Drought recovery-guide

Drought recovery
guide
F O U R T H E D I T I O N
droughthub.nsw.gov.au

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Drought recovery guide
Fourth edition
www.dpi.nsw.gov.au
Job No. 16051 02/20
ISBN 0 7347 1678 8
Cover image: NSW DPI Image Library (Photo by Peter Simpson)
© State of New South Wales through Department of Planning,
Industry and Environment [2020].
You may copy, distribute, display, download and otherwise freely
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For updates to this publication, check www.dpi.nsw.gov.au
Disclaimer
The information contained in this publication is based on
knowledge and understanding at the time of writing (June 2019).
However, because of advances in knowledge, users are reminded
of the need to ensure that the information upon which they rely
is up to date and to check the currency of the information with
the appropriate officer of NSW Department of Industry, Skills
and Regional Development or the user’s independent adviser.
The product trade names in this publication are supplied on
the understanding that no preference between equivalent
products is intended and that the inclusion of a product
name does not imply endorsement by the department over
any equivalent product from another manufacturer.
Recognising that some of the information in this document
is provided by third parties, the State of New South Wales,
the author and the publisher take no responsibility for the
accuracy, currency, reliability or correctness of any information
included in the document provided by third parties.
Always read the label
Users of agricultural chemical products must always read the
label and any permit before using the product and strictly comply
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Users are not absolved from any compliance with the directions
on the label or the conditions of the permit by reason of any
statement made or omitted to be made in this publication.

DROUGHT RECOVERY GUIDE | iii
Contents
1 Foreword
2 Financial management during
drought recovery
2 The importance of cash flow
5 The banking relationship
5 Business plan
8 Resources for farm business finances
11 Personal recovery from drought
11 Research findings from the
‘Millennium Drought’
12 Drought and stress
15 A guide to support services and assistance
16 Mental health and wellbeing
17 Soil and pastures management
following drought
17 Soil management
18 Pasture management
22 Grazing management following drought
25 Preparing for cropping after drought
25 Compare crop growing costs,
gross margins and risk
25 Seed supplies and seed quality
26 Stored soil water
26 Soil fertility
27 Sowing time
27 Herbicide residues
27 Summer fallow weed control
27 Rotations and diseases
28 Cereals for grazing
28 Dual-purpose canola
29 Further information
30 Weed management after drought
30 Weeds in pastures
31 Weeds in crops
31 Weeds from introduced fodder and grain
31 Control strategies
32 Importing stock feed onto a property
33 Controlling vertebrate pests
during and after drought
33 Mice
33 Rabbits
34 Feral pigs
35 Wild dogs
35 Foxes
35 Summary
36 Managing total grazing pressure
37 Further information
38 Animal Health
38 Rain – the immediate effect
40 Managing risks associated with restocking
42 Tree management after drought
42 Recovery of mature paddock trees
42 Managing existing native vegetation areas
44 Publications

DROUGHT RECOVERY GUIDE | 1
Foreword
This drought has been ongoing in some parts of the State for nearly three years now,
making life incredibly difficult for those on the land.
It will certainly be a long path to recovery and many difficult decisions will have to be
made, but rest assured the NSW Government will continue to support our farmers.
By compiling the best resources from the NSW Department of Primary Industries and Local
Land Services, the Drought Recovery Guide will give primary producers the information
they need to get back on their feet.
Whether it is information on pasture management, cropping recovery or animal health
management, this guide will be able to help meet the challenges to getting operations
back on track.
Our farmers are some of the most resilient in the world and this guide is a valuable tool to
help them meet the challenges of resuming normal operations following a difficult time.
For more information on the NSW Government’s broad range of support and assistance
measures to support our farmers, their families and regional communities impacted by
drought conditions, I encourage you to visit www.droughthub.nsw.gov.au.
Hon. Adam Marshall MP
Minister for Agriculture and Western New South Wales

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Financial management during
drought recovery
When drought breaks, most farmers need to help offset financial losses incurred during
drought. This involves considering a range of options and making many decisions,
all with impacts on the business. Reduced revenue and increased feed costs will
have tightened working capital for many farmers, but cash is required to sow crops,
buy replacement stock and meet financial obligations to keep the business running.
This chapter outlines some practical suggestions for financial drought recovery.
Prior to that however, it may be useful for everyone in the business to evaluate their
priorities and commitment to the business by asking themselves the following questions:
Take stock #1. To farm or not to farm?
Invest time in a little soul searching, speaking to trusted friends and advisers. Is farming
still what you really want to do with your life or is it time to consider other options? This
is possibly the most important decision for you and your family so give it the energy it
deserves. Many regions have continued to experience increasing land values despite
the drought and so family farms still represent good capital value if you decide to sell.
Take stock #2. What is the financial position of the business?
Cash-flow has likely been strained, and equity may have declined. To plan the best way
forward, a true understanding of the business’ financial position is required to continue
farming and obtain finance. A Statement of Position including all assets and liabilities
and equity, in dollars and percentage terms, must be calculated. Calculate fair market
value for land, machinery, livestock, fodder and grain using the pro-forma at
www.raa.nsw.gov.au (search the website for ‘Statement of Position’). While all
businesses differ, an equity level below 50% is typically considered at risk; greater than
75% quite secure.
Take stock #3. Review
Once you understand your financial position, it’s time to reconsider: How could life look if
you were doing something else? Is farming still your passion?
Take stock #4. How are you?
Farming is tough, both physically and psychologically, more so in drought. How are you
really travelling healthwise?
The importance of cash flow
If more finance is required, prepare an accurate month to month cash flow projection
for the next 12 to 24 months (or longer if required). Some tips to reduce costs include:
1. Cost control – identify and prioritise those expenditures which are critical for
production (such as fertiliser, chemical, animal health costs) and those which are not
such as overhead costs and capital expenditure. Be disciplined and spend cash only
where required. Consider enterprises with lowest cost required to generate income.
2. Improve finance terms – speak to your bank and creditors about refinancing/
restructuring your debts, considering the following options:
a. Reduce repayments – refinance principal and interest (PI) loans to interest only
b. Consider extending the loan term to reduce annual repayments
c. Restructure debts requiring monthly/quarterly payments to annual-in-arrears payments

Financialmanagementduringdroughtrecovery
d. Restructure overdraft debt. Overdrafts often have higher interest rates than
fully drawn loans, so if a portion of overdraft debt has become ‘hard core’
(unlikely to be repaid within a year), consider transferring that portion to an
interest only, fully drawn loan, to reduce the interest cost on that debt portion
e. Seek more favourable payment terms from non-bank creditors.
Depending on the debt structure, it may be less expensive
to have a creditor than a bank loan/overdraft.
f. Ensure interest rates and bank fees are as low as possible by
requesting a review, as banks regularly develop new products.
g. Be prepared to compare interest rates and switch to other
lenders, especially if your financial position is sound.
h. Contact NSW Rural Assistance Authority (RAA) or the Rural Investment
Corporation (RIC) to apply for government subsidised loans,
rebates and subsidies for drought affected farm businesses.
i. Farm debt mediation. Creditors must provide an opportunity for
mediation before enforcing action against farmers: a structured process
with an independent mediator to try to negotiate an agreement for
debt repayment. NSW RAA provides farm debt mediation services.
3. Prioritise income – any income will be useful and sends a positive message to
finance providers.
a. Consider enterprises that will generate short-term cash flow
b. Sell non-essential machinery, inventory and other assets (including land)
c. Look to insure future earnings against drought where possible
d. Seek off farm work/income if possible
e. Cash in Farm Management Deposits
Consider selling capital items to pay down debt. For example, can contractors be substituted for owning machinery?
Photo NSW DPI Image Library

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4.
Case study 1: Generating Income
Consider a predominantly cropping farmer who is enduring a poor harvest. Income for 2018
is well below budget and credit lines are stressed. Realising there was little to be done for the
crops, the farmer managed to gain off farm employment in September at a local processing
business. Almost $70k worth of machinery identified as surplus to needs was sold. A decision
made earlier in the year to take out Multi-peril Crop Insurance means that, while total income
will be well below budget, an additional income of around $170k of income was realised,
compared to taking no action. The farmer’s bank has been very supportive as a result.
Enterprise choice – sheep vs cattle vs cropping…and how?
Low stock numbers at the end of a drought represents a chance to review enterprise
mixes and breeding directions. While infrastructure, handling facilities and other
factors may limit options, short-term cash ﬂow needs may be better met by increased
cropping, livestock trading, or a shift in the balance of livestock enterprises.
The most common question for livestock farmers aiming to lift numbers is whether to
purchase replacements on an inflated re-stocker market, or breed up from any remaining
animals. Purchasing livestock often requires more debt, but is also likely to realise income
more quickly as land is fully stocked, with saleable animals produced each season.
Conversely, breeding up numbers typically requires less initial debt, but also produces
less cashflow until numbers return to the desired level. Careful breeder management is
required to maximise the number of animals produced and the decision requires modelled
results of the various scenarios over several years. To review typical gross margins for
livestock and cropping options, visit www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/budgets
Critical to each decision is the Statement of Position and access to cash (via overdraft)
following bank discussions. The gross margin will give an indication of enterprise
performance when fully stocked, however more important is ensuring access to sufficient
funds to get from where you are now to where you would like to be and perhaps an
alternative enterprise is prudent in the short term. The case study below illustrates this point.
Case study 2: Enterprise choice
Directing limited cash to key production costs is the first step, considering the most efficient
alternative is also critical. While restocking may be a priority, it can also be costly, particularly as the
demand for stock increases coming out of drought. Consider the following case study comparing
the costs to utilise 100ha of land which can carry 8DSE/ha. Option 1 assumes a purchase of 400 ewes
for $300/head compared with Option 2, which assumes full contract rates to sow a wheat crop.
Table 1. The up front costs of restocking with ewes or sowing a wheat crop after drought.
Purchase 400 Ewes Sow 100haWheat
$/head Total Cost $/ha Total Cost
Purchase ewes 300 120,000 Sowing 60 6,000
Shearing 8 3,200 Seed 40 4,000
Husbandry general 20 8,000 Harvest 60 6,000
Pasture ($/ha) 50 5,000 Chemical 80 8,000
Fertiliser 140 14,000
Spraying 50 5,000
Total Cost (100ha) 136,200 Total Cost (100ha) 43,000
While the analysis presented above is deliberately simple, it illustrates a critical point:- the impact of enterprise
choice on cash flow. Faced with this choice, the decision to restock requires $93,200 more cash in the short
term than planting wheat and may limit your ability to do other things, or may strain the banking relationship.
It is also important to consider the length of time between expenditure and income from each enterprise
when making this decision. Some objective analysis is required to plan the most efficient way forward.
Critical questions to consider: How much will this enterprise cost?
How much income can I make from it?
How soon will that income be received?
Is this the best use of available cash?

The banking relationship
No matter how uncertain the future, avoiding the bank will not help. Being proactive is
most likely to gain the bank’s support and confidence. There are many farmers experiencing
financial hardship and all creditors have a vested interest in helping them succeed.
The recent Banking Royal Commission has tightened lending practices among the banks and
this will likely continue. Planning thoroughly and providing financiers with the information
they need is critical to locking in a great deal. So, what do they want? It’s all about ‘The 5 Cs’
1. Cash flow – the business must be able to demonstrate capacity to generate adequate cash
to meet all costs including interest payments. Revenue calculations need to be calculated
using reasonable and achievable assumptions for yields, commodity prices and costs.
2. Character – management expertise, integrity and honesty. Previous and future conduct
with the bank is important. A poor credit history represents a much higher risk. A proven
ability to handle difficult times and capitalise on opportunities reduces perceived risk.
3. Capital – the financial position of the business - assets, liabilities, net worth, equity
position and debt ratios. The higher your equity, the lower the risk.
4. Collateral – the saleability and adequacy of the assets you provide as security for the
loans. Adequacy is simply the amount of security – banks express this as loan-to-value
ratio (LVR). A loan of $600k against a farm worth $1m gives an LVR of 60% - the lower
the LVR, the lower the risk. Assets such as livestock, grain and machinery tend to be less
appealing forms of security, are more risky and therefore attract a higher interest rate
when used as collateral.
5. Conditions: What is happening at a macro level to the industry in which you operate?
Global markets for rural commodities are generally strong at present and demand
for land is sound. How does the business manage external risk: interest rates,
exchange rates, variation in climate and commodity prices? These factors cannot all be
controlled, but good management can reduce the downside risk. Consider the change
in perceived risk from a bank who had loaned funds to a live beef exporter when the
federal government banned live exports to Indonesia.
The Farm Decision Making Checklist at the end of this document is a useful guide to
some of these points. Another useful resource is the Grains Research and Development
Corporation fact sheet ‘Understanding a Bank’s Approach to Farm Business’, available at
www.grdc.com.au
Business plan
Banks are also asking business borrowers to provide them with a full business plan.
However, there is more benefit in writing a business plan than just appeasing creditors. A
good plan will determine what scenarios are possible and which are most likely to provide
a good financial return. Despite fluctuating costs and income, a business plan for the next
5–10 years will help with decision making and preparation for the next drought.
A business plan does not lock in a set course of action, it identifies goals and plans to
achieve them with the information available at the time. It should be considered a living
document and reviewed at least annually. It will also help track progress over time,
highlighting both challenges and achievements. Consider employing an accountant or
consultant to help develop a business plan that includes the following details:
» A clear, concise title page. Include your business name and contact details.
» An executive summary. Outline the amount and type of loan applied for, giving
the bank the opportunity to accept, modify, improve or reject the loan. Clearly state
the purpose of the loan and how it will be repaid. Also, briefly describe the business
structure (sole trader, partnership, trust or company) and relevant financial ratios –
historically and projected if the loan proceeds and the business is successful.
» Clear goals and objectives. Detail the direction of the farm business and the family
owners, perhaps with a mission statement.
» Management profile. One of the most important resources of a farm business is its
staff — remember that banks lend to people. It is important to highlight the experience,
qualifications and background of all members of the farm family as well as key advisers.
» Physical plan. Banks place a major value on major assets eg land and so it should be presented
positively and factually. Include maps, photos, special attributes, such as highway frontage,
proximity to town, or soil fertility. Include a property management plan, where available.

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» Production plan. Discuss such things as additional costs over and above the usual as a
result of the drought. Outline assumptions for all projected yields, prices and input costs.
This enables the banker to understand the differences in the budget forecast compared
with your actual performance in previous years.
» Development plan. Highlight any strategic plans or significant changes from previous
years, e.g. anticipated capital purchases in coming years, or changes to enterprise mix
or management. Discuss areas where there is a slightly longer pay-off period, such as
breeding programs and applying lime.
» Marketing plans. Banks like to see attempts to manage income as well as costs.
Examples may include forward contracts and strategies to aim for: improved pricing;
negotiating reduced commissions; having a range of selling methods, such as selling
direct to feedlots or abattoirs; or perhaps production changes in micron (fibre diameter)
or breed to meet client requirements.
» Financial plan. Banks will often ask for the last three years’ tax records, which should
be accompanied by the relevant management records to give a more complete picture
of the farm’s performance. A cash flow statement and statement of position will be
required, while several years future projections for financials, including Profit and Loss
and Balance Sheet, together with relevant financial ratios, will also be useful.
» Exit strategy. Ideally debts will be repaid in accordance with the contracts, but if not, a
clear strategy for other options reduces perception of risk. This may include:
1. sale of non-farm assets
2. sale of non-core farm assets (eg machinery, livestock, grain)
3. sale of core farm assets
4. sale of land.
It may be possible to sell a small parcel or two of land and maintain a viable scale – great
news to a bank. Also detail here all Life, Disability and Income Protection insurance policies
held, as this is another important determinant in risk assessment.
This may sound like a lot of preparation but it can be very useful when negotiating financial recovery
from drought. The depth, detail and understanding demonstrated in the loan proposal document
reflect the character, attitudes and values of the farm business; the ability and commitment to
servicing the loan, repaying the capital, and generating a return on the bank’s investment. It
also influences the bank’s perception of your professionalism, and hence the interest rate.
Upskill yourself
Until the drought breaks, undertake financial literacy training and business planning
training. It will give you greater control and leave your business better prepared for the next
drought. The NSW RAA has a number of approved workshops under the Farm Business Skills
Professional Development Program, which are subsided by 50% and could be the best use of
your time until the rain starts to fall.
Reconsider the need for costly infrastructure that does not aid drought management. For example, renewing fences
often improves the capital value of the farm (useful if it is to be sold) but to the detriment of short term cash flow. Photo
Todd Andrews

Table 2. Farm Decision Making Checklist, adapted from Commonwealth Bank booklet FARM (Finance
Agriculture and Rural Management), 3rd Edition 1992.
1. Are debt repayments a significant problem for me? YES —Proceed to 2. NO —Proceed to 3.
2. Can I reduce my debt repayments? Consider, for example:
» seeking lower interest rates;
» extending the period of the loan;
» seeking an interest-only loan;
» selling some less-productive assets to repay some or all of the loan, e.g. the ‘back’ paddock;
» repay the stock and station agent;
» machinery that could be hired or contracted instead;
» livestock that could be replaced by agisted stock.
Yes —Proceed to 3.
3. Can we increase our family income? Consider, for example:
» increasing crop yield;
» increasing crop area;
» increasing livestock numbers;
» increasing marketing percentages;
» increasing growth rates;
» improving product quality;
» improving marketing;
» introducing new enterprises;
» getting a job off-farm;
» investing in an off-farm business;
» contracting or share farming.
YES —Proceed to 4. NO —Proceed to 4.
4. Can I reduce my costs? Consider, for example:
» minimum tillage;
» rationalising machinery;
» reducing wastage at harvest and in storage;
» sharing your machinery or specialised buildings with neighbours;
» sell equipment under hire purchase or lease;
» using sires longer;
» reviewing feed purchases;
» improving fuel efficiency;
» reducing hired labour;
» alteringlifestyle;
» reducing personal costs.
YES —Prepare gross margins for the
enterprises currently on the farm, and
also look at other possible enterprises.
Proceed to 5.
NO —Proceed to 5.
5. Can I now see any action that I can take to improve our situation? YES —Prepare a cash flow budget
for the coming 12 months.
Proceed to 6.
NO —Proceed to 6.
6. Will I now have enough cash to pay my bills as far as I can see into the future? YES —Proceed to 7. NO —Proceed to 8.
7. Will this new situation offer me and my family a satisfactory life? YES — STAY WITH IT !
8. It seems clear that I cannot continue to farm my own land. Can I see any other ways of continuing to work on the land in a satisfying manner, apart from owning my own land? Consider, for example:
» selling, and working for another farmer;
» selling, and leasing the farm land;
» selling, and leasing a more productive farm;
» selling livestock and machinery, leasing the farm to someone else, and working for another farmer.
» You would be well advised to discuss your plan with your family, your banker, your accountant and your solicitor to see if there are any hidden traps. If
there are not, proceed as quickly as you can without unduly jeopardising the price you will receive for your land, livestock and machinery.

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Resources for farm business finances
Rural Financial Counselling Service (RFCS)
The RFCS provides free and impartial rural financial counselling to eligible primary
producers, fishers and small rural businesses who are suffering financial hardship.
Contact: Northern region 02 6662 5055
Southern region 02 6452 5850
Central region 1800 940 404
Call 1800 768 593 or visit www.raa.nsw.gov.au/about-us/contact-us/rfc to find your nearest
rural financial counsellor.
Farm Household Support
The Federal Government’s Department of Human Services provides financial help for
farmers and their families experiencing financial hardship. To be eligible:
» you must be a farmer or the partner of a farmer. If you are the
farmer, you must contribute a significant part of your labour and
capital to the farm enterprise based on specific criteria
» meet an income and assets test
» be willing to undertake a Farm Financial Assessment
» be willing to enter into a Financial Improvement Agreement
to help you improve your financial circumstances
For more information phone the Farmer Assistance Line on 132 316 or visit
www.humanservices.gov.au/individuals/services/centrelink/farm-household-allowance
Office of the NSW Small Business Commissioner
Business Connect is an advisory program for small businesses in NSW, including
agribusinesses.
Phone 1300 134 359 to make an appointment with your nearest advisor. Or visit
https://business-connect-register.industry.nsw.gov.au to find an advisor.
The Rural Assistance Authority (RAA)
The Rural Assistance Authority administers a range of assistance schemes.
As at 1 July 2019, the NSW Government’s Emergency Drought Relief Package included:
» the Farm Innovation Fund
» transport subsidies (stock, fodder and water)
» waivers to Local Land Services rates for 2020
» waivers to fixed charges for NSW Water and bore licences
» emergency water carting
» wavers to interest charges for Farm Innovation Fund loans
» mental health support, including rural counsellors
» Farm Business Skills programs
» donated fodder transport
» rural preschool and long day care centre fee subsidies.
For more information phone 1800 678 593 or visit https://www.raa.nsw.gov.au
Appeals process
The RAA has developed an independent system to review applications for
assistance that have been refused. In the first instance the applicant should
seek to discuss the refusal decision with the authority staff member responsible
for the assessment. If the applicant is still not happy with the decision they can
lodge an appeal within 20 days of receiving the RAA’s written refusal.

Regional Investment Corporation
Commonwealth Farm Business Loans
The Australian Government has established the Regional Investment Corporation (RIC).
From 1 July 2018, farmers have been able to apply to the RIC for the Commonwealth’s
farm business concessional loans. The RIC offers two loan products for farm businesses
–farm investment loans and drought loans. For more information about the loans and
eligibility requirements phone the RIC on 1800 875 675 or visit www.ric.gov.au
If you have an existing Commonwealth Concessional loan, the RAA will continue to
administer this loan. Phone 1800 678 593 if you have any questions about your loan.
Australian Taxation Office
Special rules apply to any income farmers may receive including:
» Profit from forced disposal or death of livestock
You can elect to spread profit earned from the forced disposal or death of livestock over
a period of five years. Alternatively, you can elect to defer the profit and use it to reduce
the cost of replacement livestock in the disposal year or any of the next five income years.
Any unused part of the profit is included in assessable income in the fifth income year.
If you are forced to shear your sheep a second time in the same financial year, there
may be an opportunity to carry forward the income from the second shearing
You can elect to spread or defer profits if you dispose of stock or stock dies because:
» land is compulsorily acquired or resumed under an Act
» a state or territory leases land for a cattle tick eradication campaign
» pasture or fodder is destroyed by fire, drought or flood and you will use the proceeds of
the disposal or death mainly to buy replacement stock or maintain breeding stock for
the purpose of replacing the livestock
» they are compulsorily destroyed under an Australian law for the control of a disease
(including bovine tuberculosis) or they die of such a disease
» you receive official notification under an Australian law dealing with contamination of
property.
For more information contact the ATO or your accountant.
Financial difficulties and serious hardship tax provisions
The Australian Taxation Office has a range of options for farmers
experiencing financial hardship such as deferred payment plans. For more
information visit www.ato.gov.au/General/Financial-difficulties-and-
serious-hardship or phone 1800 806 218 to discuss your situation.
Office of the NSW Small Business Commissioner
Visit the Office of the NSW Small Business Commissioner website at
www.smallbusiness.nsw.gov.au
Business Connect is a business advisory program for small businesses in NSW, including
agribusinesses. Phone 1300 134 359 to make an appointment with your local business
advisor or register online at
www.industry.nsw.gov.au/business-and-industry-in-nsw/businessconnect
NSW Farmers Association
NSW Farmers is a membership organisation representing farmers across NSW.
NSW Farmers advocates on behalf of the NSW industry on key issues that
affect farming businesses including biosecurity, farm trespass, animal welfare,
imports and product labelling. The Association is made up of farmers from
across the state, who work throughout the year to ensure the views of
NSW farmers are being heard, both at the state and national level.
For more information phone 9478 1000 or visit www.nswfarmers.org.au

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NSW Farmers’ Drought Network
NSW Farmers’ Drought Network has launched a page to provide service information, links
to assistance and services to individuals and families conducting, directly or indirectly,
primary production businesses, who are being impacted by drought conditions in NSW.
For more information visit www.nswfarmers.org.au/NSWFA/Content/IndustryPolicy/
Resource/Drought_Network.aspx

Personal recovery from drought
The much anticipated rain that ‘breaks’ a drought brings great relief but also starts the
often long and difficult period of recovery. Prolonged and intense drought depletes farm
businesses of natural, physical, financial and human resources. While these are not quickly
or easily replenished, previous drought experiences show the importance of personal
health and wellbeing in the ability of farm businesses to rebuild resilience and capacity.
While the tangible factors of finance, stock and physical resources can be seen and
measured, what is often less visible – and easier to ignore – is a person’s physical and
mental health. The huge toll on health and wellbeing wrought by months and years of
uncertainty, heavy workload, financial stress and depressing weather cannot be under-
estimated, as farmers face the challenge of bringing the farm back to normal production.
Research findings from the‘Millennium Drought’
In 2004, the NSW Department of Agriculture commissioned research by Charles Sturt
University into the social impacts and welfare implications of the ‘Millennium Drought’.
That project (available at www.csu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/704483/Social-
Impacts-of-Drought.pdf) investigated a range of social and personal issues including
debt, off-farm income, education access, employment, health, social isolation and family
disruption. It concluded:
“The widespread drought of the early twenty-first century had significant social impacts in all
the communities studied. Increased poverty and loss of income are evident, as is the impact
on education and service access, a loss of employment and an increase in social isolation.
Perhaps the most serious impact is on the health and well-being of community members.
Consequently the welfare implications of drought are significant.
These include the need for health and welfare support, attention to services and access, and an
identified need for support for the support workers. Most critical is the need for communities to
recognise that drought has significant social consequences, so that the people most affected do
not feel isolated or alienated during a time of great social upheaval.”
On health, the study noted:
“It is clear that both men and women are suffering health impacts but that men more often try
to hide their emotional stress from the community, preferring to be stoic in the face of adversity.
Women on the other hand try to hide their stress from their families and ignore their own
health, attending to the health of those around them.”
Some quotes from farmers interviewed for the research:
“I was suicidal in January and February. Emotionally the worst period of my life. … I feel very
isolated. … I’m running out of resilience to keep taking the blows and keep moving on. … I
carry the hurt inside.” (Farmer)
“He’s aged dramatically in the last 12 months. He’s drinking more. He’s quite depressed at
times. I find that when I arrive home I have to see what sort of day he’s had or how things are
going before I react.” (Farm woman)
“I’d like to bloody well just walk out of here, get in my car and just go North and leave the whole
lot of it behind. It’s all so hard but I can’t do that. I’m very responsible. I’m responsible to my
husband. I’m responsible to a farm. I’m responsible to myself and I’m responsible to my family.
Personally I would have liked to just pack up this year and go work on a big cattle station and
do something totally different. But now I’m locked into this.” (Farm woman)

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Producer discussions on animal health, feeding options and pasture management are useful during and after drought both
for learning from others’ experiences and to reduce social isolation. Photo Todd Andrews
Drought and stress
Below is an edited version of information from the HelpGuide.
Visit www.helpguide.org for more information.
What is stress?
While the physical, emotional and mental effects of prolonged drought are many and varied,
the common link to most situations is chronic stress, a condition not widely understood
or addressed. Stress is a body’s way of responding to any kind of demand or threat. When
sensing danger—whether it’s real or imagined—the body’s defence is an automatic process
known as the ‘fight-or-flight’ reaction, or the stress response. Stress hormones, including
adrenaline and cortisol, are released which prepare the body for emergency action, including
increased heart rate, blood pressure and breathing, and sharper senses. These physical
changes increase strength and stamina and reduce reaction time.
In emergency situations, this stress response can save lives by providing extra strength
for defence for example or braking hard to avoid an accident. Stress can also help to meet
other tasks and challenges. But beyond a certain point, stress stops being helpful and starts
damaging your health, mood, productivity, relationships and quality of life.
Stress responses can also be triggered by emotional threats such as arguments and work
and financial deadlines. The more times that a stress response is activated, it becomes
easier to ‘set off’ and harder to ‘shut off’ so that people who are frequently stressed may be
in a heightened state of stress most of the time. That can lead to serious health problems
including: sleep disorders, depressed immune system, upset digestive and reproductive
systems, increased risk of heart attack and stroke and premature aging. It can even ‘rewire’
the brain, leaving affected people more vulnerable to anxiety, depression, and other
mental health problems.
Signs and symptoms of stress
The symptoms and impact of stress can be cumulative and can start to feel familiar or even
normal. It’s important to be aware of the common warning signs and symptoms of stress
overload.

Personalrecoveryfromdrought
Table 3. Physical, emotional, behavioural and cognitive symptoms of stress
Physical Emotional Behavioural Cognitive
Aches and pains Depressed / unhappy Eating more or less Memory loss
Diarrhoea / constipated Anxious / agitated Sleep disorders Inability to concentrate
Nauseated / dizzy Moody / irritable / angry Unsociable Poor judgement
Chest pain Feeling overwhelmed Procrastinating Negativity
Libido loss Lonely / isolated alcohol/drug use Anxiety/racing thoughts
Persistent cold / flu Nervous habits eg pacing Constant worrying
Causes of stress
Anything that is physically or emotionally demanding can be stressful. We usually
associate stress with negative events but stress can also result from positive events
such as buying land, taking a well-earned holiday or a happy family event such as
the birth of a child. Not all stress is caused by external factors or events. Stress can
also be internal or self-generated such as worrying excessively about something
that may or may not happen, or having irrational, pessimistic thoughts about life.
Something that causes you stress may not be stressful for someone else. What
causes stress is your perception of something. For example, droving or feeding
stock may cause anxiety because of the time required but it can also be relaxing
if used to take some time out or combined with listening to music or reading.
Table 4. Common causes of stress
External Internal
Major life changes Pessimism/negativity
Work or school Inability to accept uncertainty / change
Relationship difficulties Rigid thinking/inflexibility
Financial problems Negative self-talk/perceptions
Overworked Unrealistic expectations/perfectionism
Children and family All-or-nothing attitude
How much stress is too much?
Everyone handles stress differently. While some people ‘roll with life’s punches’, others
thrive on the excitement of a high-stress lifestyle, and others can become very stressed in
the face of small problems or obstacles. There are a number of factors that influence your
tolerance to stress: Support networks - A strong network of supportive friends and family is
an enormous buffer against stress. Having people to ‘count on’ reduces pressure compared
with the prospect of dealing with problems alone, or feeling isolated.
Your sense of control – If you are confident in your ability to influence events and
persevere through challenges, it’s easier to handle stress. On the other hand, if you believe
you have little control and are at the mercy of your environment and circumstances, you
are more likely to be affected by stress.
Your attitude and outlook – A positive and optimistic outlook generally makes people less
vulnerable to stress. Stress-hardy people tend to embrace challenges, have a stronger sense
of humour, believe in a higher purpose, and accept change as an inevitable part of life.
Your ability to deal with emotions – Having the ability to identify and deal appropriately
with emotions can increase your tolerance to stress and your ability to cope with adversity.
Conversely, an inability to control sad, angry, or other negative feelings can escalate stress levels.
Your knowledge, preparation and experience – Your ability to draw on previous
experience can have a huge impact on managing stressful situations. Knowing what
worked well in previous droughts or what are others doing successfully will make it easier
to cope.

14 |
Family gatherings are important in keeping rural communities vibrant and for families to interact and socialise with others.
Photo Maria Cameron
Learn to relieve stress
Being able to manage and relieve stress is the key to staying balanced, focused, and in
control, no matter what challenges arise. As well as helping to cope with day-to-day
stressors, employing stress relief techniques help bring the nervous system into balance.
There are many techniques for dealing with stress including exercise, yoga and meditation.
Sometimes it’s not practical (or even possible) to go for a run or meditate such as
when you’re feeding or watering stock, working a second job or dealing with family
commitments. For these situations, you need something more accessible and immediate
to relieve stress.
Use your senses
The best way to reduce stress quickly is to take a deep breath and use one or more of your
senses—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Find something that works to relax and
calm you. This could be looking at a treasured photo, smelling a favourite scent, listening
to an emotive piece of music, tasting a piece of gum, or hugging a pet.
Talk to someone
Talking face-to-face with a relaxed and caring listener can be calming and help to release
tension. This is not always practical when working alone on the farm for long periods but it
is also why maintaining a network of close relationships is vital for your mental health.
The key to quick stress relief is to experiment and discover what works for you. For more
strategies, visit the HelpGuide at www.helpguide.org/articles/stress/quick-stress-relief.htm
Planning for health and wellbeing
A study of responses to the 2015 Regional Wellbeing Survey by the University of Canberra,
for the NSW DPI Rural Resilience Program, highlighted the strong link between personal
and business resilience in farming. It concluded:
“The wellbeing of farmers is interlinked with what is happening on the farm. This means
that supporting personal resilience will also flow through to supporting business resilience.
Conversely, building farm business resilience not only improves farm performance, but also
farmer wellbeing.”

Personalrecoveryfromdrought
Importantly, the study also identified key factors contributing to higher levels of farm
business resilience. It concluded:
» Farmers with high farm business resilience were more likely to engage in:
» developing strategies to cope with drought (67% compared to 45%)
» assessing farm risks and planning for managing them (56% compared to 40%)
» discussing their farm plan with others who can help inform it (68% compared to 48%)
» the Farm Management Deposits Scheme (30% compared to 14%),
» planning for farm succession (46% compared to 27%), and
» actively monitoring outcomes on the farm (56% compared to 40%) and updating their
business plan (41% compared to 32%).
The full report can be found at www.regionalwellbeing.org.au
A guide to support services and assistance
If you are feeling run down and stressed or suffering from an injury or a mental or physical
illness, there are many services that can help you return to good health and operate at your
best. See your local GP as a first step.
The following organisations and services can also help.
NSW DPI Rural Resilience Program ‘Listen, learn and link to create
opportunities for farming communities’
The Rural Resilience Program supports farmers and their families through tough times. The
program works closely with other partners such as the NSW Rural Assistance Authority,
Rural Financial Counsellors, the Rural Adversity Mental Health Program (RAMHP) and
the Local Lands Services to offer educational, personal and business resilience building
activities. Rural resilience workers contribute to Rural Service Support Networks across
NSW and work to ensure there is an informed and cohesive approach to supporting
farmers across various agencies. The negative impacts of drought also challenge the
resilience of local communities and farm businesses.
Team members listen to farming communities, learn about their issues and needs and also
about what other services and opportunities are available. Where appropriate we link farmers
into existing services and initiatives. If those services do not exist then wherever possible, we
work with our community partners to create new initiatives and opportunities.
Visit www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/about-us/rural-support/rural-resilience-program
Table 5. Rural Resilience Officers and Rural Support Workers:
Region Name Phone Email
Riverina Danny Byrnes (Hay) 0400 374 258 danny.byrnes@dpi.nsw.gov.au
Southern Region Ted O’Kane (Goulburn) 0427 781 514 ted.okane@dpi.nsw.gov.au
North West Amanda Glasson (Coonamble) 0438 082 731 amanda.glasson@dpi.nsw.gov.au
North Coast Jen Haberecht (Coffs Harbour) 0400 160 287 jen.haberecht@dpi.nsw.gov.au
Western Ellen Day (Broken Hill) 0427 639 761 ellen.day@dpi.nsw.gov.au
Hunter Karen Sowter (Scone) 0400 869 136 karen.sowter@dpi.nsw.gov.au
Manning Lower Hunter Peter Brown (Taree) 0437 671 459 peter.v.brown@dpi.nsw.gov.au
Central West James Cleaver (Dubbo) 0408 687 165 james.cleaver@dpi.nsw.gov.au
Central West Sue Freebairn (Coonabarabran) 0429 212 368 sue.freebairn@dpi.nsw.gov.au
Northern Tablelands Brian Sherwood (Tamworth) 0437 606 860 brian.sherwood@dpi.nsw.gov.au
North West Grace Murray (LLS Bourke) (02) 6870 8600 grace.murray@dpi.nsw.gov.au

16 |
Farm Family Gatherings
There may be opportunities to work with your local Rural Resilience Officer or Rural
Support Worker (see above) to have a Farm Family Gathering in your area. These
‘gatherings’ are an opportunity for support services such as financial, production and
emotional/physical health providers to share knowledge and experiences with farming
communities. They are also a great opportunity for farmers to share their knowledge and
experiences. These gatherings lift the spirits of people when they realise that “they are not
in this alone!”
Mental health and wellbeing
For access to local mental health services contact the organisations listed below.
The Rural Adversity Mental Health Program (RAMHP) provides a range of information
services to individuals, communities and service providers to link rural and remote people
to the help they need. This includes information on where to access services, common
mental illnesses and how to keep mentally healthy, as well as the Glove Box Guide to
Mental Health. To find the location of your nearest RAMHP Officer call 026363 8444.
Kids Helpline – phone 1800 551 800 telephone counselling service 24 hours, seven days a week
Community Mental Health Line – phone 1800 011 511
Mensline Australia – phone 1300 789, 24 hours a day, seven-day telephone counselling for men
Beyondblue – depression information line phone 1300 224 636
Lifeline – phone 131114
Australian Red Cross – the Red Cross provides personal support during a disaster and an
outreach service to affected households. Phone 1800 660 066 or (02) 49413200 in the Hunter area.
Black Dog Institute – phone 9382 4530
The Salvation Army – for personal support contact the Salvation Army Rural Chaplains.
» Central NSW: Captains Jon and Leah Belmonte 0401 690 877
» Western NSW: Majors David and Robin Pullen 0419 013 320
» North NSW: Majors Rusty and Di Lawson 0417 797 785
» Southern NSW :Majors Max and Karen Smith 0428 650 915
St Vincent de Paul Society – Vinnies has been transforming the lives of people
experiencing hardship for more than a century. Dedicated drought relief is provided
through the Rural Task Force, by Vinnies members who live and work in the communities
they serve. When Vinnies receives a request, it conducts an assessment of need. A member
then calls the applicant back within 24 hours to listen to their circumstances, make an
assessment, and determine how Vinnies can best assist.
Vinnies has provided support to people affected by drought including:
» Direct payment of utility bills, phone bills, council rates, vehicle registration, medical
accounts, and education fees
» Distributing vouchers for local businesses so that people in need can purchase local
goods and services while keeping money within local communities by supporting
local business
» Providing hampers of food, personal care items, small household items, furniture
and clothing
» Covering the cost of water cartage for household usage
» Visiting people in their homes to listen to them, provide moral and emotional support,
and reduce loneliness and isolation
» Provide referrals to specialist service providers, such as rural financial counsellors and
mental health counsellors.
Telephone: 13 18 12 or 02 6862 5758, visit www.vinnies.org.au/droughthelp or speak to the
team at any Vinnies shop.
For a list of financial support services, refer to page 8.

Soil and pastures management
following drought
Soil management
Maintaining adequate ground cover is not only important for pasture persistence and
longevity, it is also vital for soil health, water infiltration and nutrient retention. Research
has shown that erosion during drought-breaking rain can make up 90 per cent of the total
soil loss in a 20–30 year cycle.
Topsoil
Pasture and crop stubbles help water infiltrate the soil. Without them not only is crucial
water lost from the system, but topsoil is also removed. The loss of 1 mm of topsoil
represents losses of 10t of soil, 100 kg of organic carbon and 10 kg nitrogen per hectare.
While most nutrients can be replaced with purchased fertilisers, organic carbon and topsoil
are much harder to rebuild. Cultivating bare soils roughens its surface, reducing wind
erosion and improving infiltration. Cultivation needs to be timed so that the soil is moist
but not too wet. Cultivate on the contour to catch maximum rainfall and reduce run-off.
Cracking clays retain their structure but are still highly erodible without sufficient
groundcover. On the other hand, the structure of non-cracking soils generally
deteriorates during drought. Topsoils can become very dry and powdery and are highly
vulnerable to erosion.
To reclaim eroded areas and prevent further erosion, consider planting cover crops in
the short term to increase groundcover and constructing contours or soil conservation
earthworks for long term solutions. These reduce and slow run-off, limit the movement of
soil and organic matter, and reduce sedimentation and nutrient contamination of dams
and waterways. Uncontrolled machinery trafﬁc and stock trampling are major causes of soil
compaction and erosion.
Soil nutrients
Since mineralisation can continue in soils after plant growth has ceased due to lack of
moisture, soil nitrate nitrogen (N) may increase during drought. Some portion of the
fertiliser N applied to previous failed crops should also be available in the current year.
However, prolonged heavy rains will move this soil N down the soil proﬁle where it
may not be readily available to young winter crops. Weeds can also use available soil N,
reducing the amount available for subsequent crops. Consider deep (rooting-depth) soil
tests to assess available N.
Phosphorus and sulfur may increase slightly during droughts due to low use, unused
fertiliser from previous applications and mineralisation. Soil testing is useful in this
situation. Where potassium levels are marginal, deficiencies are much more likely to be
seen during dry years.
Acid soils
Soil manganese is likely to increase following droughts, so avoid sowing susceptible crops
such as canola on problem acid soil paddocks without first applying lime and allowing it to
disperse and react. Drought has no impact on soil pH.
For more information on the management of soils during and after drought, view a
webinar at: https://youtu.be/oEn-OwuF8s4

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Pasture management
Retaining adequate pasture stubble helps ensure perennial grass crowns and stems
survive drought and maximises recovery rates when it rains and drought recovery begins.
Retention of adequate plant cover (stem and crowns) is important for the survival of
most perennial grasses and legumes. Research on the Northern Tablelands showed that
the survival of perennial grasses was signiﬁcantly better where more than 1000 kg/ha of
pasture stubble was retained.
Note that losses following prolonged dry conditions (where some green feed may be
available) can be greater than the losses from severe droughts. Plants are more likely to
cease growth altogether in severe drought, whereas in a ‘dry spell’, plants continue to grow
and are grazed, depleting plant energy reserves and resulting in the death of weak plants.
Species adaptation to drought
Different species have different abilities for drought survival, and this can vary between
areas. Even within a species, for example temperate perennials, some varieties are better
able to survive drought than others. While grazing management is different for different
species, a common need is to match stock numbers with pasture carrying capacity.
Research suggests that overall stocking rates and fertility have more effect on pasture and
soil health and long-term carrying capacity than any grazing management system.
Introduced temperate perennial grasses
Temperate perennials, like phalaris, fescue, cocksfoot and perennial rye, generally require
very high standard grazing management for drought survival, even in more favoured
environments such as tableland and higher rainfall slopes areas. Heavy continuous grazing
tends to weaken root reserves and lead to plant loss, especially when droughts begin with
dry springs and lead into dry summers and autumns.
Different species have different grazing management needs (see NSW DPI pasture species
growing guides). For example phalaris must be allowed to flower each spring to build root
reserves for dry summer survival, a difficult management target in a dry spring. Phalaris is
the most persistent of the temperate perennial grasses, followed by cocksfoot, fescue and
then ryegrass.
Phalaris
Provided fertility is good, phalaris persists well, particularly on the heavier soil types even
under heavy, prolonged grazing pressure. The more erect and winter active varieties
such as Holdfast, Sirosa and Sirolan are more sensitive to overgrazing than the prostrate
Australian varieties. For more information refer to the phalaris Primefact.
Tall fescue
The combined effect of dry, hot summers and heavy stocking, particularly with sheep,
can cause high plant mortality, particularly in areas receiving less than 650 mm rainfall
(Northern Tablelands) and 750 mm (Southern–Central Tablelands). This highlights the need
for rotational grazing to reduce stress on fescue-based pastures, especially when grazed by
sheep during summer.
Tall fescue varieties have either temperate/continental (eg Hummer, Quantum II) or
Mediterranean (eg Flecha) origins. While the winter active/summer dormant Mediterranean
varieties have much better drought tolerance and persistence in dry or marginal
environments, their overall productivity is much lower than the summer active varieties.

Soilandpasturesmanagementfollowingdrought
Overgrazed native grass pasture is susceptible to wind erosion, has low water infiltration rate and is very slow to recover.
Photo Bob Freebairn October 2018
Native grass pasture that has been rotationally grazed with reasonable ground cover retained can respond to rain. Photo
Bob Freebairn October 2018
Improved tropical grass pasture that is rotationally grazed to retain ground cover can respond dramatically to rainfall in
most months of the year in many areas. Photo Bob Freebairn October 2018

20 |
Cocksfoot and ryegrass
These species are less persistent than Phalaris or Fescue, although cocksfoot’s survival is
better on heavier and more acidic soils and where pastures are stocked with cattle rather
than sheep. Mediterranean cocksfoots (eg Currie) are more resilient than European types
(eg Savvy, Porto, Megatas) although both are more drought resistant than perennial
ryegrass.
In some situations, regeneration of ryegrass and cocksfoot from soil seed reserves was surprisingly
good in the higher-rainfall areas ( 800 mm) following the drought of the early 1980s.
Introduced temperate perennial legumes
Lucerne
While generally regarded as a relatively short to medium term species (four to eight years),
well managed lucerne can be very resilient. Grazing management to ensure root reserves
are replenished (rotational grazing) is especially important for persistence and plants
should be allowed to reach full flowering after drought. Energy reserves in lucerne roots
are at their lowest level two weeks after regrowth commences (see 'Figure 1') and grazing
the green pick shortly after rain can significantly weaken a plant. ‘Winter dormancy’ rating
and disease and pest resistance characteristics of individual varieties can also have an
important impact on their persistence.
Figure 1.
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
7 14 21 28 35 42 49
Root energy reserves in lucerne in relation to cutting time (Boschma and Williams, NSW Agriculture, Tamworth)
White clover
Shallow-rooted perennial legumes such as white clover generally do not survive as
perennial plants, although varieties such as Haifa have good potential to recover from soil
seed reserves. This is assuming that the pasture is well-established and has had a good
opportunity to set seed.

Tropical grasses
In many areas of central and northern NSW, temperate perennial grasses are being
replaced by tropical perennials as they are proving to be far more persistent. Like most
pasture types, tropical perennial grasses vary in their region and environment of suitability,
but there are suitably persistent and drought tolerant species for most areas with at least
375 mm average annual rainfall.
For example, some varieties of Buffel grass are well known for their persistence in drier
north western environments, especially on light to medium textured soils. Premier
digit grass is a hardy species for light to medium textured soils in central and northern
environments with low to medium rainfall. It has generally persisted better than various
Rhodes grass and panic varieties, except for Bambatsi panic on heavy soils, where the
two are often complementary. Megamax™ 049 is a newly released green panic showing
promise in many central northern areas on a range of soil types.
Consol lovegrass is an especially persistent and productive species on lighter, acidic soils.
Its aggressive growth into autumn, early winter and spring makes it hard to reliably grow in
combination with winter legumes. Also, because its seed is difficult to distinguish from the
weedy African lovegrass, it is not recommended for growing on the Tablelands.
Good grazing management is required in most environments for long-term persistence
and for rebuilding depleted populations. Bambatsi panic, Premier digit grass, Consol
lovegrass, Forest bluegrass and Buffel grass have survived recent droughts better than
Purple pigeon or Rhodes grass.
Native perennial grasses
Native perennial grasses generally survive drought well, although excessive grazing
pressure will inevitably result in losses, particularly of the more palatable species. Survival
and the potential for regeneration from seed depends on the species, management, and
on the recruitment opportunities (rainfall). In a typical native grass pasture there are often
30–50 different species/varieties and good grazing management post drought commonly
results in native perennial grass regeneration. There may already be a good level of seed of
many useful native perennial grasses at the end of a drought, depending on pre-drought
grazing management and seasonal conditions.
Annual pastures
Winter annual legumes
Sub clover, medics, serradella, biserrula, woolly pod vetch, gland clover and other
introduced annual legumes are vital parts of most pastures and mostly survive droughts
at reasonable population levels if they are well established and have good seed reserves.
There is a wide range in maturity and ‘hard seed’ content of varieties, with high levels of
‘hard’ seed and early maturity important for long-term persistence. ‘Hard’ seed is dormant
and does not germinate out of season, for example during summer or early autumn rains,
while early maturing varieties can set seed on less rainfall.
Naturalised clovers such as burr medic (Medicago polymorpha) are common in many native
and introduced grass pastures and have good to excellent levels of hard seed that allow
them to survive droughts well if preceding seasons allowed reasonable seed set. Note that
seed reserves may be depleted in heavily-grazed sheep pastures.
Speciality pastures such as chicory and plantain
Species such as chicory and plantain require good grazing management, often facilitated
by growing in smaller paddocks that can be carefully grazed. As short to medium-term
pastures, their drought persistence is closely linked to grazing management.

22 |
Grazing management following drought
Although livestock are often the focus of attention after drought, grazing management
decisions should also consider pasture requirements, as a productive pasture base is
necessary for a profitable business. Although destocking decisions during a drought
often facilitate pasture rehabilitation, high feed prices and other pressures can mean that
pastures are stocked too early after rains.
A grazing plan based on pasture type, pasture condition and stock requirements can be
developed as part of property management plans. Livestock components of the plan
may include:
» assessing the condition of all stock classes
» setting short-term and medium-term objectives for these classes, with particular emphasis
on breeder fertility and target markets for ﬁnishing stock
» accepting or seeking agistment stock depending on pasture growth, cash flow etc
» concentrating stock on fewer paddocks to ensure pastures remain vegetative as long as
possible, where pasture growth grossly exceeds stock intake. In turn, rest paddocks that are
prone to weed invasion or have been heavily grazed during drought.
» conserving pastures that are likely to become rank, replenishing conserved fodder reserves.
Hay/silage options may also be important strategies for weed control.
Assessing pasture survival and density
Before developing a grazing strategy, consider the pasture and how the drought has
affected it. The survival of both perennial grasses and legumes can vary and is inﬂuenced
by: total rainfall and distribution; pasture composition; soil type, slope and aspect; type of
stock and stocking rate; grazing management; pasture pests, such as wingless grasshoppers,
pasture scarabs, lucerne aphids and earth mites; and pasture health prior to drought.
Once pastures have started growing, it is important to evaluate what is left and determine
whether the stand is satisfactory or needs resowing. It may be necessary to wait until
spring to evaluate warm-season annuals and autumn for cool-season annuals. Seek
agronomic help with pasture plant identification, as the density of perennial species is
more important than that of annual species.
Minimum perennial plant densities vary between districts. For example, at Wagga Wagga
or Tamworth a lucerne density of 15 plants/m2
is thick and 9 plants/m2
is acceptable while
at Trangie, 8 plants/m2
is thick and 5–6 plants/m2
is acceptable.
Remaining perennial plants have the ability to take advantage of the additional space,
nutrients and moisture, and may still produce reasonable yields. For example, one tropical
grass plant/m2
can produce around 85 per cent as much feed as 9 plants/m2
. Native
perennial grasses and temperate perennials require slightly higher populations than
introduced tropical species.
Value and management of surviving pasture
Pastures are under pressure after a drought breaks. Feed is expensive, cash reserves are
often low, and it is tempting to continue grazing paddocks in the hope that growth will
improve and meet stock needs. Consider the composition of surviving pasture in relation
to its value to the enterprise following the drought. For example, both improved and
native perennial pastures are difficult and expensive to re-sow and should be given priority
for rest and recovery.
Pastures can be ranked according to their potential value and subsequent management
requirements after drought, as follows:
» Paddocks with moderate to high densities of desirable species, under severe stress due to
drought and grazing pressure, must be managed carefully. These high-potential paddocks
should be given priority for rest and recovery.
» Paddocks with moderate-to-high densities of desirable species that have not been under
severe stress from drought and heavy grazing may offer some grazing as conditions
improve but will need management to allow full recovery. These paddocks should be rested
as soon as practical.

» Paddocks where the pasture density is too low to be rehabilitated can be considered
for immediate grazing (‘sacrifice paddocks’), cropping possibilities, resowing or pasture
renovation.
Lucerne is a difficult pasture to restore once plant numbers have declined to suboptimal
levels (for many areas around 7 plants/m2
) as it is very difficult for new seedlings to
establish between existing lucerne plants and other herbage. Often the best approach is
re-establishment after a crop phase. Temperate perennials can also be difficult (but not
impossible, especially in favourable environments) to rebuild via in-pasture recruitment.
Management that allows for seeding but also some bare areas can increase plant counts in
favourable conditions.
Native perennial grasses can rebuild populations to adequate levels, given
appropriate management, when good seasonal conditions return. Post drought
grazing management that encourages periodic seed set of existing plants provides
opportunities for seedling recruitment and establishment. A degree of flexible rotational
grazing is important for recovery.
Tropical perennial grasses can also be managed, much like native grasses, for recovery
of plant population and productivity after drought. Annual legumes like sub clover and
serradella can also be restored post drought, if correct varieties exist (or are added) and
there is a reasonable remnant soil seed population. It is important to allow maximum seed
set (lenient or little grazing once flowering commences until after seed set) to allow for
rebuilding soil seed reserves.
When to graze
High value and priority pastures should not be grazed when they are in Phase 1 (early
vegetative growth, see 'Figure 2'). At this stage, they are weak and have insufficient leaf area
to produce feed quickly. If pastures are grazed at this stage, paddocks should be rotated
quickly and rested where possible, with a plan to allow perennial grasses to set seed as
soon as conditions permit.
Figure 2. Simplified pasture growth curve. Source: The PROGRAZE Manual

24 |
Delaying grazing until pastures are in Phase 2 (late vegetative) allows plants to grow
quickly with sufficient leaf area to produce feed efficiently. Pasture height at different
growth stages varies depending on species, density, and growing conditions but as a
guide, a healthy, dense perennial grass/legume pasture in Phase 2 would be between
3–11 cm in height (1000–2500 kg dry matter/ha) around 4–6 weeks after rain. Ideally,
pastures should be allowed to reach Phase 3 (flowering) after a long stress period.
Resowing/cropping/ renovation options
Paddocks with low recovery potential can be resown, cropped or renovated. Options
include full seed-bed preparation or spraying and direct drilling for forage, cash crop, or
permanent pasture (Table 1). Note that some annuals, such as sub clover, can be surface-
applied in high rainfall areas.
Forage crop selection
Fast-growing forage crops are suitable for a pasture regeneration program after
drought. Once established, they can relieve grazing pressure on pastures. They are also
useful for suppressing weeds prior to resowing pasture and for replenishing hay and
fodder reserves.
The most suitable forage crop will depend on:
» when the feed is required
» what quality of feed is needed
» sowing conditions, including soil moisture and temperatures
» soil type.
Japanese millet or early-maturing cereals provide quick feed after drought. Where crops
are required to provide feed over a longer period, forage sorghums or hybrid millets are
ideal for the Slopes and Plains as are brassica forages on the Tablelands.
Table 6. Options for pasture renovation
Paddock situation Options
Totally degraded. Substantial loss of introduced perennial grasses. Heavy weed invasion. Annual forage crop (eg Japanese millet, cereals).
Short-term pasture (Italian ryegrass/red clover).
Cash crop (cereals, oilseeds, ryegrass, coarse grains to allow selective weed control).
Select the most arable and fertile paddocks first.
High priority.
Partial loss of introduced perennials. Some weed invasion. Reasonable legume recovery likely. Weed control and direct drill to re-establish perennial pastures.
Seasonal weed control (winter clean spray-graze).
Moderate priority.
Survival of perennials more than 70 per cent. Poor legume survival. Some weed invasion. Reintroduce legume by sod-seeding or broadcasting.
Resume fertiliser applications to lift P and S or when cash flow allows.
Selective broadleaf weed or annual grass removal, or use of ‘weed wiper’ equipment.
Moderate priority.
Fair to good survival of native perennial grasses. Poor legume survival. Some weed invasion. Low priority for early action.
Add legume seed and P and S fertiliser when cash flow improves.

Preparing for cropping after
drought
Following drought or poor crop years there are a range of agronomic factors that can
impact on cropping decisions. They include a higher risk of herbicide residues and soil
borne diseases but also potential benefits such as carryover soil nutrients and lower risk of
foliar diseases.
Given the importance of prudent cash spending after drought, sowing decisions should
be based on good information about stored soil water, fertility and likely disease pressure.
There are many sources of information including farm consultants and agronomists with
access to soil and disease testing tools and decision support programs.
Three broad farming system categories account for much of the cropping in NSW:
» cropping-only farms with a mix of cereals, pulses and oilseeds
» mixed-farms with cropping and livestock grazing pastures, cereals and winter canola.
» predominantly grazing enterprises that include grazing crops that fill autumn-winter feed
gaps and reduce grazing pressure on pastures.
The following considerations are important for all three farming systems.
Compare crop growing costs, gross margins and risk
Gross margin budgets help to evaluate the potential returns of different crop options. A
gross margin is the projected gross income from an enterprise less the variable costs (seed,
fertiliser, pesticides, fuel, harvesting costs, freight, insurance). Fixed or overhead costs
(depreciation, interest payments, rates, permanent labour) are not included. Crops that can
generate a positive gross margin under a range of conditions should be favoured over new,
high risk/high reward crops. Gross margins can be used to show potential returns over a
range of possible prices and yields.
Seed supplies and seed quality
Seed is the most important single input into a farming system and supplies for winter crops
are often low after persistent, widespread drought. If using seed retained from previous
seasons, it is important to test the seed for germination and vigour through an accredited
laboratory. Good quality seed of any grain crop should have a germination percentage
greater than 90%, although high germination rates do not necessarily result in good
seedling vigour. Small and shrivelled seed is most likely to exhibit poor germination and
vigour, while seed stored incorrectly (high moisture and high temperature) or for long
periods can also suffer from reduced germination rates.
Grading to remove smaller seed significantly improves overall germination and vigour.
Retained canola seed should be graded to 2 mm diameter for sowing. Be aware that some
seed dressings can reduce vigour by reducing coleoptile length, which might lead to
poor establishment rates. Refer to the NSW DPI Winter crop variety sowing guide for more
information.
Ensure that purchased seed is true to the variety claimed by the vendor so that it can be
sown at the recommended time. Select varieties best suited to your area and include seed
costs when calculating gross margins. For example, pulse seed costs can be up to $100/ha
after drought, while canola seed may cost as little as $5/ha for retained supplies.

26 |
Stored soil water
Stored soil water is critical to profitable winter cropping, reducing the reliance on in-crop
rainfall, and has traditionally been more important in northern NSW where summer rainfall
predominates. Increasingly variable rainfall patterns mean that stored soil water at sowing
is now important anywhere crops are grown, and is particularly important for early sown
and dual-purpose grazing crops that are subject to warmer temperatures and higher
evaporation rates. A short season, low risk crop such as barley is ideal for paddocks with low
soil water reserves. Barley also provides rapid ground cover to protect against wind erosion.
Paddocks with insufficient stored soil water at sowing can be fallowed through to a
summer crop in northern NSW, or long fallowed to the following year’s winter crop in
western areas of central and southern NSW, provided there is sufficient ground cover. A
steel push probe inserted accurately is an easy and quick way to assess the depth of water
in the top metre of soil. A push probe cannot measure plant available water however, as
this varies with factors such as soil texture. More than 1,100 soils across Australia have
been characterised and plant available water holding capacity (PAWC) estimated. These are
available on the APsoil database.
Deep soil testing down to 1.8–2.0 m can be used on the vertosol soils of northern NSW to
estimate PAWC and also soil nitrogen (N). This helps match N fertiliser requirements to soil
water. Measuring PAWC for a specific paddock and its characteristics is described in the
GRDC Manual: Field measurement of PAWC.
A dual-purpose cereal sown in late February 2018 on good sub soil moisture. Despite the drought this paddock supplied
grazing for 120 days at a reduced average level of 1.5 steers/ha and recovered for harvesting. Photo Bob Freebairn
Soil fertility
Mineralisation often continues during drought, although the amount depends on soil
carbon levels and total rainfall. When combined with the potential carryover of nutrients
from previous failed crops, the only reliable method for determining N status is to test deep
soil N on each cropping paddock. Nitrogen rates need to be matched with the amount
of stored soil water and the paddock yield target. Where winter rainfall is more reliable,
splitting N between sowing and topdressing in-crop is a sound risk management strategy.
Crop phosphorus requirements are also best determined by soil testing. Soil phosphorus
(P) can be stratified (layered) in no-till farming systems, where P is applied relatively
shallow and near the seed. If the topsoil is dry, any phosphorus will not be available to the
crop. Using soil tests and previous experience with P applications following a drought is
the best guide. Anecdotal evidence following previous droughts suggests that P rates can
be reduced by about 30% on normal rates. Note that P applied at sowing is most effective.

Preparingforcroppingafterdrought
Sowing time
Sowing dates should not alter significantly after a drought, except where the main aim
of the crop is to generate feed and ground cover. Capitalise on accumulated soil water
and nitrogen by sowing as early as possible within the recommended sowing period for
each variety. To sow all crops within the sowing window, some crop types may need to
be sown slightly earlier than recommended, taking into account location and frost risk.
Herbicide residues
The rate at which herbicide residues are broken down is affected by soil moisture
and temperature, and pH in some cases. As a result, droughts increase the risk of
crop injury, particularly from residues of group B herbicides (including sulfonylureas,
imidazolinones, Broadstrike®, Spinnaker®) and group C herbicides (triazines). Note
also that the plant-back period for Group I products such as Phenoxys and Pyridines
applied for summer weed control does not start until a specific amount of rainfall is
received. Other herbicides that can persist in soils depending on seasonal conditions
are listed under ‘Guidelines for crop rotations’ in the NSW DPI guide Weed control
in winter crops. Further information on herbicide residues in dry conditions can
be found at www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/100238/herbicide-
residues-after-drought.pdf and, www.agric.wa.gov.au/grains-research-development/
residual-herbicides-carryover-and-behaviour-dry-conditions?nopaging=1
Accurate record keeping is critical to keeping track of herbicide use in paddocks to ensure
that residues do not impact subsequent crops. There are a number of farm software
products available with simple record keeping functions.
Summer fallow weed control
Stubble retention and strict summer fallow weed control programs maximise stored soil
water for winter crops. Weed control has the biggest benefit, with research in NSW, Victoria
and South Australia showing a return of $3–8/ha (averaging $5/ha) for every dollar spent
on fallow weed control. Uncontrolled weeds can remove up to 40–50 mm of stored soil
water but also remove about 50 kg N/ha. These results are also relevant in mixed farming
businesses where weed control decisions are often compromised by livestock feed needs:
it is rare that the feed value of summer weeds is greater than the value of the water to the
winter crop.
Rotations and diseases
Following drought the aim should be to get paddocks back into sound agronomic
rotations/crop sequence as quickly as possible. Where failed crops were grazed or made
into hay, avoid sowing the same crop the following year, where possible. On these
paddocks with low ground cover it is best to target a cereal crop that will generate some
stubble and cover for the next summer, rather than planting a low biomass crop (e.g.
lentils). Pulses should be sown onto paddocks with relatively high stubble loads. Similarly,
paddocks with high ground cover will be more likely to retain moisture close to the surface
for germination of crops such as canola.
Good weed control options are an important consideration in paddocks where weed
control has been compromised during drought. For example, break crops or fallows
are generally not as effective during drought as in other years. Consider the use of pre-
emergent herbicides to reduce early weed pressure on the crop.
The risk of soil-borne disease is often higher after drought, as the rate of decomposition
of crop residues that harbour disease inoculum is slowed by the low moisture. The main
diseases to consider are crown rot in cereals, Ascochyta blight in chickpeas and blackleg
in canola. Canola blackleg inoculum is carried over on stubble, including crops cut for hay,
although crops grazed or sprayed out in mid-winter will have much less inoculum carry-
over. There is also a lower risk of foliar diseases in a dry season, which may reduce the risk
of infection in subsequent years. Seek advice on the lowest risk options that best fit the
farming system.

28 |
The PREDICTA® B test is a reliable technique for assessing the risk of crown rot and a range
of other soil- or stubble-borne pathogens prior to sowing. Consult your local agronomist if
you are in an area with a history of crown rot. See the following websites
http://pir.sa.gov.au/research/services/molecular_diagnostics/predicta_b
https://grdc.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0025/159352/grdctipstacticscrownrotnorthern
201602web.pdf.pdf
Cereals for grazing
Forage and dual-purpose cereals are often grown to help overcome autumn and winter
feed shortages, as oats and other grazing cereals have higher winter growth rates than
most pastures. Crop and variety selection and sowing time will influence the total amount
of feed available, while dual purpose varieties can be harvested for grain after grazing. For
hay production, avoid cereals with large awns such as barley, some triticales, cereal rye and
some wheats. The same applies to grazing awned varieties when head emergence cannot
be avoided.
Ideally, there should only be one type of cereal sown in a paddock as stock will
preferentially graze one cereal over another. Oats will generally produce more overall
forage than wheat, barley, cereal rye or triticale. Grain recovery, however, is not so clear
cut, with winter wheats and triticale often having similar or better yields than oats and a
higher dollar value. Further information on growth habit, maturity, sowing time, grazing
management, stocking rates, and livestock health is discussed in the section ‘Managing
grazing cereals’ in the NSW DPI Winter crop variety sowing guide.
Dual-purpose canola
Grazing canola has increased in popularity on mixed farms of the upper slopes and
tablelands due to its ability to provide early, good quality forage and then to recover for
grain harvest, thereby improving total farm profitability. Winter-types are preferred and
are commonly sown in February– March subject to soil moisture and sowing opportunity.
Longer season spring types can be sown from late March–early April and grazed as well.
Dual purpose canola can supply more feed, faster for drought affected livestock. The winter wheat crop (left) was sown
four days later than the canola (right). Dual purpose canola has a vernalisation (cold) requirement to set seed after grazing
and so cannot be grown in all cropping areas of northern NSW. Photo James Brady

Preparingforcroppingafterdrought
Further information
» Winter crop variety sowing guide
https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/broadacre-crops/guides/publications/winter-
crop-variety-sowing-guide
» Weed control in winter crops
https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/broadacre-crops/guides/publications/weed-
control-winter-crops
» Dual purpose grazing cereal evaluation in NSW - Trial report 2016
https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/800470/NSW-Cereal-Grazing-
Trial-Full-Report-2016-FINAL-accessible-v2.pdf
» Herbicide residues after drought
https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/100238/herbicide-residues-
after-drought.pdf
» Retaining seed: Fact Sheet GRDC 2011
https://grdc.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/204175/grdcfsretainingseed.pdf.pdf
» Summer crop management guide
https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/broadacre-crops/summer-crops/general-
information/summer-crop-management-guide
» Insect and mite control in field crops 2013
https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/broadacre-crops/guides/publications/insect-
mite-crops
Other useful websites:
» GRDC
https://grdc.com.au/
https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/grdc-update-papers
» CliMate App
https://climateapp.net.au/

30 |
Weed management after
drought
Droughts can often set back long-term weed control strategies for both pasture and
cropping weeds. An accurate risk assessment and well-planned, long-term management
strategies are essential parts of an effective weed control program.
Weeds in pastures
At the end of a drought, ground cover has declined and pastures are less able to compete
with weeds for light, nutrients, moisture and space. As a result, pre-existing weeds can rapidly
increase their distribution and abundance, especially those with large and persistent seed banks.
While populations of annual weeds such as saffron thistle and fireweed may increase in
the short term, well managed perennial pastures can gradually overcome these weeds or
at least keep them to acceptable levels. Potentially more problematic are perennial weeds
that are more difficult to manage, including African lovegrass, serrated tussock, Chilean
needle grass and giant sporobolus species; blue heliotrope (Heliotropium amplexicaule),
nodding thistle (Carduus nutans); Scotch thistle (Onopordum spp.), St Barnaby’s thistle
(Centaurea solstitialis) and St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum). Note that the weeds that
appear after drought will be influenced by the soil temperatures (season) and other factors.
Following summer rains, there can be an increase in livestock weed poisoning as weeds
produce palatable new shoots. Stock losses can result from both direct plant poisoning
such as from green cestrum and rockfern or indirect such as photosensitisation from Panic
spp. grasses, kidney failure from Amaranthus spp. and nitrate poisoning from thistles,
marshmallow or Johnson grass.
Stock movements to agistment properties during drought, and back home again after rain,
represent another means by which weeds can be moved. Gathering information about the
presence and potential spread of weeds, and implementing management strategies such
as stock quarantine, are important in managing this risk.
Producers need to be vigilant for high risk weeds that can be introduced with drought fodder. For example, giant
Sporobolus grasses (pictured) are serious weeds of coastal New South Wales and Queensland, where hay has been
produced and sent to other areas. Photo Todd Andrews

Weedmanagementafterdrought
Weeds in crops
In cropping areas, the potential for weed infestations may be similar to most other years.
The immediate problem is fallow weeds, which deplete the soil of both nutrients and
moisture. The problematic species may not change and may include common heliotrope
(Heliotropium europaeum), summer burrs – Bathurst and noogoora burrs (Xanthium spp.),
caltrops (Tribulus terrestris), Amaranthus spp., panic grasses (Panicum spp.), mintweed
(Salvia reﬂexa), Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense), wireweed (Polygonum aviculare) and
various thistle species.
Weeds from introduced fodder and grain
Weed seeds can be introduced in both hay and grain. When these feeds are introduced
from any off-farm sources, the risk of introducing weeds increases. As a result, paddocks
should be checked regularly for new or unusual plants, especially where fodder has been
fed out.
In a widespread drought, hay and grain may need to be sourced from interstate. This may
lead to the risk of introducing weeds that are not yet established in NSW. Major weeds of
concern that are present in other states include:
» Parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus) from Queensland
» black knapweed (Centaurea nigra) from Victoria
» Multiple herbicide resistant annual ryegrass from Western Australia
» bifora (Bifora testiculata) and bedstraw/cleavers (Galium tricornutum) from South Australia.
Note that bifora and bedstraw are widespread in the South Australian wheat belt. If
fodder has originated from these areas, it is important to check for any weed seedlings
in areas where stock have been fed. For a more comprehensive list of high risk weeds
and photos, refer to www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/feed-and-fodder/managing-
biosecurity/high-risk-weeds
The potential to introduce herbicide resistant weed seeds such as annual ryegrass can
have major implications for crop production. Herbicide resistance is widespread in the
grain belts of South Australia and Western Australia. As large quantities of grain and hay
have been brought from these areas, this highlights the importance of biosecurity when
drought feeding.
Other potential weed contaminants of both grain and fodder are Paterson’s curse (Echium
plantaginium), silverleaf nightshade and other deep rooted perennials such as ground
cherries (Physalis sp.), wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) and spiny emex (Emex australis).
These last two species are major weeds in NSW but could spread further as a consequence
of drought feeding. Weeds from coastal NSW that have the potential to become
established inland, especially in the summer rainfall zone and in irrigation areas, include
Tropical soda apple (Solanium viarum), fireweed (Senecio madagascariensis) and Giant
Parramatta grass (Sporobolus fertilis).
Control strategies
Plant identification
Early identification and control are the most important steps in weed control and
eradication. Consult an agronomist or council weeds officer to help identify all new or
unusual plants and implement effective control methods. WeedWise is a NSW DPI program
that provides descriptions, photos, distribution maps and control information for more
than 300 weeds. It can be downloaded as an app or is available as a desktop version at
www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/weeds

32 |
Importing stock feed onto a property
» Obtain as much detail as possible about the source of the fodder or grain and local weeds.
» Consider carefully where the grain and fodder are to be fed. Where possible, avoid cropping
paddocks due to the potential to spread herbicide resistant weed seeds.
» Restrict the feeding area as much as possible. A drought lot or stock containment area may
be the best option, located where regular checks can be made after rain. Flat, arable areas
allow easy access and the opportunity for a range of weed control options (mechanical,
chemical, biological, or grazing management).
» Quarantine or restrict stock movements. Annual ryegrass seed is normally digested by
sheep, and very little viable seed passes through the digestive tract.
Weeds and earthmoving machinery
During a drought, many livestock producers engage a contractor using a tracked excavator
to remove silt from farm dams while water levels are low. The tracks on these machines can
spread many weeds, including lippia (Phyla canesens) and spiny burr grass (Cenchrus sp.).
Wherever possible, ensure the tracks and track frames on these machines have been
cleaned by the operator before work starts.

Controlling vertebrate pests
during and after drought
Reducing the potential rate of population increase should be the focus of vertebrate
pest management strategies. Producers can take advantage of the natural vertebrate
pest population decline caused by prolonged drought and greatly reduce the potential
rate of increase.
Mice
Populations of small vertebrate pests such as mice usually decline during drought as the
high nutrition requirements for breeding are unavailable. Rodent problems are mostly
found around farm buildings and feed stores during drought. Controlling rodents around
these areas reduces feed loss, and the risk of livestock diseases associated with feed
contaminated by faeces and urine.
Mice populations can increase dramatically if drought breaking rain provides them with
an abundance of food and shelter. Mice that survive natural phenomena such as drought
are the strongest and ﬁttest of the population and a single pair of mice can result in many
hundreds more over a six-month breeding period. Drought can also reduce the numbers of
predators that would otherwise control them.
Rabbits
Rabbits living in areas that have a lot of seed in the soil, particularly clover or medics, are
able to survive and breed well into a drought. When this feed source is exhausted, the
population can suddenly crash. In most areas, rabbit populations decline or contract to
core warrens during drought, as the absence of green pick inhibits breeding. Remaining
rabbits are likely to be hungry and because they seek food with high moisture content,
baits can be particularly effective.
If rabbits have contracted to core warrens, these can be ripped and sown with pasture
seeds ready for rain. There is the risk of increased erosion around ripped warrens however,
and this should be weighed against the long-term benefits of ripping. Trapping is seldom
used for broad-scale rabbit control, but can be useful around buildings or when bait uptake
is difficult because of alternative feed. Only soft-jawed traps or cage traps are permitted:
steel- jawed traps are illegal in NSW.
While producers are often busy feeding stock or shoring up water supplies during drought,
any expenditure on rabbit control can be beneficial by reducing the breeding population
when the drought breaks. A single pair of rabbits may produce up to 40 rabbits over a
six-month period in good conditions, through their own mating and the mating of their
offspring.
Areas that receive sufficient rain and have moderate to high rabbit densities may
experience a virulent myxomatosis or calicivirus outbreak. This should not be relied on
however, as it is impossible to predict the timing or effectiveness of any outbreak.

34 |
Targeting feral animals during drought when they congregate around dwindling water supplies, keeps their numbers
lower for longer during recovery. Photo NSW DPI
Feral pigs
Feral pigs can benefit from increased feed availability from carrion during the early
stages of drought. As drought progresses however, they stop breeding and many piglets
die as they are highly dependent on water for thermo-regulation and quality forage for
reproduction and lactation.
As populations retract to areas with permanent water, they can foul those water supplies,
reducing clean water availability for livestock. Their concentrated distribution and the lack
of cover during drought makes pigs susceptible to trapping and aerial shooting programs.
Coordinated and effective control programs during these times can have significant
impacts on long-term pig populations.
Figure 3.
500
1000
1500
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
NUMBER OF LITTERS BORN SINCE CONTROL
NUMBEROFFERALPIGS
Good seasons
Bad seasons
50% kill
90% kill
The change in numbers of feral pigs in good and bad seasons after 50% and 90% control kills (Source: Hone et al.
1980, Decisions in the control of feral pig damage, Ag Bulletin 5, NSW Agriculture)

Controllingvertebratepestsduringandafterdrought
Wild dogs
Wild dog populations can also benefit during the early stages of drought due to increased
food availability including weakened or mismothered lambs, native animals, or carrion.
Wild dog populations may decline during extended droughts, especially if there are
major declines in native prey such as kangaroos and wallabies, lower feral goat and sheep
populations, fewer calves, and as water bodies dry up.
Predation can be more obvious however as stock become weaker and gather around water
or feed sources. Ground baiting and trapping can be targeted at these areas. As a result,
broad scale co-operative control programs like coordinated aerial and ground baiting are
likely to be more effective in reducing wild dog numbers during drought.
Note that competition for baits by foxes, pigs and birds may increase during drought. Leg-hold
trapping is effective for removing troublesome dogs that refuse baits and is best conducted
by experienced trappers using soft-jawed traps that conform to legal requirements.
If wild dog populations decline during drought, there may be less predation afterwards.
Some dogs will disperse to new areas, regardless of food availability. This may be more
obvious as they scavenge on dead livestock in previously unaffected areas. Landholders
should remain vigilant, particularly in autumn and winter when dogs usually disperse.
Monitoring wild dog activity during drought and after ﬁres allows control measures to
be implemented before predation of livestock becomes a major problem. There are strict
regulations governing the poisoning of wild dogs. Poisoned baits can only be prepared
by authorised Local Lands Services (LSS) officers. Advice on baiting programs and group
coordination is available from your local LLS office or at www.lls.nsw.gov.au.
Foxes
Fox populations generally remain relatively static, even during extended droughts if there
is a supply of carrion such as lambs, kangaroos and wallabies. In many instances foxes
will prey on insects, such as locusts, to sustain themselves. However, this alternative food
supply does not necessarily reduce lamb predation as foxes will increase their territories in
search of alternate prey.
Landholders should always remain vigilant, particularly in autumn and winter when young
foxes are often dispersing and older females are breeding. Young, inexperienced foxes will
often leave their parents’ home range, regardless of feed availability. If juveniles do not
disperse, then there is a potential for much more localised predation of lambs and poultry.
A baiting program is usually inexpensive and can be carried out in early autumn (to
reduce breeding animals), with a follow up in late winter to reduce pregnant females. LLS
vertebrate pest teams can help with a baiting program.
Summary
All invasive animals gain body weight and start breeding when a drought breaks. If the pest
population is already low and can be made lower by tactical control, this will generally be a
good investment because the recovery rate of the population is much slower. A coordinated
approach by adjoining landholders and land managers will maximise and prolong the
beneﬁts. Otherwise pests will simply breed-up and migrate from adjacent areas.
Drought can also severely reduce the number of predators in a system with predator
populations usually taking longer to recover than their prey. This means that many pest
species can breed with few constraints once good seasons return, so populations can
increase extremely quickly.
Further information and assistance
» PestSmart Connect:
www.pestsmart.org.au
» Local Lands Services:
www.lls.nsw.gov.au

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