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Figure 1.
Numeric distribution of fungal phylum in order, family, genera and species of phytopathogenic fungi.
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Order Family Genus Species Remarks Phylum Ascomycota Amphisphaeriales Sporocadaceae Corda Pestalotiopsis Steyaert Pestalotiopsis microspora (Speg.) G.C. Zhao & N. Li (reported as Pestalotiopsis royenae (Guba) Steyaert) causing foliar disease on Amomum subulatum Roxb. (Zingiberaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[17] Pestalotiopsis microspora is an endophytic fungus causing leaf spot disease on crops[18]. Isolates of this fungus are reported to break down and degrade synthetic polymer polyester polyurethane with the enzyme Serine Hydrolase[19]. Robillarda Sacc. Robillarda sessilis (Sacc.) Sacc. causing leaf spot on Amomum subulatum Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) Northern Sikkim[20] Robillarda sessilis is reported from variable hosts and substrates like bark, dead branches, seeds and leaves. It is reported to cause leaf spot disease[21]. Botryosphaeriales Botryosphaeriaceae Theiss. & H. Syd. Diplodia Fr. Diplodia macrostoma Lév. on cobs of Zea mays L. (Poaceae) in Kalimpong, W.B. and Sikkim[22]; D. macrostoma on cobs of Zea mays L. (Poaceae) in Kalimpong, W.B. and Sikkim[23] Diplodia macrostoma is parasitic causal organism of dry rot of ears and stalks of maize and frequently also associated with leaf lesions of Maize[24]. Guignardia Viala & Ravaz Guignardia bidwellii (Ellis) Viala & Ravaz on living leaves of Asplenium nidus L. (Aspleniaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[25] It is a hemibiotrophic fungus[26]. Macrophomina Petr. Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. causing leaf spot on Schima wallichii (DC.) Choisy (Theaceae), in Sikkim[27] It is a generalist soil borne pathogen present worldwide, affecting around 500 species of plants belonging to more than 100 families. It causes stem and root rot, charcoal rot and seedling blight[28]. Neofusicoccum Crous, Slippers & A.J.L. Phillips Neofusicoccum ribis (Slippers, Crous & M.J. Wingf.) Crous, Slippers & A.J.L. Phillips (reported as Botryosphaeria ribis Grossenb. & Duggar) causing leaf spot on Quercus acutissima Carruth. (Fagaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[29] It is identified as a pathogen on numerous woody host plants worldwide[30]. Phyllostictaceae Fr. Phyllosticta Pers. Phyllosticta sorghina Sacc. (reported as Phoma sorghina (Sacc.) Boerema, Dorenb. & Kesteren [Pleosporales, Didymellaceae]) on leaves of Thysanolaena latifolia Honda; Poaceae (reported as Thysanolaena Agrostis Nees), in Gangtok, Sikkim[31] It is a widely distributed grain mold, known to produce tenuazonic acid and may be responsible for the human disorder Onyalai, prevalent in Africa which is diagnosed by haemorrhagic vesicles in the mouth that appear after the ingestion of infected Sorghum grains[32]. Chaetomellales Chaetomellaceae Baral, P.R. Johnst. & Rossman Chaetomella Fuckel Chaetomella furcata Cooke & Massee upon unknown coriaceous leaf, in Sikkim[33] Species of Chaetomella are plant pathogenic fungi producing blackish pycnidia on hosts[34]. Cladosporiales Cladosporiaceae Chalm. & R.G. Archibald Cladosporium Link Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fresen) G.A. de Vries on leaves of Coix lacryma-jobi L. (Poaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[35] Cladosporium herbarum and C. cladosporioides are xerophilic species which cause Cladosporium rot in grape vines[37] and are also among the most frequently encountered fungi in both outdoor and indoor environments as contaminants occasionally linked to human health problems[38]. Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.) Link. on living leaves of Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. (Nyctaginaceae) in Ranipul (mentioned as Ranipur), Sikkim[36] Diaporthales Diaporthaceae Höhn. ex Wehm. Stenocarpella Syd. & P. Syd. Stenocarpella macrospora (Earle) B. Sutton causing zonate leaf spot on Zea mays L. (Poaceae), in Sikkim[39] Stenocarpella macrospora is a necrotrophic fungal pathogen of Maize causing Stalk and Ear Rot and Macrospora leaf spot. It also survives saprophytically in maize debris in the form of mycelia and pycnidia, which constitute the main source of primary inoculum[40]. Stenocarpella maydis (Berk.) B. Sutton (reported as Diplodia zeae Lév.) on cobs of Zea mays L. (Poaceae) in Chyakung, Sikkim[41] Stenocarpella maydis is associated with Maize and causing white rot of stalk and corn cob. It produces mycotoxins among such as the diploidiatoxin, chaetoglobosins, and diplonine, which causes mycotoxicosis (Diplodiosis), characterized by neurological disorders such as ataxia, paralysis, and liver damage in farm animals fed with infected corn[42]. Valsaceae Tul. & C. Tul. Cryptospora Tul. & C. Tul. Cryptospora caryae Peck (reported as Ophiovalsa caryae (Peck) J.N. Kapoor & S.P. Lal) on stem and twigs of Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae), in Sikkim[43] Cryptospora caryae is endophytic and causes conic erumpent pustulate swellings on surface of host, including Carya spp.[44]. Glomerellales Glomerellaceae Locq. ex Seifert & W. Gams Colletotrichum Corda Colletotrichum capsici (Syd. & P. Syd.) E.J. Butler & Bisby upon Capsicum annuum L. and Capsicum frutescens L. (Solanaceae) causing Anthracnose[45]
Colletotrichum fructicola Prihastuti, L. Cai & K.D. Hyde, on Amomum subulatum Roxb. (Zingiberaceae), in Sikkim[46]
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. causing anthracnose on Amomum subulatum Roxb. (Zingiberaceae), in Sikkim[47]; C. gloeosporioides causing leaf spot of wild large Cardamom Amomum dealbatum Roxb. (Zingiberaceae), in Sikkim[39]; C. gloeosporioides upon Citrus reticulata Blanco (Rutaceae) causing Citrus die back disease[45];Colletotrichum spp. are causal organisms for anthracnose/leaf blight disease on diverse plant groups. They are facultative plant pathogen which can live as a saprophyte on dead organic matter or as a pathogen on a host plant[46,50]. C. gloeosporioides (reported as Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman) Spauld. & H. Schrenk) causing anthracnose on F. lacor Buch.-Ham. / Ficus tsjakela Burm.f.; Moraceae (reported as Ficus infectoria), in Gangtok, Sikkim[48]; G. cingulata causing leaf spot on Ficus auriculata Lour. (Moraceae), in Sikkim[49]
Colletotrichum spp. upon Phaseolus spp. (Fabaceae) causing Anthracnose[45]Helotiales Erysiphaceae Tul. & C. Tul. Erysiphe DC. Erysiphe polygoni DC. on living leaves of Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.; Asphodelaceae (reported as Aloe barbadensis Mill.), in Gangtok, Sikkim[36]; on Pisum sativum L. (Fabaceae) causing powdery mildew Erysiphe polygoni is one of the notorious obligate parasite that invades nearly 300 species of plants[51]. Erysiphe rhododendri J.N. Kapoor on leaves of Rhododendron sp. (Ericaceae), in Sikkim[52] Erysiphe rhododendri along with E. azaleae, E. digitata, E. izuensis, and E. vaccinii are important members of the genus Erysiphe causing Powdery Mildew in Rhododendrons[53]. Erysiphe sikkimensis Chona, J.N. Kapoor & H.S. Gill on living leaves of Castanopsis tribuloides A.DC. (Fagaceae), in Sikkim[54]; E. sikkimensis on living leaves of Castanopsis indica A.DC. (Fagaceae) in Sikkim[54] Erysiphe sikkimensis is reported to be distributed pan Asia which is specific for Castanopsis and Quercus[55]. Erysiphe symploci J.N. Kapoor on leaves of Symplocos racemosa Roxb. (Symplocaceae), in Sikkim[52] Besides Erysiphe symploci, E. nomurae is another member of Erysiphe associated with the genus Symplocos[56]. Oidium Link Oidium caesalpiniacearum Hosag. & U. Barun causing powdery mildew on Bauhinia purpurea L. (Fabaceae), in Sikkim[49] Oidium is obligately biotrophic fungi which is considered anamorphic stage of many members of Erysiphales[58]. Oidium sp. causing powdery mildew on Alnus nepalensis D.Don (Betulaceae), in Sikkim[29] Oidium sp. causing aerial blight and collar rot on Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (Fabaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[57] Sclerotiniaceae Whetzel ex Whetzel Botrytis P. Micheli ex Pers. Botrytis fabae Sardiña causing burn boils disease on Vicia faba L. (Fabaceae), in Sikkim[39] It is specific for Vicia faba. Despite its pathogenic potential, Botrytis fabae is not an obligate parasite, being able to survive saprophytically within diseased plant remains[59]. Monilinia Honey Monilinia urnula Weinm. (reported as Sclerotinia urnula (Weinm.) Rehm) upon mummified fruits of Vaccinium vacciniaceum (Roxb.) Sleumer; Ericaceae (reported as Vaccinium serratum Wight), in Sikkim[60] Monilinia spp. are reported to be specific on members of Ericaceae, and M. urnula along with M. vaccinii-corymbosi are notable pathogens of the genus Vaccinium[61]. Hypocreales Incertae Sedis Cephalosporium Corda Cephalosporium acremonium Corda upon Zea mays L. (Poaceae), in Kalimpong, Sikkim causing ear rot disease[62] Cephalosporium acremonium is interesting in a sense that it is a saprophyte, and source of the antibiotic Cephalosporin C, as well, it is a human pathogen[63]; it is a hyperparasite upon Helminthosporium solani Durieu & Mont.[64]; and a phytopathogen causing black bundle disease of maize[65]. Nectriaceae Tul. & C. Tul. Fusarium Link Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. upon Citrus reticulata Blanco (Rutaceae), in Sikkim[66] Fusarium spp. are also reported to be saprophyte[68] Fusarium oxysporum Schltdl upon Amomum subulatum Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) causing Rhizome rot; F. oxysporum causing Fusarium wilt of Solanum lycopersicum L. (Solanaceae); F. oxysporum upon Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae) causing Dry rot.[45] Fusarium sp. (F. moniliforme J. Sheld./ F. oxysporum Schltdl./ F. solani (Mart.) Sacc.) causing yellows in Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae), in Sikkim[67] Meliolales Meliolaceae G.W. Martin ex Hansf. Meliola Fr. Meliola himalayensis J.N. Kapoor on Bridelia montana Woodrow ex J.J.Sm. (Phyllanthaceae), in Sribadam, West Sikkim[69] Members of genus Meliola are parasitic on vascular plants and causes black mildew disease[70]. Meliola molleriana G. Winter (reported as Irenopsis molleriana (G. Winter) F. Stevens) on Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. (Malvaceae); (reported as Triumfetta bartramia L.), in Sribadham, West Sikkim[69] Meliola ostodis J.N. Kapoor on Ostodes paniculata Blume (Euphorbiaceae) at Singhik, North Sikkim[69] Meliola symingtoniae J.N. Kapoor on Exbucklandia populnea (R.Br. ex Griff.) R.W.Br.; Hamamelidaceae (reported as Symingtonia populnea (R.Br. ex Griff.) Steenis) in West Sikkim[69] Mycosphaerellales Mycosphaerellaceae Lindau Cercospora Fresen. ex Fuckel Cercospora kikuchii (T. Matsumoto & Tomoy.) M.W. Gardner, causing aerial blight and collar rot of Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (Fabaceae), in Sikkim[57]
Cercospora menthicola Tehon & E.Y. Daniels on living leaves of Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. (Apocynaceae), Sikkim[36]Cercospora is one of the anamorphs of Mycosphaerella, and represent one of the largest group of plant pathogenic obligate parasitic fungi that cause leaf spots[71]. Mycosphaerella Johanson Mycosphaerella aethiops (Auersw.) Lindau (reported as Mycosphaerella aethiopes (Fuckel) Kapoor & Gill) on leaves of Quercus sp. (Fagaceae), in Sikkim[72]
Mycosphaerella bolleana Higg. causing leaf spot and mould on Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (Combretaceae), in Sikkim[49]Mycosphaerella is a necrotrophic plant pathogen[73]. Mycovellosiella Rangel Mycovellosiella cajani (Henn.) Rangel ex Trotter causing flowery spot on Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth (Fabaceae), in Northern Eastern Hill Region including Sikkim[74] It is a seed borne pathogen of Cajanus cajan causing necrotic spots on leaves[75]. Passalora Fr. Passalora bolleana (Thüm.) U. Braun (reported as Cercosporidium bolleanum (Thüm.) X.J. Liu & Y.L. Guo) causing vein necrosis and leaf spot on Ficus auriculata Lour. (Moraceae), in Sikkim[49]; P. bolleanum causing leaf spot on F. lacor Buch.-Ham. / Ficus tsjakela Burm.f.; Moraceae (reported as Ficus infectoria), in Sikkim[49] Passalora is one of the anamorphs of Mycosphaerella, and it is an obligate plant obligate parasitic fungus that cause leaf blight and leaf spots[71]. Peyronellaea Goid. ex Togliani Peyronellaea pinodes (Berk. & A. Bloxam) Aveskamp (reported as Mycosphaerella pinodes (Berk. & A. Bloxam) Vestergr.) causing aerial blight and collar rot on Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (Fabaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[57] Peyronellaea pinodes is a hemibiotroph causing leaf spot and foot rot of Pisum sativum, and is prevalent worldwide[76]. Pseudocercospora Speg. Pseudocercospora macarangae (Syd. & P.Syd.) Deighton. on leaves of Macaranga denticulata Müll.Arg. (Euphorbiaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[31] Pseudocercospora is one of the anamorphs of Mycosphaerella, and it is an obligate plant parasitic fungus that cause leaf blight and leaf spots[71]. Pseudocercospora osbeckiae (Chona, Lall & Munjal) Kamal, M.K. Khan & R.K. Verma (reported as Cercospora osbeckiae Chona, Lall & Munjal) on leaves of Osbeckia stellata Buch.-Ham. ex Ker Gawl. (Melastomaceae), in Chakking, Sikkim[77] Pseudocercospora sp. on leaves of Boehmeria polystachya Wedd. (Urticaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[31] Ramularia Unger Ramularia phaseoli (O.A. Drumm.) Deighton (reported as Mycovellosiella phaseoli (O.A. Drumm.) Deighton) causing farinose leaf spot on Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (Fabaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[57] Ramularia is obligately biotrophic fungi which is considered one of the anamophic stage of many members of Erysiphales[58]. Septoria Sacc. Septoria lablabina Sacc. causing leaf spot on Lablab purpureus subsp. purpureus (L.) Sweet; Fabaceae (reported as Dolichos lablab L.), in Sikkim[39] Septoria lablabina is associated with lablab bean as causal organism for the leaf spot disease[78]. Myriangiales Elsinoaceae Höhn. ex Sacc. & Trotter Elsinoe Racib. Elsinoe fici Boedijn causing leaf spot disease of F. lacor Buch.-Ham./Ficus tsjakela Burm.f.; Moraceae (reported as Ficus infectoria), in Sikkim[27] Elsinoe fici is specific for genus Ficus and causes diseases ranging from leaf spot to blisters[79]. Phyllachorales Phyllachoraceae Theiss. & H. Syd. Phyllachora Nitschke ex Fuckel Phyllachora euryae (Racib.) Arx & E. Müll. causing anthracnose on Schima wallichii (DC.) Choisy (Theaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[48] Genus Phyllachora consists of many obligate parasites causing tar spot / anthracnose disease on plants. Considered host specific, P. euryae, P. cymbispora, P. transiens, P. gordoniae and P. schimae are reported from Theaceae. Phyllachora schimae is reported from Schima superba[80]. Phyllachora repens (Corda) Sacc. causing leaf tar spot on F. lacor Buch.-Ham. / Ficus tsjakela Burm.f.; Moraceae (reported as Ficus infectoria), in Sikkim[49] Phyllachora repens has also been reported as an obligate parasite on Ficus religiosa[81]. Pleosporales Astrosphaeriellaceae Phook. & K.D. Hyde Astrosphaeriella Syd. & P. Syd. Astrosphaeriella fuscomaculans W. Yamam. upon culms of Drepanostachyum falcatum (Nees) Keng f.; Poaceae (reported as Arundinaria falcata Nees), in Sikkim[82] Astrosphaeriella fuscomaculans is parasitic and known to cause fuscous speckles or ‘speckling’ disease of Bamboo[83]. Astrotheca I. Hino Astrotheca nigrocornis I. Hino on dead culms of Drepanostachyum falcatum (Nees) Keng f.; Poaceae (reported as Arundinaria falcata Nees), in Sikkim[82] Members of Astrosphaeriellaceae are reported to be specific on Bamboo, palms and snout grasses and other they are known to be both in parasitic and saprotrophic forms[83]. Didymellaceae Gruyter, Aveskamp & Verkley Didymella Sacc. ex D. Sacc. Didymella curtisii (Berk.) Qian Chen & L. Cai (reported as Stagonospora curtisii (Berk.) Sacc. [Pleosporales, Massarinaceae]) on leaves of Amaryllis sp. (Amaryllidaceae), in Eastern Sikkim[84] Didymella curtisii is a worldwide fungal pathogen on various plants of the genera Amaryllis L., Hippeastrum Herb., Narcissus L., etc. under family Amaryllidaceae[85]. Leptosphaerulina McAlpine Leptosphaerulina trifolii (Rostr.) Petr. causing aerial blight and collar rot on Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (Fabaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[57] Besides being pathogenic upon Vigna umbellata, L. trifolii is also reported to be a fungal endophyte associated to the phyllosphere of olive cultivars in Alentejo region (south of Portugal)[86]. Neoascochyta Q. Chen & L. Cai Neoascochyta exitialis (Morini) Qian Chen & L. Cai (reported as Didymella exitialis (Morini) E. Müll.) on Zea mays L. (Poaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[23] Neoascochyta exitialis has been reported to be causal organism of leaf spots on members of Poaceae[87]. Boeremia Aveskamp, Gruyter & Verkley Boeremia exigua (Desm.) Aveskamp, Gruyter & Verkley (reported as Phoma exigua Desm.) causing leaf spot on Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[88] Boeremia exigua is considered a pathogen particularly associated with post-harvest diseases, but also causes leaf spot of Phaseolus vulgaris, Ipomoea batatas etc.[89]. Incertae Sedis Dactuliophora C.L. Leakey Dactuliophora tarrii C.L. Leakey. causing aerial blight and collar rot of Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (Fabaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[57] Genus Dactuliophora comprises of sclerotial fungi parasitic upon sorghum, bulrush millet, cowpeas, French beans and soybeans[90]. Melanommataceae G. Winter Seifertia Partr. & Morgan-Jones Seifertia alpina (Höhn.) Beenken, Andr. Gross & Queloz (reported as Antromycopsis alpina Höhn [Agaricales, Pleurotaceae]), living leaves of Rhododendron sp. (Ericaceae), on the way to Sikkim[91] Seifertia is reported to be specific for the genus Rhododendron[92]. The report of Seifertia alpina from Sikkim is based on samples from living leaves, however, S. alpina is a rare species reported from Austrian and Swiss Alps[92], and it is saprotrophic, whereas, S. azaleae (Peck) Partr. & Morgan-Jones having worldwide distribution and S. shangrilaensis Jin F. Li, Phook. & K.D. Hyde distributed in Yunnan Province, China are Necrotrophic and saprotrophic/necrotrophic respectively. Periconiaceae Nann. Periconia Tode Periconia digitata (Cooke) Sacc. on dried twigs of Bambusa sp. (Poaceae), in Sikkim[36] Periconia digitata has also been associated as saprophyte[93] as well as a plant pathogen[94]. Periconia nilagirica Subram. on living leaves of Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. (Convolvulaceae), in Sikkim[36] Periconia nilagirica is also reported as a saprophyte on dead culms of grass[95]. Pleosporaceae Nitschke Alternaria Nees Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissl. upon living leaves of Solanum betaceum Cav.; Solanaceae (reported as Cyphomandra betacea (Cav.) Sendtn.), in Sikkim[36]; A. alternata on living leaves of Pteris sp. (Pteridaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[36]; A. alternata on living leaves of Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. (Cucurbitaceae) in Gangtok, Sikkim[36]; A. alternata on living leaves of Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. (Apocynaceae) in Sikkim[36]; A. alternata causing leaf spot on Solanum betaceum Cav.; Solanaceae (reported as Cyphomandra betacea (Cav.) Sendtn.), in Sikkim[96] Alternaria spp. including A. alternata is generally reported to be saprophytic, however, if it meets weakened host, then parasitic mode is activated[97]. Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacc. upon Phaseolus spp. (Fabaceae) causing Leaf spot disease[45]
Alternaria solani Sorauer upon Solanum lycopersicum L. (Solanaceae) causing Early blight; A. solani upon Solanum tuberosum L. (Solanaceae) causing Early blight[45]Bipolaris Shoemaker Bipolaris urochloae (V.A. Putterill) Shoemaker, on leaves of Panicum maximum Jacq. (Poaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[31]
Bipolaris zeicola (G.L. Stout) Shoemaker (reported as Helminthosporium carbonum Ullstrup.; Pleosporales, Massarinaceae) on leaves of Zea mays L. (Poaceae), in Sikkim and Delhi[99]Besides Poaceae, B. urochloae is also reported as a pathogen of Dendrobium (Orchidaceae)[98].
Members of Bipolaris are reported to cause disease in members of Poaceae. Bipolaris zeicola has also been reported from Rosaceae and Rubiaceae[100].Curvularia Boedijn Curvularia eragrostidis (Henn.) J.A. Mey. on leaves on leaves of Amomum subulatum Roxb. (Zingiberaceae), in Sikkim[101]
Curvularia lunata (Wakker) Boedijn. on living leaves of Pteris sp. (Pteridaceae), in Sikkim[36]Curvularia eragrostidis is an endophytic fungus causing late blight disease[101].
Although Curvularia lunata is a plant pathogen, which has also been isolated from Human lung biopsy[102].Torulaceae Corda Torula Pers. Torula herbarum (Pers.) Link on living leaves of Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. ex. R.Br. (Proteaceae), in Sikkim[36] Torula herbarum occurs on plant debris and soil as saprophyte, whereas, it also causes blight disease of Ziziphus mauritiana, while Alnus, Aceuthobium, Bambusa, Carya, Impatiens, Juncus, Mesembryanthemum, Pinus, and Yucca are also its hosts[103,104]. Due to abundance of conidia in the air, T. herbarum contributes to seasonal fungal allergy in some people[105]. Sordariales Chaetomiaceae G. Winter Dichotomopilus X. Wei Wang, Samson & Crous Dichotomopilus funicola (Cooke) X. Wei Wang & Samson (reported as Chaetomium funicola Cooke) on leaves of Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss; Poaceae (reported as Bambusa indica André) in Gangtok, Sikkim[35] Dichotomopilus funicola is a common fungus of indoor environment and soil, which is also reported as leaf endophyte on various plants[106]. Taphrinales Taphrinaceae Gäum. Taphrina Fr. Taphrina caerulescens (Desm. & Mont.) Tul. causing leaf blotch on Quercus acutissima Carruth. (Fagaceae), in Sikkim[39] Taphrina caerulescens is causative organism of Oak leaf blister, with both saprophytic and parasitic stages[107]. Venturiales Venturiaceae E. Müll. & Arx ex M.E. Barr Acantharia Theiss. & Syd. Acantharia elegans (Syd. & P.Syd.) Arx. on Quercus sp. (Fagaceae), in Sikkim[108]; A. elegans (Syd. & P.Syd) Arx. (reported as Lasiobotrys elegans (Syd. & P.Syd.) Theiss.) on Quercus sp. (Fagaceae), in Sikkim[108] Members of genus Acantharia consists of folicolous parasites/ saprophytes[109]. Venturia Sacc. Venturia inaequalis (Cooke) G. Winter causing apple scab on Apple (Malus sikkimensis (Wenz.) Koehne ex C.K.Schneid. (Rosaceae)), in Sikkim[110] Venturia inaequalis is apple scab fungus that has been associated with members of Rosaceae such as crabapples and apples (Malus spp.), mountain ash (Sorbus spp.), pear (Pyrus communis) and Cotoneaster (Cotoneaster spp.). It has several host-specific strains that are reported to cause disease on one type of plant but not any other[109, 111]. Phylum Basidiomycota Atheliales Atheliaceae Jülich Athelia Pers. Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) C.C. Tu & Kimbr. (reported as Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. [Typhulaceae, Thelephorales, Basidiomycota]) causing wilt of Aerides sp. (Orchidaceae), in Pakyong, Sikkim[112]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing wilt of Cattleya sp. (Orchidaceae), in Pakyong, Sikkim[112]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing wilt of Dendrobium sp. (Orchidaceae) in Pakyong, Sikkim[112]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing wilt of Eria coronaria Rchb.f. (Orchidaceae) in Pakyong, Sikkim[112]; S. rolfsii causing wilt of Habenaria sp. (Orchidaceae) in Pakyong, Sikkim[112]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing wilt of Spathoglottis sp. (Orchidaceae) in Pakyong, Sikkim[112]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing rot of pseudobulbs & wilt of Coelogyne corymbosa Lindl. (Orchidaceae) in Pakyong, Sikkim[112]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing wilt and basal rot on pseudostems of Vanda coerulea Griff. ex Lindl. (Orchidaceae), in Pakyong, Sikkim[113]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing basal rot on pseudostems of Vanda stangeana Rchb.f. (Orchiaceae), in Pakyong, Sikkim[113]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing wilt of Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & McCann; Orchidaceae (reported as Acampe papillosa Lindl.), in Pakyong, Sikkim[113]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing wilt of Luisia sp. (Orchidaceae), in Pakyong, Sikkim[113]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing wilt of Robiquetia spathulata J.J.Sm. (Orchidaceae), in Pakyong, Sikkim[113]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing wilt of Vanda tessellata Hook. ex G.Don; Orchidaceae (reported as Vanda roxburghii R.Br.), in Pakyong, Sikkim[113]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing basal rot on pseudobulbs of Phaius flavus (Blume) Lindl. (Orchidaceae), in West Bengal, Sikkim[113,114]; S. rolfsii Sacc. causing soft rot of Paphiopedilum venustum (Wall. ex Sims) Pfitzer (Orchidaceae), in West Bengal, Sikkim[114] Athelia rolfsii is a soil borne facultative plant pathogen which primarily is a saprophyte and overwinters in form of Sclerotia, however, it is pathogenic agent on crops growing on warm soil causing Southern Blight[115]. Cantharellales Ceratobasidiaceae G.W. Martin Rhizoctonia DC. Rhizoctonia solani J.G. Kühn. upon Amomum subulatum Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) causing Rhizome rot[45]; R. solani causing root and collar rot on Brassica rapa L.; Brassicaceae (reported as Brassica campestris var. sarson Prain), in Gangtok, Sikkim[116]; R. solani causing root and collar rot on Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. (Brassicaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[116]; R. solani causing aerial blight on Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc. (Fabaceae), in Sikkim[117]; R. solani causing aerial blight on Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper; Fabaceae (reported as Phaseolus mungo L.), in Sikkim[117]; R. solani causing aerial blight on Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabaceae), in Sikkim[117]; R. solani causing aerial blight on Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek (Fabaceae), in Sikkim[117]; R. solani causing aerial blight and collar rot on Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (Fabaceae), in Gangtok, Sikkim[57]; R. solani causing aerial blight on Dahlia sp. (Asteraceae), in, Sikkim[118] Rhizoctonia solani is a soil borne necrotroph that inflicts damage to members of Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, Araceae, Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Linaceae, Malvaceae, Moraceae, Poaceae, Rubiaceae, and Solanaceae[119]. Microbotryales Microbotryaceae R.T. Moore Microbotryum Lév. Microbotryum emodense (Berk.) M. Piepenbr. (reported as Liroa emodensis (Berk.) Cif.) on peduncles, branches and ochrae of Persicaria chinensis (L.) H.Gross; Polygonaceae (reported as Polygonum chinense L.), in Tonglo, Sikkim, Nangki, East Nepal, Kodaikanal and Ootacammund, T.N. and Mahabaleshwar, M.S.[120] Microbotryum members are well known parasites of eudicotyledonous plants. Species such as M. saponariae, M. dianthorum, M. majus, M. violaceum, M. lychnidis-dioicae are reported to be anther parasites of Caryophyllaceae. M. emodense is reported to be parasitic upon Persicaria chinensis[121]. Pucciniales Coleosporiaceae Dietel Chrysomyxa Unger Chrysomyxa deformans (Dietel) Jacz. on Picea smithiana Boiss.; Pinaceae (reported as Picea morinda Link), in Simla & Dalhausie, H.P., Sikkim[122] Chrysomyxa deformans has been reported as the causal agent for Red Rust of Spruce Fir Trees[123]. Melampsoropsis (J. Schröt.) Arthur Melampsoropsis elaeocarpi Vatt. & D.K. Agarwal causing brown leafspot of Elaeocarpus sp. (Elaeocarpaceae), in Sikkim, India[124] Melampsoropsis is a heteroecious rust fungus with pycnidial stage on Picea and uredial and telial stage members of Ericaceae like Empetrum, Pyrola, Rhododendron, Ledum and Elaeocarpaceae like Elaeocarpus[124] Stilbechrysomyxa M.M. Chen Stilbechrysomyxa himalensis (Barclay) M.M. Chen (reported as Chrysomyxa himalensis Barclay), on Rhododendron hodgsonii Hook.f (Ericaceae), in Sikkim[125] Stilbechrysomyxa himalensis is a heteroecious rust fungus occurring as teleomorph on Rhododendron in the Himalayan region of southern Asia and as anamorph on Picea[126]. Incertae sedis (Cronartiaceae Dietel in Index Fungorum and outline of fungi) Peridermium (Link) J.C. Schmidt & Kunze Peridermium thomsonii Berk and Cooke on leaves of Picea smithiana Boiss.; Pinaceae (reported as Picea morinda Link), in Mahasu, Near Simla, H.P., North West Himalayas, Sikkim, Kulu, H.P.[35,127] Peridermium thomsonii is rust fungus associated with leaves of Picea smithiana[128]. Phakopsoraceae Cummins & Hirats. f. Phakopsora Dietel Phakopsora elletariae (Racib.) Cummins on leaves of Amomum subulatum Roxb. (Zingiberaceae), in Sikkim[129] Phakopsora elletariae is an important rust pathogen of Amomum subulatum on plantations above 1800 msl[129]. Pucciniaceae Chevall. Puccinia Pers. Puccinia senecionis-scandentis Lindr. on Senecio scandens (L.) Buch.-Ham. (Asteraceae), in Sikkim, Himalayas[62,63][130,131] Puccinia senecionis-scandentis is a rust fungus associated with Senecio scandens (MCP 2022)[132]. Puccinia ustalis Berk. on leaves of Ranunculus pulchellus C.A.Mey. (Ranunculaceae), in Momay, Samdong, Sikkim, Himalayas[133] Puccinia ustalis is an obligate plant parasite reported to be specific for the family Ranunculaceae[134]. Uromyces (Link) Unger Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers.) Link on Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (Fabaceae), in Sikkim[135] Uromyces appendiculatus is an obligate parasite of Vigna umbellata causing Bean Rust disease[136]. Urediniaceae Link Uredo Pers. Uredo panacis Syd. & P.Syd. on leaves of Panax pseudoginseng Wall. (Araliaceae), in Sikkim[137] Uredo panacis causes yellow rust of Panax pseudoginseng[138]. Ustilaginales Ustilaginaceae Tul. & C. Tul. Sporisorium Ehrenb. ex Link Sporisorium setaricolum (Thrium. & Safeeulla) Bag & D.K. Agarwal on ovaries of Setaria sp. (Poaceae), in Ranipul, Sikkim[139] Sporisorium setaricolum is a smut fungus associated with ovary of the genus Setaria[139]. Phylum Oomycota Peronosporales Peronosporaceae de Bary Phytophthora de Bary Phytophthora citrophthora (R.E. Sm. & E.H. Sm.) Leonian upon Citrus reticulata (Rutaceae) causing Gummosis/ Foot rot/ Color rot/ Trunk rot[45] Phytophthora spp. and Pythium spp. are water molds and necrotrophic plant pathogens which also has a saprotrophic mode of life[141]. Phytophthora colocasiae Racib. causing leaf blight of Colocasia esculenta
(L.) Schott (Araceae), in Sikkim[140]Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary upon Solanum lycopersicum L. (Solanaceae) causing Late blight; P. infestans upon Solanum tuberosum L.(Solanaceae) causing Late blight[45] Phytophthora palmivora (E.J. Butler) E.J. Butler upon Citrus reticulata Blanco (Rutaceae) causing Gummosis/ Foot rot/ Color rot/ Trunk rot[45] Phytophthora nicotianae Breda de Haan (reported as Phytophthora parasitica Dastur) upon Citrus reticulata Blanco (Rutaceae) causing Gummosis/ Foot rot/ Color rot/ Trunk rot[45] Pythiales Pythiaceae J. Schröt. Pythium Pringsh. Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp. upon Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae) causing Soft rot[45] Pythium vexans de Bary upon Amomum subulatum Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) causing Rhizome rot[45] Table 1.
Checklist of phytopathogenic fungi from Sikkim, India and reported plant hosts.
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Asco Basi Oomy Host family Fabaceae 12 5 − Poaceae 12 5 − Zingiberaceae 9 2 2 Ericaceae 3 1 − Solanaceae 6 − 2 Rutaceae 2 − 3 Host genus Amomum 8 2 1 Vigna 5 3 − Phaseolus 3 1 − Rhododendron 2 1 − Solanum 3 − 2 Citrus 2 − 3 Zingiber 2 − 2 Host species Amomum subulatum Roxb. 6 2 1 Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi 5 1 − Phaseolus vulgaris L. 1 1 − Citrus reticulata Blanco 2 − 3 Solanum lycopersicum L. 2 − 1 Zingiber officinale Roscoe 2 − 1 Solanum tuberosum L. 1 − 1 Asco = Ascomycota, Basi = Basidiomycota, Oomy = Oomycota. Table 2.
Taxa of host common to different fungal phylum.
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Phylum Order Family Genus Species Host species Host genus Host family Phylum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.10 0.00 Order 0.99 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 Family 0.99 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.00 Genus 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.99 0.06 0.00 Species 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.01 0.00 Host species 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.79 0.82 0.00 0.00 Host genus 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.75 0.86 1.00 0.00 Host family 0.75 0.66 0.64 0.76 0.94 1.00 1.00 Table 3.
Cramer's V values in the lower diagonal and corresponding chi-square based p value in the upper diagonal. p < 0.05 are indicated in bold.
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Phylum pairs Host species Host genus Host family Asco-Basi 0.05 0.06 0.11 Asco-Oomy 0.09 0.07 0.10 Basi-Oomy 0.03 0.00 0.07 Asco = Ascomycota, Basi = Basidiomycota, Oomy = Oomycota. Table 4.
Jaccard index of similarity among various fungal phylum pairs.
Figures
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Tables
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