International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
Exploratory Research on Protective Factors Associated
with Youth Offending: The Case of East Gojjam Zone,
Ethiopia
Sintayehu Tilaye (MSW)
Lecturer at Ambo University
College of social science and humanities Department of Social Work
E-mail: sintayehu.tilaye@ambou.edu.et; sintishethio@gmail.com
Received: August 10, 2017
doi:10.5296/ijsw.v4i2.11967
Accepted: October 8, 2017
Published: October 10, 2017
URL: http://doi.org/10.5296/ijsw.v4i2.11967
Abstract
The youths have consistently been hypothesized to be disproportionately responsible for crime
and are more vulnerable to violence than any other age group which is costing the community
billions of dollars per year, creates a sense of fear and lowers the quality of life for many people.
In the first section of this paper, risk factors of youth offending were studied. This research
deals on protective factors of youth offending in East Gojjam Zone which is located in Amhara
Regional state of Ethiopia. Led by constructionist approach, this research used qualitative
exploratory case study strategy. In-depth interview with youth offenders and non-offenders,
key informant interview with officials mainly from police and correctional center were the
central data collection technique. In addition, document review was also used to get any
supportive data from various offices and researches. Generally sixteen youth offenders and
thirteen key informants, a total of twenty eight participants were participated. None probability
sampling method of purposive sampling technique was employed to select the research
participants. Age, gender, and social setting of rural vs. urban were considered to select
research participants and get comprehensive information. The finding of the study shows that
economic improvement including employment opportunities, increased level of awareness,
affiliation to law-abiding youths, consistent parental supervision, family stability and free
familial relationship, proper family socialization, adequate income of the family, youth’s
steady enrollment to school, and provision of extra circular activities are protective factors of
youth offending. In addition, separated rehabilitation center for adolescent and adult, ,
economic development of the community, limiting the accessibility of alcohol and guns, strong
culture against crime, strengthening traditional conflict resolution mechanism, expansion of
youth centers with possible services, well equipped lawyers and police officials, strong
15
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
organized community policing strategy, and improved rehabilitation service are also another
opportunities found that reduce the risk factor of youth offending behavior. The finding shows
that those multi-level personal, peer, familial, school, cultural, and community level
opportunistic factors are not exclusive rather interdependent. Therefore, in order to reduce
youths’ involvement in offending behavior, stockholders could work collaboratively.
Keywords: Youth, Offending, Offender, Youth offending, Youth offender, Protective factor
1. Introduction
1.1 Background of the Research
Curtain (2003) defined that youthful age is the age of transition from adolescence to
adulthood, dependence to independence, and from being recipients of society’s services to
becoming contributors. However, Moon, Patton and Rao (2011) noted that susceptibility to
adversity is heightened during this period of accelerated maturation and social transition, in
the human life cycle. Of several problem behaviors observed at this age, youth offending is
becoming the most pressing issue throughout the world. The youths have consistently been
hypothesized to be disproportionately responsible for crime and are more vulnerable to
violence than any other age group (Farrington, 2003). Crime committed by youth is costing
the community billions of dollars per year (YJB, 2002), creates a sense of fear and lowers the
quality of life for many people (Geason & Wilson, 1988). For instance, in Africa,
violence-related injuries are one of the top three killers of young males next to HIV and AIDS
and TB (AU, 2011). All over the communities whether affluent or poor, urban, suburban, or
rural, all are affected by the effects of youth offending (McClinton, 2004).
Furthermore, as the age of transition, researchers indicated that the deficits, deprivations and
other risks experienced during youth have debilitating emotional, political, economic and
social consequences for those concerned, and their families and communities. When young
people fail to realize their full potential, this undermines their future capabilities as adults,
thereby weakening whole communities and economies. Especially in many low-income
countries with exceptionally youthful populations, this results in a substantial loss of national
developmental momentum (UNDP, 2014).
Physical and mental health problem, emotional and/or aggressive behavior, economic
problem including unemployment, and substance abuse (mainly alcohol and chat), affiliation
to youths with deviant behavior, poor parental supervision, crime history of the family, poor
socialization, lack of awareness, increasing trends of street youths, incidence of crime,
cultural opportunities for crime like the culture of revenge, availability and unlimited
accessibility of alcohol, and availability of guns are the main risk factors of youth offending
(Sintayehu, 2015).
Hence, this research aims to examine possible mechanism or protective factor which possibly
curbs the risk factors in order to reduce youth offending.
Problem Statement
Across different nations, Ozarow (2011), Mortimer (2010); Case and Haines (2007);
Farrington (1986); and Sampson and Laub (1992) studied that incidence of youth offending
high and concluded that disproportionally youth are found to be vulnerable to violence than
any other age group. Accordingly, researches are conducted about risk factors contributed for
16
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
youth offending. In Ethiopia, though the official statistics of youth crime is more prevalent,
less emphasis is given to deal with mechanisms of reducing youth offending. As a result, this
research will fill knowledge gap and is going to examine most prevailing protective factors of
youth offending in East Gojjam Zone of Amhara Regional state of Ethiopia.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this research is: to explore protective factors reducing youths’
involvement in criminal offenses and control the risk factors of youth offending.
1.3 Theoretical Framework
For this research Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory is used. He defined
ecological systems theory as follows; it is an approach to study of human development that
consists of the scientific study of the progressive, mutual accommodation, throughout the life
course, between an active, growing human being, and the changing properties of the
immediate settings in which the developing person lives, as this process is affected by the
relations between these settings, and by the larger contexts in which the settings are
embedded (Bronfenbrenner, 1989).
He later strongly suggested that in order to understand human development; one must
consider the entire ecological system in which growth occurs (Bronfenbrenner, 1994, pp.
37-38). Hence, EST is a paradigm which encompasses multi-disciplinary theories across
multiple levels of functioning (e.g., individual, peer, family, school, community); views the
communities from a broad, interdisciplinary perspective that encompasses bio-ecological and
macro-economic concerns, but gives greater attention to the social, psychological,
institutional, and cultural contexts of people-environment relations (Stokols, Lejano, & Hipp,
2013; Bronfenbrenner’s, 1979).
Ecological system theory looks at an individual’s development and behavior within the
system of the interactions between an individual, immediate environment (family, school, and
peers) and larger social environment (community, society, culture), as well as interactions
among different levels of the environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Moon, Patton, & Rao,
2011, pp. 3-4; Bronfenbrenner, 1979), which is the main concern of this research, observing
youths’ problem behavior such as offending in context.
According to the ecological system theory the participants in environments include
individuals, small groups, organizations, and larger communities and populations (Stokols et
al., 2013). All existing elements within an ecosystem play an equal role in maintaining
balance of the whole (Hepworth et al., 2010).
Satisfaction of human need or mastery of developmental tasks requires adequate resources in
the environment and positive transactions between people and their environments. Any gaps
in the environmental resources, limitations of individuals who need or utilize these resources,
or dysfunctional transactions between individuals and environmental systems threaten to
block the fulfillment of human needs and lead to stress or impaired functioning (Hepworth et
al., 2010).
Problem behavior is influenced by ongoing qualities of an individual’s social environment
and the interaction between the social environment and that individual’s personal
characteristics (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1988). According to ecological system theory human
17
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
problems are derived from the complex interplay of psychological, social, economic, political
and physical forces (Pardeck, 2015). Because, it is based on the notion that human
development is influenced by the different types of environmental systems (Kemp, 2015).
Social ecological analyses incorporate multiple levels of analysis and diverse methodologies
for assessing the resilience and healthfulness of settings and the well-being of individuals and
groups (McLeroy, Bibeau, Steckler, & Glanz, 1988; Winch, 2012). Bronfenbrenner (1994)
stated that “the ecological environment is conceived as a set of nested structures, each inside
the other. Moving from the innermost level to the outside” (p. 39). Bronfenbrenner (1979;
1994; 1989) suggested five levels of ecological components as a useful framework in
understanding how individual or family processes are influenced by hierarchical
environmental systems in which they function. These are;
Microsystems Is an individual’s immediate environment contains the structures with which
the individual has direct contact, eg., family, school, peer group, church.…. At this level
relationships have impact in two directions called bi-directional influences.
Mesosystems Is the relationship between microsystems, e.g., the relations between home and
school, school and workplace, etc.
Exosystems Is the relations between a Microsystem and a system in which the individual is
not directly involved, e.g., for a child, the rela-tion between the home and the parent's
workplace; for a parent, the relation between the school and the neighborhood peer group.
Macrosystems Consists of the overarching pattern like culture or subculture, belief systems
etc.
Chronosystems Is the way in which environmental effects develop over time, e.g. changes
over the life course in family structure like divorce affect the individual’s growth and
development, socioeconomic status, employment, place of residence, or the degree of
hecticness and ability in everyday life (Bronfenbrenner, 1994, pp. 39-41).
According to Bronfenbrenner, all these five systems have rules, norms, and at the same time
roles that shape development of human beings (NACCE, 2015). Some recent social work
models added the physical environment as a separate dimension because it is assumed that
failure to include the physical environment has most notably hampered social work’s ability
to respond to persons with disabilities (Hutchison, 1999).
EST based analysis places an individual at the center of micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, and
chrono-system levels. Within each of these ecological settings, individuals are exposed to risk
factors that increase the likelihood of negative outcomes and protective factors that decrease
such outcomes. This includes: individual-level psychological factors, interactions with peers,
family and teachers, community structural characteristics, and historical factors (Shaffer,
2014). EST recommends any efforts to promote organizational or community resilience
should be based on an understanding of the dynamic reciprocal transactions that occur among
diverse environmental and personal factors, rather than on analyses that focus more narrowly
on specific environmental, biological, or behavioral causal factors (Stokols et al., 2013).
The other key assumption of EST derived from systems theory is interdependence, to
understand the interrelations among people and their surroundings (Bronfenbrenner, 1994).
EST based analyses suggests that the resilience of particular settings and the well-being of
18
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
their participants are jointly influenced by multiple facets of the physical environment and the
social environment (Stokols et al., 2013). McLeroy et al. (1988) called this ‘reciprocal
causation’ to justify how an individual behavior shapes, and is shaped by the social
environment. Therefore, efforts to understand and enhance the resilience of particular
human-environment systems must take into account the interdependencies that exist among
immediate and more distant environments (Stokols et al., 2013; McLeroy et al., 1988).
1.4 Concluding Points on Ecological Theory
This research is designed to examine protective factors of youth offending behavior.
Professionally, multidimensional or integrative approach, focusing on the bio-psycho-social
aspects of the person has been the most enduring culture of social workers for investigation
and intervention. To this ecological systems theory is a holistic and broad scope theory which
enables to appreciate and understand the existence of multiple truths and multiple ways of
knowing in context, and enable to identify factors from different aspects/ levels and get
holistic understanding of human behavior. However, other theories such as rational choice
theory, differential association theory, social support theory, and labeling theory had relied
only to justify crime from a particular aspect.
2. Reviewed Literatures
2.1 Youth Offending
Sociologically, Curtain (2003) stated the sociological definition of youth as “a life stage
comprising a series of transitions from adolescence to adulthood, from dependence to
independence, and from being recipients of society’s services to becoming contributors to
national, economic, political and cultural life” (p. 74). Whereas, interims of age, considering
curtain’s sociological definition, the researcher viewed youthful age as a period of transition,
and aimed to identify factors affecting their successful transition to the adulthood period.
Therefore, this study utilized UN and World Bank’s definition of youth whose age between
14-24
Broadly, Bohm and Haley (2005) advocated crime in two ways: legally and socially. The
legal definition shows “an intentional violation of the criminal low or penal code, committed
without defense or excuse and penalize by the state” (pp. 24-25). EFDRE Criminal Code,
under Proclamation No.414/2004, Article 23 defined crime as follows: “(1) a crime is an act
which is prohibited and made punishable by law. In this code, an act consists of the
commission of what is prohibited or the omission of what is prescribed by law….” The
second and broader definition is social definition, which includes “behavior that violates the
norms of the society/anti-social behavior” (Bohm & Haley, 2005, pp. 24-25). In response of
the definitions of crime Wolfgang, Savitz and Johnston (1970) argued that crime is a legal
issue (pp. 15-16), which is also true for this research because the legal definition only is used.
Conceptually offending and crime has been used interchangeably for similar meaning but
offending is found to be well positive. Though there is age variation, generally criminological
researchers identified three groups of offenders: juvenile, youth and adult offenders.
Wolfgang, Savitz and Johnston, (1970) stated that violation of criminal laws and ordinances
are generally considered delinquency when committed by a juvenile (pp. 23-25). However,
youth and adult offenders have almost the same legal prescription; specifically, in Ethiopia
19
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
offenders below 18 years have some privileges (e.g. no death penalty). Consequently, in these
research youth offending can be defined as violation of criminal laws and ordinances
committed by youth and therefore youth offenders are young person who has been convicted
for a criminal offense.
About 10.2 million pre-trial detainees and sentenced prisoners in the world (Walmsley, 2013),
it is found that young populations are over involved, for example, in New Zealand, young
people (17 years or younger) account for 22% of the total recorded crime (Becroft, 2003);
Statistics in USA released in 2006 revealed that just over a fifth (22%) of young people aged
between 10 and 25 reported that they had committed at least one of the 20 core offences in
the previous 12 months (Ozarow, 2011, p. 10). Researchers used age-crime curve to describe
a characteristic peak found in aggregate crime data when it is plotted against age. Thus,
proportion of the population that is involved in offending behavior (in prevalence and
frequency) tend to be highest between the age of 15 and 18 (The peaking age), followed by a
steep decline to about the mid-20s and a steadier decline thereafter (Farrington, 1986; Mcvie,
2009, pp. 39-40). This general pattern tends to be repeated for both males and females; but,
participation in offending is almost always greater amongst male population (Mcvie, 2009).
Crime whether it is committed by young or adult population, it has been identified as serious
social problems virtually in every society. Instead of growing to be productive citizens,
criminals impose significant costs on society in terms of social resources, and cause
non-monetary pain to their victims (Xian Guan, 2009). Besides causing disability,
violence-related injuries are one of the top three killers of young males in Africa – after HIV
and AIDS and TB (African Union, 2011, p. 46). Crime and the fear of crime lower the quality
of life for many people and is also already costing the community thousands of millions of
dollars per year in insurance company payouts, police courts and correctional costs, and the
replacement of buildings and facilities caused by crimes (Geason, & Wilson, 1988, p.4).
Researches indicated that throughout the nation, communities whether affluent or poor, urban,
suburban, or rural are all affected by the devastating effects of youth violence. Both the
Vitim/s and the offenders would be affected. Moreover, the consequences would be also
extended to society. Young people and their families, friends, teachers, neighbors, and
communities suffer. They experience depression, pain, rejection, injury, and even death.
Family members experience conflict, sadness, and anxiety (Center on Early Adolescence,
2008).
Matsuda (2009) particularly investigated the impact of incarceration on young offenders and
found that the unique experience in prison may influence the normal development of young
offenders and hinder normal desistance from crime (Center on Early Adolescence, 2008).
Evidence shows that those young people who offend early are more likely to go on to be adult
offenders (AIC, 2007).
Miller (2004), an economist calculated the costs of problem behaviors such as: crime,
substance abuse, smoking, dropping out of high school, suicide attempts and other more
which occurred in 1998 by all youth in USA. These costs included medical treatment, use of
government and community resources, loss of work, and decline in quality of life.
Accordingly, he estimated the total cost of problem behaviors that occurred in 1998 was
about $435.3 billion (Miller, 2004 cited in Center on Early Adolescence, 2008)). Since family,
20
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
school, peer, and neighborhood risk factors interrelated and contribute to all of the problems,
preventing one problem could help to prevent other problems as well. He estimated that if the
problems of adolescents with multiple problem behaviors are addressed, it could be possible
to save as much as $340 billion or about 80% of the total costs, he estimated, to society of all
problem behaviors.
Physical and mental health problem, emotional and/or aggressive behavior, economic
problem including unemployment, and substance abuse (mainly alcohol and chat), affiliation
to youths with deviant behavior, poor parental supervision, crime history of the family, poor
socialization, lack of awareness, increasing trends of street youths, incidence of crime,
cultural opportunities for crime like the culture of revenge, availability and unlimited
accessibility of alcohol, and availability of guns are the main risk factors of youth offending
(Sintayehu, 2015)
Researchers also studied about possible solutions what they call it Protective factors of youth
offending. To begin with the definition, protective factors are the specific characteristics that
promote resiliency (Rutter, 1987; Stouthamer-Loeber et al., 1993); and allow young people to
become more resistant of developing offending behavior despite exposure to numerous risk
factors (Vien, 2009; Pollard, Hawkins, & Arthur, 1999). Protective factors provide
opportunities for growth, strengthening coping capacities of youths, foster competence and
promote successful development by neutralizing the effects of such negative risk factors
(Piko, et al., 2005; Davies, 2011; Pollard et al., 1999; & Vien, 2009; Hawkins et al., 2002).
Thus, when protective factors are absent or at their weakest, the negative impact of risk on
problem behavior is clearly present (Piko et al., 2005, p. 96). The detail has been made
below;
Individual and peer protective factors: High self-esteem, constructive use of leisure time,
individual personal behavior (Dekovic, 1999, p. 667), female gender, a resilient temperament,
a sense of self-efficacy, and high intelligence (YJB, 2005, p. 128) are some of protective
factors of youth offending. Arizona Criminal Justice Commission (2014) has found four
individual characteristics as protective factors. Gender -given equal exposure to risks, girls
are less likely to develop health and behavior problems in adolescence than are boys; a
resilient temperament-young people who have the ability to quickly adjust to or recover from
misfortune or changes are at reduced risk; a positive social orientation- young people who are
good natured, enjoy social interactions, and elicit positive attention from others are at reduced
risk;, and intelligence- which is found to be the factor in delinquency rates and school
drop-out rates (pp. 20-21). Moreover, religious individual who regularly attend religious
services; and belief in the moral order or a person that has a strong belief of what is “right” or
“wrong” he or she is less likely to engage in problem behavior (Arizona Criminal Justice
Commission, 2004; Fox, 2008).
Bonding/Interaction with pro-social Peers: strengthening youths’ bond with positive,
pro-social family members, teachers, other significant adults, and/or pro-social friends is
found to be one of the most effective ways to reduce the risk. Individuals who are bonded to
others who hold healthy beliefs are less likely to do things that threaten that bond, such as use
drugs, commit crimes, or drop out of school (Arizona Criminal Justice Commission, 2014, p.
21; Fox, 2008, 38; Stouthamer-Loeber et al., 1993). Young people that engage in positive
21
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
interactions with other who have clear and positive behavior and those who have well social
skills will not give in to negative peer pressure as easily (Fox, 2008, p. 37).
Good parental supervision, family stability, parents having clear standards against criminal
activity (Arizona Criminal Justice Commission, 2014; Dekovic, 1999); and parent’s leaders
who lead by example and hold clearly stated expectations regarding young people’s behavior
are helping to protect against crime. Opportunities for involvement, social and reasoning
skills, and recognition and due praise also act as crucial protective factors (YJB, 2005, p.
128). Besides, a longitudinal research made by Arizona Criminal Justice Commission in 2012
and 2014 identified family attachment, family’s pro-social involvement, parental monitoring,
talking about problems with parents were the main protective factors.
School related protective factors: Strong bonding, when students have healthy relationships
with their teachers, when they feel as if they are able to play an active role in their classes and
in their school, and when they receive encouragement and support they are more bonded to
their school and their commitment to school is less likely to falter. In addition, the negative
effects of risk factors can be reduced when schools teach young people healthy beliefs and set
clear standards for their behavior (Arizona Criminal Justice Commission, 2012, p. 21).
Talking about problems with teachers, participation in school clubs are also other factors to
influence youth offending behavior positively (Piko, Fitzpatrick, & Wright, 2005).
Moreover, School opportunities and rewards for pro-social involvement referring when a
young person is presented with opportunities to be involved in positive interactions and
activities at school, and when a youth is rewarded or given praise for the work or
participation in school, he or she is less likely to use substances or engage in problem
behavior (Arizona Criminal Justice Commission, 2004, 2012, p. 17; Fox, 2008, p. 32).
Neighborhood and community protective factors: Dekovic (1999); and YJB (2005) studied
that community and neighborhood conducivenesses, and the community’s healthy standards
and clearly stated expectations regarding young people’s behavior are protective factors of
youth offending behavior. Likewise, Delgado (2006) forwarded that changing the
undeserving attitudes of the adults towards youth, identification of local resources and
developing community goodwill to create a favorable condition for youth to participate in the
community are possibly mentioned as protective factors (Abraham, 2010). In addition,
Arizona Criminal Justice Commission (2014) and Fox (2008) found that when there are
opportunities in a community for a youth to engage in positive interaction, and if they receive
rewards for positive involvement from the community, he or she is more likely to bond with
the community and thus less likely to engage in problem behavior.
Traditional conflict resolution mechanism: Endalew Lagalme (2013) studied the roles of
customary dispute resolution mechanisms in Ethiopia over the legal aspects and forwarded
that it is playing important role in resolving crimes of any kind and maintaining peace and
stability in the community. The customary dispute resolution mechanisms are run by elders;
involve reconciliation of the conflicting parties and their respective families using different
customary rituals where needed; emphasize the restitution of victims and reintegration of
offenders; and aim at restoring the previous peaceful relationship within the community as
well as maintaining their future peaceful relationships by avoiding the culturally accepted
practices of revenge.
22
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
3. Research Method
3.1 Research Design
Exploratory research is chosen to generate new insight regarding youth offending. Known
researcher like Neuman (2007); Kreuger and Newman (2006); Crow and Semmens (2006)
discussed that exploratory research is best to be used when we need to explore a new topic or
issue to learn about it and if the issue is new or researchers had written little on it. As a result,
the goal of this research is to explore risk and protective factors of youth offending. This
research was led by qualitative (constructivist) approach which basically is presumed that
reality is subjective. The researcher assumed that the research participants have unique and
contextual idea about the issue. According to Crow and Semmens (2006), constructivist
approach is focused on studying a phenomenon as it occurs in its natural state. The focus for
the research is on extracting the meaning of action. Up on this qualitative type of inquiry is
appropriate to fully understand the offenders’ explanations of crime, takes into account the
complex and multivariate nature of individuals and social influences and supplement
statistical models and conclusions with experiential data in studying the real world of
offenders and crime (Pogrebin, 2004a; Romanoff, 2012). Moreover, qualitative research is
culturally specific and produces contextually rich data (Mack, et al., 2005). Of qualitative
research strategies, exploratory case study strategy is used based on its scientific merits.
Creswell (2003) stated that strategies of inquiry are used to provide specific direction for
procedures in a research design. As mentioned above, the aim of the research is to explore
and provide new insight over the issue of youth offending. Therefore, based up on the
research approach, method and research questions, qualitative exploratory type of case study
is chosen. Since the aim of the research is to provide new insight, Stake’s instrumenta l type
of case study is used. According to Stake (1995) in an instrumental type of case study a
particular case is studied to provide insight into an issue or to refine a theory, studies often are
investigated in depth, and all aspects and activities are detailed, but not simply to elaborate
the case. In this research the issue is youth offending with particular emphasis to risk and
protective factors.
The rationale to use exploratory case study research strategy was due to the existing
discrepancy of scientific inquiry about youth offending. Yin (2004) articulated that
exploratory type of case study research is best applied when a research aims to produce a
first-hand understanding of people and events and used for the exploratory phase of an
investigation to answer “What” questions in developing pertinent hypotheses and
propositions for further inquiry which was the foremost concern of this research. Case study
is also appropriate to understand complex social phenomena in-depth and to get complete
picture of a unique, special or interesting story of the study case/s using variety of data
sources (Yin, 1989; Stake, 1994; Baxter & Jack, 2008; and Neale, Thapa, Boyce, 2006). Thus,
the researcher used all the benefits to explore new, in-depth, holistic and contextual
information from multi sources of youth offender/ing.
3.2 Data Collection Techniques
The researcher used interview (to gather primary data) and document review (to collect
secondary and supportive documents) as the main data collection techniques. To show
scientific grounds, Yin (2004) recommended that documentation, records, interviews,
23
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
physical artifacts, direct observations, and participant-observations are the most common
sources of evidence in doing case studies. Interview guides was prepared for the youth
offenders and key informants, and secondary data collection checklist were used as an
instrument of data collection. Colton and Covert (2007) showed that the type of instrument
typically based on: the purpose of the study, the research design, resources and time
constraints which were also considered very well.
In-depth interview: the researcher used in-depth interview with sixteen interviewees which
was entirely conducted by the researcher himself. Colton and Covert (2007) called this
‘self-report method,’ interviewees are asked to reply information directly to their own detail.
Scientifically, Natasha, et al. (2011) supported that in-depth interview is optimal for
collecting data on individuals’ personal histories, perspectives, and experiences, particularly
when sensitive topics are being explored, for example in this case crime.
Key informant interview: Police officials, community dwellers, non offender youths,
correctional center officials and female, children and youth affair offices were interviewed to
get different insights about the offenders, the offending and the environmental context.
For in-depth as well as key informant interview, guiding questions were prepared but it was
more flexible and in the middle of conversation probing questions had been used to
encourage them to elaborate their answers, clarify and get more understanding. Maxwell
(1996) recommended that the researcher should use “probing” questions to gain additional
information about context (in Higgins, 2009).
Document Review: Police crime record and correctional center’s annual report were used to
augment the information collected from primary sources. Moreover, published and
unpublished materials like books, articles, thesis, dissertation, seminars, reports and
institutional documents has been used to get better understanding of the methodology, theory
and the issue under study. Neuman (2007) mentioned that from existing statistics a researcher
locates previously collected information, often in the form of government reports or
previously conducted surveys, then reorganizes or combines the information in new ways to
address a research question.
3.3 Sampling Techniques and Procedures
Study participants and sampling method: Youth offenders whose age between 14-24 were
participants of the study. As the case study research, youth offending is the issue/case that this
research has explored. The researcher used non-probability sampling method, specifically,
purposive sampling technique. This is because the research participants of the youth
offenders and key informant interviewees were selected purposely to get pertinent
information convenient with topic of the research. Teddlie and Yu (2007) noted that purposive
sampling technique refers selecting units based on specific purposes associated with
answering a research questions. The characteristics of the research participants, like gender,
age and social setting (rural vs. urban) of the offenders were considered to select the research
participants to get holistic information. An organization called Laerd Dissertation (2012)
named this “maximum variation sampling,” also known as heterogeneous sampling. It is
stated that maximum variation sampling is one of the types of purposive sampling used to
capture a wide range of perspectives and used to gain greater insights into a phenomenon by
24
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
looking at it from all angles.
Based on the saturation of the information and taking the average of different researchers’
experience, sixteen youth offenders were interviewed. Mack et al. (2005) provided that
purposive sample sizes are often determined on the basis of theoretical saturation. Moreover,
12 key informant interviewees: four Woreda police officers from crime investigation and
community policing department; one correctional center officer, two community dwellers,
three Woreda and Zonal Female Children and Youth Affaire Officer and two non offender
youths were interviewed to support the study participants’ idea.
Inclusion Criteria: Age and crime records were the main inclusion criteria to select youth
offenders. Only youths whose age between 15 and 24 and who had sentenced for their
criminal act were included. Detainee youths were not incorporated in the research because
they are no longer criminals unless they are found to be guilty of crime. In addition, to select
key informant interviewees, issues like their understanding, experience, and responsibility
related to the issue were taken in to consideration.
3.4 Data Analysis Technique
The research used thematic analysis technique. Based on the research questions, transcribed
data has been reduced in to themes and analyzed accordingly. According to Dawson (2007)
thematic analysis is used if the research is inductive; the themes emerge from the data and are
not imposed upon it by the researcher. Since the research is exploratory type, though the
research participants’ (youth offenders) response is considered to develop themes,
information gathered from different unit of observation is also analyzed to explain and get
full information of the research topic. Baxter and Jack (2008) mentioned that in case study,
data from multiple sources are then converged in the analysis process. Each data source is
one piece of the “puzzle,” with each piece contribute to the researcher’s understanding of the
whole phenomenon and promote a greater understanding of the case.
3.5 Ensuring Trustworthiness
In order to keep the trustworthiness of the research: the researcher was genuinely present
realistic information of the interviewee’s opinion and their meaning to the problem; keeping
scientific procedures of the research process (e.g., the interview was made by the researcher
himself); prolonged engagement; validation of the instruments by peer review; and using
triangulation method in source of information(primary and secondary), and unit of
observation (youth offenders and key informants from different sectors). Crow and Semmens
(2006); Hussein (2009) mentioned that triangulation- using the combination of two or more
theoretical perspectives and data sources to study the same phenomenon, is one of the
validity measures in research.
4. Findings of the Research
4.1 Background of the Study Area
This research is conducted in East Gojjam Zone particularly in Debre Marko’s Correctional
center which is found at Debre Marko’s town. East Gojjam Zone, one of the 11 zones of
Amhara regional stat in Ethiopia and contains 17 Woredas and 4 city administrations (East
Gojjam Zone tourism directive, 2014). The total population of east Gojjam Zone is about 2,
496,325. Of this population, youth whose age between 15 and 24 were 569, 374, constituting
25
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
23.89% of the total population. Youths who live in rural area accounts 78.1% of the total
youth population (East Gojjam Zone Economic development directive, 2015). Debre Marko’s
is the capital city of East Gojjam zone which is found approximately 300 km north-west of
Addis Ababa and 267 km south-west of Bahir Dar, capital of the Amhara regional state. It
was established by Dejazmach Tedila Gualu in 1845 E.C by the name ‘Menkorer.’ Following
the establishment of St. Marko’s church, the name has been changed in to Debre Marko’s
after two years of the reign of king Teklehaimanot in 1872 E.C. (Debre Marko’s
communication office, 2017).
There are three correctional centers found in East Gojja zone: Debre Markos, Bichena and
Motta. Of which Debre Marko’s correctional center was the focus of the research which
constitute offenders from nine Woredas. Informant from a religious leader and religious
bulletin prepared for the commencement of the St. Marko’s Church indicated that the prison
was reestablished by Ras Hilu Belew after 1934 E.C. (St. Marko’s church commencement
bulletin, 2012). Legends showed that since the prison was inconvenient and many offenders
died there, informally it was called ‘dem melash’in Amharic “
” to show as the
prison by itself revenge the offender. Later on the current correctional center has been
relocated to the outer edge of the town by the year 1992 E.C. At the time of data collection
there were 1591 prisoners and detainees with 9 tributary adjacent Woredas (Debre Markos
correctional center monthly report, 2015).
4.2 Protective Factors for Youth Offending
Economic empowerment including Employment opportunities: interviewees such as
Getachew, Temesgen, Tilahun, Getinet, Mengistu, and informants like Sajin Zewdu, Zewdu,
Addissu, Esubalew and inspector Aynadis mentioned that employment opportunities and
other economic engagement of youth could be the way to let out them from their criminal
behavior. For example, interviewee Getinet said that his unplanned migration to urban area
was ended with being a street youth which ultimately exposed him for lack of food to eat. He
narrated that;
… After becoming a street youth, I didn’t have any alternative than being a robbery because I
couldn’t maintain otherwise. …. My basic needs plus involuntarily adopted addictions of
drugs in the street heighten my engagement in criminal activities……. as usual, in that day
we asked the owner of Baflo Hotel to give us crumb (he called in Amharic ‘ooffa’) but they
didn’t. As a result we took material secretly from the hotel for which I accused of theft.
They focused that the family has to be the responsible in establishing youths’ economically;
initiating youth’s commitment to work through modeling and providing conducive
environment; and altering the working habits of the youths.
Female, children and youth affaire office, police and other informants listed government’s
small-scale and micro enterprises programs, agricultural opportunities (livestock and land),
irrigation and available training centers like TVT as an existing opportunities for youths that
can be used as a means for their economic empowerment. Though there are other more
driving factors associated with youth’s mass migration and increment of street youths,
interviewees forwarded that empowering youth’s economic capacity can reduce urban ward
migration and street youth. Together with creating job opportunities in both rural and urban
26
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
areas, police officers intended institutional based establishment center to treat street youths
through providing shelter, and other basic foods with some sort of training to reduce the
effect of street youths and let them to be productive citizen.
Increased level of Awareness and complains to the Normative/positive behavior: confirming
lack of awareness as a main causal factor, interviewees like Solomon, Abebech and Demelash,
and Sajjin Aynadis suggested that youth’s increased level awareness can be an opportunity to
reduce youth’s engagement in offending activities. They said it enables them to rationalize
the offense not to commit. Mitiku who was accused for homicide at the age of 16 regretted
the event at the time as follows;
….. We were celebrating epiphany together with my older brother. While we were playing
hockey (traditionally called “gena”), when my brother kicked the hockey ball by coincidence
the hockey ball hit one of our opposite team members and he was blooded. In return they
kicked my brother. … Since I was worried about my brother, I didn’t recognize the
consequences of death. I arrived and immediately bludgeoned at his head. He fall down and
blooded. The issue was silly and reversible however, he eventually died.
Teferi, Selomon and Kasahun, Zerihun , Selamnesh, Shiferaw, Ato Beyene, inspector Aynadis
and Sajin Zewdu stated that youths’ positive behavior of non-violent, drug free, tolerant and
being obedient who are pro family and community norm are protective factors. As mentioned
by the police, especially using alcohol appropriately if not possible to cut, can reduce youths
offending.
Affiliation to law-abiding youths: research participants, for example, Teferi, bearing in mind
how he was influenced by his friends; he said being selective before getting intimate
relationship can be an opportunities to reduce offending. He further elaborated that the youth
may learn positive behaviors if they become friend with whom who have good behavior.
Informant from police officer also strongly supported the advantage of affiliation to law
abiding youths.
Youth’s self-assertiveness: FCYAO and police officials intensively answered that youth’s
self-assertiveness, being confident and decision maker is an opportunity to prevent youth
offending because they replied that it enables them not to be manipulated by their friends
regarding any type of offense rather it could help them to be rational of their activities.
Consistent parental supervision: interviewees mentioned that both strict control as well as
extreme freedom of the family for their children is a risk factor for youth offending behavior.
Getinet and Temesgen for example, noted that rather than strict or negligent parenting style,
regular supervision of the parent can be a solution to daily and oversee youths’ unusual
behaviors. Temesgen said that “consistent treatment from the family can keep youths to be
out of trouble.” He mainly stressed that at the age of adolescent at which youths have a sense
of standoff, family’s supervision is essential to decrease the problem.
Free communication between the parent and the child: most of the interviewees forwarded
that free communication between the children and the parent enables the parents to
understand youths’ behavior and provide the opportunity to control, advice and treat the
youths accordingly. Ato Beyene, and Ato Molla talked similar to this. Dawit, informant from
non-offender youth forwarded that free communicate between the parent and youths facilitate
27
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
the youth to speak it out their interest and become an opportunity to know what the youths
really need. This allows the parent to look around the situation and treat the youth in context
from time perspective.
Family stability: stable family without conflict and divorce are stated as the opportunities to
protect youths. Interviewees noted that the presence of both parents is significant for their
stability. When unintentional death or divorce happens, interviewees pointed the issue of
establishing youth to put aside them from discomfort, disintegration and psychological stress
especially absent parent youths would be a concern.
Kassahun talked that the turning point of the offense was his parent’s divorce. He said after
divorce, his parent argued over him to decide with whom he should live. He elaborated that;
……. my parent got divorce. …. When they get conflict over me to decide with whom I
should live, in the process I have quitted my education. After that my life has got problem, I
started to make use of cigarette and chat; and had imprisoned seven months for the offense of
arson. Again I was also accused of theft. ……..
Proper family socialization: informants forwarded that family’s appropriate socialization of
youth starting from early child hood period to be law abiding citizen, and develop good
personality were predicted opportunities to reduce the vulnerability of youth to their further
offending behavior. For example, Shiferaw illustrated that especially his father’s socialization
style let him to be fighter. He mentioned as follows;
….. Starting from childhood my father always told me that I should not be beaten by any one
rather than being always a winner. He was encouraging me to fight with my peers. I was
beaten back if I had failed to win out my frien….. Economically, we are rich. When my
parent got divorce, my mother gave me heifer, cow, and ox from her part. However, my father
gave me weapons: one pistol, two hand bomb, and one kilash with sufficient bullet….
Adequate income of the family: pointing the fact that most of the youth’s offense is
associated with the economic problems. Getachew, Hiwot, and Temesgen responded that
family’s economic capacity is a protective factor. Ato Beyene and other interviewees
supplemented that family’s adequate income can be at least a means to discharge the
aforementioned (personal and familial) and other subsequent (school and community) factors.
Family’s adequate provision of the required needs and wants including basic needs, education,
treatments and economically establishing of youth facilitate youths’ better community
engagement and decrease their offending behavior.
Mengistu responded; “My family’s economic situation was uncertain; my mother always
wounding me that I was not lucky particularly for the absence of cow for milk. Then I had
decided to stop my education and became a cowboy to support my family.” He acclaimed his
family’s economic situation for the happening of the offense because he justified that, “if my
family was economically better, I wouldn’t have dropped my education and commit the
offense.”
Youth’s steady enrollment to school: Getinet, Temesgen, Mengistu, Selamnesh, Kasshun
mentioned this to be a possible solution from two main perspectives. Kasshun talked that
youths’ enrolment to school reduce the vulnerability of youths to commit offense since they
use their time fully for education and get better attention from their family and community.
28
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
On the other hand, police officials and few research participants also related youths’
continuous enrollment to enhance their awareness level.
Delivering quality and creative education: Ato Beyene’s mentioned that the role of quality
education is either to enhance economic situation or advancing awareness level of youth
which he assumed reduce youth offending. Ato Beyene further showed that the current
unemployment and independent thinking of both educated and uneducated youths sourced
from luck of quality education. As a result, he pointed that quality education in every level
will be an opportunity to create competent youths to be creative and independent. He
elaborated as;
…if quality education is given starting from the lower class, youths do not drop out from
school rather they finish their education and be successful in their profession or be creative if
they fail to work with their profession rather than engaging in offending activities.
Strong supervision at school: well controlling system of the teacher and the school in general
are identified as protective factors, as mentioned by Ato Beyene, to positively force youth’s
commitment and continuous attendance. In addition considering their educational experiences,
Solomon and Teferi pointed out that intentionally or unintentionally the student may miss
class, fail to do the required assignment, play gambling, and use drug and substances with
their friend. They revealed that if strict measurement is taken timely, they may give attention
and improve for the coming day.
Provision of extra circular activities at school: though it is not explicitly mentioned by the
research participants, together with supervising and controlling students at school, the
provision of extracurricular activities and youth’s participation can be an opportunity.
Because it helps to develop different supplementary skills, filter out their natural potentials,
experience responsibility, and give attention to the norms of the school than being deviant
and offender.
Economic development of the community: Solomon and Kassahun, and Police officials
intended that solving unemployment and other economic problem of youths in the
community will reduce exodus towards urban as well as number of street youth which
directly reduce the incidence of crime. Therefore, economic development of the community
especially job opportunities are the most repeatedly thought protective factor to reduce youths
offending.
Key informants such as Esubalew, Ato Addissu, and inspector Zewdu confirmed that there is
an increasing trend of street youths due to exodus of youths to urban. They pointed that most
of the offenders are migrants, who come from rural areas. Ato Addissu further stipulated that;
Form our investigation; most of the offenders are from rural areas. Initially they come for
better job opportunities, some of them may get job but others may not. Those individuals who
did not get job become street youths and/or engage in different criminal activities.
Strong culture against crime: cultural factor such as blood feud was found to be the most risk
factor of crime in the community. Zerihun, Temesgen, Shiferaw’s and Mengistu pointed
ameliorating cultural opportunities of crime could be the main ending solution. Informants
such as police officials and Ato Molla and Ato Beyene added to this. Particularly police
officials forwarded that they are planning to use community policing as an additional
29
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
opportunity to increase the awareness level of the society regarding revenge, recurrent
conflict due to border conflict and other issues.
Limited accessibility of alcohol and guns: almost more than half of the offenders used alcohol
at the time of the crime and of sixteen interviewees, more than five offenders used gun at the
time. The fact that the availability and unlimited accessibility of alcohol were contributing
factors for the offense; both informants like Ato Beyene and interviewees mentioned that
reducing alcohol consumption if not possible to cut. Research participants didn’t mention the
issue of availability and accessibility of alcohol for all age group. However, they said at least
children below 18 ages must be restricted not to access alcohol. Regarding the availability of
gun, police officials, Ato Molla, Shiferaw and Zerihin suggested that reducing individual’s
ownership of gun to only concerned and security personnel will be the solution to reduce
youth offending.
For example, Shiferaw regreated and said that the consequence would not have been much
serious if he hadn’t used hand bomb. He added that; “gun is not like that of stick and other
instruments rather it is either to kill or to injure severely.” He responded that in his
community (Dejen Woreda) almost every individual has gun even those individual who
doesn’t have ox. Due to this you may not find individuals who hadn’t been engaged in
homicide either by himself or with his relatives. Other interviewee named Tiruneh said that,
getting gun at hand create more confidence and may initiate to commit crime unwisely. This
information was also supported by police officials as it causes to youths offending behavior.
Strong traditional conflict resolution mechanism: the availability and strengthen of traditional
conflict resolution mechanisms is frequently mentioned solutions of youth offending by
interviewees as well as informants. Zerihun and Mengistu explained that strong traditional
conflict resolution mechanism reduces further criminality among each other. For example,
Zerihun said “as soon as the conflict happens, the two parties should reconcile their problem
with appropriate reimbursement because whatever the punishment given to the offender with
the legal process, both of them will be disadvantageous.” Similarly, Mengistu suggested
arbitration using the community’s elders to reduce further enmity between the offenders and
the victims rather than reporting every silly issue to the police.
On the other hand, inspector Esubalew indicated contrasting idea. He said,
Solving conflict and other offenses using traditional conflict resolution mechanisms needs
serious attention. For example, previously the offender and the victim agreed to reconcile
their case and the victim received money for compensation. Then the victim immediately
bought gun with that money and revenged the offender back.
Inspector Esubalew, however, supported this mechanism to be used for the less serious types
of crime which will be good and even effective better than the legal process.
Expansion of Youth centers with possible services: Zonal and Woreda level FCYAO officials
stated that even though it is not fully working, youth centers in both rural and urban areas
could be another opportunities. Intended services such as, training, information technology
centers and entertainment centers encourage youth’s creativity rather than being engaged in
other addiction and offending behaviors because, informants described that youths need to
stay there, participate in different clubs and serve the community in different ways. This
30
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
participation creates positive attitude of the community regarding youths as well.
Strengthening Small scale and micro enterprises: In the above section, youths’ economic
problem was stated as a risk factor. As a result, FCYAO pointed the existence of such
opportunities for youths to address their economic problem and reduce unemployment.
However, research participants claimed different hindering issues getting the opportunity of
small scale and micro enterprises like limited access of credit. But with its deficiencies, they
forwarded that this can be opportunity to reduce unemployment as well as youths’ offending
behavior.
Well organized Community policing strategy: Sajin Zewdu, talked that community policing
strategy is a community based crime prevention method that has been implemented since
2008. They said it is working mainly on awareness creation and get behavioral change of
crime. There are four main structures community policing uses to launch awareness: home to
home teaching; village level conflict resolving, counseling and arbitration committee; school
counseling committee; and kebele counseling committee. Therefore, they suggested that if it
is made optimally, this community based crime prevention mechanism can be protective
factors to prevent crime.
Well educated lawyers and police officials: to prevent False and/or collective accusation:
Informants and interviewees talked that well trained, experienced and honest lawyers as well
as police officials are needed to reduce false and/or collective accusation. As far as the
researcher used optimum mechanism to get their trust, from 21 selected possible interviewees,
five youth offenders had already got the decision but they said that they didn’t commit the
offense rather they thought that they were imprisoned without adequate evidence and/or
together with other offender. In addition, key informants from Debre Marko’s correctional
center, Mulugeta, counseling officer pointed that research conducted by Amhara regional
state level of correctional center forwarded that about 45 % of the prisoners were imprisoned
with false evidence. Zerihun responded that;
I did the offense by myself, my brother did nothing, he arrived later than the conflict but they
accused him together with me. It is not only my concern rather there are also individuals who
are imprisoned in group for a single crime though the offence is committed by an individual.
Likewise Shiferaw added, “…my father was accused and sentenced 20 years of imprisonment
together with me. But he didn’t even see the event. They accused him because they fear that
my father will revenge them back.” Temesgen pointed that especially previous offenders are
vulnerable for false accusation. On the other hand, some other interviewees observed this as it
is weak investigation procedures of the police and the court. Concerning this, Shiferaw
claimed that when the victims report the wrong offender, the lawyers, and the police
shouldn’t investigate the case in detail to get the real offenders. He added;
... For example, while I was outlawed, one of my enemy’s family members was killed and
injured by unknown individual. But after my submission to the police, they accused me again
for the death and injury of those individuals because they do not want me to be released since
they assume that I may commit another offense on them. I didn’t make that but the court
decided on me another 11 years of imprisonment.
Inclusively they talked that the accusation of individuals without adequate evidence is
31
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
common mostly for two reasons. First, if the victim previously had enemy or conflict with
someone else, and if any violence or mistreatment happens, she/she reports his enemy to the
police without detail investigation. Whereas the second reason is, for a crime, the victim
himself or his family accused more than one or even the whole family members of the
offender. Shiferaw stated that this is because they assume that if the offender only is
imprisoned, they fear that the accused family will take another action. The main argument
here is that, either accusing the offenders without detail investigation or accusing more than
one criminal for a single crime affect individual’s further criminal act. He/she will develop
enmity towards the accuser and commit another offense.
Improved rehabilitation service: police officials form the correctional center and the prisoners
themselves confirmed that the type of rehabilitation services given in the correctional center
could be made to reduce youth’s further offending behavior. They argued that it is possible to
improve the offending behavior of the youth if youth offenders are rehabilitated well, trained,
counseling and coordination is made with other sectors of such as police, small scale and
micro enterprise, TVT and FCYAO, and follow up of offenders is made to start their own
business and lead their life properly. It is basically aimed to reduce reoffending behavior. For
instance, Shiferaw said
,…here, I have been attending my education. Moreover, I took several trainings like computer,
wood work, and metal as well. I hope these will help me to work in my community if
conditions will be conducive…
Separated rehabilitation center for the adolescent and adult: confirming the existing
integrated system of rehabilitation for adult and child offenders, officials from the
correctional center pointed that making offenders aged between 15and 18 separately from
adult offenders can be an opportunity to reduce reoffending. They justified that when both
adult and children placed at the some institution, children learn various type of crime from
adult offenders rather than being rehabilitated. Moreover, officials described that children
need especial psychological advice to reduce the impact of the offense for their further life.
5. Discussion
This section is devoted to state findings of the study and discussed with existing enquiries. To
begin with the first issue, this study has found that increased level of awareness, positive
behavior such as non violent behavior, free from substance, compliant to the family and
community’s norm) and economic development including employment are found to be taken
as personal level protective factors. Researchers such as Dekovic (1999); YJB (2005)
forwarded that high self-esteem, resilient temperament and high intelligence positively causes
youths’ offending behavior. In addition, Arizona Criminal Justice Commission (2014) added
that being female, and positive social orientation are individual characteristics as protective
factors. More uniquely, this research revealed that reducing the use of substance especially
alcohol and employment opportunities are the main protective factor to reduce youth
offending.
Regarding peer related factors, Fox (2008); Stouthamer-Loeber et al. (1993); Shader (2002);
and Piko, Fitzpatrick, Wright (2005) and Arizona Criminal Justice Commission (2014)
examined that a person who interacts with peers who have positive behavior and who hold
32
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
healthy beliefs served youths to protect against criminality. Similarly, affiliation to
law-abiding youths is central peer related protective factors that are also found from this
study. Moreover, this research explored youth’s self assertiveness to be another opportunities
because, if a youth is self assertive enough, he/she will not be manipulated by the
groups/peers behavior.
On the other dimension, Laser and Nicotera (2011) investigated the positive role of adequate
care and support from adults for appropriate passage of youth to adulthood. Dekovic (1999)
studied good parental supervision and family stability; YJB (2005) examined parent’s clearly
stated expectations regarding young people’s behavior; Arizona Criminal Justice Commission
(2014) showed parent’s positive attitude towards crime, family attachment, parental
monitoring, free communication between the parent and the young people are the crucial
family related protective factors.
Likely, consistent parental supervision, open parental relationship, and marital stability are
observed in this enquiry. Nevertheless, as far as cultural factors are prevalent in the area, this
research especially found that proper family socialization of the youth as protective factor.
Because it enables to acculturate youths culturally accepted opportunities of crime like
revenge, and get concerned in positive behaviors. Besides, as long as economic problem is
the main cause to crime, adequate income of the family is identified to be another protective
factor.
In addition, youth’s steady enrollment to school, quality education, strong supervision of the
school and the teachers, provision of extra circular activities are identified to be protective
factors. Fox (2008) examined and pointed the positive role of youth’s strong bonding, their
healthy relationships with the teachers, and school and other stockholder’s encouragement
and support; Arizona Criminal Justice Commission (2012) studied how school’s teaching of
young people to have healthy beliefs and set clear standards for their behavior; and Piko,
Fitzpatrick, Wright (2005) also added student’s free talk about their problems with teachers
and their participating in school clubs, to increase their bonding and commitment to school
are identified as the protective factors to reduce youth offending.
More intensively this research explored that youth’s steady enrollment to school provide not
only enhanced academic achievement and promoting skills and competencies for further
career but also temporarily decrease unemployment so that youths can stay at school than
engaging in gambling, using alcohol, and other substances. This research also added as
provisions of extra curricula activity increase youths’ bonding and commitment to their
education, enables to search their natural potential, increase their sense of responsiveness and
community engagement which create positive relationship between the adult and the youth.
Moreover, delivering quality education is also found to be an opportunity.
The other section is about cultural and community related protective factors. Dekovic (1999)
dealt on the positive contribution of community and neighborhood conduciveness; Abraham
Genet (2010) examined the contribution of positive attitudes of the adults towards youth; Fox
(2008); and Arizona Criminal Justice Commission (2004) studied facilitating prosaically
involvement of youths through rewarding as the protective factors to reduce youths offending
behavior. Furthermore, Endalew Lijalem (2013) intensively examined the role of traditional
conflict resolution mechanism to contribute in reducing further hostility and restoring the
33
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
previous peaceful relationship within the community.
Apart from the other, this research established that economic development of the community
is found to be the support of all protective factors. Because this research revealed that when
unemployment reduced rural urban migration decrease as a result the number of street youths
decreases as well so that youth offending will be minimized. Furthermore, in the area, strong
culture against crime is also another protective factor to fight for example the culture of blood
feud. This research also explored that not only limiting the use of alcohol but limiting the
accessibility of alcohol and guns especially for children can reduce youth offending. Besides,
this research also indicated the role of strong traditional conflict resolution mechanism to
reduce further enmity.
The last focus is about political and administrative protective factors. This research
discovered that available partially working youth centers if the intended services are to be
given; small scale and micro enterprises in providing job opportunities and reducing
unemployment if all inclusive services are given for all rural urban and educated and
uneducated youth; well organized and trained security and lawyers to control and investigate
crime properly, and avoid injustice in decisions making process; and improved rehabilitation
services to better rehabilitate offenders and separated rehabilitation center according to their
age especially are possible protective factors to prevent youth offending and reoffending. In
addition, community policing strategy is also another protective factor to prevent youth
offending behavior.
Theoretically this research has been lead by ecological system theory, basically assumed that
any individual’s problem like youth offending is derived from the influence of
multidimensional environmental factors. Similarly the finding of the research confirmed that
youth offending behavior is caused by several factors starting from individual to the
community level factors. On the other way, ecological theory assumed that any intervention
program to fix human problem like youth offending should be made not only addressing
personal issues but also other social and environmental aspects should be assessed as well. To
this, the finding of the research also confirmed that multi level of intervention in individuals,
peers, family, school and community is needed to resolve youths’ offending behavior.
6. Conclusion
The finding of the research shows that there are different opportunities or protective factors
that can reduce youths’ over involvement in criminal activities: the nature of friendship
relationships, family situations, schooling, cultural and community circumstances, and
political and administrative related factors are identified as the main protective factors that
help to reduce the vulnerability. Six basic categories/themes are found that positively
influence youth’s offending behavior. The outcome of the research shows that these
categories are not exclusive rather interdependent. Therefore, the study pointed out that,
existing risk factors can be addressed more consistently through the existing opportunities
factors in the community.
6.1 Social Work Implications
As a profession with the mission of enhancing human well-being, particularly attentive to the
needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty
34
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
(IFSW & IASSW, 2004) social work is concerned about the issue of at risk youths, offenders.
There are numerous internal/biological and external/social risk factors contributed for high
rate of youths’ involved in criminal activity. Accordingly, this research identified possible
solutions that could curb and reduce youths’ involvement in offending.
Social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and
the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Social work intervenes at
the points where people interact with their environments (IFSW & IASSW, 2004). Thus,
taking this fact in to consideration, this research has significant implication for social work in
showing the role of social workers’ at which point they can contribute as a researcher, policy
advocator, practitioner, or in education.
Social workers can make practice in assessing or identifying the causal and protective factors
to address the risk factors using the existing opportunities. As the main assumption of
ecological system theory, the research has got six main domains of both the risk and
protective factors of youth offending. Social workers can practice their profession in these six
levels. At micro level, social workers can do in addressing individual’s problem before the
offense and their psychological support through counseling after the offense; and working in
peer/group level to make out their relationship conscious and develop self assertiveness.
From the family contexts, creating harmonious relationship between the family and the youth,
and insisting the family to understand youths in age and time context; and at school level,
supervising proper school-student, teacher-student, student-student, and parent student
relationship. In addition, social workers can work on creating awareness about cultural
opportunities of youth offending in the community level.
Once more, rehabilitating youth offenders in the institution of the correctional centers in
providing psycho social treatment and working to reintegrate offenders with their family and
community to create better future can be another area of social workers’ contribution to
prevent recidivism.
To make evidence based practice, social workers’ role as a researcher can also be very
important. It provides evidence for practice and enables to look further in to the awareness of
the communities about the overall issue of youth offending distinctively from the adult
offenders. In addition, conducting enquiries regarding youth offending can contribute to the
scientific community at large to get better insight of the issue.
Moreover, through examining the existing youth policy and programs’, social workers can
make advocacy in insisting the government to give more attention for youths and work for
the implementations of existing policy and programs. For example, in the study area they
may work for the realization of programs associated with establishing youth centers in every
community with its all intended functions.
Furthermore, in education, social workers should work to include youths’ issue in the course
more contextually, and identifying risk and protective factor simultaneously in addressing any
youths’ issue like that of positive development approach has to be more considered in the
field of social work.
7. Recommendations
In order to address the problem of youth offending, the following recommendations are given
35
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
to the responsible agent/s.
To the family: increased level of awareness, economic empowerment, and affiliated with
normative behavior, proper parental supervision, family stability, socialization up on the
positive behavior of the community, improved income of the family are factors mentioned to
reduce youth’s vulnerability to engage in crime.
Thus, the family members are responsibility to first creating stable family, maintaining their
peaceful relationship, understand the youths’ developmental changes and respond accordingly;
create conducive environment for free communication; oversee their daily behavior, follow
up external peer relationships where and with whom they interact, and controlling
unconditional behavioral changes and deviation from the family and community’s norm
together with showing the fitting and clear standards of positive behaviors; empower this
children economically as much as they can rather than letting them to be out of home without
any support.
To the school and other stockholders: youths consistent enrolment in school, strict rules and
supervision at school, providing several extra curricula activities, and delivering quality and
creative education are mentioned to be the mechanism of the youth offending. Hence, school
administrators and other stack holders should work for the provision of strict and constructive
rules that facilitate students’ engagement to education; follow up of students and teachers;
create favorable school environment to attract students; acknowledge successful students to
be modeled by other; and establish supportive extra curricula activities and encouraging
students to participate based on their concern will be supportive to reduce the problem of
youth offending.
In addition, coordination between school and family and other stockholders will be necessary;
Woreda, zonal and regional educational bureau/ directives/ office to follow up the schools
working situation, upgrade teachers and other school staff workers about academic and non
academic issues to create competent individuals; and with the community as well good to
solve immediate and consistent problems together.
Ultimately, ministry of education has to work for accessibility, reduce school dropout rate,
and students’ failure to pass regional and national exams through consistently monitoring
policy limitation regarding delivering quality education. Strengthening curriculums which
teach ethics and other positive behaviors could also be another concern.
To the community: several cultural risk factors of youth offending are identified. As a result
create favorable conditions for youth like promote youths’ participation and decisions making
ability of the youth, controlling gun and alcohol consumptions, encouraging positively
behaving youth while instructing the other one; and allocate resources to the youth like
supporting the youth centers, youth associations or clubs organized for purpose which
facilitate youths’ creativity and participation in the community will better are possible
protective factors of youth offending.
To the scientific community: as far as there is limitation of enquiries regarding youth
offending, researchers are needed to provide inclusive survey research of youth offending,
reoffending, and further intensive analytical researches on the risk and protective factors in
rural urban and male female contexts to get full picture of the issue to design appropriate
36
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
intervention mechanisms.
To NGOs: efforts have been made to trace NGOs working on youths, unfortunately, only a
few in a few aspects mostly in health area are found at the time. Therefore, NGOs who need
to engage are suggested to work in the study area to enhance the awareness level of the youth,
the family and the community not only regarding crime but also in other problem behaviors
as well. Moreover, they can engage on returnees from the correctional center to reintegrate to
maintain their future life and prevent recidivism.
To Woreda, Zonal, Regional level officials: Economic problems, rural urban mobility and
increment of street youth, high incidence of crime, cultural opportunities, availability and
unlimited accessibility of alcohol, availability of guns and unending criminal attitudes
towards the previous offenders were the main concerns mentioned to addressed.
Thus, police especially community policing department in collaboration with other
stakeholders can work to increase the awareness of the community about crime and the
cultural contexts of it such as revenge, and alcohol intensively. Children and youths at least
up to a certain age have to be restricted not to use alcohol. Legal or illegal ownership of gun
for youths as well must be controlled. Community policing department can use community’s
organizations such as religious institutions, idir and other helping organizations to better
implement the change. Furthermore, in line with their activity, community policing officers
could encourage traditional conflict resolution methods to be strong and recognized in the
community.
Female, children, and youth affaire office should be strong and develop dynamic and
contextual programs; facilitate to use existing youth centers and strive to make better in
provision of services to get knowledge and skills; launch different youth clubs and initiate
youths to participate with their interest including free services so that the community will
have positive attitudes and create positive relationship with the youths.
To the court and police officials: Well educated, trained and experienced lawyers to prevent
False and/or collective accusation are mentioned as an opportunity. Because they argued that
it create further uncertainty not only among the offender and victim but also for the family as
well. So regional, zonal and Woredal level court and police officials should work to improve
crime investigation system scientifically and reduce false and/or collective accusation.
Officials from sport, police, small scale enterprise, training center such as TVT, and other
NGOs would work in cooperation regarding youth’s issue.
To the top policy and decision makers: False and/or collective accusation due to corruption
and weak investigation system, poor administration of the correctional center, and less
political commitment towards youths issue were mentioned as the problem that caused
youths’ offending behavior. Therefore, strong, accountable and committed government
system to correct maladministration including corruption; and well organized and trained
personnel of the police and lawyers to better detect crime and process the legal issue will be
better. Moreover, looking the contemporary situation, and as the demographic composition,
the government should give deserving attention to youth.
Federal agency of correctional center has to work to provide separate correctional center for
the adult and the children below the age of 18. Apart from separating the center, improved
37
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
rehabilitation services for each group should be given to reduce youth’s recidivism.
Female, children and youth minister must work to establish youth centers with all possible
and constructive departments comprehensively in every community; and the government
could create the way the community themselves to take the responsibility to finance and
follow up the progress of the youths and youth centers.
Key political decision makers should recognize the economic problem of the community. In
collaboration with regional officials ways have to be provided how to get economic
development in the community to reduce youth unemployment, mass migration towards
urban areas, and easing street youths which are assumed to reduce the incidence of youth
crime. Moreover, awareness creation in the community could be made and basic issues that
causes for recurrent conflict (like boundary problems and other cultural factors) have to be
addressed systematically.
Strong and all inclusive small scale and micro enterprise services should be provided for all
groups; since there is scarcity of land in rural area, rather than distributing unused and
communal lands to youths, it will be good solution if irrigation is expanded to increase
productivity. Moreover, irrigation will enable youths to work with their family since it needs
more human labor.
Youths who are unemployed, street youths, addicted and youths who have got mental and
psychological illness and other more are becoming offenders. Thus, together with creating
job opportunities and supplementary services, institutional based youth establishment centers
have to be established and provide basic needs like foods with some sort of training for their
further life would be very appropriate especially to the street and absent parent youths.
References
Abraham, G. (2010). an exploratory study on the experience of out-of-school youths in Arada
Sub city, Addis Ababa city administration. A thesis conducted for the completion of MSW at
Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia.
African Union. (2011). Status of the African youth report (report). Retrieved from
http://africa-youth.org/sites/default/files/State%20of%20the%20African%20Youth%20Report
%202011%20%28English%29.pdf
Arizona Criminal Justice Commission. (2012). Arizona Youth Survey conducted. Arizona
Youth Survey State Report.
Arizona Criminal Justice Commission. (2014). Arizona Youth Survey conducted. Arizona
Youth Survey State Report.
Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and
Implementation for Novice Researchers. West Hamilton, Ontario, Canada: The Qualitative
Report, 13(4), 544-559
Bohm, R. M., & Haley, K. (2005). Introduction to Criminal Justice (2nd ed.). New York,
USA: McGraw-hill.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University press.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological system theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Six theories of child
38
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
development: Revised Formulations and Current Issues. (Vol. 6, pp. 187-249). JAI Press,
Greenwich, Connecticut.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. Annals of Child Development, 6,
187-24
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological Model of human development. In International
Encyclopedia of Education, Vol. 3, 2nd Ed. Oxford: Elsevier. Reprinted in: Gauvain, M. &
Cole, M (Eds.), Readings on the development of children, 2nd Ed. (1993, pp. 37-43). NY:
Freeman.
Case, S., & Haines, K. (2007). Offending by Young People: A Further Risk Factor Analysis.
Centre for Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of Wales Swansea, U.K. Security
Journal, 20, 96-110. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.sj.8350031
Center on Early Adolescence. (2008). The Cost of Youth Problem Behaviors. Retrieved from
https://www.earlyadolescence.org/cost date of retrival-12/15/14
Colton, D., & Covert, R. W. (2007). Designing and Constructing Instruments for Social
Research and Evaluation. San Francisco, USA: John Wiley & Sons, inc.
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods
Approaches (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, California, USA: SAGE publication.
Crow, I., & Semmens, N. (2006). Researching Criminology. Maidenhead, Berkshire, England:
Open University Press.
Curtain, R. (2003). Youth in extreme poverty: Dimensions and country responses. In World
Youth Report: The Global Situation of Youth. New York: United Nations.
Date of retrieval, 18/12/20014.
Davies, D. (2011). Child development: A practitioner’s Guide, third edition. On Social Work
practice with Children and Families, Boyd, N. (Eds.). Guilford Press, New York, USA.
Dawson, C. (2007). A Practical Guide to Research Method: A User-Friendly Manual For
Mastering Research Techniques And Projects (3rd ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: How to
content a division of How To Books Ltd.
Debre Marko’s correctional administration. (2012, 2013, & 2014). Annual report.
Debre Marko’s city administration communication office. (2015). The green Debre Marko’s
bulletin prepared by Debre Marko’s city administration communication office.
Dekovic, M. (1999). Risk and Protective Factors in the Development of Problem Behavior
during Adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28(6), 667-685.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021635516758
East Gojjam Zone Economic development directive. (2015). Population size by sex and age
group and urban rural distribution.
East Gojjam Zone police directive. (2015). Annual police record report.
East Gojjam Zone tourism directive. (2006). General information about East Gojjam zone.
Endalew, L. (2013). A Move towards Restorative Justice In Ethiopia: Accommodating
Customary Dispute Resolution Mechanisms With The Criminal Justice System. Thesis
Conducted For Master’s Thesis in Peace and Conflict Transformation, University Of Tromsø:
Norway.
39
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
Farrington, D. P. (1986). Age and Crime. In M. Tonry, & N. Morris (Eds), Crime and Justice:
An Annual Review of Research, 7, 189-250. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
https://doi.org/10.1086/449114
Farrington, D. P. (1995). Teenage anti-social behavior. In M. Rutter (Ed.), Psychosocial
Disturbances in Young People. Challenges for Prevention. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Farrington, D. P. (1995). The Twelfth Jack Tizard Memorial Lecture. The Development of
Offending and Anti-social Behavior from Childhood: Key Findings from the Cambridge
Study in Delinquent Development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36(6),
929-964. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1995.tb01342.x
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2004). The Criminal Code of the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Proclamation No.414/2004. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Fox, A. M. (2008). An Examination of Risk and Protective Factors, Drug Use, and
Delinquency in Trinidad and Tobago. A Thesis Presented for the Partial Fulfillment of the
Degree Masters Of Science, Arizona State University.
Geason, S., & Wilson, P. R. (1988). Crime Prevention: Theory and Practice.Canberra,
Australian:Australian Institute of Criminology.
Guan, X. (2012). Early Behavior Problems in School, Juvenile Delinquency, and Adult
Incarceration: A Longitudinal Examination of Pathways to Crime among Ten-Year Birth
Cohort in Louisiana. China: Yancheng Institute of Technology.
Hepworth, D. Rooney, R. Rooney, G. D, Gottfried, K. S., & Larsen, A. (2010). Direct Social
Work Practice Theory and Skills (8th Edition). Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, Canada.
Higgins, G. E. (2009). Quantitative versus Qualitative Methods: Understanding Why
quantitative Methods are Predominant in Criminology and Criminal Justice. Journal of
Theoretical and Philosophical Criminology, 1(1).
Hussein, A. (2009). The use of Triangulation in Social Sciences Research: Can qualitative
and quantitative methods be combined? Journal of Comparative Social Work, 1, 1-12.
Hutchison, E. D. (1999). Dimensions of Human Behavior: Person and Environment.
Thousand Oaks, California: Pine Forge Press.
IFSW and the IASSW. (2004). Ethics in Social Work, Statement of Principles” The document
approved at the General Meetings of the in Adelaide, Australia.
Kemp, S. P. (2015). Ecological Framework. Oxford university press. Retrieved from
http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195389678/obo-9780195389
678-0095.xml
Kreuger, L., & Newman, W. (2006). Social Work Research Methods: Qualitative and
Quantitative approaches. Boston, MA, USA: Person Education, Inc.
Mack, N., Woodsong, C., MacQueen, K. M., Guest, G., & Namey, E. (2005). Qualitative
Research Methods: A Data collector’s Field Guide. North Carolina, USA: Family health
international
Matsueda, R. L. (2006). Differential Social Organization, Collective Action, and Crime.
University of Washington, USA: Business Media B.V.
40
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
McLeroy, K. R., Bibeau, D., Steckler, A., & Glanz, K. (1988). An ecological perspective on
health
promotion
programs.
Health
Education
Quarterly,
15,
351-377.
https://doi.org/10.1177/109019818801500401
Mcvie, S. (2009). Criminal Careers and Young People. A book chapter in Barry, M., &
McNeile (Eds.) Youth Offending and Youth Justice: Research Highlights in social work.
London, England: Jessica Kingsley Publisher.
Moon, S. S., Patton, J., & Rao, U. (2011). An Ecological Approach to Understanding Youth
Violence: The Mediating Role of Substance Use. J Hum Behav Soc Environ, 20(7), 839-856.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10911351003751918
Mortimer, R. (2010). Risk factors for offending: A developmental approach. A dissertation
made for the degree of Doctorate in Forensic Psychology Practice (Foren Psy D), Centre for
Forensic and Criminological Psychology, University of Birmingham.
NACCE (North American community for cultural ecology). (2015). Ecological theory of
brenfrender. Retrived from http://nacce.org/ecological-theory-of-bronfenbrenner/ Date of
retrival 15/08/2015
Natasha, M., Cynthia, W., Macqueen, K. M., Guest, G., & Namey, E. (2011). Qualitative
Research Methods: A Data collector’s Field Guide. North Carolina, USA: Family Health
International.
Neale, P., Thapa, S., & Boyce, C. (2006). Preparing a Case Study: A Guide for Designing and
Conducting a Case Study for Evaluation Input.Pathfinder International Tool Series to
Monitoring and Evaluation
Neuman, W. L. (2007). Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
(2nd ed.). Madison, USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Ozarow, L. (2011). An Exploratory Study of How Youth Offenders Perceive their Experience
of Education. Master’s thesis made in University of East London.
Pardeck, J. T. (2015). An Ecological Approach for Social Work Practice. The Journal of
Sociology & Social Welfare, 15, 132-143
Piko, B. F., Fitzpatrick, K. M., & Wright, D. R. (2005). A risk and protective factors
framework for understanding youth’s externalizing problem behavior in two different cultural
settings.
European
Child
&
Adolescent
Psychiatry,
14(2),
95-103.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-005-0437-z
Pogrebin, M. (Ed.). (2004a). A view of the offender’s world: About criminals. Belmont, CA:
Sage.
Pollard, J. A., Hawkins, D., & Arthur, M. W. (1999). Risk and protective factors: Are both
necessary to understand diverse behavioral outcomes in adolescence? Social Work Research,
23, 145-158. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/23.3.145
Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316-331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1987.tb03541.x
Sampson, R. J, & Laub, J. H. (1992). Crime and Deviance in the Life Course. Annual Review
of sociology, 18, 63-84. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.18.080192.000431
Shaffer, C. S. (2014). Risk and Protective Factors for Youth Gang Involvement in Canada: An
41
http://ijsw.macrothink.org
International Journal of Social Work
ISSN 2332-7278
2017, Vol. 4, No. 2
Ecological Systems Analysis. Thesis Conducted For The Partial Fulfillment Of The Degree
Of Master of Arts In Psychology, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada.
Stake, R. (1995). The art of case research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Stokols, D., Lejano, R. P., & Hipp, J. (2013). Enhancing the Resilience of
Human-Environment Systems: A Social Ecological Perspective. School of Social Ecology,
University of California, Irvine.
Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Zhang, Q., vanKammen, W., & Maguin,
E. (1993). The double edge of protective and risk factors for delinquency: Interrelations and
developmental
patterns.
Development
and
Psychopathology,
5,
683-701.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400006234
Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2007). Mixed Methods Sampling: A Typology with Examples. Journal
of Mixed Methods Research, 1, 77-99. https://doi.org/10.1177/2345678906292430
Sintayehu, T. (2017). Exploratory research on youth offending: Risk Factors Associated with
Youth Offendingin East Gojjam Zone,Ethiopia. International Journal of Scientific &
Engineering Research, 8(7), 1364-1411.
UNDP Human Development Report Office. (2014). Youth Vulnerabilities in Life Course
Transitions. Occasional Paper.
Vien, A. (2009). An Investigation In to the Risk and Protective Factors Associated with Youth
Offending, A dissertation made for the requirement of Doctorate in Forensic Psychology
Practice. The University of Birmingham.
Winch, P. (2012). Ecological models and multilevel interventions: Health Behavior Change at
the Individual, Household and Community Levels. Public Lecture at Johns Hopkins
Bloomberg School of Public Health.
Wolfgang, M. E., Savitz, L., & Johnston, N. (1970). Sociology of crime and delinquency (2nd
ed.). USA: John Wiley and sons inc. https://doi.org/10.1177/002242787000700210
Yin, R. K. (1989). Case Study Research: Design and Methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA:
Sage Publications.
Yin, R. K. (2004). Case Study Methods (A revised draft). Washington, DC, USA: COSMOS
Corporation.
Youth Justice Board. (2002). Corporate Plan 2002-03 to 2004-05And Business Plan 2002-03.
Youth Justice Board. (2005). Risk and protective factors. Research undertaken by
Communities that Care on behalf of The Youth Justice Board.
Copyright Disclaimer
Copyright reserved by the author(s).
This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the
Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
42
http://ijsw.macrothink.org