Journal of Medicinal Plants for Economic Development
ISSN: (Online) 2616-4809, (Print) 2519-559X
Page 1 of 8
Original Research
Lantana trifolia: Phytochemical and elemental
composition, proximate contents and gas
chromatography–mass spectrometry profile
Authors:
Edwin S. Madivoli1
Kevin O. Ondoo1
Ernest G. Maina1
Fred Rugenyi2
Affiliations:
1
Department of Chemistry,
Jomo Kenyatta University of
Agriculture and Technology,
Nairobi, Kenya
SGS Kenya Limited,
Mombasa, Kenya
2
Corresponding author:
Edwin Madivoli,
edwinshigwenya@gmail.com
Dates:
Received: 21 May 2020
Accepted: 08 Aug. 2020
Published: 28 Oct. 2020
How to cite this article:
Madivoli, E.S., Ondoo, K.O.,
Maina, E.G. & Rugenyi, F.,
2020, ‘Lantana trifolia:
Phytochemical and elemental
composition, proximate
contents and gas
chromatography–mass
spectrometry profile’, Journal
of Medicinal Plants for
Economic Development 4(1),
a94. https://doi.org/10.4102/
jomped.v4i1.94
Copyright:
© 2020. The Authors.
Licensee: AOSIS. This work
is licensed under the
Creative Commons
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Background: With increasing concern over food insecurity, there is the need to incorporate
wild edible plants in our meals as they can provide adequate level of nutrition when
consumed as food.
Aim: The objective of this study was to evaluate the proximate composition, elemental
composition, total phenolic content, total flavonoid content and gas chromatography–mass
spectrometry (GC-MS) profile of Lantana trifolia.
Setting: This study was carried out in Juja, Kenya where the samples were collected, prepared and
stored at the Department of Chemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology.
Methods: The proximate and elemental compositions of the leaves, stalk and root samples were
evaluated by using standard procedures, whilst the total phenolic and flavonoid contents were
evaluated by using Folin–Ciocalteu and aluminium chloride method. The secondary metabolites
present in the crude methanolic extracts of the whole plant were determined by using GC-MS.
Results: The proximate and elemental analyses of the plant revealed that L. trifolia can be a
good source of essential elements, proteins, crude fibre and carbohydrates. The protein, fat,
crude fibre and carbohydrate contents in the leaves were found to be higher compared with
the stalks and roots, whilst the ash and moisture contents were found to be higher in the roots.
The concentrations of calcium, iron, magnesium and zinc in the leaves were found to be
8860.75 ± 565.27, 11 003.10 ± 143.24, 1520.25 ± 26.85 and 39.66 ± 15.68 mg/kg, respectively,
compared with the roots and stalks, which were lower.
Conclusion: The concentration of total phenolic and total flavonoid compounds and GC-MS
profile of the methanolic extracts revealed that L. trifolia can be a good source of secondary
metabolites, some of which have reported to be free radical scavengers. Hence, L. trifolia can
not only be used as a source of important secondary metabolites, but its nutritional content
suggests that the plant can be used to combat nutrient deficiency amongst many communities
who lack adequate resources, because it thrives in the wild.
Keywords: Lantana trifolia; GC-MS; proximate analysis; elemental composition.
Introduction
Wild medicinal plants have traditionally been used for their medicinal and nutriment values.
Crude extracts from aromatic and medicinal plants have attracted scientists’ attention because of
their ability to prepare alternative traditional medicine and food additives (Hossain et al. 2013).
About three quarters of the world depend on traditional medicine for the management of their
healthcare. It is evident that several plants have been found useful as traditional Ayurvedic
medicine for the treatment and management of distinct inflammatory disorders and for wound
management. Dietary polyphenols have been reported to inhibit arachidonic acid peroxidation
and they also possess cyclooxygenase (COX-2) inhibitory or stimulatory effects (Shaikh, Pund &
Gacche 2016). Secondary metabolites such as phenolic compounds have been reported as
promising tools in eliminating the causes and effects of skin ageing, skin diseases and skin
damage, including wounds and burns, because they are of plant origin and have low toxicity
(Dzialo et al. 2016; Scheller et al. 2011; Wang et al. 2014a; Witte & Barbul 2002). Moreover, there
has been increasing concern about the rate of malnutrition during pregnancy and early childhood
in Kenya and the world because malnutrition has many adverse effects as it hinders normal
child development and long-term well-being of any given society (USAID 2018). With the ever
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Open Access
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persistent droughts in Kenya as a result of climate change
(Tumushabe 2018), high global food prices (Schmidhuber &
Tubiello 2007), high costs of food production (Peduzzi &
Harding Rohr Reis 2012), low purchasing power and
displacement of farmers every election year, the country
faces severe food insecurity. In 2017, this resulted in an
estimated 3.4 million people suffering from acute food
insecurity (USAID 2018). Numerous types of wild edible
plants (WEPs) have been exploited in developing countries
as a means or source of food as they can provide the
adequate level of micro- and macronutrients needed to
fight nutrition deficiency (Bharucha & Pretty 2010). For
instance, Adansonia digitata, Tamarindus indica, Sclerocarya
birrea and Uapaca kirkiana have been used to produce juices
and local alcoholic drinks in Tanzania (Ruffo, Birnie &
Tengnas 2002).
Although only a few wild food plants have been analysed
for their nutritional content, the little available data indicate
that many local vegetables and fruits have higher nutritive
value than the exotic vegetables commonly sold in the
markets (Horton & Mannar 2018; Ruffo et al. 2002). Lantana
trifolia L. or lantana, as it is commonly referred to, is a highly
invasive shrub thought to have been brought into Africa
from Europe. This plant is usually harvested from the wild
for its medicinal value, where it is used locally as a source of
food, medicine and wood. As a source of medicine, L. trifolia
has been reported to have anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities by preventing prostaglandins from
being produced, thereby eliminating or reducing pain (Silva
et al. 2005; Waweru, Osuwat & Wambugu 2017). In the East
African countries of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, the plant
is commonly used in the treatment of coughs and colds, in
the preparation of ethnoveterinary remedies and in the
management of respiratory symptoms and diarrhoea. Its
leaves are used not only to treat asthma, chronic rhinitis,
menstrual pains, eye infections, fever amongst other
ailments but also as animal fodder, whilst the fruits are
normally eaten to quench thirst (Ruffo et al. 2002). Even
though its medicinal value has been widely reported,
there is little information regarding its nutritional content
and the role it plays in enriching the food basket. The plant
has been reported to contain monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes,
triterpenoids, flavonoids, phenylethanoid glycosides,
steroids, iridoid glycosides and furanonaphthoquinones.
The common major constituents identified in the oils are the
sesquiterpenes, caryophyllene, β-caryophyllene, E and
Z-caryophyllene, iso-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide,
caryophyllene epoxide, germacrene D and bicyclogermacrene
(Sousa & Costa 2012). The purpose of this study was to
evaluate the phytochemical composition, proximate content,
macro- and micronutrient contents and the secondary
metabolites present in L. trifolia. The proximate, micro- and
macronutrient contents of the leaves, stalk and root samples
were evaluated by using the standard procedures, whilst the
total phenolic and flavonoid contents were evaluated by
using Folin–Ciocalteu and aluminium chloride method. The
secondary metabolites present in the crude methanolic
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Original Research
extracts of the whole plant were determined by using gas
chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS).
Materials and methods
Collection and sample preparation
The samples were collected from Juja, Thika County in
Kenya, based on the ethnopharmacological use through
interviews with traditional medicine practitioners in the
area. Botanical identity of the plants was achieved by a
botanist from the Department of Botany, Jomo Kenyatta
University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya. The
samples were then chopped into small pieces after
thoroughly washing in running water and air-dried on the
laboratory bench at room temperature for 4 weeks. The
dried plant samples were ground into a fine powder by
using an in-house mechanical mill (Madivoli et al. 2018;
Maina et al. 2019).
Estimation of micro- and macronutrient
contents of Lantana trifolia
The micro- and macronutrient contents of L. trifolia were
assayed and analysed by using an Agilent 720 ICP-OES. One
gram of the ground sample was weighed into 50 mL porcelain
crucibles and placed in a cool muffle furnace whose
temperature was gradually increased until a temperature of
550 °C was attained. The samples were ashed for 5 hours and
then cooled, and the ash was dissolved in 5 mL portions of
2 N HCl and mixed with a glass rod. It was filtered by using
Whatman Filter Paper No. 42 into 50 mL volumetric flask
and finally topped to the mark with deionised water to
await analysis (Estefan, Sommer & Ryan 2013). An Agilent
720 ICP-OES was used for the analysis of trace and other
elements, and a Windows 7 compatible software provided by
Agilent© was used to process the spectral data and compare
the light intensities measured at various wavelengths for
standard solutions with intensities from the sample solutions
(Maina et al. 2019).
Proximate analysis
For proximate analysis, the plant was separated into leaves,
stalks and root and ground into powder by using a
mechanical milling machine (locally assembled, no model
number). The powdered samples were then analysed for
moisture, protein, fat and ash contents by using methods
adopted from the literature, and the carbohydrate content
was determined as follows: (100 – [% moisture + % protein
+ % fat + % ash]) (Maina et al. 2019; Olaniyi, Lawal &
Olaniyi 2018; Thangaraj 2016).
Extraction of plant material
To obtain the crude extract, cold extraction was achieved by
using methanol as the extracting solvents. The extraction was
carried out by weighing 100 g of the fine powders of the whole
plant sample and macerating in 1000 mL methanol. The
extracts were filtered by using Whatman Filter Paper No. 1
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Original Research
(Whatman international, England) and concentrated by using
a Rota evaporator (BUCHI R 200) at 40 °C. The crude extracts
were then left to dry in the fume chamber, after which they
were stored at 4 °C for further analysis (Madivoli et al. 2018).
Results
Quantification of total phenols
Proximate composition is the term usually used in the field of
feed/food to mean the components of moisture, crude
protein, ether extract, crude fibre, crude ash and nitrogenfree extracts expressed as the content (%) in the sample. From
the results obtained (Table 1), total carbohydrates were found
to be higher in L. trifolia stalks (as 81.64 ± 0.02%) compared
with leaves (72.85 ± 0.01%) and roots (60.68 ± 0.08%). Crude
fibre, on the other hand, was found to be higher in L. trifolia
leaves (53.35 ± 0.11%) compared with its stalks (44.61 ±
0.02%) and roots (20.99 ± 0.30%). Protein content was found
to be higher in roots followed by leaves and stalks, and the
fat content was found to be higher in roots compared with
stalks and leaves. The micro- and macronutrient contents of
L. trifolia are depicted in Table 2.
The total phenolic content of crude methanolic extract of
L. trifolia was determined by using colorimetric method with
the reagent Folin–Ciocalteu (Lefahal et al. 2018; Thangaraj
2016). A volume of 300 µL of extract solution (1 mg/mL in
methanol) was mixed with 1500 µL of Folin–Ciocalteu reagent
(diluted 10-fold). After 4 min, 1200 µL of Na2CO3 (75 g/L) was
added. The mixture was incubated at room temperature in
the dark for 2 h, and the absorbance of the reaction mixture
was measured at 765 nm by using Ultra-violet visible
spectrophotometer (UV/VIS) spectrophotometer. Gallic acid
was used as a standard for calibration curve, and the results
were expressed as gallic acid equivalents (µg GAE/mg)
(Lefahal et al. 2018).
Quantification of total flavonoids
Total flavonoid content of the methanolic extract was
performed by colorimetric method using aluminium chloride
(Lefahal et al. 2018; Thangaraj 2016). A volume of 1 mL of 2%
AlCl3 methanol solution was mixed with 1 mL of sample
solution (1 mg/mL). The absorbance was measured at
415 nm by using UV/VIS spectrophotometer After incubation
for 10 min at room temperature, quercetin was used as a
standard for calibration curve, and the results were expressed
as quercetin equivalents (µg QE/mg) (Lefahal et al. 2018).
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
profile of Lantana trifolia
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis of crude
methanol extracts was evaluated by using a Shimadzu
GC-MS QP2010SE. In brief, 1 g of the powdered plant samples
was sequentially extracted with 10 mL hexane followed by
methanol before GC-MS analysis. A Shimadzu GC-MS
QP2010SE (Shimadzu Corporation, Japan) operating in EI mode
at 70 Ev equipped with an National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) spectral database was used for the
identification of the chemical compounds present in the extracts.
A BPX5 capillary column 30 m × 0.25 mm (internal diameter
[id]) and helium gas with a flow rate of 1.2 mL/min were used
as the carrier gas, whilst the oven temperature and the mass
range were set at 60 °C and 40–400 mass/charge ratio (m/z),
respectively. Various compounds were identified by their
retention time and the NIST library search (Madivoli et al. 2018).
The results of proximate analysis of L. trifolia are depicted in
Table 1.
From the results obtained, it can be observed that L. trifolia
had high concentration of both micro- and macronutrient
contents, but the concentration varied depending on the plant
part. The concentration of all nutrients was observed to be
higher in the leaves compared with the stalks and roots. When
compared with the stalks, the roots were found to have higher
concentrations of all nutrients except sodium and zinc.
The results for quantification of total phenolic and total
flavonoid contents of L. trifolia extracts are shown in Table 3.
From the results, it can be observed that L. trifolia has a
high concentration of both total phenolic and flavonoid
contents. The leaves of L. trifolia recorded the highest
content of both total phenolic and total flavonoid contents of
TABLE 1: Proximate composition of Lantana trifolia leaves, stalks and roots.
Parameters
Stalks
Roots
Moisture content
5.60 ± 0.01
7.95 ± 0.00
8.36 ± 0.05
Ash content
15.35 ± 0.01
4.81 ± 0.04
12.90 ± 0.00
Nitrogen content
0.95 ± 0.01
0.86 ± 0.01
2.62 ± 0.00
Protein content
5.91 ± 0.05
5.38 ± 0.04
16.40 ± 0.03
Fat content
0.20 ± 0.00
0.25 ± 0.00
1.71 ± 0.01
Crude fibre
53.35 ± 0.11
44.61 ± 0.02
20.99 ± 0.30
Total carbohydrates
72.85 ± 0.01
81.64 ± 0.02
60.68 ± 0.08
TABLE 2: Micro- and macronutrient compositions of Lantana trifolia plant.
Element
Aluminium
Boron
Data analysis
Calcium
The data obtained in this study were evaluated by using
statistical software and are represented as mean ± standard
deviation.
Ethical consideration
Ethical clearance was not required for the study.
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Average content (%)
Leaves
Leaves (mg/kg)
Stalks (mg/kg)
Roots (mg/kg)
7510.34 ± 156.20
366.41 ± 10.15
2561.16 ± 41.21
59.75 ± 44.12
34.39 ± 1.33
72.61 ± 0.83
8860.75 ± 565.27
7290.66 ± 154.77
14 412.07 ± 154.97
Cobalt
3.65 ± 0.26
0.00 ± 0.00
0.00 ± 0.00
Copper
22.625 ± 0.10
13.74 ± 0.24
22.63 ± 1.41
Chromium
Iron
9.21 ± 0.27
1.54 ± 0.45
3.49 ± 0.26
11 003.10 ± 143.24
427.83 ± 11.35
5602.55 ± 26.85
2274.31 ± 12.88
Magnesium
1520.25 ± 26.85
1179.37 ± 13.97
Phosphorus
1728.89 ± 99.04
1132.55 ± 36.12
3247.05 ± 8.11
Sodium
346.88 ± 38.93
324.56 ± 5.01
298.76 ± 83.35
Zinc
39.66 ± 15.68
36.33 ± 4.24
27.81 ± 7.36
Open Access
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Original Research
457.17 ± 0.12 mg garlic equivalent (GE)/g dry weight (DW)
and 109.59 ± 4.81 mg RE/g DW compared with the stalks
that had total phenolic and flavonoid contents of 436.37 ±
0.51 mg GE/g DW and 106.66 ± 7.55 mg RE/g DW,
respectively. The roots had the lowest content of both total
phenols and total flavonoids at 307.17 ± 0.65 mg GE/g DW
and 95.15 ± 0.20 mg RE/g DW, respectively.
have medicinal value. Analyses by using GC-MS revealed
the presence of nonanoic acid, 1,7-octadien-3-ol, cis-3hexenoic acid, Z-2-octen-1-ol, E-2-Decen-1-ol, 2-Nonen-1-ol,
3- cyclopropyl-7-hydroxylmethyl bicyclo[4.1.0]heptane,
amongst many other compounds that have been reported to
have medicinal properties.
Figure 1 depicts the GC-MS chromatogram of L. trifolia
methanolic extract, whilst the mass spectrums of some of the
compounds identified are depicted in Figures 2–5.
Wild edible plants are known to make important contributions
to food baskets and livelihoods in the smallholder and
subsistence farming communities of sub-Saharan Africa
(Shumsky et al. 2014). As a result, protecting and promoting
the sustainable use of these plants in concert with more
mainstream agricultural innovation efforts have the potential
to build household resilience to food insecurity (Altieri 2002).
The presence of a high carbohydrate content in L. trifolia
implies that it can be a good source of energy. Proteins, lipids
and carbohydrates contribute to the total energy content of
an organism, whilst water and ash contribute only to the
mass content. Carbohydrates are found abundantly in
nature, both in plants and in animals, and are the
essential constituents of all living matter (Spitz et al. 2010;
Thangaraj 2016; Unuofin, Otunola & Afolayan 2017b). These
micronutrients play an important role not only in the growth
and development of plants but also in the development of
humans; hence, they are essential and should be provided
regularly through dietary intake (Shukla et al. 2018).
Widespread nutritional deficiencies of Fe, Zn, iodine and
vitamin A affecting human health disproportionately,
especially women and young children, have been widely
reported, hence the rush in food fortification which is an
excellent way to improve dietary quality (Horton & Mannar
Discussion
From the GC-MS results (Table 4), L. trifolia extracts had
various secondary metabolites that have been reported to
TABLE 3: Total phenolic and total flavonoid contents of Lantana trifolia extracts.
Plant part
Total phenols (mg GE/g DW)
Total flavonoids (mg RE/g DW)
Stalks
436.37 ± 0.51
106.66 ± 7.55
Leaves
457.17 ± 0.12
109.59 ± 4.81
Roots
307.17 ± 0.65
95.15 ± 0.20
Total ion current
GE, garlic equivalent; DW, dry weight; RE, Rutin equivalent.
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
(x10,000,000)
TIC
5.0
7.5
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
22.5
TIC, Total ion current
TIC, total ion current
Relave abundance
FIGURE 1: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry chromatogram of Lantana
trifolia methanolic extracts.
<<Target>>
Line#:2 R. Time:3.985(Scan#:198) Reten on Index: 1008 MassPeaks:453
RawMode:Single 3.985(198) BasePeak:57.05(559470)
BG Mode:None Group 1 - Event 1 Q3 Scan
100
57
80
60
40
55
20
81 95
105 117 133 147 165
50
10
40
70
100
130
160
193 207 221 235 249 265 281 295 313325 341351 365
190
220
250
280
310
340
370
386 400 415 434 451 464 483 498
400
430
460
490
Relave abundance
Mass
Hit#:1 Entry: 6680 Library:NIST14.lip
SI:79 Formula:C8H140 CAS:30385-19-4 MolWeight:126 RetIndex:959
CompName:1,7-Octadien-3-o1
100
57
80
OH
60
40
20
41 54
29
67 79 93
43
66 7785
15 81
10
40
70
108 125
100
130
160
190
220
250
280
310
340
370
400
430
Mass
FIGURE 2: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry spectra of 1,7-octadien-3-ol as identified with the help of an NIST spectral database library.
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Open Access
460
490
Relave abundance (%)
Page 5 of 8
Original Research
Library
<<Target>>
Line#:1 R. Time:3.935(Scan#:188) Reten on Index:1001 MassPeaks:449
RawMode:Single 3.935(188) BasePeak:60.00(605196)
BG Mode:None Group 1 - Event 1 Q3 Scan
100
60
80
73
60
55
40
281
20
87
105
50
10
40
70
100
165 179 193 207 221 235
133
130
160
190
220
249 265
250
299 315325 341 352 368 382 401 416 430 447
280
310
340
370
400
430
472 487498
460
490
Relave abundance (%)
Mass/charge rao
Hit#:1 Entry:20066 Library:NIST14.lip
SI:75 Formula:C9H1802 CAS:112-05-0 MolWeight:158 RetIndex:1272
CompName:Nonanoic acid $$ n-Nonanoic acid $$ n-Nonoic acid $$ n-Nonylic acid $$ Nonoic acid $$ Nonylic acid $$ Pelargic acid $$ Pelargonic acid $$
100
60
73
80
60
OH
57
40
O
41
115 129
98
74 87 96
111 130141 158
29
20
15
10
40
70
100
130
160
190
220
250
280
310
340
370
400
430
460
490
Mass/charge rao
FIGURE 3: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry spectra of n-nonanoic acid as identified with the help of NIST library.
Relave abundance (%)
<<Target>>
Line#:26 R. Time:7.250(Scan#:851) Retenon Index:1381 MassPeaks:450
RawMode:Single 7.250(851) BasePeak:55.05(81921)
BG Mode:None Group 1 - Event 1 Q3 Scan
100
55
80
57
73
60
87
40
115 129
105
20
70
10
40
70
100
149
130
164
181 193 207 219
160
190
220
242 253 272
250
304
280
327 341 357 376 390 403 415 427 441
310
340
370
400
430
460 476 491
460
Mass/charge rao
Relave abundance (%)
Hit#:1 Entry:156705 Library:NIST14.lip
SI:76 Formula:C22H3202 CAS:60534-16-9 MolWeight:328 RetIndex:2413
CompName:Spiro[androst-5-ene-17,1’-cyclobutan]-2’-one, 3-hydroxy-, (3.beta., 17.beta.)100
41
O
80
69
60
79 91
40
39
20
10
40
107
119 133 145
70
100
130
271
159 175
160
253
190
220
250
285
280
HO
328
310
340
370
400
430
460
Mass/charge rao
FIGURE 4: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry spectra of spiro[androst-5-ene-17,1-cyclobutan]-2-one, (3-hydroxyl-, 3,beta,17.beta)- as identified with the help of
an National Institute of Standards and Technology spectral database.
2018). Wild edible plants play vital roles in the traditional
medicine, as trace elements present in these plants are also
known for their preventive and curative roles in combating
diseases. In developing countries such as Kenya, some of
these plants are unexplored as sources of food, although they
have been widely utilised as sources of folklore medicines to
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combat several diseases (Shaheen, Ahmad & Haroon 2017).
Even though the concentration of mineral elements present
in the plant materials is considerably small compared with its
total body weight and total composition, they still play an
important physiological role in the metabolism of human
body (Shaheen et al. 2017; White & Brown 2010).
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Relave abundance (%)
Page 6 of 8
<<Target>>
Line#:27 R. Time:7.550(Scan#:911) Retenon Index:1410 MassPeaks:449
RawMode:Single 7.550(911) BasePeak:105.10(155956)
BG Mode:None Group 1 - Event 1 Q3 Scan
100
105
80
119
91
60
161
40
55
81
20
133
145
50
179191 207217 231
10
40
70
100
130
160
190
220
Original Research
256 267 281 299
250
280
310
327 341 356 372 383 397
340
370
400
416 430 448 461
430
489
460
490
Relave abundance (%)
Mass
Hit#:1 Entry:49912 Library:NIST14.lip
SI:85 Formula:C15H24 CAS:0-00-0 MolWeight:204 RetIndex:1221
CompName:.alpha.-ylangene
100
105
119
80
93
60
41
161
40
77
55
39
133
20
67
204
95
128 147
175 189 200
10
40
70
100
130
160
190
H
H
220
250
280
310
340
370
400
430
460
490
Mass
FIGURE 5: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry spectra of alpha-ylangene as identified with the help of an National Institute of Standards and Technology spectral
database.
TABLE 4: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry profile of Lantana trifolia
methanolic extracts identified with the help of National Institute of Standards
and Technology gas chromatography–mass spectrometry data base.
Number
Compound name
Ret.
time
m/z Retention
index
1
Nonanoic acid
3.94
60
2
1,7-Octadien-3-ol
3.985
57
1008
3
cis-3-Hexenoic acid
4.055
55
1017
1026
1001
4
2-Octen-1-ol, (Z)-
4.125
57
5
2-Decen-1-ol, (E)-
4.19
57
1034
6
2-Nonen-1-ol
4.215
57
1037
7
Bicyclo[4.1.0]heptane,-3-cyclopropyl,7-hydroxymethyl, (cis)
4.395
67
1061
8
Benzaldehyde, 3-benzyloxy-2-fluoro4-methoxy-
4.505
91
1075
9
2-Octen-1-ol, (E)-
4.54
57
1080
10
1,2:4,5:9,10-Triepoxydecane
4.705
69
1101
11
3-Trifluoroacetoxypentadecane
4.74
69
1105
12
Cyclopentaneundecanoic acid
4.91
57
1126
13
19,19-Dimethyl-eicosa-8,11-dienoic acid
4.985
57
1135
14
Undec-10-ynoic acid, isobutyl ester
5.03
57
1140
15
12,15-Octadecadiynoic acid, methyl ester
5.07
57
1145
16
Z,Z-2,5-Pentadecadien-1-ol
5.59
57
1208
17
Spiro[androst-5-ene-17,1’-cyclobutan]
-2’-one, 3-hydroxy-, (3.beta.,17.beta.)-
5.63
57
1212
18
Z,Z-2,5-Pentadecadien-1-ol
5.71
57
1221
19
Spiro[androst-5-ene-17,1’-cyclobutan]
-2’-one, 3-hydroxy-, (3.beta.,17.beta.)-
5.745
57
1225
20
3-Octyne, 7-methyl-
6.015
67
1254
Ret., retention time; m/z, mass/charge ratio.
Higher phenolic and flavonoid contents have been linked to a
higher antioxidant activity as phenolic compounds have been
reported to possess a high free radical scavenging ability
(Unuofin et al. 2017). Of late several health conditions such as
diabetes, high blood pressure (Tabassum & Ahmad 2011) and
high cholesterol levels (Gurbuz et al. 2018) in humans have
been combated by using appropriate diets. Recent studies
http://www.jomped.co.za
have reported the potential health benefits of polyphenols
and their pharmacological potentials, which include but are
not limited to anti-diabetic (Habtemariam & Varghese 2014),
anti-cancerogenic (Rodrigues et al. 2012), anti-ulcerogenic
(Coelho et al. 2009), anti-oestrogenic (El-Halawany et al. 2007)
and anti-inflammatory effects (Wang et al. 2014). Phenols
such as flavonoids and terpenoids exert their antioxidant
activity by mopping up free radicals and reactive oxygen
species, thereby playing a major role in scavenging oxidative
free radicals (Unuofin et al. 2017; Sen et al. 2010).
These compounds belong to various classes of compounds
such as terpenoids, alcohols, terpenes, acids, esters, aldehydes
and ketones. These bioactive compounds that are produced
by plants are used to support health and fight against
infections, and many of them are sold as foods or herbal
medicines. Their usage has dramatically increased over the
last decade because of not only their ease of access and
low cost but also the belief that natural remedies have
less lethal effects compared with synthetic analogues
(Hadi, Mohammed & Hameed 2016). Qualitative study of
L. trifolia revealed the presence of tannins, flavonoids, sterols,
triterpenes, saponins, volatile oils and anthraquinones which
were identified via capillary GC-MS with the help of NIST
spectral database, thus identifying 80 compounds (Sousa &
Costa 2012). The therapeutic activity of L. trifolia can be
attributed to the presence of these secondary metabolites,
but the greater part of their activity was because of the
presence of several bioactive agents, namely alkaloids,
saponins, lignans, iso-catechin, coumarins, flavonoids,
tannins, flavones and isoflavones (Cabrido & Demayo 2018;
Sousa & Costa 2012).
Open Access
Page 7 of 8
Conclusion
Locally available wild plants such as L. trifolia are not only
recognised for their characteristic therapeutic value, but they
are also a rich source of proteins, calories, iron, zinc and a
host of other micronutrients. They are also important sources
of energy and are frequently used as part of the dietary food
to manage the degenerative diseases and nutrient deficiencies.
In addition to making significant additions to individual
family food supplies, wild food plants such as L. trifolia can
also contribute to household food security amongst
communities. There is a need to utilise wild plants as food
sources to ensure that communities have food security and,
in the process, eradicate malnutrition that is prevalent in
Kenya and in most areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover,
the large variety of secondary metabolites present in this
plant ensures that various health disorders and complications
are combated, and in the process the health status of
undernourished population can be improved.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the support of the Department
of Chemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
Technology, for granting access to the facilities used in this
study.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal
relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them
in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
All authors contributed equally to the design and
implementation of the research, to the analysis of the results
and to the writing of the manuscript.
Funding information
The authors received no financial support for the research
and authorship of this article.
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The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings
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Disclaimer
Sen, S., Chakraborty, R., Sridhar, C., Reddy, Y.S.R. & Debnath, B., 2010, ‘Free radicals,
antioxidants, diseases and phytomedicines: Current status and future prospect’,
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research 3(1), 91–100.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of
the authors and do not reflect the official policy or position of
any affiliated agency of the authors.
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