Journal Pre-proof Medicinal plants used by ‘root doctors’, local traditional healers in Bié province, Angola B. Novotna, Z. Polesny, M.F. Pinto-Basto, P. Van Damme, P. Pudil, J. Mazancova, M.C. Duarte PII: S0378-8741(19)31151-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112662 Reference: JEP 112662 To appear in: Journal of Ethnopharmacology Received Date: 23 March 2019 Revised Date: 6 February 2020 Accepted Date: 6 February 2020 Please cite this article as: Novotna, B., Polesny, Z., Pinto-Basto, M.F., Van Damme, P., Pudil, P., Mazancova, J., Duarte, M.C., Medicinal plants used by ‘root doctors’, local traditional healers in Bié province, Angola, Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112662. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2020 Published by Elsevier B.V. Medicinal plants used by ‘root doctors’, local traditional healers in Bié province, Angola B. Novotna a, b, Z. Polesny a, *, M.F. Pinto-Basto c, P. Van Damme a, d, P. Pudil a, J. Mazancova e, M.C. Duarte f a Barbora Novotna, Zbynek Polesny, Patrick Van Damme, Petr Pudil; Department of Crop Sciences and Agroforestry, Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Praha - Suchdol, Czech Republic b Barbora Novotna; Department of General Anthropology, Faculty of Humanities, Charles University, U Kříže 8, 158 00 Praha 5 – Jinonice, Czech Republic c Maria Fernanda Pinto-Basto; Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical, Universidade de Lisboa, 1250-102 Lisboa, Portugal d Patrick Van Damme; Laboratory of Tropical and Subtropical Agronomy and Ethnobotany, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium e Jana Mazancova; Department of Sustainable Technologies, Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Praha Suchdol, Czech Republic f Maria Cristina Duarte; CE3C – Center for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal 1 Authors’ email addresses: B. Novotna (bara_novotna@hotmail.com), Z. Polesny (polesny@ftz.czu.cz), M.C. Duarte (mcduarte@fc.ul.pt), P. Van Damme (Patrick.VanDamme@UGent.be), P. Pudil (pudilp@ftz.czu.cz), J. Mazancova (mazan@ftz.czu.cz), M.F. Pinto-Basto (mariafbasto@gmail.com) * Corresponding author: Zbynek Polesny, email: polesny@ftz.czu.cz 2 Authors contributions: ZP, BN and JM prepared the study concept and design; BN undertook the fieldwork, conducted data analysis and screened full text articles; MCD and MFPB provided taxonomic identification of plant specimens and contributed to the discussion on taxonomic and environmental aspects of the study; PVD, ZP and BN drafted the article narrative; ZP generated all figures and tables; PP screened titles and abstracts and generated all graphical work; all authors read, commented and approved the final manuscript. 3 Abstract Ethnopharmacological relevance This study is one of the first post-civil war efforts to document traditional botanical knowledge in Bié province, central Angola, in a first step to bring more studies on the use of medicinal plant resources in this area so as to bring new insights into Angolan bio-cultural diversity. Aim of the study Examine the variety of plant species used for medical purposes, as well as characterize their social and cultural values. Also, it is aimed to compare their uses in the studied region with those in Sub-Saharan Africa and report new ethnomedicinal uses. Materials and methods We documented traditional medicinal plant knowledge among professional herbalists in two areas in Bié province through participatory observation, semi-structured interviews and transect walks. Ethnobotanical information was quantified based on Use Reports to (1) rate traditional knowledge; and (2) determine most useful taxa. Results In total, 10 traditional healers shared information on their knowledge. A total of 87 plant species distributed among 57 genera and 36 botanical families were documented with Fabaceae being the best-represented family with 18 species, followed by Phyllanthaceae (6), Apocynaceae (5), Asteraceae (5), Rubiaceae (5), Lamiaceae (4), and Ochnaceae (3). Most medicinal plants are usually gathered at a distance from human settlements because of the belief in the higher efficacy of ‘wild’ plants shared by all herbalists. Roots are the most common plant part used (79%), explaining why the consulted herbalists call themselves ‘root doctors’. 4 Conclusions The culturally most important medicinal species identified in this study, i.e. Securidaca longepedunculata, Garcinia huillensis, Annona stenophylla, Afzelia quanzensis and Strychnos cocculoides, were previously reported for the same use in neighbouring countries and elsewhere in Africa. Our study also indicates that there are several locally valuable species that have not yet been studied for their medical potential, to name a few: Alvesia rosmarinifolia, Diplorhynchus condylocarpon, Eriosema affine, Paropsia brazzaeana, Rhus squalida, Sclerocroton cornutus or Xylopia tomentosa. Moreover, the ethnomedicinal use of 26 species was reported for the first time to sub-Saharan Africa. Classification: Ethnopharmacological field studies Keywords: Africa, Chokwe, ethnobotany, ethnomedicine, Ovimbundu, traditional knowledge Acknowledgements: We would like to acknowledge all herbalists of Bié province who participated in our study by sharing their knowledge. Namely, herbalists José Isombo, Rufino Venantio, Boano Venantio, Maria Nakamia, Theresa Odette, Luhana, Jorge, Maria, Rufino Lourdes and Sara Teresa. We would like to thank Adilson Valentimo Samala from Kuito and Maria Manuela Blabolil from Cuemba for their work as facilitators/translators during the fieldwork. We would like to acknowledge the Huambo herbarium (LUA), from the Instituto de Investigação Agrária in Huambo (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry), and local administration in Kuito for their consent and support of our study. Funding sources: This research was supported by the Internal Grant Agency of the Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences of the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant number IGA 5 FTZ 20195009) and by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (UIDB/00329/2020). Declarations of interest: none. 6 1. Introduction Africa is considered the cradle of mankind with a rich biological and cultural diversity with numerous often region-specific healing practices (Gurib-Fakim et al., 2006). Millions of African people rely on medicinal plants for their primary healthcare (Antwi-Baffour et al., 2014). Reasons can be that lots of human settlements are close to natural vegetation, the free availability of these plants (Muthu et al., 2006), and the prohibitive cost of western allopathic practices and products (Rein, 2001). It is estimated that 68% of Angolans live below the poverty line. In rural areas, 94% of households can be categorized as poor (Jacob, 2015). Angola is a country vulnerable to disease outbreaks, like yellow fever, malaria, or cholera, whereby specific events may overload the (formal) health services. Malaria, acute respiratory and diarrhoeal diseases, tetanus and malnutrition, combined with poor access to healthcare, damaged infrastructure and lack of trained health professionals, are the main causes of mortality (WHO, 2018). Sousa-Figueiredo et al. (2012) named malnutrition and anaemia as the main public health problems. The density of physicians per 1000 population was 0.17 in 2009, whereas nursing and midwifery personnel density is now at 1.66 (WHO, 2018). The maternal mortality rate is estimated at about 1,700 per 100,000 live births. This extremely high rate is attributed to common pregnancy-related conditions that are not adequately treated, since more than 70% of all deliveries are not institutional (WHO, 2018). By the year 2005, life expectancy was 40 years (WHO, 2005), whereas in the last census in 2014 it was at 52.7 years (WHO, 2018). Following Sierra Leone, Angola has the lowest life expectancy for women and men worldwide (WHO, 2015). The fertility rate of 6.8 is the world's second highest (WHO, 2018). In Angola, people’s access to biomedicine is mainly through the government’s official health care system. During the civil conflict, about 65% of medical facilities were destroyed, with 7 most damage occurring in rural areas (YGHR, 2016). The lack of health infrastructure, especially in these areas, is a serious problem resulting in particular dependence on traditional healers and herbal medicines (Queza et al., 2010). Despite de high diversity of the vascular flora of Angola, with a total of 7,296 taxa, of which 1,069 are endemic (Figueiredo et al., 2009), and the recognized importance of plants for local populations (Huntley et al., 2019), only a few studies tackle the traditional use of plants in Angola. After the pioneering work of Ficalho (1884), embracing several former Portuguese colonies in Africa, most works are often addressing partial aspects of traditional medicine [e.g. Bossard 1993; Van-Dúnem and Batalha, 1994; Bossard, 1996 (Ovimbundu ethnic group, C and W Angola); Leyens and Lobin, 2009 (Bié province); Costa and Pedro, 2013; or Catarino et al., 2019 (Fabaceae species)]. Only recently, complex ethnobotanical studies documenting traditional plant use in different regions are surfacing [e.g. Heinze et al., 2017 (Cuanza Norte); Mawunu et al., 2016 (Ambuíla, Uíge); Urso et al., 2016 (mopane forests, S Angola); Göhre et al., 2016 (Bakongo tribes, N Angola) and Lautenschläger et al., 2018 (Uíge, N Angola)]. This lack of documentation can be attributed to the nearly three decades of civil war, which started after independence in 1975. During this period, little opportunity existed for field research (Figueiredo and Smith, 2008) and some areas were inaccessible due to landmines (Costa et al., 2004). Even before the war, the poor condition of some roads prevented explorers from reaching many, often isolated, regions. This situation prevails to some extent today. Only with certain areas of the country becoming increasingly accessible, a new interest in the botanical and cultural wealth of Angola is (re)surfacing (Klopper et al., 2009). During the civil war, majority of people have been displaced several times, lost many members of their families and have lost ties with their home communities. The redistribution of the population during and after the Angolan civil war forced people to settle in large 8 numbers in small areas, which has resulted in accelerated degradation of vegetation and soil (IFAD, 2014). Angolan Herbal Pharmacopeia is still missing (Queza, 2010) and the general regulations for a National Pharmaceutical Policy (Presidential Decree n. 180/2010) establish the need to promote the elaboration of a pharmacopoeia of traditional medicines. It is therefore urgent to conduct ethnobotanical studies in biologically and culturally diverse regions of Angola, to at least get an idea of the relative importance of still existing knowledge, which is threatened by still increasing pressure on vegetation driven by socioeconomic development and global change (Revermann and Finckh, 2019). These studies are also essential to evaluate the diversity of medicinal species in this country, allowing comparisons with other regions and with the overall African continent, where about 10% of the flora is estimated to be used in traditional medicine (Van Wyk, 2011). The objective of the present study is to document the diversity of medicinal plants and related ethnomedicinal knowledge of ‘professional’ herbalists in Angola, namely of Chokwe and Ovimbundu ethnic groups in two contrasting study areas in Bié province. Some of these herbalists call themselves ‘root doctors’ as roots are the plant part most commonly used, although not the only one. Through quantitative and qualitative analytical ethnobotanical methods, this research intends to examine the variety of plant species used for medical purposes, as well as their social and cultural value. Also, plant uses documented to this region are compared with those already reported to other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa in order to find wider perspective on their use and identify newly reported uses and species. 2. Material and methods 9 2.1. Study area and data collection sites Bié province covers some 71,000 km². With 1,455,255 inhabitants (Brinkhoff, 2014), it is located on the central plateau of Angola, ranging from 1,200–1,800 m altitude. The plateau descends in the east to the basins of the Congo and Zambezi Rivers, and merges with the sandy Namib Desert in the south. The climate is subtropical, humid and moderate and temperatures do not fluctuate much over the year, with an annual average of 18°C in Kuito, the capital city (Klopper et al., 2009). According to the global map of terrestrial ecoregions (Olson et al., 2001), this province is included in the ‘Angolan miombo woodlands ecoregion’, within the ‘tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and scrublands biome’. Local agricultural systems are based on the cultivation of cassava, maize, sugar cane, coffee and peanuts, whereas the natural vegetation consists mostly of miombo woodland, a vegetation type dominated by the genera Brachystegia, Julbernardia, and Isoberlinia (Kowero et al., 2003). The research was undertaken in two contrasting urban settings in Bié province (Figure 1). Kuito, with a population of 450,881 inhabitants (Brinkhoff, 2014), with a dense urban infrastructure, surrounded by open woodlands and agricultural lands. Here, most herbalists gather their plants near the town’s outskirts. On the other hand, Cuemba municipality, a rural area populated by 56,963 people (Brinkhoff, 2014), is situated about 100 km northeast of Kuito. Due to damaged roads, it is difficult to reach this distance from Kuito in less than 10 hours. Most families in Cuemba depend on subsistence agriculture and more specifically on hunting of wild animals and non-timber forest product collection. The Ovimbundu and Chokwe ethnic groups prevail in the area. Each of them has its own language, namely Umbundu and Chokwe, both being of Bantu origin and belonging to the Niger-Congo language family. Although these two languages are different in many 10 aspects, people in the area usually understand both. It is generally viewed in the area that more Ovimbundu people live in Kuito and more Chokwe people in Cuemba, while Chokwe are locally associated with the forest and are known to be more dependent on forest resources. However, both Chokwe and Ovimbundu live in both areas and seem to be represented in equal proportions among herbalists. More in general, Ovimbundu people inhabit the central plateau Angola (Huambo, Bié) and western coastal parts of Angola (Benguela, Kuanza Sul), while Chokwe inhabit eastern parts of Bié province, and eastern parts of Angola, bordering with Zambia (Bossard, 1996). 2.2. Data collection The survey was undertaken between September and November 2013. Herbalists were identified in each study area through purposive sampling and snowball method (Tongco, 2007), which seeks to take advantage of the social networks of each respondent to provide a researcher with an ever-expanding set of potential contacts. In each locality this selection was assisted by a facilitator, who was a trustworthy member of community, instructed on aims and methods of our research project. S/he usually helped to identify the first herbalist, through local knowledgeable community members. The contact with the other herbalists identified through snowballing method was again established with their assistance and translation. In Cuemba, we recorded all the professional herbalists, 5 in total. In Kuito, we followed the snowballing method to establish closer contact with the same number of herbalists who were on the comparable professional level. We did not focus on stratification (e.g. gender, age or ethnic group) during the selection of collaborating herbalists, but rather on the professional status of selected herbalist. Being a specialized herbalist in our study means to be acknowledged by the local society as a herbal healer, to be perceived to possess 11 healing and spiritual power, and to be addressed by the local people with their health issues. Most information was obtained in Portuguese; however, in exceptional cases, one of the local languages was used and information translated into Portuguese. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the herbalists during transect walks in their crop fields and surrounding woodlands. The Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology (2006) was followed during the fieldwork. Local authorities were consulted concerning permission for our study. Prior informed consent was obtained from herbalists through a signed form or orally, depending on the preference and literacy of the respective herbalist. Each herbalist was asked to mention any medicinal plant that s/he knew and used, providing information on local name, plant parts collected, medicinal use, modes of preparation and administration, plant life-form, status of domestication (cultivated or wild), seasonal availability and any other additional information that came to their mind, for example important visual characteristics, seasonal variations or specific effects of the plant. Interviews were complemented with direct participant observation of therapeutic practices and preparation methods. In total, 10 knowledgeable informants (herbalists) were individually interviewed: 3 men/2 women in Kuito and 2 men/3 women in Cuemba. The herbalists’ age ranged between 51–73 years, with a mean of 60 years of age. Because most of the interviewed herbalists perceived their knowledge either as a secret for spiritual or economic reasons, they did not wish to share their knowledge with other local herbalists or other local people. That is the reason why we decided to interview informants individually rather than using focus group discussions. A similar situation was described for a study in Zimbabwe (Ngarivhume et al., 2015). Interestingly, herbalists had no objection in sharing their knowledge with the international scientific community, because 12 they believe their knowledge is not of much use outside their cultural context. Specifically, some healers would say that their medicine has not any effect at all on ‘white soul’. Plants reported by herbalists were collected during transect walks. We further prepared voucher specimens complemented by photos of all mentioned plants. Plant species were identified using reference works for Angolan flora such as the Conspectus Florae Angolensis, albeit not complete (Exell and Mendonça, 1937, 1951, 1954, 1955; Exell and Fernandes, 1962, 1966; Exell et al., 1970; Shelpe et al., 1977) and Floras of surrounding regions, and deposited in LISC Herbarium (Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical, University of Lisbon, Portugal). The nomenclature used follows Tropicos database (www.tropicos.org). The conservation status of the collected plants was checked by consulting the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN, 2018) and ‘The Catalogue of Life’ database (Roskov et al., 2019). 2.3. Data analysis Quantitative analysis used descriptive data, observations and responses to open questions gathered during the field work together with the additional taxonomic identification of plant specimens. All information gathered on the specific plant species use was transformed into use reports (UR), defined as one use of a species mentioned by an informant in the use category. The health disorders reported by informants were classified into ailment categories according to International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC, 2005) with regards to emic perspective observed during the fieldwork through particular description of ailments. To find intercultural and local similarities in medicinal uses and species recorded in the field, a comparison was made by confronting uses and species by different groups. For 13 comparison of data documented in present study with previously published data on species used in Sub-Saharan Africa, online electronic databases including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Medline, Pubmed, SCOPUS and Open-thesis were used to search for relevant literature sources. Ethnobotanical literature available in the libraries was also examined. Webdatabases PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa, https://www.prota4u.org/database/) and Société Française d'Ethnopharmacologie (www.ethnopharmacologia.org) were used for crosschecking and further data search. Only medicinally used plant species reported from the region of sub-Saharan Africa were included. 3. Results We documented a total of 224 vernacular names of medicinal plants. This corresponds to 114 taxa, with 87 plant species distributed among 57 genera and 36 botanical families univocally and taxonomically identified. Seven plants could only be identified down to genus level, two plants down to family level, and 18 were not identified taxonomically and therefore not included in further data analysis. Fabaceae was the most-represented family (21%), followed by Phyllanthaceae (7%), Apocynaceae (6%), Asteraceae (6%), Rubiaceae (6%), Lamiaceae (5%), and Ochnaceae (3%) (Table 1). The 280 use reports were mostly distributed in the group of digestive disorders, with 81 URs within the ‘digestive’ category, followed by 45 URs in ‘pregnancy, family planning’ category, and 29 URs in the category ‘general’ (Table 2). From all species, the highest number of URs belonged to Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen (14), Annona stenophylla subsp. nana N. Robson (14), Paropsia brazzaeana Baill. (10), Alvesia rosmarinifolia Welw. (9), Aframomum alboviolaceum (Ridl.) K. Schum. (8), Albizia antunesiana Harms (8), 14 Garcinia huillensis Welw. ex Oliv. (8), and Xylopia tomentosa Exell (8). The plant life forms of the identified species are trees (31%), shrubs (35%), herbs (21%), subshrubs (10%), succulents (2%), or vines (1%). As shown in Figure 2, the most common mode of application was decoction (51%), followed by washes (10%). Washes and massages are applied codependently: herbalists call it washes, but traditionally these are in form of massages, since massages naturally complement the process, but are not essential for it. Descriptions of the administration and preparation of the medicinal remedies are listed for each species in Table 1. Among the different plant parts used (Figure 3) roots are the most commonly used (79%). Interestingly, roots and leaves, or roots and bark together were commonly mentioned for the need to be combined to prepare a decoction. We can derive from our results that 34 species were cited by only 1 herbalist, whereas 53 species were cited by 2 or more herbalists. The most frequently cited species were Securidaca longepedunculata and Annona stenophylla, both cited by all 10 informants, followed by Garcinia huillensis, Strychnos cocculoides Baker and Holostylon robustum (Hiern) G. Taylor, cited by 6 informants. We compared the knowledge of plants in the two different localities and ethnicities groups in our study. Only 10 plant species were used commonly by both Ovimbundu and Chokwe people, and both in Cuemba and Kuito. These species represent the most cited species in our study. The numbers of use reports and species used in each group, and commonly between them, are shown in Table 3. The highest number of coincidences was among the species used by herbalists from two different localities. From the total number of 87 species documented in this study, ethnomedicinal uses of 26 species have been reported for the first time. The ethnomedicinal use of 57 species has already been documented in different coutries of Sub-Saharan Africa (see Table 4). 15 A total of 44 species (indicated by an asterisk in Table 1) have not yet been tested for their pharmacological potential and, impressively, 143 new uses (marked with a ‡ in Table 1), regarding 70 species, were reported. 4. Discussion 4.1. Medicinal plant species diversity As in other studies from Angola (Göhre et al., 2016; Urso et al., 2016), South Africa (Mahwasane et al., 2013; Semenya and Maroyi, 2012; Afolayann et al., 2014) or Zimbabwe (Ngarivhume et al., 2015), the Fabaceae was the most-represented family. This is rather mundane, being the third-largest plant family prevailing in mopane woodland vegetation (Timberlake et al., 2010) with the 13,9 % percent of taxa of the family Fabaceae in the flora of Angola (Figueiredo et al., 2009); also, the Fabaceae, are typically used as medicine in Angola and in other areas of its high occurrence (Catarino et al., 2019). In our study, 34 species were cited only by one herbalist. Among the remaining 53 species, Aeschynomene dimidiata Welw. ex Baker, Brachystegia gossweileri Hutch. & Burtt Davy, Cassytha pondoensis, Droogmansia dorae Torre, Hypoxis polystachya Welw. ex Baker, Indigofera sutherlandioides Welw. ex Baker, Oxygonum pachybasis Milne-Redh., Vangueriopsis lanciflora (Hiern) Robyns and Vernonia britteniana Hiern, just to mention the more frequently cited species in our study, were not reported in the ethnomedicinal context in any literature source and appear to be reported for the first time as medicinal plant species in our study. 16 The following four species were cited only once in our study and their use as medicinal plants cannot be supported by any literature sources: Lantana angolensis Moldenke, Macrotyloma africanum (Brenan ex R. Wilczek) Verdc., Pentanisia rubricaulis (K. Schum.) Kårehed & B. Bremer and Uapaca gossweileri Hutch. The remaining species cited only once in our study (30) were documented as medicinal plants also in other countries according to the publications we consulted (see Table 4). This could be perceived as evidence that despite the fact that medical knowledge in our study area is not openly shared among herbalists, it has solid ground based on its linkages with studies from other areas. 4.2. ‘Root doctors’: the environmental impact of Angolan medicinal plant use Almost all species were cited to be accessible all year round. As they mainly use roots and/or leaves and most of the reported species are perennial, fresh material is always available. The herbal remedies were rarely stored in the form of dried plant material. Commonly, roots were collected and used fresh. Similar results were documented in Zimbabwe (Maroyi, 2011). In agreement with the findings of Bussmann (2006), Okello and Segawa (2007), Simbo (2010), and Ngarivhume et al. (2015), in different African regions, there is a prevailing belief that plants gathered from the wild are more effective. However, medicinal plants were usually collected near the homesteads or in other anthropic environments over quite a large gathering distance (10 km) from human settlements. These places were usually maintained by slashand-burn agriculture practices. Indeed, as reported by Cabral et al. (2010), herbalists rely on areas with heavier woody component to go and collect their materials only when more accessible areas are degraded. In our study, herbalists possessed detailed knowledge of the surrounding environment of their farms or collection sites, which is vital due to the persisting 17 presence of land mines. Generally, they would not walk away from a well-explored path, even if the desired plants were only a few steps aside. Roots are very important for the local healers, as they tend to describe, know and demonstrate a particular medical scent of the roots. Often, they characterize roots as the only real medicine. Significantly, most of the interviewed herbalists used the scent of the roots in order to recognize and distinguish the ethnospecies. Similarly to the findings in traditional Zimbabwean medicine (Gelfand et al., 1985; Maroyi, 2011) and in the medicine of South Africa (York et al., 2011), a decoction prepared from the root was the most common way of preparation of herbal remedies in Bié province. When collecting the root or even trying to distinguish the ethnospecies, herbalists standardly uproot the whole plant, leaving the remainder of the plant behind. Thereof, the collection of the roots of medicinal plants is furthering the conservation concern. The alternative use of renewable plant parts like leaves might be considered, as some studies (e.g. Jena et al., 2017) point to close chemical and biological similarity between the roots and the leaves. Although the conservation status of the collected plants was checked and showed no further conservation issues, Red List assessments of Angolan flora are scarce (e.g. all endemics species, except four, are considered Data-Deficient for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Huntley et al., 2019). In neighbouring countries, the use of some species is already matter of conservation concerns [e.g. Oldfieldia dactylophylla (Welw. ex Oliv.) J. Léonard in Malawi, because of overexploitation of the roots (Manda et al., 2007); Entada gigas in Ghana and Benin (van Andel et al., 2015); and Securidaca longepedunculata in Nigeria (Abubakar et al., 2018)]. 4.3. Social aspects of medicinal plant use in Bié Province, Angola 18 The prevailing belief in the spiritual and magical origin of diseases was observed both during informal interviews with herbalists and their patients. Amongst the southern Bantu people, lack of health and misfortune are believed to stem from ancestral wrath, witchcraft and frequent use of rituals (Hammond-Tooke, 1998). They often point to disturbed social relations (Sobiecki, 2014). The herbalists in our study insisted we should include plants that can be considered ‘magic’ with no different status, because ailments as headache or sore throat are only consequences of acts of spiritual agents. Bossard (1996) observed that Ovimbundu people would not accept westernized medicine, because it only treats the body, but not the soul. During informal interviews, informants frequently mentioned they had negative experiences with the healthcare provided in hospitals and/or local health centers. On the contrary, they mentioned no negative observations of healthcare provided by traditional healers. Unsuccessful application of herbal remedy was often explained by the evil spirit force or curse upon the treated individual and further herbal medication was prescribed. Rarely, the patient would be sent to a hospital after the remedy failed. This was also documented in Zimbabwe (Ngarivhume et al., 2015). The traditional healers often spoke in parables and their description of health problems could easily be misinterpreted. This was described in South Africa by Sobiecki (2014), who explains that when the traditional knowledge is translated into other languages such as English, these metaphorical descriptions of medicinal plant use can seem to incorrectly reflect mysticism and/or superstition with no scientific basis. Interestingly, the spiritual value of the plants was kept a secret, especially in Cuemba, while in Kuito herbalists were more opened to share more of their knowledge. This could perhaps point to the upcoming devaluation of traditional knowledge in the urban area. In Angola, herbalists are members of the community, however with particular status, ‘on the border of life and death’, described by Bossard (1996). Hence, medicinal plant knowledge is 19 transmitted mainly vertically, as herbalists keep certain essential secrets and practices to protect their knowledge. Besides the limited number of professional herbalists in the area, this mechanism can also contribute to the relatively high proportion of plant species cited by only one informant in our study. 4.4. Medicinal plants and uses compared by ethnicity and locality The highest number of coincidences in our study was measured for the species used in the two localities, Kuito and Cuemba. This can be due to relatively short distance between the two areas as well as due to similarities in local flora in both areas. Significant species used only in Kuito were Aeschynomene dimidiata and Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. ex Schult.; species used only in Cuemba were Psychotria eminiana (Kuntze) E.M.A. Petit and Scleria induta Turrill. The two ethnic groups were mixed in both areas. Even if there is general tendency to similarity of plant use in both areas studied, the use of medical plants by the two ethnic groups was more divergent. Therefore, it could be assumed that among the factors measured, ethnic difference has most significant impact on specific medical plant use. Despite the general difference in species and uses presented by different ethnic groups, there was only one medical plant frequently reported solely by Chokwe herbalists: Erythrina abyssinica. Plants frequently reported only by Ovimbundu herbalists were: Gymnema sylvestre, Hypoxis polystachya, Lippia plicata Baker and Phyllanthus welwitschianus. The remaining locally important species were all reported by both ethnic groups. Owing to the low number of informants, gender comparison was not performed. However, we might mention the unusual high percentage of female healers in our study, because it is general African believe that traditional healers should be male (Okello and Segawa, 2007; Bekalo et al., 2009; Cheikhyousef et al., 2011). However, rare studies show 20 the gender equilibrate tendency (Ngarivhume et al., 2015). Despite some emic pattern (e.g. with male herbalists not mention commonly known ‘plants for women’ during the transect walk, as these were literally ‘none of their business’) medical plants used commonly and solely by women or by men were, as far as we could observe, not particularly related to any medicinal category. Intriguingly similar aspects of gender-related plant use were reported in the recent study from northern Angola (Lautenschläger et al., 2018), where neither in the context of gender-specific illnesses, neither in the general plant use, gender related patterns were observed. 4.5. Locally important ailment categories and culturally significant species The majority of URs in our study falls within the digestive disorders category. Annona stenophylla subsp. nana was the most popular plant cited to ease stomachache followed by Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) W. Wight that is used to treat various kinds of gastrointestinal disorders; similar uses, as well as other (Table 4), are reported to tropical Africa. Among the most important species in this category, Eriosema affine De Wild., Cassytha pondoensis, Gymnema sylvestre and Holostylon robustum have not been previously cited as medicinal species treating digestive problems (see Table 4). The category ‘Pregnancy, family planning’ was the second most frequently cited in our study (45 URs). Women in Angola describe themselves as uncommonly fertile. The use of many medicinal plants in this category does not meet much agreement among informants or the studies we consulted. However, there is an assumption that the knowledge in the area of fertility-related issues can be of special value as it is presumably well-developed in Angola due to the high cultural focus on fertility which was observed in our study area. E.g., any woman would be encouraged by her family to undergo traditional treatment for infertility as 21 soon as she reaches age 16 and does not get pregnant, or as soon as she would not get pregnant two years after a previous birth. The most-cited ailment in this category was pain during pregnancy and labour and the most common use was post-partum disinfection, while Albizia adianthifolia and A. antunesiana were the most commonly cited species for the treatment of pain. The use of both species in pregnancy and family planning issues is reported to tropical Africa (Table 4). In another relevant ailment category – General – the common diseases were malaria, followed by elephantiasis and yellow fever. As for treatment of elephantiasis, there was an agreement on the use of Psorospermum baumii. This species was mentioned to be used in skin-related problems (Table 4), and veterinary uses in Africa (Matzigkeit, 1990), but locally it is described as a strong and significant medicine. Securidaca longepedunculata, reported for the treatment of malaria by our respondents, was also reported to cure malaria in Congo (Dibwe et al., 2012); extracts of this species have shown activity against a variety of microorganisms (Table 4) and have good prospects in the formal treatment of malaria (Adiele et al., 2013; Atawoli et al., 2003; Maiga et al., 2005; Rakuambo et al., 2004). Also reported for treating malaria, Bobgunnia madagascariensis (Desv.) J.H. Kirkbr. & Wiersema, is used for the same purpose in Namibia by Ovambo people (Mojeremane, 2012); in many areas and also in Bié province, it is believed to be a poisonous species, however with no evidence to corroborate this assumption (Lemmens et al., 2012). 4.6. Pharmacological potential Among the high number of plant species not yet been tested for their pharmacological potential (44, see Table 1), several of them showed a high proportion of use reports, or were recognized as of local significance such as Aeschynomene dimidiata, a species only occurring 22 in Angola and DR Congo (Roskov et al., 2019), two countries with a manifest scarcity of ethnobotanical studies, Holostylon robustum, once mentioned as ‘magical plant that can cure everything’, Lippia plicata, and Psorospermum baumii. Interestingly, and as also reported in the recent study from Angola (Lautenschläger et al., 2018), Annona stenophylla subsp. cuneata N. Robson has not been previously ethnobotanically nor phytochemically examined. Other plants with particular local significance that have not been tested for pharmacological potential are Alvesia rosmarinifolia, Diplorhynchus condylocarpon, Eriosema affine, Rhus squalida Meikle, Sclerocroton cornutus (Pax) Kruijt & Roebers, and Xylopia tomentosa. The restricted distribution range of most of these species (limited to Angola and a few of the surrounding countries and including two endemisms Holostylon robustum and Rhus squalida) is certainly related with this lack of research. 5. Conclusion The amount of medicinal plants used for a variety of ailments reflects the rich ethnomedicinal knowledge in Bié province in Angola. The preservation of this knowledge appears to be particularly secured due to the continuing reliance of local people on primary healthcare ensured by medicinal plant use and local healers. The fact that roots are commonly used in the preparation of medical remedies suggests that continuous collection of plants together with land clearing practices may threaten local plant populations in future. Collection focus on certain botanical families and species is in line with that reported from other studies conducted in Sub-Sahara Africa, notably in southern African countries. 23 Securidaca longepedunculata, Garcinia huillensis, Annona stenophylla, Afzelia quanzensis, Paropsia brazzaeana, Psorospermum baumii and Strychnos cocculoides are the most important medicinal plant species reported on here. Though the limitations of this study, mainly resulting from restrictions imposed by the risky fieldwork, which was reflected particularly in the small number of herbalists resulting in low similarities in the plant use, we present a wealth of original information on traditional plants used in this region of Angola. This includes a few previously under-documented, but locally valuable species, such as Aeschynomene dimidiata, Holostylon robustum, Lippia plicata, Psorospermum baumii and Vernonia britteniana, and a high number of local uses not previously reported to other sub-Saharan regions. Thought most of the uses reported were in line with the literature reviewed, several new ethnomedicinal uses, as well as new medicinal plant species were reported. In this regard, and in line with the above-mentioned low sampling, new uses cited by a single herbalist and not previously reported in Sub-saharan Africa should be treated with some caution. Also, the absence of pharmacological studies to a significant number of species, highlights the hidden medicinal wealthiness of Angola’s flora demonstrating the urgent need for further documentation and preservation of the traditional botanical knowledge in the region. 24 References Abu, A. H., Uchendu, C.N., 2010. 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Extracts obtained from Pterocarpus angolensis DC and Ziziphus mucronata exhibit antiplasmodial activity and inhibit heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) function. Molecules. 22, 8, http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules22071224. 70 Figure captions Figure 1. Study area map Figure 2. Number of use reports for each mode of preparation/application Figure 3. Plant parts used for medicinal purposes 71 Table 1. Ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants used by traditional local healers in Bié province, Angola Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration Acacia sieberiana DC., Fabaceae BNKT207 Usonge T 4 3 B W ‡ Provokes abortion ‡ Asthma Crushed bark Bath Decoction Orally Elephantiasis Crushed root !* 1 Aeschynomene dimidiata Welw. ex Baker, Fabaceae BNKT205 Kaleuka Aframomum alboviolaceum (Ridl.) K. Schum., Zingiberaceae BNKT257 Kahafu, Mutfuntu, Matundu, Olongombe S H 4 8 R 2 R A ‡ 2 L D ‡ Stomach pain Decoction Rectal suppository Orally 2 2 1 1 R A D L W Decoction Fresh root Fresh root Fresh root Orally Bath Bath Bath, poultice 1 1 WP K X Yellow fever Stomach pain Rheumatic pain ‡ Provokes abortion Haemorrhoids Dysmenorrhea Heated root Heated root Bath Bath Afzelia quanzensis Welw., Fabaceae BNKB109 Mualatoulo, Mulimbo T 3 2 1 R L Z Pain in legs Black magic Heated - Poultice - Albizia adianthifolia (Schuma ch.) W. Wight, Fabaceae BNKB27, BNKB102, BNKT148 Mucasa, Olumbala S 6 3 B, L W Pain, pregnancy Tablet 1 R D Vomiting Infusion with tepid water Infusion with tepid water Decoction Rectal suppository Orally 1 1 Diarrhoea X Dysmenorrhea Orally Bath Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration Albizia antunesiana Harms, Fabaceae BNKB42, BNKB107 Enduramos, Kakuata, Osese, Ungolo S 8 1 2 1 1 2 2 L R Y D Impotence Stomach pain, worms ‡ Cerebral fever Pain, pregnancy ‡ Postpartum haemorrhoids Decoction Infusion Orally Orally Decoction Decoction Decoction Bath, 30min Bath, 30 min Bath, 30 min Muchila Wakawa, Chite, Chindumula , Muniagagila H 2 L ‡ Bath 1 R Fresh leaves infusion Infusion, mixed with Rytigynia sp. Fresh leaves infusion Infusion Decoction Decoction Decoction Orally Topically Massage !* Alvesia rosmarinifolia Welw., Lamiaceae BNKB50, BNKT135, BNKT228, BNKT253 9 N W N W 2 1 Insomnia (children) ‡ Headache ‡ Prevents abortion ‡ 1 1 1 B X D A Repeated pregnancy ‡ Dysmenorrhea ‡ Toothache ‡ Elephantiasis Massage Wash and bath Orally Aloe zebrina Baker, Asphodelaceae BNKT223 Chandala S 1 1 R, L K Haemorrhoids Decoction Externally * Gobendakul ana S 1 1 R W ‡ Decoction Drink 3 times a day Ampelocissus obtusata (Welw. ex Baker) Planch., Vitaceae BNKT158 Hemorrhage during pregnancy, after labour Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration Annona stenophylla subsp. cuneata N. Robson BNKB55 subsp. nana N. Robson, Annonaceae BNKB26, BNKB77, BNKB90, BNKB120 Mupepe, Eyolo, Mulolo, Ondulu S 14 2 5 R A D Malaria Stomach pain, constipation ‡ Provokes abortion Decoction Decoction Orally Orally Decoction of mixture with Bacopa sp. roots Infusion Mixed with kissangua Orally 1 W 1 2 X Y 2 1 ‡ Contraceptive Long-lasting labour Dysmenorrhea Impotence Orally Orally Orally Orally Bacopa sp., Scrophulariaceae BNKT267 Casati S 1 1 R W ‡ Labour induction Decoction of mixture with Annona stenophylla root Orally Bobgunnia madagascariensis (Desv.) J.H. Kirkbr. & Wiersema, Fabaceae BNKB31 Ganja S 3 1 R A Decoction Application on eyes 1 1 F D W Malaria and vertigo after malaria ‡ Stomach pain ‡ Postpartum disinfection of womb Fresh fruit Dried fruit infusion Eating Bath !* Mosamba 1 1 R L K Z ‡ Decoction Fresh leaves Orally Bath Brachystegia gossweileri Hutch. & Burtt Davy, Fabaceae BNKB74, BNKT261 T 2 Haemorrhoids Magic (brings good luck) ‡ Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration !* Brackenridgea arenaria (De Wild. & T. Durand) N. Robson, Ochnaceae BNKB20 Lipi, Omia, Mufuco T 3 2 1 WP R, L S N ‡ ‡ Dry lips Epilepsy Balm Decoction Topically Drink 3 times a day Bridelia sp., Phyllanthaceae BNKB110 Munukenuk e T 1 1 L D ‡ Diarrhoea Decoction Orally ! Cassytha pondoensis Engl., Lauraceae BNKB14 Lavava H 4 1 1 1 1 WP D ‡ Stomach pain Constipation ‡ Vomiting ‡ Diarrhoea Decoction Decoction Decoction Decoction Orally Orally Orally Orally Chrysophyllum bangweolense R.E. Fr., Sapotaceae BNKT134, BNKT260, BNKT268 Filanganga, Olonganga, Mumbanko, Umondoyo T 5 1 1 1 L R A D ‡ Malaria Appetizer Worms, constipation (children) ‡ Epistaxis ‡ Labour induction Decoction Infusion Enema Orally Orally Rectal suppository Decoction Tablet Applied in nose Vaginal pessary Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich., Menispermaceae BNKB4, BNKB48 Cacapa, Chitangila, Nofungi R W 1 L 6 ‡ 1 R N Headache Decoction Orally 1 1 1 L R B W Epistaxis Cough Postpartum bleeding Genital dysfunction Fresh leaf Fresh bark Decoction Applied in nose Chewing Orally Fresh bark Chewing 2 Y Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration !* Clitoria kaessneri Harms, Fabaceae BNKB78, BNKB8 Omue, Mungantu S 2 1 B A ‡ R D Decoction, tablet Infusion Orally 1 Malaria with fever ‡ Stomach pain Cryptolepis oblongifolia (Meisn.) Schltr., Apocynaceae BNKT259 Mumbanku, Olonganga 1 R D Constipation (children) ‡ Long-lasting labour Infusion Orally Tablet Vaginal pessary !* Ctenium newtonii Hack., Poaceae BNKB18 - H 1 1 WP A ‡ Persistent malaria Decoction Orally * Diodella sarmentosa (Sw.) Bacigalupo & E.L. Cabral, Rubiaceae BNKB54 Calumbulu H 1 1 L S Skin inflammation Chopped fresh leaves mixed with cold water Topically Diospyros sp., Ebenaceae BNKB52, BNKT140 Muvulia, Melakava T 2 1 R, L S ‡ Dry and peeling skin ‡ Spinal pain Infusion Bath Decoction Orally A D S ‡ Orally Orally Wash W Postpartum haemorrhage Decoction Infusion Chopped fresh leaves Decoction Diospyros batocana Hiern, Ebenaceae BNKB91, BNKB12 S 2 W 1 1 Unjongolo T 4 1 1 1 1 L R L Malaria Diarrhoea Skin rashes Orally Bath, 30 min Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration !* Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (Müll. Arg.) Pichon, Apocynaceae BNKB10, BNKB99 Chingole, Olofifa T 7 1 3 F R D ‡ Colic Bloody diarrhoea (children) Womb disinfection Dried fruit Infusion Tepid bath Orally Decoction Wash !* Droogmansia dorae Torre, Fabaceae BNKB15, BNKT216 Kopokambu nda, Mununga, Nunga T 2 1 1 R K L ‡ Decoction Crushed root Bath Topically Englerophytum magalismontanum (Sond.) T.D. Penn., Sapotaceae BNKB19, BNKB75, BNKB118 Mupepe, Usakalala T 3 1 1 1 R R ‡ ‡ Cough Epistaxis ‡ Sorcery (cures everything) Infusion Fresh root Decoction Orally Applied in nose Orally or topically Entada gigas (L.) Fawc. & Rendle, Fabaceae BNKB125 Chieke S 1 1 R D Flatulence Decoction Orally * Eriosema affine De Wild., Fabaceae BNKB39, BNKB131 Ondembi S 3 1 1 1 R L A D ‡ Malaria Stomach pain ‡ Diarrhoea Decoction Decoction Decoction Orally Orally Orally Erythrina abyssinica Lam., Fabaceae BNKB121 Mulunku S 3 3 R D ‡ Young roots Enema 3 W Z ‡ ‡ Haemorrhoids Fracture Constipation (children) Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration * Eulophia cucullata (Sw.) Steud., Orchidaceae BNKT266 Casangalala H 1 1 R D ‡ Constipation (children) Boiled root Poultice on the stomach Felicia muricata Nees, Asteraceae BNKT269 Camalo H 1 1 R, S, F X ‡ Decoction Orally Garcinia huillensis Welw. ex Oliv., Clusiaceae BNKB38, BNKB56, BNKB98, BNKT15, BNKT172 Kachingole, Lueni, Munjindo T 8 1 R Y Impotence Orally 2 2 1 1 1 B L D ‡ Infusion with tepid water or kissangua Decoction Decoction Decoction Decoction Decoction 2 1 2 R Decoction Decoction Decoction Orally Orally Massage Balm Topically Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. ex Schult., Apocynaceae BNKB76, BNKT152, BNKT199, BNKT231 Ndondo H 6 1 K W D W S Dysmenorrhea Arthritis Diarrhoea Stomach pain Haemorrhoids ‡ Provokes abortion ‡ Stomach pain Constipation Pains during pregnancy Skin irritation ‡ Orally Orally Orally Bath Orally Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes., Celastraceae BNKB13 Sasambia T 1 1 R D Bloody diarrhoea Decoction Orally * Holostylon robustum (Hiern) G. Taylor, Lamiaceae BNKB89, BNKT144, BNKT250 Calapa, Chicamba, Epombisam uku H 7 1 1 1 L R Z D ‡ Cures everything ‡ Appetizer ‡ Microbes in stomach ‡ Stomach pain ‡ Boils (children) ‡ Impotence ‡ Wounds Leaf juice Decoction Orally Orally Orally Decoction Infusion Decoction Decoction Orally Topically Orally Poultice Hymenocardia acida Tul., Phyllanthaceae BNKT149 Muehe T 2 1 1 R L D R Diarrhoea Cough Decoction Fresh leaf Orally Chewing !* Hypoxis cf. subspicata Pax, Hypoxidaceae BNKB219 Withomaho ndo H 1 1 R S ‡ Crushed root Bath, massage !* Tumbanjale H 3 1 1 1 R Y K B ‡ Decoction Decoction Decoction Orally Bath Bath Hypoxis polystachya Welw. ex Baker, Hypoxidaceae BNKT230 1 1 1 1 S Y L Rheumatism Dysmenorrhea Haemorrhoids ‡ Anaemia ‡ Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated Preparation Administration !* Indigofera sutherlandioides Welw. ex Baker, Fabaceae BNKT146 Mujindagelo S 2 1 R D ‡ Worms in stomach ‡ Constipation (children) Infusion with tepid water Infusion with tepid water Orally !* Laggera crispata (Vahl) Hepper & J.R.I. Wood, Asteraceae BNKT255 Muyoyo H 2 1 1 R Y D ‡ Decoction Tablet Orally Orally * Mupemba T 4 1 R H Decoction Application ear 1 1 L A L Bleeding from ear ‡ Elephantiasis ‡ Wounds Decoction Poultice D Water in stomach Infusion Massage Topically on wound Massage Landolphia camptoloba (K. Schum.) Pichon, Apocynaceae BNKB53, BNKB99 1 1 ‡ Dysmenorrhea Constipation Orally !* Lantana angolensis Moldenke, Verbenaceae BNKB127 Mundugudu dudu H 1 1 R W ‡ Flatulence during pregnancy Decoction Bath * Chambologi ngi S 1 1 B D ‡ Decoction Orally Leptactina benguelensis (Welw. ex Benth. & Hook. f.) R.D. Good, Rubiaceae BNKB100 ‡ Stomach pain, constipation Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† * Lippia plicata Baker, Verbenaceae BNKB6, BNKB43, BNKT222 Ondembi H 4 2 2 L R R L !* Macrotyloma africanum (Brenan ex R. Wilczek) Verdc., Fabaceae BNKB1 Cacunde H 1 1 R Maytenus sp., Celastraceae BNKB35 Ovanga, Uteke T 3 1 1 1 R !* Memecylon flavovirens Baker, Melastomataceae BNKB63, BNKB3 Musoso, Ogitunda ! Mucuna stans Welw. ex Baker, Fabaceae BNKT201 Eyumbi S Ocimum americanum L., Lamiaceae BNKT127 Mununganu nga, Mundugudu du S S Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration ‡ Sore throat Muscle relaxant Decoction Decoction Mouth wash Massage D ‡ Appetizer (children, pregnant women) Decoction Orally ‡ L D N R Dysmenorrhea Tranquilizer ‡ Cough Decoction Decoction Decoction Orally Wash, bath Orally 1 R L ‡ Massage 1 L W ‡ Crushed root mixed with water Chopped leaves 1 1 R L ‡ Fresh roots infused in hot water Massage 2 1 R L ‡ Heated in the pot Topically Infusion Sitting bath 2 1 W ‡ Rheumatic pain “when woman has no menstruation” Weak legs Leg fracture, injury from landmines Flatulence during pregnancy Vaginal pessary Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration Ochna pulchra Hook., Ochnaceae BNKB20, BNKB2 Omia S 2 1 1 R D Diarrhoea Vomiting Infusion Orally * Ochna pygmaea Hiern, Ochnaceae BNKT258 Omia S 1 1 R N ‡ Decoction Orally * Oldfieldia dactylophylla (Welw. ex Oliv.) J. Léonard), Picrodendraceae BNKB11; BNKB24; BNKB58 Filanganga, Chicanga, Losilulu T 5 1 1 1 1 1 R A D ‡ L X L Malaria Worms Appetizer Dysmenorrhea Pain under ribs Decoction Crushed root Infusion Decoction Infusion Orally Enema Orally Massage Orally !* Oxygonum pachybasis MilneRedh., Polygonaceae BNKB63 Mucocoto, Musoso H 2 1 1 R D A ‡ Diarrhoea Fever (children) Decoction Decoction Orally Orally * Parinari capensis Harv., Chrysobalanaceae BNKB49 Tomatoma H 2 1 1 L D ‡ Diarrhoea Stomach pain Decoction Orally Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth., Chrysobalanaceae BNKT156 Mutongo T 1 1 R W ‡ “To turn baby head down in womb before labour” Decoction Orally ‡ ‡ Epilepsy Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration * Muanga, Uvanga, Osalala S 10 3 L N ‡ Chewed leaves Spat on child R S A R D Insomnia (children) ‡ Tranquilizer Boils ‡ Malaria Cough Constipation Fresh leaves Crushed root Decoction Tablet Poultice Massage Orally Inhalation Enema Fresh leaf Poultice Paropsia brazzaeana Baill., Passifloraceae BNKT147, BNKT188, BNKT248 1 1 2 2 1 !* Pentanisia rubricaulis (K. Schum.) Kårehed & B. Bremer, Rubiaceae BNKT204 Uso H 1 1 L S ‡ !* Philenoptera pallescens (Welw. ex Baker) Schrire, Fabaceae BNKB33 Uvandenenu T 1 1 R L ‡ “Pain in legs after hard work” Infusion Orally * Phyllanthus welwitschianus Müll. Arg., Phyllanthaceae BNKT237 Kalomenko, Mucula S 3 1 R D ‡ Toothache, inflammation of jowls ‡ Headache ‡ Fontanelle closure Decoction Applied on tooth Decoction Decoction Orally Orally * Muhota ‡ Fresh roots or leaves mixed with water or oil Massage of the leg repeated several times Psorospermum baumii Engl., Hypericaceae BNKT167 N L 1 1 T 3 3 R, L A Boils Elephantiasis Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration Psorospermum febrifugum Spach, Hypericaceae BNKT167 Cutalala, Kachingole, Musele, Chihoho T 2 2 R D Diarrhoea Decoction Orally * Psychotria eminiana (Kuntze) E.M.A. Petit, Rubiaceae BNKB44, BNKT240, BNKT133 Ndombua wasalala, Muneku, Mulesa S 3 1 R W ‡ Stomach pain during labour ‡ “Loss of breath” ‡ Epistaxis Infusion Orally Infusion Decoction Orally Inhalation !* Pteris friesii Hieron., Pteridophyta BNKB112 Mungayava F 1 1 L D ‡ Decoction Orally Pterocarpus angolensis DC., Fabaceae BNKT154 Mucula T 2 1 1 R X, Y W Venereal diseases Postpartum bleeding Infusion Massage Orally !* Asangalala, Ohamba hamba, Bunguasana, Mulima, Kahafu S 4 2 2 R Y W ‡ Decoction Decoction Drink cooled Orally Rhus squalida Meikle, Anacardiaceae BNKB2, BNKB67, BNKB73, BNKT264 R K 1 1 Worms Impotence Postpartum haemorrhoids ‡ Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration Rumex abyssinicus Jacq., Polygonaceae BNKT26 Mutetenbolo nga S 1 1 R A ‡ Decoction Orally ! Chisango, Kunambamb i H 4 1 B W ‡ Repeated pregnancy short time after childbirth Decoction 2 R L ‡ 1 L D Weak legs (children) ‡ Diarrhoea Roots mixed with cold water Decoction, tablet Drink for both mother and child, in mixture with fresh roots (bath for child) Massage of legs Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC, Fabaceae BNKB92, BNKT138 Hepatitis Orally Rytigynia sp., Rubiaceae BNKT252 Mutomatom a S 1 1 L S ‡ “Curse by sorcerer, brings back good luck” Decoction Bath * Casinde, Esinde, Uovosenge H 3 1 R D ‡ Decoction Orally Decoction Orally Scleria induta Turrill, Cyperaceae BNKB2, BNKB40 1 1 Y X Appetizer (children, pregnant women) ‡ Impotence ‡ Dysmenorrhea Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration * Kachila, Misombo, Obongenget, Ongengete S 6 1 L S Snake bite Chewed leaves 1 1 1 1 B N D X Headache Stomach pain Dysmenorrhea Uterine relaxant K Epistaxis Fresh fruit Fresh fruit Fresh fruit Crushed fresh root Fresh root Topically on wound, while the skin is stretched Eating Eating Eating Massage A R Malaria Cough Crushed root Crushed root 1 1 S Y Boils Impotence 3 L Wounds D N Stomach pain Headache with diarrhoea (children) “Helps to conceive” Sclerocroton cornutus (Pax) Kruijt & Roebers, Euphorbiaceae BNKB93, BNKT153 R 1 Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen., Polygalaceae BNKB132, BNKT251 Muchacha, Mulesese, Utata T 14 4 1 2 1 1 R S W Decoction or balm Decoction or balm Decoction Decoction Crushed stems, decoction Applied in mouth and nose Decoction Chest poultice, massage Topically Massage Topically on wound Orally Bath repeat several times during 24 hours Orally Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration Smilax anceps Willd., Smilacaceae BNKT182 Asangalala, Mucalale S 3 1 R X Long-lasting menstruation ‡ “Child cannot speak” ‡ Snake bite Decoction Orally Decoction Orally Fresh root Topically on wound 1 L 1 S * Stomatanthes africanus (Oliv. & Hiern) R.M. King & H. Rob., Asteraceae BNKB65 Chipolela H 1 1 R D ‡ Gastric ulcers Decoction Orally * Calimboli, Olohojungu, Kachingole H 6 1 R K ‡ Haemorrhoids Orally Y X A W ‡ Decoction or mixed with kissangua Decoction Decoction Decoction Infusion Decoction Topically Strophanthus welwitschii (Baill.) K. Schum., Apocynaceae BNKB3, BNKB70, BNKT218 1 1 1 1 1 L S Impotence Dysmenorrhea ‡ Elephantiasis ‡ To provoke abortion Skin irritation ‡ Orally Orally Massage Drink 3 days Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration * Mueila, Tugambomb , Chisumbi, Mulolo, Upole T 6 1 1 R X D Dysmenorrhea Colic (newborns) ‡ Cerebral ischemia Boils on legs ‡ Hemorrhage due to injury ‡ Postpartum bleeding Decoction Infusion Orally Orally Decoction - Bath Bath Orally Decoction Orally Strychnos cocculoides Baker, Loganiaceae BNKB71, BNKB95 1 N 1 1 S A 1 W Strychnos spinosa Lam., Loganiaceae BNKB96 Tagambomb o T 1 1 R K Haemorrhoids Crushed root Enema Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC., Myrtaceae BNKB34 Mucula, Ogitundua, Ukulakula T 3 1 R L ‡ Massage 1 W ‡ Crushed fresh root Decoction 1 D Rheumatism To provoke abortion Diarrhoea Bath Orally Decoction Terminalia brachystemma Welw. ex Hiern, Combretaceae BNKT166 Mueila T 2 2 R X Dysmenorrhea Added to funge Tablet Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray, Asteraceae BNKB114 Mumono S 1 1 R D Worms in stomach Decoction § Eating Vaginal pessary Orally Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration !* Uapaca benguelensis Müll. Arg., Phyllanthaceae BNKB84, BNKB123 Mungengod engo T 1 1 R D ‡ Stomach pain Decoction Orally !* Uapaca gossweileri Hutch., Phyllanthaceae BNKT261, BNKB74 Lombola T 1 1 R D ‡ Diarrhoea Infusion Orally ! Uapaca nitida Müll. Arg., Phyllanthaceae BNKT256 Tatembula T 1 1 R D ‡ Diarrhoea Infusion Orally * Vangueriopsis lanciflora (Hiern) Robyns, Rubiaceae BNKB111 Musole H 2 1 1 R L N D ‡ Hyper myopia Diarrhoea Infusion Infusion with tepid water Orally Bath ! Vernonia britteniana Hiern, Asteraceae BNKT220, BNKT265 Kamahantu, Musese, Kambumbi S 6 2 R W ‡ Decoction Bath X Y Postpartum treatment for genitals ‡ Dysmenorrhea ‡ Boils on genitals Decoction Decoction Bath Bath Vitex madiensis subsp. milanjiensis (Britten) F. White, Lamiaceae BNKT243 Muchiluchil u N Headache Decoction Orally 2 2 S 1 1 R ‡ Table 1. Continued Species, family and voucher specimen No. ! * Vernacular name Lifeform$ UR per categor y UR per disease Part used@ Ailment category† Therapeutic uses/Symptoms treated‡ Preparation Administration * Mujimbajim ba, Muvunbaloc a, Eliminambo mue, Olohasa, Onjamba S 8 2 1 R A W ‡ Decoction Decoction Orally Orally 1 1 L D Decoction Decoction Orally Orally Infusion Infusion Infusion Orally Orally Orally Xylopia tomentosa Exell, Annonaceae BNKB17, BNKB57 1 1 1 † K X Malaria Morning sicknesses during pregnancy ‡ Against abortion ‡ Water in stomach, ‡ Diarrhoea ‡ Heartpain ‡ Dysmenorrhea ‡ Aphrodisiac ‡ Use category: A (General); B (Blood, blood forming); D (Digestive); H (Ear); K (Circulatory); L (Musculoskeletal); N (Neurological); R (Respiratory); S (Skin); W (Pregnancy, family planning); X (Female genital); Y (Male genital); Z (Social) kissangua: is a traditional beverage of Ovimbundu people of southern Angola made of fermented corn. § funge: is local side-dish made of cassava flour. * Species not subjected to any phytochemical study to date. ! Species not reported by any previous ethnobotanical study. ‡ Ethnomedicinal uses not reported in previous studies $ Life form: C – climber, H – herb; L – liana; S – shrub; T – tree. @ Part used: B – bark; F – fruit, L – leaf, R – root, S – stem; WP – whole plant. Table 2. Ailment categories presented according to the descending order of the number of species reported. Ailment category Digestive (D) No. of speciesa No. of URb 48 81 % of total UR 28.9 Pregnancy, family planning (W) 30 45 16.7 General (A) 20 29 10.3 Musculoskeletal (L) 17 21 7.5 Neurological (N) 16 16 5.7 Skin (S) 13 16 5.7 Female genital (X) 11 20 7.1 Respiratory (R) 11 16 5.7 Male genital (Y) 10 18 6.4 Circulatory (K) 10 11 3.9 Social (Z) 6 3 1.7 Blood, blood forming (B) 5 3 1.7 Ear (H) 1 1 0.4 a A taxon may be reported in more than one ailment category; b UR: Use Reports Table 3. Total number of medicinal species and uses reported according to ethnicity and study site; number of coincidences between the two (shared species and uses) Group No. of species Species shared No. of uses Uses shared Chokwe Ovimbundu 63 58 28 123 157 14 Kuito Cuemba 53 73 34 127 153 17 Table 4. Investigated plant species with previously reported ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacological properties Species Previously reported ethnomedicinal uses* Reported pharmacological properties Acacia sieberiana Angola: vertigo, pneumonia, bronchitis, rage, bites, nightmares, toothache (Bossard, 1996); Benin: diuretic, syphilis, leprosy, acne, orchitis, cold, renal pain, gonorrhea (Natabou, 1991), skin disorders (Giday, 2001); central Africa: incontinence (Chevalier, 1905); Congo: malaria (Dhetchuvi and Lejoly, 1990), protecting foetus against water sips (Chambon and Leruth, 1954), cold (Staner and Boutique, 1937), constipation diarrhea, piroplasmosis (Balagizi et al., 2005), gonorrhea (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962); Guinea: acne, uteral disorders, gonorrhea, orchitis, cold, renal pain (Aubréville, 1950); Mali: diuretic, acne, syphilis, leprosy, urinary diseases, gonorrhea, orchitis, cold, renal pain (Malgras et al., 1992); Nigeria: diarrhea (Offiah et al., 2011); Senegal: weakness, stomachache, diuretic, schistosomiasis, gonorrhea, fetish (Kerharo and Adam, 1964), sterility, schistosomiasis (Kerharo and Adam, 1974); Sudan: cough (Doka and Yagi, 2009); Tanzania: tuberculosis in enfants, renal diseases (Haerdi, 1964); Uganda: after giving birth (Ejobi et al., 2007), dysenteria, epilepsy (Kamatenesi et al., 2011), impotence (Kamatenesi-Mugisha and Oryem-Origa, 2005) Antibacterial, antiinflammatory, anticholinesterase effects (Eldeen et al., 2005), antibacterial and free radical scavenging activity (Katerere and Eloff, 2004) Aframomum alboviolaceum Angola: vermifuge, alimentary complement (Urso et al., 2016), headache, yellow fever, respiratory diseases, epilepsy (Göhre et al., 2016); Cameroon: insect bite, skin disorders (Youmsi et al., 2017); Congo: blindness, headache, cough, fever, stomachache, hemorrhoids, stomachache (Makumberlo et al., 2008), Guinea-Bissau: stomachache (Frazão-Moreira, 2016), human nutrition, malaria, cough, contraindicated with pregnant women, milk stimulation for nursing women, fever and malaria, stomachache, fortify infants, dermatosis, yellow fever, hemorrhoids, anemia in children, sexual weakness, painful menstruation, against itching or insect bite, hipache, nausea in pregnant women, women infertility, absence of menstruation, strengthening bones, snake bite, stomachache, intestinal worms, tuberculosis, tooth decay, fever, wound healing, swelling and edema, miscarriage, vertigo, bad body smell, magico-religious (Kafoutchoni et al., 2018) Cytotoxicity, anticancer (Kuete et al., 2014), antibacterial (Djeussi et al., 2013) Afzelia quanzensis Anemia (Peter et al., 2014), bilharziasis, eye complaints, for general luck (Hutchings et al., 1996), aphrodisiac, eczema, restricted internal use (Orwa et al, 2009), gonorrhea, chest pains, kidney problems, bilharziasis, eye problems and snake bite (Hines and Eckman, 1993) Antibacterial (Moyo et al., 2015) Albizia adianthifolia Diabetes, eye problems, gastrointestinal problems, haemorrhoids, headache, neurodegenerative disorders, purgative, reproductive problems in women, respiratory problems (bronchitis), wounds and pain, skin disorders, sexually transmitted infections, lower respiratory infections, diarrheal diseases, ischaemic heart disease, cough, sinusitis, dysentery, stomachache, hypertension (Maroyi et al., 2018), enema (Cunningham, 1993) Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory, anthelmintic, antiamoebic, antibacterial, antimycobacterial, anti-sexually transmitted infections, antifungal, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, anxiolytic and antidepressant, cognitiveenhancing, haemolytic, hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic, immunomodulatory cytotoxicity (Maroyi et al., 2018); antibacterial, antiinflammatory and anticholinesterase effects (Eldeen et al., 2005) Albizia antunesiana Mozambique: toothache (Bruschi et al., 2011); Zimbabwe: purgative, diarrhea, gonorrhea, aphrodisiac, women infertility, convulsions, blenhorragie (Maroyi, 2011) Non-cytotoxic in vitro (Chipiti et al., 2015), antioxidative (Chipiti et al., 2013) Aloe zebrina Angola: wounds, constipation, inflammation, urinary diseases, snake bite, back pain, sterility, vertigo, fever, parasitosis, schistosomiasis, vomiting, hemorrhoids, epilepsy, gonorrhea, burns, hepatitis, hypertension, madness (Bossard, 1996); Mozambique: eye diseases, wounds, liver disorders (Ribeiro et al., 2010); Namibia: HIV/AIDS, herpes (Chinsembu and Hedimbi, 2010); South Africa: wounds, colibacilose (Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006) Cytotoxicity (Mukandiwa et al., 2012) Ampelocissus obtusata Zimbabwe: diarrhea (Maroyi, 2011), post-coital contraception (Sewani-Rusike, 2010) - Annona stenophylla subsp. nana Namibia: HIV/AIDS, skin disorders (Chinsembu and Hedimbi, 2010); Zimbabwe: furuncles, sexually transmissible diseases, snake bite, chest pain, HIV/AIDS (Maroyi, 2013), stomach ache (Munodawafa, 2013), anti-infective, antiviral, antioxidant and antidiabetic activities (Gelfand et al., 1985) Angola: after loss of pregnancy, enema, anaemia, cleaning stomach, constipation, diarrhea, epilepsy, hemorrhoids, hernia, women infertility, influenza, malaria, human nutrition, parasitic worms, scoliosis, stomachache (Lautenschläger et al., 2018) Antidiabetic (Verengai et al., 2017; Taderera, 2015) subsp. cuneata - Table 4. Continued Species Previously reported ethnomedicinal uses Reported pharmacological properties Bobgunnia madagascariensis Ivory Coast: malaria (Koné et al., 2004); Namibia: emetic, to treat schistosomiasis, leprosy and earache, abortifacient, anthelminthic (roots), malaria, against snakebite and venereal diseases (Mojermane et al., 2012); Mali: against liver diseases (Ahua et al., 2007). Acaricidal (Muyobela et al., 2016), antibacterial (Koné et al., 2004), antifungal (Schaller et al., 2000; Hostettman et al. 2000) Chrysophyllum bangweolense Tanzania: diarrhea (Ruffo, 1991), bilharziasis, syphilis, gonorrhea (Moshi et al., 2006) Anticancer (Moshi et al., 2006) Cissampelos mucronata Early induction of labor (Lampiao et al., 2018); Congo: snake bite (Chifundera, 1987); Ethiopia: constipation, diarrhea, painful menstruation, sterility/impotence, amebiase, pain during lactation, renal diseases (Lulekal et al., 2008), weakness and unstoppable shaking (Flatie et al., 2009); anthelmintic, provokes diarrhea (Tolossa et al., 2013), wound healing (Paulos et al., 2016); Kenya: wounds (Kokwaro, 1987), malaria (Muthaura et al., 2007); Madagascar: induces vomiting (Daruty, 1886); Nigeria: malaria, ulcers, stomachache (Katasayal et al., 2015); Sudan: malaria, infarct, stomachache, magic (El-Kamali, 2009); Tanzania: snake bite, poisoning, stomachache (Ruffo, 1991); Uganda: children nourishment (Adjanohoun et al., 1993) Antimalarial (Muthaura et al., 2015; Tshibangu et al., 2002, Gessler et al., 1995), antibacterial and larvicidal (Nondo et al., 2011), antimalarial (not confirmed; Benoit-Vical et al., 2008), antidiabetic (Tanko et al, 2007), antiulcer (Nwafor et al., 2005), antimicrobial (Tchibangu et al., 2002) Cryptolepis oblongifolia Benin/Zambia: gonorrhoea; Mozambique: malaria, Tanzania/Zimbabwe: cough, stomachache, diarrhea in children, aphrodisiac; Zambia: wounds (Bosch, 2011) Antiinflammatory (Umar et al., 2014) Diodella sarmentosa Wounds (Rabearivony et al., 2015); Madagascar: wounds, metrorrhagia, abdominal colic (Rakotondrafara et al., 2018) - Diospyros batocana Indigestion, diarrhea, fever, snake bite, infertility, venereal diseases; Malawi: headache and stomach problems, cough, chronic cough, cuts, pneumonia and pulmonary tuberculosis, measles, anorexia, digestive tract; Tanzania: rectal prolapse, diabetes, testicle inflammation, sore eyes, facilitates giving birth (de Ruijter, 2006) - Englerophytum magalismontanum Abdominal pain, rheumatism, headaches, epilepsy (Ruffo et al., 2002), arthritis, rheumatism, vermifuges, paralysis, epilepsy, convulsions, spasms (Burkill, 1985); South Africa: diabetes (Semenya and Potgieter, 2014) Antimicrobial, cytotoxicity (More et al., 2008) Entada gigas Rituals (van Andel et al., 2015); Equatorial Guinee: diuretic (Sunderland and Obama, 1998); Gabon: against bad spirits (Chevalier, 1937; Malan Djah, 2009); Madagascar: diarrhea (Rakotoarivelo et al., 2015), fevers (Daruty, 1886) Antiulcer (Akindele et al., 2016) Eriosema affine Angola: prevents abortion, chest pain, malaria, vomiting, nightmares, epilepsy, flu (Bossard, 1996) - Erythrina abyssinica HIV/AIDS (Lamorde et al., 2010), vomiting (Tugume et al., 2016); Burundi: cough (Rodegem, 1970), eyes, strenghtens breastmilk, female sterility, cough, epistaxis, depression, protection black magic (Baerts and Lehmann, 1989); central Africa: stomach problems (Balagizi et al., 1998); Congo: eye inflammation, snake bitse, antihelmentic, diphtheria (Defour, 1994), tuberculosis, eye inflammation (Cihyoka, 1994), wounds (Byavu et al., 2000), hemorrhoids (Nyakabwa and Dibaluka, 1990); Kenya: wounds, dermatosis, boils (Kokwaro, 1987), internal pain (Glover et al., 1966); Kenya/Uganda/Tanzania: snake bite, gonorrhea, syphilis, collique, stomach ache (Kokwaro, 1976); Rwanda: eye inflammation (Desouter, 1991), wounds, snake bites, lepre (Durand, 1960), dysentery, meningitis, jaundice (Kayonga and Habiyaremye, 1987), hemorrhoids (Ayobangira et al., 2000); Tanzania: stomach pain (Chabra et al., 1990); Uganda: candide (Hamil et al., 2000), epilepsy (Adjanohoun et al., 1993); Zimbabwe: cough, rougeole, bilharziose, cachexie, psychose (Gelfand et al., 1985) Anticancer (Samanga et al., 2014), wound healing properties (Marume et al., 2017), prevents meningoencephalitis (Nasimolo et al., 2014), antimicrobial (Kamat et al., 1981), antibacterial (Nguyen et al., 2016; Wagate et al., 2010), antimalariall (Yenesew et al., 2004), antihyperglycemic (Amuri et al., 2017), anti-HIV, antiviral (Mohammed et al., 2012), antidiabetic (Cui et al., 2010), antifungal (Manyarara et al., 2016) cytotoxic (Perez et al., 2015), antimycobacterial (Bunalema et al., 2011) Eulophia cucullata Malawi: fertility problems, to prevent epilepsy (Bulpitt, 2005); South Africa/Madagascar: love charm, impotence, infertility (Chinsamy et al., 2011) - Table 4. Continued Species Previously reported ethnomedicinal uses Reported pharmacological properties Felicia muricata South Africa: headache (Phillips, 1917), not safe for oral use (Attitalla, 2011) Antiinflammatory, antinociceptive and antipyretic (Ashafa et al., 2010a), antioxidant (Ashafa et al., 2010b), prostangladin synthesis inhibition (McGaw et al., 1997) Garcinia huillensis Congo: hypertension (Diafouka and Lejoly, 1993), lactation problems, constipation, cough, cold, tuberculosis , hemorrhoids, gonorrhea, painful and excessive menstruation, impotence (Kibungu Kembelo, 2003), stomachache (Makumberlo et al., 2008); Uganda: trypanosomiasis (Freiburghaus et al., 1996) Anticancer (Dibwe et al., 2012), antidiarrheic (Bitsindou and Lejoly, 1996) Gymnema sylvestre Nigeria: diabetes, obesity, ulcers, diuretic, laxative, asthma, hepatitis, inflammation, snake bite, antimicrobial, antimalarial (Udoamaka et al., 2014); Tanzania: aphrodisiac (Ruffo, 1991); Antiobesity (Pierce, 1999; Preuss et al., 2004), antidiabetic (Sugihara et al., 2000), hypolipidaemic (Bishayee and Chatterjee, 1994), antimicrobial (Satdive and Abhilash, 2003), antiinflammatory (Malik et al., 2008), free radical scavenging activity (Ohmori et al., 2005) Gymnosporia senegalensis Diarrhea (de Wet et al., 2010), microbial diseases (Ngezahayo et al., 2015); South Africa: impotence (Semenya et al., 2013) Antibacterial (Mathabe et al., 2006), antibacterial and cytotoxic (Tatsimo et al., 2019), antimycobacterial (Makgatho et al., 2018) Holostylon robustum Tuberculosis, vertigo, cough (Bossard, 1996) - Hymenocardia acida Angola: cough, tuberculosis, asthma (Bossard, 1996), diarrhea, skin disease, stomachache (Kerharo and Adam, 1964); Benin: tetanus, psychose (Adjanohoun et al., 1989); Congo: eye problems (Haxaire, 1979), bronchitis, tuberculosis, anemia, epilepsy, stomach problems, angine (Diafouka, 1997); Guinea: hypertension (Diallo et al., 2019); Mozambique: painful menstruation, vomiting, general weakness (Bruschi et al., 2011), skin diseases, anemia, cough, epilepsy (Bouquet, 1969); Senegal: laxative, toothache (Kerharo and Adam, 1964) Hypertension (Diallo et al., 2019), antiprotozal (Oguntoye et al., 2018), antimalaria and cytotoxicity (Tuenter et al., 2016), antispermatogenic (Abu and Uchendu, 2010), antifertility (Hyacinth and Nwocha, 2011), antioxidant and antibacterial (Sofidiya et al., 2009) Landolphia camptoloba Conjunctivitis (Neuwinger, 2000) - Leptactina benguelensis Angola: immobile foetus, chest pain, cough, hemoptysis (Bossard, 1996) - Lippia plicata Tanzania: Leaf swallowing by chimpanzees (Huffman et al, 1996); cough (Quattrocchi, 2012) - Ocimum americanum Cameroon: constipation (Simbo, 2010); Congo: nourishment, malaria (Wome, 1985), snake bite (Chifundera, 1987), rheumatism (De Graer, 1929), gonorrhea (Verbeeck, 1948), epilepsy (Kibungu Kembelo, 2003); Ethiopia: cough, ascariasis, child health (Bekalo et al., 2009); Reunion: dry cough, fevers, flu, vermifuge, rheumatism (Arnold and Gulumian, 1984); Rwanda: cough, asthma (Durand., 1960), Senegal: calms stomach (Kerharo and Adam, 1964) Sierra Leone: convulsion (Mac Foy and Sama, 1983); South Africa: vein diseases (Arnold and Gulumian, 1984) Antioxidant, antimicrobial (Kumar et al., 2019), antimicrobial and antibacterial (Yadav et al., 2018) Ochna pulchra South Africa: ritual, psychoactive effects (Sobiecki, 2008); Zimbabwe: myopia (Gelfand et al., 1985), stomachache (Maroyi, 2013) Antibacterial (Makhafola et al., 2014) Ochna pygmaea Angola: wounds, painful labor, dysmenorrhea, cough, tuberculosis, pneumonia, weak poison (Bossard, 1996) - Oldfieldia dactylophylla Angola: not to be used by pregnant women, dysmenorrhea, sterility, tuberculosis, to stop menstruation, sorethroat (Bossard, 1996), fever, stomachache (Bonnefoux, 1937); Tanzania: gonorrhea, aphrodisiac, hernie (Ruffo, 1991) - Parinari capensis Respiratory diseases (York et al., 2011), skin disorders (De Wet et al., 2013), hemorrhoids (Kayode et al., 2008) Antimalarial (Uys et al., 2002), antimicrobial (York et al., 2012) Table 4. Continued Species Previously reported ethnomedicinal uses Reported pharmacological properties Parinari curatellifolia Anemia (Peter et al., 2014), Angola: cough, black magic, provokes abortion (Bossard, 1996); Burundi: laxative, vomiting, against black magic, chest pain, colic, psychose (Baerts and Lehmann, 1989); Central African Republic: tuberculosis (Boulesteix and Guinko, 1979); Ivory Coast: cough (Ambe and Malaisse, 2000); Mali: trypanosomiasis (Bizimana et al., 2006); Namibia: HIV/AIDS, herpes simplex, tuberculosis, diarrhea (Chinsembu and Hedimbi, 2010); Tanzania: tachycardy (Chabra and Mahunnah, 1994); Togo: pinworms, epilepsy, psychose (Adjanohoun, 1986); Uganda: stomachache, jaundice (Segawa and Kasenene, 2007); Zimbabwe: diarrhea (Chinemana and Drummond, 1985), sedative, uterine disorders (Gelfand et al., 1985), constipation, toothache (Maroyi, 2013) Antioxidant (Karou et al., 2011), antioxidant and hepatoprotective (Atawodi et al., 2013), antimicrobial (More et al., 2008), antimycobacterial (Chimponda and Mukanganyama, 2010), antibacterial (Peni et al., 2010), cytotoxicity (Gororo et al., 2016), cytoprotective (Gweshelo et al., 2016), hepatoprotective (Olaleye et al., 2014) Paropsia brazzaeana Congo: rheumatism, pain, amoebic dysentery; Zimbabwe: gonorrhea, toothache (Neuwinger, 2000) Antidiarrhoeic, antibacterial, antiamoebic and antispasmodic (Tona et al., 1999), antiamoebic (Tona et al., 1998) Phyllanthus welwitschianus Aphrodisiac, wound dressing (Burkill, 1985); Angola: antiabortion (Urso et al., 2016) - Psorospermum baumii scabies (Rhode-Livingstone Museum, 1974); South Africa: tick repellent (Watt and Breyer –Brandwijk, 1962) - Psorospermum febrifugum Antileucemic (Amonkar et al., 1981); Angola: scabies, fevers, leprosy (Bonnefoux, 1937) fever, scabies cough, tuberculosis, nightmare, prolonged menstruation, leprosy, possession, madness (Bossard, 1996), skin diseases, leper (Göhre et al., 2016); Benin: epilepsy (Adjanohoun et al. 1989); Burundi: scabies, placenta (well placed), colic, psychose, analgetic (Baerts and Lehmann, 1989), headache, body pains (Verger, 1995); Congo: asthma in children (Disengomoka and Daleveau, 1983), dysenteria, diarrhea, cough, rheumatism (Diafouka, 1997), skin irritation, leprosy (Arkinstall, 1979); Malawi: contraceptive (Maliwichi-Nyirenda and Maliwichi, 2010); Mali: diuretic, fever, scabies, malaria, stomach pain (Malgras, 1992); Rwanda: colic, scabies (Van Puyvelde et al., 1977); Tanzania: skin diseases (Chabra et al., 1990), meningitis (Kisangau et al., 2007); Uganda: boils, herpes, cough, stomach pain (Hamil et al., 2003), wound, boils, dry cough (Tugume et al., 2016), fevers, jaundice, facilitates labor, syphilis, boils (Segawa and Kasanene, 2007); Zimbabwe: pneumonia, syphilis (Gelfand et al., 1985) Antioxidant, antiacne (Elufioye et al., 2016), anticancer, antimicrobial (Tamokou et al., 2013), HIV/AIDS (Lamorde et al., 2010), antimicrobial (Tsaffack et al., 2009) (Kisangau et al., 2007), anticancer (Moshi et al., 2006) Psychotria eminiana Snake bite (Neuwinger, 2000) - Pterocarpus angolensis Angola: lactation problems, wounds, prevents abortion, prevents stillbirth, chest pain, sterility, impotence, asthma, epilepsy, stomachache, amenorrhea, hepatitis, coma, agony, aliment complement (Bossard, 1996), wounds, dysenteria (Bonnefoux, 1937); Congo,/Angola (chokwe): eye disease (Rodrigues, 1977); Congo: painful breast, female sterility, prolonged excessive menstruation; Ethiopia: hypertension (Chekole et al., 2015); Namibia: leg pain, cough, hemorrhage (Cheikhyousef et al., 2011), South Africa: gono, venereal diseases, fontanella new born (Arnold and Gulumian, 1984), general pain (Luseba et al., 2007); Tanzania: schistosomiasis, anemia, stomach (Chabra et al., 1990), cathar, eye disease, wounds, rheumatism, aphrodisiac (Gelfand et al., 1985), headache, dysenteria, cough, cathar, menorrhagia (Haerdi, 1964), wounds, diarrhea (Ruffo, 1991); Zimbabwe: febrile convulsions, diarrhea (Chinemana et al., 1985), painful eyes, ear pain, menorrhagia, female infertility (Maroyi, 2011) Antibacterial, antifungal (Chipinga et al., 2018), collagen expression (Ssemakulu et al., 2016), antioxidant (Anokwuru et al., 2017), antiinflammatory (Mulaudzi et al., 2013), antimalarial (Zininga et al., 2017), antiamoebic antibacterial (Samie et al., 2009), antibacterial, antiinflamatory, wound healing (Luseba et al., 2007) Rumex abyssinicus Angola: prevents miscarriage, chest pain, malaria, vomiting, nightmare, epilepsy, hallucination (Bossard, 1996); Burundi: madness (Rodegem, 1970), abortion (Desta, 1994), mycosis, migrain, cough (Banderembako and Ntitangirageza, 1978); Cameroon: malaria (Mapi, 1988); Congo: anthelminthic (Defour, 1994); Ethiopia: hypertension (Teklehaymanot et al., 2007), abortion or contraception (Desta, 1994), headache, toothache (Teklay et al., 2013); Kenya: wounds (Kokwaro, 1987), malaria (Mukungu et al., 2016); Madagascar: syphilis, colic, pain (Terrac, 1947), Rwanda: cough (Kayonga and Habiyaremye, 1987), constipation, purgative, diuretic, gonorrhea, vomiting (Durand, 1960), liver disease (Mukazayire et al., 2011), eye disease (Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012); Tanzania: syphilis (Leedal, 1975); Uganda: impotence, prolonged menstruation (Kamatenesi-Mugisha and Oryem-Origa, 2005) Antibacterial, antimicrobial, antiinflammatory (Getie et al., 2003), wound healing, antiinflammatory (Mulisa et al., 2015) anticancer, antimicrobial (Tamokou et al., 2013), antimalarial, cytotoxicity (Muganga et al., 2010), anthelmintic (Eguale et al., 2011), antibacterial (Ali et al., 2017) immunopotentiator (Jia, 2018), antimycobacterial (Coronado et al., 2016), anticancer andpurification activity of roots (Jia et al., 2015) Table 4. Continued Species Previously reported ethnomedicinal uses Reported pharmacological properties Scleria induta Wounds, gingivitis (Neuwinger, 2000) - Sclerocroton cornutus Central African Republic: hernia; DRC: facilitate childbirth, treat female sterility, cough and river blindness, insect and snake bites, toothache, scurvy and stomatitis sore feet, skin diseases, drunk as a purgative and anthelminthic, filariasis (Lemmens et al., 2012) - Securidaca longepedunculata Angola: pregnancy problems (Urso et al., 2016), scabies encephalitide, tachycardy, vertigo, tuberculosis, rage, epilepsy, rheumatism, inflammation knee, hepatite, hydropsy, madness (Bossard, 1996), wound, snake bite, malaria, cancer, hepatite (Bossard, 1996); Benin: wounds, headache, snake bite, bronchitis, fever, hemorrhage, veneral diseases, vermifuge (Natabou, 1991); Botswana: tuberculosis, against black magic (Hedberg and Staugard, 1989); Burundi: laxative, purgative, prevents abortion, intestinal parasites, nausea, psychose (Baerts and Lehmann, 1989); Burkina Faso: constipation, malaria, vomiting, sedative, spasms (Traore et al., 2009), wounds (Tapsoba and Deschamps, 2006), neurological problems, infections, infestations, poisoning, sensorial, digestive, musculoskeletal (Zerbo et al., 2011); Cameroon: malaria (Saotoing et al., 2011); Congo: malaria (Dibwe et al., 2012); Ethiopia: cough, (Desta, 1995), muscular problems, herpes, malaria (Teklehaymanot et al., 2007); Guinea Conakry: antiseptic, antiinfection (Magassouba et al., 2007); Ivory Coast: intestinal pain, anemia, convulsion in children, closing fontanelle (Koné et al., 2012), cephalgies, general pain, vermifuge, rheumatism (Bouquet and Debray, 1974); Kenya: antimalarial (Nguta et al. 2010); Mali: dysmenhorhea (Grønhaug et al., 2008), headache, poison or suicide, menstruation pain (Nordeng et al., 2013), Niger: madness, calming, ritual (Ibrahim et al., 2007); Nigeria: sexually transmitted infections, hernias, coughs, fever, ascariasis, constipation, headache, rheumatism, stomachache, malaria, tuberculosis, pain, epilepsy, pneumonia, skin infections, aphrodisiac (Mongalo et al., 2015), diabetes (Shinkafi et al., 2015), erectile disfunction, arthritis, tumors, cough, inflammation, antipyretic, analgesic, convulsions (Udoamaka et al., 2014), asthma (Sonibare and Gbile, 2008), psychoactive effects (Sobiecki, 2008), epilepsy (Muazu and Kaita, 2008); Tanzania: meningitide, AIDS/HIV (Kisangau et al., 2007); Togo: liver diseases (Kpodar et al., 2016), malaria, hemorrhoids, stomachache (Tchacondo et al. 2011), trypanosomiasis (Bizimana et al., 2006), hemorrhoids, dermatoses, headache, snake bite, stomachache (Maiga et al., 2005), cathar, constipation, asthenia eye problems, laxative, diuretic, pains, purgative, against worms, toothache, leprosy, intestinal problems, bronchitis, malaria, syphilis, headache, snake bite, tuberculosis, meningitis, rage, antipoison, stomachache, rheumatism, liver cirrhose, spiritual possession (Malgras, 1992); South Africa: contraceptive (Steenkamp, 2003), malaria (Iyamah and Idu, 2015); Sudan: rashes, eye disease (Musa et al., 2011); Senegal: headache, snake bite, stomachache, syphilis (Kerharo and Adam, 1964); Uganda: diarrhea, headache, body pain, epilepsy (Okello and Ssegawa, 2007), malaria (Tadesse, 1994), theileriosis, diarrhea, muscle abscess, headache, snakebite, inflammation, fever, antidote, flu, hernia, madness (Tabuti et al., 2003); Zimbabwe: epilepsy (Maroyi, 2011), epilepsy, pain, sexually transmitted diseases (Maroyi, 2013) Anticancer (Ngulde et al., 2019; Obasi et al., 2018), antimicrobial (Sanusi et al., 2015), antiinflammatory, antibacterial activity, antimalarial, antimycobacterial antifungal activity, hyperglycemic activity, diabetic induced enzyme inhibition, anticonvulsant, anxiolytic and sedative effect, insecticidal (Mongalo et al., 2015), antibacteria (Pallant and Steencamp, 2008), antifungal, antivirus, antiprotozoa (Maiga et al., 2005) Smilax anceps Angola: cough, epileptic symptoms (Göhre et al., 2016), HIV/AIDS, stomachache (Feuya Tchouya et al., 2015); Cameroon: female sterility, gonorrhea, syphilis, malaria (Telefo et al., 2011); Congo: skin problems, prolonged painful menstruation (Kibungu Kembelo, 2003); Ethiopia: infection of ears (Giday et al., 2009); Nigeria: HIV/AIDS (Kayode et al., 2009); Madagascar: excessive tiredness, convulsion (Razafindraibe et al., 2006) Antimicrobial (Adebayo-Tayo and Adegoke, 2008) Stomatanthes africanus Skinny cattles (Lulekal et al., 2008) - Strophanthus welwitschii Scabies (Bossard, 1996), cardiotonique (Nsimundele, 1968) - Strychnos coculloides Angola: sexual stimulant (Urso et al., 2016); Congo: reduces large breast, epilepsy (Kibungu Kembelo, 2003), hemorrhoids (Makumberlo et al., 2008); Zambia: sexually transmitted infections (Chinsembu, 2016; Ndubani, 1999); Zimbabwe: impotence, gonorrhea, stomachache, abdominal pains, sorethroat, aphrodisiac (Maroyi, 2013; Maroyi, 2011) - Table 4. Continued Species Previously reported ethnomedicinal uses Reported pharmacological properties Strychnos spinosa Angola: prevents miscarriage, sterility, impotence, cough, tuberculosis, pneumonia, flu, constipation, stomachache (Bossard, 1996); Ghana: malaria (Asase et al., 2005); Guinea: antiseptic, antiinfection (Magassouba et al., 2007); Mali: trypanosomiasis (Bizimana et al., 2006), urinary infection, hemorrhoids (Togola et al., 2005), conjunctivity, eye diseases, diarrhea, tuberculosis, toothache, stomachache, hernia (Malgras, 1992); Mozambique: snake bite, difficult labor, sexual diseases, hernie (Bruschi et al., 2011); Niger: dysmenhorrhea, calming (Adjanohoun et al., 1980); Senegal: diarrhea, colic (Kerharo and Adam, 1964), black magic (Kerharo and Adam, 1964); Sudan: hypertension (Doka and Yagi, 2009); Tanzania: gonorrhea, syphilis, intestinal pain (Ruffo, 1991), meningitis, encephalitis (Haerdi, 1964); Togo: female infertility, stomachache (Tchacondo et al., 2011); Zambia: sexually transmitted diseases (Ndubani and Höjer, 1999); Zimbabwe: gonorrhea, stomachache, genital diseases (Maroyi, 2013; Maroyi, 2011) Antiinflammatory (Isa et al., 2016), antibacterial (Isa et al., 2014), antitrypanosomal (Bero et al., 2013), antioxidant, radical scavening activity (Nhukarume et al., 2010), anthelmintic/antiparasitic (Waterman et al., 2010), antimalarial (Bero et al., 2009), antitrypanosomial (Hoet et al., 2007), antimalarial (Asase et al., 2005) Syzygium guineense Angola: diarrhea (Bossard, 1996), occasional alimentary supplement (Bossard, 1996); Burundi: laxative, purgative, against black magic (Baerts and Lehmann, 1989), mental disease in children (Giday, 2007); Ethiopia: eye disease, wounds (Giday et al., 2009), diarrhea (Chekole et al., 2015), infertility (Göhre et al., 2016), internal parasites (Amenu, 2007); Guinée Conakry: antiseptic, antiinfection (Magassouba et al., 2007); Ivory Coast: cough children (Koné, 2002); Mali: diarrhea, toothache, stimulates lactation, general strengthening (Malgras, 1992), skin problems (Lulekal et al., 2008); Namibia: HIV/AIDS, diarrhea (Chinsembu and Hedimbi, 2010); Nigeria: stimulant (Adamu Harami et al., 2005), diabetes, hypertension, cardio-protection, diarrhea, inflammation, immunostimulation, anticancer (Udoamaka, 2014), antidiabetic (Gbolade, 2009), retention of urine (Lulekal et al., 2008); South Africa: diarrhea (Amusan et al., 2002); Tanzania: chronic diarrhea, HIV/AIDS (Kisangau, 2007); Uganda: jaundice (Segawa and Kasenene, 2007) Cancer-preventive (Koval et al., 2018), antituberculosis (Oladosu et al., 2017), antimalarial (Tadesse and Wubneh, 2017), leaves rich in polyphenols (Nguyen et al., 2016), antioxidant and protective effects in liver and brain liver homogenate (Tankeu, 2016), antihypertensive (Ayele et al., 2010), antibacterial (Djoukeng, 2005) Terminalia brachystemma Angola: wounds, painful labor, dysmenorrhea, cough, tuberculosis, pneumonia, poison, nephralgia (Bossard, 1996), new born, scorpion bite, cough, pneumonia, syphilis, colic, children flu (Gelfand et al., 1985) Antifungal (Liu et al., 2009; Masoko, 2005) Tithonia diversifolia Diabetes, malaria, fever, pains, diarrhea, hepatitis, infectious diseases and other conditions (Baerts and Lehmann, 1989), topically as poultice or bath to wounds, bruises, skeletomuscular disorders, abscesses, dermatological conditions, and stomachache (Rodrigues, 1977) Antiinflammatory, analgesic, antimalarial, antidiabetic, antibacterial antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant, hypolipidemic and antiobesity, antiulcer, antiemetic, hepatoprotective effect, antivenin and antidiarrheal effect (Tagne et al., 2018) Uapaca benguelensis - Antimitotic effect (Mbayo et al., 2016) Uapaca nitida - Antimalarial (Steele et al., 1999; Kirby et al., 1993) Vangueriopsis lanciflora Mumps, infertility, strengthen baby, ritual, nightmares headaches (Lemmens et al., 2012) - Vitex madiensis Premenstrual and gynecologic affections, bacterial infections, gastrointestinal problems and inflammation, repellent, cough, cold, diarrhea and dysentery, diabetes, anemia, conjunctivitis, fatigue, headaches, mental disorders, respiratory problems, evil back among women, leprosy, fever, jaundice (Lengbiye et al., 2018); Angola: difficult labor, malaria, stomachache in child (Bossard, 1996); Central Africa: conjuntivities, oxyures, epilepsy, rheumatism, softens clitoris (Hexaire, 1979); Congo: malaria (Kasuku et al., 1999), epilepsy, psychose (Bouquet, 1969), lactation problems, epilepsy, stomachache (Diafouka et al., 1997), flu, hemorrhoid, stomachache (Makumberlo et al., 2008); Guinea-Bissau: pregnancy (Frazão-Moreira, 2016); Uganda: diarrhea, cough (Okello and Segawa, 2007) Larvicidal, laxative, anthelminthic, reduces cholesterol, antiinflammatory (Lengbiye et al., 2018), antimalarial (Ondo et al., 2012), antidiabetic/hypoglycemic (Amuri et al., 2017) Xylopia tomentosa HIV/AIDS (Chinsembu, 2016) - * Ethnomedicinal uses not assigned to particular country indicate reports for Africa in general. Figure 1. Study area map Mode of preparation/application Eye drops Rectal suppositories Inhalers Balms Vaginal pessary Oral ingestion/chewing Nose drops Tablets Infusion Baths Washes/massages Decoction 1% 1% 2% 2% 2% 2% 3% 4% 7% 8% 11% 57% 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Number of UR Figure 2. Number of use reports for each mode of preparation/application whole plant; 2% bark; 1% leaves 16% fruit; 1% stem; 1% roots 79% Figure 3. Plant parts used for medicinal purposes 1