1. AGENCIES OF POLLINATION
Dr Saji Mariam George
Associate Professor (Retired)
Assumption College Autonomous
Changanacherry
2. AGENCIES OF POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains(the male
reproductive units) from the anther to the stigma (a part of
the carpel of the female reproductive organ, gynoecium or
pistil )of a flower.
• Pollination is essential to effect fertilization and seed
formation in higher plants.
• Pollination mechanism vary in different types of flowers -
occurs by a variety of methods. Some flowers have very
special adaptations to ensure pollination.
• Biotic and abiotic agents are involved in pollination.
3. A few pollen grains on stigma
Images Credit : Jawahar Swaminathan
https://juridicious.com/2013/03/14/anatomy-of-a-hibiscus-part-2-extreme-macro
Hibiscus flower
Staminal tube with stamens
&
Stigma of the flower
6. 1. Entomophily
• Pollination by insects.
• The most common type - much diversity with regard to
insect pollinators. Diurnal – bees, flies, butterflies , beetles,
wasps, ants etc. ; Nocturnal – moths.
8. During visit, the body get dusted with pollen grains on
the back (Nototribic pollen transport)
underside (Sternotribic pollen transport )
on the flanks(Pleurotribic pollen transport)
When the pollen loaded insect visits another flower, its
body brushes the pollen to it →Pollination.
9. Adaptations in entomophilous flowers
Flowers - attractive
• Large, showy, conspicuous
• Brightly coloured - red, scarlet, blue, yellow etc. –
attractive during day.
White - conspicuous during night.
• Attractive petals / sepals (Mussaenda) / bracts
(Bougainvillea , Euphorbia splendens) / stamens - petaloid
( Waterlily- Nymphaea) / Spathe (Musa)
• Small , inconspicuous flowers clustered to form an
inflorescence. For example, Head inflorescence or
Capitulum in Asteraceae (e.g. Sunflower -Helianthus).
10. Figs. 1 : Attractively coloured sepals
2 - 4 : Coloured bracts
5 : Coloured spathe
6 : Head inflorescence(Capitulum) -Small flowers clustered to form
an inflorescence.
.
1. Mussaenda 2. Bougainvillea 3. Euphorbia pulcherrima
4. Euphorbia splendens 5. Musa – Spathe
6. Sunflower – Head inflorescence
(Capitulum)
11. Fig. 7 : Petaloid stamens of Water lily (Nymphaea)
Image credit :Robert Baker , Thomas J. Lemieux , University of Colorado , USA
https://botany.org/PlantImages/Conant/CA10-002_1080.jpg
12. Some flowers have
• scent
(e.g. Mimusops, Rose, Jasmine etc.)
• strong odour at night
(e.g. Cestrum)
• unpleasant odour – attracts flies
(e.g. Rafflesia – smell of rotten meat; Aristolochia - smell of
decaying tobacco etc).
13. Flowers with unpleasant odour – e.g. Rafflesia - has smell of
rotten meat– attract flies
Carrion flies pollinate a Rafflesia
Image credit : https://www.travelblog.org
Rafflesia (Largest flower)
14. Flowers with unpleasant odour
e.g. Aristolochia- attract flies
Image credit:https://indiabiodiversity.org
Aristolochia indica
15. • Stigma sticky, rough and catches the pollen grains soon.
• Pollen grains rough, sticky, often shows spinous outgrowths
(The exine sculpturing)– easily stick to the body of the
insects.
• Flowers may have pollen kitt-an yellowish, viscous and sticky
substance in the exine of pollen grains – hydrophobic lipids
containing species-specific carotenoids.
21. Entomophily: Phalaenophily - Pollination by Moths
A Manduca moth on a Datura flower
Photo : K. Riffel
http://nationalmothweek.org
Examples of plants pollinated by
Moths
• Yucca
• Datura
• White clover
• Jasmine
• Fuchsia
• Dianthus
• Evening primrose
• Cestrum nocturnum
• Quisqualis indica
• Ghost orchid
• Tobacco
• Cashew
• Papaya
• Verbena etc.
22. Entomophily: Cantharophily - Pollination by Beetles
Examples of plants pollinated by Beetles
• Magnolia
• Goldenrod
• Sunflower
• Spice bush (Lindera sps)
• Annona coriacea
• Water lily
• Acacia
• Illicium
• Nelumbo etc.
Beetles on Magnolia grandiflora flower
http://www.wlgf.org
23. Entomophily: Sphecophily -Pollination by Wasps
Potter wasp on Aster Paper wasp on Goldenrod
Images Credit: Beatriz Moisset.
https://www.fs.fed.us
Examples of plants pollinated by
Wasps
• Fig
• Aster
• Goldenrod
• Maple
• Ivy
• Penstemon
• Gooseberry
• Marigold
• Cow pea
• White clover
• Fennel
• Chiloglottis trapeziforms (Australian
orchid) etc.
24. Entomophily: Myrmecophily - Pollination by Ants
Common white-footed ants pollinates rare wild Jamun, Syzygium occidentale .
https://binj.in/science/common-ant-pollinates-rare-wild-jamun
25. Pollination by Ants…
Photos by Beatriz Moisset
https://www.fs.fed.us
Examples of plants pollinated by Ants
• Jatropha curcas
• Polygonum cascadense
• Conospermum undulatum
• Triphysaria pusilla
• Euphorbia heterspina ssp. Baringoensis.
• Euphorbia seguieriana
• Medicago sativa
• Melitotus officianalis etc.
26. Entomophily: Special mechanisms
Yucca flowers & the moth Pronuba yucca-sella
• Moth cannot survive without Yucca flower and the
plant fails to reproduce sexually without the moth.
• Moth drills a hole in the ovary and lay eggs.
• Moth collects pollen from several flowers –pushes the
pollen towards the stigma → fertilization → seed.
• Insect eggs → larvae – feed on developing seeds. Some
seeds remain unconsumed → propagate the species.
27. Yucca flowers and the moth Pronuba yucca-sella
Image credit :
https://terra4incognita.files.wordpress.com
Image credit : William E. Ferguson
https://www.britannica.com
28. Pollination of a Yucca flower by Yucca moth
Image credits: Joshua Tree National Park.
https://www.zmescience.com
29. Lever mechanism in Salvia(Lamiaceae)
• Corolla - bilabiate – upper lip and lower lip .
• 2 protandrous stamens – one lobe fertile and the other
sterile – forms a ‘plate’- lies at the mouth of the flower just
above the lower lip .
• Long connective - fertile lobe away from the ‘plate’ , lie
covered under the upper lip.
34. • Inflorescence of a Fig – a highly
condensed cymose - a
hypanthodium (syconium) .
• It is a hollow, flask - shaped,
fleshy axis opening by a small
ostiole at the apex.
• Flowers protogynous - arranged
on the inner surface - many,
unisexual.
• Female flowers - at the base.
• Male flowers - at the top near
the ostiole.
• Gall flowers (Sterile flowers)
near the opening.
Image credit : https://www.biophotosharing.com
35. • Fig wasp, Blastophaga enter
through ostiole – lays eggs
inside “gall flowers”(Sterile
flowers).
• Eggs → Larvae →
wasps.
• When crawl out of the
inflorescence, brush against
the male flowers and get
loaded by their pollen grains.
• When these pollen - loaded
insects visit another
inflorescence , pollinate the
long – styled female flowers.
Fig wasp
Image credit : JMK,
Wikimedia Commons
Image credit:
www.naturamediterraneo.com
36. Pit fall mechanism (Trap mechanism): Aristolochia
• Flower protogynous - long
corolla tube – reproductive
structures are located in the
swollen base of the tube.
• Inner surface of the corolla tube
is lined with deflexed (bent
abruptly downward) hairs.
• Flower has the smell of decaying
tobacco – attracts insects to the
corolla tube – once inside the
flower, the insect fails to come
out because of the deflexed hairs
and during their struggle to
come out of the corolla tube ,
the pollen grains attached to the
body are transferred to the
stigma effecting pollination.
37. • When pollination is over, the anthers dehisce – the body
of the insect get dusted with pollen grains.
• The deflexed hairs → flaccid, the pollen - loaded insect get
out of the tube.
• When the insect enters another flower, the pollen grains
attached to the body will strike the stigma → pollination.
38. Pit fall mechanism (Trap mechanism): Aristolochia
https://www2.palomar.edu
39. 2. Malacophily
• Pollination by snails and slugs –
occurs in subterranean runners
and creepers which grow closely
adhering to soil.
Examples of plants pollinated by snails
and slugs
• Lemna
• Limonium
• Arisaemia
• Colocasia odora
• Calla palustris
• Chrysanthemum
• Volvulopsis nummularium
• Rohdea japonica
• Philodendron pinnatifidum
• Chrysosplenium alternifolium
• Phragmipedium caudatum
• Ipomoea pes-caprae
• Campanula jacobaea
• Alocasia etc.
Lemna Limonium
Arisaemia
40. • In Colocasia, the
inflorescence is a spadix –
the base form a spathal
chamber which encloses the
flowers.
• Snails are attracted by the
colour and smell – enter
into the spathal chamber –
the pollen grains from the
male flowers – attach to the
body.
• When such a snail enters
into another inflorescence,
pollination may occur .
Colocasia esculenta Green female flowers (below)
many yellow male flowers
Image credit: Sheldon Navie
https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org
41. 3. Ornithophily
• Pollination by birds
• Flowers big, brightly
coloured(mostly red, orange,
purple etc.) and odourless.
• Produce large quantities of
pollen- sticky - adhere to the
body and nectar.
• Flowers may be tubular (e.g.
Nicotiana glauca),cup shaped
(e.g. bottlebrush- Callistemon),
urn - shaped (e.g. some
members of Ericaceae), funnel
shaped etc., loosely clustered on
tips of flexible stalks.
A hummingbird on Asclepias.
https://monarchbutterflygarden.net
43. 4. Chiropterophily
• Pollination by bats
• Pollinate plants that open
during evening or night -
Flowers large, white,
yellowish green or
brownish or purple
coloured, some with a
disagreeable scent.
• Large number of stamens-
pollen produced in large
quantity.
• Large quantity of nectar.
A bat on Banana flowers
Photo: Stewart & Dudash.
https://www.botany.one
44. Examples of plants pollinated by
Bats
• Musa paradisiaca (Banana/plantain)
• Kigelia pinnata (Sausage tree)
• Anacardium occidentale
• Anthocephalus cadamba
• Bauhinia megalandra
• Eperua falcata
• Mango
• Guava
• Bread fruit
• Agave
• Passiflora
• Durian
• Certain cacti (e.g. Carnegiea gigantea )
etc.
Cave Nectar Bat on Durian flowers
https://www.merlintuttle.org
45. 5. Pollination by other animals
• Pollination by squirrels.
• Squirrels visit many
flowering trees – have some
role in pollination.
Examples of plants pollinated
by squirrels
• Melaleuca cajuputi
• Helicteres isora
• Mucuna macrocarpa
• Madhuca species etc.
Plantain Squirrel (Callosciurus notatus)
on Melaleuca cajuputi (Myrtaceae)
https://besgroup.org
46. • Pollination by Honey
possum(Honey mouse ).
• Pollinate Eucalyptus, Banskia,
Baobab(Adansonia digitata) etc.
Honey possum on Eucalyptus
Oxford Scientific / Getty
Images
https://www.treehugger.com
Honey possum on Banskia
Kate Boland
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/10-unusual-
plant-pollinators-from-the-animal-kingdom.html
Baobab flower
https://en.wikipedia.org
47. • Pollination by Black & white
ruffed Lemurs.
• Pollinate the Traveler's
palm(Ravenala
madagascariensis) of
Madagascar.
Pollination by Black & white ruffed Lemur in Traveler's palm
Images : https://www.indefenseofplants.com
Inflorescence of Traveler's palm
48. • Pollination by
Hawaiian night rat.
• These rats at night
climb to trees to eat
the succulent bracts
of Freycinetia arborea
(climbing screwpine)
and while feeding,
transfer pollen and
thus bring about
pollination.
Climbing screwpine
Daniel Mosquin
Image License: Creative Commons License
https://botanyphoto.botanicalgarden.ubc.ca
Climbing screwpine inflorescence
Photograph by: Forest and Kim Starr
Useful Tropical Plants Database 2014 by Ken
Fern, web interface by Ajna Fern with help
from Richard Morris. Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0
http://tropical.theferns.info
49. • Pollination by
Namaqua rock
mouse (A rodent)
in Pagoda Lily
(Massonia bifolia
Syn.Whiteheadia
bifolia). Namaqua rock mouse pollinating Pagoda Lily
Credit: Petra Wester
https://phys.org
51. • The gliding marsupials,
the yellow-bellied glider
(Petaurus australis) and
the sugar glider
(Petaurus
breviceps) are involved
in pollination of some
plants- Eucalyptus,
Banskia etc.
Yellow-bellied glider on Swamp
Mahogany (Eucalyptus robusta)
Photo : David Stowe
https://publications.rzsnsw.org.au
Sugar glider
https://en.wiktionary.org
52. • Lizards rarely pollinate flowers.
• Pollination by Lizards is
common on islands.
Examples of plants pollinated by
Lizards :
• Musschia aurea
(Campanulaceae)
• Phormium tenax (Agavaceae)
A Lizard pollinating Musschia aurea
(Campanulaceae)
D.M. Hansen. Corresponding author: Jens M. Olesen
(jens.olesen@biology.au.dk).
uploaded by Alfredo Valido
https://www.researchgate.net
53. • The blue-tailed Gecko
(Phelsuma cepediana) is
a pollinator of
Roussea simplex flower
(Family: Rousseaceae) in
Mauritius.
Gecko pollinating the flower of Roussea simplex
http://powo.science.kew.org
55. Adaptations in anemophilous flowers
• Flowers usually in
spikes - Grasses - the
inflorescence axis
elongates
considerably so that
the flowers are
brought well above
the leaves. Pennisetum orientale
Image credit : Manoj P
Tropical Institute of Ecological Sciences, Kottayam
https://indiabiodiversity.org
56. • Catkins – Mulberry
• Both spikes and catkins
swing freely and shake off
their pollen grains in air.
Catkins in Mulberry
https://blog.usejournal.com
57. • Flowers are small - Perianth
lobes reduced or absent.
• Flowers have no attractive
colour, scent and nectar.
• The stamens have long and
slender filaments and
exerted - anthers versatile -
swing freely on the filament
- dispose the pollen in all
directions. Versatile anther
http://sweetgum.nybg.org
Versatile anther of Amaryllis
Jonna Saraswathi
https://www.flickr.com
58. • Stigmas are specially adapted for catching pollen
grains - long, feathery and branched (in most
grasses) - pollen grains are caught between the
branches of stigma.
• In Typha the stigma is brush - like.
• The stigma usually project outwards – wheat,
paddy, maize, sugar cane, palms etc.
• Pollen grains are produced in large quantity to
compensate their heavy loss during wind transport.
59. Long, feathery stigma Corn – Left : Male flower tassel
Right: Female flower silk or stigma
Image : Tejaswi Kamble
https://www.quora.com
Image : E. Thralls
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu
60. • Winged pollen grains in
Pinus - produced in large
quantity and are released to
air - “Sulphur shower”.
Winged pollen grain of Pinus
Release of winged pollen grains of Pinus to air
“Sulphur shower”
61. • In plants with unisexual
flowers , male flowers are
more numerous than
female flowers - Coconut
palm (Cocos nucifera).
Coconut palm(Cocos nucifera)
Spadix inflorescence - Many male flowers
and only a few female flowers
62. Disadvantages of Anemophily
• Pollination is not certain – depends on the direction of wind.
• Large quantity of pollen is wasted.
• Because of the above reasons, anemophily is primitive.
63. 2. HYDROPHILY
• Pollination by water
• Occurs only in a few water plants- Vallisneria, Elodea,
Hydrilla, Zostera, Ceratophyllum, Najas etc.
• Most of the aquatic plants bear their flowers above the
surface of water and are pollinated by wind or insects.
64. Adaptations in hydrophilous flowers
• Flowers – small, inconspicuous
• Non-essential parts , if present have waxy coating – protects
from wetting
• Colour, nectar and scent absent
• Pollen grains light and sticky – covered with wax.
• Stigma – funnel shaped, sticky – prevents wetting.
65. Types of Hydrophily
1. Epihydrophily
Pollination takes place on
surface of water.
Eg. Vallisneria
Hydrilla
Elodea etc.
Vallisneria
https://www.aquaplante.fr
66. Hydrilla
Photo : D. F. Spencer.
https://wric.ucdavis.edu
Hydrilla female flower
Photo: Shaun Winterton, Aquarium and Pond Plants of the
World, Edition 3, USDA APHIS PPQ, Bugwood.org
https://www.invasive.org
68. Epihydrophily in Vallisneria
• A submerged , dioecious plant.
• Flowers are borne under water.
• Male flowers – small, shortly stalked – produced in large
numbers in spadix inflorescence.
• On maturity, the male flowers get detached – float on the
surface of water.
• Female flowers are solitary – borne on long and coiled stalks.
• The mature female flowers rise up to the surface of water by
uncoiling the stalk.
• Female flower has large, sticky and trifid stigma.
71. • The detached male flowers cluster around a floating female
flower and when the anthers burst , pollen grains get
attached to the stigma →Pollination.
• Soon, the long stalk of the female flower begins to coil –
bring the female flower again below the water level.
72. After pollination, the stalk of the female flower coils up, drawing the ripening ovaries under water.
https://www.indefenseofplants.com
73. 2. Hypohydrophily
• Pollination takes place
completely under water.
Examples:
• Zostera
• Ceratophyllum
• Najas etc.
Zostera Ceratophyllum
Najas
74. Hypohydrophily in Zostera
• A marine submerged angiosperm , known as eel grass -
perennial herbs.
• Leaves - 110 cm long.
• Inflorescence - a flattened spadix with flowers on one side,
all enclosed within a spathe, spadix linear; monoecious,
staminate flowers 1 -20; pistillate flowers 1 - 20.
75. • Pollen grains are very long , needle / thread-like /
filamentous , without an exine.
• The styles erect from the spadix - Stigma long , exposed .
• When the pollen grains reach the stigma, it coils around the
stigma and results in pollination.
77. Zostera….
A. Reproductive shoots B. Pollen dispersal by water
Photo: Dr. J. Ackerman, University of Guelph, Canada
https://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl
78. Hypohydrophily in Ceratophyllum
• A submerged water plant , known as
Coontail, Hornwort etc.
• The stem 1- 3m with numerous side
shoots .
• The leaves in whorls of six to
twelve, each leaf 8 - 40mm long,
simple, or forked into two to eight
thread-like segments edged with
spiny teeth - stiff and brittle.
• Tiny, submersed flowers at the leaf
bases - monoecious . The petals are
tiny green scales. The male flowers
occur in pairs on opposite sides of
the stem while the female flowers
are solitary.
Male flowers of Ceratophyllum
https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info
79. • Each male flower has a number of stamens - mature anthers
get detached at the base , float on the surface of water –
dehisce - liberate pollen grains - round with no exine.
• Pistillate flowers: ovary tapering to persistent, spine like
style. The pollen grains when come in contact with the long
and sticky stigma of the female flower → Pollination.