Cell - the Unit of Life.pdf

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Cell: The Unit of Life
Welcome to
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Prokaryotic cell
Cell
Characteristics features
Cell envelope
Cell theory
Classification of cell
Cytoplasm
Key Takeaways
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Characteristics features
Cell Wall
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Endomembrane system
Mitochondria
Plastids
Ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
Centrosome and centrioles
Cilia and Flagella
Nucleus
Microbodies
Summary
Eukaryotic Cell
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Cell is the fundamental, structural, and functional unit of life.
Cell is capable of
 independent existence
 performing essential functions of life
Cell
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1839
Theodore Schwann
Noticed that cells have a
thin outer layer (plasma
membrane)
Concluded that plants
have a cell wall
Hypothesized, bodies of
animals and plants are
composed of cells
1831
Robert Brown
Discovered the nucleus
1838
Matthias
Schleiden
Observed that all
plants are composed
of different kinds of
cells which form
tissues
1674
Anton Van
Leeuwenhoek
First to observe live
cells (animal cells)
1665
Observed dead cork cells
Coined the term ‘cell’
Robert Hooke
1855
Rudolf
Virchow
First to explain that cells
are formed from pre-
existing cells (Omnis
cellula-e cellula)
Cell Theory
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● Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann identified key differences between the two cell
types and put forth the idea that cells were the fundamental units of both plants and animals.
MATTHIAS
SCHLEIDEN
(1838)
Observed that all
plants are made up
of different types of
cells
CELL
THEORY
All plants and
animals are
composed of cells
and cell products
THEODORE
SCHWANN
(1839)
Observed that all
animals are made
up of different types
of cells
Cell Theory
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● Rudolf Virchow modified the hypothesis of Schleiden and Schwann to give the cell theory a
final shape.
● Rudolf Virchow first explained that cells divide, and new cells are formed from the pre-
existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula).
CELL THEORY
All plants and
animals are
composed of cells
and cell products
MODERN
CELL THEORY
All organisms are
composed of cells
and cell products
All cells arise from
pre-existing cells
RUDOLF
VIRCHOW
(1855)
Omnis cellula e
cellula
Cell Theory
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Activities of an organism are the outcome of sum total of
activities and interactions of its constituent cells
All cells arise from pre-existing cells
01
03
02
3 Principles of
cell theory
● Exception to cell theory:
Viruses are not made up of cells. They are composed of
nucleoprotein particles. Therefore, they are not
considered either living or non-living.
Cell Theory
All living organisms are composed of cells
and products of cells
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Mycoplasma
0.3 µm in length
Ostrich egg
Largest isolated single cell
Nerve cell of giant
squid
The smallest cell The largest cell The longest cell
Did You Know?
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Based on
shape:
Based on
size:
Bacterium
0.3 or 0.1 μm
Mycoplasma
1 to 2 μm
Prokaryotic cell
Virus
0.02 to 0.2 μm
Animal cell
10 to 20 μm
Plant cell
Eukaryotic cell
Disc shaped Polygonal
Irregular Amoeboid Round and oval Elongated
Thread-like Columnar Cuboidal
RBCs Skin cells Neuron Large intestine
cells
Salivary ducts
lining
Tracheids
Mesophylls
WBCs
Amoeba
Classification of Cell
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Based on
number:
Based on the
organisation
of genetic
material:
Prokaryotic organism:
Eukaryotic organism:
Unicellular organism:
Multicellular organism:
● Made up of a single cell
● Functional unit which is capable of respiration,
excretion, etc. and capable of independent
existence
● Made up of more than one cell
● Specialised cells perform different functions
● Cells then interact with one another to maintain life
Bacteria Amoeba Yeast
Plants Animals
● Cells with a true nucleus
● Genetic material is bound by well-defined structure
Prokaryotic organism
Eukaryotic organism
Classification of Organisms
● Cells without a well-defined nucleus
● Genetic material is not enclosed in well-defined
membrane-bound structure
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Prokaryotic Cells
Cytoplasm
Capsule
Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Plasmid
Flagella
Ribosomes
Nucleoid
(DNA)
Pilus
Characteristic features :
● Lack membrane-bound organelles such as endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), Golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria,
microbodies and vacuoles. Exception: Ribosomes
(non-membrane bound)
● Represented by bacteria, Pleuropneumonia like
Organisms (PPLO), blue green algae, mycoplasma
● Generally smaller in size and multiply more rapidly than
eukaryotic cells
● Cell wall surrounds cell membrane (except Mycoplasma)
● No well-defined nucleus, as it is not enveloped by a
membrane. Genetic material is naked
● Fluid matrix filling the cell is cytoplasm
● Many bacteria have smaller circular DNA outside
genomic DNA called plasmids.
● Unique characteristics - antibiotic resistance to bacteria
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Cell Envelope
Glycocalyx
Cell envelope
consists of complex, three-layered structure
Cell wall
(middle)
Glycocalyx
(outer)
Cell membrane
(inner)
Cell wall
Cell membrane
● Each perform different functions but act together as a single protective unit.
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1. Glycocalyx :
● Outermost layer of cell envelope
● Has a coating of mucous or polysaccharides macromolecules,
which protects the cells and helps in adhesion
● Composition - (Carbohydrate + proteins) and thickness vary
among different bacteria
Glycocalyx
Capsule
Slime layer
● Loose sheath
● Protects from loss
of water
● Thick and tough layer
● Provides gummy and sticky
character to the cell
● Allows bacterium to hide from
host's immune system
Glycocalyx
Cell Envelope
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2. Cell wall :
● Middle layer of the cell envelope
● Provides shape and strong structural support to the
bacteria from bursting or collapsing
● Rigid due to a special macromolecule called peptidoglycan
(murein or mucopeptide), polymer of N-acetylglucosamine
(NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
● Number of antibiotics (e.g., penicillin) inhibits cross-linking of
peptidoglycan strands. Therefore, cells undergo lysis in the
presence of these antibiotics
● Gram staining is a special technique, which classified
bacteria into two groups, viz. Gram-positive and Gram-
negative bacteria.
Cell wall
Cell Envelope
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2. Cell wall :
● Hans Christian devised a method to distinguish bacteria based on the
differences they exhibit in their cell wall composition
● Method is called Gram staining, also known as Gram's method
● Application of gram staining:
○ Heat fixation of bacterial smear on the slide to affix the bacteria to the slide to
avoid rinsing out during the staining procedure
○ Applying a primary stain (crystal violet)
○ Addition of KI solution, which binds to crystal violet and traps it in the cell
○ After staining, slide is washed with acetone or ethyl alcohol (Rapid
decolorization)
○ Counterstaining with safranin
Cell Envelope
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● Gram-positive bacteria have a thicker cell wall made of peptidoglycan and are stained
purple by crystal violet.
● Gram-negative bacteria have a thinner layer so do not retain the purple stain and are
counter-stained pink by safranin.
Crystal violet
All purple All purple G +ve = Purple
G -ve = Colorless
G +ve = Purple
G -ve = Pink
Safranin
Alcohol
(Decolourize)
Iodine
Gram
Negative
Gram
Positive
2. Cell wall :
Cell Envelope
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● Cell wall is single layered and smooth
● Have larger/ thick amount of
peptidoglycan in their cell wall
● Take up the gram stain
Gram staining
Gram positive Gram negative
● Cell wall is double layered and wavy
● Have lesser/ thin amount of
peptidoglycan in their cell wall
● Do not take up the gram stain
Peptidoglycan
layers
Cell
membrane
Peptidoglycan Outer membrane
Lipopolysaccharides
2. Cell wall :
Cell Envelope
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● Thin filamentous extensions
● Play significant role in motility
● The flagellum is composed of three parts - filaments,
hook and basal body. The filament is the longest
portion and extends from the cell surface to the
outside.
● It is a hollow rigid cylindrical structure made up of the
protein called flagellin. Basal body is a rod-like
structure which consists of rings.
Organisms
Motile
(flagella present)
Non-motile
(flagella absent)
2. Cell wall : Extensions
Flagella:
Cell membrane
Basal
body
Hook
Cell wall
Filament
Cell Envelope
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3. Cell membrane / plasma membrane:
● Innermost layer of cell envelope
● Selectively permeable in nature and interacts with the
outside world
● It is similar structurally to that of the eukaryotes
● Composition: Phospholipid bilayer, membrane proteins
and carbohydrates
Cell
membrane
Phospholipid bilayer
Integral protein
Peripheral
protein
Carbohydrate
Cell Envelope
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Mesosomes:
● Special membranous structure which are extensions of plasma membrane into the cell, in
the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae
● Functions - cell wall formation, DNA replication and
distribution to daughter cells.
● Also help in respiration, secretion process, to increase
the surface area of the plasma membrane and
enzymatic content
● Found in gram positive bacteria
Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Mesosome
Chromatophores:
● Membranous extensions into the cytoplasm, which contain pigments
● Found in photosynthetic prokaryotes like cyanobacteria (Nostoc), and purple bacteria
Cell Envelope
3. Cell membrane / plasma membrane: Extensions
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Cell Envelope
Fimbriae:
Pilli:
● Do not play a role in motility
● Small bristle-like fibres sprouting out of the cell
● In some bacteria, they are known to help in attaching the
bacteria to rocks in streams and also to the host tissues.
● Do not play a role in motility
● Elongated tubular structures, made up of a special protein
i.e., pilin
● True pili are found only in Gram-negative bacteria so far
and in these forms they are involved in mating process,
(conjugation)
3. Cell membrane / plasma membrane: Extensions
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Cytoplasm
1. Ribosomes
● Ribosomes, a non-membrane bound organelles size is 15 nm by 20 nm, associated
with the plasma membrane of the cell
● Made up of RNA and proteins
● Consists of two subunits - 50 S (large) and 30 S (small) units which when present
together form 70 S ribosomes
● Site of protein synthesis
● Cytoplasmic ribosomes synthesise proteins, which remain within the cells
● Ribosomes on the plasma membrane make proteins that are transported out
● Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a chain called polysome
or polyribosomes. The ribosomes of a polysome translate the mRNA into proteins.
70S
Ribosome
50S
30S
Polysome
● Jelly-like, semi-fluid matrix inside the cell, where various biochemical reactions occurs
● Consists of enzymes, nutrients, gases, plasmid and nucleoid, storage bodies and other cell structures
● Membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria, Golgi bodies, chloroplast, and lysosomes are
absent. Organelles without membranes are present, such as, Ribosomes (70S type) and inclusion
bodies
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Cytoplasm
2. Inclusion bodies
● Lie freely in cytoplasm, non-membrane bound and store reserve material
● E.g., phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules
● Single layer, non-unit membrane, which is 2-4 nm thick
● E.g., poly-ß-hydroxybutyrate granules, sulphur granules and gas vacuole
● Gas vacuoles : Found in blue-green algae, purple and green photosynthetic bacteria
3. Nucleoid
Nucleoid
● No well-defined nucleus
● Presence of nucleoid: Dense area in the cell
that contains the genetic material
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Eukaryotic Cells
● Presence of true nucleus enclosed by a nuclear envelope
● Presence of membrane bound organelles
● Genetic material is organised into chromosomes
● Has a variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structures
● These cells occur in protists, fungi, plants and animals
Nucleus
Centrioles
Lysosome
RER
SER
Nucleus
Peroxisome
Cytoskeleton
Mitochondria
Golgi apparatus
Plasma
membrane
Ribosomes
Animal cell
Nucleus
Cytosol
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondria
Vacuole
Cell wall
Chloroplast
Cell
membrane
Plant cell
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Cell Wall
● An additional non-living, rigid structure which surrounds the plasma membrane of bacteria, fungi,
algae and plant cells
● Absent in animal cells
● The composition of cell wall varies in different groups
Insoluble polysaccharides (cellulose) hemicellulose, pectins, proteins
Plant cell wall
Galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate
Algal cell wall
Chitin, a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) units
Fungal cell wall
Fungi
Algae
Plant
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Cell Wall
● The cell wall of plants consists of two regions : primary wall
and secondary wall.
● Primary wall:
● It is found in young plant cells.
● It is a thin single layer which is elastic in nature and
capable of expanding in a growing cell such as,
meristematic and parenchymatous cells.
● Secondary wall :
● It is found in mature cells.
● It has more layers than primary wall, which brings
about thickening of the cell wall such as, lignified
and suberised cell wall.
Plant cell
Plant cell
Plant cell
Plant cell
Secondary
cell wall
layers
S1
S2
S3
Primary cell wall
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Cell Wall
● Middle lamella : Hold adjacent cells together by a thin, sticky,
amorphous layer of cementing material
● Made up of calcium and magnesium pectate
● Plasmodesmata : Intercellular cytoplasmic connections
Endoplasmic reticulum plays a role in origin of plasmodesmata
Plant cell Plant cell
Plant cell Plant cell
Middle lamella
Plasmodesmata
Functions :
● It maintains shape of the cells.
● It protects the cell from mechanical injury.
● It wards off the attacks of pathogens like viruses, bacteria, fungi, etc.
● It allows the materials to pass in and out of the cell.
● It helps in cell-to-cell interaction and provides barrier to undesirable macromolecules.
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Cell Wall
● At certain places secondary wall is not laid down.
Such unthickened areas are called pits
● Adjacent cells are generally opposite to each
other and form pit pairs
● Pits are of two types :
o Simple pit : Uniform pit cavity in diameter
o Bordered pit: Flask-shaped pit
cavity as in tracheid
● Presence of number of plasmodesmata or
cytoplasmic strands are in pit through which the
cytoplasm of one cell is in contact with other
o Lined by plasma membrane and contains a
fine tubule called desmotubule
Pits
Middle lamella (white)
Primary wall (blue)
Secondary wall (olive)
Pit
Torus
Bordered pits Simple pits
Pits :
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Cell Membrane
Characteristics features :
● Cell membrane or plasma membrane is selectively permeable.
● Composition: phospholipids, membrane proteins, carbohydrate groups (glycolipids and glycoproteins)
● The ratio of protein and lipid varies considerably in different cell types.
● In human beings, the membrane of the erythrocyte (RBC) has approximately 52 % protein and 40 % lipids.
● Bilayer lipid arrangement – Polar head (hydrophilic) towards the outer sides, interacts with the water and the
non-polar (hydrophobic) tails towards the inner sides. Hence, non-polar tail of saturated hydrocarbons or
hydrophobic tail is protected from the aqueous environment.
Integral protein
Carbohydrate
Lipid (Fatty acid)
Hydrophilic
phosphate
head
Hydrophobic
lipid tail
Cholesterol
Peripheral
protein
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Cell Membrane
● In cell membrane, two types of membrane proteins are present, depending on the ease of extraction:
peripheral and integral
Membrane proteins
Integral proteins
Peripheral proteins
These proteins cannot be removed easily, and their removal requires crude methods of
treatment like detergents. Thus, the membrane has been described as protein
icebergs floating in sea of phospholipids.
● Lie on the membrane surface
● Partially or totally buried in
membrane
● Tunnel proteins, which run
through the lipid bilayer are
known as trans membrane
proteins
Peripheral
membrane
protein
Integral
membrane
proteins
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Cell Membrane
● Structure: Fluid mosaic model proposed by Singer and Nicolson (1972)
● Fluidity: Quasi-fluid nature of lipid allows lateral movement of proteins within the bilayer
Functions :
● Cell growth, formation of intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division, etc.
● Transport of the molecules
Movement
Lateral Flip-flop
● Seen in lipids and proteins
● Occurs within the same
monolayer
● More common
● Seen in lipids (more common) but not
in proteins due to their large size
● Slower than lateral movement
● Movement from one monolayer to the other
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Cell Membrane
● Movement of neutral solutes along the
concentration gradient (Higher to lower
concentration)
● By simple diffusion
● No energy utilised
Membrane transport
Active transport
Passive transport
● Movement of ions or molecules against the
concentration gradient (Lower to higher
concentration)
● Transporters such as Na+/K+ pump in animal
cells
● Energy dependant (ATP is utilised)
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Cytoplasm
● Jelly-like, semi-fluid matrix that fills the cell
● Main arena of cellular activities in both plants and animal cells
● Various biochemical reactions occur in it, to keep the cell in its living state
● Clear fluid part of the
cytoplasm
● Constitutes 90% of
water
● Consists of proteins,
lipids, and inorganic
salts
Components
Organelles
Cytosol
● Scattered in the cytosol
● Suspended organelles are
the mitochondria,
endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, vacuoles,
lysosomes, chloroplasts
in plant cell
Cytoplasm
(semi-fluid matrix of
the cell)
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Endomembrane System
● Membranous cell organelles which function in a coordinated manner
● Involved in the packaging and transport of materials
● Absent in prokaryotic cells and RBCs of mammals
Endomembrane system
Golgi
complex
Lysosomes
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Vacuoles
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Endomembrane System
Endoplasmic reticulum
● A network of reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm.
Endomembrane system
(composed of three kind of structures)
Tubules Vesicles
Cisternae
● Abundant in the
pancreatic cells and
these are the only ER
structures found in
spermatocytes
● Involved in lipid and
sterol synthesis
● Actively involved in
protein synthesis; e.g.,
cells of pancreas and
brain. Associated with
large subunit (60 S) Tubules
Cisternae
Cisternal space
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Endomembrane System
● ER divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments : Luminal
compartment and extra luminal compartment.
● Internal space which
enclosed by ER membrane.
Intracellular space
Extra luminal compartment
Luminal compartment
● Space present outside the
ER in the cytoplasm.
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Endomembrane System
ER are of two types on the basis of presence/ absence of ribosomes on the surface of ER.
● Absence of ribosomes
● Smooth tubular structures. Eg., Muscle cells,
those ER known as sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
● Presence of ribosomes
● Contains two types of glycoproteins i.e.,
Ribophorin-l and Ribophorin-Il for the
attachment of 60S subunit of 80S ribosome.
Ribosome
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Endomembrane System
Function :
● Lipids and steroids synthesis
● Detoxification of drugs and xenobiotics,
as it is associated with cytochrome P 450
● Muscle contraction by release and
uptake of Ca+ ions
● Synthetic products of RER pass onto
Golgi complex through SER
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Function :
● Site of protein synthesis
● Provides precursors of enzymes
for the formation of lysosomes in
Golgi complex
● Gives rise to SER
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Endomembrane System
● First observed by Camillo Golgi in 1898
● Densely stained reticular structures; present near the nucleus of the cell
● Present in eukaryotic cells, except in mature sieve tubes of plants,
mature RBCs of mammals, sperm cells of bryophytes and
pteridophytes, etc
● In plants, it is called dictyosomes as Golgi apparatus is made up of
unconnected units
Golgi apparatus
Tubules Vesicles
Cisternae Golgian Vacuoles
● Flattened sac-like
structures stacked
on one another
● Small, flat,
interconnecting
structures
● Small rounded sacs
present at the edges
of cisternae in
clusters
● Large, spherical
vacuoles produced at
maturing face
Vesicle
Cisternae
Tubules
Golgi Apparatus
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Endomembrane System
 Concentrically arranged near the nucleus as convex cis or the forming face and concave trans
or the maturing face. Cis and trans are entirely different but interconnected.
 Faces the endoplasmic
reticulum
 Convex in shape -
forming face -
receiving end
 Receives vesicles
from the ER
 Faces the cytoplasm
 Concave in shape -
maturing face
 Modified materials
are packed and
released from the
trans face
Golgi apparatus arrangement
Trans face
Cis face
Cis face
Transport
vesicles from
ER
Trans face
Vesicles from
trans face
Golgi Apparatus
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Endomembrane System
Golgi Apparatus: Functions
2
3
4
5
1 To process, package and transport the materials for secretions
Site of formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids
Root cap cells are rich in Golgi bodies which secrete mucilage for
the lubrication of root tip
Acrosome of the sperm is modified Golgi apparatus
Formation of plasma membrane during cytokinesis
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Endomembrane System
● Simple, tiny, spherical, sac-like and single membrane bound
structures
● Formed by the process of packaging in the Golgi apparatus
● Rich in hydrolytic enzymes.
Membrane
Hydrolytic enzymes
SUBSTANCES
HYDROLYTIC
ENZYMES
1. Protein Protease
2. Lipid Lipase
3. Carbohydrates Glycosidase
4. Nucleic acids Nuclease
5. Phosphates Acid phosphatase
6. Sulphates Sulphatase
● Optimally active at the
acidic pH
● Acidic conditions are
maintained inside the
lysosomes by pumping
of H+ ions into them
Lysosomes
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Endomembrane System
Lysosomes
Lysosomes polymorphism
Secondary /
Heterolysosomes Residual
Primary
Autophagic/Vacuolar
lysosomes
Newly formed Primary lysosome +
Phagosome
Undigested
materials
 Formed by union of
many primary
lysosomes around old
or dead organelles
 Surrounds and digest
them by autolysis or
autodigestion
The disappearance of larval organs during metamorphosis (e.g., tail in frog) is due to autolysis.
Hence, lysosomes are known as “suicide bags”
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Endomembrane System
Vacuoles
● Vacuoles are large membrane-bound space.
They are prominently found in the cytoplasm.
● It contains water, sap, excretory products.
These are also called sap vacuoles.
● Its membrane is called tonoplast.
● Tonoplast facilitates the transport of ions and
other materials against concentration
gradients into the vacuole.
● Thus, ions concentration is significantly higher
in the vacuole than in the cytoplasm.
● In plant cells, the vacuoles can occupy upto
90 % of the volume of the cell.
Chloroplast
Cell wall
Cell membrane
SER
RER
Nucleus
Vacuole
Mitochondria
Tonoplast
(membrane
of vacuole)
Golgi body
Cytoplasm
Plant cell
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Endomembrane System
Types of vacuoles
Food vacuole
Gas vacuole/
pseudo vacuoles
Contractile
vacuole
● Membrane less vacuoles
found in prokaryotes
● Provides buoyancy
● In many cells, as in protists,
food vacuoles are formed by
engulfing the food particles
● In Amoeba, it helps in
excretion
● Helps in
osmoregulation
Food
particle
Food vacuole
Vacuoles
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Did You Know?
● Mitochondria and chloroplast are
self-duplicating/ semi- autonomous organelles
o Mitochondria arise by the division of pre-existing
mitochondria
o Chloroplast arise from proplastids
● For duplication, they have circular dsDNA, 70S
ribosomes and different types of RNAs i.e., mRNA,
tRNA, rRNA for protein synthesis.
● They are also bacterial
endosymbionts of cells, because
o Have own nucleic acids (circular ds DNA and RNA)
and 70S ribosomes
o Membrane resembles that of bacteria
(have proteins called porins)
o ETS and ATP forming machinery is present
Mitochondria and Chloroplast
Inter
membrane
space
Cristae
Matrix
Outer
membrane
Inner
membrane
Chloroplast
DNA
Ribosome
Starch granule
Lipid
droplet
Intermembrane
space
Inner membrane
Grana
Lamella
Stroma
Mitochondria
Chloroplast ANKUR SIR

Mitochondria
● Sausage-shaped double membraned organelles.
● Since they are not visible easily, they are stained by a vital stain Janus Green.
● Number of infoldings
called the cristae
● Has 80% protein and
20% lipids and is rich
in cardiolipins
● Contains ATP
synthase/F0-F1
Structure
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
● Smooth
● Chemically
composed of 40%
lipid and 60%
proteins
● Contains transport
proteins
Inter
membrane
space
Cristae
Matrix
Outer
membrane
Inner
membrane
Number : Depends on the amount of work done by the cell and its energy requirement
Structure : Double membrane
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Mitochondria
 It is between the two
mitochondrial membranes.
 It is also called peri-
mitochondrial space.
Chambers
Inner compartment or
matrix
Outer compartment or
intermembrane space
 It is inside the inner
membrane.
 The cristae are formed from
particle infolding of inner
membrane towards the matrix
which increases the surface
area for enzyme action.
Has two distinct chambers filled with aqueous fluid
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Mitochondria
● Matrix contains single circular dsDNA molecule (with high G = C content), a few RNA
molecules, 70S ribosomes and enzymes for TCA (Tricarboxylic acid) cycle.
● Mitochondria divide by fission.
● The cristae and inner surface of the inner membrane are studied with numerous
spherical or knob like protuberances called elementary particles or Particles of
Fernandez and Moran or F, particles or oxysomes.
● Each oxysome is differentiated into base, stalk and headpiece. The head piece contains
enzyme ATP synthetase which brings about oxidative phosphorylation coupled with
release of ATP.
Functions :
● Mitochondria are main sites of aerobic
respiration and ATP synthesis, therefore
“Powerhouse of the cell”.
● They bring about the oxidation of
carbohydrates, proteins and ß-oxidation of
fats.
Inter membrane
space
Cristae
Matrix
Outer
membrane
Inner
membrane
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Plastids
Plastids
Leucoplasts Chromoplasts
Chloroplasts
Elaioplasts : store fats and
oils e.g., castor
● Contain various pigments like
chlorophyll and carotenoids
● Greenish in colour
● Take part in the
synthesis of food
● Majorly found in
mesophyll cells
● Have fat soluble pigments
(carotene and xanthophylls).
● Yellow, orange or
reddish in colour
● Change of colour from green
to reddish during the ripening
of tomato and chilli is due to
transformation of chloroplasts
to chromoplasts
● Orange colour of carrot roots
is due to chromoplasts
● Colourless and store nutrients
● Granum is absent
Amyloplasts : store
carbohydrates
e.g., potato tuber, rice etc.
Aleuroplasts : store proteins
e.g., aleurone cells of maize
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Plastids
Chloroplast
 Shape : Spherical, lens shaped, oval, discoid or even
ribbon-shaped in some plants
 Structure:
1. Double membrane
Outer membrane : More permeable Inner
membrane : Less permeable with more carrier
proteins
2. Stroma: Fluid matrix bound by the inner
membrane. Contains 70S ribosomes, circular DNA
(dsDNA), starch granules and enzymes required for
the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins
3. Thylakoids: Coin like structures containing
chlorophyll. Enclose a space called a lumen
4. Grana/Intergranal thylakoids: Appear like piles of
coin. Stacked one over the other to form grana
5. Stroma Lamellae : Flat membranous tubules.
Interconnect thylakoids of different grana
 Photosynthesis : Light reaction (in thylakoids),
dark reaction (in stroma)
 Storage of starch
Chloroplast
DNA
Ribosome
Starch granule
Lipid droplet
Intermembrane
space
Inner membrane
Grana
Lamella
Stroma
Functions:
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Ribosomes
● Smallest non-membranous organelle, composed of RNA and protein
● Discovered by George Palade in 1953
● Structure: Composed of two subunits, one large dome shaped and other smaller cap shaped
● Both the subunits remain united with each other due to a specific concentration of the Mg2+ ions
● If concentration of Mg2+ ions reduces below a critical level,
subunits get separated.
● If concentration of Mg2+ ions increases in the matrix, they unites
and form dimer.
● During protein synthesis, many ribosomes form a chain on a
common messenger RNA and form the polyribosomes or
polysomes.
● ‘S’ (Svedberg unit) – sedimentation coefficient and Indirect
measure of density and size.
Large
subunit
Small
subunit
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Ribosomes
Functions : sites of protein synthesis.
● Free Ribosomes - synthesise non-secretory proteins (structural and enzymatic proteins)
● ER bound ribosomes- synthesis secretory proteins (proteins for transport)
● Thus, these organelles are also known as protein factories
● Newly synthesised proteins are processed with the help of chaperone protein
Types of ribosomes
80S
● Present in eukaryotic cells
● Subunits 60S and 40S
● 80 S ribosomes have ribonucleoproteins in
the ratio of 40 : 60 (RNA : Protein)
● 80 S ribosomes consist of:
● 40 S smaller subunit - with 33 protein
and a single 18S-rRNA.
● 60 S larger subunit - with 40 protein
molecules and three types of rRNAs -
28S, 5.8S and 5S.
70S
● Present in prokaryotic cells
● Subunits 30S and 50S
● 70 S ribosomes have ribonucleoproteins
in the ratio of 60 : 40 (RNA : Protein)
● 70 S ribosomes consist of:
● 30 S smaller subunit - 21 proteins
and 16 S rRNA
● 50 S larger subunit- 34 proteins
molecules and 23 S and 5 S rRNA
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Cytoskeleton
● Extremely minute, fibrous, filamentous and tubular proteinaceous structures.
● Main functions are, to provide mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell.
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
 Non-contractile hollow
filaments of acidic proteins.
 Found in the cytoplasmic matrix
 Occurs in cilia, flagella, centrioles
and basal bodies, mitotic
apparatus etc
 Hollow, unbranched cylinders
 Composed of 13 parallel
protofilaments {alpha and beta
subunits of tubulin protein (non
contractile protein)}
 The assembly and disassembly of
microtubules require GTP and Ca2
+
 Solid, unbranched,
rod-like fibrils of
indefinite length
 Composed of a
globular protein actin
and filamentous
protein myosin.
 Forms an extensive
network in the
cytoplasm of cells.
Microtubules
Intermediate
filaments
Microfilaments
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Cytoskeleton
Functions of Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
● Functions:
o Formation of
scaffolds for
chromatin and in
forming a basket
around nucleus
● Functions :
o Formation of spindles and astral rays
during cell division
o Form the cytoskeleton of cilia and
flagella
o Provide shape, rigidity, motility, and
anaphasic movement of
chromosomes
o Intracellular transport of nutrients
and inorganic ions
o Position of the future cell plate is
determined by microtubules
● Functions:
o Provide support to plasma
membrane
o Involved in cytoplasmic
streaming and amoeboid
movements
o Formation of pseudopodia and
cleavage furrow during cell
division
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Centrosome and Centrioles
● They consist of two cylindrical structures called centrioles.
● Surrounded by a cloud of amorphous pericentriolar material called centrosphere or
kinoplasm
● Two centrioles are together referred to as diplosome
● Centrioles are found in almost all eukaryotic cells like animal cells, fungi and algae but not
found in higher plant cells.
Centrosome
Centrioles
Animal cell
● Structure of a Centriole:
o A centriole possesses a whorl of
nine evenly spaced peripheral
fibrils of tubulin. It is absent in the
centre. Therefore, the
arrangement is called 9 + 0.
o Each fibril is made up of three
subfibres called triplet fibril.
o The adjacent triplet fibrils are
connected by proteinaceous
linkers.
ANKUR SIR

Centrosome and Centrioles
● The centre of the centriole possesses a rod-shaped proteinaceous mass known as hub.
From the hub, nine proteinaceous strands are developed towards the peripheral triplet
fibrils. These strands are called radial spokes.
● Due to the presence of radial spokes and peripheral fibrils, the centriole gives a cartwheel
appearance.
● The centrioles are surrounded by dense amorphous, protoplasmic spheres in one or more
series called as massules or pericentriolar satellites. They help in the formation of new
centrioles.
Spokes
Fibril
(Triplet
microtubules)
Hub
● Functions :
o Form basal bodies which give
rise to cilia and flagella
o Form the spindle fibres that
give rise to spindle apparatus
during cell division
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Cilia and Flagella
 Fine hairlike outgrowths of the membrane
 Flagella are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells but, are structurally different
 Both are membrane-bound extensions of the plasma membrane
Axoneme (core of the structure)
(9+2 arrangement)
Central
microtubules (2) Central Sheath
Peripheral
microtubules (9) Linkers
 Made up of four parts, basal body, rootlets, basal plate and shaft.
 Core of the structure is known as the axoneme
Structure:
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Cilia and Flagella
Structure:
● Axoneme consists of nine microtubule doublets radially arranged known as, peripheral microtubules.
They run parallel to the long axis around one pair of central microtubules.
● This is 9 + 2 pattern of microtubules.
● Central sheath covers the central microtubules.
● Linkers join the microtubule doublets, made up of Nexin protein.
● Dynein are proteins of the subfril arms, that use ATP to drive the movement.
Central
microtubules
Radial spokes
Central sheath
Doublets
Plasma membrane
Linkers Peripheral
microtubule
Dynein head
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Cilia and Flagella
● Very large in number and smaller in size.
● Occurs throughout or major part of surface
of the cell
● Help in locomotion, feeding, circulation etc
● Oar like movements.
Flagella
Cilia
● 1-4 in number and longer in size.
● Commonly found at the surface of
a cell at the one end of the cell
● Help in locomotion
● Whip like structure
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Nucleus
● Described by Robert Brown as early as 1831
● Store house of hereditary information
● Was proved by Hammering (1953)
● Flemming observed some intensely stained parts in nucleus and called them ‘chromatin’
● Known as ‘brain’ of the cell as it controls the whole cell and its functions
● Contains the genetic material : DNA
Types of cells
(based on number of nucleus)
Multinucleate Anucleate
Binucleate
● Two nuclei per cell, e.g.,
Paramecium
● Have many nuclei,
e.g., Opalina.
● Lack nucleus at maturity, e.g.,
mammalian RBCs and sieve
tube cells.
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 Structure : Double membrane
 May be
smooth or
rough
 Continuous
with ER,
associated
with
ribosomes
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
 Smooth
 Two membranes
are separated by
fluid filled
perinuclear space
(10 to 50 nm)
Structure
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear pore
Nucleoplasm
Nuclear envelope
Nucleus
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Nucleus
Structure : A nucleus in non-dividing phase is called interphase nucleus.
Nucleoplasm Nucleolus
Nuclear Envelope Chromatin
 Transparent, semi-
fluid and colloidal
substance
 Contains nucleolus
 Spherical structure
found in the
nucleoplasm
 Site for ribosomal RNA
synthesis
 Highly,
extended and
diffused
network of
nucleoprotein
fibres called
chromatin
 Outer membrane:
Smooth or with
ribosomes
 Inner membrane:
Smooth
 Separated by a space
known as perinuclear
space
 Contains complex pores
Structure
ANKUR SIR

Nucleus
Chromatin : (Gk. chrorma - colour)
● Loose and diffused network of
nucleoprotein fibres called
chromatin
● Chromatin fibres condense to form
chromosomes
● Composition: DNA, basic proteins
histones, RNA and some non-
histone proteins
● Histone proteins are the
packaging proteins
● Associated with packaging of
DNA into compact structures
called chromosomes
● Single human cell has
approximately two-meter-long
thread of DNA distributed among
the chromosomes
Chromosome
Chromatin fiber
Nucleosome
Histone
DNA
Double Helix
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Nucleus
Structure of a chromosome
● Has two identical halves called chromatids
● Held together at one point called centromere
● Appears as a narrow region called primary
constriction of the chromosome
● On the sides of centromere, disc-
shaped structures are present known as
kinetochores
● Ends of chromosome are called telomeres
● Seal the ends of chromosomes and
prevent shortening or chromosome loss
Homologous
chromosomes
Centromeric
region
Sister
chromatids
ANKUR SIR

Nucleus
p arm
Centromere
q arm
p arm
Centromere
q arm
Centromere
Chromosome
arm
At the centre Slightly away from
the centre
Near the terminal At the terminal
Classification of Chromosomes
(on the basis of centromere position)
Sub-metacentric Acrocentric
Metacentric Telocentric
Centromere
q arm
p arm
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Nucleus
Non-staining secondary constrictions or
NOR (nucleolar organiser)
● Additional constrictions near their
ends
● Part of the chromosome beyond
the secondary constriction is
called satellite
● A chromosome having satellite is
called SAT-chromosome
● Considered as marker
chromosome
● In humans, 5 pairs of SAT
chromosomes are present
Secondary
constriction
Satellite
Centromere or
primary
constriction
Telomere
Bands
Sister chromatids
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Nucleus
Salivary gland chromosomes or
polytene chromosomes
● In insects of order Diptera
(dipteran insects)
● Reported by E.G. Balbiani (1881)
● Studied in Drosophila (upto 2000
um (2 mm) another example Is
Chironomus
● Number of chromonemata or
fibrils increases upto 2000
Lampbrush chromosomes
● Described by Ruckert (1892)
● Present in primary oocyte nuclei of
vertebrates and invertebrates
● Diplotene bivalent chromosomes joined
at certain points called chiasmata. Their
main axis is formed by DNA.
● Nascent RNA molecules are present
● Some of these are stored as
informosomes (mRNA + proteins) for
future use (development of embryo).
Special types of chromosomes or giant chromosomes
ANKUR SIR

Microbodies
● Many single membrane-bound minute vesicles called microbodies.
● Rich in enzymes.
● Associated with oxidation reactions other than those of respiration.
Microbodies
Sphaerosomes
Peroxisomes Glyoxysomes
● Storage and synthesis
of lipids.
● Abundance in
endosperm cells of oil
seeds.
● These contain
hydrolytic enzymes.
● Convert fats into
carbohydrates
(gluconeogenesis).
● Discovered by Tolbert
and Beevers.
● Found in castor seed,
groundnut seed, etc.
● Breakdown of very long
chain fatty acids.
● Common in
photosynthetic cells for
photorespiration.
● Possess peroxide
producing and peroxide
destroying enzymes for
peroxide biosynthesis.
ANKUR SIR

Summary
Cytoplas
m
Capsule
Plasma
membrane
Plasmid
Flagella
Nucleoid (DNA)
Pilus
Prokaryotic cell
Cell wall
Ribosomes
ANKUR SIR

Summary
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
Type of cell Always unicellular
Unicellular or
multicellular
Nucleus Not well defined Well defined
Ribosomes Smaller in size (70S) Larger in size (80S)
Mitochondria Absent Present
Lysosomes Absent Present
Example Bacteria Animal and plant cell
ANKUR SIR

Summary
Animal cell
Centrioles
Lysosome
RER
SER
Nucleus
Peroxisome
Cytoskeleton Mitochondria
Golgi apparatus
Plasma
membrane
Ribosomes
Nucleus
Cytosol
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondria
Vacuole
Cell wall
Chloroplast
Cell
membrane
Plant cell
Eukaryotic cell
ANKUR SIR

Summary
Plant cell Animal cell
Cell shape Square or rectangular Irregular or round
Cell wall Present Absent
Plasma membrane Present Present
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Present Present
Nucleus
Present and lies on one side of
the cell
Present and lies in the
centre of the cell
Lysosomes Present but are very rare Present
Centrosome Absent Present
ANKUR SIR

Summary
Plant cell Animal cell
Golgi Apparatus Present Present
Cytoplasm Present Present
Ribosomes Present Present
Plastids Present Absent
Vacuoles
Few large or a single, centrally
positioned vacuole
Usually small and numerous
Cilia Absent
Present in most of the animal
cells
Mitochondria Present but fewer in number Present and are numerous
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Summary
Non - membrane
bound organelle
Single membrane bound
organelles
Double membrane
bound organelles
Centrosomes
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Microbodies
Peroxisome
Glyoxysome
Sphaerosome
Plastids
Chloroplast
Chromoplast
Leucoplast
Lysosomes Nucleus
Golgi Complex
ANKUR SIR

IMPORTANT LINKS
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PHYSICS LINK
BIOLOGY LINK
ONLINE CLASSES LINK

Cell - the Unit of Life.pdf

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