Integrative Food, Nutrition and Metabolism
Research Article
ISSN: 2056-8339
Heating and Biochemical processing of Kariya (Hildegardia
bateri) seeds: Chemical composition, antinutrients and
functional properties
Saka Olasunkanmi Gbadamosi, Olamide Esther Aluko and Abiodun Victor Ikujenlola*
Department of Food Science and Technology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
Abstract
This study evaluated the effects of processing methods on chemical composition, physicochemical and functional characteristics of defatted and full fat flour samples
from processed kariya seeds. The seeds were cleaned and subjected to heating processes (cooking and autoclaving) and biochemical processes (germination and
fermentation), the seeds were dried and milled to flour. A portion was defatted and another portion left as full fat. The flour samples were analysed for the selected
parameters using standard methods. The results showed that the bulk density ranged between 0.52-0.75 g/ml. The oil absorption and water absorption capacities
ranged from 65.50–144.60% and 46.40–218.50% respectively. The water absorption and swelling capacities of the defatted samples increased with temperature
increase. All processing treatments were found to increase protein content (22.16-49.94%) and in vitro digestibility (27.86–82.63%). Both the heating and biochemical
processes reduced the level of antinutrients significantly. In conclusion, the kariya flour samples subjected to both fermentation and germination had better chemical
composition, physico-chemical and functional properties.
Introduction
Kariya (Hildegardia bateri) is a rainforest tree of about 30 m in
height. It belongs to the mallow family- Malvaceae and to the subfamily
Sterculiaceae [1]. In West Africa, kariya is used as ornamental tree
because of its bright beautiful flowers which blossom during the dry
season. The flowers, which are usually borne on leafless branches,
mature into one-seeded pods, each about 5 mm in length, bearing a
peanut-like seed in a nutshell. The mature pods drop completely when
dry and are disposed as refuse in many places. The kernels are eaten
raw or roasted like groundnuts in some part of West Africa countries
[2], it is also processed and used as condiments in traditional food
preparations. The proximate composition (17.5, 37.5, 6.5, 2.5% of crude
protein, fat, crude fibre and ash respectively) and fatty acid profile of
these biomaterials provide the basis for their use as food or oil [3]. It
contain some antinutrients according to the report of Ikujenlola et al.
[4], some of which might be responsible for the death of experimental
animals during feeding trials.
Previous works on kariya showed that it is rich in protein (17.5%)
and fat (37.5%). High quality protein products such as protein
concentrate, isolate and hydrolysate with good functional properties
and high in vitro protein digestibility could be obtained from kariya
seed flour [3,5-7]. One of the methods employed to increase the protein
content and improve the functional properties of oil seed is to reduce/
remove the fat thereby extending the shelf life of the flour. This can also
increase the functionality and hence application of the flour in food
formulations. However, the utilisation of any food protein flour as foods
or food ingredients will largely depend on its physicochemical and
functional characteristics as well as the safety of such product.
Food processes such as germination, fermentation, autoclaving,
boiling, roasting, etc. have been reported to have positive effect on the
quality parameters (sensory, functionality, safety, etc.) of food products [8].
Integr Food Nutr Metab, 2020
doi: 10.15761/IFNM.1000291
This study was designed to investigate the effect of various
processing methods on physico-chemical and functional properties of
kariya kernel flour with a view to providing useful information for its
possible application in food system.
Materials and Methods
Materials
Kariya pods were gathered from kariya trees in Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. The reagents used were of analytical grade
and were purchased from Sigma Aldrich chemical company, USA.
Methods
Processing of kariya whole and defatted flour samples
The matured pods were ruptured to remove the seeds and the seeds
were manually dehulled and winnowed. The seeds were divided into
seven portions, one portion served as the control (i.e. unprocessed/raw
seed) and each of the remaining six portions was subjected to different
processing treatments: cooking/boiling (at 100°C, 1 h), autoclaving
(at 121°C, 15 psi, 30 min), roasting (at 100°C, 1 h), germination (at
28 ± 2°C, 96 h), fermentation (at 28 ± 2 °C, 96 h) and combination of
germination (at28 ± 2°C, 96 h) and fermentation (at 28 ± 2°C, 96 h)
*Correspondence to: Ikujenlola AV, Department of Food Science and
Technology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, E-mail:
avjenlola@gmail.com
Key words: fermentation, germination, in-vitro protein digestibility, defatted flour,
temperature, phytate
Received: August 21, 2020; Accepted: September 25, 2020; Published: September
28, 2020
Volume 7: 1-9
Gbadamosi SO (2020) Heating and Biochemical processing of Kariya (Hildegardia bateri) seeds: Chemical composition, antinutrients and functional properties
[7,8]. The processed seeds were dried at 60°C for 12 h in the cabinet
drier, milled and sieved into fine flour through 200 µm mesh sieve. Flour
sample from each processing method was divided into two portions.
The first portion was left as full fat flour sample and the second portion
was defatted using cold acetone by stirring over magnetic stirrer for 4 h
(1:4 w/v; flour: acetone) at room temperature.
Proximate Composition of processed kariya seed flour
samples
The proximate composition (moisture, protein, crude fibre, fat, ash
and carbohydrate) of processed kariya seed flour was determined using
standard method of AOAC [9]. The energy value was calculated using
Atwater factor according to Alobo et al. [10].
Moisture
Moisture content of the samples was determined by the standard
AOAC [9] official method. The results were expressed as percentage of
dry matter shown in Equation 1;
Moisture content (%)=(W_1-W_2)/W_1 ×100 (%)
1
Crude fibre
Crude fibre was determined as described by AOAC [9] using 2 g
(W12) of the samples. The crude fibre was obtained using the equation
below (Equation 5);
Crude fibre (%)=((W_10-W_11)/W_12)×100 (%)
5
W_10=weight of crucible after ashing
W_11=weight of crucible after oven drying
W_12=weight of sample
Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate was expressed as a percentage of the difference
between the addition of other proximate composition and 100 as shown
in Equation 6;
Carbohydrate (%)=100-(moisture
fibre+ash content+crude protein)
content+crude
6
fat+crude
In vitro protein digestibility determination
In vitro protein digestibility of samples was measured according to
the method described by Chavan et al. [11]. Protein digestibility was
obtained by using the equation shown below;
W_1=weight of flour before drying
W_2=weight of flour after drying
Protein
In vitro protein digestibility (%) = (
The protein content of the samples was determined using the AOAC
[9] method. The nitrogen content was obtained as shown in Equation 2
and multiplied by 6.25 to obtain crude protein content.
Nitrogen content,NC=(1.401 × 0.2 × (A1-B1))/(Sample weight) 2
A1=titre value of sample
I −F
) × 100
I
where: I- protein content of sample before digestion
protein content of sample after digestion
Determination of antinutrient content
The concentrations of some selected antinutrients (tannin, oxalate,
saponin and phytate) were determined.
B1=titre value of blank
Determination of Tannin
Protein content =6.25×NC
Crude fat
Crude fat was determined by the AOAC [9] method using Soxhlet
apparatus (Sunbim, India). The quantity of oil obtained was expressed
as percentage of the original sample used as shown in Equation 3;
Crude fat (%)=(W_4-W_5)/W_6 ×100 (%)
3
The modified vanillin–hydrochloric acid (MV–HCl) method of
Price et al. [12] was used. The following calculation was adopted:
Tannin=(Xmg/ml×10 ml)/(0.2 g)=50×mg/g
where X-value obtained from standard catechin graph
Determination of oxalate
Oxalate was determined by the method of Falade et al. [13]. The
oxalate was calculated as the sodium oxalate equivalent as shown in
equation below.
W_4 =weight of flask+oil
W_5=weight of empty flask
W_6=weight of sample
1 ml of 0.05 M KMnO4=2 mg sodium oxalate equivalent/ g of
sample.
Ash
Ash content of the samples was determined by the AOAC [9]
method using muffle furnace (Carbolite AAF1100, United Kingdom).
Ash content was expressed as percentage of the weight of the original
sample as shown in Equation 4;
Ash content(%)=((W_7-W_8)/W_9)×100 (%)
4
Determination of saponin
The spectrophotometric method of Brunner [14] was used for
saponin analysis.
Saponin=(Absorbance of sample ×dil.factor × Gradient of standard
graph curve)/(Sample weight × 10,000.)(mg/g)
W_7=weight of crucible+ash
Determination of phytate
W_8=weight of empty crucible
The phytate content of the samples was determined adopting the
method described by Reddy et al. [15]. The concentration of the FeCl3
is 1.04%w/v and Mole ratio of Fe to phylate=1:1 100 x weight of sample
W_9=weight of sample
Integr Food Nutr Metab, 2020
doi: 10.15761/IFNM.1000291
Volume 7: 2-9
Gbadamosi SO (2020) Heating and Biochemical processing of Kariya (Hildegardia bateri) seeds: Chemical composition, antinutrients and functional properties
Concentration of phytate phosphorous=Titre value x 0.064.
Physicochemical and functional properties determination of
kariya seed flour
Bulk density was determined by the method of Okezie and Bello
[16]. The pH was measured by making a 10% w/v suspension of the
sample in distilled water and the pH of the suspension was measured
with a pH meter (Model HI 9812F, Hanna instrument, Woonsocket
RI USA). Water absorption capacity (WAC) was determined at room
temperature and at temperatures ranging from 60 to 90°C using the
method of AACC [17]. Oil absorption capacity (OAC) of the samples
was determined by the centrifugation method described by Beuchat
[18]. Swelling capacity (SC) was determined using the method
described by Takashi and Sieb [19]. Emulsifying activity index (EAI)
and emulsifying stability (ES) at natural pH was determined by the
method described by Gbadamosi et al. [20].
Statistical analysis
All determinations were carried out in triplicates and results were
subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means separated by
Duncan Multiple Range Test.
germination which hydrolyses fat components into fatty acid and
glycerol [23].
The crude fibre content ranged from 0.15 to 2.10%. The crude fibre
content of defatted flour samples was lower than those of full fat flour
samples. Similar observation was also reported by OCheme et al. [24]
for defatted groundnut.
Protein contents varied from 22.16-49.94% with raw sample having
the lowest value while defatted fermented sample had the highest value.
All the processing conditions increased protein content significantly.
Fawale et al. [25] reported increase in protein content of cooked and
fermented kariya seeds. The protein contents of defatted flour samples
were significantly higher (p<0.05) than the protein contents of full fat
flour samples. Higher protein content observed in fermented sample
is similar to the observations by Sathya and Siddhuraju [26] on
fermented Pakia roxburghii (yongohak) seeds and Fawale et al. [25] on
fermented kariya seed. This could be attributed to structural proteins
that are integral parts of the microbial cells [27]. Germination process
also increased protein content and this could be attributed to the net
synthesis of enzymes by germinating seeds which might have resulted
in the production of some amino acid during protein synthesis[28].
Proximate composition of full fat and defatted flour samples
of processed kariya seeds
It was observed that carbohydrate reduced in all the full fat
samples. However, defatting process caused significant increase in
the carbohydrate content of the treated flour. Similar observation was
reported by Fawale et al. [25] and Kang et al. [29].
The proximate composition of processed kariya flour samples is
shown in Table 1. The moisture contents of the flour samples produced
from various processing methods varied significantly (p<0.05) between
3.50 and 20.33% with roasted sample (R) having the lowest and defatted
flour of germinated-fermented sample (DGF) having the highest. Low
moisture content increases shelf stability [21] while high moisture
content encourage proliferation of spoilage microorganism in food
systems.
There was significant difference (p<0.05) in the ash content of the
samples. The values ranged from 2.88–7.65% with defatted roasted
sample having the highest value while boiled sample had the lowest
value. The range of ash content values are within the range of values
(2.11-7.98%) reported by Udoh [30] for full fat and defatted flour of
fluted pumpkin seed. Defatting process resulted in increase in ash
content, this was similar to observations reported by Ogunsina et al.
[31] and Adebayo et al. [5] for kariya kernel flour. Ash content is an
indication of the total mineral content in food.
The fat content of the samples ranged between 6.10 and 50.98%.
There was significant increase (p<0.05) in fat content of fermented
and germinated-fermented samples however, significant decrease was
observed in germinated sample. Li et al. [22] reported a significant
decrease of fat content when groundnut seeds were germinated. This
could be due to the increased activities of lipolytic enzymes during
The energy value varied from 330.15-613.40 kcal with defatted
germinated-fermented sample having the lowest value while full fat
germinated-fermented sample had the highest energy value. There was
significant decrease (p<0.05) in the energy value of boiled, germinated
and all defatted flour samples but there was significant increase (p<0.05)
in the energy value of fermented and germinated-fermented sample.
Results and discussion
Table 1. Proximate composition and in vitro protein digestibility of raw and processed Kariya seed flour (%)
Carbohydrate
Energy value
(kcal)
In vitro protein
digestibility
4.43±0.23e
37.85±0.22c
28.44±0.15d
27.86±0.65m
2.88±0.18g
28.72±0.55g
05.88±1.25e
33.33±0.27k
e
c
Sample code
Fat
Crude fibre
Ra
32.05±0.15d
0.58±0.03de
22.16±0.16j
5.95±0.10i
B
31.35±0.20e
0.18±0.25g
27.00±0.20h
4.23±0.53fg
c
fg
i
hi
d
Protein
Moisture
Ash
R
37.00±0.05
0.30±0.05
24.90±0.50
3.50±0.10
5.30±0.30
34.61±0.82
571.04±1.82
31.58 ±0.49l
A
32.53±0.33d
0.68±0.08d
27.56±0.46h
3.85±0.30gh
4.98±0.33d
30.43±0.42f
524.73±2.14d
34.68 ±0.52j
G
28.40±0.55f
0.25±0.05fg
31.50±0.50f
4.78±0.13ef
4.48±0.08e
30.60±0.48f
504.00±3.15e
37.49±0.44i
F
b
49.28±0.08
b
1.80±0.01
d
34.13±0.10
e
5.35±0.10
f
3.50±0.20
GF
50.98±1.18a
2.10±0.25a
33.63±0.43d
5.38±0.18e
3.23±0.03fg
i
5.94±0.43
b
603.78±0.82
46.15 ±0.45g
4.69±0.67j
613.40±7.82a
45.35 ±0.35h
75.04 ±0.44e
DB
9.13±0.03i
0.18±0.01g
32.81±0.60e
7.13±0.13cd
4.20±0.10c
46.59±0.72b
399.77±6.06f
DR
9.18±0.38i
0.20±0.00g
33.88±0.44g
4.90±0.25e
7.65±0.15a
49.19±0.39a
414.90±2.27f
72.61 ±0.31f
DA
6.10±0.02j
0.45±0.05ef
33.50±0.40d
6.85±0.05d
6.45±0.15b
46.65±0.38b
375.50±0.20h
76.34 ±0.48d
DG
10.33±0.18h
0.15±0.05g
38.77±0.35c
7.65±0.65c
6.40±0.30b
36.70±0.43d
94.85±2.55g
79.70 ±0.40c
DF
12.63±0.23g
1.25 ±0.25c
49.94±0.24a
12.38±0.68b
5.83±0.23c
22.10±1.29h
401.83±2.57f
82.63 ±0.47a
DGF
8.83±0.75i
1.88±0.33b
39.97±0.55b
20.33±1.29a
6.25±0.36b
22.75±0.90h
330.15±2.89i
81.27 ±0.22b
Values reported are means±standard deviation of triplicate determinations. Mean values bearing different superscript roman letters are significantly (P < 0.05) different from one another.
Ra: Raw; B: Boiled; R: Roasted; A: Autoclaved ; G: Germinated; F: Fermented; GF: Germinated fermented; DB: Defatted boiled; DR: Defatted roasted; DA: Defatted autoclaved ; DG:
Defatted germinated; DF: Defatted fermented; DGF: Defatted germinated fermented
Integr Food Nutr Metab, 2020
doi: 10.15761/IFNM.1000291
Volume 7: 3-9
Gbadamosi SO (2020) Heating and Biochemical processing of Kariya (Hildegardia bateri) seeds: Chemical composition, antinutrients and functional properties
The low energy value observed in boiled, germinated and all defatted
flour samples could be attributed to the decrease in fat content of the
flour samples.
In vitro protein digestibility of full fat and defatted processed
kariya seed flour
The results of in vitro protein digestibility of full fat and defatted
flour of processed kariya seed are shown in Table 1. The in vitro
protein digestibility of the samples ranged from 27.86–82.63% with
the raw sample having the lowest value (27.86%) and the defatted
fermented sample having the highest value (82.63%). In vitro protein
digestibility significantly increased in all the samples. This agrees
with the observation of Adu et al. [32] that heat processing improves
protein digestibility significantly. This might be attributed to the effect
of heat on the protease inhibitor and denaturation of protein especially
globulin which commands the open up of their structure and increase
the chain flexibility and hence less resistance against digestive proteases
[26]. The increase in protein digestibility could as well be attributed
to the degradation or reduction of antinutrients such as tannins and
phytic acid by microbial enzymes, fermentation, germination and heat
treatments [33,34].
Physicochemical and functional properties of full fat and
defatted flour of processed kariya seed flour
The results of physicochemical properties (bulk density and pH)
and functional properties of full fat and defatted kariya seed flour
samples are presented in Table 2.
Bulk density
The bulk density of the samples ranged between 0.52-0.75 (g/
ml). The range of values reported in this study compared favourably
with the result (0.57 g/ml) reported by Adebayo et al. [5] for defatted
kariya flour and processed pinto bean (0.42-0.69 g/ml) reported by
Audu et al. [35] but lower than the value (1.00- 1.04 g/ml) reported by
Akpossan et al. [36] for Imbrasia oyemensis full fat flour and defatted
flour. There was significant decrease (p<0.05) in the bulk density of
germinated sample which could be as a result of the breakdown of high
molecular weight macromolecules to low molecular weight molecules
by enzymes. This is similar to the observation of Chinma et al. [37]
on germinated moringa seed flour. Fermentation and a combination of
germination and fermentation increased bulk density significantly and
this was in agreement with the observation of Omowaye-Taiwo et al.
[38] on melon seeds but in contrast to the report given by Oloyede et al.
[39] that bulk density decreases with fermentation time.
Bulk density is the measured by weight per volume and expressed
as g/ml. Bulk density value is of importance in food packaging,
transportation and diet formulations.
pH
There were reduction in the pH values of all the samples and
significant increase in pH was observed in defatted flour samples. The
processing conditions generally increased the acidity of the samples.
Fermentation and germination processes brought about significant
increase in the acidity. This might be due to the production of some
organic acids during fermentation. pH is of great importance in flour
suspension as functional properties of the flour largely depends on pH
[40].
Oil absorption capacity (OAC) of processed kariya seed flour
The OAC of the samples ranged from 65.50-144.60%. The trend
was similar to the OAC values (63–83%) reported by Adegunwa et al.
[41] for benni seed. The OAC of roasted, autoclaved, fermented and
germinated-fermented kariya samples were observed to be lower than
the OAC of raw sample. There was increase in the OAC of boiled and
germinated samples. The boiled full fat flour sample had the highest
OAC (109%) among the full fat flour samples and the increase in fat
absorption is associated with heat dissociation of the proteins and
denaturation which is expected to unmask the nonpolar residue from
the interior of protein molecules [42]. Similar observation was reported
by Fawale et al. [25] for cooked unfermented kariya. Germination
increased oil absorption capacity and similar observation was reported
by Wisaniyasa [43] for fluted pumpkin seed.
There was significant increase (p<0.05) in the OAC of the defatted
samples compared to the full fat samples and this agrees with the value
reported by Ogunsina et al. [31] for full fat and defatted moringa seed
flour. This shows that defatting increased oil absorption capacity and
defatted flour can find good applications in food formulation where
high OAC is required such as in meat, pastries and bakery products
production.
Table 2. Physicochemical and functional properties of raw and processed Kariya flour
Water Absorption
Capacity (%)
Oil Absorption
Capacity (%)
Emulsifying Activity Index
(g/ m2)
Emulsifying
Stability
Index (%)
6.84 ± 0.05a
46.40±1.60g
91.30 ± 2.50e
11.66 ± 0.09j
105.62 ± 0.40j
c
c
d
113.78 ± 0.80g
Sample
Code
Bulk Density (g/ml)
pH
Ra
0.63 ± 0.00d
g
c
B
0.55 ± 0.01
6.34 ± 0.01
143.50±7.5
109.00 ± 4.00
21.48± 0.11
R
0.60 ± 0.02e
6.03 ± 0.02f
80.20±6.40f
89.90 ± 2.90e
21.33 ± 0.03d
108.74 ± 0.50i
A
0.74 ± 0.00ab
6.24 ± 0.02d
53.00±4.80g
65.50 ± 3.30g
21.53 ± 0.16d
121.10 ± 0.25e
G
0.56 ± 0.00f
6.10 ± 0.08e
92.60±7.80e
99.10 ± 3.90d
21.90 ± 0.70c
128.26 ± 0.18c
F
0.73 ± 0.01b
5.64 ± 0.03f
130.80±8.20d
80.70 ± 3.70f
25.42 ± 0.18a
134.62 ± 0.43a
130.76 ± 0.67b
GF
0.75±05.00a
5.33 ± 0.03k
143.70±6.90c
86.10 ± 3.50ef
22.32 ± 0.22b
DB
0.52 ± 0.01g
6.37 ± 0.02b
218.50±9.50a
144.60 ± 0.40a
16.45 ± 0.06i
104.70 ± 0.88j
DR
0.58 ± 0.01ef
6.09 ± 0.02e
96.10±2.50e
103.00± 4.40cd
16.26 ± 0.13i
102.10 ± 1.17k
DA
0.57 ± 0.01ef
6.27 ± 0.02d
75.90±6.90f
117.20 ± 6.20b
18.34 ± 0.69g
108.76 ± 0.29i
DG
0.52 ± 0.00g
6.23 ± 0.02d
102.20±4.60e
119.60 ± 7.40b
17.70 ± 0.09h
112.61 ± 0.48h
DF
0.65 ± 0.01c
5.72 ± 0.01h
179.10±7.30b
117.80 ± 6.40b
20.63 ± 0.18e
123.97 ± 0.29d
d
j
b
c
f
118.43 ± 0.32f
DGF
0.63 ± 0.01
5.50 ± 0.03
175.90±6.90
108.00 ± 0.80
18.79 ± 0.60
Values reported are means ± standard deviation of triplicate determinations. Mean values bearing different superscript roman letters are significantly (P<0.05) different from one another.
Ra: Raw; B: Boiled; R: Roasted; A: Autoclaved; G: Germinated; F: Fermented; GF: Germinated fermented; DC: Defatted boiled; DR: Defatted roasted; DA: Defatted autoclaved; DG:
Defatted germinated; DF: Defatted fermented; DGF: Defatted germinated fermented
Integr Food Nutr Metab, 2020
doi: 10.15761/IFNM.1000291
Volume 7: 4-9
Gbadamosi SO (2020) Heating and Biochemical processing of Kariya (Hildegardia bateri) seeds: Chemical composition, antinutrients and functional properties
Water absorption capacity (WAC) of raw and processed
kariya seed flours
All the processing methods influenced WAC and there was
significant difference (p<0.05) in WAC of all the samples. Among all the
processing conditions, autoclaved samples had the lowest (53%) while
germinated-fermented samples had the highest WAC (143.70%). Water
absorption capacity of all the processed flours significantly increased
compared to the raw sample. According to Oloyede et al. [39] the low
water absorption capacity recorded for raw sample is an indication of
intact starch granules in the raw flour.
Hotz and Gibson [8] reported that heat treatment can change
hydration properties and cause variations in the WAC of the autoclaved,
steam-cooked and roasted samples because the kinetics of water uptake
however were different. Also, there was significant increase in WAC of
germinated-fermented (143.70%) and fermented samples (130.80%)
compared to germinated sample (92.60%) and this could be attributed
to the modification of macromolecules during fermentation.
Defatted flour samples exhibited higher WAC than the full fat
flour samples. The WAC of defatted treated samples ranged from
75.90–218.50%. The reduction in fat content resulted in increase in
protein and carbohydrate and subsequent increase in WAC. According
to Sila and Malleshi [44] flours with high WAC has more hydrophilic
constituent as polysaccharides. Product of high WAC can serve as good
thickening agent and be used as a thickener or gelling agent in various
food products.
the ability of protein to impact strength to an emulsion for resistance to
stress and changes or to reduce the interfacial tension between oil and
water in the emulsion [46] However, decrease in surface tension of the
oil droplet by providing electrostatic repulsion on the surface of the oil
droplet prevents coalescence and this brings about emulsion stability
[47].
Fermentation significantly increased EAI and ES and this agrees
with the report of Oloyede et al. [39] for Moringa olifera seed. With this
property it gives an indication that the flour can be used in certain food
systems e.g frozen desserts, whippings, toppings, mayonnaise, yoghurt
and salad dressing.
Emulsion capacity is the maximum quantity of oil that can be
emulsified by protein dispersion whereas emulsion stability indicates
the ability of an emulsion with a known composition to remain
unchanged [48].
Influence of temperature on water absorption capacity
(WAC) of raw and processed kariya seed flour
At natural pH of the samples, the EAI ranged from 11.66–25.42
m2/g with significant differences (p<0.05) between the highest and
lowest EAI values. Among the treated samples, fermented sample had
the highest EAI value (25.42 m2/g) and similar observation was reported
by Fawale et al. [25]. The high EAI value observed in fermented sample
could be attributed to its high fat content and the hydrolysis of higher
molecular protein peptide to lower molecular protein peptide with high
lipophilic ends [45].
The WAC of raw and processed kariya flour as influenced by
temperature changes is presented in Figure 1. The WAC of all the
samples increased as temperature increases. Gradual increase in
WAC was observed in boiled, fermented and germinated-fermented
processed full fat kariya flour samples and the defatted flour samples
as the temperature increases. A spontaneous increase was observed
in the autoclaved, roasted and germinated full fat flour samples. The
difference in protein structure and the presence of different hydrophilic
carbohydrates as a result of variation in processing treatment might be
responsible for variation in the WAC of the flour samples. The water
absorption capacity of defatted kariya seed flour is shown in Figure
2. Similar observation was reported for the full fat flour samples but
the defatted flour samples had higher water absorption capacities. The
removal of fat from samples exposed the water binding sites on the
side chain groups of protein units previously blocked in a lipophilic
environment thereby leading to an increase in WAC values in defatted
flour [49].
The emulsion stability of samples ranged from 102.10–134.62%
with fermented sample having the highest value (134.62%) and defatted
roasted sample had the lowest value (102.10%). Emulsion stability shows
According to Lagnika et al. [50], water absorption capacity is the
ability of flour to absorb water and swell for improved consistency in
food.
Emulsifying activity index (EAI) and emulsifying stability
(ES) of raw and processed kariya seed flour
350
Water Absorptio capacity (%)
300
250
Raw
Boiled
200
Roasted
150
Autoclaved
Germinated
100
Fermented
Germinated Fermented
50
0
30
60
70
80
Temperature (ºC)
90
Figure 1. Influence of temperature on water absorption capacity of raw kariya flour and whole flour of kariya subjected to different processing treatments
Integr Food Nutr Metab, 2020
doi: 10.15761/IFNM.1000291
Volume 7: 5-9
Gbadamosi SO (2020) Heating and Biochemical processing of Kariya (Hildegardia bateri) seeds: Chemical composition, antinutrients and functional properties
Influence of temperatures on swelling capacity of raw and
processed kariya seed flour
the result reported by James et al. [51] that temperature increase
caused vigorous starch vibration which breaks intermolecular bonds
and thereby allowing hydrogen bonding sites to accommodate more
water molecules. Also, Bhat and Riar [52] reported that swelling power
of starches increased with increase in temperature and this could be
attributed to reduction in gelatinization temperature.
The results of the influence of temperature changes on swelling
capacity of full fat and defatted kariya flour samples are shown
in Figures 3 and 4 respectively. Swelling capacity increased as the
temperature increases and the highest swelling capacity was observed
at the highest temperature (90°C) which ranged from 134.00-264.00°C
for full fat samples and 203.00–309.67°C for defatted flour samples.
The lowest swelling capacity was observed at the lowest temperature
(60°C). The swelling capacity at 60°C ranged from 69–203°C for full
fat flour and 104–288°C for defatted flour samples. This agrees with
Antinutrients of raw and processed kariya seed flour
The antinutrients of processed kariya flour samples are presented
in Table 3. It was observed that the various processes resulted in the
reduction of the selected antinutrients. The level of reduction ranged
Water absorption capacity (%)
400
350
Defatted Boiled
300
Defatted Autoclaved
250
Defatted Roasted
200
Defatted Germinated
150
Defatted Fermented
100
Defatted Germinated
Fermented
50
0
30
60
70
80
90
Temperature (° C)
Figure 2. Influence of temperature on water absorption capacity of defatted flour of kariya subjected to different processing treatments
300
Sweling capacity (%)
250
Raw
200
Boiled
Autoclaved
150
Roasted
100
Germinated
Fermented
50
Germinated Fermented
0
60
70
80
Temperature (ºC)
90
Figure 3. Influence of temperature on swelling capacity of raw kariya and whole flour of kariya subjected to different processing treatments
350
Swelling Capacity (%)
300
Defatted Boiled
250
Defatted Autoclaved
200
Defatted Roasted
150
Defatted Germinated
Defatted Fermented
100
Defatted Germinated
Fermented
50
0
60
70
80
Temperature (ºC)
90
Figure 4. Influence of temperature on swelling capacity of defatted flour of kariya subjected to different processing treatments
Integr Food Nutr Metab, 2020
doi: 10.15761/IFNM.1000291
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Gbadamosi SO (2020) Heating and Biochemical processing of Kariya (Hildegardia bateri) seeds: Chemical composition, antinutrients and functional properties
Table 3. Anti-nutrients value of raw and processed Kariya seed flour (mg/100 g)
Sample
Ra
Tanin
Saponin
Oxalate
Phytate
1.58 ± 0.13bc
2.37 ± 0.17a
4.29 ± 0.55a
14.72 ± 0.64a
7.68 ± 0.64e
B
0.53 ± 0.13e
1.89 ± 0.06b
1.42 ± 0.09f
R
1.06 ± 0.13d
1.51 ± 0.01cd
1.98 ± 0.22ef
7.04 ± 0.64f
A
0.59 ± 0.06ef
1.46 ± 0.01de
1.59 ± 0.15ef
8.32 ± 0.64e
G
0.86 ± 0.07de
1.57 ± 0.20c
2.86 ± 0.00bc
5.12 ± 0.64g
F
1.85 ± 0.26b
1.33 ± 0.03fg
0.88 ± 0.00g
5.76 ± 0.64g
a
ef
cde
GF
3.57 ± 0.26
1.38 ± 0.03
2.42 ± 0.22
5.13 ± 0.11g
DB
0.33 ± 0.06f
1.43 ± 0.02def
2.86 ± 0.44bc
10.56 ± 0.32d
DR
0.46 ± 0.06f
1.24 ± 0.03ghi
2.64 ± 0.22bcd
11.53 ± 0.64c
f
hi
de
13.76 ± 0.32b
DA
0.40 ± 0.13
1.23 ± 0.03
2.36 ± 0.06
DG
0.33 ± 0.07f
1.27 ± 0.02gh
4.18 ± 0.22a
7.68 ± 0.64ef
DF
1.39 ± 0.20c
1.01 ± 0.01j
2.31 ± 0.11de
8.00 ± 0.32ef
DGF
1.58 ± 0.26bc
1.23 ± 0.03hi
2.97 ± 0.33b
7.36 ± 0.32ef
Values reported are means ± standard deviation of triplicate determinations. Mean values bearing different superscript roman letters are significantly (P<0.05) different from one another.
Ra: Raw; B: Boiled; R: Roasted; A: Autoclaved; G: Germinated; F: Fermented; GF: Germinated fermented; DB: Defatted boiled; DR: Defatted roasted; DA: Defatted autoclaved; DG:
Defatted germinated; DF: Defatted fermented; DGF: Defatted germinated fermented
between 0.0 and 79.11% (tannin); 20.25 to 57.38% reduction in the level
of saponin; 2.56 to 78.49% reduction in the level of oxalate and 6.52 to
65.21% reduction in the level of phytate.
It was observed that tannin in the processed flour samples reduced
in all the samples compared with the raw sample. The germinated
samples recorded significant reduction in the level of tannin, however,
it was observed that fermented, germinated/fermented samples did
not follow the pattern. This was in contrast to the observation of
Raihanatu et al. [53] for the sprouted and fermented five varieties of
sorghum but it agrees with the observations reported by Osman [33]
and Sathya and Siddhuraju [26] for traditionally fermented pearl
millet for ”loloh” preparation and Pakia roxburghii (locust bean)
respectively. The increase in the tannin content of the fermented kariya
sample could be attributed to hydrolysis of condensed tannins such as
proanthocyanidin. The increase in tannin content may adversely affect
the nutritional quality of fermented kariya flour. According to Sarwar
et al. [54], high tannin concentration in diet may cause depressed
microbial enzyme activities during intestinal digestion however in
spite of the known adverse action on protein digestibility, seed tannins
might exert a beneficial antioxidant activity and contribute to diseases
prevention.
The heating and biochemical processes into which the kariya seeds
were subjected reduced the level of the saponin present in the flour
samples. The process of defatting also enhanced the reduction of the
antinutrient. This observation agrees with the report of Kaur et al. [55]
that extracting solvent has potential to reduce the inherent antinutrients
due to solubility of the components.
Heating processes promoted reduction in the level of oxalate present
in the processed kariya flour samples. Furthermore, it was observed that
fermentation process caused a noticeable reduction in oxalate content
better than combination of germination and fermentation processes.
Defatted flour samples had lower oxalate content compared to full fat
kariya flour samples.
Phytate content of defatted flour samples were lower than those
of full fat samples. Heating processes reduced the level of phytate in
the heat processed samples but not as much as in the biochemically
processed samples. The germinated and germinated/fermented samples
were of lower phytate content. Phytates according to Gupta et al.[56] are
referred to as heat stable antinutrient. Similar observation was reported
by Kaur et al. [55] who recorded 88.30% reduction in phytate content
Integr Food Nutr Metab, 2020
doi: 10.15761/IFNM.1000291
when germinated pearl millet sprouts were fermented with selective
culture media. According to Gupta et al. [56], natural fermentation
caused large reduction in phytic acid in rice flour by the action of
microbes as well as grain phytase. This reduction could be attributed to
the activity of the endogenous phytase enzyme from the raw ingredient
and inherent microorganisms which are capable of hydrolysing
the phytic acid in the fermented food preparations into inositol and
orthophosphate [57].
Conclusion
The study concluded that processing treatments improved the
physicochemical and functional characteristics of the biomaterial
(kariya). Defatting concentrated the nutrients. Moreover, fermentation,
germination and combination of fermentation and germination
treatments caused significant improvement in some of the nutrients. All
the processing treatments significantly reduced the antinutrient levels
except for tannin content of fermented and germinated-fermented
kariya flour which increased.
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Copyright: ©2020 Gbadamosi SO. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
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doi: 10.15761/IFNM.1000291
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