2. Botanical Name:
• A botanical name is a formal scientific
name conforming to the International Code of
Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and,
if it concerns a plant cultigen, the
additional cultivar or Group epithets must conform
to the International Code of Nomenclature for
Cultivated Plants (ICNCP).
• The code of nomenclature covers "all organisms
traditionally treated as algae, fungi, or plants,
whether fossil or non-fossil, including blue-green
algae (Cyanobacteria), chytrids, oomycetes, slime
moulds and photosynthetic protists with their
taxonomically related non-photosynthetic groups
(but excluding Microsporidia)."[
• The purpose of a formal name is to have a single
name that is accepted and used worldwide for a
particular plant or plant group.
• For example, the botanical name Bellis
perennis denotes a plant species which is native to
most of the countries of Europe and the Middle
East, where it has accumulated various names in
many languages.
• Later, the plant was introduced worldwide, bringing
it into contact with more languages. English names
for this plant species include: daisy, English daisy,
and lawn daisy.
• The cultivar Bellis perennis 'Aucubifolia' is a golden-
3. Synonyms:
• Synonyms are words that are similar to another
word or have a related meaning.
• They can be lifesavers when you want to avoid
repeating the same word over and over.
• Sometimes the word you have in mind might not be
the most appropriate word, which is why finding the
right synonym can come in handy,
• For example, synonyms of plant vegetables can be
presented in different ways:
✓Edible part of plant herb, legume, produce
salad, edible green root
✓An organism belonging to the vegetable kingdom
- plant herb shrub etc
✓ A fleshy, thickened underground stem of a plant,
usually containing stored starch, as for example a
potato or arrowroot – rhizome, potato, shoot,
bulb etc
✓A plant, Allium sativum, related to the onion,
having a pungent bulb much used in cooking –
garlic, clove, flavouring, etc
✓Types of vegetables – carrot, potato, cabbage etc
Related Species:
• Generally speaking, a species is a type of plant having certain
characteristics that differentiate it from other members of
the genus, and which retains these distinctions through
successive generations.
• For example the types of plants are forms of species - Herbs,
Shrubs, Trees, Climbers, and Creepers -
4. Family:
• This is simply a collection of plants that share
characteristics grouped together.
• Plants can be categorized by similar features,
including overall appearance, seed groupings,
flower shape, and more, to show their relationship
to one another
• For example - sunflower family (Asteraceae),
grass family (Poaceae), legume family (Fabaceae),
snapdragon family (Scrophulariaceae),
mustard family
Common Names
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_plants_by_common_name#A):
• In biology, a common name of
a taxon or organism (also known as a vernacular
name, English name, colloquial name, trivial name,
trivial epithet, country name, popular name, or
farmer's name) is a name that is based on the normal
language of everyday life; and is often contrasted with
the scientific name for the same organism, which is
Latinized.
• A common name is sometimes frequently used, but
that is not always the case.
• Sometimes common names are created by authorities
on one particular subject, in an attempt to make it
possible for members of the general public (including
such interested parties as fishermen, farmers, etc.) to
be able to refer to one particular species of organism
without needing to be able to memorise or pronounce
the Latinized scientific name.
5. • Creating an "official" list of common names can also
be an attempt to standardize the use of common
names, which can sometimes vary a great deal
between one part of a country and another, as well
as between one country and another country, even
where the same language is spoken in both places.
• For example, such common names of plants can be
based on:
✓ Use as part of folk taxonomy
✓ Common names and the binomial system
✓ Geographic range of use
✓ Constraints and problems
✓ Coining common names
✓ General or community-based interest
✓ Collective nouns
✓ Official
6. African Plants / Trees Names:
• In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an
elongated stem, or trunk, supporting branches
and leaves in most species.
• In some usages, the definition of a tree may be
narrower, including only woody plants
with secondary growth, plants that are usable
as lumber or plants above a specified height.
• In wider definitions, the taller palms, tree
ferns, bananas, and bamboos are also trees.
• Trees are not a taxonomic group but include a
variety of plant species that have independently
evolved a trunk and branches as a way to tower
above other plants to compete for sunlight.
• Trees tend to be long-lived, some reaching
several thousand years old.
• Trees have been in existence for 370 million
years.
• It is estimated that there are some three trillion mature trees
in the world.
• Plant or tree names, particularly for African based, have
initially been derived from putative cognate words for plants
among different languages to provide evidence for their
common ancestry and this consideration has been used
extensively in studies of folk taxonomy (Berlin B, 1992; Balee
W, Moore D, 1991; Brown CH et al, 2013)
• Plant naming is also based on phonological, morphosyntactic,
and semantic similarities between Afro-Surinamese plant
names and plant names for botanically related taxa (or lexical
items) in relevant Amerindian, European, or African
languages.
7. Plant or Tree Description:
• Plants are multicellular organisms in the kingdom Plantae that
use photosynthesis with the following characteristics:
o Plants are autotrophs, opposite of heterotrophs; they
produce their own food via photosynthesis, which is the
process of making nutrients such as sugars from light
energy and carbon dioxide.
o Photosynthesis occurs in cell organelles called
chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll and carotenoids,
molecules that absorb light energy and change it into a
usable form.
o Plants are multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cells.
o Many plants have vascular tissue, such
as xylem and phloem, that carries water and nutrients
throughout the plant.
o Plants reproduce both sexually and asexually and have
what is known as alternation of generations.
o Plants are of different types and species such as
Charophytes, Bryophytes, Seedless Vascular,
Gymnosperms, Angiosperms etc
o They produce most of the world's oxygen, and are
important in the food chain, as many organisms
eat plants or eat organisms which eat plants.
• Anything to do with the study of plants is called referred to as
botany.
8. Plant or Tree Habitat and Distribution:
• Plant or tree habitats and distribution are variant factors
based on the following:
oThat soil environmental factors had a large impact on the
distribution pattern of wetland plant communities.
oThe nature of the land where the plants are found,
wetland, dryland, valley land, mountainous land etc
oThe distribution of plant communities might be related to
the specific geographical location providing unique
habitats
oThe other factor is the soil conductivity
Plant Constituents:
• These constitute the chemistry of plants in terms of active
ingredients of the plant, the chemicals that have a marked,
definable physiological and therefore, possibly medical activity
upon the body highlighting the following plant properties:
omulticellular organisms
oAble to make there own foods,
o Store the self made food to themselves
oetc
10. •The following list of African medicinal plants will
be handled at similar but different levels as
outlined above for the purpose of comparison .
•Medicinal plants in general are considered as a
rich resources of ingredients which can be
used in drug development either
pharmacopoeial, non-pharmacopoeial or
synthetic drugs.
•Moreover, some plants are considered
as important source of nutrition and as a result
of that they are recommended for their
therapeutic values – these important points
about medicinal plants will be illustrated in the
list as outlined below:
13. ABELMOSCHUS ESCULENTUS — OKra
• Botanical Name — Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench
• Synonyms — Hibiscus esculentus L.; Abelmoschus
bammia Webb; Abelmoschus officinalis; Abelmoschus
longifolius (Willd.) Kostel.; Abelmoschuspraecox Sickenb;
Abelmoschus tuberculatus
• Related Species — Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik
• Synonyms — A. caillei (A.Chev.) Stevels; A. pseudomanihot
DC. Endl; A. platidactylus (Bakh.) Nakai and Hibiscus
manihot; Hibiscus papyriferus Salisb
• Family — Malvaceae
• Common Names — Common okra, Okro, Okra, lady’s finger, ladies’ finger, gumbo
• African Names — Akan (Twi): nkruman, nkruma (okra); Bantu: ki ngombo, ngumbo,
gombo; Congo, Angola: quillobo, ki ngombo; Swahili: gumbo; Igbo: okwuru.
• Description — Okra is a stout annual herb typically reaching 2 m in height, but some
African varieties may grow up to 5 m tall, with a base stem 10 cm in diameter. The
heart-shaped, lobed leaves are attached to the thick, woody stem. They may reach 30
cm in length and are generally hairy. Flowers are borne singly in the leaf axils and are
usually yellow with a dark red or purple base. Some of the African varieties bloom
only in late fall in temperate zones and are photoperiod sensitive. It is largely self-
pollinated, although some outcrossing is reported, and it is often visited by bees. The
pod (capsule or fruit) is 10–25 cm long (shorter in the dwarf varieties). Generally, it is
ribbed or round and varies in color from yellow to red to green. It is pointed at the
apex, hairy at the base, and tapered toward the tip. It contains numerous oval seeds
that are about the size of peppercorns, white when immature and dark green to
gray-black when mature.
• Habitat and Distribution — The genus Abelmoschusis is believed to have originated
in South- East Asia. The common okra, Abelmoschus esculentus, however, is a
cultigen of uncertain origin.
14. ABELMOSCHUS ESCULENTUS — OKra
• Constituents — All the aerial parts of the plant are useful, although
the ends of the fruits are usually trimmed, leaving about 80% of the
product as the edible portion. The composition of okra fruits per
100 g edible portion is water 88.6 g (85.7–90.2), energy 144 kJ (36
kcal), protein 2.1 g (1.1–3.0), fat 0.2 g, carbohydrate 8.2 g, fiber 1.7 g,
Ca 84 mg (55–142), P 90 mg, Fe 1.2 mg (1.1–1.5), ß-carotene 185 µg
(180–190), thiamin 0.04 mg, riboflavin 0.08 mg, niacin 0.6 mg,
ascorbic acid 47 mg (20–126). The composition of okra leaves per
100 g edible portion is water 81.5 g (75.3–92.4), energy 235 kJ (56
kcal), protein 4.4 g (2.8–5.6), fat 0.6 g, carbohydrate 11.3 g, fiber 2.1
g, Ca 532 mg (258–635), P 70 mg, Fe 0.7 mg, ß-carotene 385 µg,
thiamin 0.25 mg, riboflavin 2.8 mg, niacin 0.2 mg, ascorbic acid 59
mg (9–75). Compared to other fleshy fruit-vegetables (tomato,
eggplant), okra is particularly rich in Ca and ascorbic acid. Okra seed
meal contains more than 20% of good-quality protein on a fat-free,
dry-weight basis, whereas most of the suitable amino acids in okra
seed protein are present in amounts that are equal to or exceed the
amounts in eggs and casein, and the U.N. Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) references okra as a protein source. The seed
protein is similar in amino acid composition to soya bean protein. It
contains 20% oil (similar in fatty acid composition to cottonseed oil).
The seeds are rich in phenolic compounds, mainly composed of
oligomeric cate- chins (2.5 mg/g of seeds) and flavonol derivatives
(3.4 mg/g of seeds). The skin’s polyphenolic profile is composed
principally of hydroxycinnamic and quercetin derivatives (0.2 and 0.3
mg/g of skins).
15. ABRUS PRECATORIUS
• Botanical Name — Abrus precatorius Linn. Synonyms
— Abrus abrus (L.) Wright, Abrus cyaneus R. Vig., Abrus
maculatus Noronha, Abrus minor Desv., Abrus
pauciflorus Desv., Abrus squamulosus E. Mey., Abrus
tunguensis Lima, Glycine abrus L.
• Family — Leguminosae
• Common Names — Crab’s eye, love bean, lucky bean,
prayer beads, wild licorice
• African Names — Ewe: dedekuade, adekude; Hausa: da marzaya, idon Zakara;
Chagga: mdela; Giriam: Igbo: anya nnunu; Lozi: mutiti; Luvale: mukakenjenge;
Ndebele: amabope; Nyamwezi: Kachenche; Shambala: lufyambo; Sukuma:
lufiambo; Swahili: mongaluchi, mtipitipi; Tiwi: damma- bo, obereku-aniwa; Yoruba:
iwere-jeje; Mozambique: cessane, mini-mini, mpanamene, namecolo, tsangariorio;
Swaziland: umphitsi; Zanzibar, Tanzania: matscho ya tipitipi; Afrikaans (Namibia):
mini-minies, minie-minies, paternostertjies; Afrikaans (South Africa): minnie-
minnies.
• Description — A woody twining plant with characteristic red and black seeds. The
seeds are pinnate and glabrous, with many leaflets (12 or more) arranged in pairs.
The leaflets are oblong, measuring 2.5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. The plant bears
orange-pink flowers, which occur as clusters in short racemes, sometimes yellowish
or reddish purple in color, and small and typically pea-like. Abrus produces short
and stout, brownish pods, which curl back on opening to reveal pen- dulous red
and black seeds (4–6 in each pod).
• Habitat and Distribution — It is found occurring wild in thickets, farms, and
secondary clear- ings and sometimes in hedges. The plant is widely distributed
throughout the continent.
16. ABRUS PRECATORIUS
• Constituents — The seeds contains abrin (a highly toxic glycoprotein),
hyapaphnorine, preca- torine, and some other uncharacterized indole alkaloids.10
Abrin, being a toxalbumin, is inacti- vated by heat. Trigonelline and other related
pyridonium derivatives have been isolated from the plant. The plant contains
phytosterols β-sitosterol and stigmasterol and flavonoids abrecatorin (6,4′-
dimethoxy-7,3′-dihydroxyflavone) and desmethoxycentaureidin-7-O-rutinoside.11 Two
antho- cyanins have also been identified (xyloglucosyldelphinidin and p-
coumarylgalloyl ester of glucosyl- delphinidin) in the seed coat of pigment of the
plant. The free sugars present in the leaves, stems, roots, and seeds of the plants
have been characterized as galactose, arabinose, and xylose.12 Sweet- tasting
glycosides, the abrusosides, based on the novel cycloartane-type aglycone
(abrusogenin), have been isolated from the leaves of the plant.
17. ACACIA SENEGAL
• Botanical Name — Acacia senegal (L.) Wild
• Synonyms — Mimosa senegal L., Acacia verek
Guill. et Perr., Acacia circummarginata Chiov.,
Acacia cufodontii Chiov., Acacia oxyosprion
Chiov., Acacia rupestris Boiss., Acacia spinosa
Marloth & Engl., Acacia volkii Suess., Acacia
senegal (L.) Britton
• Family — Leguminosae
• Common Names — Gum Arabic tree (E),
Gommier, Gommier blane (F)
• African Names — Arabic: shagar; Samgh Arabic: konait; Bambara: patukill;
Hausa: akovia, dakwara; Fulani: dibehi; Kanuri: kolkol; Ndebele:
umhlahalinye; Nyamwezi: katatula, mgwata, kakakantunda; Peuhl: patuki,
bulbi; Swahili: kikwata mgunga; Zinza: mkoto
• Description — Acacia senegal is a small tree or shrub, up to 7 m high,
with a short bole, gray- fissured stem, usually coming off as papery
patches to reveal a powdery underlayer. It branches low, and its dense
foliage gives it the appearance of a somewhat large thorn at the base of
the branchlets, with 3 to 6 pairs of pinnae and 6 to 15 pairs of narrow
leaflets, about 6–8 mm long. The cream-color, fragrant flowers are borne
in axillary clusters, as densely crowded spikes, usually longer than the
leaves. The fruits occur as membranous flat cloves, about 11 cm long and
2–4 cm wide, hairy and pale brown in color; containing 7 or 8 flat and
circular beige seeds.
• Habitat and Distribution — It is found in subdesert regions, the Sahelian,
and dry tropical zones. It occurs in Mauritania, Sudan, Niger, Mali,
Senegal, Gambia, Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and
parts of southern Africa.
18. ACACIA SENEGAL
• Constituents — The most important constituent of this plant is gum arabic,
a colorless, odorless, nontoxic solid substance soluble in water (1:2) that
forms a sticky solution used in a variety of con- sumer products.The gum
exudes from branches and by stripping off a patch of the bark. Gum arabic
consists of a glycosidal acid of high molecular weight that has been termed
arabic acid, and it is com- bined with potassium, magnesium, and calcium.
It also contains diastases and oxidase enzyme (African Pharmacopoeia).
Acacia gums consist of galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, and glucuronic
acids as the only sugars found in all types of the gums. The difference
between A. senegal and A. seyal (and the other Acacia exudates) is the
level of each sugar. The polysaccharide fraction is composed of a linear
chain of β-1,3-linked galactose. This chain is ramified in position with
chains of galactose and arabi- nose. Rhamnose, glucuronic acid, or methyl-
glucuronic acid units are found as chain terminations.
19. ACHYRANTHES ASPERA
• Botanical Name — Achyranthes aspera L.
• Synonyms — A. canescens R. Br., A. argentea
Decne., A. grandifolia Moq., A. obovata Peter, A.
repens L.
• Family — Amaranthaceae
• Common Names — Chichiri (Indian); chirchita
or onga (English)
• African Names — Hausa: hakoorin-maciijii, kaimin-kadangaree; Igbo:
odu-ngwere; Kibende: buhulula; Kiluguru: nara; Kisafwa: ndadaulo;
Kiswahili: purura, purule; Kihehe: nugulukauna; Kirangi: kyululankanga;
Kinyaturu: munyori, mnyoli; Kinyamwezi: lukululankanga;Yoruba: abora
• Description — It is an erect or suberect, annual or perennial herb 0.5–1.5
m high. The leaves (1.5–1.6 cm long and 0.7 cm wide) are simple, opposite,
with stipules absent, the blade ovate to ovate-lanceolate or ovate-oblong
with rounded apex. The base is cuneate, and the margins are entire,
pubescent above and below, with a petiole 0.5–3 cm long. It produces
solitary hermaphrodite flowers in the axil of the bract, 3.5–5.5 mm long,
pinkish or greenish sepals, ovate-lanceloate. The flowers enlarge with age,
hardening and becoming pungent. The fruits are small, 2–5.3 mm long,
and detach from the plant with the perianth and bracteoles. Both the flowers
and fruits are borne concurrently throughout the year. It has a characteristic
woody rootstock
• Habitat and Distribution — The plant occurs widely throughout the
continent in different veg- etation zones. It grows well in semiarid areas
receiving about 250 mm rainfall and also high-rainfall savannas with over
2000 mm annual rainfall and can be located in secondary clearings. The
species grows in open areas; it does not tolerate shade and therefore cannot
be found as undercrops in dense tropical canopies. It grows well in Nigeria,
Ghana, Zaire, and Cameroon and has been located in Mali, Kenya,
Ethiopia, and Tanzania.
20. ACHYRANTHES ASPERA
• Constituents — The plant yields saponins and steroids, and the fruit has
been shown to contain a large percentage of alkaline potash. Betaine and
ecdysterone may be present in the plant.33 A betaine, achyranthine, based
on N-methylpyrrolidine 3-carboxylic acid, has been isolated from the
plant.35 Two fully characterized saponins, Achyranthes saponins A and B,
have been shown to be constituents of the seeds.
21. ACOKANTHERA SCHIMPERI
• Botanical Name — Acocanthera schimperi Benth.
& Hok
• Synonyms — A. oubaio, A. abyssinica K. Schum., A.
deflersii Schweinf. ex Lewin., A. friesio- rum
Markgr., A. scabra Schweinf. ex Markgr., Arduina
schimperi (A. DC.) Baill., Carissa deflersii (Schweinf.
Ex Lewin) Pichon., Carissa friesiorum (Markgr.)
Cufod., Carissa inepta Perrot & Vogt., Carissa
schimperi A.DC.
• Family — Apocynaceae
• Common Name — Acokanthera
• Description — This is an evergreen tree or shrub, growing up to 6 m in height.
The leaves are elliptic, with sharply cuspidate apex and acute base; they are
ceraceous, shiny, and smooth above. The leaves, 11 by 4.5 cm, display 7–13
lateral nerves on each side, with prominent venation showing on both
surfaces. The flowers are pink colored, up to 1.5 cm long in short, dense,
axillary cymes.
• Habitat and Distribution — The plant occurs in both savanna and rainforest
vegetation. It grows in Ghana, Nigeria, Zaire, and parts of East Africa.
• Constituents — The wood of African Acokanthera species yields very potent
cardiotonics, of which the principal compound is ouabain. Other constituents
of Acokanthera species include G strophanthin, acokantherin, and
acovenoside A, B, and C. The seeds of the closely related species Carissa
acokanthera yield similar glycosides. Pichon has suggested that the plant
should be treated as a section of the genus Carissa.
22. ADANSONIA DIGITATA
• Botanical Name — Adansonia digitata Linn.
• Synonyms — Adansonia bahobab Gaertn., Adansonia
integrifolia Raf., Adansonia scutula Steud., Adansonia
situla (Lour.) Spreng., Adansonia somalensis Chiov.,
Adansonia sphaerocarpa A.Chev., Adansonia sulcata
A.Chev., Baobabus digitata (L.) Kuntze, Ophelus sitularius
Lour
• Related Species — Adansonia fony Baill., Adansonia
grandidieri Baill., Adansonia gregorii F. Muell., Adansonia
madagascariensis Baill., Adansonia perrieri Capuron,
Adansonia suarezen- sis H. Perrier, Adansonia za Baill.
• Family — Malvaceae
• Common Names — Baobab, monkey-bread tree, dead-rat
tree, cream-of-tartar tree, magic tree, chemist tree,
symbol of the earth, upside-down
• African Names — Ashanti: odade; Hausa: kuka, bumbu, murna; Bambara: sira; Bisa:
hor-go, poh-go; Gourounsi-Lele: koukoulou, ekoulou; Peul: boki, olohi; Igbo: Oyili-
akpu; Wolof: gui, bui, gif; Yoruba: ose, oske; Baoule: frondo; Malinke: sira; Senoufo:
ngigue; Swahili: mbuyu, mkuu hap- ingwa, mkuu hafungwa, muuyu
• Description — This is a huge and dominant species in the savanna and Sahel regions of
Africa. Its massive structure with its bottle shape makes it easy to identify. The tree is
rather remarkable for its enormous trunk in comparison with the small crown of
foliage. The trunk is comparatively short, 13–17 m high but 10–14 m or more in girth,
with short, thick branches. A specimen with a girth of 37 m has been recorded. The
bark is unarmed. The leaves are palmate with 5 sessile leaflets. The flowers are large,
12.5–15 cm in diameter, white, with numerous monadelphous purple stamens. The
flowers are oblong, 15–20 cm long, pendulous on long stalks, woody, indehiscent, with
large seeds embedded in dry acid pulp.
• Habitat and Distribution — Baobab occurs naturally throughout the drier parts of the
conti- nent, and it is available all year round. Outside Africa, it has been widely
introduced in tropical and subtropical regions as a commercial crop. Although it was
introduced late in many Central African countries, it is now a valued crop in many
countries in that region. It is still not common in Rwanda, Burundi, Djibouti, and
Uganda. It has been introduced in Madagascar and many other Indian Ocean islands.
In West Africa, it often occurs in northern parts of the subregion from Nigeria to
Senegal in savanna forests and in baobab orchards around villages.
23. ADANSONIA DIGITATA
• Constituents — Baobab fruit pulp has 10 times the vitamin C content of orange (w/w).
It also contains the following, per 100 g: water 8.7 g, energy 1290 kJ (308 kcal),
protein 2.7 g, fat 0.2 g, carbohydrate 73.7 g, fiber 8.9 g, Ca 335 mg, Mg 167 mg, P 76.2
mg, Fe 2.7 mg, Zn 1.0 mg, thiamin
• 0.62 mg, riboflavin 0.14 mg, niacin 2.7 mg, ascorbic acid 209 mg. The seed, which is
about 55% seed coat and 45% kernel, contains the following, per 100 g of kernel:
water 8.1 g, energy 1805 kJ (431 kcal), protein 33.7 g, fat 30.6 g, carbohydrate 4.8 g,
fiber 16.9 g, Ca 273 mg, Mg 640 mg, P 5.1 mg, Fe
• 6.6 mg, Zn 6.7 mg, thiamin 0.25 mg, riboflavin 0.14 mg, niacin 1.0 mg. The fatty acid
composition is linoleic acid 34.9%, oleic acid 32.3%, palmitic acid 26.5%, and stearic
acid 4.4%. Phytochemical investigation has also revealed the presence of flavonoids,
amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. Phytosterols such as campesterol,
stigmasterol, isoflucasterol, and avenasterol are present in the seeds. An alkaloid,
adansonin, has been identified from the bark of the baobab tree, and it is believed to
be the active agent that is responsible for the antimalarial properties of baobab tree
bark. The seed protein contains a large amount of lysine, but its use as a protein
source is limited.
24. ADENIA CISSAMPELOIDES
• Botanical Name — Adenia cissampeloides
• Synonyms — Adenia gracilis Harms (1897),
Adenia gummifera (Harv.) Harms (1897),
Adenia guineensis W.J. de Wilde (1971)
• Related Species — Adenia lobata
• Family — Passifloraceae
• Common Names — Monkey rope, snake
climber, wild granadilla
• African Names — Swahili: mandali, mkengeti; Ashante-Twi (Ghana):
homakyem; Ga: akpeka, peteha (A. lobata); Luguru (Tanazania): gale; Digo
(Kenya): mgore, mugore, munua nyoka; Shambaa: ghoye; Zigua:
zokambago
• Description — A. cissampeloides is a dioecious liana, growing up to 30 m
long, with a stem up to 10 cm in diameter, striped bluish-green and older
stems often with whitish powder; stems have simple or 3-fid tendrils 10–
20 cm long. Leaves are alternate, simple; stipules 0.5(–1) mm long,
broadly rounded to triangular, irregularly cleft; petiole (1–)1.5–11 cm long;
blade entire or more or less deeply 3(–5) lobed, orbicular to ovate or
rhomboid in outline, (1–)3–14 cm long, base cordate to truncate or
cuneate, apex obtuse or retuse, rarely acute, with a single gland at the
base, up to 4 glands on the lower leaf surface and 3–7 glands on the
margins. Inflorescence an axillary cyme, often with up to 2 (–4) cm long
tendrils between the branches, up to 35 flowered in male, 2–6 flowered
in female inflorescence; peduncle (0.5–)1–12(–16) cm long; bracts and
bracteoles nar- rowly triangular, 0.5–1 mm long, acute, minutely toothed.
Flowers unisexual, regular, 5-merous, pale greenish; pedicel 2–10(–15)
mm long in male flowers, slightly shorter in female ones; sepals and
petals free; male flowers with sepals up to 8 mm long and petals 8–11
mm long, filaments of stamens fused at base, ovary rudimentary; female
flowers with sepals up to 6.5 mm long and petals up to 4.5 mm long,
ovary superior, ovoid, 3–6 mm long, 3(–6) ribbed, stigmas almost sessile,
kidney shaped, stamens rudimentary. Fruit an ovoid capsule 2.5–4.5 ×
1.5–3 cm, leathery to woody, pale green, 30–50 seeded. Seeds ovoid,
3.5–5.5 × 3–4 × 2 mm, pitted.
25. ADENIA CISSAMPELOIDES
• Habitat and Distribution — The genus Adenia consists of about 95
species, about 60 of them occurring on the African continent, 20 in
Madagascar, and 15 in Asia. The genus is subdivided into six sections.
Adenia cissampeloides belongs to section Ophiocaulon, while Adenia
lobata belongs to section Blepharanthes. A. cissampeloides occurs from
Senegal east to Somalia and south throughout Central and East Africa to
southern Africa, including South Africa. It is also found in the Seychelles.
A. lobata occurs from Senegal east to Ethiopia and has been found south
to Angola and Mozambique.
• Constituents — The plant contains cacogenic glycosides barterin
(tetraphyllin B) and volkenin (epitetraphyllin B) in the leaves, fruits, stem,
and roots. The leaves also yield gummiferol, a cyto- toxic polyacetylenic
diepoxide with in vitro anticancer activity. Leaves and root bark are rich in
iron; the average iron content of the leaves per 100 g dry matter is 32.5
mg, of stem bark 9.9 mg, and of root bark 32.1 mg.
26. AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA
• Botanical Name — Aframomum melegueta K.
Schum
• Synonyms — Aframomum grana-paradisi (L.) K.
Schum; Aframomum meleguetella K. Schum;
Alexis grandiflora (Sm.) Salisb.; Alpinia grana-
paradisi (L.) Moon; Amomum grandiflo- rum
Sm.; Amomum grana-paradisi L.; Amomum
melegueta Roscoe; Cardamomum grana-paradisi
(L.) Kuntze; Cardamomum grandiflorum (Sm.)
Kuntze; Torymenes officinalis Salisb.
• Family — Zingiberaceae
• Related Species — A. daniellii, A. strobilaceum, A. exscapum, A. korarim
• Common Names — Grains of paradise, guinea grain, alligator pepper,
melegueta pepper
• Description — A. melegueta is an aromatic plant cultivated for its edible
spicy fruit. It is a perennial herb growing up to 4 m high. The stem is
short, marked with the encircling scars of fallen aerial leaves, and it is
highly branched. The lower surface bears the roots, which are
adventitious and slender. It yields an aromatic rhizome, which is
horizontal and tuberous and bears scaly leaves with occasional buds in
axils. The leaves are large, about 30 cm long and 12 cm wide, with close
nerves below. They occur in two rows with an open or closed sheath
sessile or stalked on the sheath; the blades are usually large, with
numerous closely parallel pinnate nerves diverging obliquely from the
midrib. The bracts are few and about half overlapping. The plant yields
beautiful aromatic flow- ers with orange-colored lip and a rich pinkish-
orange part. They are solitary, borne separately from the leafy stem. The
fruits are fleshy and indehiscent and contain numerous small seeds
embedded in pleasant-tasting aril. The seeds are golden or red-brown
when fresh but darken on drying; they are angular and granular, strongly
aromatic, and pungent.
• Geographical Distribution — Aframomum occurs throughout tropical
Africa, but it is culti- vated mainly in West and Central Africa.
27. AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA
• Constituents — The members of the genus yield essential oil in most
parts of the plants. The seeds of A. melegueta have been shown to
contain the benzenoids gingerol, shagaol, and paradol. The seeds of A.
danielli obtained from Cameroon have been shown to contain labdane
diterpe- noids. Other constituents of the genus include flavonoids,
monoterpenes, and quinoids. The chloroform extract of the seeds
contains antiestrogenic diarylheptanoids, named gingerenone D,
dihydrogingerenone A, dihydrogingerenone B, and dihydrogingerenone C.
28. AGATHOSMA BETULINA
• Botanical Name — Agathosma betulina (P.J.
Bergius) Pillans
• Synonyms — Barosma betulina (P.J. Bergius)
Bartl. & H.L. Wendl.; Barosma orbicularis
• Sweet; Bucco betulina Schult; Hartogia betulina
P.J.Bergius
• Related Species = Agathosma crenulata (L.) Pillans
• Family — Rutaceae
• Common Names — Buchu, diosma
• African Names — Khoi: buchu; Afrikans: boegoe, rondeblaarboegoe; South
Africa: Bucco, Bookoo; Xhosa: ibuchu
• Description — Agathosma betulina is a resprouting, broad-leaved aromatic
shrub with erect woody stems reaching 2 m tall, but low-growing and
prostrate varieties also occur. The leaves are of pale green color, leathery
and glossy, with a blunt, strongly curved tip and a fine-tooth margin; round
pellucid oil glands are conspicuously scattered throughout the leaf, along
the margins and lower surfaces. They are strongly aromatic, usually
opposite, ericoid, often crowded, simple, entire, from 0.5 to 3.5 cm long.
The star-shaped flowers are produced in terminal clusters, 0.7–2 cm
diameter, with five white, pink, red, or purple petals. The brownish fruits
are five chambered. The two related buchu plants can be differentiated by
the shape of the leaves: A. betulina is described as “round-leaf buchu,”
whereas A. crenulata is known as “oval-leaf buchu.” The latter species has
been described as a pungently aromatic, woody, single-stem shrub that
reaches a height of 2.5 m. The glossy, dark green leaves are more than
twice as long as they are broad, with many oil glands throughout. The
delicate stems bear one to three, relatively large, white or mauve flowers
in the leaf axils.
29. AGATHOSMA BETULINA
• Habitat and Distribution — Buchu is a southern African plant that appears
to be naturally restricted to the Cederberg Mountain range of the Western
Cape Province of South Africa. Agathosma betulina is particularly adapted
to dry conditions and can be found on sunny hillsides where other crops
will not succeed. It can be found on the rocky sandstone slopes of the
northwest- ern Cape region. A. crenulata grows on the damp lower and
middle slopes and valleys, from Ceres to Swellendam (South Africa).
• Constituents — Both commercially important species of Agathosma yield
essential oils (1–2% w/w). A. betulina is characterized by the dominant
presence of diosphenol in the oil (ca. 40% of total oil) with limonene,
menthone, l-pulegone (<5%), and (ψ)-diosphenol (anisomer of diosphenol),
whereas A. crenulata elaborates a high pulegone content of about 50%
with near total absence of the diosphenol found in A. betulina. Buchu also
contains flavonoids, diosmin, diosmetin, quercetin-3, 7-diglucosides, and
rutin. It has been reported that the characteristic black currant smell and
flavor of buchu oil is due to the presence of sulfur-containing minor
compounds (8-mercapto-p-menthan- 3-one).1141 The two species can be
standardized and qualitatively differentiated easily by liquid and gas
chromatographic (GC) techniques with or without coupling to mass
spectroscopy (MS) based on the analysis of the composition of the oils.
The use of vibrational spectroscopy has also been reported for the quality
assessment of the two commercially important species
30. AGAVE SISALANA
• Botanical Name — Agave sisalana Perrine
• Synonym — Agave rigida Mill
• Family — Asparagaceae
• Common Name — Sisal
• African Names — Arabic: sisal, bambara, tangeka; Hausa: axomyis; Swahili:
katani, mkonge
• Description — This is a perennial plant with a short stem, numerous leaves
(in a rosette) that are thick, fleshy, and thorny and can reach 2 m in height
and 15 cm in width. The inflorescence occurs in panicles at the apex of a
hardy and long central stem of 3 to 8 m; greenish-yellow flowers that are
rare develop into capsular fruits and into seed but produce a lot of
plantlets that ensure fast propagation.
• Habitat and Distribution — The plant is widely distributed throughout East
and Central Africa. It is, however, cultivated in most tropical parts of the
continent, requiring much sunlight and preferring areas such as highlands
with two rainy seasons. Sisal is a major crop in Tanzania, Uganda, Angola,
Mozambique, and Kenya.
• ation of a lotion for the treatment of local inflammatory conditions.
• Constituents — The fibers contain about 78% polysaccharide, of which
about 84% consists of cellulose and the remainder pentosan. The juice of
the leaves contains hecogenin as the major component and other steroidal
sapogenins, such as sisalagenin, tigogenin, and neotigenin. Other
constituents include mucilage, pectins, mannitol, and reducing sugars.
Agave contains phenolic compounds, including flavonoids. The use of high-
temperature and high-pressure reactors (PARR model 4560) for phenolic
extraction of Agave proved to be more efficient compared to the conven-
tional solid-liquid extraction at room temperature. It has been observed
that an increase in both temperature and extraction time led to a
corresponding increase in the amount of phenolic com- pounds extracted
and suggested that, after process optimization, Agave could be used as an
interesting source of polyphenols.
31. AGERATUM CONYZOIDES
• Botanical Name — Ageratum conyzoides
• Synonyms — Eupatorium paleaceum Sesse & Moc.,
Chrysocoma maculata Vell., Carelia conyzoides (L.) Kuntze.,
Caelestina microcarpa Benth. ex Oerst., Caelestina latifolia
(Cav.) Benth. ex Oerst., Cacalia menstrasto Vell., Alomia
pinetorum L.O. Williams., Alomia microcarpa (Benth. ex
Benth.) B.L.Rob.
• Family — Compositae
• African Names — Chagga: ifuna; Efik: ikongifoiyen; Igbo:
akwukwo-nwosinaka; Masai: ol crowil el ajok; Ndoga: tongolla;
Yoruba: imi-eshu
• Description — Ageratum is an erect herb with many branches. It is up to 1 m tall,
with charac- teristic hairy stalks. The leaves are simple, oval shaped, 7.5 cm long and
5 cm broad, and oppositely arranged on the stem; they are roughly heart shaped,
pointed at the apex and rounded at the base. They have toothed margins, with two
main veins arising from the midrib. The plant bears fruits having angular achenes
with five narrow and pointed bristles.
• Habitat and Distribution — It is a deciduous forest plant that occurs in western and
eastern regions of the continent.
• Constituents — The plant yields essential oil (about 0.16%), of which
ageratochromone is the principal constituent.The oil from the leaves also contains 6-
dimethoxyagertochromone, phenols, phenolic esters, coumarin, and traces of
eugenol. Other constituents of the plant include the flavonoid conyzorigun,
dotriaconthene, 7-methoxy-22-dimethylchromene, and 5,6,7,8,3′,4′5′-hepta-
methoxyflavone.An isoflavone glycoside, 5,7,2′,4′-tetrahydroxy-6, 3′-di-(3,3-
dimethylallyl)–iso- flavone 5-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranoside
1, has been isolated from the stems of Ageratum conyzoides.
32. ALCHORNEA CORDIFOLIA
• Botanical Name — Alchornea cordifolia (Schum et Thon.)
Muell. Arg.
• Synonyms — Alchornea cordata Benth., Cacoucia caudifolia
(Schumach. & Thonn.) Walp.,
• Family — Euphorbiaceae
• Common Names — Christmas bush
• African Names — Hausa: bambami; Igbo: ububo; Efik: mbom; Yoruba: ewe-epa;
Bwari: tahi; Ijaw: epai; Bini: uwonowen; Igara: oje, ose
• Description — Alchornea cordifolia is a multistemmed shrub or small tree,
sometimes climb- ing but most times an erect spreading plant, up to 5 m high and
30 cm girth. The leaves are simple, broadly ovate, and cordate, with a drawn-out
apex and heart-shaped base, 15–28 cm long and 8–16 cm broad. The margins are
entire, wavy, or slightly dentate. They are sparsely hairy on the lower surface with
glands in axils of basal nerves. The stalks are from 5 to 14 cm long. The plant produces
small, greenish-white flowers, often dioecious, borne on common stalks in the axils
of the leaves, with the individual flowers sometimes having no stalk. The fruits are
greenish-gray in color, two celled, and usually split to expose red seeds when they
are ripe.
• Habitat and Distribution — It is found in secondary forests and is widespread in
tropical Africa. It has been located in Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal, Angola, Zimbabwe,
Cameroon, and Tanzania.
• Constituents — An indole alkaloid resembling yohimbine and related indole alkaloids
has been detected in several Alchornea species.In a later investigation, the presence
of yohimbine in the stem bark of Alchornea could not be confirmed; however, four
unidentified alkaloidal compounds were detected with terpenes, sterols, and their
glycosides. The root bark has been found to contain about 0.03–0.26% total
alkaloids. The plant also contains the hexahydroimidazopyrimidine alka- loids
alchorine and alchornidine. Other constituents of the species include gentistic and
33. ALLIUM SATIVUM
• Botanical Name — Allium sativum L.
• Synonyms — Porrum sativum (L.) Rchb., Porrum
ophioscorodon (Link) Rchb., Allium pekin- ense
Prokh., Porrum ophioscorodon Link., Allium
longicuspis Regel, Allium controversum Schrad. Ex
Willd.
• Family — Amaryllidaceae
• Common Names — Garlic, ail commun (French)
• African Names — Hausa: tafanuwa; Igbo: ayo-ishi;
Swahili: kitunguu-sumu; Yoruba: ayu
• Description — Garlic is a herbaceous plant. It occurs as a bulb of fleshy scale
leaves on the lower part of the stem; each bulb consists of a number of
bulbets or “cloves” that rest on a common bulb base and are covered with
membranous bracts. It has a very strong and disagreeable odor that is
noticeable in the breath and a strongly pungent and persistent taste; both the
odor and taste linger for several days following the ingestion of the plant. Garlic
includes two basic varieties: hardneck and softneck. Hardneck garlics, which
include A. sativum var. ophioscorodon and A. sativum var. pekinense, are
characterized by hard, woody central stalks that extend down to the basal
plate at the bottom of the bulb.
• Habitat and Distribution — It is indigenous to Asia but has been introduced to
Africa, where it is cultivated in many parts of the continent.
• Constituents — Garlic yields 0.1% to 0.3% of a volatile oil consisting of sulfur-
containing compounds, including S-allyl-2-propenthiosulfinate (allicin),
methylallyltrisulfide (MATS), diallydisul- fide, diallytrisulfide, diallytetrasulfide,
allylpropyldisulfide, ajoene (4,5,9-trithiododeca-1,6,11-triene 9-oxide), 2-vinyl-
4H-1, 3-dithiin, and allin, which yields allicin on enzymatic hydrolysis.The oil
also contains the terpenes citral, geraniol, linalool, and α- and β-phellandrene
and various enzymes, including allinase, vitamins of the B group, flavonoids,
and several minerals. Studies have shown that aged garlic has a chemical
profile that is distinct from the fresh materials, and whenever possible, aged
garlic should be used.
34. ALOE BARBADENSIS
• Botanical Name — Aloe barbadensis Miller
• Synonyms — A. vera., A. vulgaris Lamk., A. indica
Royle
• Family — Liliaceae
• Common Names — Aloe vera, curacao aloe, aloe
vera gel (AVG)
• Description — Aloe barbadensis is a perennial herb with rosettes of long pointed
leaves from a shortly branched creeping rhizome. The leaves are brittle and exude a
clear yellowish viscous sap when broken. They have soft marginal prickles. The
flowers are yellow and borne in an elongated compact raceme from the center of
the rosette. Propagation is by means of the rhizome branches since it does not
produce fruit.32
• Habitat and Distribution — It grows in subtropical regions of the continent. The plant
is prob- ably a native of South and East Africa and the Mediterranean regions,
although it is widespread throughout the continent. It is not very discriminatory to
soil types and climatic conditions, but as a member of the Liliaceae family, it will
prefer a well-drained clayey loam, with rainfall of at least 80 in. per annum.
• Constituents — Aloes contain C-glycosides and resins. The crystalline glycoside
known as aloin is used in pharmacy as a cathartic. It is, however, the gel, said to
contain several organic acids and the so-called biostimulators, that the plant
secretes as a repair agent on physical injury that has the topical healing properties.
The plant also contains polysaccharides, glycoproteins, sterols, organic acids, and
saponins. Over 80 species of Aloe (family Liliaceae) occur in various parts of the
world. The main species found growing in Africa is Aloe ferox, which yields the so-
called Cape aloe. Another common spe- cies is Aloe barbadensis (discussed in the
preceding section), which is the source of Curacao aloe. Socotrine and Zanzibar
varieties originate from Aloe perryi.
35. ALOE FEROX
• Botanical Name — Aloe ferox Miller
• Synonyms — Pachidendron ferox (Mill.) Haw.,
Pachidendron supralaeva (Haw.) Haw., Pachidendron
pseudo ferox (Salm-Dyck) Haw., Aloe galpini Baker.,
Aloe horrida Haw., Aloe muri- cata Haw.
• Family — Asparagaceae
• Common Names — Aloe, Cape aloe
• African Names — Arabic; Swahili: shubiri
• Description — The genus Aloe includes herbs, shrubs, and trees, bearing
spikes of white, yel- low, or red flowers. The leaves are fleshy, strongly
cuticularized, and prickly at the margins. A. ferox is a shrub, 3–4 m in
height and about 12 cm in diameter, with a large rosette of leaves. The
leaves are oval-lanceolate, 40–60 cm long and 10–12 cm wide, with a
thorny ridge and edges. Flowers have a perianth 2.5 cm in diameter,
tinged with yellow and purplish-blue, striped with red and green.28
• Habitat and Distribution — It is a subtropical plant but widely cultivated
in dry forest areas of the continent.
• Constituents — Aloe contains anthraquinone glycosides, the principal
one being a yellow, crystalline substance called barboloin. It also contains
resin and aloe-emodin. The pharmaceutical “aloe” is the solid residue
obtained by evaporating the liquid that drains from the parenchyma tissue
in the center of the leaves of various species of Aloe. The aloe mostly used
in cosmetics formulations is the Curacao aloe from A. barbadensis Miller
(see Aloe vera Linne). The major aglycone found in A. ferox is aloe-
emodin and is associated with decomposition product aloe-emodin-9-
anthrone.
36. ALSTONIA BOONEI
• Botanical Name — Alstonia boonei de Wild.
• Family — Apocynaceae
• Common Names — Boone’s, Alstonia, stool wood, pattern wood
• African Names — Igbo: egbu; Bini: ukhu; Efik: ukpo; Yoruba: awun
• Description — The plant is a large tree commonly found in the drier areas
of the lowland and rain forest. It often grows to significant heights (33 m
high and 3 m in girth) with a straight and fluted stem and without
buttress roots. The bark occurs in commerce as brownish-gray, deeply
fissured pieces, with irregular fragments, up to about 1 cm thick. The dark
brown bark is fairly rough and flakes off in small patches. A cut through
the bark exudes copious white latex, a characteristic of most members of
the family Apocynaceae. The latex can be used as a rubber adulterant.
The plant is often confused with A. congensis, even in the scientific
literature; both plants differ substan- tially in their appearance and
habitat. The leaves of A. boonei are simple, about 20–20 cm long and 5–8
cm broad, appearing in whorls of 5–8 leaves at each node. The individual
leaf is glossy, dark green on the upper surface with some bluish tint on
the lower surface; it is leathery and smooth to the touch. Leaves are very
shortly pointed at the apex and gradually wedge-shaped common stalks
at the base. The individual flower is shortly stalked. Flowering occurs
between October and March. The fruits (December–March) are borne in
follicles of up to 50 cm long, hanging down in pairs from the branches.
They are finely hairy and contain numerous elongated seeds about 5 cm
long, which bear a tuft of long, silky hairs at each end. When ripe, they
split lengthwise.
• Habitat and Distribution — It is found in forest fringes, deciduous forest,
swampy land. It occurs in Ghana, Nigeria, Angola, Kenya, and southern
Sudan.
37. ALSTONIA BOONEI
• Ethnomedicinal Uses — The plant is highly prized in African
ethnomedicine for the treatment of malaria, especially when the
allopathic antimalarial drugs are found ineffective either because of the
presence of the drug-resistant malaria infection strains or because of
acquired tolerance from repeated dosing with synthetic antimalarials.
For this purpose, Alstonia stem bark or leaves are administered as a
strong decoction or “teas” and sometimes as an ingredient in malaria
“stem therapy.” Alsonia was listed in the British pharmacopoeia of 1914
as an antimalarial drug. The infusion of the bark alone is dispensed as a
remedy for snakebite and sometimes for the treatment of arrow poison.
• The latex of the plant is smeared on swellings caused by filarial worms
and then bandaged with the crushed bark of the ordeal tree
(Erythrophleum guineense) for cure.81 The plant has also been reported
to be an astringent, an alterative tonic, and a febrifuge for relapsing
fevers; it has been claimed to be useful in muscle tone after debilitating
fevers.165 The leaves and latex are used topi- cally to reduce swellings and
for the treatment of rheumatic pains. The latex has also been used to
stimulate lactation. A decoction of the bark is taken after childbirth to
facilitate the expulsion of the placenta.123 Extracts of Alstonia boonei
have been employed in folk medicine for the treatment of muscular
pains, spasms, and hypertension. The plant has also been dispensed as
an emmenagogue, astringent, galactagogue, and anthelmintic.166
• Constituents — The plants contain several indole alkaloids, including
echitamine, echitami- dine, akuammidine, picraline, quebrachidine and
its esters, vincamajine, alstonine, and akuammi- line.167 The triterpenes
β-amyrine and lupeol have been reported as occurring in the bark and
ursolic acid in the leaves.168
38. ANACARDIUM OCCIDENTALE (CaSheW)
• Botanical Name — Anacardium occidentale L.
• Synonyms — Acajuba occidentalis Gaertn., Cassuvium pomiferum Lam.,
Anacardium micro- carpum Ducke
• Family — Anacardiaceae
• Common Name — Cashew
• African Names — Krio: kushu; Mende: kusui; Temme: e-lil-e-potho;
Yoruba: kaju; Hausa: kadinnia; Kanuri (Hausa): kanju; Igbo: kashu
• Description — Cashew is a small tree, with leaves that are alternate, simple,
entire, obtuse, and borne on short leafstalks. The flowers are abundant,
small, and fragrant and are produced in terminal, loose panicles. The
enlarged juicy peduncle that bears the nut is known as the “cashew apple.”
When ripe, it is of a golden-yellow color and obovate in shape; it has a
pleasant, acid flavor and is somewhat astringent. The cashew nut hangs
from the end of the cashew apple and is kidney shaped and about 2.5 cm
long. It consists of an edible kernel surrounded by two shells. The outer shell
is smooth and of a bright brown color. Between the two shells, there is a
very caustic oily substance. The cashew kernel is considered to be of high
nutritive quality and is covered with a thin reddish-brown skin or testa.
• Habitat and Distribution — The cashew tree was originally native to Brazil
and was later introduced by the Portuguese to Mozambique and then India
in the sixteenth century as a means of controlling coastal erosion. It was
not until the nineteenth century that plantations were devel- oped, and the
tree then spread to a number of other countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America. The cashew is now distributed throughout the tropics and in parts
of the warm subtropics. Cashew processing, using manual techniques,
began in India in the first half of the twentieth century, when cashews were
exported to the wealthy Western markets, particularly the United States.
39. ANACARDIUM OCCIDENTALE (CaSheW)
• Constituents —The seed contains 21% protein and 35–45% oil. The oil contains 60–
74% oleic acid and 20–8% linoleic acid. Cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) contains 90%
anacardic acid (C22H32O3) and 10% cardol (C32H27O4). It also yields glycerides; linoleic,
palmitic, stearic, and lignoceric acids; and sitosterol. Other constituents include
anarcardol, cardanol, quercetin, and kaempferol glycosides. The presence of the
phenolic lipids related to anacardic acid in cashew is of immense industrial and
therapeutic importance. The testa contains α-catechin, β-sitosterol, and 1-
epicatechin, as well as proanthocyanidin leucocyanidin and leucopelargonidin. The
dark color of the nut is due to an iron- polyphenol complex. The oil content of the
shell ranges from 16.6% to 32.9%, of the kernel from 34.5% to 46.8%. Reducing sugars
range from 0.9% to 3.2%, nonreducing sugars from 1.3% to 5.8%, total sugars from
2.4% to 8.7%, and starch from 4.7% to 11.2%. Gum exudates contain arabinose,
galactose, rhamnose, and xylose.
• Cashew elaborates a complex mixture of compounds in different parts of the plant.
The kernel testa (skin) is reported to contain huge amounts of tannin, and the tannin
extracted from cashew kernel testa is used in the leather industry. The juice of the
cashew apple is rich in riboflavin (vitamin B2), ascorbic acid (vitamin C), and calcium.
The nutrient composition of the cashew fruit apple is as follows:
Moisture
Proteins
fat
c arbohydrate
fiber
ash
ca
P
f e
Vitaminb1
Vitaminb2
niacin
Vitamin c
86.1 (g/100 g)
0.8 (g/100 g)
0.2 (g/100 g)
12.6 (g/100 g)
0.6 (g/100 g)
0.3 (g/100 g)
0.2 (mg/100 g)
19.0 (mg/100 g)
0.4 (mg/100 g)
0.2 (thiamine mg/100 g)
0.2 (riboflavin mg/100 g)
0.5 (mg/100 g)
200 (mg/100 g)
40. ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA
• Botanical Name — Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees
Synonym — Andrographis paniculata var. glandulosa
Trimen
• Family — Acanthaceae
• Common Names — Andrographis, green chirayta, creat,
king of bitters, India echinacea, Kalmegh or Kalamegha
• Description — Andrographis paniculatais is an erect herb that grows to a height
of 30–110 cm. The slender stem is dark green, squared in cross section with
longitudinal furrows and wings along the angles. The lance-shaped leaves have
hairless blades measuring up to 8 cm long by 2.5 wide. The small flowers are
borne in spreading racemes. The fruit is a capsule around 2 cm long and a few
millimeters wide. It contains many yellow-brown seeds (Wikipedia).1138
• Habitat and Distribution — A. paniculata is often found in moist, shady places in a
variety of habitats, such as plains, hillsides, coastlines, and disturbed and
cultivated areas such as roadsides, farms, and wastelands. Native populations of A.
paniculata are spread throughout Asia, especially China, India, and Sri Lanka. The
herb has only been identified in Africa as occurring in Kaduna and other northern
parts of Nigeria. It may be an introduced species as it is not widely known in the
country.
41. ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA
• Constituents — A. paniculata contains diterpenes, diterpene-glycosides,
lactones, and flavonoids. The main active chemical constituent is the
diterpene lactone andrographolide, a colorless, crystalline substance with a
very bitter taste. Andrographolide is considered a marker compound for the
identifi- cation of this herb. Another bitter principle isolated from the leaves
is a compound called kalmeghin. Flavonoids occur in the roots and leaves.
The aerial parts contain alkanes, ketones, and aldehydes. Chinese
investigators isolated five lactones—chuanxinlian, deoxyandrographolide,
andrographolide, neoandrographolide, and 14-deoxy-11,12-
didehydroandrographolide—from the aerial parts of the plant. A diterpene
glucoside (deoxyandrographolide-19-beta-D-glucoside) has been detected in
the leaves, and six diterpenoids of the ent-labdane type, two diterpene
glucosides and four diterpene dimers (bis-andrographolides A, B, C, and D),
have also been isolated from aerial parts. Two fla- vonoids identified as
5,7,2′,3′-tetramethoxyflavanone and 5-hydroxy-7,2′,3′-trimethoxy flavone were
isolated from the whole plant. Previous reports indicated that 12 flavonoids
and 14 diterpenoids have been isolated from the aerial parts of the plant in
China.
42. ANTHOCLEISTA NOBILIS
• Botanical Name —
Anthocleista nobilis G. Don
Synonyms — A. parviflora
Baker., A. macrophylla G. Don
Family — Gentianaceae
• Common Names — Carbage tree, cabbage palm
• African Names — Fante: hororoho; Twi (Ashanti):
awudifoakete, bontodi
• Description — Anthocleista nobilis is a tall tree, growing up to 20 m high,
50–90 cm wide. The bark is light gray and smooth, with the bole free of
branches for up to 15 m nestled with a small crown with ascending hollow
branches. It has a cream-yellow and granular slash. The leaf axils accommo-
date twigs with two divergent spines. The leaves appear to be crowded at
the apices of the branchlets, opposite, subequal, sessile, or shortly
petiolate. An FAO monograph of this species showed that the petioles are
up to one-sixth as long as the blade; the blade is oblong elliptic, obovate-
elliptic, or oblon- cheolate, up to 6.5–12 cm long, 4–12 cm wide, larger on
young trees, discolorous, dark green above, glaucous below.33 It produces
erect hermaphrodite flowers, with branched, terminal cymes, 12–16 cm
long, borne on conspicuously long peduncles with the stamens attached to
the corolla tube and protruding. Fruits occur as dark brown ellipsoid berries
2–2.5 cm in diameter with persistent calyx and contain many seeds. The
plant appears to produce flowers most times of the year.9,28,33
• Habitat and Distribution — Anthocleista inhabits transitional and secondary
forests. It can be found dotted in semidecidous forests and semisavanna
regions. It is reported as preferring well- drained soils, a rainfall of between
1100 and 2000 mm a year, and a temperature not exceeding 35°C. It
generally prefers low-lying ground not exceeding 300 m above sea level but
can occur up to 1200 m.37 It occurs in the West Coast in Senegal, Guinea,
Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Cameroon, and Nigeria.
• Constituents — The bark contains indole alkaloids similar to brucine.200 The
genus yields a bitter monoterpene heteroside swertiamaroside or
swertiamarin.
43. ARECA CATHECHU
• Botanical Name — Areca cathechu L.
• Synonyms — Areca faufel Gaertn., Areca himalayana Griff. ex H.
Wendl., Areca hortensis Lour., Areca nigra Giseke ex H. Wendl.
• Family — Arecaceae
• Common Names — Betel nuts, Arecae semen, Arekasame, noix d’arec
• Description — Areca fruit is ovoid, bright orange in color when fully ripe,
and about 3 to 5 cm in diameter and 6 to 8 cm long. The nut consists of a
hard kernel, grayish brown in color with a network of paler depressed lines
and a deep testa showing fawn marbling. It is slightly acidic in taste and
astringent, and the odor is faint. The plant itself grows as an erect, rather
graceful palm with a slender, tall stem crowned by a tuft of the large
ornately ordered leaves.
• Habitat and Distribution — The plant is pantropic and prefers dry
deciduous forestland. It is indigenous to East and North Africa, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and India. It is cultivated in many
tropical countries for its valuable nuts. It grows in the savanna belt and in
decidu- ous forests and secondary clearings. It is a major crop in North
Africa and parts of South Africa.
• Constituents — The principal compound in Areca nuts is the alkaloid
arecoline, accounting for 0.5% of the plant material. Other constituents
include guvacoline, arecaine, arecaidine, guvacine, and several other
amino acids, as well as phlobaphene tannins, fixed oils, and procyanidins
(PACs).
44. ARTEMISIA AFRA
• Botanical Name — Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Wild.
• Synonyms — Absinthium ponticum (L.) Garsault.,
Absinthium tenuifolium Gaterau., Artemisia altaica
Desf., Artimisia balsamita Willd., Artemisia grandiflora
Fisch. ex Herder., Artemisia pallida Salisb., Artemisia
pontica Burm.f., Artemisia pseudopontica Schur.,
Artemisia tenuifolia Moench.
• Family — Compositae
• Common Names — Als, wild-als, wild wormwood,
African wormwood
• African Names — Kisambaa: fivi; Kinyakyusa: lusanje; Kisafwa: luyanga; Swati:
umhlonyane; Tsawana: lengana, iliongana; Xhosa: umhlonyane; Zulu: umhlonyane
• Description — The plant is a medium-size perennial herb, rarely exceeding 2 m high. It
has a ribbed stem, and the aerial parts have the strong characteristic odor of
wormwood; it is much branched and woody, shortly rhizomatous. The leaves are 6 cm
long, gray-green, alternately arranged, and oval in shape. It produces pale yellow tubular
florets, with few outer female and inner bisexual inflorescence occurring in an elongated
racemose panicle. The capitula is small, the receptacle is flat and naked. (achenes
cylindrical, pappus absent). The African wormwood flowers between March and July,
and the seeds are produced from August to November.28,33
• Habitat and Distribution — According to the FAO report,33 Artemisia afra is a clump-
forming perennial herb of the highland areas of eastern and southern Africa at an
altitude between 1500 and 2500 (3000) m. The soils range from volcanic ash, loamy
sands, to sandy or calcareous clay loams of volcanic or granitic origin.33 The plant grows
in the southern and eastern regions of the continent. It has been located in Ethiopia,
Kenya, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Angola, and the Republic of South Africa.
• Constituents — The plant yields a pleasant-smelling volatile oil, which contains cineole,
thu- jone, umbelliferone, and some polyacetylenes. Earlier reports indicated the
probable presence of ceryl cerotate, triacontane, scopoletin, and quebrachitol.
45. ASPALATHUS LINEARIS — rOOIBOS
• Botanical Name — Aspalathus linearis (Burm. f.)
R. Dahlgren
• Synonyms — Aspalathus tenuifolia DC., Prodr.;
Aspalathus contaminatum Druce; Aspalathus
corymbosa C.A. Mey.; Lebeckia linearis (Burm. f.)
DC.; Psoralea linearis Burm. f.
• Family — Leguminosae
• Common Names — Rooibos, rotbush,
aspalathus, Herba Aspalathi, bush tea, bushman,
moun- tain tea, red bush, red bush tea, rooibos
tea
• African Names — Afrikaans: rooibos; South
Africa: koopmanstee, naaldtee rooibostee
• Description — Aspalathus linearis has been described as an erect to
spreading, highly variable shrub or shrublet up to 2 m high. Its young
branches are often reddish. The leaves are green and needle-like, 15–60 mm
long and up to about 1 mm thick. They are without stalks and stipules and
may be densely clustered. The yellow flowers, which appear in spring to early
summer, are solitary or arranged in dense groups at the tips of branches. The
fruit is a small, lance-shaped pod, usually containing one or two hard
seeds.1140
• Habitat and Distribution — Rooibos is native to South Africa, where it appears
to be restricted only in the Cedarberg area and around the villages of
Clanwilliam and Citrusdal, which are situated to the north of Cape Town in
South Africa. Apparently, rooibos needs a very specific climate and soil to
grow and elaborate its characteristic compounds as efforts to cultivate
rooibos in other areas or countries with similar climates have not been very
successful.
• Constituents — Rooibos is the only known source of the chalcone aspalathin.
Other phytochemicals found include nothofagin, caffeic acid, chrysoeriol,
isoquercitrin, orientin, isoorientin, luteolin, vitexin, isovitexin, luteolin, rutin,
flavonoids, quercetin, and polyphenols.
46. ASPARAGUS AFRICANUS
• Botanical Name — Asparagus africanus Lam.
• Synonyms — Protasparagus africanus (Lam.)
Oberm.
• Family — Asparagaceae
• African Names — Bambara: sogoba kenessi;
Falor: simboul; Fulani: pelol fouru, nombo; Ga:
adende, enene; Hausa: sark’a, sansarin kura;
Malinke: inaniaga; Mende: ningei; Tukulor:
narari; Wolof: narara; Yoruba:aluki, kadankobe
• Description — The plant is a member of the plant subfamily Asparagae
(Liliaceae). It is a tall, climbing undershrub, with wiry stem and small
white fragrant flowers.
• Habitat and Distribution — Members of the genus grow in the savanna
and deciduous forest zones of West Africa and parts of East Africa. It is
distributed from Guinea to Kenya.
• Constituents — Saponins, named A4–A8, have been isolated from the
roots of A. racemosus. One of the saponins, A4, yields glucose and
rhamnose on hydrolysis with acid sarsapogenin.
47. ASTRAGALUS GUMMIFER
• Botanical Name — Astragalus gummifer Lab.
• Synonyms — A. strobiliferus Royle, A.
erianthus Willd., A. adpressus Ehrenb. ex
Walp, A. noemiae Eig. var. brantii Eig.
• Family — Leguminosae
• Common Name — Tragacanth tree
• African Names — Arabic: shagal et ketira;
Tuareg: adrilel.
• Description — Astragalus species occur as thorny shrubs. A. gummifer is
an umbellate shrub with leaves composed of thorny rachis with 4–7
pairs mucronated and smooth leaflets. The flowers are borne in clusters
of two or three at the axils of the leaves.9
• Habitat and Distribution — Plants are found in steppe pastoral land and
dry highlands up to an altitude of 1800 m in the Sahel region. The
species occurs in Sudan, Niger, Chad, and the Kano Emirate of Nigeria.
• Constituents — The gum consists of a water-soluble polysaccharide
portion known as bassorin. Tragacanthin is made up of an
arabinogalactan, tragacanthic acid, and alcohol and has a high molecular
weight (<800,000). The high-quality gums contain less tragacanthin.220
Tragacanthin yields on hydrolysis D-galacturonic, D-galactopyranose, L-
fucose, D-xylopyranose, and L-arabofuranose. The gum also contains
trace amounts of amino acids and their derivatives.
48. AZADIRACHTA INDICA
• Botanical Name — Azadirachta indica A. Juss
• Synonyms — Melia azadirachta L., M. indica (A.
juss) Bandis
• Family — Meliaceae
• Common Names — Neem, nim, margosa tree,
bead tree, holy tree, Indian lilac tree
• African Names — Arabic: zanzalacht; Hausa:
dogon yaro; Igbo: ogwu akom; Yoruba: aforo-
oyinbo
• Description — A. indica is a shady tree with an evergreen crown; it grows up
to 25 m high in some places but occurs in West Africa mostly as a medium-
size tree. It has rough, dark brown bark with wide, shallow longitudinal
fissures separated by flat ridges. The bole is short and stout. It is easily
confused with Melia azedarach, an Asian tree, which has also been
introduced to other tropi- cal parts of the world; references to A. indica in
very old literature should be viewed with caution. The leaves are compound,
imparipinnate, each comprising 5–15 leaflets; they are very diagnostic and
measure about 6 m long and 2 cm broad. The tree bears many flowered
panicles, mostly in the leaf axils; sepals are ovate-, sub- or bicullar, about 1
cm long, with sweet-scented white oblanceolate petals. It produces yellow
drupes, which are ellipsoid, glabrous, and 12–20 cm long.
• Habitat and Distribution — This is an introduced plant that is now
naturalized in Africa. It is widely cultivated throughout West and Central
Africa as an ornamental plant. It is a drought- resistant plant and therefore
grows well in the arid parts of the continent.
49. AZADIRACHTA INDICA
• Constituents — All plant parts have been shown to contain some bitter
principles, composed of nimbin, nimbidin, nimbinin desacetylnimbin, and
structurally related compounds. The seed oil contains about 45% of these
bitter substances, the stem bark yields 0.04%, while the fruit pulp and leaves
contain about 25%.228,229 Salannolide, a meliacin with a unique feature by the
presence of a hydroxybutenolide side chain in place of the usual furan ring
attached at C-17, has been found to be one of the bitter principles of neem
seed oil. A number of other nortriterpenoids, meliacins, have also been
isolated from the plant. Kraus and his colleagues have reported the presence
of azadirone and nimbin/salannin-type compounds from the seeds of neem.
They also isolated pentanortriterpenoids (nimbadiol and 6-O-
acetylnimbandiol) for the first time in nature, from the seed oil, leaves, and
stem bark.Perhaps the most studied constituent of the seed is azadirachtin,
which was isolated together with meladanin by Connolly in 1968 and was
later found to inhibit the feeding response of the desert locust. The
structure of this tetranortriterpenoid was determined by Butterworth and
others using modern chemical methods, including spectroscopy. The seeds
have also been shown to contain tiglic acid (5-methyl-2-butanoic acid), which
is believed to be responsible for the distinctive odor of the oil. The fatty acid
(diethernoid) present in the seed is said to aid the ripening of seeds. The
gum lavones, which is a good emulsifying agent, is a unique gum by having
D-glucosamine, an amino sugar, as one of its constituents. Other constituents
of the gum include other simple sugars (such as fructose, rhamnose, xylose,
and mannose), uronic acid and proteinaceous materials (e.g., amino acids
and dipeptides). The plant contains relatively large amounts of carotene and
vitamin C. Flavonoids have also been found in Azadirachta. Simple flavonoids,
such as kaempferol and quercetin, have been isolated from the flowers.
The chloroform-soluble fraction of the ethanolic extract of the leaves has
been found to contain an isoprenylated flavone, nimbaflavone, which was
characterized from its spectroscopic data to be 8,3′-diisoprenyl-5,7-dihydroxy-
4′-methoxyflavone. Rutin and quercetin-3-rhamnoside are the main
constituents of the polar fraction of the alcoholic extract of the leaves.
50. BALANITES AEGYPTIACA
• Botanical Name — Balanites aegyptiaca (L) Del.
• Synonyms — Ximenia aegyptiaca L., Agialida
senegalenses v. Tiegh, A. barteri v. Tiegh., Balanites
zizyphoides Mldbr. & Schltr.
• The genus Balanites has hitherto been placed in the
plant family Zygophyllaceae or Simaroubaceae.
• Related Species — Balanites wilsoniana Dawe and
Sprague
• Family — Zygophyllaceae
• Common Names — Desert date, soap berry, thron tree
• African Names — Arabic: bhanitez; Hausa: aduwa; Fulani: tanni; Kanauri: kingo;
Swahili: mnyara, njienja; Yoruba: adowa. For B. wilsoniana: Igbo: ngwu-awusa; Bini:
ubogho; Yoruba: budare.
• Description — This is a savanna tree that grows up to 10 m, easily recognized by the
long, straight, green spines arranged spirally along the branches; each spine has a
two-leaflet compound leaf below it. It has a remarkably fluted trunk and a spherical
crown; the bark is grayish-brown and has ragged fissures and yellowish-green
patches that are exposed by scaling of the bark.264 It has dis- tinctive leaves, with
two leaflets up to 5 cm long on leafstalks about 2 cm long that are broad, slightly
obovate, blunt, or rounded at the apex and cunneate; young leaves have short
hairs. The yellowish- green flowers are borne above the leaf axils in short clusters;
the (five) greenish petals are about 5 cm long; individual flower stalks (five) are up
to 1 cm long with yellow6 stamens and an ovary of five fused shiny, dark-green
carpels (March–June). Fruits are produced between March and October. The fruit
has a single hard, pointed seed, about 2.5 cm long and 1.2 cm in diameter; it is
broadly oblong, ellipsoid, green, and shortly velvety when young, turning yellowish
and glabrous when ripe and resembling a small date; it has a thin hard skin and a
pale brown sticky edible fleshy pulp.28,33 The related species B. wilsoniana is a
lowland large forest tree found in the southern parts of West Africa and in parts of
East Africa. It is distinguishable from B. aegyptiaca, which grows in the north, by its
large leaves and by the lack of spines on the flowering branches. The leaflets have
distinct stalks, and the petals are hairy inside. The uses, constituents, and other
notes on B. aegpyp- tiaca should apply also to B. wilsoniana.
• Habitat and Distribution — It is found in Sahel-savanna regions and drier parts of
middle-belt zones of Nigeria, Ghana, and Ivory Coast and is cultivated as a fruit tree
in semisavanna parts of the continent.
51. BALANITES AEGYPTIACA
• Other Uses — The gelatinous substance on top of the fruits is used in making
sweetmeats. Saponin occurs in the roots, bark, wood chips, and fruits; hence, they
are used in washing clothes. The gum from the trunk, when fresh, is pleasant to
suck. The leaves are occasionally used as a vegetable and are eaten by goats, camels,
and cattle. The root is processed with charcoal and oil to produce local ink, and the
hard seeds are used for rosary beads and necklaces and in the game of darra.9 The
fine-grained wood is used for implements and furniture, and various plant parts are
used for religiousrituals.
• Constituents — The dried seeds yield about 48% of a fixed oil, zachunoil, and the
seedcake contains 50% protein.The seeds, leaves, fruit pulp, bark, and root contain
saponin, including the tetraglycoside of diosgenin. The diosgenin content of the
whole dried plant has been evaluated as 5.6%; the predominant genin (two-thirds)
in the plant is, however, yamogenin, the C-25 epimer of diosgenin. The plant holds
promise as a source of steroidal sapogenins for the hemisynthesis of corticosteroids
and hormones.Two furanocoumarins, bergapten and (+)-marmesin, have been
isolated from Balanites
52. BERSAMA ABYSSINICA
• Botanical Name — Bersema abyssinica Fresen.
subsp. Paullinioides
• Synonyms — B. paullinioides (Planch.) Bak., B.
cloroleuca Brehmer., B. coriacea Baker f., B.
erythrocarpa Brehmer., B. gallensis Brehmer., B.
giuliarellii Chiov., B. goetzei Gurke
• Family — Melianthaceae
• Common Names — Bersema bark, bitter bark
• African Names — Basa: je-ra-kpar; Baule: daunt;
Chagga: maranguwe, mrandangube; Fanti:
samangya; Lunda: kapachi; Mbulu: wamis;
Mende: kpondeblokai; Shona: chereke, mun-
yahlawa, munyohava
• Description — At least two varieties of the subspecies are known: var.
paullinioides and var. engleriana (Gurke) Verkcourt. The two varieties are
similar and occur as small- or medium-size tree 6–9 m tall, rarely exceeding
25 m in height. It branches low, with smooth gray bark and cream- colored
slash, which darkens on exposure. The leaves are imparipinnate, occurring in
clusters, rather clouded at the end of branchlets, about 35 cm long, with 5–
10 pairs of leaflets, and displaying wings between the distal pairs of leaflets.
The leaflets are variable in size and shape; the middle pairs are usually the
largest, 5–15 cm long and 2–5 cm broad, lanceolate, elliptic or oblong elliptic,
gradually acuminate, or tapering to a sharp ovate and unequally rounded at
the base. The margin is entire, crenate-serrate, or sharply serrate. It
produces white or pinkish flowers in stout upright racemes (up to 25 cm
long). The fruits are globose and tardily dehiscent with a woody capsule with
four valves spreading horizontally and persisting. The pericarp is densely
hairy and reddish when ripe; seeds are scarlet with yellow arils.
• Habitat and Distribution — The plant is widespread throughout tropical
Africa, preferring higher rainfall or evergreen forests. It is distributed from
Senegal to Zaire and parts of southern Africa.
• Constituents — Bersema has been shown to contain a mixture of
cardenolides, including abys- sinol A, B, C; bersaldegenin; hellerigenin; and
bufadienolide-O-acetate, as well as saponins,279 manferin,280 and gallic acid
derivatives.
53. BORRERIA VERTICILLATA
• Botanical Name — Borreria verticillata (L.) G.F.W.
Mey.
• Synonyms — Spermacoce verticillata L.,
Spermacoce globosa Schum. et Thonn.
• Family — Rubiaceae
• African Names — Bambara: som som; Hausa:
damfark’ami, feshe; Peuhl: samtarde, gudurdel;
Yoruba: irawo-ile
• Description — This is a perennial busy subshrub, 1 m high, that branches
out in slightly regular stalks with oblanceolate smooth leaves 10 to 15
mm in diameter and small white flowers. The fruit is a drupe, dry and
dehiscent. Seeds are mostly with endosperm and are ruminate. The
embryo is either straight or curved.
• Habitat and Distribution — The species grows in tropical Africa and
Madagascar. In the West Coast, the plant grows only in the wet season.
• Constituents — The plant contains indole alkaloids, of which borrerine
and borreverine are the major compounds.287 The root bark has been
shown to contain iridoids,288 including asperuloside, feretoside, and
daphyloside. The reported presence of emetine in the earlier literature289
has not been confirmed by recent studies. The leaves yield a volatile oil
that consists of hydrocarbon sesqui- terpene, lactones, phenolic
compounds, and aromatic polycarboxylic acids.
54. BOSCIA SENEGALENSIS
• Botanical Name — Boscia senegalensis Lam.-
Holl.
• Synonyms — Boscia firma Radlk., Boscia
hypoglauca Gilg., Boschia octandra Hoscst. ex
Radlk.
• Family — Capparaceae
• African Names — Bambara: bere; Bargami: kungassa; Fulani: anzagi;
Hausa: anza, hanza, dilo; Songhai: horregna; Temajegh (Tuareg): tandeni,
tandomei; Wolof: diendoun, ndiandam
• Description — It occurs as a stout shrub or short tree, with a black stem,
up to 5 m high. The leaves are broad, elliptical to ovate, with 5–6 pairs of
prominently looped lateral nerves. The flow- ers are greenish and sweet
scented and are borne in short, dense racemes. The fruits are spherical,
sometimes warted, up to 2 cm in diameter.
• Habitat and Distribution — The plants occur in the drier parts of the
continent. Dalziel6 listed it as being present “in barren and fire-scorched
soil.” It is distributed from Mauritania to northern Nigeria.
• Constituents — The plant contains alkyl glucosinolates291 and the alkaloids
stachydrine and hydroxystachydrine.292 The genus has been shown to
elaborate several flavonoids,293 sesquiterpenes and their glycosides,294
sulfur compounds,295 and lipids.296
55. BOSWELLIA SACRA
• Botanical Names — Boswellia sacra Flueck
• Synonyms — Boswellia carterii Birdw. var.
undulato-crenata Engl.; Boswellia bhar-dajiana
• Birdw.; Boswellia bhar-dajiana var. serrulata Engl.;
Boswellia undulatocrenata (Engl.) Engl.
• Family — Burseraceae
• Common Names — Arabian frankincense, bible
frankincense, frankincense, incense, oliba- num,
olibanum tree
• African Names — Somali: mohor (tree), beyo
(resin); Swahili: ubani
• Description — The tree may be 1.5 –8 m tall, branching from the base or
with a distinct trunk; bark is pale brown with some outer flaking, papery
layers, and a thick reddish-brown inner resinif- erous layer; young shoots
are tomentos or rarely glabrous, and resin is copious and milky and dries
yellowish-brown.1148 The leaves are clustered at tips of branches and are
imparipinnate; leaflets are opposite, in 6–8 pairs, oblong, with a crenate
margin, and tomentose. Flowers are often in axillary racemes, crowded at
the end of branches; racemes are up to 10 cm. The calyx is 5-lobed. There
are 5 petals, which are yellow-white and spreading. There are 10 stamens.
The ovary is surrounded by a fleshy disk. Fruits are capsules, obovoid,
broadly pyriform, reddish-brown, glaborous, 8–12 mm, 3–5 angled, and
opening by 3–5 valves.1140
• Habitat and Distribution — The trees grow in stony soil. They adhere to
boulders of rock faces by means of a cushion- or disk-like swelling at the
base of the trunk. This swollen base seems to be important in stabilizing
the tree and is best developed in trees growing on very steep or exposed
rocks but less so, or not at all, in the occasional trees that grow in gravel or
in planted specimens.1140 They are found in Somalia and most parts of the
Horn of Africa and up to Arabia.
56. BOSWELLIA SACRA
• Constituents — The oleo-gum resin frankincense or olibanum is the most
important com- ponent of Boswellia species, and the chemical composition
is of immense value in differentiating members of the genus. Olibanum has
been reported to be a rich source of monoterpenes, sequiter- penes, and
iridoids, as well as nonvolatile triterpenoic constituents such as ursane,
oleanane, and lupine, which are in many cases responsible for some of the
observed biological activities. The pres- ence of isoincensole acetate in
both B. sacra and B. carteri has been used as the main diterpenic
chemotaxonomic biomarker. Although the diterpene also occurs in
Boswellia serrata olibanum, the presence of methylchavicol,
methyleugenol, and an unidentified oxygenated sesquiterpene distin-
guishes B. serrata olibanum from the two other species. The characteristic
chemical compounds of Boswellia papyrifera are the diterpenic biomarkers
incensole and its oxide and acetate derivatives n-octanol and n-octyl
acetate. Boswellia frereana olibanum is devoid of diterpenes of the
incensole family but contains a high amount of many dimers of β-
phellandrene. The chemical composition of olibanum, which is
demonstrated to be different for each Boswellia species, allowed the deter-
mination of the taxonomic origin of frankincense samples purchased on
various markets in East Africa, in the Near East, and in Yemen. Moreover,
terpenic fingerprints allowed the botanical origin of olibanum used in
traditional incense mixtures to be identified.301 The volatile oil derived from
the olibanum consists of 75% monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes,
monoterpenols, sesquiterpenols, and ketones. It has a good balsamic and
sweet fragrance, while the Indian frankincense oil has a very fresh smell
57. BOSWELLIA SACRA
• Constituents — The steam- or hydrodistilled frankincense oil does not
contain any boswellic acid (BA) as these components (triterpenoids) are
nonvolatile and too large to come over in the steam distilla- tion process,
and such claims in proprietary products should be disregarded. The
botanical designation of B. carterii as a synonym of B. sacra has been
challenged based on the detailed chemical profile of both varieties.49 A
transnational team of investigators led by Cole Woolley has evaluated the
Somalian (B. carterii) and Omani/Yemeni (B. sacra) species by chemi- cal
analyses to determine if there were any minor or major differences
between the two species of frankincense. Components identified with their
average percentage for B. sacra were α-thujene (0.6%), α-pinene (68.2%),
camphene (2.1%), sabinene (2.9%), β-pinene (2.0%), myrcene (0.7%), and
limonene plus β-phellandrene (6.2%). Components identified with their
average percentage for B. carterii were α-thujene (7.9%), α-pinene (37.3%),
camphene (0.8%), sabinene (4.9%), β-pinene (1.8%), myrcene (7.3%), and
limonene plus β-phellandrene (14.4%). Initially, GC/MS analysis did not reveal
major statis- tical differences. However, optical rotation values for B. sacra
(+30.1°) and B. carterii (−13.3°) demon- strated a greater significant
difference. Enantiomeric ratio (+)/(−) values of α-pinene for B. sacra and B.
carterii of 8.24 and 0.68, respectively, were also calculated, aiding the
investigators to conclude that B. sacra and B. carterii are not synonymous
but rather two distinct and individual frankincense species.
58. BRIDELIA
• Botanical Name — Bridelia spp. Willd.
• Family — Euphorbiaceae
• The genus is characterized by the presence of easily recognized stalkless
and markedly persis- tent flower clusters in the leaf ails along the
branchlets. Four species—B. atroviridis, B. speciosa, micrantha, and B.
ferruguinea—are employed in the preparation of traditional remedies.
The last-named species, however, is the most common of these savanna
plants. They bear flowers with greenish-yellow sepals and very small and
narrow petals; the males have 5 stamens in a central column surrounded
by a conspicuously yellowish disk, and the females usually have two
branched styles. Both male and female flowers are found in each flower
cluster. The distinctive leaves are marked with lateral nerves that
continue to the margin to form a marginal nerve.168 They bear persistent
fruits that are egg shaped and smooth; the ripe ones are usually black
with a hard seed.
o According to Keay et al.,164 the species can be differentiated by the
following characteristics:
o B. atroviridis: lateral nerves looped close to the margin, but not
forming a marginal nerve like other Bridelias
o B. speciosa: midrib projecting a short spine beyond the
acuminate leaf tip; leaves almost glabrous on both surfaces
o B. micrantha: midrib not projecting; branchlets and
undersurfaces of leaves shortly hairy; hairs lying flat, particularly
along the nerves and veins beneath
o B. ferruguinea: hairs spreading; leaves with 6–10 pairs of lateral
nerves and very characteristic down-curved acuminate tip
forming a short, rigid hook
• All members of the genus Bridelia have been used in the preparation of
folk remedies. Decoction of the plants has been recommended for the
treatment of a variety of illnesses, such as fevers, diabe- tes, rheumatism,
gonorrhea, and diarrhea.
59. BRIDELIA FERRUGUINEA
• Botanical Name — Bridelia ferruguinea
Benth
• Synonyms — Gentillia chevalieri Beille
• Family — Phyllanthaceae
• African Names — Hausa: kirni; Igbo: orha
(ola); Yoruba: ira
• Description — It is a shrub, sometimes growing up to 18 m high and about 1.5 m
in width. The stem is often crooked, with branches occurring at lower regions;
the bark is gray, rough, and often scaly. It has thin and red slash. The thin
branches often grow spines. The twigs are usually densely covered with short,
rust-colored hairs. The plant has characteristic broadly elliptic leaves, 4–10 cm
long and about 3–5 cm in breadth. The margins are slightly wavy, with the apex
drawn out, rigid, and curved downward. It has a thick, short, and very hairy
leafstalk. B. ferruguinea produces creamy-yellow, sweet-scented flowers that
appear between February and August. The fruits occur in July–September and
are small and nearly round.
60. BRIDELIA FERRUGUINEA
• Constituents — The first chemical screening of the genus Bridelia was carried out
by Treub in 1907, who reported the presence of hydrocyanic acid in B. ovate and
B. tomentosa. The pulverized stem bark contains tannins and reducing sugar but
no alkaloid.A chemical exami- nation of the leaf of Bridelia ferruginea resulted in
the isolation and characterization of two coumestan-flavonoids, bridelilactone
and bridelilactoside, as the main constituents of ethyl acetate extract. The
diethyl ether-soluble extractive yielded two coumarins, aesculetin and scopo-
letin, and six flavonoids, including quercetin, galangin, and naringenin. Lupeol, β-
amyrin, and β-sitosterol were isolated from the petroleum spirit extract. It has
been shown that the petrol extract yielded mainly flavonoid glycosides, of which
quercetin-3-neohersperisdoside (rutin) was the major constituent.
61. BRYOPHYLUM PINNATUM
• Botanical Name — Bryophylum pinnatum (Lam.)
Oken
• Synonyms — B. calycinum Salisb., Cotyledon
pinnata Lam., Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.,
Vereia pinnata (Lam.)., Sedum madacasriense
Clus., Kalanchoe floripendula Steud., Kalanchoe
calycinum Salisb., Crassuvia floripenula Comm.,
Cotyledon rhizophylla Roxb.
• Family — Crassulaceae
• Common Names — Never die, wonder of the
world, leaf of life
• African Names — Yoruba: abamodo; Igbo:
nkwonkwu; Efik: afia-ayo
• Description — This is a glabrous, laxly erect, fleshy herb 60–120 cm tall that
branches from the base. The leaves are opposite and usually in pairs; the
lower leaves are simple; the upper ones are pinnate, almost rounded but
larger toward the apex, and about 10 cm long and 5–6 cm broad. The
margins have curved crenations (notches) with regular, blunt, or rounded
teeth, which some- times bear small plantlets or bulbils. The flowers
nodding in terminal panicles are greenish-yellow but purplish at the base.
The calyx is tubular and inflated, 4-lobed (the lobes triangular and shortly
pointed), and about 3 cm long. The corolla is united, tubular, concentrated
above the base, a little longer than the calyx, and also 4-lobed. The upper
part of the lobes is ovally pointed and reddish- purple in color. The stamens
are attached to the constriction of the corolla tube.
• Habitat and Distribution — The plant is widely distributed throughout the
continent but is more abundant in warm and dry areas; it thrives in rocky
terrain with little water.
62. BRYOPHYLUM PINNATUM
• Constituents — Preliminary chemical work on this plant revealed the
presence of xanthones, fla- vonoids, anthraquinones, and traces of alkaloids.
Potent cytotoxic bufadienolides bryophyllin A and B have been isolated from
the species.Cardiac glycosides, known as bryotoxins, are also present in the
plant. An extract of the leaves with activity against chemically induced
wounds has been shown to contain bryophyllol, bryophollone and
bryophollenone, bryophynol, and two phenanthrene deriva- tives, as well as
18α-oleanane, ψ-taraxasterol, and α- and β-amyrin and theiracetates.
63. BULBINE FRUTESCENS
• Botanical Name — Bulbine frutescens (L.) Willd.
• Synonyms — Anthericum frutescens L.,
Anthericum incurvum Thunb., Anthericum
multiceps Poelln., Anthericum rostratum Jacq.,
Bulbine caulescens L., Bulbine incurva (Thunb.)
Spreng., Phalangium frutescens (L.) Kuntze,
Phalangium rostratum (Jacq.) Kuntze
• Related Species — Bulbine asphodeloides, B.
abyssinica, B. natalensis
• Family — Xanthorrhoeaceae (formerly
Asphodelaceae)
• Common Names — Bulbine, bulbinella, burn jelly
plant, cat’s tail, snake flower
• African Names — Afrikaans: geelkatstert, wildekopieva; Zulu: ibhucu;
Xhosa: intelezi; Sotho: moetsa-mollo
• Description — According to the African Herbal Pharmacopeia, Bulbine
frutescens is a perennial herb up to 0.5 m high but occasionally growing up
to 1.2 m. It has woody stems that bear succulent leaves. The leaves are
linear, cerete or somewhat flattened, 30–250 mm long, 4–10 mm in
diameter, bright green or yellowish green, and glaucous glabrous. Flowers
are small, mostly yellow, sometimes partly orange, in multiflowered
racemes on sender peduncles; the pedicel is thin, usu- ally curved, petals
are six, yellow, sometimes orange, erect to recurved, and somewhat
persistent. Stamens are six; filaments are densely hairy. Fruit occurs as a
small capsule. The plant can be dis- tinguished from related members of
the genus by its woody stem and details of the floral bracts
• Habitat and Distribution — Bulbine frutescens is widespread throughout
Southern Africa.
64. BULBINE FRUTESCENS
• Constituents — The gel of B. frutescens yields a complex mixture of
polysaccharides. The plant is also known to have knipholone-type
compounds. The roots contain phenylanthraquinones, gaboroquinones A
and B, and 4′-O-demethylknipholone-4′-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside.341 Also
iso- lated from the roots are sulfated phenylanthraquinones co-occurring
with their known sulfate-free analogs. Their structures were elucidated by
spectroscopic and chiroptical methods, by acid hydrolysis, or by partial
synthesis.
65. CAJANUS CAJAN
• Botanical Name — Cajanus cajan Millsp.
• Synonyms — Cyticus cajan L., Cajanus indicus
Spreng.
• Family — Leguminosae
• Common Names — Pigeon pea, field pea, pois
d’Angol,ambrebdade (Comores), pois de pigeon (F).
• African Names — Arabic: bisellat el-Haman;
Hausa: waken-masar, waken-turawa; Igbo: fio-fio;
Swahili: mbaazi; Yoruba: otili, otinli
• Description — This is an annual or biennual shrub 2 m high with ribbed, silky
pubescent stems. The stalks and leaves are covered with white down. It has 3
leaflets that are oblong lanceolate in short stalks. The flowers are brownish-
yellow, borne on corymbiform racemes. The fruits occur as oblong linear
pods (over 5 cm long), obliquely constricted between the seeds, which vary
from 3 to 4.
• Habitat and Distribution — It is pantropic and is cultivated in most parts of
the continent. The plant prefers savanna vegetation and dry forestlands.
• Constituents — Cajanus contains amino acids, proteins, fats, carbohydrates,
saponins, stil- benes, flavonoids, and isoflavones.It also yields minerals, such
as calcium, phosphorus, and iron. The leaves contain the phytoalexins
pinostrobin and cajaninstilbene acid and the coumarin caja-nuslactone (7-
hydroxy-5-O-methyl-8-(3-methyl-2-butylene)-4-phenyl-9,10-dihydro-
benzopyran-2-one).Urease has been isolated from pigeon pea. The enzyme
is used in diagnostics to determine the urea present in the blood serum.
66. CALONCOBA ECHINATA
• Botanical Name — Caloncoba echinata (Oliv.)
Gilg.
• Synonym — Oncoba echinata Oliv.
• Family — Achariaceae
• Common Names — Gorli
• African Names — Igbo: udara-nwewe; Bini:
otiemme; Yoruba: Kakandika
• Description — Caloncoba echinata is a shrub or small tree about 7 m high, 1 m or
less in girth, with a hard, grayish bark, which appears somewhat corrugated. The
leaves are yellowish-green in color, oblong elliptic, and about 10–30 cm long and 5–
10 cm broad. It is narrowly acuminate, entire, with a long and tapering apex, and
rounded base. Leaves have a thin and slightly leathery texture. The lateral veins (5–
6 pairs) are prominent and run wide angles to the midrib, looping well away from
the margins. The stalks are about 2.5 mm long. The plant produces small whitish
flowers, borne in the axils of the leaves and in clusters on common stalks, which
are a few millimeters long. The sepals are about 2.5 mm long, and the petals are
3–4 mm. It flowers from May to November, and the fruiting begins in August and
lasts to May. The fruits are round and yellow or orange-red in color, bear numerous
prickles (echinate), are about 4 cm in diameter, and contain many black or brown
seeds, which are embedded in a white, pithy pulp.
• Habitat and Distribution — This is a forest tree found mainly in undergrowth and
secondary clearings; it occurs in western, central, and parts of southeastern
regions of the continent.
• Constituents — The seeds contain oil whose fatty acids have the cyclopentane
nucleus of chaulmoogric acid. The acid is used in a mixture with hydnocarpic acid
for treating leprosy. The stem bark contains friedelane triterpenes kokoonol,
kokoonal, and 3β,21β-dihydroxy-30-nor-(D:A)- friedo-olean-27-oic acid,357 as well as
cycloartane-type triterpenoids glaucartanoic acids A and B isolated from the fruits.
67. CAPSICUM ANNUUM
• Botanical Name — Capsicum annuum L.
• Synonyms — Capsicum cerasiforme Lank.m,
Capsicum chamaecerasus Nees., Capsicum lon-
gum DC. Over 30 synonyms and varieties are
known to exist.
• Related Species — Capsicum annuum var.
glabriusculum (Dunal) Heiser & Pickersgill
• Family — Solanaceae
• Common Names — Red pepper (English), piment
doux, piment des jardins, gros piment, poiv- ron
(French)
• African Names — Arabic: filfil romi; Bambara: forotu, kilikili; Hausa: barkono,
barkhannu; Igbo: totoshi; Swahili: pilipili-hoho; Yoruba: ata wewe
• Description — Capsicum annuum L. is an annual or biennial suffrutescent
plant that can reach over 1 m in height. The leaves are ovale lanceolate, 6 ×
3.5 cm. The flowers are greenish-white and orne on axillary bunches. It
produces polymorphic berries 18 cm long; usually globular, ovoid, or oblong
in shape; green colored and yellow to red when ripe.
• Habitat and Distribution — The species is cultivated throughout tropical
Africa; several hybrids and strains are known.
• Constituents — The fruit contains capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin,
nordihydrocapsaicin, and related alkaloids. The capsaicin content increases
with maturation of the fruit. The color of the fruits is due to the presence of
carotene, capsanthin, and capsorubin, as well as steroidal saponins. Vitamins
A and C also occur in the plant. The common carotenoids with provitamin A
activity, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin, occur in the plant.
