INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL
OF
CONSERVATION SCIENCE
ISSN: 2067-533X
Volume 5, Issue 1, January-March 2014: 85-94
www.ijcs.uaic.ro
ASSESSMENT OF LICHENS IN SELECTED SACRED GROVES OF
WEST MIDNAPORE DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Uday Kumar SEN *
Ecology and Taxonomy Laboratory, Department of Botany & Forestry,
Vidyasagar University, Midnapore-721 102, West Bengal, India
Abstract
Sacred groves are traditionally protected relic forest patches surviving on socio-religious
grounds. It harbors valuable regional biodiversity with vital ecosystem and are under
anthropogenic threats. Sacred groves are fairly well-studied for socio-cultural and ecological
aspects, and evaluation of higher flora and fauna and their conservation. However, there are
no or scarce studies on cryptogams available on sacred groves. The lichens have long been
recognized as biologically sensitive indicators of environmental conditions. The present study
reveals the occurrence of 129 species of lichens, represented by 52 genera and 25 families in
ten selected sacred groves. Shorea robusta exhibited the maximum diversity of lichens by 74
species. Since this is the first study of lichens in the district there is ample scope for further
studies in South Bengal region. This study will help to understand the diversity of lichens better
and give the correct status of the biodiversity of West Bengal.
Keywords: Lichens; Diversity; Sacred Grove; West Midnapore; West Bengal; India.
Introduction
Lichens are polyphyletic in origin, and a unique group of non-vascular cryptogams
composed of two quite different organisms, a fungus and an alga, forming a self-supporting
combination. The fungal component is called the mycobiont and the algal component is known
as the photobiont. These two live in intimate association appeared to be a single plant. They are
the dominant life forms on the earth, constitute about 8% of the earth’s surface. The fungal
component forms the bulk of the lichen thallus, and hyphae form a close network resembling a
tissue–like mass with the algal cells. The fungi obtain their food either saprophytically from
dead organic matter or eats by parasitic mode of actions from the living bodies of host
organisms [1].
Algae synthesize their own food from carbon dioxide and water. Food materials from the
alga diffuse out and are absorbed by the fungus. However, the reproductive organs are entirely
fungal in nature [2].
There are two types of photobionts - a green and a blue-green alga. In most of the
lichens, the main photobiont is a green alga. In some of the foliose lichens, blue-green alga acts
as the primary photobiont. Blue-green algal symbiosis mainly found in leguminous trees which
*
Corresponding author: uudaysen@gmail.com, Mob: +919002524806
U.K. SEN
shows their primitiveness, and there had been a shift from blue-green alga to green alga, as the
latter being more efficient in photosynthesis [3].
Morphologically, the thallus of lichens shows variations in its structure such as crustose,
squamolose, foliose and fruiticose forms. If the thallus is partially or superficially or completely
developed within the substrate like rocks or bark, the fructification (ascocarp) is partially or
fully visible. Generally, lichens stores green algae as the photobiotic component, and
ascomycetes fungi as a mycobiont, which acts as modified vegetative or asexual propagules [4].
On the basis of substratum, lichens are classified as corticolous (on bark of trees),
saxicolous (on rocks), terricolous (on soil) and follicolous (on leaf surfaces) [5]. Lichen is a
highly diverse group and because of its universal distribution, they play very significant roles in
the pioneer but when we compare with other group of plants they receive little scientific
attention [6].
Sacred groves, the tribal community- based repositories of plant diversity, are fragments
of landscape with distinctive ecological features; afford protection on the basis of sacredness or
religious practice or faith [7]. The groves are distributed uniformly in West Midnapore district,
West Bengal, India, in the form of densely wooded natural patches, mainly angiospermic flora
with perennial water resources in its vicinity. As being a unique ecosystem, it helps in soil and
water conservation, preserving the biological wealth. They are the treasure house of many
cryptogamic and phanerogamic plants such as algae, fungi, lichen, bryophyte, pteridophyta and
angiosperms [8, 9].
The general floristic composition and physiognomy of vegetation of sacred groves are
typically as the semi-evergreen forest [10]. The vegetation in undisturbed groves is luxuriant
and comprises several stories of trees mixed with shrubs, lianas and herbs [11]. The soil is rich
in humus, and covered with thick litter. Such types of groves create micro-climatic conditions,
encouraging luxuriant growth of moisture-loving lichens including other growth forms, of
immense ecological and economical values [12, 13].
The distribution of lichens (as in other cryptogams) is largely influenced by
microclimatic factors such as topography, land cover and water. In sacred groves, four major
ecological factors that produce several microclimatic niches for the growth of lichens are
substrate, vegetation, climate and altitude [14]. The sacred grove provides a wide range of
substrates for the growth of lichens, and hence, of the total 129 species of lichens, 116 are
corticolous, 11 are saxicolous and 2 are follicolous.
Study Area
West Midnapore district lies between 22° 57' 10" to 21° 36' 35" N latitude and 88° 12'
40" to 86° 33' 50" E longitude, located in the southern part of West Bengal, India. It is bounded
by Bankura district from the northern side and East Midnapore district from the south-eastern
side. The southern boundary of the district is merged with Balasore and Mayurbhanj districts of
Orissa, and the western boundary is merged with Singbhum, and east district of Jharkhand (Fig.
1).
Fig. 1. Satellite and map view of West Medinipur district.
86
INT J CONSERV SCI 5, 1, JAN-MAR 2014: 85-94
ASSESSMENT OF LICHENS IN SACRED GROVES OF WEST MIDNAPORE DISTRICT, INDIA
The human population of the district is 5943300 (density 640/km2), with 18.05%
schedule castes and 14.87% schedule tribes population. Geographically, the area is 9295.28km2,
which is further divided into four sub-divisions, 29 blocks and 8 municipalities.
Location and Topography
West Midnapore district represents regional diversity in terms of physiographic, agroclimatic characteristics and social composition etc. Geo-morphologically, the district is subdivided into three parts, viz. Chhotonagpur flanks with hills, mounds and rolling lands in the
westernmost part, Rahr plain with lateritic uplands in the middle part and Alluvial plain of the
east with recent deposits. It is hilly towards the north-west, represents low basins in the southeast and east. It has drought-affected dry areas in the west, but highly wet flood-affected in the
east. Dense semi-evergreen forest in the west is replaced by semi-aquatic vegetations of marshy
lands in the east. It has barren lateritic, non-arable lands in the west and north-west, which
gradually changes with highly productive alluvial soil areas in the central and eastern part of the
district. It is the abode of tribes and primitive tribes (Bhumij, Kheria, Lodha, Mahali, Munda
and Santal) in the western blocks, while most of the area is inhabited by almost all castes of the
society, representing the diverse culture across blocks.
Extremely rugged topography is seen in the western part of the district and rolling
topography is experienced consisting of lateritic areas. These rolling plains gradually merge
into flat alluvial and deltaic plains to the east and south east of the district [15].
Climate and Soil
The climate of the region is tropical; the terrain is characterized by hard rock uplands,
lateritic areas, and flat alluvial and deltaic plains with fairly fertile soil. The area experiences an
annual rainfall of 1400 - 1500mm, but is highly erratic for the last few years. The mean
temperature of the area is between maximum of 44°C during peak summer and minimum 10°C
during the coldest days of winter.
Methodology
Different species of lichens were opportunistically collected from ten different species
of dicotyledonous trees from ten selected sacred groves of an (area more than 5 acres) and from
rocks at ten different localities. Intensive sampling of lichens was carried out from January,
2010 to February, 2012. Lichens were collected along with substratum using sharp knife. The
specimens were procured very precisely without damaging the thallus. Various species of lichen
were also encountered through collection of fallen branches and twigs on the ground. The
specimens were cleaned carefully by removing debris, sundried and deposited in the laboratory
herbaria. Later, the species of lichens were identified upto species level using light compound
binolcular microscope and also identified with the help of standard techniques such as spot
tests, UV-light and Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) [16-17]. The identification of each
species of lichen was done using relevant keys, published literature and technical monographs
[18-22].
Results and Discussions
The lichen flora of the studied sacred groves was of tropical type, confined mostly on
trees including few species grown on rocky substrate (Table 1). The few individuals of Shorea
robusta was found to provide suitable habitat for rich growth of lichens (74 species). The other
tree species harbouring lichens were Pongamia pinnata (11 species); Schleichera oleosa (8
species); Wrightia antidysenterica (7 species); Albizia lebbeck, Butea monosperma,
Diospyros melanoxylon and Mangifera indica (3 species each), and Bombax ceiba, and
Sapindus trifoliatus (2 species each) (Table 2, Fig. 2).
http://www.ijcs.uaic.ro
87
U.K. SEN
Table 1. Occurrance of lichens in selected sacred groves of West Midnapore district, West Bengal, India.
Sr. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
88
Lichen Species
Anisomeridium terminatum (Nyl.) R. C. Harris
Anthracothecium thwaitesii (Leight.) Müll. Arg.
Arthonia translucens Stirt.
Arthonia tumidula Leight.
Arthonia medusula (Pers.) Nyl.
Arthothelium albescens Patw. & Makhija
Arthothelium confertum (A.L. Sm.) Makhija & Patw.
Arthothelium erumpens Müll. Arg.
Arthothelium pycnocarpoides Müll. Arg.
Bacidia alutacea (Kremp.) Zahlbr.
Bacidia convexula (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr.
Bacidia medialis (Tuck. ex Nyl.) B. de Lesd.
Bacidia millegrana (Taylor) Zahlbr.
Bacidia phaeolomoides (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr.
Bacidiospora psorina (Nyl. ex Hue) Kalb
Bathelium benguelense Müll. Arg.
Bathelium madreporiforme (Eschw.) Trevis.
Bathelium tuberculosum (Makhija & Patw.) R. C. Harris
Bulbothrix isidiza (Nyl.) Hale
Byssoloma tricholomum (Mont.) Zahlbr.
Caloplaca bassiae (Ach.) Zahlbr.
Caloplaca herbidella (Hue) H. Magn.
Caloplaca indurata V. Wirth & Vezda
Caloplaca vitellinula (Nyl.) H.Olivier
Caloplaca aurantia (Pers.) Hellb.
Chapsa pseudophlyctis (Nyl.) Frisch
Chrysothrix candelaris (L.) J. R. Laundon
Cryptothecia bengalensis Jagadeesh, G. P. Sinha & Kr. P.
Singh
Cryptothecia effusa (Mull. Arg.) R. Sant.
Cryptothecia involuta Stirt.
Cryptothecia multipunctata Jagadeesh, G. P. Sinha & Kr.
P. Singh
Cryptothecia subtecta Stirt.
Diorygma hieroglyphicum (Pers.) Staiger & Kalb
Diorygma junghuhnii (Mont. & Bosch) Kalb, Staiger &
Elix
Diorygma megasporum Kalb, Staiger & Elix
Diorygma pruinosum (Eschw.) Kalb, Staiger & Elix
Diorygma radiatum (D.D. Awasthi & S.R. Singh) Kr.P.
Singh & Swarnalatha
Diploschistes muscorum (Scop.) R. Sant.
Dyplolabia afzelii A. Massal.
Glyphis cicatricosa Ach.
Glyphis duriuscula Stirt.
Glyphis scyphulifera (Ach.) Staiger
Graphina platycarpa (Eschw.) Zahlbr.
Graphis acharii Fée
Graphis albidofarinacea Adaw. & Makhija
Graphis albissima Mull.Arg.
Graphis caesiella Vainio
Graphis distincta Makhija & Adaw.
Graphis filiformis Adaw. & Makhiza
Graphis furcata Fée.
Graphis glaucescens Fee.
Graphis handelii Zahlbr.
Graphis hiascens (Fée) A.W. Archer
Graphis japonica (Müll. Arg.) A.W. Archer & Lücking
Graphis librata C. Knight
Graphis perticosa (Kremp.) A.W. Archer
Graphis pinicola Zahlbr.
Graphis pyrrhocheiloides Zahlbr.
Graphis scripta (L.) Ach.
Graphis streblocarpa (Bél.) Nyl.
Graphis subasahinae Nagarkar & Patw.
Graphis tenella Ach.
Graphis chlorotica A. Massal.
Graphis cincta (Pers.) Aptroot
Graphis insulana (Müll. Arg.) Lücking & Sipman
Haematomma wattii (Stirt.) Zahlbr.
Herpothallon isidiatum Jagadeesh & G.P. Sinha
Heterodermia albidiflava (Kurok.) D.D. Awasthi
Heterodermia diademata (Taylor) D. D. Awasthi
Heterodermia obscurata (Nyl.) Trevis.
Heterodermia pseudospeciosa (Kurok.) W. L. Culb.
Laurera aurentiaca Makhija & Patw.
Laurera cumingii (Mont.) Zahlbr.
Laurera keralensis Upreti & Ajay Singh
Laurera kundarensis Upreti & Ajay Singh
Laurera vezdae Makhija & Patw.
Habit Habit
Family
Substratum/Host plant
Monoblastiaceae
Pyrenulaceae
Arthoniaceae
Arthoniaceae
Arthoniaceae
Arthoniaceae
Arthoniaceae
Arthoniaceae
Arthoniaceae
Ramalinaceae
Ramalinaceae
Ramalinaceae
Ramalinaceae
Ramalinaceae
Ramalinaceae
Trypetheliaceae
Trypetheliaceae
Trypetheliaceae
Parmeliaceae
Pilocarpaceae
Teloschistaceae
Teloschistaceae
Teloschistaceae
Teloschistaceae
Teloschistaceae
Graphidaceae
Chrysothricaceae
Arthoniaceae
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Fo.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
F
C
C
C
S
C
C
C
C
Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae)
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. (Sapindaceae)
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. (Sapindaceae)
Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. (Ebenaceae)
Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. (Ebenaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Sapindus trifoliatus L. (Sapindaceae)
Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. (Ebenaceae)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. (Sapindaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. (Fabaceae)
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. (Sapindaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Arthoniaceae
Arthoniaceae
Arthoniaceae
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
C
C
C
Wrightia antidysenterica (L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Arthoniaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
C
C
C
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
C
C
S
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Fo.
Fo.
Fo.
Fo.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
S
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Thelotremataceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Graphidaceae
Haematommataceae
Arthoniaceae
Physciaceae
Physciaceae
Physciaceae
Physciaceae
Trypetheliaceae
Trypetheliaceae
Trypetheliaceae
Trypetheliaceae
Trypetheliaceae
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. (Fabaceae)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Bombax ceiba L.(Malvaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. (Fabaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. (Sapindaceae)
Wrightia antidysenterica (L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. (Sapindaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Wrightia antidysenterica (L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae)
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. (Fabaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. (Sapindaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Wrightia antidysenterica (L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Bombax ceiba L.(Malvaceae)
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. (Fabaceae)
Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
INT J CONSERV SCI 5, 1, JAN-MAR 2014: 85-94
ASSESSMENT OF LICHENS IN SACRED GROVES OF WEST MIDNAPORE DISTRICT, INDIA
77.
Sr. No.
Lecanora cinereofusca H.Magn.
Lichen Species
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
Lecanoraceae
Family
Lecanora iseana Räsänen
Lecanoraceae
Lecidea granifera (Nyl.) Zahlbr.
Lecideaceae
Lecidea lapicida (Ach.) Ach.
Lecideaceae
Lecidea plana (J. Lahm) Nyl.
Lecideaceae
Lecidella enteroleucella (Nyl.) Hertel
Lecanoraceae
Leiorreuma exaltatum (Mont. & v.d. Bosch) Staiger
Graphidaceae
Leptogium austroamericanum (Malme) C.W.Dodge
Collemataceae
Letrouitia domingensis (Pers.) Hafellner & Bellem.
Letrouitiaceae
Letrouitia leprolyta (Nyl.) Hafellner
Letrouitiaceae
Letrouitia transgressa (Malme) Hafellner & Bellem.
Letrouitiaceae
Miriquidica deusta (Stenh.) Hertel & Rambold
Lecanoraceae
Mycomicrothelia conothele (Nyl.) Hawksw.
Arthopyreniaceae
Myelochroa xantholepis (Mont. & Bosch) Elix & Hale
Parmeliaceae
Myriotrema norstictideum (Patw. & Nagarkar)
Thelotremataceae
D.D.Awasthi
92.
Opegrapha rufescens Pers.
Roccellaceae
Graphidaceae
93.
Pallidogramme chrysenteron (Mont.) Staiger, Kalb &
Lücking
94.
Parmotrema andinum (Müll.Arg.) Hale
Parmeliaceae
95.
Parmotrema ravum (Krog & Swinscow) Sérus
Parmeliaceae
96.
Parmotrema tinctorum (Despr. ex Nyl.) Hale
Parmeliaceae
97.
Pertusaria kodaikanalensis M. Choisy
Pertusariaceae
Pertusaria melastomella Nyl.
Pertusariaceae
98.
99.
Pertusaria multipuncta (Turner) Nyl.
Pertusariaceae
100.
Pertusaria quassiae (Fée) Nyl.
Pertusariaceae
101.
Phaeographis brasiliensis (A. Massal.) Kalb & MatthesGraphidaceae
Leicht
102.
Platythecium grammitis (Fée) Staiger
Graphidaceae
103.
Polymeridium proponens (Nyl.) R.C. Harris
Trypetheliaceae
104.
Pseudopyrenula subnudata Müll. Arg.
Trypetheliaceae
105.
Pseudopyrenula subvelata (Nyl.) Müll. Arg.
Trypetheliaceae
106.
Pyrenula acutalis R.C. Harris
Pyrenulaceae
107.
Pyrenula anomala (Ach.) Vain.
Pyrenulaceae
108.
Pyrenula citriformis R.C. Harris
Pyrenulaceae
109.
Pyrenula introducta (Stirt.) Zahlbr.
Pyrenulaceae
110.
Pyrenula leucotrypa (Nyl.) Upreti
Pyrenulaceae
111.
Pyrenula mamillana (Ach.) Trevis.
Pyrenulaceae
112.
Pyrenula nitens (Fée) Fée
Pyrenulaceae
113.
Pyrenula sublaevigata (Patw. & Makhija) Upreti
Pyrenulaceae
114.
Pyrenula subnitida Müll. Arg.
Pyrenulaceae
115.
Pyrenula thelomorpha Tuck.
Pyrenulaceae
116.
Pyxine coccifera (Fée) Nyl.
Physciaceae
117.
Ramboldia russula (Ach.) Kalb, Lumbsch & Elix
Lecanoraceae
118.
Reimnitzia sentensis (Tuck.) Kalb.
Thelotremataceae
119.
Rinodina oxydata (A. Massal.) A. Massal.
Physciaceae
120.
Sarcographa tricosa (Ach.) Müll. Arg.
Graphidaceae
121.
Staurothele drummondii (Tuck.) Tuck.
Verrucariaceae
122.
Strigula complanata (Fée) Mont.
Strigulaceae
Trypethelium eluteriae Spreng.
Trypetheliaceae
123.
124.
Trypethelium endosulphureum Makhija & Patw.
Trypetheliaceae
125.
Trypethelium platystomum Mont.
Trypetheliaceae
126.
Trypethelium pupula (Ach.) R.C. Harris
Trypetheliaceae
127.
Trypethelium tropicum (Ach.) Müll. Arg.
Trypetheliaceae
128.
Tylophoron protrudens Nyl.
Arthoniaceae
129.
Verrucaria rupestris Schrader
Verrucariaceae
Abbreviations: C-Corticolus, Cr-Crustose, F-Follicolus, Fo-Foliose, S-Saxicolous
Cr.
C
Habit Habit
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Substratum/Host plant
Wrightia antidysenterica (L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Fo.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Fo.
Cr.
C
C
S
S
S
C
C
C
C
C
S
C
C
C
Cr.
Cr.
C
C
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Fo.
Fo.
Fo.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
C
C
C
S
C
C
C
C
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Fo.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
S
C
S
F
C
C
C
C
C
C
S
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Wrightia antidysenterica (L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. (Sapindaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae)
Wrightia antidysenterica (L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. (Fabaceae)
Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Sapindus trifoliatus L. (Sapindaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae)
Table 2. Lichen Species hosted by tree species.
Sr. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
7.
8.
1
Family
Anacardiaceae
Apocynaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Ebenaceae
Fabaceae
Malvaceae
Sapindaceae
Total (7)
http://www.ijcs.uaic.ro
Scientific Name
Mangifera indica L.
Wrightia antidysenterica (L.) R.Br.
Shorea robusta Gaertn.
Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre
Bombax ceiba L.
Sapindus trifoliatus L.
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr.
10
No. of Species hosted
3
7
74
3
3
3
11
2
2
8
116
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U.K. SEN
Fig. 2. Lichen species hosted by the plant.
The study revealed the occurrence of 22 families of lichens represented by 52 genera and
129 species. Graphidaceae (38 species) was the most dominant family, followed by
Trypetheliaceae (16); Arthoniaceae (14); Pyrenulaceae (11); Physciaceae and Ramalinaceae (6
each); Lecanoraceae, Parmeliaceae, and Teloschistaceae (5 each); Pertusariaceae (4);
Lecideaceae, Letrouitiaceae, and Thelotremataceae (3 each); Verrucariaceae (2);
Arthopyreniaceae, Chrysothricaceae, Collemataceae, Haematommataceae, Monoblastiaceae,
Pilocarpaceae, Roccellaceae, and Strigulaceae (1 each) (Table 3, Fig. 3). Among the various
growth forms crustose was the dominant (118 species) than foliose (11 species). On the basis of
substratum, the studied lichens of the sacred groves was found to prefer corticolous (116
species on bark) habitat, followed by saxicolous (11 on rock), and follicolous (2 on leaf) habitat.
The rich lichen flora on a particular tree is dependent on a wide range of interrelated
factors. The microclimate exhibited by various parts of encountered tree species including the
mature substratum, are two important factors in determining the lichen growth on a tree. The
age, smoothness, roughness, and spongy nature of bark, along with pH, nutrient status, buffer
capacity and water holding capacity of soil are other important factors affecting the growth of
lichens on the trees. The reason for rich lichen flora harboured by Shorea robusta could be due
to the variation of the tree bark at different parts of the tree [23].
Fig. 3. Total number of lichen species with family.
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INT J CONSERV SCI 5, 1, JAN-MAR 2014: 85-94
ASSESSMENT OF LICHENS IN SACRED GROVES OF WEST MIDNAPORE DISTRICT, INDIA
Table 3. Enumeration of Family, Genus and Species of Lichens.
Sr. No.
Family
Genus
1.
Arthoniaceae Reichenb. ex Reichenb.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Arthopyreniaceae W. Watson
Chrysothricaceae Zahlbr.
Collemataceae Zenker
Graphidaceae Dumort.
6.
7.
Haematommataceae Hafellner
Lecanoraceae Körb.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Lecideaceae Chevall.
Letrouitiaceae Bellem. & Hafellner
Monoblastiaceae W. Watson
Parmeliaceae Zenker
12.
13.
Pertusariaceae Körb. ex Körb.
Physciaceae Zahlbr.
14.
15.
Pilocarpaceae Zahlbr.
Pyrenulaceae Rabenh.
16.
Ramalinaceae C. Agardh
17.
18.
19.
20.
Roccellaceae Chevall.
Strigulaceae Zahlbr.
Teloschistaceae Zahlbr.
Thelotremataceae (Nyl.) Stizenb.
21.
Trypetheliaceae Zenker
22.
Verrucariaceae Zenker
Total
22
Arthonia
Arthothelium
Cryptothecia
Herpothallon
Tylophoron
Mycomicrothelia
Chrysothrix
Leptogium
Chapsa
Diorygma
Dyplolabia
Glyphis
Graphina
Graphis
Leiorreuma
Pallidogramme
Phaeographis
Platythecium
Sarcographa
Haematomma
Lecanora
Lecidella
Miriquidica
Ramboldia
Lecidea
Letrouitia
Anisomeridium
Bulbothrix
Myelochroa
Parmotrema
Pertusaria
Heterodermia
Pyxine
Rinodina
Byssoloma
Anthracothecium
Pyrenula
Bacidia
Bacidiospora
Opegrapha
Strigula
Caloplaca
Diploschistes
Myriotrema
Reimnitzia
Bathelium
Laurera
Polymeridium
Pseudopyrenula
Trypethelium
Staurothele
Verrucaria
52
Species
Genus-wise
3
4
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
1
3
1
22
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
3
3
1
1
1
3
4
4
1
1
1
1
10
5
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
3
5
1
2
5
1
1
129
Total
14
1
1
1
38
1
5
3
3
1
5
4
6
1
11
6
1
1
5
3
16
2
129
Threats and Conservation
Lichens are very sensitive organisms and their response to the environmental changes
may include changes in their diversity, abundance, morphology, physiology, accumulation of
pollutants, etc. [24]. The main threats that apply to biodiversity in general are also true for
lichens, e.g. habitat fragmentation, habit degradation and loss, overexploitation, air pollution
and the change of climate [25]. The rapid urbanization, agriculture, tourism and small scale
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91
U.K. SEN
industrialization in remote areas lead to the fast extinction of the sacred groves as well as the
lichens.
Lichens are slow growing organisms, and thus, if once removed from their habitat, they
will take several years to re-establish or ultimately disappears [26]. Conservation of their
habitats is very important to prevent the extinction of lichens. It can be done by developing
strategies for in-situ and ex-situ conservation. The overexploitation of natural resources should
be reduced and conservation areas must be prioritized. It is important to create awareness
among people about the importance and conservation of lichens.
Conclusions
Sacred groves are religiously protected areas provide a comprehensive and rich
ecological niche as repositories of genetic diversity. Moreover, it is felt that there are
tremendous direct and indirect pressures at work on the groves threatening their existence.
These threats can be related to increasing prospects of tourism, higher demands for NTFPs, fuel
wood collection, decrease in the religious faiths along with fall in the commitment of the
present generation towards such natural sacred areas, and lastly, the heavy burden of
developmental interventions are prepared to undertake. Microclimatic conditions of sacred
groves play an important role in the ecology of lichen. Availability of water, sunlight, moderate
climate, unpolluted atmosphere, wind condition and type of substratum are the major factors
responsible for the optimal growth of lichens. From the present study, it has become evident
that sacred grove abodes a good number of lichen in its rich habitats which are getting depleted
due to various factors. Little attention of administrators towards the deteriorating condition of
holy places and the groves add another dimension. Such gene pool reserves can definitely serve
as icons of in situ conservation under the prevailing times through a good mixture of scientific
measures and awareness building efforts with the active involvement of the local community
and the government.
Acknowledgments
The author of the present manuscript would like to express his gratitude to his supervisor
for providing a timely help and logistic facilities to carry out this work in the Department of
Botany and Forestry, Vidyasagar University, Midnapore, West Bengal. The author is also
thankful to the local communities whose support was impressive during the collection period of
lichens.
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Received: June, 24, 2013
Accepted: November, 26, 2013
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Dr. Uday Kumar Sen