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Representative species of Abrotanella (Asteraceae). A, B, A. forsteroides; A, cushion field in Cradle Mountain National Park (Tasmania); B, close-up of two capitula. C, D, cushion of A. emarginata (dark green) and Bolax (Apiaceae; light green) together with a close-up of six flowering capitula (Tierra del Fuego). E, F, cushion of A. muscosa and close- up of seven flowering capitula (Stewart Island). G, A. scapigera (Tasmania). H, A. fertilis (New Zealand). All photos by Ulf Swenson.
Source publication
Relationships of the small austral genus Abrotanella are uncertain. It was previously included in the Anthemideae or more recently in the Senecioneae. We conducted a phylogenetic analysis of 39 accessions that included most species of Abrotanella and putative relatives including Blennosperma, Crocidium and Ischnea. These four genera have been consi...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... which are restricted to Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand (including Auckland, Campbell and Stewart Islands) and southern South America (including the Falkland Islands) (Swenson, 1995;Swenson & Bremer, 1997a;Heads, 1999) (Fig. 1). They are usually small plants ( Figs. 2A-H), sometimes not reaching more than a few mil- limetres above the ground (Fig. 2E), although some form cushions reaching up to a metre in diameter (Fig. 2C). Often they form almost continuous communities with a few associated species representing other plant families ( Fig. 2A). The leaves are entire and somewhat coriaceous (Figs. 2B, D, F) with petioles that are often purple, sheathing and widening at the base. In ...
Context 2
... Campbell and Stewart Islands) and southern South America (including the Falkland Islands) (Swenson, 1995;Swenson & Bremer, 1997a;Heads, 1999) (Fig. 1). They are usually small plants ( Figs. 2A-H), sometimes not reaching more than a few mil- limetres above the ground (Fig. 2E), although some form cushions reaching up to a metre in diameter (Fig. 2C). Often they form almost continuous communities with a few associated species representing other plant families ( Fig. 2A). The leaves are entire and somewhat coriaceous (Figs. 2B, D, F) with petioles that are often purple, sheathing and widening at the base. In general, they have Origin and relationships of the austral genus ...
Context 3
... Bremer, 1997a;Heads, 1999) (Fig. 1). They are usually small plants ( Figs. 2A-H), sometimes not reaching more than a few mil- limetres above the ground (Fig. 2E), although some form cushions reaching up to a metre in diameter (Fig. 2C). Often they form almost continuous communities with a few associated species representing other plant families ( Fig. 2A). The leaves are entire and somewhat coriaceous (Figs. 2B, D, F) with petioles that are often purple, sheathing and widening at the base. In general, they have Origin and relationships of the austral genus Abrotanella (Asteraceae) inferred from DNA sequences Steven ...
Citations
... Ma) in the middle Miocene (Fig. 3, Table 2), which establishes the earliest possible date for its dispersal back to South America. Dispersal events from Australia/New Zealand to South America have often been attributed to the strong westerly wind and ocean currents referred to as West Wind Drift and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (Winkworth et al., 2002;Wagstaff et al., 2006). These were established around Antarctica after the opening of the Drake Passage between South America and Antarctica in the Oligocene (McLoughlin, 2001). ...
Intercontinental disjunct distributions can arise from vicariance, long distance dispersal, or both. Tecomeae (Bignoniaceae) are a nearly cosmopolitan clade of flowering plants providing us with an excellent opportunity to investigate global distribution patterns. While the tribe contains only about 57 species, it has achieved a distribution that is not only pantropical, but also extends into the temperate zones in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. This distribution is similar to the distribution of its sister group, a clade of about 750 spp. that includes most remaining taxa in Bignoniaceae. To infer temporal and spatial patterns of dispersal, we generated a phylogeny of Tecomeae by gathering sequence data from chloroplast and nuclear markers for 41 taxa. Fossil calibrations were used to determine divergence times, and ancestral states were reconstructed to infer its biogeographic history. We found support for a South American origin and a crown age of the tribe estimated at ca. 40 Ma. Two dispersal events seem to have happened during the Eocene-Oligocene, one from South America to the Old World, and another from South America to North America. Furthermore, two other dispersal events seem to have taken place during the Miocene, one from North America to Asia, and another from Australia to South America. We suggest that intercontinental dispersal via land bridges and island hopping, as well as sweepstakes of long distance dispersal from the Eocene to the present explain the global distribution of Tecomeae.
... Panero (2005) even segregates it as an independent tribe and relates it to Calenduleae, but this hypothesis has never been rigorously tested so far. Abrotanella is currently included in Senecioneae (Pelser et al., 2007(Pelser et al., , 2010Nordenstam et al., 2009), but its position generally only receives weak support (Swenson and Bremer, 1999;Wagstaff et al., 2006;Pelser et al., 2007Pelser et al., , 2010 or has even been questioned Breitwieser, 2002, 2004;Wagstaff et al., 2006). Panero & Crozier (2016) recently provide strong support for the sister relationship between Abrotanella and core Senecioneae, but the latter is only represented by two genera and only chloroplast markers are used in that study. ...
... Panero (2005) even segregates it as an independent tribe and relates it to Calenduleae, but this hypothesis has never been rigorously tested so far. Abrotanella is currently included in Senecioneae (Pelser et al., 2007(Pelser et al., , 2010Nordenstam et al., 2009), but its position generally only receives weak support (Swenson and Bremer, 1999;Wagstaff et al., 2006;Pelser et al., 2007Pelser et al., , 2010 or has even been questioned Breitwieser, 2002, 2004;Wagstaff et al., 2006). Panero & Crozier (2016) recently provide strong support for the sister relationship between Abrotanella and core Senecioneae, but the latter is only represented by two genera and only chloroplast markers are used in that study. ...
... Following Robinson and Brettell (1973), Nordenstam (1977) transferred it to Senecioneae. This treatment has been generally followed by later workers (Bremer, 1994;Swenson, 1995;Swenson and Bremer, 1997;Robinson et al., 1997;Nordenstam, 2007), but the close relationship of Abrotanella and Senecioneae has only been weakly supported (Swenson and Bremer, 1999;Wagstaff et al., 2006;Pelser et al., 2007Pelser et al., , 2010 or was even questioned Breitwieser, 2002, 2004;Wagstaff et al., 2006) by early molecular phylogenetic studies. Based on 11 plastid DNA markers, Panero and Crozier (2016) first provided strong support for the sister relationship between Abrotanella and core Senecioneae (represented by two genera). ...
The tribe Senecioneae is one of the largest tribes in Asteraceae, with a nearly cosmopolitan distribution. Despite great efforts devoted to elucidate the evolution of Senecioneae, many questions still remain concerning the systematics of this group, from the tribal circumscription and position to species relationships in many genera. The hybridization-based target enrichment method of next-generation sequencing has been accepted as a promising approach to resolve phylogenetic problems. We herein develop a set of single-/low-copy genes for Senecioneae, and test their phylogenetic utilities. Our results demonstrate that these genes work highly efficiently for Senecioneae, with a high average gene recovery of 98.8% across the tribe and recovering robust phylogenetic hypotheses at different levels. In particular, the delimitation of the Senecioneae has been confirmed to include Abrotanella and exclude Doronicum, with the former sister to core Senecioneae and the latter shown to be more closely related to Calenduleae. Moreover, Doronicum and Calenduleae are inferred to be the closest relatives of Senecioneae, which is a new hypothesis well supported by statistical topology tests, morphological evidence, and the profile of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, a special kind of chemical characters generally used to define Senecioneae. Furthermore, this study suggests a complex reticulation history in the diversification of Senecioneae, accounting for the prevalence of polyploid groups in the tribe. With subtribe Tussilagininae s.str. as a case study showing a more evident pattern of gene duplication, we further explored reconstructing the phylogeny in the groups with high ploidy levels. Our results also demonstrate that tree topologies based on sorted paralogous copies are stable across different methods of phylogenetic inference, and more congruent with the morphological evidence and the results of previous phylogenetic studies.
... Over the last 20 years, insights from molecular phylogenetic studies have revolutionized our understanding of the New Zealand flora (e.g. Hurr et al., 1999;Lockhart et al., 2001;Wagstaff et al., 2002;Winkworth et al., 2002;Smissen, Garnock-Jones & Chambers, 2003;Wagstaff, Breitwieser & Swenson, 2006;Joly, Heenan & Lockhart, 2009;Meudt, Lockhart & Bryant, 2009;Smissen, Galbany-Casals & Breitwieser, 2011;Woo et al., 2011;Chen et al., 2014). Often these studies have suggested close genetic links between the New Zealand representatives and their overseas relatives. ...
... Indeed, for lineages for which divergence time estimates are available these often suggest arrival in the last 10-15 Myr (e.g. Wagstaff et al., 2002Wagstaff et al., , 2006Winkworth et al., 2002;Chen et al., 2014). Another striking feature of many New Zealand plant groups is the contrast between limited genetic diversity and extensive morphological and ecological variation. ...
... For other New Zealand plant groups, low resolution and support have often been assumed to reflect the comparatively short timeframe, often just a few million years, over which diversification occurred (e.g. Wagstaff et al., 2002Wagstaff et al., , 2006Chen et al., 2014;Meudt et al., 2015). In the case of L. scoparium, the suggestion of recent diversification is consistent with previous work (Thompson, 1989;Thornhill et al., 2012Thornhill et al., , 2015. ...
Leptospermum scoparium (Myrtaceae) is a morphologically highly variable species found in mainland Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand. For example, in New Zealand up to six morphologically distinct varieties of this species have been described, although only two (var. scoparium and var. incanum) are now formally recognized. In the present study we provide a first examination of genetic diversity in this culturally and commercially important species with the aim of gaining insights into its origins and evolution. We used anchored hybrid enrichment to acquire sequence data from 485 orthologous low-copy nuclear loci for 27 New Zealand and three Australian accessions of L. scoparium and representatives of several other Leptospermum spp. The final concatenated data matrix contained 421 687 nucleotide positions of which 55 102 were potentially informative. Despite the relative large data set, our analyses suggest that a combination of low and incompatible data signal limits the resolution of relationships among New Zealand populations of L. scoparium. Nevertheless, our analyses are consistent with genetic diversity being geographically structured, with three groups of L. scoparium recovered. We discuss the evolutionary and taxonomic implications of our findings.
... We set the crown node age of Doronicum (i.e., the root node of our pruned tree) to 17.1 or 21.9 Ma. As these are the confidence interval of the stem node age of Abrotanella (Wagstaff et al. 2006;Torices 2010), i.e., the node pertaining to the common ancestor of Doronicum and Abrotanella, we are conservative with respect to the hypothesis of a Tertiary origin of D. cataractarum (Widder 1925). ...
Distribution areas of narrowly endemic species in the European Alps often coincide with Pleistocene refugia, suggesting that allopatric divergence due to Pleistocene range shifts might have been instrumental in their origin. Here, we infer the phylogenetic position of the locally endemic Doronicum cataractarum testing previous hypotheses with respect to its biogeographic and temporal origin (Tertiary origin with southwest Asian affinities versus possibly Pleistocene origin in the Alps). To this end, we extended existing genus-wide data sets of nuclear and plastid DNA sequences and obtained sequences from two hitherto not used low copy nuclear markers. These data sets were analyzed, as single markers and jointly in a concatenated matrix, using maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood. Temporal and spatial origins of D. cataractarum were inferred using mean path lengths and dispersal–vicariance analysis, respectively. Phylogenetic resolution was limited, but several geographically coherent groups were identified, including the Grandiflora group comprising southern and central European mountain species. Congruently, D. cataractarum was inferred as most closely related to Alpine species from the Grandiflora group (D. clusii, D. stiriacum and D. glaciale), but neither to southwest Asian species nor to European D. austriacum. The origin of D. cataractarum was conservatively dated to about 1.9 Mya and inferred to have taken place in the Alps. The striking morphological differences between D. cataractarum and the most closely related species likely are the result of adaptation to different habitats or, alternatively, the presence of plesiomorphic traits in D. cataractarum.
... Entre los géneros de Senecioneae merece también atención especial Abrotanella, debido a su distribución circumaustral (Australia, Nueva Zelandia y Sudamérica templada). Swenson et al. (1997) y Wagstaff et al. (2006) han propuesto un escenario de dispersión de larga distancia, colonización y especiación entre los territorios que ocupa Abrotanella. Sin embargo esta propuesta está en conflicto con la visión de Heads (1999); el análisis integrado de los otros géneros que componen la subtribu Blennospermatinae [Abrotanella, Blennosperma (distribución disyunta en Chile y California), Crocidium (W Norteamérica), Ischnea (Nueva Guinea] lleva a Heads (1999) a sugerir la existencia de procesos de vicarianza entre los géneros de Blennospermatinae. ...
Los géneros de Asteraceae de Chile
... Typically, such studies indicate that contemporary species distributions arose only after geological separation of the landmasses, thereby implicating long-distance dispersal (e.g. Lockhart et al., 2001;Wagstaff et al., 2002Wagstaff et al., , 2006Winkworth et al., 2002a;Barker et al., 2007). Although the overall importance of dispersal is now well established, the underlying routes and mechanisms remain uncertain (Winkworth et al., 2002b;Sanmart ın & Ronquist, 2004;Cook & Crisp, 2005;Sanmart ın et al., 2007). ...
... However, it is also conceivable that Antarctica acted as a stepping-stone for dispersal or as a source in its own right (e.g. Darwin, 1859;Renner et al., 2000;Wagstaff et al., 2006). While the potential for Antarctic dispersal is recognized, the identification of taxa that used this route is difficult because neither the fossil record nor phylogenetic approaches provide a basis for hypothesis testing on a lineage-by-lineage basis. ...
Aim
Dispersal explains the disjunct distributions of many austral plant lineages. However, the role of Antarctica is largely uncertain and the routes of dispersal have remained speculative. Based on niche conservatism we can make predictions about the timing of disjunction establishment, as well as the availability of direct transoceanic, Antarctic stepping‐stone, and out‐of‐Antarctica dispersal routes over time. We evaluate these predictions using molecular divergence time estimates for the establishment of disjunct distributions across multiple plant lineages.
Location
Southern Hemisphere.
Methods
We estimated the timing of disjunction establishment and determined habitat affinities for 72 austral plant groups. We used Wilcoxon rank sum tests to compare the timing of disjunction establishment between cold and temperate climate lineages for the full data set, as well as within several subsets. We compared our results with those from a literature survey.
Results
As niche conservatism predicts, the timing of disjunction establishment in cold and temperate climate austral lineages is consistent with the availability of the corresponding habitats over time. Our results also suggest that disjunction establishment has involved a combination of Antarctic and direct dispersal routes. For cold climate lineages, both out‐of‐Antarctica and direct dispersal routes are required to explain the observed estimates, while stepping stone routes cannot be ruled out. It appears that for these lineages the importance of the three dispersal routes differs with environmental, geographical and temporal context.
Main conclusions
Both direct and Antarctic dispersal routes are necessary to explain the establishment of contemporary austral distributions. Evidence that some taxa were, until recently, restricted to Antarctica changes how we view the evolutionary histories of austral floras and the lineages they contain. Moreover, that we detect differences in the importance of alternative dispersal routes suggests that long‐distance plant dispersal processes can be explicitly incorporated into models of climate change response.
... Alternative scenarios have been suggested for austral members of Asteraceae that lack a pappus. These include tectonic events (Heads, 1999(Heads, , 2012) and a complex history of migration along former Antarctic coastlines and long-distance dispersal (Swenson & Bremer, 1997;Wagstaff, Breitwieser & Swenson, 2006). The debate has even considered the value of certain calibration points for inferring divergence times (Heads, 2012;Swenson, Nylinder & Wagstaff, 2012). ...
... LAGENOPHORA ANCESTORS Although with differences in the timing of events, our results lend support to the scenario proposed by Wagstaff et al. (2006) for Abrotanella, indicating that Antarctica may have played a key role as a corridor for migration between the austral landmasses. New Zealand had rafted away from Antarctica earlier than the calculated divergence time of Lagenophora; thus, events related to the break-up of Gondwana are unlikely. ...
... 3.9-14 Mya; Axelrod, Arroyo & Raven, 1991;Ashworth & Cantrill, 2004;Convey et al., 2008;Lewis et al., 2008;Benedetto, 2012). It could be the case that ancestors of Lagenophora first migrated along the Antarctic coast, which would agree with other studies undertaken in Asteraceae (Wagstaff et al., 2006). Indeed, it has been suggested that birds bridged oceanic gaps between Antarctica, New Zealand, Tasmania and South America during the mid-Miocene warm interval, facilitating transportation of small plants and animals (Ashworth et al., 2007). ...
Lagenophora (Astereae, Asteraceae) has 14 species in New Zealand, Australia, Asia, southern South America, Gough Island and Tristan da Cunha. Phylogenetic relationships in Lagenophora were inferred using nuclear and plastid DNA regions. Reconstruction of spatio-temporal evolution was estimated using parsimony, Bayesian inference and likelihood methods, a Bayesian relaxed molecular clock and ancestral area and habitat reconstructions. Our results support a narrow taxonomic concept of Lagenophora including only a core group of species with one clade diversifying in New Zealand and another in South America. The split between the New Zealand and South American Lagenophora dates from 11.2 Mya [6.1–17.4 95% highest posterior density (HPD)]. The inferred ancestral habitats were openings in beech forest and subalpine tussockland. The biogeographical analyses infer a complex ancestral area for Lagenophora involving New Zealand and southern South America. Thus, the estimated divergence times and biogeographical reconstructions provide circumstantial evidence that Antarctica may have served as a corridor for migration until the expansion of the continental ice during the late Cenozoic. The extant distribution of Lagenophora reflects a complex history that could also have involved direct long-distance dispersal across southern oceans.
... Alternative scenarios have been suggested for austral members of Asteraceae that lack a pappus. These include tectonic events (Heads, 1999(Heads, , 2012) and a complex history of migration along former Antarctic coastlines and long-distance dispersal (Swenson & Bremer, 1997;Wagstaff, Breitwieser & Swenson, 2006). The debate has even considered the value of certain calibration points for inferring divergence times (Heads, 2012;Swenson, Nylinder & Wagstaff, 2012). ...
... LAGENOPHORA ANCESTORS Although with differences in the timing of events, our results lend support to the scenario proposed by Wagstaff et al. (2006) for Abrotanella, indicating that Antarctica may have played a key role as a corridor for migration between the austral landmasses. New Zealand had rafted away from Antarctica earlier than the calculated divergence time of Lagenophora; thus, events related to the break-up of Gondwana are unlikely. ...
... 3.9-14 Mya; Axelrod, Arroyo & Raven, 1991;Ashworth & Cantrill, 2004;Convey et al., 2008;Lewis et al., 2008;Benedetto, 2012). It could be the case that ancestors of Lagenophora first migrated along the Antarctic coast, which would agree with other studies undertaken in Asteraceae (Wagstaff et al., 2006). Indeed, it has been suggested that birds bridged oceanic gaps between Antarctica, New Zealand, Tasmania and South America during the mid-Miocene warm interval, facilitating transportation of small plants and animals (Ashworth et al., 2007). ...
Se han postulado diferentes hipótesis acerca de los patrones de distribución austral. Cómo esos procesos han afectado los diferentes grupos transpacíficos depende, en parte, de su edad estimada de origen. Siete de las catorce especies de Lagenophora son de Nueva Zelanda, tres de Australia, una de Asia y tres en los Andes de Sudamérica extendiéndose a islas remotas. Realizamos análisis independientes y combinados de secuencias de ADN de Lagenophora (ITS, ETS, trnK y trnL), incluyendo todas las especies del género y representantes de géneros cercanos. Además, exploramos los procesos evolutivos que pudieron ser responsables de su distribución austral. Análisis preliminares sugieren que Lagenophora no es monofilético. En el análisis combinado, las especies sudamericanas de Lagenophora fueron monofiléticas. Si este lugar se mantiene en el futuro, podría plantearse como escenario una reciente colonización de Lagenophora en Sudamérica.
... While both marker sets clearly revealed a distinct basal split between a lineage of Australian and New Guinean taxa on the one hand and a lineage of largely New Zealand taxa (the Leptinella core group) on the other hand, more detailed phylogenetic reconstructions were hampered by inadequate phylogenetic signal due to the recent radiation of the majority of species within the last 5 Ma and a high level of reticulate evolution caused by hybridisation and polyploidisation (Himmelreich & al., 2012). Little sequence variation among morphologically and ecologically considerably distinct taxa are a phenomenon that is quite commonly found in other New Zealand plant lineages (e.g., Ranunculus L., Lockhard & al., 2001; Abrotanella Cass., Wagstaff & al., 2006;Craspedia G.Forst., Ford & al., 2007). Furthermore, processes of hybridisation and/or polyploidisation are also observed in many more mountainous or alpine lineages of New Zealand plants (e.g., Gnaphalieae, Smissen & al., 2004;Chionohebe B.G.Briggs & Ehrend., Meudt & Bayly, 2008; Ourisia Comm. ...
AFLP fingerprinting for 236 individuals from 75 populations and 31 taxa of the Southern Hemisphere genus Leptinella (Compositae: Anthemideae) was carried out in order to infer the evolutionary relationships among the New Zealand representatives of the genus and to compare the
results with sequence-based phylogenetic reconstructions for the genus. The New Zealand–based clade of the genus is characterised by the formation of an impressive polyploid complex with ploidy levels reaching from 4x to 24x. We observe a tripartition of taxa into species
groups that correspond to species assemblages also found in the sequence-based reconstructions: A basal, presumably paraphyletic stock of tetraploid species (AFLP cluster A) corresponding to the morphologically defined Leptinella subg. Radiata is connected through one of its
sub-clusters (A1, the L. minor group) with a monophyletic group of two clusters (B and C) with a sister-group relationship. While AFLP cluster B remained on the tetraploid level, clusters A and C form ploidy series reaching the levels of 16x and 24x, respectively. The
lack of intermediate AFLP genotypes demonstrates that polyploidisation has occurred independently in the two clusters forming the L. pectinata/L. pyrethrifolia assemblage (cluster A2) in L. subg. Radiata and the L. dioica assemblage (clusters C1 and C2) in
L. subg. Leptinella. The joint consideration of sequence-based reconstructions and AFLP fingerprint patterns further allows the formulation of an evolutionary hypothesis for the genus that tries to explain differentiation processes in a temporal and geographic framework: The
available data argue for a Late Miocene (ca. 5–10 Ma) establishment of Leptinella in New Zealand and its further differentiation on the tetraploid level throughout the Pliocene and the Early Pleistocene, followed by extensive polyploidisation cycles caused by the climatic oscillations
of the Pleistocene.
... A number of studies have identified misplaced genera and refined tribal circumscriptions (Feddea, Cariaga et al., 2008; Gymnarrhena, Zoutpansbergia, Callilepis, Anderberg et al., 2005), clarified the phylogenetic position of unplaced genera (Cratystylis, Bayer and Cross 2003; Hoplophyllum, Karis et al. 2001) or identified genera whose tribal placements are equivocal (Heterolepis, Platycarpha, Funk et al., 2004; Jaumea, Baldwin et al., 2002). In addition to placing anomalous genera, i.e. those without synapomorphies of their presumed tribe, molecular studies have identified genera that are transitional between tribes (Abrotanella, Wagstaff et al., 2006) or astonishingly, several transitional genera found to constitute a heterogeneous but monophyletic tribe (Athroismeae, Panero, 2007a). Carlquist (1976) drew attention to both misplaced (anomalous) genera and transitional genera (''non-missing " links) as the major obstacles hindering construction of a new comprehensive classification of Asteraceae . ...
... The rbcL gene was the first and most exploited marker for plant phylogenetic studies and continues to be employed above the genus level (Ritland and Clegg, 1987; Saarela et al., 2007). The ndhF gene has been utilized in earlier studies aimed at elucidating the major branches of the Asteraceae (Kim and Jansen, 1995; Jansen and Kim, 1996) and more recently the utility of matK has been shown in numerous intergeneric and infrageneric studies within the family (Susanna et al. 2006; Wagstaff et al., 2006; Watanabe et al., 2006). The genes ndhD and ndhI are part of the same gene family of ndhF, therefore they were explored in our study because of the known phylogenetic utility of the ndhF subunit in previous sunflower DNA phylogenetic reconstructions. ...
... This amphi-pacific pattern has never been reported for any South American sunflower except for the Chaptalia/Leibnitzia and the Adenocaulon lineages but these also have species present in North America. Nouelia and Leucomeris can be added to the list of Asteraceae genera with astonishing sister-taxon disjunctions ranging thousands of kilometers that includes Abrotanella (Chile, New Zealand–Tasmania, Wagstaff et al., 2006 ) and Hesperomannia (Africa–Hawaii, Kim et al., 1998) among others. The presence of these genera in Asia either results from vacariance and extinction in North America or very long distance dispersal. ...
