International Society
for Tropical Ecology
Tropical Ecology
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42965-022-00239-9
MINI-REVIEWS
A mini‑review on the impact of common gorse in its introduced ranges
Hansani S. S. Daluwatta Galappaththi1
· W. A. Priyanka P. de Silva1
· Andrea Clavijo Mccormick2
Received: 17 June 2021 / Revised: 25 November 2021 / Accepted: 20 March 2022
© The Author(s) 2022
Abstract
It is indisputable that invasive plant species strongly impact the ecosystems they invade. Many of such impacts can be negative
and threaten the local species through competition, environmental change, or habitat loss. However, introduced plants may
also have positive roles in the ecosystems they invade. This review extracted information from reports on common gorse (Ulex
europaeus), one of the top 100 invasive plants on the earth, including its detrimental effects and potential beneficial roles
in invaded ecosystems. The reduction of native fauna and flora are the main harmful effects of common gorse identified
by the literature review. Soil impoverishment and fire hazards are other negative impacts reported for common gorse that
could affect agricultural systems and local economies. Despite the negative impacts, reports of positive ecological services
provided by common gorse also exist, e.g., as a nursery plant or habitat for endangered native animals. We also reviewed
the known human uses of this plant that could support management strategies through harvest and benefit the local communities, including its use as biofuel, raw matter for xylan extraction, medicine, and food. Finally, our review identified the
gaps in the literature regarding the understanding of the beneficial role of common gorse on native ecosystems and potential
human uses, especially in the tropics.
Keywords Biological invasion · Detrimental effects · Exotic plants · Native ecosystems · Potential benefits · Ulex
europaeus
Biological invasion and implications
Biological invasion is considered as one of the major environmental challenges worldwide (Sala et al. 2000; Pejchar
and Mooney 2009; Vilà et al. 2010; Simberloff et al. 2013;
Schirmel et al. 2016). Scientists have tried to define biological invasion in various ways. Van der Velde et al. (2006)
described the biological invasion as the expansion of species' ranges into new areas. According to Simberloff (2013),
biological invasion is the introduction and establishment of
species into novel geographical ranges where they are capable of proliferating and spreading rapidly.
* Andrea Clavijo Mccormick
a.c.mccormick@massey.ac.nz
Hansani S. S. Daluwatta Galappaththi
hansanisathsara@gmail.com
1
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University
of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
2
School of Agriculture and Environment, College of Sciences,
Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Undoubtedly, biological invasions have considerable
impacts on the local ecosystems. In some cases, invasive
species threaten native species directly through predation,
competition, or parasitism. For example, native mammal
communities in Australia have been threatened by predation of invasive feral cats and red foxes (Doherty et al. 2015;
Woinarski et al. 2015). In other cases, hybridization leads
to the extinction and loss of native genotypes. The genetic
integrity of native California tiger salamander (Ambystoma
californiense) have been threatened due to the invasive tiger
salamander (A. tigrinum) while the genetic diversity of California cordgrass (Spartina foliosa) is affected due to the
invasive Atlantic smooth cordgrass (S. alterniflora) (Ayres
et al. 1999, 2004; Riley et al. 2003; Strong and Ayres 2013).
Indirect impacts are also common due to habitat modification, changes in biotic interactions, and alteration of ecosystem processes (Pimentel et al. 2001; Simberloff et al.
2013; Mačić et al. 2018; Atlan and Udo 2019; Bartz and
Kowarik 2019). However, invasive species can also be used
by native species and humans to their advantage. While negative impacts are often reported and have been inextricably
linked with alien and invasive species (Guerin et al. 2018),
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there is evidence suggesting that the presence of some invasive species can have positive impacts on the native communities that co-exist with them. For instance, frugivorous
birds in Kenya are benefiting from the invasive exotic guava
plants (Psidium guajava), which has become a preferred
food source for native species (Berens et al. 2008). Invasive
Australian Acacia spp. are popular among native communities in South Africa and Madagascar as fuel plants, showing
that invasive plants can also be used by some local human
populations to their advantage (de Neergaard et al. 2005;
Kull et al. 2007).
Schlaepfer et al. (2011) highlighted the conservation value of non-native species, as these are more likely
to persist in time than native species and provide ecosystem services under rapid environmental change scenarios.
Invasive plants can provide shelter, reproductive or nesting
sites, and alternative food sources for detritivores, pollinators, herbivores, and predators (Bowers et al. 1992; Nagy
et al. 1998; Longcore 2003; Wonham et al. 2005; Levin
et al. 2006; Effah et al. 2020). Some invasive species can
also modify soil properties benefiting other plants and soil
biota (Ehrenfeld 2003; Lee et al. 2012; Tun et al. 2020).
Invasive Pinus contorta have been proven to enrich the
soil with lignin, P, Mg, and Mn (Ågren and Knecht 2001;
Ehrenfeld 2003). Beyond the ecological aspects, some alien
invasive species have cultural or economic importance to
local communities providing food, medicine, fuel, or fodder. For example, in Jorhat (India), an invasive plant, Alternanthera tenella is used as a vegetable and has a medicinal
value, while another invasive plant, Chamaesyce hirta, has
both medicinal (against anemia, asthma, and bronchitis) and
insecticidal (controlling aquatic pests) properties (Das and
Duarah 2013). However, the positive influence of invasive
alien species on native biodiversity and local human populations is still poorly understood (Hanley and Roberts 2019).
Severns and Warren (2008) pointed out the importance
of selectively controlling invasive exotic plants which may
provide habitats for native and endangered species. For
instance, Euphydryas editha, an endangered butterfly species in the Pacific Northwest of North America, switched
from an unknown native larval host plant to an exotic host
(Plantago lanceolata). The endemic Australian bird Malurus cyaneus (Superb Fairywrens) has higher nesting success in areas invaded by Blackberries Rubus fruticosus L.
compared to native vegetation in Armidale, Australia (Nias
1986). Pearson (2009) described that invasion of western
North American grasslands by the perennial forb Centaurea maculosa provides webbing surfaces, which ultimately
increase native spider densities. Effah et al. (2020) found
a high arthropod diversity and abundance associated with
Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) in the Central Plateau
of New Zealand, suggesting that native arthropods exploit
additional resources provided by this invasive plant. Given
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the extent of expansion and the impossibility to eradicate
or control many invasive plants (Head et al. 2015; SouzaAlonso et al. 2017), it is essential to identify and incorporate the beneficial impacts of these species in policy and
management frameworks, which are primarily focused on
negative impacts (Vimercati et al. 2020). Ulex europaeus L.
(common gorse; USDA Plants Database 2021), is a widespread invasive species known to affect native fauna and
flora in its invasive range. Though this plant species has been
identified as an alien invasive species in diverse ecological settings, comparative evaluations have not been done to
understand the negative and positive impact of invasiveness
of this plant. In this review, we will explore reports on the
invasive plant U. europaeus L., biology and invasiveness of
gorse, its harmful effects, and potentially beneficial roles in
invaded ecosystems as well as human uses.
Common gorse biology and invasiveness
Common gorse is a heliophile evergreen shrub, also known
as European gorse, furze, or whin (León Cordero et al. 2016;
Andreas et al. 2017; ISSG 2020). The plant usually grows
up to 1 – 4 m from its woody multi-branched root system.
Leaves are three-parted in young plants and are reduced to
Fig. 1 Habit sketch of common gorse plant (GISP 2005)
Tropical Ecology
Fig. 2 Key traits of common gorse. a. Spines b. Flowers c. Seed pods (PC: Hansani S. S. Daluwatta Galappaththi)
scales or modified into thick spines when mature. Flowers
are five-petal-yellowish and hairy seedpods that grow up to
2 cm long (Andreas et al. 2017, Figs. 1 and 2). Ulex europaeus belongs to the Family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) that
can fix atmospheric nitrogen via rhizobial symbionts, causing changes to the soils in which they grow (Andreas et al.
2017; Sabagh et al. 2020). The native ranges of common
gorse are Western Europe, primarily the Atlantic coast of
Europe (the British Isles including Ireland) and northwest
Africa (Hill et al. 2008; Magesan et al. 2012; Andreas et al.
2017). However, it is currently distributed in more than 50
countries around the world including the United States of
America, Canada, South American countries (e.g., Colombia, Chile and Uruguay), Middle East, New Zealand, Australia, remote islands such as Mauritius, Saint Helena, and
some Asian countries (India and Sri Lanka) (Hill et al. 2000,
2008; Marambe 2001; Leary et al. 2006; Altamirano et al.
2016; Kariyawasam and Ratnayake 2019b; ISSG 2021).
This plant was deliberately introduced to most of these
countries as an ornamental plant for fencing, erosion control, and fodder for livestock (Lee et al. 1986; Andreas et al.
2017; Atlan and Udo 2019; Broadfield and McHenry 2019).
However, the plant has rapidly spread in the introduced areas
due to its life-history traits such as prolific flowering and
seed production, high tolerance to a wide range of temperatures, increased ability to fix nitrogen, and large evolutionary potential which facilitates its competitive success
(Atlan et al. 2015a; Broadfield and McHenry 2019). Further,
water and fire-resistant hard seeds of this plant are viable
in the soil for more than 50 years (Sullivan and Hutchison
2010). The production of such high-quality seeds allows
this plant to grow rapidly and spread widely (Richardson
et al. 1996). Plant invasion has traditionally been associated with negative effects on the diversity, abundance, and
structure of native plants and animal communities (Levine
et al. 2003). In such cases, management practices are often
implemented to minimize the negative impact of common
gorse on landscapes (Broadfield and McHenry 2019).
Mechanical removal of mature plants and/or juveniles and
land clearing, burning, applying herbicides, and biological
control are some of the strategies used around the world to
reduce the adverse effects of common gorse (Hill et al. 2008;
Broadfield and McHenry 2019). There is an ample body of
literature examining the control strategies aligned with the
negative impacts, especially targeting the suitability of biological control in invaded geographical ranges (Chater 1931;
Clements et al. 2001; Andreas et al. 2017; Atlan and Udo
2019; Broadfield and McHenry 2019). However, in many
cases, due to the extension of the invasion, eradication is no
longer possible and management can be costly or ineffective
(Krause et al. 1988; Barker 2008; Mbatha 2016). In these
scenarios, it is worthwhile to develop a different perspective to explore potential ecological benefits and human uses
associated with U. europaeus.
Detrimental effects of gorse to invaded
ecosystems
The impact of common gorse in invaded ecosystems threatens native biodiversity and affects the soil quality and composition and thereby the agriculture, economy, and environmental health. These detrimental effects are discussed with
examples below.
Threats to the native ecosystems
The rapid infestation of common gorse has detrimental
impacts on natural habitats (Egunjobi 1969; Zabkiewica
1984; Hill and Sandrey 1984, 1986; Richardson et al. 1996;
Gouldthorpe 2009; Roberts and Florentine 2021). For
instance, ISSG (2021) documented that the native plants
at the red-listed Canadian Garry Oak Ecosystems have
been displaced by the gorse invasion. Open grasslands are
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under the threat of gorse infestation as they convert the
grasslands into thorny shrublands (ISSG 2010). Cordero
et al. (2016) reported that common gorse has stimulated
the colonization of woody species and thereby altered the
forest-grass cover in forest-grassland mosaics of southern
Brazil. Common gorse produces 200 kg ha–1 of Nitrogen
annually during the rapid dry-matter accumulation period.
This increased nitrogen level of the soil promotes the growth
of other weedy species (Soto and Diaz-Fierros 1997; Drake
2011; Magesan et al. 2012; ISSG 2021). The dense, spiny
thickets of common gorse influence the diversity and lifehistory traits of native plants, inhibiting the growth of native
vegetation (Grubb et al. 1969; Lee et al. 1986; Cordero
et al. 2016) and affecting the subsequent succession process (Bellingham et al. 2005; Sullivan et al. 2007). In New
Zealand, the Ulex thickets negatively affect plantations and
decrease forest growth and development while competing
with other plant species for water and nutrients (Richardson et al. 1996; Magesan et al. 2012). According to Harris et al. (2004) native mānuka (Leptospermum scoparium)
and kānuka (Kunzea ericoides) scrub communities in
New Zealand have been replaced by the gorse dominancy.
National parks, forest reserves, riparian habitats, and bushland margins are severely affected by common gorse infestation (Gouldthorpe 2009; ISSG 2010). For instance, by
2004, 4000 ha of Humuula pastureland in Mauna Kea on
the island of Hawaii were infested by gorse. The endangered
flora and fauna in the protected Hakalau Forest National
Wildlife Refuge, Hawaii were negatively affected due to
the common gorse infestation (Leary et al. 2006). Studies
have reported the significant effect of gorse on the biodiversity of temperate island ecosystems such as the Gulf
Islands and Vancouver Island in Canada, and Tasmania in Australia (ISSG 2010). For instance, Acacia axillaris
(midlands wattle), Callitris oblonga (South Esk pine), Epacris apsleyensis (Apsley heath), Prasophyllum tunbridgense
(Tunbridge leaforchid), Stonesiella selaginoides (clubmoss
bushpea), Spyridium lawrencei (small-leaf Spyridium), Hibbertia basaltica, Bertya tasmaniaca and Pterostylis ziegeleri are severely affected plant species in Tasmania by gorse
infestation (Gouldthorpe 2009). There are, however, fewer
studies investigating the effect of gorse invasion on tropical
countries, where resources for management are often limited
and invasion rate is high.
Impacts on the soil and the water
Cumberland (1944) described gorse as an effective soil stabilizer to control soil erosion. This particular use prompted
its deliberate introduction into new ranges (Andreas et al.
2017). As a Leguminosae plant, gorse has the ability to
fix nitrogen. While this could be advantageous in nutrientpoor soils, on healthy soils it would promote the leaching of
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excess nitrogen that would increase the soil acidity (Grubb
and Suter 1971; ISSG 2010). The acidified soil alters and
modifies the nutrient regimes affecting the native vegetation (ISSG 2010). The intensified nitrogen amount in the
soil could indirectly affect the water quality of the ecosystem overstimulating the growth of algae and aquatic plants
leading to eutrophication (Smith et al. 1999). As a result,
the water bodies get clogged and the dissolved oxygen is
reduced. Ultimately, this would suppress the aquatic flora
and fauna diversity (Khatri and Tyagi 2015; FAO 2017;
USGS 2021). Stewart et al. (2019) recently reported that
common gorse-dominated catchments have higher nitrate
concentrations. According to Mason et al. (2016), the common gorse cover of Ruamahanga catchment, New Zealand
was 596 ha and the model-based leaching estimation showed
that gorse accounts for 1.7% – 2.4% of total Nitrogen leaching in this catchment. This is equivalent to leaching from
1200 to 1800 ha of pasture across both dry stock and dairy
land uses. With over 5000 ha of common gorse cover, estimated N leaching from gorse accounts for 12% – 25% of the
catchment, and the expected increase in N leaching is equivalent to leaching for 9000 – 14,000 ha of pasture. Further,
the altered nutrient regime changes the soil microclimatic
conditions favouring other invasive weeds (ISSG 2010).
Common gorse weeds also have a high capacity to absorb
soil nutrients such as calcium, magnesium, sodium which
affect the soil cation balance and thereby the soil health
(Zabkiewicz 1976; MacCarter and Gaynor 1980; Clancy
2009; ISSG 2010). The imbalance of soil nutrients due to
gorse invasion may cause long-term effects to natural nutrient levels in the soil profile of invaded sites (Marchante et al.
2009; Lankau et al. 2014; Broadfield and McHenry 2019).
Agriculture and economy
Common gorse poses a major threat to agriculture and
economy in many countries such as New Zealand, Australia
and USA (Blaschke et al. 1981; Bascand and Jowett 1982;
Hill and Sandrey 1986; Gouldthorpe 2009; ISSG 2010;
ODA 2014; Atlan et al. 2015a). The plant was intentionally
introduced into multiple ranges mainly for agricultural or
ornamental purposes (Holm et al. 1997), however, the plants
spread rapidly and became invasive due to the lack effective management (Atlan et al. 2015a). Common gorse is the
second most serious weed in New Zealand and has reduced
nearly 3.56% of the agricultural land area in South Island
(Blaschke et al. 1981; Bascand and Jowett 1982). Unpalatable spiny foliage of the plant has significantly reduced the
quality of pastures through the avoidance of grazing animals (cows, deer, and sheep) (Tulang 1992; Richardson and
Hill 1998). In addition, agricultural pests such as rabbits,
feral cats, house mice, and foxes are, however, attracted to
gorse vegetation as it provides shelters for these vertebrate
Tropical Ecology
pests. Thus, the U. europaeus infestation ultimately affects
the productivity of agricultural lands (Gouldthorpe 2009;
ISSG 2010).
The control of gorse infestation in agricultural lands creates direct threats to the economy of the countries as they
are expensive and not always effective (Hill et al. 2008).
Nearly 5.3 million US$ were spent by the Noxious Plants
Council in New Zealand in 1984 – 85 to control the common
gorse infestation in 232 thousand hectares of agricultural
area (Sandrey 1985; Hill and Sandrey 1986). In 2000, 7 million dollars were spent by the Australian government to control common gorse in agriculture and forests (Gouldthorpe
2009). Due to the nature of the gorse plants, management is
costly and involves multiple control practices to be implemented continuously for several years, which can cause
a significant economic impact for a country (Zabkiewicz
1976; Hill and Sandrey 1986; Clements et al. 2001). According to the Agriculture and Resource Management Council
of Australia and New Zealand in 2000, the tourism industry
in Australian mainland and Tasmania have been significantly impacted as the common gorse infestation severely
affects the natural beauty of wilderness and pastoral areas
(Gouldthorpe 2009; ISSG 2010). According to ODA 2014
reports, in 2012, a total of 28 thousand acres of land area
in Oregon, USA was infested with common gorse causing
$ 441,000 worth of economic loss, while estimated future
gorse infestation is 16,580 thousand acres with 205,576
thousand dollars of economic loss. Native ecosystems in
Colombia (i.e. Cundinamarca and Boyacá) have also been
affected by common gorse infestation (Lowe et al. 2004).
The farmlands and the potable water were affected in the
invaded areas of Colombia (Colombian Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development reports, 2018). It was
documented that thousands of millions of Colombian pesos
were required to restore these lands (Camelo 2015; Niño
et al. 2018). More studies are needed to understand the economic impact of common gorse invasion on many countries,
especially in the tropics.
Fire hazards
The high amount of oil present in gorse foliage and seeds
makes this plant highly flammable (Baeza et al. 2002; Madrigal et al. 2012). The gorse fire is hard to control due to the
pyrophilic characteristics of the plant such as quick-burning
ability and rapid-fire propagation (Marino et al. 2011; Niño
et al. 2018). Thus, the gorse fire causes significant damages
to human settlements and forest ecosystems. Fire intolerant
native plants are highly vulnerable to the high heat intensity
of this feral plant. This would also affect the growth and
development of other invasive alien species (Marambe and
Wijesundara 2021). A total of 1000 ha of forest plantations
were destroyed in both New Zealand and British Colombia
due to fires caused by common gorse (Zielke et al. 1992).
In 1936, common gorse infestation caused a catastrophic
wildfire at Bandon, United State of America, and subsequently, in 1980, 1999, 2007, and 2015, gorse wildfires have
done notable destruction to Bandon (GAG 2019). Not only
the invasive range, but the native range of the gorse is also
affected due to the high flammability of this plant (MacCarter and Gaynor 1980; IPMIS 2000; ARMCAN 2003;
Marino et al. 2011). For instance, shrub lands in Galicia,
Spain where gorse is native, are under threat due to the
intensified gorse wildfires (Marino et al. 2011). The frequent
gorse fires due to widespread gorse vegetation in Donegal
County, Ireland affect the fauna and flora as well as human
activities (DCC 2014).
Potential benefits of gorse to invaded
ecosystems and local species (Fig. 3)
Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen (N) is the most limiting nutrient for plant growth
(Franche et al. 2009). Biological nitrogen fixation plays a
key role in N cycling in natural ecosystems (Jensen and
Hauggaard-Nielsen 2003). Leguminous and actinorhizal
plants are capable of forming nodules inhabited by symbiotic
N-fixing bacteria (Franche et al. 2009). Their ability to fix
N makes them often the first colonizing species in disturbed
soil (McQueen et al. 2006; Goldstein et al. 2010). Among
Leguminous plants, U. europaeus has been identified to
produce a voluminous amount of fixed N through its’ ability of rapid symbiotic N-fixation in nodules (Magesan et al.
2012). Egunjob (1969) found that gorse has an annual rate
of 100 – 200 kg ha–1 of N accumulation during the dry matter accumulation period. Thus, common gorse contributes
to the high input of soil N (Magesan et al. 2012). Therefore,
gorse can strengthen the quality of poor soil and soil fertility
even in highly disturbed areas (Wardle and Greenfield 1991;
Colebatch et al. 2002; Ehrenfeld 2003; Goldstein et al. 2010)
although excessive N fixation can negatively impact the ecosystems as reviewed in the previous sections.
Soil enrichment and as a nurse plant
Common gorse has been considered as a highly successful
plant in disturbed soil which would improve the ecological
health of invaded sites (Clements et al. 2001). For instance,
the plant is used to stabilize sandy soil, roadside banks, maritime areas, and mine waste sites where the soil is less productive. That would increase the soil quality enabling plant
propagation and growth (Huxley and Griffiths 1992). This
plant can tolerate a wide range of climatic and soil types
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Fig. 3 Potential benefits of gorse to invaded ecosystems (PC: a., b., e., and f. Hansani S. S. Daluwatta Galappaththi; c. Dr. Ruchira Somaweera;
d. Paul Barret)
even disturbed and unproductive geographical areas (Matthews 1982; McAlpine et al. 2009). Gorse produces a higher
litter amount that regulates the soil organic matter. This high
litterfall increases the available nutrients for plant growth
and influences the carbon cycle (Ganjegunte et al. 2005). For
instance, 7 – 8 years old gorse plants produce approximately
9000 kg ha−1 of annual litterfall at Taita-Kenya (Egunjobi
1969). Lee et al. (1986) found that gorse densities of 60000
stem ha–1 produce a litter depth of 55 mm on mature sites in
Dunedin, New Zealand.
With aid of high N fixation, the capability of developing,
stabilizing, and enriching the poor soil, and early colonization, U. europaeus can support forest regeneration, acting as a nurse plant for the restoration of disturbed areas.
Especially, the gorse vegetation provides shelter for native
seedlings and allows more light penetration to the ground
level when they mature. These qualities allow the gorse plant
to act as a pioneer transient successional species which ultimately replaced by the native plant species (Druce 1957;
Healy 1961; Hackwell 1980; Lee et al. 1986; Wilson 1990a,
1994b; Clements et al. 2001; Harris et al. 2004; Sullivan
et al. 2007; CRFRP 2013). For instance, many studies have
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shown that gorse is a pioneer successional species in disturbed geographical areas by fire, mining, or logging in Australia, China, and New Zealand (Egunjobi 1969; Zabkiewicz
1976; Roberts et al. 1981; Hill et al. 2001; Johnson 2001).
As a habitat for wildlife
The faunal diversity of a particular habitat would also
depend on the soil type, topography, levels of grazing, and
drainage of the associated habitat (KWT 2021). Wildlife
tends to select a suitable habitat considering food availability, predator pressure, and other factors that affect the
survival of their subsequent generations (Somaweera et al.
2012). The presence of few common gorse plants in scrub
successional habitats aids in the existence and maintenance
of wildlife (KWT 2021). Dense gorse vegetation provides
a safe living habitat for wild fauna including birds, reptiles, and invertebrates (Tubbs 1974; Gouldthorpe 2009).
A substantial number of studies have been done to discuss
the habitat preference and influence of gorse vegetation on
different faunal groups and this information is summarized
below. However, the available literature is not sufficient to
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understand the broader impact of gorse vegetation as shelters
for wildlife in all regions of the world.
Vertebrates
a. Mammals
Common gorse provides food for a wide range of mammals, especially in introduced geographical areas. Bao et al.
(1998) explained that Ulex was used as a protein source of
animal foods. This plant has good digestibility with a useful
amount of protein and significant sodium content (Jobson
and Thomas 1964; Atlan et al. 2015a). For instance, young
shoots of gorse provide an alternative food source for Sambar Deer (Cervus unicolour) in Horton Plains National Park,
Sri Lanka, which is a vulnerable species native to South
and Southeast Asia (Sankar and Acharyal 2004; Somaweera
et al. 2012; Timmins et al. 2015). Other livestock such as
ponies, horses, cattle, sheep, and goats also consume gorse
fodder in its introduced ranges including Chile, Brazil,
Australia, and New Zealand (Thomson 1922; Jobson and
Thomas 1964; Tubbs 1974; Radcliffe 1985; Sandrey 1987;
Howe et al. 1988; Lambert et al. 1989; Popay and Field
1996; Norambuena et al. 2000; Parsons and Cuthbertson
2001; Cordero et al. 2016; Broadfield and McHenry 2019).
The gorse fodder would strengthen the conditions of horses
and the quantity and quality of cow and sheep milk (Atlan
et al. 2015b). It is reported that mammals selectively feed
on different life stages of the gorse plant. For example, cows
preferentially feed on gorse seedlings while sheep and horses
have been reported to feed on mature plants (Cordero et al.
2016). Cowan (1990) has carried out a study in New Zealand
to find the diet of brushtail possums (Tnchosurus vulpecula)
that is an introduced species to New Zealand, native to Australia. The study has shown that these marsupials feed on
the seeds and the flowers of U. europaeus. A subspecies of
them is Trichosurus vulpecula vulpecula which is considered
as a threatened species of the Northern Territory of Australia
(Pavey and Ward 2012). Since common gorse is also present
in Australia as an invasive weed, this subspecies may also
feed on the plant. Thus, it is worthwhile to investigate more
about their diet and habitat related to common gorse for the
conservation of T. vulpecula vulpecula. Further, in case of
the plant’s native range, wild herbivores, such as red deer
(Cervus elaphus L.), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.), and
rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.) (González-Hernandez and
Silva-Pando 1996, 1999; Alves et al. 2006), and domestic
ungulates, such as goats, sheep, cows, and horses are known
to feed on the common gorse plant (Putman et al. 1987;
Howe et al. 1988; Clements et al. 2001; Atlan et al. 2015a).
b. Birds
Quails and Chickens are known to associate with common gorse as they prefer to consume gorse seeds (Chater
1931; Clements et al. 2001). Amaya-Villarreal et al. (2010)
reported that Diglossa humeralis (Black Flower Piercer)
and Basileuterus nigrocristatus (Black-crested l), which
are South American species, mostly prefer and are highly
abundant in forest edges, invaded by Ulex. According to
Carlos and Gibson (2010), a high bird abundance and richness have been recorded in gorse invaded areas in Victoria
State, Australia. Despite its invasive nature, the common
gorse has created ideal habitats for these avian species. In
Tasmania, gorse vegetation has maintained a high forest
bird biodiversity by preventing the invasion of the noisy
miner (Manorina melanocephala) and providing secure
ground habitat for nationally vulnerable eastern barred
bandicoot (Perameles gunnii) (MacDonald 2001; Galea
2003). RSPB (2021) reported that compact common gorse
vegetation facilitates ideal nesting sites for birds such as
Dartford warbler (Sylvia undata), stonechat (Saxicola
rubicola). Linnet (Linaria cannabina), and yellowhammer
(Emberiza citronella). These habitats provide protective
environments during extreme weather conditions (RSPB
2021). Gorse flowers supply year-round nectar and pollen for invertebrates including bees and butterflies (STRI
2021; Woodland Trust 2021).
c. Reptiles
Grown common gorse vegetation provides protective
shelters for ectothermic reptiles as such habitats minimize
extreme evaporation. Therefore, reptiles such as sand lizards, grass snakes, adders, and smooth snakes are favoring
the dense common gorse vegetation (Edgar et al. 2010).
The voids among the common gorse roots are known to
be used by many reptiles for hibernation while the thorny,
prickly edges provide protective basking sites for reptiles
(Edgar et al. 2010). For instance, the Black-cheeked Lizard
(Calotes nigrilabris) is an endemic, nationally threatened
and vulnerable lizard in Sri Lanka. This lizard has been
found to inhabit common gorse where they have favorable
microhabitat conditions (Jayasekara et al. 2019). This lizard experiences less predator pressure under U. europaeus
bushes as they create dense spiny, vegetation. Further, the
body color of the lizard is blended with the gorse plant
which protects them from predators (Jayasekara et al.
2019). It has also been shown that C. nigrilabris feeds
on the honey bees, butterflies, and other insects that visit
the gorse plant (Somaweera et al. 2012). The findings of
the above studies provide promising information about the
use of common gorse habitats by a wide range of reptiles.
Invertebrates‑arthropods
A wide range of arthropods, especially, insect assemblages
have been identified as associated with U. europaeus. Most
of the literature extractions provide information of arthropod
interactions with the plant in its’ native range (Hill 1982;
Stone 1986; Hill et al. 2000; Hill et al. 2001; Hornoy et al.
13
Tropical Ecology
2013a). The whole plant (roots, leaves, spines, stems, shoots,
flowers, and seeds) contains edible parts for both adults and
larval stages of arthropods. Dead plant material also provides a great source for detritus utilizing arthropods (Harris et al. 2004). Some of them have been recorded to feed
on common gorse exclusively, while generalist feeders may
prefer to feed on the plant only when other food is becoming
scarce (Hill 1982; Stone 1986; Harman et al. 1996; Hill et al.
2000; Clements et al. 2001; Sixtus 2004; Davies et al. 2005;
Hayes 2007; Hornoy et al. 2013a).
This plant provides a range of oviposition and development sites for all insect life stages. Seed pods and plant
surfaces especially, leaves and spine axils, mature spines,
shoots, slits within young stem are suitable sites for egg
deposition and development (Davies 1928; Cowley 1983;
Markin and Yoshioka 1996; Norambuena et al. 2004; Davies
et al. 2005; Andreas et al. 2017). Some arthropods like moth
larvae and mites create their webs among branches of the
common gorse plant. Especially, terminal branches of the
plant are used as a substrate for this fauna for web-spinning
(Hill and O'Donnell 1991; Sixtus 2004; Marriott et al. 2013).
Some weevils take advantage of the seed hurling and bursting mechanisms of common gorse. This aids in them to disperse away from the host plant (Davies 1928). It is expected
that given the variety of resources offered by gorse, local
arthropods in their invasive ranges would make use of these
abundant and readily available resources.
Harris et al. (2004) described the arthropod species
associated with U. europaeus-invaded shrublands in New
Zealand. The gorse habitat was species-rich compared
with native vegetation (kānuka) for various insect groups
including tachinid flies (parasitoids), fungus gnats (detritivores), and beetles (herbivores). Interestingly, some native
New Zealand herbivores were only found in the gorse study
area, for instance, the lepidopterans Pyroderces anarithma
Meyrick (Cosmopterigidae), Eutorna phaulocosma Meyrick
(Depressariidae), Musotima nitidalis Walker (Crambidae),
Sestra humeraria Walker (Geometridae), and the coleopteran Sharpius brouni Sharp (Anthribidae). This suggests
that some native species may be undergoing host-plant shifts
and that some groups benefit particularly from the resources
offered by this invasive plant.
Nectar foraging insects, especially honey bees (Apis
mellifera) and bumblebees (Bombus terrestris), have been
identified as major pollinators of the common gorse in Western France where the plant is native (Bowman et al. 2008).
The plant acts as a rewarding plant for bees as it provides
both nectar and pollen (Sixtus 2004; Bowman et al. 2008).
Plant nectar supplies majorly carbohydrates for the hives
whereas pollen provides protein and vitamin requirements
for the hives (Koning 1994). Gorse pollen is majorly used
by bees to feed their larval stages (Bowman et al. 2008).
However, more studies need to be done in order to identify
13
the arthropods associated with invaded tropical countries
and other temperate regions.
Fungi and microorganisms
Johnston et al. (1995) have described more than 20 fungal
species that use gorse as a host plant for their life cycle.
Uromyces pisi is one of them and subspecies have been identified as relatively specific to the gorse plant in the native
range of the plant (Hill et al. 2000, 2008; Andreas et al.
2017). Further, it is a well-known fact that gorse harbors
symbiotic N-fixing bacteria (Franche et al. 2009). However,
very little is known about gorse-microorganisms/fungal
interactions in its invaded ranges. Further investigations are
required to address this knowledge gap.
Human uses
In the past, common gorse flowers were used to prepare
colorings, while seeds were used to produce pesticides to
control fleas (Grieve 1984). These fire-prone plants were
used for kindling and heating the ovens. The ashes of the
burnt wood are fertilizer for plant growth. They are rich in
Potassium and mixed with vegetable oils or clay to produce
soaps. Especially in Caldey Island, Wales, UK, this plant
is used to produce, perfumes, soaps, and bath oils (Johnson and Sowrby 1899; Bean 1981; Grieve 1984; Freethy
1985; Miller and Murthy 2009). Common gorse makes
spiny thickets that can face external forces very well. Thus
the plant has been used as hedges for shelter and as a barrier to the wind forces especially in maritime ranges (Rosewarne Experimental Horticultural Station 1984; Hill and
Sandrey 1986; Huxley and Griffiths 1992; Magesan et al.
2012). Some parts of the common gorse are apt for human
consumption. The flower buds are used to make pickles with
vinegar that is preferably used like capers in salads (Facciola
1990), while shoot tips are consumed as tea (Kunkel 1984;
Facciola 1990). Gorse pollen plays a vital role in the beekeeping industry. Brood rearing of honeybee colonies has
been proven to be entirely dependent on the gorse pollen as
the plant produces high-quality pollen throughout the year
(Sandrey 1985). Hill and Sandrey (1986) have described
that beekeepers may suffer economically if the U. europaeus
plant is highly controlled in areas where it is integrated with
apicultural practices.
Further, common gorse has drawn interest due to its
medicinal, immunological, and biochemical values. Flowers have been used to treat jaundice and scarlet fever in
children. Seeds are used against diarrhea and gall stones
(Grieve 1984). The plant is also used in Bach Flower Remedies (Chancellor 1985). The Lectin extraction from the
U. europaeus seeds known as Ulex europaeus I agglutinin
Tropical Ecology
(UEA I) has a high demand in immune biology. It is used
to determine the A and AB blood groups, diagnose the
secretor status, and as a marker for human endothelium
vascular tissue lesions (Boyd and Shapleigh 1954a, 1954b;
Holthöfer et al. 1982; Jackson et al. 1990; Uchida et al.
1997; Rodd and Boissonade 2005; Clini Sciences 2021).
The volatile compounds of the Ulex plant give a high
fuel load especially through their branches and litter layer
(Anderson and Anderson 2009). A total of 46 – 52 t ha−1
of fuel load has been calculated within common gorse
shrublands in Spain (Vega et al. 2005). In New Zealand, a
total of 26 – 74 t ha−1 of fuel load has been reported from
a range of gorse sampling sites (Anderson and Anderson
2009). Núñez-Moreno et al. (2020) has evaluated the
potential use of the common gorse plant as a biofuel in
Colombia. According to the findings of their study, the
generated solid biofuel of common gorse has 75% carbon
heat value, 83.3% of highly volatile material content, and
1.41% and 0.15% of ash and Sulphur residues, respectively. Therefore there is a possibility of biofuel production using common gorse that would be an alternative ecofriendly renewable energy source particularly in countries
that have fuel shortages.
Ligero et al. (2011) reported that the common gorse plant
contains 12% of Xylose, suggesting its use as a promising
biomass source to extract Xylan-associated compounds.
These compounds are widely used in food, plastic, papermaking, and textile printing industries as a thickener, additive, emulsifier, protein foam stabilizer, and a food preservative (Ebringerová et al. 1994, 1995; Hromadkova et al. 1999;
Ünlü et al. 2009; Li et al. 2011). The extractions of aerial
parts (flowers, leaves) and root barks of U. europaeus consist of phenolic compounds such as flavone, isoflavones,
and flavanones that have high pharmacological relevance
(Spínola et al. 2016). Minor amounts of other phenolic acids
such as caffeic, coumaric, ferulic, and saponins have also
been detected from this plant (Russell et al. 1990; Máximo
et al. 2002; Spínola et al. 2016). These phenolic compounds
have insecticidal and antioxidant properties (Máximo et al.
2002; Lopez-Hortas et al. 2016). Moreover, the phenolic
compounds present in the common gorse suggest the bioherbicidal properties of this plant. In in vitro bioassays,
the extraction from the flowering foliage of common gorse
inhibited the germination and early growth of agricultural
weeds i.e. Amaranthus retroflexus and Digitaria sanguinalis
(Pardo-Muras et al. 2020).
In addition, Tighe-Neira et al. (2016) described the potential use of aqueous extraction of the common gorse as a fortificant in agronomy. Extractions of U. europaeus stimulate
the green and dry matter of Capsicum annuum L. seedlings.
The plant can also be used to obtain biochar through pyrolysis which is useful to purify wastewater. For instance, common gorse biochar has been proven as an effective sorbent
for chromium in Bogotá-Colombia River Water (Gomez
et al. 2021). Moreover, Celis et al. (2014) and Pesenti et al.
(2017) have assessed the capability of production of biofiber/biopolymer using U. europaeus in Chile while Bonilla
and Bonilla (2021) have synthesized novel lignin-based
biopolymer in Colombia. These studies proved that the
biopolymer of common gorse is thermally stable and has
a high degree of crystallinity. An interesting study done by
Jobson and Thomas in 1964 reported that the common gorse
plant contains crude protein (13.6%), fat (1.9%), nitrogen
(46.3%), fiber (34.7%), ash (3.5%), and silica (0.3%). Miller
and Murthy (2009) have tested and proved the plant’s potential use in the production of oil, ethanols, hexanes, and dyes.
Spectrophotometric analysis of the above study showed the
high light absorption levels at visible wavelengths depicting
the plant’s potential use in the production of dyes.
Genetic diversity and evolution
of life‑history traits of common gorse
The environmental and ecological factors in introduced areas
are different from the native ranges of any introduced species. The existence and the colonization of exotic species
in novel habitats are assured by the phenotypic plasticity
and the adaptability of any organism (Davidson et al. 2011;
Ebeling et al. 2011; Zhao et al. 2013; Griffith et al. 2014).
Many studies have been done to understand the genetic
diversity and evolution of life history which influences the
persistence of invasive species in introduced geographical
ranges (Hornoy et al. 2013b; Udo et al. 2017). According
to Hornoy et al. (2013b), the genetic diversity within the
population of common gorse is significantly high. This
study has emphasized that the introduction of common
gorse into new geographical areas resulted in the loss of
some rare alleles and the reduction of genetic diversity. For
instance, a significant reduction in the genetic diversity was
reported when the plant naturally spread out from Spain
towards northern Europe (Hornoy et al. 2013b). In addition, Hozawa and Nawata (2020) have reported the genetic
diversity of common gorse in Maui, California, Hawaii, and
New Zealand. These authors reported that the most similar genetic diversity of U. europaeus sampled in these four
introduced regions. Studies have reported the genetic variations associated with seedlings and seed mass of common
gorse as well (Hornoy et al. 2011; Atlan et al. 2015a; Udo
et al. 2017). A study done by Udo et al. (2017) compared the
seed germination strategies of common gorse in the native
range (France) and an invaded area (Reunion). The results
have shown the faster germination of the variety from the
invaded area. Atlan et al. (2010) reported the genetic differences between flowering types of common gorse. These
studies further reported the evolution of life-history traits
13
Tropical Ecology
that enhance the fitness of these plants. Atlan et al. (2015c)
have assessed the phenotypic plasticity of common gorse in
reproductive traits response to shading. The results of this
study have found that the dense shade decreases flower and
pod production of common gorse.
Mapping aspects of common gorse
Due to the high impact of invasive species on the economy, ecology, and the environment of the invaded country
(Pimentel et al. 2000; Simberloff 2011; Paz-Kagan et al.
2019), predictions of the negative impact of the invasive species are crucially important in minimizing the ecological as
well as economic impacts (Early and Sax 2014; Paini et al.
2016; Bekele et al. 2018). The early detection and prevention
of invasive species spreading are vital to ensure biosecurity
as well (Zimmermann et al. 2007; Pyšek and Richardson
2010; Paz-Kagan et al. 2019). For early detection and also to
propose action plans in mitigating negative impacts, species
distribution modelings (SDM) together with satellite images
and remotes sensing data have taken an increased interest
(Phillips et al. 2006; Elith and Leathwick 2009; Gränzig
et al. 2021). Mapping of the distribution of common gorse
in diverse geographical areas is, therefore, in high demand
(Gomes et al. 2018; Thapa et al. 2018; Gränzig et al. 2021).
Many studies have already reported the significant contribution of GIS and other mapping systems in minimizing gorse invasion. For instance, Gränzig et al. (2021) has
shown the potential application of Sentinel-2 imagery and
the unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) orthoimages to determine the distribution patterns of common gorse in Chile.
The investigation based on SDM has been done by Christina
et al. (2020) to predict the climatic niche changes of common gorse in the native range and the introduced areas. The
findings forecast the niche expansion of common gorse in
49%, 111%, 202%, and 283% in Australia, North Europe,
North-West America, and South America, respectively.
Kariyawasam and Ratnayake (2019a) have done a Maxent
model-based study for the common gorse distribution in
South Australia and Sri Lanka. According to these findings,
common gorse is predicted to be distributed widely in the
Mount Lofty Ranges and Kangaroo Island areas of South
Australia. Further, Rees and Hill (2001) developed a model
to determine the biological control of common gorse via
seed-feeding. The available literature suggests that the integration of GIS and mathematical modeling in understanding
the invasion potential of invasive species is an emerging but
important field of science (Kariyawasam et al. 2021).
13
Invasive and native common gorse:
a comparative analysis
The comparative studies of invasive species in their native/
introduced area are important to understand the effect of
ecological and socioeconomic impacts as an invasive species to the invaded ecosystems (Vilà et al. 2010). Such studies have been extensively done for many invasive species
(Hinz and Schwarzlaender 2004; Flores-Moreno et al. 2013),
but only a few studies have been done for common gorse.
According to the study conducted by Medina-Villar et al.
(2021), the physical defenses of common gorse in its invaded
range (Chile) are significantly higher as compared to the
native range (Spain). This study suggests biomass and the
size of the thorns of U. europaeus are higher in the invaded
range. Further, the spine density of the seedling stages in
the invaded range is comparatively higher than in the native
range. The outcomes of these studies are explained by the
Enemy Release Hypothesis (ERH) which is the lower pressure of herbivores in the invaded areas drives the low investment in physical defenses while giving priority to growth
and reproduction. Similar observations were reported from
the studies done by Hornoy et al. (2011, 2012). In accordance with this study, the seedlings of the common gorse
plant in the invaded ranges were taller compared to the
native range. However, the insect infestation rates and defensive alkaloids concentrations were observed to be similar
in both invaded and native regions. La Pierre et al. (2017),
has compared the rhizobia association of three invasive legumes (Genista monspessulana, Spartium junceum, and Ulex
europaeus) and six native legumes (Acmispon glaber, A.
heermannii, A. micranthus, A. strigosus, Lupinus arboreus,
and L. bicolor) in the San Francisco, California, USA. The
outcome of this study reported that common gorse does not
have an association with the mutualists of local native legumes of San Francisco region, although there is a possibility
for such formations.
Morais et al. (2012) conducted a study to evaluate the
salinity tolerance capability of U. europaeus (native to Portugal) and Acacia longifolia (invasive to Portugal). This
study reported that salinity tolerance ability of U. europaeus is relatively less in its native range than when it is
co-occurring with the invasive Acacia longifolia. Moreover,
a comparative study done to compare the plant vegetative
size and soil seed bank of U. europaeus in its native range
and the invaded ranges showed that relatively larger seed
banks in invaded ranges than on the native range (Bakker
et al. 2019). Larger maternal plant size, lower activity of
seed predators, and higher soil fertility in the invaded areas
were suggested as the potential reasons for these variations.
According to Atlan et al. (2015a), the common gorse plant
shows similar self-fertility levels in both native and invaded
Tropical Ecology
ranges whereas seed mass and the seed germination rate
is relatively high in invaded areas compared to the native
regions.
Discussion and research needs
Table 1 summarizes the research work that has been done
to understand the ecology and biology of common gorse as
well as the assessment of invasion of the plant to diverse
ecosystems and the control measures that have been taken
so far
In this review, we summarize the outcomes of the studies
on U. europaeus (Table 1). Many studies have been done
to determine the biology and invasiveness of gorse plants
(~ 27%). A significant number of studies have discussed the
different control strategies against the plant as a major invasive weed around the globe (Table 1: 1, 7, 49 and 59). A considerable amount of studies have been done to understand
the impacts of common gorse on the ecosystems (~ 31%)
and their potential human uses (~ 23%) (Table 1). There is
ample evidence from the previous studies to evaluate the
negative impact of common gorse on various ecosystems
(i.e. change of soil profile, effect on natural water bodies
and water quality, fire hazards, invasion to agricultural lands,
and threats to flora and fauna). Previous studies have also
discussed the impact on the economy via mitigations plans
in eradicating and controlling U. europaeus (Table 1: 35,
36 and 66). However, some studies have clearly discussed
the beneficial role of this plant in disturbed ecosystems as
a pioneer successional species (plays a significant role in
rebuilding the health of disturbed soils), the survival and
fitness of native flora and fauna (providing habitats, shelter, food, and protection) (Table 1: 8, 29 and 39). Although
currently, U. europaeus is considered as a major invasive
plant, it was previously introduced into new regions due to
its potential value for human uses. The plant has a demand
for human food and livestock fodder due to its high amount
of nutritional components. Mature plants can sustain against
high wind forces as they grow into dense spiny thickets.
The U. europaeus thickets, therefore, are still widely used
for hedge and fencing purposes. Furthermore, the plant is
useful for many manufacturing companies due to its medicinal and pharmacological value. The chemical extracts of the
plant parts are used in many industries for the production
of soaps, fragrances, and oils. Biochar, biopolymer, biofuel
production are recent additions to industrial uses (Table 1:
55, 71, 72, 73 and 84).
The success of common gorse in introduced ranges is
strongly associated with its remarkable life-history traits
including genetic diversity, large seed bank, rapid seed
germinations, and fast growth rates even in disturbed soils
(Table 1: 89 and 93). Some studies have been done to compare the life-history traits of U. europaeus in native and
invaded rages (Table 1: 90, 91 and 98), however, more studies are needed for a proper understanding of the adaptive
traits of this plant. A few studies have been conducted on
the modeling of distribution patterns of this plant (Table 1:
4, 5 and 64). A significant number of studies have been done
in New Zealand, followed by Spain, Chile, and Australia
to understand the biology, ecology, life-history traits, and
control of this plant, however, more studies are needed in
tropical ranges where the plant is widely distributed.
This review, based on the available literature, suggests
that there are significant knowledge gaps in understanding the positive and negative effects of common gorse on
invaded ecosystems. Below, we briefly identify some areas
that need to be further explored.
More studies are required to determine the effect of
common gorse on the health of the soil and the soil fauna.
Studies aiming at the impact of common gorse on the nutrient cycling of the soil and the diversity, distribution, and
abundance of soil fauna that are associated with the gorse
roots are topics needed to be discussed. Such studies will
provide crucial information about the population structure
of soil fauna in common gorse invaded areas. Furthermore,
the impact of common gorse and its derivatives on the
pathogens that are associated with native plants is also an
important topic to be investigated. There are also gaps in
understanding the interactions between the microorganisms
such as fungi and bacteria with the invaded common gorse.
More studies on flowering and nectar production of
common gorse plants and the interactions with honeybees
and native pollinators are crucial for the bee-keeping industry. Competing traits of this plant and the identification of
co-existing native plants are another important aspect that
needs more attention. A deep understanding of the interactions of common gorse with the animal communities
in the ecosystem needs further attention. Such studies are
important in understanding the effect of common gorse
on endemic, endangered, and rare organisms in the native
range. The biochemistry of the plant as well as the genetic
composition which allows this plant to become a successful
competitor in diverse ecological conditions are also poorly
understood. More studies on the biochemistry of this plant
will allow the identification of any toxic effects of the plant
derivatives on the native organisms in the introduced range.
Investigations on the bioactive compounds of this plant
will be useful for drug production, vaccine development,
and other pharmaceutical uses. Additionally, the economic
importance of the common gorse as fuel, food, or medicine
is yet to be addressed critically.
Furthermore, more systematic studies are important for
effective control of common gorse in invaded lands. Continuous monitoring plans are required to assess the impact
13
13
Table 1 Summary of the literature review of biology, ecology, and invasiveness of common gorse (U. europaeus)
Research Topic
Research Area
References
1
Global
Biological control of gorse
Hill et al. (2008)
2
Global
Review
Identifying the status of gorse in different
countries
Gorse ecology and management
Atlan and Udo (2019)
3
Broadfield and McHenry (2019)
4
Global
Niche shift and distribution maps
Christina et al. (2020)
5
Review
Gorse biology, distribution, and management
Roberts and Florentine (2021)
6
New Zealand
Biological control of gorse
Davies (1928)
7
New Zealand
Natural control of gorse
Chater (1931)
8
New Zealand
Gorse as a pioneer successional species
Egunjobi (1969)
9
New Zealand
Gorse ecology
Zabkiewicz (1976)
10
New Zealand
Biological control of gorse
MacCarter and Gaynor (1980)
11
New Zealand
Biological control of gorse
Cowley (1983)
12
New Zealand
Gorse biology, benefits and control
Zabkiewica (1984)
13
New Zealand
Biological control of gorse
Radcliffe 1985
14
New Zealand
Biological control of gorse
Sandrey (1986)
15
New Zealand
Biological control of gorse
Sandrey (1987)
16
New Zealand
A global view of the future for biological
control of gorse, Ulex europaeus L.
The invasive niche, a multidisciplinary concept illustrated by gorse (Ulex europaeus)
A world of gorse: persistence of Ulex europaeus in managed landscapes
Climatic niche shift of an invasive shrub
(Ulex europaeus): a global scale comparison in native and introduced regions
Biology, distribution, and control of the
invasive species Ulex europaeus (Gorse):
A global synthesis of current and future
management challenges and research gaps
The bionomics of Apion ulicis Först (gorse
weevil), with special reference to its role
in the control of Ulex europaeus in New
Zealand 1
A contribution to the study of the natural
control of gorse
Dry matter and nitrogen accumulation in
secondary successions involving gorse
(Ulex europaeus L.) and associated shrubs
and trees
The ecology of gorse and its relevance to
New Zealand forestry
Gorse: a subject for biological control in
New Zealand
Life cycle of Apion ulicis (Coleoptora:
Apionidae) and gorse seed attack around
Auckland, New Zealand
Gorse control in New Zealand forestry-the
biology and the benefits
Grazing management of goats and sheep for
gorse control
Biological control of gorse, an ex-ante
evaluation
Gorse and goats: considerations for biological control of gorse
The costs and benefits of gorse
Costs and benefits of gorse
Hill and Sandrey (1986)
Tropical Ecology
Reference No Country/Region
13
Reference No Country/Region
Research Topic
Research Area
References
17
New Zealand
Gorse as a pioneer successional plant
Lee et al. (1986)
18
New Zealand
Gorse biochemistry
Howe et al. (1988)
19
New Zealand
Gorse control
Krause et al. 1988
20
New Zealand
Impacts on the ecosystem
Lambert et al. (1989)
21
22
23
New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand
Gorse biochemistry and human uses
Impacts on the ecosystem
Gorse-fungal associations
Russell et al. (1990)
Wilson (1990a)
Johnston et al. (1995)
24
New Zealand
Biological control of gorse
Harman et al. (1996)
25
New Zealand
Impacts of gorse on growth suppression of
introduced plants
Richardson et al. (1996)
26
New Zealand
Biological control of gorse
Hill et al. (2000)
27
New Zealand
Biological control/modeling
Rees and Hill (2001)
28
New Zealand
Vegetation recovery after fire
Johnson (2001)
29
New Zealand
Gorse-insect associations
Harris et al. (2004)
30
New Zealand
Biological control of gorse
Sixtus (2004)
31
New Zealand
As a pioneer successional plant
Sullivan et al. (2007)
32
New Zealand
Biosecurity study
Barker 2008
33
New Zealand
Succession and dynamics of gorse (Ulex
europaeus L.) communities in the dunedin
ecological district South Island, New
Zealand
Voluntary intake and digestion of gorse
(Ulex europaeus) by goats and sheep
Control of gorse in hill country: an economic assessment of chemical and biological methods
Forage shrubs in North Island hill country 1.
Forage production
Isoflavones from root bark of gorse
Gorse on Hinewai Reserve
Fungi associated with gorse and broom in
New Zealand
Arthropod introductions for biological control of weeds in New Zealand
Mechanisms of Pinus radiata growth suppression by some common forest weed
species
The biological control program against gorse
in New Zealand
Large-scale disturbances, biological control
and the dynamics of gorse populations
Vegetation recovery after fire on a southern
New Zealand peatland
Insect assemblages in a native (kanuka–
Kunzea ericoides) and an invasive (gorse–
Ulex europaeus) shrubland
An investigation of the life history of the
gorse pod moth (Cydia succedana) and
its effectiveness at reducing gorse (Ulex
europaeus) seed production
Secondary forest succession differs through
naturalised gorse and native kānuka near
Wellington and Nelson
Flexible boundaries in biosecurity: accommodating gorse in Aotearoa New Zealand
Invasive legumes fix N2 at high rates in
riparian areas of an N‐saturated, agricultural catchment
Nitrogen fixation
Drake (2011)
Tropical Ecology
Table 1 (continued)
13
Table 1 (continued)
Reference No Country/Region
Research Topic
Research Area
References
34
New Zealand
Nitrogen fixation
Magesan et al. (2012)
35
New Zealand
Nitrogen fixation
Mason et al. (2016)
36
Canada
Impacts on the forests
Zielke et al. 1992
37
Canada
38
Canada
39
Sri Lanka
40
Sri Lanka
41
South Australia,
Sri Lanka
42
South Australia,
Sri Lanka
43
Australia
44
Australia
45
Australia
46
Australia
47
Tasmania
Nitrogen cycling in gorse-dominated ecosystems in New Zealand
Catchment-scale contribution of invasive
nitrogen fixing shrubs to nitrate leaching: a
scoping study
Broom and gorse: a forestry perspective
problemanalysis
The biology of Canadian weeds 112 Ulex
europaeus L
Predicting the elevated dead fine fuel moisture content in gorse (Ulex europaeus L.)
shrub fuels
Does the invasive shrub Ulex europaeus
benefit an endemic Sri Lankan lizard
Microhabitat Utilisation of Endemic Lizard
Calotes nigrilabris in the Grasslands of
Horton Plains National Park, Sri Lanka
Invasive ranges of Ulex europaeus
(Fabaceae) in South Australia and Sri
Lanka using species distribution modeling
Reproductive biology of gorse, Ulex europaeus (Fabaceae) in the mount lofty ranges
of South Australia and Sri Lanka
Binding of human endothelium to Ulex
europaeus I-coated Dynabeads: application
to the isolation of microvascular endothelium
The biology of Australian weeds. 34. Ulex
europaeus L.
The habitat value of gorse Ulex europaeus
L. and hawthorn Crataegus monogyna
jacq. for birds in Quarry Hills bushland
park, Victoria
Effects of Tetranychus lintearius (Acari:
Tetranychidae) on the structure and water
potential in the foliage of the invasive Ulex
europaeus (Fabaceae) in Australia
Response of small mammals to site characteristics in the Northern Midlands of
Tasmania
Gorse biology and impacts on the ecosystem Clements et al. (2001)
Predicting the fuel moisture content of gorse Anderson and Anderson (2009)
Gorse as a habitat for Sri Lankan lizard
Somaweera et al. (2012)
Gorse as a habitat for Sri Lankan lizard
Jayasekara et al. (2019)
Distribution and Mapping of common gorse Kariyawasam and Ratnayake (2019a)
Kariyawasam and Ratnayake (2019b)
Immunological uses
Jackson et al. 1990
Gorse biology
Richardson and Hill (1998)
Gorse-bird associations
Carlos and Gibson (2010)
Gorse- Tetranychus lintearius associations
Marriott et al. (2013)
Gorse-small mammal associations
Galea (2003)
Tropical Ecology
Gorse biology
13
Reference No Country/Region
Research Topic
Research Area
References
48
Tasmania
Biological control of gorse
Davies et al. (2005)
49
50
Tasmania
South Africa
Gorse biology and control
Assessment of invasiveness and management of gorse
Gouldthorpe 2009
Mbatha (2016)
51
Hawaii
Biological control of gorse
Markin and Yoshioka (1996)
52
Hawaii
Ecological features of gorse
Leary et al. (2006)
53
USA
Gorse biochemistry and human uses
Boyd and Shapleigh (1954a)
54
USA
Gorse biochemistry and human uses
Boyd and Shapleigh (1954b)
55
USA
Human uses—oil and volatile extractions
Miller and Murthy (2009)
56
USA
Gorse biology and controlling
Andreas et al. (2017)
57
USA
Gorse-mutualistic associations
La Pierre et al. (2017)
58
Chile
Biological control of gorse
Norambuena et al. (2000)
59
Chile
Biological control of gorse
Norambuena et al. 2004
60
Chile
Fiber production from gorse
Celis et al. (2014)
61
Chile
The impact of gorse thrips, ryegrass competition, and simulated grazing on gorse
seedling performance in a controlled
environment
Gorse-national best practice manual
Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius (L.) link)
and gorse (Ulex europaeus L.) in South
Africa: an assessment of invasiveness,
management options and feasibility for
countrywide eradication
Introduction and establishment of the biological control agent Apion ulicis (Forster)
(Coleoptera: Apionidae) for control of the
weed gorse (Ulex europaeus L.) in Hawaii
The major features of an infestation by the
invasive weed legume gorse (Ulex europaeus) on volcanic soils in Hawaii
Diagnosis of subgroups of blood groups
A and AB by use of plant agglutinins
(lectins)
Separation of individuals of any blood group
into secretors and non-secretors by use of a
plant agglutinin (lectin)
Recovering valuable products from Gorse
(Ulex europaeus)
Biology and biological control of common
gorse and scotch broom
Invasive legumes can associate with many
mutualists of native legumes, but usually
do not
The biocontrol of gorse, Ulex europaeus, in
Chile: a progress report
Release strategies for the moth Agonopterix
ulicetella in the biological control of Ulex
europaeus in Chile
Characterizing cellulosic fibers from Ulex
europaeus
The invasive species Ulex europaeus
(Fabaceae) shows high dynamism in a
fragmented landscape of south-central
Chile
Landscape characteristics with gorse distribution
Altamirano et al. (2016)
Tropical Ecology
Table 1 (continued)
13
Table 1 (continued)
Reference No Country/Region
Research Topic
Research Area
References
62
Chile
As a growth promoter of biomass production of the plants
Tighe-Neira et al. (2016)
63
Chile
Fibreboard production
Pesenti et al. (2017)
64
Chile
65
Chile/Spain
66
Southern Brazil
67
Southern Brazil
68
Colombia
69
Colombia
70
Colombia
71
Colombia
72
Colombia
73
Colombia
74
UK
Effects of extracts of Ulex europaeus L.
on the biomass production in chilipepper
(Capsicum annuum L.) seedlings, under
laboratory conditions
Exploring Ulex europaeus to produce nontoxic binderless fibreboard
Mapping the fractional coverage of the
invasive shrub Ulex europaeus with
multi-temporal Sentinel-2 imagery utilizing UAV orthoimages and a new spatial
optimization approach
The green thorns of Ulex europaeus play
both defensive and photosynthetic roles:
consequences for predictions of the Enemy
Release Hypothesis
Invasive gorse (Ulex europaeus, Fabaceae)
changes plant community structure in
subtropical forest–grassland mosaics of
southern Brazil
Analyzing the landscape characteristics
promoting the establishment and spread of
gorse (Ulex europaeus) along roadsides
Effects of gorse (Ulex europaeus) on the
birds of a high Andean forest edge
Evaluation of the current successional stage of restored areas previously
invaded by Ulex europaeus L.
Evaluation of the energy potential of the
gorse (Ulex europaeus) in the generation
of electrical energy by gasification
Analysis of the feasibility of generating solid
biofuel from Ulex europaeus plants
Synthesis and characterization of a novel
Lignin-based biopolymer from Ulex europaeus: A Preliminary Study
Use of the Biochar obtained by slow pyrolysis from Ulex europaeus in the removal of
total Chromium from the Bogotá-Colombia River Water
Mechanism of acidification of soil by Calluna and Ulex and the significance for
conservation
Distribution and Mapping of common gorse Gränzig et al. (2021)
Medina-Villar et al. (2021)
Impacts of gorse on the plant communities
Cordero et al. (2016)
Landscape characteristics and gorse distribution
León Cordero et al. (2016)
Gorse-bird associations
Amaya-Villarreal and Renjifo (2010)
As a pioneer successional species
Camelo (2015)
Potential energy generation
Niño et al. (2018)
Feasibility of biofuel production
Núñez-Moreno et al. (2020)
Biopolymer production
Bonilla and Bonilla (2021)
Biochar production
Gomez et al. (2021)
Soil acidification
Grubb and Suter (1971)
Tropical Ecology
Ecology and ERH hypothesis
Reference No Country/Region
Research Topic
Research Area
References
75
76
England
London
Gorse composition and biochemistry
Gorse-phtophagous fauna associations
Jobson and Thomas (1964)
Hill (1982)
77
Spain
Impacts on the soil water quality
Soto and Diaz-Fierros (1997)
78
Spain
As a protein source for agrifoods
Bao et al. (1998)
79
Spain
Impacts on the soil profile
Vega et al. (2005)
80
Spain
Flammability evaluation
Madrigal et al. (2012)
81
Spain
As a possible source of xylans
Ligero et al. (2011)
82
Spain
Fire hazards
Marino et al. (2011)
83
Spain
Extraction of gorse flower content
Lopez-Hortas et al. (2016)
84
Spain
As a bio herbicide
Pardo-Muras et al. (2020)
85
Brittany, France, Scotland, UK, Reunion
Island, New Zealand
Evolutionary/ Comparative study
Hornoy et al. (2011)
86
Brittany, Scotland Reunion Island, New
Zealand
Study of Alkaloid concentration
Hornoy et al. (2012)
87
Brittany, Scotland, Reunion and New
Zealand
Gorse-weevil associations
Hornoy et al. (2013a)
88
Spain, Brittany, Scotland, Chile, New Zealand, Reunion Island, USA
The composition of gorse (Ulex europaeus)
The phytophagus fauna of gorse (Ulex europaeus L.) and host plant quality
Soil water balance as affected by throughfall
in gorse (Ulex europaeus, L.) shrubland
after burning
Ulex europaeus as a protein source for the
agrifood industry in Galicia, Spain
Throughfall, runoff and soil erosion after
prescribed burning in gorse shrubland in
Galicia (NW Spain)
Evaluation of the flammability of gorse
(Ulex europaeus L.) managed by prescribed burning
Gorse (Ulex europaeus) as a possible source
of xylans by hydrothermal treatment
Fire hazard after prescribed burning in a
gorse shrubland: implications for fuel
management
Flowers of Ulex europaeus L. Comparing two extraction techniques (MHG and
distillation)
Water-soluble phenolic acids and flavonoids
involved in the bioherbicidal potential of
Ulex europaeus and Cytisus scoparius
Invasive plants and enemy release: evolution
of trait means and trait correlations in Ulex
europaeus
Alkaloid concentration of the invasive plant
species Ulex europaeus in relation to
geographic origin and herbivory
Oviposition decision of the weevil Exapion
ulicis on Ulex europaeus depends on external and internal pod cues
Two colonisation stages generate two
different patterns of genetic diversity
within native and invasive ranges of Ulex
europaeus
Genetic/Comparative study
Hornoy et al. (2013b)
Tropical Ecology
Table 1 (continued)
13
13
Table 1 (continued)
Reference No Country/Region
Research Topic
Research Area
References
89
France, New Zealand, Reunion Island
Comparative study
Bakker et al. (2019)
90
Comparative study
Atlan et al. (2015a)
91
Brittany, Scotland, New Zealand, Reunion
Island
Brittany, Reunion Island
Uses of gorse in native and invasive range
Atlan et al. (2015b)
92
France
Gorse pollination
Bowman et al. (2008)
93
France
Genetic study
Atlan et al. (2010)
94
France
Evolutionary study
Atlan et al. (2015c)
95
France, Reunion
Evolutionary study
Udo et al. (2017)
96
Sweden
Immunological uses
Holthöfer et al. (1982)
97
Portugal
Portugal
Gorse biochemistry and Flavonoids extraction
Salt tolerance ability of Ulex europaeus and
Acacia longifolia/Comparative study
Máximo et al. (2002)
98
99
Portugal
Explaining the larger seed bank of an
invasive shrub in non-native versus native
environments by differences in seed predation and plant size
Self incompatibility in Ulex europaeus: variations in native and invaded regions
Evolution of the uses of gorse in native and
invaded regions: what are the impacts on
its dynamics and management?
How is the invasive gorse Ulex europaeus
pollinated during winter? A lesson from its
native range
Genetic variation in flowering phenology
and avoidance of seed predation in native
populations of Ulex europaeus
Phenotypic plasticity in reproductive traits
of the perennial shrub Ulex europaeus in
response to shading: a multi-year monitoring of cultivated clones
Evolution of germination strategy in the
invasive species Ulex europaeus
Ulex europaeus I lectin as a marker for vascular endothelium in human tissues
Flavonoids from Ulex airensis and Ulex
europaeus ssp. europaeus
Salt tolerance traits increase the invasive
success of Acacia longifolia in Portuguese
coastal dunes
Ulex europaeus: from noxious weed to
source of valuable isoflavones and flavanones
As a source of valuable isoflavones and
flavanones
Spínola et al. (2016)
Morais et al. (2012)
Tropical Ecology
Tropical Ecology
of gorse invasion in invaded ranges. Identification of grazing
animals and quantifying the feeding rate of those grazers
on different stages of common gorse will be useful in recommending grazing animals as a biological control agent.
Integrated approaches which include physical, biological,
and chemical approaches should be appropriately designed
and planned to manage the adverse effect of common gorse
on invading ecosystems, while considering the impacts
of control on native species that may benefit from gorse's
presence. Few studies have been done to compare the lifehistory traits of U. europaeus in native and invaded ranges
and more studies are needed for a proper understanding of
the adaptive traits of this plant in different geographic and
environmental conditions. The overall impact of invasive
species may depend on distribution, local abundance, and
per capita effect on the environment (Parker et al. 1999).
Several tools such as the Generic Impact Scoring System
(GISS) and Environmental Impact Classification of Alien
Taxa (EICAT) have been developed to quantify and compare
the impact of alien species (Vilà et al. 2019; Lapin et al.
2021). Such methods can be applied to quantify and assess
the overall effect of common gorse invasiveness to different
regions of the world. Therefore, more studies on distribution
patterns along with the climatic and geographical variables
as well as landscape patterns are needed, especially on tropical regions.
Acknowledgements We thank Dr. Ruchira Somaweera (Adjunct
Research Fellow, University of Western Australia) and Paul Barret
(Technical Manager, School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey
University) for permitting us to use their images for the mini-review.
Author contributions Conceptualization (HSSDG). Writing—Original
draft preparation (HSSDG). Writing—Review and editing (Prof. WAPPdS; Dr. ACM). Supervision (Prof. WAPPdS; Dr. ACM).
Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and
its Member Institutions. Not applicable.
Data availability All relevant information used in the manuscript is
available on request.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Conclusion
Through this paper, we aimed to explore both harmful effects and beneficial roles of common gorse in its
invaded ecosystems and potential human uses. The findings
suggest that despite its negative impacts, Ulex europaeus
can also benefit the ecosystems it invades. The plant fixes
nitrogen and acts as a nursing plant, allowing degraded
native habitats to regenerate. When considering the plant
morphology, the whole plant can be described as a source
of food, shelter, and source for breeding and development
for a wide range of fauna. Moreover, common gorse has a
high demand for human uses as well. The plant has drawn
the interest of people due to its economic, pharmacological, immunological, medicinal, and edible values. However,
studies related to interactions of wildlife with the common
gorse in the invaded geographic areas are still focused on
its negative impacts. Thus, the knowledge of the services
done by common gorse to the ecosystems is less known. The
desirable effects of this plant should be assessed and considered in the design of integrated pest management strategies.
Such research may ultimately lead to better management
approaches of invasive weeds and the conservation of native
wildlife.
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