthropomorphic influences (Crawford et al. 2007, Hamukwaya
and Cunningham 2007).
However, the Damara Tern (Sterna balaenarum) which breeds in the gravel plain and sandy
beach areas in the general area is the species possibly most threatened by development in
the immediate area. With 98% of the Damara Tern breeding population being in Namibia
(Braby 2010a; Braby 2011; Crawford and Simmons 1997); very low inter-colony dispersal
rates with only 70 known colonies (Braby 2011), the importance of the general area cannot
be stressed enough. Furthermore, some of the densest colonies – Caution Reef/Horse
Graves – are located in this area (Braby 2010b). Disturbance and urbanisation, especially
off-road vehicles, impact on breeding success and consequently pose the biggest threat to
Damara Terns along the Namibian coast (Braby et al. 2001, Braby 2011, Braby and Braby
2002). Another species threatened by off-road driving, which also occur along the coast, are
African Black Oystercatchers (Haematopus moquini) (Watson et al. 1996).
The Walvis Bay wetland is considered the most important coastal wetland in southern Africa
and one of the top 3 in Africa (Bethune et al. 2007) and supports mainly Palaearctic migrants,
often comprising up to 88% of the birds – e.g. up to 1% of the global Chestnut-banded Plover
(approximately 2 000 individuals) are expected to occur in the Walvis Bay area (Whitelaw et
al. 1978). Between 70 000 and 100 000 birds in winter and up to 250 000 in spring are
supported by the wetland (Bethune et al. 2007). The Namib coast is especially important for
8 species and in terms of global populations it supports >90% of the world’s Chestnut-banded
Plovers (Charadrius pallidus); 31% of Cape Teals (Anas capensis); and 26% of African Black
Oystercatchers (Haematopus moquini).
In terms of African endemic races it supports: >90% of the Black-necked Grebe (Podiceps
nigricollis gurneyi); and 33% of the White-fronted Plover (Charadrius m. Marginatus); and in
terms of southern African sub-continental populations it supports 31% of Pied Avocets
(Recurvirosta avocetta), 13.7% of Greater Flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus) and 10.3% of
Lesser Flamingos (Phoenicopterus minor) (Williams and Simmons 2008a). Furthermore, up
to 200 000 Holarctic shorebirds are supported seasonally along the Namibian coast
belonging largely to 12 annually occurring species, of which 5 species occur in numbers that
form a significant proportion of the southern African flyway populations – e.g. Curlew
Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea 35%); Sanderling (C. alba 32%); Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria
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interpres 17.5%); Grey Plover (Pluvialis squatarola 7.8%) and Red Knot (Calidris canutus
1.6%) (Williams and Simmons 2008b). According to Simmons and Brown (2009) 28 wetland
bird species are of special concern in Namibia.
The Walvis Bay and Sandwich Harbour wetlands are furthermore classified as Ramsar sites
(i.e. Namibia is signatory to the Ramsar Convention protecting important wetland sites) as
well as globally Important Birding Area (IBA’s) (Simmons 1998a). Another IBA in close
proximity to Walvis Bay and the Sandwich Harbour area (Global IBA, Marine Reserve and
Namib-Naukluft Park) are the Mile 4 Salt works (Swakopmund area – Global IBA, Private
Nature Reserve) (Simmons 1998a). Coastal areas and wetlands are immensely important as
8 and 34 bird species are classified as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable in
each of the biomes (i.e. Coastal areas and Wetlands), respectively (Simmons 1998a).
The Palaearctic migrants visiting the Walvis Bay lagoon area – mainly during the summer –
are also of great importance with disturbance to the feeding area impacting globally on these
birds. The larger birds which follow local migration patterns such as the 2 Flamingo species
(Walvis Bay – Etosha NP – Botswana) and the Great White Pelican (Walvis Bay – Etosha NP
– Hardap Dam) would also be of concern. Flamingos have shown a downward trend in
southern Africa with the Namibian coast regularly supporting 84% (40 000 to 47 000) of the
Greater Flamingos and 85% (34, 000 to 40, 000) of the Lesser Flamingos, respectively
(Simmons 1998c). This indicates the importance of the coastal areas for these species.
Development and recreation (e.g. “dune bashing” and quad bikes) are possibly the biggest
threats to vertebrate fauna, especially reptiles and ground breeding birds, in the Kuiseb delta
and dune belt area between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund. The known Damara Tern
breeding sites – i.e. Caution Reef/Horse Graves – are viewed as the most important areas
not to be disturbed.
Fig. 6.11 shows DST of important avian sensitive area based on the results of the flora
specialist work undertaken for this project Species most likely to be adversely affected by
coastal development would be the avian fauna specifically associated with these areas. As
all development have potential negative environmental consequences, identifying the most
important faunal species including high risk habitats beforehand, coupled with
environmentally acceptable mitigating factors, lessens the overall impact of such
development.
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Figure 6.11: DST of important avian sensitive area based on the results of the flora specialist
work undertaken for this project.
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6.2.3.2
Flora Conclusions
6.2.3.2.1
Flora Overview
Between 26 and 39 species of larger trees and shrubs are known and/or expected to occur in
the general area of which 6 species are classified as endemic (i.e. 15.4%) while up to 48
grasses – 6 to 37 species – occur in the general area. During the fieldwork, only 9 species of
larger trees/shrubs (3 species protected by Forestry and 1 species being endemic – i.e.
Arthraerua leubnitziae) and 8 species of grass (1 species being endemic – i.e. Stipagrostis
sabulicolia) were confirmed from the general area.
Important flora species in the general area are the lichen fields and specific species – e.g.
endemics (Arthraerua leubnitziae etc.) and economically important species such as
Acanthosicyos horridus. Acanthosicyos horridus (!Nara) is endemic to the dunes of the
Namib Desert and are important as a source of food to the Topnaar community living in the
Kuiseb River area. It also serves as habitat to a variety of desert vertebrates and
invertebrates (Seely 2010) and even serves as a nesting site for the Southern Pale-chanting
Goshawk in areas devoid of larger trees/shrubs (N. Dreyer Pers. com.). Destruction and/or
unscrupulous harvesting thereof would pose a threat to these plants and associated fauna.
The lichen fields are difficult to protect although some areas have been fenced off for better
protection over the last few years. The overall diversity of lichens is poorly known from
Namibia, especially the coastal areas and statistics on endemicity is even sparser (Craven
1998). More than 100 species are expected to occur in the Namib Desert with the majority
being uniquely related to the coastal fog belt. Lichen diversity is related to air humidity and
generally decreases inland form the Namibian coast (Schults and Rambold 2007). Off road
driving is the biggest threat to these lichens which are often rare and unique to Namibia.
Another importance of the lichens is that the endemic Damara Tern often uses these fields as
a breeding ground (Craven and Marais 1986). To indicate how poorly known lichens are
from Namibia, the recent publication by Schultz et al. (2009) indicating that 37 of the 39
lichen species collected during BIOTO surveys in the early/mid 2000’s were new to science
(i.e. new species), is a case in point.
Often deserts and plants associated with this marginal area look “dead” although are not, and
thus not viewed as important. All desert vegetation serves as a source of habitat for desert
dwelling fauna – e.g. arthropods and reptiles. All development have potential negative
environmental consequences, but identifying the most important flora species including high
risk habitats beforehand, coupled with environmentally acceptable mitigating factors, lessens
the overall impact of such development.
6.2.4 Sensitive Areas
6.2.4.1
Overview Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Area
The overall area is well protected with the Kuiseb delta and dune belt area, with the
exception of the Walvis Bay and Swakopmund town lands, formally protected within the
recently proclaimed Dorob National Park. The Sandwich Harbour area furthermore falls
within the Namib-Naukluft Park. According to the Uranium Rush Strategic Environmental
Assessment (See MME 2010) conducted for the entire central coastal area, the following
sensitive areas were identified in the general area:
(i)
Biodiversity red flag areas:
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Coastal area immediately north of Walvis Bay (e.g. Important bird areas; high
density of waders along beach; Damara Tern breeding areas);
Walvis Bay Lagoon (e.g. Internationally recognised RAMSAR wetland and
Important Birding Area);
Kuiseb Delta (e.g. very high density of !Nara plants; important for Topnaar
livelihoods);
Sandwich Harbour (e.g. internationally recognised RAMSAR wetland and
Important Birding Area).
(ii)
Biodiversity yellow flag area:
Inland Gravel Plains (e.g. Lichens, invertebrates and biodiversity associated with
Tumas drainage area. Tumas ‘mouth’ – reedbed and ephemeral spring on eastern
edge of dunes, hummocks and ephemeral wetland).
The entire area varies in sensitivity from the globally important Sandwich Harbour wetland in
the south to the largely disturbed gravel plains north of the Kuiseb River and the largely
sparsely vegetated sand dune system dominating the central areas to the lichen rich gravel
plains in the north bordering the Swakop River. The actual dune belt area between Walvis
Bay and Swakopmund is viewed as more resilient than many of the other habitats in the
area. The leeward side of the dunes are viewed as more important as windblown detritus
collects here luring a variety of detritus feeding wildlife. All vegetated patches within this
dune belt system would be viewed as important habitat as this serves as habitat to a variety
of vertebrate fauna. Fig. 6.12 summarises important flora sensitive area based on the results
of the flora specialist work undertaken for this project. Areas of most concern – ranked in
importance from i- v are expected to be:
(i)
Sandwich Harbour;
(ii)
Lichen Fields;
(iii)
Riparian Vegetation of the Kuiseb River;
(iv)
Riparian Vegetation of the Tumas River;
(v)
Topographically higher areas comprising rocky outcrops, Caution Reef, Horse
Graves and Salsola dune hummock fields in the Paaltjies area and associated
areas.
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Figure 6.12: DST of important flora sensitive area based on the results of the flora specialist
work undertaken for this project.
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6.2.4.2
Sandwich Harbour
An analysis of Namibian biomes supporting red data species indicates that wetland habitats
contain the greatest number of threatened species – i.e. 23% of all wetland birds (Brown et
al. 1998). These coastal wetlands are immensely important as 8 and 34 bird species are
classified as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable in each of the biomes (i.e.
Coastal areas and Wetlands), respectively (Simmons 1998a).
The Sandwich Harbour wetlands are classified as a Ramsar site as well as a globally
Important Birding Area (IBA’s) (Simmons 1998a). It is furthermore viewed as a site of special
ecological importance in Namibia with its known distinctive values being its overall biotic
richness, 36 fish spp., migrant shorebirds and red data birds (Curtis and Barnard 1998).
According to Kolberg (n.d.) the area is a centre of concentration for migratory birds regularly
supporting over 142,000 and 50,000 birds in summer and winter, respectively.
Fresh water in the form of seeps and easily accessible underground burrows excavated by
Black-backed Jackal and Brown Hyena cannot be stressed enough in an otherwise extreme
environment (Plate 6.26).
Plate 6.26:
Fresh water as excavated by predators serves as a lifeline to a variety of other
wildlife in the Sandwich Harbour dune belt area.
Development in this area should be avoided at all costs and access to the area should
be strictly limited, controlled and monitored to ensure the overall environmental
integrity of the area.
6.2.4.3
Lichen Fields
Lichens – with more than 100 species known from the Namib Desert – are a unique feature
to the Namibian coastal environment and as their diversity and endemism is poorly known
(Craven 1998); are easily disturbed especially by ORV’s and often serve as a breeding
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ground for the endemic Damara Tern (Craven and Marais 1986), they should be protected in
situ wherever possible. The lichen fields in the northern gravel plains bordering the Swakop
River are viewed as important and worthy of protection.
Development in this area should be avoided at all costs and access to the area should
be strictly limited, controlled and monitored to ensure the overall environmental
integrity of the area.
6.2.4.4
Riparian Vegetation
6.2.4.4.1
Kuiseb River
Although the Kuiseb River riparian vegetation belt is heavily invested by invasive alien plant
species, the larger trees – Acacia erioloba, Faidherbia albida and Tamarix usneoides – are
all protected species and serve as a source of food and habitat to a variety of wildlife
(including the Topnaar domestic stock) in an otherwise extreme area. The riparian
hummocks furthermore support Acanthosicyos horridus, which supports a variety of
vertebrate fauna and furthermore is the main source of livelihood to the local Topnaar
community. Phragmites australis forms extensive, albeit dense, habitat to a variety of
especially birds in the Kuiseb River delta area.
Development in the Kuiseb River delta area should be avoided at all costs and access
to the area should be strictly limited, controlled and monitored to ensure the overall
environmental integrity of the area. Other development along the Kuiseb River should
ensure the natural flow of the river and not impact on the indigenous vegetation.
6.2.4.4.2
Tumas River
Although typically sparsely vegetated, the Tumas River comprises of a number of drainage
lines all abutting the eastern side of the dune belt. The Arthraerua leubnitziae dominated
hummocks within this drainage system serves as habitat to a variety of vertebrate fauna.
Development in the Tumas River area should avoid disturbing the vegetated
hummocks viewed as the most important habitat with access to the area limited,
controlled and monitored to ensure the overall environmental integrity of the area.
6.2.4.5
Rocky Outcrops
Rocky outcrops typically serve as habitat to a variety of vertebrate fauna and flora species
especially when occurring as virtual inselbergs in a harsh desert system. Rocky outcrops
often have various lichen species not found on the surrounding plains and other important
plants often associated with these outcrops include various Aloe species, Gazania
jurineifolia, Hereroa puttkamerana and Trichocaulon pedicellatum (Seely 2010). Vertebrate
species typically associated with such outcrops include the Namib Day Geckos.
Development on and utilisation of rocky outcrops should be avoided.
6.2.4.6
Other Areas
Other more specific areas also viewed as important are Caution Reef, Horse Graves and
Salsola dune hummock fields in the Paaltjies area. The Caution Reef and Horse Graves
areas are known existing or recently used breeding grounds for the endemic Damara Tern
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and should be protected. The Salsola hummocks in the Paaltjies area serve as unique
habitat for a variety of vertebrate (and invertebrate) fauna along the coast. The importance of
these hummocks are often not understood or appreciated fully.
Development in the Caution Reef, Horse Graves and Paaltjies Salsola dune hummock
areas should be avoided at all costs and access to the areas should be strictly limited,
controlled and monitored to ensure the overall environmental integrity of the areas.
6.2.5 Recommendations
To conform to the principles of environmental management regarding future developments
(including tourism), the following broad general recommendations are made:
(i)
Avoid all development in the areas viewed as sensitive habitats – i.e. Sandwich
Harbour, lichen fields, Kuiseb and Tumas Rivers, rocky outcrops, Caution Reef,
Horses Graves and Paaltjies Salsola dune hummocks;
(ii)
Maintain linkages between the various habitats and do not parcel up the area into
virtual islands – i.e. maintain a system of “green spaces” which are linked and can
serve as corridors for the movement of fauna;
(iii)
Protect the larger tree specimens, especially protected species (i.e. Acacia
erioloba, Faidherbia albida and Tamarix usneoides [Forestry Ordinance No. 37 of
1952) as larger tree specimens as these often have cavities, dead branches, loose
bark, etc. which serve as habitat to a variety of cavity and bark dwelling fauna –
e.g. bats and birds – as well as unique and restricted range species (i.e.
Acanthosicyos horridus and Arthraerua leubnitziae) – as these have economic
and/or habitat related importance;
(iv)
Avoid off road driving in sensitive areas especially viewed as susceptible to such
activities – i.e. the gravel areas with lichens – as this results in the permanent
and/or long term destruction of associated fauna (e.g. Damara Terns) and flora.
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6.2.6 Envisaged Impacts
6.2.6.1
Introduction
All developments change are destructive to the local fauna and flora to some or other degree.
Assessing potential impacts is occasionally obvious, but more often difficult to predict
accurately. Such predictions may change depending on the scope of the development – i.e.
the development, once initiated, may have a different effect on the fauna and flora as
originally predicted. Development here refers to recreation activities as well. Thus continued
monitoring of such impacts is imperative.
6.2.6.2
Faunal Loss / Disturbance
Habitat loss associated with various developments would be localised and dependant on the
activities – i.e. some activities may have more impact than others. Table 6.12 summarises
the potential/envisaged impacts expected to occur (faunal loss/disturbance is closely linked
to habitat loss):
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Table 6.12: Summary of potential/envisaged
loss/disturbance is closely linked to habitat loss.
Description
impacts
expected
to
occur
(faunal
Faunal loss/disturbance will vary depending on the scale/intensity of the
development operation and associated and inevitable infrastructure.
The impacts would be contained and/or limited depending on the various
proposed developments envisaged. Each development would have to be
assessed individually to ascertain the scale of impact.
Extent
Localised disruption/destruction of the habitat and thus consequently fauna
associated directly with this habitat and the actual development sites.
This however, would be relatively small areas with localised implications.
Further developments – e.g. industry, road construction, etc. – throughout the
area would however increase the extent of impact.
Duration
The duration of the impact is expected to be permanent over most of the
proposed development sites once established.
Most species (e.g. various birds and smaller mammals) are expected to recolonise the area after completion of the development(s) – i.e. duration
viewed as short to medium term – while other species are not expected to
return (e.g. various secretive carnivores) – i.e. duration viewed as long term.
This however, would be a relatively small area with localised implications.
Intensity
The actual development sites would be permanently altered with the intensity
of faunal loss depending on the species involved – e.g. slow moving and
sedentary species will succumb to development while the more mobile
species are expected to vacate the area.
Implications are expected to be localised, depending on the scale of
developments.
The areas adjacent the development sites should not be significantly
affected. This, however, would depend on the proposed development, but
should be limited to localised implications.
Areas not directly affected by the development, although within the
immediate vicinity, would be affected minimally. This would include dust,
noise and other associated disturbances in the area, but be limited to the
construction period(s).
The effect that a variety of developments may have on the fauna is difficult to
determine beforehand although increased disturbance associated with
increased activities are expected. This would however be limited to the
actual areas affected.
Mitigation
1. Avoid development and associated infrastructure in sensitive areas – e.g.
Sandwich Harbour, Kuiseb and Tumas Rivers, lichen plains and rocky
outcrops, etc. This would minimise the negative effect on the local
environment especially unique features serving as habitat to various species.
2. Implement and maintain track discipline limited to existing tracks and/or
certain tracks with maximum speed limits (e.g. 30km/h) as this would result in
fewer faunal road mortalities and associated dust pollution problems.
3. Avoid off road driving in areas prone to scarring and especially the lichen
fields. Nocturnal driving should also be avoided as this result in the
destruction of slow moving fauna – e.g. various reptiles and other nocturnal
species.
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Table 6.12: Cont.
4. Avoid and/or limit the use of lights during nocturnal activities as this
influence and/or affects various nocturnal species – e.g. bats and owls, etc.
and contribute to “light pollution”. Use focused lighting for least effect.
5. Prevent overnight activities in sensitive areas, especially the Sandwich
Harbour area.
6. Initiate a suitable and appropriate refuse removal policy at any future
developments as littering could result in certain animals becoming
accustomed to humans and associated activity and result in typical problem
animal scenarios – e.g. Black-backed Jackal, etc. A “carry-in-carry-out”
system should be mandatory in sensitive areas, especially the Sandwich
Harbour area.
7. Avoid the removal and damage of bigger trees (especially protected
species – i.e. Acacia erioloba, Faidherbia albida and Tamarix usneoides
[Forestry Ordinance No. 37 of 1952) – during developments – including the
development of access routes – as these serve as habitat for a myriad of
fauna. This is relevant to developments in the Kuiseb River area.
8. Maintain and link “green” corridors throughout the area to ensure the
natural movement of fauna and prevent “island” scenarios which are
detrimental to biodiversity.
9. Rehabilitation of the disturbed areas – i.e. initial development access route
“scars” and associated tracks, as well as temporary accommodation sites.
Preferably workers should be transported in/out to the construction sites on a
daily basis to avoid excess damage to the local environment (e.g. wood
collection, poaching, etc.). Such rehabilitation would not only confirm the
various development companies’ environmental integrity, but also show true
local commitment to the environment.
10. Avoid development in the Kuiseb and Tumas Rivers or within 100m of
these drainage line(s) to preserve the associated riparian fauna.
11. Prevent (do not allow) domestic pets – e.g. cats – becoming established
at the various development sites as pets can cause considerable damage to
the local fauna. Cats also interbreed and transmit diseases to the indigenous
African Wildcat found in the area. The indiscriminate and wanton killing of
the local fauna by such pets should be avoided at all cost.
Frequency of
occurrence
Expected to be “once off” and only affecting the selected site(s).
Probability
Definite (100%) negative impact on fauna is expected in the various
development areas as well as the access route construction sites including
the future (i.e. planned) developments.
Highly Probable (75%) negative impact on fauna is expected in the general
areas as a result of noise, increased activities, etc.
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Table 6.12: Cont.
Probable (50%) negative impact on fauna is expected from the infrastructure
(roads/tracks). Precautionary principle (e.g. avoid unique habitat features as
well as adhering to the proposed mitigating measures would minimise this)
would decrease the significance of these potential impacts.
4.3
Significance
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Status of the impact
Negative
Localised unique habitats (e.g. Sandwich Harbour, Kuiseb and Tumas Rivers
riparian vegetation, lichen fields and rocky outcrops, etc.) with associated
fauna would bear the brunt of this proposed development, but be limited in
extent and only permanent at the actual development sites and access
routes.
Legal requirements
Fauna related:
Nature Conservation Ordinance No. 4 of 1975, CITES, IUCN and SARDB
Habitat – Flora related:
Forestry Ordinance No. 37 of 1952, Forest Act No. 72 of 1968, Nature
Conservation Ordinance No. 4 of 1975, CITES
Degree of
confidence in
predictions
As an ecologist I am sure of the above-mentioned predictions made and
would suggest that the mitigation measures be implemented to minimise
potentially negative aspects regarding the local fauna in the area.
Floral loss/disturbance
Habitat loss associated with various developments (including tourism) would be localised and
dependant on the activities – i.e. some activities may have more impact than others. Table
6.13 summarises the potential/envisaged impacts expected to occur.
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Table 6.13: Summary of the potential / envisaged impacts expected to occur.
Description
Floral loss/disturbance will vary depending on the scale/intensity of the
development operation and associated and inevitable infrastructure.
The impacts would be contained and/or limited depending on the various
proposed developments envisaged. Each development would have to be
assessed individually to ascertain the scale of impact.
Extent
Localised disruption/destruction of the habitat and thus consequently flora
associated directly with this habitat and the actual development sites.
This however, would be relatively small areas with localised implications.
Further developments – e.g. industry, road construction, etc. – throughout the
area would however increase the extent of impact.
Duration
The duration of the impact is expected to be permanent over most of the
proposed development sites once established.
Most species, especially annuals, are expected to re-colonise the area after
completion of the development(s) – i.e. duration viewed as short to medium
term – while the destruction of mature trees are not expected to rebound
soon – i.e. duration viewed as long term.
This however, would be a relatively small area with localised implications.
Intensity
The actual development sites would be permanently altered with the intensity
of floral loss depending on the species involved – e.g. slow growing species
will be affected most.
Implications are expected to be localised, depending on the scale of
developments.
The areas adjacent the development sites should not be significantly
affected. This, however, would depend on the proposed development, but
should be limited to localised implications.
Areas not directly affected by the development, although within the
immediate vicinity, would be affected minimally.
The effect that a variety of developments may have on the flora is difficult to
determine beforehand as this is dependent on the type of developments.
This would however be limited to the actual areas affected.
Mitigation
1. Avoid development and associated infrastructure in sensitive areas – e.g.
Sandwich Harbour, Kuiseb and Tumas Rivers, lichen plains and rocky
outcrops, etc. This would minimise the negative effect on the local
environment especially unique features serving as habitat to various species.
2. Identify protected and unique species (e.g. Acacia erioloba, etc. [Forestry
Ordinance No. 37 of 1952 species] before the commencement of
development activities in areas where these occur and avoid.
3. Prevent and discourage the collecting of firewood as dead wood has an
important ecological role.
Such collecting of firewood, especially for
economic reasons, often leads to abuses – e.g. chopping down of live and/or
protected tree species such as Acacia erioloba which is a good quality wood.
This would only be relevant to the Kuiseb River riparian vegetation.
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Table 6.13: Cont.
4. Avoid the removal and damage of bigger trees (especially protected species –
i.e. Acacia erioloba, Faidherbia albida and Tamarix usneoides [Forestry
Ordinance No. 37 of 1952) – during developments – including the development of
access routes – as these serve as habitat for a myriad of fauna. This is relevant
to developments in the Kuiseb River area.
5. Avoid the removal of interesting and unique flora (especially restricted range
species – e.g. Acanthosicyos horridus and Arthraerua leubnitziae).
6. Avoid development in the Kuiseb and Tumas Rivers or within 100m of these
drainage line(s) to preserve the associated riparian fauna.
7. Prevent the planting of potentially alien invasive plant species (e.g. Pennisetum
setaceum, etc.) for ornamental purposes as part of the landscaping at the various
developments. Alien species often “escape” and become invasive causing further
ecological damage.
8. Implement a policy of “no tolerance” towards the existing invasive alien plant
species (i.e. Argemone ochroleuca, Datura spp., Eucalyptus sp., Nicotiana glauca,
Prosopis sp. and Ricinus communis) in the area. This should include the removal
and destruction of these species throughout the proposed development areas.
Such activity would be beneficial to the overall ecology of the area, especially the
Kuiseb River area where most of these aliens currently occur.
9. Rehabilitation of the disturbed areas – i.e. initial development access route
“scars” and associated tracks, as well as temporary accommodation sites.
Preferably workers should be transported in/out to the construction sites on a daily
basis to avoid excess damage to the local environment (e.g. wood collection,
poaching, etc.).
Such rehabilitation would not only confirm the various
development companies’ environmental integrity, but also show true local
commitment to the environment.
Frequency of
occurrence
Expected to be a “once off” issue affecting the selected site(s).
Probability
Definite (100%) negative impact on flora is expected in the actual development
areas as well as the access route construction sites. This however, would be
much localised and cover limited areas.
Highly Probable (75%) negative impact on flora is expected from the infrastructure
(roads/tracks). Precautionary principle (e.g. avoid unique habitat features as well
as adhering to the proposed mitigating measures would minimise this) would
decrease the significance of these potential impacts.
Significance
Before mitigation: High
After mitigation: Medium to Low
Status of the impact
Negative: Localised unique habitats (e.g. Sandwich Harbour, Kuiseb and Tumas
Rivers riparian vegetation, lichen fields and rocky outcrops, etc.) with associated
flora would bear the brunt of this proposed development, but be limited in extent
and only permanent at the actual development sites and access routes.
Legal requirements
Flora related:
Forestry Ordinance No. 37 of 1952, Forest Act No. 72 of 1968, Nature
Conservation Ordinance No. 4 of 1975, CITES
Degree of
confidence in
predictions
As an ecologist I am sure of the above mentioned predictions made and would
suggest that the mitigation measures be implemented to minimise potentially
negative aspects regarding the local flora in the area.
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6.3
Socioeconomic Environment of the Erongo Region
6.3.1 Overview
The proposed Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt projects localities are situated in Walvis Bay linked
to a web of coastal transportation, communication and utility systems and networks. Walvis
Bay falls within the Erongo Region which is one of the 13 regions in Namibia and is located in
the western part of the country. Because of its geographical location and the fact that the
region contains the harbour towns of Swakopmund and Walvis Bay, it serves as a hub in
terms of the movement of people and goods. There has also been something of a mining
boom in Erongo in recent times. There are a number of established mines such as Rössing
and Langer Heinrich, while a growing number of mines are starting up in the region, and
many more are in the exploratory stages. Uranium is the main commodity being mined in the
region. Tourism and fishing are the other major contributors to Erongo’s economy.
Erongo comprises the Walvis Bay and Swakopmund Magisterial districts up to the Ugab
River and also includes the Omaruru and Karibib magisterial districts. To the west, Erongo is
bordered by the Atlantic Ocean while on land it borders with the following regions: Kunene –
North, Otjozondjupa – east, Khomas – Southeast and Hardap – south. The region has a total
land area of 63,579 km2 which is approximately 7.7% of the country’s total land surface
(NPC, Census Indicators, 2001). The National Population and Housing Census of 2001
estimated the population of the region to be 107,663 (up from 55,470 in 1991) with a
53.5%:46.5% male to female ratio.
Although Swakopmund serves as the administrative centre of Erongo, Walvis Bay is of much
greater economic and strategic importance as it is a much deeper harbour that can support
international cargo ships and tankers. It is thus Namibia’s principal port town which provides
opportunities in fishing, shipping and transport and various other support industries such that
it supports a population of about 60,000 people. It is also an important trade link to other
SADC countries through the Trans-Kalahari and Trans-Caprivi and Trans-Cunene highways.
The town is also home to many people who work on the adjacent mines. In addition the
Walvis Bay lagoon is a designated Ramsar wetland site of international importance which
attracts many tourists to the town. Because of these factors, the town is growing rapidly and
is attracting migrants seeking employment from allover Namibia and other countries. The
area was fully incorporated into the Erongo Region in 1994.
The following is the summary of the socioeconomic and infrastructural settings of the Walvis
Bay and the Erongo Region:
Governance: The regional capital of the Erongo Region is Walvis Bay and the region
has a total area of 63 586 km 2;
Population: Based on 2001 census the region has a total population of 107 663 with
85% of the population living in urban areas;
Industries: Major industries are fisheries, tourism, services, mining and agriculture;
Air: International air connections for both passengers and freight are available at
Windhoek’s Hosea Kutako International Airport to Walvis Bay. Walvis Bay
International Airport is located about 10 km from Walvis Bay and the airport has
regular flights to Cape Town, Johannesburg and Windhoek. Direct destinations include
the strategic regional hub of Johannesburg, and the European city of Frankfurt. Air
Namibia is the national carrier and other international airlines operating in the country
are South African Airways, British Airways/Comair, TAAG and LTU. There are also
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direct flights between Windhoek and Luanda, Lusaka, Harare, Livingstone and Cape
Town, as well as domestic flights to local destinations from the Windhoek’s Eros
Airport.
Sea: Walvis Bay, with its world-class standard of cargo handling and sheltered
deepwater harbour, is poised to become the most important port on Africa’s west
coast and a regional container hub for southern Africa (Plate 7.12). The completion in
2000, of the deepening process and the building of a new enlarged container terminal
able to handle vessels with a capacity of some 2000 to 2400 TEUs (Twenty-foot
equivalent unit, a measure used for capacity in container transportation) put the port
on a par with Cape Town and Durban. Container vessels from Europe can save three
days’ journey time by loading and/unloading in Walvis Bay, rather than Cape Town,
while cargoes for central and Southern Africa from elsewhere in the Atlantic region can
gain up to seven days by using Walvis Bay and going further overland.
The dedicated facilities for a range of commodities, including containerised cargo,
refrigerated produce, break bulk, dry bulks, and petroleum products. The port currently
handles around 2.5 million tons of cargo annually, with an average turnaround time of
about 12-18 hours for container vessels. Products include foodstuffs, marble blocks,
lead and copper ingots and an annual 500,000 tons of salt. As well as excellent
logistical support services, there is a thriving ship repair and marine engineering
industry at Walvis Bay. Walvis Bay Port is administered by the Namibian Ports
Authority (NamPort), a state owned organization established in 1994, part of whose
role is to ensure the smooth operation of cross-border trade. The ports enjoy good
industrial relations, with well-motivated workforces, and are able to offer a high
standard of stevedoring to complement their modern dockside equipment;
Road: Walvis Bay is well linked to the developed road network covering more than
40,000 kilometres and providing access to the majority of towns in Namibia. The
primary route the B2 connecting Walvis Bay and Swakopmund is tarred and links to
the Trans-Caprivi Highway which provides an all-weather road link between Walvis
Bay and Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe, as well as the Democratic Republic of
Congo. The Trans-Kalahari Highway links Walvis Bay with South Africa’s Gauteng
industrial heartland via Botswana. Previously this region used Durban as its natural
gateway. The highway is also connected to the Maputo Corridor on Africa’s east coast,
thus providing a transport link across the entire breadth of the continent;
Rail: A national network of railways covering 2, 382 kilometres connects Walvis Bay
and Lüderitz with key destinations in Namibia and South Africa. Much of the
containerized traffic at Walvis Bay goes by rail, and the port has its own marshalling
yard for maximum operational efficiency. Thousands of tons of bulk minerals from
mines in South Africa and Namibia are transported directly to the quayside by rail for
export;
Walvis Bay Corridor: The Walvis Bay Corridor is the name for a newly constructed
network of transport which has opened up access to landlocked southern Africa for
destinations west of the continent by the shortest possible route. Completed in 1998,
and using the port of Walvis Bay as the trade gateway, its main arteries are the TransCaprivi and Trans-Kalahari Highways. The Walvis Bay to Grootfrontein railway line
also forms part of the corridor;
Telecommunications: Walvis Bay is one of the few towns in Namibia that enjoys
world class telecommunications system, with telephone and internet connections
widely available, thanks to recent substantial investment in the telecommunications
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infrastructure including the installation of optical fibre cable networks and broadband
systems. An international satellite links Namibia to worldwide telecommunications
services. A GSM900 network is operated by Mobile Telecommunications LTD (MTC),
Namibia first cellular service provider. About 80 per cent of the population is within
reach of this network. MTC currently has roaming agreements with 160 countries
worldwide, and visitors from these countries can use their GSM900 phones in Namibia
without difficulty;
Business Services: The full range of business support services is available in Walvis
Bay, including banking and finance, insurance, stock broking, accountancy, general
business consultancy, advertising and marketing agencies and conference facilities.
The Country has a well-established banking system. The Bank of Namibia is
responsible for issuing currency and is the foreign exchange authority, lender of last
resort to banking institutions, banker to the Government and the commercial banks
and the supervisory authority on financial institutions and monetary matters.
Commercial banks operate through a nationwide network of branches and offer a
comprehensive range of banking services, including current account and overdraft
facilities, term deposits, discounting of bills, foreign exchange and a variety of loan
products.
The major banks also represented in Walvis Bay are Bank Windhoek Ltd., the
Nedbank Bank of Namibia Ltd., First National Bank of Namibia and Standard Bank of
Namibia Ltd. Most also provide specialised merchant banking facilities. International
services are available through inter-bank arrangements. Electronic banking and teller
services are available in Walvis Bay and all major centres in Namibia. The Namibian
Dollar (N$) is divided into 100 cents. It is linked to and on a par with the South African
Rand (R) which is also legal tender in Namibia. The Namibian Stock Exchange is
Africa’s second largest in terms of total market capitalization and among the
continent’s most technically advanced bourses;
Energy: There is a 66 kV power line linking Walvis Bay and Swakopmund. NamPower
which has restructured and repositioned itself to address the challenges of a
restructured Namibian electricity supply industry is actively pursuing all avenues for
increasing electricity generation capacity in the country. The main sources of power
are the thermal, coal-fired Van Eck power station outside Windhoek (120 megawatts),
the hydroelectric plant at Ruacana Falls (240 megawatts), the diesel driven Paratus
power station at Walvis Bay (24 megawatts) and one interconnecting line from Eskom
(South Africa) (200 megawatts). To meet the growing power demand, NamPower
commissioned the construction of the 900-km, 400kV interconnector power line from
Kenhardt in South Africa to Auas near Windhoek in 2000. In terms of the availability of
fuels to run the project in the area, the country has a well-established downstream oil
marketing infrastructure that is closely linked with South Africa. There are five main
companies distributing and marketing fuel products in Namibia.
6.3.2 Economic Setting
6.3.2.1
Mining
Due to the scale of its influences across social, economic and environmental spheres, mining
is a key activity within Namibia and the Erongo region. There has been a noticeable decline
in recent times in the contribution of the traditional powerhouses of mining in Namibia, such
as gold and diamonds. But other minerals, particularly uranium, are benefitting from an
increased worldwide demand for clean nuclear energy. This has major repercussions for the
Erongo region as it is known to hold vast quantities of uranium.
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The Chamber of Mines of Namibia places Namibia as the world’s fifth largest producer of
uranium, which comes exclusively from the Erongo region. Erongo’s history of uranium
mining goes back to 1976 with the establishment of Rio Tinto’s Rössing uranium mine. This
is still the largest employer in the region with 1,175 employees recorded in 2007 (Rössing
Uranium 2007). Rössing has responded to the uranium boom by announcing a production
expansion programme.
Paladin Energy’s Langer Heinrich Uranium project came on stream in 2007 and between
them these two mines produce about 10% of the world’s uranium. The French nuclear utility
company Areva has recently opened a uranium mine at Trekkopje and this is set to be
followed by another at Valencia. Other mines owned by Bannerman, Swakop Uranium and
Reptile Uranium may also come on stream in 2012. The existing production expansion as
well as oncoming mines is likely to impact greatly on the region, not only economically and
socially but also environmentally. Mines are notoriously large consumers of energy and
water, both of which are in short supply in the Erongo region.
There is also a gold mine near to Karibib known as Navachab Gold mine, while salt is mined
north of Swakopmund and south of Walvis Bay. Marble, granite, semi-precious stones,
industrial rocks and sand are also mined in the region.
6.3.2.2
Fisheries
With Namibia having one of the richest fishing grounds in the world owing to the cold
Benguela current which flows along the coast, the Namibian government sees commercial
fishing as one of the main pillars of its economy (NPC 2001, Census Indicators, 2001).
Indeed the fisheries sector has been one of the major success stories of the postindependent government. There has been a steady growth of both stock levels and catches
since 1990, and it is estimated that 600,000 metric tonnes of fish and shellfish are landed per
annum. The bulk of this is processed at Walvis Bay and exported, which provides much
employment to the town. Exports increased by 21% between 2006 and 2007 alone (Namibia
Trade Directory 2010) such that the fishing industry is now Namibia’s second biggest export
earner. Hake and horse mackerel are among the key species exported.
6.3.2.3
Infrastructure
Given the importance of mining and the high volume of trade passing through Walvis Bay,
Erongo is served by an impressive infrastructure network. It is well connected both by tarred
road and rail to Windhoek and the north of Namibia. A well-developed road network also links
Walvis Bay to the wider SADC market. The Trans-Kalahari Highway connects to Botswana
and South Africa’s industrial heartland in Gauteng Province, while the Trans-Caprivi Corridor
links the port to important industrial areas in Zambia, Southern DRC and Zimbabwe. The
Trans-Cunene Corridor serves the Southern Angolan region via Tsumeb and Oshikango.
Swakopmund and Walvis Bay are linked by a 220 kV power line from the national grid.
Reforms in the energy sector, in line with the Energy White Paper Policy (1998), are being
felt in Erongo. For example the regional distribution of electricity has been handed over to the
Erongo Regional Distributor (RED) Company (Pty) Ltd. Erongo RED came into being in 2005
and the company serves 53,417 customers in the region (Namibia Trade Directory 2010). It
lists as a priority the need to increase capacity for bulk supply for local and regional
development as well as increasing mining and industrial development in the area. The need
for a diverse mix of energy sources for Namibia is further outlined in the Energy White Paper
Policy (1998).
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6.3.2.4
Conservation and Tourism
There are a wide variety of tourist attractions in the Erongo region and this industry has much
potential to drive development in the region. Swakopmund and Walvis Bay are key
attractions for Namibians and international visitors alike, from where activities as diverse as
dolphin viewing, bird watching, quad biking and dune-boarding can be practiced.
Swakopmund is fast becoming the adventure sports capital of Southern Africa. The Cape
Cross seal reserve, 120 km north of Swakopmund, represents the largest land-based seal
breeding colony in the world. In the interior, natural attractions include the Spitzkoppe,
Brandberg and Namib-Naukluft Park as well as interesting indigenous peoples such as the
Topnaar. The Erongo region is experiencing a rapid growth in communal conservancies
which is a clear sign that communities are seeking to benefit from the tourism opportunities in
the region.
6.3.2.5
Agriculture
Although agriculture has been the backbone of Namibian society for the past century, it
typically only contributes a small amount to overall GDP. Interestingly in Erongo, agriculture
contributes particularly little towards both livelihoods and GDP. The potential of agriculture is
limited by the extreme aridity of the region, particularly in the western part. In the west,
ephemeral rivers are virtually the only areas where pastoralism and small-scale farming can
be practised. Subsistence farming (typically goat herding) does occur further inland,
particularly in the North-East while the Topnaar people combine pastoralism with the
collection of wild plants such as the !nara melon in the Kuiseb river valley. The inhospitability
of the land perhaps explains why 80% of the population resides in urban areas. This is an
unusually high percentage when compared to other Namibian regions, with the exception of
Khomas.
6.3.3 Social Setting
6.3.3.1
Population and Migration
The social environment of Walvis Bay and the wider Erongo region has largely been shaped
by the economic factors outlined above. The importance of mining in the region, as well as its
relatively high level of industrialisation, and the recent increases in tourism, has attracted a
large number of migrant labourers to the region. The fact that only 40% of Erongo’s
population was born in Erongo is testament to this (NPC 2007, Census data of 2001).
Similarly Erongo differs from most other regions in Namibia in that its population is highly
urbanised (80% of the people live in urban areas with the remaining 20% in rural areas).
Erongo also typically fares better than other regions in terms of variables such as income,
employment, health and education. However considerable social problems and challenges
such as shelter and HIV AIDS exist in the region.
6.3.3.2
Population and Migration
Migration is a key social factor at work in Erongo, which continues to attract a large number
of people in search of employment. The population growth rate from 1991-2001 was 94%
(NPC 2007, Census Indicators, 2001). Walvis Bay Urban constituency is the most populous
with 26% of the total population (NPC 2007, Census Indicators, 2001). Interestingly 20% of
Erongo’s population was born in Ohangwena, Omusati and Oshana regions, with men
accounting for 65% of this figure (NPC 2007, Census Indicators, 2001) showing the
migration of mainly male workers from the northern regions to the coast. This is further
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reflected in the fact that Oshiwambo is the most commonly spoken language at home in the
region.
6.3.3.3
HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS is having a strong negative social and economic impact in Namibia. The
prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS was estimated at 19.9% in 2006 (NDP3). While child health,
nutrition and other health areas are slowly improving, the increasing prevalence of AIDS
among the population is having a detrimental impact on health with life expectancy falling,
particularly in the poorer regions of Namibia (ERM, 2005). HIV/AIDS is also often associated
with areas affected by high levels of migration.
While exact figures are difficult to come by, the Erongo Regional Poverty Profile of 2005/2006
states that HIV/AIDS and orphanhood are steadily increasing throughout the region. However
it is generally considered a more serious problem in urban areas. Overall, the socioeconomic impact of HIV/AIDS is significant, and includes reduced workforce productivity,
premature loss of main bread-winners, cost of medicine and funerals, need for workforce
replacement and training, and orphan care.
6.3.3.4
Access to Services, Livelihoods and Income
The high urbanisation rate in Erongo means that access to education, health services and
other facilities is better than most other regions in Namibia. According to the Population and
Housing census (2001), 96% of households had access to safe water and 73% had access
to electricity. The literacy rate stood at 92%, while Erongo had an unemployment rate of 34%.
These figures compare very favourably with other regions. However, it is known that there is
high level of inequality in Namibia with haves having more and the have-not being the
poorest. For example, over 90% of households in urban areas use flush toilets compared to
25% in rural areas. Only 4% of households derive their main sources of income from farming,
while 67% came from wages and salaries and 10% from pensions (NPC, Census Indicators
2001).
6.3.3.5
Marginalised Communities
The Topnaar people are the most marginalised group in Erongo. Since their ancestral land
was declared a national park, they have essentially been squatters on their own land mainly
along the Kuiseb River. They are no longer allowed to hunt and they subsist from small-scale
goat herding along the ephemeral Kuiseb River. Their nutritional and medicinal needs are
mainly met by the !Nara melon, which is the main plant able to withstand the harsh conditions
of the region. Other marginalised communities include retrenched mine workers who become
stranded in the region without any other employment opportunities.
6.3.4 Potential Socioeconomic Impacts
6.3.4.1
Likely Positive Social Impacts
a) Employment
There will be many positive social impacts resulting from the proposed projects which will
benefit Topnaar community particularly with respect to the proposed Kuiseb Delta Project.
Overall, however, the value chain of provision of employment to skilled, semi-skilled and
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unskilled labourers is one of these positive benefits as these employees will be required at
different stages of the proposed projects development. It is likely that local people with
relevant qualifications will be employed or contracted to do various tasks as required and
more other opportunities are likely to arise for both semi-skilled and unskilled workers. This
will help ease the chronic unemployment situation in the country, which was recently
estimated at 52%. In this way the projects will also contribute towards the government’s
Vision 2030 plan. Although the exact total number of temporary and permanent local jobs as
well as contracting opportunities to be created is not yet clear, the proposed projects will
definitely create opportunities throughout the project life cycle.
b) Research, Skills Development and Transfer of Knowledge
The proposed projects will contribute significantly towards skill development and transfer.
Key areas to benefit will be knowledge and research opportunities in tourism and
conservation. The facilities of the proposed projects could be used by students to do
research and enhance their knowledge of the practicalities of tourism and conservation
opportunities thus contributing to knowledge creation.
The initiation of training and capacity building programmes would impart technical skills and
ensure skills transfer to marginalised communities. The transfer of skill must be implemented
during pre-contraction in order to insure that by the time the projects are operational, local
people and in particular the marginalised people will be already fully skilled to participate in
the operation of the both proposed projects.
6.3.4.2
Likely Positive Economic Impacts
a) Infrastructural Development
The proposed projects will both likely to contribute positively to the infrastructural
development in the local area. There is the possibility that projects support infrastructures
and other amenities could be built at the projects sites. It is planned that the existing access
road(s) will be upgraded or constructed during the preconstruction phase, so that the
proposed activities could be implemented effectively. The proposed projects and in particular
the Kuiseb Delta Project will contribute to the socioeconomic development of the local
residents (Topnaar community) by providing an opportunity for socioeconomic improvements
on their livelihoods and economic status.
6.3.4.3
Likely Negative Social Impact
There are also some negative social impacts which may arise as a result of the proposed
projects. It is anticipated that the current and future land uses, zonation and existing
infrastructures and services may be altered around the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Areas.
However, incentives could be provided to ensure that these impacts are mitigated and
solutions are proposed in the EMP on how these could be solved.
a) HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS is one factor that may pose a big threat to local communities. With the movement
of employees and visitors as well as job seekers in and out of the projects sites, there is a
possibility that HIV/AIDS infections might occur. Therefore, as part of the Corporate Social
Responsibility, the developer / operator for each of the proposed projects may need to
implement HIV/AIDS wellness programmes and awareness campaigns among local
community, employees and visitors. It is also imperative that employees go through regular
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checkups for various other medical conditions associated with areas as dry as the Erongo
Region.
6.3.4.4
Likely Negative Economic Impact
There are no likely negative economic impacts associated with the proposed two projects
(Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Projects) and therefore the positive impacts much outweigh the
possibility of any negative impacts.
6.3.4 Socioeconomic Recommendations
6.3.4.1
Community Engagement
The following is the summary of the community engagement provisions within the framework
of the national legislation and must be adhered to throughout the proposed projects life
cycles:
6.4
Ongoing process involving the disclosure of information and possibly consultations
where the local communities may be affected by project-related risks and adverse
impacts;
Consultation should commence early in the Environmental Assessment and
implementation process and involve the prior disclosure of relevant and adequate
information (including draft documents and plans); focus on the social and
environmental risks and adverse impacts, and the proposed measures and actions to
address these; and take place on an ongoing basis as risks and impacts arise. The
process must be inclusive, culturally appropriate and designed to cater for the
language preferences of the affected local communities, their decision-making
process, and the needs of disadvantaged/vulnerable groups within the marginalised
community;
Engagement must be free of external manipulation, interference, or coercion, and
intimidation, and conducted on the basis of timely, relevant, understandable and
accessible information;
The process should be documented, especially the measures taken to avoid or
minimise certain risks to and adverse impacts on the affected community members;
A grievance mechanism should be established if there is a chance of ongoing risks to
or adverse impacts on affected communities and the latter should be informed of the
mechanism early in the engagement process; concerns should be addressed
promptly, through an understandable and transparent process that is culturally
appropriate and readily accessible to all members of the affected community.
!Khuiseb Delta Archaeological Baseline
6.4.1 Research History
On the coast of Namibia, dense local concentrations of archaeological sites are associated
with some of the larger river mouths. Open coastline environments are generally poor in
archaeological sites, as are the mouths of smaller rivers. The river courses, although mainly
dry, had in the past sufficient water beneath the surface to sustain small human groups.
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River environments also have edible plants and wild game, and these, combined with littoral
and marine foods, offer a more stable subsistence base than any area in the immediate
hinterland. Nowhere on the Namib coast is the combination of such resources more
favourable than in the vicinity of the !Khuiseb Delta, and it is therefore no surprise that this
area has the largest concentration of archaeological sites on a coastline over 2, 000 km in
length. The relative density of archaeological sites in the !Khuiseb Delta compared to
Namibia as a whole is shown in Fig. 6.13.
Detailed archaeological surveys of the !Khuiseb Delta have established the characteristics of
past settlement in this area, yielding a range of radiocarbon and relative dates associated
with a wide diversity of cultural material, evidence of food preferences, and human remains.
These research results are reviewed in some detail below1. However, it is necessary to
understand that it was not the object of these surveys to locate and record every
archaeological site in the area. Instead, the surveys focussed on carefully chosen blocks of
land with particular characteristics of physical setting, so as to produce a representative
sample of the local archaeology. Altogether 235 archaeological sites were documented in
the !Khuiseb Delta during the course of several field surveys covering ten sample blocks, and
a total of 83km2 (Kinahan 2000: 31). Of these sites 86 were shell accumulations, 69 were
complex assemblages of cultural material, and the remaining 94 were small shell scatters
and single artefact finds. The dating of the sites covers the last 2, 000 years; 155 of the site
pre-dating European contact, and the great majority of post-contact sites were concentrated
in the Walvis Bay dunefields.
The result of these surveys was to show that archaeologically, the !Khuiseb Delta consists of
a central, or core area in the Walvis Bay dunefields, where the greatest concentration of wellpreserved sites has been recorded. To the north of Walvis Bay, there is a minor group of
sites associated with the mouth of the extinct Tumas River. To the south, there are two
important archaeological localities, Frederiksdam and Sandwich Harbour. The lower !Khuiseb
River between Gobabeb and Rooibank is associated with a narrow strip of thinly scattered
sites close to the course of the river itself. The overall picture is therefore of a distribution
that is confined to the lower !Khuiseb until it flares out among the Walvis Bay dunefields,
particularly in the area nearest to the lagoon. The groups of archaeological sites north and
south of this core zone are peripheral. An important exception is the area around Sandwich
Harbour, which does not form part of this study, although it is critical to the archaeology of
settlement in this area and the recent history of the ‡Aonin.
Earlier archaeological research in the Walvis Bay area concentrated exclusively on the shell
middens near Wortel (e.g. Avery 1984) and used the available ethno-historical and
ethnographic descriptions of the ‡Aonin as their explanatory base. The more recent research
(Kinahan 1991; Kinahan 2000) uses a far larger sample base covering the entire delta
environment and is consequently able to test some assertions in the ethno-historical record.
The result is a more nuanced account of the !Khuiseb archaeology in which, for the first time
anywhere in the southern African region, the archaeological evidence was used to counter
the traditionally one-sided understanding of first contact based on European documentary
sources.
1
See 5. Resources, BIBLIOGRAPHY for specific references to published and unpublished reports
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Figure 6.13: The regional setting the !Khuiseb Delta, showing the distribution of
archaeological sites in Namibia and the relatively low density of sites along the
coast.
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6.4.2 Archaeological Sequence
Archaeological investigation of the areas described above has yielded no trace of human
occupation older than 2, 000 years (Fig. 6.14). However, evidence from archaeological sites
inland of the !Khuiseb Delta spans a sequence covering the last 12, 000 years. The apparent
absence of human settlement in this area during the first 8, 000 years of the Holocene period
is striking. A number of possible explanations are suggested by the evidence from the
!Khuiseb and from the surrounding region, and these are as follows:
The physical setting of the !Khuiseb Delta sites is itself composed of very young
features, such that the delta, lagoon and immediate shoreline may be not much
older than 2, 000 years;
The physical conditions (wind and high moisture levels) may ensure that
archaeological evidence is continuously exposed to attrition and other destructive
effects of weathering, so that older evidence would not have survived;
The first 5 - 6, 000 years of the Holocene are characterized by very limited
evidence of human settlement in the Namib as a whole, so that the absence of
occupation dates from that period in the !Khuiseb Delta is not exceptional;
Evidence from the Namib as a whole suggests a steep increase in human
population during the last 4, 000 years, and this may have led to more intensive
occupation of the coast only in the last 2, 000 years.
It is very likely that the patterning in the radiocarbon dating of the !Khuiseb Delta sites is due
to a combination of these factors. The physical landscape is indeed highly dynamic and
subject to constant change; the physical conditions are also inimical to the preservation of
archaeological materials exposed on the surface, a phenomenon that is discussed in more
detail in the next section. The early Holocene hiatus in the Namib archaeological sequence
is controversial, but the evidence favours the possibility that the population of this region
largely collapsed during the late Pleistocene Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and that it did not
immediately recover with the restoration of Holocene climatic conditions 10, 000 years ago.
Allied to this argument is the evidence suggesting that occupation of the coast and reliance
on its resources was a recent development which may have arisen in response to population
pressure in the desert interior.
Within the !Khuiseb Delta area there were significant shifts in the focus of human settlement
over the last 2, 000 years. These shifts relate to changes in ecological requirements with the
acquisition of domestic livestock approximately 1, 000 years ago, followed by two further
important shifts: one in which the ‡Aonin positioned themselves to best advantage as
European traders began to visit Walvis Bay, and a second shift as ‡Aonin who no longer
owned livestock moved to Sandwich Harbour in search of employment or charity from
European fishing operations (Fig. 6.14).
The first evidence of human settlement approximately 2, 000 years ago is concentrated
around Frederiksdam, with some occupation at Sandwich Harbour. By 1, 000 years ago,
Sandwich Harbour was abandoned, presumably due to the lack of suitable grazing, and
settlement was concentrated in the Walvis Bay dunefields, with cattleposts located within 50
km upstream on the !Khuiseb River. This pattern continued for several centuries and by the
early 18th century settlement in the Walvis Bay dunefields was characterized by the presence
of a small number of large semi-permanent sites. In the mid-19th century when the pastoral
economy was in decline, impoverished ‡Aonin moved to the edges of European fishing
camps at Sandwich Harbour and remained there until the end of the century.
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Figure 6.14: Sequential shifts in the focus of human settlement during the last 2, 000 years
in the !Khuiseb Delta: 1. & 2. Frederiksdam and southern Sandwich Harbour,
large shell middens occupied prior to the introduction of domestic livestock; 3.
Walvis Bay dunefields as main focus of settlement during the 18 th and 19th
century trading contact with European ships; 4. & 5. Gorogos and Khaeros,
cattleposts used to supply the Walvis Bay trade; 6. Sandwich Harbour fishing
enterprises as focus of indigenous settlement after the late 19th century collapse
of the pastoral economy (this period also saw an increased density of
settlement in the Walvis Bay dunefields).
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6.4.3 Site Formation Processes
The preservation and visibility of archaeological sites in the !Khuiseb Delta is overwhelmingly
influenced by two major forces: the periodic flooding of the !Khuiseb, which carries large
volumes of silt into the delta area, and the prevailing southwesterly wind, which deposits
large volumes of aeolian sand across the drainage lines of the !Khuiseb. The net effect of
these two processes is to create a mosaic of isolated silt deposits, surrounded by mobile
dunes. These dunes move in a generally north-easterly direction, burying the silt deposits
and their archaeological remains for several decades at a time. The silt deposits are also
subject to gradual deflation by the wind, so that archaeological material is left on the surface
of the silt as a lag deposit. Human skeletons, for example, are found fully flexed and
articulated, lying on the surface of the silt, preserved in the position of their original burial.
Moisture and wind attrition have a highly destructive effect on archaeological remains lying
exposed on the surface under such conditions. Soil moisture in The !Khuiseb Delta is highly
saline, and moving upward by capillary action is absorbed by any porous or semi-permeable
material on the surface. Thus, bone, pottery and even slightly fractured stone cobbles may
become superficially or even entirely soaked. The moisture evaporates under the high
surface temperatures of the dunefields and the dissolved salts re-crystallize, exerting
considerable mechanical force along any natural fracture, splintering bone into ever smaller
pieces. Pottery tends to fracture very easily under these conditions, and the abrasive effect
of the windblown sand can reduce well-fired clay to paper-thinness.
The most durable material found on archaeological sites in the !Khuiseb Delta is marine shell,
the discarded remains of species such as Donax serra which contributed a large part of the
human diet during the first phase of occupation. Although robust shell such as Donax does
not crack easily and hardly absorbs moisture, it, too, is eventually destroyed by a process of
attrition in which the shell is broken by wind-driven impact on adjacent shell fragments. This
eventually reduces the shell to fragments small enough to be lifted and transported by the
wind. Under these conditions, entire shell middens of several thousand square metres extent,
are eventually reduced to thin streaks of tiny shell fragments on the windward side of dunes
more than 100m downwind of their original position. The process described here is well
illustrated by the surface plan of one site in the Frederiksdam area, shown in Fig. 6.15.
Conditions in the !Khuiseb Delta are sometimes surprisingly favourable for the preservation
of archaeological evidence, and this is best illustrated by the occasional survival of human
and animal tracks in the surface of the colluvial deposits. Two kinds of deposits may be
distinguished here: fine river silts, found mainly in the core zone of the Walvis Bay dunefields
and parts of the lower !Khuiseb, and lagoon silts, on the eastern margins within up to 2 km
distance of the existing tidal lagoon. The river silts have several examples of animal spoor,
including elephant, oryx, zebra and ostrich, evidently made on the edges of muddy pools that
became temporary drinking places. The lagoon silts have a more complex depositional
history: high tides filled temporary impoundments of highly saline water, reduced under
evaporation to a saturated solution of gypsum, anhydrite and related minerals. In the latter
case, spoor were preserved in the very hard, cement-like surface of the dried sediment.
Examples of spoor dating to within the last 300 years have been found in several parts of the
delta, and in both kinds of sediment.
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Figure 6.15: Diagram to illustrate the effect of the prevailing southwesterly wind (see
windrose, top left) on a large shell midden dating to the early first millennium
AD. The midden comprises a cluster of eleven discrete heaps of Donax serra
shell, discarded on the surface of the sand dune. The bold line enclosing the
shell heaps shows the distribution of shell displaced by the collapse of the
middens, while the broken line indicates displacement that corresponds to wind
direction, here dominated by the prevailing southwesterly wind. The linear
streak of shell fragments aligned to the northeast is evidently the result of this
process of wind-driven attrition.
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6.4.4 Situation Analysis
The !Khuiseb Delta is a highly dynamic environment which does not generally favour the
preservation of archaeological evidence. The combined effect of the river flow regime and of
very strong prevailing winds is to degrade and displace archaeological materials, making
them difficult to locate and to document. In spite of these conditions a number of detailed
archaeological studies have been carried out during the last few decades (Fig. 6.16). These
have documented the process of human settlement in the delta and the nature of human
adaptation to the various resources it offers (Fig. 6.16). The archaeological studies have also
documented the process of contact, trade and eventual domination of indigenous
communities by European traders and, eventually, colonists who established the modern
settlement of Walvis Bay.
The archaeological work carried out so far in the !Khuiseb has documented a relatively small
part of the material evidence and removed from the area for study only a very small amount
of material. In the more than twenty years since these studies were carried out, access to
the dunefields has greatly increased and the sites, once considered safely remote from
disturbance, are now under serious threat and there is a real possibility that some of
Namibia’s most valuable archaeological sites will be lost.
6.4.5 Archaeological Knowledge Asset Value of the !Khuiseb Delta
6.4.5.1
Implications of Minimum Collection Strategy
In the early 1980’s, ten years before the advent of GPS navigation, archaeological survey
was greatly limited by the small scale of available topographic maps and the difficulty of
determining the exact position of archaeological sites on the ground, especially in areas with
unrelieved topography such as the !Khuiseb Delta. The surveys which formed the basis of
the main investigations carried out in the delta used a combination of compass traverses,
distance estimates and triangulation on visible features. There are relatively few suitable
features for position triangulation in the delta and site location depended almost entirely on
the field skills of the archaeologist. In spite of heavy security restriction, large scale aerial
photographs were obtained and these proved very useful although without georeferencing
they could not be used to measure position co-ordinates.
The field positions of archaeological sites in the delta were determined by the combination of
methods described above, and in some cases permanent datum pegs (30 x 30 mm pine with
aluminium tags) were left on the sites. This was done mainly for two reasons: as a control
point for the surface mapping grid used on the site, and as a control point from which to
measure the movement of surrounding dunes. On the sites, large and complex surface
scatters were mapped by hand using a 1m square string grid and a plotting frame subdivided
to units of 0.1m. In this way accurate maps were made of surface artefact scatters and these
were used to determine the layout of sites and the positioning of various activities such as
butchery, fish processing and so on.
Systematic controlled surface collections were made only where necessitated by
requirements to remove material for analysis, dating and identification. In general, as little as
possible was removed from the sites so that subsequent studies by other archaeologists
could proceed from a point where minimum disturbance had occurred. The material removed
from the sites was accessioned into the archaeology collection of the National Museum in
Windhoek, together with accompanying documentation and copies of all reports and
publications resulting from the site investigations. An unantipicated result of this minimum
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scale pilfering of objects such as pottery, glass trade beads and human remains. Once
removed from their original context such objects lose almost all archaeological value and the
knowledge asset value of the !Khuiseb Delta archaeological sites is greatly reduced.
Figure 6.16: Major archaeological and historical site concentrations in the !Khuiseb Delta.
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6.4.5.2
Global Comparisons
The expansion of merchant capital from Europe began in earnest during the seventeenth
century, with the great voyages of discovery leading to the establishment of global trading
networks that were the prelude to colonial settlement in Africa, the Americas and Australia.
Major trading entrepôts were invariably in coastal locations with suitable anchorage, fresh
water and other resources, sites that were usually centres of indigenous settlement. These
sites in most instances became bridgeheads of colonial occupation and, as they grew, their
expansion tended to obliterate all trace of their earlier history. Building, road construction and
other developments simply destroyed the often very subtle and meagre traces of the contact
between indigenous communities and the outside world at that time.
In the global history of early colonial contact Walvis Bay is probably unique. There was
intensive contact from the early 18th century when American whalers visited the bay, and so
favourable were their reports that Walvis Bay was seriously considered as a site for a British
convict settlement. The expedition of HMS Nautilus in 1786 decided that Walvis Bay was
too inhospitable a site, its poor water supplies being a major disadvantage, and the
alternative choice of Botany Bay, Australia, prevailed. The British did however annex Walvis
Bay, but only as a strategic measure to limit German control, and for this reason the port did
not develop as a major point of access during the early colonial period. As a result of these
events, the settlement of Walvis Bay grew very slowly during the entire colonial era and did
not encroach on the dunefield area that is the core zone of the archaeological site
distribution.
According to the documentary records of early trading contact at Walvis Bay, the ‡Aonin
were enthusiastic partners in the initial exchange of livestock for trade items such as glass
beads and other commodities. Inevitably there were misunderstandings and conflicts, and as
a result, the ‡Aonin adopted a more cautious approach. The records state that ships would
be made to wait several days before the livestock they requested was brought down to the
beach. The Europeans were not permitted to go beyond the first line of dunes, where
sentinels were posted to warn the people of any unwelcome approach. The delay of several
days reported in shipping records is consistent with the distance between the main trading
settlements in the Walvis Bay dunefields, and the cattlepost sites that lay more than 50km
inland.
The indigenous cattle economy collapsed in the late 19th century, when the devastation of the
Rinderpest epidemic followed decades of internecine raiding and increasing economic
domination by early European settlers. As the economic independence of the ‡Aonin
dwindled, and their herds were reduced to almost nothing, many people moved to the
mission stations and the fringes of European settlements and fishing enterprises. Settlement
in the Walvis Bay dunefields changed accordingly; the large trading settlements were
replaced by small, scattered homesteads which lay within reach of the new harbour town of
Walvis Bay. The extreme state of poverty experienced by the ‡Aonin has been described by
several commentators of that time, and as the people abandoned their settlements, these
remained as material – archaeological – testimony to the historical events of the last three
hundred years, a unique record that hardly exists anywhere else in the world.
6.4.5.3
Research Prospects
The great value of the archaeological evidence from the !Khuiseb Delta is that the
indigenous, or ‡Aonin sites, provide a counterpart to the documentary record based on the
observations and recollections of early European visitors. In almost no instance prior to the
residence of missionaries in the late 19th century, were European visitors able to
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communicate with the ‡Aonin. The documentary record of the time is therefore entirely
based on the European view, lending a strong bias to any account of the relations that
existed between the two peoples. This one-sidedness of the historical record has retarded
investigation of early trading contact everywhere in the world, and in most cases, as outlined
above, there is no material trace of the indigenous communities of the time.
The detailed archaeological research carried out during the last twenty years in the !Khuiseb
provides a very unusual reconstruction in which the comments of the European visitors can
be contextualized by archaeological evidence from the settlement sites of the ‡Aonin. For
example, this research has established in considerable detail the settlement patterns,
demography and dietary habits of the ‡Aonin at that time. It has also established the
material cultural character of ‡Aonin society and traced the effect on this society following the
introduction of exotic trade goods. The archaeological record has also revealed the nature of
cultural preferences exercised by the ‡Aonin, who were apparently highly selective in the
range of trade goods they would accept in return for their livestock.
More wide-ranging archaeological research in the adjacent hinterland has helped to reveal
the links between the !Khuiseb Delta trading sites and other communities, as the people of
the Namib coast became absorbed into the world economy. The archaeological record
shows that this was not a one-sided process in which the ‡Aonin were simply absorbed and
subordinated by mercantile capital, although the effect of this unequal trading relationship
was such that the European economy did eventually prevail. Much more detailed research
could be carried out in the !Khuiseb Delta, as the evidence has shown that it is possible to
investigate a wider range of issues than has been addressed so far.
Research prospects in the !Khuiseb Delta are ultimately dependent on the state of
preservation on the sites and the degree to which they can be treated as undisturbed
repositories of evidence. Among the most enticing prospects are the opportunity to
investigate changes in the demography, dietary status and health of the ‡Aonin community
through the history of contact and trade. Usually, this process imposes severe stress on
maternal health, reproductive success, infant survival and the age of mortality in the mature
population. The !Khuiseb Delta provides ideal circumstances to investigate these issues
using the large quantity of exposed human remains found there. Provided that such research
is acceptable to the descendents of the earlier community, it could prove useful and
instructive.
Other research possibilities include more detailed work on the remains of domestic livestock
found on the archaeological sites. The genetic character of the cattle, sheep and goat
varieties involved in this early trade are practically unknown and such investigations would
help to establish some of the wider links between the animals traded at the coast and the
livestock holdings of farming settlements elsewhere in Namibia. There are also numerous
possibilities for other research on the interior links of the coastal trading economy, such as
the origins of copper and iron that formed the indigenous precursor of the European-initiated
trade in glass beads and other imported goods. Reconstruction of such trading networks
would contribute much to an understanding of the late pre-colonial economy of Namibia.
6.4.5.4
Legal Status
Under the National Heritage Act (27 of 2004) the archaeological remains in the !Khuiseb
Delta are defined as national heritage and therefore enjoy legally protected status. The
implication of this protected status is that the archaeological sites and their contents are the
property of the nation; they are not the property of the local community or any other party.
Protected status means that under the terms of the Act, it is an offence to disturb or remove
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any item of archaeological significance. The use of an archaeological site for any purpose,
including recreation or tourism, is subject to the granting of a permit by the National Heritage
Council.
Archaeological sites and objects have been legally protected in Namibia since the 1960’s,
under the provisions of the National Monuments Act, repealed by the National Heritage Act of
2004. In reality, neither the National Monuments Council nor the present National Heritage
Council exert any active control over the area and have not (to the knowledge of the writer)
made any attempt to inform the public of the importance of the sites or the need to protect
and manage them. To the knowledge of the writer, the Council has not participated in any of
the various initiatives that have been taken to improve the conservation of coastal
environmental resources, even though it is well known that these include important
archaeological sites.
Official neglect of the !Khuiseb Delta archaeological sites also extends to other arms of
government such as the Ministry of Environment. In the case of the present NACOMA
project it appears that interest in the archaeology of the delta is based on its possible value
as a tourism commodity rather than its value as a knowledge asset, as described above.
Unfortunately the reversed priorities approach that has brought the archaeological resources
of the delta under environmental scrutiny for the first time has the result that tourism
initiatives in the delta (both commercial and community based) have advanced to the point
where it would be difficult to impose limitations that would not inconvenience these interests.
One possible solution to what has become an ad hoc development process is to engage with
the National Heritage Council and all interested and affected parties to have the !Khuiseb
Delta proclaimed as a Conservation Area under Part VI, Section 54 of the National Heritage
Act. This would serve to acknowledge the heritage value of the delta (or the part of it defined
by application) and to formalize the activities of the various interested parties within the
framework of a management plan formulated by mutual consultation. It must be emphasized,
however, that the involvement of interested parties in the proclamation process does not
automatically means that their activities are approved as acceptable elements of a
sustainable land-use plan.
The process towards Conservation Area status is a constructive way to involve all parties and
develop cooperative management strategies. Because this process may require many
months to complete, it would be advisable for all the interested parties to place their activities
on a legally sound footing, by obtaining permits from the National Heritage Council to
continue with their various enterprises. This way, all parties involved in the Conservation
Area process would be assured of having a recognized status as both operators in the delta
archaeological landscape and as participants in the process of Conservation Area
proclamation. The next section of the report reflects more directly on the impact of various
activities in this area and argues that the use of the !Khuiseb Delta for tourism purposes is
difficult to justify given the unique heritage value of the sites. This concluding section of the
report therefore attempts to define some clear limitations on the scope of tourism activities
and suggests a significant down-scaling of present impacts in order to preserve the sites from
damage.
6.4.6 Current Use of the Area and its Heritage Resources
6.4.6.1
Lack of Protection Measures
Public awareness campaigns and stringent regulations now exist for the conservation of
fauna, flora and the general environment of the Namibian coast. The combination of
appropriate legislation and effective public education has not however addressed or explicitly
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included the need to conserve the cultural heritage of the region. A general lack of
awareness exists among otherwise dedicated conservationists as well as the authorities
charged with heritage conservation. There is a long history of neglect; in the preIndependence era the archaeological record of Namibian history was accorded little
importance. Among conservationists, the presence of settled communities in protected areas
was anathema, and concerted attempts were made (unsuccessfully) to remove the ‡Aonin
from the Namib Naukluft Park. It is the combination of these oversights and tacit agreements
that have ensured a generally low appreciation of the !Khuiseb Delta and its archaeological
resources.
The growth of tourism in Namibia over the last twenty years is generally applauded as a
source of employment and income, especially for previously marginalized communities.
Community-based tourism continues to receive very significant financial assistance, with the
addition of enterprise development training, legal protection of business interests and
capitalization of infrastructure such as camps and office equipment. In a number of instances
these enterprises are to a large extent based on the attraction value of cultural heritage sites,
particularly rock art. However, in most cases the financial support of these enterprises is not
accompanied by any training in the sustainable management and conservation of cultural
heritage resources. As a result, many valuable rock art sites that would be valuable tourism
assets have been degraded to the point where they have very little attraction value and the
one truly unique asset that would give a community tourism venture a lasting source of
income is irretrievably lost.
Similar problems attend the development of commercial tourism based wholly or partly on
cultural heritage sites. In fact, almost no control or oversight is exercised over cultural
heritage site tourism by the National Heritage Council. Tourist camps, lodges and other
facilities are built without regard to their impact on archaeological sites and in very few
instances have commercial or community-based developers had to carry out archaeological
impact assessments or mitigation work in relation to their activities. These are routine
requirements of mineral exploration and mining projects as well as projects to supply
infrastructure needs to the mining industry. In the Erongo Region, the tourism industry has
had a measurable greater negative impact on the cultural heritage of Namibia than has the
mining industry, and while the mining industry is answerable to the authorities and general
public, the tourism industry is manifestly not. These issues concerning the pack of protection
measures are important background to the discussion to follow.
6.4.6.2
Traditional Ownership Rights
The most important object of archaeological research in the !Khuiseb Delta is to document
the human history of the area and to restore the historical record of communities such as the
‡Aonin which has been largely degraded and neglected. In carrying out this research, the
Namib Desert Archaeological Survey in particular, has consulted closely with the ‡Aonin
leadership and has assisted in various capacities. These tasks have included the provision
of archaeological background information to technical bodies such as the “Kuiseb Basin
Management Committee”, provision of archaeological assessment capacity to mineral
exploration projects, direct assistance to the “Kuiseb Delta Development Trust” in the drafting
of project proposals, and advice to consultants charged with the development of communitybased tourism business plans for the ‡Aonin.
Ownership rights with respect to the resources of the !Khuiseb Delta appear to be
complicated, not only by the particular mix of freehold and state ownership of land, but also
by the mix of formal and informal resource ownership. On the one hand, State land in the
!Khuiseb Delta area is largely designated as national parks, with strict prohibition on the
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consumption of natural resources. On the other hand, within the Namib Naukluft Park the
‡Aonin enjoy uncontested rights of occupation and usufruct, especially in respect to the !nara
fields. Concerning the ownership of cultural heritage (of which the use of !nara is one
aspect), the ‡Aonin own their history – in the form of its narrative – but they do not own the
material record, over which the National Heritage Act assert rights of ownership on behalf of
the nation. The purpose of this short discussion is to point out these complexities, not to
resolve them.
In respect to these general issues, the role of the Namib Desert Archaeological Survey is to
document and study the archaeological record of the area; to make the Namibian authorities
and general public aware of this invaluable record; to publish research findings in both the
academic and popular literature, and to introduce these results to the mainstream of
archaeological discussion about the global processes of early trading contact and the
eventual domination of indigenous economies by mercantile capital.
6.4.7 Impact of Tourism Activities
The project proposal is uninformed as to the archaeological value of the area and has used
archaeological survey data merely as an aid to identifying the most commercially
advantageous position for the project. The project is a community-based enterprise, but its
formulation is no different from that of commercial tourism projects that fail to consider the
potential impact of their activities. In this way, the Kuiseb Delta Development Project proposal
represents a “worst case” scenario for the management and conservation of this
archaeological landscape (Figs. 6.17 and 6.18). The fact that it is supported by organisations
such as NACOMA and evidently the Ministry of Environment, without the National Heritage
Council demanding better controls, merely illustrates the institutional threats that are posed to
the archaeological record in Namibia.
Tourism-related impacts are considered not in isolation but as one of several concurrent and
related threats all stemming from the increasing intensity of recreational and other activities in
the area. The main threats to the archaeology of the !Khuiseb Delta are as follows:
(i)
Uncontrolled tourism: The greatest threat comes from uncontrolled tourism and
recreational use of the Walvis Bay dunefields, Sandwich Harbour, Frederiksdam
and the delta as a whole. People ignorant of the value of the archaeology may not
recognize archaeological artefacts, drive over sites, crushing material and
destroying its context, often coming back again and again to the same place. They
pilfer items as curiosities or keepsakes, sometimes on a large scale, as bottle
collectors do. The destruction or removal of material without documentation greatly
reduces not only the value of the site but also of the artefact;
(ii)
Unrestricted access: Increasing ownership of 4x4 vehicles and quadbikes,
together with tour companies that hire these vehicles allows a great number of
people seeking recreation access to areas of special archaeological significance.
(iii)
Municipal activities: Urban expansion, dune control measures, roadworks,
construction of culverts and drainage channels all affect the archaeology;
(iv)
Commercial activities: The saltworks at Walvis Bay expand their roads and
pans, and bring a high volume of heavy vehicle traffic in and out of the area. One
of the largest shell middens on our coast, Wortel, was situated here and has been
completely destroyed. Fortunately, the site has been documented and researched.
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(v)
National Park activities: Maintenance of the park and its roads, rubbish
collection, borrow pits, and inappropriate siting of facilities can pose considerable
threats to archaeological sites. Picnic sites deserve special mention because a
number of important sites in the archaeological landscape have been made into
public picnic sites. There is heavy visitor traffic which raises dust, compacts the
ground, and introduces rubbish and ash from fires, degrading the site. Site
maintenance carried out by park officials can also be destructive: trucks collecting
rubbish, and cleaning up by raking can disturb the distribution of archaeological
material. The siting of picnic spots at archaeological sites is in itself inappropriate
without proper site caretakers and supervision;
(vi)
Mining: The activities of exploration companies are now controlled by the issuing
of licences dependent upon compliance with environmental and archaeological
legislation. Mine safety legislation requires strict control of the area under licence,
so that access is tightly controlled. However, drilling and trenching, construction of
roads and camps, and misguided rehabilitation such as raking and sweeping of
ground still pose threats. These risks are alleviated by having archaeological
survey and assessment professionally done;
(vii)
Private ownership: Although access is restricted and thereby protects the
archaeology on farmland, land owners and farm management should be aware of
legislation protecting national heritage and take appropriate measures to protect
and maintain any archaeological sites, especially if undertaking tourist related
activities;
(viii)
Natural weathering: The nature of the archaeological sites on the coast and their
abundance of material make them vulnerable to natural processes. The dunefields
are created and maintained by natural agents including wind and river flooding, but
the archaeological remains are exposed on the surface and can be sandblasted,
buried, or washed away. Pottery and bone can be scoured paper thin, glass
crackles and “sickens”, metal rusts and crumbles to dust and the weight of dunes
can distort or crush bone and artefacts. In spite of these natural hazards, the
amount of material preserved is remarkable and this threat is not as great as that
posed by uncontrolled human agency;
(ix)
Research: The presence of the Desert Ecological Research Unit at Gobabeb in
the lower !Khuiseb introduces some threat to the archaeology of the area, such as
uncontrolled driving across the plains, and the construction of buildings in the
archaeological landscape. Archaeological research that involves collection and
excavation is by nature a form of controlled destruction;
(x)
Siting of new Topnaar settlements and structures: The significance of the
archaeology is paramount to the Topnaar people. The archaeology is a material
record of their history and provides evidence of their cultural practices such as the
harvesting and processing of !nara melons and marine resources, for which exists
specific botanical and ecological knowledge and skills, traditions, praise poems,
property rights, stories and memories. There are direct links between the people,
their knowledge, and this area. However, they are a presence in the area and their
activities should be carried out with awareness of the fragile archaeology;
(xi)
Siting of tourist facilities: The siting of the proposed tourist camp and related
facilities of the Kuiseb Delta Development Project is a case in point. The
infrastructure is sited in the most sensitive part of the archaeological site
distribution, where it poses as direct threat to these invaluable remains (Figs. 6.17
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and 6.18). The project was planned without any apparent consideration given to
the vulnerability of the sites, and follows the now established (negative) practice of
siting infrastructure and other facilities as close as possible to the attraction.
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Figure 6.17: Archaeological sensitivity mapping of the !Khuiseb Delta: RED indicates highly
sensitive areas; PINK medium sensitivity area, and GREEN low sensitivity area.
High sensitivity areas contain up to 50 archaeological sites per km 2 and contain
evidence that is essential to the understanding of the regional sequence;
medium sensitivity areas contain up to five archaeological sites per km 2 and
contain valuable contextual evidence that is necessary to the understanding of
local settlement hierarchies; low sensitivity areas contain less than one
archaeological site per km2 and these are usually of limited research potential.
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Figure 6.18: DST for the Kuiseb Delta Development Project: tourism concession area in
relation to sensitive archaeological zone. The two green circles within the
sensitive archaeological zone are the sites of the proposed lodge and campsite
for the Tourism Concession Area.
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6.4.8 Management and Conservation Proposals
To limit the impact of the various threats outlined in the previous section it is necessary to
formulate and implement an effective management plan for the archaeology of the !Khuiseb
Delta. The Conservation Area proclamation of the delta would provide the necessary formal
framework for this process, although it is most important that the management plan should be
developed in a consultative fashion so as to accommodate all stakeholders views (Fig. 6.19).
At the same time it is very important that the management plan for the delta should place the
importance of the archaeological sites at the head of the agenda, along with the most critical
principles of site management. The ultimately unsatisfactory alternative to this approach is a
management plan that places the commercial and related interests of the stakeholders at the
head of the agenda, compromising on the sustainable use of the sites.
The critical principles that should inform the management plan framework are as follows:
(i)
The archaeological sites of the !Khuiseb Delta are an invaluable and globally
significant heritage resource;
(ii)
This heritage resource is the common property of the Namibian nation, rather than
of any individual party;
(iii)
All use of the area, particularly for tourism and other recreational purposes, should
be subordinate to the preservation of the sites;
(iv)
In principle it is not necessary to physically visit and sensitive archaeological site in
order to appreciate its significance;
(v)
Any access to archaeological sites should be strictly monitored and subject to
specific guidelines as to routes, group numbers and other factors;
(vi)
No camping or other overnight facilities should be permitted in any area designated
as archaeologically sensitive;
(vii)
All areas and routes should be subject to detailed field assessment with the option
to have permission withheld.
The vision for sustainable archaeological tourism in the !Khuiseb Delta emerging from this
assessment is as follows:
(i)
The archaeologically significant part of the !Khuiseb Delta would be proclaimed as
a Conservation Area under the National Heritage Act (Fig. 6.19);
(ii)
The Conservation Area as outlined in Fig. 6.19 would be managed by a group of
interested parties informed by the principles of sustainable tourism and
archaeological knowledge;
(iii)
There would be a single, preferred point of access to the Conservation Area via a
purpose-built information centre and museum;
(iv)
The traditional community of the !Khuiseb Delta would be closely involved and
economically integrated in the management of the Conservation Area;
(v)
Visitor experience of archaeological remains would be achieved via well designed
and informative displays rather than walking on the sensitive sites themselves;
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(vi)
Guided access to the Conservation Area would concentrate on exposing the visitor
to the physical world of the delta, including its setting, texture and natural
resources;
(vii)
No facilities such as campsites would be sites within the Conservation Area or near
to sensitive archaeological sites.
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Figure 6.19: Proposed extent of the !Khuiseb Delta archaeological conservation area.
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6.5
Ground Components
6.5.1 Geomorphological Setting
The Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt areas are both located in the central Namib Desert
ecoregion which extends along the coastal plain of western Namibia (Figs. 6.20). The Namib
Desert extends inland from the Atlantic Coastline to the foot of the Namib Escarpment, a
distance of between 80 and 200 km. The ecoregion can be divided into two areas: the
Central Namib (from the Uniab to the Kuiseb Rivers) and the Southern Namib (from the
Kuiseb River to the town of Lüderitz). In the north, the Central Namib merges with the
Northern Namib or Kaokoveld Desert ecoregion and in the south it merges with the Succulent
Karoo ecoregion, which extends up the west coast of South Africa. The natural environment
and the climatic patterns of the Namib Desert vary considerably. A climatic transition belt
crosses the coastline north of Walvis Bay, and divides the coastal area into a northern area
receiving summer rainfall, considered the Kaokoveld Desert ecoregion and a southern area
receiving winter rain (the Namib Desert ecoregion). The narrow strip of land within this
transition belt (about 50 km) is the most arid area in southern Africa and receives sporadic,
unpredictable rainfall without a clear seasonal pattern.
Locally, the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt areas are dominated by landforms of aeolian,
denudation, fluvial-deltaic and marine (Fig. 6.20). As such, they inter-finger and form complex
terrain units attributed to more than one geomorphological agents. By virtue of the
geographic and climatic condition of the area, aeolian landform makes up the largest portion
of the study area, constituting approximately 60%. Denudational landforms are distant
second at 21% of the study area (Tables 6.14 and 6.15).
6.5.1.1
Terrain Units
Evaluation and assessment of the terrain units in terms of recreational activities (Fig. 6.20).
Tables 6.14 and 6.15 reveals that two-third (67.03) of the study area has a high resilience to
such anthropogenic activities, including quad-biking. Just over 15% of the study area is highly
susceptible to such activities, however (Fig. 6.21). In the same vein, 13.04 % of the study
area may be more resilient to some activities such as bird-watching, while more susceptible
to other forms of recreation such as quad-biking. The remaining 5% of the study area falls
under moderate to high resilience to recreational activities. Terrains units and their attributes
are discussed below in details under the heading of main geomorphological processes,
namely, aeolian, denudation, fluvio-deltaic and marine, that acted in their formation.
Table 6.14: Proportion of the study area with respect to resilience to recreational activities.
Resilience
Ranking
Area (km2)
Proportion (%)
112.4
97.6
23.66
13.16
501.66
748.4
15.02
13.04
3.16
1.75
67.03
100.00
Low
Very Low to High
Moderate
Moderate to High
High
Total
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Table 6.15: Area sizes and proportions of Terrain Units in the study area.
Origin
Terrain Unit
Aeolian
Barchan Dune
Transverse
Dune
Complex
Linear Dune
Dune Street
Fluvial
Fluvial-Aeolian
Perimeter
(km)
180.3
Area
(km)
91.45
Area
(ha)
9145
Area
%
12.2
340.3
283.10
28310
37.9
142.5
108.2
73.61
12.47
7361
1247
Sub-total
0.50
50
9.9
1.7
61.7
0.1
Pan
Shallow Water
Course
River Bank
River Valley
Abandoned
Delta
Abandoned
Valley
Fluvio-Deltaic
and Marine
Estuary
Denudational
Sandy Plain
Gravel Plain
Rocky Plain
Rock Outcrop
Total
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7.9
26.5
11.9
54.9
2.16
0.84
13.11
216
84
1311
Sub-total
0.3
0.1
1.8
2.2
18.3
9.45
945
1.3
34.4
7.66
766
Sub-total
1.0
2.3
99.6
87.08
37.3
363.7
51.9
8.5
8.11
103.62
52.69
0.78
1486.1
746.64
8708
Sub-total
811
10362
5269
78
Sub-total
74664
11.7
11.7
1.1
13.9
7.1
0.1
22.1
100
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Figure 6.20: Geomorphic Terrain Units in the Study Area.
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Figure 6.21: Resilience of Terrain Units to Recreational Activities.
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6.5.1.2
Aeolian Landforms
By nature, deserts are characterized by sparse vegetation and low rainfall. For the Namib,
under which the study area falls, the added cold-water upwelling system of the Benguela
Current and the absence of convective cells, coupled with the availability of unconsolidated
sediments contributed to that mix in favor of the predominance of aeolian landforms. These
landforms are created by virtue of wind process through erosion and deposition.
From the coast, highly mobile barchans or crescentic dunes form. Barchan dunes develop
on hard surfaces where the sand supply is limited, with prevailing dominant wind comes from
a single direction (e.g. Thomas, 1989; Lancaster, 1995). These conditions fit areas such as
the flat coastal plateau south of Walvis Bay and along the eastern side of the former northern
extension of the Kuiseb River, where this feature occurs (Fig. 6.20). The dunes are white to
beige in colour with an average height of 8.3 m and a range of 2 m and 20 m (Slaterry, 1990).
Based on 16 long profiles of these dunes south of Walvis Bay measured by Barnes (2001),
the dunes present abnormal longitudinal profiles with no slip faces. Coarser materials are
more significant on their crests. Using aerial photographs taken in 1961, 1976, 1988 and
1997, the same author noted that during the course of 38 year period a total of 58 distinct
dunes studied moved northward as coherent bodies. She further documented that during
intervening time interval of aerial photographs, rates of these dunes movement varied
significantly. The highest recorded movement of these dunes took place between 1997 and
1999 with an average rate of 56.1 m per year. This rate was followed by a mean distance of
18.9 m per year that took place between 1961 and 1976, and 16.4 m/a from 1988-1997. The
lowest recorded rate was 4.24 m per year which occurred between 1961-1976 (Barness,
2001).
Results outlined above followed the studies of Stengel (1963b) and Slattery (1990), both
worked in the same area. Stengel (1963b) obtained an average rate of 23 m/a and 8 m/a for
a 3 and 5.5 meter high dune, respectively. Using the first two sets of aerial photographs
used later by Barnes (2001), Slattery (1990) calculated an average rate of 13.5 m/a for the
movement of these dunes. This translates into a difference of three folds between the two
researchers. Besides the apparent variance, what underlines the collective findings of these
authors is that the movement of these dunes is not constant over the years. In that light, it is
likely that a single storm with anomalously high velocity would cause rapid rates of dune
movement over a short period of time as Barnes (2001) suggested. Under current and
immediate future climatic regime, therefore, barchan dunes in the study area are expected to
continue migrating northward at a rate in excess of 50 m per year for smaller dunes. Although
barchan dunes are highly active from a geomorphic view point, they are more resilience to
human activities such as quad-biking as human footprints could be easily erased from its
surface by wind.
The rapid marching of individual barchan dunes is a finite process. Typically, wind speed
tends to decrease with increasing distance from the coast, a pattern that was also observed
in the Namib by Lancaster (1985), for example. According to Lancaster (1985) wind regimes
in the Namib Sand Sea are high energy unimodal near the coast, and become bimodal or
complex further inland. This is partly due to friction against the surface which effectively
decreases the speed as well as the direction of the wind. In the process wind loses its initial
strength for transporting sediments. The net result is that at some point, barchan dunes
coalesce laterally with their neighbors to form transverse dunes (Thomas 1989; Lancaster
1985; Bourke & Goudie 2009). Thus, unlike barchan dunes, transverse dune forms under the
environment with relatively ineffective wind and abundant sand supply. However, transverse
dunes migrate as well, albeit slower, like their barchan prototypes (e.g. Thomas, 1989).
Therefore, the study area is characterized by an overall decrease in wind energy and sand
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transport rates from south to north and west to east, such that sand moves from coastal and
southern source areas to accumulate in the northern and central parts.
Specifically, there is an ill-defined transition from barchan to transverse dunes in the study
area. This takes place in the downwind of barchan fields, where individual dunes coalesces
laterally into each other in the southern section of the study area. They thus run parallel to
and on the eastern side of barchans fields as well as the Kuiseb Estuary. Moreover, the dune
belt running along the coast between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund formed a contiguous
body of transverse dunes. Dune 7, on the southern end of this dune belt is one of the
renowned barchanoid ridges forming part of this transverse dune. Collectively, transverse
dunes constitute the largest terrain unit in the study area, at 38% (Fig. 6.22).
Often characterized by a single slip-face, transverse dunes have a height estimated to range
between a few meters up to 75 m in the southern part of the study area and over 130 m
along the northern dune belt (Fig. 6.22). Because of their large sizes and the reduced wind
velocities coupled with bimodal direction further inland, the rate of movement of these dunes
is reported in the literature to much slower than barchan dunes. They are thus more stable on
their base and with more mobility on crests. Engulfing of some of the palm trees planted
more than 30 years ago at a picnic site at the heels of Dune 7 testify to the slow but steady
northward marching of these dune bases.
Transverse dunes may further evolve into elongated dunes in areas with variable wind
directions, like in some parts of the study area. Further west in the southern section of the
study area, emerging linear dunes as well as dune streets are pronounced. These
inception linear dunes have a width in excess of 1 km, while the width of the dune street
measures up to 700 km. They form part of a much bigger body of sand sheet of the central
Namib Desert to the south and east. Like the rest of the sand sheet, they are abruptly
terminated by the Kuiseb River. Their heights are in tens of meters in the west and increases
to more than 100 meters towards the east. Although linear dunes loose sands in the leeward,
this process is compensated by sand arriving on the windward side, hence the moderate
stability of this type of dunes and dune streets (Thomas 1989). This unit makes up
approximately 10% of the study area. Similar to the barchan, both transverse and linear
dunes are more resilience to tourists’ related human activities. Dune street, however, are
moderately resilient to recreational activities.
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Figure 6.22: Terrain Units of Aeolian Origin.
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6.5.1.3
Fluvial Landforms
Three sub-types of fluvial landforms feature in the study area (Fig. 6.23). The largest, at 1.7
% of the study area, is the conspicuous dry river beds of the Kuiseb River. This unit has a
significant impact on the geomorphological character of the study area in that it provide
sediments to the coast and also halts the northward movement of the Namib Sand Sea. In
the study area, the Kuiseb River is up to 1 km wide with a gradient of 1:150 (Stengel, 1964b);
the average gradient of the entire river is also relatively high, at 1:200. The south bank of the
river consists of high sand dunes, while the north bank is partly rocky with high gravel terrace
in places.
Although the current extent of the Kuiseb River testifies to its former glory as a perennial
system in the recent past (geologically), it is currently an ephemeral river. In reconstructing its
historical flow, Stengel (1964a) recorded that between 1837 and 1961, the Kuiseb reached
the sea in 13 occasions, mainly through its northern tributary, which is now abandoned due to
anthropological control. This amounts to an average of one flow every ten years. Since then,
the river only reaches the sea in 1997, 2000 and 2011. In 2011, Namibia received
exceptionally high rainfall resulting in some part of the country being flooded. During the
fieldwork of this study in July 2011, the delta was not accessible by car as the area remained
wet and roads leading to it were still closed off. Usage of a quad-bike, though penetrated the
area, was eventually met with similar limitation. The geomorphic stability of this unit differs
from place to place, depending of the morphometry, climatic regime and surface cover. It is
thus categorized under moderate to high geomorphic stability and resilience to anthropogenic
activities.
Other terrain unit of fluvial origin in the study area is the shallow water courses located on
the eastern side of the dune belt area. They flow from the rocky plains of the Namib and
terminate against the eastern side of the dune belt. At the southern section of the dune belt,
water accumulates in few inter-connected pans. These units are geomorphologically
moderately active. They are also not easily susceptible to human activities.
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Figure 6.23: Fluvial landforms.
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6.5.1.4
Fluvial-Aeolian Landforms
Geomorphologically, a major section of the City of Walvis Bay is situated in a delta. Until
1961, the town, with approximately 12165 inhabitants at the time, was occasionally inundated
by high flood water of the Kuiseb River (Stengel 1963b), via its northern arm, branching off
some 15 km before it reaches the sea, south of the lagoon. What changed that threat was a
construction of a snaking wall 7.3 km long and 6 m high that separated the northern
tributaries from the western one. Without water flushing out sediments in its bed as it used to
be, these human activities turned the northern arm of the Kuiseb River and delta into
abandoned features (Fig. 6.24), allowing dunes and drifts to accumulate over their beds.
The abandoned valley of the northern arm of the Kuiseb River and its former delta are
discernible from satellite images. The valley lies between the transverse and barchans dunes
in the west and east, respectively. The abandoned delta is surrounded and threatened by
barchan dunes and part of its remnant is currently declared as a bird sanctuary. It is thus
anticipated that with time, these former features of the Kuiseb River will be obliterated by
aeolian sedimentation. Although the abandoned valley is moderately resilient to
anthropogenic activities, the abandoned delta is highly susceptible to activities such as quadbiking and highly resilient to other activities such as bird watching.
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Figure 6.24: Fluvial - Aeolian Landforms.
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6.5.1.5
Fluvio-Deltaic and Marine Landforms
By definition, estuary is a complex geomorphological unit forming a transition zone between
freshwater rivers and salt-water oceans (Thomas & Goudie, 1985). It is further constantly
modified by erosion and deposition by rivers and tidal currents, resulting into a host of various
features such as tidal flats, salt marshes, delta, spits and lagoons. For the coastal Namib,
wind as a notable geomorphological agent contributed to the presence of aeolian features in
and around the estuary, hence the delineation of this feature including sand ridges (Fig.
6.25).
The delta is covered with extensive growth of Phragmites reeds. Hummocks forms in places
around hardy bushes. With low dunes dotting the complex, channels of the delta itself are
poorly defined. Similar to abandoned delta discussed above, this unit is rather sensitive to
some human activities such as quad-biking, while highly resilience to others such as birdwatching.
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Figure 6.25: Fluvio-Deltaic and Marine landform.
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6.5.1.6
Denudational Landforms
Landforms laying bare and exposing underlying rocks or strata owing to the removal of
overlaying materials are classified as denudational. Besides erosion by agents such as water
and wind, weathering is particularly incorporated into agents of denudation. The area located
south-east of Walvis Bay in the study area falls in this category (Fig. 6.26). Besides water
and wind erosions, weathering is also taking place in this area. This rocky plain is
punctuated with rock outcrops, dominated by gneiss and granites. This unit makes up
approximately 7% of the study area.
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Figure 6.26: Denudational Landforms.
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Similarly, sandy and gravel plains, totaling 15% of the study area, are common. Whereas
sand plains dots the central part of the study area, broad gravel plains features on either
side of the dune belt, while smaller ones with irregular shapes occur in the northern end and
eastern side of the dune belt. It is hypothesized here that their density on the northern side of
the dune belt is associated with the bidirectional wind pattern introduced by the east wind,
essentially reversing dune sediments and promoting the presence of interdunal space around
the more exposed area of the dune belt. Similarly, shallow river courses are attributed to the
presence of the smaller, irregular gravel plains on the eastern side of the dune belt, in the
same fashion as the area around Tsondabvlei and Sossusvlei. Whereas these denudational
landforms are geomorphologically stable, sandy and gravel plains are rather sensitive to
anthropogenic activities. Rocky plains and rock outcrops, however, may withstand a variety
of recreational activities.
6.5.1.7
Conclusions
The study area is characterized by landscapes of aeolian, fluvial, denudational and fluviodeltaic and marine origin. Aeolian landscape is the largest by far. A number of
geomorphological units were also identified. From the south, the study area cut across the
sand sea of the southern Namib. The eastern section of this area has complex linear dunes,
oriented north-south, and approximately a kilometer apart. They grade into transverse dunes
some 8 km from the coast and as the Kuiseb Delta begins to form. These dunes have their
slip-face oriented mainly to the north, hence providing comparatively favourable climatic
conditions for supporting selected desert dwelling fauna or flora and also sheltered from the
strong winds blowing predominantly from the south.
Whereas transverse and barchans dunes cut across the Kuiseb Delta, longitudinal dunes
came to a halt at the Kuiseb River. The Kuiseb Delta is up to approximately 15 km wide at
the apex. It is characterized by a variety of vegetation, including reeds. This betrays a high
water table. Dune hummocks occur in the immediate surroundings of the delta. Transverse
and barchans dunes constitute the dune system between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund. Like
the dune system south of the Kuiseb River, interdunal plains occur in places within this unit.
A common feature in the interdune and gravel / coastal planes are patches of vegetated
hummocks. A third of the study area is resilience to recreational activities, while 15% of this
region is highly sensitive to such activities. Sensitivity of the remaining portion of the study
area varies between moderate to high according to specific anthropogenic activities.
6.5.2 Geological Setting
6.5.2.1
Regional Geology
Regionally, Walvis Bay falls within the Central Zone of the Damara Sequence which
underlies most of Central Namibia (Figs. 6.27 and 6.28). The oldest rocks within the Central
Zone are the pre-Damaran basement that consists of gneiss and granite lithologies found in
different parts of the zone (Fig. 6.28). According to Miller, (1983a), the Sequence was
deposited during successive phases of rifting, spreading, subduction and continental
collision. Much of the basal succession (Nosib Group), deposited in or marginal to
intracontinental rifts, consists of quartzite, arkose, conglomerate, phyllite, calc-silicate,
subordinate, limestone and evaporitic rocks. Local alkaline ignimbrites with associated
subvolcanic intrusions ranging from 840 to 720 million years in age also form part of the
regional geology (Miller, 1992).
According to Miller, (1992), widespread carbonate deposition followed and overlapped far
beyond early rift shoulders (Kudis, Ugab and basal Khomas Subgroups); interbedded mica
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and graphitic schist, quartzite (some ferruginous), massflow deposits, iron-formation and
local within-plate basic lava point to fairly variable depositional conditions south of a stable
platform where only carbonates with very minor clastics occur (Otavi Group). Near the
southern margin of the orogen, deep-water fans, facies equivalents of the carbonates were
deposited on either side of a Southern Zone ocean separating Kalahari and Congo Cratons
(Auas and Tinkas Formations). Thick schistose metagreywacke and metapelite (Kuiseb
Formation) overlie the above rocks.
6.5.2.2 Local Geology
Locally the Walvis Bay area is underlain mainly by biotite schists, quartzites, metagreywackes, marbles and calc silicates of the Tinkas member of the Karibib Formation,
Swakop Group of the Damara (Steven, 1993 and Table 6.16). These rocks have been
intensely isoclinally folded and locally have a NNE/SSW strike. Dips are generally steep and
Salem-type granites and pegmatites have intruded the area, mainly in the West. Karoo-age
dolerite dykes intrude the Damara metasediments and trend parallel to the foliation. Surficial
sediments of Tertiary to Recent age have been deposited over large parts of the whole of
Walvis Bay area, mainly confined to present and paleodrainage features (Ransom, 1981).
The calcareous grit is found around Walvis Bay area comprise relatively of mature sediment
containing clasts largely consisting of rounded to subangular quartz and feldspar grains
cemented by calcium carbonate. Clasts of Damara metasediments and Karoo dolerite are
rarely present. The calcareous grit is preliminarily regarded as the oldest of the surficial
sedimentary succession and fills an old paleodrainage feature through which the main
present-day Tumas drainage cuts (Ransom, 1981; Bortom, and Ransoh, 1980; Bortom,
1977).
According to Ransom (1981), Bortom and Ransoh (1980) and Bortom, (1977), the other type
of surficial deposits found in the Walvis Bay area in general, is the brown calcareous siltstone
which is far more immature than the calcareous grit and contains more angular fragments
and a higher percentage of mafic minerals. The cement is calcium carbonate and its brown
colouration is due to the weathering of mafic minerals. Although it is considered to be
younger it is often in direct contact with the basement schist due to overlapping on the edges
of minor basins and paleochannels (Ransom, 1981). The youngest of the surficial sediments
is the formation of gypsum which occurs as fibrous veins and as cement to the recent sands,
river gravels, and sedimentary breccias. The gypsum appears to be forming at present as a
result of the common sulphurous mists blowing off the sea and reacting with the calcareous
sediments to form gypsum as a replacement of calcite.
Table 6.16: Damara stratigraphy of the Central Zone in the Usakos – Karibib – Omaruru
Area (after Steven, 1993).
Group
Formation
Lithologies
Swakop
Kuiseb
Onguati
Metaturbidites and Biotite Schists and minor Calc-silicate Rocks and Marble Quartzite,
Schist, Calc-silicate Rock, Marble Calcitic and Dolomitic Marble and minor
Karibib
Calc-silicate Rocks and Schist and minor Calc-silicate Rocks and Marble Daheim
Member Continental Mafic Volcanics (only present in SCZ) Omusema Member
Amphibolites (only present in SCZ) Biotite Schist,
Nosib
Oberwasser
Okawayo
Spes
Bona
Chuos
Rossing
Khan Etusis
Calc-silicate Rocks and very minor Felsic Volcanics Calcitic Marble Biotite Schist, Calcsilicate Rocks and very minor Felsic Volcanics Glaciogenic Mixtite, Banded Iron
Formation Dolomitic Marble, minor Calc-silicate Rocks and Calcitic Marble
Pyribole Calc-silicate Rocks, minor Biotite Schist, Graphite Schist and Marble
Feldspathic Quartzite, Grit and minor Calc-silicate Rocks and Schist
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Proposed
Project
Location
Figure 6.27: Simplified Tectonostratigraphic map of Namibia (Source: Geological Survey of
Namibia, 1999).
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Proposed
Project
Location
Figure 6.28: Regional geological setting of Namibia (Source: Geological Survey of Namibia,
1999).
6.5.3 Water
Namibia is the most arid country in Southern Africa. The mean annual rainfall is less than 50
mm per annum along the coast. Overall, water is therefore scarce and one of the most
limiting factors to development. However, due to the good geological setting as well as good
perennial river networks such as the Omaruru and the Kuiseb Rivers that extend into high
rainfall catchments area, sufficient good quality groundwater is available in the coastal towns
of Walvis Bay and Swakopmund as well as for the surrounding industrial mining activities in
the Erongo Region.
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The Erongo Region contains the urban demand centres of Walvis Bay, Swakopmund,
Henties Bay, Arandis and the Rossing Uranium Mine which are currently supplied by
abstraction of groundwater from the alluvium of the Kuiseb River in the south and the
Omaruru River at Henties Bay in the north. Other Towns in the Region are Karibib, Usakos
and Omaruru. Omaruru draws its water supply from boreholes in the Omaruru River, Karibib
is linked by pipeline to the Swakopoort dam and draws water from this source, whilst Usakos
relies on groundwater obtained from boreholes drilled into the alluvium of the Khan River for
its water. Water is pumped from boreholes, transferred via pipelines and reticulated from
reservoirs to individual consumers in the towns. Kuiseb River groundwater resources support
the water demand of Walvis Bay, whilst water derived from the alluvium of the Omaruru River
is pumped from Henties Bay to a central pump station at Swakopmund for distribution to
Swakopmund, Arandis, and the Rossing Uranium Mine. The Namib Desert covers
approximately half of the Erongo Region which is therefore largely arid. However both
communal and commercial farming is conducted in the region supported by groundwater
developed from discrete borehole sources. There are 330 rural water points in the Erongo
Region.
The targeted proposed areas of the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Areas hold good economic
groundwater resources. However, some areas have saline shallow water bodies intruded
from the seas.
Vulnerability assessment of surface water covered possible runoff, the presence of source
factors and major flow routes such as ephemeral river channels, valleys and gullies as
pathways and the presence of surface water body as a target. The groundwater assessments
covered hydraulic properties and thickness of the unsaturated and saturated zones derived
from geological and hydrogeological data. The assessment of the unsaturated characteristics
was based on the ability for source factors to influence the system through known pathway
factors such as the porous local sand aquifer of the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt areas. The
combined effects of unsaturated and saturated flow probabilities were used as indicator for
groundwater vulnerability. However, groundwater or surface water will only be vulnerable to
contamination if there are contaminant sources, if there are pathways for contaminant
migration and there are targets (surface water or groundwater) present.
Overall, the limited local groundwater resources found in the old Kuiseb River Channel form
part of the unconfined aquifer system that is highly vulnerable to any sources of pollution. It is
important that all polluting activities throughout the proposed projects life cycles must not be
placed or undertaken in topographic low areas. Table 6.17 summarises the overall likely
negative impacts associated with the proposed project with respect to water as well as other
ground components.
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Table 6.17: Overall
components.
assessment
of
the
impacts
associated
with
the
ground
Description
The influences and impacts of the proposed projects activities on the ground
components including geology, water and construction materials.
Extent
The extent of the likely negative impacts as a result of the proposed Kuiseb Delta and
Dune Belt projects activities on the ground components will be localised and in
particular will affect the immediate ground components particularly during the
construction and operational stages.
Duration
The duration of the likely impacts will be permanent and beyond the duration of the
proposed project.
Intensity
The level of impacts is likely to be moderate within the immediate environment and low
in the surrounding areas.
Mitigation
1. Prevention, detection, and cleanup of released waste, cleanup equipment; the
location and availability of suitable alternative equipment; and a plan of
operations need to be put in place to be headed by the project manager;
2. All solid and liquid wastes generated as a result of the proposed project activities
shall be reduced, reused, or recycled to the maximum extent practicable. Burial of
waste on anywhere either on state or private property is not allowed and all
waste must be disposed on approved Walvis Bay Municipal waste disposal site;
3. No littering in the site area including access roads must be always clean;
4. Oil cans, and all other forms of litter must be removed;
5. Trash may not be burned or buried, except at approved sites under controlled
conditions in accordance with the regulations;
6. Disposal of wastewater into any public stream is prohibited;
Frequency of
occurrence
Probability
The likely impacts are likely to occur during the construction period.
High = 1
Significance
Before for the negative impacts mitigation:
Medium to High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Status of the impact
Negative
Legal requirements
Environmental Management Act, 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007), Water Resources
Management Act, 2004 and the Equator Principles.
Degree of
confidence in
predictions
The geological and geotechnical specialist who undertook the study and contribution to
the above assessment is sure of the recommendations. Confidence level 80%.
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7.
IMPACTS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1
Summary of Likely Impacts
The impacts of tourism activities on the environment were evaluated in terms of nature of
impact (identification), magnitude, extent, duration and significance as outlined in the Table
7.1. The impacts identified could be positive or negative. The overall likely impacts of the
proposed construction, operation and development of tourism activities in the study area are
outlined in Table 7.2. The assessment table also applies to identified and existing tourism
operations in the study area.
Based on all the data collected and analysed at different stages of this EIA study process,
including all the findings and recommendations of the specialist studies, all the results and
recommendations have been evaluated and interpreted. Based on the extent, duration,
intensity and likely negative and positive impacts of the proposed projects development for
both the Kuiseb Delta and the Dune Belt areas, an Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
Report Vol. 3 of 3 incorporating all the constraints, relevant mitigation measures with respect
to likely impacts and recommendations has been prepared for implementation by the
developer / operator. The EMP implementation and monitoring activities covers all the stages
of the proposed projects life cycle and is inclusive of the preconstruction, development,
construction and operational stages.
Table 7.1:
Criteria used to evaluate impacts.
Criteria
Nature of Impact
Magnitude
Extent
Duration
Significance
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Categories
Description of the effect of a proposed/existing activity on
the environment.
- Positive
- Negative
- Direct
- Indirect
- Cumulative
- Synergistic
- Severe
- Moderate
- Low
- International
- National
- Regional
- Local
- Short term
- Long term
- Project Life Span
- Permanent
- High
- Medium
- Low
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Table 7.2:
Description and
Nature of Impact
Uncontrolled
tourism
and
Unrestricted
access
NEGATIVE,
DIRECT
Commercial
activities
and
Urban
development
NEGATIVE,
SYNERGISTIC
National Park and
Concession
area’s activities
NEGATIVE,
DIRECT
AND
SYNERGISTIC
Placing
of
settlements,
structures
and
facilities in highly
sensitive
archaeological
areas
NEGATIVE,
DIRECT
Faunal loss and
disturbance
Synthesis table of all potential impacts.
Magnitude
Extent
Duration
Significance
Severe
Region &
Local
The duration of the impact is expected to
be short to medium term if mitigated
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Severe
Local
Permanent if no mitigation
Before mitigation:
Medium
After mitigation:
Low
Severe
Region &
Local
Permanent to Long-term if not mitigated
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Severe
Local
Permanent
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Severe to
Moderate
Local
The duration of the impact is expected to
be permanent over most of the proposed
development sites once established.
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
NEGATIVE,
CUMULATIVE
Floral loss
disturbance
Most species (e.g. various birds and
smaller mammals) are expected to recolonise the area after completion of the
development(s) – i.e. duration viewed as
short to medium term – while other
species are not expected to return (e.g.
various secretive carnivores) – i.e.
duration viewed as long term.
and
Severe to
Moderate
Local
NEGATIVE,
CUMULATIVE
This however, would be a relatively small
area with localised implications.
The duration of the impact is expected to
be permanent over most of the proposed
development sites once established.
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Most species, especially annuals, are
expected to re-colonise the area after
completion of the development(s) – i.e.
duration viewed as short to medium term
– while the destruction of mature trees are
not expected to rebound soon – i.e.
duration viewed as long term.
This however, would be a relatively small
area with localised implications.
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Table 7.2:
Description and
Nature of Impact
Sensitive areas in
the Kuiseb and
Dune Belt area
NEGATIVE,
CUMULATIVE
Socioeconomic
POSITIVE,
DIRECT
AND
INDIRECT
Visual impacts
NEGATIVE
Water use
quality
and
NEGATIVE
(unmitigated),
POSITIVE
(sustainable
utilisation
and
management)
DIRECT
Waste
and
Sewage
management at
project sites
POSITIVE
(mitigation)
Dune morphology
and
Wind
situation
NEGATIVE,
INDIRECT
Cumulative
Impacts
Cont.
Magnitude
Extent
Duration
Significance
Biodiversity
sensitive areas:
Severe
-Coastal
area
immediately north
of Walvis Bay
-Walvis
Bay
Lagoon
-Kuiseb Delta
-Sandwich Harbour
MODERATE
to
LOW
Inland
Gravel
Plains
Severe
International,
Regional,
National
&
Local
Permanent to long-term if not
mitigated
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Local
Permanent to long-term
Before mitigation:
Medium to Low
After mitigation:
High
Low
Local
Permanent
Moderate
Local
The duration of this impact
could last the entire project life
span
Before mitigation:
Medium
After mitigation:
Low
Before mitigation:
Medium
After mitigation:
Low
Moderate
Local
The duration of this impact
could last the entire project life
span
Before mitigation:
Medium
After mitigation:
Low
Moderate to low
Local
Short term and seasonal
Before mitigation:
High
After mitigation:
Medium to Low
Severe to Moderate
National,
Regional
Local
The cumulative impacts could
last the entire project life span
Before mitigation:
Medium to high
After mitigation:
Low
&
NEGATIVE,
CUMULATIVE
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7.2
EIA Conclusions
The Environmental Impact Assessment study discovered that there are severe to moderate
impacts on the natural environment as well as the cultural heritage of the area. The ongoing
tourism activities and proposed community-based tourism activities in the Kuiseb Delta and
Dune Belt Area might have negative direct and indirect impacts on the environment. The
degree of confidence in predictions of these impacts is very high as specialists studies
indicated. The potential threats identified in this study could be mitigated if conservation and
preservation measures are adopted first before the implementation of the proposed
development. The ongoing tourism activities continue to improve the socioeconomic status of
entrepreneurs around Walvis Bay and Swakopmund area. Tourism ventures from other parts
of the country also benefit from this area. The Kuiseb Delta Concession and project as well
as the proposed bird watching paradise will significantly alleviate poverty and unemployment
among Topnaars community along the Kuiseb Delta.
On the other hand however, the Kuiseb Delta project proposal is uninformed as to the
archaeological value of the area and has used archaeological survey data merely as an aid
to identifying the most commercially advantageous position for the project. The project is a
community-based enterprise, but its formulation is no different from that of commercial
tourism projects that fail to consider the potential impact of their activities. In this way, the
Kuiseb Delta Development Project proposal represents a “worst case” scenario for the
management and conservation of this archaeological landscape. The fact that it is supported
by organizations such as NACOMA and evidently the Ministry of Environment, without the
National Heritage Council demanding better controls, merely illustrates the institutional
threats that are posed to the archaeological record in Namibia.
7.3
EIA Recommendations
This EIA study therefore recommends that the proposed projects and concession should not
go ahead in its present form and must only be approved subject to the following suggestions:
Proclaim the archaeologically significant part of the Kuiseb Delta as a Conservation
Area under the National Heritage Act;
Appropriate buffers must be created to separate current and future projects
activities areas from key environmental sources such as the Kuiseb Delta
archaeological sites, key avian breading zones of the Dune Belt Areas as well as
other important habitats and conservation zones / corridors;
Any access to archaeological sites should be strictly monitored and subject to
specific guidelines as to routes, group numbers and other factors;
No settlements, camping or other overnight facilities should be permitted in any
area designated as archaeologically sensitive;
Avoid all development in the areas viewed as sensitive habitats – i.e. Sandwich
Harbour, lichen fields, Kuiseb and Tumas Rivers, rocky outcrops, Caution Reef,
Horses Graves and Paaltjies Salsola dune hummocks;
Implement and maintain track discipline limited to existing tracks and/or certain
tracks with maximum speed limits (e.g. 30km/h) as this would result in fewer faunal
road mortalities and associated dust pollution problems;
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Avoid off road driving in areas prone to scarring and especially the lichen fields.
Nocturnal driving should also be avoided as this result in the destruction of slow
moving fauna – e.g. various reptiles and other nocturnal species;
Avoid the removal and damage of bigger trees (especially protected species – i.e.
Acacia erioloba, Faidherbia albida and Tamarix usneoides [Forestry Ordinance No.
37 of 1952) – during developments – including the development of access routes –
as these serve as habitat for a myriad of fauna. This is relevant to developments in
the Kuiseb River area;
The environmental management and monitoring of the dune belt area, the free offroad vehicle zone and the Kuiseb delta should form part of the Dorob National Park
management.
It is hereby recommended that the proposed projects may only go ahead on condition that
the proposed multiple land use approach (proposed and current activities, conservation and
tourism opportunities) are all fully incorporated and integrated in the high need for
archaeological resources conservation with appropriate buffers enforced in line with the
specialist studies recommendations and in line with the Dorob National Park Regulations. In
terms of the management of any likely short and long-term positive and negative impacts
likely to be associated with the proposed developments for both the Kuiseb and Dune Belt
areas, it’s hereby recommended that an Environmental Management Plan Vol. 3 of 3 (EMP)
Report must be developed for implementation by the proposed project developers for both
the Kuiseb Delta and Dune Belt Areas covered in this EIA study.
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8.
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Maclean, G.L. 1985. Robert’s birds of southern Africa. John Voelcker Bird Book Fund.
Mannheimer, C., Maggs-Kölling, G., Kolberg, H. and Rügheimer, S. 2008. Wildflowers of the
southern Namib. Macmillan Namibia, Windhoek.
Mannheimer, C. and Curtis, B. 2009. Le Roux and Müller’s field guide to the trees and shrubs
of Namibia. Macmillan Education, Windhoek.
Marais, J. 1992. A complete guide to the snakes of southern Africa. Southern Book
Publishers, Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg, RSA.
Mendelsohn, J., Jarvis, A., Roberts, C. and Robertson, T. 2004. Atlas of Namibia – a portrait
of the land and its people. David Philip Publishers, Cape Town.
MME, 2010. Strategic Environmental Assessment for the central Namib Uranium Rush.
Ministry of Mines and Energy, Windhoek, Republic of Namibia.
Monadjem, A., Taylor, P.J., F.P.D. Cotterill and M.C. Schoeman. 2010. Bats of southern and
central Africa. Wits University press, Johannesburg, RSA.
Müller, M.A.N. 1984. Grasses of South West Africa/Namibia. John Meinert Publishers (Pty)
Ltd, Windhoek, Namibia.
Müller, M.A.N. 2007. Grasses of Namibia. John Meinert Publishers (Pty) Ltd, Windhoek,
Namibia.
NACSO, 2010. Namibia’s communal conservancies: a review of progress and challenges in
2009. NACSO, Windhoek.
Passmore, N.I. and Carruthers, V.C. 1995. South African Frogs - A complete guide. Southern
Book Publishers, Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg, RSA.
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SARDB, 2004. CBSG Southern Africa. In: Griffin, M. 2005. Annotated checklist and
provisional national conservation status of Namibian mammals. Ministry of Environment and
Tourism, Windhoek.
Schultz, M. and Rambold, G. 2007. Diversity shifts and ecology of soil lichens in central
Namibia. Talk, Ecological Society of Germany, Austria and Switzerland (GfÖ), 37th Annual
Meeting, Marburg: 12/9/2007 to 15/9/2007.
Schultz, M., Zedda, L. and Rambold, G. 2009. New records of lichen taxa from Namibia and
South Africa. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 99: 315-354.
Seely, M. 2010. The Namib – natural history of an ancient desert. John Meinert, Windhoek.
Simmons, R.E. 1998a. Important Bird Areas (IBA’s) in Namibia. In: Barnard, P. (ed.).
Biological diversity in Namibia: a country study. Windhoek: Namibian National Biodiversity
Task Force.
Simmons, R.E. 1998b. Areas of high species endemism. In: Barnard, P. (ed.). Biological
diversity in Namibia: a country study. Windhoek: Namibian National Biodiversity Task Force.
Simmons, R.E. 1998c. Flamingos: declining in southern Africa. In: Barnard, P. (ed.).
Biological diversity in Namibia: a country study. Windhoek: Namibian National Biodiversity
Task Force.
Simmons, R.E., Baker, N., Braby, R., Dodman, T., Nasirwa, O., Tyler, S., Versfeld, W.,
Wearne, K. and Wheeler, M. 2007. The chestnut-banded plover is an overlooked globally
near threatened species. Bird Conservation International 17: 273-283.
Simmons R.E. and Brown C.J. 2009. Birds to watch in Namibia: red, rare and endemic
species. National Biodiversity Programme, Windhoek.
Skinner, J.D. and Smithers, R.H.N. 1990. The mammals of the southern African subregion.
University of Pretoria, RSA.
Skinner, J.D. and Chimimba, C.T. 2005. The mammals of the southern African subregion.
Cambridge University Press, Cape Town, RSA.
Tarboton, W. 2001. A guide to the nests and eggs of southern African birds. Struik
Publishers, Cape Town, RSA.
Taylor, P.J. 2000. Bats of southern Africa. University of Natal Press, RSA.
Tolley, K. and Burger, M. 2007. Chameleons of southern Africa. Struik Nature, Cape Town,
RSA.
Van der Merwe, J.H. 1983. National Atlas of South West Africa (Namibia). National Book
Printers, Cape Town, South Africa.
Watson, J.J., Kerley,G.I.H. and McLachlan, A. 1996. Human activity and potential impacts on
dune breeding birds in the Alexandria Coastal Dunefield. Landscape Urban Planning 34: 315322.
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Whitelaw, D.A., Underhill, L.G., Cooper, J. and Clining, C.F. 1978. Waders (Charadrii) and
other birds on the Namib Coast: counts and conservation priorities. Madoqua 2(2): 137-150.
Williams, A.J. and Simmons, R.E. 2008a. The importance of wetlands along Namibia’s desert
coast for African waterbirds. Proceedings of the Namib Coastal Marine Bird Action Plan, 1
April 2008, Swakopmund.
Williams, A.J. and Simmons, R.E. 2008b. Africa’s Namib desert coast supports >200 000
Holacrtic shorebirds. Proceedings of the Namib Coastal Marine Bird Action Plan, 1 April
2008, Swakopmund.
Wirth, V. 2010. Lichens of the Namib Desert. Klaus Hess Verlag, Göttingen-Windhoek.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL REFERENCES
Alexander, J. 1967. An expedition of discovery into the interior of Africa. Cape Town: Struik.
Facsimile reprint of 1838 original. The earliest of the explorer’s accounts with observations on
flora, fauna and peoples, and their distribution in the country. Alexander journeyed down the
Kuiseb River to Walvis Bay.
Andersson, C. J. 1967. Lake Ngami or explorations and discovery during four years of
wanderings in the wilds of southwestern Africa. Cape Town: Struik. Facsimile reprint of 1856
original. Although writing for a public audience eager for adventure stories during the mid
nineteenth century, Andersson, as well as being a hunter and explorer, was a naturalist
particularly interested in birds. His contemporary, informed observations on the country and
its fauna and flora provide us with a valuable perspective today.
Andersson, C. J. 1968. The Okavango River: a narrative of travel, exploration and adventure.
Cape Town: Struik. Facsimile edition of 1861 original. Andersson’s last journey north,
published posthumously.
Avery, G. 1984. Late Holocene avian remains from Wortel, Walvis Bay, SWA/Namibia, and
some observations on seasonality and Topnaar Hottentot prehistory. Madoqua 14 (1): 63-70.
Bird bone as evidence of summer occupation on an archaeological shell midden site on the
Namib coast. The site has been destroyed by expansion of the salt works.
Baines, T.1864. Exploration in South-West Africa. London: Longman, Green. Starting off as
an assistant to Andersson, Baines painted birds under his guidance but also numerous
landscapes and scenes which have great historical value today. As he was Andersson’s
contemporary, Baines’ account informs Andersson’s.
Benson, P.F. 1989. Survivors of the Namib – the Topnaars. Rossing, October 1989:12-17.A
popular article.
Berat, L. 1990. Walvis Bay: the last frontier. New Haven and London: Radix A presentation
and assessment of the legal arguments for South Africa to keep control over the strategic
territory of Walvis Bay or for Namibia to gain sovereignty over it. Includes historical
background and comments on the ethnic groups of Namibia.
Brain, C.K. & Brain, V. 1977. Microfaunal remains from Mirabib: some evidence of
palaeoecological changes in the Namib. Madoqua 10 (4): 285-293. The only existing
microfaunal analysis for the Namib.
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Budack, K.F.R. 1977. The ≠Aonin or Topnaar of the lower !Khuiseb valley and the sea.
Khoisan Linguistic Studies 3: 1-42. The prime historical ethnographic study of the Topnaar
people with historical, cultural and ecological information which includes an excellent
bibliography.
Budack, K.F.R. 1979. The Khoe-Khoen of South-West Africa. SWA Annual, pp 111-115. A
popular article.
Budack, K.F.R. 1983. A harvesting people on the south Atlantic coast. South African Journal
of Ethnology 6 (2): 1-7. A summary form of the 1977 paper that has in addition praise songs
in Nama and English translation.
Carstens, P., Klinghardt, G. & West, M.1987.
(eds) Trails in the Thirstland. The
anthropological diaries of Winifred Hoernlé. University of Cape Town: Centre for African
Studies Communications no. 14. Hoernlé had a special interest in the Topnaar of Walvis Bay.
This book has an introduction to her fieldwork and diaries, transcriptions of the diaries and
endnotes that give additional details. Diary of the second expedition to Namaqualand and
South West Africa (1913) has details on Walvis Bay and its native inhabitants (pp70-75).
Diary of the third expedition to South West Africa (1922-23) describes her experiences in the
Kuiseb near Walvis Bay, Sandfontein and Swartbank, with information on Topnaar culture
(pp 115-123) and a list of plants, foods and medicines (p 133).
Dentlinger, U. 1977. The !nara plant in the Topnaar Hottentot culture of Namibia:
ethnobotanical clues to an 8 000 year old tradition. Munger Africana Library Notes 38.
Dentlinger, U. 1983. Social and spatial mobility along the Kuiseb River in the Namib Desert,
Namibia. M.A. thesis, University of Cape Town.
Galton, F. 1889. Narrative of an explorer in tropical South Africa, being an account of a visit
to Damaraland in 1851. London: Ward, Lock & Co.
Herre, H. 1975. Die Narapflanze. Namib und Meer Band 5/6. Swakopmund: Ges. für Wiss.
Ent. und Museum.
Hoernlé, A.W. 1985. The social organization of the Nama Hottentots of Southwest Africa. In
P. Carstens (ed.): The Social Organization of the Nama and other essays by Winifred
Hoernlé. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. Chapters 3, 4, 5 and 6 deal with
social, cultural and ritual values of the Nama, with special emphasis on the Topnaar of Walvis
Bay. These essays provide a wealth of detail, both anthropological and historical.
Jacobson, L.J. & J.C. Vogel. 1977. Radiocarbon dates for a shell midden complex from
Wortel, Walvis Bay. Madoqua 10 (1): 85-86.
Jenkins, T. & Brain, C.K. 1967. The peoples of the lower Kuiseb valley South West Africa.
Scientific Papers of the Namib Desert Research Station 35.
Kinahan, Jill. 1990. The impenetrable shield: HMS Nautilus and the Namib coast in the late
18th century. Cimbebasia 12: 23-61. Historical introduction accompanying transcripts of two
illustrated original manuscripts recording first-hand observations on the exploration of the
southwest African coast. Includes ethnographic detail on an indigenous village in the Walvis
Bay dunefields. Exceptionally interesting historical account.
Kinahan, Jill. 1991. The historical archaeology of nineteenth century fisheries at Sandwich
Harbour on the Namib coast. Cimbebasia 13: 1-27. A description of the development of
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commercial fishing enterprises at Sandwich using surviving material remains, contemporary
sketches and documentary information in an area now regarded to be pristine wetland.
Kinahan, Jill. 1992. By command of their Lordships: The exploration of the Namibian coast by
the Royal Navy, 1795-1895. Windhoek: Namibia Archaeological Trust. Verbatim extracts
from 24 Royal Navy Remark Books kept on surveys of the coast between Saldanha Bay and
the Kunene River at a key time during the colonization of southwestern Africa. Includes an
illustrated historical chronology and copies of original charts. Emphasis is on Walvis Bay.
Kinahan, Jill. 2000. Cattle for beads: the archaeology of historical contact and trade on the
Namib coast. Studies in African Archaeology 17. Uppsala: Department of Archaeology and
Ancient History. A comprehensive investigation of contact between indigenous people and
the outside world using glass trade beads and ceramics to set up a sequence and explore
social issues.
Kinahan, John. 1984. Archaeology and the image of the Khoe in early historic contact on the
Namib desert coast. SWA Annual 1984: 55-60. Short, well-illustrated popular article that
presents the theoretical issues in an understandable way together with centrally important
data.
Kinahan, John. 1991. Pastoral Nomads of the Central Namib Desert: the people history
forgot. Windhoek: Namibia Archaeological Trust. The archaeology of the Brandberg and the
!Khuiseb River Delta based on more than 200 sites and including the rock art sequence,
ceramic sequence, the transition of the hunter-gatherer economy and the rise and collapse of
pastoralism in the central Namib Desert.
Kinahan, John. 1993. The rise and fall of nomadic pastoralism in the central Namib Desert.
In Andah, B., Okpoko, A., Shaw, T. and Sinclair, P. eds Food, metals and towns in the
archaeology of Africa. Routledge, London: 372-385. Summary of the previous reference.
Kinahan, John. 1996. Human and domestic animal tracks in an archaeological lagoon deposit
on the coast of Namibia. South African Archaeological Bulletin 51: 94-98. Archaeological,
historical and geomorphological evidence shows that well-preserved tracks of people,
livestock and domestic dogs in a lagoon siltpan relates to livestock trading activities occurring
during two centuries ago in the vicinity of Walvis Bay.
Kinahan, John, Pallett, J., Vogel, J., Ward, J., and Lindeque, M. 1991. The occurrence and
dating of elephant tracks in the silt deposits of the lower !Khuiseb River, Namibia.
Cimbebasia 13: 37-44. Well-preserved tracks of elephant and other animals are described
and dated to within the last three centuries by the radiocarbon method and archaeological
associations.
Kinahan, John & J.C. Vogel. 1982. Recent copper-working sites in the !Khuiseb drainage,
Namibia. South African Archaeological Bulletin 37: 44-45. The only publication to deal with
this important subject, the indigenous production of copper beads. Presents sites, the method
of smelting, dates and distribution of artefacts. Copper production formed the inland.
Miller, D.E. & Kinahan J. 1993. The metallurgical analysis of copper beads and ore from
archaeological sites in central Namibia. Communications of the Geological Survey of
Namibia 8: 67-79.
Köhler, O. 1969. Die Topnaar Hottentotten am unteren Kuiseb. In Ethnological and linguistic
studies in honour of N.J. van Warmelo. Essays contributed on the occasion of his 65 th
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birthday. Pretoria: Department of Bantu Administration and Development Ethnological
Publications no. 52: 99-122.
Lau, B. 1987. The Matchless Copper Mine in 1857: Correspondence. Windhoek: Archeia 7,
National Archives of Namibia. Source publication of Andersson correspondence.
Serton, P. 1954. The narrative and journal of Gerald McKiernan in South West Africa 18741879. Cape Town: Van Riebeeck Society. Edited transcripts of the journals of an American
trader, hunter and adventurer with accompanying map showing his travels from Walvis Bay
to the north. Valuable for his comments on the natural world and way of life at this time. He
travelled only a short distance of the Kuiseb River on his way north, and did not go to
Windhoek but makes some observations on the Topnaar and the bay.
Moritz, E. 1915. Die ältesten Reiseberichte über Deutsch-Südwestafrika. In Mitteilungen aus
den deutschen Schutzgebieten 28-31. Typescripts of German translations of early original
accounts of explorers and travellers, e.g. Available in files in the National Library.
Moritz, E. 1916. Die ältesten Reiseberichte über Deutsch-Südwestafrika. Der Berichte der
Rheinischen Mission bis zum Jahre 1846. In Mitteilungen aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten
mit benutzung amtlicher quellen herausgegeben von Dr H. Marquardsen. 29 (4). Berlin: Ernst
Siegried Mittler & Sohn.
Moritz, W. 1978. Scheppmansdorf/Rooibank und die älteste Druckerei in Süd-west Afrika.
Schwäbisch Gmünd:Lempp.
Morrell, B. 1832. A narrative of four voyages to the South Sea, North and South Pacific
Ocean, Chinese Sea, Ethiopic and Southern Atlantic Ocean, Indian and Antarctic Ocean &c.
New York: J & J Harper. An early account of activities along the south west African coast by
an American whaler and sealer who was known to fabricate stories. The existence of his
original ship’s logbook has allowed some researchers to test his information but although
interesting, some of his observations are problematic. The published diary of his wife, Abby
Jane, who accompanied him, does not provide corroborating evidence to the most interesting
of Morrell’s claims.
Palgrave, W.C. 1877. Report of Special Commissioner to the tribes north of the Orange
River, of his mission to Damaraland and Great Namaqualand in 1876. Cape Town: Saul
Solomon. The original published report. See under Stals (1991) for the edited Van Riebeeck
Society volume.
Proceedings of the Angra Pequena and West Coast Claims Joint Commission. 1885. Cape
Town: Saul Solomon & Co. Contemporary minutes recording a wealth of verbatim evidence
relating to indigenous, settler, commercial, mining and property rights along the Southwest
African coast during the evaluation of British and German claims after the annexation of the
territory by Germany. The Joint Commission consisted of a British and a German
Commissioner.
Ross, E.S. 1971. The Kuiseb’s Topnaar Hottentots. SWA Annual. A popular article.
Rudner, J. 1968. Strandloper pottery from south and southwest Africa. Annals of the south
African Museum 49 (2): 441-663. Comprehensive description of indigenous Khoekhoe
pottery with standardized terminology and technical drawings. The reference work for the
subject.
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Sandelowsky, B. 1975. An ancient butchery site in the dunes of the Namib. South West
African Annual. A popular article.
Sandelowsky, B. 1976. The beginning of Archaeo-ethno-botany in the Namib Desert.
Palaeoecology IX.
Sandelowsky, B. 1977. Mirabib – an archaeological study in the Namib. Madoqua 10(4): 221283. Detailed excavation report with specialist appendices on soils and microfauna.
Serton, P. 1954. The narrative and journal of Gerald Mc Kiernan in South West Africa 18741879. Cape Town: Van Riebeeck Society.
Shackley, M.L. 1980. An Acheulean industry with Elephas recki fauna from Namib IV, South
West Africa/Namibia. Nature 284 (5754): 340-1.
Shackley, M.L. 1984. ≠Hing-≠hais: an early Holocene stoneworking site in central Namibia.
Madoqua. 13(4): 271-279. A site description summarized in Shackley 1985.
Shackley, M.L. 1984. Offsite distributions and artefact visibility in the Central Namib Desert,
South West Africa/Namibia. Cimbebasia Ser. B 4(5): 51-58. Discussion of methods of
archaeological survey.
Shackley, M.L. 1985. Palaeolithic archaeology of the Central Namib Desert. Cimbebasia
Memoir No. 6. With 49 figures, including maps and artefact drawings; and 8 plates, including
site photographs and one of Elephas recki fossil tooth fragments. Shackley presents the
dating and artefacts from six Late Stone Age sites, eight Middle Stone Age sites and one
Early Stone Age site, mostly within the sand dunes on the south bank of the Kuiseb River
drainage around Gobabeb. Two of the sites (Mirabib and Murphyspan) occur on the gravel
plateau. All sites are within approximately 100 km of the lower Kuiseb drainage.
Vogel, J.C. 1982. The age of the Kuiseb river silt terrace at Homeb. In: Coetzee, J.A. & van
Zinderen Bakker, E.M. (eds) Palaeoecology of Africa vol. 15: 201-211.
Smith, A.B. & Kinahan, J. 1984. The invisible whale. World Archaeology 16 (1): 89-97.
Discusses the importance of whales in the prehistoric diet and the general absence of
archaeological evidence.
Smith, M. and Hesse, P. eds. 2005. 23 Degrees S: Archaeology and environmental history of
the southern deserts. Canberra: National Museum of Australia Press See Chapters 4 (Eitel),
9 (Kinahan) and 21 (Kinahan) for environmental history, dynamics of settlement and historical
perspectives.
Stals, E.L.P. (ed.) 1991. The Commissions of W.C. Palgrave, Special Emissary to South
West Africa 1876-1885. Cape Town: Van Riebeeck Society. Second Series no. 21. The
official journals, minutes and reports produced during five consecutive commissions by
Palgrave on behalf of the Cape Government to promote British influence in the territory of
South West Africa before the German colonial period which started in 1884. Palgrave’s
discussion with the leading figures of the day about their issues and concerns are of historical
value today. Illustrated with selected landscape photographs and portraits or groups of many
of the protagonists.
Sydow, W. 1973. Contributions to the history and proto-history of the topnaar Strandloper
settlement at the Kuiseb river mouth near Walvis Bay. South African Archaeological Bulletin
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28: 73-77. Interesting and useful paper with information concerning dating of Dutch gin
bottles. Rather outdated as far as the archaeology goes.
Tindall, B.A. 1959. The journal of Joseph Tindall missionary in South West Africa 1839-55.
Cape Town: Van Riebeeck Society. A Wesleyan missionary’s account of his labours in South
West Africa, primarily in the south of the country around Nisbett’s Bath (Warmbad). He
describes visits to Walvis Bay and to Concordiaville (Windhoek) but his emphasis is on the
people, his missionary work and the political uncertainty of the time.
Van den Eynden, V., Vernemmen, P. & van Damme, P. 1992. The ethnobotany of the
Topnaar. Gent: Universiteit Gent. An introduction to the Topnaar people and the Kuiseb
Valley is followed by colour photographs of the plants in the lower Kuiseb with botanical,
Nama and Afrikaans names, descriptions, medicinal and other uses.
Vedder, H. 1966. South West Africa in early times. London: Frank Cass & Co. A magisterial
reference work on the ethnic groups and history of the country. Unfortunately sources are not
accurately given, rendering some of the historical information anecdotal. Much of the detail
concerning habits and customs of peoples must be evaluated bearing the ideological
approach of Vedder in mind. Nonetheless, this book is still a source of detailed information.
Vigne, R. 1994.”The first, the highest”: identifying the Topnaar of Walvis Bay and the lower
!Khuiseb. Paper read at the Symposium writing history, identity, society: Namibia. University
of Hanover, May 1994.
Vigne, R. 1988. The Botany Bay that failed: Commodore Thompson and the Namibian Coast
scheme. Paper read at the Australian Historical Association Conference, Sydney University,
8-13 February 1988, “The Making of Nations”.
Ward, J.D. 1982. Aspects of a suite of Quaternary conglomerate sediments in the Kuiseb
valley, Namibia. In: Coetzee, J.A. & van Zinderen Bakker, E.M. (eds) Palaeoecology of Africa
vol. 15: 211-217.
Wilken, J.J.J. & G.J. Fox. 1978. The history of the port and settlement of Walvis Bay 18781978. Johannesburg: Perskor Publishers. A very useful and accessible source of information
on a range of topics from general history to specifics about the town itself.
UNPUBLISHED ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND RESEARCH REPORTS
Kinahan, John. 1984. Archaeological survey of the !Khuiseb Delta and vicinity, Part I:
Sandwich Harbour and environs; Part II: Fredericksdam; Part III: Walvis Bay dunefields.
Internal Report, State Museum, Windhoek. Initial survey results and recommendations; now
available only from the author. See Kinahan, J. 1991. Pastoral Nomads for the detailed
results of this survey.
Kinahan, J. 2000. A first approximation of archaeological site distributions in Namibia.
Commissioned by the Atlas of Namibia Projects, Directorate of Environment Affairs, Ministry
of Environment & Tourism, Windhoek. QRS Report 15.
Kinahan, J. 2000. A rapid assessment of archaeological sites on the proposed Windhoek to
Walvis Bay (Us Pass) powerline route. Commissioned by Walmsley Environmental
Consultants (Pty) Ltd for Namibia Power Corporation (Pty) Ltd. QRS Report 19.
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Kinahan, J. 2004. Archaeological assessment of the Langer Heinrich Uranium prospect,
Namibia. Commissioned by Softchem cc (South Africa) on behalf of LHU (Namibia). QRS
Report 58.
Kinahan, J. 2005. An archaeological assessment of Matchless Mine. Commissioned by
Synergistics Environmental Services (South Africa) for Ongopolo Mining (Pty) Ltd.). QRS
Report 67.
Kinahan, J. 2008. Goanikontes archaeological assessment: Field report on Anomaly “A” for
Scoping Study. Commissioned by ASEC (Namibia). QRS Report 89.
Kinahan, J. 2008. Archaeological survey of EPL 3664, Erongo Region: Preliminary report
and draft mitigation proposals. Commissioned by EnviroDynamics (Pty) Ltd (Namibia). QRS
Report 91.
Kinahan, J. 2008. Archaeological Survey of EPL 3498 (Aussinanis), Erongo Region.
Commissioned by Reptile Uranium(Pty) Ltd. (Namibia). QRS Report 92.
Kinahan, J. 2008. Archaeological assessment of proposed Omburu-Husab power-line:
Phase 2 field survey from Ebony to Husab. Commissioned by EnviroDynamics (Pty) Ltd.
QRS Report 94.
Kinahan, J. 2008. Archaeological assessment of four alternative sites for a new power
station at Walvis Bay. Commissioned by Ninham Shand (South Africa). QRS Report 97.
Kinahan, J. 2008. Archaeological desk assessment of Trans Kalahari railway route
alternatives within Namibia. Commissioned by SRK Consulting (South Africa). QRS Report
102.
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Deon Silva