THE OXFORD DICTIONARY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH FOURTH EDITION EDITED BY ANDREW LOUTH THIRD EDITION EDITED BY E. A. LIVINGSTONE FIRST AND SECOND EDITIONS EDITED BY F. L. CROSS VOLUME 1 A-I OXFORD A Aaron In Hebrew tradition *Moses’ brother. He is first mentioned in the narrative of Moses’ vision on Mt Horeb (Exod. 4: 14), when Yahweh assigns him to Moses as his assistant. Yahweh afterwards appoints him and his descen­ dants to be priests (Exod. 28 and 29; Num. 8 and 18), an office he kept despite his share in setting up the *Golden Calf (Exod. 32:1-6). The power of his priestly intercession is emphasized in the story of his staying a plague (Num. 16: 43-8), and his authority is miraculously confirmed by the budding rod (Num. 17: 1-8). He was the head of his sons and the Levites; he alone offered incense in the Holy of Holies and mediated between God and the people; and, like a king, he was anointed and crowned with diadem and tiara (Exod. 28). In Christian theology he is sometimes seen as a type of Christ. This conception of Aaron as at once foreshadowing and being replaced by him is worked out in the Ep. to the He­ brews (see 7: 11-14). The English poet George Herbert (15931633) reflects on the priestly garments in his poem ‘Aaron’, seeing Aaron as a type of Christian priesthood. $ JBar secular priests abbots in ^com m endam . As the number of nominations far exceeded the abbacies available, many ‘abbes’, who often were not even in *major orders, devoted themselves to other work, e.g. educational and literary pur­ suits, whence the term was transferred to secular clerics in general. Now rare, but until recently such clerics are cor­ rectly addressed as ‘M. l’Abbe’. $ MD abbess Term derived from the Lat. abbatissa (dating from the 3rd cent.) and referring to the female superior of cer­ tain sui generis (i.e. autonomous) houses of nuns. The title is used among the *Benedictines, *Cistercians, *Trappists, *Poor Clares, and some Aanonesses. The power of an ab­ bess is determined by the fact that her house is su i iuris: because of this, she is a major superior (CIC (1983), can. 613 s. 2), and, depending on the constitutions of her house or order, she may hold office for various lengths of time, even for life (cf. CIC, can. 624 s. 1). Election of an abbess usually follows the same rules and liturgy as that of an abbot. In the Middle Ages wide powers were claimed by certain abbesses H. Valentin, Aaron: E ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA ine S tu d ie zu r vor-priesterschriftlichen and the papacy had at times to restrict them. The Council A a ro n-U b erlieferu n g (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, 18; Fribourg, of *Trent put an end to most special prerogatives. MD 1978). E. Rivkin in T he In terp reter ’s D ictio n a ry o f the B ible, suppl. vol. (Nashville, 1976), 1-3, s.v. ‘Aaron, Aaronides’. G. W. E. Nickelsburg in R A C , Suppl. 1 (2001), cols 1-11, s.v. R. Crotty, Aaron’, in A D ictio n a ry o f Jew ish -C h ristia n R elations, ed. E. Kessler and N. Wenborn (Cambridge, 2005), 1. See also works on Priesthood in the OT cited s.v. pr ie s t . A. Tamburinius, OSB, D e Jure A b b a tissa ru m et M o n ia liu m (Rome, 1638). T. J. Bowe, R eligious Superioresses: A H istorical Synopsis a n d a C o m m en ta ry (Catholic University of America Canon Law Studies, 228; 1946). J. de Puniet in D iet. Sp. 1 (1937), cols 57-61, s.v. Abbesse’. A. Pantone in D IP 1 (1974), cols 14-22, s.v. Abbadessa’. Abailard See Ab e l a r d , Pe t e r . Abbo (or Abbon), St (c.945-1004) Abbot of the *BenedicAbba The Aramaic word for ‘Father’. It is used to address God in prayer by Jesus (Mk 14: 36) and the early Christians (Rom. 8:15, and Gal. 4: 6). In each instance, it occurs with its Greek equivalent (A ftya , d naT tjp, ‘Abba, Father’). It is used as a title for individual Desert Fathers, e.g. in the *Apophthegmata Patrum. IB J. Barr, “Abba” isn’t “Daddy”’, JT S NS 39 (1988), 28-47. G. Kit­ tel in T W N T 1 (1933), 4-6 (Eng. tr., 1964, pp. 5 f.), s.v. a ffa . See also comm, to Mk etc. abbe A French term, originally restricted to the *abbot of a monastery, but in modern times applied to every person wearing secular ecclesiastical dress. The extension of meaning took place in the 16th cent., when the Concordat of 1516 authorized the king of France, Francis I, to nominate tine abbey of *Fleury (Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire) from 988. Born nr ^Orleans, raised in Fleury, educated at *Paris and *Reims. While in England assisting ^Oswald, abp of Work, with restoring monastic observance (985-87), he directed studies at the newly founded monastic school of Ramsey, and composed zp a ssio of *Edmund, late 9th-cent. martyr of E. Anglia; he addressed his Q uaestiones G ram m aticales to the Ramsey monks soon after returning to Fleury. Elec­ tion to the abbacy was contested, requiring intervention by *Gerbert of Aurillac; in post, he supported the *Cluniac Reform, ardently championed papal authority, and defend­ ed monastic freedom from episcopal and secular interfer­ ence. Abbo’s correspondence is a valuable source for rela­ tions between France and the *papacy during the reign of *Robert II the Pious, strained by the king’s marriage to his cousin Bertha, and the social circumstances of the first abbot millennium; he also wrote on ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA co m p u tu s, canon law, math­ Middle Ages, abbatial power could rival that of bps. Abbots ematics, logic, philosophy, theology, and cosmology, as acquired larger legal and administrative staff and p o n tifi ­ well as an epitome of the *L iber P ontificalis. He was killed calia, e.g. mitres. They continued to play significant political roles, e.g. some sat in the emerging English Parliament. while attempting to restore discipline at the fractious pri­ ory of La Reole in Gascony, pierced in the side by a lance; Rights of election and appointment were politically significant his disciple and hagiographer Aimoin laboured to promote and often hotly contested. Nowadays abbots are always his cult. Feast-day, 13 November. $ GDB elected and hold office in accordance with the constitu­ tions of their order or congregation. P L 139.387-414 (Aimoin, V ita) and 415-584 (Abbo, O pera); Given monasteries’ cultural output and role in educa­ with A b b o n is F loriacensis opera inedita, ed. A. van de Vyver and R. Raes (Bruges, 1966). P assio S. E a d m u n d i, ed. M. Winterbottom, tion, abbots have often been cultural patrons. The Reforma­ T hree L ives o f E nglish S a in ts (Toronto Medieval Latin Texts, 1; tion removed the office in Protestant countries (although Toronto, 1972), 67-87. Q uaestiones G ram m aticales, ed.-tr. the C of E revived the office in the 19th cent.). Abbots A. Guerreau-Jalabert (Auteurs Latins du Moyen Age; Paris, 1982). nonetheless continued to be culturally and politically sig­ D e Syllogism is H ypotheticis, ed.-tr. F. Schupp (Studien und Texte nificant in the Catholic world, engaging with the Enlight­ zur Geistgeschichte des Mittelalters, 56; Leiden, 1997). C o m m en ­ enment with varying levels of success. Their role in monastic ta ry on the C alculus o f V ictorius o f A q u ita in e, ed. A. M. Peden leadership continues today. RAHE (Auctores Britannici Medii Aevi, 15; Oxford, 2002). D e T em porum R atione, ed. N. Germann (Studien und Texte zur Geistgeschichte des Mittelalters, 89; Leiden, 2006). M iscellanea de C om puto, de A stronom ia, et de C osm ographia, ed. A. Lohr and B. Obrist (CCCM; Turnhout, 2019). R.-H. Bautier et al. (ed.-tr.), L A bbaye de F leury en F an m il (Sources d’Histoire Medievale, 32; Paris, 2004). M. Mostert, T he P olitical T heology o f A b b o o f F leury (Middeleeuwse Stud­ ies en Bronnen, 2; Hilversum, 1987). F. M. Biggs et al. (eds), A bbo o f F leury, A bbo o f Saint-G erm ain-des-P res, a n d A cta S a n cto ru m (Sources of Anglo-Saxon Literary Culture, 1; Kalamazoo, Mich., 2001). P. Riche, A b b o n de F leury (Turnhout, 2004). Musee des Beaux-Arts d’Orleans, A u to u r d u m illen a ire d A b b o n de F leury (Turnhout, 2004). E. Dachowski, T he C areer o f A b b o o f F leury (Washington, DC, 2008). A. Dufour and G. Labory (eds), A bbon, un abbe de F an m il (Bibliotheque d’Histoire Culturelie du Moyen Age, 6; Turnhout, 2008). abbot (from Aram, and Syr. abba , i.e. father; Gk a ^a q ; Lat. abbas) In the W. Church an abbot is the ‘father’ or su­ perior of certain monasteries of monks or monastic *congregations belonging to the ‘Benedictine, ‘Cistercian, or ‘Trappist families, or of some houses of certain orders of ‘canons regular (e.g. the ‘Augustinian canons regular of the Lateran and the ‘Premonstratensians). The corre­ sponding rank in the E. Church is ‘hegumenos or ’^archi­ mandrite. Early Christian ascetic attitudes to authority varied, although ‘father’ figures (e.g. Anthony) were significant. Latin asceticism tended to be coenobitic, with a need for authoritative leadership. The seminal rule of St ‘Benedict gave abbots enormous authority within monasteries. Ab­ bots were to ‘represent Christ’ (R B 2) and a monk’s vow of obedience was most visible in his obedience to the abbot. The abbot was nonetheless answerable to God (R B 2) and responsible for appointing other monastic officers, e.g. the prior (R B 65). Early medieval monastic reforms, in consol­ idating the R B , emphasized abbatial authority. From the 11th cent. Cistercian abbots continued to wield significant authority, e.g. having an obligation to visit daughter hous­ es. All abbots were nonetheless required to meet annually at Citeaux, which allowed some enforcement of uniformity. As monasteries became major landowners, abbots par­ ticipated in medieval political life. Carolingian sources regularly list them alongside bps and counts as leading men of the empire. Controversially, laymen could become abbots to allow rulers to exploit monastic lands. In the later 2 R B 1980: T he R ule o f S t B en ed ict in L a tin a n d E nglish w ith N otes, ed. T. Fry, OSB (Collegeville, Minn., 1982), 322-78 (app. 2, ‘The Abbot’, by C. Peifer, OSB) [ = RB] see also Be n e d ic t , r u l e o f St . P. Salmon, OSB, L A b b e d a n s la tra ditio n m onastique: co n trib u ­ tion a F histoire d u caractere p erp etu el des superieurs religieux en O ccident (Histoire et sociologie de 1’Eglise, 2; Sirey, 1962; Eng. tr., Cistercian Studies Series, 14; Washington, DC, 1972). A. Veilleux, OSB, ‘The Abbatial Office in Cenobitic Life’, M o n astic S tu d ies 6 (1968), 3-45. D. Knowles, ‘The Abbot’, in T he R eligious O rders in E n g la n d vol. 1 (Cambridge, 1979), 270-9. K. S. Franks and V. Dammertz in L exiko n des M ittela lters 1 (1977), s.v. ‘Abt’. See also works cited s.v. MONASTICISM. Abbot, George (1562-1633) Abp of‘Canterbury. A native of Guildford, he was educated and later taught at Balliol College, Oxford. In 1597 he became master of University College, Oxford, and in 1600, 1603, and 1605 he was vicechancellor. In 1600 he also became dean of ‘Winchester. He displayed from an early date strong ‘Puritan sympa­ thies which brought him increasingly into conflict with the rising party of ‘High Churchmen in the university, esp. ‘Laud. He won *James I’s favour by his 1608 mission to Scotland to arrange a union between the Churches of Eng­ land and Scotland in which he persuaded the Presbyterians of the lawfulness of episcopacy. Preferments followed rap­ idly. In 1609 he was made bp of ‘Lichfield and Coventry; early in the following year he was translated to London; and in 1611 he became abp of Canterbury. As his long ar­ chiepiscopate was marked by the decline of Puritanism among the influential classes, Abbot found himself forced to fight a losing battle. He was severe on Catholics and cor­ respondingly partial to ‘Calvinists both at home and abroad. Thus he encouraged the king’s endeavours to se­ cure the dismissal of ‘Vorstius as an ‘Arminian from his chair at ‘Leiden; he arranged for the settlement of ‘de Dominis, the apostate abp of Spalato, in English benefices; and he ensured that England was represented at the Synod of ‘Dort. The strong line he took in the Essex nullity suit (1613), however, in which he upheld justice against the king and others in high position, won him deserved respect and a temporary popularity among Anglicans of all schools. His unhappiness culminated in the curious consequences of an accident while hunting at Bramshill, Hants, in 1621. Having accidentally shot a gamekeeper, Abbot was consid­ ered by some of his fellow-bishops to have become irregular Boniface, St resigned his see to return to his mission in Frisia, where he broken relationships between God and humanity by and his companions were martyred by thieves at Dokkum in Christ. It explores the formation of Christian character, 754. His body was taken to *Fulda, which he had played some addresses the neglect of the category of the natural in Prot­ part in founding in 744. His devotion to the papacy, coupled estant ethics, reflects on responsibility and taking the place with the success of his work, may have assisted the spread of of the vulnerable, and examines the nature of divine papal influence N. of the Alps. Feast day, 5 June. $ s r if commandment. From April 1944, in letters smuggled from prison (W ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA idO pera O m n ia , ed. J. A. Giles (2 vols, London, 1844). P L 89.597892. Crit. edn of his letters by M. Tangl (M G H , Epistolae Selectae, erstand und E rgebung, published 1951; D B W E 8, 1998; Eng. 1; 1916). Eng. tr. by E. Emerton (Records of Civilization, Sources tr. L etters and P apers fro m P rison, D B W E 8,2010), Bonhoef­ and Studies, 31; New York, 1940). Hexametrical en igm a ta also ed. fer asked ‘what is Christianity?’ and ‘who is Christ?’ in a E. Duemmler in M G H , Poetae Latini Aevi Carolini, 1 (1881), 1-23. cultural context in which ‘a religious a priori ’ can no longer A rs G ra m m a tica and A rs M etrica , ed. G. J. Gebauer and B. Lofstedt be assumed. He proposed a ‘non-religious Christianity’, in (CCSL 133b ; 1980). Of the early Lives (ed. W. Levison in M G H , which life in this world is embraced fully, rather than seen as Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum in Usum Scholarum, 1905), the something to escape. A ‘this-worldly’ Christianity is one in most trustworthy is that by Willibald. The Letters, some other which ‘God consents to be pushed out of the world and onto docs, and the Life by Willibald are also ed., with Ger. tr., by R. Rau the cross’ and in ‘precisely this way ... is at our side and (Ausgewahlte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters, 4b; 1968). Eng. tr. of Life by Willibald and a selection of Boniface’s helps us’. Though undoubtedly originating in an orthodox letters in C. H. Talbot, T he A n g lo -S a xo n M issio n a ries in G erm any Lutheran theology of the ‘humiliation of Christ in the Incar­ (London, 1954), 23-149. The standard modern work is T. Schieffer, nation, Bonhoeffer’s posthumously published prison theol­ W in frid -B o n ifa tiu s u n d die christliche G ru n dleg u ng E uropas ogy was taken, from the 1960s, by J. A. T. Robinson and by (Freiburg, 1954; repr. with new bibl., Darmstadt, 1972). Other ‘*death of God’ theologians, as a prompt for radical reinter­ studies include those of G. Kurth (‘Les Saints’, Paris, 1902), pretation of Christianity. SJP G. F. Browne (London, 1910), W. Lampen (Amsterdam, 1949), D ietrich B onhoeffer W erke (D B W ) (17 vols, Munich, 1986-99); Eng. tr., D ietrich B o nh o effer W orks (D B W E ) (Minneapolis, 17 vols, 1996-2014). E. Bethge, D ietrich B onhoeffer: T heologe, C hrist, Z eitgenosse (Munich, 1967; Eng. tr„ rev. edn, 2000). M. P. Dejonge, B o nh o effer ’s R eception o f L u th er (Oxford, 2017). E. Feil, D ie T heologie D ietrich B onhoeffers (1971; Eng. tr. T he T heology o f D ietrich B onhoeffer, 1985). P. Frick (ed.), B o nh o effer ’s In tellectua l F orm ation (Minneapolis, 2008). C. J. Green, B onhoeffer: A T heology o f Sociali­ ty (Grand Rapids, 1999). S. R. Haynes, T he B onhoeffer P henom enon (Minneapolis, 2004). E. Bethge et al., D ie M ilndige W elt: D em A n d en ken D ietrich B onhoeffers (5 vols, Munich, 1955-69). G. Krause in T R E 7 (1981), 55-66, s.v., with bibl. P. G. Ziegler and M. Mawson (eds), T he O xfo rd H a n db o o k o f D ietrich B onhoeffer (Oxford, 2019). Boniface, St (c.675-754) The ‘Apostle of Germany’. Wynfreth, as he was originally called, was born in Wessex (at *Crediton, according to later tradition), educated at *Exeter, and entered the monastery of Nursling, near South­ ampton. He was a man of learning; besides a collection of hexametrical en ig m a ta , he wrote a Latin grammar and possibly a treatise on metrics. In 716 he made a first, unsuc­ cessful, missionary journey to Frisia. Undaunted, two years later he went to Rome, where in 719 Gregory II com­ missioned him to preach to the heathen; at the same time he seems to have given him the name Boniface. After help­ ing *Willibrord in Frisia, Boniface turned south and con­ verted many of the Hessians. He was summoned to Rome in 722 and ordained bp, without being given a see. On his return to Germany, his courage in felling the Oak of Thor at Geismar, near Fritzlar, won him many converts in Hesse. He also worked in Thuringia and founded a number of monasteries, including Fritzlar, Taubersbischofsheim, Ohrdruf, Ochsenfurt, and Kitzingen. Prob, in 732 Gregory III sent him a ^pallium and in the following years he laid the foundations of a settled ecclesiastical organization E. of the Rhine. After the death of Charles Martel (741), he convened a series of councils to reform the Frankish Church, and c.746 he became abp of Mainz. After a few years he 264 G. W. Greenaway (London, 1955), and J. C. Sladden (Exeter, 1980). S a n kt B onifatius: G edenkgabe zu m zw b lfh un d ertsten T odestag (Fulda, 1954). T. Reuter (ed.), T he G reatest E nglishm an: E ssays on S t B oniface a n d the C hurch a t C rediton (Exeter, 1980). P. Kehl, K ult u n d N achleben des heiligen B o n ifa tiu s im M ittela lter (754-1200) (Quellen und Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Abtei und der Didzese Fulda, 26; 1993). M. B. Parkes, ‘The Handwriting of St Boniface: A Reassessment of the Problems’, B eitrdge zu r G e schichte d er deutschen Sprache u n d L itera tu r 98 (1976), 161-79. D. Parsons, ‘Sites and Monuments of the Anglo-Saxon Mission in Central Germany’, A rchaeological Journal 140 (1983), 280-321. W. Levison, E n g la n d a n d the C o n tin en t in the E ighth C entury (Ford Lectures, 1943; Oxford, 1946), esp. 70-93. J. M. WallaceHadrill, T he F rankish C hurch (Oxford History of the Christian Church, 1983), 150-61.1. N. Wood in O D N B (2008): <https://doi. org/10.1093/ref:odnb/2843 >. J. T. Palmer, A n g lo -Sa xo n s in a F rankish W orld (Turnhout, 2009). Boniface I, St (d. 422) Embattled bp of *Rome. As priest, both he and Eulalius, archdeacon, were elected after the death of *Zosimus on 26 December 418, consecrated three days later; he hid in a catacomb. First recognizing Eulalius, ultimately Honorius in *Ravenna ruled for Boniface, who gained sole possession of the papacy on 10 April 419. From his writings and the *L iber P ontificalis, redoubtable oppo­ nent of *Pelagianism, honoured dedicatee of a polemic by *Augustine on the subject, and robust proponent of Roman authority, securing the jurisdiction of *Illyricum in the face of *Theodosius H’s planned transfer to *Constantinople; also reformed the metropolitan hierarchy in southern Gaul. Feast day, 4 September. GDB P L 20.745-92. L. Duchesne, L e L iber P ontificalis (2 vols, Paris, 1886-92), 1, §44, 227-9; tr. R. Davis, The B ook o f P ontiffs (TTH 6; 2010), 32-3. G. D. Dunn, ‘Is the Letter “Credebamus post” from Boniface I or Leo I?’, G R B S 54/3 (2014), 474-93. G. D. Dunn, ‘Boniface I’s Theology of Papal Authority’, A H C 47/2 (2015), 25570. G. D. Dunn, ‘Boniface I and the Catacomb of Maximus’, A ugustin ian u m 55/1 (2015), 137-57. Callistus I, St bibls to CHRONOLOGY, BIBLICAL; GREGORIAN CALENDAR; PASCHAL c o n t r o v e r s ie s , y e a r , l it u r g ic a l . Calendar of 354 See Ch r o n o g r a ph e r o f a d 354, t h e . Calfhill (or Calfield), James (c.1529/30-70) “Reformed clergyman. Educated at Eton and at King’s College, Cam­ bridge, in 1548 he became one of the early students of Christ Church, Oxford. In 1560 he was ordained priest, and in the same year appointed to a canonry at Christ Church. In 1564 he became Lady Margaret professor of di­ vinity at Oxford, in 1565 rector of Bocking and archdeacon of Essex, and in 1570 he was selected for the see of * Worces­ ter, but died before consecration. One of the leading Elizabethan Calvinists, he published in 1565 his principal work, an A ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA n sw er to th e ‘ T reatise o f the C ross ’ [by John Martiall, 1534-97]. $ ME His A n sw er to John M a rtia ll’s T reatise o f the C ross, ed. R. Gibbings for the “Parker Society, 1846, with biog. note on Calfhill, viif. C.M. Dent, P ro testa n t R eform ers in E liza b etha n O xfo rd (Oxford, 1983). B. Usher in O D N B (2008): <https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/4390>. Calixtines The moderate party of the “Hussites of Bohe­ mia and Moravia, also known as the ‘“Utraquists’. They were so named from their contention that the laity should receive communion in both kinds—i.e. from the chalice ( ‘ calix ” ) as well as under the species of bread. Both Calix­ tines and Subunites (sub una specie) received ecclesiastical recognition at the Prague Compactata of 1433 (confirmed at Iglau, 1436). $ BT-C G. Constant, C oncession d T A llem agne de la co m m u n io n sous les d eu x especes: etu d e su r les d eb u ts de la reform e ca th o liq ue en A llem agne, 1548-1621 (Bibliotheque des Ecoles Fran^aises d’Athenes et de Rome, 128; 2 vols, 1923). A. Ritook, ‘Chalice of the Calixtines—inscribed Bohemian Chalices from the Carpathian B asin , A cta H istoriae A rtium 59 (2018), 173-88. Calixtus For popes of this name, see Ca l l is t u s I; Ca l ­ l is t u s II; Ca l l is t u s III. Calixtus, Georg (1586-1656) Protestant theologian. He was educated at Helmstedt, where he became an exponent of eirenic tendencies and conceived a high regard for “Melanchthon. He then spent four years (1609-13) travelling in Catholic and “Calvinist countries. On his return to Helm­ stedt he was appointed professor of theology (1614), and held the office till his death. He attempted to construct a theological system (‘unifying theology’) which should lead to reconciliation between “Lutherans, Calvinists, and Catholics. The basis of the proposed reunion was to be the scriptures, the “Apostles’ Creed, and the faith of the first five cents, interpreted in the light of the “Vincentian canon. He expounded his position, for which he was accused of syncretism’ by his fellow Lutherans, in a long series of writings, of which perhaps the most important was his treatise Judicium de controversiis theologicis quae inter L utheranos et R eform atos a g ita n tu r. . . (1650). $ DWB E. L. T. Henke, G eorg C a lixtu s u n d seine Z eit (2 vols, Halle, 1853-60). W. C. Dowding, G erm an T heology d u rin g the T h irty Y ears ’ W ar: T he L ife a n d C orrespondence o f G eorge C a lixtu s (1863). H. Schussler, G eorg C alixt, T heologie u n d K irch en p o litik (Mainz, 1961). I. Mager, G eorg C a lixts theologische E thik u n d ihre N a ch w irku n g en (Gottingen, 1969). F. Engels, D ie eine W a h rh eit in d er gespaltenen C hristenheit: U ntersuchungen zu r T heologie G eorg C a lixts (Gottingen, 1976). C. T. Callisen, ‘Georg Calixtus, Isaac Casaubon, and the Consensus of Antiquity’, JH I 73 (2012), 1-23. J. Wallmann in T R E 7 (1981), 552-9, s.v. calling As a technical theological term the word came into use in Reformation theology for the divine act whereby those destined for salvation are persuaded to accept the gospel. It was used in this sense, e.g., in the ‘Shorter “Westminster Catechism’ of 1647. “Calvinist theologians have commonly held that the divine calling is in itself effica­ cious, whereas “Lutherans have held that it requires a vol­ untary response. In much Evangelical Christianity of more recent times the call of God takes a very important place in the immediate and conscious conversion which is considered normal and necessary in the religious life of every Christian. Currently, Methodists use the term ‘our calling’ to refer to the basic responsibilities of Christian discipleship, worship, learning and caring, service, evangelism. $ DJC Callistus (or Calixtus) I, St (d. c.222) Bp of “Rome from 217/18. According to his fearsome critic-rival “Hippolytus, the principal source for his pontificate, he was a slave sent to the Sardinian mines for financial malpractice, later re­ leased thanks to Marcia, mistress of the emp. Commodus (180-92), and provided a living by Pope “Victor I. After serving “Zephyrinus he succeeded him, to be opposed by Hippolytus for succouring *Sabellianism, who also men­ tions what could be regarded as laxity in administering the penitential system. This accusation may find support in “Tertullian’s complaint (D e P udicitia, 1.6-8) about an edict pardoning adulterers and fornicators who performed ’‘penance issued by the “Pontifex Maximus and episcopus episcoporum , but whether Tertullian’s complaint is ad­ dressed to the bp of Rome, while tempting, is quite unclear. An otherwise uninformative *L iber P ontificalis entry re­ cords him founding S. Maria in Trastevere, and establish­ ing the Cemetery of Callistus (Via Appia), a noted papal crypt; he himself was richly interred in the Cemetery of Calepodius (Via Aurelia). While he is named in the D epositio M a rtyru m (354), the passio of his martyrdom is a late 5th-cent. product. Feast day, 14 Oct. GDB Hippolytus, R efu ta tio o m n iu m haeresium , ed. M. Marcovich, P TS 25 (Berlin, 1986), 9.11-12; tr. M. D. Litwa, R efu tatio n o f A ll H eresies (Writings from the Greco-Roman World, 40; Atlanta, 2016), 642-59. L. Duchesne, L e L iber P ontificalis (2 vols, Paris, 1886-92), 1, §17, 141-2; tr. R. Davis, T he B ook o f P ontiffs (TTH 6; 3rd edn, Liverpool, 2010), 7. M. Lapidge (tr.), T he R o m a n M a rtyrs (OECS; 2017), §12. A. Baruffa, T he C atacom bs o f S t C a llixtu s (Vati­ can, 1993). A. Brent, H ip p olytu s a n d the R o m a n C hurch in the T hird C en tury (Vigiliae Christianae Supplements, 31; Leiden, 1995), 501-40. R. E. Heine, ‘The Christology of Callistus’, JT S 49/1 (1998), 56-91. M. Minasi, L a tom ba di C allisto (Vatican, 2009). A. Handl, ‘Bishop Callistus I of Rome’, Z A C 18/3 (2014), 390-419. 313 dedication of churches *Siricius to Himerius, bp of Tarragona. The earliest influ­ ential collection was that made in about 520 by ’Dionysius Exiguus. About 850 appeared the ‘’False Decretals’, con­ taining many forged letters of popes before Siricius. After ’Gratian had systematized existing canon law (see c a n ­ o n s , h o l y ) in his ‘Decretum’ (c.1140), authoritative collec­ tions of later decretals were published by ’Gregory IX (1234). ’Boniface VIII (1298), and ’Clement V (1317). $ DHS D ecretales in ed ita e saeculi X II, ed. from the papers of the late Walther Holtzmann by S. Chodorow and C. Duggan (Monumenta Juris Canonici, Series B, vol. 4; Vatican City, 1982). A. van Hove, C om m entarium L o va nien se in C odicem lu ris C anonici, vol. 1, tom. 1 (Mechlin and Rome, 1928; 2nd edn, 1945). C. Duggan, T w elfth- C entury D ecretal C ollections a n d th eir Im p o rta n ce in E nglish H is ­ tory (New York, 1963). G. Le Bras, C. Lefebvre, and J. Rambaud in G. Le Bras, H istoire du d ro it et des in stitu tio n s de T Eglise en O cci ­ dent, 7: L ’A ge classique 1140 -1378: sources et theorie du d ro it (Paris, 1965). G. Fransen, L es D ecretals et les collections de decretales (Typologie des Sources du Moyen Age Occidental, 2; Turnhout, 1972). Studies in the C ollections o f T w elfth -C en tu ry D ecretals from the papers of the late Walther Holtzmann, ed., rev., and tr. C. R. and M. C. Cheney (Monumenta luris Canonici, Series B, vol. 3; Vatican City, 1979). A. Van Hove in C E 4 (1908), 670-3, s.v. C. Duggan in N C E 4 (1967), 707-9, s.v. B. E. Ferme, In tro d u ctio n to the H isto ry o f the Sources o f C anon L aw : T he A n cien t L aw up to the D ecretum o f G ratian (Montreal, 2007). P. Landau, K anones u n d D ekretalen (Goldbach, 1997). See also bibls to Dio n y s iu s Ex ig u u s ; Fa l s e De c r e t a l s . Decretals, False See Fa l s e De c r e t a l s . Decretum Gelasianum (c.500?) Ostensibly a papal *decretal, transmitted in a longer recension ascribed to Pope *Damasus I, and a shorter, to ’Gelasius I. The text has five com­ ponents: a council held by Damasus in ’Rome, defining the epithets of Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit; and the canonical books of the OT and NT (replicating the Council of’Carthage (419), canon 24); and a letter from Gelasius, asserting Roman primacy based on ’Peter and ’Paul, against * Alexandria and ’Antioch; acceptable Church Councils and Fathers, papal communiques, hagiography, theology, history, and verse; and unacceptable instances of the same, with concluding anathema ofheretics and schismatics. The shorter recension consists only of the Gelasian decretal proper; its heading, D e libris recipiendis et non recipiendis, is typically applied to the whole. Critics hazard that the work is a private compilation from provincial ’Italy in the early 6th cent., or similar from Gaul, but it clearly emanates from the doctrine of Petrine supremacy enunciated at Rome by ’Leo I; it is also related, with its concern for ortho­ doxy, to the D e V iris Illustribus tradition of Christian bibliogra­ phy, and intersects with the efforts of ’Jerome, ’Gennadius, and ’Isidore of Seville in this line. GDB E. von Dobschiitz, D as D ecretum G elasianum (TU 38.4; Leipzig, 1912); tr. B. Neil and P. Allen, T he L etters o f G elasius I (492-496). A d n o ta tio n es 1 (Turnhout, 2014), ep. 42, 157-69. V. Grossi, ‘Il “Decretum Gelasianum”’, A u g u stin ia n u m 41/1 (2001), 231-55. S. Gioanni, ‘Les Listes d’auteurs “a recevoir” et “a ne pas recevoir” ’, in P. Depreux, et al. (eds), C o m p etitio n et sacre au H a u t M oyen A ge (HMA 21; Turnhout, 2015), 17-38. Dedication, Jewish Feast of the The feast instituted by Judas Maccabaeus in 165 b c , to commemorate the purification of the Temple and its altar after their defilement by Antio­ chus Epiphanes (1 Macc. 4: 59; 2 Macc. 10: 6). It was ordered to be observed on the 25th day of Chislev each year and kept for eight days. A special feature of the feast, apart from the fact that it could be celebrated outside Jerusalem, was the lighting of lamps; hence it was sometimes called the ‘Feast of the Lights’. Modern Jews observe the feast as ‘Ha­ nukkah’; it falls in late Nov. or Dec. The only reference to it in the NT is at Jn 10: 22. O. S. Rankin, O rigins o f the F estival o f H a n u kk a h (Edinburgh, 1930). S. Zeitlin, ‘Hanukkah, its Origin and Significance’, JQ R n s 29 (1938), 1-36. J. Morgenstern, ‘The Chanukkah Festival and the Calendar of Ancient Israel’, H ebrew U nion C ollege A n n u a l 20 (1947), 1-136, and 21 (1948), 365-496. R. de Vaux, OP, L es In stitu ­ tions de T A ncien T estam ent, 2 (1960), 420-5, with bibl. p. 460; Eng. tr. (2nd edn, 1965), 510-14, with bibl. p. 552. M. D. Herr in E ncyclo ­ p a ed ia Judaica, 7 (Jerusalem, 1972), cols 1280-8, s.v. ‘Hanukkah’. dedication of churches The earliest recorded instance of the dedication of a Christian church is that of the cathedral at Tyre in 314, described in the ‘oratio panegyrica’ of’Euse­ bius (H E 10.3f.). There is a 7th-cent. formulary in the ’Gela­ sian Sacramentary consisting of prayers, blessings, and sprinkling with ’holy water. In the following cents the cer­ emonies increased in number, and by the 13th cent, the rit­ ual had reached in essentials the form used until modern times, as is witnessed by the ‘’Pontifical’ of W. ’Durandus. It already contained the six principal parts—the blessing outside, the blessing in the middle of the church, the prepa­ ration for the consecration of the altar, the actual consecra­ tion of the altar, the procession of the relics, and the bless­ ing of the altar vessels, ornaments, etc.—followed finally by the Mass. The 1977 Ordo Dedicationis Ecclesiae et Altaris places the whole ceremony within the Mass. The first part consists of the solemn entry into the church (or ’introit), sprinkling the walls with holy water, scriptural readings, homily, and Creed; the second part includes the actual rite of dedication, i.e. the ’Litany of the Saints, the placing of the relics of a saint under the altar, if there are any relics to be so placed (see a l t a r ), the Prayer of Dedication, the anointing of the altar and walls of the church (in twelve or four places) with ’chrism, followed by their censing, and the lighting of candles at the altar and on the walls; the third part consists of the central portion of the Mass, end­ ing with the inauguration of the blessed sacrament chapel, blessing, and dismissal. Similarly elaborate ceremonies are required in the E. Churches. Acc. to modern practice the dedication of churches is restricted to buildings that are exclusively and perma­ nently set aside for public worship; it may normally be per­ formed only by a bp, though in very extraordinary circum­ stances a priest may be mandated to act. Other buildings, incl. private and public chapels, may be blessed by a simple rite. The walls are sprinkled with holy water at the begin­ ning of the Mass, and after the Creed the altar is blessed and censed. In non-permanent buildings, altars, even if movable, may also be blessed. This rite may be performed by a priest. The distinction between the dedication and blessing of churches and altars in current Catholic liturgical texts seems to replace the earlier distinction between their consecration 533 Fabri, Felix his vicious life, she remarried (contrary to the church can­ ons). After the death of her second ‘husband’, she did pub­ lic penance before the *Lateran and entered on a life of great austerity, distributing her immense wealth to the poor and tending the sick. In 395 she went to *Bethlehem, where she stayed with *Paula and *Eustochium and put herself under the direction of *Jerome. The tensions creat­ ed by the *Origenistic controversy, her personal distaste for the isolated convent life at Bethlehem, and finally the incursion of the Huns into Palestine led her to return to Rome, where she continued her charitable works until her death. Feast day, 27 Dec. H. S. Reimarus, D e V ita et Scriptis Joannis A lb erti F abricii C o m m en ta riu s (Hamburg, 1737). E. Petersen, Johann A lbert F abri­ cius (Copenhagen, 1998). E. Petersen, ‘Learned Communication: Johann Albert Fabricius and the Literary Communities’, C M 50 (1999), 287-94. W. Raupp, ‘Fabricius, Johann Albert’, in B B K L 25.393-408. A. Y. Reed, ‘The Modern Invention of “Old Testament Pseudepigrapha’”, JT S 60/2 (2009), 403-36. Faculties, Court of The court of the abp of ^Canterbury which grants *faculties. Its judge, who is called the ‘master of the faculties’, is usually the same person as the Mean of the Arches and auditor. After it had been enacted by the Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533 that dispensations, licenc­ To Fabiola Jerome addressed two letters: ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA E pp. 64 and 78; the es, and faculties which had previously been granted by the principal source is the letter which Jerome wrote on her death, pope were henceforth to be granted by the abp of Canter­ E p. 77. C. Pietri and L. Pietri (eds), P rosopographie de I ’ltalie chretibury in the provinces both of Canterbury and of Work, the enne (313-604 ), 1 (Rome, 1999), 734f., with refs. See also bibl. to Court of Faculties was established in 1534 to take over this Je r o m e , St . jurisdiction. Fabri, Felix (c.1440-1502) Swiss ^Dominican who was based at Ulm from 1468 but made journeys in 1480 and 1483-4 to Egypt and the Holy Land, where he visited *Jerusalem, and left a vivid account of his travels in his E vagatoriu m . He wrote other works. $ SRF E vagatorium , ed. G. D. Hassler (Stuttgart, 1843-9); Eng. tr. by A. Stewart (Palestine Pilgrims’ Text Society, 7-10; 1892-3); text in Fr. and Lat„ ed. J. Meyers and N. Chareyron (3 vols, Montpellier, 2000-14). H. F. M. Prescott, F riar F elix at Large: A F ifteenthC en tu ry P ilgrim age to the H oly L a n d (New Haven, 1950). H. F. M. Prescott, O nce to Sinai: T he F urther P ilgrim age o f F riar F elix F abri (London, 1957). K. Beebe, P ilgrim a n d P reacher: T he A udiences a n d O bservant S p iritu ality o f F riar F elix F abri (1 4 3 7 /8 - 1502 ) (Oxford, 2014). A. Duval in D H G E 16 (1967), cols 326-9, s.v. ‘Fabri (1), Felix’. K. Hannemann in V erfasserlexikon (2nd edn), 2 (1980), cols 682-9. Fabri, Johannes See Fa b e r , Jo h a n n . Fabricius, Johann Albert (1668-1736) ^Lutheran hu­ manist scholar. Born at Leipzig, he studied theology there and at Quedlinburg, before settling in Hamburg as librar­ ian to Johann Friedrich Mayer in 1693; he held the chair of rhetoric and ethics from 1699 until his death, serving as rector of the Johanneum (1708-11). Author of some 128 books, he was an indefatigable bibliographer in the monu­ mental tradition of *Trithemius, and his pioneering works laid the foundations for all subsequent histories of litera­ ture. The most important are B ibliotheca G raeca (14 vols, 1705-28; rev. G. C. Harles, 1790-1812), from Homer via Plato, *Jesus Christ, and *Constantine to the fall of *Constantinople in 1453; and B ibliotheca L a tin a (1697; rev., 3 vols, 1721-2), covering the Golden and Silver Ages, decay, fragments, and early Christian literature, supplemented by B ibliotheca L a tin a m ediae et in fim a e a eta tis (5 vols, 1734-6; vol. 6, with C. Schoettgen, 1746). His studies of *Apocrypha remain influential: C odex A p o cryp h u s N o vi T estam enti (2 vols, 1703; vol. 3,1719) and C odex P seudepigraphus V eteris T estam enti (1713; vol. 2,1723). He also produced the editio princeps of *Hippolytus (2 vols, 1716-18), and editions of Sextus Empiricus (1718) and Dio Cassius (completed by his son-in-law H. S. Reimarus, 1750-1), amongst others. GDB 684 D. S. Chambers (ed.). F aculty O ffice R egisters 1534-1549: A C al ­ en d a r o f the F irst T w o R egisters o f the A rchbishop o f C anterbury ’s F aculty O ffice (Oxford, 1966), with valuable introd. See also bibl. to FACULTY. faculty A dispensation or licence from an ecclesiastical superior permitting an action to be done or a position to be held without which it could not lawfully be done or held. Under the Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533 the Court of faculties was created to restrain persons from suing for dispensations from Rome. As in every diocese the conse­ crated lands and buildings, with their contents, are in the ultimate guardianship of the bp, faculties are necessary for additions or alterations to churches and churchyards. They are normally issued by the bp’s chancellor or, since the Care of Churches and Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1991, in uncontested cases by the ^archdeacon, and without a faculty the erection of, e.g., an altar, a statue, or a memo­ rial tablet in a church is illegal. Where there is litigation over matters involving faculties, the case is first heard in the *Consistory Court. If the chancellor gives a conclusive certificate that a point of doctrine, ritual, or ceremonial (‘a reserved matter’) is involved, an appeal lies from there to the Court of Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved, while if he certifies that no such point is involved, it lies to the *Arches Court of Canterbury or to the Chancery Court of York, and thence to the judicial Committee of the Privy Council. In the academic world a faculty is the organization for the teaching of a particular subject, so called because it can grant a faculty to receive or to supplicate for a degree. The traditional faculties are those of theology, canon and civil law, medicine, and arts. G. H. Newsom, F aculty Jurisdiction o f the C hurch o f E ngland (London, 1988; 2nd edn by G. L. Newsom, 1993). M. Hill, E cclesias ­ tical L a w (2nd edn, Oxford, 2001), 169-221. Facundus (6th cent.) Bp of Hermiane in the province of Byzacena in Africa. In the *monophysite controversy he was one of the chief supporters of the *Three Chapters. In view of the dispute he made his way to *Constantinople, and in 547-8 completed there an apology for the accused in Hilary of Poitiers, St invective against Constantius. Late output includes a ’Honoratus, and in c.430 succeeded him as bp of the Met­ commentary on the Psalms (c.365), clearly showing the im­ ropolitan see of Arles. In this capacity he presided over sev­ print of *Origen; he is also the earliest known W. author of eral councils, among them the First Council of ’Orange ’hymns, three of which were discovered with his T ractatus (441) and that of ’Vaison (442). In 444, by deposing a bp, M ysterio ru m , on OT typologies, in a manuscript at Arezzo Chelidonius, Hilary appears to have exceeded his rights as in 1884. ’Jerome (D e V iris Illustribus, 100) lists a number of metropolitan, and on the dethroned bp’s appeal to ’Leo I, other works, now lost or fragmentary; sundry dubia and the pope deprived Arles of its metropolitan jurisdiction spuria attach to his name. Possessed of a difficult, occa­ and obtained from the Emp. Valentinian a decree granting sionally obscure, style, his doctrinal position tended to­ Rome supreme authority over the Church in Gaul. Hilary wards an almost ’monophysite Christology. Notably de­ wrote a Life of Honoratus which is still extant. A C ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA arm en picted in fresco by Correggio at Parma Cathedral; he was de p ro vid en tia d ivin a , ascribed to ’Prosper of Aquitaine, proclaimed a ‘’Doctor of the Church’ by ’Pius IX in 1851. has recently been attributed to Hilary, but the attribution is Feast day since 1969:13 Jan. (formerly 14 Jan.), whence the very doubtful. Feast day, 5 May. $ JM name of the spring term at the Law Courts and the univer­ Frags of Hilary’s works collected in edns of Leo’s sities of Oxford, Durham, and Dublin (though not at O pera by P. *Quesnel (1675) and P. and H. *Ballerini Cambridge). GDB (1753-7). Repr. from the latter in P L 50.1213-92, with additions. Crit. text of Hilary’s Life of Honoratus and a Life of Hilary, writ­ ten c.475, ed. S. Cavallin (Lund, 1952). Life of Honoratus also ed., with Fr. tr., M.-D. Valentin, OP (SC 235; 1977); Eng. tr. in F. R. Hoare (ed.), T he W estern F athers (1954), 248-80. E arly C h ristia n B iographies, ed. R. J. Deferrari (Washington, DC, 2001). Cavallin’s text of Hilary’s Life is repr., with Fr. tr. by P.-A. Jacob (SC 404; 1995). [W.] O. Chadwick, ‘Euladius of Arles’, JT S 46 (1945), 200-5. £. Griffe, L a G aule ch retien n e a I ’ epoch e ro ­ m a in e, 2 (1957), 120-7 and 196-201; 2nd edn (1966), 154-62 and 244-50. G. Gallo, ‘Uno scritto filo-pelagiano attribuibile a Ilario di Arles’, A evu m 51 (1977), 333-48. S. Pricoco, L T sola dei Santi: il cenobio di L erin o e le o rigin i del m o n a ch esim o gallico (Filologia e Critica, 23; Rome, 1978), p a ssim . A. Hamman in Quasten (cont.), P atrology 4 (1986), 510f. S. Pricoco in D P A C 2 (1984), cols 1747f„ s.v. ‘Ilario di Arles’, with bibl.; Eng. tr., E E C 1 (1992), 381, s.v. R. Mathisen, E cclesiastical F a ctio n a lism a n d R eligious C ontroversy in F ifih -C en tu ry G a u l (Washington, DC, 1989). J. F. Drinkwater and H. Elton (eds), F ifth -C en tu ry G aul: A C risis o f Id en tity? (Cambridge, 1992). Hilary of Poitiers, St (c.310-67/8) Important early Latin theologian and polemicist, the Athanasius of the West’ or ‘Hammer of the Arians’. Born into a distinguished pagan family, a convert from *Neoplatonism to Christianity who was baptized together with his wife and daughter (Abra); elected bp of Poitiers c.350-3. Early writings include a commentary on Matthew (c.353-5), influenced by ’Tertullian and ’Cyprian. As an inexorable opponent of Arian­ ism, he secured the excommunication of the bp of Arles and his followers, and protested to Constantius II against Arian hostilities c.355. For sectarian or political reasons, he was condemned at the Synod of Beziers (356), and ban­ ished by imperial rescript to Phrygia. While in exile he at­ tended the Council of’Seleucia (359), and wrote two major theological treatises: D e Synodis (358), reviewing the pro­ fessions at Ancyra, Antioch, and ’Sirmium for the benefit of semi-Arian bps in Gaul; and D e T rinitate (359-60), an exposition of ’Nicaea identifying Arians as adherents of Antichrist. In objection to imperial religious policy he wrote his L iber in C o nsta ntiu m Im peratorem in 360/1, de­ nouncing the emperor himself as Antichrist. Finally, in 361 under ’Julian the Apostate, he was restored to Poitiers, where he encouraged ’Martin of Tours and continued the fight against Arianism, confronting Auxentius of Milan before ’Valentinian I in 364 (unsuccessfully), and publish­ ing his C ontra A rianos, as well as further posthumous 890 C P L (3rd edn, Turnhout, 1995), 427-72. O pera, ed. A. Zingerle and A. Feder (C SE L 22, 65; Vienna, 1891-1916); tr. W. Sanday et al. (NPNF 2.9; Edinburgh, 1899); w ith W. N. Myers, T he H ym ns o f S a in t H ila ry o f P oitiers in the C odex A retin u s (Ph.D. thesis, Univer­ sity of Pennsylvania, 1928). T ractatus M ysterio ru m , ed. and tr. J.-P. Brission (SC 19; Paris, 1947). C o m m en ta riu s in M a tth a eu m , ed. and tr. J. Doignon (SC 254,258; Paris, 1978-9); tr. D. H. Williams (FC 125; Washington, DC, 2012); tr. L. Longobardo (Rome, 1988). D e T rinitate, ed. P. Smulders (CCSL 62, 62A; Turnhout, 1979-80); tr. S. McKenna (FC 25; Washington, DC, 1954); tr. G.M. Durand, et al. (SC 443,448,462; Paris, 1999-2001). L iber in C o n sta n tiu m im ­ peratorem , ed. and tr. A. Rocher (SC 334; Paris, 1987); tr. R. Flower (TTH 67; Liverpool, 2016). T ractatus super P salm os, ed. J. Doignon and R. Demeulenaere (CCSL 61, 61A, 61B; Turnhout, 1997-2009); tr. P. Descourtieux (SC 515, 565, 603; Paris, 2008-19). P. Smulders, H ila ry o f P oitiers ’ P reface to his O pus H isto ricu m (Supplem ents to V C 29; Leiden, 1995). L. R. Wickham (tr.), H ila ry o f P oitiers (TTH 25; 1997). J. Doignon, H ilaire de P oiters a va n t I ’exil (EAA 45; Paris, 1971). P. C. Burns, T he C hristology in H ila ry o f P oitiers ’ C o m m en ­ ta ry on M a tth ew (Studia Ephemeridis ‘Augustinianum’,16; Rome, 1981). H. C. Brennecke, H ila riu s von P oitiers u n d die B ischofsopposition gegen K o n sta n tiu s II (PTS 26; Berlin, 1984). M. Figura, D as K irchenverstdndnis des H ila riu s von P oitiers (Freiburger Theologische Studien, 127; Freiburg, 1984). M. Durst, D ie E schatologie des H ila riu s von P oitiers (Hereditas 1; Bonn, 1987). L. F. Ladaria, L a C ristologia de H ilario de P oitiers (Analecta Gregoriana, 255; Rome, 1989). J. Doignon, H ilaire de P oitiers (EAA 175; Paris, 2005). M. Weedman, T he T rin ita ria n T heology o f H ila ry o f P oitiers (Sup ­ p lem en ts to V C 89; Leiden, 2007). C. L. Beckwith, H ila ry o f P oitiers on the T rin ity (Oxford, 2008). P. C. Burns, H ila ry o f P oitiers ’ C om ­ m en ta ry on the P salm s (Washington, DC, 2012). R. Flower, E m p er ­ ors a n d B ishops in L a te R o m a n Invective (Cambridge, 2013). E. Scully, P hysicalist Soteriology in H ila ry o f P oitiers (V C Suppl 130; Leiden, 2015). J. Sidaway, D eification as T ransform ation in the T he­ ology o f H ila ry o f P oitiers (Studia Patristica Supplement; Leuven, 2016). J. Abogado, H ila ry o f P oitiers on C onciliating the H om ouseans a n d the H om oeou seans (Bern, 2016). I. Image, T he H u m a n C on ­ d itio n in H ila ry o f P oitiers (Oxford, 2017). Hild (Hilda), St (614-80) Abbess of Whitby. Descended from the Northumbrian royal line, she was baptized at Easter 627 by ’Paulinus, bp of’York. When her sister Hereswith had been professed as a nun at Chelles, near Paris, Hilda sought to join her; but having reached East Anglia she was recalled by Aidan, who in 649 made her abbess of a religious house at Hartlepool. In 657 she founded a mon­ astery for both men and women at ‘Streanaeshalch’, later named Whitby by the Danes, which rapidly grew in fame Jowett, Benjamin death of *Moses to the death of his successor, Joshua, him a welcome successor to Julian; and in *Syriac literature and gives an account of the entry into and conquest of Pal­ he even became the subject of a Christian romance. estine, its partition among the twelve tribes, and Joshua’s The chief source is Ammianus Marcellinus, 25.5-10. Further last speeches. Among the better-known incidents in the information will be found in the church historians, *Socrates (H E book are the hiding of the spies in Jericho by Rahab the 3.22-6), *Sozomen (H E 6.3-6), and *Theodoret (H E 4.1-4). J. Mat­ thews, T he R o m a n E m pire o f A m m ia n u s (London, 1989), 183-8. harlot (ch. 2), the miraculous crossing of the ^Jordan com­ J. *Wordsworth in D C B 3 (1882), 461-5. M. Clauss in R A C 18 memorated by the twelve stones representing the twelve (1998), cols 811-20, s.v. Tovianus’. tribes of Israel (ch. 3f.), the Fall of Jericho (ch. 6), and the standing still of the sun on Gibeon (ch. 10). Chs 12-21 record in detail the division of Palestine among the twelve Jovinian (d. c.405) Turbulent monk turned critic of *ascettribes. icism, who wrote in praise of continent marriage and ‘Joshua’ in Hebrew is rendered as ‘Jesus’ in Greek, so in grateful eating, arguing for their equal merit to abstinence, the Churches of the E. (and their icons), Joshua is distin­ and rejected the association of different earthly (sexual) guished as ‘Jesus son of Nave’ (Gk ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Tqoovt; w v N a vq and states with variant heavenly rewards; like *Helvidius, he Russian Hucyc HaBHH). Joshua has long been seen as a type denied the perpetual virginity of *Mary. Condemned by a of Jesus: just as Joshua led his people to the Promised Land, Roman *synod under Pope *Siricius (390), and another at so Jesus will lead his people to heaven. In the African*Milan (393) under ^Ambrose, he also provoked quite thor­ American tradition, the spiritual ‘Joshua Fit the Battle of oughgoing denunciations from *Jerome, A d versu s JoviniaJericho’ refers not only to the walls of Jericho tumblin’ n u m 1-2, in 393, and ^Augustine, D e B ono C oniugali and down, but to the hope of living in a land free from slavery. D e Sancta V irginitate, in 401. His own writings are known God’s authorization of the conquest of Canaan has been only through these works; the date and mode of his death used to justify other conquests. Timothy Dwight’s epic T he are uncertain, but Jerome, who memorably labelled him ‘the C onquest o f C anaan (1785) portrays Washington as a Josh­ Epicurus of Christianity’, later remarked that he had died ua seizing Connecticut from the British. In modern Israel, ‘amidst pheasant and pork’. Deemed a proto-Protestant by a parallel between Joshua’s conquest and the establishment Card. *Newman, he and his controversies were engagingly of the state of Israel has been evoked by Zionists, notably sensationalized by W. H. G. Kingston (1877), apparently in David Ben-Gurion, and more recently has justified settle­ riposte to the ^Oxford Movement. GDB ments in Palestinian territories. Conversely, anti-Zionists J. Oppel, ‘Saint Jerome and the History of Sex’, V ia to r 24 (1993), (and detractors of biblical Christianity) have regularly ad­ 1-22. Y.-M. Duval, L A ffaire Jovinien (SE A 83; Rome, 2003). duced the brutality of Joshua’s invasion of Canaan, which D. G. Hunter, M arriage, C elibacy, a n d H eresy in A n cien t C h ristia n ­ is deemed to constitute genocide: he ‘destroyed all that ity: T he Jo vin ia n ist C ontroversy (Oxford, 2007). T. E. Hunt, ‘Con­ breathed, as the Lord God of Israel had commanded’ demning Nature? “Natura” and Asceticism in the Jovinian Affair’, V C 67 (2013), 364-92. (10: 40), and the dead included women and children. GC Comm, by J. Gray (N ew C ent. B ib. on Jos., Jgs, and Ruth, 1967, 1-200; 2nd edn, 1986, 1-183), J. A. Soggin (Neuchatel, 1970; Eng. tr., 1972), R. G. Boling (Anchor Bible, 1982), T. C. Butler (Word Biblical Comm., 7; Waco, Tex., 1983), and R. D. Nelson (Old Testa­ ment Library, Louisville, Ky, 1997). L. L. Rowlett, Joshua a n d the R h eto ric o f V iolence (JSO T , Supplement Series, 226; Sheffield, 1996). A. H. W. Curtis, Joshua (Old Testament Guides, Sheffield, 1994). R. Havrelock, ‘The Joshua Generation; Conquest and the Promised Land’, C ritical R esearch on R eligion 1 (2013), 308-26. N. Masalha, T he Z io n ist B ible: B iblical P recedent, C olonialism a n d the E rasure o f M em o ry (London, 2014). Z. Faber, Im ages o f Joshua in the B ible a n d th eir R eception (Berlin, 2016). Jovian (c.332-64) Roman emperor from June 363 to Feb. 364. He was born a Christian at Singidunum in Moesia. On the Emp. ^Julian’s fatal expedition against the Persians he was captain of his bodyguard; and when, after Julian’s death (26 June 363), Sallust, the prefect of the E., had de­ clined to receive the purple at the hands of the army, Jovian was chosen. He was forced to conclude a humiliating peace with Sapor II, king of the Persians, abandoning Nisibis and the other territories conquered under *Diocletian in 298, and the Christian kingdom of *Armenia. In the theological disputes he supported orthodoxy and on his way back to the W. he received *Athanasius, who presented a confes­ sion of faith at *Edessa and prob, accompanied the emperor to *Antioch. Before reaching ^Constantinople, Jovian died suddenly at Dadastana. His support of orthodoxy made Jowett, Benjamin (1817-93) British classical scholar. In 1836 he entered Balliol College, Oxford, where he was elected a fellow while still an undergraduate. He held a suc­ cession of college offices, finally becoming master (1870). He was ordained priest in 1845. In 1855 he succeeded T. Gaisford as regius professor of Gk. He distrusted logic and, under the influence of Gk studies and German philosophy (esp. *Hegel), became a keen theological liberal. His theological views were first elaborated in his C o m m en ta ries on th e E pp. o f S t P a u l (Thess., Gal., and Rom.; 2 vols, 1855). The work con­ tained a personal and subjective exposition of the ^atonement which he redrafted in a 2nd edition (1859) to meet objections, but without modifying it. His essay on ‘The Interpretation of Scripture’ in ^E ssays a n d R eview s (1860) was one of the most debated items in the book; and henceforth Jowett’s orthodoxy remained under grave suspicion and he ceased to write on theological subjects. His most important work was his translation of *Plato (4 vols, 1871; 3rd edn, 5 vols, 1892); this, together with his translation of *Aristotle’s P olitics (2 vols, 1885), made these works widely available to non-classical students. E. Abbott and L. Campbell, T he L ife a n d L etters o f B en ja m in Jo w ett (2 vols, 1897). L. A. Tollemache, B en ja m in Jo w ett (1895). G. Faber, Jow ett (London, 1957; 2nd edn, 1958). A selection of 1041 THE OXFORD DICTIONARY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH FOURTH EDITION EDITED BY ANDREW LOUTH THIRD EDITION EDITED BY E. A. LIVINGSTONE FIRSTAND SECOND EDITIONS EDITED BY F. L. CROSS VOLUME 2 K-Z OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Lateran Pacts After *Cranmer’s appointment to *Canterbury (1533), I, II, IIIetL atran IV (Histoire yxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA des Conciles Oecumeniques, 6; Paris, 1965). N. H. Minnich, T he F ifth L ateran C ouncil, 1512-17 (Aider­ shot, 1993). C. Duggan and N. H. Minnich in N C E (2nd edn), 8 (2003), 350-5. Lateran Pacts The pacts, signed in the Lateran Palace on 11 Feb. 1929 by Cardinal Gasparri as papal secretary of state and by Benito Mussolini, consist of three parts. The treaty ‘finally and irrevocably’ settled the Roman question, and established the *Vatican City as a sovereign state. The holy see recognized the Italian state with Rome as capital. The Italian state recognized ‘the Catholic, Apostolic and Ro­ man Religion as the sole religion of the State’, ‘the sover­ eign independence of the Holy See in the international field’, and the holy see’s ‘sovereign jurisdiction’ in the Vat­ ican City. Attached to the treaty was a ^Concordat which provided for Catholic religious instruction in the schools, the civil recognition of marriage performed in accordance with canon law, the freedom of *Catholic Action on condi­ tion of its being non-politically conducted, and the swear­ ing of an oath of allegiance to the king by bps before taking possession of their dioceses. In addition there was a finan­ cial agreement. The 1929 Concordat was substantially modified by an agreement signed on 18 Feb. 1984, which came into force in 1985. In particular, the Catholic religion is no longer the sole religion of the Italian state, but ‘the State and the Catholic Church are, each in its proper sphere, sovereign and independent’. $ MJW Text in AA5 21 (1929), 209-74, followed by text of Concordat, 274-94, with ‘Processo-Verbale’ 295; that of the 1984 Concordat and appended docs, AAS 77 (1985), 521-78. J. F. Pollard, T he V ati ­ can a n d Italian F ascism , 1929-32 (Cambridge, 1985), with Eng. tr. of 1929 texts, 197-215, and extensive bibl. L. Misto (ed.), Il ‘N u o vo ’ C oncordato (Turin, 1986). R. Danielo in E C 9 (1953), cols 990-5, s.v. ‘Patti lateranensi’. F. M. Broglio in Levillain 2 (2002), 901-5. Latimer, Hugh (c.1485-1555) Bp of *Worcester and Re­ former. He was the son of a yeoman farmer of Thurcaston in Leicestershire, educated at Cambridge, and in 1510 elected fellow of Clare Hall. In his earlier years he was an ardent opponent of the New Learning. He was ordained priest in 1515, and seven years later his eloquence and zeal in reform­ ing abuses and defending social justice led the university to license him as one of the twelve preachers commissioned to preach anywhere in England. From c.1523 his opinions be­ gan to become suspect to the ecclesiastical authorities; ac­ cording to his own account, he was dramatically converted to the doctrines of the Reformers by *Bilney in 1524, and when in 1525 he declined the request of his bp, N. West of *Ely, to preach a sermon against *Luther, he was forbidden to preach in the diocese. After skilfully defending himself before *Wolsey, he was again allowed to preach throughout England. The directness of his method, his understanding of human character, his homely style, and his ready wit won his sermons increasing influence. A sermon before *Henry VIII in Lent 1530, though it attacked the use of temporal weapons for the defence of God’s Word, won him the royal favour, and in 1531 he was given the living of West Kington, Wilts. But his preaching, which now openly challenged ecclesiasti­ cal authority and spread evangelical doctrines, was censured by Convocation in Mar. 1532. 1104 Latimer’s position improved, and when, in 1534, Henry formally broke with the pope, Latimer became a royal chaplain. In 1535 he was appointed bp of Worcester. In his sermons he continued to denounce social injustices and other contemporary corruptions, attacking also Catholic teaching on purgatory, images, etc. He also supported the king with the continuation of the ^dissolution of the *monasteries. In 1538 he preached at the execution of John For­ est, and in the same year approved the putting to death of the family of *Pole. But his career was cut short in 1539, when, in acc. with his Protestant beliefs, he opposed the Act of the *Six Articles, and resigned his see on hearing from T. *Cromwell that this was the king’s wish. Taken into custody, he was freed in 1540, but ordered to leave London and forbidden to preach. In 1546 he was confined to the Tower, but was released on *Edward VI’s accession in the following year. On New Year’s Day 1548 he preached his famous sermon ‘Of the Plough’ at Paul’s Cross, and became very popular as a court preacher, continuing to denounce social and ecclesiastical abuses and supporting the govern­ ment of Somerset. On the accession of *Mary he was arrested and committed to the Tower (1553). In 1554, together with Cranmer and *Ridley, he was taken to Oxford to dispute with Catholic theologians of both universities esp. on *transubstantiation and the sacrifice of the Mass. Having refused to accept the medieval doctrine, he was excommunicated. He was examined again in 1555 and, after a renewed re­ fusal to recant, was burnt with Ridley at Oxford on 16 Oct. 1555. Later edns of Foxe’s A cts a n d M o n u m en ts reported Latimer to have given the famous encouragement to his friend: ‘Be of good comfort Master Ridley, and play the man: we shall this day light such a candle by God’s grace in England, as (I trust) shall never be put out.’ $ ME Collected edn of his Serm ons (2 vols, London, 1758), with Life in vol. 1, ix-lxxxvii. Serm ons a n d R em ains, ed. G. E. Corrie (2 vols, *Parker Society, 1844-5, with extract from J. *Foxe, A cts a n d M o n ­ u m en ts, repr. in vol. 2, ix-xxxi). A. G. Chester, H ugh L atim er: A p o s ­ tle to the E nglish (Philadelphia, 1954). M. Pasquarello, G o d ’s P loughm an: H ugh L atim er, a P reaching L ife (1485-1555) (Milton Keynes, 2014). S. Wabuda in O D N B (2009): <https://doi.org/ 10.1093/ref:odnb/16100>. Latin The early Church was *Greek; in the W. Roman em­ pire, where Latin was the language of ordinary speech as well as of government, it operated in translation. The term V etus L a tin a (‘Old Latin’) refers collectively to the various rough and ready versions of the Greek *Septuagint and *New Testament in use from the 2nd cent, onward amongst Christian communities. N. *Africa is key to this earliest stage: from here emerged the great polemicist *Tertullian (d. c.220), first of the Latin Fathers, ^Victor I (c.189-99), first *bishop of Rome to have left writings in Latin, and *Cyprian (d. 258), whose works are crucial witness to the *Bible of his day. From the 3rd cent, we also begin to have martyrological accounts, including the ostensibly first­ hand P assion of *Perpetua and Felicity (203), while the pitiless *Lactantius (d. c.325) essayed a first systematic exposition of Christian “Theology. As the Roman state embraced Christianity under *Constantine (306-37) and successors, its social status rose Latin correspondingly, and from the late 4th cent, a series of of this period, such as ^Gregory of Tours (d. 594), can seem major writers established Latin as the language of the indifferent to grammar—conjugation, declension, concord— W. Church. Theologians, anti-*Arian controversialists, and yet anxious about Latinity, the language as sociocultural hymnographers, ^Hilary (d. 367/8) and ^Ambrose (d. 397) discriminator. Good traditional schooling remained avail­ did much to give the Latin Church an independent intel­ able, for now, at least in parts of Italy: *Ennodius of Pavia lectual tradition. *Jerome (d. 420) began revising the V ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA etus (d. 521) commanded a formidable style, ^Gregory I (590L atina at the instance of *Damasus I (366-84) in 382, and 604) a more practical clarity, while *Venantius Fortunatus by 405 had translated the Hebrew Bible and the Gospels; (d. c.609) mastered Latin verse, bestriding its transition the balance of this new biblical text, called the V ulgata from quantitative to accentual. (‘*Vulgate’), was mostly completed by unknown associates, In the early Middle Ages, spoken Latin increasingly di­ though some earlier versions were retained. Accused in his versified on regional lines, but at the same time promoted famous dream (ep. 22) of being a closet Ciceronian, Jerome change in written Latin, such as omission of case endings embodied the tension felt by many educated Roman Chris­ no longer pronounced and simplification of verbal inflec­ tians between a religion preached by fishermen in serm o tion, noticeably in the liturgy. As yet the language remained hum ilis (‘humble speech’) and a literary language perfect­ a continuum of registers. The spread of Christianity west­ ed by pagans, producing a bio-bibliographical D e V iris IIward to the British Isles and eastward beyond the Rhine lustribus (‘On Distinguished Men’) of Christian authors in also meant that Latin began to be acquired as the learned response. In like context *Prudentius (JI. c.392-405) and language of the Church. The formal and scholarly style *Paulinus of Nola (d. 431) composed celebrations of the which could result, sometimes tipping over into the ob­ saints in polished verse. But it was *Augustine (d. 430) who scure and hermeneutic, is exemplified by insular authors, reconciled the two by arguing in D e D octrina C hristiana including *Gildas (d. c.570?), *Adomnan (d. 704), *Aldhelm (‘On Christian Teaching’) for harnessing the learning of (d. 709), and the masterly *Bede (d. 735), though parts of antiquity to interpret the signs of holy scripture more pro­ the post-imperial W. such as Visigothic *Spain developed foundly. Parallel to this discourse of L a tin ita s is ‘Latinity’ highly involved modes of their own. The turning point, for in practice, and the Late Latin of early Christianity tends to better and for worse, came with the Carolingian Reform be characterized by decay of the classical literary register, carried out under *Charlemagne (768-814) and guided by greater variability of forms (morphology, orthography, *Alcuin of York (d. 804), inheriting the legacy of Christian syntax) under the influence of the spoken language, and encyclopedism bequeathed by ^Isidore of Seville (d. 636). It new vocabulary alongside extended meanings. Fundamen­ is to this age that we owe transmission of much, if not most, tal to these changes was the Vulgate, which emulated its ancient and late antique Latin literature: witness some Greek and Hebrew sources; the text rapidly entered com­ 10,000 manuscripts surviving from the 9th cent, alone, mon circulation, already in use by ^Patrick (d. c.460/93) for compared with 2,000 from all preceding cents. An overrid­ the OT even as he continued to employ the V etus L a tin a for ing concern for correctness of communication as central to the New. salvation bore fruit in the patronage of great monastic lib­ Greek initially supplied much of the framework for raries such as *Fulda and *Lorsch, with scholars such as Latin Christianity. *Rufinus of Aquileia (d. 411), sometime *Rabanus Maurus (d. 856) and *Lupus of Ferrieres (d. c.862), friend of Jerome, prepared many translations, including of encouragement of cathedral and parish schools, and the theological works by *Origen (d. c.253/4) and the E cclesias ­ development of Caroline minuscule, a clean and disci­ tical H istory of *Eusebius (d. 339/40), while Anianus of plined script for more effective dissemination of emended Celeda (early 5th cent.) tackled homilies of *Chrysostom copies of the Bible, *patristics, and other core texts. Yet it (d. 407). In Gaul, *Cassian (d. 435) mediated Egyptian codid not make for more successful intervention in the de­ enobitic ^monasticism for the W., though *Martin of Tours bate over *iconoclasm in the E., while efforts to establish a (d. 397) via his hagiographer *Sulpicius Severus (d. c.425) common liturgy with standardized orthography and pro­ provided an alternative model of ascetic sanctity and mi­ nunciation broke the continuum of written and spoken raculous mission. But Greek soon found its position equiv­ registers, whence developed a new consciousness of regional ocal in the W. Church, as fragmentation of empire and the particularities as Romance vernaculars a va n t la lettre. founding of barbarian kingdoms engendered terminal de­ Latin remained in use for almost all literate activity in cline in knowledge of the language. *Boethius (d. 524) and the W. Church throughout the high Middle Ages, but was *Cassiodorus (d. c.585) endeavoured to interpret the Greek increasingly a learned language for its users, steadily more liberal arts, philosophy, and theology as a bridge for this remote from the everyday speech which we can glimpse in divide; arguments from the late 6th cent, over the insertion charters from Italy and Spain especially. Anglo-Saxon into the Latin creed of F ilioque, surely history’s most con­ *England is an outlier for significant early employment of tentious correlative, show a Church progressively less able Old English in writing, urged on by *Alfred the Great (d. to engage with its E. counterpart. As urban schools of 899). With rediscovery of Roman law in late llth-cent. grammar and rhetoric yielded to ecclesiastical or monastic N. Italy, and translation schools in Spain making Greek, education, Latin became not only the language of exegesis Arabic, and Hebrew theology and philosophy available, and liturgy but the sole language of literacy in continental Scholasticism and universities became expressions of me­ W. Europe, and the Latin Bible(s) the model for writing. dieval Latinity. The earliest institutions were at Bologna (1088) ^Benedict (d. 547), author of an influential rule for monks, and Paris (c.1150), specializing respectively in canon law was ambivalent toward classical learning, his counterpart (see c a n o n s , h o l y ) and theology, and home to scholars *Caesarius of Arles (d. 542) downright hostile to it. Writers such as Irnerius (d. c.1125) and *Gratian (JI. mid-12th cent.), 1105 Latin *Abelard (d. 1142), and * Peter Lombard (d. 1160). The prob­ lematic occasioned by the rediscovery of Aristotelian logic proved fruitful, yielding works by *Anselm (d. 1109), *Bernard (d. 1153), *John of Salisbury (d. 1180), and above all the *Summas of the 13th cent., notably *Thomas Aquinas’s two SZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA u m m a s. Renewed study of the classics together with the Fathers led to the cultivation of spoken Latin in ecclesi­ astical courts, at universities and schools, and by the high­ er clergy; preaching to the laity, by the traditional clergy as well as the new mendicant orders, was the only area in which the Church used the vernacular throughout the pe­ riod. At the same time, the growth of bureaucratic govern­ ment and mercantile activity fostered greater literacy across Europe from the 12th to the 13th cent., giving rise in turn to a vernacular literature of entertainment, followed soon by translations of devotional texts for laypeople, reli­ gious men and women, and an increasing proportion of the lower clergy. Movement for reform, first amongst the bol­ lards and the *Hussites in the mid-14th to early 15th cent., gave further impetus to biblical translation, and to presenting theological debate in the vernacular. In reaction against the individual variation, panoply of solecisms, and vernacular interference in medieval Latin, *Renaissance humanists in Italy and beyond from the 14th cent, onward sought a return to the sources, most of all Cicero for prose and Virgil for verse, to purge the language of ‘Gothic’ corruptions of vocabulary and style. At one level a scholarly pursuit, resulting in the searching out and editing of classical literature by Poggio Bracciolini (d. 1459) and his circle, renewed study of Greek by Guarino of Verona (d. 1460) and others, and the printing press of Al­ dus Manutius (d. 1515), the humanist ‘project’ aimed not only at literary cultivation through archaizing ‘hyper­ literacy’ but also at inculcation of moral values in a polit­ ically engaged citizen body. While the fruits of their work could undermine pillars of the Church, famously so in the philological demolition of the forged *Donation of Constan­ tine by Walla (d. 1457), humanism was Christian, patronized by the Renaissance *papacy from the mid-15th cent. The efforts of *Erasmus (d. 1536) to apply humanist techniques of textual criticism to editing the Latin and Greek NT proved double-edged, raising questions which *Protestants would answer. Much of Renaissance literature has an element of pastiche, and in the 15th-16th cent, use of Latin became progressively more narrowly academic; since *Dante (d. 1321) and * Petrarch (d. 1374), however, humanists had also been interested in developing the po­ tential of vernacular eloquence. With the * Reformation in Germany and the biblical translations of * Luther (d. 1546), Latin was all but abandoned for the vernacular in the litur­ gies of ^Reformed Churches, even as the Council of *Trent (1545-63) declared the Vulgate to be the authentic text of holy scripture. The first authoritative Clementine edition came out in 1592, since replaced by the N ova V ulgata (‘New Vulgate’) of 1979. One purpose of the humanist reform of Latin was to make the language applicable beyond the ecclesiastical and theological spheres of the medieval Church and universi­ ties; as an outgrowth of this and the printing revolution, early modern Latin (or ‘Neo-Latin’) served as the lingua franca of the international scholarly community, regardless 1106 of denomination, whence it endures in scientific vocabu­ lary, Linnaean taxonomy, and other classification systems. Latin was the universal school subject and university re­ quirement, and so also continued in use for literature and diplomacy. As a living language, however, the national ver­ naculars, especially French, came gradually to supplant it from the early 18th cent, onward, and by the 19th cent, it was becoming the preserve of certain specialized subjects, eventually a mere source of shorthands and tags. Of course, Latin remained the language of the liturgy, law, and official communication and documentation of the Catholic Church; competency was expected of all priests, and it was studied in all Catholic schools and used in all seminaries and pontifical universities. But the Second ^Vatican Coun­ cil (1962-5) permitted some use of the vernacular in the liturgy, which has led to their almost total triumph. None­ theless, Latin is still the official language of the Church, and of Watican City. *John XXIII called in ‘ V eterum Sapien tia ’ (1962) for an academy to adapt the language to the needs of the modern world; more recently, with encourage­ ment from ^Benedict XVI in ‘Summorum Pontificum’ (2007) to reconcile traditionalists and reformers within the Church, celebration of the Latin Mass has regained popu­ larity. The present pope tweets in a wide range of languages, including Latin. GDB Dictionaries and editions: C. du Fresne, Sieur du Cange, G lossa riu m a d Scriptores M ed iae et In fim a e L a tin ita tis (3 vols, Paris, 1678); rev. L. Favre, G lo ssa riu m M ed iae et In fim a e L a tin itatis (10 vols, Niort, 1883-7). T hesaurus L inguae L a tin a e (Munich, 1900-). A. Souter, A G lossary o f L a ter L a tin to 600 A .D . (Oxford, 1949). R. Gryson et al. (eds), V etus L atina (27 vols, Beuron, 1949-2020). A. Blaise, D ictionnaire la tin -fra n ^a is des auteurs chretiens (Turn­ hout, 1962). A. Blaise, D ictio n n a ire la tin -fra n ^is des auteurs du M oyen A ge (Turnhout, 1975). L. F. Stelten, D ictio n a ry o f E cclesiasti­ cal L a tin (Peabody, Mass., 1995). J. F. Niermeyer and C. van de Kieft, M ed iae L a tin ita tis L exicon M in u s, ed. J. W. J. Burgers (2 vols, Leiden, 2002). R. Gryson et al. (eds), B iblia Sacra iu xta V ulgatam V ersionem (5th edn, Stuttgart, 2007). P. G. W. Glare (ed.), O xford L a tin D ictio n a ry (2nd edn, 2 vols, Oxford, 2012). R. K. Ashdowne, D. R. Howlett, and R. E. Latham, D ictio n a ry o f M edieval L a tin from B ritish Sources (3 vols, Oxford, 2018). Guides and studies: M. Manitius, G eschichte der lateinischen L iteratur des M ittelalters (Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft 9.2; 3 vols, Munich, 1911-31). W. E. Plater and H. J. White, A G ram m ar o f the V ulgate (Oxford, 1926). C. Mohrmann, L iturgical L atin: Its O rigin a n d C haracter (Washington, DC, 1957). C. Mohr­ mann, E tudes su r le latin des chretiens (4 vols, Rome, 1958-77). E. Lofstedt, L ate L atin (Oslo and London, 1959). R. Wright, L ate L atin and E arly R om ance in Spain and C arolingian F rance (Liverpool, 1982). J. F. Collins, A P rim er o f E cclesiastical L atin (Washington, DC, 1985). G. Sanders and M. van Uytfanghe, B ibliographic signaletique du latin des chretiens (Corpus Christianorum Lingua Patrum, 1; Turnhout, 1989). M. Banniard, V iva V oce (Paris, 1992). E. Auerbach, L iterary L anguage a n d its P ublic in L ate L atin A n tiq u ity a n d in the M iddle A ges, tr. R. Manheim (new edn, Princeton, 1993). F. A. C. Mantello and A. G. Rigg (eds), M edieval L atin: A n Introduction a n d B ibli ­ ograp hical G uide (Washington, DC, 1996). J. Herman, V ulgar L atin, tr. R. Wright (University Park, Pa, 2000). E. dal Covolo and M. Sodi, Il latino e i cristiani (Vatican City, 2002). R. J. Hexter and D. Townsend (eds), T he O xford H andbook o f M edieval L atin L iterature (Oxford, 2012). E. R. Curtius, E uropean L iterature a n d the L atin M iddle A ges, tr. W. R. Trask (new edn, Princeton, 2013). S. Tilg and S. Knight (eds), T he O xford H andbook o fN eo -L atin (Oxford, 2015). J. Hankins, V irtue P olitics: Soulcraft a n d Statecraft in R enaissance Italy (Cambridge, Mass., 2019). Liber Censuum yxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Liber de Causis A treatise, consisting for the most part of o f T heology, New York, 1976). J. Miguez Bonino, R evo lution a ry T he­ ology com es o f A ge (1975; in USA entitled D oing T heology in a R ev ­ o lu tio n a ry S itu a tio n , Philadelphia, 1975). E. Cardenal, E l E vangelio en S o len tin a m e (2 vols, Salamanca, 1975-7; Eng. tr., T he G ospel in Solentinam e, 4 vols, Maryknoll, NY, 1976-82). L. Boff, C hurch, C harism a n d P ow er (London, 1985). P. Berryman, T he R eligious R oots o f R ebellion (Maryknoll, NY, 1984). C. Boff, OSM, T eologia e p rd tica (Petropolis, 1978; Eng. tr., T heology a n d P raxis, Maryknoll, New York, 1987). J. Sobrino, SJ, Jesucristo liberador (Madrid, 1991; Eng. tr., Jesus the L iberator, Maryknoll, New York, 1993; London, 1994). J. Sobrino, SJ, L a fe en Jesucristo (Madrid, 1993; Eng. tr., C hrist the L iberator: A V iew fro m the V ictim s, Maryknoll, NY, 2001). Useful summaries and assessments can be found in: A. T. Hennelly (ed.), L iberation T heology: A D o cu m en ta ry H istory (Maryknoll, NY, 1990). A. T. Henelly, L iberation T heologies: The G lobal P u rsu it o f Justice (Mystic, Conn., 1995). P. E. Sigmund, L ib ­ eration T heology a t the C rossroads: D em ocracy or R evolution? (New York and Oxford, 1990). C. [C.] Rowland (ed.), T he C am bridge C om pa nion to L iberation T heology (1999, 2nd edn, 2007). A. Kee, M a rx a n d the F ailure o f L iberation T heology (Maryknoll, NY, 1990) J. P. Miranda, M a rx a n d th e B ible: A C ritiq u e o f the P hilosophy o f O ppression (Maryknoll, NY, 1974). J. Burdick, L o o kin g fo r G od in B razil: T he P rogressive C a th o lic C hurch in U rban B ra zil ’s R eli ­ g io u s A ren a (Berkeley and London, 1993). J. Burdick, L egacies o f L iberation: T he P rogressive C a th o lic C hurch in B ra zil a t the S tart o f a N ew M illenn ium (Aidershot, 2004). I. Petrella, T he F u tu re o f L ib era tio n T heology: A n A rg u m en t a n d a M a nifesto (Farnham, extracts from “Proclus’ ‘Elements of Theology’, which was put together in Arabic by an unknown Muslim philoso­ pher, prob, in Baghdad, c.850. It exercised an important influence on medieval philosophy through Gerard of Cre­ mona, who translated it into Latin at Toledo between 1167 and 1187. Following its title in Arabic, he announced it as a work of *Aristotle, with the result that many “Neoplatonist doctrines were mistakenly held to be Aristotelian. “William of Moerbeke’s translation of Proclus’ ‘Elements of Theology’ into Latin (completed on 18 May 1268) revealed to “Thomas Aquinas and medieval philosophers generally the true character of the L iber de C ausis. $ LS Arab, text, with Ger. tr. and version of Gerard of Cremona, in O. “Bardenhewer, D ie pseudo-aristotelische Schrift U eber das reine G ute, b eka n n t u n ter d em N a m en Liber de Causis (Freiburg, 1882). Crit. edn of Lat. text, with introd, and notes by A. Pattin, in T ijdschrift voor F ilosofie 28 (1966), 90-203. It is also conveniently pr. in R. Steele (ed.), O pera h a cten u s in ed ita R ogeri B aconi, 12 (Oxford, 1935), 161-87. H. D. Saffrey, OP (ed.), S a n cti T hom ae de A q u in o S u ­ p er L ib ru m de C ausis E xpositio (Textus Philosophic! Friburgenses, 4-5; 1954; Eng. tr. by V. A. Guagliardo, OP, and others, Washing­ ton, DC, 1996, with introd, and bibl.). Cristina D’Ancona, ‘The Liber de Causis’, in S. Gersh (ed.), In terp retin g P ro clu s (Cambridge, 2014), 137-61. L. Sweeney in N C E 8 (1967), 693f„ s.v. 2004). A. Dawson, T he B irth a n d Im p a ct o f the B ase E cclesial C o m m u n ity a n d L ib era tive T heological D iscourse in B ra zil (Lanham, Md, 1998). Liber Censuum The official register of the Roman Church, which recorded the dues (census) payable by various insti­ tutions, esp. monasteries, churches, cities, dominions, and kingdoms, to the holy see. It was drawn up by Cencio Savelli (later Pope “Honorius III), the ‘chamberlain’ of Clement III (pope, 1187-91) and *Celestine III (pope, 11918). It drew extensively on the L iber C a n on u m of the younger “Anselm of Lucca, the C ollectio C a n o n u m attributed to Deusdedit (pope, 616-18), the L iber P oliticus of Canon Bene­ dict (JI. c.1140), and other sources. The original MS is pre­ served in the “Vatican (lat. 8486). Besides the list of census, it contains a list of the bishoprics and monasteries directly dependent on the holy see, a treatise M irabilia U rbis R om ae, and other documents. $ MJM Crit. edn by P. Fabre (d. 1899) and L. “Duchesne, completed by G. Mollat, 3 vols (Paris, 1889-1952). V. Pfaff, ‘Der Liber Censuum von 1192’, V ierteljahrschrift fiir Sozial- u n d W irtschaftsgeschichte 44 (1957), 78-96, 105-20, 220-42, 325-51. P. Fabre, L tu d e sur le Liber Censuum de I ’L glise de R o m e (Paris, 1892). R. Elze, ‘Der Liber Censuum des Cencius (Cod. Vat. lat. 8486) von 1192 bis 1228. Zur Uberlieferung des Kaiserkrbnungsordo Censius II’, B u llettin o d ell ’ ‘A rchivio P aleografico Italia n o ’ n s 2-3 (pt 1; 1956-7), 251-70; repr. in B. Schimmelpfennig and L. Schmugge (eds), P apste-K aiser- Liber Gradualis See g r a d u a l . Liberian Catalogue (354) Earliest surviving biographi­ cal list of the bps of *Rome from *Peter to the accession of “Liberius, with brief commentary: name, length of episco­ pate, reigning emperor, consular dating, arguing overall for the antiquity and continuity of the office. Entries are fuller from the 230s, including factors such as building projects and important events; the catalogue is distinctive for treating Peter as the first pope, and placing “Clement I before *Anacletus. Prior compilations by *Hegesippus and “Irenaeus in the 2nd cent, lacked its chronological preci­ sion (that credited to “Hippolytus in the 3rd cent, does not seem to have existed). Based on an earlier edition complete down to 336, since Mommsen the Liberian catalogue has been numbered Section XIII of the “Chronograph of 354, following lists of the burial places of Roman bps and mar­ tyrs. The compiler of the first “Liber Pontificalis drew on the source text almost verbatim. GDB L. Duchesne, L e L iber P ontificalis (2 vols, Paris, 1886-92), 1: 1-9; tr. R. Davis, T he B ook o f P ontiffs (TTH 6,3rd edn, 2010), 91-4. M. R. Salzman, O n R o m a n T im e: T he C odex-C alendar o f 354 (Berkeley, 1990), 47-50. R. W. Burgess, ‘The Chronograph of 354’, JL A 5/2 (2012), 345-96. K onige u n d die m ittela lterlich e H errschaftssym bolik: A usgew dhlte A u fsd tze. B y R ein ha rd E lze (London, 1982), 251-70. H. “Leclercq, in D A C L 9 (pt 1; 1929), cols 180-220, s.v. ‘Liber Censuum Romanae Ecclesiae’, with further bibl. M. Michaud in D D C 3 (1942), cols 233-53, s.v. ‘Censuum (Liber)’. E. Dumas, ‘Il L iber cen su u m R o ­ m a n a e ecclesiae come strumento per la politica pontificia (XIII secolo)’, M em o ria E uropae 2/3 (2016), 39-59. Liber Comicus See Co m e s . 1134 Liberius Pope from 352 to 366. He refused Emp. Const­ antius’ command to condemn ‘Athanasius, and was exiled to Thrace after the Council of Milan (355). In 357 he sub­ mitted to Constantius, after a collapse of his morale which can be traced in four letters (‘Studens pace’, ‘Pro deifico’, ‘Quia scio’, and ‘Non doceo’) preserved by “Hilary of Poitiers. Liberius was permitted to return to Rome in 358, superseding the newly appointed rival bp, Felix, after he Lichfield agreed to the deposition of Athanasius and possibly signed the moderate creed of Sirmium (351). This lapse tainted Li­ berius’ subsequent reputation, although he retained popu­ lar support in Rome and following Constantius’ death he restated his commitment to the Nicene Creed. He built the ‘Basilica Liberiana’ on the Esquiline Hill, the ancestor of the present *Santa Maria Maggiore. Liberius’ name does not appear in modern calendars, but his feast occurs on 23 Sept, in the ‘Hieronymian Martyrology. DMG et al. (eds), O ld S a in t P eter ’s, R om e (British School at Rome Studies; Cambridge, 2013), 95-118. D. M. Deliyannis, ‘The Roman L iber p o n tifica lis, Papal Primacy, and the Acacian Schism’, V iator 45/2 (2014), 1-16. T. F. X. Noble, ‘Narratives of Papal History’, in A. A. Larson and K. Sisson (eds), A C o m p a nio n to the M ed ieva l P a ­ p a cy (Brill’s Companions to the Christian Tradition, 70; Leiden, 2016), 17-33. C. V. Franklin, ‘The L ib erp o n tifica lis and its Editors’, Speculum 92 (2017), 607-29. Liber Praedestinatus See Pr a e d e s t in a t u s . Letters and other writings mainly repr. from P. *Coustant in ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA PL 8.1349-410. Crit. text of the nine Epp. found in Hilary by A. L. Fed­ er (CSEL 65; 1916). A Sermon of Liberius survives in a modified Liber Regalis The anonymously compiled book contain­ form in *Ambrose, D e V irginibus, 3.1-3 (text in P L 8.1345-50). ing the English ‘coronation service introduced for the A. L. Feder, S tu d ien zu H ila riu s von P oitiers, 1 (Vienna, 1910), 153crowning of Edward II in 1308. The rubrics were extended 83; cf. also L P (Duchesne), 1, 207-10 (Eng. tr. TTH [2000], 29f.). for Richard II (1377). The book was translated into English E. Caspar, G eschichte des P a p sttu m s, 1 (1930), 166-95. M. Simonetti. L a crisi a ria n a nel IV secolo (Studia Ephemerides ‘Augustiniafor ‘James I (1603), and continued in use until discarded by num’, 11; Rome, 1975), esp. 216-43, 395-7. Pietri, 1: 237-68. C. Da‘James II in 1685. Among other features, it introduced the gens, ‘Autour du pape Libere: 1’iconographie de Suzanne et des ‘Seven Penitential Psalms, the ‘Veni Creator Spiritus, and martyrs romains sur 1’Arcosolium de Celerina’, M elanges the homage of the peers after the enthronement. Several d ’A rcheologie et d ’H istoire 88 (1966), 327-81. T. D. Barnes, ‘The Ca­ 14th- and 15th-cent. MSS survive. pitulation of Liberius and Hilary of Poitiers’, P hoenix 46 (1992), Text ed., with Eng. tr., by L. G. Wickham Legg, E nglish C orona ­ 256-65. H. ‘Leclercq, OSB, in D A C L 9 (pt 1; 1930), cols 497-530. £ tion R ecords (London, 1901), 81-130. E. C. Ratcliff, T he E nglish Amann in D T C 9 (pt 1; 1926), cols 631-59. P. T. Camelot, OP, C oronation Service (1936). See also other works cited under in N C E (2nd edn), 8 (2003), 553-6, s.v. D. Natal in O D L A 2 (2018), CORONATION RITE IN ENGLAND. 906, s.v. Liber Pontificalis (Lat., ‘Pontifical Book’; c.530/40, to mid15th cent.) Collection of papal biographies: generally each follows a plan, with formulaic phrasing and exact (though not always correct or consistent) chronological data. The earliest entries from ‘Peter onwards are short, often con­ fused, gradually lengthening from the 3rd/4th cent, and attaining novella dimensions in the 8th-9th cent.; thereaf­ ter they are highly uneven, bare notices until ^Gregory VII, fuller down to ‘Honorius II, then varying between a line and in extenso until the death of ‘Martin V in 1431, with modest additions as late as ‘Pius II. Prefacing the whole is an apocryphal letter from ‘Damasus I to ‘Jerome, appeal­ ing for such a history. Drawing on the ‘Liberian Catalogue (354) and other primitive lists, the original is seemingly the product of a Roman priest c.530, with a second edition c.540; writing resumed a cent, later, after which new lives are contemporary, albeit intermittent, additions into the 12th cent., the balance being the work of the 15th cent. A. * Agnellus contrived a rival catalogue of the abps of ‘Ravenna in the 9th cent., while Platina (see Sa c c h i , Ba r t o l o m e o ) rewrote the Roman text for humanist tastes under ‘Sixtus IV. Papal history aside, an invaluable source for the politics, topogra­ phy, liturgy, art, and architecture of‘Rome. GDB L P (Duchesne); ed. C. Vogel (2nd edn, 3 vols, Paris, 1955-7); and T. Mommsen, L ibri P ontificalis P ars P rior. M G H G P R 1 (Berlin, 1898). R. Davis (tr.), T he B ook o f P ontiffs (TTH 6; 3rd edn, Liver­ pool, 2010). T he L ives o f the E ig h th -C en tu ry P opes (TTH 13; 2nd edn, 2007). T he L ives o f the N in th-C en tu ry P opes (TTH 20; 1995). B. Platina, L ives o f the P opes, ed.-tr. A. F. D’Elia (I Tatti Renaissance Library, 30; Cambridge, 2008). H. Leclercq, ‘Liber pontificalis’, in D A C L 9.1 (Paris, 1929), 354-460. O. Bertolini, ‘Il “Liber pontifica­ lis’”, in S ettim a n e, 17 (Spoleto, 1970), 387-455. C. Vogel, ‘Le “Liber pontificalis” dans 1’edition de Louis Duchesne’, in M o n seig n eu r D uchesne et son tem p s (Collection de 1’Ecole Franijaise de Rome, 23; Rome, 1975), 99-127. R. McKitterick, ‘The Representation of Old Saint Peter’s Basilica in the L ib erp o n tifica lis ’ , in R. McKitterick Liber Sacramentorum See s a c r a m e n t a r y . liber vitae (Lat., ‘book of life’) A name occasionally given in the early Church to the ‘diptychs, i.e. the lists of those who were recognized members of the Christian commu­ nity. It was doubtless derived from the references in scrip­ ture to the ‘‘book of life’ (e.g. Rev. 3:5). Also, with the same scriptural reference, the name given in the W. Middle Ages for the book recording the benefactors to a given monas­ tery, not least in ‘Cluny and its dependencies; it was placed on the altar during mass, so that the names recorded there­ in might benefit from the offering of the Mass. In England the most famous surviving libri vitae are those of the ab­ beys of New Minster and Durham. Library of the Fathers The series of English translations of selected writings of the early Christian Fathers, pub­ lished under the inspiration of the ‘Oxford Movement. The first volume to appear was the ^C onfessions of ‘Augustine (1838; edited by E. B. ‘Pusey). H. P. ‘Liddon, L ife o f E dw ard B ouverie P usey, 1 (1893), 409-47. R. W. Pfaff, ‘The Library of the Fathers: The Tractarians as Patristic Translators’, Studies in P hilology, 70 (1973), 329-44. Libri Carolini See Ca r o l in e Bo o k s , t h e . licences, marriage See m a r r ia g e l ic e n c e s . Lichfield English cathedral city and diocese. The seat of the Mercian diocese under ‘Chad, it was constituted an archbishopric in 787. Though the abp retained his title at least until 799, he gradually lost control over his suffragans 1135 Lucina di Lucifero di Cagliari’, ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA D ivu s T hom as, 52 (Piacenza, 1949), 276poor as proof of Christian faith and was denounced by her 329. A. Figus, L ’E nigm a de L ucifero di C agliari (Cagliari, 1973), erstwhile fiance. Early attestations include the Roman and with bibl. Bardenhewer, 3: 469-77. Altaner and Stuiber (1978), 367 Ambrosian Mass and an inscription of c.400 (from and 626. £. Amann in D T C 9 (pt 1; 1926), cols 1032-44. G. Corti, S. Giovanni in Siracusa). Related Gk and Lat. passions of L ucifero di C agliari: una voce nel conflitto tra chiesa e im pero alia m eta del IV secolo (Studia Patristica Mediolanensia 24; Milan, 2004). Lucina Several pious women of this name figure in the early traditions and legends of the Roman Church. Acc. to the *L iber P ontificalis (s.v. ‘Cornelius, a d 251-3), a certain Lucina had the bodies of *Peter and ‘Paul removed from their resting place at the ‘catacombs (‘ad Catacumbas’) and laid that of Paul in her own property on the ‘Ostian Way. It appears that she or another Lucina was buried in another property, the ‘Crypt of Lucina’, on the ‘Via Appia, which also contains the tomb of Cornelius. *De Rossi sought to identify the Lucina who gives her name to the crypt with ‘Pomponia Graecina (1st cent.). H. *Lietzmann, P etrus u n d P aulus in R om (2nd edn, Bonn, 1927), 179-89. L. Reekmans, L a T om be du pape C orneille et sa re ­ gion cem eteriale (Roma Sotterranea Cristiana, 4; Vatican City, 1964). H. *Leclercq, OSB, in D A C L 9 (pt 2; 1930), cols 2636-61, s.v. ‘Lucine (Crypte de)’; H. Grieser in L .T h.K . (3rd edn), 6 (1997), cols 1084f. See also bibl. to Po m po n ia Gr a e c in a . Lucius In legend, the first Christian king of Britain. Acc. to an early form of the story (based apparently on a statement in the *L iber P ontificalis that a British king, Lucius, sent a request to the pope that he might become a Christian), Lu­ cius successfully appealed to Pope Eleutherius (174-89) for Christian teachers to be sent to Britain, and together with large numbers of his subjects received baptism at their hands. The legend was considerably embellished in the 9th16th cents: Lucius becomes the son of ‘Simon of Cyrene, is converted by ‘Timothy, and goes as a missionary to Rhaetia, where he establishes himself as the first bp of Chur and is martyred by stoning. The later story is apparently a confla­ tion of legends about the king of Britain with independent traditions about a Lucius of Chur, who was possibly a histor­ ical person. ‘Harnack suggested that the statement in the L iber P ontificalis is due to a confusion between ‘Britain’ and ‘Britis’, a name for ‘Edessa, and that the king mentioned was really ‘Abgar IX [VIII] of that city. The story is related by ‘Bede, H E 1.4 and 5.24 (cf. notes to edn by C. Plummer, 2, Oxford, 1896, 14, and comm, by J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, Oxford, 1988, 11). ‘William of Malmesbury, D e antiquitate G lastoniensis E cclesiae, 2, and ‘Geoffrey of Monmouth, H istoria R egum B ritanniae, 4. 19 and 5. 1. A. Harnack, ‘Der Brief des britischen Konigs Lucius an den Papst Eleutherus’, Sb. (Berl.), 1904, 1: 909-16. A. W. Haddan and W. ‘Stubbs, C ouncils and E cclesiastical D ocum ents R elating to G reat B ritain a n d Ireland, 1 (1869), 25f. V. Berther, ‘Der hl. Lucius’, Z eitschrift der Schw eizerischen K irchengeschichte, 32 (1938), 20-38, 103-24. I. Miiller, ‘Die Verehrung des hl. Lucius im 9.-12. Jh.’, ibid. 48 (1954), 96-126.1. Muller, ‘Zur karolingischen Hagiographie: Kritik der Luciusvita’, Schw eizer B eitrdge zu r allgem einen G eschichte 14 (1956), 5-28. A. Smith, ‘Lucius of Brit­ ain: Alleged King and Church Founder’, F olklore 90 (1979), 29-36. Lucy, St (d. 303/4) Virgin martyr in the Great ‘Persecu­ tion: born in Syracuse, she donated her property to the 1168 the 5th-7th cent., modelling her cult on ‘Agatha, narrate a journey to Agatha’s tomb where her mother is healed, a dream visitation by Agatha to predict her future as patron saint, trial, torture, and—after foretelling the fates of‘Dio­ cletian and Maximian—execution by Paschasius, governor of Sicily, and the building of a basilica on site. By the 6th7th cent, veneration was well established: letters of‘Grego­ ry I mention a monastery dedicated to her in Syracuse, ‘Honorius I built a church in her honour in Rome, and ‘Aldhelm, in O n V irginity (prose and verse versions), hails her as an exemplar. Later, in the mid-llth cent., ‘Sigebert of Gembloux composed a verse passion to support her local cult at Metz. Noteworthy Renaissance depictions, espe­ cially by Lotto (1523-32). Feast day, 13 Dec.; duplicate, 16 Sept., suppressed in 1969. GDB B H L 4992-5003. B H G 995-6. C SLA S00846. Ludlow, John M alcolm Forbes (1821-1911) The founder of British ‘Christian Socialism. Educated in France, where he got to know C. Fourier and other socialist pioneers, he moved to London in 1838, and embarked on a legal career. He provided a link between thinkers and activists on both sides of the Channel, writing to F. D. ‘Maurice from ‘Paris after the Revolution of 1848 that ‘the new Socialism must be Christianized’. He soon became active in literary propa­ ganda, helped to form short-lived cooperative associations, and was largely responsible for promoting the Industrial and Provident Societies Act of 1852. Later he cooperated with Maurice in the founding of the Working Men’s College, where he taught for many years. Although overshadowed in public estimation by Maurice and ‘Kingsley, Ludlow was the real founder of the movement and remained its organ­ izer and coordinator. He was never quite at home in the C of E, and, although he adhered to Anglicanism, he often worshipped at the French Protestant church in London. He believed in socialism as the truest expression of democ­ racy, but was also convinced that Christian Socialism was possible only if political and industrial emancipation were accompanied by an education that was spiritual and moral as well as intellectual. His influence in Britain did much to prevent the antagonism between the Church and socialism that existed in many other countries. Autobiography ed. A. D. Murray (London, 1981). Life by N. C. Masterman (Cambridge, 1963). E. R. Norman, rev. H. C. G. Matthew, in O D N B (2004): <https://doi.org/10.1093/ ref:odnb/37696>. See also works cited under Ch r is t ia n So c ia l is m . Ludolf of Saxony (also Ludolf the Carthusian) (c.130078) Spiritual writer. Little is known of his early life, except that he entered the ‘Dominican order and became a master of theology before he joined the Carthusians at Strasbourg in 1340. From 1343 until 1348 he was prior of the Charter­ house at Koblenz, but he then resumed his status as an or­ dinary monk and spent the rest of his life at Mainz and Strasbourg. His two principal works are a ‘Commentary on the Psalms’ and his celebrated ‘Vita Christi’. The latter is Paul and Thecla, Acts of Sts inedites de la vie de P aul de T hebes, publiees avec une introduction noted portrait by Zurbaran (c.1640/50), and an amusing yxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHG (Ghent, 1900). On his possible identification with a ‘Paul of Oxyrhynchus’ cf. H. *Delehaye, SJ, ‘La Personnalite historique de S. Paul de Thebes’, A n a l. B oll. 44 (1926), 64-9. C. White (tr„ ed.), E arly C hristian L ives (London, 1998), 73-84. P. Leclerc, et al. (eds), Jerome, T rois vies de m oines (Paul, M alchus, H ilarion) (SC 508, 2007). Paul and Thecla, Acts of Sts An apocryphal work de­ scribing the adventures of *Paul and *Thecla, which was part of the ‘Acts of St *PauT. Its great popularity in the early Church is shown by its existence not only in the original Gk but also in five separate Lat. translations, as well as in Syriac, Armenian, Slavonic, and Arabic. The ‘Acts’ describe how Paul, after his flight from Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13: 51), arrived at Iconium, where in the house of Onesiphorus he preached the benefits of chastity and thereby won Thecla away from Thamyris, to whom she was betrothed. In consequence, Paul was charged be­ fore the civil authorities and beaten, while Thecla was condemned to death by burning, but miraculously saved. Other incidents in various parts of Asia Minor are de­ scribed in the lives of both Paul and Thecla, and the ‘Acts’ conclude with the record of Theda’s death at Seleucia. It is not impossible that the ‘Acts’ contain some elements of historical truth. Gk text pr. in R. A. Lipsius and M. Bonnet (eds), A cta A postoloru m A p o cryp ha , 1 (Leipzig, 1891), 235-72, Eng. tr. in J. K. Elliott, T he A p o cryp h a l N ew T esta m en t (Oxford, 1993), 364-80. A frag, of a 4th-cent. Gk papyrus was ed., with Eng. tr., by C. H. Roberts, The A n tin o o po lis P apyri (1950), 26-8 (no. 15). Lat. texts ed. O. von Geb­ hardt (TU 22, Heft 2; 1902). Syr. text ed. W. Wright, A pocryphal A cts o f the A postles (1871), 1: 128-69; Eng. tr., 2: 116-45. Ethiopic text ed., with Eng. tr., by E. J. Goodspeed in A m erica n Journal o f S em itic L anguages a n d L iteratures, 17 (1900-1), 65-95. Armenian text pub. Venice, 1874; Eng. tr. of this text by F. C. Conybeare, T he A pology a n d A cts o f A p o llo n iu s a n d other M o nu m en ts o f E arly C h ristia n ity (1894), 61-88, with introd., 49-60. Slavonic text ed. P. Vyncke, J. Scharpe, and J. Goubert (Centrale Bibliotheek van de Rijksuniversiteit te Gent, Mededeling 10; 1967). For important Coptic text, see Pa u l , Ac t s o f St . Ger. tr., taking account of Coptic version, in Schneemelcher, 2 (5th edn, 1989), 216-24; Eng. tr., 2 [1992], 239-46. J. N. Brenner (ed.), T he A p o cryp h a l A cts o f P aul a n d T hecla (Studies on the Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, 2; Kampen, 1996). Paula, St (347-404) Born into Roman aristocracy, mother of five; widowed c.380, she exchanged luxury for semi­ monasticism, then in 385 made intensely experienced pil­ grimage from *Rome to the Holy Land and Egypt with daughter *Eustochium and *Jerome. Settling in *Bethlehem, she founded a double monastery and roadside hostel, segregated by sex except at prayer (women by social rank). Contributing to Jerome’s translation work, Paula and Eustochium were dedicatees of certain biblical commentaries (e.g. on *Galatians), and recipients of letters, including ep. 39 to Paula, solace on her daughter Blesilla’s death, and epp. 22 and 108 to Eustochium, respectively on virginity and highly wrought consolation on Paula’s own demise; his ep. 46, to *Marcella, is in their name. The trio were interred in the Church of the Nativity, and their relationship attracted comment, not least by Chaucer’s Wife of Bath; subject of a 1466 romance by W. C. Perry (1902). Daughter Paulina married *Pammachius; granddaughter Paula the Younger closed Jerome’s eyes in 420. Feast day, 26 Jan. gdb Jerome, E pistulae: ed. I. Hilberg, CSEL 54-6 (Vienna, 191018); tr. W. H. Fremantle, NPNCF II.6 (New York, 1892). A. Cain (ed.-tr.), Jerom e ’s E pitaph on P aula. (OECT, 2013). Paulianists The followers of *Paul of Samosata. Presum­ ably because they repudiated the ^Trinity, the 19th canon of the Council of *Nicaea (325) required that they should be rebaptized on being received back into Catholic communion. Paulicians The members of a sect of the Byzantine em­ pire. Their name may be derived from *Paul, whom they held in special veneration, or, possibly, from *Paul of Sa­ mosata, with whom they had affinities. Greek and Arme­ nian sources give conflicting accounts of their history and beliefs. The origins of the sect are obscure; Gk sources sug­ gest that their founder was Constantine of Mananali, a *Manichaean village near Samosata, who established a community at Kibossa in Armenia under Constantius II (641-68). Under Constantine Pogonatus they were perse­ cuted and their founder was stoned (c.684). According to Armenian sources, they were of Armenian origin, who in the 9th cent, threatened the Byzantine empire from their separate state with Tephrike as its capital; many of them assisted the Saracens in their raids on the empire and ad­ opted Islam. As a consequence they suffered under Emp. Leo the Armenian, and the Empress Theodora tried to ex­ terminate them. After the destruction of their state under the Emp. Basil I many sought refuge in Syria, S. Italy, and the Balkans; in Bulgaria they seem to have amalgamated with the *Bogomils. It seems that they ceased to exist as an independent sect in the 12th cent., though they survived in Armenia until the 19th cent. According to Gk sources, the Paulicians professed a *dualistic doctrine, distinguishing between the good God, the lord of heaven and creator of souls, and the evil God, the demiurge and ruler of the material universe. Holding all matter to be evil, they denied the reality of Christ’s body and of the redemption and considered Christ’s most im­ portant work his teaching. From this contempt of his body they were led to reject the cross and all images. Instead they honoured the book of the Gospels. Like *Marcion, they repudiated the OT and held *Luke and the Pauline Epp. in particular esteem. Armenian sources give a differ­ ent picture, though they confirm their iconoclasm and their Paulinism: in no way dualists, they professed an *adoptianist Christology, and were considered followers of Paul of Samosata. The primary sources incl. Petrus Siculus, ‘Historia Haereseos Manichaeorum qui et Pauliciani’ in P G 104.1239-304; Petrus Sicu­ lus, ‘Sermones contra Paulicianos’, P G 104.1305-50. *Euthymius Zigabenus, ‘Panoplia Dogmatica, tit. xxiv’, P G 130.1189-244. The Gk sources are also ed., with Fr. tr., by C. Astruc et al. in T ravaux et m em oires, 4 (1970), 1-227. K. Ter-Mkrttschian, D ie P aulikianer im b yza n tin isch en K aiserreiche u n d verw andte ketzerische E rscheinungen in A rm en ien (1893; with Armenian sources). Eng. tr. of selected Paulinus, St sources by J. Hamilton and B. Hamilton, C ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA hristian D u a list H eresies Bordeaux. As a young man he served as governor of Cam­ in the B yza n tin e W orld, C .650-C .1405 (Manchester, 1998), 57-174 pania, then married a Spanish noblewoman, Therasia, and and 292-7, with introd., 5-25. N. G. Garsoian, T he P aulician H ere ­ settled on his family estates in Aquitaine. Shortly after­ sy A Study o f the O rigin a n d D evelo p m en t o fP a u licia n ism in A rm e ­ nia and the E astern P rovinces o f the B yza n tin e E m pire (Publications in Near and Middle East Studies, Columbia University, Series A, 6; The Hague, 1967). P. Lemerle, ‘L’Histoire des Pauliciens d’Asie Mineure d’apres les sources grecques’, T ravaux et m em oires 5 (1973), 1-144, with bibl. R. Janin, AA, in D T C 12 (pt 1; 1933), cols 56-62, s.v. ‘Pauliciens’. N. G. Garsoian in O D B, 1606, s.v. ‘Paulicians’. See also works cited under Ma n i a n d Ma n ic h a e is m . Pauline Privilege The privilege conceded by *Paul (1 Cor. 7:12-13,15) to the partner in a pagan marriage to contract a new marriage on becoming a Christian; its use is attested by ’Chrysostom and ’Ambrosiaster. The right became es­ tablished in canon law and is now provided for in the (1983) ’Codex luris Canonici (cans 1143-9): the essential condi­ tions are (a) a marriage entered into by two unbaptized persons; (b) the subsequent baptism of only one of the spouses; and (c) the departure of the still unbaptized spouse. If all of these conditions are met, the newly bap­ tized spouse may enter a new marriage, and the second marriage dissolves the former union. WBS D. Gregory, P auline P rivilege (Washington, DC, 1931). G. Oesterle in D D C 7 (1965), cols 229-80, s.v. ‘Privilege paulin’, with bibl. Paulinus (4th-5th cent.) Biographer of ^Ambrose. A dea­ con of the Church of Milan, he became Ambrose’s secre­ tary (notarius) in his later years and was with him at the time of his death in 397. He was sent to N. Africa by Simplicianus on behalf of the Church of Milan. At the request of *Augustine, there he wrote his Life of St Ambrose (c.422). It is modelled on earlier saints’ Lives and, though full of in­ teresting detail, ignores much that is now regarded as im­ portant, and sets great store by the miraculous. Paulinus supported Augustine during the ^Pelagian controversy and was prob, the author of the libellus sent to Pope ’Zosimus listing the charges against ’Celestius. $ LA The V ita S. A m b ro sii is in P L 14.27-46. Modern edns by M. Pel­ legrino (Verba Seniorum, 1; Rome, 1961) and A. A. R. Bastiaensen, V ita di C ipriani. V ita di A m brogio. V ita d i A gostino (Milan, 1975), 51-125. Eng. tr. by F. R. Hoare, T he W estern F athers (London, 1954), 145-88. The L ibellus adversus C aelestium Z o sim o episcopo d a tu s is in PL 20.711-16. £. Lamirande, P aulin de M ila n etla ‘ V ita A m b ro sii ’ (Paris, 1983), with bibl. C. Pietri and L. Pietri (eds), P rosopog raphie de ITtalie C hretienne (313-604), 2 (Paris, 2000), 1654-8. Paulinus, St (d. c.358) He was a disciple of Maximinus, whom he succeeded in the see of Trier. The sole Gallic bp to refuse to sign the condemnation of Athanasius at the Syn­ od of ’Arles of 353, he was exiled to Phrygia, where he died. His relics were brought back to Trier in 396, where they have since remained. Feast day, 31 Aug. LA AASS, 6 Aug. (1743), 668-79, with 8th-9th-cent. Life, 676-9. R C. Hanson, T he Search fo r the C hristian D octrine o f G od: T he fo ia n C ontroversy, 318-381 (Edinburgh, 1988), 332ff„ 460ff. Paulinus, St (353/5-431) Bp of Nola. The son of a wealthy senatorial family from Aquitaine, he was educated at wards he underwent a spiritual conversion and was bap­ tized (before 390); he and his wife then went to live in N. Spain. After the death of their only son they took a vow of continence and began distributing their fortune; at the same time Paulinus gave up secular poetry, a decision which he defended in a celebrated poetic correspondence with his former mentor, ’Ausonius. In 393 or 394 Paulinus was ordained priest in Barcelona. The next year he and his wife left Spain to lead a monastic life near the tomb of Felix at Nola in Campania, where Paulinus was later made bp (between 403 and 413). Though a cause of scandal to cer­ tain members of his class, his renunciation of worldly in­ terests was hailed as exemplary by advocates of monastic spirituality. He was acquainted with many of the most famous Christians of his time (e.g. ’Martin of Tours, ’Ambrose, ’Jerome, and ’Augustine) and conducted a wide-ranging correspondence, much of which survives. His poetic works have attracted special attention and place him beside ’Prudentius as the foremost Christian Latin poet of the patristic period. Most of his poems were written for the annual celebrations in honour of Felix and are of great interest as throwing light on the cult of saints and popular customs of the time. Feast day, 22 June. See also b e l l s . $ dr l The edn of his works by L. A. ’Muratori (Verona, 1736) is repr. in P L 61. Crit. edns by W. Hartel (CSEL 29 and 30; 1894, rev. by M. Kamptner 1999); of the poems by F. Dolveck (CCSL 21; 2015). Letters ed., with Ger. tr., by M. Skeb, OSB (Fontes Christiani, 25; 3 vols, 1998). Eng. tr. by P. G. Walsh of his Letters (ACW 35-6; 1967) and Poems (ACW 40; 1975). P. Fabre, E ssai su r la C hronologic de I ’C E uvre de S a in t P aulin de N ole (Publications de la Faculte des Lettres de 1’Universite de Strasbourg, 109; 1948); P. Fabre, S a in t P aulin de N ole et T am itie chretienne (Bibliotheque des Ecoles fran^aises d’Athenes et de Rome, 167; 1949). J. T. Lienhard, SJ, P a u ­ lin us o f N ola a n d E arly W estern M o n a sticism (Theophaneia, 28; Cologne and Bonn, 1977). J. Desmulliez, ‘Paulin de Nole: etudes chronologiques (393-397)’, R echerches A u g u stin ien n es 20 (1985), 35-64. D. E. Trout, ‘The Dates of the Ordination of Paulinus of Bor­ deaux and of his Departure for Nola’, R evu e des etu d es A u g u stin i ­ ennes 37 (1991), 237-60. D. E. Trout, P aulinus o f N ola: L ife, L etters, a n d P oem s (Berkeley, 1999). D. E. Trout, ‘The Letter Collection of Paulinus of Nola’, in C. Sogno, B. K. Storin, and E. J. Watts (eds), L ate A n tiq u e L etter C ollections (Berkeley, 2016), 254-68. C. Conybeare, P a u lin u s N oster: S elf a n d Sym bols in the L etters o f P a u lin u s o f N ola (OECS, 2000). S. Mratschek, D er B riefw echsel des P a u lin u s von N ola (Hypomnemata, 134; Gottingen, 2002). F. Dolveck, ‘L’Ultime Commerce epistolaire d’Ausone et de Paulin de Nole’, M ela n g ­ es de I ’E cole fra nch ise de R om e: A n tiq u ite 127 (2015), 217-58. J. Fontaine, N aissance de la poesie d a n s F O ccident chretien (Etudes Augustiniennes, 1981), 143-54, 161-76, and bibl., 297f. C. Pietri and L. Pietri (eds), P rosopographie de IT talie C hretienne (313-604), 2 (Paris, 2000), 1630-54. J. T. Lienhard, SJ, in D iet. Sp. 12 (pt 1; 1984), cols 592-602, s.v., with bibl. S. Mratschek and A. Klein­ schmidt, R A C 26 (2014), cols 1147-66, s.v., with bibl. Paulinus, St (d. 644) Missionary, first bp (and abp) of ’York, and bp of Rochester. Sent from ’Rome by ’Gregory I to England in 601 to reinforce the mission of ’Augustine of Canterbury to the ’Anglo-Saxons, arriving c.604. Con­ secrated by Justus, he accompanied AEthelburh of Kent to 1467 Paulinus, St Paolino di Aquileia alle questione teologiche del secolo VIII’ York when she married *Edwin, king of Northumbria, M em o rie storicheforogiuliesi 66 (1986), 63-86. P. E. Prill, ‘Rhetoric c.625/6. At length, by his preaching and with epistolary and Poetics in the Early Middle Ages’, R hetorica 5/2 (1987), 129-47 support from Boniface V, he brought Edwin and many of S. Barrett, ‘The Rhythmical Songs of Paulinus of Aquileia: Musical his subjects to Christianity, as mooted at the assembly of Examples’, M ittella tein isch es Jahrbuch 41/1 (2006), 23-31. A. Solig. Goodmanham (627). Work on a cathedral was begun at nac, SJ, in D iet. Sp. 12 (pt 1; 1984), cols 584-8, s.v. ‘Paulin d’Aquilee’ York, and he ranged widely in his missionary activity, See also works cited under Aq u il e ia . preaching in the region of Lindsey and building the first church of St-Paul-in-the-Bail, Lincoln, where he consecrat­ Paulists The popular name for members of ‘The Mission­ ed Honorius, the next abp of Canterbury, c.628 (Bede, H ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA E ary Society of St Paul the Apostle in the State of New York’, 2.16); other converts included the future *Hild of Whitby. founded by *Hecker in 1858 to further the work and inter­ After Edwin fell to Cadwallon at the Battle of Hatfield ests of the Catholic Church in the USA. Its members live Chase (633/4), he returned with TEthelburh to Kent, leaving under a rule based on that of the *Redemptorists, of which James the Deacon in his place as Northumbria fragmented order Hecker had previously been a member. Through the and partly returned to paganism; he became bp of supposed connection of Hecker with ^Americanism, the Rochester, and in the latter year received a *pallium as abp Society was under suspicion for a time. of York from *Honorius I, though he stayed in the south until his death. Early shrines at Rochester and Canterbury. Feast day, 10 Oct. GDB Bede, H E , esp. 2.9, 12-14, 16-18, 20 (see also 1.29; 3.1; 4.23; 5.24); with J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, A H istorical C o m m en ta ry (OMT, 1988), 43, 65, 67-71, 74-5, 78-9, 81-2, 84-6. H. Mayr-Harting, ‘Paulinus of York’, S C H 4 (1967), 15-21. P. H. Blair, ‘The Letters of Pope Boniface V and the Mission of Paulinus to Northumbria’, in P. Clemoes and K. Hughes (eds), E ngland before the C o n q u est (Cambridge, 1971), 5-13. H. Mayr-Harting, T he C om ing o f C h risti­ a n ity to A n g lo -S a xo n E ngland (3rd edn, London, 1991). K. Steane, ‘St Paul in the Bail’, C u rren t A rchaeology 129 (1992), 376-9. D. P. Kirby, T he E arliest E nglish K ings (rev. edn, London, 2000). B. Yorke, T he C onversion o f B rita in (Harlow, 2006). T. Pickles, K ingship, Society, a n d the C hurch in A n g lo -S axo n Y orkshire (Oxford, 2018). M. Costambeys in O D N B (2005): <https://doi. org/10.1093/ref:odnb/21626>. Paulinus, St (c.730-802) Bp of *Aquileia. A native of Friuli, he became an assiduous and learned scholar. In 776 *Charlemagne summoned him to the Frankish court, where he made the close acquaintance of *Alcuin and other leading men of learning, and in 787 appointed him patr. of Aquileia. Here he took a leading part in ecclesiastical af­ fairs, notably in the relations between the Byzantine Church and the W. He also took a prominent share in the suppression of *adoptianism, notably at the Councils of Regensburg (792), *Frankfurt (794), and Cividale (796), and in the conversion of the pagans in the Tyrol and adja­ cent provinces. His writings include two anti-adoptianist works—L ibellus Sacrosyllabus contra E lip a n d u m and L ibri H i contra F elicem . He was a poet of no mean order, and was one of the first to give the rhythmical an equal place with metrical verse, as in the lament for Heric, duke of Friuli. Feast day, 28 Jan. (otherwise, 11 Jan. and 2 Mar.) $ SRIF Works ed. J. F. Madrisius, Cong Orat. (Venice, 1737), repr. in P L 99.9-683. Modern edn of his Epp. by E. Diimmler in M G H , Epistolae, 4 (1895), 516-27, of his Poems, with introd, and comm in Fr., by D. Norberg (Stockholm, 1979); and of C ontra F elicem by D. Norberg (CCCM 95; 1990). Lives by C. Giannoni (Vienna, 1896) and P. Paschini (Udine, 1906; repr. 1977). L iber exh o rta tio n is, ed. A. de Nicola, A tti e m em o rie della Societa Istria n a di archeologia e storia p a tri, n s 49, 1010 (2002, for 2001), 187-213. J. Szoverffy, D ie A n n a len d er lateinischen H ym n en d ich tu n g , 1 (1964), 194-202. J. Szoverffy, W eltliche D ichtungen des lateinischen M ittela lters, 1 (1970), 471-7. Raby (1953), 168-71. A. De Nicola, T1 contribute di 1468 J. McVann in D IP 8 (1988), cols 10-12, s.v. ‘Sacerdoti Missionari di San Paolo Apostolo’. R. J. O’Donnell, CSP, in N C E (2nd edn), 11 (2003), 40-2, s.v. See also bibls to Am e r ic a n is m ; He c k e r , Is a a c Th o m a s Paulus Orosius See Or o s iu s . Paulus Silentiarius (6th cent.; a silen tia riu s was an usher who maintained silence in the imperial Palace) Christian poet. He wrote during the reign of *Justinian (emp. 527-65). His principal work, a hymn to mark the consecration of Sancta Sophia (see Ha g ia So ph ia ) at ^Constantinople on 24 Dec. 562, gives a full description (f.K<f panic,) of the church and pulpit (ap^cov) in fluent hexameters, and is of great interest for the history of Byzantine art. Paulus also wrote some 80 epigrams, some highly erotic, preserved in the Gk anthology. A poem on the Baths of Pythia in Bithynia has also, but wrongly, been ascribed to him. $ SP Paulus’ E cphrasis and A m b o , ed. I. Bekker (CSH Byz., 1837); repr. in P G . 86.2119-58 and 2251-64. Crit. edn of E cphrasis and A m b o by Claudio De Stefani (Teubner; Berlin, 2011). Partial Eng. trs in C. Mango, T he A rt o f th e B yza n tin e E m pire, 312-1453: Sources a n d D o cu m en ts (Toronto, 1986), 80-96, and P. N. Bell, T hree P oliti­ cal V oices from the A ge o f Justinian (TTH 52; Liverpool, 2009), 7995,189-212. Epigrams ed., with Itai. tr. and comm., by G. Viansino (Turin, 1963). M. L. Fobelli, U n tem pio p er G iu stin ia n o (Rome, 2005), with edn and Itai tr. of E kphrasis and A m b o . E. van Opstall, ‘The Works of the Emperor and the Works of the Poet: Paul the Silentiary’s “Ekphrasis” of Hagia Sophia’, B yza n tio n 87 (2017), 387405. A. di Berardino (ed.), P atrology: The E astern F athers fro m the C ouncil o f C halcedon (451) to John o f D am ascus (J750), tr. A. Wal­ ford (Cambridge, 2006), 102-4 (Itai., 2000). C PG 3 (1979), 402 (nos 7513-16). pax See k is s o f pe a c e ; pa x b r e d e . pax brede (also pax or osculatorium) A small plate of ivory, metal, or wood, with a representation of the crucifix­ ion or other religious subject on the face and a projecting handle on the back, formerly used at Mass for conveying the *kiss of peace esp. to those in choir and to the laity. It was kissed first by the celebrant and then by the others, who Pius I, St anti-French candidate in the ^conclave of 1458, papal patristic texts, and an important collection of canonical election, and choice of the name Pius from Virgil’s ‘Pius material, ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA lu ris E cclesiastici G raecorum H istoria et M onuAeneas’. m en ta (2 vols, 1864-8). Pius asserted himself in relation to Siena, raising it to Lives by F. *Cabrol, OSB (Paris, 1893), and A. Battandier (Paris, metropolitan status (1459), establishing a dynasty of Picco­ 1896). There is also a short biog. introd, by A. Battandier prefixed to lomini abps, and canonizing ^Catherine Benincasa. Corsig­ the posthumously pub. vol. 6 of the A n a lecta Sacra (Paris and Rome, 1891), viii-xix. List of his works in F. Cabrol, OSB (ed.), B ibliogra ­ nano was renamed Pienza in his honour, made a bishopric p h ic des B en ed ictin s de la C ongregation de F rance (Solesmes, 1889), (1462), and rebuilt as an alternative papal capital. The pope’s 37-52 and 197. J.-P. Laurant, Sym bolism e et ecriture: le C ardinal P iearlier life was also reflected in his dealings with the secular tra et la ‘C lef ’ de M elito n de Sardis (Paris, 1988). M. Ott in C E 12 powers, not least in the bull E xecrabilis (18 Jan. 1460), in (1911), 119f. P. Sejourne, OSB, in D T C 12 (pt 2; 1935), cols 2238-45. which he condemned the practice of appealing to a general council. Louis XI reset Franco-papal relations by revoking the *Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges in 1461 for his own do­ Pius I, St (d. c.154?) According to the *Liber Pontificalis, mestic purposes, but German princes continued to toy with born in *Aquileia and bp of *Rome from 146, for nineteen conciliarism and the Bohemian *utraquists refused to bow years; the *Muratorian Fragment and the Siberian Cata­ to papal authority. The overriding priority of Pius’ six-year logue make him brother to *Hermas, author of The *Sheppontificate was to unite the Christian powers in a *crusade herd (and ostensibly a freedman). He settled the *Paschal against the Ottomans, who were rapidly advancing through Controversy, decreeing that Easter be celebrated on Sunday, Greece and the Balkans, but poor attendance at his Con­ and possibly excommunicated *Marcion; there is no men­ gress of Mantua (1459-60) confirmed the secular princes’ tion of his pontificate during the Roman ministry of *Justin lack of interest. Pius felt he had no option but to lead a cru­ Martyr. His role in founding the churches of S. *Pudentiana sade himself and got as far as Ancona, where he died, s r f and S. *Praxedes developed in their passio of 498-514, and his martyrdom is likewise later tradition; feast day, 11 July, downgraded to memorial since 1969. GDB L P (Duchesne), 1, §11, 132-3; tr. R. Davis, TTH 6 (3rd edn, 2010), 5. M. Lapidge (tr.), T he R o m a n M a rtyrs (OECS, 2017), §15. Pius II (1405-64) Pope from 1458. Enea Silvio Piccolomini belonged to a Sienese family excluded from holding politi­ cal office, and consequently he was born at Corsignano in the Sienese contado. His life is known in considerable de­ tail because he recorded it in his autobiographical C om m entarii. In the 1420s he studied law at Siena and Greek in Florence, where he met a number of leading humanist scholars. In 1432 he became secretary to Card. D. Capranica, accompanying him to the Council of *Basel. When Capranica returned to Rome, Piccolomini transferred to the service of Card. N. Albergati and was sent on missions to Lombardy, Savoy, Burgundy, and ^Scotland in 1435. As the council put its antipapal programme into practice, Pic­ colomini was committed to that cause, acting as master of ceremonies at the election of‘Felix V’, serving as the anti­ pope’s secretary, and expounding the *conciliar theory in his L ibellus D ialogorum de C oncilii A u cto rita te (1440). In 1442 Felix sent him on a mission to the Diet of Frankfurt, where he received the poet’s laurel crown from Frederick, king of the Romans, and accepted employment in the im­ perial chancellery. His literary output was always prolific and at this stage included the novella D e D u o b u s A m a n tibus (1444). Imperial employment made him realize that the council favoured French interests, while the empire was better served by cooperating with the *holy see. In 1445 he was publicly pardoned by *Eugenius IV and opted for a clerical career. In 1447 he received priestly orders and was made bp of Trieste by *Nicholas V, who translated him to Siena in 1450. During the same pontificate he acted as leg­ ate to Bohemia and accompanied Frederick III to Rome for his imperial coronation. *Callistus III promoted him to the cardinalate in 1456, leading to his participation as an 1524 O pera, pub. Basel, 1551. Selected letters (Northridge, Calif., 1969; Washington, DC, 2006); L ettere scritte durante il cardinalato (Brescia, 2007). Editions of individual works inch E pistola ad M o h a m a tem = E pistle to M o h a m m ed II (New York, 1990). D e V iris Illustribus (Vatican City, 1991). D e G estis C oncilii B asiliensis C o m m en ta rio ru m (Oxford, 1992). C arm ina (Vatican City, 1994). D e E uropa (Vatican City, 2001). H istoria R erum F riderici T ertii Im peratoris (Vatican City, 2001). C om m entaries (2 vols, Cambridge, Mass., 2003-7). H istorica B ohem ica (3 vols, Cologne, 2005). E pistolarium Seculare: C om plectens D e D uobus A m a n tib u s, D e N a tu ris E quorum , D e C urialium M iseriis (Vatican City, 2007). G erm ania (Florence, 2009) and H istoria A ustralis (Hanover, 2009). Modern edns of Lives by Giovanni Antonio Campano and B. Platina (see Sa c c h i , Ba r ­ t o l o m e o ) ed. G. C. Zimolo (Raccolta degli Storici Italiani, nuova edizione, Tomo 3, Parte 2; Bologna, 1964) and by A. van Heck (ST 341;1991). R. J. Mitchell, T he L aurels a n d the T iara: P ope P ius II 1458146 4 (London, 1962). D. Maffei (ed.), E nea Silvio P iccolom ini Papa P io II: a tti del C onvegno p er il quinto centenario della m orte e altri scritti (Siena, 1968). G. Bernetti, Saggi e S tu d i sugli Scritti di E nea Silvio P iccolom ini P apa P io II (Florence, 1971). C. Ugurgieri della Be- rardenga, P io II P iccolom ini con notizie su P io III (Biblioteca dell Archivio Storico Italiano, 18; 1973), 31-498. L. Totaro, P io II nei suoi Commentarii (Bologna, 1978). L. R. Secchi Tarugi (ed.), P io II e la C ultura del suo T em po: A tti del I convegno internazionale — 1989 (Mi­ lan, 1991). Pastor, 3 (1894). M. Pellegrini in E nciclopedia dei P api, 2 (2000), 663-85, <http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/pio-ii_(Enciclopedia-dei-Papi)/>. L. D’Ascia, Il C orano e la tiara: T epistola a M aom etto II di E nea Silvio P iccolom ini (papa P io II) (Bologna, 2001). Z. von Martels and A. Vanderjagt (eds), P ius II ‘elp iii expeditivo pontifice ’: Selected Studies on A eneas Silvius P iccolom ini (Leiden and Boston, 2003). N. Bisaha, ‘Pope Pius II and the Crusade’, in N. Hous­ ley (ed.), C rusading in the F ifteenth C entury (Houndmills and New York, 2004), 39-52. M. A. Terzoli (ed.), E nea Silvio P iccolom ini: uom o di lettere e m ediatore di culture (Basel, 2006). L. Secchi Tarugi (ed.), P io II u m a n ista europeo (Florence, 2007). B. Baldi, Il ‘cardinale tedesco ’: E nea Silvio P iccolom ini fra im pero, papato, E uropa (Milan, 2012). M. Pellegrini in D B I 83 (2015), 794-803, <http://www.treccani.it/ enciclopedia/papa-pio-ii_(Dizionario-Biografico)/>. Pius IV (1499-1565) Pope from 1559. Gian Angelo Medici of Milan studied law at Pavia and Bologna before transfer­ ring to Rome, where he favoured the interests of *Charles V Popovic, Justin, St 359-78. N. Vincent, ‘“Let us go down from this Joyful Commence­ (4) As ‘supreme pontiff of the Universal Church’ (su m m u s ment to the Plain”: Richard Poer and the Refoundation of Salisbury p o n tifex E cclesiae universalis), he is sovereign over Chris­ Cathedral’, in P. Binski and E. A. New (eds), ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA P atrons a n d P rofession ­ tendom; cf. the parallel title of‘Pontifex Maximus, mostly als in the M iddle A ges (Donington, 2012), 5-40. B. R. Kemp, E nglish confined to rhetorical contexts, until in the 14th cent, it was E piscopal A cta, 19: Salisbury, 1217-1228 (Oxford, 2000). B R U O 3 picked up as an occasional label for the pope by humanist (1959), 2189. P. Hoskin in O D N B (2009): <https://doi.org/10.1093/ writers, as part of their classicizing literary agenda. (5) As ref:odnb/22525>. ‘primate of Italy’ (p rim a tu s Italiae), he nominates the pres­ Poor M en of Lyon The name under which Pope Lucius III condemned the ‘Waldenses in 1184. $ SRF pope (Gk nannac;, m xnaq; Lat. papa, ‘father’) In ‘Latin, initially an honorific for any ‘bishop, first used by ‘Tertullian (D e p u d icitia , 13) and ‘Cyprian (e.g. epp. 30, 31) in the early to mid-3rd cent., now restricted, in the W., to the pope as supreme head of the Catholic Church; in ‘Greek, from the same date (see ‘Eusebius, H E 7.7.4), for the "^patri­ arch of‘Alexandria, who is still regularly so styled, though in modern popular usage the term is applied to ‘parish priests in the Orthodox Church. Since these beginnings the word could be used of the bp of ‘Rome, but it came to denote him in particular, personally then officially, from the early 6th cent., as by ‘Ennodius, at the Council of *Vaison (529), and in the ‘Liber Pontificalis; the chancery at ‘Constantinople started to reserve it likewise. By the 8th cent, it was seldom employed of any other ecclesiastical dignitary, and features in the ‘Donation of Constantine: the ‘Dictatus papae’, thesis 11, ‘His title is unique in the world’, issued by ‘Gregory VII in 1075, is the definitive statement of that convention by the ‘papacy. The term en­ tered this language via the Old English Bede (H E 4.1, St ‘Vitalian) of the late 9th/early 10th cent. GDB; OM P. de Labriolle, ‘Papa’, A L M A 4 (1928), 65-75. J. Moorhead, ‘Papa as “Bishop of Rome’”, JE H 36 (1985), 337-50. M. J. Edwards, ‘Constantine’s Donation to the “Bishop and Pope of the City of Rome’”, JTS 56 (2005), 115-21. ident of the Italian Episcopal Conference, encompassing Italy itself, San Marino, and ‘Vatican City. (6) As ‘arch­ bishop and metropolitan of the province of Rome’ (archiepiscopus ac m etropolitanus p ro vin cia e R om anae), he presides over the Roman diocese and its suffragan sees, the seven ‘suburbicarian dioceses. (7) As ‘sovereign of the state of Vatican City’ (princeps sui iuris civitatis V aticanae), he governs the holy see under the terms of the ‘Lateran Treaty of 1929. (8) As ‘servant of the servants of God’ (servus ser ­ vo ru m D ei), finally, he is the humble imitator of Christ (Jn 13:16): first utilized by ‘Gregory I, conceivably intended to shame ‘Oecumenical’ Patriarch John IV of‘Constantino­ ple. While not exclusive to the pope, together with episco ­ p u s it became the standard introduction of papal bulls, and Paul VI latterly incorporated it into the titulature. One other title, ‘patriarch of the West’ (patriarcha occidentis), referring to papal authority over the territories comprising the Western Roman empire, enjoyed only intermittent use: ‘Theodosius II addressed ‘Leo I thus in 450, and Theodore I, confronting Christological controversy in the East, as­ sumed it in 642, but it did not gain formal recognition until 1863, and was retired by ‘Benedict XVI in 2006. OM; GDB I. Kajanto, 'P ontifex M a xim u s as the Title of the P o p e, A rctos 15 (1981), 37-52. Y. ‘Congar, ‘Titres donnes au pape’, repr. in D ro it ancien et stru ctu res ecclesiales (London, 1982), 6: 55-64. A. Camer­ on, ‘The Imperial P o n tifex, H arvard Studies in C lassical P hilology 103 (2007), 341-84. R. Dijkstra and D. van Espelo, ‘A Reconsider­ ation of the Papal Employment of the Title P o n tifex M a xim u s, JR H 41/3 (2017), 312-25. Pope Joan See Jo a n , Po pe . pope, titulature of The ‘pope has eight official titles, ac­ cording to the ‘Annuario Pontificio, though in the most recent edition (2020) all but the first have been abruptly relegated to a footnote. (1) As ‘bp of‘Rome’ (episcopus R om anus), the most ancient expression of papal authority, his seat is the ‘Lateran Basilica (S. Giovanni in Laterano); the analogous form of‘Roman pontiff’ (R om anus p o n tifex, see below) is more common in historical usage, while ‘Paul VI, uniquely, signed the Second ‘Vatican Council as ‘bishop of the ‘Catholic Church’ to underline the collegial connota­ tion. (2) As ‘‘vicar of Christ’ (vicarius C hristi, or lesu C hristi), he is pastor of the Christian flock (Jn 21: 15-17); sometimes derived from ‘Ignatius of Antioch’s reference to the bp as ‘presiding in the place of God [eZq t o t io v 3 e o v ] ’ (Ep. M agnes. 6.1), it was first given to ‘Gelasius I at the Ro- man Synod of 495. Historically it has also been used of kings, judges, the Christian emperor, and in ‘‘Lumen Gen­ tium is applied to all bps. (3) As ‘successor of the prince of the ‘apostles’ (successor principis A postolorum ), he is invested by Christ himself (Mt. 16:18-19): in the ‘Liber Pontifica­ lis and its sources, ‘Peter was reckoned the original bp of Rome, Petrine primacy being the basis of papal primacy. Popery, the Declaration against The declaration im­ posed by the Parliament Act 1678 at the time of the ‘Popish Plot requiring all Members of Parliament except the Duke of York to denounce transubstantiation, the Mass, and in­ vocation of saints as idolatrous. It was abolished in 1778, when another and less exacting oath was substituted for it, allowing military recruits simply to take an oath of fidelity to the crown. Popish Plot In English history, the supposed plot to mur­ der ‘Charles II which ‘Oates claimed that he had discov­ ered in 1678. Despite the great sensation it created, it seems to have been a pure invention of Oates. $ SRF [F.] J. Pollock, T he P opish P lot (1903; 2nd edn, Cambridge, 1944). J. Kenyon, T he P opish P lot (London, 1972). R. L. Greaves, Se ­ crets o f the K ingdom : B ritish R adicals from the P opish P lot to the R evo lu tio n o f 1688 -89 (Stanford, Calif, 1992), 5-32. Popovic, Justin, St (1894-1979) Serbian Orthodox theolo­ gian. Born in Vranje, S. Serbia, into a priestly family, he 1543 Prosperity Gospel its proponents maintain that proportionalism also aims at the integral good of the person in a way that is not merely utilitarian. RJS; JR Augustinian teachings, writing a series of works in their defence: responses aimed at *Vincent of Lerins, and the D e G ratia D ei et L ibero A rbitrio against Cassian. Gradually in the latter 430s he moderated his position, notably in the g V. Vacek, SJ, ‘Proportionalism: One View of the Debate’, ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Theological Studies 46 (1985), 287-314. B. Hoose, P roportionalism : E xpositio P salm orum and (probably) the C apitula C oelestiThe A m erican D ebate a n d its E uropean R oots (Washington, DC, ni, an appendix to the pope’s own brief to Gallic bps. From 1987). J- Finnis, M o ra l A bsolutes: T radition, R evision, a n d T ruth c.440 he was attached to Teo I in some capacity: *Genna(Washington, DC, 1991). P. 1. Odozor, R ichard A . M cC orm ick a n d dius (D e V iris Illustribus, 85) has him dictating the pope’s the R enew al o f M o ra l T heology (Notre Dame, Ind., 1995). letters against *Eutyches. In place of the stern Augustinianism of his earlier polemics, he reached in his most origi­ nal work, the D e V ocatione O m n iu m G en tiu m of 450, a Prose (Lat. prosa) An alternative name, once common in milder position which rejected predestined damnation and England, for the *sequence. The word has occasionally affirmed the will of God to save all men, though retaining been applied to other anthems of similar form which have a firm belief in the fated reprobation of many. This late pe­ no place in the liturgy. riod also saw continued dissemination of Augustinian ar­ guments through compilation and epigram, as well as the proselyte (Gk TtpoorjXvToc,') The standard LXX translation composition of his chronicle, which follows *Eusebius-*Jeof the Heb. ger, which denoted a non-Israelite resident tem­ rome until 378, but thereafter is of independent value down porarily or permanently in the land. Since such resident to 455, and circulated widely in multiple editions. He was aliens were required to observe the laws of Israel, the word alive in 463, according to Marcellinus Comes (C hronica, came to be used of non-Jews who converted to Judaism s.a.); his considerable legacy in Gaul is felt in the canons of whether inside or outside the land. There is evidence that the Council of Orange (529) and Carolingian theological some Jews actively promoted conversion to Judaism in the thinking more broadly. Feast day, 7 July. GDB Hellenistic-Roman period, the most high-profile converts See C P L 516-28 (with 529-35). P L 51.1-868. E xp o sitio P salm o ­ being King Izates of Adiabene, his mother Helena, and his ru m and L iber S en ten tia ru m , ed. P. Callens and M. Gastaldo (CCSL brother Monobazus, c .a d 45 (Josephus, A n tiq u ities 20.3468A; Turnhout, 1972). D e P rovidentia D ei, ed. and tr. M. Mar8). Acts distinguishes between Jews/Israelites, proselytes, covich (Supplem etns to V G 10; Leiden, 1989). D e V ocatione O m n i ­ and God-fearers (Acts 2:11; 13:16, 26, 43; 16:14; 17:17; 18: 7). u m G en tium , ed. R. J. Teske and D. Weber (CSEL 97; Vienna, 2009); also tr. P. de Letter (ACW 14; New York, 1952). A d C oniugem Suam , Proselytes had undergone full conversion to Judaism, in­ ed. S. Santelia (Studi Latini 68; Naples, 2009). E p itom a C hronicocluding circumcision. God-fearers had not, but were suffi­ ru m , ed. and tr. M. Becker and J.-M. Kotter (Kleine und Fragmenciently attracted to Judaism to attend synagogue. PSA M. Goodman, M ission a n d C onversion: P roselytizing in the R e ­ ligious H istory o f th e R o m a n E m pire (Oxford, 1994). proskomide (Gk npoaK opiSrf) In the E. Church, the preparation of the bread and wine for the eucharist, which takes place before the beginning of the service at the table known as the *prothesis. From the *prosphora, the priest cuts the Tamb to be consecrated, and other pieces in hon­ our of the Mother of God and the saints, as well as in mem­ ory of the living and the departed with the *lance, and then arranges them on the *diskos as prescribed by the rubrics; then the deacon pours wine and water into the chalice; and the whole is afterwards veiled. At the end of the cere­ mony the bread and wine are censed and a prayer is said over them. In origin the proskomide is the second part of the ’offertory, moved back to the beginning of the service. There are considerable variations in terminology among liturgical writers, the proskomide being sometimes known as the prothesis. Prosper of Aquitaine, St (c.390-c.463) Controversialist, theologian, and chronicler; probably a lay monk. Settled in Marseille as a refugee from the Visigoths, he correspond­ ed with ^Augustine soon after the outbreak of the *semiPelagian controversy (426), endorsing his views on predestination against the criticisms of *Cassian’s school. Around 430 he wrote the C arm en de ingratis on grace, a poem of over 1,000 hexameter lines, and the next year travelled to *Rome to secure ^Celestine Ts support for tarische Historiker der Spatantike G5-6; Paderborn, 2016). L iber E p ig ra m m a tu m , ed. A. G. A. Horsting (CSEL 100; Berlin, 2016). P ro A u g u stin o R esponsiones, tr. P. de Letter (ACW 32; New York, 1963). R. Lorenz, ‘Der Augustinismus Prospers von Aquitanien’, Z K G 73 (1962), 217-52. S. Muhlberger, ‘The Copenhagen Continuation of Prosper’, F lorilegium 6 (1984/5), 50-95. R. A. Markus, ‘Chronicle and Theology: Prosper of Aquitaine’, in C. Holdsworth and T. P. Wiseman (eds), T he Inheritance o f H istoriography, 3 5 0 -9 0 0 (Exeter Studies in History 12; Exeter, 1986), 31-43. P. L. Barclift, ‘Predestination and Divine Foreknowledge in the Sermons of Pope Leo the Great’, C H 62/1 (1993), 5-21. M. Humphries, ‘Prosper of Aquitaine, his Methods, and the Development of Early Medieval Chronography’, E arly M edieval E urope 5/2 (1996), 155-75. M. Vessey, ‘Augustine and his Readers, 426-435 A.D.’, VG 52/3 (1998), 264-85. A. Elberti, P rospero d ’A q u ita n ia (Rome, 1999). A. Casiday, ‘Cassian against the Pelagians’, S tu d ia M o n a stica 46/1 (2004), 7-23. A. Y. Hwang, The L ife a n d T hought o f P rosper o f A q u i ­ ta in e (Washington, DC, 2009). J. Delmulle, ‘La Nature, la loi et la grace dans le premier augustinisme’, R evue de T H istoire des R eli ­ g io n s 229/2 (2012), 193-214. J.-M. Kotter, ‘Prosper von Aquitanien und Papst Leo der Grosse’, R Q 111.3-4 (2016), 252-71. Prosperity Gospel A Protestant, primarily *Pentecostal and ^Charismatic, movement that sees the receipt of material and financial rewards as an inherent part of Christianity. The roots of Prosperity Gospel (also called Prosperity Theology) lie in the ‘positive thinking’ phenomenon of those like Norman Vincent Peale, and in revival and heal­ ing missions, in post-war USA. It was in the 1970s, how­ ever, often through tele-evangelists, that the connection of the gospel with material prosperity was cemented. 1581 Roman Martyrology into Europe have launched Romanian churches into a vast pastoral ‘work in progress’ abroad. BT-C skill and often integrates dramatic dialogues to great effect. His compositions were performed in the liturgy for centu­ ries. Feast day, 1 Oct. up The main literature is in Romanian. An overview in English exists by M. Beza, ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA T he R u m a n ia n C hurch (London, 1943). M. PacuCrit. edn by P. Maas and C. A. Trypanis, C antica genu ina rariu, G eschichte d er R u m a n isch en O rth o d o xen K irche (Oikono(Oxford, 1963); C antica dubia (Berlin, 1970) ed. with Fr. tr. by mia, 33; Erlangen, 1994). T he R o m a n ia n O rth o d o x C hurch J.GrosdidierdeMatons(SC99,110,114,128,283; 1964-81). Select­ Y esterday a n d T oday, published by the Romanian Orthodox ed Eng. trs: by M. Carpenter, K o n ta kia o f R o m a n os (2 vols, Colum­ Church (Bucharest, 1979). K. Hitchins, O rtho d o xy a n d N a tion a li ­ bia, Mo. 1970-3); by E. Lash, O n the L ife o f C hrist (San Francisco, ty: A n d reiu Saguna a n d the R u m a n ia n s o f T ransylvania, 1846-1873 1995); by R. Schork, Sacred Song from the B yza n tin e P u lp it (Gaines­ (Harvard Historical Studies, 94; Cambridge, Mass., 1977). ville, Fla, 1995). J. Grosdidier de Matons, R om anos le M elode et les P. S. Nasturel, L e M o n t A th o s et les R oum ains: recherches sur leurs origines de la poesie religieuse a B yzance (Paris, 1977). W. L. Peters­ relations du m ilieu d u X lV e siecle a 1654 (Orientalia Christiana en, T he D iatessaron a n d E phraem Syrus as Sources o f R om anos the Analecta, 227; Rome, 1986). L. Turcescu and L. Stan (eds), R eligion M elo dist (CSCO 475 / Subs. 74; 1985). S. Brock, ‘From Ephrem to a n d P olitics in P o st-C o m m u n ist R o m a n ia (Oxford, 2007). Romanos’, S tu d ia P atristica 20 (1989), 139-51 L. Van Rompay, ‘Ro­ L. Leu^tean, O rth o d o xy a n d the C old W ar: R eligion a n d P olitical manos le Melode: un poete syrien a Constantinople’, in J. Boeft and P ow er in R o m a n ia , 1947-65 (London, 2009). F. Baltaceanu and A. Hilhorst (eds), E arly C hristian P oetry (Leiden, 1993), 283-96. M. Brosteanu, V la d im ir G hika, professeu' d esp era n ce (Paris, Th. Arentzen, T he V irgin in Song: M a ry a n d the P oetry o f R om anos 2013). On the general history of the country, N. lorga, H isto ire des the M elo d ist (Philadelphia, 2017). S. Gador-Whyte, T heology and R o u m ain s et de leu r civilisa tio n (Paris, 1920; 2nd edn, Bucharest, P oetry in E arly B yza n tiu m : T he K o n ta kia o f R om an os the M elodist 1922; Eng. tr., 1925). R. W. Seton-Watson, A H isto ry o f the R o m a ­ (Cambridge, 2017). n ia n s fro m R o m a n T im es to th e C om pletion o f U n ity (Cambridge, 1934). Gh. I. Bratianu, U ne enigm e et un m iracle historique: le p eu p le ro u m a in (Bucharest, 1937). K. Hitchins, T he R o m a n ia n s, 1774Roman Psalter The text of the biblical Psalter which was 1866 (Oxford, 1996). M. Lacko et al. in N C E (2nd edn), 12 (2003), used in all churches in Rome, as well as elsewhere in Italy, 329-37, s.v. L. Tautu et al., ibid., 337-40, s.v. ‘Romanian Catholic down to the time of Pope "Pius V (1566-72), when it was Church (Eastern Catholic)’. virtually replaced, except at "St Peter’s, Rome, by the Roman M artyrology (1584) Official calendar of martyrs (and in practice saints and blessed) venerated by the Ro­ man Catholic Church, the M artyrologium R o m a n u m was compiled by a commission of ten noted scholars, including *Baronio, and issued by Pope "Gregory XIII in successive editions in 1583-4; the third was declared obligatory as far as the reach of the Roman rite. Building on the pioneering work of Petrus de Natalibus, this text superseded the medi­ eval proliferation of local versions with duplications and other errors, and drew principally from "Usuard’s 9th-cent. compilation, Card. Sirleto’s Latin "Menologion, and patris­ tic writings. Changing liturgical practice, historical scholarship, and new beatifications and canonizations have occasioned periodic revision: under "Urban VIII (1630), then by ^Benedict XIV himself, quite radically (1748), and subsequent minor iterations under "Pius IX (1870), "Pius X (1913), and ^Benedict XV (1922), until the comprehensive new edition begun after the Second ’''Vati­ can Council and issued by *John Paul II (2001/4), recogniz­ ing some 7,000 saints. GDB M. Sodi et al., M a rtyro lo g iu m R o m a n u m : E d itio p rin cep s (1584) (Vatican, 2005). J. B. O’Connell (ed.), T he R om an M artyrology (London, 1962). L. C. Sheppard, ‘The Roman Martyrology’, D R 81/262 (1963), 37-49. Romanos, St (Romanos the M elodist) (fl. 536-56) Gk religious poet, the most significant composer of the "kontakion, a metrical sermon chanted to music. Born in Eme­ sa (Homs) in Syria, he became a deacon in Beirut and established himself in Constantinople during the reign of Emp. Anastasius I. About 90 kontakia have come down to us under his name, not all genuine. They focus on the li­ turgical feasts, biblical characters and episodes, and saints. Influenced by Syriac didactic poetry, especially that of Ephrem, Romanos treats his material with supreme 1672 ‘"Gallican Psalter’. Earlier scholarship equated it with revision of the Latin Psalter which Jerome says he compiled hastily (‘cursim’) on the basis of the *Septuagint. Few scholars now think that the Roman Psalter was produced by Jerome, though he may have used it as a basis for his first attempt to translate the Pss. See also ps a l t e r . Crit. edn by R. Weber, OSB (Collectanea Biblica Latina, 10; Rome, 1953). D. de Bruyne, ‘Le Probleme du psautier romain’, R . B en. 42 (1930), 101-26. A. Allgeier, ‘Die erste Psalmeniibersetzung des hl. Hieronymus und das Psalterium Romanum’, B iblica 12 (1931), 447-82. Romans, Epistle to the The longest of *Paul’s epistles and the most systematic. It was dispatched from *Corinth, c .a d 55-8, when Paul was about to leave for "Jerusalem and was planning to go on from Jerusalem to "Rome and then "Spain. In the Epistle, Paul addressed believers, Jews (2: 17-27; 7: 1-6), and gentiles (11: 13-32) in Rome, where he had neither visited nor founded the Christian community. He wrote as one conscious of his apostolic commission from Christ, yet deferentially, as ‘not wishing to build upon another’s foundation’ (15: 20). The Epistle is by common consent Paul’s masterpiece and many saints and Christian leaders had their lives and thoughts changed by reading it. Among them were ’'Au­ gustine, *Luther, and *Barth. However, the occasion, pur­ pose, and theme of the Epistle are still under debate, known as the ‘Romans Debate’. The main issues are twofold: Is the Epistle a timeless compendium of the Christian faith ("Melanchthon) or addressed to the specific situation in Rome (*Baur)? Does the Epistle focus on the ‘individual’ human being and salvation (Reformation approach) or the ‘people issue, how could gentiles be included into God’s people together with Jews (new perspective approach)? sabbatical year et al. in E ncyclopaedia Judaica, 14 (Jerusalem, 1972), cols 574-86, Jesus’ sabbath disputes with certain Pharisaic opponents s.v. ‘Sabbatical Year and Jubilee’. C. J. H. Wright, ‘Sabbatical Year’ about healing (e.g. Mt. 12: 10) and plucking of ears of corn in A B D 5 (1992), 857-61. D. L. Baker, T ight F ists or O pen H ands? (Mt. 12: If.) attest this same debate, which continued until W ealth a n d P overty in O ld T esta m en t L aw (Grand Rapids, Mich., rabbinic times (cf. the *Mishnah tractate ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Shabb at). Like and Cambridge, 2009). certain rabbis, Jesus privileged saving life on the sabbath to show that the sabbath was made for the sake of humankind and not vice versa (Mk 2:27; cf. Mekhilta Shabbata 1 (Exod. Sabbatine Privilege An indulgence granted to the ’"Car­ 31:12)). Hints at Christian meetings on *Sunday appear as melite order. On the basis of a bull, Sacratissim o u ti C ulm early as the NT (Acts 20: 7; 1 Cor 16: 2; cf. Rev. 1: 10), while ine, ascribed to *John XXII (1322), which was held to rest Hebrews develops Jewish ideas of the sabbath as prefigur­ on an apparition of the BVM, certain privileges were ing eschatological rest. The apostolic Church and subse­ granted to the Carmelite order and its confraternities. quent Jewish Christianity largely continued to keep the They include unfailing salvation and early release from seventh day as a day of rest and prayer. Gentiles, by con­ Purgatory through the intervention of the BVM (esp. re­ trast, were never expected to keep the sabbath by either lease on ^Saturdays, Our Lady’s day), provided certain Jews or Jewish Christians. Commemoration of both the conditions, such as wearing the brown *scapular, keeping *resurrection and coming of the "Holy Spirit on the first certain fasts, and reciting the *Little Office of Our Lady, are day of the week soon led to the observance of *Sunday, be­ observed. The Sabbatine Privilege has been confirmed by fore long incorporating sabbath theology and imagery in several popes, e.g. by *Pius XI in 1922. The authenticity of keeping Sunday as the Christian day not just of worship the original bull was widely contested in the 16th and 17th (cf. Ignatius, M agn. 9.1; Justin, 1 A pol. 67.9) but of rest (for­ cents, esp. by the Jesuit *Papebroch, and some violent con­ mally confirmed by Constantine in a d 321 and the Council troversies ensued. Its spuriousness is now admitted even by of Laodicea in a d 363: Canon 29). In modern times the Carmelites themselves, such as B. Zimmerman. It prob, ■"Seventh-day Adventists and Seventh Day ’"Baptists ob­ dates from the latter half of the 15th cent. serve Saturday rather than Sunday; Ethiopian and Eritrean A note of the bull of John XXII occurs in G. Mollat (ed.), Jean (Tewahedo) Orthodox Churches traditionally observed both X X II (1316-1334): lettres co m m u n es analysees d ’a pres les registres sabbath and Sunday. MB dits d A vig n o n et du V atican, 4 (Paris, 1910), 169 (no. 16193). S. Bacchiocchi, F rom Sabbath to S u n da y (Rome, 1977). D. K. Falk, D aily, Sabbath, a n d F estival P rayers in the D ead Sea Scrolls (Leiden, 1998). L. Doering, Schab bat: Sabba thalacha U nd-praxis in a n tiken Ju d en tu m u n d U rchristentum (Tubingen, 1999). M. J. Graetz et al., ’Sabbath’, E ncyclopaedia Judaica 17 (20072), 616-22. K. M. Girardet, ‘Vom Sonnen-Tag zum Sonntag: Der dies solis in Gesetzgebung und Politik Konstantins d. Gr.’, Journal o f A n cien t C h ristia n ity 11 (2007), 279-310. L. Doering, ‘Sabbath Laws in the New Testament Gospels’, in R. Bieringer et al. (eds), T he N ew T esta m en t a n d R abbinic L iterature (Leiden, 2010), 207-54. S.-O. Back, ‘Jesus and the Sabbath’, in T. Holmen and S. E. Porter, H a n d b o o k fo r the S tu dy o f the H istorical Jesus, 3:2597633 (Leiden, 2011). N. L. Collins, Jesus, the Sabba th a n d the Jew ish D ebate: H ealing on the Sabbath in the 1st a n d 2 n d cen tu ry C E (Lon­ don, 2014). L. Doering, ‘Jesus und der Sabbat im Licht der Qumrantexte’, in J. Frey and E. E. Popkes (eds), Jesus, P aulus u n d die T exte von Q u m ran (Tubingen, 2015), 33-61. sabbatical year The one year in seven which the ^Mosaic legislation (Exod. 21: 2-6; Deut. 15:1-3; 15: 12-18; 31:10-13; Lev. 25, etc.) ordered to be observed as a ‘Sabbath’, i.e., re­ quiring the land to remain fallow and all debtors and Isra­ elite slaves to be freed. In Lev. 25 a simultaneous fallow year is prescribed, and its observance is attested in Neh. 10: 31 and 1 Macc. 6: 49, 53; cf. *Josephus, A n tiq u ities, 14.202, where Julius Caesar is said to have exempted the Jews from taxes in the sabbatical year. In the older strata of the *Pentateuch it seems to have been intended that each husband­ man and slave-owner should be at liberty to decide which seventh year he would observe, so that the whole land should not go out of cultivation at once. See also Ho l y Ye a r . $ CTRH R. de Vaux, OP, L es In stitu tio n s de T Ancien T estam ent, 1 (1958), 264-7, with bibl. 338f. (Eng. tr., 2nd edn, 1965, 173-5, with bibl. 532). E. Neufeld, ‘Socio-Economic Background of Yobel and Semitta’, R ivista degli Studi O rientali 33 (1958), 53-124. M. Greenberg 1710 B. Zimmerman, ODC, M o n u m en ta H istorica C a rm elita na (Lerins, 1907), 356-63. See also bibl. to Sim o n St o c k , St . Sabellianism An alternative title for the modalist form of *monarchianism. It is so named from Sabellius, of whom, however, very little is known. He was perhaps, like his fellow-monarchians *Noetus and ’"Praxeas, an early 3rd-cent. theologian of Roman origin, though he is described by later 4th-5th-cent. Gk writers (*Basil, *Timothy of Constanti­ nople) as belonging to Libya or the Pentapolis. $ MJE W. A. Bienert, ‘Wer war Sabellius?’, SP 40 (2006), 359-66. Sabina, St (if authentic, d. prob. 69-79) Senatorial widow martyred at Vindena, near Terni, Umbria, and venerated at Rome, possibly apocryphal. In the reign of Vespasian (not Hadrian, as in many reference works), her houseguest Serapia, from Antioch, was tried, beaten, and executed by the governor, on 29 July; after burying her, Sabina devoted herself to charity, but was herself interrogated by the pre­ fect and sentenced to death. The titular minor basilica of S. Sabina on the Aventine Hill supposedly houses her rel­ ics; it is the oldest Roman church surviving in essentially original form, known especially for its decorated wooden doors. Built over a pre-Constantinian dom us, by Peter, an Illyrian priest, c.422-32, according to an inscription, though the *L iber P ontificalis indicates completion under Sixtus III; priests of this titu lu s Sanctae Sabinae attended Roman synods in 499 and 595. The passio of Serapia and Sabina dates to the 7th cent., and makes no mention of the basilica, or indeed Rome; conceivably she was a wealthy matron who donated property for a church, came to be re­ garded as a saint, then martyr, and so required a back­ story. She is commemorated in the canon (first Eucharistic sacrament Prayer) of the *Ambrosian rite, and named in the *Hieronymian Martyrology. Feast day, 29 Aug. GDB B H L 7407 (and 7586); C SLA S01303. M. Lapidge (tr.), T he R o ­ m an M a rtyrs (OECS, 2017), §34, app. 3. L P (Duchesne), 1, §§45-6, 230-7; tr. R. Davis, T he B ook o f P ontiffs (TTH 6; 2010), 33-6. j. J. Berthier, L ’E glise de S a in te-S a bin e a R om e (Rome, 1910). j. P. Kirsch, D ie rom ischen T itelkirchen im A ltertu m (Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des Altertums, 9.1-2; Paderborn, 1918), 96-100, 163-6. H. I. Marrou, ‘Sur les origines du titre romain de Sainte-Sabine’, A rch ivu m F ratrum P raedicatorum 2 (1932), 316-25. F.-M.-D. Darsy, R echerches archeologiques a Sainte-Sabine sur I ’A ventin (Monumenti dell’Antichita Cristiana, 9; Vatican, 1968). R. Krautheimer et al., C orpus B asilicarum C h ristia n a ru m R om ae (5 vols, Vatican and New York, 1937-77), 4: 69-94. H. Brandenburg and A. Vescovo, L e p rim e chiese di R om a: IV -V II secolo (2nd edn, Vatican, 2013), 184-95. Saccas, Ammonius See Am mo n iu s Sa c c a s . Sacchi, Bartolomeo (known as il Platina) (1421-81) Ital­ ian humanist. Born at Piadena (hence ‘Platina’), he served as a soldier under Francesco Sforza of Milan and then found favour with the ruling Gonzaga family in Mantua. After a period studying Gk in Florence he accompanied Cardinal Francesco Gonzaga to Rome in 1462, during the pontificate of the humanist pope *Pius II, and secured cu­ rial employment. His post was axed by Paul II. In response, he called for a general council and was imprisoned in 1464-5. A second arrest followed in 1468 when members of the Roman Academy were thought to have plotted to kill the pope. The election of *Sixtus IV in 1471 spurred him into writing the L ives o f the P opes (Liber de vita C hristi ac de vitis su m m o ru m p o n tificu m o m n iu m ), which includes scathing criticism of Paul and equally fulsome praise of Sixtus. This secured him the appointment of prefect of the Vatican library in 1475, as depicted in the group portrait of the pope, his nephews, and the kneeling Platina by Melozzo da Forli. SRF The original MS of his L ives o f the P opes, which has often been ed., is preserved in the Vatican Library (Vat. lat. 2044). The latest Eng. tr. is by A. F. D’Elia (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 2008-). A. Campana and P. Medioli Masotti (eds), B artolom eo Sacchi il P la ­ tina: A tti del C onvegno In tern a zio n a le di S tu d i p er il V C entenario (Medioevo e Umanesimo, 62: Padua, 1986). E. D. Howe, A rt a n d C ulture a t th eSistine C ourt: P la tin a ’s 'Life o f S ixtu s IV ’ a n d the F res ­ coes o f the H ospital o f S a n to Spirito (Vatican City, 2005). S. Bauer, The C ensorship a n d F ortuna o f P la tin a ’s L ives o f the P opes in the Sixteenth C en tu ry (Turnhout, 2006). A. F. D’Elia, A Sudd en Terror: The P lot to M u rd er the P ope in R enaissance R om e (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 2009). S. Bauer in D B I 89 (2017), <www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/sacchi-bartolomeo-detto-il-platina_% 28Dizionario-Biografico%29/>. saccos See s a k k o s . Sacheverell, Henry (1674-1724) *High Church divine and pamphleteer. Born at Marlborough, he was educated at the grammar school and at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he became a fellow in 1701. In 1705 he was elected chaplain of St Saviour’s, Southwark (now *Southwark Ca­ thedral). On 15 Aug. 1709 he preached the assize sermon at Derby and on 5 Nov. 1709 before the lord mayor at *St Paul’s. On both these occasions he upheld the doctrine of nonresistance and emphasized in violent language the perils facing the Church from the Whig government’s policy of toleration and allowance of ^Occasional Conformity. In the latter sermon (The P erils o f F alse B rethren) he also openly attacked *Burnet, bp of ^Salisbury. In Dec. 1709 the Commons condemned the sermons as seditious and, de­ spite the opposition of the Tories and of many Whigs, as well as strong feeling in the country, Sacheverell was im­ peached for high crimes and misdemeanours. The sentence (suspension from preaching for three years) was so light as to be a triumph for the accused and he became a popular hero. When the three years had passed, Sacheverell preached on Palm Sunday, 1713, to a packed gathering at St Saviour’s, Southwark. The sermon, T he C hristian T rium ph; or, T he D u ty o f P raying fo r our E nem ies, sold for £100 and had a very wide circulation. In 1713 he was presented by Queen *Anne, who had openly shown him sympathy, to the living of St Andrew’s, Holborn. Although the fall of the Whigs in 1710 was largely the result of the impeachment of Sacheverell, he would prob not have made his mark in history had he not become the champion of the High Church and Tory parties. Among his pamphlets were C haracter o f a L ow C hurchm an (1701) and T he R ig h ts o f the C hurch o f E n g la nd (1705; with Edmund Perkes). P erils o f F alse B rethren w as repr. in facsimile (Exeter, 1974). J. R. Bloxam, R egister of Magdalen, 6 (1879), 98-110. F. Madan, A B ibliography o f D r. H en ry Sacheverell (1884). A. T. Scudi, T he Sach ­ everell A ffa ir (New York, 1939). G. Holmes, T he T rial o f D octor S a ­ cheverell (London, 1973). W. A. Speck in O D N B (2004): <https:// doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/24440 >. sacrament The word is derived from the Lat. sacram entu m (‘solemn oath’) which was used to translate the Gk m ysterion (‘mystery’) in the Lat. NT; sacraments are thus means by which Christians partake in the ‘mystery of Christ’ (cf. Col. 1: 26f.; Eph. 3: 4, 9; 6:19, etc.). This mystery is pre-eminently the passion, death, and resurrection of the Son of God made possible through his incarnation from the Virgin, and the consequent gift of eternal life bestowed equally on Jew and gentile through the Holy Spirit. In the life of the Church, the mystical body of Christ, this mystery is efficaciously represented—and re-presented—in and by certain symbolic acts (e.g. the washing of *baptism, the sacrificial meal of the *eucharist), as these have been dis­ cretely ordained by the Lord, or handed down from the apostles, and developed within the womb of ecclesiastical tradition. In Christian theology the scope of the term sacrament has varied widely. *Augustine, who defined it as the ‘visible form of invisible grace’ or ‘a sign of a sacred thing’, applied it to formulas such as the Creed and the *Lord’s Prayer, and such a wide application was commonplace for the first 1,000 years of the history of the Church. An early attempt to formally classify the sacraments was made by *Dionysius the Areopagite (c.500), who distinguished three ‘rites’ (Gk teleta i) —baptism, the eucharist, and *unction—to which he added priestly ordination (see o r d e r s a n d o r d i ­ n a t io n ), monastic consecration, and the funeral service. 1711 St Peter's, Rome removed Wren’s organ-screen and filled the vaulting and saucer-domes of the E. end with mosaics. Since 1906 the SW chapel, formerly the ’Consistory Court, has been the religious centre of the Most Distinguished Order of St Mi­ chael and St George. The chapel of the Most Excellent Or­ der of the British Empire is in the crypt. Also in the crypt are the tombs of Lord Nelson and the duke of Wellington and of Wren, with its famous inscription ‘Lector si monumentum requiris circumspice’. Because of its position St Paul’s is frequently the scene of great national services. Notable deans have included ’Colet, ’Nowell, ’Overall, ’Donne, ’Sancroft, ’Stillingfleet, ’Tillotson, ’Milman, ’Mansel, R. W. ’Church, R. ’Gregory, and ’Inge. Among the resi­ dentiary canons S. Smith (1771-1845) and ’Liddon are outstanding. 10 Dec. 1854; since ’Martin V, the Benedictines have been in charge of the basilica. GDB L. Duchesne, L P (2 vols, Paris, 1886-92), 1, §§22, 34.21,47, 53.8, 66, 86.12; tr. R. Davis, The B ook o f P ontiffs (TTH 6; 3rd edn, 2010), 8-9,19-20, 36-7, 44-5, 60, 84. R. Krautheimer et al., C orpus basili­ ca rum C h ristia n a ru m R om ae (5 vols, Vatican and New York, 193777), 5: 93-164. C. Proverbio, I cicli affrescati p a leo cristia n i di San P ietro in V aticano e San P aolo fu o ri le m ura (Bibliotheque de 1’Antiquite tardive, 33: Turnhout, 2016). N. Camerlenghi, S t P a u l ’s O u t ­ side the W alls: A R o m a n B asilica, from A n tiq u ity to the M o d ern E ra (Cambridge, 2018). St Peter's, Rome (or S. Pietro in Vaticano) The supposed site of ’Peter’s crucifixion has been venerated throughout Christian history. The remains of a shrine dating from the early 3rd cent., if not earlier, were revealed by 20th-cent. W. ’Dugdale, ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA T he H isto ry o f S t P a u l ’s C athedral in L ondon from excavations. Above them ’Constantine erected a basilican its F oundation U ntill these T im es (1658; 3rd edn, with continuation church, consecrated in 326. After more than a millennium, by H. Ellis, 1818). W. Sparrow Simpson (ed.), D o cu m en ts Illu stra t ­ that structure fell into serious disrepair. ’Nicholas V ing the H isto ry o f S. P a u l ’s C athedral (Camden Society, n s 26; 1880). planned to replace it by a new church in the form of a Latin M. Gibbs (ed.), E arly C harters o f the C athedral C hurch o f S t P aul, L ondon (ibid., 3rd ser. 58; 1939). J. ’Le Neve, F asti E cclesiae A nglicross, selecting B. Rossellino (1409-64) as the principal ar­ canae: 1066-1300, 1, rev. D. E. Greenway (1968); 1300-1542, 5, rev. chitect. Little had been done when the work was suspended J. M. Horn (1963); 1541-1857,1, rev. J. M. Horn (1969). H. H. Mil­ on Nicholas’s death. It was resumed under ’Julius II, who man, A n n a ls o f S. P a u l ’s C athedral (1868). W. Longman, A H istory laid the first stone on 18 Apr. 1506, and continued by a suc­ o f the T hree C athedrals D edicated to S t P aul in L ondon (1873). cession of architects—D. Bramante (d. 1514), ’Raphael, W. Sparrow Simpson, C hapters in the H istory o f O ld S. P a u l ’s B. Peruzzi (d. 1536), A. da Sangallo (d. 1546)—all in turn (1881). W. Sparrow Simpson, G leanings fro m O ld S. P aul ’s (1889). making drastic changes in the design, which veered be­ W. Sparrow Simpson, S. P a u l ’s C athedral a n d C ity L ife: Illustrations tween a Greek and a Latin cross. The dome followed closely o f C ivil and C athedral L ife fro m the T hirteenth to the Sixteenth C en ­ turies (1894). W. M. Sinclair, M em orials o f St P a u l ’s C athedral a design of ’Michelangelo. ’Paul V ordered C. Maderno (d. (London, 1909). C. H. Cook, O ld S. P a u l ’s C athedral (London, 1629) to dramatically lengthen the nave and create the 1955). W. R. Matthews and W. M. Atkins (eds), A H isto ry o f St present atrium and facade, the combined effect of which is P aul ’s C athedral a n d the M en associated w ith it (London, 1957). to spoil the view of the dome from the Piazza. The building G. L. Prestige, S t P a u l ’s in its G lory: A C andid H istory o f the C athe ­ was finished in 1614 and consecrated by ’Urban VIII on 18 dral 1831-1911 (London, 1955). J. Lang, R ebuilding St P a u l ’s after Nov. 1626. The baldacchino over the high altar, supported the G reat F ire o f L ondon (London, 1956). [J.] K. Downes, Sir C hris ­ on four massive spiral columns of bronze, is the work of topher W ren: T he D esign o f S t P a u l ’s C athedral (London, 1988). G. L. Bernini (d. 1680). Around the base of the dome are A. Saunders, S t P a u l ’s : T he Story o f the C athedral (London, 2001). inscribed the words T u es P etru s ... coelorum (from Mt. 16: D. Keene et al. (eds), S t P a u l ’s : The C athedral C hurch o f L ondon 604-2004 (New Haven and London, 2004). S. A. Warner, S t P a u l ’s 18f.). The traditional burial-place of Peter is the confessio C athedral (London, 1926). P. [A. T.] Burman, S t P a u l ’s C athedral under the high altar. The basilica also houses the remains (New Bell’s Cathedral Guides, 1987). Official website: <https:// of over 130 popes and a number of secular princes. Among www.stpauls.co.uk/>. its artistic treasures is Michelangelo’s *P ietd. St Peter’s is the largest church in Christendom, though since 1990 it has been rivalled by the Basilique Notre-Dame de la Paix, St Paul's Outside the Walls, Rome (4th cent./1854) San Yamoussoukro, Cote d’Ivoire, which is deliberately similar Paolo fuori le mura, one of the four major ’basilicas, is sit­ in design and proportions. See also Va t ic a n . SRF uated on the Via Ostienses, by the Tiber, about 1.5 miles south of the Porta S. Paolo and the Aurelian Wall, extrater­ ritorial to ’Vatican City. According to the *L iber P ontificaU s, the body of ’Paul had been moved by Pope ’Cornelius to an aristocratic estate near where he was beheaded, and the Emperor ’Constantine I built a church over these rel­ ics, interring them in bronze as he had ’Peter (a marble sarcophagus was discovered beneath the altar in 2006); this was rebuilt more grandly by ’Theodosius I, completed c.400. Intermittent renovation work is attributed to ’Leo I, *Symmachus, ’Gregory I, ’Sergius I, and many others, but the basilica survived little changed until its destruction by fire on 15-16 July 1823, evocatively described by ’Stendhal; although only the triumphal arch with its 5th-cent. mosa­ ics and the 13th-cent. cloister were preserved, the original can be reconstructed from early modern drawings. L. Poletti built a replacement quasi-replica, consecrated on J. Lees-Milne, S a in t P eter ’s: T he Story o f S a in t P eter ’s B asilica in R o m e (Boston, 1967). R. Krautheimer et al., C orpus B asilicarum C h ristia na ru m R om ae, 5 (Rome, 1977), 165-279. S. de Blaauw, C ul ­ tus et decor: liturgia e architettura nella R o m a tardoantica e m edie- vale, 2 (Itai. tr. of Dutch work, ST 336; 1994). J. H. Jongkees, S tu d ies on O ld S t P eter ’s (Archaeologica Traiectina, 8; Groningen, 1966). E. Francia, 1505-1606: storia della costruzione del nuovo San P ietro (Rome, 1977). L. Rice, T he A lta rs a n d A ltarpieces o f N ew St. P eter ’s : O u tfittin g the B asilica, 1621-1666 (Cambridge, 1997). A. Pinelli (ed.), T he B asilica o f St P eter in the V atican, 4 vols (Modena, 2000). S. McPhee, B ern in i a n d the B ell Tow ers: A rch itectu re a n d P olitics a t the V atican (New Haven, 2002). L. Bosman, T he P ow er o f T radition: Spolia in the A rch itectu re o f S t P eter ’s in the V atican (Hilversum, 2004). P. P. Fehl, M o nu m en ts a n d the A rt o f M eaning: T he T om bs o f P opes a n d P rinces in S t P eter ’s (Rome, 2007). S. Benedetti, Il G rande M odello p er il San P ietro in V aticano : A n to n io da Sang allo il G iovane (Rome, 2009). The official report of the excavations was issued as E splorazioni sotto la confessione di San P ietro in V aticano 1721 simplicity 1868), 174-220. O. Guenther, C ollectio A vellana (CSEL 25; 2 vols, simplicity The yxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA condition or quality of being without com­ plexity or composite structure; in metaphysics, the abso­ lute self-sufficiency that such simplicity entails. Simplicity enters Christian theology via the philosophy of *Plotinus, who named the eternal, self-caused principle of the world ‘the One’. In the theology of *Augustine, *Anselm, and *Thomas Aquinas, simplicity becomes one of the chief at­ tributes of God and another way of referring to God’s abso­ lute ^transcendence; exemplified in the unique self-identity between God’s existence and God’s essence. Simplicity poses the epistemological problem of how human creatures, who are composite and not simple, are able nonetheless to have some knowledge of God. The solution, articulated most fully by Aquinas, was to suppose that when the hu­ man mind grasped the idea of divine simplicity it did so not through the faculty of ordinary reason (discursive and thus composite) but through a separate mode of cognition known as intuition. During the * Reformation the doctrine of divine simplic­ ity was attacked on account of its non-biblical origins and with the decline of Thomism the doctrine of divine simplic­ ity enters a fallow period but persists through the idea of mental simplicity or intuition, which is elevated to principal importance by *Descartes. Typically, modern defenders of the doctrine are Thomists and will argue, with Aquinas, that divine simplicity makes sense only if it is understood that absolute simplicity is not an attribute in which God and creatures share in common but is uniquely manifested by God and ultimately incomprehensible to human under­ standing (*Stein, E. Stump, W. Vallicella, J. Dolezal). SK Vienna, 1895-8), 1: 124-55. V. Grumel, L es R egestes des actes du P atriarcat de C onstantinople, 1, ed. J. Darrouzes (2nd edn, Paris, 1972), 112-19. L P (Duchesne), 1, §49,92-3/249-51; tr. R. Davis, The B ook o f P ontiffs (TTH 6; 3rd edn, Liverpool, 2010), 40. P. Blaudeau, ‘Symbologique medicale et denonciation de 1’heresie’, in V. Boudon-Millot and B. Pouderon (eds), L es P eres de L Eglise (Paris, 2005), 497-524. G. Kalas, ‘Architecture and Elite Identity in Late Antique Rome’, P B SR 81 (2013), 279-302. simultaneum The term was originally used in the 16th cent, in Germany for the authorization of two or more reli­ gious communions in the same territory. It gradually came to be restricted to the simultaneous right of two congrega­ tions differing in their faith to use a single ecclesiastical building. Special provisions for this practice were made in the Peace of "Ryswick (1697). Fresh arrangements for the joint use of churches were drawn up by the Prussian state after the First *Vatican Council in 1870 for the newly formed "Old Catholics and the Catholics, but on 12 Mar. 1873 *Pius IX expressly forbade Catholics to use the churches given by the government to the Old Catholics. sin The purposeful disobedience of a creature to the known will of God, by utterance, deed, or desire. Unlike moral evil it is a fundamentally theological conception. In the OT sin is represented as a constant factor in the experience both of God’s people and of the world from the first transgression of "Adam and "Eve in the Garden of Eden (Gen. 3) onwards. Its power was aggravated rather than diminished by the moral and ceremonial precepts in Augustine, ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA T he C ity o f G od, 11.10. Thomas Aquinas, S T I, q. 3. the Law of "Moses, which both increased the occasions of E. Stump and N. Kretzmann, ‘Absolute Simplicity’, F aith a n d P hi ­ sin and developed a keener sense of moral responsibility losophy 2/4 (1985), 353-91. W. F. Vallicella, ‘Divine Simplicity: A New Defence’, F aith a n d P hilosophy 9/4 (1992), 508-25. (cf. Rom. 7: 13). The teaching of the Prophets with its em­ J. E. Dolezal, G od w ith o u t P arts: D ivin e S im p licity a n d the M eta ­ phasis on the heinousness of injustice (Am. 5: 11-24), lack physics o f G o d ’s A bsoluteness (Eugene, Ore., 2011). E. Stein, F inite of mercy (Hos. 4: 1), and idolatry (Am. 5: 4-5, Is. 1: 10-17) a n d E ternal B eing: A n A ttem p t a t the A scen t to the M ea n in g o f B e ­ deepened the sense of sin in another way; in addition, Eze­ ing, tr. K. Reinhardt (Washington, DC, 2002), 289f. E. Stump, ‘Sim­ kiel (18: 1-4) and Jeremiah (31: 29-30) proclaim the per­ plicity and Aquinas’s Quantum Metaphysics’, in G. Krieger, D ie sonal responsibility of each man for his own sins. The Pss, M eta p h ysik des A risto teles im M ittelalter: R ezeption u n d T ransfor ­ by their stress on the heart as the seat of sin, are marked by m a tio n (Berlin, 2016), 191-210. their penetrating insights into its personal and emotional effects. In the NT the Hebrew and Jewish teaching on sin is Simplicius, St (d. 483) Bp of Rome from 468. According to summed up and deepened by the clear recognition that its the *L iber P ontificalis, he was born at Tivoli. During his roots lie in a man’s character (Mt. 5: 21-5; 15: 18). "Paul pontificate, Odoacer, new Arian king of Italy, deposed expounds it as a breach of the natural law written in the Romulus Augustulus, last W. emperor, in 476. Simplicius conscience of man (Rom. 2: 14-16) and asserts its univer­ intervened in the E. to defend *Chalcedonian orthodoxy sality. The Epistle of "James stresses its origin in the human against the *monophysites, notably through involved cor­ will and again emphasizes personal responsibility. In the respondence with *Acacius of Constantinople regarding Johannine writings sin is seen to consist esp. in disbelief in *Peter Mongo, monophysite-bp of Alexandria and alleged Christ and the consequent judgement. murderer, anathematizing them at a synod in 478. He Later theology, though it introduced many formal dis­ asserted papal jurisdiction more broadly, including in tinctions, has added little if anything to what is implicit in "Spain. The first to perform ordinations in Feb. as well as the NT. In the 2nd cent, an acute problem was raised by the Dec., he was an important church-builder in Rome: S. Ste­ question of serious post-baptismal sins which certain fano Rotondo (Caelian Hill), S. Andrea Catabarbara (Es­ theologians held to be never, or only once ("Tertullian, quiline), S. Bibiana (Esquiline), and another S. Stefano by *Hermas) forgivable; this rigorism, though eventually S. Lorenzo fuori le mura (Via Tiburtina). Some of his let­ abandoned, left its mark on the development of the sacra­ ters survive, in conciliar collections. Feast day, 10 Mar. See ment of "penance. The Fathers held varying beliefs in the also Ro m e , c h u r c h e s o f . GDB universality or otherwise of sin, e.g. "Athanasius believed P. Jaffe, R P M , ed. W. Wattenbach et al. (2nd edn, 2 vols, that there were sinless lives both before and after Christ. In Leipzig, 1885-8), 1: 77-80. P L 58.31-62. A. Thiel, E R P (Braniewo, 1792 Sisson, C(harles) H(ubert) Sistine M adonna (M adonna di S. Sisto) One of “RaphaH(ubert) (1914-2003) yxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONML Poet, critic, el’s most famous altarpieces, now in Dresden. It shows the translator. Born and schooled in Bristol, he also attended BVM and Child floating on the clouds of heaven, between university there, studying English and philosophy, fol­ Pope “Sixtus II and “Barbara, as a transcendent vision, lowed by periods in Berlin, Freiburg, and Paris. His back­ quite different from the realistic treatment of the theme ground was *Methodist, but he was not baptized until, at normal in the 15th cent. It was painted in Rome in 1512-13 the age of 39, he decided to become a member of the for Pope “Julius II, whose features are given to Sixtus, and ^Anglican Church ‘because it seemed to me that the world presented by him to the Benedictine abbey of San Sisto at was as the creed said it was’. He also came relatively late to Piacenza. It has no connection with the “Sistine Chapel. poetry, publishing his first full collection in 1961. A fulltime civil servant, rising to under-secretary in the Minis­ M. Putscher, R aphaels S ixtin isch e M a d o n n a (Tubingen, 1955). L. Dussler, R aphael: A C ritical C atalogue (1971; rev. Eng. tr. of work try of Labour, he took early retirement in 1973 and moved to pub. in Munich, 1966), 36-8, with plate 83. Somerset, entering a period of great productivity inaugu­ rated by In ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA the T rojan D itch (1974), gathering poems and translations to date. The scope of his writing is probably Six Articles The articles imposed in June 1539 at the king’s wider than any other 20th-cent. poet, taking in major bidding by the Religion Act 1539 (sometimes called ‘the translations of “Dante and *Virgil among others, and po­ Whip with Six Strings’), to prevent the spread of Reforma­ lemical essays on governance and the English tradition. tion doctrines and practices. They (1) maintained “transubMuch of the significance of the C of E, for Sisson, is that it stantiation and (2) “communion in one kind, (3) enforced is the Church of E ngland, but his poetry turns on the truth clerical “celibacy, (4) upheld “monastic vows and (5) de­ of the “incarnation: ‘Christ is the language which we speak fended private “Masses and (6) “auricular confession. The to God | And also God, so that we speak in truth’ (‘The bill was introduced into the Lords by the duke of Norfolk, Usk’). Hence the desire for ‘the clear line’. Many of his im­ and all the lay peers were subservient. A minority of the pulses come from the 17th cent., channelled through the bps, however, resisted. “Shaxton, bp of “Salisbury, and “La­ modernism of T. S. “Eliot and Pound. CBL timer, bp of “Worcester, resigned their sees, and “Cranmer Sisson, C(harles) C ollected P oem s (Manchester, 1998). O n the L ook-O ut: A P ar ­ tial A u to b io gra p h y (Manchester, 1989). Is T here a C hurch o f E ng ­ land? (Manchester, 1993). A C . H . Sisson R eader, ed. C. Louth and P. McGuinness (Manchester, 2014). R. Wells in O D N B (2009): <https://doi.Org/10.1093/ref:odnb/92660>. Sisters of M ercy A name widely used in the 19th cent, of members of any (esp. Anglican) religious community en­ gaged in nursing or similar work. A penitentiary conduct­ ed by such sisters was known as a ‘House of Mercy’. Also, a Catholic sisterhood founded in “Dublin in 1827. Sistine Chapel The principal chapel of the ^Vatican Pal­ ace, so called because it was built for Pope “Sixtus IV. It has been the venue for most papal elections since 1484 and looms large in the musical history of papal Rome, but is most renowned for its decoration. The walls of this plain rectangular building were frescoed in 1481-3 by Botticelli, Perugino (see Va n n u c c i , Pie t r o ), Cosimo Rosselli, and others. Sixtus’ nephew “Julius II sought to emulate his un­ cle by commissioning “Michelangelo to paint the vault, on which the artist worked between 1508 and 1512, covering it with a vast array of Old and New Testament figures, pagan Sibyls, and classically inspired ignudi. Some of the 15th-cent. frescos were lost when “Paul III commissioned further work from Michelangelo, whose L ast Judgem ent (1535-41) now occupies the altar wall. An extensive programme of restoration was undertaken in the 1980s and 1990s. The tapestries commissioned for the chapel by “Leo X and de­ signed by “Raphael are no longer in situ. SRF Official website: <http://www.museivaticani.va/content/ museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/cappella-sistina.html>. L. D. Ettlinger, T he Sistine C hapel before M ichelangelo (Oxford, 1965). P. de Vecchi (ed.), T he Sistine C hapel: A G lorious R estoration (New York, 1999). E. Wind (ed. E. Sears), T he R eligious Sym bolism o f M ichelangelo: T he S istin e C eiling (Oxford, 2000). H. Pfeiffer, The Sistine C hapel: A N ew V ision (New York and London, 2007). 1796 sent his wife back to Germany. In operation the Act turned out to be less severe than its critics feared, as its require­ ments were widely ignored even by those holding high ec­ clesiastical office. It was repealed in 1547. Text in Gee and Hardy, 303-19 (no. 65); the articles, without the rest of the Act, repr. in Bettenson, 328f. G. Redworth, ‘A Study in the Formulation of Policy: The Genesis and Evolution of the Act of Six Articles’, JE H 37 (1986), 42-67. Six Points, the The “eastward position, “eucharistic vest­ ments, the “mixed chalice, “altar lights, unleavened “bread at the “eucharist, and “incense. Their introduction into the C of E followed a campaign, set on foot c.1870 under the indirect influence of the “Oxford Movement, to restore these and many similar ceremonial usages. Their crystalli­ zation into ‘six points’ dates from a resolution of the Eng­ lish “Church Union, proposed by T. T. Carter, passed at the annual meeting of the Union on 15 June 1875. See also Lin ­ c o l n Ju d g e m e n t ; and cf. u s a g e s . six preachers In “Canterbury Cathedral, six preachers were part of the New Foundation of 1541, appointed by “Cranmer ‘to preach against the Pope and his supremacy. Supplied with an income of £24 a year, lodgings in the pre­ cincts, a horse, and firewood, they were required to preach every saint’s day, not being a Sunday, and to travel round the diocese. Still appointed by the abp of Canterbury (nor­ mally for a period of five years), they now receive no emol­ uments and are only required to preach once a year at Evensong in the cathedral on a Sunday afternoon. D. I. Hill, T he S ix P reachers o f C a n terbu ry C athedral 154 1-198 2 (Ramsgate, 1982). Sixtus (or Xystus) II, St (d. 258) Bp of “Rome from 257. According to the * L iber P ontificalis, of Greek birth, allegedly Sixtus V a philosopher, he opposed rebaptizing heretics, but re­ Italica rum Scriptores (2nd edn), 3, pt 1 (Citta di Castello, 1932), sumed relations with *Cyprian and the African Church, 398-420. E. Lee, S ixtu s IV a n d M en o f L etters (Rome, 1978), with further docs. M. Miglio et al. (eds), U n P ontificato ed una C itta, which *Stephen I had severed in dispute over this question, Sisto IV (1471-1484): A tti del C onvegno, R om a, 3 -7 dicem bre 1984 as raised by *Novatianism. Sundry letters, and the anony­ (Vatican City, 1986). C. Bauer, ‘Studi per la storia delle finanze pamous ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA A d N o va tia n u m , have been ascribed to him, with pali durante il pontificato di Sisto IV’, A rchivio della R . Societa di degrees of dubiety. He was martyred in the persecution of Storia P atria 50 (1927), 314-404. A. Matanic, ‘Xystus Pp. IV Valerian (the site of his martyrdom is a subject of debate), scripsitne librum “de conceptione beate Virginis Marie”?’, A n to with six deacons, and shortly thereafter *Laurence and n ia nu m 29 (1954), 573-8. Pastor, 4 (1894), 197-471; Fliche and four colleagues. Buried in the Catacomb of St *Callistus I, Martin, 15 (1951), esp. 74-90. M. Gattoni, Sisto IV , In n ocen zo V III he is named in the D epositio M a rtyru m of 354, hymned in e la geopolitica dello Stato P ontificio (1471-1492) (Rome, 2010). A. Teetaert, in D T C 14 (pt 2; 1941), cols 2199-217, s.v. ‘Sixte IV’. epigrams by *Damasus I, mentioned in the late 5th-cent. G. Lombardi in E nciclopedia dei P api, 2 (2000), 701-17. Canon of the Mass, and cited in pilgrim itineraries. Vener­ ated early and widely, Sixtus, Laurence, and *Hippolytus had two passiones composed in their honour: the passio Sixtus V (1521-90) Pope from 1585. Of humble origin, Fe­ vetus (c.450-500) and the sprawling p a ssio recentior lice Piergentile, later Peretti, was born at Grottammare on (c.506-14). Jointly they were dedicatees of a church on the the Adriatic coast of the papal states, and was educated by Via Flaminia; individually he had another on the Via Apthe ^Franciscans of Montalto, where he took the habit at the pia, the Minor ^Basilica of S. Sisto Vecchio, built in the 4th age of 12. Ordained priest in 1547, he gained a reputation as cent., whither his relics were moved in the 6th cent. Gk ad­ a preacher. In addition to serving his order in various ca­ ages by a Pythagorean moralist of this name were wrongly pacities, he was appointed inquisitor general in Venice and credited to him by the translator *Rufinus. Feast-day, 6 Aug.; was part of a legation to Spain to examine Abp B. Carran­ 7 Aug., since 1969. GDB za, who had been charged with heresy. In 1566 he became P. Jaffe, R P M , ed. W. Wattenbach, et al. (2nd edn, 2 vols, priest of S. Agata dei Goti. In 1570 he was created cardinal Leipzig, 1885-8), 1: 21-2. P L 5.79-100. L P (Duchesne), 1, §25,155by *Pius V, whose confessor he was. He was bp of Fermo 6; tr. R. Davis, T he B ook o f P ontiffs (TTH 6; 3rd edn, Liverpool, 2010), 10. M. Lapidge (tr.), T he R o m a n M a rtyrs (OECS, 2017), §§6 from 1571 to 1577 and in 1585 was elected pope. His pontif­ and 16, app. 1-5. D. Trout (ed.-tr.), D a m a su s o f R o m e (OECT, 2015), icate was devoted to far-reaching reforms in the govern­ 16-17. H. Chadwick, T he Sentences o f S extu s (TS 5; Cambridge, ment of the Church and of the papal states. He suppressed 1959). G. F. Dierks, ‘Some Critical Notes’, V C 25 (1971), 121-30. brigandage in his territories and put the papal finances on L. Spera, ‘Luoghi del martirio di papa Sisto II sulla Via Appia’, a sound basis. Continuing the reform of the curia, he fixed A P A R A 73 (2000-1), 101-28. the number of cardinals at 70, and by the bull Im m en sa A etern i of 1588 established fifteen congregations. In his re­ lations with secular princes he endeavoured to maintain Sixtus IV (1414-84) Pope from 1471. Born of a poor family, the balance of power, which meant opposing the ambi­ Francesco della Rovere entered the *Franciscan order, tions of *Philip II, who sought to take advantage of French where he became a successful lecturer, general in 1464, and weakness during the Wars of Religion. A patron of art and cardinal in 1467. Elected pope in 1471, he undertook a cru­ scholarship, Sixtus made monumental additions to the sade against the Turks, but with little success, and soon built environment of Rome and is particularly recalled in turned almost entirely to Italian politics and the aggran­ the Sala Sistina of the Biblioteca Apostolica *Vaticana. He dizement of his family. With him the nepotism of the Ren­ inaugurated an edition of the Wulgate, which, after the cor­ aissance popes entered its worst stage and the spiritual in­ rections made under *Clement VIII, long remained the terests of the Church were almost wholly passed over. His standard text. SRF nephews, one of whom was the later Pope ^Julius II, impli­ cated the pope in political intrigues with the Italian cities, B u lla ru m , D ip lo m a tu m et P rivilegiorum S a n cto ru m R o m a n o esp. in the conspiracy of the Pazzi, which resulted in the ru m P o n tificu m T aurinensis E ditio, 8 (Naples, 1883), 563-1025, and 9 (Turin, 1865), 1-381. ‘Acta Consistorialia’, A n a lecta Juris P ontifimurder of Giuliano de’ Medici and a war with Florence cii, 9 (Rome, Paris, and Brussels, 1872), cols 841-74. G. Cugnoni, (1478-80). His nepotism also led to considerable confusion ‘Documenti chigiani concernenti Felice Peretti, Sisto V’, A rchivio of the papal finances and troubles in the Pontifical States. della Societa R o m a n a di Storia P atria 5 (1882), 1-32, 210-304, and Besides increasing the privileges of the Franciscans and 542-89. G. Leti, V ita di Sisto V (3 vols, Amsterdam, 1721; Eng. tr., other mendicant orders and furthering the cult of the 1724). J. A. de Hubner, S ixte-Q u in t (2 vols, 1870; Eng. tr., 1872; rev. BVM, Sixtus was a great protector of arts and scholarship. Ger. tr., 1932). S. Klein, S ixtu s d erF u n fte nach d em grosseren W erke He founded the Sistine Choir, built the *Sistine Chapel, des B arons von H u b n er bearbeitet (Sammlung historischer Bildand enriched the ^Vatican Library. Sixtus was unfortunate nisse, 10; 1873). L. M. Persone, Sisto Q uinto: Il genio della p o ten za (Florence, 1935). I. de Feo, Sisto V: U n grande p a p a tra R ina scim en in his training and his circumstances. His extravagance to e B arocco (Storia e documenti, 75; Milan, 1987). E. A. Segretain, arose from his inexperience as a member of a mendicant S ixte-Q u in t et H en ri IV (1861). M. de Bouard, ‘Sixte-Quint, Henri order and from the want of any worthy relatives on whom IV et la Ligue: la legation du Cardinal Caetani en France (1589to exercise his natural generosity. In his personal life, 1590)’, R Q H 116 (1932), 59-140. R. Schiffmann, R o m a felix: A sp ekte he appears to have been blameless, as well as a passable d er std d teb a u lich en G estaltung R o m s u n ter P apst S ixtu s V. theologian. $ MJM P. M. Sevesi (ed.), ‘Lettere autografe di Francesco della Rovere da Savona...’, A F H 28 (1935), 198-234 and 477-99. Account of his life to 1474 by B. Platina (d. 1481) in L. A. *Muratori (ed.), R eru m (Europaische Hochschulschriften, Reihe 28, 36; Bern, 1985). H. Gamrath, R om a San cta R enovata: S tu di su ll ’urbanistica di R om a nella seconda m eta del sec. X V I con particolare riferim en to al p o n tifica to d i Sisto V (1585-1590) (Analecta Romana Instituti 1797 Spain, Christianity in royal legislation aiming at forced conversion of all Jews. Amsterdam, 165f>), with Life by S. Przipcovius written in 1636 pre­ This period also saw the elaboration of a corpus of indige­ fixed to vol. 1 [no pagination]; this Life was repr., with Eng. anno­ tations by ‘E.S.’ (Manchester, 1912). G. Pioli, ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA F austo Socino: V ita, nous *monastic rules, including by *Fructuosus of Braga opere, fo rtu n a (Modena, 1952). Other modern studies by (d. 665), as well as of a distinctive Visigothic-*Mozarabic D. M. Cory (Boston, 1932), L. Chmaj (Warsaw, 1963), and M. Mar­ liturgy with a long history down to the present. tini, F austo Socino et la pen see socinienne (Paris, 1967). G. H. Wil­ In 711-14 the kingdom was conquered by Muslim forc­ liams, T he R adical R efo rm a tio n (Philadelphia and London, 1962), es crossing from N. Africa, reaching as far as Tours (or 749-63; 3rd edn (Sixteenth Century Essays & Studies, 15; Kirks­ Poitiers) in 732 before being turned back. The new regime, ville, Mo., 1992), 978-89. Z. Ogonowski, ‘Faustus Socinus’, in an Umayyad emirate from 756, tolerated Christians as a J. Raitt (ed.), Shapers o f R eligious T raditions in G erm any, S w itzer ­ d h im m i community, though there were incentives to con­ land, a n d P oland, 1560 -1600 (New Haven and London, 1981), 195-209. L. Cristiani in D T C 14 (pt 2; 1941), cols 2326-34, s.v. vert in the cities, and episodes of persecution such as at ‘Socinianisme’. Cordoba, where in the mid-9th cent, a group of men and Spain, Christianity in *Paul himself began the evangeli­ zation of Spain (Rom. 15: 24, 28); according to medieval tradition, *James had also preached the gospel there, and after martyrdom his disciples brought the body by sea for burial at Santiago de *Compostela. The earliest evidence of Spanish clergy and congregation comes in a letter of *Cyprian (ep. 67) from 254, and the spread of Christianity is attested by martyrs in the persecutions of the mid-3rd and early 4th cent, such as * Vincent of Zaragoza and Eulalia of Merida, commemorated in the P asionario H ispdnico and the verse P eristephanon of *Prudentius (JI. c.392-405). The Synod of *Elvira (c.305/6) is a rich source of measures ad­ opted to maintain discipline in the community; can. 33 is the first statement of clerical celibacy, can. 36 the first ban on images in churches. Across the 4th cent., *Ossius of Cordoba (d. 359) combated *Arianism from the court of *Constantine—presiding at the First Council of *Nicaea in 325—before exile under Constantius II, and *Gregory of Elvira (d. 392) continued his legacy to an extreme. Mean­ while, the charismatic ascetic *Priscillian of Avila pro­ pounded his esoteric dualist theology inspired by Agnosticism and ^Manichaeism; the sect long outlasted his execution by the Emp. Magnus Maximus at Trier in 384/5. Soon after 406/7 most of Spain was overrun by various tribes of barbarians: as of the later 5th cent, it was ruled in the NW by the Sueves, in the centre and east by the Visig­ oths, both converts to Arianism. State-building began with the Visigothic king Leovigild (568-86), and conversion to Catholicism, proclaimed by his son Reccared (586-601) at the Third Council of *Toledo in 589 under the guidance of *Leander of Seville (d. 600/1), inaugurated an era of part­ nership between Church and crown. This is reflected in the regular ‘national’ councils at Toledo (and provincial coun­ cils less consistently recorded), which offered support to royal government while regulating doctrine, discipline, and worship throughout Spain and S. Gaul; bundled with select *Greek, N. ^African, and Gallic councils into the H ispana, this canonical collection later influenced *Gratian, and through his D ecretum the development of ecclesi­ astical law. In part royal apologist, the great encyclopedist *Isidore of Seville (d. 636) sought in the wide range of his writings to reconcile ancient learning to Christian episte­ mology, and left a small flowering of intellectual bps in his wake, notably the theologians *Ildefonsus of Toledo (d. 667), proponent of the cult of the Virgin *Mary, and *Julian of Toledo (d. 690), active in amongst other fields anti-*Jewish polemic. The lattermost tendency is paralleled in serial 1822 women sought martyrdom by publicly denouncing Islam, accommodation, and acculturation. In N. Spain, from the mythologized Battle of Covadonga (718/22), nuclei of opposition emerged, particularly the Asturian kingdom, which enjoyed moments of southward expansion under Alfonso II (791-842) and Alfonso III (866-910). In this context Beatus of the Liebana (d. c.800) was active, as exegete of *Revelation and opponent of the *adoptionist her­ esy. Once the caliphate of Cordoba had been proclaimed in 929, conflict between N. and S. began to assume the iden­ tity of ‘holy war’ and the notion of R econquista (‘Recon­ quest’) to crystallize, but it remains largely a factor of later retrospection. After the collapse of the caliphate in 1031, the Christian kingdoms and counties made inroads into the disparate taifas or ‘party states’: Alfonso VI (1065-1109) took Toledo in 1085, and called himself both ‘emperor of all Spain’ and ‘emperor of the two religions’. As the hard­ line Almoravids moved in from 1086, the spirit of the *Crusades infused warfare: a generation earlier ^Alexander II offered indulgences, and *Urban II encouraged would-be Spanish participants in the First Crusade (1096-9) to treat Spain as another theatre. Yet equally characteristic of the time was El Cid (d. 1099), mercenary chancer on both sides of the religious frontier. In general, Franco-papal influence on the Spanish Church grew from the mid-11th cent., in the foundation of *Cluniac and *Cistercian monasteries, in proscription of the Mozarabic rite at the Council of Burgos (1080), and in personnel, namely Bernard of Sedirac, first abp of Toledo and primate of Spain. Much debate attends convivencia or the peaceful ‘living together’ of Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the high Middle Ages, personified by the school of translators active in Toledo during the 12th-13th cent, and responsible for introducing Gk and *Arabic philosophy into the W. Chris­ tian tradition. Reality was less harmonious; in the same period the legend of Santiago Matamoros (‘Moor-Slayer) was articulated, riding on his white steed into battle. After the victory of Alfonso VIII (1158-1214) and allies over the Almohads at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, most of al-Andalus was rapidly brought under Christian rule, and by 1252 only the emirate of Granada held out. Spanish society was defined by the experience: military or­ ders modelled on the Knights *Templar were founded in the 12th cent., including Calatrava (1164) and Alcantara (1177), the order of *Santiago (1175) was formed to protect pilgrims to Compostela, by then a European phenomenon, and participation in the R econquista became a cornerstone of aristocratic identity. In the 13th cent., three men made outstanding contributions to Christian practice and Spain, Christianity in scholarship: *Dominic (d. 1221), founder of the *Dominiliturgy of the Counter-Reformation; in Spain itself, the In­ can order, *Raymond of Penafort (d. 1275), canonist, and quisition redoubtably prosecuted groups of Protestants *Llull (d. 1315), polymath of Mallorca. Mention should be and *Alumbrados (‘Illuminated’), sensationally arresting made of Alfonso X (1252-84), whose ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA C antigas de Santa Bartolome de Carranza, abp of Toledo, in 1559. Against M aria celebrate the Virgin and her miracles. The later this backdrop of ecclesiastical disapprobation, the Siglo de Middle Ages saw growth amongst the mendicants, partic­ O ro (‘Golden Age’) nevertheless saw variety as well as ularly the ^Franciscans and Dominicans, who developed vigour in religious life. Competition with *Erasmus result­ reformed branches of strict ‘*Observants’; they were also ed in the first printed *Polyglot Bible of 1520-2, financed marked by expansion of the eremitical orders, *Carthuby Card. Cisneros at his Universidad Complutense in Ma­ sians, and especially the Hieronymites, founded near To­ drid, and *Ignatius Loyola (d. 1556) founded the mission­ ledo in 1373. ary *Society of Jesus with papal approval in 1540; spiritual During the *Western Schism (1378-1417), both Castile writers flourished, such as the Carmelite mystics *Teresa of and Aragon supported the *antipopes of *Avignon until Avila (d. 1582) and *John of the Cross (d. 1591), and the the Council of *Constance (1414-18); important in this friars Luis de *Le6n (d. 1591) and *Luis de Granada (d. 1588), change of heart was Wincent Ferrer (d. 1419), missionary as debate over divergent theological traditions took place and anti-Jewish agitator. With the dynastic unification of amongst the orders. Under royal patronage, El Greco (Dothe two crowns under Fernando and Isabella, reigning menikos *Theotokopoulos, d. 1614) and Tomas Luis de jointly from 1479, and the closing of the frontier in prospect, ^Victoria (d. 1611) redefined religious art and music in militant Catholicism dominated social policy. Alarmed by Spain: in the 17th cent., Francisco de Zurbaran (d. 1664) alleged crypto-Judaizing amongst *conversos (Jewish and *Murillo (d. 1682) have few equals in expressive and converts) in Andalucia, the ‘Catholic kings’ petitioned a intense devotional painting. reluctant *Sixtus IV to sanction a new Spanish *Inquisition Both Philip III (1598-1621) and Philip IV (1621-65) under royal control in 1478, for prosecuting violators of preferred to appoint bps from amongst the priests of the orthodoxy. The first *auto de fe or public ritual of penance, religious orders, and with the advent of the Bourbon dy­ held in 1481, condemned six heretics for burning; by 1483, nasty in Philip V (1700-24) royal control over ecclesiastical the Dominican friar Tomas de *Torquemada (d. 1498) was personnel emerged as an issue. By now the Church ac­ president, later inquisitor general, of an extensive opera­ counted for one-fifth of government income, and posed the tion, which in time would bring charges against some only real challenge to absolutism; relations with the papacy 150,000 people, up to 5,000 of them fatally. Travel in this were suspended during the War of the Spanish Succession direction accelerated in 1492: guided by Card. *Ximenez de (1701-15), and only restored after bribery secured papal ac­ Cisneros (d. 1517), with the fall of Granada, the expulsion quiescence to crown policy in the ^Concordat of 1753. For of all unconverted Jews, and the discovery of the Americas, their loyalty to the *papacy, the Jesuits came under suspi­ the kingdom began to turn westward, but also to look in­ cion as a focus of resistance to the extension of royal au­ ward, developing a suspicion of converses and m oriscos thority, and were expelled from the empire in 1767-8. But (Muslim converts—expelled just over a cent, later), and a under French influence new currents in political and reli­ fixation on lim pieza de sangre (‘purity of blood’). The next gious life gained momentum in the later 18th cent., and year, * Alexander VI conferred the title of R ex C atholicissim us Napoleonic rule from 1808 produced the Constitution of (‘Most Catholic Majesty’) on the king of Spain. Cadiz (1812): hostility between its liberal ideals and the In the 16th cent., Spain attained unparalleled political Church thereafter defined the 19th cent, in a series of alter­ influence and military dominance in Europe, while its nating extremes. While the reactionary Fernando VII overseas empire was rivalled only by ^Portugal, with whom (1813-33) sponsored firm ecclesiastical censorship, the the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) had divided all newly dis­ years 1834 and 1835 saw mass murder of clerics in Madrid, covered lands, opening up a vast new frontier for mission­ Aragon, and Catalonia, before the radical prime minister ary activity. The *Holy Roman Emperor *Charles V (1519Juan Alvarez Mendizabal brought in the decrees of desa56; Carlos I of Spain, 1516-56) was intimately involved in m o rtiza cio n (‘dissolution’) of the monasteries and expro­ the conflicts of the *Protestant Reformation in ^Germany: priation of their assets in 1835-7, a rupture in the Spanish he summoned *Luther to the Diet of *Worms in 1521, re­ historical patrimony. The liberal state was in the ascend­ ceived (and rejected) the *Augsburg Confession in 1530, ant: the Inquisition, reduced to a sort of editorial office, and ultimately had to agree to the Peace of Augsburg in was abolished in 1834, and though the Concordat of 1851 1555. His wars with France encompassed the inadvertent recognized Catholicism as the sole religion of the Spanish sack of *Rome in 1527, witnessed by Benvenuto Cellini; in nation it also accepted the sale of church property confis­ his wars with the Ottoman empire, he positioned himself cated by the government. as standard-bearer of Christendom. After he had retired to The complex of Church and crown, conservatism and the monastery of Yuste, his son Philip II (1556-98) became liberalism, proved intractable. Something of a ‘Neo-Catholic embroiled in violent, protracted, ultimately fruitless sup­ Revival’ occurred in the mid-19th cent., and apologists in­ pression of Protestant revolt in the Spanish ^Netherlands, cluding Juan Donoso Cortes (d. 1853) and Jaime Luciano just as the dispatch of an Armada in 1588 (with two se­ Balmes (d. 1848) wrote at decided length. Meanwhile the quels) to restore Catholicism in *England failed to achieve succession of Isabella II in 1833 at 3 years of age had not its stated aim. been unproblematic, and support for her uncle led to the The Council of Trent (1545-63), with significant input vexed question of Carlism in Spanish politics; relying on from Spanish bps, did much to shape the doctrine and the military, she was deposed in 1868, and the next year a 1823 Spain, Christianity in criticism began to mount within the clergy, encouraged by secularizing Cortes (parliament) proclaimed freedom of the language of human rights and reform at the Second conscience. The collapse of the First Republic (1873-4) and Watican Council (1962-5), culminating in a formal re­ the restoration of monarchy under Alfonso XII (1874-85) quest by the Episcopal Conference of Spain in 1973 for sep­ led to the agreement of a moderate constitution in 1876, aration of Church and state (denied). When Franco died in which formalized Catholicism as the official state religion 1975, the Church had distanced itself, and established and subsidized churches and clergy, while all teaching was plausible democratic credentials, enough to find a secure to be in keeping with the faith. Further Catholic revival place fairly painlessly within the new order enshrined in ensued amongst the middle class, largely leaving out the the Spanish Constitution of 1978. new urban industrial population, with spectacular growth Modern Spain is secular, to the extent that it lacks any of male and especially female religious congregations and official religion, respects freedom of conscience, and has their networks of hospitals, schools, and orphanages. Yet legalized civil and gay marriage and divorce; a growing despite temporary political ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA entente, many intellectuals Muslim population occasions some social friction, as in came to critique the Catholic tradition, and abject defeat in recent struggles over the cathedral-mosque of Cordoba. At the Spanish-American War under Alfonso XIII (1886-1931) the same time, over 90% of the population are baptized provoked the ‘Generation of’98’ to critical reassessment of Catholics, and the *Opus Dei prelature continues to exer­ the historical trajectory of the nation in an effort to rescue cise notable public and private sway, especially in educa­ it from catatonia. tion, while the popular Camino de Santiago pilgrimage, After the bloody Rif War (1911-27) and the hated mili­ the rising basilica of Sagrada Familia in Barcelona, and the tary dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-30), the king annual Semana Santa celebrations in Seville remain em­ was forced into exile and the Second Republic (1931-9) blematic of the country. Yet the controversy surrounding proclaimed, adopting the laicizing agenda of anti-clerical the removal of Franco’s body from the Valle de los Caidos intellectuals and the social change demanded by workers. monument to the Civil War dead in 2019 indicates that the The new constitution—in addition to establishing freedom intersection of Spanish Catholicism and politics in the past of speech and association, introducing civil marriage and cent, has still to be reckoned fully. GDB divorce, and secularizing cemeteries—disestablished the Church, ending state subsidy, banning the Jesuits (again), E. Florez and M. Risco et al., E spana sagrada (56 vols, Madrid, and barring members of religious orders from schools; 1747-1961); index, A. Gonzalez Palencia (2nd edn, Madrid, 1946); new edn, R. Lazcano (57 vols, Madrid, 2000-12). P. B. Gams, D ie these measures were condemned by *Pius XI in 1933. K irchengeschichte von Span ien (3 vols, Regensburg, 1862-79). Churches experienced periodic arson attacks, and when in M. Menendez y Pelayo, H istoria de los heterodoxos espaholes (3 the violence arising from the disputed election of 1936 a vols, Madrid, 1880-2); tr. E. Gomez-Posthill, A H istory o f the Span ­ group of generals rebelled against the Republic that July, ish H eterodox (3 vols, London, 2009). R. A. Herr, T he E ighteenthmost bps and Catholic politicians joined with the Falange C en tu ry R evo lu tio n in Spain (Princeton, 1958). A. A. Sicroff, Les Espanola party, the Carlists, and other conservative na­ C ontroverses des sta tu ts de ‘p u rete de sa n g ’ en E spagne du X V au tionalist factions in supporting the cause. Anti-clerical X V II ‘ siecle (Paris, 1960). J. C. Ullman, T he T ragic W eek: A S tu d y o f violence in Republican Spain intensified this opposition, as A n ti-C lerica lism in Spain, 1875-1912 (Cambridge, Mass., 1968). A. Mackay, Spain in the M id d le A ges: F rom F rontier to E m pire, around 7,000 priests and religious men and women were 1000-1500 (New York, 1977). R. Garcia Villoslada (ed.), H istoria de killed and hundreds of buildings destroyed, driving the la Iglesia en E spana. B A C M a io r 16-22 (5 vols, Madrid, 1979-82). Church underground except in the Basque Country. As W. A. Christian, L ocal R eligion in S ixteen th -C en tu ry Spain (Prince­ early as Sept, the insurgency had been labelled a ‘crusade’ ton, 1981). S. G. Payne, Spanish C atholicism : A n H istorical O ver ­ by Enrique Pla y Daniel (d. 1968), bp of Salamanca, and the view (Madison, 1984). W. J. Callahan, C hurch, P olitics, a n d Society Spanish episcopate fostered martial rhetoric of an ‘armed in Spain, 1750-1874 (Harvard Historical Monographs, 73; Cam­ plebiscite’ between God and the (left-wing) devil in their bridge, Mass., 1984). A. Garcia y Garcia, Iglesia, so cied a d y derecho communique to Christendom of 1 July 1937. (4 vols, Salamanca, 1985-2000). J. Orlandis and D. Ramos-Lisson, In the Civil War (1936-9), General Francisco Franco of H istoria de los concilios de la E spana rom ana y visigoda (Pamplona, 1986). Q. Aldea Vaquero et al. (eds), D iccionario de historia the Spanish Army of Africa swiftly emerged as the leader of eclesidstica de E spana (4 vols, Madrid, 1972-5); supplement (1987). the Nationalists, achieving victory at the cost of at least A. Ferreiro, T he V isigoths in G aul a n d Spain, A .D . 418-711: A B ibli ­ half a million lives on both sides with signal aid from Axis ography (Leiden, 1988); supplements (2006,2008,2011,2014,2017). powers. Once the new regime had been established, the re­ P. Linehan, H isto ry a n d the H isto ria n s o f M edieval Spain (Oxford, forms of the Second Republic were abolished and the part­ 1993). R. Collins, E arly M edieval Spain: U nity in D iversity, 400nership of Church and state was restored, formalized by 1000 (2nd edn, Basingstoke, 1995). N. Roth, C onversos, Inquisition, the Concordat of 1953 with the holy see. Catholicism alone a n d the E xp u lsio n o f Jew s fro m Spain (Madison, 1995). M. Vincent, C atholicism in the Second Spanish R epublic (Oxford, 1996). enjoyed legal status, and government legislation followed W. J. Callahan, T he C atholic C hurch in Spain, 1875-1998 (Washing­ religious teaching, while Franco assumed the old royal ton, DC, 2000). H. Beinart, T he E xpulsion o f the Jew s from Spain, tr. power of naming bps, even of vetoing the appointment of Y. J. Green (Oxford, 2002). P. Martinez-Burgos Garcia and M. Ser­ parish priests. Politically and intellectually, opponents of rano Marques (eds), E rasm o en E spana (Salamanca, 2002). J. Garcia the Catholic establishment—socialists, Communists, an­ Oro, C isneros: un cardenal reform ista en el trono de E spana (1436archists, liberals—were killed, imprisoned, or driven into 1517) (Madrid, 2005). C. Reglero de la Fuente, C luny en E spana exile; in their stead, cleric-scholars such as Justo Perez de (Fuentes y Estudios de Historia Leonesa, 122; Leon, 2008). Urbel (d. 1979) pursued an academic agenda sympathetic J. C. Martin, Sources latines de T E spagne ta rd o -a n tiq u e et m edievale to the dictatorship of lionizing heroes of the R econquista. (V -X IV socles) (Paris, 2010). H. Kamen, Spain, 1469-1714: A Soci ­ ety o f C onflict (4th edn, London, 2014). H. Kamen, T he Spa nish This alliance endured unchallenged until the 1960s, when 1824 Spencer, John yxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA used in the sacraments, esp. the bread and wine in the In q u isitio n (4th edn. New Haven, 2014). B. A. Catlos, M u slim s o f M edieval L a tin C h risten do m , ca. 1050-1615 (Cambridge, 2015). K. B. Wolf (tr.), T he E ulogius C orpus (TTH 71; Liverpool, 2019). P. Linehan, A t the E dge o f R eform ation: Iberia before the B lack D eath (Oxford, 2019). *eucharist, and in that sense taken over into theological English. Speier, Diets of See Spe y e r , Die t s o f . Spalatin, Georg (1484-1545) Georg Burckhardt, ‘Spalatin’ being derived from his birthplace, Spalt; German humanist and reformer. He studied at Erfurt and *Wittenberg, and from 1505 to 1507 taught at the monastery of Georgenthal. In 1508 he was ordained priest and in 1509 appointed tutor to the sons of Elector ^Frederick of Saxony, also taking on the duties of secretary and librarian. He met *Luther in Wittenburg in 1511, and thereafter became the means by which the elector embraced Luther’s ideas. In 1518 he accompanied Friedrich to the Diet of Augsburg, and in 1521 to *Worms. In 1525 he went to Altenburg and led religious reform there. Besides translations of writings of Luther, *Melanchthon, and *Erasmus, he compiled A n nales R efo rm a tio n is (ed. 1718) and C hronicon et A n n a les (1463-1525). He also conducted an extensive correspond­ ence with Luther, but only Luther’s replies survive. SRF An edn of his H isto risch er N achlass u n d B riefe was undertaken by C. Neudecker and L. Preller (vol. 1 only, Jena, 1851). I. Hoss, G eorgSpalatin, 1484 -1545 (Weimar, 1956; rev. 1989). H. Volz, ‘Bibliographie der im 16. Jahrhundert erschienenen Schriften Georg Spalatins’, Z eitsch rift fiir B ibliotheksw esen u n d B ibliographic 5 (1958), 83-119. F. Muller in A llg em ein e deutsche B iographie, 35 (1893), 1-29.1. Hoss in P. G. Bietenholz and T. B. Deutscher (eds), C ontem poraries o f E rasm us, 3 (1987), 266-8. D. Bourel in T R E 31 (2000), 607-10. Spencer, Herbert (1820-1903) Philosophical and scien­ tific thinker. The son of a schoolmaster, he was practically self-taught. From 1837 to 1846 he was a civil engineer on the railway. Two years later he became connected with the E co no m ist and afterwards with the W estm in ster R eview . His two earliest writings were Social Statics (1851) and P rinciples o f P sychology (1855). In 1860 he announced a sys­ tematic series of philosophical treatises; they included F irst P rinciples (1862), P rinciples o f B iology (1867), P rinciples o f P sychology (1872), and P rinciples o f Sociology (1877). From 1886 to 1891 Spencer’s health prevented his writing, but in 1893 he completed P rinciples o f E thics. Spencer was the chief exponent of ^agnosticism in 19th-cent. England. He divided all reality into the know­ able (the province of science) and the unknowable (that of religion). He asserted that man could not only be conscious of the unknowable, but that knowledge itself was finally dependent upon the unknowable, and that the Absolute is the fundamental reality behind all things. Nevertheless the Absolute could not be known in the strict sense of the word. Spencer also affirmed his belief in progress as a su­ preme law of the universe. All his writings were character­ ized by an extreme individualism. A u to b io g ra p h y (2 vols, 1904; posthumous). D. Duncan, T he L ife a n d L etters o f H erbert Spencer (1908, with full bibl.). F. H. Collins, Spalatrensis See d e Do m in is , Ma r c o An t o n io . A n E p ito m e o f T he Synthetic Philosophy (1889; suppl., 1894; Pref, Spanish Armada See Ar m a d a , Spa n is h . by H. Spencer). Other studies inch those by H. Macpherson (Lon­ don, 1900) and J. Royce (New York and London, 1904). W. H. Hud­ son, A n In tro d u ctio n to the P hilosophy o f H erbert Spencer (New York, 1894; London, 1895; rev. edn, 1904). H. *Sidgwick, L ectures Sparrow, Anthony (1612-85) Bp of ^Norwich. A fellow of Queens’ College, Cambridge, from 1633 till his expulsion by the *Puritans in 1644, he gained notoriety as the author of a controversial sermon on confession and absolution in 1637. At the Restoration he became archdeacon of Sudbury. In 1662 he was appointed president of his college, in 1667 was made bp of *Exeter, and in 1676 translated to Norwich. He was a keen High Churchman, best known through his R a tio n a le upon the B ook o f C om m on P rayer (1655; often reprinted), arguing that the worship of the C or E was neither ‘old superstitious Roman dotage’ nor ‘schismatically new’. $ri R a tio n ale, with some of his minor works, ed. by S. Downes (London, 1722), and repr. by J. H. *N[ewman] (Oxford, 1839), with preface, i-iv; extracts in P. E. More and F. L. Cross (eds), A n g lica n ­ ism (1935), nos 220 and 234, 501f. and 521f. R. J. Ginn and S. Kelsey in O D N B (2008): <https://doi.Org/10.1093/ref:odnb/26086>. SPCK See So c ie t y for Pr o m o t in g Ch r is t ia n Kn o w l e d g e . species A Latin word meaning ‘form’ or ‘kind’, employed in scholastic theology to designate the material elements on the E thics o fT. H . G reen, M r. H erbert Spen cer, a n d J. M a rtin ea u (London, 1902), 135-312. J. Rumney, H erbert Spencer ’s Sociology (London, 1934). J. D. Y. Peel, H erbert Spencer: T he E volution o f a Sociologist (New York, 1971). D. Wiltshire, T he Social a n d P olitical T hought o f H erb ert Spencer (Oxford, 1978). M. W. Taylor, M en ver ­ sus th e State: H erbert Spencer a n d L ate V ictorian In d ivid u a lism (Oxford, 1992). D. Weinstein, E qual F reedom a n d U tility: H erbert S p en cer ’s L iberal U tilitarianism (Cambridge, 1998). M. Thiel, m eth o d e V II, pt 3: H. Spencer (Heidelberg, 1983). J. Harris in O D N B (2010): <https://doi.Org/10.1093/ref:odnb/36208>. Spencer, John (1630-93) English Hebraist. He was a na­ tive of Bocton, Kent. In 1645 he became a scholar of Corpus Christi, Cambridge, of which he was elected a fellow c.1655 and master in 1667. In 1677 he became dean of *Ely. After publishing a treatise on the Urim and Thummim (1669), which he believed to be of Egyptian origin, he devoted himself chiefly to Hebrew studies. The result was his prin­ cipal work, D e L egibus H ebraeorum R itu a lib u s et ea ru m R ationibus, libri tres (1685). Though, owing to the state of contemporary oriental studies, he had to rely almost en­ tirely on second-hand information furnished mainly by the Bible, the classical authors, and the Fathers, he can claim to be the founder of the study of comparative reli­ gion (see t h e o l o g y OF r e l ig io n s ). He endeavoured to 1825 Symeon of Thessalonica, St Simeon exercised considerable influence upon the world of his time, converting pagans, awakening the careless, rec­ onciling enemies, and urging the cause of *Chalcedonian orthodoxy. There are still extensive remains of the church and monastery that were built around his pillar (modern Qal'at Sim‘an). He is not to be confused with his 6th-cent, namesake, also a Stylite, who took up residence on Mons Admirabilis, just to the W. of Antioch. Feast day, 1 Sept, in the E. Orthodox Church; 27 July among the ^Syrian Ortho­ dox; 5 Jan. in the W. $ FMY Of the early Lives, the most trustworthy is the account in *Theodoret ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA (H ist. R ei. 26). This was used, and the narrative carried to a later date, in the less reliable Gk Life by a monk Antony (to which a Coptic Life is nearly related). Its Gk text was first pr. from a St Pe­ tersburg MS by A. Papadopoulos-Keramevs (St Petersburg, 1907). Coptic text ed., with Fr. tr., by M. Chaine (Publications de 1’Institut Franqais d’Archeologie Orientale, Bibliotheque des Etudes Coptes, 3; Cairo, 1948). Syriac Life ed. P. Bedjan, A cta M a rtyru m et S a n cto ­ ru m , 4 (Paris, 1894), 507-644. Eng. tr. of these three Lives by R. Doran (Cistercian Studies Series, 112; Spencer, Mass., 1992). The Syriac Life is closely followed by a Georgian Life, ed. G. Garitte (CSCO 171, Scriptores Iberici, 7, 1957, 1-77, with Lat. tr. in CSCO 172, Scriptores Iberici, 8, 1957, 1-53), with suppl. in M useon, 76 (1963), 79-93. H. *Lietzmann, D as L eben des heiligen Sim eon Stylites (TU 32.4; 1908), with texts and full crit. discussion. H. ’Delehaye, SJ, L es Saints stylites (1923), i-xxxix. P. Peeters, SJ, ‘S. Symeon Stylite et ses premiers biographes’, A n a l. B oll. 61 (1943), 29-71, repr., with revisions, as ‘Un saint hellenise par annexion: Symeon Stylite’, in his L e T refonds o rien ta l de I ’hagiographie b yza n tine (Subsidia Hagiographica, 26; 1950), 93-136. A. J. Festugiere, OP, A n tio ch e pa'ienne et chretienne (Bibliotheque des Ecoles fran^aises d’Athenes et de Rome, 194; 1959), 347-401 and 493-506, inch Fr. tr. of texts. A. Leroy-Molinghen, ‘A propos de la “Vie” de Symeon Stylite’, B yza n tio n 34 (1964), 375-84. A. Vodbus, H isto ry o f A s ­ ceticism in the Syrian O rient, 2 (CSCO 197, Subsidia, 17; 1960), 208-23. J. Lassus, Sanctuaires chretiens de Syrie (Institut Franqais d’Archeologie de Beyrouth. Bibliotheque archeologique et historique, 42; Paris, 1947), 129-32. S. Ashbrook Harvey, ‘The Sense of a Stylite: Perspectives on Simeon the Elder’, VC 42 (1988), 376-94. C P G 3 (1979), 277f. (nos 6640-50). D. Stiernon in B ibliotheca Sanc ­ to ru m , 11 (1968), cols 1116-38, s.v., with extensive bibl. On the younger Simeon Stylites, P. van den Ven (ed.), L a V ie ancienne de S. Sym eon S tylite le Jeune (521-592) (Subsidia Hagiographica, 32; 2 vols, Brussels, 1962-70), incl. full introd. Symeon of Thessalonica, St (d. 1429) Abp of Thessaloni­ ca. Little is known of his life except that he favoured the Venetians who had bought Thessalonica in 1423 and op­ posed the surrender of the city to the Turks. He was one of the most influential authors of his age. His principal work is A iaXoyoq e v X p u m b K ara n a ca n t o n alpEO ECov K al TtEpl Tfjq povqc; niarE w q (‘Dialogue in Christ against all Heresies and on the One Faith’), which reflects his predominating interest in the mystical interpretation of the Byzantine cul­ tus. It consists of a shorter treatise on doctrine, dealing chiefly with the Trinity and with Christology, and a longer second part on the liturgy and the sacraments. The polem­ ical passages envisage the Jews, *Bogomils, Muslims, and the Church of Rome; these polemical interests are devel­ oped in a recently discovered collection of treatises by Symeon. Among his other works are a treatise ‘On the Holy Temple’ (IJEpi t o v 9 e I o v N a o v), also mainly a symbolical explanation of the ritual, and an exposition of the *Niceno- 1872 Constantinopolitan Creed (E ppqvsia avvoTtriK tj). He was canonized in the Gk Church in 1981; feast day, 15 Sept. His writings, ed. by *Dositheus (Ia?i, 1683), are repr. in P G 155. Liturgical works also ed. I. M. Phountoules (Thessalonica, 1968ff.). 20 previously unpub. works ed. D. Balfour: P olitico-H istorical W orks (Wiener byzantinische Studien, 13; 1979). T heological W orks (Ana­ lecta Vlatadon, 34; Thessalonica, 1981). The L iturgical C om m entar ­ ies, crit. edn of H epi t o v N a o v and the liturgical section of A idX oyoc, by S. Hawkes-Teeples (Studies and Texts 168, Toronto, 2011). I. M. Phountoules, To X eiTovpytK ov epyov X vpecov t o v O eooakoviK qc, (Thessalonica, 1966), with summary in French. R. Bornert, OSB, Les C om m entaires byzantins de la divine liturgie du V IP au X V siecle (Ar­ chives de I’Orient Chretien, 9; Paris, 1966), 245-63. M. Kunzler, G naden quellen: Sym eon von T hessaloniki (f 1429) als B eispiel filrd ie E influssnahm e des P alam ism us a u fd ie orthodoxe Sakram ententheologie u n d L iturgik (Trierer theologische Studien, 47; 1989). D. Bal­ four, ‘St Symeon of Thessalonica: A Polemical Hesychast’, Sobornost 4 (1982), 6-21. D. Bathrellos, E yeSiaopa A oypaT tK qq O eokoylac, [‘Outline of Dogmatic Theology’: an extensive summary drawn from the works of Symeon] (2008). D. Bathrellos, ‘St Symeon of Thessalo­ nica and the Question of the Primacy of the Pope’, Sobornost 30/1 (2008), 54-71. M. Jugie, AA, in D T C 14 (pt 2; 1941), cols 2976-94, s.v. ‘Symeon de Thessalonique’. Symmachus (prob, later 2nd cent.) Translator of the Gk version of the OT reproduced in the 4th column of *Origen’s *Hexapla. Hardly anything is known of his life. According to *Eusebius (H E 6.17) and *Jerome (D e V ir. III. 16) he was an *Ebionite, but *Epiphanius (D e M ensuris et P onderibus, 16) speaks of him as a Samaritan who became a Jewish proselyte. From ^Irenaeus’ silence it has been argued that Symmachus was later than his time, and it is disputed whether Symmachus’ translation or that of *Theodotion was the earlier. Unlike *Aquila, Symmachus preferred a freer style of translation, and he modified the anthropomorphic expressions of the Hebrew text. Scholars see evidence of rabbinic influence in the translation, some even attributing this to a W.-oriented mission by the rabbis. t JNCP G. *Mercati, U eta di Sim m aco I ’interprete e S. E pifanio (Modena, 1892). H. B. *Swete, Introduction to the O ld T estam ent in G reek (1900), 49-53. H. J. Schoeps, ‘Symmachusstudien. [1.] Der Bibeliibersetzer Symmachus als Ebionitischer Theologe’, C oniectanea N eotestam entica 6 (Uppsala, 1942), 65-93; 2. ‘Mythologisches bei Symmachus’, B iblica 26 (1945), 100-11; 3. ‘Symmachus und der Midrasch’, B iblica 29 (1948), 31-51; all repr. in A us frilhchristlicher Z eit (Tubingen, 1950), 82-119. D. Barthelemy, OP, Les D evanciers dA quila (Supplements to V etus Tes ­ tam entum , 10; Leiden, 1963), esp. 261-5. D. Barthelemy, OP, ‘Qui est Symmaque?’, C atholic B iblical Q uarterly 36 (1974), 451-65, repr. in his E tudes d ’histoire du texte de lA ncien T estam ent (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, 21; 1978), 307-21. S. Jellicoe, The Septuagint and M odern Study (Oxford, 1968), 94-9. J. R. Busto Saiz, L a Traduccion de SIm aco en el libro de los Salm os (Textos y estudios ‘Cardinal Cisneros’, 22; 1978), incl. text. A. Salvesen, Sym m achus in the P entateuch (Journal of Semitic Studies, Monograph 15; Manchester, 1991). M. N. van der Meer, ‘Symmachus, the Septuagint and the Sages: An Examination of the Ref­ erences to Sumkhos ben Joseph in the Mishnah, Tosefta and Talmudim, in R. X. Gauthier, G. R. Kotze, and G. J. Steyn (eds), Septuagint, Sages, and Scripture: Studies in H onour o f Johann C ook (Leiden, 2016), 336-55. Symmachus, St (d. 514) Bp of Rome from 498. Native of Sardinia, elected by the (bribed?) majority at S. Giovanni synagogue in Laterano; meanwhile, the party of his predecessor Anas2012). J. A. Latham, ‘Disputed Episcopal Elections and the Advent tasius II, favouring Constantinople, elevated Laurentius, of Christian Processions in Late Antique Rome’, C H 81/2 (2012), 298-327. archpriest ofS. Prassede, at S. Maria Maggiore, whence the ‘Laurentian Schism’. *Theoderic, Ostrogothic king of Italy, confirmed Symmachus’ election, and he held a synod in synagogue (Gk uvvaycoyq) After the destruction of the 499, but soon Laurentius’ faction, headed by Rufius PosTemple, the most important building in any Jewish settle­ tumius Festus, brought charges of turpitude, shady financ­ ment, providing a place for reading of the Torah, formal ing, and celebrating Easter on the wrong date. With royal public prayer, organization of charity, and hospitality. Al­ appointment of an apostolic visitor, serial synods were ready established in the Holy Land and the diaspora by the convened in 502 to seek resolution, escalating from bitter 1st cent., the synagogue is administered by lay Israelites, acrimony into outright riots; papal partisans were attacked who conduct its worship and business following norms in the streets, and Symmachus barricaded himself in St Pe­ and traditions of their region and community. Orthodox ter’s. At the ‘Palmary Synod’, the assembled bps deter­ *halakhah requires ten adult males for public worship; mined that they could not judge the pope, and endorsed his over the cents, rabbis have become increasingly central to legitimacy, led by the abps of *Milan and *Ravenna, but synagogue activities, including preaching. Laurentius returned to the city and occupied most of its Synagogue worship regularly comprises recitation of churches; four more years of mob violence also saw publi­ *Shema‘, the *Eighteen Benedictions, Qaddish, prescribed cation of the ‘Symmachian Forgeries’, spurious precedents Psalms, Blessings, liturgical poetry, and sometimes a ser­ to demonstrate the pope’s immunity from judgement by mon. The *Torah (divided nowadays into 54 portions) is any court. Finally, in 506, thanks to interventions by *Enread on sabbaths, Mondays, and Thursdays: proper read­ nodius, then deacon in Milan, and *Dioscorus, in exile ings are assigned to festivals, fasts, and special sabbaths. from ^Alexandria, the king withdrew support from Lau­ The *Ark, a shrine housing the Torah scrolls, is the focal rentius, and restored the Roman churches. The ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA *L iber P on ­ point of the building. Removal of the scrolls for reading, tificalis, the ‘Laurentian Fragment’, Anonymus Valesianus their procession through the synagogue, and their return II, and the correspondence of Ennodius provide vividly to the Ark are solemn ceremonies; and rituals once part of differing perspectives on these colourful events. Once se­ the Temple service, like the priestly blessing, sounding of curely in office, he manfully opposed the *Henoticon of Shofar at New Year, and waving of L u la v at Tabernacles, *Zeno, and expelled *Manichaeans from Rome, burning adapted to synagogue circumstances, underscore bonds their books and images outside the Lateran; he also assist­ linking the worship of the two different institutions. ed Catholics in Sardinia and N. *Africa persecuted by the Although it has evolved over time, elements of the *Arian Vandals, and ransomed prisoners of war in Italy. synagogue service very likely influenced early Christian After receiving ^Caesarius of Arles during his Italian de­ worship. Especially is this so, since the Gospels indicate tention, he sent him the ^pallium (a first outside Italy), that Christ worshipped in the synagogue and taught or and confirmed his primatial rights over the Gallican and preached there (e.g. Mk 1: 21; Lk. 4: 16; Mt. 13: 54; Jn 6: 59). Spanish Churches. In Rome itself, he embellished St Pe­ *Paul preached the gospel first in the synagogues on his ter’s, especially the atrium, and built an addition dedi­ missionary journeys (e.g. Acts 17: 1-2; 13: 4-6, 13), and cated to *Andrew, as well as numerous other churches; he turned to gentiles only after Jews failed to respond to his also instituted singing of ‘Gloria in excelsis’ on Sundays teaching (Acts 13: 46). In James 2: 2 ffw aycoyr/ is still ap­ and martyrial feasts, and during his pontificate *Dionyplied to the assembly of Christians gathered for worship, sius Exiguus, resident from c.500, made his translations which Didache 14 also designates using a cognate verb: and collections of church councils and papal decretals. both terms are related philologically to the Christian *synFeast day, 19 July. GDB axis mentioned by later writers. Archaeological discoveries C P L (3rd edn), 546-7. Jaffe, 1: 96-100; P L 62.39-80; A. Thiel, have revealed a vibrant artistic tradition in some early synE R P (Braniewo, 1868), 639-738. Roman Synods (499, 501, 502), ed. agogues, notably at *Dura-Europos (in close proximity to T. Mommsen, M G H , Auctores Antiquissimi, 12 (Berlin, 1894), an early Christian church decorated with frescos similar in 393-455. L P (Duchesne), 1, §53, 260-8 (with 43-6); tr. R. Davis, style to those found in the synagogue) and Sardis. CTRH The B ook o f P ontiffs (TTH 6; 2010), 42-5 (with app. 2: 95-8). W. T. Townsend, ‘The So-Called Symmachian Forgeries’, Journal o f R eligion 13/2 (1933), 165-74. P. A. B. Llewellyn, ‘The Roman Church during the Laurentian Schism’, C H 45/4 (1976), 417-27. J. Moor­ head, ‘The Laurentian Schism’, C H 47/2 (1978), 125-36. E. Wirbelauer, Z w ei P dpste in R om : der K o n flikt zw ischen L a u ren tiu s u n d S ym m a ch u s (Quellen und Forschungen zur Antiken Welt, 16; Mu­ nich, 1993). J. D. Alchermes, ‘Pope Symmachus and the Rotunda of St Andrew at Old St Peter’s’, C H R 81/1 (1995), 1-40. G. Mele and N. Spaccapelo (eds), Il p a p a to di San S im m a co (Cagliari, 2000). S. Gioanni, ‘La Contribution epistolaire d’Ennode de Pavie a la primaute pontificale sous le regne des papes Symmaque et Hormisdas’, M elanges de I ’E cole F ra n fa ise de R om e: M oyen A ge 113/1 (2001), 245-68. P. Carmassi, ‘La prima redazione del L ib erp o n tifi­ calis nel quadro delle fonti contemporane’, M ededelingen van h et N ederlands In stitu u t te R o m e 60-1 (2001-2), 235-66. K. Sessa, The F orm ation o f P apal A u th o rity in L ate A n tiq u e Ita ly (Cambridge, I. Elbogen, Jew ish L iturgy: A C om prehensive H istory, tr. R. P. Scheindlin (Philadelphia, 1993). E. L. Sukenik, A n cien t S yn a ­ gogues in P alestine a n d G reece (Schweich Lectures for 1930; 1934). E. *Schiirer, T he H isto ry o f the Jew ish P eople in the A ge o f Jesus C hrist, rev. Eng. tr. by G. Vermes et al., 2 (Edinburgh, 1979), 42354. D. Urman and P. V. M. Flesher (eds), A n cien t Synagogues: H is ­ torical A n a lysis a n d A rchaeological D iscovery (Studia Post-Biblica, 47/1-2; Leiden, 1995). L. I. Levine, T he A n cien t Synagogue: T he F irst T housand Y ears (2nd edn, New Haven, 2005). A. Runesson, T he O r ­ igins o f the Synagogue (Stockholm, 2001). E. M. Myers, ‘Synagogue’, in A B D 6 (New York, 1992), 251-63. S. C. Reif, Judaism a n d H ebrew P rayer (Cambridge, 1993). S. Fine (ed.), Jew s, C hristians, a n d P oly ­ theists in the A n cien t Syna gogu e: C ultural In tera ctio n d u rin g the G reco-R om an P eriod (London, 1999). P. F. Bradshaw, R eco n stru ct ­ ing E arly C h ristia n W orship (London, 2012). R. Hachlili, A n cien t Synagogues — A rchaeology a n d A rt: N ew D iscoveries (Leiden, 2013). 1873 Victorines Victor (Vitensis) (late yxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDC 5th cent.) Bp and historian. Born Victor I, St (d. c.199) Activist bp of'Rome from c.189. Ac­ in Vita in N. Africa, he was a priest at 'Carthage and later cording to the *L iber P ontificalis, born in 'Africa; he de­ a bp (possibly of Vita). His ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA H istoria P ersecutionis A frica n ae posed Florinus, priest, for defending 'Valentinianism, and P rovinciae describes in three books the persecution of the excommunicated Theodotus, leather merchant, for pro­ Catholic Church in Africa by the 'homoian (Arian’) Van­ pounding 'adoptionism, but is most significant for his in­ dals under Gaiseric (429-77) and Huneric (477-84). Prob­ tervention in the 'quartodeciman episode of the 'Paschal ably written in 484 and published in 488/9, Victor’s Controversy, as recorded by 'Irenaeus and 'Eusebius espe­ H istoria is at times exaggerated but offers a valuable eye­ cially, often regarded as a major step towards papal su­ witness account particularly of Huneric’s reign and also premacy. There is much debate about what happened, as quotes official documents. Attached to the manuscripts of Eusebius is most likely projecting back into the 2nd cent, a Victor’s work, although not written by him, are the N o titia state of affairs more characteristic of the early 4th cent. It is P rovinciarum et C ivita tu m A frica e listing the Catholic bps most likely that Victor was concerned with differing prac­ of the Vandal kingdom in 484 and the P assio Septem tices among congregations in Rome, some of which fol­ M o n a ch o ru m . DMG lowed the Paschal customs of the Asia Minor churches from which they hailed, who kept Pascha on 14 Nisan, E ditio p rin cep s of his H istoria by Jehan Petit, Paris, c.1510. later edn by T. 'Ruinart, OSB, Paris, 1694, repr., with dissertations by whether a Sunday or not. His threat of excommunication J. *Sirmond, SJ, and others, in P L 58.125-434. Crit. edns by met with much episcopal criticism, though he seems ulti­ C. Halm in M G H , Auctores Antiquissimi, 3 (pt 1; 1879), and mately to have rescinded the sentence. Saluted by 'Jerome M. Petschenig in CSEL 7, 1881. Eng. tr. by J. Moorhead (TTH 10; (D e V ir. III. 34) as a Latin writer of note; a number of his 1992), and J. R. C. Martyn, A ria n s a n d V andals o f the 4 th -6th C en ­ letters survive. Venerated as a martyr, most likely without turies (Newcastle, 2008). C. Courtois, V ictor de V ita et son oeuvre basis in fact. Feast day, 28 July; suppressed in 1969. GDB (Algiers, 1954). S. Costanza, ‘Vittore di Vita e la Historia persecu­ tionis Africanae provinciae’, V etera C h ristia n o ru m 17 (1980), 22968. T. Howe, V andalen, B arbaren u n d A ria n er bei V ictor von V ita (Frankfurt, 2007). S. Costanza in D P A C 2 (1984), cols 3609-12, s.v. ‘Vittore di Vita’; Eng. tr., E E C 2 (1992), 868f„ with bibl. G. Hays in O D L A 2 (2018) 1560-1, s.v. ‘Victor of Vita’. Victor (c.500) Presbyter of'Antioch. His name is attached to what has been described as a Gk commentary on Mk, but is really an early anthology of previous exegetical writ­ ings (*Origen, 'Titus of Bostra, 'Theodore of Mopsuestia, 'Chrysostom, 'Cyril of Alexandria) on Mt., Lk., and Jn. 'Catena fragments on other biblical books, notably on Jer., are also ascribed to him. $ DMG No crit., or even complete, text exists. Older edns of the com­ mentary on Mk by P. Possinus, SJ (Rome, 1673), C. F. Matthaei (Moscow, 1775), and J. A. Cramer, C atenae in E vangelia S. M a tth a ei et S. M arci (Oxford, 1840), 259-447. Modern discussion of problems in J. Reuss, M a tth a u s-, M a rku s- u n d Johan nes-K atenen nach den handschriftlichen Q uellen u n tersu ch t (Neutestamentliche Abhandlungen, 18, Hefte 4-5; 1941), 118-41. H. Smith, ‘The Sources of Vic­ tor of Antioch’s Commentary on Mark’, JT S 19 (1918), 350-70. W. R. S. Lamb, T he C atena in M arcum : A B yza n tin e A n th o lo g y o f E arly C o m m en ta ry on M a rk (Leiden, 2012). C PG 3 (1979), 255f. (nos 6529-34). G. Bardy in D T C 15 (pt 2; 1950), cols 2872-4, s.v. Victor, St (d. 554) Bp of Capua from 541. He was the au­ thor of many writings, including a treatise on Noah’s ark (‘Reticulus’) and a Paschal cycle; but his most celebrated work is a Harmony of the Gospels, made on the basis of the 'Vulgate text, preserved in the so-called 'Codex Fuldensis. Feast day, 17 Oct. Apart from the ‘Codex Fuldensis’, Victor’s writings survive only in frags. Texts collected by J.-B. 'Pitra from ‘De Reticulo seu de Area Noe’ in S p icileg iu m S o lesm en se, 1 (1852), 287-9; from ‘De Cyclo Paschali’, ibid., 296-301; from ‘De Resurrectione Do­ mini’, ibid., p. liv. F. Bolgiani, V itto re d i C apua e il ‘D ia tessa ro n ’ (Turin, 1962). C P L (3rd edn, 1995), p. 308f. (nos 953a-956). G. Bardy in D T C 15 (pt 2; 1950), cols 2874-6. V. Loi in D P A C 2 (1984), cols 3606f. Eng. tr., E E C 2 (1992), 868. See also bibl. to Co d e x Fu l d e n s is . P G 5.1475-90. L P (Duchesne), 1, §15, 137-8; tr. R. Davis, T he B ook o f P ontiffs (TTH 6; 3rd edn, Liverpool, 2010), 6. Eusebius of Caesarea, H E , 5.22-8, ed.-tr. K. Lake and J. E. L. Oulton, LCL 153, 265 (Cambridge, 1926-32), 1: 500-25. G. La Piana, ‘The Roman Church at the End of the Second Century’, H T R 18/3 (1925), 20177. C. L. Souvay, ‘The Paschal Controversy under Pope Victor I’, C H R 15/1 (1929), 43-62. A. Handl, ‘Viktor I. (189?-199?) von Rom und die Entstehung des “monarchischen” Episkopats in Rom’, Sacris E ru d iri 55 (2016), 7-56. Victoria, Tomas Luis de (1548-1611) Spanish composer. A native of Avila, he studied in Rome at the Collegio Germanico, of which he became ‘maestro di cappella’ in 1573. Ordained priest in 1575, he joined 'Philip Neri’s 'Oratori­ ans before returning to Spain by 1587 to become chaplain to the Dowager Empress Maria (sister of 'Philip II), and ‘maestro’ of the choir of the Madrid convent where she lived. Here he remained until his death, serving in the less demanding role of organist from 1604. His compositions, which were mostly printed in his lifetime, consist entirely of sacred music. Imbued with a strong mystical Iberian feeling, they rank among the greatest music of the Renais­ sance. His best-known works include a six-part Requiem, and music for 'Holy Week, including the motet ‘O vos omnes’. Complete works ed. F. Pedrell (8 vols, Leipzig, 1902-13); rev. edn by H. Angles (Monumentos de la musica espanola, 25, 26, 30, 31, etc.; Rome, 1965ff.). F. Pedrell, T om as L uis de V ictoria A b u len se (Valencia, 1918). R. [M.] Stevenson, Spanish C athedral M u sic in the G olden A ge (Berkeley and Los Angeles, Calif., 1961), 345-464. E. Casjen Cramer, T om as L uis de V ictoria: A G uide to R esearch (New York and London, 1998). R. M. Stevenson in S. Sadie (ed.), T he N ew G rove D ictio n a ry o f M u sic a n d M u sicia n s (2nd edn), 26 (Oxford, 2001), 531-7. Victorines The 'canons regular of the former abbey dedi­ cated to St Victor at 'Paris. The house was founded by 'William of Champeaux (the most famous scholar of his day and teacher of'Abelard) and built in 1113 at the cost of King Louis VI. The ‘customs’ of the house, which were 2029 Vienne, Council of small-scale imitations of Virgil, Ovid, and Lucan are frequent. RPHG ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Crit. edns of A leth ia by C. Schenkl (CSEL 16, 1888, 335-498) and by P. F. Hovingh (CCSL 128, I960, 115-93). H. H. Homey, S tu ­ dien zu r A leth ia des C la u d iu s M a riu s V ictorius (diss., Bonn, 1972). Altaner and Stuiber (1978 edn), 41 If., and 636. R. P. H. Green, ‘Victorius’ Vergil: Comments on a Passage of the A leth ia ’, M illen n iu m 7 (2010), 51-65. U. Martorelli, R edeat verum ; stu d i sulla tecnica poetica d ell ’ A leth ia ’ (Stuttgart, 2008). T. Kuhn-Treichel, D ie A le ­ th ia ’ des C la u d iu s M a riu s V ictorinus: B ibeld ich tu n g zw ischen E pos u n d L ehrgedicht (Berlin, 2016). Victricius, St (c.340-c.410) As a young man he entered the army. Becoming a Christian not long afterwards, he re­ nounced the military profession as incompatible with his new faith and, acc. to *Paulinus of Nola, narrowly escaped execution on a charge of desertion. He undertook mission work among the Nervi and Morini, in Flanders, Cambresis, and Brabant. Around 385 he became bp of Rouen. About 396 he was called to Britain to settle an ecclesiastical dispute, possibly concerning Arianism’. He also visited Rome. He was the recipient of a celebrated decretal (E tsi tibi) on disciplinary matters sent by Pope *Innocent I in 404. His ‘De Laude Sanctorum’ (based on a sermon) pro­ vides valuable evidence concerning the cult of relics and other aspects of contemporary religious life. He was a close friend of Paulinus of Nola and an admirer of *Martin of Tours. Feast day, 7 Aug. $ la The L iber de L a u d e Sanctorum : P L 20.443-58; crit. edn by J. Mulders, SJ, and R. Demeulenaere in CCSL 64 (1985), 53-93, with bibl. 64f. Text also pr., with Fr. tr., in R. Herval, O rigines C hretiennes [1966], 108-53. The principal source for his life is the two letters by Paulinus of Nola, E pistolae, 18 (ed. W. Hartel, CSEL 29, 1894, 12837) and 37 (ibid., 316-23). The letter from Innocent to Victricius is in P L 20.469-81. J. Mulders, ‘Victricius van Rouaan: Bijdragen’, T ijdschrift voor F ilosofie en T heologie 17 (1956), 1-25; 18 (1957) 1940, 270-89. P. Andrieu-Guitrancourt, ‘Essai sur saint Victrice, 1’Eglise et la province ecclesiastique de Rouen aux derniers temps galloromains’, A n n ee canonique 14 (1970), 1-23. C. Pietri, R om a C h risti ­ ana: R echerches su r I ’E glise de R o m e ... (311-440) (Bibliotheque des £coles franchises d’Athenes et de Rome, 244; 2 vols, 1976), 2:982-91. J. Fontaine, ‘Victrice de Rouen et les origines du monachisme dans 1’Ouest de la Gaule (IV'-VIe siecles)’, in L. Musset (ed.), A spects du M o n a ch ism e en N o rm a n d ie (IV -X V IIF siecles): actes d u C olloque Scientifique de I ’ A n n ee d esA b ba yes N o rm a n d es ’, C aen, 18-20 octo- bre 197 9 (Bibliotheque de la Societe d’Histoire ecclesiastique de la France; Paris, 1982), 9-29. S. Prete in B ibliotheca Sanctorum , 12 (Rome, 1969), cols 1310-15, s.v. ‘Vittricio’. educated by the Jesuits and entered the ^Society of Jesus in 1623. From an early age he was drawn towards missionary work, but in 1641 he was sent back to Lisbon. His preaching gained him considerable influence at court and King John IV appointed him preacher of the royal chapel in 1644 and sent him on a number of (not altogether successful) diplo­ matic missions. On Vieira’s advice the king organized a chartered company (incorporated in 1649) for the Brazil­ ian trade, financed by Jewish capital; the capital invested was to be exempted from confiscation by the “Inquisition. In 1652 Vieira was sent by the Jesuits to refound the missions to the Maranhao and Grao Para which had lapsed on the death of the last missionaries in 1649. His most no­ table achievement in this field was the conversion of the Nheengaibas on the island ofMarajo. His persistent efforts to uphold the freedom of the Amerindians against the at­ tempts of the colonists to exploit them created difficulties, especially after the death of John IV in 1656, and in 1661 he was compelled to return to Portugal. After a palace revolu­ tion he was arraigned before the Inquisition on account of a work in which he prophesied the resurrection of John IV; he was imprisoned for two years and suffered much humil­ iation. In 1669 he went to Rome to plead his own cause and on behalf of the Jews converted to Christianity (the ‘New Christians’ as they were called). In Rome his preaching won him fame, and he was later invited by Queen *Christina of Sweden to be her confessor. The pope imposed a seven-year ban on Inquisitorial trials and “autos de fe in Portugal (1674) and Vieira returned to Portugal with a brief (1675) exempting him from the jurisdiction of the Portuguese Inquisition. In 1681 he sailed for Bahia, where he spent the rest of his life. From 1688 to 1691 he was visitor general of the ‘Brazil and Maranhao missions, and he con­ tinued to espouse the cause of the Amerindians. Vieira’s sermons are masterpieces of baroque pulpit oratory, famous in their time and since for their brilliant flights of imagination and compelling style. Vieira was a man of considerable political acumen, but was also strongly influenced by Messianic and *chiliastic beliefs. In both his sacred and his secular writings there appears his convic­ tion that the Catholic Church, through the agency of Por­ tugal, would soon prevail throughout the world and prepare the way for the Second Coming. $ GVA Serm des pub. in 16 vols, Lisbon, 1679-1748. O bras escolhidas, ed. A. Sergio and H. Cidade (12 vols, Lisbon, 1951-4). C artas ed. J. L. de Azevedo (3 vols, Coimbra, 1925-8). H istdria do F uturo, ed. M. L. Carvalhao Buescu (Lisbon, 1982). Crit. edn of his Serm ao pelo bom sucesso das a rm a s de P ortugal contra as de H olanda Vidi aquam (Lat., T beheld water’) In the W. Church, the anthem traditionally sung at Eastertide during the sprink­ ling of the congregation at Mass on Sundays, in place of the Asperges sung during the rest of the year. Both anthems may now be replaced by other suitable chants. The words of the ‘Vidi aquam’ are based on a combination of verses from Ezek. 47. L. Eisenhofer, H andbuch der katholischen L iturgik, 1 (1932), 479f. (preached in 1640), by F. Smulders (Nijmegen diss., Middelburg, 1989), with introd, (in Eng.) and extensive bibl. R. Cantel, P rophetism e et m essianism e d a n s F oeuvre d ’A n to n io V ieira (Paris, 1960). J. [J.] van den Besselaar, A n to n io V ieira: o h o m em , a obra, as ideias (Biblioteca Breve, 58; Amadora, 1981). M. Vieira Mendes, A oratorio barroca de V ieira (Lisbon, 1989). T. M. Cohen, T he F ire o f T ongues: A n to n io V ieira a n d the M issio na ry C hurch in B razil a n d P ortugal (Stanford, Calif., 1998). S. Leite, SJ, H istd ria da C om panhia de Jesus no B rasil, 9 (Rio de Janeiro, 1949), 192-363. Bibl. by J. P. Paiva (Lisbon, 1999). Vieira, Antonio (1608-97) Portuguese theologian. Of humble origins, Vieira was born in Lisbon, but when he was 6 his family moved to Bahia in Brazil. Here he was Council of (1311-12) Fifteenth ^Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church, summoned in Aug. 1308 Vienne, 2031 Vietnam, Christianity in adapted to Vietnamese culture and made extensive use of by *Clement V, first of the *Avignon popes, to consider the celibate lay ‘catechists who lived in community. After his *Templars, who stood accused of heresy and immorality by expulsion from Cochin-China in 1645, Rhodes returned to those, Philip IV of France especially, who coveted their France and assisted in the foundation of the ‘Societe des wealth; the calling bulls revealingly mention their lands, as Missions fitrangeres de Paris’ (c.1660). In 1658 the Congre­ well as inviting proposals for ecclesiastical reform more gation for Propaganda Fide (see Ev a n g e l iz a t io n o f generally. When the council met on 16 Oct. 1311, the major­ Pe o pl e s , Co n g r e g a t io n f o r ) created two apostolic ity initially held the evidence against the order to be insuf­ Wicariates, one for the north and one for the south. The ficient, and discussion shifted to the need for a new first Vietnamese priests were ordained in 1668, and an in­ *crusade to the Holy Land (or Granada). Hearts and minds digenous religious order of women was formed in 1690. By were swayed by Philip IV of France appearing before the the end of the 18th cent, the Christian community num­ city with an army in Feb. 1312, and the bull V ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA ox in E xcelso bered 300,000. Throughout this period Christians suffered of 22 Mar. 1312, which was promulgated at the next session waves of severe persecution, which continued until in the on 3 Apr. 1312, duly suppressed the order by apostolic ordi­ 1860s the king of Annam granted partial toleration; the nance; as announced at the final meeting on 6 May 1312, number of martyrs has been estimated at 130,000. In the the king himself undertook to go on crusade within six face of this persecution, in the 1780s P. Pigneau de Behaine years. The council issued many more miscellaneous de­ (1741-99), a member of the Societe des ^Missions Etrangeres crees besides: defining poverty for *friars minor in line de Paris and vicar apostolic of W. Tonkin, encouraged with the party for austerity, disbanding the *Beguines, ar­ French political intervention in the region. During the ranging the management of the *Inquisition, and, in fur­ 19th cent. French influence increased and in 1884 Cochintherance of the missionary objectives fostered by *Llull, China became a French colony. By 1912 Catholics (mainly providing for chairs in Arabic, Aramaic, Hebrew, and in the north, in the Hanoi delta region) comprised over 5% Greek to be established at five universities (*Paris, *Oxford, of the total population of Vietnam. The number of Viet­ Salamanca (see Sa l m a n t ic e n s e s ), *Bologna, and Avig­ namese clergy grew rapidly and the first Vietnamese bp non). These and further extraconciliar decrees were issued was appointed in 1933. Protestant missionary work was be­ by *John XXII as the "C lem en tin e C o n stitu tio n s in 1317. gun by the Christian and Missionary Alliance in 1911. The Perhaps unsurprisingly, Philip never went on crusade, and Evangelical Church of Vietnam was formed in 1927. appropriated to his own use both the tithe levied for that During the colonial war against the French (1945-54) purpose and much of the moneys and property of the the great majority of Catholics were opposed to the nation­ Templars. GDB alist movement because of its association with Commu­ G. Alberigo et al. (eds), C onciliorum O ecum enicorum D ecreta nists. After the defeat of the French in 1954 the country (3rd edn, Bologna, 1973), 336-401; tr. N. P. Tanner, D ecrees o f the was divided along the 17th degree of latitude: the (Com­ E cum enical C ouncils (London and Washington, DC, 1990), 1: 333munist) Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the north and 401. K. J. von Hefele and H. Leclercq, ‘Concile de Vienne’, in H istoire des conciles (11 vols, 1907-52), 6.2: 643-719. E. Muller, D as K onzil the Republic of Vietnam, supported by the USA, in the von V ienne, 1311-1312 (Vorreformationsgeschichtliche Forschunsouth. A large migration of Catholics from north to south gen, 12; Munster, 1934). J. Lecler, V ienne (Histoire des Conciles followed, led by their bps. In South Vietnam, under the Oecumeniques, 8; Paris, 1964). M. Mollat and P. Tombeur, L e C on ­ rule of Presidents Ngo Dinh Diem and Nguyen Van Thieu, cile de V ienne (Conciles Oecumeniques Medievaux, 3; Louvain-lathe Catholic Church prospered and held an influential po­ Neuve, 1978). T. Schmidt, ‘Das F actum B o n ifa tia nu m auf dem sition as a bulwark of anti-Communism. After the collapse Konzil von Vienne’, in K. Borchardt and E. Biinz (eds), F orschungen of the Thieu government in 1975 and the withdrawal of zu r R eichs-, P apst- u n d L andesgeschichte (2 vols, Stuttgart, 1998), 2: United States forces, foreign missionaries were expelled. 623-33. O. R. Constable, ‘The Council of Vienne, the Mosque Call, and Muslim Pilgrimage in the Late Medieval Mediterranean Since 1975 in the Communist state of Vietnam the public World’, M edieval E ncounters 16/1 (2010), 64-95. W. C. Jordan, ‘The activities of the Catholic Church have been severely re­ Incident at Loroy and the Controversy over Ecclesiastical Exemp­ stricted. Christians comprise 8% of the population; about tion’, C istercian Studies Q uarterly 45/2 (2010), 125-39. See also bibl. 90% of these are Catholic. DMT under Te m pl a r s . Vietnam, Christianity in Vietnam comprises those por­ tions of the Indo-Chinese peninsula formerly known as Cochin-China, Annam, and Tonkin; the predominant re­ ligion is Mahayana Buddhism. Christianity was first preached by Spanish *Franciscans from the *Philippines and Portuguese ^Dominicans in the 1580s or perhaps as early as the 1530s. The mission of Cochin-China was founded in 1615 by the ^Society of Jesus, who had been driven out of *Japan by persecution. An influential figure among the early missionaries was *Rhodes, a French Jesuit and outstanding linguist who achieved the feat of writing Vietnamese phonetically in the Latin alphabet supple­ mented by five signs (the quo'c ngu)—a legacy adopted by the whole nation ever since. He sought to create a Church 2032 A. Launay, H istoire de la M ission de C ochinchine, 1658 -1823: D o cu m en ts h isto riq u es (3 vols, Paris, 1923-5). A. Launay, H istoire de la M ission d u T onkin: D o cu m en ts historiques, 1: 1658-1717 (Paris, 1927; no more pub.). N. H. Lai, ‘Vietnam’, in A. Hastings (ed.), T he C hurch a n d the N a tio n s (1959), 171-92. B. E. Colless, ‘The Traders of the Pearl: The Mercantile and Missionary Activities of Persian and Armenian Christians in South-East Asia’, 4: ‘The Indo­ china Peninsula’, A b r-N a h ra in 13 (for 1972-3; Leiden, 1972), 11535; see also vol. 18 (for 1978-9; 1980), 13f. P. C. Phan, M ission a n d C atechesis: A lexa n d re de R hodes a n d In cu ltu ra tio n in SeventeenthC en tu ry V ietn a m (Maryknoll, NY, 1998). E. F. Irwin, W ith C hrist in In d o -C h in a : T he S to ry o f A llia n ce M issions in F rench In d o -C h in a a n d E astern S ia m (Harrisburg, Pa, 1937), 25-108. H. E. Dowdy, The B am boo C ross: C h ristia n W itness in the Jungles o f V iet N a m (New York, 1964; London, 1965). R. De Roeck in G. H. Anderson (ed.), C h rist a n d C risis in S o u th ea st A sia (New York, 1968), 55-71. V. T. Pham et al. in N C E (2nd edn), 14 (2003), 499-507, s.v. Vincent of Beauvais termed it) a ‘theology of facts’ ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA (Theologie der T atsachen). He 1257. Between c.1246/7 and c.1260 he was a lector at Royau­ defended the retention of the ancient creeds in worship. In mont, retaining links with the Dominicans in Paris, and addition to a widely read G eschichte der deutschen N a tio n through them access to the writings of *Thomas Aquinas. a llitera tu r (1845; rev. by J. Rohr, 1936), he wrote many theo­ Here he produced a number of political and theological logical works, largely dealing with the contemporary works: the D e E ruditione F iliorum N o b iliu m , on the educa­ situation in church politics. He also compiled a hymntion of noble children (by 1250), and D e M orale P rincipis book (K leines evangelisches G esangbuch, 1838) embodying In stitutio n e, of princes and courtiers (c.1260-3), half of an­ improved ideals in hymnology. other planned four-part compendium; and the L iber G ratiae and T ractatus de Sancta T rinitate, amongst others. He Selected Essays ed. K. Ramge (Munich, 1939). Studies by J. H. Leimbach (Hanover, 1875) and W. Hopf (2 vols, Marburg, wrote the L iber C onsolatorius for Louis IX on the death of 1912-13). P. Dietz, D r. A u g u st F riedrich C hristian V ilm a r als Crown Prince Louis in early 1260, by which time he had left H ym n o lo g (Marburg, 1899). U. Asendorf, D ie E uropdische K rise Royaumont for parts unknown. His works have a vast and u n d das A m t d er K irche: V oraussetzungen d er T heologie von complex dissemination in manuscript and print; the Spec ­ A . F. C . V ilm a r (Arbeiten zur Geschichte und Theologie des Luthu lu m H istoriale was translated into French by Jean de ertums, 18; 1967), with bibl. U. Rieske-Braun in T R E 35 (2003), Vignay (c. 1332), with many rich illustrations, including of 99-102, s.v. R. Keller in R G G (4th edn), 8 (2005), cols 1116-18, s.v. the author himself. GDB Speculum H istoriale (4 vols, Strasbourg, 1473). S p ecu lu m N a tu - Vincent, St (4th cent.) The protomartyr of Spain. Acc. to a rale (Strasbourg, 1476). Speculum D octrinale (Strasbourg, 1477). tradition of the late 4th cent, onwards, referred to by *Augustine and by *Prudentius, Vincent was educated and or­ dained deacon by Valerius, bp of Saragossa, and suffered in the *Diocletianic persecution. The details surrounding his death were considerably developed in later times. Feast day, in the W., 22 Jan.; in the E., 11 Nov. Speculum M orale (Strasbourg, 1476). Speculum M a iu s (4 vols, Ven­ Prudentius, P eristephanon, 5. Augustine, Serm ones, 274-7. Serm o in N a ta li S. V in cen tii M a rtyris attributed to *Leo I (Sermo 13 in P L 54.501-6). A ‘Passio Sancti Vincentii Levitae’, which Ruinart suggested was used by Augustine, is pr. in T. *Ruinart, OSB, A cta P rim o ru m M a rtyru m Sincera et Selecta (Paris, 1689), 387-404. Various ‘Acta S. Vincentii Martyris’ in A n a l. B oll. 1 (1882), 259-78, incl. the ‘Passio Brevior’, more prob, used by Augustine, 260-2. A A S S , 2 Jan. (1647), 397-414. £. Hurault, S a in t V incent, m artyr, p a tro n de vignerons etso n culte d a n s le diocese de C halons (Chalonssur-Marne, 1910). P. F. de’ Cavalieri, N o te agiografiche 8 (ST 65; 1935), 117-25. Marquise de Maille, V in cen t d A g en et sa in t V incent de Saragosse: E tu d e de la ‘P assio S. V incentii M a rtyris ’ (Melun, 1949). V. Saxer, S a in t V in cen t diacre et m artyr: C ulte de legendes a va n t I ’A n M il (Subsidia hagiographica, 83; 2002). T. Moral in B ib ­ liotheca S a n cto ru m , 12 (Rome, 1969), cols 1149-55, s.v. ‘Vincenzo di Saragozza’, with further bibl. ice, 1591; also 4 vols, Douai, 1624; repr. Graz, 1964-5). V aria (Ros­ tock, 1477). O puscula (Basel, 1481). D e E ru d itio n e F iliorum N o b iliu m , ed. A. Steiner (Mediaeval Academy of America Publica­ tions, 32; Cambridge, 1938). D e M orali P rincipis In stitu tio n e, ed. R. J. Schneider (CCCM 137; Turnhout, 1995). For manuscripts and editions see: <http://www.vincentiusbelvacensis.eu/index.html> and <http://sourcencyme.irht.cnrs.fr/encyclopedie/liste>. Spicae: cahiers de F atelier V in cen t de B eauvais (4 vols, Paris, 1978-86). G. Goller, V in zen z von B eauvais O .P . (um 1194-1264) u n d sein M u siktra kta t im Speculum d o ctrin a le (Kolner Beitrage zur Musikforschung, 15; Regensburg, 1959). P. von Moos, ‘Die Trotschrift des Vinzenz von Beauvais fiir Ludwig IX.’, M ittella tein isch es Jahrbuch 6 (1967), 173-218. A. L. Gabriel, T he E d u ca tio na l Ideas o f V in cen t o f B eauvais (Texts and Studies in the History of Mediaeval Education, 4; Notre Dame, Ind., 1956; rev. Ger. tr., Frankfurt, 1967). J. M. Mc­ Carthy, H u m a n istic E m phases in the E d u ca tio n a l T hought o f V in ­ cent o f B eauvais (Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters; Leiden, 1976). S. Lusignan, P reface au S p ecu lu m m a iu s de V in cen t de B eauvais: refraction et diffraction (Cahiers d’Etudes Medievales, 5; Montreal and Paris, 1979). W. J. Aerts et al. (eds), V in cen t o f B eauvais a n d A lexa n d er the G reat (Mediaevalia Groningana, 7; Groningen, 1987). M. Paulmier-Foucart et al. (eds), V in ­ cent de B eauvais: in ten tio n s et reception d ’une oeuvre encyclopedique Vincent of Beauvais (c.1194-1264) Compiler and en­ cyclopedist. Little is known of his life: he identifies himself only as Vincentius Belvacensis, brother of the order of preachers. Probably he studied at *Paris, there joining the ^Dominicans; a house was founded at Beauvais in 1225, and he may be the subprior mentioned in a cartulary of 1246. Famed for his Speculum M a iu s (‘Greater Mirror’), a huge *florilegium drawing on 450 authors. Conceived as a two-part compendium, it was ultimately intended to have four components, according to the prefatory L ibellus A pologeticus, of which he completed three: the Speculum N a tu rale, Speculum D octrinale, and Speculum H istoriale, respectively on natural history, the arts and sciences, and a universal chronicle (the Speculum M orale in his name is a ^Franciscan effort of c.1310-20). The text existed in primi­ tive form by 1244/5, when *Louis IX heard of it from Abbot Radulphus of the *Cistercian abbey of Royaumont and commissioned a copy of the historical section. Royal sup­ port enabled research in the libraries of France, and the project evolved through multiple stages and revisions, but he seems to have finished working on it sometime after au M oyen A ge (Cahiers d’Etudes Medievales, 4; Paris, 1990). M. Paulmier-Foucart and S. Lusignan, ‘Vincent de Beauvais et I’histoire du S p ecu lu m m a iu s ’, Journal des S a va n tes 1-2 (1990), 97-124. R. Weigand, V in zen z von B eauvais (Germanistische Texte und Studien; Hildesheim, 1991). J. B. Voorbij, H et Speculum historiale van V in cen t van B eauvais (Ph.D. thesis, Groningen, 1991). S. Lusig­ nan and M. Paulmier-Foucart (eds), L ector et com pilator: V in cen t de B eauvais, frere precheur, un intellectuel et son m ilieu a u X U E siecle (Grane, 1997). M. Tarayre, L e Speculum h isto ria le de V in cen t de B eauvais (Collection Essais sur le Moyen Age, 22; Paris, 1999). M. Tarayre and F. Dubost, M iracles et m erveilles chez V in cen t de B eauvais (2 vols, Villeneuve d’Ascq, 2001). M. Paulmier-Foucart, ‘A 1’origine du Speculum maius’, in L.-J. Bataillon et al. (eds), H ugues de S a in t-C h er ($1263) (Bibliotheque d’Histoire Culturelle du Moy­ en Age, 1; Turnhout, 2004), 481-96. M. Paulmier-Foucart and M.C. Duchenne, V in cen t de B eauvais et le G rand M iro ir d u m o n d e (Temoins de Notre Histoire, 10; Turnhout, 2004). E. Platti, ‘LTmage dTslam chez le dominicain Vincent de Beauvais’, M elanges de ITn stitu t D om inicain des E tudes O rientales du C aire 25-6 (2004), 65-139. L. Brun and M. Cavagna, ‘Pour une edition du Miroir historial de Jean de Vignay’, R o m a n ia 124/3-4 (2006), 378-428. E. Al­ brecht, D e ontstaansgeschiedenis en de com pilatie van h et ‘Speculum n a tu ra le ’ van V in cen t van B eauvais (Ph.D. thesis, Louvain, 2007). M. Franklin-Brown, E ncyclopedic W ritin g in the Scholastic A ge 2035 Vincent Ferrer, St ‘objectiones’). J. Madoz discovered and in 1940 published a (Chicago, 2012). S. Tugwell, ‘Soundings in Exeter College MS 15 and the Evolution of Vincent of Beauvais’s Speculum naturale’, A ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA rtext of Vincent’s ‘Excerpta’, the earliest known Augustinian ch ivu m F ra tru m P raed ica to ru m 2 (2017), 5-156. ‘florilegium. Vincent’s main work, the ‘Commonitorium’, Vincent Ferrer, St (1350-1413) ‘Dominican preacher, born in Valencia, where he entered the order of preachers in 1367. He was ordained priest in 1379. Until 1390 much of his time was devoted to academic work. He lectured on logic at Lerida, where he wrote two philosophical works, the T ractatus de Suppositionibus and the Q uaestio de U nitate U niversalis, between 1370 and 1372. In 1380 he wrote a treatise on the contemporary papal schism. Later (138590) he taught theology in the cathedral school at Valencia. As a young man he won the confidence of Card. Pedro de Luna (later *Benedict XIII), who employed him in his curia (1394-8). In that capacity he worked to end the schism, but ultimately abandoned Benedict’s cause. From 1399 he un­ dertook extensive preaching tours, generally accompanied by a group of followers who heard confessions, gave in­ struction, and led processions of ‘flagellants. In Spain he was particularly associated with the conversion of‘Jews to Christianity, apparently in large numbers, but his mission took him further afield. He died at Vannes in Brittany. He was canonized in 1455. Feast day, 5 Apr. SRF Works ed. H. Fages, OP (2 vols, Paris, 1909). Separate edns of sermons preached at Valencia during Lent 1413, Q uaresm a, ed. J. Sanchez Sivera (Barcelona, 1927; repr., with introd, by M. San­ chez Guarner, 2 vols, Valencia, 1973). Other sermons ed. J. Sanchez Sivera and G. Schib (4 vols, Barcelona, 1932-77). T ractatus de S u p ­ p o sitio n ib u s, ed. J. A. Trentman (Grammatica Speculativa, 2; Stutt­ gart and Bad Cannstatt, 1977). Q uaestio de U nitate U niversalis, ed. J. A. Trentman, M ed ia eva l S tu d ies 44 (1982), 110-37. Sp. tr. of these two works by V. Forcada [OP], T ractados F ilosoficos, with notes and introd, by A. Robles [OP] (Valencia, 1987). Process of canonization, ed. H. Fages, OP (Paris, 1904). H. Fages, OP, N otes et d o cu m en ts de I’ histoire de sa in t V in cen t F errier (Paris, 1905). H. Fages, OP, H istoire de sa in t V in cen t F errier (2 vols, 1894). J. M. de Garganta, OP, and V. Forcada, OP, B iografia y escritos de San V icente F errer (Ma­ drid, 1956). P. M. Catedra, Serm on, Sociedad y L iteratura en la E d a d M edia: San V icente F errer en C astilla (1411-1412) (Valladolid, 1994), incl. unpub. sermons. B. Montagnes, OP, ‘Prophetisme et eschatologie dans la predication meridionale de saint Vincent Fer­ rier’, in F in du m o n d e et signes des tem ps (Cahiers de Fanjeaux, 27; 1992), 331-49. Kaeppeli, 4 (1993), 458-74. P.-B. Hodel and F. Morenzoni (eds), M irificu s praedicator: a T occasion du sixiem e centenaire du passage de S a in t V in cen t F errier en pays rom and (Rome, 2006). L. A. Smoller, T he S a in t a n d the C hopped-up B aby: T he C u lt o f V in cen t F errer in M ed ieva l a n d E arly M odern E urope (Ithaca, NY, 2014). P. Daileader, S a int V in cen t F errer, H is W orld a n d L ife: R eligion a n d Society in L ate M edieval E urope (New York, 2016). M.-M. Goree, OP, in D T C 15 (pt 2; 1950), cols 3033-45, s.v. ‘Vincent Ferrier (Saint)’. Vincent of Lerins, St (d. before 450) The author of the ‘Commonitorium’. Little is known for certain about his life beyond the fact that, after a period in secular employment, he became a monk on the island of *Lerins. Although the view has recently been challenged, it is generally thought that here, as a ‘semipelagian, he opposed the teaching of ‘Augustine on ‘predestination and was prob, the object of ‘Prosper of Aquitaine’s ‘Responsiones ad capitula objectionum Vincentianarum’ (which preserve the substance of the 2036 written under the pseudonym ‘Peregrinus’, was designed to provide a guide to the determination of the Catholic faith; it embodies the famous ‘Vincentian Canon. Despite his em­ phasis on ‘tradition, Vincent maintained that the final ground of Christian truth was holy scripture, and that the authority of the Church was to be invoked only to guaran­ tee its right interpretation. He did not, however, preclude a development in matters of doctrine, maintaining that in the process of history the truth of scripture often became more fully explicated. Feast day, 24 May. $ JM Crit. edn of‘Commonitorium’ and ‘Excerpta’ by R. Demeulenaere (CCSL 64,1985,125-231), with introd, [in Fr.] and bibl. Earlier edns of the ‘Commonitorium’ inch E. ‘Baluze (Paris, 1663; 3rd edn, 1684, repr. in P L 50.637-86) and R. S. Moxon (Cambridge Patristic Texts, 1915). Eng. trs by C. A. Heurtley (NPNCF, 2nd ser. 11,1894, 123-59) and R. E. Morris (Fathers of the Church, 7 [1949]). E xcerp ­ ta V in cen tii L irinensis segun el C odice de R ipoll, N o. 151, ed., with introd., by J. Madoz, SJ (Estudios Onienses, 1st ser. 1; Madrid, 1940). J. Madoz, SJ, E l concepto de la tradicion en S. V icente de L er ­ ins (Analecta Gregoriana, 5; Rome, 1933). A. d’Ales, ‘La Fortune du C o m m o n ito riu m ’ , R ech. SR 6 (1936), 334-56. W. O’Connor, C.S.Sp., ‘Saint Vincent of Lerins and Saint Augustine’, D octor C o m m u n is 16 (1963), 123-257. G. Bardy in D T C 15 (pt 2; 1950), cols 3045-55. A. M. C. Casiday, ‘Grace and the Humanity of Christ according to St Vincent of Lerins’, VC 59/3 (2005), 298-314. A. M. C. Casiday, ‘Vincent of Lerins’s C o m m on itoriu m , O bjectiones and E xcerp ta ’, in A. Y. Hwang et al. (eds), A fter A u g ustin e a n d P elagius (2013). T. G. Guarino, V in cen t o f L erins: A n d the D evelo p m en t o f C hristian D o ctrin e (Grand Rapids, Minn., 2013). Vincent de Paul (or Depaul), St (1581-1660) Founder of the Lazarist Fathers and of the ‘Sisters of Charity’. Born of a peasant family in Pouy in the department of Landes in SW France, he was at first a shepherd; he later went to school in Dax and then studied theology in Toulouse. He was ordained priest in 1600. According to his own account, he was captured by pirates and spent two years as a slave in Tunisia before returning to ‘Avignon with his former mas­ ter, whom he had converted. After visiting Rome, in 1608 he went to ‘Paris and, coming under the influence of ‘Berulle, he decided to devote his life to the service of the poor. From 1613 to 1626 he was attached to the household of the Count de Gondi, general of the galleys; at the same time he undertook pastoral work in the parishes of Clichy (near Paris) and Chatillon-les-Dombes (near Lyon), con­ ducted missions in NE France, founded Confraternities of Charity for men and women, and as chaplain of the galleys from 1619 did much to relieve the lot of the prisoners. In 1622 ‘Francois de Sales gave him charge of the convents of the ‘Visitation order in Paris. In 1625 Vincent founded the ‘Congregation of the Mission, usually called Lazarists or Vincentians, for giving missions among country people and for the training of priests. The first of the seminaries grew out of the College des Bons-Enfants, founded as a school for young boys. In 1633, together with Louise de Marillac, he founded the Sisters of Charity, the first con­ gregation of women who were not enclosed, and who took no final vows; they were entirely devoted to the care of the sick and poor in a way that was impossible for the Ladies of