RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY/STUDY
DESIGN
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN NUTRITION
Research Methodology and Study Design
Ten2Twenty-Ghana: Study Design and Methods for an Innovative
Randomized Controlled Trial with Multiple-Micronutrient–Fortified
Biscuits among Adolescent Girls in Northeastern Ghana
Abdul-Razak Abizari,3
Saskia JM Osendarp,1,4
Edith J Feskens,1
and Inge D Brouwer1
1
Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; 2 Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Faculty
of Agriculture, Food, and Consumer Sciences, University for Development Studies, Tamale, Ghana; 3 Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Allied Health
Sciences, University for Development Studies, Tamale, Ghana; and 4 Micronutrient Forum, Washington, DC, USA
ABSTRACT
Investing in adolescent girls’ nutrition is vital for health and for breaking the intergenerational cycle of malnutrition and deprivation, but limited
knowledge on the type, timing, and efficacy of interventions delays progress. We describe the design of a 26-wk randomized placebo-controlled
trial with multiple-micronutrient–fortified biscuits (MMBs) among adolescent girls in northeastern Ghana. Apparently healthy, premenarche
(n = 312) and postmenarche (n = 309) girls (10–17 y) were randomly assigned to receive the following for 5 d/wk: 1) MMBs (fortified with
11 vitamins and 7 minerals) or 2) unfortified biscuits. Data included plasma micronutrient status, anthropometry, body composition, cognitive
function, psychosocial health, fertility, dietary intake, and sociodemographic and socioeconomic covariates, complemented with in-depth
interviews (n = 30) and 4 focus group discussions. We hypothesized an increase in plasma ferritin and retinol-binding protein with a resultant
increase in hemoglobin, cognition, vertical height, and psychosocial health. Our study seeks to investigate the efficacy and optimal timing of a
multiple-micronutrient food intervention program for adolescent girls. The RCT was registered prospectively with the Netherlands Clinical Trials
Register (NL7487). Curr Dev Nutr 2021;5:nzaa184.
Keywords: Ghana, adolescent girls, malnutrition, menarche, multiple-micronutrients, fortified biscuits, body composition, nutrient gaps
C The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original
work is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup.com
Manuscript received October 28, 2020. Initial review completed December 24, 2020. Revision accepted December 30, 2020. Published online January 8, 2021.
The study was supported by the Edema Steernberg Foundation, Judith Zwartz Foundation, and Nutricia Research Foundation. Sight and Life, Switzerland, through the Obaasima Project-Ghana,
provided the biscuits for the intervention.
Author disclosures: The authors report no conflicts of interest.
Supplemental material is available from the “Supplementary data” link in the online posting of the article and from the same link in the online table of contents at https://academic.oup.com/cdn/.
A-RA is deceased.
Address correspondence to FA (e-mail: fusta.azupogo@wur.nl or fazupoko@uds.edu.gh).
Abbreviations used: AAM, age at menarche; AE, adverse event; AGP, ɑ-glycoprotein; CRP, C-reactive protein; DDS, Dietary Diversity Score; FBDG, food-based dietary guideline; FFQ,
food-frequency questionnaire; GES, Ghana Education Service; GHS, Ghana Health Service; GIFTS, Girls’ Iron Folate Tablet Supplementation; GSS, Ghana Statistical Service; Hb, hemoglobin;
HRQoL, health-related quality of life; ID, iron deficiency; IDA, iron deficiency anemia; KAP, knowledge, attitudes, and practices; LMIC, low- and middle-income country; LMM, linear mixed model;
MMB, multiple-micronutrient–fortified biscuit; MMF, multiple-micronutrient–fortified food; NIH-TCB, NIH toolbox cognition battery; RBP, retinol-binding protein; RCT, randomized controlled trial;
RE, retinol equivalents; SAE, severe adverse event; SF, plasma serum ferritin; SSA, sub-Saharan Africa; TfR, plasma soluble transferrin receptor; TTH, Tamale Teaching Hospital; UB, unfortified
biscuit; UDS, University for Development Studies; VAD, vitamin A deficiency; WUR, Wageningen University and Research; 24hR, quantitative 24-h dietary recall.
Introduction
Adolescents make up the most significant proportion (23%) of the population in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), and this subregion is projected to
have more adolescents than in any other region by 2050 (1). According to the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), approximately one-quarter
of the Ghanaian population are adolescent (2) and a little over one-fifth
of the female Ghanaian population are adolescents (2). The WHO defines adolescence as the life stage of ∼10–19 y (3).
In addition to the first 1000 d of life, adolescence offers an additional
(and last) window of opportunity to improve nutrition and health (4–6).
Adolescence is the only other time in life when the velocity of growth
increases, as ∼45% of total skeletal mass and 15–25% of adult height
are gained during adolescence (7, 8). As a result of the growth spurt,
adolescents’ energy and protein requirements are highest compared
with any other age group (8, 9). Similarly, micronutrient requirements,
mainly iron, calcium, zinc, and vitamin D, increase during adolescence
(10), leaving adolescents vulnerable to micronutrient deficiencies (11,
12), especially in resource-poor areas. For girls, age at menarche (AAM)
is an essential landmark, considering that most height is attained before
menarche (13, 14). Additional height is obtained at a lower velocity over
4.7 y after menarche (13, 14). Likewise, pelvic bone growth, critical for
preventing birth and pregnancy complications, is gained just before, and
for 4.7 years after, menarche (13, 14).
Menstruation may probably induce a higher iron intake through the
homeostatic mechanism of upregulated iron during deficiency (15, 16),
1
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Fusta Azupogo,1,2
2 Azupogo et al.
multiple-micronutrient fortified foods (MMFs) improves micronutrient status and reduces nutritional deficiencies among adolescent girls
(38–42). A few emerging studies from LMICs, mainly in South-East
Asia, also affirm this association (43–45). To our knowledge, no study
from SSA has explored the effect of MMFs on the micronutrient status
and health of adolescent girls. Biscuits may be a convenient food vehicle
for fortification as they are handy and easy to manage. More so, biscuits
are more likely to be accepted by the adolescent population who often
prefer snacks (46).
Undernutrition during adolescence has adverse consequences for
cognition, psychosocial health, and the socioeconomic life trajectories of adolescents. Like infants and young children, inadequate intake
also increases the risk of infections, contributing to a vicious cycle of
undernutrition, infection, and poor developmental outcomes (47, 48).
According to Mesías et al. (17), iron deficiency (ID), besides provoking significant physiological consequences, also adversely affects adolescents’ cognitive ability and motor and mental development. For instance, Robinson and colleagues (49), in a follow-up study, illustrated
that anemia, ID, and vitamin B-12 deficiency are associated with adolescent boys’ behavioral problems in Bogota. Iron provides oxygen to the
brain via erythropoiesis, and for myelination of the frontal lobes, which
notably occurs during adolescence (50, 51). Iron is also a cofactor for
enzymes involved in neurotransmitter synthesis and plays a role in neurotransmitter metabolism (51). Also, iodine is critical for neuronal cell
maturation, and myelination and a deficiency can impair adolescents’
cognitive function (52).
Additionally, vitamin A influences thyroid metabolism alongside iodine, and vitamin A is also required for erythropoiesis (53). A plausible mechanism through which micronutrient problems may result in
cognitive and behavioral problems during adolescence involves poor
myelination and reduced oligodendrocyte function (54). ID has been
shown to alter neurochemical metabolism, such as phosphocreatine,
glutamate, N-acetyl aspartate, aspartate, and γ -aminobutyric acid in the
hippocampus, which may trigger some cognitive and mental problems.
A few studies have also shown that improved nutrition outcomes
during adolescence are positively associated with improved psychosocial health, notably health-related quality of life, self-esteem, selfefficacy (55–57), cognitive skills (58–60), educational performance
(59, 61, 62), and family formation (63). However, the evidence has
mainly been cross-sectional, making it somewhat impossible to establish causality. The existing studies in SSA have mainly been conducted in
Ethiopia (55, 58, 61) and Uganda (62), and none of these studies examined the effect of micronutrient status other than anemia on psychosocial health and cognition.
Throughout the transition to adulthood, girls’ nutritional trajectories (e.g., nutritional status, dietary intake) are interwoven with social and economic trajectories, including education, family formation,
and labor participation (64–67). These parallel trajectories are often interlinked, and the encounter and accumulation of disadvantages (representing a life-course perspective) within the social, economic, and
nutritional trajectories may negatively impact girls’ health, well-being,
and opportunities (66, 67), with resultant low social and economic
status within the household for girls. Understanding context-specific
trajectories and the interactions and interrelations is crucial to improving girls’ nutritional exposure and outcomes in multiple life domains. Nutrition may influence adolescents’ aspirations through the
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN NUTRITION
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making postmenarche girls benefiting most from a micronutrient intervention. However, menstruation is proinflammatory (17), a condition
that negatively affects micronutrient status, notably iron and vitamin A
status (18, 19), implying that postmenarche girls may benefit less from
an intervention. These opposite processes highlight the uncertainty of
a nutrition intervention’s best timing, either pre- or postmenarche. A
higher BMI and fat mass are also associated with a lower AAM (20); but
little is known about the association between nutrient status and AAM.
Generally, girls in Ghana are disadvantaged in intrahousehold food
distribution and resource allocation (21), and are at risk of sexual violence (22). Girls are also less educated than boys (23, 24) and are more
likely to drop out of secondary school than boys (23); for instance, only
78.7% of girls complete primary education compared with 92.4% of
boys in the Northern Region of Ghana (25). Last, approximately onethird of Ghanaian adolescent girls are married by age 18 (2), and 14%
of adolescents aged 15–19 in Ghana have begun childbearing (26). Furthermore, malnutrition is prevalent among adolescent girls in Ghana.
The 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (26) indicates that
14.4% of 15- to 19-y-old female adolescents are too thin, and 8.7% are
overweight. Also, there is increasing evidence of inadequate micronutrient status among girls (27, 28), and particularly iron deficiency anemia
(IDA) (17), a result of the increased iron needs during periods of rapid
growth and blood loss during menstruation after menarche (17, 29). In
a recent analysis, ∼64.6% of rural adolescent girls were anemic in the
northern savannah agro-ecological zone of Ghana (30). Despite the increasing evidence of inadequate micronutrient status among adolescent
girls, nutrition intervention programs in Ghana, like in other developing contexts, have commonly focused on infants, young children, and
pregnant and lactating women, and generally neglected adolescents.
The diet of most adolescents in low- and middle-income countries
(LMICs) mostly consists of low consumption of fruits and vegetables
and high intake of starch, sweetened foods and beverages, and snacks in
the form of fast foods (31). Nonetheless, little is known about nutrient
gaps in adolescent girls’ diets, as information on dietary practices and
nutrient intakes is rarely collected for adolescents in LMICs (32), and
Ghana is no exception.
These deprivations predispose adolescent girls in Ghana to malnutrition, undermining their development into adulthood. Malnutrition
perpetuates a vicious cycle of malnutrition, poor health, and poverty
and as well affects the health and well-being of future generations
because of the intergenerational transfer of (dis)advantages regarding
health and development and inequities therein. In particular, attention
to adolescent girls’ nutrition is vital to improving girls’ health status and
that of their (future) offspring, thereby breaking intergenerational cycles
of malnutrition and deprivation (4, 6, 33). Indeed, adolescence is seen
as the second (and last) window of opportunity to improve nutritional
and developmental outcomes because of the pubertal growth spurt and
formative processes that occur during this life phase (5, 34).
For settings with a high burden of anemia and IDA, the WHO recommends intermittent iron and folic acid supplementation for menstruating women and adolescents (35). Nonetheless, poor compliance
often limits the effectiveness of micronutrient supplementation programs (36, 37). Food fortification without changes in food’s organoleptic properties is potentially useful for improving adolescent girls’ nutrition and health, but evidence from LMICs is scarce. However, there
is existing evidence from developed countries that the consumption of
Protocol for the Ten2Twenty-Ghana research
Micronutrients
Food vehicle
Target
population
Primary/Shortmedium term
effect
Pre- and -post-
Hematologic and
Multiple
Biscuits
menarche girls
biochemical
micronutrients
(5 days weekly)
(10-17yrs.)
indicators
Time Period:
26 weeks (6 months)
12mL Venous blood
Secondary /Longterm impact
-Height
-Body composition
-Fertility
-Cognition
-Academic performance
-Psychosocial outcomes
End-line (26 weeks)
12mL venous blood
FIGURE 1 Logic framework for the effect of a multiple-micronutrient–fortified biscuit intervention for adolescent girls.
intergenerational transfer of (dis)advantages and cognition and psychosocial health pathways, including mental health (55, 68). For instance, ID leads to fatigue and lethargy and may affect aspirations.
Feeling energetic may also increase hopes for the future. However, girls’
perspectives on growing up and their future aspirations and the numerous life domains remain unexplored.
According to the WHO (33), the lack of age- and sex-specific data on
adolescent girls’ and boys’ health and nutritional status is the primary
reason for the typical lack of policies and programs that can improve
adolescents’ health and nutritional status. Such data are urgently needed
to help build a common ground for the inclusion of MMFs in programs
towards improving adolescent girls’ health in developing contexts like
Ghana.
Furthermore, a mother’s nutritional status and her participation in
household decision making, a proxy for empowerment, are known determinants of improved nutrition and health outcomes for infants and
young children (69–71). However, little is known about the influence of
a mother’s nutrition and her participation in household final decision
making on adolescents’ nutrition and health. We aim to contribute to
these existing knowledge gaps by designing the innovative research entitled “Ten2Twenty-Ghana” using a mixed-methods approach for data
collection. The primary research question is as follows:
1. What is the effect of consuming multiple-micronutrient–fortified
biscuits (MMBs) compared with unfortified biscuits (UBs) 5 d
weekly for 26 wk on biomarkers of micronutrient status of adolescent girls and how is the intervention effect related to its timing
(before or after menarche)?
Secondary research questions include the following:
1. How do the intervention [randomized controlled trial (RCT)]
and its timing relate to changes in psychosocial health, cognitive
functioning, academic performance, and fertility of the adolescent girls?
2. How do the intervention and its timing relate to changes in the
adolescent girls’ vertical growth and body composition?
Overall, we hypothesized that a fortified-food intervention program using MMBs would improve micronutrient status in the short to
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN NUTRITION
medium term, with changes in the secondary outcomes in the medium
to long term (Figure 1).
The study also includes 3 additional research questions, including
the following:
1. What is the dietary intake and its determinants of adolescent girls
in different pubertal stages (before/after menarche)?
2. What affordable, evidence-based, population-specific food-based
dietary guidelines (FBDGs) can fulfill or best meet adolescent
girls’ nutrient requirements in Ghana?
3. How do the mother’s nutritional status and her participation in
household decision making influence the adolescent girl’s nutrition and health?
Methods
Study area
We conducted the study in the Mion District, in Northeastern Ghana.
The district is located in the eastern corridor of the Northern Region of Ghana between latitude 90–35◦ north, 00–30◦ west, and 00–
15◦ east. The district shares boundaries with the Tamale Metropolis,
Savelugu Municipal, and Nanton District to the west; Yendi Municipal to the east; Nanumba North and East Gonja districts to the south;
and Gushegu and Karaga districts to the north. The district capital is
Sang, the largest community in the district. The district covers a surface area of 2714.1 square km and has a population density of 30.1 persons per square kilometer (72). The area has a typical tropical climate
with 2 main seasons: a dry season (November–March), characterized
by high temperatures, and a single rainy season (April–October). According to the 2010 Ghana Population and Housing Census (72), Mion
District had a population of 81,812, with the majority (91.1%) living
in rural locations. In 2010, the average household size in the district
was 9.3 persons per household. According to the GSS, ∼20% of the district’s female population was aged 10–19 y (72). The district’s main ethnic groups are Dogombas and Konkombas, and ∼61.8% of the district
population professes Islam. Over 90% of the people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. In 2010, the district’s literacy rate was 28.7%
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Baseline (Time0)
3
4 Azupogo et al.
for both sexes, implying a very high illiteracy rate in the district (72).
The study protocol was approved by the Navrongo Health Research
Centre Institutional Review Board (NHRCIRB323). The RCT was also
registered prospectively with the Netherlands Clinical Trials Register
(NL7487).
We purposively selected Mion District as it is relatively new, carved
out of Yendi Municipal Assembly in 2012. Hence, data on nutrition and
health in the district are scanty. Moreover, the district is mainly rural
(∼91%), and our secondary analysis (30) suggests a very high prevalence (64.6%) of anemia among adolescent girls in the rural northern savannah agro-ecological zone. Last, the district capital is only ∼1 h drive
from Tamale, the regional capital and location of the University for Development Studies (UDS), which coordinated the fieldwork. Figure 2 is
a map of the district with locations of the selected communities where
the study was conducted.
Study design
The study started with an extensive cross-sectional survey (n = 1057),
2 mo before a follow-up double-blind, placebo RCT. Herein, we refer to the cross-sectional survey as the “survey,” and we describe the
methods for the survey and RCT in this article. For ethical reasons, a
nontargeted approach that did not distinguish anemic and nonanemic
girls was used to include a random subsample (n = 620) of girls from
the RCT survey. The nontargeted approach was also justified by the
high prevalence of anemia (64.6%) among female adolescents in the rural northern savannah agro-ecological zone of Ghana (30). The nontargeted approach was previously used in similar efficacy trials and
proved to be effective (43, 73, 74). The girls were randomly assigned
to 2 parallel treatment arms receiving nutrition/health education (5 different occasions) with a 5-d weekly MMBs or UBs for 26 wk. Similar
studies (40–45) reported significant effects of MMFs on children’s and
adolescents’ micronutrient status when consumed between 5 and 7 d
for 3–12 mo with an average duration of 6 mo; this informed our decision to administer the treatment 5 d/wk for 6 mo. Figure 3 shows
a schematic overview of the RCT. To estimate mean nutrient intake
and the proportion of the population at risk of nutrient inadequacy,
a random subsample (n = 310) of subjects from the RCT (including both pre-and postmenarche girls) was selected for a quantitative
24-h dietary recall (24hR). Out of the first 24hRs, a random sample
of 100 girls was selected for a second 24hR, allowing us to adjust for
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FIGURE 2 Map of Mion District, Ghana, with the communities included in the Ten2Twenty-Ghana study. MMDAs, Metropolitan and
Municipal Assemblies.
Protocol for the Ten2Twenty-Ghana research
5
the random day-to-day variation in dietary intake. For triangulation
purposes, we also conducted 1 focus group discussion in each of the
RCT arms at the endline. Likewise, in the extensive cross-sectional survey, we conducted qualitative in-depth interviews (n = 30) and 2 focus
group discussions. Supplemental material indicates the SPIRIT checklist for the study.
Study population
The target population for the study included premenarche and postmenarche adolescent girls. The girls were seemingly healthy, nonpregnant, and nonlactating adolescents aged 10–17 y, residing in the Mion
District in the Northern Region of Ghana. To be enrolled into the survey, girls had to meet all of the inclusion criteria, and those who did not
meet the exclusion criteria of the RCT were eligible to participate in the
RCT (Table 1).
Sample size estimation
The survey sample (n = 1040) was estimated to detect a minimum
mean difference of 0.30 in math and verbal skills z scores between
stunted and nonstunted adolescent girls (60) using the RMASS program (http://www.rmass.org/) (75). The RCT sample size calculation
was based on 80% power, a 1-sided hypothesis at 5% significance level
for 3 variables: hemoglobin (Hb), serum ferritin (SF), and serum retinol.
The SD for Hb in this population was 12.9 g/L (for both anemic and
nonanemic girls) and 8.4 g/L (for only anemic girls) (30). Therefore,
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN NUTRITION
to detect a difference in mean Hb of 3.83 g/L between the MMB and
UB groups required 141 girls per group for a nontargeted approach and
122 girls per group for only anemic girls. Based on an SD of 20.1 µg/L
for SF from a previous study (76), 57 girls per group were required to detect a mean difference of 9.5 µg/L for SF between MMB and UB groups.
Last, the SD of serum retinol from a previous study was 0.29 µmol/L;
hence, 23 girls per group were required to detect a mean difference of
0.22 µg/L between MMB and UB groups. Expected mean differences
for Hb (3.83 g/L), SF (9.4 µg/L), and serum retinol (0.11 µmol/L) are
biologically plausible (43), which are within the range of our estimates.
We considered the larger estimate (n = 141) of the 3 variables (Hb, SF,
and retinol), and considering a maximum attrition rate of 10% during
follow-up a minimum sample of 155 girls/group was considered for the
RCT. With premenarche and postmenarche girls randomly assigned to
the parallel arms of the RCT, the study had, in total, 4 groups, implying
a total of 620 adolescent girls were required for the RCT (310 premenarche and 310 postmenarche).
Last, we estimated the sample size for the 24hR with the 1 random
sample formula considering a 95% CI, an estimated width of 10.13 mg,
and an SD of 28.9 mg for iron intake, as well as an estimated width
of 50.5 µg retinol equivalents (RE) and an SD of 113.2 µg RE for vitamin A intake (77). For both iron and vitamin A intake, the estimated sample was 130 girls and, considering an attrition rate of 20%,
this was rounded up to 150 girls for each menarche/age cohort. Using the rule of thumb recommended by Rothman (78), a subsample of
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FIGURE 3 Design of a 26-wk, double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial among adolescent girls in Ghana. DDS, Dietary
Diversity Score; MMB, multiple-micronutrient fortified biscuits; UB, unfortified biscuits; 24hR, quantitative 24-h dietary recall.
6 Azupogo et al.
TABLE 1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria for Ten2Twenty-Ghana study1
Inclusion criteria for the survey
Aged 10 to 17 y (verified by birth certificate, health record,
insurance card, school register, or another formal
document)
Apparently healthy without any visible sign(s) of poor
health
Nonpregnant
Nonlactating
No incompatible mental status
Willing to participate
Informed consent of parent or guardian obtained for survey
2
History of medical/surgical events that may significantly affect
RCT outcomes
Sign(s) of chronic infection or metabolic disorder
Clinical sign(s) of vitamin A deficiency and/or iodine deficiency
Severely underweight (BAZ < −3 SDs)
Taking medical drugs or nutrient supplements at the time of
enrolment
Participating in another food, supplement, and/or drug study
Not willing to consume biscuits from Monday to Friday for 26 wk
Any known food allergy to biscuits
Afraid or not willing to donate ∼12 mL of blood on 2 different
occasions
Refusal of parents or guardian
Second informed consent from parent or guardian obtained for
RCT2
BAZ, BMI-for-age z score; Hb, hemoglobin (those who were severely anemic were referred to a hospital); RCT, randomized controlled trial.
Ethical approval requirements demanded that we obtain 2 different informed consents for the cross-sectional survey and the RCT.
50 per cohort from the first recalls was included in a repeated recall
to allow for adjustment for random day-to-day variation in intake at
the population level. Focus groups typically have 6–12 members plus a
moderator (80), but Wyatt et al. (81) indicate that focus groups with 4–
6 children are most effective in yielding valuable information because
duplicate responses are less common and smaller groups are easier to
control. According to Wyatt et al., children may be reluctant to talk in
larger groups. Hence, we sampled 5 girls for the composition of each
focus group in the survey and the RCT endline. Finally, Rothman’s (78)
rule of thumb was used to decide on 50 RCT-nonenrolled girls as a control group for the RCT-enrolled girls for the body-composition analysis.
Screening and sampling for the RCT
In Mion District, where the study was carried out, there are 70 primary
and 11 junior high schools. The latter were excluded due to an already
ongoing iron and folate supplementation project called GIFTS (Girls’
Iron Folate Tablet Supplementation) among adolescent girls in junior
high schools (82). While the Ghana Education Service (GES) has zoned
Mion District into 6 clusters, for the Ten2Twenty-Ghana project 2 clusters were excluded based on their inaccessibility (remoteness). The remaining 4 clusters had 41 primary schools, and we ranked these schools
in descending order based on the size of their female child enrollment
using secondary data on enrollment obtained a priori from the GES in
Mion. We purposively selected all the urban primary schools (n = 4)
and the larger rural primary schools (n = 15) for screening until the
minimum sample required for the survey (n = 1040) was met. In each
school, we screened all the girls using a 16-item screening questionnaire including personal and household identification and demographics, menarche status, pregnancy and lactation status, health condition,
use of any medical drug, iron supplements, and participation in a study
with drugs, supplements, or food. Subsequently, girls who met the survey’s inclusion criteria were invited to participate after obtaining their
assent and their parents’/guardians’ informed consent.
During the enrollment of subjects into the RCT, we added participants who were not postmenarche at in the survey using age >13 y,
ensuring that we had enough sample size for randomization into the
postmenarche group of the RCT. The cutoff age (>13 y) was chosen
in conformity with the average age at menarche in Ghana from the literature (83–85). Thus, the postmenarche group in the present study includes postmenarche girls at screening or who were expected to become
postmenarche during the RCT.
Probability proportion to size was used to select a random subsample of girls from the survey who did not meet the exclusion criteria of
the RCT in 2 stages. First, we generated random numbers (between 0–
1) by school and menarche group in Microsoft Excel (MS Excel, version
2016; Microsoft Corporation). The random numbers were sorted in ascending order (lowest to highest); the first set of participants from the
menarche group of each school was enrolled until the sample size required for the school’s menarche group was met. Any girl who dropped
out during the enrollment was replaced with the next girl in the list from
the same school and menarche group in the ascending order until the
sample requirement was met. Subsequently, a second set of random (between 0–1) numbers was generated for the girls enrolled in the RCT
in MS Excel. All enrolled subjects with random numbers <0.5 were
assigned to a yellow color code, while subjects with random numbers
≥0.5 were assigned to a red color code.
The first step of the probability proportional to size approach described for the RCT was again used to randomly select 155 girls from
each of the RCT menarche groups for the first 24hR. For the repeated
24hR, another random selection process like the preceding was used to
select 100 girls from the sample for the first 24hR. At the RCT endline,
the probability proportion to size approach was once more used to select
50 RCT-nonenrolled girls for body-composition assessment.
In-depth interviews are known to be labor intensive, and most studies utilizing in-depth interviews are based on <50 cases (80), explaining
our decision to randomly sample 30 girls with at least 1 girl from each
participating school. Additionally, in the extensive survey, we randomly
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1
Exclusion criteria for RCT
Severely anemic [Hb <80 g/L (79)]
Protocol for the Ten2Twenty-Ghana research
Total sample screened from 19 schools
n = 1131
Qualitative indepth interviews
n = 30
7
n = 74 girls excluded due to:
n = 57; age < 10 yrs.
n = 7; older than 17 yrs.
n = 3; pregnant
n = 2; physically challenged
n = 5; not willing to eat biscuits daily
Included in extensive cross-sectional
baseline survey
n = 1057
Eligible for randomization into RCT
n = 1043
Randomly selected for RCT proportional
to school
n = 621
Not enrolled in RCT
n = 422
Pre-menarche/age 10-13 yrs.
Post-menarche/age >13 yrs.
n = 312
n = 309
Selected for first 24hR
Selected for first 24hR
n =155
n = 155
Selected for second 24hR
Selected for second 24hR
n = 50
n = 50
Selected for body composition
assessment at RCT end-line
n = 50
FIGURE 4 Flowchart for study population selection for the RCT and 24hR. BAZ, BMI-for-age z score; Hb, hemoglobin; RCT, randomized
controlled trial; 24hR, quantitative 24-h dietary recall.
selected 2 clusters, and from each cluster 1 school was randomly selected for a focus group discussion. We next selected 5 girls randomly
from each of the selected schools to compose the focus group. Last,
we randomly selected 4 out of the 19 participating schools for 4 focus group discussions at the RCT endline. The 4 selected schools were
next randomized for 1 focus group in each arm of the RCT (2 yellow groups and 2 red groups); the first 5 girls in each of the biscuit
groups constituted the school’s focus group. All of the randomizations
were done using random-number generations in MS Excel. Figure 4
describes participant flow, as per CONSORT (Consolidated Standards
of Reporting Trials) guidelines including reasons for nonenrollment in
the RCT.
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN NUTRITION
Run-in to the RCT
At the RCT baseline, all participants were dewormed against intestinal
parasites with a single dose of mebendazole 400 mg chewable tablets.
Malaria rapid diagnostic cassettes (First Response; Premier Medical)
were used to screen for current or recent malaria. Participating girls who
were found to have malaria during the run-in or the intervention period
were treated promptly with artemether-lumefantrine (80 mg/480 mg)
according to the guidelines of the Ghana Health Service (GHS) (86) and
were referred to the local health facilities when necessary. We repeated
the malaria screening and treatment at the midpoint and endline of the
RCT. To assess the sensitivity and specificity of the malaria rapid test
kits, we undertook malaria microscopy for ∼11% (68 out of 621) of the
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n = 14 excluded due to:
n = 4; severely anemia (Hb <8.0g/dL)
n = 3, severely underweight (BAZ < -3SD)
n = 7; missing values of Hb
8 Azupogo et al.
girls at the midpoint malaria screening. During the run-in period (5 d),
all enrolled subjects received UBs procured from the open market. The
run-in biscuits’ nutrient content was similar to the UBs (Table 2) in the
RCT and was similar in size (50 g) to the MMBs and UBs for the RCT.
The run-in was necessary for a priori data on the girls’ compliance, the
feeding set-up practice in each school, and the completion of a daily
case-report form by the teachers and supervisors.
Use of Co-intervention
As biscuits are generally dry to consume, 500 mL filtered and packaged sachet water produced by the Nyankpala Campus of the UDS was
provided daily alongside the girls’ biscuits to help wash down the biscuits. Additionally, nutrition and health education was provided to all
students in the selected schools. The educational component included
modules on anemia, dietary diversification, personal and environmental hygiene and sanitation, malaria in Ghana, and sexual and reproductive health education. The nutrition/health education was provided as a
complement to improve the girls’ awareness and knowledge about their
health, nutrition, and reproductive health. Subjects received the nutrition and health education modules (Table 3) on 5 different occasions for
the entire duration of the study through lectures, group discussions, and
demonstrations; each session lasted ∼1 h. Color picture aids were used
to aid the sensitization. The sensitization was conducted by community
health nurses who stay and work in each of the communities. The nurses
were recruited and given a 1-d training with the district health advocacy
team directly supervising them.
Data-collection methods
We used a mixed-methods data-collection technique applying both
quantitative and qualitative data-collection methods for triangulation in
the study. A pretested questionnaire was used to collect data on various
social, economic, and health-related topics to provide comprehensive
information on the girls’ social and economic trajectories. The questionnaire was pretested in a pilot survey, in November 2017, in the
neighboring Yendi municipality. The data-collection methods included
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Biscuit formulation
van Stuijvenberg et al. (87) argued that biscuits are convenient food vehicles since they do not require any preparation by consumers, are relatively easy to distribute, and have a long shelf life. According to van
Stuijvenberg et al. (87), biscuits are snacks rather than a meal and are
unlikely to replace meals at home. Subjects in the treatment arm of the
RCT received MMBs enriched with 11 vitamins (vitamins B-1, B-2, B-6,
B-12, A, D, K-1, and E and niacin, folate, and ascorbic acid) and 7 minerals (zinc, calcium, iron, copper, iodine, selenium, and magnesium) as
shown in Table 2. On the other hand, participants in the control arm
received UBs that were similar in appearance to the MMBs. The UBs
were simply wheat flour without any additional micronutrients. However, the wheat flour was fortified as by law in Ghana (Table 2). The
average weight of a pack of each of the biscuits was 51.3 ± 3.2 g. A pack
of each biscuit contained between 8 and 10 pieces of biscuits, with the
average weight of a piece being 5.6 ± 0.5 g.
The micronutrient mix (fortificant) used for the fortification was
procured from DSM Nutritional Products (South Africa), and the biscuits were produced by Mass Industries (Tema, Ghana) through the coordination of the Obaasima project. The Obaasima project is a scheme
developed by the project “Affordable and Nutritious Foods for Women”
(ANF4W), which is a partnership between the German Development
Cooperation (GIZ) and the private sector in Ghana (http://obaasima
ghana.com/campaign.php). Both biscuits (MMBs and UBs) provided
477.3 kcal per 100 g (244.85 kcal for the 51.3-g pack of biscuits)
(Daniel Amanquah, Sight and Life; personal communication 2018) and
hence varied only in micronutrient content (Table 2). We estimated the
energy requirement of the girls using their mean bodyweight (35.8 ± 7.3
kg) and the FAO/WHO/UNU algorithms with the software Optifoood.
Energy intake from the biscuits was then estimated to be ∼10% of the
girls’ required energy intake per day. We sent 3 packs of each of the biscuits to Wageningen University and Research (WUR; The Netherlands)
for independent and confirmatory analysis of iron, calcium, and magnesium nutrient content. The packaged biscuits’ shelf life was indicated
to be 12 mo (Daniel Amanquah, Sight and Life; personal communication), and no organoleptic changes were expected during this period.
When received, the MMBs’ and the UBs’ original packages were
distinguishable, so we re-packaged them to ensure blinding of the first
author, the field team, and subjects. Both the MMBs and UBs were repackaged in clear zip-locked bags with yellow and red stickers to distinguish between them 2 wk before the RCT baseline plasma sample
collection. The re-packaging was done cautiously, opening the biscuit
pack, and instantly pouring the entire contents into a zip-locked bag.
Figure 5 illustrates the original packaged and re-packaged biscuits. The
re-packaging was done in an enclosed room in batches for 2–4 wk feeding and was coordinated by the project field supervisor from the UDS;
he kept the seal to the color codes and was no longer blinded.
Administration of the biscuits
We recruited and trained 1 teacher from each school to administer
the biscuits to the girls. Four trained field research assistants with a
nutrition background were each assigned to a cluster of schools; they
supervised the teachers and participated in at least 2 feeding sessions
weekly in each school. Separate classrooms were used for the different
biscuit colors during feeding sessions. The girls consumed the biscuits
ad libitum as a snack during one of the school-break periods, Monday
through Friday, in the teacher’s and/or field assistant’s presence. During
the school holiday period, the girls, together with their teacher, agreed
on a convenient time to come to school for the feeding. For girls who
failed to turn up during a feeding session, the teacher and/or field assistant visited them to administer the biscuits. Girls could eat during the
weekend (Saturday and Sunday) to make up for any lost day of feeding
during the week. A maximum of 2 d lost in feeding during a week was allowed, and they could not carry forward a previous week’s feeding to the
next week.
Each girl was given a laminated sheet of her assigned color code (yellow or red) in bold letters to hand out to collect the biscuits each day. The
teacher who supervised the daily feeding also had a daily case-report
form containing the girls’ list in each school’s color code. The casereport form captured attendance, and leftovers (if any) were counted
and recorded in the daily case-report form as pieces leftover. The daily
case-report forms also captured any adverse events (AEs) and severe
AEs (SAEs) during the feeding. The RCT management and supervision
team included the field supervisor, the first author, and 4 trained research assistants recruited from the UDS. Each research assistant was
assigned to supervise a cluster of schools (Figure 6).
Protocol for the Ten2Twenty-Ghana research
9
TABLE 2 Nutrient content of biscuits for the Ten2Twenty-Ghana RCT1
Nutrient
Product name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Thiamin
Riboflavin
Niacin
Vitamin B-6
Folic acid
Vitamin B-12
Ascorbic acid
Calcium
Copper
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Selenium
Zinc
Dry vitamin A palmitate
Dry vitamin D-3
Dry vitamin E
Dry vitamin K-1
Thiamin mononitrate
Riboflavin
Niacinamide
Pyridoxine hydrochloride
Folic acid
Vitamin B-12
Ascorbic acid
Calcium carbonate
Copper gluconate
Potassium iodide
Ferrous fumarate
Magnesium oxide
Sodium selenite
Zinc oxide
613.72
134.00
6.00
0.05
1.20
1.20
14.00
1.60
0.311
0.002
70.00
150
0.20
0.04
4.05
52.50
0.012
2.38
Nutrient content of
unfortified biscuits
per serving (51.3 g),2
mg
0.10
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.43
0.23
3.03
0.00
0.11
0.001
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.03
0.00
0.00
1.45
1
RCT, randomized controlled trial.
Obtained from the laboratory division of Mass Industries, Tema-Ghana; the nutrient content reflects the fortification level of
wheat flour in Ghana by law.
2
Unfortified Biscuits
Fortified Biscuits
FIGURE 5 Repackaged biscuits for the Ten2Twenty-Ghana RCT. RCT, randomized controlled trial.
one-on-one interviews, anthropometry, Hb status assessment, the collection of venous blood for plasma, a quantitative 24hR, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions. Table 4 shows a summary of the
data collected in the extensive survey and RCT. We first describe the data
collected in only the RCT and then data collected in both the extensive
survey and/or RCT at endline.
Data collected in only the RCT
Except for venous blood and the quantitative 24hR, data from the larger
survey informed the baseline data of subjects enrolled in the RCT, including Hb, the secondary outcomes, and covariates. The RCT data are
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN NUTRITION
grouped into primary outcome data, secondary outcome, data and covariates (Table 5).
Plasma samples.
Hb assessment for the survey was by finger prick using a HemoCue
301 (0.1g/dL precision) 2 mo preceding the RCT. At baseline and endpoint of the RCT, a phlebotomist from the Tamale Teaching Hospital
(TTH) collected ∼10 mL venous blood (nonfasting state) from each
subject for biomarkers of micronutrient status into 2 (4 mL each) NaHeparin Vacutainers (Becton-Dickinson Diagnostics). The biomarkers being assessed include plasma SF, soluble transferrin receptor
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No.
Nutrient content of
fortified biscuits per
serving (51.3 g), mg
10
Azupogo et al.
Field Supervisor of the PhD
candidate
Team Leader (PhD candidate)
5 schools with 5 teachers
in charge of supervising
the feeding daily
Kpabia Cluster
Research Assistant 2
Sang Cluster
Research Assistant 3
Jimle Cluster
Research Assistant 4
6 schools with 6 teachers
in charge of supervising
the feeding daily
4 schools with 4 teachers
in charge of supervising
the feeding daily
4 schools with 4 teachers
in charge of supervising
the feeding daily
FIGURE 6 Field supervision plan in the Ten2Twenty-Ghana RCT project. RCT, randomized controlled trial.
concentration (TfR), retinol-binding protein (RBP), C-reactive protein
(CRP), and ɑ-glycoprotein (AGP), zinc, folate, and vitamin B-12. At the
RCT endline, we assessed Hb status in the field using a small portion
(∼2 mL) of the venous blood with the HemoCue 301. The blood samples were kept in a cool opaque box containing freezer packs (∼0◦ C)
in the field and during transport from the field. The venous blood
was centrifuged in Rotofix 32A centrifuge at 4000 rpm for 5 min at
the end of each field day at room temperature. The centrifuging was
done at the emergency services laboratory of the TTH. We pipetted and
stored 2.5 mL plasma in duplicate 1.25-mL cryptogenic vials at −20◦ C
(Thermo Fisher Scientific) at the Public Health Laboratory of the TTH,
Ghana.
Plasma samples were subsequently transported 2 mo after the RCT
on dry ice to WUR for storage in liquid nitrogen gas (−88◦ C). Onehundred microliters (100 µL) of the plasma samples were then pipetted
into Micronic tubes and shipped on dry ice to the VitMin Lab (Willstätt,
Germany) for the analysis of SF, TfR, RBP, CRP, and AGP using a combined sandwich ELISA technique (88). All measurements were done
in duplicate, and where the CV (interassay) was >10%, measurements
were repeated and obvious outliers removed. The CVs for the various indicators were as follows: SF, 2.3%; TfR, 3.6%; RBP, 3.6%; CRP, 5.8%; and
AGP, 8.1%. Certified quality-control samples from the CDC/Atlanta
and Bio-Rad Liquicheck controls (Bio-Rad) were used to calibrate the
TABLE 3 Modules for nutrition and health education in the Ten2Twenty-Ghana RCT1
Module 3: Sexual and
Reproductive Health
Education Part 1
Module 1: Water,
Hygiene, and
Sanitation (WASH)
Module 2: Anemia,
Malaria, and Dietary
Practices
Food and water
hygiene
Anemia: causes,
signs/symptoms,
and prevention
Menstruation and
menstrual hygiene
Household and
environmental
hygiene
Malaria: causes,
symptoms,
consequences, and
prevention
Healthy dietary
practices for
children and
adolescents
Sexual behavior
Personal hygiene and
good grooming
1
Model 4: Sexual and
Reproductive Health
Education Part II
Sexually transmitted
diseases (STDs):
types, causes, and
prevention
Recap of all modules
A re-cap of all topics
discussed; group
discussions and
questions-andanswers
session
Teenage pregnancy:
causes and
consequences
RCT, randomized controlled trial.
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Sambu Cluster
Research Assistant 1
Protocol for the Ten2Twenty-Ghana research
11
TABLE 4 Details of the data collected in the Ten2Twenty-Ghana research project1
Data
1
Data collection period
RCT baseline
(January–March
2019)
RCT endline
(September
2019)
1057
621
588
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AGP, ɑ-glycoprotein; CRP, C-reactive protein; FFQ, food-frequency questionnaire; FIES, Food Insecurity Experience Scale; Hb, hemoglobin; HH, household; HRQoL,
health-related quality of life; PDS, Pubertal Development Scale; RBP, retinol-binding protein; RCT, randomized controlled trial; TfR, plasma transferrin receptor; 24hR,
quantitative 24-h dietary recall.
2
The data were collected for the overall sample from the cross-sectional survey (n = 1057) at both time points.
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN NUTRITION
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n
Individual characteristics
Age(date of birth)
Birth order
Girl’s education
Religion
Ethnicity
Maternal data
Anthropometry of the biological mother
Final decision-making index
Fertility and labor history calendar
Household characteristics
Parental education and occupation
HH rooster (sex, age structure, religion, education, occupation, and
literacy)
HH wealth index (International Wealth Index)
Psychosocial outcomes
Self-reported HRQoL
Subjective health complaints
Life satisfaction
Self-esteem
Self-efficacy
Body image
Children’s Depression Inventory
Cognitive skills and academic performance
NIH toolbox for cognition
Secondary data on academic performance and school attendance2
Reproductive health and sexuality
Age at menarche (recall)
8-item PDS
Relationship (boyfriend)
Age at first sex (if applicable)
Marital status
Age at marriage if married or ever married
Number of biological children if any
Age at first birth (if any)
Dietary intake and nutritional status
Dietary Diversity Score (single qualitative 24hR)
Household food security (FIES)
One-month FFQ
Frequency of the consumption of energy drinks
Quantitative 24hR repeated with a subsample on nonconsecutive
days (USDA standard multiple-pass procedure)
Anthropometry
Body composition (bioelectrical impedance)
Biomarkers of nutritional status
Hb (HemoCue)
Plasma micronutrient status (ferritin, TfR, RBP, zinc, folate)
Inflammation biomarkers (CRP and AGP)
Qualitative data collection
Focus group
In-depth interviews
Survey (November/December
2018)
12
Azupogo et al.
TABLE 5 Outcomes and covariates assessed in the Ten2Twenty-Ghana RCT1
Primary outcomes
Changes and difference in
micronutrient status between
biscuit groups in:
Hb status
Secondary outcomes
Changes and differences between biscuit groups in
anthropometric indicators (e.g., attained height,
height-for-age z score, BMI-for-age z score), and body
composition (fat mass, fat-free mass, muscle mass,
skeletal muscle mass, body cell mass, total body
water, extracellular water, and intracellular water)
Changes and differences between biscuit groups in
cognitive skills and academic performance,
perceptions, and aspirations (qualitative)
Dietary diversity score, dietary
patterns, household food
security
Demographics (age, education,
religion, ethnicity, household
composition) and
socioeconomic covariates
(household wealth index,
parental occupation and
education)
Changes and differences between biscuit groups in
psychosocial health and competencies such as
health-related quality of life, self-efficacy, self-esteem,
life satisfaction and subjective health complains
1
Hb, hemoglobin; RBP, retinol-binding protein; RCT, randomized controlled trial; SF, serum ferritin.
results. Plasma samples from the 2 time points (RCT baseline and endline) were analyzed at the same time. Plasma zinc was analyzed with
atomic absorption spectrometer, while folate and vitamin B-12 were analyzed with HPLC later.
Quantitative 24hR.
We assessed the current intake of a subsample of the girls enrolled in
the RCT with a quantitative 24hR using the USDA standard multiplepass procedure (89). To enable adjustment for random day-to-day
variation in dietary intake, we repeated the quantitative 24hR in a
subsample (n = 100) of the girls with a first quantitative 24hR on nonconsecutive days to avoid dependency of intake. Trained interviewers
conducted the dietary interviews at home, 1 mo preceding the RCT. We
randomly assigned subjects to all days of the week and interviewers to
account for differences in intake between days and interviewers. No interviewer could interview the same subject twice.
In the standard multiple-pass procedure, the girl was first asked to
mention all foods and drinks, including snacks that she consumed in
and outside the home (including school) the previous day. She was then
asked to describe the ingredients and cooking methods of any mixed
dishes. The primary caregiver and/or the person who prepared home
meals the preceding day was asked to help the girl list and estimate
ingredients for mixed dishes prepared at home. We recorded the actual weight of a duplicate portion of each food, beverage, and ingredients of mixed dishes using a digital kitchen scale (Soehnle Plateau,
model 65086) precisely to 2 g with a maximum capacity of 10 kg. In the
absence of duplicate portions in the household, amounts were estimated
as their monetary value equivalents, weight-to-weight with other foods
(e.g., amount of sugar estimated with refined corn flour), in volumes,
food models (small, medium, or large), or as household units in priority order. The research team agreed a priori on models for food such as
onion, tomatoes, and garden eggs, which were carried alongside. We estimated the total volume of each mixed dish cooked at the respondent’s
household and the volume of this dish consumed explicitly by the girl
to determine the proportion of the dish she consumed. The amount of
ingredients consumed from mixed dishes by the girl was estimated by
multiplying the proportion consumed with the total amount of ingredients used to prepare the dish. We also recorded each food ingredient’s
frequency of intake (for mixed dishes) or food item for the last 7 d preceding the interview day. For shared-bowl eating, the girl’s usual intake
for such dishes and the number of persons who ate from the shared bowl
were recorded in the logbook. The 24hR ended by probing the girl for
likely forgotten foods—notably, fruits, sweets, and snacks consumed on
the recall day.
Standard recipes and school feeding recipes were generated to estimate grams of ingredients consumed from mixed dishes eaten outside the home or from the school feeding program. Estimates of these
recipes were obtained by averaging 3 recipes of different vendors and
different school feeding matrons/cooks. The vendors and school feeding
matrons/cooks were each selected from different localities and schools.
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Plasma SF
Plasma soluble TfR
concentration
RBP
Plasma zinc
Plasma folate
Vitamin B-12
Quantitative dietary intake for a
subset (n = 310)
Covariates
Inflammation biomarkers
(C-reactive protein and
ɑ-glycoprotein)
Protocol for the Ten2Twenty-Ghana research
Moreover, we developed conversion factors to convert monetary values,
weight–weight measures, volumes, food models, and household units to
their weight (grams) equivalents following Gibson and Ferguson (89).
Last, we conducted a market survey in 4 different markets in each of the
study clusters. We determined the mean price per 100 g of edible food
for each listed food in the 24hRs using the average price and weight of
foods obtained from each of the surveyed markets.
Food security and other dietary data.
In the survey and at RCT endline, we assessed the girls’ dietary patterns with a qualitative 1-mo food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ). A
10-food-group indicator (92) was adopted for the FFQ. Likewise, we assessed the frequency of the consumption of energy drinks using a list of
energy drinks a priori collected through a market survey (Abdul-Razak
Abizari, University for Development Studies; unpublished data 2018) at
the RCT endline. A single qualitative 24hR was also used to assess the
Dietary Diversity Score (DDS) of the girls using the 10-food-group indicator (92) in the survey and at RCT endline. Furthermore, the girls’
households’ food-security status was assessed with the Food Insecurity
Experience Scale (93).
Fertility and marriage.
In the survey and at RCT endline, age at menarche was assessed by recall and pubertal development stage by a 5-item Pubertal Development
Scale questionnaire (94, 95). A semi-structured questionnaire assessed
relationships (sexual) of the girls.
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN NUTRITION
Psychosocial outcomes.
Psychosocial health outcomes were assessed in the survey and at RCT
endline with validated scales including self-reported health-related
quality of life (HRQoL) using KIDSCREEN-27 (96, 97), subjective
health complaints (98), self-esteem (99), self-efficacy (100), and life satisfaction (98, 101). Furthermore, the assessment included body image
of subjects using the Stunkard figure rating scale (102) in the survey.
Finally, we included and assessed depression using the Children’s Depression Inventory (103) at the RCT endline.
Cognitive skills and academic performance.
The data included secondary data collected from the schools on the
school attendance of the girls and of their grades in English Language,
Mathematics, and General Sciences in the academic year prior to the
study (September 2017 to July 2018) and at the end of the RCT (September 2018 to July 2019). The academic data were collected for the overall
sample (n = 1057) from the survey at both time points.
At both time points (survey and RCT endline), we assessed the
cognitive function of the girls with the NIH toolbox cognition battery
(NIH-TCB) (104, 105). The NIH-TCB is a recognized and standardized
test tool for measuring cognitive function. The test is computerized on
iPads (Apple), and the scores are automated at the end of each test. The
tests appeared as games the girls had to play, but since our subjects were
generally from a rural setting, we recognized that they might be limited
in playing computer games. Hence, they could point to the right answer
on the screen, with the interviewer clicking for them instead. We assessed 5 domains of cognitive function, which were found based on the
literature to be relevant to adolescents’ neurological development (106,
107). The 5 domains included episodic memory with the Picture Sequence Memory Test, working memory with the List Sorting Working
Memory Test, attention with the Flanker Inhibitory Control Attention
Test, processing speed with Pattern Comparison Processing Speed Test,
and executive/shifting function with the dimensional Change Card Sort
Test. A set of unscored trial tests preceded the actual tests; the unscored
test allowed the girls to practice before the actual test.
Labor, time use, and aspirations.
In the survey, we adopted the “Young Lives” questionnaire (68, 108) to
assess the time use, labor participation, and earnings of the girls. A life
history calendar (109) mapped the labor participation of the girls. Last,
the questionnaire included the girls’ expectations and aspirations for
marriage, family formation, education, and work.
Maternal and household-related covariates.
In the survey, the anthropometric assessment included the height and
weight (nearest 0.1 decimal) of the girls’ mothers for whom BMI and
maternal height would be used. The data also included the mothers’ participation in household decision making using the Demographic and
Health Survey 8-item final decision-making index (110). Life history
calendars (109) also captured data on the mothers’ fertility and labor
participation.
Moreover, we enumerated household members with a household
rooster including their sex, relationship to the index girl, age group,
education, occupation, and literacy, ensuring that we can compute various household-related indices. Finally, the International Wealth Index
(111) captured data on the household’s socioeconomic status.
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Data collected in the extensive survey and/or at RCT
endline
Anthropometry and body composition.
Height and weight were measured in duplicates to the nearest 0.1 decimal with the Seca stadiometer and digital weighing scale, respectively, in
the survey and at the RCT endline. Standard anthropometry guidelines
were followed (90) in the assessment. Height and weight were transformed into height increment, attained height, z scores (height-for-age,
BMI-for-age), and BMI. The z scores will be computed with the WHO
AnthroPlus software with the WHO growth reference for adolescent
girls aged 10–19 y.
In the survey and at RCT endline, we also assessed body composition
with bioelectric impedance using the Bodygram Plus Analyser (Akern,
Germany) (91). In the body-composition assessment, subjects laid in
a backward position with their arms by their side on a field camp bed
for 3–5 min to ensure uniform distribution of body fluids before the assessment. The girls’ feet and wrist were wiped with nonalcoholic wipes
before placement of the bioelectric electrodes for the appraisal. The electrical resistance (Rz) of the tissues and capacitive resistance of the cell
membranes (XC) in whole numbers were recorded on a form and later
input into Bodygram Plus Analyser’s software(Akern, Germany) for the
computation of body composition. Body-composition estimates were
to the nearest 0.1 decimal. They included fat mass (kilograms), fat-free
mass (kilograms), muscle mass (kilograms), skeletal muscle mass (kilograms), body cell mass (kilograms), total body water (liters), extracellular water (liters), and intracellular water (liters). The program also computes indices and percentage to the total body weight for these estimates.
13
14
Azupogo et al.
In-depth interviews.
According to Mack et al. (112), in-depth interviews are optimal for collecting data on individuals’ personal histories, perspectives, and experiences, mainly when sensitive topics are being explored. Boyce and
Neale (113) also posited that the approach provides detailed information about a person’s thoughts and behaviors and in exploring new issues in-depth. We used in-depth interviews to explore rich insights into
the girls’ lives and understand their motivations, expectations, aspirations for the future, their life satisfaction, relationships, risk behaviors,
and the challenges confronting them in their everyday lives. We also solicited information on their usual dietary patterns and the reasons for
adherence to these dietary patterns.
Internal validity of the data
Several measures were taken to ensure the internal validity of the data.
We recruited and trained field research assistants as well as supervisors
with relevant field experience who could speak at least 1 of the key local
dialects (Dagbani or Likpakpa) fluently. The training included 5 d for
the survey, 3 d for the 24hR, 1 d for the focus group discussion, and a
3-d refresher for the endline. Due to the sensitive nature of questions
regarding menarche, relationships, and sexuality, all interviewers administering the one-to-one questionnaire were women recruited from
the UDS. In the field, supervisors checked and validated all questionnaires for consistency and completeness. A Microsoft Access template
was designed and used for the data entry. The data template was coded
numerically, such that implausible values in coded categorical data were
impossible. All data entry clerks received a 5-d training by an Information, Communication Technology expert who oversaw the data entry.
The entries were merged into a single MS-Access file and the data exported into different SPSS templates based on data themes. Data cleaning was performed in the SPSS templates in the field. The entries of 449
out of 1057 (42.5%) and 202 out of 589 (34.3%) questionnaires were
verified entirely in all of the data files in the survey and at RCT endline
respectively.
Statistical analysis plan
Data analysis will be conducted with SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute, Inc.) and
IBM SPSS (version 25), where necessary. Frequencies and percentages
are used to describe baseline summary statistics for categorical data
while means ± SDs will be used for continuous, normally distributed
data. Skewed continuous data will be presented as medians and IQRs.
Data normality will be visually explored with histograms with normality curves, boxplots, and Q-Q plots. Baseline differences in proportions
between biscuit groups will be determined with chi-square or Fisher’s
exact test, as appropriate. One-factor ANOVA or its nonparametric
version (Mann-Whitney U test) will be used to determine differences
in means between biscuit groups for descriptive population statistics.
Summary statistics will be presented for sociodemographic, anthropometric, and micronutrient indicators at baseline by biscuit group in the
RCT to describe the study population.
The RCT data analysis follows the intention-to-treat approach with a
sensitivity analysis following per protocol (compliance ≥80%). Compliance is defined by the amount (grams) of biscuits consumed expressed
as a percentage of the expected total amount that should have been consumed for the entire RCT. The effects of the fortified biscuits on micronutrient status will be analyzed using linear mixed models (LMMs)
with maximum-likelihood estimations. LMMs are more robust in handling unbalanced and missing data; the models are also better able to
handle the assumption of independence and homogeneity of slopes in
the data (114). As our study population was selected from 4 clusters,
19 different schools, and different classes, LMM analysis is preferred
over ANCOVA to adjust random hierarchical variables related to the
cluster, school, and class of the girls. Similarly, we will use LMM analysis to examine the intervention’s effect on cognition, body composition, and the psychosocial health outcomes (HRQoL, self-efficacy, selfesteem, and life satisfaction) of the subjects. A “Step-up strategy” (115)
will be used in building the LMMs. The analysis of body composition
includes the effect of the fortified compared with the unfortified biscuits,
as well as the effect of being enrolled and not enrolled in the RCT. However, for dichotomous/categorical outcome variables, Cox proportional
hazard models will be used to examine the incidence rate and prevalence
risk ratio. Cox and Poisson models with robust variance are reportedly
better alternatives than logistic regression (116, 117). We hypothesize
that the fortified biscuits would significantly affect micronutrient status
and the secondary outcomes; hence, a 1-sided hypothesis at 5% significance and 95% CI will be used in the analysis. We will adjust for a set of
identified sociodemographic and socioeconomic confounding variables
in all associations in the statistical analysis. A confounder will be defined
as any variable that differs significantly between the biscuit groups at
baseline or any variable contributing at least a 10% change in the crude
effect estimates after adjustment (78, 118). All missing data will be imputed if >5% of data are missing using multiple imputation methods in
SAS, assuming that the data are missing at random (119). Although no
interim analysis was planned, the decision to conduct interim analysis
was dependent on reports from the field on AEs and SAEs. The data
safety monitoring committee had access to reports of the AEs and SAEs
and could request for an interim report.
Plan for analysis of quantitative 24hR data
Compl-eat software (www.compleat.nl) of WUR will be used to estimate
individual nutrient intake. Nutrient intake will be adjusted for random
day-to-day variation in intake using the Statistical Program to Assess
Dietary Exposure (SPADE) (120). To determine the population at risk of
nutrient inadequacy, we will use the harmonized average requirements
proposed by Allen et al. (121). Optifood linear programming (122, 123)
will be used to develop and evaluate affordable alternative FBDGs that
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Focus group discussions.
In the survey and at RCT endline, focus group discussions were conducted by 2 trained research assistants who had previous experience
with focus groups. They were trained to probe, listen, and record in writing as well as using a digital recorder the expressions of the girls. One
of them moderated the discussions while the other recorded the discussions both digitally and in a notebook. Topics for discussion included
the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of the girls regarding relationships, reproductive health, risk behaviors, and dietary habits. The
discussions also delved into the aspirations, expectations, and life satisfaction of the girls. In the survey, the focus groups also explored the
KAP of the girls with regard to their body image. A visual storytelling
technique was incorporated into the focus group discussions. The girls’
data generated in the focus group discussions included digital records,
notes, and worksheets used for sketches.
Protocol for the Ten2Twenty-Ghana research
can fulfill or best meet adolescent girls’ nutrient requirements. Pubertal timing may influence dietary habits/patterns of adolescent girls. For
instance, mid-adolescent, compared with early adolescent, girls consumed fewer protein- and vitamin-rich foods in India (124). In addition, the nutrient requirements, notably iron for postmenarche girls,
are higher than in premenarche girls. Hence, in the formulation of the
FBDGs, stratified analysis by menarche status will be conducted. Last,
principal components analysis will be used to identify dietary patterns
of the girls.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The protocol was approved in January 2019 by the Navrongo Health
Research Centre Institutional Review Board (NHRCIRB323). The RCT
was prospectively registered with the Netherlands Trials Register (https:
//www.trialregister.nl/trial/7487) with registration number NL7487 in
February 2019. A data safety monitoring committee comprised of 3 independent persons with relevant experience in nutrition trials reviewed
the trial’s safety monthly during implementation. Before the study, a
stakeholder meeting was held with the Mion District Assembly, the GES
and GHS, and all heads of the selected schools in the district capital
Sang. Written permission was next obtained from the GES in the district. We also undertook a community entry sensitization with all of
the opinion leaders, the School Management Committee, the ParentTeacher Association, and teachers of all the selected schools. Last, in
the survey and RCT, we invited parents of the eligible girls for sensitization and education about the study at the school; their signed/thumbprinted informed consent for their female child’s participation was then
sought. Data collected remain confidential, and study results will be reported in aggregated form so that participants remain anonymous. Only
members of the RCT team had access to participants’ records. RCT assistants also signed a written statement to maintain the confidentiality of
any personal information from trial participants with whom they may
become acquainted.
Discussion
We designed an innovative mixed-methods study entitled
“Ten2Twenty-Ghana,” starting with an extensive survey leading to a
26-wk RCT. The study’s overall aim is to evaluate the efficacy of
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN NUTRITION
consuming MMBs compared with UBs for 5 d/wk for 26 wk on
micronutrient status, vertical growth, body composition, cognition,
psychosocial health, and fertility of adolescent girls. We also aim to
examine how the intervention effect relates to the intervention’s timing
(before or after menarche) and formulate and evaluate affordable,
evidence-based, alternative FBDGs best to fulfill the adolescent girls’
nutrient requirements.
Overall, it is expected that the girls’ micronutrient status in the fortified biscuit arm of the trial will be improved alongside improvements in
their vertical growth, cognitive development, and psychosocial health in
the long term. Das et al. (127), in a systematic review and meta-analysis,
showed that food fortification with vitamin A, iron, and multiple micronutrients for children significantly increased hematologic biomarkers and serum micronutrient concentrations. In our research design, Hb
and micronutrient status are primary outcomes for which we hypothesize significant improvement for girls receiving the MMBs compared
with those receiving the UBs.
Micronutrient deficiencies often coexist, and micronutrients interact with each other. Accordingly, multiple-micronutrient interventions
may be more effective in improving nutritional status (53, 128), informing our decision to use multiple-micronutrient fortification. However,
in the RCT design, we selected micronutrient biomarkers known to
be of public health significance to SSA adolescents based on the literature for assessment (27, 28, 127). Retinol remains the recommended
biomarker for assessing the vitamin A status of populations. However,
the analysis of RBP is relatively easier, and RBP when combined with
CRP has been shown to produce an unbiased estimate of vitamin A
deficiency (VAD) in a setting such as ours (129). Further, Larson et
al. (130) illustrated that the internal regression correction approach we
would use accounts for the severity of inflammation when estimating
VAD prevalence in regions with high inflammation and malaria.
Indeed, longer-term consumption of fortified foods may be more
beneficial. However, based on a review of comparable interventions (41,
43), we anticipate that 6 mo will suffice to at least observe a positive trend
between improved micronutrient status and the secondary outcomes
including cognition, vertical growth, fertility, and psychosocial health.
In a group of Bangladeshi adolescent girls, Hyder et al. (43) found significant increases in weight, mid-upper arm circumference, and BMI
over 6 mo for the fortified group compared with the unfortified group
(P = 0.01). A 6-mo trial by Wang et al. (41) in Chinese adolescents
illustrated that fortified-food consumption improves academic performance, motivation, and learning strategies.
Overall, the biscuits’ energy was expected to help sustain the girls in
school and may improve the weight and school attendance for all participants in the RCT compared with those not enrolled. To better understand this, we assessed the body composition of 50 girls not enrolled
in the RCT. We collected secondary data on all of the girls’ academic
performance and school attendance from the survey (n = 1057) at the
RCT endline. Our approach allows us to conduct a comparative analysis between those who benefited from the RCT as compared with those
who did not, for academic performance, school attendance, and body
composition. Although our study design does not evaluate the nutrition
education component, we expect improved awareness about nutrition
and health, including sexual and reproductive health.
There were no foreseen risks to participants following their consumption of the MMBs. Like the MMBs used for the trial, fortified
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Analysis of qualitative data
We will use the inductive thematic analysis approach (125) in analyzing
all qualitative data from the in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. The analyses will focus on the similarities and differences in
the themes within transcripts. This method provides a rich and detailed
account of data and the themes emerging from the data (126). Analyses
include transcriptions of digitally recorded discussions, field notes, and
worksheets from the girls in the focus groups. We will conduct openended coding on each text unit (e.g., sentence or paragraphs) and coding the “raw” participant data, such as quotes. The different categories
will be sorted into potential themes and all of the relevant coded data
extracts will be collected within the identified themes. Coding and categorizing will be done using ATLAS ti (version 8.0; Scientific Software
Development) data-management software, which will facilitate the retrieval of coded chunks of transcripts.
15
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Azupogo et al.
Strengths and limitations of the study
Most of the postmenarche girls were found in junior high schools,
which we excluded due to the GIFTS program (82), jointly implemented
by the GHS and UNICEF. To overcome this challenge, we included
6 more communities and schools in the study population, leading to the
19 schools (instead of 13 schools estimated a priori) involved in the
present study. We also included girls who were expected to become postmenarche during the RCT with reference to the average age at menarche
in Ghana (83–85).
There was a 2-mo lag period between the extensive survey and the
baseline plasma sample for the RCT. The lag period was unplanned and
related to a delay in our receipt of the biscuits, reflecting the logistic
challenges in conducting a study in rural Ghana. However, any possible
bias emerging is random and equally distributed in the MMB and UB
groups in our RCT, and therefore unlikely to affect our results. Further,
a 2-mo period may be a short time to cause any significant change in
the secondary outcomes and covariates of the RCT baseline, informed
by the extensive survey data.
Hb is higher in capillary blood than in finger-prick compared with
venous blood because venous blood is deoxygenated (134). In the
present study, this would have resulted in a systematic overestimation of
the baseline Hb, which was by finger prick, compared with the endline
Hb, which was by venous blood. However, since the bias was systematic across groups, it would have little influence on the MMB and UB
postintervention differences.
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study using the NIHTCB in a rural African setting. We reviewed the option of using several
cognitive assessment tools including the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of
Intelligence (WASI-II) (135, 136), the Cambridge Neuropsychological
Test Automated Battery (CANTAB test) (106, 137), and NIH-TCB (104,
105) in consultation with psychologists in our group. The decision was
made to use the NIH-TCB since it was easier to use and less likely to be
culturally sensitive. While acknowledging that cognitive tests originating from high socioeconomic contexts must be thoroughly adapted to
local culture and language to ensure reliability and validity (136), not all
tests may require adaptations for use across cultures. Processing speed
and attention are, for instance, unlikely to be affected by unfamiliar content or language (138). The NIH-TCB automated trial tests also helped
reduce any bias related to the speed of clicking by ensuring that the girls
familiarized themselves with the actual test to be taken. Also, any bias
related to the screen usage may have been reduced with the interviewers assisting girls who had problems with clicking on the screen during the trial test. Any clicking-related bias remaining in the cognition
assessment would be evaluated in our statistical analyses by assessing
interviewer as a possible confounder.
The randomized and follow-up design of our study allows us to examine associations and make causal inferences. Our use of different
data-collection methods, including quantitative and qualitative methods, ensures data triangulation. Information obtained from the focus
group discussions and in-depth interviews may help explain our psychosocial outcomes such as life satisfaction, aspirations, and quality of
life. According to Drew et al. (139), the visual storytelling technique incorporated in the focus groups facilitates rich interviews, drawing out
details of young peoples’ lives that otherwise might not have been discussed. In the focus groups, the girls were asked to develop sketches of
their thoughts about ideal body size and problematic body size, giving
us a pictorial understanding of their perceptions.
Our recruitment and training of research assistants improved the
quality of our data. Because the study did not include boys, most of
the communities feared we were about to implement a family-planning
program for their girls. Nevertheless, our prompt and regular engagement and sensitization of the community leaders, teachers, and the girls’
mothers built community trust in the research team. More so, we ensured that a teacher who stayed in the community was trained and directly supervised the feeding of the girls, building more trust. The cluster supervisor and the team leader regularly visited and participated in
feeding sessions to interact with the girls and address their fears and
concerns in ensuring the trial’s success. Our regular visits and participation in community programs made us a part of the communities in
the study, further strengthening the trust. Additionally, our engagement
of a medical practitioner who visited each community biweekly to examine and treat (when necessary) girls with any AEs also guaranteed
more trust, ensuring that most of the girls were compliant.
We anticipated poor adherence to the RCT during the vacation periods, especially the long vacation period spanning mid-July to the end
of August 2019. Most girls, particularly the older ones, often travel to
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foods have previously been used in efficacy trials without any SAEs. Although iron is often associated with some side effects, the 4.05 mg Fe
added to the biscuits is within the recommended dose for supplementation and fortification (131, 132). Even at a higher dose of 1300 mg
daily among iron-deficient American adolescent schoolgirls, the only
side effect that differed significantly between the iron-supplemented
and placebo groups was stool color (133), suggesting that the risk of any
side effects would be much lower among girls with poor micronutrient
status. Although vitamin A is toxic when ingested in large quantities,
none of the studies using MMFs have reported any side effect associated with vitamin A intake.
To our knowledge, limited research has focused systematically on
girls’ transition into adulthood or acknowledged the interplay of different and parallel life trajectories. Hence, the present study would contribute to knowledge on the interaction of varying life trajectories on
girls’ nutrition and health in a context such as Ghana. Furthermore, our
study design allows us to determine the efficacy and optimal timing of
an MMF program for adolescent girls. The study would enhance our
current understanding of the extent of micronutrient deficiencies such
as iron and IDA and vitamin A among adolescent girls. In the more
extensive survey, we attempt to explore the interrelations between the
girls’ nutrition and their labor participation, earnings, aspirations for
work, education, and family formation. Although we cannot examine
any causal associations, our data ensure that we can describe some associations between maternally related factors and the girls’ nutrition and
health.
This study also produces data on the nutrient gaps in adolescent
girls’ diets in a developing context. Finally, our research will conclude
by developing evidence-based FBDGs to best meet or fulfill adolescent
girls’ nutrient requirements in a rural Ghanaian setting. Such data are
urgently needed to help build common ground among program planners and implementors to include MMFs in intervention programs designed to improve adolescent girls’ health in developing contexts. Such
MMF programs may be vital to breaking the vicious cycle of intergenerational malnutrition in the long term.
Protocol for the Ten2Twenty-Ghana research
southern Ghana for menial jobs during the period. Even so, the trust
earned ensured that most of the parents encouraged their girls to stay
and complete the study. That notwithstanding, most girls who were lost
to follow-up traveled out of the area during this period.
Finally, implementing a 5-d run-in period allowed teachers and supervisors to practice the set-up, supervision, and completion of the daily
case-report forms. The run-in feedback allowed the researchers to modify the case-report form to allow for ease of completion.
Declarations
Consent for publication and public disclosure.
The analysis and interpretation of the data and the decision to publish
any articles from the data will be the authors’ sole responsibility. According to established guidelines about authorship (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors), results will be reported in peer-reviewed
international journals and reporting of RCTs. None of the funders had
a role in study design and data-collection process.
Availability of data and materials.
Data collected are owned by Wageningen University and will be shared
with the University for Development Studies (Ghana). Publications will
include authors from all involved institutions based on their contribution. Data will be posted as open access on Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) 2 y after the study has been completed. Upon
a reasonable request, data can be obtained from the leading author or
Inge D. Brouwer (Inge.brouwer@wur.nl ) from Wageningen UR.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Ghana Education Service and Ghana Health Service in
Mion District for their enormous support. We also thank all the heads,
teachers, and pupils of all participating schools and the community
leaders and parents/guardians who gave us their support. Without the
funding of our sponsors and donors, this research would have been
possible; we are grateful to the Edema Steernberg Foundation, Judith
Zwartz Foundation, Nutricia Foundation, and Sight and Life Switzerland for their financial support. The authors’ responsibilities were as
follows—IDB, SJMO, and FA: conceived and designed the study; A-RA
and EF: contributed to the survey tools; FA and A-RA: conducted the
study; FA: wrote the first draft of the manuscript; IDB, SJMO, A-RA, and
EJF: contributed to the writing of the manuscript; FA and IDB: primary
responsibility for the final content; and all authors: read and approved
the final manuscript.
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Trial status
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